International Education Studies; Vol. 10, No. 7; 2017
ISSN 1913-9020 E-ISSN 1913-9039
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education
Pre-Service Teachers’ Experiences and Views on Project-Based
Learning Processes
Funda Dag1 & Levent Durdu1
1
Faculty of Education, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, Turkey
Correspondence: Funda Dag, Faculty of Education, Kocaeli University, Kocaeli, 41380, Turkey. Tel:
90-262-303-2456. E-mail: fundadag@kocaeli.edu.tr
Received: February 3, 2017
doi:10.5539/ies.v10n7p18
Accepted: March 5, 2017
Online Published: June 27, 2017
URL: https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v10n7p18
Abstract
Project-based learning (PjBL) has been promoted as an effective and frequently used student-centered learning
approach for various learning environments. To have various learning experiences with PjBL is an important
requirement for pre-service teachers (PSTs). The purpose of the study was to investigate the experiences PSTs
had with group work and collaboration, resources and research methods, the problems they faced, and the
strategies they used to overcome these problems during the information and communications technology
(ICT)-integrated PjBL process, as well as their thoughts concerning learning processes in PjBL. The participants
in the study consisted of 413 PSTs in six different teaching programs who took the course Computer 2.
Qualitative methods were used in this descriptive study. The results revealed that PSTs perceived the PjBL
processes mostly positively and also that they thought the PjBL process contributed to their learning and helped
them gain PjBL skills. PSTs formed groups based on their own preferences. PSTs perceived that the PjBL
process based on group work that was implemented advanced their problem-solving and collaboration skills.
Keywords: project-based learning, group-based learning, teaching and learning strategies, student-centered
learning, PST education
1. Introduction
Every individual should have the ability to “learning how to learn” (Collins & Halverson, 2009; Nosbush, 2006)
in the information age, where information spreads very quickly and the amount of information available is
constantly increasing. In addition, critical thinking and problem-solving have come to be frequently required
competences (Bellanca & Brandt, 2010). To make sure their employees have skills suitable for the twenty-first
century, governments around the world have started to reform their educational policies (Amiel & Reeves, 2008;
Özdemir & Kılıç, 2007), starting with making sure the goal of education systems is learning rather than teaching.
In this sense educational institutions are seen as places where learning takes place, not simply places where
content is “transferred.” To that end, contemporary education systems began to adopt the constructivist
philosophy of education, which suggests, in general, that students should be able to manage their own learning
processes, deal with real-life problems, and undertake complex projects and should have the advantages of
technology-enhanced learning environments (Savery & Duffy, 1996). To this end, student-centered teaching
methods have come into prominence. Student-centered learning approaches aim to create learning environments
that are based on constructivist and social-cognitive learning theories and are built to ensure active student
participation. The student assessment is authentic and based on performance in these environments (Arends,
2012; Hannafin, Hill, & Land, 1997; Land & Hannafin, 2000).
According to the constructivist paradigm, learners must have responsibilities and control their learning processes
(Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1997). In the learning process, learners link new knowledge with previous
knowledge in what is called the knowledge construction process. During the process of knowledge creation,
learners overcome problems and related complex tasks by interacting with peers, instructors, and technology and
by using their learning capabilities (Abdulwahed, Nagy, & Blanchard, 2008).
Implementing constructivist learning approaches in educational environments requires teachers and students to
change their roles. Teachers are required to create meaningful problem (or project) situations and are expected to
guide and assist learners rather than fall back on teacher-oriented or other traditional teaching approaches. In
addition, students should be active during the learning process, reflecting on the learning process and gaining
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experience, thereby learning how to learn. Thus, throughout this process, students are involved in searching for
and finding knowledge from different sources, organizing and sharing this knowledge with their friends in
various formats, preparing projects individually or collaboratively, and participating in activities like cooperative
work with their friends in the knowledge construction process (Jonassen, 1995). In other words, constructivist
learning environments require more student-centered, more interactive, and more collaborative teaching-learning
activities.
1.1 Project-Based Learning
There are various instructional methods that adopt the constructivist learning paradigm in order to present
meaningful opportunities for learning through hands-on activities or projects that promote active knowledge
construction (Jonassen, 1998). One of these methods is project-based learning (PjBL), which is a constructivist
pedagogical practice and one of the student-centered teaching techniques.
“Project-based learning is a dynamic classroom approach in which students actively explore real-world problems
and challenges and acquire a deeper knowledge” (Edutopia, 2014, p. 1). PjBL is based on the development of a
design and continuous formative evaluation of the learning process (Erdem, 2002). In this process, learners plan
their own learning process individually or as a group, and then they research, collect and analyze information,
work in collaboration, and ultimately take responsibility for their own learning (Erdem & Akkoyunlu, 2002;
Morgan, 1987). From the teachers’ perspective, this method is a student-centered learning approach that requires
students to work on real-life problems so that they can construct their own knowledge about the relations
between interdisciplinary subjects. This requires instructors to design a project-based learning environment and
guide students during the PjBL processes (Demirhan, 2002; Kalaycı, 2008).
It is worth noting that a project generally begins with analyzing the problem, collecting and organizing
information, prototyping a solution, and finally developing a product (Jones, Rasmussen, & Moffitt, 1997;
Thomas, Mergendoller, & Michaelson, 1999). In somewhat more detail, during a PjBL process, students first
analyze the problem and conduct intensive research into the relevant subject (Diffily, 2002). Afterwards, students
analyze the collected information, organize and synthesize it, and use their imagination and creativity to develop
a design. Finally, they develop a product based on their design. The product can take various forms, including a
presentation, a poster, a book, software, a mechanical tool, a vehicle, and so on. Students develop their
problem-solving skills and high-level cognitive skills (i.e., analysis, synthesis, and implementation) during these
phases (Kılıç, 2009). In addition, students develop project-management skills, including time-management and
taking responsibility for their own learning (Cunha, 2005).
Various studies have demonstrated the efficiency of PjBL in higher education (de Los Rios, Cazorla, Díaz-Puente,
& Yagüe, 2010; Pinho-Lopes & Macedo, 2016) and also in teacher education programs (Cavanaugh, 2004; Fox
& Snape, 2011; Hartescu, 2013; Lavy & Shriki, 2008; Marshall, Petrosino, & Martin, 2010). Pre-service teachers
(PSTs) transfer their knowledge, experience, attitudes, and affective gains to their future professional lives. They
teach in the way they learnt (Yıldırım, 2000). A study conducted by Cavanaugh (2004) revealed that if
prospective teachers experience student-centered learning methods like PjBL, they have opportunities to develop
an extensive repertoire of teaching strategies to implement in their classrooms (Cavanaugh, 2004). A study
conducted by Lavy and Shriki (2008) that was aimed at exploring how learning via computerized PjBL changed
the views of pre-service mathematic teachers regarding the image of the good teacher shows that information
and communication technology (ICT)-integrated PjBL is an effective learning approach for helping promote a
change in views of the PSTs regarding the image of the good teacher. In addition, a study conducted by Marshall,
Petosino, and Martin (2010) ascertained that although PSTs held superficial views of PjBL, they reported time
and curriculum restrictions as major barriers to PjBL. The researchers furthermore claimed that a PjBL process
should be presented with an explicit learning goal and that instructor(s) must provide the necessary intellectual
scaffolding for students and give them support throughout the PjBL process. Thus, it could be said that PjBL and
similar constructivist learning methods are essential for teacher education programs, and PjBL can be considered
an effective learning method for the development of the learning skills of PSTs. It also develops PSTs’ teaching
skills for their professional lives. In this context, it can be said that it would be beneficial to examine how the
implementation of PjBL affects PSTs in order to discover what characteristics make someone a successful
practitioner of PjBL.
