Biomedicine
Hub
Research Article
Received: May 31, 2023
Accepted: August 29, 2023
Published online: October 25, 2023
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
Life Satisfaction among Older
Adults in Rural and Urban Mongolia:
A Cross-Sectional Survey Study
aSchool
of Public Health, Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia;
Department of Information Engineering and Computer Science, University of Trento, Trento, Italy; cSchool of
Social Work, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, USA
b
Keywords
Life satisfaction · Loneliness · Mongolia · Rural/urban · Social
support
Abstract
Introduction: Life satisfaction is a strong indicator of wellbeing for older adults. In this study, we aimed to assess the
level and correlates of life satisfaction among older adults in
urban and rural Mongolia. Methods: We recruited
304 community-dwelling older adults in urban and rural
regions of Mongolia. We compared levels of life satisfaction
for the two groups, and then used hierarchical regression to
examine the association of sociodemographic, health,
psychosocial factors, and urban/rural status with life satisfaction. Results: Older adults in urban areas reported higher
levels of life satisfaction than their rural counterparts. In the
final step of the hierarchical regression model, more
grandchildren in the household, better self-rated health, and
reporting more positive than negative affect were associated with better life satisfaction at p < 0.05 as were engaging
in paid work and lower levels of loneliness at p < 0.10. Net
the effects of all other variables in the analysis, older adults
in rural areas reported lower levels of life satisfaction.
Conclusion: Our findings indicate that living in rural areas of
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© 2023 The Author(s).
Published by S. Karger AG, Basel
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Mongolia leads to lower levels of life satisfaction. We identify
potential points to intervene through policies, programs,
and practices that target the strengths and needs of older
adults in rural areas by addressing inequities in socioeconomics, health, mental health, and opportunities for social
integration.
© 2023 The Author(s).
Published by S. Karger AG, Basel
Introduction
Subjective well-being (SWB) refers to how people
evaluate their lives at a given moment and over more
extended periods. Life circumstances and dispositional/
construal theories provide complementary frameworks
for conceptualizing SWB [1]. Life circumstances theory
attributes well-being to advantageous and disadvantageous demographic factors, the number and balance of
positive and negative day-to-day experiences, and satisfaction with positive and negative events, experiences,
and emotions in important life domains. Dispositional/
construal theories, on the other hand, ascribe SWB
evaluations to genetically influenced biological or temperamental factors that affect behaviors and cognitions,
i.e., how an individual interprets and appraises their life
Correspondence to:
Sugarmaa Myagmarjav, sugarmaa @ mnums.edu.mn
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Saranchuluun Otgon a, b Denise Burnette c Yerkyebulan Mukhtar a
Fabio Casati c Sugarmaa Myagmarjav a
Life Satisfaction among Older Adults
Self-evaluations of life satisfaction vary by locale and
over time. In OECD countries, ratings tend to decline
with age, and older adults are less satisfied on average
than younger people [9]. Using data from large-scale,
nationally representative panel studies in Germany and
Britain, Baird et al. [5] (2010) found that life satisfaction
decreased little during much of adulthood, then dropped
steeply after age 70. British data also showed a relatively
significant increase in life satisfaction from the 40s to the
early 70s. On the other hand, the Gallup World Poll, an
ongoing survey in more than 160 countries, found an oftreported U-shaped association between evaluative wellbeing and age in high-income, English-speaking countries; lowest levels of well-being for persons aged 45–54
years. Findings of higher levels of life satisfaction at
advanced ages, when declining health and significant
social losses are more common, have led to the so-called
“paradox of well-being.” Hudomiet et al. [10] (2020) used
80
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
longitudinal data from the US Health and Retirement
Study (HRS) to explain this paradox. In cross-sectional
data, life satisfaction increased with [10] age beyond
retirement into advanced old age; however, longitudinal
data showed significant age-related declines in life satisfaction that accelerate with age and widowhood, and
health shocks contributed to this decline. The authors
reconciled findings from the cross-section and longitudinal measurements by showing that differential mortality and differential non-response bias the crosssectional age profile upward: individuals with higher
life satisfaction and those in better health tend to live
longer and to remain in the survey, causing an increase in
average values. The authors conclude that the optimistic
view about increasing life satisfaction at older ages based
on cross-sectional data is not warranted [11]. Factors that
contribute to life satisfaction and their relative weight also
change over the life course, with subjective perceptions
becoming more critical. Older adults tend to place less
value on status and money and more on family relationships and long-term fulfillment. Self-rated health also
appears to have more impact on life satisfaction than
objective measures of health. For instance, Puvill et al.
