NEW APPROACHES TOWARD RECORDING, PRESERVING AND STUDYING CULTURAL HERITAGE IN DIVIDED CYPRUS: PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES ISBN: 978-605-70810-3-2 NEW APPROACHES TOWARD RECORDING, PRESERVING AND STUDYING CULTURAL HERITAGE IN DIVIDED CYPRUS: PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES First print: May 2023, ARUCAD Press, 2023, Kyrenia Publisher Certificate No: 51959 Publication Director Oya Silbery Cover design Melis Dağgül Cover image Church Panagia Kyra Book design Fatma Irem Erol Print and binding Acar Basım ve Cilt San. Tic. A.Ş. Bsi, Birlik Cad. No: 26, Acar Binası Haramidere/Beylikdüzü-İSTANBUL Tel: +90 (0212) 422 18 34 Sertifika No: 44977 The authors are responsible for the articles. Copyright 2023 by ARUCAD Press. All rights reserved. This book or any portion there of may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher and authors except for the use of brief quotations in a book review. Arkin University of Creative Arts and Design Şair Nedim Sokak, No: 11, Kyrenia, Cyprus Tel: +90 (0392) 650 65 55 www.arucad.edu.tr Distribution: info@arucad.edu.tr ARUCAD Press, an institution of the Arkin University of Creative Arts and Design. NEW APPROACHES TOWARD RECORDING, PRESERVING AND STUDYING CULTURAL HERITAGE IN DIVIDED CYPRUS: PROBLEMS & OPPORTUNITIES Edited by Lâtife Summerer Marko Kiessel – Hazar Kaba ARUCAD Press In memoriam Rıza Tuncel (1971-2022) Contents Introduction The Cultural Heritage Question within the Cyprus Dispute: Law, Policy and Reconciliation Alexander Gillespie In Fear of Blacklisting. How the Division Shaped Archaeology in Cyprus Lâtife Summerer Between Rejection and Coping -Do Turkish Cypriots Have the Right to Conduct Archaeological Research? Hazar Kaba 9 15 33 87 Politics and Monuments in Cyprus: Dilemma or a Way Out? Dimitris Michalopoulos 123 Utilizing Soft Power for Managing Cultural Heritage in Cyprus Naciye Doratlı 137 The Technical Committee on Cultural Heritage: An Alternative Model for Solving the Problems in the Field of Cultural Heritage Ali Tuncay Alashia Reborn?: Replicating and “Repatriating” Heritage in Cyprus Leticia R. Rodriguez From Excavation to Exhibition Problems in the Conservation of Archaeological Objects from Excavations in Cyprus Marie-Louise Winbladh Architectural Conservation in Northern Cyprus: An Overview of the Legislative Developments, Organisational Structure, and Heritage Practices of the post-1974 Era Reyhan Sabri From Alasia to Kizzuwatna: Late Cypriot Pottery from Tepebağ Höyük Ekin Kozal – Deniz Yaşin A new Archaic Sanctuary in Cyprus? On Sculptural Finds from Aphendrika in the Karpas Peninsula Marko Kiessel 159 175 191 219 239 271 An Integrated Approach to Archaeological Heritage: The Shipwreck Museum in the Kyrenia Castle, Cyprus Alessandro Camiz – Zeynep Ceylanlı – Giorgio Verdiani The Cesnola Collection of Terracotta Oil Lamps from Cyprus Christopher S. Lightfoot 301 323 From Watershed to Church. A Fragmented Biography of Panagia tis Kyras (Sazlıköy/Livadia) Latife Summerer 341 Rural Cyprus between Arab Invasions (8th c.) and Venetian Rule (16th c.): Church Architecture and Society on the Karpas Peninsula Thomas Kaffenberger 407 Poetics in Digital Modelling: Bells, Banners, Murals and Music in the 14th c. Church of St. Anne, Famagusta Michael J.K. Walsh 439 The Issues of Managing Modern Heritage in North Cyprus: An Investigation of Historic Cinema Buildings in Nicosia Aliye Menteş – Valentina Donà 473 Transgressive Design Strategies: Political Discourse Acts as a Transnational Catalyst in the Decision-making of Architectural Reconciliation Process in Cyprus Bertuğ Özarısoy – Haşim Altan The Narrative Dimension of Cultural Heritage in the City of Dead: Story-telling of Cemeteries Yannis Polymenidis – Konstantinos Lalenis – Evi Kolovou 501 517 Architectural Conservation in Northern Cyprus: An Overview of the Legislative Developments, Organisational Structure, and Heritage Practices of the post-1974 Era REYHAN SABRİ* INTRODUCTION Interest in protecting the architectural heritage in Cyprus arose during the last quarter of the 19th c. The island came under British rule at this time and protection was motivated by the then evolving medievalist conservation ethos in Britain.1 The establishment of the colonial Department of Antiques in 1934 was a milestone for organising the architectural conservation field on the island. The new Antiques Law came into force in 1935 and expanded the scope and cut-off date for the listing of ancient monuments.2 At the same time, the Antiques Department was given the authority to approve and/or supervise conservation projects related to the historical structures that were defined as antiquities.3 The post-colonial