The PjBL process allows for students to work on projects both individually and in groups. The decision of
whether the project is going to be individual or group based on such factors as the scope and the preparation time
of the project. When the time and effort students spend on projects are considered, it can be said that most
project work requires individual study by students (Cunha, 2005). But in PjBL, working in groups is preferred
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because it contributes to the development of students’ collaboration and communication skills. The study
conducted by Lang (2005) states that ICT-integrated and group-based PjBL is helpful for PSTs for improving
their awareness of their own thought processes and it also supports them in forming their own habits of critical,
creative, and self-regulated thinking. He also affirmed that the PjBL process, which is based on designing
meaningful projects for students and planned online discussion forums, ensured the development of PSTs’
collaborative working skills.
Though there are clear advantages to working in groups in PjBL processes in terms of what is learnt about a
subject and affirmative attitudes (Lou, Abrami, & d’Apollonia, 2001; Springer, Stanne, & Donovan, 1999), it can
be difficult to implement and evaluate PjBL based in group work (Cheong, 2010). So, one of the most important
components in the implementation of the PjBL is the streamlining of the form that group work takes
(Livingstone & Lynch, 2000). To gain a better understanding of the effectiveness of PjBL, group composition
and processes in small group work should be investigated (Cheng, Lam, & Cham, 2008; Lang, 2005).
On the other hand, using information and communication technologies (ICTs) for teaching and learning has
become an essential skill for teachers. Use of technology in learning environments not only allows for more
effective teaching/learning processes, but it also requires new technological skills from teachers and students
(Karaca, 2011; Cavanaugh, 2004). For this reason, teacher education programs should include opportunities for
PSTs to pick up ICT skills, not only for learning but also for teaching. ICTs provide a variety of powerful tools
for teachers and students for research, design, collaboration and communication, and information-sharing. In this
context, effective ICTs also help create effective learning environments for constructivist learning approaches
like PjBL in various ways. Firstly, a variety of powerful ICTs such as authoring tools, multimedia tools, and
office programs can be used to design and develop various project outputs (e.g., see Lavy & Shriki, 2008).
Second, ICTs can be used to create learning and teaching environments that facilitate learning. For example, an
online learning environment allows access to learning sources and activities from anywhere and anytime (Wang,
2008). It also supports online interactions between students and teachers via forums and messaging systems (e.g.,
see Ching & Hsu, 2010; Lou & MacGregor, 2004; and Raes & Schellens, 2016). Work with ICTs can constitute
all or part of a project; for example, web site design, hypermedia design, or designing a digital video could be a
whole or part of the project (e.g., see Cavanaugh, 2004; and Shi, Reeder, Slater & Kristjansson, 2004). In today’s
educational system, teachers are expected to implement student-centered learning methods and use technology
effectively in their courses (Bagley & Hunter, 1992). With all of this in consideration, in this study a PjBL
environment, where technology was taught and also used as a medium, was designed and implemented.
In this study, to examine how the implementation of PjBL affects the opinions and thinking of PSTs who are
from different educational programs, a PjBL environment was designed for PSTs expected to construct their own
knowledge about common educational software formats. The PjBL environment was designed for the course
Computer 2, which was a basic educational technology course for teacher education programs in Turkey. In
Computer 2, PSTs were taught about instructional technology and they worked in groups to develop web-based
instructional materials related to their subject area.
In the PjBL process, ICT was used not only to facilitate learning about technology but also to facilitate learning
with technology. ICT was used as a part of the course objective (designing an educational web site) and also as
part of the learning and collaboration environment (as the learning management system [LMS] via forums).
Students participated in face-to-face sessions and an e-learning environment. In the PjBL process, PSTs worked
in small groups and designed web-based instructional software related to their teaching area. In face-to-face
sessions, students presented progress reports on their projects to the course instructor and received advice. They
used an LMS to stay on schedule, and course materials (presentations and other materials) and the forum were
used to share problems and ideas encountered in their work on their projects.
In light of this arrangement, we undertook a detailed investigation of the experiences and views of PSTs about
the PjBL process, including how the PjBL process contributed to the PSTs’ learning, how they formed groups
and organized group work, and how they used ICT.
In the first phase of our study (Dağ & Durdu, 2012), we investigated the PSTs’ views about academic
achievement, research skills, resource and time-management skills, and group work and collaboration skills with
headings based on the PjBL steps defined by Erdem and Akkoyunlu (2002). The results of the initial study
revealed that the PjBL process helped PSTs in terms of research and resource-management skills and had a
positive impact on their learning and course achievement. Also, PSTs perceived the PjBL process as having a
positive effect on their group work and collaboration skills. On the other hand, they reported that although PSTs’
in-group communication was good, they had some problems in sharing the project workload and responsibilities.
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Similar problems were reported concerning time-management issues during the PjBL process.
In this study, based on the findings of the first phase, PSTs’ thoughts concerning the PjBL process were
investigated in detail. Within this framework, an investigation was made of the PSTs’ overall evaluation of the
PjBL process, their preferences when forming groups, the problems they faced during the PjBL processes and
their solutions to these problems, their research methods, and the resources they utilized. Overall, this study
might provide guidance to instructors designing PjBL environments, teacher education programs, and
researchers utilizing instructional technology with learner-centered approaches and PjBL.
1.2 Research Problem
This study aimed to investigate the PjBL process from PSTs’ perspective. A PjBL environment was designed for
the course Computer 2, a course for PSTs about instructional technology. They worked in groups to develop
web-based learning material related to their subject area. This study investigated the following research
questions:
1) What are the experiences and views of PSTs concerning how the PjBL process affected them?
2) What are the experiences and views of PSTs towards improving the PjBL process?
3) What are the problems PSTs faced, and what strategies did they find to solve them?
4) What resources and research methods did the PSTs use to develop the final products of their projects?
5) What are the criteria that determine PSTs’ preferences and difficulties when forming groups?
6) Is there a connection between PSTs’ preferences when forming groups and problems they faced while
working in groups?
2. Method
This study was designed as a descriptive case study in which persons, incidents, and processes were investigated
with a comprehensive approach, usually by asking questions (Johnson & Christensen, 2004; Wallace & Poulson,
2003; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008) of what is or was (Brickman & Rog, 1998). This study focuses on processes
rather than outcomes and on the case rather than a specific variable (Merriam, 1998).
2.1 Context
The context of the study was Computer 2, a requisite course for PSTs. The aim of the course was to integrate
technology into classroom teaching. In Computer 2, PSTs learn how to support classroom instruction with
technology as well as examples, common educational software formats (e.g., tutorials, drill and practice,
simulations, computer games, web-based learning environments, computer-based tests).
Computer 2 was an ICT-integrated course where students participated in face-to-face sessions and an e-learning
environment. Face-to-face sessions included instructors’ presentations and laboratory activities. PSTs could
access course materials (presentations and other documents), a schedule of activities, and a forum via an LMS.
In order to provide a student-centered learning environment, a PjBL environment was designed. The goal was for
PSTs to construct their own knowledge based on the theoretical background presented by the instructor.
