Crops and Agroenvironmental Sciences

An increasing number of diseases transmitted by Brevipalpus mite species (Acari: Tenuipalpidae) is being identified that affect economically important plants such as citrus, coffee, passion fruit, orchids, and several ornamentals. All of these diseases are characterized by localized lesions (chlorotic, green spots, or ringspots) on leaves, stems, and fruits. Virus or virus-like agents are considered to be the causal agents, possibly transmitted in a circulative-propagative manner by Brevipalpus mites. The virus or virus-like particles are short, rod-like, or bacilliform, that induce two characteristic types of cell alteration: (1) ‘Nuclear type’ – nuclei of parenchyma and epidermal cells in the lesions often contain a large electron lucent inclusion. Short, naked, rod-like (40–50 nm × 100–110 nm) particles may be seen in the viroplasm or nucleoplasm and in the cytoplasm. These particles are commonly arranged perpendicularly on the membranes of the nuclear envelope or endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In a very few instances, they were found to be membrane-bound, within the ER cavities. (2) ‘Cytoplasmic type’ – short bacilliform particles (60–70 nm × 110–120 nm) are present within the cisternae of the ER and often have electron dense viroplasm of varied shapes present in the cytoplasm. Bacilliform particles may be seen budding into the ER lumen near the viroplasm. These particles resemble those of members of the Rhabdoviridae, but are shorter. The only sequenced virus of this group, orchid fleck virus (OFV), has a negative sense (bipartite) type ssRNA genome, but its organization is similar to known rhabdoviruses, which are monopartite. Both types of cytopathological effects have been found associated with citrus leprosis. In orchids, OFV has a ‘nuclear type’ of cytopathology, but in some species the ‘cytoplasmic type’ has been found associated with ringspot symptoms. In Hibiscus and Clerodendron, green spot symptoms have been associated with the cytoplasmic type of cell alteration, while chlorotic spots, in the same species, are associated with the nuclear type. In a few cases, both types of cytopathological effects have been found in the same tissue and cell.

The family Tenuipalpidae has over 622 species in 30 genera described worldwide. A total of 928 plant species in 513 genera within 139 families are recorded hosts of one or more of the following species: Brevipalpus californicus (Banks), B. obovatus Donnadieu, and B. phoenicis (Geijskes). B. californicus has 316 plant species reported as hosts compared with 451 and 486 host plants for B. obovatus and B. phoenicis, respectively. There are 67 genera of plants within 33 families that are reported hosts of only B. californicus, 119 genera within 55 plant families that are hosts of only B. obovatus, and 118 genera of plants within 64 families that are hosts of only B. phoenicis. There are 14 genera of plants within 12 families that are hosts to both B. californicus and B. obovatus, while there are 40 genera of host plants within 26 families that are hosts for both B. californicus and B. phoenicis. A total of 70 genera of host plants within 39 families have been reported as hosts of both B. obovatus and B. phoenicis, while 77 genera of plants within 44 families have been reported as hosts of all three Brevipalpus species. Geographical differences in the three species of Brevipalpus identified on different plant species within the same genus are common.

Secções ultrafinas do ácaro Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes, vetor da leprose dos citros, foram examinadas ao microscópio eletrônico. Partículas semelhantes a vírus (rhabdovírus ou badnavírus) foram observadas no corpo do vetor. As partículas são similares às já noticiadas em tecidos foliares de citros que apresentavam sintomas de leprose.

Coffee ringspot is characterized by conspicuous ringspot symptoms on leaves, berries, and less frequently on twigs. It is caused by coffee ringspot virus (CoRSV), a short, bacilliform virus (40 nm × 100–110 nm). The virus is not seed borne and is transmitted by Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes). Transovarial transmission within the mite does not occur. CoRSV has been mechanically transmitted to Chenopodium amaranticolor Coste and Reynaud, C. quinoa Wildenow, Beta vulgaris L., and Alternanthera tenella Colla resulting in local lesions. Systemic infection within both C. amaranticolor and C. quinoa occurs. Virions are found in the nucleus or cytoplasm of infected cells, commonly associated with membranes. Occasionally, membrane bounded particles are found within the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum. A characteristic electron lucent, nuclear inclusion is commonly found in many infected cells. These cytopathic effects place CoRSV among the nuclear type of Brevipalpus-borne viruses. The disease has been reported in several Brazilian states (São Paulo, Paraná, Minas Gerais, and Federal District) and recently found in Costa Rica. A similar disease is known in the Philippines, but no information exists about its relationship to CoRSV. Coffee ringspot had no economical significance until recently when a large scale infection was reported in Minas Gerais that resulted in yield loss.