bi-communal Republic of Cyprus (hereafter RoC) subsequently borrowed the British colonial era’s legislative framework and administrative system in 1960. The main change was in the organisational structure in that positions formerly occupied by British scholar-bureaucrats were now filled by Greek Cypriots. The Department of Antiquities of Cyprus (hereafter DoA) focused its resources on excavating, protecting, and presenting the archaeological sites and architectural monuments. This was done in a way to best support Greek national and religious identity.4 As Julie Scott has observed, the conspicuous absence of a Turkish * 1 2 3 4 Dr. Reyhan Sabri, University of Sharjah, rsabri@sharjah.ac.ae Sabri 2016, 232–234. Blackall 1935. Blackall 1935. Limbouri 2011, 52. Also see Leriou 2002; Leriou 2007; Michael 2005; Sabri 2019a for 219 New Approaches name in the technical or administrative staff of the Department from 19601974 indicates how the Turkish community were sidelined in national heritage management.5 Cyprus was politically and geographically divided in 1974, a culmination of inter-communal conflicts which started in the 1950s and reached its peak in 1963. Many of its most important architectural heritage sites remained within the borders of the new state established by the Turkish Cypriot community in the northern part of the island. The post-1974 era coincides with the evolution of international conservation principles and guidance, especially after the declaration of the Venice Charter in 1964. Consequently, the Turkish Cypriots, who did not have any professional presence in the field before 1974, entered the last quarter of the 20th c. with the responsibility for a substantial cultural heritage portfolio at a time when cultural heritage awareness had been rising globally. This article presents an overview of the legislative developments, organisational structure, and architectural heritage practices in Northern Cyprus in the post-1974 period. DEVELOPMENTS IN PRESERVATIONIST LEGISLATION The British colonial Antiques Law, which had been in effect since 1935, was amended and enacted as Law no. 31/1959 (Cap. 31) of the RoC, which was established in 1960. The main change in the definition of an architectural monument was perhaps the change of cut-off date from 1700 to 1850. As in the colonial era, conservation was centralised under the control and approval of the Department of Antiques. One of the first actions of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus (Kıbrıs Türk Federe Devleti), which was established in the northern part of the island in 1975, was the amendment of Law no. 31/1959 and the establishment of the Department of Antiquities and Museums (Eski Eserler ve Müzeler Dairesi) (hereafter DoAM). In the newly enacted Law no. 35/1975, the scope of the definition of monuments was expanded, and the cut-off date was removed.6 The duty to take action to maintain and repair architectural monuments 5 6 220 how the Late Bronze Age, Classical/Hellenistic and Byzantine periods were defined by the Cypriot Greek elites as the focal points of official archaeology in Cyprus, with a dominant Hellenisation narrative aiming for the consolidation of the longevity and superiority of Greek presence. Scott 2002, 102. For the ongoing boycotting of archaeological activity and the blacklisting of researchers conducting fieldwork in Northern Cyprus since 1974, see Hardy 2010, 144–149. See the Law of 35/1975. <http://www.cm.gov.nc.tr/Yasalarr> (28.05.2021). Reyhan Sabri owned by natural and legal persons was assigned to the ministry to which DoAM was attached. It was also decided that projects related to the use and repair of the ancient monuments held by Cyprus Evkaf Administration (hereafter Evkaf) would be undertaken by the Evkaf, subject to the approval of the Council of Ministers. Meanwhile, with the transfer of the real estate belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church to the Evkaf, it also became responsible for the maintenance of the Orthodox ecclesiastical structures in Northern Cyprus abandoned due to the war.7 Combined with the Ottoman waqf properties, the Evkaf entered the post-1974 era responsible for the maintenance and repair of the island’s most substantial architectural heritage portfolio. According to the Antiquities Law no. 35/1975, the Ministry to which DoAM is attached to, has been charged with constituting the High Council of Monuments (Anıtlar Yüksek Kurulu), which identifies and registers ancient monuments. The new regime prepared a monuments list, which was approved by the Council of Ministers on 20 December 1976, and published in the official newspaper in 1979.8 In the list, there were many Ottoman-era Muslim religious