Consciousness

PHILOSOPHY OF CONSCIOUSNESS Based on natural laws of development GRJGORYAN YURI, PhD yugrigoryan@yahoo.com 2022 -1- CONTENTS 4 PREFACE PART 1 THE MAIN CONDITIONS OF EVOLUTION Evolution according to Darwin 6 About regularities of development 10 Qualitative transformations in physics and chemistry 15 Examples of "self-organizations" in physics and chemistry 20 Physics of generation and oscillatory processes 28 Internal Intention or Activated State 30 Integration process - a significant stage of development Crystallization 35 38 Quantitative growth is a background for development PART 2 QUALITATIVE TRANSFORMATIONS IN WILDLIFE 41 47 Formation of amoebae colonies 48 Hierarchy of nervous system organization 52 Formation of conditional reflexes 58 Progress 64 Sensation. Perception 67 PART 3 THE HUMAN MENTALITY Consciousness, self-consciousness -2- 76 Cognition and Creation 80 Formal logical and dialectical thinking 85 Information 92 PART 4 PUZZLES WITH ACTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS MDM Multiple Drafts Model 96 Chinese room 102 Qualia 109 The Zombie Argument 113 Personality assessment. “Where am I?" 116 Free will and responsibility 124 Persona and community 132 -3- PREFACE I read the works of philosophers with great interest and even pleasure, especially Dennett's works on consciousness and self-consciousness. But there is a categorical difference between my attitude to this problem and the widespread ideas of many philosophers. This difference is definitely revealed in Dennett's assessment: "I am a philosopher, not a scientist, and we philosophers are better at questions than answers." (1996b, Preface) Then what is the difference between philosophy and natural sciences, where many questions are also raised, but they do not limit themselves to this, but strive to know incomprehensible phenomena? I am also a philosopher, but for a very long time I studied the problems of thinking and cognition as a scientist at the Institute of Physiology in order to find answers by scientifically explaining consciousness, its differences from mental phenomena in animals and identifying those circumstances of human life in communities that caused the emergence of consciousness, and later selfconsciousness. Moreover, the proposed book shows that philosophers should not just come up with questions, but learn the phenomena unsolvable by natural sciences. Philosophy is also a science, but unlike the natural sciences uses a different logic of cognition, which corresponds to the processes of development, namely, not quantitative changes, but qualitative transformations. In these processes, not only the previously formed structure and its possible non-critical changes during interactions with the environment or other objects are important, but the forced formation of a new structure. At the same time, it turns out that for such transformation a certain influence of the infinite external world is necessary, which in the developed new integration is fixed in the coordinated changes of the elements. This is described in Part 1 - "THE MAIN CONDITIONS OF EVOLUTION" The objective laws of development denied by Dennett and many philosophers explain the problems of the formation of entities on Earth, including the increasingly complex living species. The second significant mistake of many philosophers, including Dennett, is ignoring the hierarchical functioning of the brain. Such is the activity of any multi-level systems. Since historically there has -4- been integration of elements, subsystems of previous levels, and this could happen only when their conditions were activated due to a complicated state, the actual functioning becomes possible with the activity of the underlying subsystems. In fact, there is a repetition of the main factors of the formation of the essences in the past history with each present action. In part 2 – "QUALITATIVE TRANSFORMATIONS IN WILDLIFE" this idea is conditioned. Based on these general provisions and taking into account the data of ethnographers, it was possible to reasonably imagine the conditions for the formation of consciousness and related forms, in particular speech, its manifestations. Creative activity based on the revealed qualities of phenomena also becomes an important factor in the existence of people. Changes in the relationships of communities, most of all, wars, and as a consequence, stratification within societies themselves, forced the opposition of people. Such relationships led to the formation of self- consciousness and the concept of personality. Chapter 3 – "THE HUMAN MENTALITY". Chapter 4 – "PUZZLES WITH ACTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS" provides an analysis of common puzzles about the manifestations of consciousness with their assessment based on the concept outlined in the book. -5- PART 1 THE MAIN CONDITIONS OF EVOLUTION Evolution according to Darwin Reasoning about the consciousness and other manifestations of human mentality will rest on the previous history of evolution that gave rise to this quality. Therefore, D. Dennet turns to the idea of Darwin's evolution and largely relies on the modern interpretation of this theory. But weaknesses of his notions are so obvious that Dennett, faced with many problems of such a theory of evolution, himself notes the shortcomings of absolutizing natural selection. ‘Darwin conclusively demonstrated that, contrary to ancient tradition, species are not eternal and immutable; they evolve. The origin of new species was shown to be the result of "descent with modification." Less conclusively, Darwin introduced an idea of how this evolutionary process took place: via a mindless, mechanical—algorithmic—process he called "natural selection." This idea, that all die fruits of evolution can be explained as the products of an algorithmic process, is Darwin's dangerous idea.” (1996a, p. 60) Particularly “Darwin was not able to present a single instance of speciation by natural selection in Origin of Species.” (1996a, p. 100) He cites the statement of Bernd-Olaf Kuppers. " The smallest catalytically active protein molecules of the living cell consist of at least a hundred amino acids. For even such a short molecule, there exist 20100 ~ 10130 alternative arrangements of the twenty basic monomers. This shows mat already on the lowest level of complexity, that of the biological macromolecules, an almost unlimited variety of structures is possible. “ (1996a, pp. 155-156) A huge variety of mutations and possible structures with incalculable environmental effects will give a final beneficial effect close to zero. "Mutation and selection can usually only be indirectly and imperfectly inferred, thanks to a mind-boggling array of circumstantial complications." (1996a, p. 194). Dennett is -6- also doubtful of the whole recognition of Darwin's theory. " Darwin introduced an idea of how this evolutionary process took place: via a mindless, mechanical— algorithmic—process he called "natural selection."” (1996a, p. 60) “Darwin has offered us an account of the crudest, most rudimentary, stupidest imaginable lifting process—the wedge of natural selection.” (1996a, p.75) Dennett's attention was attracted by some interesting facts in the activities of creatures that, in fact, should be attributed to inanimate objects. Moreover, he is familiar with the factors important to his idea of evolution, which is also found in inanimate objects. Therefore, it would be reasonable to begin the study of transformations with physical phenomena. For all Darwinists, two stages of development, the stage of formation and complication, which can be "inherited" during the crystallization processes of physicochemical objects, and the stage of formation of a person and his mind, remain outside the agreed understanding. They simply reject the very possibility of some general laws of development. "There is no shortage of candidates for the role of" non-verifiable biological law. “According to the preposterous readings, reductionists want to abandon the principles, theories, vocabulary, laws of the higher-level sciences, in favor of the lowerlevel terms." (1996a, p. 81) Later I will try to show that really natural sciences are fundamentally incapable to study completely the process of development, because it is the sphere of philosophy. The question is not in terms and laws of fundamental sciences, but in knowing the general pattern of development. Dennett denies this approach to evolution. "For instance, many have argued that there are "developmental laws" or "laws of form" that constrain the relation between genotype and phenotype.” (1996a, p. 122) Dennet and other wise men do not feel that, denying the law of development, they are thereby trying to rise above the essence of nature itself, since only the one who has fully known everything that is inherent in nature is able to deny the possibility of some natural law, and therefore claims which law do not exist. For a scientist, this can be the result of either excessive overconfidence or, on the contrary, recognition of his inability to cognized the -7- phenomenon, and therefore turn to a certain supreme creator. God, Design, Mind, Mother Nature - an appeal to all these absolute founders is an attempt in this way to replace own weakness and yet kind of present their decision. With these explanations, I always remember Hesiod's assessment: if horses created a god, he would have the appearance of a horse. According to the same principle, sages give God the quality of creation developed among people in order to extend it to everything they do not understand. The most convenient material for modern Darwinists was the genes and the entire period of evolution in which it was possible to be obsessed with gene mutations and the subsequent selection of the most suitable implementations of finite creatures. Primary physical transformations and subsequent creations of people, the essence of which is not deposited in genes, did not fit such an explanation. For them, Dawkins R. has invented "memes", some creations of culture, trying to liken them to genes. But it was not taken into account that the qualities of conditionally reflex formations in higher animals are also not introduced into genes and are not transmitted to heirs. "Memes" for such transformation is not to come up. Philosophers should have a closer look at physical phenomena. Not only silicon self-reproducing crystals replicate. The growth of all physical crystals is also quite real. There is a so-called dendritic crystal growth when the structure of the germ is reproduced during the subsequent tree-like growth of the crystal. You can also pay attention to grouped masses of minerals that have spread in a certain place. Presumably, under favorable external conditions, such reduplication may occur in physical objects. “We are mammals, and all mammals have descended from reptilian ancestors whose ancestors were fish whose ancestors were marine creatures rather like worms, who descended in turn from simpler multicelled creatures several hundred million years ago, who descended from single-celled creatures who descended from self-replicating macromolecules, about three billion years ago.” (1996b, p. 22) -8- The simplification should be continued until the formation of macromolecules from previously independently existing molecules, the formation of crystalline bodies based on molecules of liquids with a close bond, or even the formation of liquid from vapor-like states of substances with unbound molecules. But this course of reasoning will certainly lead to some general laws of development, which Dennet and his followers categorically deny. “After all, societies are composed of human beings, who, as mammals, must fall under the principles of biology that cover all mammals. Mammals, in turn, are composed of molecules, which must obey the laws of chemistry, which in turn must answer to the regularities of the underlying physics.” (1996a, p. 81) Dennett recognizes the hierarchy of laws of physics, chemistry, biology, but denies the existence of general laws for the entire series of complicating entities. I believe that the refusal of many philosophers to recognize the universal laws of development is due to the fact that they simply do not know, but do not want to know them. Cognition is a complex and not always effective process, but it is also a process of development, according to the basic principles corresponding to what happened about three billion years ago in self-reproducing macromolecules Dennett argues the denial of the laws of development with such an example. Calculators that work well and incorrectly are based on electronic processes that will be evaluated by physicists of the same type. But they " be utterly unable to explain the intensely interesting fact that one of them got the answers right and the other got them wrong. This is the sort of case that shows what would be silly about the preposterous forms of reductionism; of course you can't explain all the patterns that interest us at the level of physics (or chemistry, or any one low level)." (1996a, 102) Dennett and other philosophers should think about something else, that there are universal laws that manifest themselves in physical, chemical, biological phenomena, but which distinguish from the particular laws of these sciences. About regularities of development -9- The categorical weakness of almost all modern works on consciousness is due to frank ignorance, but also to the unwillingness to know the process of development and the formation of increasingly complex forms of organization of living beings with their governing organ, the brain, which in humans has acquired the function of consciousness. Already in ancient times, sages were most concerned with two problems. How did the known variety of beings arise and how is knowledge carried out? For thousands of years, philosophers tried to understand these processes, but, as a rule, had separate explanations of such seemingly different phenomena. Only in the 18th century, when science approached the study of development acts, did representatives of the so-called "German classical philosophy" put forward generalized ideas about this process. For Kant, the most significant development phenomenon was the processes of cosmogony, but Hegel turned to ontogenesis - the repetition of phylogenesis in the process of embryo development. Although the biogenetic law that ontogenesis repeats (recapitulates) phylogenesis was put forward in the middle of the 19th century, the essence of reproduction of an individual from an embryo was of interest much earlier. Therefore, in the work "Philosophy of Nature," Hegel analyzes generic processes. His theory used the essence of such a development, translating it into the formation of an "absolute idea," in which the reality is the realized "existing in itself" possibility. Thus, the problem of epistemology was also solved. In the lecture in 1840 "Philosophy of History”, he definitely points to the analogy of ontogenesis and the formation of the spirit, actually representing the natural base of his general theory. ... "Just as the embryo contains the whole nature of the tree, the taste, the shape of the fruits, and the first manifestations of the spirit virtually contain the whole history." (2017, p. 16) It should still be emphasized that this process, although it is also a development, but a development in the type of reproduction of a previously formed entity, and not as a neoplasm. This is the reason for the repeatedly noted weakness of Hegel's concept. Just as the formation of the organism from the embryo ends with its mature stage, the deployment of an absolute idea, and also the evolution of humanity, ends in the highest stage of self-knowledge of an absolute idea - the teachings of Hegel. Another unacceptable conclusion of the - 10 - theory was dialectical determinism and the idea of self-development. For the reproduction of the body, the fortuity was so insignificant that the original line of the need for transformations dominated. The modern study of the development process, but not as a re-reproduction of previously formed entities, namely, the formation of a new quality, like neoplasm, was studied in physics, chemistry, and especially in physiology, in the formation of conditional reflexes. This knowledge makes it possible to better understand the historical complexity of entities, but also the process of knowledge. It is considered that Dennet have a steady materialistic position. “Several of the notorious experiments we will examine have been heralded by some distinguished experts as the refutation of the sort of conservative materialistic theory I am presenting, so if there is to be a scientific challenge to my explanation of consciousness, this is the battleground that has been chosen by the opposition.” (1996a, 140) But this statement is right only in comparison with some philosophers. For example, Searle I. seeks to prove a fallibility of the materialistic approach to the cognition of consciousness. He so strange represents materialism that it is necessary to disprove not so his arguments how many to explain essence of the materialistic principles of cognition. Under "physical" he feels everything that isn't apprehended as mental. It is necessary to understand, first of all, hierarchy of development of all real essences on Earth. At the same time physical bodies have to be defined at the initial level of structural interrelations of the basic physical elements. Chemical and later biological substances possess of initial elements in more and more complex structure and all highest beings are organized in such pyramidal form of subsystems integrations. Basic elements are physical substances which begin forming the subsequent structures. If any level of a biological being, in particular perceptive subsystems don't function in general, then activity of the highest structures up to mental systems will be stopped. - 11 - But the most important at materialistic approach to cognition of all phenomena, including intellectual ones, this aspiration to show those transformations even in physical bodies which in more complex beings create mentality. The idea was important for a large number of prior thinkers. In particular, Locke was sure that in a certain connection of physical particles it is possible to get feelings, thoughts and cognition. (1685) This simplified materialism corresponded to knowledge of that time. Modern scientific knowledge allows to represent quite reasonably the essence of the intellectual phenomena which is somewhat presented in this book. Essential mistake of Searle as, however, and of other philosophers, the simplified understanding of science is. "The objectivity of science demands that the studied phenomena were completely objective, and in a case with cognitive science it means that she has to study objectively observed behavior" (1991, p.10) Phenomena really have to be objective, but isn't obligatory at all that there was "objectively observed behavior". He criticizes behaviorism, but uses its representation. Searle doubts that "everything that exists is accessible to our brains." Of course, hardly anyone will absolutize such opportunity, especially when cognition is focused on the mega or microcosm. But the phenomena of our macrocosm are quite accessible to science, if something is unknown today; there are no fundamental problems for cognized this in the future. “This view consists in taking the dualistic concepts very seriously, that is, it consists in the view that in some important sense "physical" implies "nonmental" and "mental" implies "nonphysical." (1991, p. 15) For the modern level of science it is quite possible to explain how in the process of development thanks to creation of integrations hierarchy the unconscious bits of matter produce consciousness, the mental today is also known as "physical", or rather, as a natural objective phenomenon. “The general pattern of discussion is that criticisms of the materialistic theory usually take a more or less technical form, but in fact, underlying the technical objections is a much deeper objection, and the deeper objection can be - 12 - put quite simply: The theory in question has left out the mind; it has left out some essential feature of the mind, such as consciousness or "qualia" or semantic