[12] (2016) suggest that mental health is a far more robust
contributor to life satisfaction than physical health,
particularly for the oldest old. In a study of older adults in
China, Ng et al. (2017) highlighted physical and cognitive
health status as major determinants of life satisfaction,
alongside female sex, higher education, perceptions of
relative economic status, living with family, living in a
city, regular physical exams, access to social security and
commercial insurance, and availability of community
social services. Also in the region, Gallup World Poll
respondents in the former Soviet Union and Eastern
Europe reported large and progressive reductions in wellbeing with age [5], while Didino et al. [13] (2018) found
that higher quality social interaction, better standards of
living and satisfaction with one’s health were associated
with greater life satisfaction and happiness among older
adults in Siberia.
Aging in Mongolia
Mongolia is in the early stages of a major demographic
transition. Sustained economic and social progress and
health system improvements have extended life expectancy at birth from 62.9 in 2000 to 72.7 years in 2022 – yet
still below the World Health Organization (WHO)
Western Pacific Region average of 76.6 years. As a result
of this trend and a rapid decline in the fertility rate in
recent decades, the proportion of the country’s population aged 65 and over is projected to increase from
Otgon/Burnette/Mukhtar/Casati/
Myagmarjav
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circumstances and events [2]. Finally, cultural patterns of
individualism and collectivism that help shape the extent
to which family and in-group serve as a main reference
for thought, feelings, and behavior also influence
SWB [3].
Diener’s (1984) widely used tripartite model of SWB
comprises life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative
affect [4]. Most comparative life satisfaction studies have
contrasted the West, especially North America, with East
Asia [5]. But a growing appreciation of the complex role
of overall well-being as an indicator of broader social
progress has extended indicators of life satisfaction well
beyond economic conditions [6]. The Organization for
Economic Co-operation and Development launched the
Fifth edition of Better Life Initiative, which includes
measures of constructs in Diener’s SWB model used for
population-based survey collects data on multiple indicators of 11 dimensions of current material conditions,
quality of life, and their likely sustainability [7]. Measures
are then aggregated and used to monitor the well-being of
populations and their salient subgroups.
With rapid population aging in low- and middleincome countries, older adults represent a crucial subgroup for targeted health, mental health, and social
policies and services in these locales. Global measures of
life satisfaction serve as a useful indicator and outcome
measure for planning, implementation, and evaluation.
The current study explores levels and correlates of life
satisfaction, defined as the subjective evaluation of one’s
overall life [1, 8], in a sample of 304 community-dwelling
older adults in Mongolia.
Table 1. Proportional quato sampling strategy
4.3% in 2020 to 14% in 2050, while the share of people
older than 80 will increase nearly fivefold, from 0.7% to
3.0% [14]. Mongolia faces significant challenges in developing and implementing age-friendly policies and
actions that will improve the quality as well as length of
life for older adults. Using fixed-effects modeling, Williams et al. [15] (2022) determined that continued investment in the health of older people in Mongolia would
improve the quality of life while enhancing the sustainability of public budgets. There is evidence that
positive health-related and social outcomes are associated
with high levels of flourishing, a eudemonic dimension of
psychological well-being, among older Mongolians [16],
which suggests that policies and programs should also
aim to improve their life satisfaction. Finally, it is important to consider the distribution and needs of socially
and economically vulnerable subgroups. Worldwide, the
gender gap in life expectancy is 4.2 years (average 68 years
for men and 72.2 years for women); this compares to a
startling 9-year gap in Mongolia, where there are
2.5 times the number of older women as same-aged men
and 69.2% of older adults are women [17]. Older adults
are more vulnerable to poverty as most cannot work for
pay and their pensions and benefits are insufficient to
sustain a healthy livelihood and many lack essential information about potential resources they may need [18].
