animals
Article
Comparative Histology of the Cornea and Palisades of Vogt
in the Different Wild Ruminants (Bovidae, Camelidae,
Cervidae, Giraffidae, Tragulidae)
Joanna Klećkowska-Nawrot 1, * , Karolina Goździewska-Harłajczuk 1, *
1
2
*
Citation: Klećkowska-Nawrot, J.;
Goździewska-Harłajczuk, K.;
Barszcz, K. Comparative Histology of
the Cornea and Palisades of Vogt in
the Different Wild Ruminants
(Bovidae, Camelidae, Cervidae,
Giraffidae, Tragulidae). Animals 2022,
12, 3188. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ani12223188
Academic Editor: Paola Scocco
Received: 14 October 2022
Accepted: 15 November 2022
Published: 17 November 2022
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conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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and Karolina Barszcz 2
Department of Biostructure and Animal Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wroclaw University of
Environmental and Life Sciences, Kozuchowska 1, 51-631 Wroclaw, Poland
Department of Morphological Sciences, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life
Sciences—SGGW, Nowoursynowska 159c, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
Correspondence: joanna.kleckowska-nawrot@upwr.edu.pl (J.K.-N.);
karolina.gozdziewska-harlajczuk@upwr.edu.pl (K.G.-H.)
Simple Summary: In this study, for the first time, we performed a detailed histological analysis of
the cornea and palisades of Vogt in the different wild ruminant species. The material for the research
was taken from 49 adult wild ruminants (Bovidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Tragulidae)
constituting 13 species coming from the Wroclaw Zoological Garden (Poland), the Warsaw Zoological
Garden (Poland) and own collection of the Division of Animal Anatomy (Wroclaw). Our results
showed that the number of layers of the cornea, i.e., five layers (anterior corneal epithelium, anterior
limiting membrane (Bowman’s layer), the proper substance of the cornea, the posterior limiting
membrane (Descemet’s membrane) and posterior corneal epithelium) or four layers (no Bowman’s
layer) is not constant within even the same genus that includes the given species of the tested animal.
The results of this study can form the basis for further research on the immunohistochemistry of the
cornea in the maintenance of structural integrity and fluid balance in wild ruminants that can be
used in veterinary ophthalmology diagnostics.
Abstract: In the study, we data concerning the histological and morphometrical examination of
the cornea and palisades of Vogt in the different species of ruminants from the families Bovidae,
Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae and Tragulidae, coming from the Warsaw Zoological Garden, the
Wroclaw Zoological Garden and the Division of Animal Anatomy. The following ruminant species
were investigated: common wildebeest, Kirk’s dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, sitatunga,
Philippine spotted deer, Père David’s deer, moose, reindeer, reticulated giraffe, okapi, Balabac mousedeer and alpaca. The cornea of ruminant species such as the common wildebeest, Kirk’s dik-dik, Natal
red duiker, scimitar oryx, reindeer and Balabac mouse-deer consisted of four layers (not found in the
Bowman’s layer): the anterior corneal epithelium, the proper substance of the cornea, the posterior
limiting membrane (Descemet’s membrane) and the posterior corneal epithelium (endothelium). The
anterior corneal epithelium was composed of a multilayer keratinizing squamous epithelium, which
was characterized in the studied ruminants with a variable number of cell layers but also with a
different thickness both in the central epithelium part and in the peripheral part. Moreover, the proper
substance of cornea was thinnest in Balabac mouse-deer, Kirk’s dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar
oryx, Philippine spotted deer, alpaca, reindeer and sitatunga and was thickest in the reticulated
giraffe. The thickest Descemet’s membrane was observed in the Père David’s deer. The corneal limbus
is characterized by a large number of pigment cell clusters in Kirk’s dik-dik, scimitar oryx, moose,
Balabac mouse-deer and alpaca. In the common wildebeest, Père David’s deer, moose, reticulated
giraffe, okapi and alpaca, the palisades of Vogt were marked in the form of a crypt-like structure. The
corneal limbus epithelium in the examined ruminants was characterized by a variable number of cell
layers but also a variable number of melanocytes located in different layers of this epithelium. The
detailed knowledge of the corneal structure of domestic and wild animals can contribute to the even
better development of methods for treating eye diseases in veterinary medicine.
4.0/).
Animals 2022, 12, 3188. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani12223188
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/animals
Animals 2022, 12, 3188
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Keywords: cornea; histology; palisades of Vogt; wild ruminants
1. Introduction
The cornea is a transparent and mechanical strength structure that covers the anterior
part of the eyeball [1–3]. Together with the opaque sclera, it forms the fibrous membrane of
the eyeball. Its diameter in humans is 1.0 – 11.5 mm on average [4]. A properly developed
cornea is completely transparent and has a smooth surface, and its radius of curvature in
humans is 7.5 – 7.8 mm on average [5]. The function of the cornea is to protect against
injuries and the penetration of foreign bodies into the eye. Moreover, the cornea is an
important structure of the optical system of the eye [6]. When the light rays pass through
the cornea, they are refracted through it and properly focused on the retina for clear vision.
