NEW APPROACHES
TOWARD RECORDING,
PRESERVING AND STUDYING
CULTURAL HERITAGE IN DIVIDED
CYPRUS:
PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES
ISBN: 978-605-70810-3-2
NEW APPROACHES
TOWARD RECORDING,
PRESERVING AND STUDYING
CULTURAL HERITAGE IN DIVIDED CYPRUS:
PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES
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NEW APPROACHES
TOWARD RECORDING,
PRESERVING AND STUDYING
CULTURAL HERITAGE IN DIVIDED
CYPRUS:
PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES
Edited by
Lâtife Summerer
Marko Kiessel – Hazar Kaba
ARUCAD Press
In memoriam
Rıza Tuncel
(1971-2022)
Contents
Introduction
The Cultural Heritage Question within the Cyprus Dispute: Law,
Policy and Reconciliation
Alexander Gillespie
In Fear of Blacklisting. How the Division Shaped Archaeology in Cyprus
Lâtife Summerer
Between Rejection and Coping -Do Turkish Cypriots Have the Right to
Conduct Archaeological Research?
Hazar Kaba
9
15
33
87
Politics and Monuments in Cyprus: Dilemma or a Way Out?
Dimitris Michalopoulos
123
Utilizing Soft Power for Managing Cultural Heritage in Cyprus
Naciye Doratlı
137
The Technical Committee on Cultural Heritage: An Alternative Model
for Solving the Problems in the Field of Cultural Heritage
Ali Tuncay
Alashia Reborn?: Replicating and “Repatriating” Heritage in Cyprus
Leticia R. Rodriguez
From Excavation to Exhibition Problems in the Conservation of
Archaeological Objects from Excavations in Cyprus
Marie-Louise Winbladh
Architectural Conservation in Northern Cyprus: An Overview of the
Legislative Developments, Organisational Structure, and Heritage
Practices of the post-1974 Era
Reyhan Sabri
From Alasia to Kizzuwatna: Late Cypriot Pottery from Tepebağ Höyük
Ekin Kozal – Deniz Yaşin
A new Archaic Sanctuary in Cyprus? On Sculptural Finds from
Aphendrika in the Karpas Peninsula
Marko Kiessel
159
175
191
219
239
271
An Integrated Approach to Archaeological Heritage: The Shipwreck
Museum in the Kyrenia Castle, Cyprus
Alessandro Camiz – Zeynep Ceylanlı – Giorgio Verdiani
The Cesnola Collection of Terracotta Oil Lamps from Cyprus
Christopher S. Lightfoot
301
323
From Watershed to Church. A Fragmented Biography of
Panagia tis Kyras (Sazlıköy/Livadia)
Latife Summerer
341
Rural Cyprus between Arab Invasions (8th c.) and Venetian Rule (16th c.):
Church Architecture and Society on the Karpas Peninsula
Thomas Kaffenberger
407
Poetics in Digital Modelling: Bells, Banners, Murals and Music in the
14th c. Church of St. Anne, Famagusta
Michael J.K. Walsh
439
The Issues of Managing Modern Heritage in North Cyprus: An
Investigation of Historic Cinema Buildings in Nicosia
Aliye Menteş – Valentina Donà
473
Transgressive Design Strategies: Political Discourse Acts as a
Transnational Catalyst in the Decision-making of Architectural
Reconciliation Process in Cyprus
Bertuğ Özarısoy – Haşim Altan
The Narrative Dimension of Cultural Heritage in the City of Dead:
Story-telling of Cemeteries
Yannis Polymenidis – Konstantinos Lalenis – Evi Kolovou
501
517
Architectural Conservation
in Northern Cyprus:
An Overview of the Legislative
Developments, Organisational Structure,
and Heritage Practices of the post-1974 Era
REYHAN SABRİ*
INTRODUCTION
Interest in protecting the architectural heritage in Cyprus arose during
the last quarter of the 19th c. The island came under British rule at this time
and protection was motivated by the then evolving medievalist conservation
ethos in Britain.1 The establishment of the colonial Department of Antiques
in 1934 was a milestone for organising the architectural conservation field
on the island. The new Antiques Law came into force in 1935 and expanded
the scope and cut-off date for the listing of ancient monuments.2 At the same
time, the Antiques Department was given the authority to approve and/or
supervise conservation projects related to the historical structures that were
defined as antiquities.3 The post-colonial bi-communal Republic of Cyprus
(hereafter RoC) subsequently borrowed the British colonial era’s legislative
framework and administrative system in 1960. The main change was in
the organisational structure in that positions formerly occupied by British
scholar-bureaucrats were now filled by Greek Cypriots. The Department of
Antiquities of Cyprus (hereafter DoA) focused its resources on excavating,
protecting, and presenting the archaeological sites and architectural monuments. This was done in a way to best support Greek national and religious
identity.4 As Julie Scott has observed, the conspicuous absence of a Turkish
*
1
2
3
4
Dr. Reyhan Sabri, University of Sharjah, rsabri@sharjah.ac.ae
Sabri 2016, 232–234.