content.” (1991, p. 17) First of all, it should be borne in mind that all levels of neural interconnections cover the sensory and motor departments, so that the independent effect of one or the other is purely conditional and is revealed only when one or the other is tested separately by the experimenter. During a certain motivation (intention) some of their association is activated. At the same time, if realization of motivation is inhibited due to the lack of the corresponding circumstances, then and the external behavior, as a rule, is absent. But activation of motor systems at any case remains though in the weakened degree. Such an increased muscle tone is commonly called tonic, as opposed to physical, when the activity is sufficient for motor actions. In the process of seemingly a purely mental process, such an apparently undefined activity of the motor parts of the brain always manifests itself. There is a usual mental activity but partly weakened in the sphere of neural systems exiting to motor systems. Very often in the person who got used to communication and transfers of thoughts the internal speech is manifested. The all system of speech process are activated, may be faintly activated, even without sound. Though sometimes, the pronunciation of the speech in certain cases also is manifested. Thus, these phenomena can be objectively studied even for lack of external behavior. Of course Searle asserts that behaviorism is wrong, but he also shouldn't limit possibilities of science by objectively observed behavior. But most of all opposition of materialism concerning mentality is based on subjectivity of mental activity. “And once you have lost the distinction between a system's really having mental states and merely acting as if it had mental states, then you lose sight of an essential feature of the mental, namely that its ontology is essentially a first-person ontology.” (1991, p. 12) In this reasoning there is an implicit appeal to the uniqueness of the processes taking place in any particular object, not just the individual. In addition to the general structure, each individual object acquires many features due to the - 13 - influence of the external environment both when it occurs and during subsequent formation. Science seeks to identify a structural pattern, but by no means diverse single features. Moreover, many of the previous impacts that caused the peculiarity of private internal processes cannot and should not be recognized by science in principle. Nevertheless, if there is a desire to deal with the specific state of a multilevel system, modern means are quite sufficient for a "physical" assessment. Moreover, the experimental data represent not only the states of the elements, but, more importantly, the activity of their higher integrations. For example, by registering neural interactions, one can gain knowledge about the corrective effect of the cortical pyramidal system on the rubrospinal tract under certain motives and external stimuli. Searle appeals to the seemingly absolutely intimate sphere of sensations, not taking into account that most of them represent a kind of system-wide activity with positive or negative effects of internal or external activity. It manifests itself in explicit or weakly expressed motor reactions, which are also available for registration. As for the assessments of sensations that have arisen during the formation of self-consciousness, such as "qualia", they also have access to motor systems. This theme will be discussed in the paragraph "qualia". Theories appear as materialistic when they are based on universal natural laws, and not on the inherent in man awareness of the outside world. Natural sciences study previously arisen beings, their structures, patterns of interactions, quantitative changes, but qualitative transformations are not available to them. Philosophy is a science that complements the natural sciences, thereby contributing to the cognition of not only quantitative changes and quantitative growth of existing objects, but also their structural transformation into qualitatively new entities. At the same time, a materialistic approach based on the achievements of modern sciences studying natural objects is necessary. An idealistic approach will exalt consciousness, its manifestations, culture, as the highest creation of man, hence his subjective contribution, and on this basis try to explain the real relationship between man and nature. - 14 - Having withdrawn from the serious study of development processes, many philosophers simplify or disperse the subject of philosophy. They do not seek to comprehend the scientific achievements of our time, especially those related to the general laws of development. Their superficial, though sometimes entertaining arguments could easily be either confirmed or refuted on the basis of knowledge about the development of all things, up to man and his forms of thinking. Qualitative transformations in physics and chemistry The laws of physics really for a long time did not fit in the best way to describe phenomena in biology and even more so social processes. Especially in the initial period of the formation of this science, when mechanics enjoyed the greatest attention, and its laws referred to bodies that were unchanged in structure, which could even be represented as material points. Newton's laws corresponded well to their movements in Earth and near-Earth space. But the study in thermodynamics of thermal processes in the interaction of various bodies, and later in the assessment of the state of objects with many elements in molecular physics, expanded the scope of the revealed laws. If in previous mechanics we dealt with one or more stable objects, now we should study the relations of the totality of many bodies. These were, for example, gases consisting of many unrelated randomly moving molecules, or liquids, the proximal order of connection of molecules of which was far from those long-acting relationships that are inherent in solids. The stationary state of such objects did not correspond to the previous unambiguous dependencies; probabilistic calculation methods proved to be more suitable. In particular, it was possible to calculate the average energy of this set of molecules, which corresponded to the temperature parameter. The volume of the aggregate of such a substance and the pressure under which it was exposed were also necessary parameters for assessing its condition. These three thermodynamic parameters became the main physical characteristics of the initial sets of molecules of the studied substances. The aggregate states of substances in physics were released as gaseous, liquid and - 15 - solid. Totals of elements in such associations could be generically called a summation system. (This name is consistent with the characterization of such systems given by Fagin and Hall in the General Systems collection). (1956) When Dennett rejects reductionism and solving the problems of evolution based on the general laws of chemistry and physics, he is peculiarly right. It turned out to be much unexpected that physics, in principle, with its most advanced theoretical methods, is not able to study even such a thousand times manifested before the eyes of people, it would seem, the simplest physical phenomenon as the transformation of water into ice, the transition of liquid into a crystalline state. This process is called phase transition of the first kind. First of all, such transitions related to transformations of the main aggregate states of substances, gas, liquid, crystal. As a result of such transformations, substances of a different quality arose. The gas was converted into a liquid with completely new, unusual gas properties, and the liquid after crystallization became a body with hardness, elasticity and other new properties. In fact, there was a process of development, at least in the field of physical bodies. Theories well described the equilibrium state of these substances, but the jump to a more complex aggregate state could not be described by theory. Although steam condensation or freezing of water, its crystallization were carried out countless times before our eyes, the grandiose theory of physics was unable to study such a transformation. In principle, it was impossible in the same equations to combine qualitatively different elements of the initial and final systems. These phase transitions are development processes unpleasant to Dennett qualitative transformations when, for example, a set of independent particles turns into an interconnected holistic system. The transition is dynamic, therefore, the equilibrium state should be replaced by a non-equilibrium, and then such an internal relationship, which is characterized by a new quality that is not led to the qualities of the elements. In this process, a special act must certainly occur, which cannot be studied not only by physics, but also by any natural sciences. But this - 16 - cannot be an excuse for philosophers to deny laws and turn to all kinds of fiction of wise men. Physics is trying to distract from the qualitative difference between the beginning and the end and evaluate the change only in such parameters that were inherent in both phases. They remained the usual energy parameters, and generalizations such as pressure and temperature. Since the phase transition took place at a constant temperature, it was possible to indicate its value at which there was a thermal equilibrium between the two phases, and below and above which the corresponding phase was stably maintained. So, in our usual conditions, at atmospheric pressure and a temperature below 00 C, there is ice, above - water. The temperature/pressure ratio at the equilibrium points of not only the two but also the three phases was also determined. Such a triple point of simultaneous existence of ice, liquid water and steam is possible at a pressure of 4.62 mm Hg and a temperature of + 0.010 С. However, the fact that the critical temperature change at critical pressure alone is not sufficient for phase transition has become an extremely important circumstance. Water can remain water at subzero temperatures. Under laboratory conditions, it was kept in a liquid state even at - 330 C. Supercooled water, like supersaturated steam, can exist for a long time, although the parameters theoretically correspond to a different phase. This state is called a metastable state - a factor of particular importance for understanding the processes of qualitative transformation. Therefore, in the phase transition equations of the first kind, a jump in thermodynamic potentials is recorded, a jump that determines the virtually unexplained factor of this transition. Based on purely abstract reasoning, one could also come to a statement about metastability. The fact is that for a relationship, elements of bodies must have opposite states. Or they are differently charged; or the electron spins have inverse signs: -1/2 and + 1/2; or substances are polarized in opposite directions, etc. The relationship of absolutely identical elements is impossible. Considering a homogeneous system in a completely homogeneous environment at the same temperature and pressure, we must consider the states and changes of the - 17 - elements also uniform. Homogeneous elements could be pushed off but cannot be interconnected. Therefore, such a system is not able to form a new integrity, a new quality. In order for a substance, being in a metastable state, to go into a different phase, external exposure is required, but not from those that uniformly spread throughout the system, but one that can specifically change the state of individual elements. Point impact creates a difference in elements, the opposite in their relationships, and thereby contributes to interaction and interconnection. It is enough to lower the foreign body into the supercooled liquid, as it will solidify almost instantly. To detect tracks of charged particles, Wilson created a chamber inside which supersaturated steam was purified as much as possible from impurities and ions. The elementary particle passing through the chamber formed steam condensation centers along its path, along which the trajectory of movement was detected. At the points of the path, it acted on steam molecules by changing their charge or polarizing them, which made a difference between these and neighboring steam molecules and contributed to their combining into water droplets. Thus, the transformation of substances requires, so to speak, the heterogeneity of their homogeneous elements, which is achieved due to the interaction of such a system with an infinite external world that is fundamentally not taken into account by natural sciences. In particular, the very usual for us freezing of water, the transition of liquid to ice, owes not only to minus temperatures, but also to the fact that in any reservoir there are all kinds of impurity particles. They provide altered states of individual molecules and contribute to the formation of their relationships into a new crystalline state. Many crystallization centers arise around which increasingly expanding crystals of ice are formed, ultimately covering the entire cooled surface of the reservoir. Obviously, the peculiar state of individual elements due to off-system point impact cannot be taken into account by generalized parameters. In equations describing system dependencies as a whole, there is no place for single changes in individual elements. At the same time, without such changes, qualitative transformation is impossible. Physicists are forced to recognize their helplessness - 18 - in the theoretical coverage of this moment, a jump in the phase transition to a new quality. Interestingly, in the theory of dissipative systems of Prigogine I., after a highly non-equilibrium state of the system, the moment of bifurcation was noted, again, the break of the curve of change in parameters, when there is a jump to one of the possible two states of the system, which theoretically cannot be predicted because it depends on accidents. Theories often indicate a fluctuation when deviations of the studied general parameters from the average values are taken into account. Again, the elements themselves are not taken into account. Influence of macro parameter fluctuation is estimated. When taking into account fluctuations, you have to turn to private influences from the environment. These are the impurities, the influence of the walls of the receptacles in which the substance is located, and all kinds of unaccounted for effects on the elements of the system from the outside world in the past and in the present. When estimating fluctuations instead of turning to point changes of elements, a certain summary effect of these changes on the parameters taken into account is considered in order to satisfy the main requirement of mathematical equations - their same type before and after qualitative transformations. In equations, all sets must be sets of elements of the same quality. The principle of identity is obligatory. In this regard, the so-called phase transitions of the second kind are much more convenient, unlike the phase transitions of the first kind discussed above. Transformations of the second kind relate, for example, to changes in the symmetry of crystals when a change in temperature changes the arrangement of molecules from the tetragonal lattice to cubic, or vice versa. Landau proved that with phase transitions of the second kind there are no metastable states. One phase goes to another at once, entirely. And although the moment of a qualitative jump remains unattainable in the equations, the description of the process does not depend on fundamentally different phenomena, namely, on external point influences. Therefore, most theories of phase transitions, claiming a generalized representation of all kinds of acts of qualitative transformation in - 19 - nature and society, refer to descriptions of transitions of the second kind. They are more easily mathematized. But before there must be a first-order phase transition in a process beyond the reach of physics, so that subsequent transformations become more accessible to theoretical equations. Transitions of the second kind, by the way, manifest an innumerable number of times in the previously formed organs of living beings, in particular proteins. These are, for example, isomorphic changes in retinal, after the collapse of rhodopsin. As a result, to study the development process, the reproduction of a previously formed entity, as in ontogenesis, also the phase transitions of the second kind, as the internal transformations of the structure, can appear as convenient phenomena. But the most important initial processes that determine new formation which should be seen in physical phenomena are first-order phase transitions. And if you know the necessary prerequisites and laws of these transitions, you can understand the more complex transformations of developed beings. Moreover, Dennett also notes a number of such options at different levels of complexity of structures. These are silicon self-reproducing crystals, and carbon self-reproducing crystals of DNA and RNA, protein molecules, multicellular organisms. All of them are interconnections of elements that previously exist independently. Similar forms of integrations that determine increasingly complex neural relationships, and so brain functions, will be quite understandable if we understand these primary phenomena of qualitative transformations. Examples of "self-organizations" in physics and chemistry The state of the summed system prior to the jump in the qualitative transformation of substances was of interest to many scientists. A number of physicists and chemists tried to generalize and extend such peculiar changes in the aggregates of physical elements even to living systems. - 20 - Hermann Haken (1978), one of the prominent specialists in laser physics, began to develop the theory of synergy, in which, based on a well-known model of processes in the laser, he sought to appropriately represent transformations in all fields of nature, up to the phenomena of social life. The principle of operation of a pulsed optical quantum generator, i.e. a laser, is based on the effect of induced radiation, when a light wave colliding with an excited atom causes it to emit the same photon, which causes the light wave to be amplified. The atoms of the substance, upon absorption of light, turn into an excited state, as a result of which a photon is emitted. Since the substance is in a device reflecting a number of photonic flows, they can repeatedly activate atoms on their part and cause not only spontaneous but also induced radiation. In spontaneous radiation, the photon pulse vector has an arbitrary orientation, and in induced direction it is due to the acting photon vector. As a result, many photons become coherent, i.e. their directionality, frequency and phase of radiation are of the same type. According to the positive feedback principle, the greater the coherent flux density, the greater the number of atoms will be involved in the induced radiation. After some critical level of concentration of coherent photons, an avalanche-like beam of monochromatic radiation is formed, and gains such power that leaves the tube through a translucent end. Haken emphasizes in this process the importance of the principle of causality, which characterizes the effect of the parameters of the dominant flow, the so-called order parameters, on the elements of the system, atoms, subordinating their action to themselves. You can select the following factors as prerequisites for transformation: Initially, the substance producing photons is in limited conditions. The same occurs in metastable states of gases and liquids. Under the influence of a light wave, due to "pumping," atoms are in an excited, activated state. The "pump" energy forms a general unstable macro state, but with a certain amount of this energy causes the transformation of the system as a whole. Hacken takes it as a - 21 - parameter that controls the process of transition to a new form of stability in which a monochromatic stream of photons acts. Haken calls this transition to coherence self-organization, and considers the theory of transition to extend to many developmental phenomena that occur in