Thanks to it, it is also possible to accommodate the eye, i.e., adjust the vision to different
distances. The ciliary muscle is involved in this process. When we look at an object close to
us, the muscle tightens, and the lens takes a round shape, thanks to which it has a greater
ability to focus light and refract it. By staring at a distant object, the ciliary muscles relax, the
lens is flattened, and the light is refracted less. If the cornea is no longer spherical and the
refracted light in the vertical plane is not the same as in the horizontal plane, astigmatism
(ataxia) will appear. It is a refractive error that leads to a deterioration of visual acuity and
a decrease in contrast sensitivity [7–9].
The human cornea consists of five layers: the anterior stratified squamous nonkeratinized epithelium, an anterior limiting membrane (Bowman’s layer) composed of
irregularly spaced collagen fibers, about 8 – 14 µm thick, the proper substance of cornea
with its keratocytes embedded in a hydrated matrix, the posterior limiting membrane (Descemet’s membrane) and the posterior corneal epithelium [4,10,11]. Bowman’s membrane
is not a characteristic feature of all mammals and is absent in dogs, cats and lemurs [12].
Recent studies have shown, however, that in humans, there is another layer between the
corneal core and the posterior border lamina—Dua’s layer (which was defined as a preDescemet’s membrane) [13,14]. Even though it is only 15 µm thick, it is really hard and
durable (pressures of 1.5–2 bar are not a problem). The existence of Dua’s layer was confirmed during the simulation of a corneal transplant (deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty
surgery). The procedure was performed on eyeballs from banks in Bristol and Manchester
(Great Britain). To delicately separate the individual layers, fine air bubbles were injected
into the cornea and then viewed under an electron microscope [13].
Ruiz-Ederra et al., [15] cited by Nautscher et al., [3] and Brunette et al. [16] report
that species-specific differences in structural and physiological properties of the cornea
are increasingly the focus of interest because animal corneal tissue is frequently used in
human research and for therapeutic purposes. Therefore, basic histological knowledge of
the corneal structures of domestic animals is mandatory.
Morphological evaluation of domestic and sparse wild ruminants cornea was described in the ox, the reindeer, the deer, the elk, the camel, the cow, the sheep, the sambar,
the red deer, the giraffe, the zebu, the blackbuck, the mouflon, the eland and the mutton [3,17–25].
The corneal limbus is the boundary between the cornea and the sclera in which there
are conjunctival folds called palisades of Vogt, containing niches for the limbal epithelial
stem cell (LESC) [26]. The LESCs are responsible for the regeneration of the corneal surface
and help maintain its transparency. These cells are found only in Vogt’s palisades, which
create a special microenvironment for their renewal and proliferation. In humans, deficiency
of these cells leads to corneal opacification through conjunctivalization and vascularization
of the transparent cornea [27–29]. The LESC in humans deficit is influenced, in addition
to by genetic diseases (aniridia, multiple endocrine deficiencies, erythrokeratodermia),
also by chemical, heat or radiation burns, chronic inflammatory disease (Stevens-Johnson
syndrome, ocular cicatricial pemphigoid, and infectious keratitis), contact lens-induced
Animals 2022, 12, 3188
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keratopathy, and iatrogenic multiple ocular surgeries [30]. However, in the case of domestic,
especially wild mammals, the incidence of conjunctivalization in corneal disease is difficult
to define because the methods that demonstrate the presence of conjunctivalization, such
as impression cytology, are not commonly employed in veterinary ophthalmology [26].
Our research aimed to compare the histological structure and morphometry of individual layers of the cornea in different species of wild ruminants included in the five families
constituting the Pecora infraorder and demonstrate revealing similarities and differences
among this examined animals and to compare it to the domestic ruminants. This work can
also be the basis for further research on the immunohistochemistry of the cornea in the
maintenance of structural integrity and fluid balance in wild ruminants that can be used
in veterinary ophthalmology diagnostics. In addition, knowledge of the morphology of
the corneal limbus area in domestic and wild animals will improve ophthalmic procedures
in veterinary medicine, which are limited due to the lack of data on the anatomy of this
area of the limbus, the presumed presence of stem cells and their identification in various
species of not only domestic animals but also and wild.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Collection of Specimen and Conservation Status
The material for the research was taken from 49 adult wild ruminants (Bovidae, Camelidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae, Tragulidae) constituting 13 species coming from the Wroclaw
Zoological Garden (Wroclaw, Poland), the Warsaw Zoological Garden (Warsaw, Poland)
and own collection of the Division of the Animal Anatomy (Wroclaw, Poland). The research
was carried out on common wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus), Kirk’s dik-dik (Madoqua
kirkii), Natal red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis), scimitar oryx (Oryx dammah), sitatunga
(Tragelaphus spekii), Philippine spotted deer (Rusa alfredi), Père David’s deer (Elapharus davidanus), moose (Alces alces), reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), reticulated giraffe (Camelopardalis
reticulate), okapi (Okapia johnstoni), Balabac mouse-deer (Tragulus nigricans) and alpaca
(Vicugna vicugna). These animals were collected from 2013 to 2022. The characteristics of
the species of examined ruminants (status to the –International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species (2022-1) [31], the number of specimens
tested and the date of material collection) are given in Table 1.
