Journal of Fundamentals
of Mental Health
Mashhad University
of Medical Sciences
Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
Research Center
Original Article
The relationship between primary maladaptive schemas and metacognitive beliefs with addiction potential
Azadeh Ghadimi1; Jahangir Karami2*; Kamran Yazdanbakhsh2
1
M.Sc. student in psychology, Islamic Azad University, Unit of Researches and Sciences of Kermanshah, Iran
Associate professor of psychology, Islamic Azad University, Unit of Researches and Sciences of Kermanshah, Razi University of
Kermanshah, Iran
2
Abstract
Introduction: Recently, the cognitive basis of the etiology of addiction has attracted special attention. This study was
conducted to determine the relationship between primary maladaptive schemas and meta-cognitive beliefs with addiction
potential.
Materials and Methods: The cross-correlation study, a multistage cluster sampling method was used and selected 300
peoples (180 girls and 120 boys) among high school students in Kermanshah city (2012-2013). Wells meta-cognitive
beliefs questionnaire, Young primary Schema Questionnaire and addiction Potential Scale (APS) were measuring
instruments. Results were analyzed using Pearson's correlation coefficient and regression analysis with SPSS 19
software.
Results: The results showed that there is a significant relationship between cognitive self-awareness, negative beliefs
about the uncontrollability of thoughts, beliefs about the need to control thoughts and cognitive trust subscales with
addiction potential subscale (P=0.001). However, there is no significant relationship between positive beliefs about worry
subscale and addiction potential. Also, there was a significant relationship between primary maladaptive schemas and
addiction potential (P=0.001).
Conclusion: According to the positive relationship between meta-cognitive beliefs and primary maladaptive schemas on
increased addiction potential, counselors and psychologists can consider this item.
Keywords: Addiction, Belief, Maladaptive, Meta cognition, Schema
Please cite this paper as:
Ghadimi A, Karami J, Yazdanbakhsh K. The relationship between primary maladaptive schemas and meta-cognitive beliefs with
addiction potential. Journal of Fundamentals of Mental Health 2015 Mar-Apr; 17(2): 67-73.
Introduction
During the past two decades, numerous studies
have been carried out on changing the intentional
and objective-oriented behavior, especially about the
addiction-based behaviors (1). Many factors
including the personal, family and social factors are
effective in the beginning, continuance and or
returning after treating the addiction dependence (2).
In the meantime, the religious role seems to be
determinant in terms of encompassing all areas of
human life and on the other hand as one of the
intrapersonal aspects in mental health , the religious
beliefs can pave the way in the field of promoting the
person’s mental health via manifesting in action and
life style (3). Research findings have shown that
*Corresponding Author: Department of psychology, Razi University
of Kermanshah University, Kermanshah, Iran
j.karami@razi.ac.ir
Received: Apr. 09, 2014
Accepted: Sep. 16, 2014
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
attaching to the religion is connected to the mental
and physical health (4-6). Studies have indicated that
religious attitudes and beliefs cause the reduced
psychological stress and risky behaviors prevention
such as smoking, alcohol and drugs. Religious
indicators like membership in a religious sect,
participation in religious rituals has reverse
relationship with using addicted drugs and alcohol
(7). Not only in the prevention discussion, but also in
the treatment discussion, researches (8- 10) have
shown that religiosity plays an important role in
improving the addiction.
Those subjects who have been a member in
religious groups or committed to performing the
ritual, social and religious or have participated in the
collective prayers passed more likely the treatment
successfully (11). Researches (12,13) indicated that
there is positive relationship between religiosity and
spirituality with health outputs including the addiction
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 67
MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS AND ADDICTION
treatment. It is also known that (14) those
adolescents who are not religious have reported
more abuse compared to those religious adolescents.
Another study on the risk-exposed women was
carried out and showed that the women with higher
level of religiosity have reported less use of illegal
drugs (15). Studies also indicated that the highest
rate of using tobacco, marijuana and other illegal
drugs was observed among those persons who had
less religious preferences (16). Additionally,
attending the religious places and higher level of
religiosity of parents had significant relationships
with less use of the aforementioned drugs and the
religious action of persons is a supportive factor
against using alcohol, marijuana and cocaine (17).