Loneliness, an inability to access social and health care,
and depression are therefore common [19]. Owing to the
wide geographic dispersal of the population and poor
infrastructure in rural and outlying areas, older adults,
including nomadic pastoralists, who live in these areas are
likely to be especially disadvantaged. Drawing on life
circumstances and dispositional/construal theories,
studies on health and psychosocial correlates of life
satisfaction in later life, and Mongolian cultural norms
and values, we pose three sets of hypotheses:
H1: compared to their rural age-peers, urban older
adults will report:
1. higher levels of life satisfaction
2. higher levels of physical well-being
3. higher levels of psychosocial well-being
H2: net the effects of sociodemographic characteristics
of older adults in the sample:
1. physical well-being measures will contribute
significantly to life satisfaction
2. psychosocial well-being measures will contribute significantly to life satisfaction
H3: net the effects of sociodemographic characteristics,
physical and psychosocial well-being, and geographic
locale (urban vs. rural) will contribute significantly to life
satisfaction.
Health and Activities of Daily Living Impairment
We assessed self-rated health with a standard question from the
World Health Survey (2002): “In general, how would you rate your
health today?” (very good = 1; good = 2; moderate = 3; bad = 4; very
bad = 5) [22]. Current assistance with personal and instrumental
activities of daily living (ADL) was measured as yes = 1 and no = 0
on the following activities: dressing, putting on shoes and socks,
walking across a room, bathing or showering, eating, e.g., cutting
up food, getting in or out of bed, using the toilet, including getting
up or down, using a map to figure out how to get around in a
strange place, preparing a hot meal, shopping for groceries, making
Life Satisfaction among Older Adults in
Rural and Urban Mongolia
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
Age group Total population Study sample Urban Rural
55–59
60–54
65–69
70+
Total
115,125
65,496
43,089
71,976
295,686
125
71
47
78
322
68
39
25
42
174
58
32
22
36
148
Materials and Methods
Measures
Dependent Variable
A single item from the World Values Survey (OECD, 2013) was
used to measure life satisfaction: “Overall, how satisfied are you
with life as a whole these days?” (“not at all satisfied” = 0 to
“completely satisfied” = 10). The theoretical range was 0–10;
higher scores mean greater life satisfaction [20].
Independent Variables
Sociodemographic indicators are from the Survey of Health,
Aging, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) [21]. It includes age,
sex (male = 1, female = 2), residence (urban = 1; rural = 2), marital
status (married or living with partner = 1, single, divorced, or
widowed = 2), and employed during the past month (yes = 1; no = 0).
Education was classified as illiterate or primary school = 1,
secondary = 2, high school = 3, vocational school = 4, and
university degree = 5.
81
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Design and Sampling
The study used a cross-sectional survey design. As old age
thresholds differ by gender in Mongolian law, we used proportional stratified sampling to recruit 210 women aged ≥55 and 94
men aged ≥60 years (N = 304) (Table 1). We recruited older adults
who had normal daily self-sufficiency and had lived at their address for more than 1 year. Older adults who were hospitalized at
that time were excluded from the study. All participants resided in
the community and were recruited from 3 of the 9 districts of the
capital city of Ulaanbaatar and two province centers and their subprovinces in the Gobi and Khangai regions. Thirteen trained
interviewers with social work and public health training conducted
face-to-face, semi-structured interviews of about 30 min durations
in elder associations, geriatrician offices, and respondents’ homes.
Study participants received 10,000 MNT (~4 EUR) compensation.
Table 2. Sociodemographic characteristics of participants (categorical variable)
Total (n = 304)
Sociodemographics
Sex (male = 1)
Marital status (married/partner = 1)
Education
Primary or illiterate
Secondary
High school
Vocational
Bachelor or more
Paid work (yes = 1)
Urban
(n = 162)
n
%
n
%
n
%
94
146
30.9
48
50
87
30.9
53.7
44
59
31
41.5
48
53
79
53
70
48
15.8
17.5
26.1
17.5
23.1
15.8
7
17
46
36
56
25
4.3
10.5
28.4
22.2
34.6
15.4
41
36
33
17
14
23
29.1
25.5
23.4
12.1
9.9
16.2
Psychosocial Factors
Affect balance was determined by asking respondents how
happy, worried, and depressed they felt yesterday, on a scale of
0–10 in each case. We then assessed the mean positive and
negative affect scores on the OECD (2013) measure of wellbeing. Following OECD guidelines, we then created an “affect
balance” score by subtracting the mean negative affect score
from the mean positive affect score, yielding a theoretical range
of −10 to 10 [20].