Blackall 1935.
Blackall 1935.
Limbouri 2011, 52. Also see Leriou 2002; Leriou 2007; Michael 2005; Sabri 2019a for
219
New Approaches
name in the technical or administrative staff of the Department from 19601974 indicates how the Turkish community were sidelined in national heritage management.5
Cyprus was politically and geographically divided in 1974, a culmination
of inter-communal conflicts which started in the 1950s and reached its peak
in 1963. Many of its most important architectural heritage sites remained
within the borders of the new state established by the Turkish Cypriot community in the northern part of the island. The post-1974 era coincides with
the evolution of international conservation principles and guidance, especially after the declaration of the Venice Charter in 1964. Consequently, the
Turkish Cypriots, who did not have any professional presence in the field
before 1974, entered the last quarter of the 20th c. with the responsibility
for a substantial cultural heritage portfolio at a time when cultural heritage
awareness had been rising globally. This article presents an overview of the
legislative developments, organisational structure, and architectural heritage
practices in Northern Cyprus in the post-1974 period.
DEVELOPMENTS IN PRESERVATIONIST LEGISLATION
The British colonial Antiques Law, which had been in effect since 1935,
was amended and enacted as Law no. 31/1959 (Cap. 31) of the RoC, which
was established in 1960. The main change in the definition of an architectural monument was perhaps the change of cut-off date from 1700 to 1850.
As in the colonial era, conservation was centralised under the control and
approval of the Department of Antiques.
One of the first actions of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (Kıbrıs
Türk Federe Devleti), which was established in the northern part of the island
in 1975, was the amendment of Law no. 31/1959 and the establishment of the
Department of Antiquities and Museums (Eski Eserler ve Müzeler Dairesi)
(hereafter DoAM). In the newly enacted Law no. 35/1975, the scope of the
definition of monuments was expanded, and the cut-off date was removed.6
The duty to take action to maintain and repair architectural monuments
5
6
220
how the Late Bronze Age, Classical/Hellenistic and Byzantine periods were defined
by the Cypriot Greek elites as the focal points of official archaeology in Cyprus, with
a dominant Hellenisation narrative aiming for the consolidation of the longevity
and superiority of Greek presence.
Scott 2002, 102. For the ongoing boycotting of archaeological activity and the blacklisting of researchers conducting fieldwork in Northern Cyprus since 1974, see Hardy
2010, 144–149.
See the Law of 35/1975. <http://www.cm.gov.nc.tr/Yasalarr> (28.05.2021).
Reyhan Sabri
owned by natural and legal persons was assigned to the ministry to which
DoAM was attached. It was also decided that projects related to the use and
repair of the ancient monuments held by Cyprus Evkaf Administration (hereafter Evkaf) would be undertaken by the Evkaf, subject to the approval of the
Council of Ministers. Meanwhile, with the transfer of the real estate belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church to the Evkaf, it also became responsible
for the maintenance of the Orthodox ecclesiastical structures in Northern
Cyprus abandoned due to the war.7 Combined with the Ottoman waqf properties, the Evkaf entered the post-1974 era responsible for the maintenance
and repair of the island’s most substantial architectural heritage portfolio.