wildlife. Nevertheless, this process cannot categorically be equated with development, since the result is a stream of equivalent, monochrome, photons, but by no means the internal interconnection of elements, which would thereby generate a new structure representing a new quality. And the relationship is fundamentally impossible between the same types of elements. At the same time, it is it that leads to the formation of integration of elements and a new quality of a holistic system. Moreover, this factor determines the necessary interaction with the surrounding nature, which is very significant for transformation, which is also important for living beings. No less promising was the theory of the dissipative systems of I. Prigogine (1984), in which very valuable information was revealed about the main points of the hopping transition to qualitatively new states of chemical, but also of a different kind of objects. Prigogine also presented a number of interesting examples of substance conversion under the unpredictable influence of external forces or catalytic means. For example, as a common example of self-organization, the process of moving the liquid between two plates of different temperatures, the Benard cells, is considered. Similarly to the "pump" in the laser the bottom plate of this device is heated. The temperature difference between the lower and upper surfaces of the liquid acts as a control parameter. It has a peculiar effect on the substance. As long as the temperature difference does not exceed a certain critical value, the liquid remains at rest. Only stationary heat flow along the heat conductivity from bottom to top operates. Exceeding the critical threshold leads to a new macroscopic state, completely different from the previous rest. With a slight - 22 - excess, manifold convective liquid flows in the form of shafts arise. These ensembles of liquid molecules initially differ in the density, speeds and number of elements involved in them. The difference is due to all possible fluctuations occurring in the thickness of the liquid. In this unstable state with subsequent heating and an increase in the temperature difference, the relationship between collective flows changes dramatically. Some configurations of ensembles are enhanced, involving an increasing number of molecules in their flow, others, respectively, are weakened. If, up to a certain value of the control parameter, the arising liquid rollers behaved independently of each other, then with an increase in their movements, the flows begin to act on each other, strengthening the same type of ensembles, uniting with them, and competitively influencing others. As a result, one or more of the most efficient flow configurations are dominant. They determine the steady, stable macroscopic order in the configuration of convective flows, Benard cells. Fluid flows are influenced by two opposite gradients: temperature and gravitational. As a result, Benard's instability gives rise to a complex picture of fluid flows. Millions of molecules move in concert, almost at the same speeds (velocity spread is small), forming convective cells in the form of regular hexagons of some characteristic size. Both Haken and Prigogine see coherent flows as a form of self-organization. It would seem that the influx of heat and rising temperatures should have led to disorder, an increase in entropy and an increase in chaos. However, after critical disorganization (dissipation), the microscopic convective stream, under the strongly non-equilibrium conditions created, takes possession of the entire system and establishes a new molecular order. Prigogine, unlike the equilibrium structure of matter that classical thermodynamics explores, introduces the concept of a dissipative structure in order to emphasize the close and at first glance paradoxical relationship that exists in such situations, on the one hand, by structure and order, and on the other, by dissipation, or loss. In this case, the heat flow becomes not a source of loss, but a source of order. - 23 - “Dissipative structures actually correspond to a form of supramolecular organization. Although the parameters describing crystal structures may be derived from the properties of the molecules of which they are composed, and in particular from the range of their forces of attraction and repulsion, Benard cells, like all dissipative structures, are essentially a reflection of the global situation of nonequilibrium producing them. The parameters describing them are macroscopic; they are not of the order of 10 -8 cm, like the distance between the molecules of a crystal, but of the order of centimeters. Similarly, the time scales are differently correspond not to molecular times (such as periods of vibration of individual molecules, which may correspond to about 10-15 sec) but to macroscopic times: seconds, minutes, or hours.” (1984, 144) Again, the following can be identified as the main factors of transformation. 1. Liquid molecules are in a certain spatially limited situation. 2. Heating the plate increases the kinetic energy of the underlying molecules, which are activated under the influence of a temperature gradient, but, cooling from the upper plate, fall under the influence of gravity. The temperature difference becomes the control parameter of the liquid conversion. 3. Increasing the incoming heat disrupts the rest state of the liquid and puts it in an unstable state. Various spontaneous small flows appear, differing in speed, the number of molecules involved in them. Initially, they are independent, arise due to fluctuations, increase or weaken. As the control parameter increases, the flows begin to influence each other. The system goes into a highly non-equilibrium state. The flow, which accidentally turned out to be the most effective, again, according to the principle of positive feedback, involves an increasing number of molecules, thereby becoming a dominant flow. Two oppositely directed processes, one under the influence of a temperature gradient, the other under the influence of gravity create, in the presence of fluctuations and competition of flows, a peculiar picture of oscillatory transitions from one state of the system to another. Some authors call these transitions the self-organization. - 24 - It is important to bear in mind that this version should also see a unique process of orderly changes in the summed system, but by no means a process of development. Again, equally significant flows of the same type of elements are formed. When it comes to chemical elements, their relationship is most often visible. Initially, they are either different in valence, in polarity of molecules, or even in charges, or by spins. So associations, as a rule, are quite understandable. At the same time, we know that the result is a substance of different quality from the properties of the original elements. It is important to keep in mind that connections lead to new integration and thus introduce new quality. Salt, sodiumchlorine, have other features than sodium and chlorine. Analysis is complicated when considering aggregate systems of molecules. As a result of the chemical reaction, for example, when two molecules A and X collide, two molecules of other substances B and Y - are formed (reaction equation: A + X - > B + Y). Unlike the previously discussed physical examples, in this case there is a strong restructuring of molecules. Therefore, clashes must be so effective that there is not just an exchange of energies, but a significant change in internal relationships. Under normal conditions (room temperature and atmospheric pressure), only a very small fraction (for example, 1/106) of the total number of collisions are so effective. The energy transferred in the collision must be sufficient to break the previous bonds in the molecules so that their activated state gets resolved in the new relationships. The same force of interactions can have the opposite effect when the newly formed molecules in turn are converted into starting reagents A and X. The direct reaction increases the concentration of molecules B and Y, and reduces the concentrations of A and X, which contributes to the manifestation of reverse reactions. Given to itself, the system in which chemical reactions occur tends to a state of chemical equilibrium. As a result, a certain balance of coordinated direct and reverse reactions is created with a certain ratio of concentrations of reacting substances. The average rate of change in concentrations is zero. - 25 - In addition to thermodynamic conditions (for example, pressure and temperature) and concentrations of reagents, the rate of chemical reaction can also be affected by the presence of some chemicals that do not directly change as a result of reactions, but have an effect on the process itself. Such substances are called catalysts. They can change the direction of reactions and even force the system to follow a kind of reaction path. Their influence is usually manifested in the fact that, having attractive active sites for reagents in their spatial configuration, they increase the likelihood of their encounters. The presence of the catalyst facilitates the acceleration of direct or reverse reactions, which leads to a change in the final ratio of the concentrations of reactants. But his participation only translates the system into a new equilibrium state with a changed ratio of concentrations of substances. A completely different situation arises in the case of so-called autocatalytic reactions in which the synthesis of a substance is facilitated by the presence of the same substance. In fact, there is a kind of generation process where the formation of a given substance, as a reaction yield, is involved, in the type of positive feedback, in the process of formation of the same substance. To autocatalytic processes there correspond schemes of reactions of the A+2X ->3X (in the presence of molecules X one molecule A turns into one molecule X). A more complex version of catalytic reactions is the so-called cross-catalysis, when X is obtained from Y, and Y is simultaneously obtained from X. A peculiar cross-catalytic reaction involving four substances, two of which are in crossdependence, was developed in the laboratory of Prigogine. Substance X is formed from substance A and converted into substance B. It is a "partner" in the cross-catalysis of substance Y: X is formed from Y as a result of the three molecular stages, and Y is formed as a result of the reaction between X and substance B. Substance concentrations are controlling parameters. The behavior of the system is examined at increasing values of B, the concentration of A is kept constant. At certain concentrations of substances, the system is in an equilibrium state. - 26 - But as soon as concentration B passes the critical threshold (other things being equal), this stationary state becomes unstable. Instead of remaining stationary, the concentrations of X and Y begin to fluctuate with distinct periodicity. The period of oscillation depends on kinetic constants characterizing the reaction rate and the boundary conditions imposed on the entire system (temperatures, concentrations of substances A, B, etc.). As a result, we get a periodic chemical process - a chemical clock. “Suppose we have two kinds of molecules, "red" and "blue." Because of the chaotic motion of the molecules, we would expect that at a given moment we would have more red molecules, say, in the left part of a vessel. Then a bit later more blue molecules would appear, and so on. The vessel would appear to us as "violet," with occasional irregular flashes of red or blue. However, this is not what happens with a chemical clock; here the system is all blue, then it abruptly changes its col or to red, then again to blue. Because all these changes occur at regular time intervals, we have a coherent process.” (1984, 148) Prigogine believes that in order to simultaneously change the concentrations of molecules X or Y, they must "somehow" maintain communication with each other. The system must behave as one. We will refer to the key word "connection," which denotes a very important concept and defines many transformations, repeatedly. But in this case, Prigogine's assumption is unconvincing. The influence of common reasons for the system of these molecules fully explains their same type of behavior. Similar oscillatory phenomena are observed during the BelousovZhabotinsky reaction, when organic acid is oxidized by potassium bromate in the presence of the corresponding catalyst - cerium, manganese. Thus, in chemical reactions, the transition to a new order is also due to typical factors. First, it is the growth of activated elements in a certain limited area due to the autocatalytic loop as a consequence of the positive feedback. - 27 - Secondly, exceeding some threshold value of the number of basic elements is occurs. Thirdly, beyond the critical threshold, the system, under the influence of fluctuations, spontaneously leaves the stationary state and ends up in a state of non-equilibrium. Fourthly, the oscillatory process is forced by anti-directional cross-catalytic actions - the marginal gain of one stream leads to an excessive increase in the concentration of one substance, and this in turn triggers the process of formation and dominance of the opposite stream. Physics of generation and oscillatory processes In the above examples of "self-organization," such phenomena are erroneously given the importance of integration processes. In the system of unconnected independent elements, with a certain influence from the outside and under certain circumstances, it is possible to increase the effect of this influence, up to the involvement of almost all elements in the initiated act. This was the monochromatic beam of photons in the laser, such are all types of explosions, such are various types of generation. The effect itself becomes similar to the initial effect, which can increasingly strengthen it and eventually lead to an avalanche-like spread of the initial effect. In particular, all electric signal generators have positive feedback, which supplies output amplified signals to the input. In auto generators, after the supply voltage is switched on, random fluctuation oscillations after amplification are transmitted by the feedback link to the amplifier input. A similar effect occurs in a laser when exposed to a photon flux reflected from mirrors. The signal at the output, therefore, and at the input, is increasingly growing and reaches a maximum at the maximum possible steady state. In real-world - 28 - conditions, as a rule, various and amplifying and limiting factors, for example, the gain for strong signals, as well as the amount of activating voltage, which together determine the final state of the system. The various combinations of these factors affecting the elements of the system create a variety of variants of the resulting effects, which some authors consider to be variants of self-organization. In cases where such systems with a plurality of elements are exposed to two forces of different nature, the oscillatory processes are possible. The most typical is the oscillation of the physical pendulum. Suppose, in the presence of gravity, two opposite components of energy, potential and kinetic, set in the absence of friction an endless process of movement to one and the other sides of the vertical plane. There are, of course, mediating circumstances. For example, bonding a metal ball to an inextensible thread hanging the metal ball to an upper point; the magnitude of the motion triggering force pulse is also important for the amplitude of the oscillation. A significant factor in such processes is the strengthening or weakening of both types of energy. The kinetic energy in the process of lifting the ball decreases to zero, instead of increasing the potential energy. Later, the potential energy is reduced to a minimum, in return for which kinetic energy is increased, etc. In a metal ball, all molecules are tightly interconnected, so we can talk about the movement of it as a whole, as a certain material point. Let us now consider the electric oscillating circuit. In an electric circuit consisting of a capacitor and connected to it in series by an inductance coil, free oscillations of the electron flow can occur, which determine the charge of the capacitor and the current in the coil. If you close this circuit by previously charging the capacitor, then its discharge current, passing through the inductance coil, will create a magnetic field in it, the energy of which will reach a maximum when the voltage on the capacitor decreases to a minimum. Similar to how potential energy reached a maximum at zero kinetic energy. Then the reverse process will begin. The current passing through the coil will begin to decrease, which will cause the self-induction, as a phenomenon seeking to keep the current unchanged. Electric force of self-induction will start charging the capacitor of the circuit to the - 29 - maximum voltage, which in the absence of losses will reach the previous value of the initial charge. Thus, the magnetic field energy of the coil will be pumped to and from the capacitor electric field, setting electromagnetic oscillations in the electric circuit. Electromagnetic induction corresponds to Lenz's law: with any change in magnetic flux through a surface limited by a closed circuit, an inductive current of such a direction arises in the latter that its own magnetic field counteracts the change in the magnetic flux that caused the induction current. This law is consistent with the general Le Chatelier rule: the outside exert influence on a system in equilibrium, changing any of the conditions (temperature, pressure, concentration), the equilibrium is shifted in such a way as to compensate for the change. The same idea is quantified more strictly by the Onsanger reciprocity relation: if the force "one" (for example, the temperature gradient) for slightly non-equilibrium situations affects the flow "two" (for example, diffusion), then the force "two" (concentration gradient) affects the flow "one" (heat flow). Similar processes occurred in Benard’s cells, where the effects of gravity and thermal conductivity along the temperature gradient acted. In the "brusellator," cross-catalytic opposite states of the flows of molecules at that level of concentration of the control parameter, when the generation of one or another phenomenon occurs, cause an oscillatory process. Similar phenomena under the influence of positive feedback occur in the animal environment, especially in herd animals, when in alarming situations (activated state of individuals), even in the absence of leaders, a more effective movement of a group may be dominant and involve the entire herd. Mass meetings of people are not an exception, when the whole mass moves in the direction desired for the most active group. Internal Intention or Activated State - 30 - When considering examples of "self-organization" of summed systems, one of the factors necessary for the transformation was the activated state of the elements of the system. Dennett and a number of other philosophers prefer to use the concept of "intentionality," as if emphasizing the orientation of activity. An active state of natural physical objects also corresponds to intention notion. So in the simplest version, an atom devoid of an electron creates a positive field that influences on environmental and under favorable circumstances will attach an electron that is necessary for internal neutrality. “The medieval theorists noted that the arrow of intentionality could thus be aimed at nothing while nevertheless being aimed in a rather particular way.” (1996b, p. 37) Such an arrow, or influence, on the environment is well suited to explain the direction of physical activity. “Intentional systems are, by definition, all and only those entities whose behavior is predictable/explicable from the intentional stance. Self-replicating macromolecules, thermostats, amoebas, plants, rats, bats, people, and chessplaying computers are all intentional systems—some much more interesting than others. Since the point of the intentional stance is to treat an entity as an agent in order to predict its actions, we have to suppose that it is a smart agent, since a stupid