Loneliness: We measured loneliness using the Three-Item Loneliness Scale [23]. “How often do you feel that you lack companionship?” “How often do you feel left out?” “How often do you feel
isolated from others?” Items are scored as hardly ever = 1; sometimes = 2, or often = 3, then summed (theoretical range = 3–9).
Higher scores indicate greater loneliness.
Social isolation was measured by the Mongolian version [24] of
the 6-item Lubben Social Network Scale (LSNS-6). This two-factor
scale assesses perceived support from family (item 1–item 3) and
friends (item 4–item 6). Items are scored from 0 (none) to 5 (nine
or more). Total scores are an equally weighted sum of all 6 items
(theoretical range = 0–30), and higher scores indicate lower social
isolation.
Social participation was measured with items from the European SHARE study [21]. Questions ask if and how often a respondent has engaged in 7 types of volunteering, social, and
cognitively stimulating activities: volunteering or charity work;
caring for a sick or disabled adult; providing help to family, friends,
or neighbors; attending an educational or training course; going to
a sport, social, or other types of a club; taking part in a religious
organization; or taking part in a political or community-related
organization. Response options are almost daily = 1; almost every
week = 2; less often = 3. Summed scores have a theoretical range of
7–21, and higher scores mean higher levels of social participation.
We also asked about household composition, including the
number of adult children and number of grandchildren who live in
the household.
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
Degree of
freedom
χ2 statistic
p value
1
1
4
0.001
4.479
64.927
0.982
0.034
<0.0001
1
0.033
0.855
Statistical Analysis
We used SPSS (ver.28) for data cleaning and analysis. We
generated univariate descriptive statistics for all study variables
and conducted bivariate analyses (χ2 and t tests) to assess urban
versus rural group differences in correlates of life satisfaction. We
then used hierarchical regression to examine the contributions of
health and psychosocial measures to life satisfaction by geographic
locale. Finally, we tested the association of urban versus rural
residence with life satisfaction over and above the effects of demographics and physical and psychosocial well-being measures.
Results
Table 2 presents descriptive data on study variables,
overall, and by urban/rural status. Participants’ average
age was 64 years (range = 55–88), 69.1% were female, and
48% were married or living with a partner. Rural residents
were less likely to be married χ2(1) = 4.479, p = 0.034.
Almost one-quarter of the sample had a bachelor’s degree, and another 17% had vocational training while 16%
reported engagement in paid work during the past
month. Urban dwellers were better educated than those
in rural areas χ2(4) = 64.927, p < 0.0001. They were more
than twice as likely to have completed vocational school
and almost 3 times more likely to hold a bachelor’s
degree. Rural older adults reported more adult children, t
(284.36) = 2.156, p = 0.032 but fewer grandchildren living
in their households, t (294.36) = 1.953, p = 0.052.
The data partially supported our first set of bivariate
hypotheses (Table 3). Urban older adults reported
higher levels of life satisfaction t (281.48) = 3.046, p =
0.003 and social participation t (302) = 5.952, p < 0.001.
However, the two groups did not differ on self-rated
health, ADL assistance, affect balance, loneliness, or
Otgon/Burnette/Mukhtar/Casati/
Myagmarjav
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telephone calls, taking medications, doing work around the house
or garden, and managing money, e.g., paying bills and keeping
track of expenses.
