My doctoral research investigates water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) systems and practices during post-disaster recovery and explores how resilience can be promoted through learning, participation, and integrated approaches drawing upon literature, expert interviews and empirical evidence. Using a case study approach, the research examined these concepts in the relationships between households, communities, humanitarian agencies and government institutions by identifying how changes were effected in WaSH post disasters. The multi-sited case studies included Assam floods, 2012 and Odisha Cyclone Phailin and floods, 2013. In Assam, the data was drawn from household interviews, PLA tools with communities and semi-structured interviews with various officials; while a reflective practitioner approach was used to draw from the researcher’s experience while on deployment with a humanitarian NGO responding to the cyclone and floods in Odisha. The initial findings show that recurring disasters impact pre-existing WaSH infrastructure and practices. The changes in hygiene practices over time depended upon socio-economic factors, changes in attitudes through awareness and provision of infrastructure. Across the two cases, it was found that communities prioritised productive assets such as livelihoods and shelter over WaSH, and within WaSH water supply over sanitation during recovery. Furthermore, humanitarian agencies in both Assam and Odisha intervened within a consortium-model and used learning and participatory approach. Therefore this research argues that WaSH cannot be isolated from other sectoral interventions and should consider the pre-disaster practices, post emergency transitions and longer-term recovery aspects to promote resilience of communities.
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Many public health interventions aim to promote healthful behaviours, with varying degrees of suc... more Many public health interventions aim to promote healthful behaviours, with varying degrees of success. With a lack of existing empirical evidence on the optimal number or combination of behaviours to promote to achieve a given health outcome, a key challenge in intervention design lies in deciding what behaviours to prioritise, and how best to promote them. We describe how key behaviours were selected and promoted within a multisectoral nutrition-sensitive agriculture intervention that aimed to address maternal and child undernutrition in rural India. First, we formulated a Theory of Change, which outlined our hypothesised impact pathways. To do this, we used the following inputs: existing conceptual frameworks, published empirical evidence, a feasibility study, formative research and the intervention team’s local knowledge. Then, we selected specific behaviours to address within each impact pathway, based on our formative research, behaviour change models, local knowledge and commu...
Maternal and child undernutrition have adverse consequences for pregnancy outcomes and child morb... more Maternal and child undernutrition have adverse consequences for pregnancy outcomes and child morbidity and mortality, and they are associated with low educational attainment, economic productivity as an adult, and human wellbeing. 'Nutrition-sensitive' agriculture programs could tackle the underlying causes of undernutrition. This study is a four-arm cluster randomised controlled trial in Odisha, India. Interventions are as follows: (1) an agricultural extension platform of women's groups viewing and discussing videos on nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) practices, and follow-up visits to women at home to encourage the adoption of new practices shown in the videos; (2) women's groups viewing and discussing videos on NSA and nutrition-specific practices, with follow-up visits; and (3) women's groups viewing and discussing videos on NSA and nutrition-specific practices combined with a cycle of Participatory Learning and Action meetings, with follow-up visits. A...
Humanitarian agencies are increasingly forming consortia to improve collaborative efforts to deli... more Humanitarian agencies are increasingly forming consortia to improve collaborative efforts to deliver aid to disaster-affected populations. However, there is little evidence on the effectiveness of consortia as a coordination mechanism. This paper describes the consortia efforts, actions and approaches used during the 2012 Assam floods and 2013’s Cyclone Phailin in Odisha. The data were gathered using semi-structured interviews with key informants from agencies involved in Assam and Odisha response programmes. They indicate that the consortium approach was useful as a space for learning, collaboration, and increasing outreach and funding. This paper makes the case for better roles for local NGOs in furthering these partnerships and reflecting dynamic community needs and aspirations during recovery. Consortia approaches can be improved through preparation and collaboration for quick and effective response. Further evidence on agency motivations, mutual interests and organizational cap...