According to the Antiquities Law no. 35/1975, the Ministry to which
DoAM is attached to, has been charged with constituting the High Council
of Monuments (Anıtlar Yüksek Kurulu), which identifies and registers ancient monuments. The new regime prepared a monuments list, which was
approved by the Council of Ministers on 20 December 1976, and published
in the official newspaper in 1979.8 In the list, there were many Ottoman-era
Muslim religious and secular structures which were listed for the first time.
Following the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
(hereafter TRNC), Urban Planning Law no. 55/899 was enacted, and the City
Planning Office was given the authority to locate and identify heritage sites.
It joined forces with the DoAM to make recommendations for heritage listings to the High Council of Monuments. Another significant development
regarding preservation legislation took place in 1994 when the scope of
Antiquities Law no. 35/1975 was revised, leading to the enactment of Law no.
60/1994, which is still in effect today.10 Law no. 60/1994 addresses the issue
of urban sites and authorises the City Planning Department to identify conservation areas and determine their limits. Based on this, the historic walled
cities of Nicosia and Famagusta and the Kyrenia Castle area were declared
to be urban conservation areas. An important feature of Law no. 60/1994
is Article 42, which establishes the High Council of Immovable Antiquities
and Monuments as the authority to identify the stakeholders and to approve
7
8
Hyland 1999, 67.
Kıbrıs Türk Federe Devleti Resmi Gazetesi (Official Gazette of the Turkish Federated
State of Cyprus), 5 April 1979, no. 29, supplement IV, 45–48.
9 Until 1989, the colonial era’s “Roads and Buildings, Chapter 96” (Yollar ve Binalar
fasıl 96), which remained in force (since 1946) but lacked provisions for urban heritage, had guided urban planning.
10 See for “No. 60/1994 Monuments Law” (No. 60/1994 Eski Eserler Yasası) with
the amendments in 13/2001 and 14/2017. <http://www.cm.gov.nc.tr/Yasalarr>
(28.05.2021).
221
New Approaches
the management of registered monuments. It consists of eleven members
from relevant government departments, NGOs, and a representative from a
university Northern Cyprus. In addition, Article 20 of the Law envisages the
establishment of a Monuments Protection Fund (Eski Eserleri Koruma Fonu)
(herafter MPF) to create resources for conservation and restoration works.
Also, as per the Law no. 60/1994, while the Evkaf holds the right to maintain and repair the listed historic structures within the framework of the
traditional Ahkam-ül Evkaf regulations, the related projects have been subjected to High Council of Immovable Antiquities and Monuments’ approval, and their execution placed under the supervision of the DoAM. Article
19 defines the conditions for the expropriation of monuments possessed by
natural or legal persons - including Evkaf - which are at risk of losing their
character through inappropriate physical interventions or lack of maintenance. Accordingly, the conservation and use of these expropriated properties follow plans prepared by the DoAM.
It is important to note that while the legislation is comprehensive in terms
of identifying monuments and assigning responsibilities, heritage policy and
resources in Northern Cyprus is still inadequate. The consequences of this
will be further discussed later in this paper.
ESTABLISHING THE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE
With the establishment of the DoAM in 1975, the Turkish Cypriots
emerged for the first time as actors, who had not previously taken an active role in management, or technical and practical activities, of the Greek
Cypriot-led DoA. The crucial step in establishing the organisational structure for architectural conservation was the creation of a Documentation
and Restoration Branch (Rölöve ve Restorasyon Birimi) under the DoAM
and employing İlkay Feridun,11 a Turkish Cypriot restoration specialist. Ms.
Feridun was instrumental in initiating the documentation of architectural
heritage in Northern Cyprus. She also consolidated conservation awareness
in the DoAM in line with the then developing in international conservation
principles. Unfortunately, despite this promising start, subsequent governments could not allocate adequate budgetary and human resources for the
Documentation and Restoration Branch to enable comprehensive mainte11 Ms. Ilkay Feridun is the first Turkish Cypriot architectural heritage professional who
returned to the island. She had completed her masters degree in the restoration of
historic buildings in 1975 at the Middle East Technical University. See Özdeğer –
Yeşilada 1993, 14.
222
Reyhan Sabri
nance and conservation works on all ancient monuments. In many cases,
the action remained confined to emergency repairs due to lack of funds.