82
Rural
(n = 142)
Table 3. Sociodemographic, health, and psychosocial characteristics of participants (numeric variables)
Total
Rural
Degree of
freedom
T statistics
p value
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
7.56
2.1
7.90
1.93
7.17
2.22
281.48
3.046
0.003
64
0.49
7.1
0.96
63.87
0.59
7.21
1.08
64.16
0.38
6.99
0.81
302
294.36
0.348
1.953
0.728
0.052
2.67
0.62
0.76
1.23
2.7
0.49
0.85
0.92
2.65
0.76
0.68
1.5
302
227.62
0.558
1.836
0.577
0.068
3.09
4.31
3.52
5.64
18.21
1.87
2.16
1.02
4.21
6.04
2.53
4.06
3.42
5.33
17.69
1.82
2.03
0.91
4.41
6.23
3.74
4.6
3.64
6
18.8
1.72
2.23
1.15
3.96
5.79
302
284.36
268.76
302
302
5.952
2.156
1.724
1.379
1.666
<0.001
0.032
0.086
0.169
0.097
isolation at the p < 0.05 level. Given our moderate
sample size, it is worth noting that rural older adults
reported more help with ADL impairments, higher
levels of loneliness, and greater social isolation at the
p < 0.10 level of significance.
Table 4 presents the hierarchical regression models used
to test our remaining hypotheses. Our second set of hypotheses posited that after controlling for the effects of
sociodemographic characteristics, measures of physical
(Adj. R2 = 0.115, p < 0.001) and psychosocial (Adj. R2 =
0.191, p < 0.0001) well-being would be associated with life
satisfaction. Data supported both hypotheses. In Model 2
(Adj. R2 = 0.115, p < 0.001), self-rated health (M = −0.56;
SD = 0.16; p < 0.001) contributed to life satisfaction, and in
model 3 (Adj. R2 = 0.19, p < 0.001), loneliness (M = −0.24;
SD = 0.11; p < 0.03) and affect balance (M = 0.12; SD = 0.03;
p < 0.001) added to the explained variance in life satisfaction. Lastly, the data supported our hypothesis that after
controlling for the effects of sociodemographic characteristics, physical well-being, and psychosocial well-being,
geographic locale (urban vs. rural) would be significantly
associated with life satisfaction (Adj. R2 = 0.209, p < 0.006).
frameworks on healthy-active aging. We will briefly
discuss the findings on each set of variables in our
multivariate models.
This study furthers our understanding of determinants
of life satisfaction among older adults in Mongolia and
adds important information to international conversations about well-being indicators of human development,
the positive psychology movement in later life, and policy
Demographics
Beyond the development of a country’s national
economy, individual demographics [9], health and
social-psychological factors [25], and living environments influence older adults’ assessments of life satisfaction [26]. In the current study, neither age, gender, nor number of adult children was related to life
satisfaction, although living with grandchildren had a
positive impact. Fertility rates have steadily declined in
Mongolia, and the government encourages childbirth
as a means to increase population growth. Rural older
adults had more children on average than urban
dwellers [27]. Caring for grandchildren can lead to
happiness in the long run. Having more grandchildren, but not spending more time with them, increased life satisfaction [28]. Similarly, the SHARE
cohort study of 13 European countries concluded that
seeing their grandchildren significantly impacts older
women’s life satisfaction [29].
Education is an investment that bears life-long benefits. Higher levels of education are associated with better
health and mental health [30] and social participation
[31]. We found that completion of vocational or higher
education as compared to no formal education was related to greater life satisfaction. Rural older adults had
lower levels of formal education than their urban
counterparts due to post-transition educational
Life Satisfaction among Older Adults in
Rural and Urban Mongolia
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
Discussion
83
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Dependent variable
Life satisfaction
Sociodemographics
Age (range 55–88)
Number of grandchildren in household
Physical factors
Self-rated health
ADL impairments
Psychosocial factors
Social participation
No. of adult children
Loneliness
Affect balance
Social isolation
Urban
R2/Adj. R2
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
Model 1
Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
0.105/0.077
0.147/0.115
0.233/0.191
0.253/0.209
sig.F.Change
p < 0.000
p < 0.001
p < 0.0001
p < 0.006
predictor
beta
beta
sig.
beta
95% CI [LL, UL]
Otgon/Burnette/Mukhtar/Casati/
Myagmarjav
(Intercept)
Age
Sex = male
Marital_new =
double
Edu_level =
secondary
Edu_level =
high_school
Edu_level =
vocational
Edu_level =
bachelor_more
Grandchildren in
household
Paid work
Self-rated health
ADL impairments
Number of adult
children
Social
participation
Loneliness
Affect balance
Social isolation
Living area =
urban
beta
sig.
beta
95% CI [LL, UL]
beta
sig.
beta
95% CI [LL, UL]
beta
sig.