Repeated occurrences of disasters pose a huge threat to community and infrastructural resilience.... more Repeated occurrences of disasters pose a huge threat to community and infrastructural resilience. Hence recovery processes should go beyond the traditional notion of bouncing back and restoring normalcy, and should strive for a change or transformation, which will prepare the affected communities to face future hazards. This study particularly looks at the different approaches in water, sanitation, and hygiene in post-disaster recovery to promote disaster resilience and assesses their effectiveness. Using the case study approach, evidence is gathered from the recent floods in Assam, India in 2011. A resilience framework conceptualised through a literature review, and with input from experts through qualitative interviews, will be validated using a set of indicators through an empirical study that was conducted over visits at three different periods of time. The first two visits were conducted for an emergency assessment and a scoping study during the early recovery phase. The participatory appraisal tools were used for collecting information through affected members of the communities and various stakeholders and were complemented using documentation through photographs and field notes. The preliminary findings based on brief visits to the study site so far have highlighted water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) as a critical need and priority during the emergency, early recovery and longer-term recovery efforts. Some of the structural measures undertaken include installation of new tube wells over the flood-levels, construction of latrines, construction of raised flood platforms while reconstructing previously damaged hand pumps, increase of the plinth level, and non-structural measures under hygiene promotion include promotion of the use of latrines, hand washing, safe food hygiene and water hygiene practices. The processes followed in villages that are frequently flooded were found to be inclusive, leading to learning and integration. Additionally, through institutional capacity building, recovery processes could potentially lead to transformational changes.
This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous experiences
of... more This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous experiences of disasters and underlines the value in preparedness to build resilience to future disasters. In order to reflect upon the experience of disasters from the past to inform and study its relevance in the face of a disaster in the present this paper proposes using the case of Odisha and cyclones. Empirical evidence was gathered through participant observation as a humanitarian practitioner deployed in response programme after Phailin with an INGO in 2013. Participatory rural appraisal techniques such as focus groups, interviews with authorities and local leaders were conducted from October 2013 ‐March 2014.
Introduction This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous e... more Introduction This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous experiences of disasters and underlines the value in preparedness to build resilience to future disasters. In order to reflect upon the experience of disasters from the past to inform and study its relevance in the face of a disaster in the present this paper proposes using the case of Odisha and cyclones. Methods Empirical evidence was gathered through participant observation as a humanitarian practitioner deployed in response programme after Phailin with an INGO in 2013. Participatory rural appraisal techniques such as focus groups, interviews with authorities and local leaders were conducted from October 2013 ‐March 2014. Context Odisha has a history of cyclones, heavy rains and floods. In October 1999, two cyclones within a period of 2 weeks, killed 10,000 people, and caused socio‐economic devastation (Ray‐Bennett 2009). In 2013, Cyclone Phailin made landfall in Ganjam leaving 44 people dead, and damaging 256,633 houses (World Bank 2013). A comparison of institutional and community response provides insight into the learning amongst communities and understanding how changes manifest during recovery. Results The Government of Odisha (GoO) was applauded for their success in preparedness and evacuation in 2013. This was achieved by construction of cyclone shelters along the coast, raised water sources and prepositioning of boats and other relief stocks through disaster preparedness measures after 1999. The NGOs were prepared with contingency stocks, boats and deployment of volunteers and trained persons for disinfection of tubewells, running community kitchens and relying upon pre‐disaster preparedness networks. The World Bank funded the Odisha Disaster Recovery project building on resilience and experiences from previous reconstruction project. Conclusions Odisha provides a rich experience of learning from previous disasters and influencing policy and action. The institutionalization of disaster recovery within the management cycle, and easy
Often recovery actions and initiatives provide a window of opportunity to instill changes and inf... more Often recovery actions and initiatives provide a window of opportunity to instill changes and influence transformational changes as well. However there is limited documentation of recovery actions and their impacts in the face of recurring disaster events such as annual floods and riverine erosion. This case study research of Assam floods in India was undertaken using participatory research tools and key informant interviews to explore the promoting and prohibiting factors to build resilience of the communities suffering from recurrent floods and erosion. This study explores how communities recover from repeated disaster events, what support do they receive, what are the challenges faced by them, and their resultant coping or adaptive strategies. It was found that communities suffering from erosion and floods keep losing land and assets gradually and receive minimal support for recovery. Although the humanitarian emergency programmes and early recovery interventions exist for very limited timescale, using integrated and participatory approaches were found to promote community resilience.