Nevertheless, most of the conservation works undertaken by the DoAM,
especially during 1990-2005, are highly commendable in terms of the use
of local materials and traditional plasters/mortars which are physically and
chemically compatible with the existing historic fabric. However, lack of
resources became apparent with those cases requiring the use of modern
strengthening techniques and materials. The frequent changing of the ministry to which DoAM is attached often results in slow decision making to
the detriment of ancient monuments and heritage structures.12
As for the Evkaf, despite having a substantial portfolio of historical structures, it has remained weak in terms of developing an effective organisational
structure dedicated to conservation work. This is seen in the absence of heritage professional(s) employed within the institution, as well as in the lack
of clear heritage policy and regulations. The multi-purpose Construction
and Real Estate Branch (İnşaat ve Emlak Şubesi) was established under the
Vakıflar ve Din İşleri Teşkilat Kanunu (Foundations and Religious Affairs
Organization Law) of 31/1971. It undertakes the planning and implementation of the repair and maintenance of all types of architectural heritage
belonging to the institution.
There are weaknesses in the organisational structures governing architectural heritage in Northern Cyprus, especially the lack of technical personnel
and equipment. These deficiencies have been highlighted at the National
Culture and Art Congresses; organised with relevant stakeholders in 1998,
2001 and 2006; yet they remain a serious problem. For instance, the transfer of the MPF in 2006 to the Finance Ministry was a severe blow to the
DoAM’s financial capacity.13 The Fund was established as per Article 20 of
Law no. 60/1994, and provided financial resources for several emergency
and restoration projects between 1994-2006. The lack of financial resources
and technical expertise has also been highlighted in a report by Josef Stulc
in 2002, submitted to the Council of Europe regarding the current state of
architectural heritage in Northern Cyprus.14 How architectural conservation
practice has been shaped in this context is addressed in the next section.
12 Regarding the administrative and organisational weaknesses caused by changing the
ministries with responsibilities for urban conservation in the TRNC, see Hoşkara
– Doratlı 2011, 869–870.
13 For pleas at the Culture and Art Congress in 2006 for its transfer back to the DoAM
to generate revenue for conservation projects, see Doratlı 2014.
14 Stulc 2002.
223
New Approaches
ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE CONSERVATION PRACTICES
IN NORTHERN CYPRUS IN THE POST-1974 ERA
Architectural conservation practice was quite slow, especially in the first
twenty years after 1974, due to the lack of heritage practitioners, technical
personnel, and extremely tight finances. One of the first projects undertaken by the DoAM was the restoration and adaptive reuse of the Derviş Paşa
Konağı in Nicosia’s walled Arabahmet district carried out between 1979-86
(Fig. 1).15 This building, which was converted into an ethnographic museum
in 1988, was listed in 1979. The project indicated that the island’s hitherto neglected Ottoman architectural legacy16 would receive attention in the
new era. Among the other conservation works undertaken by the DoAM in
the 1980s and 1990s were: the restoration of a part of the Venetian walls of
Nicosia in 1982-86, the restoration of Ag. Lucas Church in Nicosia in 1986
and Haydar Paşa Camii (former St. Catherine Church) in 1986-89, and the
conservation and adaptive reuse of St. Barnabas Monastery near Famagusta
in 1991-92, which became the Icon and Archaeology Museum.17 The establishment of the abovementioned MPF provided funding for several projects
in the 1990s. These included the restoration and adaptive reuse projects of
the Eaved House (Saçaklı Ev) and the Lusignan House (Lüzinyan Evi) in
Nicosia. As well, partial maintenance and repair works were carried out in
Kyrenia Castle, which was converted into a museum, exhibition and conference space.18
One of the first restoration projects was that of Büyük Han in Nicosia,
which is the island’s largest classical Ottoman city inn and administratively
attached to the Evkaf (Fig. 2). Planning was done by Ms Ilkay Feridun of
DoAM and the project started in 1982 under the supervision of the DoAM.
However, it came to a halt due to insufficient funding, and then continued with support provided by the German Government between 1988 and
1990, and later by the Turkish Embassy between 1995-2002.19 The southern
portico of the Han was assessed to be in endangered at risk of falling and
15
16
17
18
19
224
Özdeğer – Yeşilada 1993, 14.