and secular structures which were listed for the first time. Following the establishment of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (hereafter TRNC), Urban Planning Law no. 55/899 was enacted, and the City Planning Office was given the authority to locate and identify heritage sites. It joined forces with the DoAM to make recommendations for heritage listings to the High Council of Monuments. Another significant development regarding preservation legislation took place in 1994 when the scope of Antiquities Law no. 35/1975 was revised, leading to the enactment of Law no. 60/1994, which is still in effect today.10 Law no. 60/1994 addresses the issue of urban sites and authorises the City Planning Department to identify conservation areas and determine their limits. Based on this, the historic walled cities of Nicosia and Famagusta and the Kyrenia Castle area were declared to be urban conservation areas. An important feature of Law no. 60/1994 is Article 42, which establishes the High Council of Immovable Antiquities and Monuments as the authority to identify the stakeholders and to approve 7 8 Hyland 1999, 67. Kıbrıs Türk Federe Devleti Resmi Gazetesi (Official Gazette of the Turkish Federated State of Cyprus), 5 April 1979, no. 29, supplement IV, 45–48. 9 Until 1989, the colonial era’s “Roads and Buildings, Chapter 96” (Yollar ve Binalar fasıl 96), which remained in force (since 1946) but lacked provisions for urban heritage, had guided urban planning. 10 See for “No. 60/1994 Monuments Law” (No. 60/1994 Eski Eserler Yasası) with the amendments in 13/2001 and 14/2017. <http://www.cm.gov.nc.tr/Yasalarr> (28.05.2021). 221 New Approaches the management of registered monuments. It consists of eleven members from relevant government departments, NGOs, and a representative from a university Northern Cyprus. In addition, Article 20 of the Law envisages the establishment of a Monuments Protection Fund (Eski Eserleri Koruma Fonu) (herafter MPF) to create resources for conservation and restoration works. Also, as per the Law no. 60/1994, while the Evkaf holds the right to maintain and repair the listed historic structures within the framework of the traditional Ahkam-ül Evkaf regulations, the related projects have been subjected to High Council of Immovable Antiquities and Monuments’ approval, and their execution placed under the supervision of the DoAM. Article 19 defines the conditions for the expropriation of monuments possessed by natural or legal persons - including Evkaf - which are at risk of losing their character through inappropriate physical interventions or lack of maintenance. Accordingly, the conservation and use of these expropriated properties follow plans prepared by the DoAM. It is important to note that while the legislation is comprehensive in terms of identifying monuments and assigning responsibilities, heritage policy and resources in Northern Cyprus is still inadequate. The consequences of this will be further discussed later in this paper. ESTABLISHING THE ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE With the establishment of the DoAM in 1975, the Turkish Cypriots emerged for the first time as actors, who had not previously taken an active role in management, or technical and practical activities, of the Greek Cypriot-led DoA. The crucial step in establishing the organisational structure for architectural conservation was the creation of a Documentation and Restoration Branch (Rölöve ve Restorasyon Birimi) under the DoAM and employing İlkay Feridun,11 a Turkish Cypriot restoration specialist. Ms. Feridun was instrumental in initiating the documentation of architectural heritage in Northern Cyprus. She also consolidated conservation awareness in the DoAM in line with the then developing in international conservation principles. Unfortunately, despite this promising start, subsequent governments could not allocate adequate budgetary and human resources for the Documentation and Restoration Branch to enable comprehensive mainte11 Ms. Ilkay Feridun is the first Turkish Cypriot architectural heritage professional who returned to the island. She had completed her masters degree in the restoration of historic buildings in 1975 at the Middle East Technical University. See Özdeğer – Yeşilada 1993, 14. 