It was found that community participation, knowledge transfer, technical and financial assistance, and the critical assistance to vulnerable groups were instrumental in recovery processes. This paper presents evidence for understanding of community resilience when faced with disasters irrespective of the scale, and the role played by institutions in enabling these recovery processes. The emerging recommendations advocate for a stronger role of civil society and NGOs in Assam for lobbying and developing a state-level and national consensus on the issues of embankments as flood protection measures, recognizing of riverine erosion as a disaster and recurring floods as a national problem.
Early recovery work provides a useful opportunity to promote community resilience. This paper des... more Early recovery work provides a useful opportunity to promote community resilience. This paper describes the nature of recovery and the contextual analysis under which the project funded by ECHO for early recovery1 post- floods was undertaken in Assam, the northeastern region of India in 2012-13. Oxfam India, as part of a consortium with two other International agencies began their early recovery interventions after the immediate response. However, due to multiple waves of flooding most agencies faced innumerable challenges during their response interventions. This paper provides a narrative of opportunities and challenges faced in promoting community resilience through recovery work, by making conscious attempts and visionary interventions focussing on longer-term development. The lessons from this early recovery programme are instrumental not only for WaSH/ sector-specific programming but also useful for addressing future risks, informing policy and promoting resilience.
Many public health interventions aim to promote healthful behaviours, with varying degrees of suc... more Many public health interventions aim to promote healthful behaviours, with varying degrees of success. With a lack of existing empirical evidence on the optimal number or combination of behaviours to promote to achieve a given health outcome, a key challenge in intervention design lies in deciding what behaviours to prioritise, and how best to promote them. We describe how key behaviours were selected and promoted within a multisectoral nutrition-sensitive agriculture intervention that aimed to address maternal and child undernutrition in rural India. First, we formulated a Theory of Change, which outlined our hypothesised impact pathways. To do this, we used the following inputs: existing conceptual frameworks, published empirical evidence, a feasibility study, formative research and the intervention team’s local knowledge. Then, we selected specific behaviours to address within each impact pathway, based on our formative research, behaviour change models, local knowledge and commu...
Maternal and child undernutrition have adverse consequences for pregnancy outcomes and child morb... more Maternal and child undernutrition have adverse consequences for pregnancy outcomes and child morbidity and mortality, and they are associated with low educational attainment, economic productivity as an adult, and human wellbeing. 'Nutrition-sensitive' agriculture programs could tackle the underlying causes of undernutrition. This study is a four-arm cluster randomised controlled trial in Odisha, India. Interventions are as follows: (1) an agricultural extension platform of women's groups viewing and discussing videos on nutrition-sensitive agriculture (NSA) practices, and follow-up visits to women at home to encourage the adoption of new practices shown in the videos; (2) women's groups viewing and discussing videos on NSA and nutrition-specific practices, with follow-up visits; and (3) women's groups viewing and discussing videos on NSA and nutrition-specific practices combined with a cycle of Participatory Learning and Action meetings, with follow-up visits. A...
Humanitarian agencies are increasingly forming consortia to improve collaborative efforts to deli... more Humanitarian agencies are increasingly forming consortia to improve collaborative efforts to deliver aid to disaster-affected populations. However, there is little evidence on the effectiveness of consortia as a coordination mechanism. This paper describes the consortia efforts, actions and approaches used during the 2012 Assam floods and 2013’s Cyclone Phailin in Odisha. The data were gathered using semi-structured interviews with key informants from agencies involved in Assam and Odisha response programmes. They indicate that the consortium approach was useful as a space for learning, collaboration, and increasing outreach and funding. This paper makes the case for better roles for local NGOs in furthering these partnerships and reflecting dynamic community needs and aspirations during recovery. Consortia approaches can be improved through preparation and collaboration for quick and effective response. Further evidence on agency motivations, mutual interests and organizational cap...