Sabri 2017.
Özdeğer – Yeşilada 1993, 15.
Hyland 1999, 68.
This information has been retrieved from an interview with Ms. İlkay Feridun on
8 June 2012.
Reyhan Sabri
pulled down during the restoration work under the control of the DoA in
1963.20 The portico was reconstructed during the restorations in the 1990s in
reinforced concrete and clad with stone slabs similar to the original masonry. When the restoration works were completed, the building was converted
into a cultural and tourism centre where traditional Cypriot handicrafts are
produced and sold.
Restoration projects planned and implemented by the DoAM used local
materials, traditional mortars, plasters, and water-proofing compositions
compatible with the original products. These practices indicate the adoption
of the restoration principles stipulated by the Venice Charter (1964). Early
efforts were made not to use Portland cement in the repair or restoration
works unless it was necessary for structural consolidation. Even though the
Turkish Cypriots entered the post-1974 era without any experience in the
field, by the 1980s, the DoAM had developed sufficient capacity in planning
and executing architectural conservation works to be up to date with the
evolving international principles.21 The problem was, and still is, the lack of
adequate human resources and funds.22 Due to the low numbers of technical
staff, the DoAM has been inefficient in monitoring the state of the architectural monuments. Consequently, the ability to monitor repair/restoration
works on heritage assets owned by other natural or legal persons, especially
those by the Evkaf, has suffered. For instance, it was only by coincidence
that the DoAM became aware that the original materials and designs were
not being altered in the restoration works carried out in the 1980s for the
Great Bath (Büyük Hamam), the largest surviving Ottoman public bath on
the island which was owned by the Evkaf.23
Projects to conserve architectural monuments and heritage structures
which are the property or responsibility of the Evkaf are prepared by the institution’s Construction and Real Estate Branch. Such projects are subject to
the approval of the High Council of Immovable Antiquities and Monuments
(Taşınmaz Eski Eserler ve Anıtlar Yüksek Kurulu), and they are carried out
under the supervision of the DoAM. Note that before being transformed
20 Ms. İlkay Feridun on 8 June 2012.
21 Arguably, restoration practices in line with the Venice Charter of 1964 emerged in
Northern Cyprus in the 1980s, almost simultaneously with the RoC. For an overview of the conservation practice in the RoC, see Philokyprou – Limbouri-Kozakou
2015.
22 The lack of conservation specialists and laboratory has also been recently remarked,
albeit in the context of archaeological findings, by Fehlmann 2016, 433.
23 This information has been retrieved from an interview with Ms. İlkay Feridun on
8 June 2012.
225
New Approaches
into a governmental department - namely the Evkaf - during the British
colonial era, Cyprus waqfs were a self-sustaining institution which had a
well-developed building upkeep and maintenance system.24 The continuity
of waqfs depended on the proper upkeep and maintenance of the endowed
buildings. Hence, it was a priority to use the waqf revenues for the upkeep
and maintenance of both the income-generating structures and religious facilities. The waqf system operated with sustainable principles such as regular
monitoring and maintenance on buildings to prevent advanced and costly
decay. With its transformation into a government department during the
colonial era, the institution’s resources were redirected to other areas, and
it lost its capacity to offer affordable building protection. The Evkaf entered
the post-1974 era as a government department, whose resources and revenues are mostly directed towards the newly emerging requirements of the
community.25 This was unlike the Islamic waqf system, which focused on the
protection of the endowed buildings. While the Evkaf owns a large number
of heritage structures, including examples of various residential, commercial,
and educational properties, their conservation decisions have often prioritised functioning mosques.26 For this purpose, the Evkaf has received funds
and technical expertise from Turkey’s General Directorate of Foundations
(TC Vakıflar Genel Müdürlüğü) in the post-1974 era. An example of this
is the restoration of many historical mosques since the 1990s in Northern
Cyprus using the resources of the General Directorate of Foundations as per
the protocols signed between them and the Evkaf.27
As for the churches in the North abandoned due to military conflict and
incorparated into administration of the Evkaf after 1974, those listed as ancient monuments were either entirely transferred to the DoAM, or the two
organisations shared responsibilities. Many churches in the villages, mostly
constructed during the British colonial period, have been converted into
mosques. Hence, they have been provided with essential maintenance and
repair. Some have been repaired and allocated to local organisations to be
24 For an analysis of Ottoman waqfs’ role in shaping and protecting built environments
in Cyprus, see Sabri 2019b, 32–44. For further information on the organization of
waqfs in Ottoman Cyprus, see Yıldız 2009; and for the typology and examples of
waqf built properties around the island see Bağışkan 2009.