222 Reyhan Sabri nance and conservation works on all ancient monuments. In many cases, the action remained confined to emergency repairs due to lack of funds. Nevertheless, most of the conservation works undertaken by the DoAM, especially during 1990-2005, are highly commendable in terms of the use of local materials and traditional plasters/mortars which are physically and chemically compatible with the existing historic fabric. However, lack of resources became apparent with those cases requiring the use of modern strengthening techniques and materials. The frequent changing of the ministry to which DoAM is attached often results in slow decision making to the detriment of ancient monuments and heritage structures.12 As for the Evkaf, despite having a substantial portfolio of historical structures, it has remained weak in terms of developing an effective organisational structure dedicated to conservation work. This is seen in the absence of heritage professional(s) employed within the institution, as well as in the lack of clear heritage policy and regulations. The multi-purpose Construction and Real Estate Branch (İnşaat ve Emlak Şubesi) was established under the Vakıflar ve Din İşleri Teşkilat Kanunu (Foundations and Religious Affairs Organization Law) of 31/1971. It undertakes the planning and implementation of the repair and maintenance of all types of architectural heritage belonging to the institution. There are weaknesses in the organisational structures governing architectural heritage in Northern Cyprus, especially the lack of technical personnel and equipment. These deficiencies have been highlighted at the National Culture and Art Congresses; organised with relevant stakeholders in 1998, 2001 and 2006; yet they remain a serious problem. For instance, the transfer of the MPF in 2006 to the Finance Ministry was a severe blow to the DoAM’s financial capacity.13 The Fund was established as per Article 20 of Law no. 60/1994, and provided financial resources for several emergency and restoration projects between 1994-2006. The lack of financial resources and technical expertise has also been highlighted in a report by Josef Stulc in 2002, submitted to the Council of Europe regarding the current state of architectural heritage in Northern Cyprus.14 How architectural conservation practice has been shaped in this context is addressed in the next section. 12 Regarding the administrative and organisational weaknesses caused by changing the ministries with responsibilities for urban conservation in the TRNC, see Hoşkara – Doratlı 2011, 869–870. 13 For pleas at the Culture and Art Congress in 2006 for its transfer back to the DoAM to generate revenue for conservation projects, see Doratlı 2014. 14 Stulc 2002. 223 New Approaches ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE CONSERVATION PRACTICES IN NORTHERN CYPRUS IN THE POST-1974 ERA Architectural conservation practice was quite slow, especially in the first twenty years after 1974, due to the lack of heritage practitioners, technical personnel, and extremely tight finances. One of the first projects undertaken by the DoAM was the restoration and adaptive reuse of the Derviş Paşa Konağı in Nicosia’s walled Arabahmet district carried out between 1979-86 (Fig. 1).15 This building, which was converted into an ethnographic museum in 1988, was listed in 1979. The project indicated that the island’s hitherto neglected Ottoman architectural legacy16 would receive attention in the new era. Among the other conservation works undertaken by the DoAM in the 1980s and 1990s were: the restoration of a part of the Venetian walls of Nicosia in 1982-86, the restoration of Ag. Lucas Church in Nicosia in 1986 and Haydar Paşa Camii (former St. Catherine Church) in 1986-89, and the conservation and adaptive reuse of St. Barnabas Monastery near Famagusta in 1991-92, which became the Icon and Archaeology Museum.17 The establishment of the abovementioned MPF provided funding for several projects in the 1990s. These included the restoration and adaptive reuse projects of the Eaved House (Saçaklı Ev) and the Lusignan House (Lüzinyan Evi) in Nicosia. As well, partial maintenance and repair works were carried out in Kyrenia Castle, which was converted into a museum, exhibition and conference space.18 One of the first restoration projects was that of Büyük Han in Nicosia, which is the island’s largest classical Ottoman city inn and administratively attached to the Evkaf (Fig. 2). Planning was done by Ms Ilkay Feridun of DoAM and the project started in 1982 under the supervision of the DoAM. However, it came to a halt due to insufficient funding, and then continued with support provided by the German Government between 1988 and 1990, and later by the Turkish Embassy between 1995-2002.19 The southern portico of the Han was assessed to be in endangered at risk of falling and 15 16 17 18 19 224 Özdeğer – Yeşilada 1993, 14. Sabri 2017. Özdeğer – Yeşilada 1993, 15. Hyland 1999, 68. This information has been retrieved from an interview with Ms. İlkay Feridun on 8 June 2012. Reyhan Sabri pulled down during the restoration work under the control of the DoA