Repeated occurrences of disasters pose a huge threat to community and infrastructural resilience.... more Repeated occurrences of disasters pose a huge threat to community and infrastructural resilience. Hence recovery processes should go beyond the traditional notion of bouncing back and restoring normalcy, and should strive for a change or transformation, which will prepare the affected communities to face future hazards. This study particularly looks at the different approaches in water, sanitation, and hygiene in post-disaster recovery to promote disaster resilience and assesses their effectiveness. Using the case study approach, evidence is gathered from the recent floods in Assam, India in 2011. A resilience framework conceptualised through a literature review, and with input from experts through qualitative interviews, will be validated using a set of indicators through an empirical study that was conducted over visits at three different periods of time. The first two visits were conducted for an emergency assessment and a scoping study during the early recovery phase. The participatory appraisal tools were used for collecting information through affected members of the communities and various stakeholders and were complemented using documentation through photographs and field notes. The preliminary findings based on brief visits to the study site so far have highlighted water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) as a critical need and priority during the emergency, early recovery and longer-term recovery efforts. Some of the structural measures undertaken include installation of new tube wells over the flood-levels, construction of latrines, construction of raised flood platforms while reconstructing previously damaged hand pumps, increase of the plinth level, and non-structural measures under hygiene promotion include promotion of the use of latrines, hand washing, safe food hygiene and water hygiene practices. The processes followed in villages that are frequently flooded were found to be inclusive, leading to learning and integration. Additionally, through institutional capacity building, recovery processes could potentially lead to transformational changes.
This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous experiences
of... more This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous experiences of disasters and underlines the value in preparedness to build resilience to future disasters. In order to reflect upon the experience of disasters from the past to inform and study its relevance in the face of a disaster in the present this paper proposes using the case of Odisha and cyclones. Empirical evidence was gathered through participant observation as a humanitarian practitioner deployed in response programme after Phailin with an INGO in 2013. Participatory rural appraisal techniques such as focus groups, interviews with authorities and local leaders were conducted from October 2013 ‐March 2014.
Introduction This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous e... more Introduction This paper explores learning within communities and institutions based on previous experiences of disasters and underlines the value in preparedness to build resilience to future disasters. In order to reflect upon the experience of disasters from the past to inform and study its relevance in the face of a disaster in the present this paper proposes using the case of Odisha and cyclones. Methods Empirical evidence was gathered through participant observation as a humanitarian practitioner deployed in response programme after Phailin with an INGO in 2013. Participatory rural appraisal techniques such as focus groups, interviews with authorities and local leaders were conducted from October 2013 ‐March 2014. Context Odisha has a history of cyclones, heavy rains and floods. In October 1999, two cyclones within a period of 2 weeks, killed 10,000 people, and caused socio‐economic devastation (Ray‐Bennett 2009). In 2013, Cyclone Phailin made landfall in Ganjam leaving 44 people dead, and damaging 256,633 houses (World Bank 2013). A comparison of institutional and community response provides insight into the learning amongst communities and understanding how changes manifest during recovery. Results The Government of Odisha (GoO) was applauded for their success in preparedness and evacuation in 2013. This was achieved by construction of cyclone shelters along the coast, raised water sources and prepositioning of boats and other relief stocks through disaster preparedness measures after 1999. The NGOs were prepared with contingency stocks, boats and deployment of volunteers and trained persons for disinfection of tubewells, running community kitchens and relying upon pre‐disaster preparedness networks. The World Bank funded the Odisha Disaster Recovery project building on resilience and experiences from previous reconstruction project. Conclusions Odisha provides a rich experience of learning from previous disasters and influencing policy and action. The institutionalization of disaster recovery within the management cycle, and easy
Often recovery actions and initiatives provide a window of opportunity to instill changes and inf... more Often recovery actions and initiatives provide a window of opportunity to instill changes and influence transformational changes as well. However there is limited documentation of recovery actions and their impacts in the face of recurring disaster events such as annual floods and riverine erosion. This case study research of Assam floods in India was undertaken using participatory research tools and key informant interviews to explore the promoting and prohibiting factors to build resilience of the communities suffering from recurrent floods and erosion. This study explores how communities recover from repeated disaster events, what support do they receive, what are the challenges faced by them, and their resultant coping or adaptive strategies. It was found that communities suffering from erosion and floods keep losing land and assets gradually and receive minimal support for recovery. Although the humanitarian emergency programmes and early recovery interventions exist for very limited timescale, using integrated and participatory approaches were found to promote community resilience.