25 For detailed analyses of the shifts and transformation of the waqf system throughout the British colonial era, see Sabri 2019b, 45–132.
26 Based on the suthor’s survey in the Evkaf ’s waqf building upkeep and maintenance
files (from 1975-2010) in 2012.
27 This information has been retrieved from an interview with Mr. Mustafa
Kaymakamzade, the then Evkaf Director, on 22 April 2012.
226
Reyhan Sabri
used for various functions, including cultural activities, exhibition spaces and
meeting halls.28 Unfortunately, those which remained unused, especially in
remote rural areas have materially and structurally deteriorated because of
the lack of resources to fund repair and maintenance works. While the dire
conservation state of some of the Greek Orthodox ecclesiastical structures
in rural areas has been criticised,29 it must be remembered that political isolation has its toll not only on people but also on heritage structures.30 The
converted churches sadly became a source of tension between the Greek
and Turkish communities when the Greek Cypriots visited them after the
opening of the borders in 2004.31 This led to the construction of new village
mosques and the converted churches becoming unused, leaving them open
to deterioration and creating conservation problems.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL
CONSERVATION PRACTICE IN NORTHERN CYPRUS
The de-facto division of Cyprus is a long-running obstacle for attracting conservation professionals and funding to Northern Cyprus. To some
extent, this has been overcome with the backing of international organisations. These include the United Nations Development Programme (herafter
UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (herafter
USAID), Supporting Activities that Value the Environment (SAVE - which
is a subsidiary of USAID), and the European Commission. Among these international organisations, UNDP has been the most active. Among the first
projects supported by the UNDP was the bi-communal Nicosia Master Plan
(hereafter NMP) prepared under the 1979 initiative of Mustafa Akıncı and
Lellos Demetrades, the then Turkish and Greek Mayors of Nicosia. It aimed to
create a joint planning strategy for improving infrastructure and rehabilitating the heritage areas in the walled city.32 The first phase of the plan in North
28 Saifi – Yüceer 2013.
29 See for instance: Chotzakoglou 2008; Jansen 2005. Sadly, these publications fail to
be objective in the coverage of religious sites belonging to both communities. For
an analysis of Michael Jansen’s manipulative exclusion of the destructions on the
Islamic heritage sites in the RoC while focusing only on the Christian sites in the
North, see Hardy 2010, 160–168.
30 As Hardy 2010, 144–149, has demonstrated, the ongoing boycotting of archaeological excavations and publications, and the blacklisting of the researchers who conduct fieldwork in Northern Cyprus, not only hinders the widening of knowledge,
but also the improvement of cultural heritage skills in the North.
31 Constantinou et al. 2012.
32 Stubbs – Makas 2011, 353.
227
New Approaches
Nicosia was the restoration and rehabilitation of the Arabahmet District,
which started in 1985 and continued through the 1990s. The Arabahmet
District was a declining neighbourhood, located in the north of Nicosia,
comprising mainly Ottoman and British era residential buildings. UNDP
and USAID provided the funding.33 The project sought general revitalisation
rather than a comprehensive conservation scheme. It initially focused on
renovating the facades, and street landscaping and pedestrianisation, with
a limited number of properties having interior renovations.34 Houses were
mainly private properties, and no repair grants were available until much
later for the property owners to undertake interior restoration works. Sadly,
in the absence of regular maintenance, almost two decades after the initial
façade renovations, the exterior finishings have deteriorated (Fig. 3).
The funding of conservation works, even urgent ones, remained a significant problem until the beginning of the 21st c. Finally, in 2002, the Council of
Europe issued a report emphasising problems requiring urgent interventions
and protection of architectural heritage sites in Northern Cyprus, stressing
that this situation cannot be ignored any further and calling for international
funding.35 In the same period, the preparation of restoration and rehabilitation projects related to Nicosia’s historic city walls (which were already
identified in NMP), and the provision of financial support were brought
under the umbrella of the UNDP.