in 1963.20 The portico was reconstructed during the restorations in the 1990s in reinforced concrete and clad with stone slabs similar to the original masonry. When the restoration works were completed, the building was converted into a cultural and tourism centre where traditional Cypriot handicrafts are produced and sold. Restoration projects planned and implemented by the DoAM used local materials, traditional mortars, plasters, and water-proofing compositions compatible with the original products. These practices indicate the adoption of the restoration principles stipulated by the Venice Charter (1964). Early efforts were made not to use Portland cement in the repair or restoration works unless it was necessary for structural consolidation. Even though the Turkish Cypriots entered the post-1974 era without any experience in the field, by the 1980s, the DoAM had developed sufficient capacity in planning and executing architectural conservation works to be up to date with the evolving international principles.21 The problem was, and still is, the lack of adequate human resources and funds.22 Due to the low numbers of technical staff, the DoAM has been inefficient in monitoring the state of the architectural monuments. Consequently, the ability to monitor repair/restoration works on heritage assets owned by other natural or legal persons, especially those by the Evkaf, has suffered. For instance, it was only by coincidence that the DoAM became aware that the original materials and designs were not being altered in the restoration works carried out in the 1980s for the Great Bath (Büyük Hamam), the largest surviving Ottoman public bath on the island which was owned by the Evkaf.23 Projects to conserve architectural monuments and heritage structures which are the property or responsibility of the Evkaf are prepared by the institution’s Construction and Real Estate Branch. Such projects are subject to the approval of the High Council of Immovable Antiquities and Monuments (Taşınmaz Eski Eserler ve Anıtlar Yüksek Kurulu), and they are carried out under the supervision of the DoAM. Note that before being transformed 20 Ms. İlkay Feridun on 8 June 2012. 21 Arguably, restoration practices in line with the Venice Charter of 1964 emerged in Northern Cyprus in the 1980s, almost simultaneously with the RoC. For an overview of the conservation practice in the RoC, see Philokyprou – Limbouri-Kozakou 2015. 22 The lack of conservation specialists and laboratory has also been recently remarked, albeit in the context of archaeological findings, by Fehlmann 2016, 433. 23 This information has been retrieved from an interview with Ms. İlkay Feridun on 8 June 2012. 225 New Approaches into a governmental department - namely the Evkaf - during the British colonial era, Cyprus waqfs were a self-sustaining institution which had a well-developed building upkeep and maintenance system.24 The continuity of waqfs depended on the proper upkeep and maintenance of the endowed buildings. Hence, it was a priority to use the waqf revenues for the upkeep and maintenance of both the income-generating structures and religious facilities. The waqf system operated with sustainable principles such as regular monitoring and maintenance on buildings to prevent advanced and costly decay. With its transformation into a government department during the colonial era, the institution’s resources were redirected to other areas, and it lost its capacity to offer affordable building protection. The Evkaf entered the post-1974 era as a government department, whose resources and revenues are mostly directed towards the newly emerging requirements of the community.25 This was unlike the Islamic waqf system, which focused on the protection of the endowed buildings. While the Evkaf owns a large number of heritage structures, including examples of various residential, commercial, and educational properties, their conservation decisions have often prioritised functioning mosques.26 For this purpose, the Evkaf has received funds and technical expertise from Turkey’s General Directorate of Foundations (TC Vakıflar Genel Müdürlüğü) in the post-1974 era. An example of this is the restoration of many historical mosques since the 1990s in Northern Cyprus using the resources of the General Directorate of Foundations as per the protocols signed between them and the Evkaf.27 As for the churches in the North abandoned due to military conflict and incorparated into administration of the Evkaf after 1974, those listed as ancient monuments were either entirely transferred to the DoAM, or the two organisations shared responsibilities. Many churches in the villages, mostly constructed during the British colonial period, have been converted into mosques. Hence, they have been provided with essential maintenance and repair. Some have been repaired and allocated to local organisations to be 24 For an analysis of Ottoman waqfs’ role in shaping and protecting built environments in Cyprus, see Sabri 2019b, 32–44. For further information on the organization of waqfs in Ottoman Cyprus, see Yıldız 2009; and for the typology and examples of waqf built properties around the island see Bağışkan 2009. 