It was found that community participation, knowledge transfer, technical and financial assistance, and the critical assistance to vulnerable groups were instrumental in recovery processes. This paper presents evidence for understanding of community resilience when faced with disasters irrespective of the scale, and the role played by institutions in enabling these recovery processes. The emerging recommendations advocate for a stronger role of civil society and NGOs in Assam for lobbying and developing a state-level and national consensus on the issues of embankments as flood protection measures, recognizing of riverine erosion as a disaster and recurring floods as a national problem.
Early recovery work provides a useful opportunity to promote community resilience. This paper des... more Early recovery work provides a useful opportunity to promote community resilience. This paper describes the nature of recovery and the contextual analysis under which the project funded by ECHO for early recovery1 post- floods was undertaken in Assam, the northeastern region of India in 2012-13. Oxfam India, as part of a consortium with two other International agencies began their early recovery interventions after the immediate response. However, due to multiple waves of flooding most agencies faced innumerable challenges during their response interventions. This paper provides a narrative of opportunities and challenges faced in promoting community resilience through recovery work, by making conscious attempts and visionary interventions focussing on longer-term development. The lessons from this early recovery programme are instrumental not only for WaSH/ sector-specific programming but also useful for addressing future risks, informing policy and promoting resilience.
Repeated occurrences of disasters pose a huge threat to community and infrastructural resilience.... more Repeated occurrences of disasters pose a huge threat to community and infrastructural resilience. Hence recovery processes should go beyond the traditional notion of bouncing back and restore normalcy, but should strive for a change or transformation, which will prepare the affected communities to face future hazards. This study particularly looks at the different approaches in water, sanitation, and hygiene in post-disaster recovery, which can promote disaster resilience and assesses their effectiveness using a resilience framework focusing on learning, participatory processes and capacity development initiatives during recovery. The qualitative case study method was adopted and empirical evidence gathered in the recent floods in Assam, India in 2011. The framework was validated using a set of indicators, which were tested over a period of time, and triangulated with the inputs from experts through qualitative interviews. The findings from this research, based on visits to the study site so far have highlighted WaSH as a priority in both emergency and longer-term recovery efforts. Some of the structural measures include installing new tube wells over the flood danger level, construction of latrines, raising platforms while reconstructing previously damaged hand pumps, increasing the plinth level, and non-structural measures under hygiene promotion include promoting the use of latrines, hand washing, safe food hygiene and water hygiene practices. The processes followed in villages that are frequently flooded were found to be inclusive and lead to learning and integration. Hence the resilience components could potentially lead to transformative recovery.
Recurring and multiple disasters impact water and sanitation facilities and disrupt services. The... more Recurring and multiple disasters impact water and sanitation facilities and disrupt services. The frequent displacement and disaster losses influence hygiene behaviour and recovery priorities. Post disaster water, sanitation and hygiene (WaSH) recovery support by government and NGOs and its linkages with development are under-researched areas. This research explores approaches for building community resilience in WaSH during recovery using two case studies from Eastern India, Assam and Odisha. Participatory Learning and Action (PLA) tools, semi-structured interviews, participant observations, photographs and documents are used to gather qualitative data. The analysis provides an understanding of WaSH during recovery at different scales including households, communities, governments and humanitarian agencies. In Assam and Odisha, there were changes in hygiene practices, access and availability of WaSH facilities, achieved through experiential learning and agency support. Learning within humanitarian NGOs occurred during implementation, mainly from the communities and technical experts. Government agencies in Assam focused on flood protection measures, which forced the flood-affected populations to relocate without any resettlement support. In Odisha, the government undertook effective evacuation and relief measures and planned for reconstruction, but sanitation was largely ignored. During recovery water supply was prioritised over sanitation and hygiene, overlooking gender aspects and menstrual hygiene. Thus an opportunity during recovery to influence WaSH practices and to address open defecation challenge is missed. The humanitarian action is fragmented across sectors that emphasise and prioritise productive assets such as livelihoods and shelter over WaSH systems. This research argues for longer-term and intersectoral recovery programmes that reflect community priorities through increased participation. This will help in transforming pre-existing WaSH practices and attitudes towards sanitation. This thesis concludes that integrated approaches should consider the pre-disaster practices, recovery and development plans for effective programming. The recovery programmes should factor learning and effective participation for building community resilience and bringing about transformational changes.