Table 1. Characteristics of the examined ruminants.
Infraorder
Family
Subfamily
Tribus
Alcelaphini
Pecora
Bovidae
Antilopinae
Antilopini
Genus
Species/
Subspecies
IUCN
(2022-1)
Number of
Collection/
Date of
Collection
Source of
Collection
Connochaetes
common
wildebeest
Connochaetes
taurinus
LC
stable
2
/2017
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Madoqua
Kirk’s
dik-dik
Madoqua
kirkii
LC
stable
7
/2016, 2017,
2018, 2019,
2021
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Natal red
duiker
Cephalophus
natalensis
LC
decreasing
6
/2016, 2017,
2020, 2021
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
scimitar
oryx Oryx
dammah
EW
2
/2017
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Cephalophini Cephalophus
Hippotragini
Oryx
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Table 1. Cont.
Infraorder
Family
Cervidae
IUCN
(2022-1)
Number of
Collection/
Date of
Collection
Source of
Collection
Subfamily
Tribus
Genus
Species/
Subspecies
Bovinae
Tragelaphini
Tragelaphus
sitatunga
Tragelaphus
spekii
LC
decreasing
11
/2016, 2017,
2018, 2019
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Rusa
Philippine
spotted
deer
Rusa alfredi
EN
decreasing
1
/2016
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Elaphurus
Père
David’s
deer
Elaphurus
davidianus
EW
1
/2017
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Alceini
Alces
moose
Alces alces
LC
increasing
1
/2017
Warsaw
Zoological
Garden
Odocoileini
Rangifer
reindeer
Rangifer
tarandus
VU
decreasing
3
/2018, 2019
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
1
/2016
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Cervinae
Cervini
Capreolinae
Giraffidae
Tragulina
Tragulidae
Cameliformes Camelidae
–
Giraffa
–
Okapia
okapi
Okapia
johnstoni
EN
decreasing
1
/2017
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
Tragulus
Balabac
mousedeer
Tragulus
nigricans
EN
decreasing
8
/2016, 2018,
2019, 2022
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden
6
/2013, 2014
Wroclaw
Zoological
Garden,
Own
collection
of Division
of Animal
Anatomy
Giraffinae
–
–
reticulated
giraffe
VU
Giraffa
decreasing
Camelopardalis
reticulata
–
Lamini
Vicunia
pacos
alpaca
Vicugna
pacos
LC
MD
increasing
EN—endangered, EW—extinct in the wild, MD—moderately depleted, LC—last concern, VU—vulnerable.
2.2. Ethical Statement
According to Polish and European law, studies on tissues obtained post-mortem do
not require the approval of the Ethics Committee (2010/63/EU Directive of the European
Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the protection of animals used for
scientific purposes) and The Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland, the Act of 15 January
2015, on the protection of animals used for scientific or educational purposes). Post-mortem
animal material was obtained with personal permits issued by the District Veterinary Officer
in Wroclaw (Poland) (No. PIW Wroc. UT-45/5/16—Dr. Joanna Klećkowska-Nawrot; No.
PIW Wroc. UT-45/6)/16—Dr. Karolina Goździewska-Harłajczuk).
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2.3. Histological Study
The eyeballs retrieved from all examined animals were placed in 4% buffered formaldehyde for at least 72 h and then rinsed in running water for 24 h. Then they were processed
in a vacuum tissue processor—ETP (RVG3, Intelsint, Villarbasse, Italy) and embedded in
paraffin. The specimens were cut using a Slide 2003 (Pfm A.g., Köln, Germany) sliding microtome into 4 µm sections. The hematoxylin & eosin and Picro-Mallory trichrome staining
methods were applied. The slides obtained were then observed using the Zeiss Axio Scope
A1 light microscope (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany) and were rated using scoring systems
based on a standard protocol previously described [32,33]. NAV [34] and NHV [35] were
used for the histological description of the examined structures. Histometric measurements
of the corneal structures (anterior corneal epithelium, anterior limiting membrane, proper
substance of cornea and posterior limiting membrane) were performed in the Axio Vision
Rel. 4.8. (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany).
3. Results
Our research showed that cornea in ruminant species such as common wildebeest,
Kirk’s dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, reindeer and Balabac mouse-deer consisted
of four layers: anterior corneal epithelium, the proper substance of cornea, posterior limiting membrane (Descemet’s membrane) and posterior corneal epithelium (endothelium).
However, in the sitatunga, Philippine spotted deer, Père David’s deer, moose, reticulated
giraffe, okapi and alpaca, the cornea consisted of five layers because there was an anterior
limiting membrane (Bowman’s layer) located between the anterior corneal epithelium and
the proper substance of cornea (Figure 1).