25 For detailed analyses of the shifts and transformation of the waqf system throughout the British colonial era, see Sabri 2019b, 45–132. 26 Based on the suthor’s survey in the Evkaf ’s waqf building upkeep and maintenance files (from 1975-2010) in 2012. 27 This information has been retrieved from an interview with Mr. Mustafa Kaymakamzade, the then Evkaf Director, on 22 April 2012. 226 Reyhan Sabri used for various functions, including cultural activities, exhibition spaces and meeting halls.28 Unfortunately, those which remained unused, especially in remote rural areas have materially and structurally deteriorated because of the lack of resources to fund repair and maintenance works. While the dire conservation state of some of the Greek Orthodox ecclesiastical structures in rural areas has been criticised,29 it must be remembered that political isolation has its toll not only on people but also on heritage structures.30 The converted churches sadly became a source of tension between the Greek and Turkish communities when the Greek Cypriots visited them after the opening of the borders in 2004.31 This led to the construction of new village mosques and the converted churches becoming unused, leaving them open to deterioration and creating conservation problems. INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS AND ARCHITECTURAL CONSERVATION PRACTICE IN NORTHERN CYPRUS The de-facto division of Cyprus is a long-running obstacle for attracting conservation professionals and funding to Northern Cyprus. To some extent, this has been overcome with the backing of international organisations. These include the United Nations Development Programme (herafter UNDP), the United States Agency for International Development (herafter USAID), Supporting Activities that Value the Environment (SAVE - which is a subsidiary of USAID), and the European Commission. Among these international organisations, UNDP has been the most active. Among the first projects supported by the UNDP was the bi-communal Nicosia Master Plan (hereafter NMP) prepared under the 1979 initiative of Mustafa Akıncı and Lellos Demetrades, the then Turkish and Greek Mayors of Nicosia. It aimed to create a joint planning strategy for improving infrastructure and rehabilitating the heritage areas in the walled city.32 The first phase of the plan in North 28 Saifi – Yüceer 2013. 29 See for instance: Chotzakoglou 2008; Jansen 2005. Sadly, these publications fail to be objective in the coverage of religious sites belonging to both communities. For an analysis of Michael Jansen’s manipulative exclusion of the destructions on the Islamic heritage sites in the RoC while focusing only on the Christian sites in the North, see Hardy 2010, 160–168. 30 As Hardy 2010, 144–149, has demonstrated, the ongoing boycotting of archaeological excavations and publications, and the blacklisting of the researchers who conduct fieldwork in Northern Cyprus, not only hinders the widening of knowledge, but also the improvement of cultural heritage skills in the North. 31 Constantinou et al. 2012. 32 Stubbs – Makas 2011, 353. 227 New Approaches Nicosia was the restoration and rehabilitation of the Arabahmet District, which started in 1985 and continued through the 1990s. The Arabahmet District was a declining neighbourhood, located in the north of Nicosia, comprising mainly Ottoman and British era residential buildings. UNDP and USAID provided the funding.33 The project sought general revitalisation rather than a comprehensive conservation scheme. It initially focused on renovating the facades, and street landscaping and pedestrianisation, with a limited number of properties having interior renovations.34 Houses were mainly private properties, and no repair grants were available until much later for the property owners to undertake interior restoration works. Sadly, in the absence of regular maintenance, almost two decades after the initial façade renovations, the exterior finishings have deteriorated (Fig. 3). The funding of conservation works, even urgent ones, remained a significant problem until the beginning of the 21st c. Finally, in 2002, the Council of Europe issued a report emphasising problems requiring urgent interventions and protection of