During the first eight weeks of the course, the instructors taught educational technology concepts, applications of
computer-based instruction, common educational software formats, and the basics of web design. In the ninth
week, PSTs were informed about the projects and were asked to form project groups (preferably three people per
group, with a maximum of four) and select their project theme. PSTs developed a project for the following five
weeks. In the last week of the semester they presented their projects to all classmates.
The study was carried out with PSTs from six different educational programs and the information about them is
presented in the next section. Every individual educational program had an average of 17 project groups. There
were 10 project themes, and each project theme could be selected by a maximum of two groups in each
educational program in order to prevent all the groups from selecting the same project theme. After selecting
their project themes, project groups were each expected to select a topic for their projects. The topics had to be
appropriate for their educational program. Therefore, PSTs selected their project topics from the primary
education curriculum provided by the Turkish Ministry of National Education (MoNE). Afterwards, the project
phases and the requested tasks for these phases were explained by the instructors.
Figure 1 presents the weekly course schedule and the implementation of the project. Every week, project groups
presented their work and submitted a report and received feedback. With these face-to-face sessions, the
instructor guided the students, indicated what was still missing from their project work, and explained what was
expected for the next phase of the project. During the five weeks of the project, PSTs had the opportunity to
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share theirr knowledge annd problems viia the LMS.
Figure 1. Weeekly course scchedule and prroject implemeentation
2.2 Particiipants
Four hunddred and thirteen (413) PSTss from variouss educational pprograms (scieence educationn, English lang
guage
education, mathematicss education, pre-school eeducation, priimary school education, aand psycholo
ogical
counsellinng and guidancce) at the Facuulty of Educatiion of a large state universitty participatedd in the study. PSTs
who were taking Compuuter 2 for the ffirst time and vvolunteered to participate in the study were included. Ta
able 1
shows the statistical disstribution of thhe participantss. Female partticipants weree unsurprisinglly outnumbere
ed by
their counnterparts, as it is a common finding in ourr research thatt women pursuue teaching as a profession more
than men ddo.
Table 1. Innformation aboout the particippants of the stuudy
Property
Number (ff)
Percentage (%
%)
Female
333
80.63
Male
80
19.37
Total
413
100
Science education
e
(SE)
65
15.74
English language teaching (ELT)
57
13.80
Mathemaatics education (M
ME)
99
23.97
Pre-Schoool education (PSE
E)
54
13.08
Primary school
s
education ((PE)
90
21.79
Psycholoogical counselling and guidance (PC
CG)
48
11.62
Total
413
100
Gender
Program
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Project Theme
P1- Electronic encyclopedia
59
P2- Tutorials
41
14.29
9.93
P3- Drill and practice
44
10.65
P4- Hypermedia system
46
11.13
P5- Educational games (introductory web site)
48
11.62
P6- Simulations (introductory web site)
36
8.72
P7- Computer-based educational software (introductory web site)
52
12.59
P8- Designing educational games
30
7.26
P9- Concept map
31
7.51
P10- Storyboard
26
6.30
Total
413
100
2.3 Data Collection
The data collection instrument of this study included nine open-ended questions. The questions were developed
based on a review of the literature and on researchers’ previous experiences concerning PjBL environments. The
instrument was checked by a field expert concerning content and a language expert concerning grammar. Before
finalizing the instrument, five students who had taken Computer 2 the previous year were requested to examine
the questions considering the purpose of the study. Students expressed that the questions were clear and
understandable. The questions were as follows:
Q1) Please, explain the project process. (Consider the negative and the positive aspects of the process. Comment
on your group’s performance during the project process from beginning to the end.)
Q2) What do you think about how the project affected you?
Q3) How did this project process affect your opinions about the course?
Q4) What kind of problems did you face during the project processes? What did you (either individually or as a
group) do to solve these problems you faced?
Q5) Which information sources did you use for your project?
Q6) How did you classify the information at hand and how did you use the information for your project?
Q7) How did you form your group? (Please, express the criteria that affected the selection of your group
members?)
Q8) How did the problems emerge during your group work and how did the harmony of your group affect your
performance of project work?
Q9) Is there any other thing you want to express?
Q1 and Q2 were asked for the first research problem to reveal the experiences and views of PSTs concerning the
PjBL process and how it affected them. Q3 was asked for the second research problem to obtain the views of
PSTs about how the PjBL process might be improved. Q4 was asked for the third research problem to discover
the problems PSTs faced and their strategies for solving them. Q5 and Q6 were asked for the fourth research
problem to learn about the resources and research methods that PSTs used to develop their project’s final product.
Q7 and Q8 were asked for the fifth research problem to reveal the criteria that determine PSTs’ preferences and
difficulties when forming groups. In addition, the results of the content analysis of Q7 and Q8 were also used for
the sixth research problem in order to reveal any connection between PSTs’ preferences when forming groups
and problems they faced while working in groups. Finally, Q9 was asked to clarify the views of the students by
allowing them to explain their opinions beyond what was allowed for by the questions.
The PSTs answered the questions online in the laboratory under the supervision of the instructors after all grades
about their project work were announced in order to minimize their anxiety concerning grades. It is generally
held that taking opinions in written form imposes limitations in qualitative studies. On the other hand, in order to
reach all students and maximize the diversity of the answers, the data was collected online. By applying this
strategy, researchers maximized the number of students they were able to obtain opinions from as well as the
number of different educational programs and project themes represented.
2.4 Data Analysis
The open-ended questions were subjected to content analysis, which “is particularly suitable when analyzing
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documents e.g. newspaper texts, responses to open-ended questions” (Hancock, Ockleford, & Windridge, 2009,
p.14). Content analysis is a method where collected data is analyzed systematically for categorization and
classification wherein the research subject (e.g., individual, group, organization, process and incident) can be
discovered and described (Stemler, 2001; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008).
Coding for content analysis can be done through two different strategies. The first strategy includes coding and
recoding the data to discover themes (Haney, Russel, Gulek, & Fierros, 1998). The second strategy includes
coding the data based on some predetermined codes or themes concerning the theoretical and conceptual
structure of the study. Both strategies offer the opportunity to revise and update the code and themes as required
(Weber, 1990). The content analysis used in this study followed the latter strategy. In this context, eight main
themes were determined based on research questions after discussion and consensus between the two researchers.
Table 2 shows the main themes and their relationships with the research questions.
After determining the main themes, the data was subjected to content analysis. The collected data was defined as
413 cases in the Nvivo 8 software. Attributes such as department, gender, project theme, and education type were
assigned for every case (Kuş-Saillard, 2009). Every case was read carefully and meaningful text was coded
under a related main theme. During the coding process, sub-themes under a main theme were created as similar
codes emerged from the text of cases. The eight main-themes (1, 2, …, 8), nine sub-themes (1.1, 1.2, 2.1, …,
8.3), and codes (e.g., the project was very comprehensive) that emerged from the data analyses are presented in
Table 2. As the number of opinions coded is quite large (out of 92), code examples with the most views compiled
under them are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Main themes, sub-themes, and codes that emerged from content analysis
Related
sub-problem
First sub-problem
Main theme
Sub-themes
Code Examples
1: Views towards
1.1. Negative
The project was very comprehensive.
the effect of the
The project did not contribute to my skills because of time limitations.
project process
I was not able to place the project in my life.