The present understanding on disaster recovery derives from the experience of large-scale disaste... more The present understanding on disaster recovery derives from the experience of large-scale disasters like earthquakes and tsunamis, but ignores the recovery of communities from cyclical and regular disasters like floods and erosion. Often recovery means rebuilding houses, and restoring the services and infrastructure, but does not talk of water and sanitation practices of the communities. This paper addresses this particular gap using the case study of Assam state in the north east of India that faces seasonal floods and erosion every year. The data was collected through field visits initiated immediately after the floods in 2012. Subsequent visits were undertaken in 2013, where data gathering formats and interviews with households, community consultations and expert interviews were conducted.
The emerging findings show that communities invest least amount of resources in building their assets, and houses, water and sanitation facilities to minimize their losses. It emerged that knowledge and experience from previous disasters remained with the communities. can be seen from the findings that participation and local knowledge and practices are instrumental in ensuring that recovery from previous disasters are a holistic experience for the communities. Therefore, recovery from recurring disasters enriches the understanding of community resilience. Although external agencies have a role in mobilizing the resources, the involvement of communities proves useful to tailor the programmes as per the context. It is therefore easy to conclude that there is a need to extend the current discourse to include recurring, regular disaster events and communities’ experiences and aspirations for holistic recovery.
This research on community resilience during post-disaster recovery draws upon empirical evidence... more This research on community resilience during post-disaster recovery draws upon empirical evidence from the case studies in India. Using a learning and participatory approach, she presents her findings on community response, and humanitarian response in the aftermath of floods in Assam 2012, and Cyclone Phailin in Odisha in 2013. She argues in her presentation that an integrated approach across timescales and sectors is urgent in the face of recurring devastating floods and cyclone in the Indian sub-continent
The northeastern region in India holds a unique feature of multiple ethnicities, identities layer... more The northeastern region in India holds a unique feature of multiple ethnicities, identities layered with historical and political neglect. In the recent years Guwahati has witnessed a complex array of recurring floods, political unrest due to separatist movements and ethnic conflicts, illegal immigration and environmental risks of hydro-infrastructural projects in Assam. This presentation traces parallel threads to understand the conglomeration of factors that have resulted in influx of populations in the cities from the rural fringes and peripheries of the river Brahmaputra as well as in areas that have faced ethnic violence and tension. It presents data on artificial floods in Guwahati, the political history of the region through interplay of the various central-state actors, the incidences of violence clashes and state response to such events. The data shows that the perceived threat and violence in the region has led to mistrust, displacement of populations from their original homes, loss of livelihoods and access to basic facilities resulting in out-migration and poor living conditions in the city. However even in urban conditions, the lack of systems resilience has not guaranteed a better lifestyle or standards due to lack of power and water supply, health and education facilities. Therefore the constant pull and push factors in migration are defining the population movements that are manifested due to resilience of the system – the city as an interconnected unit in contrast to the rural independence and standards of living.