architectural heritage sites in Northern Cyprus, stressing that this situation cannot be ignored any further and calling for international funding.35 In the same period, the preparation of restoration and rehabilitation projects related to Nicosia’s historic city walls (which were already identified in NMP), and the provision of financial support were brought under the umbrella of the UNDP. With Cyprus becoming a full member of the European Union in 2004, further opportunities emerged to receive support to document and preserve architectural heritage throughout the island. Since then, architectural conservation practices have gained momentum, especially with the financial backing of the European Commission under the auspices of the UNDP. Many architectural monuments have been restored, and historical environmental rehabilitation works have been carried out in Northern Cyprus.36 Restoration works in walled Nicosia were extended to include buildings from the British colonial period: Bandabulia, which is a closed market from the British colonial period, has been restored and serves its original function.37 Among other 33 Further details: <https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/sites/near/files/ pdf/fiche-projet/cyprus/cy-fm/2001/cy0104-01-rehabilitationnicosia-phase2.pdf> (19.07.2020). 34 Doratlı 2016, 460–61. 35 Stubbs – Makas 2011, 351. 36 Further details: <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/operations/ projects/partnershipforthefuture/upgrading-of-local-and-urban-infrastructure--phase-ii.html> (19.07.2020). 37 For the renovation and revitalization of Bandabulia: <https://www.cy.undp.org/ 228 Reyhan Sabri works are the restoration and rehabilitation of Samanbahçe mass housing and the restorations of the facades of traditional houses in the Selimiye region. One of the key projects, perhaps, is the conservation works carried out on Bedesten (former St. Nicholas Church) in Nicosia. This Frankish-era Orthodox church, which was converted into a covered market during the Ottoman period38, has been restored and used as an exhibition and conference hall. The Bedesten project is very important for the implementation of restoration techniques that have not been used before in Northern Cyprus. Within the scope of this project, structural consolidation was made between 2004-06 and the earthquake resistance of the building was increased.39 Between 2007 and 2009, interventions focused on the protection of materials and arrangements for adaptive reuse. Hydraulic lime injection strengthened the bearing capacity of the foundation and walls, which had become structurally weak. The application of the hydraulic lime injection was a first in Northern Cyprus, and it set an example for other projects, including the Büyük Hamam restoration project, which was planned and implemented by the Evkaf. In addition, the contemporary shell, made from steel and wood, was used to replace the missing vaulted roof (Fig. 4). The arched openings were covered by glass panels fastened with metal hooks, as part of a system which does not require drilling holes in the original fabric. These were considered to be innovative solutions when they were applied for the first time in Northern Cyprus. Another milestone in terms of international support for the conservation of architectural heritage emerged in 2008 when the European Parliament decided to support, via the European Commission, a comprehensive survey of cultural heritage in Northern Cyprus. The purpose of this survey was to identify heritage structures, document their current state, and plan and cost their conservation. Later, the study was expanded to include a comprehensive inventory of Ottoman period architectural heritage throughout the island. As part of this project, a bi-communal Technical Committee on Cultural Heritage was established in 2008. An extensive survey was carried out in 2010 with the sponsorship of UNDP as per the invitation of the European Union. content/cyprus/en/home/operations/projects/partnershipforthefuture/upgrading-of-local-and-urban-infrastructure---phase-ii/renovation-of-the-bandabuliya--old-market-.html> (14.08.2020) 38 Bağışkan 2009, 506. 39 Further details: <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/operations/ projects/partnershipforthefuture/upgrading-of-local-and-urban-infrastructure--phase-ii/restoration-and-re-use-of-the-bedestan--st--nicolas-church-.html> (19.07.2020). 