…
1.2. Positive
My self-confidence has increased.
I’ve learnt new things.
I’ve learnt to study in a planned way.
I’ve learnt to study with right people.
I’ve learnt how to research.
It [the project] ensured long-term learning.
…
Second
2: Views towards
2.1. I would also
I would determine the group members as an instructor.
sub-problem
improving the
define a project
I would make sure that students do more practice.
project process
study but I would
I would provide additional document that explains web site design and
prefer…
HTML development in more detail.
I would evaluate the students with only one final grade.
I would decrease the number of reports requested.
I would give more time for the project.
…
2.2. I would also define a project study but I wouldn’t add anything more.
2.3. It makes no difference to have the project study.
2.4. The project
I am against homework.
study was
The project was difficult because it was a long-term project.
unnecessary
The project study was not necessary for our educational program.
…
Third sub-problem 3: Problems
Preparing the project reports
faced during the
Internet access
project process
Problems with group members
Time-management problems
…
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Third sub-problem 4:
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Sharing information with other groups with the same project theme
Problem-solving
Asking people who have computer knowledge for advice
methods
Asking the instructor for advice
Internet search
…
Fourth
5: Resources
The course forum/teacher/the Internet
sub-problem
used
Various web design tools
Friends with computer knowledge
…
Fourth
6: Research
Trial-and-error methods
sub-problem
methods
Group discussions
Taking advice
Internet search
…
Fifth and sixth
7: Preferences
Working with someone with a high level of interest in the course
sub-problems
when forming
Ensuring an equal knowledge level among all group members
groups
Working with hard-working people
Working with close friends
Working with people who have a computer
…
Fifth and sixth
8: Problems with
8.1. Although I was very satisfied there were a few unsatisfactory times.
sub-problems
group study
8.2. We had
Difficulty coming together to study
problems
Group members were not able to find common ground
…
8.3. We had no
Every member contributed.
problems
We have a good friendship.
We shared tasks effectively.
…
Content analysis was completed in two phases. The aim of the first phase was to ensure the reliability of the
coding process. The researchers analyzed 60 points of data (10 cases from each educational program, with each
case representing a different project theme) in detail by following a strategy that guaranteed maximum variation
in the sample. Because the reliability of content analyses mostly depends on the coding process, the coding
process was carried out by two researchers and the agreement percentage was calculated using the formula
agreement percentage= [agreement/(agreement + disagreement)] x 100 (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
As can be seen from Table 3, agreement percentage values were found to be over 70% for all themes, and the
total agreement percentage was 83%. As the calculated agreement percentages are over 70% it can be said that
the coding process was reliable (Miles & Huberman, 1994). After ensuring the reliability of the coding process,
the analysis of the rest of the data was done individually. The analysis of data was completed over a period of
about six months. While presenting quotes from participants, numbers were used to represent participant number,
and letters in parenthesis were used to represent the educational program of the participant, as explained in Table
1 above.
Table 3. Agreement percentage values of the codes
Themes
Agreement percentage
1:Opinions concerning how the project process affected them
14/(14+4) x 100
2:Opinions concerning improving the project process
18/(18+3) x 100
86%
3:Problems faced during the project process
7/(7+2) x 100
78%
4:Problem-solving methods
9/(9+1) x 100
90%
5:Resources used
5/(5+1) x 100
83%
78%
6:Research methods
4/(4+0) x 100
100%
7:Preferences when forming groups
11/(11+2) x 100
85%
8:Problems with group study
8/(8+3) x 100
72%
Total
76/(76+16) x 100
83%
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3. Research Findings
The findings are presented here in tables, models, and matrices. The tables and models contain the coding
frequencies (f) and the corresponding percentages. In the matrices, only the coding frequencies (f) and
participant comments are provided. Because the sample is relatively large for a qualitative research study, the
data is presented alongside the supporting information of the participants’ code and educational program.
3.1 Findings Concerning the Effects of the Implemented PjBL Process
The first research problem of the study asks, what are the experiences and views of PSTs concerning how the
PjBL process affected them? Findings related to this research question are presented in Table 4. As shown in
Table 4, a total of 507 opinions concerning the effects of the implemented PjBL process were coded. Most
students’ opinions concerning the PjBL process and how it affected them were positive (f=486, 95.86%). The
negative opinions, captured in the response that the PjBL process didn’t contribute to students’ learning, were
very low (f=21, 4.14%). In detail, students’ responses included the codes helped them learn web design (f=140,
27.61%), helped them gain cooperation skills (f=75, 14.79%), helped them integrate theoretical information with
practice (f=64, 12.62%), helped them develop professionally (f=42, 8.28%), helped them learn CBE methods
(f=34, 6.71%), helped them gain time-management skills (f=29, 5.72%), helped them learn new things (f=26,
5.13%), helped them learn research skills (f=21, 4.14%), and helped permanent learning (f=19, 3.75%). The
codes under the negative theme were didn’t help, because the scope of the project work was too broad (f=9,
1.78%), didn’t help, because the project was not meaningful (f=6, 1.18%), didn’t help, because there was not
enough time to complete the project (f=5, 0.99%), and didn’t help, because the project process was very painful
(f=1, 0.2%).
Table 4. Findings about the contribution of the implemented PjBL process
Sub-theme Code
F
Positive
486 95.86
%
Helped them learn web design
140 27.61
Helped gain cooperation skills
75
14.79
Helped integrate theoretical information with practice
64
12.62
Helped professional development
42
8.28
Helped learn CBI methods
34
6.71
Helped gain time-management skills
29
5.72
Helped learn new things
26
5.13
Helped learn research skills
21
4.14
Helped permanent learning
19
3.75
36
7.1
Others (improved responsibility skills, taught how to work
patiently, taught to work according to a plan, taught the
importance of carefully choosing teammates, increased
Statements
I think that the project contributed to my learning concerning
web site design and developing content. (k16, SE)
This project helped me learn doing work in a planned way
and developed my time-management skills and increased my
responsibility. (k26, SE)
The project was necessary as we live in the Internet age and a
teacher should prepare interesting materials and should use
different instructional strategies for teaching. (k102, ELT)
We learnt not to give up easily and work patiently through the
project process. (k137, ME)
self-confidence)
Negative
21
4.14
The scope of the project work was too broad.
9
1.78
It can be said that the project was necessary but if I were the
The project was not meaningful.
6
1.18
instructor
There was not enough time to complete the project.
5
0.99
comprehensive project. (k279, PCG)
The project process didn’t help, because it was very painful.
1
0.2
The time was very limited for such a project. Doing too many
I
would
not
assign
such
a
broad
and
tasks in such a limited time was very tiring. (k404, PE)
3.2 Findings Concerning the Improvement of the PjBL Process
The second research problem of the study asks what are the experiences and views of PSTs towards improving
the PjBL process. As presented in Table 5, a total of 496 opinions concerning the improvement of the PjBL
process were coded.
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Table 5. Findings concerning the improvement of the PjBL process
Sub-theme
f
%
Statements
It was a very necessary project. I would do the same implementation
strategy, too. I would add some evaluation methods that reveal each
individual’s contribution to the project. (k11, SE)
I would implement the same project but a lighter version of it. Students
A similar project process but with some slightly
different strategies would be best.