agent might do any dumb thing at all.” (1996b, p. 34) In theories there are using forms of the active state of non-living and living beings different in ascending complexity. The main essence of this state of all things is that although all non-living and living objects consist of atoms and molecules of a common nature, nevertheless, they oppose the surrounding world because of their own peculiar integration of these elements. At the same time, they are constantly subjected to endless influences from other objects of external nature. In the case where the force of influences exceeds the degree of internal interconnection of elements, there may be a non-critical violation of internal unity and the need to restore it, like in the atom ion. Then an activated state arises, aimed at finding the element because of it a defect has been arisen. For physical objects, this activity is realized when the absent element is successfully - 31 - replenished. In living beings, the activated state differs in accordance with the complexity of internal organization. At the biological level, the resulting "shortage" leads to an activated state called deprivation. In the presence of the nervous system, the activity of a higher order is called motivation. At the logical level, especially the level of cognition, activity can be defined as a task. In the case where the previously developed pattern of actions to gain a "disadvantage" is successful, it is possible to indicate an internally defined "intention." If it is ineffective in this environment, then the situation corresponds to unsolved activity "aimed at nothing." Dennett, according to his method of understanding phenomena, involves the forms of goal-setting established in the psyche of modern man, which are somehow due to the formalization of the goal. Therefore, he refers "intention" to the language designations of the desired subject. “Every meaningful term or predicate of a language has an extension—the thing or set of things to which the term refers—and an intension—the particular way in which this thing or set of things is picked out or determined.” (1996b, pp. 38-39) The difference in terms is not as important as the very essence of activated states, "intents." The problem, of course, is not how to denote different levels of activity, but the need to know the peculiarity that manifests itself in the process of evolution of all natural beings. To understand this state, the concept of “unsolved activity" turns out to be a very important concept. This condition results, if not in homeostasis, either final destruction of the organism or complication of its internal structure. If we do not have an "intention" to know the evolution of the body, but only try to understand its available function, then, bearing in mind our already certain way emerging psyche and thinking, we have to talk not about the formed sensorymotor patterns of actions, but about the rude and machine pursuit of the goal. “It is one thing to treat an organism, or any of its many subsystems, as a rudimentary intentional system that crudely and unthinkingly pursues its undeniably sophisticated ends, and quite another to impute reflective appreciation to it of what it is doing. Our kind of reflective thinking is a very - 32 - recent evolutionary innovation.” (1996b, p. 48) Although it is true, that "our kind of reflective thinking is a very recent evolutionary innovation." (Ibid) But why and how thinking was formed is not interested Dennett, or simply he does not know and does not set such a task. Necessary factor of qualitative transformation Examples of "self-organization" considered the flow of uniform elements. It was this factor that turned out to be insufficient to claim development, the emergence of a new quality. For such transformations, the relationship of the elements themselves that arose in those flows was necessary. Let us pay attention to a very important "shortcoming" of physical, like any other, theory. In fact, bodies are always subject to countless environmental influences, so that their real state cannot be described by any finite number of features. Naturally, a person is not able to calculate infinite specifics, so any theory evaluates only the basic, general and most effective parameters. Only they are used in equations, and only those that correspond to these parameters are distinguished from all kinds of features of elements. In this way, many nonessential features are discarded, and the substance studied is determined only by their limited number. Abstraction is an obligatory procedure in any generalization. On the one hand, bearing in mind our capabilities, in this way we are able to gain some knowledge of the entire group of phenomena, without spraying on each individual. On the other hand, the very possibility of generalization suggests something uniform for all private elements of this homogeneous system. In other words, in addition to the purely subjective desire to identify something common in many parts and thereby make the result of our interaction with them predictable, there is a completely objective unity in them, which, in principle, makes it possible to define the general structure. - 33 - So the individual features of individual molecules, of course, cannot be considered in the equations. This seemingly natural approach in theoretical research has to be noticed when we are dealing with integrative processes. The fact is that the relationship of particles, which is an essential act in the formation of integral objects, is possible only in the presence of individual particles with opposite features, be it charge, polarity, spin or something else. As long as the stationary state of the system with the same type of elements is considered, there is no need to distinguish the particular feature of any elements. System elements, being subject to general external influences, should be considered equally changed, again of the same type, but it is this circumstance that makes their interaction impossible, and therefore the subsequent transformation of the system. Therefore, singular originality, deviation from the general one, will be very important in the subsequent consideration of qualitative transitions. It is worth noting the forced change in theories: when the task of assessing thermal phenomena arose, it became necessary to keep in mind the irreversibility of processes. Between the two contacting bodies, there is generally spontaneous heat transfer from the more heated body to the less heated body, but not vice versa. In any closed system, a gradual equalization of the thermal state of bodies will take place. This process is estimated by the entropy value following from the second law of thermodynamics. From one of its ideas, one can judge the messiness of the state of the elements or, on the contrary, the internal interconnectedness of the particles. Entropy increases when incoming heat leads to breaking intermolecular bonds and increases the independent disorderly state of the system elements; in irreversible processes, entropy rises. This happens in any isolated system. Heat is transferred from the warmer part to the less heated part, so that gradually the temperature in the system will equalize and entropy will increase. Of course, there are no absolutely isolated bodies. Therefore, for real systems, it is more convenient to divide entropy into two components. Entropy related to internal processes occurring in an isolated system never decreases. It either remains constant or increases when temperature equalization occurs inside, i.e. there is unidirectional heat propagation seeking to bring the system - 34 - into thermal equilibrium. In this case, they talk about the internal production of entropy. Changing the second cause of entropy, obligated to interact with the environment, can have different signs. It‘s increase or decrease depending on the processes initiated. The uncritical spread of the conclusion about the constant growth of entropy in isolated systems throughout the universe led to the conclusion of its "thermal death," the state when the entire temperature of the world becomes the same. If we limit ourselves to processes in our natural environment, on Earth, then this conclusion can be contrasted with the well-known fact of complication of the structure of individual objects. But this fact and the fact of an increase in entropy in isolated systems requires the conclusion that complexity of the structure can only occur through interaction with the outside world. Moreover, a uniform change that will increase entropy is important, but only one that, instead of strengthening the independent states of the elements of the system, will create the possibility of their interconnection and thereby higher order. It is necessary to keep in mind not only stationary processes, but also integration processes, i.e. development process. All the options considered for changes in the system of combined homogeneous elements lead to the conclusion that the most important factor complicating the internal organization of such systems is the emerging relationship of these elements, which in turn requires such a difference in their states that can provide the necessary interaction. System-wide equivalent external conditions could result in equally equal particle states. But, first, in reality, the bodies touch on some surface and the force of influence is distributed over it, so that there is a difference in the points of the forces applied. As a result, body elements can acquire different energy, which will then create an energy state for some of them different from the average. And, secondly, far from any change in the element will be useful for the transformation of the entire system. - 35 - Integration process - a significant stage of development Two main problems: the formation of diverse entities and the cognition, which occupied sages from ancient times to the present day, were reduced to a single process of development. That is why they merged in the Hegel's theory into the formation of an "absolute idea." Accordingly, thinking has been advanced as the main subject of philosophy because the unity of the nature development and its cognition (reality and reason) was asserted. The forms of reflection inherent in animals and humans should have appropriate prerequisites in the phenomena of less complex structured objects of nature. All natural beings, consist of atoms, molecules. Therefore, their specific qualities owe a special relationship to interconnection of these elements, which should also be conditioned by the universal laws of integration of the elements. If we consider that, for example, cognition provides an increase in human ability in interaction with nature, in fact his development, and then it is in the general laws of the development of natural objects that these very prerequisites of cognitive ability should be sought. In a multi-level phenomenon such as thinking, there are all previous forms of interconnections of elements, so the subject of philosophy would be more reasonable to determine by qualitative transformation, which causes the emergence of a particular form of reflection. In essence, the basic problems of the philosophy of antiquity, the problem of forming increasingly complex entities, but also the problem of cognition, are reduced to a single problem of knowing the law of development. At the same time, philosophers face a serious task. All the expanding achievements of the natural sciences gave rise to doubt about the need for philosophy itself. Distrust of its content is also fueled by those inexhaustible, often far-fetched, not by the scientific reasoning that the folios of the sages are clogged with. At the same time, it would seem that a special subject of philosophy, thinking, over the past one and a half to two centuries since Hegel has also undergone an effective study by the natural sciences. Physics, biophysics, chemistry, biochemistry, biology so thoroughly and reasonably comprehended - 36 - the various stages and sides of the process of thinking that this subject of philosophy, it should seem, ceased to be its prerogative. In order to identify in this process a subject of philosophy that is different from the subject of natural science, it will be necessary to show that at each level of the complicated structure of matter special phenomena occur, the prerequisites of reflection, which the corresponding natural science disciplines are fundamentally unable to study by their methods. To know these phenomena philosophy is necessary, it is they who represent their own subject of philosophy. In particular, it has been shown that when knowing such physical phenomena as phase transitions of the first kind, physics, with all its enormous means of research, is forced to recognize its own insolvency. The problem for all natural sciences is the moments of a saltatory transition from a metastable state to the formation of the elements integration. They are able to study the already established entity, its structure, the possible range of changes under non-critical influences. But in an extreme situation, when the studied entities must be transformed so that their integrity is not destroyed, the cognitive means of these sciences are powerless. The problem is that the transition is possible due to the specific influence of the infinite outside world. The usual methods of common formal logic with its principle of identity and developed mathematical methods of analysis, in which sets are required in equations to also contain elements identical in quality, are not in any way able to cover the features of the outside world, but also to form relationships of different qualities. Both Kant and Hegel understood the limitations of formal logic. To know the process of development, Hegel put forward the laws of dialectics, essentially dialectical logic. Naturally, deeper knowledge of modern science corrects these ideas and allows us to develop our capabilities to study high-quality transformations. It is important that philosophy is the science that can explain the act of development, which allows us to know the outside world better together with the natural sciences. Philosophers, after previous reasoning, could be satisfied with the fundamental inability of physics to explain jumps in first-order phase transitions - 37 - and the same powerlessness of other natural sciences. But one must still understand the formation of forms of reflection and even more so cognition. This process, due to the development of life on Earth and the evolution of mankind, can also be understood based on the general laws of development. The philosophy of history reveals those transformations in the life of communities that have developed the ability of cognition, the form of consciousness, and subsequently forced self-consciousness. Crystallization Examples of the formation of a qualitatively new physical object best represent first-order phase transitions. This is particularly the crystallization of the liquid substance. It makes sense to consider this process in more detail, since it manifests a factor extremely important for understanding the more complex phenomena of reality. When it comes to the transition of steam to water, the formation of a nucleation center, for all its necessity, remains as if only a moment contributing to the phase transition. Consideration of its impact is usually limited. However, a more detailed study of the crystallization of liquids reveals the inexhaustible effect of influence from the outside world. Sometimes during crystallization, the external influence is due to an impurity for the substrate of a given liquid, but a distal effect is also possible, causing a critical degree of change in the state of individual elements. In the theories of phase transitions, when temperature decreases, kinetic energy decreases and thereby the influence of potential energy increases, which ultimately leads to an increase in the possibility of interconnections between atoms or molecules and the formation of a solid body. Solids can be crystalline, but also in the so-called amorphous state. In amorphous substances, intermolecular interactions have only a near order, as in a liquid. It's kind of a state of supercooled fluid. In crystals, the ordering of particles is very high; it is repeated in three dimensions in the entire volume. The natural arrangement of particles is maintained on a plurality of interatomic bonds in all - 38 - directions of crystal growth. Therefore, it is customary to talk about the presence of " long-range " in such solids. This factor, as well as the originality of the formed configuration of the relationships of atoms, requires attention to completely different qualities of point external influence. It is necessary to evaluate not all kinds of influences of the external environment, but only such special factors by their characteristics, which somehow correspond to the metastable state of a particular fluid. Natural selection does not even appear in this physical process. A very appropriate effect is required under these conditions for a steady transformation to occur. Moreover, for complex structures, a lot of more specifics of external impact will be required. Of particular importance is the act of the origin of crystals, in other words, the act of forming in the liquid the smallest particles of the solid phase (sometimes due to the action of the so-called "substrate"), and the germ of crystals. Thermodynamics proves that only a germ with a radius greater than critical can become the center for further crystal growth. With smaller radii, the embryo can disappear, since the formation of the interface leads to energy consumption, which causes the free energy of the system to increase slightly. Its change depends on the surface of the germ, which is proportional to the square of the radius, and on the volume of the germ which determines the heat of melting released. At the same time, of course, the more supercooled the liquid, the smaller the critical size of the germ. This ratio of the degree of metastability and the required distinction between the elements of the system is decisive for the subsequent transformation. In particular, when supercooling water below --minus 330C, the previously unaccountable difference between the states of the molecules themselves is sufficient to form ice. There is evidence that subcooling of the order of 0.2 T (critical temperature) is required for homogeneous (without impurities) crystal origin. Since there is, although difficult to take into account, a microdifference in the state of liquid molecules (the difference in their states is ultimately determined by the past or the present also by a point effect from the external environment), then a minor - 39 - change in molecules with deep metastability will have a decisive effect. Under real conditions, the origin of crystals occurs in a heterogeneous manner. Crystals are formed on the surface of a foreign solid (substrate) or impurity present in the liquid. At the same time, not every impurity particle and not under every conditions can become the base on which the crystal embryo forms. The wettability of the surface of the solid phase with a liquid is very important. It depends on the proximity of the structures of the crystal lattices of the impurity and the solid phase, on the interatomic distances in them. To produce metals, most often special substances are intentionally introduced into the liquid phase, which are the best catalysts for the crystal initiation process. It is very important to pay attention to the fact that the impurity particles, having ensured the creation of the crystal germ, thereby form a certain structure of the crystal developing on the basis of this germ. In particular, with the so-called dendritic growth, each dendrite grows from one crystallization center; all its branches are equally oriented, so that it is essentially a single crystal. For our topic, the fact that oriented germs lead to oriented crystals is very important. In general, the structure and shape of the germ caused by the external influence can be manifested in the entire volume of the formed single crystal. The internal relationships and the crystal lattice, mainly determined by the atomic and molecular composition of the liquid, are initiated by the influence exerted by the impurity particle. The actual shape of the embryo is due to the same shape of this particle, which has possibly different surface tension parameters along its different faces or irregularities, favorable (energetically more advantageous) for the formation of a solid phase. Single crystals of a tree shape grow, layering on the primary shape of the embryo, also orienting them under the influence of a temperature gradient. Crystal growth will occur by the type of inheritance of the primary formed structure and shape. Similar, but much more diverse, processes occur during polymerization. Again, dependence on the substrate affects, most often even more significant than during crystallization. Repetition of the shape and structure due to the germ - 40 - extends to the entire multidimensional chain of polymer clusters. A peculiar interest is the condition identified by Eigen and his collaborators for the stability of the polymer chain relative to reproduction failures. The system should consist of two cross-catalytically coupled molecules, so that each of them, reproducing itself, acts as a catalyst for the synthesis of the opposite polymer molecule. With this relationship, they provide each other with stable reduplication, protecting against possible implementations of structurally different polymer chains. Something similar occurs in living matter, in particular between the interaction of "nucleic acid" and "protein." Crystallization makes it possible to draw the following conclusions important for our topic. 