The anterior corneal epithelium is the stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium,
which in examined ruminants was characterized by a variable number of cell layers in
the central epithelium part: the lowest number of cell layers was in Philippine spotted
deer (three to four) and Balabac mouse-deer (four to five), while the highest number of
cell layers was found in the okapi (15–16), but the epithelium was also characterized
by a variable number of cell layers in the peripheral epithelium part, where the lowest
number of cell layers was found in Natal red duiker (three to four) and Balabac mousedeer (three to four), while the highest number of cell layers was found in alpaca (13–14)
and moose and okapi after 14–15 (Table 2). In addition, the anterior corneal epithelium
was also characterized by different sizes in the central epithelium part and peripheral
epithelium part in the examined ruminants (the thinnest anterior corneal epithelium was in
the Philippine spotted deer 15.456 (±2.2) µm, the thickest was in okapi 130.315 (±7.6) µm
in the central epithelium part, similarly in the peripheral epithelium part was also thinnest
in Philippine spotted deer 16.891 (±2.7) µm, and thickest was in okapi 115.923 (±6.9) µm
(Table 2). The cells of the wart were: superficial cells, intermediate cells and basal cells. The
superficial cells were polygonal with flattened nuclei and clear cytoplasm, and where many
of the cells underwent a desquamation process. The intermediate layers in the examined
ruminants consist of cells with a wing-like appearance, where the cell nuclei were flattened
in Kirk’s dik-dik, sitatunga, Philippine spotted deer and alpaca, while in the other studied
species, the animals’ cell nuclei were large and round. The basal cells in all ruminants were
isoprismatic/cylindrical with oval and big nuclei (Figure 1).
Animals 2022, 12, 3188
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Figure 1.
The photomicrograph of the cornea in the examined ruminants.
H&E
‐
‐
stain. (a)—common wildebeest, (b)—Kirk’s dik-dik, (c)—Natal red duiker, (d)—scimitar oryx,
(e)—sitatunga, (f)—Philippine spotted deer, (g)—Père David’s deer, (h)—moose, (i)—reindeer,
‐
μ
μ
‐
(j)—reticulated giraffe, (k)—okapi, (l)—Balabac mouse-deer, (m)—alpaca. Scale bar: (a,k) = 20 µm;
(b–j,l–m) = 10 µm. ace—anterior corneal epithelium, alm—anterior limiting membrane (Bowman
layer—blue arrow), ker—keratocytes (black arrow), psc—the proper substance of the cornea.
Table 2. Morphometrical features of the anterior corneal epithelium in the examined ruminants.
‐
Number
‐
of
Cellular
Layers in
the
Central
Cornea
‐
Anterior Corneal Epithelium
‐
‐
Number
of the Su‐
perficial
Cell
Layers
Number
of the
‐
Intermediate Cell
Layers
‐
Number
of the
Basal
Cell
Layers
‐
‐
Thickness
‐
of the
Central
Part
Number
of
Cellular
‐
Layers in
the Peripheral
Cornea
Number
of the Su‐
perficial
Cell
Layers
‐
Number
of the
Intermediate Cell
Layers
Number‐
of the
Basal
Cell
Layers
‐
Thickness
of the Peripheral
Part
common
wildebeest‐
8–9
3
4–5
1
47.493 ( ±
4.9)
7–8
1–2
5
1
35.948 ( ±
4.1)
Kirk’s
dik-dik
6–7
2–3
3
1
28.873 ( ±
3.2)
6–7
2–3
3
1
29.596 ( ±
4.6)
Natal
‐ red
duiker
5–6
1
3
2
35.208 ( ±
3.3)
3–4
1
1–2
1
19.255 ( ±
2.2)
‐
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Table 2. Cont.
Anterior Corneal Epithelium
Number
of
Cellular
Layers in
the
Central
Cornea
Number
of the Superficial
Cell
Layers
Number
of the
Intermediate Cell
Layers
Number
of the
Basal
Cell
Layers
Thickness
of the
Central
Part
Number
of
Cellular
Layers in
the Peripheral
Cornea
Number
of the Superficial
Cell
Layers
Number
of the
Intermediate Cell
Layers
Number
of the
Basal
Cell
Layers
Thickness
of the Peripheral
Part
scimitar
oryx
5–6
2–3
2
1
35.606 ( ±
3.2)
5–6
2–3
2
1
35.577 ( ±
4.4)
sitatunga
8–9
3–4
2–5
1
51.218 ( ±
5.7)
9 – 10
1
6–7
3
42.712
(±4.2)
Philippine
spotted
deer
3–4
1–3
1
1
15.456 ( ±
2.2)
6–7
3
1–2
1–2
16.891 ( ±
2.7)
Père
David’s
deer
12 – 13
1–2
7–8
2–3
80.99 ( ±
1.8)
11 – 12
1–2
6–7
2–3
74.163 ( ±
3.7)
moose
10 – 11
1–2
7–8
1
42.073 ( ±
1.3)
14 – 15
1–3
12
1–2
75.63 ( ±
3.0)
reindeer
7–8
1–2
5–6
1
33.461 ( ±
3.1)
4–5
1
2–3
1
21.712 ( ±
3.4)
reticulated
giraffe
9 – 10
2–3
6–7
1
42.93 ( ±
3.1)
10 – 11
2–3
6–7
2
42.072 ( ±
3.4)
okapi
15 – 16
2
11 – 12
1–2
130.315 (
± 7.6)
14 – 15
2–3
10
2
115.923 (
± 6.9)
Balabac
mousedeer
4–5
1–2
2
1
24.778 ( ±
3.8)
3–4
1
1–2
1
13.127 ( ±
0.9)
alpaca
7–8
2–3
4–5
1
50.563 ( ±
3.5)
13 – 14
1–2
9
2–3
55.651 ( ±
4.1)
The Bowman’s layer in the examined ruminants was observed only in the sitatunga,
Philippine spotted deer, Père David’s deer, moose, reticulated giraffe, okapi and alpaca,
where Philippine spotted deer was the thinnest among these species, and its thickness was
2.5 ( ± 0.4) µm and in moose where its thickness was 3.286 ( ± 0.7) µm, and the thickest
was at Père David’s deer where its thickness was 8.401 ( ± 1.1) µm (Table 3). The Bowman’s
layer is made of thin collagen fibers.