254 51.20
already have some other homework and … have too much work including
examinations. Therefore, I would assign a simpler project. (k115, ELT)
I think that in order to practice the subject assigning a project is a good
strategy. In this way, we were able to see that we could develop a web site.
I would give much more time. I would not do direct grading and I would
give study time for 2 weeks before I graded it. (k126, ME)
It was not a very difficult project. We didn’t do it very professionally but we
The same project process would be best.
159 32.07
did our best. Without this project I wouldn’t have understood how to
develop a web site. If I were the instructor, I would give the same project
and did the same things. (k376, PE)
I don’t think that the project was necessary because in my professional
There was no need for the project.
52
10.48
teaching career I’m not going to develop a web site. (k141, ME)
I believe that the project was not very critical. It will not contribute to my
teaching profession. (k342, PE)
The project made no difference.
31
6.25
Indeed, I’m not sure whether the project made a difference or not? (k22,
SE)
Some students’ opinions were coded under the sub-theme A similar project process but with some slightly
different strategies would be best (I would also organize a similar project process but I would ...) (f=254, 51.20%)
and also some students’ opinions were coded under the sub-theme The same project process would be best (I
would also organize and assign nearly the same project) (f=159, 32.07%). According to this sub-theme it can be
said that quite a lot of PSTs are pleased with the existing project process, and it should be observed that those
PSTs didn’t indicate anything about improving the project process. The PSTs who were pleased with the project
process but had some suggestions for a better project process were coded under the theme A similar project
process but with some slightly different strategies would be best (f=254, 51.20%). There are a total of 17 coded
opinions under this sub-theme. The most coded opinions were giving more time (f=87, 17.54%), assigning a
relatively simple project (f=29, 5.85%), providing better guidance (f=22, 4.43%), letting students choose to study
individually or as a group (f=17, 3.43%), changing the evaluation methods (f=17, 3.43%), showing more
examples for each project theme (f=13, 2.62%), making the assignment more detailed (f=13, 2.62%), reducing
the number of project reports requested (f=12, 2.42%), offering more flexibility in the choice of project themes
(f=10, 2.02), adding some parameters to evaluation methods to determine the contribution of each member to
the project (f=6, 1.21%), and other opinions which were coded four and less than four (fTotal= 28, 5.63%).
Fewer students’ opinions were coded under the themes There was no need for the project (the project process
was unnecessary) (f=52, 10.48%) and The project process made no difference (There was no difference between
assigning a project and not assigning it.) (f=31, 6.25%). According to Table 5, the project made no difference
theme has significantly lower frequency (f=31, 6.25%) than the others. These opinions can be classified as
neither positive nor negative. The opinions claiming that the project was totally unnecessary were coded under
the There was no need for the project theme (f=52, 10.48%) and the opinions were coded under this theme can
be classified as negative. The most coded opinions in this theme were The project study was not necessary for
our educational program (f=25, 5.03%), The project was difficult because it was a long-term project (f=5,
1.01%), and I’m not sure how to use the information (gained through project) in real life (f=5, 1.01%), The
project was not available (or usable) (f=5, 1.01%), and The project was not suitable for the level of qualification
of the students (f=5, 1.01%). Other opinions were coded three times or fewer (fTotal= 7, 1.41%).
3.3 Findings Concerning the Problems Faced and Strategies for Overcoming these Problems
Table 6 presents the data for the third research problem: problems PSTs faced during the project process and the
strategies applied to overcome these problems. The data is presented as a matrix table, where rows present the
problems PSTs faced and columns present the strategies and solutions for overcoming the corresponding
problems. Thus, every intersecting cell provides information about a problem PSTs faced and the strategy and
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the solution for overcoming it. While reading the table it must be taken into consideration that a problem can
have more than one solution and a given solution might be used for more than one problem.
Table 6. The problems PSTs faced and strategies for overcoming these problems
Working hard
Exchanging
Requesting
until finding a
ideas with
instructor
solution
members
guidance
(f=100)
(f=79)
(f=72)
75
54
28
31
Not being able to find content (f=97)
49
30
22
17
Problems meeting with group members (f=94)
35
20
22
12
Problems with the design process (f=91)
44
33
28
18
Timing problems (f=39)
18
11
4
3
Not being able to understand the project (f=36)
16
10
7
8
Problems preparing project reports (f=34)
17
10
8
9
Internet
research
(f=168)
Coding problems (writing the code, the code doesn’t run
as expected) (f=150)
As Table 6 shows, the first of three main problems PSTs faced were coding problems (writing, not working)
(f=150) during design and development processes of the project. For example, two different students from the
English Language Teaching program expressed similar sentiments:
“I had difficulty in placing pictures to where I wanted to place. I tried so much but eventually I
was able to overcome this problem. After working for hours I was happy because I was able to do
what I wanted. I felt the web site we developed was like my baby.” (k113, ELT)
“I had difficulties in developing processes, especially coding html. Indeed, I spent very limited
time for this course and the project.” (k117, ELT)
The second-most frequently expressed problem was Not being able to find content (f=97). The PSTs were
expected to choose appropriate topics for their project themes. Finding appropriate content for their topic was
problematic, according to PSTs. For example, a female PST from the English Language Teaching program (k111)
stated,
“At the beginning we had difficulties in finding some simulations. Eventually, we found a web site
that included many of them. After finding those, our project work went very well.” (k111, ELT)
Another PST (k410) from the Primary School Education program underlined this:
“Sometimes we had difficulties in finding appropriate content for our learning gains and project
theme. Therefore, we had to research too much.” (k410, PE)
Problems meeting with group members (f=94) was the third-most frequently reported problem by the PSTs.
These PSTs expressed that they were not able to come together to work. A PST (k11) from the Science Education
program briefly indicated,
“I was staying in downtown but my group members were staying at dormitories close to campus.
Therefore, we didn’t manage to work together.” (k11, SE)
It can be seen in Table 6 that Internet research (f=168) was the most frequently reported solution as a strategy to
overcome problems. The second-most frequently reported strategy was working hard until finding a solution
(f=100), followed by exchanging ideas with members (f=79) and requesting instructor guidance (f=72). For
example, a PST from the Preschool Education program expressed,
“During the second week of the project process we had big problems concerning html coding. We
spent hours for an html tag. We printed lecture notes about html and researched on the Internet.
When we were not successful we went our homes. We worked on the problems individually and in
the next meeting we had a final decision. Overall, we made internet search, used lecture notes and
course web site.” (k243, PSE)
Another problem expressed by the PSTs was not being able to find content (f=97). As before, Internet research
(f=49) was the most frequently expressed strategy for overcoming the problem, followed by working hard until
finding a solution (f=30). A PST from the Mathematics Education program (k191) expressed,
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“Simulations are not used wideely. Therefore, we had difficuulties concerniing finding conntent for the
webb site. We disccussed with ouur friends, researched on the Internet andd requested guiidance from
ourr instructor.” (kk191, ME)
In additionn to the data reported in Tabble 6, the remaaining problem
ms reported byy the PSTs werre timing prob
blems
(f=39), noot being able to understandd the project ((f=36), and prroblems prepaaring project reports (f=34). The
strategies reported for overcoming thhese problemss were similaar to those forr the aforemeentioned probllems:
Internet reesearch, workinng hard until fi
finding a solutiion, and requessting instructorr guidance.