1. The initial state for crystallization is a supercooled (metastable) liquid, in which kinetic energy is minimized and potential energy prevails. Such activated state providing subsequent interconnections of molecules and atoms. 2. Cooling the liquid alone is not sufficient for crystallization. The necessary moment for the transition of the liquid to the solid is the inhomogeneity of the state of the system elements. Heterogeneity is ensured either by an initial difference due to the past variety of environmental influences, or by random external influences with respect to the system, including from impurity particles. 3. Not every "other" can contribute to the formation of a new phase, a new quality. On the one hand, it must be consistent with the end result that is favorable for solving the problem of imbalance (metastability), on the other hand, to make the necessary change, without which the previous state cannot transform itself. Thus, the resulting system will consist of the former substance, but in such a relationship, which contains the influence of the external environment. It is possible to generalize both the content of the source system (subjective side) and the external structure-forming effect (objective side) in new qualities. 4. The resulting crystal germ in shape and structure becomes a matrix for subsequent transformation of the liquid phase in the presence of appropriate - 41 - external conditions. There is a proliferation (replication) of similar bodies, repeating the structure, sometimes the shape, of the primary embryo. The nucleation center, being overgrown with equivalent bonds, is in a strong equilibrium neutral state. The outer surface sides of the crystal are activated to a greater extent, which is due to the general structure in the form of activation. Therefore, activity is allowed when missing or new elements of the type and in the sequence specified by the original structure are attached. Quantitative growth is a background for development It is worth thinking about the phenomenon of reproduction. It was already perceived by ancient sages as an important result of quantitative growth. And in theory of philosophy, quantity was defined as the reason for the subsequent transition to a new quality. Moreover, an unambiguous reason, very important circumstances should have been identified, without which the transition would not occur. But the quantitative growth itself, since it occurs and with physical objects, is requires clarification. It is not enough to be amazed by this "amazing ability," because it must be understood. Why is this happening? In fact, quantitative growth, precisely as a number, is well estimated by the natural sciences (for example, logistic equations) and can be taken into account without turning to the laws of development. But evaluating subsequent transformations requires understanding the cause of growth, which will make it possible to understand the conditions of forced transitions to increasingly complex bodies. In the above examples of "self-organization," the need for quantitative growth of active elements of the system is quite obvious and emphasized in all theories. But making broad generalizations does not allow the artificiality of the process of their transformation, because in this time experimental operations become responsible for growth and destabilization. The heating of the liquid, the generation of "pumping," the increase in the concentration of the reagent and similar effects on the mass of particles fenced off from the external environment - 42 - leave doubt about the analogy with what happens in nature without the intervention of the scientist. One way or another, but additional examples from the field of natural processes are mandatory. In the mentioned self-organization works, they most often belong to populations of living beings. So, amoebas grow and reproduce as unicellular organisms until the number of hungry amoebas becomes critical. If in many examples of self-organization the external influence was in the energy activation of the elements of the system, then biological evolution is most due to the deterioration of the external environment. It is possible to restore the integrity of creatures if you have the required components in an accessible environment. Depletion of the living environment is possible not only due to geological and atmospheric changes, but also due to the quantitative growth of the same type of creatures, which leads to an increase in the activated elements of this population. As a result, either they will be destroyed or they will gain stability in the newly formed integration. “Suppose a world in which organisms have many offspring. Since the off spring themselves will have many offspring, the population will grow and grow ("geometrically" ) until inevitably, sooner or later—surprisingly soon, in fact—it must grow too large for the available resources (of food, of space, of whatever the organisms need to survive long enough to reproduce). (1996a, p. 40) Dennett identifies as a result of this growth of individuals a worsened possibility of reproduction. But usually the ratio of the duration of life and the speed of reproduction is such that the number of living animal units will increasingly exceed the totality that the means of life support of a given environment can satisfy. A critical (metastable) state of this species will arise. A possible result with a favorable effect of external nature will be the complication of the organism, in addition to the emergence of a new species. The problem is wider. Indeed, in the natural environment and among nonliving objects, such phenomena are not uncommon. Moreover, as we review evolutionary epochs, we notice the persistence and direction of this process. We - 43 - can at least intuitively notice the line of progress, not to mention the direction of development of living beings, from the proterozoic to the mammals of the Mesozoic and further to man, the humanity of our days. We have to think, does not there exist any natural pattern of all kinds of reproduction of similar creatures? It must be assumed that the quantitative growth of natural objects, without which a subsequent integration step would be impossible, is inherent in nature itself. In other words, everything that is born in the world tends to multiply. Without such a universal law, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to explain the evolution on Earth. The trend, of course, does not mean that growth is essential. Opposing circumstances are possible. The occurrence of many random variations that do not meet the existing conditions of being; defeat in competition with more resilient opponents; destructive effects of the environment, etc. Adverse events can block the originating type of object. But there is always a trend, and it contributes to the spread of the most successful integrations. Considering the development of life on Earth, very often they mention natural collisions, catastrophic phenomena, global climatic changes, etc. Their influence was undeniable and could be assumed decisive for the formation of primary biological macromolecules. But you can also point to long periods of relatively stable state of regions, where nevertheless the process of complication of organisms did not stop. In general, it can be noted that space, geologic transformations and induced changes in the environment concerned have an incomparably longer duration than growth processes. Therefore, many researchers indicate "reproduction progression," "reproduction pressure," "overpopulation" as the reasons for the emergence of a progressive type of animal. Reproduction of many living organisms is so effective that they could fill any region, even the whole planet in a fairly short period of time. But in natural conditions, the interdependence of living beings and the means they consume leads to a certain relative equilibrium of the numbers of organisms of the highest and lowest complexity of development. To a greater extent, the problem of growth becomes critical for highly developed entities. - 44 - What is a common reason for continued growth? First of all, the principle of the birth of a new quality comes to mind. The necessary and sufficient conditions must be created for such an act of development to occur. Nature is not an experimental chamber, and the conditions created are usually inherent in a wide area. The natural origin environment always has a greater extent and volume of required substrate than what is required for the nascent object. So under the same conditions, a number of its analogues could arise with the same probability. When we consider the hierarchy of complicated objects of nature, it seems quite obvious that the lower order is numerically superior the higher one and many times. So, the mass of the Earth is almost one and a half hundred times the mass of its bark, the latter is ten million times more than the mass of living matter, the phytomass exceeds the zoomass by at least 100 times. Equally huge differences between the mass of water on Earth, the mass of microorganisms, fish. A similar pyramid can be imagined and with wildlife on land. It is easy to explain the narrowing of the hierarchy of holistic systems as their organization becomes more complex. It is enough to turn to the concept of entropy. To maintain its own order, any organism requires negative entropy (non-entropy), the production of which requires an even greater increase in entropy of the external environment. Therefore, the previous levels of natural formations, being basic for the higher ones, should exceed them quantitatively. A sufficiently large environment, including the original elements of the summing system, must be involved for a new integrative object to arise. And such an environment giving rise to one object will be favorable to the birth of the same kind of other objects. The first assumption is still vulnerable due to the heterogeneity of the distribution of substances of nature. Indeed, if conditions of the same type were formed on Earth, then the resulting formations should evenly fill its space. But we know that they tend to be compact. The seas, oceans, ridges, deposits of minerals, minerals, etc. - all this is concentrated in certain places of the planet, being kind of grouped in rather isolated units. The second assumption. To explain why homogeneous objects multiply in a relatively separate way, I propose a second assumption, gaining greater - 45 - persuasiveness in combination with the first. In a holistic system, each element undergoes concerted changes under the influence of a common relationship. In other words, the structure of the whole is reflected in each of its elements. This means that such an element can act as a matrix of the whole and serve as a basis for forming a new object of the same kind (clone). If there are conditions conducive to development, it will act as an embryo and contribute to the formation of a similar structure. The necessary growth conditions are the activation of the matrix carriers of the whole and the non-equilibrium state of the surrounding substances required for assembly. The theory of phase transitions of the first kind definitely indicates metastability and the required random effect. When there is a matrix, the necessary randomness seems to be embedded in it even when the structure is born, so that the process of extended reproduction unfolds according to the already formed sample. In this way, growth is much faster, without many deviations and unproductive accidents. Matrix activity is translated into a targeted action because the result as a systemic structure is present in the sample in germ form. The growth efficiency of new formations can be estimated by the degree of activity of the particle, the carrier of the structure (subject side) and by the degree of nonequilibrium of the state of homogeneous substances in the medium (object side). This process is similar to the expansion of phase transformation in the resulting embryo of the new phase. Living organisms have formed a special form of reproduction. Reproduction is best performed in developed organisms after the merger of male and female gametes. Growth of the like is an integral function of any organism, regardless of whether the increase of offspring is favorable for their own existence or, on the contrary, harmful. Essentially, there are both suggested growth options. But the second has become more effective targeted. It provides great opportunities to spread and thereby to a certain extent block the growth of its competitor. - 46 - PART 2 QUALITATIVE TRANSFORMATIONS IN WILDLIFE Of course, we imagine a huge difference between physical or chemical phenomena, even if there were phenomena of qualitative transitions, and events in our social life. The idea that everything belongs to a single nature, that no matter how complex living things are, they still consist of the same non-living atoms and molecules, and, therefore, are also subordinate to certain universal laws, is undeniable. This view supports the desire to identify common natural laws. But the understanding of the identity of living matter, incapable of the laws of soulless physics, remains implicit. Therefore, at first we still need to understand what is common to all natural formations, and later we try to identify the qualities of man and humanity that contribute to its development, evolution. To achieve this goal, as a next step, we will consider examples of integrative processes in the evolutionary series of development of the simplest. Of the vast variety of similar phenomena studied about amoebas, termites, some species of ants, etc., we will limit ourselves to a completely indicative transformation of unicellular amoebas into a multicellular organism. The study of the simplest is useful, since the system of the aggregate of unicellular animals subsequently - 47 - becomes the basis for the transition to multicellular individuals, which is similar to the transformations considered in physics. Since in physical and chemical transformations we have already identified some characteristic stages of internal changes and the necessary external influences that provide qualitative transitions, we will try to find out whether the same factors play a decisive role in the transformations of living organisms. In addition, the problem with the definition of species leads a number of scientists to the criterion of diverse reproduction, which is not at all inherent in these species. Formation of amoebae colonies Indicative is a group of cell slugs, amoebas, outwardly very similar to fungi. They are soil organisms, feed on soil bacteria. Amoebas belong to the class of sarcodes, which, like flagellates, are believed to originate from the oldest group of eukaryotid (already possessing a nucleus, unlike prokaryotid) organisms. The species Dictyostelium discoideum is well studied, forming an interconnected colony. The transformation resembles a phase transition of the first kind. As a source system, you can consider the collection of these amoebas in a certain space. They grow; reproduce as unicellular organisms, filling this area. Amoebae, digesting mainly bacteria, divide by the type of mitosis, completely copying them. As long as food is sufficient, their activities proceed independently, almost independently of each other. But when food is exhausted, amoebas begin to interact with each other. The process is triggered by the production of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Hungry amoebae emit AMP, which, in fact, plays a large role in hormone activity in higher animals. It determines chemotaxis (movement along a chemical gradient) in other amoebas. This substance is formed due to the transformation of intracellular ATP under the influence of the enzyme adenylate cyclase (C). There is also cellular positive feedback between the receptor on the cell surface that captures cAMP and adenylate cyclase activation. Thanks to chemotaxis neighboring amoebas that have stopped growing start to - 48 - move towards the center. As cells come into contact near the aggregation center, they stick together by certain regions of the membranes. The cells thus involved in the total flow also produce cAMP, thereby increasing the total intensity and range of the attracting factor. This is the path of the increasing unify influence of aggregate positive feedback. It can extend to a colony of about 105 amoebae. Which amoebae and in which places will become centers of aggregation depends on the peculiar characteristics of space (as a substrate) or random factors that accelerate the synthesis process in some amoebas. There is also an opposite trend, which is due to the cleavage of the synthesized cAMP after it is transported through the membrane to the extracellular medium, due to the influence of phosphodiesterase, an enzyme released by amoebas. The presence of competitive factors, as in the previously discussed examples from physics and chemistry, leads to fluctuations in the sliding of amoebas into a multicellular colony, the formation of concentric waves of amoebas converging to the center. In the forming colony, cells are differentiated in a favorable environment, depending on their location. The upper part of the formed fruit body is filled with spores, in the middle a stem is formed, similar to a stem in plants - a hollow coneshaped cellulose rod, and the lower part is a basal disk. Although the number of cells in the aggregate can vary from 12 to hundreds of thousands, the proportions of parts of the fruit body remain the same. For example: 9 cells in a dispute, 2 cells in a stem, 1 in a basal disk. This fact indicates the non-accidental nature of the internal organization, which, presumably, is due to a previously formed structure, somehow fixed in genetic material. It affects the originality of the process of unity and subsequent relationships. On the other hand, the specific differentiation and corresponding formation of the whole body is due to the location of cells in relation to each other and to the external medium, signals emanating from neighbors. Moving this slug in the dark is accidental, but with a light source, phototaxis acts. If the movement of single amoebas occurred as chemotaxis, then the new formation is freer to move, but also subject to phototaxis. - 49 - The very process of formation of a multicellular organism from a set of unicellular ones is quite consistent with the previously considered qualitative transformations in non-living nature. Firstly, amoebas after division are located in the nearest space, where they accumulate as long as there are bacteria to feed them. Secondly, they find themselves in an activated state when the food available in a given space is depleted. The control parameter can be cAMP, which