One of the other important factors in rate of
tendency to drugs is the parental styles. McCoby
and Martin (18) revised the Baumrind's classic
model. They believe that the parental styles are
classified based on two characteristics of
expectation rate and responding rate. Expectancy
points out that the parents expect experienced
behavior from their children and responding
indicates that the parents show affective warmth and
acceptance and engage themselves in children’s’
actions. Based on this, three styles authoritarian,
permissive and authoritative were introduced. In his
study, Pellerin (19) showed that children of
authoritative parents have more cognitive and social
competencies, better psychological health feeling
and exchange with others. Children of authoritarian
parents show a lower standard in behavioral
problems and drug abuse, together with the lower
social competency and lower self-esteem and the
children of permissive parents have higher social
competency and self-esteem, but they suffer the
lower progress motivation and less engagement with
educational issues and high standard in behavioral
problems and drug abuse.
Coombs and Landsverk (20) stated that the parentchild relationship is a rational area for studying the
fact that why some children use drugs and why
some others prevent using it. Abar, Carter and
Winsler (21) in a research showed that the
authoritarian parental style has a positive
relationship with high level of self-regulating and
educational performance and study skills among the
students and has no significant relationship with
behavioral problems such as alcohol and drug.
Patock-Peckham and Morgan-Lopez (22) also found
out that permissive parents are effective directly on
the control trends (general and specific) and
indirectly on the drugs and alcohol abuse among the
children. Wood, Read, Mitchell and Brand (23)
showed that the permissive parents cause the
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
GHADIMI, ET AL.
increased alcohol abuse. Another result showed that
having the authoritarian parents has relationship
with more rebellion among the adolescences and
that is related to the alcohol abuse (24). In another
research (25) it was specified that authoritative
parental style of father and mother has a negative
relationship with addiction potential; authoritarian
parental style has a positive relationship with the
addition potential and the permissive style has not
relationship with the addiction.
Emotional intelligence is one of the constructs lack
of which causes the people not to be aware of their
emotions and as a result they make less effort for
solving their problems with this feeling that they
have no control over their life. Therefore, the results
of research by Mayer and Salovey (26) shows that
emotional intelligence is a kind of processing the
emotional information which leads the life flow
improve. As some researchers believe, low
emotional intelligence is one the effective factors in
beginning the drug abuse (27, 28).
In fact, those persons who have high emotional
intelligence perceive the peers’ pressure and can
control their emotions and as a result show
resistance against the drug abuse (29). Those
persons with low emotional intelligence turn to
drugs for encountering the negative emotions (30).
Accordingly, they only have a vague perception of
their emotions which they attribute to unrelated
factors within their bodies or environment. Also, the
research by Taylor, Bagby abd Parker (31) indicated
that those drinking alcoholic beverages for fun and
those addicted to alcohol have less emotional
intelligence. Another research (32) showed that
there is negative correlation between drug abuse and
problem-solving component of the emotional
intelligence components. Research carried out in
Canada, Poland and USA indicate that about half of
persons attached to drug and alcohol abuse have had
less emotional intelligence and also it became clear
that there is a negative relationship between
emotional intelligence and addition acceptance and
this study showed that persons engaged in drug
abuse behaviors have had less emotional
intelligence (33).
Based on the aforementioned literature and also
since a few studies have been carried out in Iran
concerning the relationship among the research
variables, the present research is trying to
investigate the simple and multiple relationships of
the variables of parental styles, religiosity and
emotional intelligence with addiction potential.
Since the parental styles can be trained to parents
and emotional intelligence can be taught to the
children, and the religiosity is also trained via
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 68
MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS AND ADDICTION
children cloning from parents and other educational
institutes, this research has a high educational value.