The proper substance of the cornea is the thickest layer of the cornea in the tested
animals (the thinnest was in Balabac mouse-deer, Kirk’s dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar
oryx, Philippine spotted deer, alpaca, reindeer and sitatunga, where it was in the range
from 571.808 (±47.5) µm to 885.483 (±20.5) µm; intermediate values were observed in Père
David’s deer, okapi and common wildebeest, where its thickness ranged from 1347.154
(±30.7) µm to 1461.735 (±57.7) µm, while the thickest the proper substance of cornea was
in reticulated giraffe where its thickness was 1971.646 (±194.1) µm (Table 3). The corneal
stroma was composed of a uniform collagen fibril matrix. Between this matrix of collagen
fibers, the flattened and elongated keratocytes were observed (Figures 1 and 2). Our studies
have shown that the proper substance of cornea of the common wildebeest, Père David’s
deer, moose and reticulated giraffes had very few keratocytes (Figures 1 and 2).
Animals 2022, 12, 3188
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Table 3. Thickness (µm) of the Bowman’s layer, the proper substance of the cornea and Descemet’s
membrane in the examined ruminants.
Species
Bowman’s Layer
Proper Substance of Cornea
Descemet’s Membrane
common wildebeest
–
1461.735 (±57.7)
43.181 (±2.3)
Kirk’s dik-dik
–
651.772 (±19.4)
4.563 (±0.8)
Natal red duiker
–
669.987 (±34.9)
8.097 (±0.6)
scimitar oryx
–
697.172 (±17.7)
4.487 (±1.1)
sitatunga
4.04 (±0.5)
885.483 (±20.5)
5.028 (±0.8)
Philippine spotted deer
2.5 (±0.4)
645.331 (±14.6)
4.32 (±0.4)
Père David’s deer
8.401 (±1.1)
1347.154 (±30.7)
118.571 (±3.3)
moose
3.286 (±0.7)
1668.633 (±36.5)
47.366 (±2.3)
reindeer
–
869.367 (±33.1)
7.14 (±0.6)
reticulated giraffe
5.055 (±0.7)
1971.645 (±194.1)
20.387 (±2.1)
okapi
4.691 (±0.9)
1417.026 (±46.1)
27.661 (±1.3)
Balabac mouse-deer
–
571.808 (±47.5)
19.458 (±1.2)
alpaca
4.295 (±1.1)
679.217 (±19.2)
14.922 (±0.7)
The deep proper substance of cornea rested on the posterior limiting membrane, which
was thinnest in Philippine spotted deer, scimitar oryx, Kirk’s dik-dik, sitatunga, reindeer
and alpaca where the thickness of the Descemet’s membrane was in the range of 4.32 (±0.4)
µm–8.097 (±0.6) µm; intermediate values were observed in alpaca, Balabac mouse-deer,
reticulated giraffe, okapi, common wildebeest and moose, where the thickness of this
membrane ranged from 4.922 (±0.7) µm–47.366 (±2.3) µm, while the thickest was in Père
David’s deer 118.571 (±3.3) µm (Figure 2 and Table 3).
The posterior surface of the cornea was a single-layer squamous epithelium, also called the
posterior corneal epithelium or the endothelium of the anterior chamber of the eyeball.
The corneal limbus was located at the junction of the cornea and sclera and characterized by the loss of the anterior limiting membrane (examined ruminants with Bowman’s
layer in those species) and organization of the collagen fibers with large numbers of pigment
cells present in Kirk’s dik-dik, scimitar oryx, moose, Balabac mouse-deer and alpaca. Pod
corneal limbus epithelium within the superficial stroma of corneal limbus was observed in
blood and lymphatic vessels (Figures 3 and 4).
The corneal limbus epithelium in the examined animals was composed of a different
number of cell layers (Table 4). The smallest number of cell layers forming corneal limbus
epithelium was in Balabac mouse-deer (3–4) and Philippine spotted deer (4–6), while the
largest number of cell layers was in the sitatunga (15–19–20), reticulated giraffe (17–18)
and okapi (18–19; Table 4). The superficial layer was composed of squamous epithelium
flattened nuclei, intermediate layers to wing cells with an oval nucleus, and a layer of basal
cells with cylindrical shape (Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, sitatunga, Philippine spotted
deer, moose, reticulated giraffe and okapi) or is prismatic shape (common wildebeest, Kirk’s
dik-dik, Père David’s deer, reindeer, Balabac mouse-deer and alpaca) with round nuclei
(Figures 3 and 4). Moreover, in the examined ruminants (except alpaca—no melanocytes
in all cell layers), the corneal limbus epithelium is characterized by a variable amount of
melanocytes located in different layers of the epithelium (Table 4, Figures 3 and 4).