produces hungry amoeba and the quantitative value of that directs movement of next amoebae. Thirdly, the presence of food allows each amoeba to satisfy its need, homeostasis preserves the equilibrium state of the amoeba system and their independence from each other. Increasing hunger puts the system first into a weak, and then into a highly unbalanced state. Fourth, the randomness of the external influence affecting the formation of the nucleation center is primarily due to the spatial originality of the amoeba cluster site, the faster depletion of bacteria at a given point, the early starvation of some amoebas and the increased emission of cAMP. This initial heterogeneity affects the subsequent formation of the body, the place and function of individual amoebas in the resulting body. Fifth, in previous examples of transformations in non-living nature, two types of finite systems could be distinguished. It is like coherent flow, as it was in the laser, in Benard cells, in some chemical dissipative systems, but also in colonies of some bacteria. The other - a qualitatively transformed system - corresponded to the first-order phase transition, during which an internally interconnected integrity is formed. Single-cell amoebas, as a result of integrative transformations, complete the process in a certain way interconnected fruit body, which further acts as a single organism. But it should be borne in mind somehow previously formed genetic material. - 50 - The fact that the formed body of the amoeba colony, once in an environment with rich food, breaks up into independently existing amoebas, forces us to think about the trend of evolution. In this regard, the well-known example of combining sludge worms from the type of ringworms is also interesting. They have a more complex organization than even coelenterates. Their nervous system is represented by a peripharyngeal neural ring and an abdominal neural chain with segmental thickenings, ganglia connected to receptors that respond to light, temperature, tactile and chemical stimuli, etc. There is a closed circulatory system. But again, in the aquatic environment, when the nutrition deteriorates, the tubers converge into a colony that moves and acts as a single organism. To the slightest touch, the whole mass instantly reacts, shrinks, as if it had a common nervous system. But when abundant food arrives, it breaks down again into individual species. Independent entities undoubtedly have greater degrees of freedom than in interconnections with themselves. But the complicated conditions of existence force consolidation into integrity, which requires less total funds, but which is also more complex and better consistent with the external environment. The trend of evolution is due to both the complication of the individuals themselves and the formation of their mutually agreed associations. For this ratio, the example of termites and ants is interesting. Termites are one of the oldest creatures on the Earth; they have existed for hundreds of millions of years. Although they were previously also referred to as ants (white ants), they still vary greatly from the latter. Termites are interesting for their unambiguous involvement of each of them in a strictly defined function, as if they were a cell or organ of a holistic organism, but only possessed mobility. Among termites, there is a very strict functional differentiation embedded in them from birth. They are distinguished as manufacturers, workers and soldiers. Only workers among termites are able to digest cellulose, thanks to the special flagella in their intestines, symbiont microorganisms that provide wood processing. Therefore, they supply, even feed, termites of other functions that are able to perform only their private function. Similar to them later creatures, ants, although - 51 - also committed to the activities of their anthill, have many great opportunities to exist independently in their environment. In the case of polyps, again, the location of the gemmate polyp is important, but the degree of maturation of it, and possibly the entire colony, also affects. A colony in the form of a bush has a base of the type of processes with which the entire complex is attached to the bottom of the reservoir. The gastric cavities of individuals sitting on the branches communicate with a common channel passing through the entire trunk and branches of the colony, so that processed food is distributed throughout the colony. Most of these colonies do not move, but remain in place of the primarily fixed embryo If ordinary polyps do not have sexual function, reproduce by budding and remain attached to the coral tree, then mobile individuals are born in the colony, and then docked - jellyfish, which are the same type as polyps, but their body flattens not in vertical (radial), like in polyps, plane, but in horizontal (longitudinal). Moreover, if polyps reproduce by asexual budding, then the jellyfish that arose in the colony are separate-sex individuals, corresponding to the Darwin understanding of the species. They, moving in the aquatic medium, release sex cells into it, which, after fertilization, give rise to larvae (planules) and thereby the formation of new colonies. The evolution of the living world and the formation of new species of multicellular organisms are largely due to the complexity of their internal structure. Moreover, if initially integration formed unified organisms, then later integration took place between the internal elements of independent beings, but there were also increasingly interconnected associations of new species. These processes are clearly evident in the evolution of mankind. Hierarchy of nervous system organization - 52 - Dennett's second categorical error was that he insisted on the absence of a vertical hierarchy in the brain and was convinced of the distribution of information processes. Any multilayer system can only operate by activating lower-tier subsystems. Historically, its formation is obliged by integration of the original elements, for which their activated state was necessary. On the basis of such elements, initial subsystems are formed, on the basis of the activation of these subsystems, already as more complex elements, higher integration is formed, and so up to the highest levels. If neutral, inactivated, states of elements and subsystems are restored, then their integration will also disintegrate. Therefore, holistic activity (intensity) is carried out due to the upward activation of the entire hierarchy of subsystems. Since the process of forming a complex organism took place over a long history, in fact, each act of its actions involves moments of the past. That is, there is a repetition of the past story, but along the lines of necessity. The very occurrence of the nerve impulse indicates the ancient beginning of the birth of life. In an equilibrium state, the neuron (for example, squid axon) maintains an internal concentration of ions (Na + - 50mol/L, K + - 400mol/L), opposing extracellular medium with repeatedly different concentrations (Na + 400mol/L, K + - 10mol/L). So, the extracellular concentration of ions in the nervous system quite corresponds to their concentration in seawater, the area of life origin. The organism contains a neuron, as well as any other cell, together with the ancient medium in which the initial integrations took place. So functioning repeats its initial activities. Violation of the stable state of the neuron during supra-threshold exposure actually leads to partial destruction of its membrane and equalization of the concentration of ions inside and outside the neuron. This entropy process, when the cell is unable to maintain its condition opposed to the external environment (once seawater), causes the formation of a nerve impulse, which, spreading along the axon, activates other neurons. A collection of similarly activated neurons integrates on higher-level neurons, which in turn transfer activity to the higher floors of integration. Since with such partial destruction the - 53 - main components and structure of the cell are preserved, the neuron has the opportunity to restore its integrity using the means supplied by its higher systems, in particular, sodium - a potassium pump. The work of the nervous system takes place in this way: within a few milliseconds, disturbances and restoration of stable states occur in the interconnections of neurons, as if repeating the history of the ascent of integrative formations. For example, the functioning of the sensory system begins with the electronexcited state of primary receptor molecules, including mechanoreceptors Pacinian bodies. There is an interaction of elementary particles and fields - a phenomenon that begins in the distant period of the formation of the Universe. The obtained energy triggers a number of transformations, isomerization, which is well consistent with the process of phase transition of the second kind, the result of which is the potentials of the action of neurons. What we call sensation is a multi-level system of activations and relationships, which is due not only to external influence, but also to motivation, as well as previously fixed forms of required interaction with this object. At the same time, in any relatively independent sensory system, a hierarchy of neural nuclei corresponding to the level of integrations of external influences is definitely distinguished. During the evolution of the nervous system, transformations occurred that form a multilevel system of integrative subsystems. Initially, in acranial vertebrates, it has the form of a continuous low differentiated neural tube. The system corresponds to the spinal cord of more developed vertebrates, consists of segments where motor and sensitive nerves are connected (integrated). But already the class of round-headed (lampshades) has a brain of the same structure as that of more developed vertebrates. The expansion of the area of external influences that have become significant for the existence of these individuals complicates the receptive organs, as well as communication with motor organs. The formation of the middle brain is obliged to developing distant visual reception. The optic fibers of the retina approach the upper surface of the neural tube - the roof of the middle brain (tectum), from where the paths to the nucleus - 54 - of the oculomotor nerve and to the motor centers go. In the tectum, visual, somatic, acoustic and other sensory information is integrated with the generated behavioral reactions based on the corresponding biological need. The anterior brain in lampreys is in its infancy, and is most represented by olfactory receptor nuclei. The main effect on the motor neurons of the spinal cord descends along the reticle-spinal tract. At this stage of development, the CNS is dominated not by a spinal, but by a bulbar-mesencephalic integration system - integration in the oblong brain (bulbar) and in the middle brain. The specificity of the nervous system of fish is determined by the intensive development of the cerebellum (cerebellum), which performs a more complex and accurate correction of motor acts. In fish, a red nucleus (rubber) begins to form, which will become the main nucleus of cerebellar influence on spinal motoneurons by the rubrospinal tract. Going out of water to land by amphibians and reptiles dramatically changes the behavior of individuals, which naturally leads to changes in the nervous system. The role of the intermediate brain is enhanced. The terrestrial lifestyle is associated with a large variety of distant signals, so the importance of visual and acoustic reception increases. In the oblong brain, auditory nuclei are differentiated, in the middle brain, posterior (visual) hills are added to the anterior (visual) hills, to which acoustic fibers are suitable. To the thalamus converge paths from this four-holmium and from all other underlying sensory departments. The forebrain begins to take on the main function of organizing behavioral acts. A new way of regulating movement - the rubrospinal tract is directly connected to the cerebellum. The subsequent evolution of the nervous system is due to the development of the cortex of the hemispheres. She receives sensory information mainly from the thalamus of the intermediate brain. In the cortex, these thalamocortical projections form representative zones of various sensory modalities that support the corresponding specificity of the receptive fields. In the visual cortex - this is the specificity of the retinal fields, in the somatosensory region - these are projections of the hands, legs, body and their components. But the most - 55 - important integrative role is played by associative systems of the large hemispheres, which link different-mode sensory inputs in relation to their needs and developed patterns of behavior. In mammals, a new efferent pathway begins to be added to the cerebellar rubrospinal pathway, the bark of the large hemispheres forms its own cortical-spinal pyramid pathway, which becomes the highest system for regulating motor acts. Consideration should also be given to the compensatory capabilities of subsystems of different levels. Their education is due to the diversity of external influences that initially engages in and organizes new integrations. Numerous repeated interactions with the outside world can eventually remove a number of insignificant internal ties and highlight the most necessary of them. Therefore, some functions of the nervous system are carried out in the "all or nothing" type. This applies not only to neuronal action potentials, but also, for example, to unconditional reflexes. At the same time, for many, especially higher order, functions, compensatory involvement ensures the reliability of the brain and the body as a whole. In the process of evolution of the animal world, each underlying level initially becomes the dominant integrative formation. Later, he sends the results of his reception assessment to the upper levels, where, due to complicated interactions with the outside world, a more adequate response to its parameters occurs. Specified reception fields are formed, but the relationship of the characteristics that determine the desired object is also highlighted. For their part, the higher levels correct the less specific activity of the lower floors, most often inhibiting their excessive non-specific activation. All associative regions of the cortex of the hemispheres send nerve fibers to the nuclei of the intermediate, middle and oblong brain to regulate their functions. Also, the collaterals (branches from fibers) of the pyramid tract correct the action of neurons of other motor nuclei. Such direct and inverse influences create a deep interconnection of the nervous system and give unity of activity to the body. In a multilevel system, the preceding levels do not disappear or exhaust their role in the formation of higher integrations, but with the need with which they - 56 - arose, they continue to carry out their original function, simply partially limited and subordinate to basic actions. Each interaction with the surrounding world begins with the most elementary physical types of interactions, which set a series of transformations of previously formed integrative systems (subsystems), which in turn repeat the necessary, now private role, transferring their achievement to the highest level. Depending on the state of the animal and external influences this or that level of activation (intention) may be dominated. Evolutionary physiology, created as an independent discipline, considered each function of the body from the point of view of the history of its formation. It accumulated information about the stages of complication of the analysis of sensory receipts in an increasing number of organisms from invertebrates to higher mammals, with the sequential formation of new neural nuclei for the integration of incoming signals. Integration is due to both levels of motivation and the patterns of behavioral responses produced. It is very important that a similar hierarchy of nuclei similar in function, constituting the path of upward analysis of neural responses of primary sensory organs, has been identified in experimental physiology. In fact, the historical sequence of pyramidal layering of the nuclei of integration, due to their necessary acquisition, later manifests itself in each act of higher activity. It is carried out by activating all previous structural forms of matter, in which both physical, chemical and biological phenomena occur. This fact also explains the effectiveness of the natural sciences in studying the thought process. But if in the past the formation of nuclei of upward integration took place over millions - hundreds of millions of years, then in a developed brain the process of reproducing their activation and restoration takes milliseconds. The past manifests itself in the present, and the present provides a functional basis for the future. This relationship between the past and the present has been expressed by various philosophers, but is also confirmed in the natural sciences. In particular, it was clearly represented in the law of recapitulation. Dennett also drew attention to this analogy. "A good example is Kaufman's reintroduction of the embryological" Bare Law "317, which in 1866 drew - 57 - attention to the fact that" in the early stages, embryos of fish, frogs, chicken and humans are remarkable similar to each other... a well-known explanation for these laws is that mutants affecting early ontogenesis (I believe he means "mutations." - D. D.) more destructive than those that act in later stages. " (1996a, p. 224) "Thus early fish, frogs, chicken and humans embryos are remarkable similar von Baer’s law”. (Ibid) This biogenetic law was also introduced by Müller (in 1864), then by Haeckel (in 1866), who argued that the lifetime development of an individual (ontogenesis) repeats (recapitulates) the main stages of evolution of its species (phylogenesis). Already in 1825, the German anatomist and embryologist Martin Ratke (1793-1860) described the presence of gill slots and arcs in embryos of mammals and birds - a clear manifestation of this law. Later in 1859, similar facts of germ similarity were linked by Darwin to the evolutionary development of organisms. Most briefly, the law was formulated by Haeckel as "Ontogenesis is a recapitulation of phylogenesis." There are many examples in support of the law. So, during the development of the frog, the tadpole stage passes, in which, like fish fry, the base of the skeleton is the chord, its skull is cartilaginous, breathing is gill. Only later it is transformed into an amphibian creature with cartilaginous vertebrae and pulmonary respiration. Also, without exception, all vertebrate animals in the early stages of ontogenesis have gill slots, a two-chamber heart and other features characteristic of fish. Human embryogenesis is not an exception. Its embryo passes the stage of a fish-like organism, which then becomes indistinguishable from the ape embryo and only with subsequent development acquires a structure characteristic of humans. Of course, there were examples that questioned the unambiguity of this law. The variety of forms in which living beings are embodied during the past evolution, when external conditions forced not only the formation of new qualities, but also suppressed some of them, activating and strengthening sometimes rudimentary organs and functions, leads to a variety of manifestations of recapitulation. - 58 - However, there is a serious reason to believe recapitulation not just by the revealed form of consistency of ontogenesis and phylogenesis, but by the necessary process of formation and effectiveness of the whole creature. Formation of conditional reflexes Previous examples of the formation of multicellular organisms such as amoebas cannot be considered completely satisfactory, since they actually described the reproduction of integrative processes that are quite firmly fixed in this species. When living objects are considered, it is impossible to circumvent the fact that there is an influence of genetic content. The analogy with the seed material as an embryo in crystals is partially justified, but incomparably simplified. The germ cell has not only a structure repeated in subsequent