This image was taken during field work in Assam. This was my third visit in 3 years to study Solm... more This image was taken during field work in Assam. This was my third visit in 3 years to study Solmari village, which was erased by erosion in 2013 due to Brahmaputra river. The village was earlier devastated by floods in 2012. She lives in a temporary home on raised grounds and goes to a school run in a tent nearby, oblivious to the risks and uncertainty of their lives and future in the region. This image exhibits the beauty and innocence of the lives in the floodplains. Her image captures the essence of an untold story in larger debates of development and resilience.
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Papers by Sneha Krishnan
of disasters and underlines the value in preparedness to build resilience to future disasters. In
order to reflect upon the experience of disasters from the past to inform and study its relevance
in the face of a disaster in the present this paper proposes using the case of Odisha and cyclones.
Empirical evidence was gathered through participant observation as a humanitarian practitioner
deployed in response programme after Phailin with an INGO in 2013. Participatory rural appraisal
techniques such as focus groups, interviews with authorities and local leaders were conducted
from October 2013 ‐March 2014.
It was found that community participation, knowledge transfer, technical and financial assistance, and the critical assistance to vulnerable groups were instrumental in recovery processes. This paper presents evidence for understanding of community resilience when faced with disasters irrespective of the scale, and the role played by institutions in enabling these recovery processes. The emerging recommendations advocate for a stronger role of civil society and NGOs in Assam for lobbying and developing a state-level and national consensus on the issues of embankments as flood protection measures, recognizing of riverine erosion as a disaster and recurring floods as a national problem.
Conference Presentations by Sneha Krishnan
of disasters and underlines the value in preparedness to build resilience to future disasters. In
order to reflect upon the experience of disasters from the past to inform and study its relevance
in the face of a disaster in the present this paper proposes using the case of Odisha and cyclones.
Empirical evidence was gathered through participant observation as a humanitarian practitioner
deployed in response programme after Phailin with an INGO in 2013. Participatory rural appraisal
techniques such as focus groups, interviews with authorities and local leaders were conducted
from October 2013 ‐March 2014.
It was found that community participation, knowledge transfer, technical and financial assistance, and the critical assistance to vulnerable groups were instrumental in recovery processes. This paper presents evidence for understanding of community resilience when faced with disasters irrespective of the scale, and the role played by institutions in enabling these recovery processes. The emerging recommendations advocate for a stronger role of civil society and NGOs in Assam for lobbying and developing a state-level and national consensus on the issues of embankments as flood protection measures, recognizing of riverine erosion as a disaster and recurring floods as a national problem.
In Assam and Odisha, there were changes in hygiene practices, access and availability of WaSH facilities, achieved through experiential learning and agency support. Learning within humanitarian NGOs occurred during implementation, mainly from the communities and technical experts. Government agencies in Assam focused on flood protection measures, which forced the flood-affected populations to relocate without any resettlement support. In Odisha, the government undertook effective evacuation and relief measures and planned for reconstruction, but sanitation was largely ignored. During recovery water supply was prioritised over sanitation and hygiene, overlooking gender aspects and menstrual hygiene. Thus an opportunity during recovery to influence WaSH practices and to address open defecation challenge is missed. The humanitarian action is fragmented across sectors that emphasise and prioritise productive assets such as livelihoods and shelter over WaSH systems.
This research argues for longer-term and intersectoral recovery programmes that reflect community priorities through increased participation. This will help in transforming pre-existing WaSH practices and attitudes towards sanitation. This thesis concludes that integrated approaches should consider the pre-disaster practices, recovery and development plans for effective programming. The recovery programmes should factor learning and effective participation for building community resilience and bringing about transformational changes.
The emerging findings show that communities invest least amount of resources in building their assets, and houses, water and sanitation facilities to minimize their losses. It emerged that knowledge and experience from previous disasters remained with the communities. can be seen from the findings that participation and local knowledge and practices are instrumental in ensuring that recovery from previous disasters are a holistic experience for the communities. Therefore, recovery from recurring disasters enriches the understanding of community resilience. Although external agencies have a role in mobilizing the resources, the involvement of communities proves useful to tailor the programmes as per the context. It is therefore easy to conclude that there is a need to extend the current discourse to include recurring, regular disaster events and communities’ experiences and aspirations for holistic recovery.