95% CI [LL, UL]
6.673**
−0.006
0.453
−0.004
[4.294, 9.051]
[−0.041, 0.03]
[−0.12, 1.025]
[−0.503, 0.495]
<0.0001
0.748
0.121
0.987
8.328**
−0.005
0.368
0.059
[5.819, 10.837]
[−0.04, 0.03]
[−0.194, 0.93]
[−0.432, 0.549]
<0.0001
0.78
0.199
0.814
7.265**
−0.005
0.493
−0.065
[4.417, 10.114]
[−0.04, 0.03]
[−0.059, 1.044]
[−0.544, 0.413]
<0.0001
0.777
0.08
0.789
6.948**
−0.007
0.523
−0.092
[4.123, 9.773]
[−0.041, 0.027]
[−0.023, 1.068]
[−0.566, 0.381]
<0.0001
0.691
0.06
0.702
0.535
[−0.262, 1.332]
0.188
0.383
[−0.402, 1.169]
0.338
0.393
[−0.363, 1.149]
0.307
0.243
[−0.512, 0.998]
0.527
0.944
[0.199, 1.688]
0.013
0.794*
[0.058, 1.531]
0.035
0.772*
[0.062, 1.482]
0.033
0.484
[−0.248, 1.215]
0.194
1.475** [0.65, 2.299]
<0.0001 1.122** [0.294, 1.949]
0.008
1.126** [0.326, 1.927]
0.006
0.711
[−0.134, 1.556]
0.099
1.075** [0.317, 1.834]
0.006
0.911*
[0.158, 1.663]
0.018
0.962** [0.229, 1.695]
0.01
0.49
[−0.309, 1.288]
0.229
0.28*
0.021
0.271*
[0.039, 0.504]
0.022
0.285*
[0.06, 0.51]
0.013
0.257*
[0.034, 0.48]
0.024
0.007
0.707* [0.073, 1.34]
0.029
−0.554* [−0.867, −0.241] 0.001
−0.053 [−0.247, 0.141] 0.591
0.57
−0.348*
0.012
0.031
[−0.046,
[−0.658,
[−0.176,
[−0.076,
0.07
0.028
0.898
0.567
0.583
−0.382*
0.045
0.033
[−0.026,
[−0.689,
[−0.143,
[−0.073,
0.06
0.015
0.639
0.544
0.033
[−0.089, 0.154]
0.598
0.088
[−0.038, 0.215]
0.17
[−0.439, 0.003]
[0.065, 0.171]
[−0.006, 0.072]
[0.214, 1.259]
0.053
<0.0001
0.098
0.006
[0.043, 0.518]
0.889** [0.25, 1.528]
1.185]
−0.038]
0.201]
0.139]
−0.241* [−0.464, −0.019] 0.034
−0.218
0.115** [0.062, 0.169]
<0.0001 0.118**
0.025
[−0.014, 0.065] 0.204
0.033
0.737**
*indicates p < 0.05. **indicates p < 0.01.
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84
Table 4. Multiple regression analysis for life satisfaction predictors
1.191]
−0.074]
0.233]
0.139]
inequality and semi-nomadic lifestyles [32]. However, the
impact of education on life satisfaction was not as strong
as living areas.
Psychosocial Well-Being
A wealth of evidence exists on the positive impact of
social networks, social integration, and social participation on the life satisfaction of older adults [36]. In a
dataset in the USA and Japan, friends and family relationships significantly affected the life satisfaction of older
adults [37]. In our data, neither social participation nor
social isolation was significantly associated with life
satisfaction. Consistent with previous studies in, for example, China [38], Poland [39], and South Korea [40],
greater loneliness reduced life satisfaction. Affect balance
was also significantly associated with life satisfaction.