μ
μ
μ
μ
μ
‐
‐
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Figure 2.
The photomicrograph
of the cornea in the examined ruminants.
H&E
‐
‐
stain. (a)– common wildebeest, (b)—Kirk’s dik-dik, (c)—Natal red duiker, (d)—scimitar
‐
oryx, (e)—sitatunga, (f)—Philippine
spotted deer, (g)—PèreμDavid’s deer,μ(h)—moose, (i)—reindeer,
μ
(j)—reticulated giraffe, (k)—okapi, (l)—Balabac mouse-deer, (m)—alpaca. Scale bar: (a,h) = 50 µm;
(d,f–m) = 20 µm; (b,c,e) = 10 µm. plm—posterior limiting membrane (Descemet’s membrane), psc—
‐
‐
‐
proper substance of cornea.
‐
μ
μ
μ
μ
μ
‐
‐
‐
‐
Figure 3. The photomicrograph of the palisades
of Vogt in the examined ruminants. H&E stain.
‐
μ duiker; (g,h)—scimitar
μ
oryx;
(a,b)—common wildebeest; (c,d)—Kirk’s dik-dik; (e,f)—Natal red
(i,j)—sitatunga; (k,l)—Philippine spotted deer. Scale bar: (a,c,e,g,i,k) = 50 µm; (b,d,f,h,j,l) = 10 µm.
cle—corneal limbus epithelium, psc—the proper substance of the cornea, pss—the proper substance
of the sclera, pV—palisades of Vogt (black arrows).
‐
‐
‐
‐
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Figure 4. The photomicrograph of the palisades of Vogt in the examined ruminants. H&E
‐
stain (c–h,k–n);
Picro-Mallory stain (a,b,i,j).
(a,b)—Père David’s deer; (c,d)—moose; (e,f)—
‐
reindeer; (g,h)—reticulated giraffe; (i,j)—okapi; (k,l)—Balabac mouse-deer; (m,n)—alpaca. Scale bar:
μ
μ
μ
‐
(a,c,e,g,i,k,m) = 50 µm; (b,d,j,h) = 20 µm; (f,l,n) = 10 µm. cle—corneal limbus epithelium, psc—the proper
substance of the cornea, pss—the proper substance of the sclera, pV—palisades of Vogt (black arrows).
The corneal limbus epithelium in the examined animals was composed of a different
number of cell layers (Table 4). The smallest number of cell layers forming corneal limbus
epithelium was in Balabac mouse-deer (3–4) and Philippine spotted deer (4–6), while the
largest number of cell layers was in the sitatunga (15–19–20), reticulated giraffe (17–18)
and okapi (18–19; Table 4). The superficial layer was composed of squamous epithelium
flattened nuclei, intermediate layers to wing cells with an oval nucleus, and a layer of basal
cells with cylindrical shape (Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, sitatunga, Philippine spotted‐
deer, moose, reticulated giraffe and okapi) or is prismatic shape (common wildebeest, Kirk’s
dik-dik, Père David’s deer, reindeer, Balabac mouse-deer and alpaca) with round nuclei
(Figures 3 and 4). Moreover, in the examined ruminants (except alpaca—no melanocytes
in all cell layers), the corneal limbus epithelium is characterized by a variable amount of
melanocytes located in different layers of the epithelium (Table 4, Figures 3 and 4).
‐
‐
‐
‐
‐
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Table 4. Characteristic of the corneal limbus epithelium (palisades of Vogt) in the examined ruminants.
Corneal Limbus Epithelium
Total Number of
Cell Layers
Number of
Superficial Cell
Layers
Number of
Intermediate Cell
Layers
Number of Basal
Cell Layers
Obecność
Melanocytes
common
wildebeest
15–16
3
3–4–6
6–7
+++
(basal cell layers)
Kirk’s dik-dik
7–8
3
2–3
2–3
+
(all cell layers)
Natal red duiker
7–9
1–2
4
2–3
+
(basal cell layers)
scimitar oryx
7–8
2–3
3
2
++
(all cell layers)
sitatunga
15–19–20
1
13–16
1–2–3
+
(all cell layers)
Philippine spotted
deer
4–6
1–2
2–3
1
−/+
(all cell layers)
Père David’s deer
17–18
3–4
12–13
1–2
++
(intermediate and
basal cell layers)
moose
17 –18
2–3
13
2
+++
(all cell layers)
reindeer
8–9
1
5–6
2
+
(basal cell layers)
reticulated giraffe
17–18
2
14–15
1–2
−/+
(intermediate and
basal cell layers)
okapi
19–20
1–2
13–16
1–2
−/+
(basal cell layers)
Balabac
mouse-deer
3–4
1
1
1–2
+
(all cell layers)
alpaca
13–14
1
10–11
2–3
–
4. Discussion
The cornea is primarily a protective eye (resistance against external hazards) but also
plays an important role in the optical system of the eye, which is primarily influenced by
its transparency as well as its ability to refract and focus light rays. Most of the research
on the structure and function of the cornea to create more and more perfect methods of
treating the diseases of the cornea itself is most often conducted on laboratory animals
(mice, rats, rabbits, and hens) which are animal models for human resources [36–41].