Materials and Methods
The research method of this study is descriptivecorrelational. The statistical population of this
research includes high school students of Ahvaz and
the sample consists of 268 students. 6 questionnaires
were excluded from the analysis due to imperfection
and finally the sample volume included 262 which
were selected by the multistage cluster sampling
method. At first, 2 Education areas were selected
randomly from among 4 areas and in the next stage
5 high schools were selected from each area and a
class from each high school was selected as a
sample volume. Research ethics was observed
completely in this research in such a way that the
participants were ensured from the information
confidentiality and they filled the questionnaire with
full satisfaction in a quiet atmosphere and without
mentioning their names. The addiction potential,
religiosity, parental styles and emotional
intelligence scales were used for measuring the
variables.
Research instruments
a)
Zargar's Addiction Potential Scale: This
questionnaire is the Iranian addiction potential scale
which has been constructed by Zargar (34) based on
the social-mental conditions of Iranian society. The
first factor, i.e. active potential is related to the
antisocial behaviors, tendency to abusing drugs,
positive attitude towards drugs and excitement, and
the second factor, i.e. passive potential is related to
lack of self-assertion and depression. Scoring each
question is on a continuum from zero (completely
disagree) to 3 (completely agree). Two methods
were used for measuring the validity of this scale.
Scale construct validity is calculated 0.45 through
correlating it with 25-item scale of clinical
symptoms SCL-25. It was significant in the level
0.01 and in the validity criterion the addiction
potential questionnaire distinguished two addicted
and non-addicted groups well. Reliability of this
scale is computed by Cronbach’s Alpha as 0.90
which is favorable (34).
b)
Aryan's Religiosity Measurement Scale:
This scale is a self-report tool for measuring the rate
of religiosity and include 20 questions and scoring
on each question is done by a continuum from 1
(very low) to 5 (very high). Sum of scores of
question 1 to 20 is considered as the person’s
religiosity rate indicator in this research via revising
the questions 12 and 17. This scale was developed
and prepared by Khadijeh Aryan (34). Aryan study
(34) has been carried out on a sample of Allameh
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
GHADIMI, ET AL.
Tabatabaei University students whose the reliability
coefficient was obtained 0.92. in the present
research, the reliability coefficient of this scale was
calculated by Cronbach’s Alpha method as 0.96
which indicates a good reliability of test.
c) Buri’s Parental Authority Questionnaire: This
questionnaire was developed by Buri in 1991 based
on the model proposed by Baumrind in 1971 and
includes 30 items which is scored from 0 to 4 (35).
Every 10 questions measure a style. Buri (35)
reported the reliability of this scale by retest method
0.81, 0.86 and 0.92 for permissive style,
authoritarian style and authoritative style,
respectively. The questionnaire’s diagnosis validity
showed that the authoritarian style has a reverse
relationship with permissive and authoritative styles
and dominance of father also has a reverse
relationship with permissive and authoritative styles
(35). In Iran, Esfandyari (36) also reported the
reliability of this questionnaire by retest method
0.81, 0.77 and 0.73 for permissive style,
authoritarian style and authoritative style,
respectively and the test internal validity was also
approved by 10 psychological and psychiatric
experts.
d) Shatte's Emotional intelligence Scale: This
questionnaire is a 33-item test which has been
developed by Shatte et al. (37) based on Saloy and
Meer intelligent model. The test questions measure
three components of emotional intelligence
including emotions adjustment, productivity of
emotions and emotions assessment in a 5-degree
Likert from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely
agree). Emotional intelligence scale, though
saturated by the aforementioned components, only a
general score was obtained for the emotional
intelligence whose range is 36 to 165 (37). Internal
consistency of test questions has reported based on
the Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient from 0.84 to 0.90
(37). In the Persian form of this Cronbach’s Alpha
scale, the scale questions were calculated in a
sample consisting of 135 students as 0.88 (38).
Results
In this section, descriptive and inferential
information required for research hypotheses are
given. Table.1 indicates number of sample, mean
and standard deviation of the research variables.