duplication, but also the possibility of the subsequent formation of an individual. At the same time, it is very difficult to identify with confidence, which is due to genetic material, and what is affected by the influence of the environment, including random factors. But, as it was noted, for us, neoplasm, the emergence of a new quality should be of greater interest. As was actually going on hundreds of millions of years ago, the process of the emergence of multicellular organisms or more complex creatures: fish, amphibians, insectivores, etc. - today can be assumed, and even reasonably argued. But it is hardly possible to experimentally repeat the long-term formation of these organisms. In this regard, we are thank to the fact that if the past evolution was more carried out in the morphofunctional complication of organisms, then in the future functional development due to the formation of the multilevel nervous system begins to dominate. The complexity of the environment requires living beings (open systems) to respond to external influences for adequate behavior. This is possible with a fairly developed CNS, when, thanks to the generated conditional reflexes, sensations and perceptions of external phenomena arise. Among other things, the analysis of the formation of conditionally reflex behavior itself is valuable in that it is the external contribution - 59 - to integration that occupies a significant place, which at the lower levels, especially in physical transformations, was not so clearly manifested. In the formation of conditional reflexes previously developed neural connections of unconditional reflexes act as elements of the original system, or, when a more complex combination of signal and food reward is produced, the connection between the parameters of conditional reflexes, but of the previous level is used. In addition, you should also take into account all the motor skills enshrined in the past and relatively independent sensory perceptions. It is possible to talk about their separate actions only with a large degree of conventionality, since any sensory irritation - sound, light, etc., has its own biological significance and can cause an appropriate reaction. We call the signal indifferent only in relation to the final reflex more significant for the body, since other actions caused by this impact are weakened or inhibited due to their specific inefficiency. In all previous examples of qualitative changes, the elements of the converting system must have been in the activated state. In living beings, this was the result of hunger or some other biological need. Deprivation is at the heart of many unconditional reactions. Their activity is caused by the ratio of one degree or another of deprivation and the force of external influences of the corresponding modality. In addition to the preceding chemotaxis and phototaxis, the reaction depends on a wider range of environmental influences. When a classical conditional reflex is produced, the signal causing an unconditional reaction is itself indifferent to a given biological need. These were, for example, Pavlov's experiments, when unconditional salivation, due to digestive activity, began on the sound signal in dogs. Based on these reflexes, a number of animals can develop the so-called instrumental reflex, when an animal is obliged to perform a behavioral act that is indifferent to an unconditional reaction in order to fulfill its biological need. For example, at the signal animal must to press the feeder pedal. After strengthening such a reflex, you can complicate behavior by requiring another intermediate action: go to a certain place, move the lever, and then only approach the desired feeder. In this way, - 60 - although not for every species of animals, it is possible to produce instrumental reflexes of the first, second and other orders. Therefore, it makes sense to distinguish the motivations of the first, second and other orders based on the order of the activated conditional reflex. Cognitive activities are even more far removed from immediate biological needs and are activated by the interest or task of interaction with the outside world. In cases where the previous formed activity arising from deprivation or motivation finds a positive resolution, the new integration does not carry out new qualitative transformation. The body acquires the missing substances and restores its satisfactory state. Like all its cells, elements and subsystems of all levels are constantly subjected to decay and restoration, and a single system - the body - lives in a constant desire to maintain its integrity, despite the losses and deprivations caused by its existence in the natural environment. The animal in the external environment should identify the necessary means. If the actions developed are successful and the environment favors targeted behavior, the desired effect will be achieved. Otherwise, there will be a situation that requires steep changes. Activated reflexes do not give results, their inherent specific behavior remains without reinforcement. With a slightly inhibited high-order reflex due to infertility, the activity of lower behavioral reactions is increased. In the cerebral cortex, a corresponding picture appears. When a reflex is effective, activity only in a limited, local area is increased in the cortex. Certain areas of the cortex also respond to sensory influences. But after a series of unsuccessful actions, the so-called generalized activity arises, covering the whole brain. Due to increased excitability, neurons begin to respond to sensory effects not only of their own, but also of a different modality. Various motor actions are also activated. Depending on the significance of motivation and the absence of a beneficial effect, this unresolved activation that spans all levels of the body can last a long time. This state is similar to the metastability of phase transitions of the first kind. - 61 - Nonspecific activity has the advantage that, unlike targeting certain aspects of the outside world learned in the reflex, it creates an incomparably wider field of interaction with the environment. At the lowest level, the simplest response to stimuli such as phototaxis or chemotaxis in a more developed form manifests itself as an orientation reaction and constitutes one of the main prerequisites of a conditional reflex. The higher the reflex level, the more specific the animal's relation to the external environment, the more specific its interaction with the reflected phenomena of the surrounding world will be. When a previously effective reflex fails, the excitability of the lower levels extends the sphere of interaction. The seemingly disorderly, chaotic actions of the animal, which replace the infertile reflex, are essentially previously developed reactions of a lower level. They may be considered nonspecific in relation to higher reflexes, but thereby bring the animal to many other environmental phenomena, some of which may be useful for resolving this motivation. In this case, it should be erroneous to equate such behavior with the trial and error method. This method is attractive to formally thinking scientists. These are “Skinnerian creatures, capable only of blind trial-and-error learning, they are to be found among the simple invertebrates.” (1996a, p. 376) Moreover, for Karl Popper this method is the main in the development of human thinking. “The method by which a solution is approached is usually the same: it is method of trial and error” (1996, p. 312). At the end of the 19th century, Thorndike E., studying the production of instrumental reflex in animals, came to the conclusion that the learning process proceeds through a series of trial movements with successful and incorrect "erroneous" reactions. "Trial and Error Learning." Later it became clear that this too simplified representation does not correspond to the facts received during training. Past experience, including both knowledge of elements of an unusual situation and previously developed problem solving skills, has a significant impact on reactions; so that the behavior under difficulties occurs not by random - 62 - samples, but due to the influence of fixed patterns of actions, at least of a lower order. As long as a problematic situation persists, that is, when previously developed forms of behavior do not resolve motivation, the formal approach of trial and error is so insignificant that only with an incalculable and unrealistic number of attempts could a useful action be revealed. Only the abstract imagination, as in the case of the formation of species in natural selection, could satisfy the "intention" of scientists to determine the essence of such transformations. I also note the observations of Keler B. He noted that under certain conditions in higher primates, a correct behavioral decision could "suddenly" occur without any random trials. Turning to the gestalt (holistic image) turned out to be unconvincing, since the result of training was considered as a necessary beginning. Most likely, in such cases, the process of forming a new behavior turned out to be hidden from the experimenter; only as a result, the effect of "inwardly folded" mental activity, consistent with external environmental signals, was manifested. The main thing is that in these experiments the importance of internal factors very definitely appeared. By the way, when describing creative acts, people note the similar jumping emergence of new solutions, which many prefer to represent with concepts - insight, intuition. The objective connection of the ambient signals with the target phenomenon (the required substance) turns out to be decisive for the formation of a conditional reflex. If the connection is not random, but has structural stability, then useful repeats will anchor the relationship of sensory, motor, associative and other parts of the brain in the neural network. There will be a new integration of many activated elements of the living being, which is the neural system of this pattern of behavior under this motivation and given circumstances. It is very important to keep in mind that it is this system that reflects the necessary signs of the environment. In any form of reflection, both subjective (motivation and previously developed patterns of action) and objective factors - 63 - are significant, which led to the new reflex as a useful interaction with the outside world. The external influences various by magnitude, modality, combinations are involved in many reflex connections, so that the same form of behavior can be initiated by various signals, as, in contrast, the same signaling stimuli can trigger different behaviors depending on the situation and/or motivation. Similar receptions of external features are formed in relatively independent sensory systems, as are patterns of actions in corresponding motor systems. In activities, their relationship is provided by additional general-purpose systems that carry out motivational influences on the activation, orientation and correction of perceptions and actions. In the CNS, the relationship finds a place in non-specific nuclei, in the sensorimotor and associative regions of the cortex of the brain. From the analysis of SD, such conclusions are of great importance. Firstly. The experimenters drew attention to an extremely important point, sometimes manifested in the process of implementing well-fixed instrumental reflexes. The animal after repeated repetition, even saturated with the resulting food, nevertheless continued to perform the entire complex of actions after the signal was sent until the feeder was opened, but it was no longer desirable to take food. Although the reflex was originally formed for the sake of food reinforcement, but being strengthened, even with a weakened biological need, it continued to activate actions according to the newly formed interconnection. The final effect of the developed sequence of actions began to serve as reinforcements - opening the feeder door, after which the satisfied animal returned to its original place. The formed new sensory-motor system shows its own activity even with a significantly weakened basis - biological need. When cognitive interest begins to dominate, a new task appears, then the distance of the internal activity from the base is so great that it can to some extent resist the secondary signs of this need. Secondly. When teaching instrumental reflex, it was observed that an animal that stubbornly implements a previously developed pattern of movements does not learn a new reflex. Infertile behavior must slow down to begin to form a new - 64 - sensory-motor relationship. A stable phase is referred to as "functional fixation," which must be overcome in order for a new form of activity to develop. Interestingly, Claude Levy-Strauss (1966), in search of the origins of the mentality of primitive people, drew attention to the fact that myths most often involve objects that were previously required for the life of the tribe, but the interaction with which has since become much difficult. The changed environmental conditions, the extinction of animals or plants, the superiority of the competing tribe and other factors that blocked the usual activity translate it into a plane of mental action modulated by the desired success. It is the blocking of effective behavior that becomes the basis for the creation of mythical beneficial acts, which later contributed to the creation of religious images. But in the "beginning" there was a work, activity. In humans, motivation activates all neural levels that determine useful behavior in these conditions. Only if actions become ineffective and something necessary is inaccessible, then external motor activity is inhibited. In this case, the continued activation be locked in the internal activity, carrying out mental actions, but with reflected traces of the required objects. These are kind of inwardly folded thought actions with a representation of a given object, striving to get the desired effect. The formed pattern of satisfactory actions can be presented to society in antiquity in the form of imitation of actions, dance, drawing, and later in a structured stream of letters, sounds, etc. Progress In biology, the genetic material (genotype) is recognized as the basic element of transformation, the mutations of which set the peculiar formation of the organism (phenotype). To what extent mutations are random, spontaneous, and to what extent are determined by the properties of parent organisms and such effects that were able to affect gametes, little is known. It is also difficult to identify the role of the perinatal environment and the significance of quantitative indicators of cellular division, that is, those factors that are considered necessary - 65 - under known qualitative changes. So far, in biology, the main emphasis in development is placed on the subsequent adaptation to the external environment and the fixation of useful mutations in the phenotype of the population. The essence of progressive transformations is attributed to the subsequent consolidation of the most valuable qualities in these living conditions. Not in the value of the qualities themselves, but in their sustainable consolidation. Therefore, biological progress is perceived as a relative concept, in fact dependent on the environment of existence and on interspecific control. With this consideration in evolution, adaptation (adaptation genesis) is of great importance when progress is assessed by a measure of adaptation to the habitat. However, paradoxes arose due to the bias of the criteria. On the one hand, in the process of evolution, an increasingly complex multilevel organization of living beings is formed, capable of more adequate reflection of the external environment and, accordingly, more complex interaction with it. But, on the other hand, primitively organized creatures are less whimsical and easily survive in conditions that are disastrous for highly developed animals. The accepted criteria for biological progress are not in any way consistent with the evolution of the living world, since they do not come from the essence of developing objects, but from their living conditions. Many spheres of the universe are possible for atoms, molecules and their primary integrations, as well as for macromolecules, but only special nature is suitable for animals, like on the Earth in which they arose and were forced to develop. Moreover, for higher creatures it is required more specific conditions than the lower ones, their range is less wide, and the quantitative ratio is closer to the conical form. Cross-species wrestling cannot serve as a criterion. Animals that are very well adapted to this range and have displaced a less adapted species, when conditions change could be less capable of corresponding changes than they turned out to be more stable and perfect. At the same time, it was the displaced imperfect species that may have had a better chance of adaptive transformation. Evolution is far from always due to the species that won and occupied convenient niches of the range. - 66 - In the examples of qualitative transformations discussed earlier, the formation of integration was obliged to external influence of a certain type. The characteristics or parameters of the effect influenced the shape of the internal relationship of a qualitatively new object. Thus, some properties of the environment were involved ("absorbed," "internalized") in the structure formed. On the one hand, the object consists of elements of the natural environment, on the other, due to the specific integration of elements; it has its own quality, and as such opposes the external environment. Like all objects, it is constantly subjected to countless influences that destroy its internal unity. The opposite forces created during the integration process, when the balance is broken, are activated and seek to restore the integrity of the system. The originality of this activity is largely due to the "assimilated" property of this environment, which contributes to the successful accession of "other," making up for the "deficiency" that has arisen. In fact, due to the "internalization" of the signs of the external environment, the object in a new quality expands its content and thereby increases the stability of its existence. This is the progress of the object itself. In the process of evolution, increasingly complex multilevel integrations are formed, up to man, although it is always possible to note the conditions under which all of them will certainly die. But their development from this does not cease to be progressive. When considering the evolution of natural objects in general, bearing in mind biological beings and humans, it is not difficult to notice qualitative changes in the "internalization" of environmental signs. For physical bodies, the external influence was fixed in the due form of the physical interconnections of atoms or molecules of the center of the germ, which then spread throughout the entire volume of the substance. For chemical substances it was common to combine different molecules - something resembling a symbiotic bond. But for plants and animals, the original genetic material becomes a determining factor for the formation of a morphofunctional organism. All kinds of changes in the bud (mutations), supported during life in this environment, become the main factor in development - that is, fixing useful accidents in morphological-functional (morfofunctional) formation. If such transformations underlie the biological - 67 - evolution of the lower structures of the living world, then for highly developed animals, subsequent development should be more attributed to mainly functional acquisitions. The formation of unconditional and conditional reflexes is due to the emergence of the nervous system, which is already directly turned to interactions with the environment and forms behavioral reactions and behaviors according to its own motives and fixed traces of characteristic external influences. Since wellacquired qualities are not fixed in genetic material and are not inherited, the transfer of developed behaviors occurs through training. Sensation. Perception Already during the study of crystallization, it was revealed that the signs of external influence favorable for integration