Passion fruit green spot disease was first identified in 1997 after a severe outbreak at Vera Cruz County, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Mature yellow fruits of Passiflora edulis Simms f. flavicarpa Degener showed characteristic green spots, 2–5 mm in diameter and patches of green tissues were present on senescent leaves. The devastating effect to passion flower is caused by necrotic lesions that encircle the stems and kill the plant. In severe cases, entire orchards of a few hectares in size have been completely destroyed. The disease was always preceded by heavy infestations of Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) (Acari: Tenuipalpidae). Transmission electron microscopy of affected tissues (fruits, leaves, and stems) consistently revealed the presence of short, bacilliform particles (50–70 nm × 100–120 nm) in the cisternae of the endoplasmic reticulum, as well as the presence of a dense viroplasm in the cytoplasm. This cytopathic effect has been found in several other Brevipalpus-transmitted or associated viruses and is classified as a cytoplasmic type of disease. Experimental reproduction of the leaf and stem symptoms was achieved by transferring B. phoenicis collected from affected field passion flower plants onto healthy plants. The evidence supports a viral etiology for the disease and the agent was named passion fruit green spot virus. Its relationship with other B. phoenicis related viruses continues to be studied. The disease was also found in the Brazilian states of Bahia, Sergipe, Rondonia, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro, and in the Federal District. Use of one or more of the following acaricides (hexythiazox, fenbutatin-oxide, propargite, quinomethionate, or dicofol) has significantly reduced the incidence of the disease.

Eggs of Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) are initially smooth and show longitudinal carinae 2 to 3 days after oviposition. The same eegs then develop a globular structure, probably involved in respiration, at the equatorial region. This structure is 10 μm in diameter and has a lateral opening 0.8 μm in diameter.

A survey of Brevipalpus-transmitted plant viruses (BTrV) was carried out in the cities of Manaus and Presidente Figueiredo, and in the oil exploratory base of Urucu, Amazonas State, Central Amazon Basin, Brazil. The main characteristics considered during the survey were the occurrence of localized symptoms (chlorotic or brown spots, ringspots, green spots in senescent leaves) similar to those previously described for BTrV and infestation by Brevipalpus mites. For the evaluation of the infection by putative BTrV, small fragments of the leaf lesions were fixed in loco and later processed for ultrastructural electron microscopy at Piracicaba, SP. Thirteen plant hosts of presumed BTrV were found. Three of them probably represent previously described BTrV infecting Hibiscus rosa sinensis, H. syriacus and Clerodendrum x speciosum. For the first time we report cases of infection by putative BTrV of nuclear type in chlorotic spot in Piper callosum (Piperaceae), chlorotic ringspot in Monstera deliciosa (Araceae), chlorotic spot in Ruellia chartacea (Acanthaceae), chlorotic spot in Bidens sp. (Asteraceae), green spot in Allamanda chatartica (Apocynaceae), chlorotic spot in Gardenia sp. (Rubiaceae), chlorotic ringspot and green spot in Mussaenda erythrophylla. (Rubiaceae) and of cytoplasmic type in Clerodendrum speciosissimum (Lamiaceaae) and ringspots in Arundina graminifolia (Orchidaceae). All these plants were infested by Brevipalpu. phoenicis.

Brevipalpus mites colonize a great number of fruit and ornamental plants. Mite species belonging to this genus have been associated with many plant viruses. Citrus leprosis (CiLV) is the most economically important virus transmitted by B. phoenicis mites. It has recently been shown that ornamental plant species can be alternative hosts of this virus. The high volume of trade and frequent movement of live ornamental plants make them efficient pest disseminators. Because of this, it is desirable to expand knowledge of potential pests aiming to guide the adoption of quarantine measures. This work reports ornamental plant hosts of Brevipalpus mites in the Distrito Federal (DF), as well the occurrence of symptoms consistent with Brevipalpus-borne plant viruses in these same hosts. Between July and September of 2005, five surveys were carried out in 14 localities within DF. Leaves and branches of fifty-five ornamental plant species were sampled. The species Pithecellobium avaremotemo Mart. is for the first time reported as a host for B. phoenicis (Geijskes), B. californicus Banks and B. obovatus Donnadieu species. Additionally, seven new species are reported as hosts for Brevipalpus within South America. New hosts are also listed for individual mite species. Typical symptoms of Brevipalpus-borne viruses were observed in Ligustrum sinense Lour., Pelargonium hortorum L.H. Bailey, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. and orchids (Dendrobium and Oncidium). The results of this work emphasize the potential role of the ornamental plants as vehicles for dissemination of Brevipalpus mites.