With Cyprus becoming a full member of the European Union in 2004,
further opportunities emerged to receive support to document and preserve
architectural heritage throughout the island. Since then, architectural conservation practices have gained momentum, especially with the financial
backing of the European Commission under the auspices of the UNDP. Many
architectural monuments have been restored, and historical environmental
rehabilitation works have been carried out in Northern Cyprus.36 Restoration
works in walled Nicosia were extended to include buildings from the British
colonial period: Bandabulia, which is a closed market from the British colonial period, has been restored and serves its original function.37 Among other
33 Further details: <https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/
pdf/fiche-projet/cyprus/cy-fm/2001/cy0104-01-rehabilitationnicosia-phase2.pdf>
(19.07.2020).
34 Doratlı 2016, 460–61.
35 Stubbs – Makas 2011, 351.
36 Further details: <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/operations/
projects/partnershipforthefuture/upgrading-of-local-and-urban-infrastructure--phase-ii.html> (19.07.2020).
37 For the renovation and revitalization of Bandabulia: <https://www.cy.undp.org/
228
Reyhan Sabri
works are the restoration and rehabilitation of Samanbahçe mass housing and
the restorations of the facades of traditional houses in the Selimiye region.
One of the key projects, perhaps, is the conservation works carried out
on Bedesten (former St. Nicholas Church) in Nicosia. This Frankish-era
Orthodox church, which was converted into a covered market during the
Ottoman period38, has been restored and used as an exhibition and conference hall. The Bedesten project is very important for the implementation of
restoration techniques that have not been used before in Northern Cyprus.
Within the scope of this project, structural consolidation was made between
2004-06 and the earthquake resistance of the building was increased.39
Between 2007 and 2009, interventions focused on the protection of materials and arrangements for adaptive reuse. Hydraulic lime injection strengthened the bearing capacity of the foundation and walls, which had become
structurally weak. The application of the hydraulic lime injection was a first
in Northern Cyprus, and it set an example for other projects, including the
Büyük Hamam restoration project, which was planned and implemented by
the Evkaf. In addition, the contemporary shell, made from steel and wood,
was used to replace the missing vaulted roof (Fig. 4). The arched openings
were covered by glass panels fastened with metal hooks, as part of a system
which does not require drilling holes in the original fabric. These were considered to be innovative solutions when they were applied for the first time
in Northern Cyprus.
Another milestone in terms of international support for the conservation
of architectural heritage emerged in 2008 when the European Parliament
decided to support, via the European Commission, a comprehensive survey
of cultural heritage in Northern Cyprus. The purpose of this survey was to
identify heritage structures, document their current state, and plan and cost
their conservation. Later, the study was expanded to include a comprehensive
inventory of Ottoman period architectural heritage throughout the island.
As part of this project, a bi-communal Technical Committee on Cultural
Heritage was established in 2008. An extensive survey was carried out in 2010
with the sponsorship of UNDP as per the invitation of the European Union.
content/cyprus/en/home/operations/projects/partnershipforthefuture/upgrading-of-local-and-urban-infrastructure---phase-ii/renovation-of-the-bandabuliya--old-market-.html> (14.08.2020)
38 Bağışkan 2009, 506.
39 Further details: <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/operations/
projects/partnershipforthefuture/upgrading-of-local-and-urban-infrastructure--phase-ii/restoration-and-re-use-of-the-bedestan--st--nicolas-church-.html>
(19.07.2020).