Table.2 shows the Pearson correlation coefficients
for variables of parental styles, religiosity and
emotional intelligence with active and passive
addiction potential
As seen in Table. 2 there is a positive significant
relationship between permissive and authoritarian
parental styles and active potential. That is, the
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 69
MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS AND ADDICTION
permissive and authoritarian parental styles make
the active addiction potential increase. There is a
negative significant relationship between emotional
intelligence, authoritative parental styles and
religiosity with active addiction potential. There is
also a positive significant relationship between
authoritarian parental styles with passive addiction
potential and there is a negative significant
relationship between emotional intelligence and
religiosity with passive addiction potential. On the
other hand, no relationship was observed between
permissive and authoritative styles and passive
addiction potential.
In order to investigate the fact that how scores of
parental styles, religiosity and emotional
intelligence can predict the scores of active and
GHADIMI, ET AL.
passive addiction potential, step-by-step regression
method was used. Table No.3 shows the results of
step-by-step regression analysis for predicting the
active addiction potential based on the variables of
parental styles, religiosity and emotional
intelligence.
Table 1. Number, mean and standard deviation of
research variables
Variable
Permissive style
Authoritarian style
Authoritative style
Religiosity
Emotional intelligence
Active addiction potential
Passive addiction potential
Mean
SD
17.63
16.83
27.59
20.34
13.93
103.7
78.55
6.62
6.83
7.01
15.78
5.26
27.41
11.86
Lowest Highest
score
score
2
3
9
0
0
45
31
40
38
68
78
27
181
134
Table2. Matrix of Pearson correlation coefficients for variables of parental styles, religiosity and emotional
intelligence with active and passive addiction potential
Variable
Permissive style
Authoritarian style
Authoritative style
Emotional intelligence
Religiosity
Active addiction potential
Passive addiction potential
1
2
3
4
5
6
.501*
.316*
-.097
-.071
.368**
.80
-.161
-.120
-.101
.234**
.272**
-
-
-
-
.073
.201**
-.130*
-.306
.083
-.250**
-.132*
-.391**
-.219**
.409**
Table 3. Step-by-step regression for predicting the active addiction potential based on the variables of
parental styles, religiosity and emotional intelligence
R
R2
F
B
β
T
P
.391
.519
.552
.579
.592
.153
.269
.304
.331
.338
48.08
48.78
38.5
32.6
28.25
-.521
.813
-.109
.389
-.341
-.391
.341
-.189
.166
-.152
.6.9
6.49
-3.67
3.26
-2.76
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
Prediction model
Religiosity
Permissive style
Emotional intelligence
Authoritarian style
Authoritative style
As seen in this Table 3, from among the research
variables, religiosity, permissive style, emotional
intelligence, authoritarian style and authoritative
parental style are respectively significant predictors
for active addiction potential and determined about
34% of its variance. Table No.4 indicates the stepby-step regression analysis for predicting the
passive addiction potential based on the variables of
parental styles, religiosity and emotional intelligence.
In the meantime, on the basis of information of
Table 4, among the research variables, authoritarian
and religiosity styles are significant predictors for
passive addiction potential and determine about
11% of its variance.
Table 4. Step-by-step regression for predicting the passive addiction potential based on the variables of
parental styles, religiosity and emotional intelligence
Significance
t
β
B
Predictive variable
Model
Criterion variable
0.001
0.001
0.02
0.001
0.008
0.001
4.05
-2.28
2.21
6.61
2.68
3.81
0.24
-0.20
0.14
0.33
0.15
0.21
0.67
-0.67
0.36
2.38
0.46
0.50
mistrust / abuse
Defectiveness / shame
Vulnerable to the disease
Sacrifice
Eligibility / hauteur
Cognitive trust
R=0.62
R2=0.38
F=9.36
P<0.001
Addiction potential
Discussion
The present study aims at investigating the
relationship between parental styles, religiosity and
emotional intelligence with addiction potential
among the high school students. Based on the
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
findings of this research, there is a negative
significant relationship between religiosity and
active and passive addiction potential. The results
are consistent with the results of other researches
(3-7,9) which have indicated that attachment to
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 70
MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS AND ADDICTION
religion has relationship with the mental and
physical health and religious attitude and beliefs
come together with reduced psychological stress and
prevention of risky behaviors such as smoking,
alcohol and drugs. Also, other researches (17) in
similar results found out that person’s religious
action is a supportive factor against abuse of
alcohol, marijuana and cocaine; having religious
commitment and religiosity are effective factors in
preventing the adolescents and youth addiction. This
research results can play an important role in
educational approaches. Parents know that being
religious and transferring the religious commitment
to their children can connect their future with mental
and physical health and be considered as a
supportive factor for keeping the children away
from the social vulnerability related to drugs and
tendency to drugs.