Positive feelings predicted higher levels of satisfaction and
vice versa. Whereas life satisfaction is a general assessment of one’s quality of life, affect balance is a more
general assessment of angry, happy, and depressed
feelings over the past few days. It is a dynamic process
that strongly affects older adults’ life satisfaction, regardless of age, gender, education, or where they live [41].
To summarize, this study aimed to examine older
adults’ assessment of life satisfaction in rural and urban
Mongolia and to determine whether sociodemographic,
physical health, and psychosocial characteristics were
related to observed differences in the two groups. Consistent with previous research [42, 43], we found that life
satisfaction was significantly lower for rural older adults.
We suggest several possible reasons for this finding and
recommendations for improvement.
First, access to quality health and social services is
far better in urban areas [44]. Second, Mongolia’s
countryside is different from rural communities in
more developed Western countries, with poor housing, low income, large families, and poor access to
services [45]. For example, in Canada, England, and
Life Satisfaction among Older Adults in
Rural and Urban Mongolia
Limitations
This study has several limitations. Life satisfaction was
measured by a single item rather than a multidimensional
measure and may therefore be influenced by respondents’
mood during the interview. Seasonal effects might also
influence the data collected during the winter season.
Owing to our cross-sectional design and non-probability
sampling strategy, we cannot make causal inferences
about our findings or can we generalize our results to a
larger population.
Biomed Hub 2023;8:79–87
DOI: 10.1159/000533917
85
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Physical Well-Being
Previous studies confirm that self-rated health directly
affects older adults’ life satisfaction [33] and that illness
reduces satisfaction [34]. In the current study, older
adults who rated their health as good reported better life
satisfaction, regardless of demographic or psychosocial
factors. With increased urbanization and social development, progress in economic and health equity is improving the health status of the population [35].
Therefore, to improve life satisfaction among the older
adult population, the emphasis now must be on improving access to health services in rural areas.
Eastern Europe, rural older adults report higher life
satisfaction than urban ones [46]; yet, our findings are
consistent with those of developing countries such as
China [47]. The F-change scores in our hierarchical
regression show that each step in the model added
significantly to the variance in life satisfaction. It is
therefore important to consider the overall contributions of sociodemographic characteristics, health
and functional well-being, and psychosocial measures.
Yet, even after controlling for the effects of these essential features of life satisfaction, living in a nonurban area was associated with lower levels of life
satisfaction. Rural and remote areas in developing
countries have more pronounced population aging
than urban areas and thus tend to have a greater share
of older adults. Lower population density and geographic dispersion make it more difficult and costly to
develop comprehensive, sustainable service infrastructures [44]. There is thus a grave mismatch between the availability and accessibility of resources and
the needs of older adults, who are more likely to experience diminished economic resources and opportunities, declining physical, functional, and cognitive
health, reduced mobility, loss of social networks with
internal rural-to-urban and cross-national migration,
and harsh weather and degradation of the environment on which their livelihood depends.
To address these needs, innovations in policies, programs, and practice should highlight both near- and longterm care to address the economic, health, and mental
health needs of older adults in rural areas. Reducing
educational inequalities and developing sustainable opportunities for generational and inter-generational economic and social engagement can also enhance older
adults’ life satisfaction in more rural and remote areas. It
may also be important to reconsider the current mandatory retirement ages for men and women and to
systematically explore the needs and resources available
to older adults by age group, gender, and geographic
region.
Acknowledgments
Funding Sources
We want to thank the geriatricians, senior associations’ staff,
and health centers’ practitioners who helped recruit study
participants.
Publication of this work does not have a funding source.
Author Contributions
Statement of Ethics
The Mongolian National University of Medical Sciences
Ethics Review Committee approved this study (protocol 15:
32016-15). A written informed consent was obtained from
participants.
Saranchuluun Otgon collected the data, analyzed, interpreted
the data, and drafted the manuscript. Denise Burnette designed the
manuscript and revised interpretation. Yerkyebulan Mukhtar
worked on analysis and data. Fabio Casati revised the manuscript.
Sugarmaa Myagmarjav revised the manuscript and interpretation
of the data.
Data Availability Statement
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this
article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
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