Corneal morphology studies in domestic animals, such as dogs, cats, equine, porcine, cows,
goats or sheep, which also become animal models [3,12,17,42–47]. However, there are few
publications on a comparative morphological examination of the cornea in wild animals,
including ruminants.
The present study demonstrated a multilayered cornea, which was composed in
all examined animals of the stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium, the proper
substance of cornea with an attached posterior limiting membrane (Descemet’s membrane)
and posterior corneal epithelium. On the other hand, the situation with the presence
or absence of an anterior limiting membrane, also known as Bowman’s layer, located
under the anterior corneal epithelium is interesting. Our research showed a clear presence
of Bowman’s layer in the sitatunga, Philippine spotted deer, Père David’s deer, moose,
reticulated giraffe, okapi and alpaca, but no such presence in the field of view of common
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wildebeest, Kirk’s dik-dik, Natal red duiker, scimitar oryx, reindeer and Balabac mouse-deer.
Bowman’s layer was first described in humans by William Bowman in 1947 [48], quoted
by Merindano et al., [12] whereas a 9.7 ± 1.7 µm thick, acellular structure that consists
of three to four collagen layers [49] cited by Nautscher et al., [3]. Mindanao et al. [12],
in a study on 40 different species of mammals (Carnivores, Primates and Herbivores),
showed that Bowman’s layer does not occur in Carnivores, Lepilemur mustelinus (Primates)
(similarly to Macaca mulata Wislocki, [50]) as well as in Tapirus terrestris, Equus caballus, Equus
caballus przewalskii, Cervus elaphus, Rangifer tarandus, Antilope cervicapra, Ovis musimon, Ovis
aries, Sus Domestica, Sus scrofa and Loxodonta africana. However, regarding only ruminants,
according to Merindano et al. [12], This layer occurred in Dama dama, Cervus unicolor,
Giraffa camelopardalis, Bos primigenius, Bos indicus and Taurotragus oryx. Comparing our
research and that of Merindano et al. [12], it can be seen that the presence or absence of
the Bowman’s layer is a species feature. According to Nautscher et al., [3] his research
showed that this layer does not occur in domestic animals (pig, cow, goat, horse, dog and
cat); however, there is a disagreement about the existence of a Bowman’s layer in domestic
animals. However, the above-mentioned authors suggest that this layer is not developed
in domestic animals to a similar dimension as humans and other primates. However,
Cafaro et al. [17] report that in the merino sheep occurs a relatively thin Bowman’s layer.
It is, therefore, worth explaining in the future to clarify this morphological detail using
electron microscopic methods, but it is also interesting that some electron and in vivo
confocal microscopy studies in dogs and horses also failed to address the existence of a
specific Bowman’s layer within the corneal layers [51,52]. Moreover, our research and the
research of Merindano et al. [12] showed that Bowman’s layer in examined ruminants had
a different thickness between different species, which may indicate a species characteristic
of animals. However, the explanation in detail as to whether the presence of Bowman’s
layer gives any evolutionary advantage to the different species needs future studies.
The anterior corneal epithelium in our examination of ruminants showed clear variations in the size of the epithelium (thick) both in the central and peripheral epithelium part
and also a different number of cell layers between different animal species. High variations
in the number of cell layers were found, especially in the superficial and intermediate
layers. Also, large differences in their research were presented in some wild ruminants by
Merindano et al. [21], where there were significant differences between animal species both
in the thickness of the anterior corneal epithelium but also in the number of cell layers and
the central part and peripheral part of this epithelium. Nautscher et al. [3] demonstrated
in their studies that the number of cell rows correlates with the corneal thickness, while
the thickness of the cornea changes with the age of the subject [53]. Nautscher et al. [3]
also report that the physiological reason for the different number of cell layers in the
anterior corneal epithelium remains unclear, but they suggest that corneal thickness is
related to the habitat and environment of animals (the herbivores living in open grasslands are more likely exposed to rough environmental conditions than carnivores) [1,42].
Almubrad and Akhtar [1], in a study carried out on camels, showed that the anterior
corneal epithelium was extraordinarily thick, which was justified by the fact that they
attributed it to the hot and dry climate where camels normally live. By analyzing our
corneal epithelial measurements and comparing them with those performed in domestic
animals by Nautscher et al. [3], we find that in pigs, cows, goats, horses, dogs and cats, this
epithelium was thickness than our ruminants tested. In addition, our research also showed
large differences in the thickness of the proper substance of the cornea and Descemet’s
membrane between the investigated ruminant species.