Also, based on the results of this study, there is a
positive significant relationship between permissive
parental styles and active addiction potential and
there is a negative significant relationship between
authoritative parental styles and active addiction
potential. Meanwhile, there is a positive significant
relationship between authoritarian parental styles
and passive addiction potential. The results of this
research are consistent with other researches’ results
(1,19,22-25,41,43).
On the basis of research by Pellerin (19), children
of authoritative parents have higher cognitive and
social competencies, better psychological health and
exchange with others. Children of authoritarian
parents show a lower standard in behavioral
problems and drug abuse, together with the lower
social competency and lower self-esteem and the
children of permissive parents have upper social
competency and self-esteem, but they suffer the
lower progress motivation and less engagement with
educational issues and have high standard in
behavioral problems and drug abuse. Also, other
researches
(1, 39) showed that the authoritarian parental style
has a positive relationship with high level of selfregulating and educational performance and study
skills among the students and has no significant
relationship with behavioral problems such as
alcohol and drug.
Additionally, in view of this finding that
permissive parents are effective directly on the
control trends (general and specific) and indirectly
on the drugs and alcohol abuse among the children
and in regard to strong research background about
the educational value of parental style, paying
attention to this discussion in the parent-child
relationships should be contemplated. These
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
GHADIMI, ET AL.
findings highlight that parents should be very
diligent in their children’s rights and cover the
educational deficiencies by scientific method.
Finally, based on the findings of present study, there
is a negative significant relationship between
emotional intelligence and active and passive
addiction potential. Findings of this research are
consistent with other researches (27-32,40,42). As
Golman (27), Parker, Taylor, Istabrook, Shell and
Wood (28) believe, low emotional intelligence is
one of the effective factors in beginning the drug
abuse. Also, in view of the research explanation by
Trinidad and Johnson (29), Trinidad, Anger, Chu
and Johnson (30) those persons who have high
emotional intelligence perceive the peers’ pressure
and can control their emotions and as a result show
resistance against the drug abuse. Those persons
with low emotional intelligence turn to drugs for
encountering the negative emotions. And with
regard to the research by Akbar-Zardkhaneh and
Javadi (33) which showed that there is a negative
significant
relationship
between
emotional
intelligence and addiction potential, emotional
intelligence is considered as one of the effective
factors in addiction potential discussion. The
important point to mention in the emotional
intelligence discussion is the ability to train this
construct. This matter is of high importance for
educational affairs instructors so that, train them as
clever in terms of emotional intelligence and play a
role as one of the other supportive factors significant
for children through providing children with training
situations and creating an enriched atmosphere for
them in order to prevent them falling into the trap.
It should also be noted that the present study
encountered several limitations. First, since the
present research is of type correlation, the causal
inference should be done from the results with high
caution.
At the end, it is suggested that the future researches
willinvestigate the personality characteristics such as
psychological headstrong, tolerance and selfassertion which seems to have considerable role in
addiction potential. Gender is one of the limitations
of this research.
One of the other limitations is that the sample has
been taken from the high school students whose
results should be carefully generalized for other
groups. Also, the present study has been carried out
on the literate persons and it cannot be generalized
to the illiterate people. Based on this, it is suggested
that the gender should be taken into account as an
important variable in future researches and also this
study should be carried out on the other groups for
more generalization.
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 71
MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS AND ADDICTION
Conclusion
It seems that authoritative parenting style,
religiosity and emotional intelligence are effective
in reducing addiction potential among the high
schools students.
GHADIMI, ET AL.
Acknowledgement
Hereby we are very grateful to Khouzestan
Education Organization and all students who
participated honestly in this research.