229 New Approaches Upon its completion, 2300 cultural heritage sites were identified, and inventory was prepared for about 700 of them.40 The latter were ranked based on a set of heritage valorisation criteria, and technical evaluation was performed on 121 of them.41 In the second phase of the project, heritage structures were identified that were a conservation priority and staged conservation works were initiated.42 Among them were four large-scale projects; the medieval walls and Othello Tower in Famagusta, Apostolos Andreas Monastery in Karpasia peninsula and Ag. Panteleimonas Monastery in Çamlıbel/Myrtou.43 In addition to these, conservation projects began on various heritage structures, and emergency measures were introduced in stages, especially for abandoned mosques and churches under threat of collapse in rural areas throughout Cyprus.44 Overall, Northern Cyprus has witnessed an unprecedented momentum change in the conservation of architectural monuments and heritage structures since the outset of the 21st c. However, concerns are emerging relating to the negative impacts of the continuing politicization of the conservation planning. For instance, the Greek Orthodox Church authority’s unwillingness to participate in the conservation of the Apostolos Andreas Monastery, delayed the works for a long time.45 The implementation of the restoration project, which has been prepared by the University of Patras in Greece and under the directives of the Greek Orthodox Church authority of Cyprus, finally started in September 2014.46 In addition to renovation works, the project involves controversial reconstruction practices as seen in the additions on the northern part of the Church (Fig. 5). Drawing lessons from such practices is undeniably important for the formulation of conservation regulations and guidelines. 40 Tuncay 2016, 443. 41 Tuncay 2016, 443. 42 See for further information: <http://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/ operations/projects/partnershipforthefuture/support-to-cultural-heritage-monuments-of-great-importance-for-c.html> (19.07.2020). 43 See: <http://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2015/01/28/tender-for-agios-panteleimonas-monastery-closing-soon/> (19.07.2020). 44 Tuncay 2016, 443–445. For further information, see The Technical Committee on Cultural Heritage (2015), <http://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/ library/partnershipforthefuture/the-technical-committee-on-cultural-heritage--2015-.html> (11.08.2020), <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/ home/operations/projects/partnershipforthefuture.html> (11.08.2020). 45 Harmanşah 2016, 481. 46 For the phases of the project: <https://www.cy.undp.org/content/cyprus/en/home/ projects/restoration-of-the-monastery-of-apostolos-andreas.html> (11.08.2020). 230 Reyhan Sabri CONCLUSION Despite Turkish Cypriots having entered the post-1974 period lacking experience in the field of architectural conservation, they have been proactive in creating legislative and organisational frameworks. The preservationist legislation allowed for a comprehensive listing of architectural heritage freed from a cut-off date. As well, the immediate establishment of the DoAM, and appointment of a conservation specialist, were key moments of success for conservation projects implemented in the 1980s and 1990s. However, due to limited human and technical resources, and tight budgets, the number of heritage structures which benefitted from conservation works during that timeframe were insignificant compared to the expanded list of ancient monuments. Similarly, the Evkaf, which manages a substantial architectural heritage portfolio, has remained weak in terms of its institutional capacity for conservation planning. With the involvement of the European Commission, the financial resources available for conservation, especially for emergencies, has increased since 2004. International experts have been instrumental in introducing new perspectives, technologies, and innovative solutions to the field. However, not only the strengths but also the weaknesses of such practices should be comprehensively analysed. Lessons learnt from these practices need to be considered carefully and utilised in forming the hitherto absent regulations for architectural conservation practice. Relying on foreign aid for emergency conservation is not a sustainable approach. Developing sound local funding sources should be prioritised as this will allow for regular monitoring and maintenance on the heritage structures. Better funding will prevent not only advanced decay but also make local-level conservation efforts financially manageable. Another problem which needs to be addressed is the lack of collaboration between the DoAM, the DoA, Evkaf, and local academic institutions regarding database formation and knowledge and expertise sharing in the use of technologies, both for documentation and conservation. 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