3.4 Findinngs Concerningg Resources annd Research M
Methods Used
For the foourth research problem, in oorder to reveall what resourcces and researcch methods w
were used, the PSTs
were askedd two questionns: Which info
formation sources did you usse for your prroject? and Hoow did you cla
assify
the inform
mation at hand and how did yyou use the infformation for your project? The findings aabout resource
es are
presented in Figure 2 andd the research methods are ppresented in Fiigure 3 below.
Figgure 2. The resources used byy the students during the proj
oject process
Accordingg to Figure 2, the most frequuently used reesource was thhe Internet (f=3303, 41.2%) ffollowed by lecture
notes throuugh the course web site (f=
=173, 23.5%). Students comm
municated witth the instructoor face-to-face
e and
through e--mail (f=109, 14.8%).
1
Studennts also stated that they requuested help froom other students who had a high
degree of kknowledge aboout computers (f=64, 8.7%).. Using the couurse forum (f=
=44, 6.0%) andd using variouss web
design toools and softwarre and their heelp files (f=43, 5.8%) were thhe final two reesources that thhe students utiilized
in terms off frequency.
Figgure 3. The ressearch methodss PSTs used
P
used duuring the projeect process w
were Internet rresearch (f=2779, 42.1%), assking
The researrch methods PSTs
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experts (f=175, 26.4%), trial and error (f=165, 24.9%), and discussions (f=43, 6.5%), especially within group
discussions. As shown in Figure 3, most PSTs were able to overcome problems in the project process by utilizing
Internet research, group discussions, and trial and error (the total of all these three was 73.5%). In other words,
PSTs were mostly able to finish the project without requesting help from other people outside of their groups.
The remaining 26.4% of groups of PSTs needed the help of others to overcome some project processes. Asking
an expert, who might be the instructor, another project group, or a friend from another department, can be
included in that 26.4%.
3.5 Findings Concerning Preferences When Forming Groups
The fifth research question of the study was, What are the criteria that determine PSTs’ preferences when
forming groups? The findings related to this research question are presented in Table 7. A total of 409 opinions
concerning PSTs’ preferences when forming groups were coded, under nine codes. PSTs mostly preferred to
form their project groups with people they have a close friendship with (f=113, 27.63%) and they reported that
they also formed groups with people with whom they could easily come together and have meetings (f=96,
23.47%). In other words, people who could be contacted easily were preferred when forming project groups. The
third-most frequently expressed preference was for people whom were going to get along well with (f=73,
17.85%). The remaining factors that influenced the formation of groups were for people who would take
responsibility (f=35, 8.56%), were joined with for purely circumstantial reasons (f=27, 6.60%), would
collaborate on equal terms (f=25, 6.11%), would complement each other’s weaknesses (f=10, 2.44%), and would
be able to work regularly and steadily (f=10, 2.44%). The other factors (people who have computer knowledge,
have a computer, are hard-working, are interested in the course content, are at an equal level of knowledge)
were coded five times or fewer (f=20, 4.89%).
Table 7. The findings concerning PSTs’ preferences when forming groups
Codes
f
%
Statements
Close friendship
113 27.63
Can be contacted easily
96
We were close friends. Therefore, we came together in the same
group. (k104, ELT)
During the project studies everyone should be able to come
23.47 together easily so that we can have meetings easily. In other words,
we preferred people that can be contacted easily. (k223, PSE)
Getting along
73
17.85
Taking responsibility
35
8.56
Circumstantial
27
6.60
Equal collaboration
25
6.11
In general, we formed our groups based on the criteria that we
have got along with each other. (k107, ELT)
I preferred to work with people who can take responsibilities
during project. (k392, PE)
I didn’t have any criteria. We determined our group members by
lot. (k232, PSE)
I wanted that every member of the group should contribute equally
to project work. Therefore, I preferred to work with people who can
collaborate equally. (k237, PSE)
Complementing each other’s weaknesses
10
2.44
Able to work regularly and steadily
10
2.44
We were careful to be the ones who would complement each other's
missing. (k12, SE)
I thought of choosing a regular and a stable person with computer
knowledge and working style. (k102, ELT)
I made choices based on my ability to work with my friend and
thinking that our knowledge levels are the same. (k23, SE)
Other factors (have knowledge about computers, have a
computer, be hard-working, are interested in the course 20
4.89
content, be at an equal level of knowledge)
I did not have a personal computer, so I made sure that at least one
of the group’s members had a computer. (k10, SE)
I chose friends who can understand and have computer knowledge.
(k156, ME)
3.6 Findings Concerning the Problems PSTs Faced While Working in Groups
The other part of the fifth research question was, What were PSTs’ difficulties when forming groups? The
findings related from this part of the fifth research question are under three sub-themes and are presented in
Table 8. A total of 409 opinions from PSTs about their difficulties when forming groups were coded. A few PSTs
(f=28, 6.86%) stated that they were fine with their group’s working performance but that there were some minor
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problems. In addition, a great deal of PSTs stated that they had no problems (f=333, 81.42%) while working in
groups. The number of PSTs who reported that they had problems concerning group work was relatively very
low (f=48, 11.74%).
Table 8. The findings concerning the problems PSTs faced while working in groups
Sub-theme/Code
Although I was very satisfied there were a few
unsatisfactory times
Had no problems
because we reached decisions together and
worked together
f
28
%
6.86
Statements
I was pleased with my group. There were some problems and conflicts but
at the end I realized that I learnt too much from this process. (k375, PE)
333 81.42
107 26.16
I believe that our group’s performance was very good. First, we decided
what was going to be done together and individually. We had a common
because we made a fair division of labor
66
because everyone took responsibilities
63
16.13 decision on what was going to be done. We listened to different ideas of all
15.4 members and gave a final decision together. (k11, SE)
because everyone contributed
28
6.85
We didn’t have problems because we divided the tasks to be done. Then
because we respected each other’s ideas
26
6.36
everyone did what was assigned to him. If a member had not been able to
Our friendship relations were good.
24
5.87
overcome a task other members had helped. (k190, ME)
Individuals must be aware of their responsibilities, especially considering
such tough projects. I was very happy to work with my group. (k141, ME)
I have not lived any discussion in my group. I am satisfied. Because it was
Others (didn’t undertake collaborative work but
it wasn’t a problem, project was absorbing,
enjoyed working long hours demanded by an
an absorbing and funny project (k259, PSE)
19
4.65
We did not have a lot of problems in the group. We did not have much time
for collaborative work, but there was no conflict. (k302, PCG)
absorbing project)
I was pleased with the work performance of the group, because I enjoyed
working long hours (k151, ME)
Had problems
because at least one group member didn’t
contribute to the study
because group members were not able to find a
common ground
48
11.74
20
4.89
18
4.4
Division of labor was not fair and there were some problems. The reason
for having problems was that one group member didn’t do his tasks. I did
all the work instead of him! (k109, ELT)
This is not about friendship but I wish we had some common points
concerning the project. We were not able to find a common ground for
doing the project. It would have been different if we had been more
because members had trouble getting together
10
2.45
determined. (k309, PCG)
Everyone had different ideas, but I cannot say much what we did. We were
forced to come in together. (k256, PSE)
According to Table 8, the most popular explanations for those who had no problems during group work were
because we reached decisions together and worked together (f=107, 26.16%), because we made a fair division
of labor (f=66, 16.13%), and because everyone took responsibilities (f=63, 15.4%). On the other hand, when the
reasons why PSTs had problems while working in groups are investigated, the following opinions were coded:
because at least one group member didn’t contribute to the study (f=20, 4.89%), because group members were
not able to find a common ground (f=18, 4.4%), and because there was trouble coming together (f=10, 2.45%).