References
1. Gossop M, Grant M. Preventing and controlling drug abuse. World Health Organization: Geneva; 1990: 132-78.
2. Dabbaghi P, Asgharnejad AA, Atef MK, Bolhari J. [Effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy group
(mindfulness) and moral schema activation in preventing relapse in opioid]. Iranian journal of psychiatry and clinical
psychology 2007; 13(4): 366-75. (Persian)
3. Bashirpour M, Razi A, Moradi H. Determine the contribution of religious attitudes acceptance addiction among
students. 4th International Congress on Psychosomatic; 2012; Oct 15-19, Isfahan, Iran.
4. Takyi KB. Religion and women's health in Ghana: Insights into HIV/AIDs preventive and protective behavior. Soc
Sci Med 2003; 56: 1221-34.
5. Ball J, Armistead L, Austin BJ. The relationship between religiosity and adjustment among African- American
female, urban adolescents. J Adolesc 2003; 26: 431-46.
6. Maselko J, Kubzansky LD. Gender differences in religious practices, spiritual experiences and health: Results from
the US General Social Survey. Soc Sci Med 2006; 62: 2848-60.
7. Wills TA, Yaeger AM, Sandy JM. Buffering effect of religiosity for adolescent substance use. Psychol Addic Behav
2003; 17: 24-31.
8. Miller WR. Researching the spiritual dimensions of alcohol and other drug problems. Addiction 1988; 93: 979-90.
9. Moos RH. Addictive disorders in context: Principles and puzzles of effective treatment and recovery. Psychol Addict
Behav 2003; 17: 3-12.
10. Tonigan JS, Miller WR, Schermer C. Atheists, agnostics and alcoholics anonymous. J Stud Alcohol 2002; 63: 53441.
11. Koenig HG, McCullough ME, Larsen DB. Handbook of religion and health. New York: Oxford University; 2001:
40-156.
12. Hill PC, Pargament KI. Advances in the conceptualization and measurement of religion and spirituality:
Implications for physical and mental health research. Am Psychol 2003; 58: 64-74.
13. Powell LH, Shahabi L, Thoreson CE. Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health. Am Psychol 2003; 58:
36-52.
14. Miller L, Davies M, Greenwald NW. Relationship between family religiosity and substance use and abuse among
adolescents in the national co morbidity survey. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2005; 75(4): 585-98.
15. Klein H, Elifson KW, Sterk CE. The relationship between religiosity and drug use among at risk women. J Relig
Health 2006; 45(1): 40-56.
16. Merrill RM, Folsom JA, Christopherson SS. The influence of family religiosity on adolescent substance use
according to religious preference. Soc Behav Pers 2005; 33(8): 821-36.
17. Nonnemaker JM, McNeely CA, Blum RW. Public and private domains of religiosity and adolescent health risk
behavior: Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Soc Sci Med 2003; 57: 2049-54.
18. Maccoby E, Martin J. Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. New York: Wiley; 1983:
1-101.
19. Pellerin LA. Applying Baumrind's parenting typology to high schools: Toward a middle-range theory of
authoritarian socialization. Soc Sci Res 2005; 34: 283-303.
20. Coombs RH, Landsverk J. Parenting styles and substance use during childhood and adolescence. J Marr Fam 1988;
50(2): 473-82.
21. Abar B, Carter KL, Winsler, A. The effects of maternal parenting style and religious commitment on self-regulation,
academic achievement, and risk behavior among African-American parochial college students. J Adolesc 2009; 32:
259-73.
22. Patock-Peckham JA, Morgan-Lopez AA. The gender specific meditational pathways between parenting styles,
neuroticism, pathological reasons for drinking, and alcohol-related problems in emerging adulthood. Addict Behav
2009; 34(3): 312-15.
23. Wood ME, Read JP, Mitchell RE, Brand NH. Do parents still matter? Parent and peer influences on alcohol
involvement among recent high school graduates. Psychol Addict Behav 2004; 18: 19-30.
24. Hayes L, Smart D, Toumbourou JW, Sanson A. Parental influences on adolescent alcohol use. Melbourne:
Australian Institute of Family Studies; 2004: 175-241.