At the junction of the cornea and sclera, there is a corneal limbus, which has meridianoriented conjunctival folds known as Vogt palisades. Vogt’s palisades contain niches
for corneal limbal stem cells, which can regenerate the cornea [54,55]. According to Patruno et al. [55], corneal limbal stem cell therapies in veterinary medicine are limited due
to the lacking of knowledge about the anatomy of the limbal area, the putative presence
of stem cells and their identification in domestic species. Schermer et al., [56] cited by Pa-
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truno et al. [55] proposed that the corneal epithelial stem cells are not uniformly distributed
throughout the entire corneal epithelial basal layer but are preferentially located in the
limbal epithelial basal layer and the basal layer of the limbus was described as the corneal
stem cells niche [57]. The corneal limbal stem cells are responsible for the regeneration
of the corneal surface and are involved in maintaining its transparency. In the case of
their insufficiency, usually caused by deficiency or damage, the cornea is covered with the
conjunctival epithelium, which leads to its cloudiness and the formation of a vascularized
endosperm. Such a situation often occurs after severe burns of the eyeball or in the case
of congenital diseases such as keratitis ichthyosis deafness (KID) syndrome or aniridia,
but it can also be an iatrogenic cause [58]. The corneal limbus epithelium was composed
of the three cell layers (the superficial cells, intermediate cells and basal cells) in all examined ruminants as well as in domestic animals [55]. Our research and the research of
Patruno et al. [55] showed that the epithelium was characterized by a variable total (total)
number of cell layers in the tested animals, but also by the number of individual cell layers.
The most interesting were basal cell alleys, where it turned out in our research that the cells
that make up this layer, depending on the ruminant species, may take a typical cylindrical
or isoprismatic shape. Similarly, in their studies on domestic animals, Patruno et al. [55]
observed that in cats and dogs, the basal layer cells were cubic in shape as opposed to pigs,
cows, sheep and horses, where they were cylindrical in shape. The situation is similar in
the case of pigment accumulation within the individual three layers of the corneal limbus
epithelium. Here, too, we observed differences between the ruminant species studied,
where melanin was either located in all three cell layers, in only one or two layers, or
there was no pigment vogue. Again, similar results were observed in domestic animals
by Patruno et al. [55]. Another characteristic feature of our research and in the studies of
Patruno et al. [55] we observed the presence of clearly marked crypt-like structures within
the corneal limbus epithelium, or their absence or insignificant presence.
5. Conclusions
Our research and studies of other authors carried out on domestic animals as well
as on a few species of wild animals showed that the number of layers of the cornea, i.e.,
5 layers (anterior corneal epithelium, anterior limiting membrane (Bowman’s layer), proper
substance of cornea, posterior limiting membrane (Descemet’s membrane) and posterior
corneal epithelium) or 4 layers (no Bowman’s layer) is not constant within even the same
genus that includes the given species of the tested animal. Moreover, it was observed that
the thickness of individual layers of the cornea is also variable, but also the number of
layers of cells forming the anterior corneal epithelium between given species, which may
already constitute an individual feature. The presence of palisades of Vogt and limbal
epithelial stem cells gathered there is an important feature of the cornea, not only in humans
and domestic animals but also in wild animals, which in the case of wild animals requires
further and very detailed research because it should be assumed that the specific habitat
of such animals also requires corneal surface regeneration. It is also interesting whether
wild animals have a very specific Dua’s layer—the answer to this question requires a great
deal of commitment from histologists, veterinary ophthalmologists as well as biologists
using numerous research techniques. Summing up, getting to know the detailed structure
of the cornea in domestic and wild animals can contribute to the even better development
of methods of treating eye diseases in veterinary medicine.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.K.-N.; methodology, J.K.-N.; validation, K.B. and K.G.-H.;
investigation, J.K.-N. and K.G.-H.; writing—original draft preparation, J.K.-N. and K.G.-H.; writing—
review and editing, J.K.-N., K.G.-H. and K.B.; visualization, J.K.-N. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The translation and publication costs were supported by statutory research and development activity funds assigned to the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wroclaw University of En-
Animals 2022, 12, 3188
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vironmental and Life Sciences. The APC/BPC is financed/co-financed by Wroclaw University of
Environmental and Life Sciences.
Institutional Review Board Statement: According to Polish and European law, studies on tissues
obtained from post-mortem material do not require approval of the Ethics Committee (2010/63/EU
Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the protection of
animals used for scientific purposes and The Journal of Laws of the Republic of Poland, the Act of 15
January 2015, on the protection of animals used for scientific or educational purposes).
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Material available by request to the corresponding authors (karolina.
gozdziewska-harlajczuk@upwr.edu.pl; joanna.kleckowska-nawrot@upwr.edu.pl).
Acknowledgments: We would like to thank Radosław Ratajszczak—the former chairman of the
Wroclaw Zoological Garden, and the new President of the Wroclaw Zoological Garden—Joanna
Kasprzak, Ewa Piasecka, Mirosław Piasecki from the Wroclaw Zoological Garden for providing
valuable study material. We would also like to thank DVM Wojciech Paszta and DVM Krzysztof
Zagórski from the Wroclaw Zoological Garden for providing valuable study material.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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