3.7 Findings Concerning the Relationship between PSTs’ Preferences When Forming Groups and Problems They
Faced While Working in Groups
Table 9 below presents a matrix with information about the sixth research problem: PSTs’ preferences when
forming groups and the problems they faced while working in groups. The columns present the codes for
problems faced within group work. The rows present the codes for preferences when forming groups.
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Table 9. The findings concerning the relationship between PSTs’ preferences when forming groups and problems
they faced while working in groups
Close
friendship
(f=113)
Fine but there were some minor
problems (f=28)
Could be
contacted
easily
(f=96)
Got
Took
Circumsta
Equal
along
responsibility
ntial
collaboration
(f=73)
(f=35)
(f=27)
(f=25)
Others
(f=40)
6
9
5
0
2
1
5
12
4
0
1
1
1
1
4
4
4
3
2
0
1
4
0
0
0
3
3
0
29
27
29
6
0
5
11
13
16
12
11
0
5
9
12
14
8
11
6
6
6
5
5
9
2
2
1
4
6
9
6
1
0
3
1
14
5
0
0
4
0
1
8
3
0
0
7
0
1
Had problems/because at least one group
member didn’t contribute to the study
(f=20)
Had problems/because group members
were not able to find a common ground
(f=18)
Had problems/because they had trouble
coming together (f=10)
Had no problems/because we reached
decisions together and worked together
(f=107)
Had no problems/because we made a
fair division of labor (f=66)
Had no problems/because everyone took
responsibility (f=63)
Had no problems/because everyone
contributed (f=28)
Had no problems/because we respected
each other’s ideas (f=26)
Had
no
problems/because
our
friendships were good (f=24)
Had no problems/for other reasons
(f=19)
In Table 9, the other reasons (f=40) option includes codes about group preferences such as we complemented
each other’s weaknesses, we were able to work regularly and steadily, we had people who were knowledgeable
about computers, we had at least one person with a computer, we had people who were hard-working, we had
people who were interested in the course content, and we were equally knowledgeable. These are grouped under
the other reasons option because they are not mentioned in PSTs’ statements about the problems they
encountered. According to the Table 9, PSTs rarely indicated whether they faced problems concerning group
work based on their group forming preferences. Therefore, it can be said that PSTs were successful in forming
groups and tended to not have too many problems based on their groups. Most PSTs’ statements are coded under
the had no problems theme. For example, for PSTs who formed their groups based on close friendships (f=113),
when asked whether they had faced problems or not, most of them indicated that they didn’t face problems
because at least one of the following was true: they reached decisions together and worked together (f=29), they
had good friendships (f=14), they made a fair division of labor (f=13), or they had responsibility (f=12). For
example a PST from the Psychological Counselling and Guidance program stated,
“The reason why I joined this group is to be together with my friends with whom I get along. I was
pleased to work with my friends. Everyone did his/her job. We sometimes had disagreements but
we listened to each other and we were able to find a common ground to move on.” (k281, PCG)
A PST in the Mathematics Education program underlined the importance of knowing the group members:
“I tried to form a group with people with whom I can get along and who are conformist. We were
able to do all of the project work together. When we had problems, everyone stated his/her ideas
and the most appropriate solution were selected as the group choice. We didn’t have too many
conflicts during the project processes.” (k182, ME)
For the groups that formed based on the preference for close friendships, few PSTs indicated that they had
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problems within their groups. The most frequently made statement was we had problems because at least one
group member didn’t contribute to the study (f=12). For example, a PST from the Science Education program
clearly stated,
“We formed our group based on the criteria that we were close friends and sincere. We tried to be
responsible persons. We were 3 persons in the group but actually 2 of us did all the work. The
other member of our group did not contribute to most of the tasks (especially design and
development tasks of the project). Considering this situation, we completed the project as 2 people.
Therefore, we submitted our project late.” (k399, SE)
Another PST in the Primary Education program (k400) indicated,
“I formed my group with my buddies. But, now I realized that I was wrong because, I did most of
the project work myself. They didn’t help me at all.” (k400, PE)
For the PSTs whose answers to the question about whether they encountered problems was fine but there were
some minor problems (f=28), their preferences when forming groups were based on close friendships (f=6), who
could be contacted easily (f=9), and who they could get along with (f=5). A PST in the Primary Education
program indicated,
“We formed our group as three male students. I was glad to work with one but the other didn’t
contribute. We really had time-management problems. We had limited time but a lot of work to do.
I didn’t contribute enough, either.” (k414, PE)
The PSTs who had problems with their group members during their project stated the following:
“It was circumstantially. I was not pleased with my group. We didn’t make a good division of labor” (k373, PE)
and
“I was absent that day. Some others included me in their groups, they had chosen me. I don’t like
group studies. I would be very comfortable if the course required individual work. Because, I don’t
trust anyone’s work.” (k353, PE)
Finally, another PST in the Primary Education program (k377) whose response was that they had no problems
expressed,
“The week that I was absent, our teacher required students to form groups for the project work. I
was included with my friends in their group. I was pleased to work with them. We worked together
and we didn’t have any problems during group work.” (k377, PE)
4. Conclusion and Discussion
The aim of this study was to examine PSTs’ experiences with group work and collaboration, the resources and
research methods they used, and how their academic development was affected by project-based learning (PjBL)
processes. The PjBL process was based on information and communication technology (ICT) and group work.
ICT was used not only to learn about technology but also to learn with technology. In addition, the study
investigated how PSTs participating in a PjBL process formed groups and undertook group work, how they used
ICT, and what their opinions were regarding the technology. The conclusions based on the results of 413 PSTs
from various educational programs are presented and discussed below.
The first research problem concerns how the PjBL process affected the PSTs. The context of this study was the
course Computer 2, which is focused on computer-based instruction (CBI) methods (like educational software)
and their characteristic features. In this ICT-integrated course, PSTs study the theoretical basis of CBI methods
as well as the basics of web design and undertake a project to produce a simple piece of educational software by
using theoretical knowledge about CBI and web design. In considering the answer to the first research problem,
it can be stated that the PjBL process as implemented contributed to PSTs’ satisfaction with their academic
learning, increased their theoretical knowledge, and enabled them to put their knowledge into practice (Edwards
& Hammer, 2006). The PSTs stated that the PjBL process especially helped them learn basic web design and
CBI methods (e.g., simulation, educational games, and tutorials). These findings support the existing research
into how the PjBL process affects students’ academic achievement and the success of the course (Özer & Özkan,
2013; Peck, Peck, Sentz, & Zasa, 1998). Additionally, PSTs perceived that the PjBL process increased their
academic skills, including researching (Chan Lin, 2008), working in groups (Lary, Lavigne, Muma, Jones, &
Hoef, 1997), time management, and having professional responsibility.
The second research problem investigated the overall PjBL process. Most PSTs stated that they would also
implement a similar PjBL environment and would not add anything to the PjBL process as implemented, and
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many others indicated that they would also implement a PjBL process but would make some minor changes.