25. Zeinali A, Vahdat R, Gharadinge K. [Relationship between parenting style talented addiction in children]. Journal of
family research 2010; 23(6): 335-52. (Persian)
26. Mayer JD, Salovey P. What is emotional intelligence? In: Mayer JD, Salovey P (editors). Emotional development
and emotional intelligence. New York: Basic Books; 1997: 1-234.
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 72
MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, METACOGNITIVE BELIEFS AND ADDICTION
GHADIMI, ET AL.
27. Goleman D. Emotional intelligence. New York: Bantam Books; 1995: 30-95.
28. Parker JD, Taylor RN, Eastabrook JM, Schell SL, Wood LM. Problem gambling in adolescence: Relationships with
internet misuse, gaming abuse and emotional intelligence. Pers Individ Diff 2008; 45: 174-80.
29. Trinidad DR, Johnson CA. The association between emotional intelligence and early adolescent tobacco and
alcoholuse. Pers Individ Diff 2002; 32: 95-105.
30. Trinidad DR, Unger JB, Chou CP, Johnson A. The protective association of emotional intelligence with
psychosocial smoking risk factors for adolescents. Pers Individ Diff 2004; 36: 945-54.
31. Taylor GJ, Bagby RM, Parker JD. Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness.
New York: Cambridge University; 2001: 1-217.
32. Mansheyi GH, Mazaheri MM. [The relationship between emotional intelligence and substance abuse: an
explanatory model of drug abuse and the moderator's]. Iranian journal of psychiatry and clinical psychology 2010;
15(4): 71-80. (Persian)
33. Akbari S, Javadi RK. [The relationship between identity and parent- child relationships in addicted women]. Journal
of family research 2010; 5(19): 371-85. (Persian)
34. Zargar Y, Najarian B, Naami A. [The relationship between personality (sensation seeking, assertiveness and
resiliency) religious attitudes and marital satisfaction to addiction potential]. Journal of education and psychology 2008;
1(3): 99-120. (Persian)
35. Buri M. Parental authority questionnaire. J Pers Assess 1991; 57: 110- 19.
36. Esfandiari GH. [Study of parenting styles in mothers of children with behavior disorders, and normal children and
effect of parental education on children's behavioral disorders]. MA. Dissertation. Tehran: Psychiatric Institute, College
of psychology and education science, 1996: 112-18. (Persian)
37. Austin EJ, Saklofske DH, Huang SH, McKenney D. Measurement of trait emotional intelligence: testing and crossvalidating a modified version of Schutte et al.’s (1998) measure. Pers Individ Diff 2004; 36: 555-62.
38. Besharat MA, Hajiaghazade M, Ghorbani N. [Analysis of emotional intelligence, defenses mechanism and general
intelligence]. Journal of contemporary psychology 2008; 2(1): 48-59. (Persian)
39. Matejevic M, Jovanovic D, Lazarevic V. [Functionality of family relationships and parenting style in families of
adolescents with substance abuse problems]. Proceed Soc Behav Sci 2014; 128: 281-7.
40. Cleveland MJ, Reavy R, Mallett KA, Turrisi R, White HR. [Moderating effects of positive parenting and maternal
alcohol use on emerging adults' alcohol use: Does living at home matter?]. Addict Behav 2014; 39(5): 869-78.
41. Calafat A, García F, Juan M, Becoña E, Fernández-Hermida JR. Which parenting style is more protective against
adolescent substance use? Evidence within the European context. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 138: 185-92.
42. Mercken L, Sleddens EFC, De Vries H, Steglich CEG. Choosing adolescent smokers as friends: The role of
parenting and parental smoking. J Adolesc 2013; 36(2): 383-92.
43. Resurrección DM, Salguero JM, Ruiz-Aranda D. Emotional intelligence and psychological maladjustment in
adolescence: A systematic review. J Adolesc 37(4): 461-72.
Fundamentals of Mental Health, 2015 Mar-Apr
http://jfmh.mums.ac.ir 73