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New Approaches
Upon its completion, 2300 cultural heritage sites were identified, and inventory was prepared for about 700 of them.40 The latter were ranked based on a
set of heritage valorisation criteria, and technical evaluation was performed
on 121 of them.41 In the second phase of the project, heritage structures were
identified that were a conservation priority and staged conservation works
were initiated.42 Among them were four large-scale projects; the medieval
walls and Othello Tower in Famagusta, Apostolos Andreas Monastery in
Karpasia peninsula and Ag. Panteleimonas Monastery in Çamlıbel/Myrtou.43
In addition to these, conservation projects began on various heritage structures, and emergency measures were introduced in stages, especially for
abandoned mosques and churches under threat of collapse in rural areas
throughout Cyprus.44
Overall, Northern Cyprus has witnessed an unprecedented momentum
change in the conservation of architectural monuments and heritage structures since the outset of the 21st c. However, concerns are emerging relating
to the negative impacts of the continuing politicization of the conservation
planning. For instance, the Greek Orthodox Church authority’s unwillingness to participate in the conservation of the Apostolos Andreas Monastery,
delayed the works for a long time.45 The implementation of the restoration
project, which has been prepared by the University of Patras in Greece and
under the directives of the Greek Orthodox Church authority of Cyprus,
finally started in September 2014.46 In addition to renovation works, the
project involves controversial reconstruction practices as seen in the additions on the northern part of the Church (Fig. 5). Drawing lessons from
such practices is undeniably important for the formulation of conservation
regulations and guidelines.
40 Tuncay 2016, 443.
41 Tuncay 2016, 443.
42 See for further information: <http://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/
operations/projects/partnershipforthefuture/support-to-cultural-heritage-monuments-of-great-importance-for-c.html> (19.07.2020).
43 See: <http://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/01/28/tender-for-agios-panteleimonas-monastery-closing-soon/>
(19.07.2020).
44 Tuncay 2016, 443–445. For further information, see The Technical Committee
on Cultural Heritage (2015), <http://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/
library/partnershipforthefuture/the-technical-committee-on-cultural-heritage--2015-.html> (11.08.2020), <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/
home/operations/projects/partnershipforthefuture.html> (11.08.2020).
45 Harmanşah 2016, 481.
46 For the phases of the project: <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/
projects/restoration-of-the-monastery-of-apostolos-andreas.html> (11.08.2020).
230
Reyhan Sabri
CONCLUSION
Despite Turkish Cypriots having entered the post-1974 period lacking
experience in the field of architectural conservation, they have been proactive in creating legislative and organisational frameworks. The preservationist legislation allowed for a comprehensive listing of architectural heritage freed from a cut-off date. As well, the immediate establishment of the
DoAM, and appointment of a conservation specialist, were key moments
of success for conservation projects implemented in the 1980s and 1990s.
However, due to limited human and technical resources, and tight budgets,
the number of heritage structures which benefitted from conservation works
during that timeframe were insignificant compared to the expanded list of
ancient monuments. Similarly, the Evkaf, which manages a substantial architectural heritage portfolio, has remained weak in terms of its institutional
capacity for conservation planning. With the involvement of the European
Commission, the financial resources available for conservation, especially
for emergencies, has increased since 2004. International experts have been
instrumental in introducing new perspectives, technologies, and innovative
solutions to the field. However, not only the strengths but also the weaknesses
of such practices should be comprehensively analysed. Lessons learnt from
these practices need to be considered carefully and utilised in forming the
hitherto absent regulations for architectural conservation practice.
Relying on foreign aid for emergency conservation is not a sustainable
approach. Developing sound local funding sources should be prioritised
as this will allow for regular monitoring and maintenance on the heritage
structures. Better funding will prevent not only advanced decay but also
make local-level conservation efforts financially manageable. Another problem which needs to be addressed is the lack of collaboration between the
DoAM, the DoA, Evkaf, and local academic institutions regarding database
formation and knowledge and expertise sharing in the use of technologies,
both for documentation and conservation. Such a collaboration could be
invaluable in building architectural heritage databases, but also in terms of
consultancy services, especially for the historical analyses of heritage structures and their valuation.
The way forward requires improving heritage policy and practice by extensively analysing the weaknesses in legislative, financial, and organisational frameworks, creating opportunities for multi-disciplinary collaboration,
and drawing lessons from the practical experiences of the post-1974 era.
231
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Fig. 2 - Büyük Han, adaptive reuse as cultural-commercial space (by author).
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a.
Fig. 4 - Interior view from Bedestan in Nicosia (by author).
b.
Fig. 3a-b - Views from the present conservation state of facades in
Arabahmet District in Nicosia (author).
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Fig. 5 - Reconstruction works on the historic site of Apostolos Andreas Monastery in Karpasia peninsula in 2016 (by author).
237