These statements clearly indicate that PSTs believe that the PjBL environment supported their learning processes
and that they gained some skills from the process. PSTs also provided some suggestions for improving the PjBL
processes. They stated that the time allocated for the project, which was five weeks, should be increased,
indicating that some PSTs had time-management problems (Krajcik, Blumenfeld, Marx, Bass, Fredricks, &
Soloway, 1998). In addition, some PSTs thought that the project was unrelated to their profession and therefore
that the PjBL process was unnecessary. This result supports the discussion that teacher beliefs are a determinant
in whether technology is used for learning and classroom instruction (Hermans, Tondeur, van Braak & Valcke,
2008). This response might indicate that these PSTs believe that both in daily life and in their future teaching
lives they would not use technology too much. Yavuz and Coşkun (2008) found that some PSTs had positive
attitudes towards the utilization of ICT in education. On the other hand, Shi et al. (2004) asserted in their work
that many PSTs or teachers perceived the use of ICT as inessential in content learning. However, they also
claimed that the role of technology as an important component of knowledge construction and the influence of
PSTs’/teachers’ beliefs in integrating ICT into content learning are two important issues for technology
integration in the field of education. Considering that the participants of this study were freshmen, such a result,
which underestimates the role of the technology in educational environments, may be common. Considering the
results of this study and those of the study by Shi et al. (2004), it can be concluded that there is a need for more
studies to explore how technology-based learning activities can enhance PSTs’ professional development.
The third research problem of this study concerned the problems PSTs faced during the PjBL processes and the
strategies they used to overcome these problems. The PSTs’ project was to develop an educational web site. The
students were assigned project themes (e.g., tutorial, drill and practice, educational game), but they were required
to decide for themselves the topic and content they were going to include in their web sites. The first-ranked
problem was in using ICT while developing their projects. The second-most common problem was difficulty
finding appropriate content for the project themes. Donnelly and Fitzmaurice (2005) asserted in their study that it
is important for students to avoid wasting time tracking down obscure resources for their projects and that
students should be encouraged to request resources related to the project themes from the instructor. In this study,
the PSTs were freshmen and this was their first PjBL experience in terms of using technology. In this study PSTs
mostly utilized Internet research in order to solve their problems. This finding is also supported by the following
findings about the resources and research methods the PSTs used.
The fourth research problem concerned which resources and research methods the PSTs used. The findings show
that PSTs mostly used the Internet, the instructor, and lecture notes as resources. It is worth noting that relatively
few students sought help from outside people who were known to have computer knowledge. It can be
concluded that PSTs were able to navigate the PjBL process mostly by utilizing the available course resources
and the Internet. The Internet was the main research resource, which is an important point, because the course
aims to increase PSTs’ problem-solving skills and research skills via the integration of ICT. The instructor and
course materials were used as additional resources, which may indicate that the communication strategy between
the instructors and the PSTs was well organized. In addition, the checkpoints within the whole PjBL process
helped both the instructors and PSTs to track progress. Some studies have claimed that when complex projects
are laid out in phases with accessible milestones, thus helping reducing project complexity, students can enhance
their project-development processes and enrich their own learning processes (Karaman & Çelik, 2008; Koh,
Herring & Hew, 2010). Thus, PjBL environments should have detailed structures and offer the necessary
scaffolding for the development of PSTs’ skills.
Given the results of our investigation into the four research problems discussed above, we suggest that the PjBL
environment supports PSTs’ learning and develops their skills, such as researching and collaboration, as well as
their responsibility. Therefore, teacher-training programs should have courses designed with constructivist
learning approaches and student-centered teaching methods (like PjBL) in order to help PSTs become successful
practitioners of PjBL.
In their 2016 study, Chang and Lee asserted that teachers are the key to enhancing students’ practical knowledge
and abilities. Teachers should support their students’ ability to transfer what they learned in school to real life.
Thus, teachers should design more PjBL environments (Chang & Lee, 2016). To achieve this, courses that
integrate pedagogy, technology, and content knowledge should be included in all aspects of teacher education
programs (Tondeur, Pareja Roblin, van Braak, Voogt, & Prestridge, 2016) and such courses should provide
opportunities for PSTs to experience various learning strategies, such as PjBL (Lavy & Shriki, 2008).
The fifth and sixth research problems investigated PSTs’ group work and related factors concerning the PjBL
environment. Group-based learning provides a situation in which students can effectively gain, practice, and
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improve certain skills, such as communication and conflict resolution (Cheong, 2010). In group-based learning,
groups can be formed in various ways in relation to course structure, and it is suggested that each group be
limited to fewer than seven members (Cheong, 2010). In our study, groups were formed according to PSTs’ own
preferences and group size was limited to be no more than four members. PSTs mostly preferred to work with
people with whom they were close friends, people they believed they would get along with, and people who
could be contacted easily. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that PSTs want to collaborate with people
they can easily meet up with for joint work and meetings (Borg, Kembro, Notander, Petersson, & Ohlsson, 2011).
Pinho-Lopes and Macedo (2016) claimed that students prefer teamwork to the alternative because it decreases
the responsibility and workload of each individual. On the other hand, in our study PSTs accepted collaboration
because they freely choose their group members and had the opportunity to come together. Takeuchi (2016)
explains that group work offers a collective space in which students learn and develop together while they solve
a task and think collectively. In addition, Springer, Stanne, and Donovan (1999) suggested that the more time
students spend working groups, the better their learning-related attitudes.
Based on the results concerning PSTs’ group work and related factors concerning the PjBL environment, we
would suggest that PSTs be given the opportunity to choose their group members according to their preferences.
Our results also show that when PSTs determine their groups, they are able to solve the problems they face more
easily because they have close friendships, can contact with each other more easily, and they get along better.
PSTs overall reported that because they worked together, had a fair division of labor, and all took responsibilities,
they didn’t have problems while working in groups. However, there were a few groups that did report problems
concerning group work. These groups were mostly the ones that weren’t able to form groups based on close
friendship and factors that would make communication easy.
As a result, the following suggestions are offered to help researchers and instructors design effective PjBL
environments. PjBL environments support PSTs’ learning and their research and collaboration skills while also
increasing their responsibility. In addition, PjBL environments help PSTs learn how to implement constructivist
learning approaches and student-centered teaching. Therefore teacher education programs should have courses
that utilize PjBL processes. PjBL environments should be designed to have phases and checkpoints, and these
checkpoints should provide the scaffolding designed to promote the development of PSTs’ research and
collaboration skills. In PjBL processes, checkpoints should be set to enable the monitoring of PSTs’ progress
during the process, and the checkpoints should help examine the ways PSTs are collaborating. Finally, PSTs
should be free to choose group members. Allowing PSTs to determine their group members decreases the
possibility of problems during group work and increases the likelihood of solving the problems that arise.
5. Limitations of the Study
This study was limited because it considered only one semester course and because the participants of the study
were freshmen. We also cannot know how PSTs’ views may change depending on their future experiences with
PjBL. Group-based learning had a positive effect on the PjBL process, and we saw that it was possible for PSTs
to successfully carry out their projects if they communicated well within their groups. But, we do not know
anything about the communication between groups nor about the impact of such communication on the project
processes.
This study investigated PSTs’ experiences with and views on PjBL processes. The impact of some factors such as
motivation and communication skills on academic achievement concerning group work–based PjBL processes is
one possible area for further research. Additionally, observational studies could be designed to investigate actual
group dynamics in PjBL environments as well as the effects of within-group and between-group communication
on PjBL processes.
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