are not only fixed in the resulting structure, but also to a certain extent are involved in the parameters of subsequent crystal activity. The idea that our knowledge has prerequisites in the phenomena of even inanimate nature has been expressed by many materialists. It became the main idea of reflection theory. But at first, materialistic scientists, especially of the Soviet period, interpreted the origins of the cognitive process so simplistically that they caused quite justified hostility to this very concept. When such a complex phenomenon was reduced to a reflection in a mirror, then to all sorts of changes from interactions, naturally there was distrust of such a theory. The desire for ontologization has distorted the very essence of cognition. There was no place in it for the subject of reflection and the peculiar change that he undergoes as a result of this act. However, it is possible to give the reflection the essence of the effective effects of the environment on creatures in the appropriate state and their subsequent active interaction with other objects. Thus, any reflection will contain the influence of both the objective world and subjective structures, i.e. objectivity and subjectivity. - 68 - Sensations should be considered as a form of reflection of external influences. To understand this form, it is necessary to refer to the initial processes of development, which have an early physical nature. Perhaps this approach is fundamentally different from the approach of many modern philosophers. They usually identify some mental, conscious phenomena, especially with the use of words, and try to find out the degree of manifestation of higher forms in the behavior of the simplest living beings, although, on the contrary, studying physical phenomena and animal physiology along the line of phylogeny, to understand the process of complicating the structure of natural objects, up to man. Accordingly, ignorance of sensation as the initial form of reflection also manifests itself. Dennett believes that "the ability to sense" has never been properly defined, but the term is more or less standardly applied to what appears to be the lowest stage of consciousness. Many philosophers, like Dennett, perceive this concept in a very peculiar way. Sensations for them most often denote all kinds of positive or negative emotions caused by any influences or memories, or even as a result of the information received. It is a form of personal assessment of phenomena. Dennett does not accept that «these merely imagined (or recollected) sensations were simply faint copies of the original sensations that "came in from outside", they can bring pleasure and suffering just like "real" sensations.” (1991, p. 59) If, as usual, he had started by studying the phenomena of sensation that were inherent in animals, even highly developed ones, then he would have had to deal more seriously with the more diverse forms of sensations that manifest themselves in modern man. It is important to distinguish between sensations that we habitually call emotions and those that are caused by external signs. It is customary to arrange the forms of reflection of living organisms as they become more complex in such a sequence: irritation, sensation, perception, representation, cognition. It is not important that some authors exclude some or give preference to other forms. - 69 - In particular, Dennett refers pain not to forms of irritability, but to sensations, although this could occur at a more developed level of the central nervous system. Therefore, he cannot distinguish between pain in a toad and in a human. “Consider, for instance, a toad with a broken leg. Is this a sentient being experiencing pain? Consider, for example, a toad with a broken leg. Is it a sentient being experiencing pain?” (1996b, p. 95) Initially, pain is an organism's reaction to irritation. Over time, specific pathways are formed in the nervous system, usually ancient unmyelinated Cfibers and nuclei that are more responsive to harmful impacts. It happens that their own activation creates a feeling of pain even in the absence of direct damage, as, for example, with phantom pains. The ratio of sensations due to the reaction of the whole organism or as a result of the reflection of a certain impact can manifest itself in various ways, most of all dependent on the dominant motivation. In the experiment, a hungry animal repeatedly pressed the pedal, at which pain irritation occurred in normal conditions in order to get food. There were no painful signs. An even more peculiar attitude to such irritation was manifested in the animal in an experiment conducted by me (the author). When developing an instrumental reflex to irritation of the paw, when the stimulus caused an unconditional extension reaction, the irritation was canceled during inflexion. As soon as the animal developed this reflex, it was calm even with erroneous actions. The previous vocal and motor negative reactions, common with pain irritation, were not manifested in this state. It seemed that the very act of development, the emergence of a new integration that promotes effective interaction with the outside world, was accompanied by a positive emotion, which was more significant than in other conditions with unfavorable skin irritation. Such emotions, for example, arise in a person when successfully solving complex problems. It is necessary to evaluate sensations in two ways. Firstly, it is a reaction of the whole organism to a change in state, most often due to harmful or beneficial effects for it. But, secondly, the concept of sensation should also be borne in mind - 70 - as an expedient response during a certain motivation to the surroundings and/or signaling influence of the environment. Initially, it was the second quality that manifested itself. It is customary to arrange the forms of reflection of living organisms as they become more complex in such a sequence: irritation, sensation, perception, representation, cognition. It is not important that some authors exclude some or give preference to other forms. A lot depends on the criterion of the approach. I would not attribute irritation to forms of reflection, because in this case the body only manifests its structure with a biological reaction to certain types of external stimuli. Neoplasms at the same time do not occur. Irritability is inherent even in organisms at up to the nervous level, in protozoa and Coelenterata, and animals with a diffuse network of nerve cells. The forms of reactions they individually acquire are most often explained by the socalled "sensitization", that is, increased activation, when traces of previous arousal enhance the effect of the present exposure, which causes the body to react to stimuli that previously had a subthreshold influence. An increase in sensitivity can also change the reaction to indifferent signals, indifferent purely in relation to the current motivation. As for sensitization, in many experiments on the development of the summation reflex, indifferent and unconditional stimuli could be presented in a very different combination. Rhythmic application of an unconditional stimulus alone led to the same summation activation, after which even the first presentation of an indifferent stimulus can create the effect of a summation reflex. In these variants, the increased excitability of this organism affects, but not the newly formed reflex relationship. But it can become the basis of the initial orientation reflex. During a long period of the development of the living world, integrative phenomena consisted in morphological changes. A sufficiently complex organism had to be formed so that structural transformations began to be carried out at the functional level much more often and more labile. Such opportunities were - 71 - provided by the nervous system, which has the necessary specialization, when many external stimuli led to local activation and could serve as signals for biological functions. In this case, a consistent combination of indifferent and unconditional stimuli becomes necessary. At an intermediate stage, in planarians, lanceolates, lampreys, etc., the preceding of an indifferent signal to unconditional irritation created sensitization again, but so long that it could provide a reaction to a separately presented signal. With a different sequence of combinations, a similar reflex was not developed. If, at the nervous or diffusely nervous level, each stimulus had, in principle, the same type of sensitizing effect, then evolution led to a structure where an indifferent signal contributed to the emergence of unconditional activity, manifesting its own signaling character. In fact, a conditioned reflex was formed, although fragile. The resulting connection was not fixed in the structure as a new unity of external and internal, but was effective for a certain time and could become the basis of the initial orientation reflex. The emergence of a conditioned reflex as a result of the formation of new integrations is possible only with a sufficiently developed CNS (central nervous system). This is the level of higher mollusks, crustaceans, plate-gilled fish, etc. In mammals, the conditioned reflex is the main form of adaptation to the habitat. During its formation, all the main stages of transitions of the first kind are manifested — activation, covering the entire system; metastable state — a state of unresolved biological need; the external influence required for the formation of the nucleation center, of germ, the same role is played by an indifferent stimulus that triggers the activity resolution. But the most important thing is that the result of the transition is a new integration of previously unrelated elements which is based on external influence, thereby "reflected" by the animal. The conditioned reflex reaction to an external signal determines the sensation, since the process of evolution is carried out during the differentiation and separation of that fused activation in protozoa when an unconditional stimulus acts, causing a direct reaction. Later, relatively independent sensory and motor branches are distinguished from the morphological basis in the central - 72 - nervous system. Both of them feed on the juices of the activity of the base system and also intersect on all floors of the brain. Therefore, we can talk about their independence only by emphasizing the fact of relativity. To the extent of the independence of the sensory system, we can distinguish the attitude to the signal stimulus as a "sensation". But at the same time, we must take into account that this relationship is modulated by the activated subsystem of the subject, that the quality of the external signal is determined by its objective relationship with the desired effect, and that only to the extent of the developed activity with the object, it appears to the essence what we call "sensation". In the modern type of man, the highest levels of cognition are so far removed from the immediate biological needs that he can accept the sensation of external signs as something objective, fully corresponding to what exists in nature. But no matter how high the degree of objectivity of the perceived color, sound, etc., at least an insignificant fraction of subjectivity will certainly be present. There is no way to get rid of these aspects of integrations. The absolutization of one or the other is manifested in the assessment of the "qualia", which has become the subject of the wisdom of a number of philosophers. There is an opinion that it is impossible to form perception on the basis of sensory data (sensations). This approach is very characteristic of formalism. Indeed, if the knowledge of the world is based on scanning an infinite number of point parameters, then it is impossible to organize perception based on such a database. However, the reverse solution is even less thorough. How can to single out an integral object among the infinite number of other objects, how can they be distinguished, if the sensation arose as a consequence of perception? It is perhaps pointless to ask these questions, since the actual process of reflection cannot be the subject of formal thinking. In fact, the attitude to the outside world is initially selective, and is conditioned by previous forms of reflection. It is determined by needs, motivation, interests, goals. The reaction to sound, light, etc. occurs only because of the activated state, and the trace of external influence is "internalized" if only it contributes to the restoration of an equilibrium stable state. Initially, the reaction - 73 - occurs to a separate stimulus. For example, horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphenus), living since ancient times (350 million years), react to one quantum of light. It's ridiculous to talk about perception here. But later, along with the complication of the structure of animals, which includes many subsystems formed on the basis of individual signs of the environment, it becomes possible to form integrations that include a complex of such signs as a reflection of the external world. A more precise allocation of the required object leads to the reflection of at least a group of properties, that is perception, which define object as some kind of integrity. The more stable features of this object will be covered in the emerging system, the more accurate and effective the behavior of the animal will be. Since in experiments, however, and in real life, both situational and signaling stimuli act, it makes sense to more clearly imagine their role in the formation of conditioned reflexes. Situational signs, which were perceived in past practice, become a factor in strengthening a certain motivation (tonic effect). The activity of the being becomes more purposeful than just deprivation, since it is set by a subsystem of a high level, which includes the reflection of the signs of the situation. Against this background, the signal stimulus, which can be comparatively designated as "phasic", contributes to the formation of a more complex reflex, including the perception of significant signs of the "signal" object, resolving the complex motivation of the previous level. The content of the presentation can be evaluated as an internal activity based on previously generated reflections. It is very important to keep in mind that thought processes are initiated when practical actions are slowed down due to their inefficiency. Motivation remains, since interaction with the objects of the environment did not lead to a satisfactory result. Sensory, motor, associative and other subsystems involved by motivation remain activated. Consequently, all the necessary processes within the system will be activated, but without reaching the final actions. At the same time, there is also a slight increase in muscle activity, recorded by a myograph, so to speak, of a tonic level. In fact, the whole usual set of hierarchy of behavioral acts is carried out, but as if folded inward, where the outside world is represented by traces of previous interactions, fixed in various - 74 - forms of reflection. In this case, again, there are basic prerequisites for the formation of new integrations. Take place the activated state of many subsystems (elements), their relative independence, unresolved motivation, the influence of interaction with the reflected qualities of the outside world. The result may be a new relationship of previously reflected features with a certain form of activity based on them. The idea that every reasoning is a reproduced practical action in the mind, or that mental action is an "internalized" practical action, as a result of its transition into the inner plane, is by no means new. Perhaps it should be considered a nuance that mental activity arises as a result of the fruitlessness of the practical action being carried out. (Recall the reason for the myths identified by Levi Strauss). Therefore, in the internal plan, the nonspecific activation of subsystems of a hierarchically lower level affects than the level of the system initiating the practical action. But it is indisputably true that the thought process is also an activity with reflected signs of objects. Therefore, cognition, as a new integration of previously unrelated qualities of the external world in perception, can be realized in purely internal transformations. At the same time, to the extent that the subject manifests itself precisely in activity with objects, cognition is also a form of action with them. Modern human cognition is so far removed from the primary forms of reflection, where the importance of actions to resolve biological needs was clearly affected, that it seems as if it proceeds independently, regardless of practical actions, especially when the latter are presented as the final executive part of the activity. Therefore, the influence of cognition on activity is sometimes perceived as if it were not unity, but only the influence of an independent one function on another. It hides the fact that the action unfolds on the basis of previously realized cognition, and the latter itself is a consequence of the unsatisfactory active side of previous integrations. That the result of cognition, knowledge, is an effective form of interaction with the outside world, even if it arose in the process of mental actions with reflected signs of nature. - 75 - PART 2 THE HUMAN MENTALITY Consciousness, self-consciousness The moment of "internalization" is very important for understanding the "ideal." The substance substrate itself remains the same substrate. It only undergoes certain transformations, thereby preserving some signs of influence. On the one hand, the new quality most often consists of the same elements as in the summed system, but the changes that have occurred in them are a - 76 - "reflection" of the useful signs of the environment for integration and sustainable existence in a new quality. In the present structure, the beneficial influence of the outside world is usually enshrined only in its conditioned special relationship of the previous elements. But thus the activation of the new structure better corresponds to the created environment than the value of the arising quality is affirmed. Similarly, what we call sensation, perception, is carried out in internal activation relationships caused by such external influences that contributed to appropriate behavior. On the one hand, the nervous system of the body has its own neurons, but on the other hand, the peculiar structure of connections that has arisen is somehow consistent with the external environment of existence, which is why the formed interaction with the environment brings the desired effect. In the very peculiarity of relationships is the premise of the "ideal." It gets its certainty in the formation of consciousness, which happens thanks to several areas of human activity. First of all, the need for training of next generation should be noted. If many qualities of a living creature are fixed and transmitted through genetic material, then the newly formed behavior, conditional reflexes in the genome are not fixed. In developed animals, "learning" by imitation is carried out by repeating the actions earlier developed when copying external necessary features. The motivation is somewhat shifted from biological need. This happens with instrumental reflex, when the saturated animal nevertheless reproduces the developed pattern of actions. Also, when training cubs, the animal repeats the entire complex of edible behavior, but without food reinforcements. In fact, it is new type, superstructured over primary motivation, affects the motivation for transmitting reflection (corresponding to the sensory-motor system) to near individuals. The trainees should have the same motive; put it, food production, which we satisfy when repeating similar actions. Imitation of effective performance greatly accelerates the process of developing the necessary reflex, as it is removed from the many useless actions that accompany the natural process of reflection formation. - 77 - In primitive people, such actions are also activated with inhibited biological motivation or in the absence of conditions for its practical resolution. Reproduction of developed skills is simplified when they are removed from unconditional reactions, even more than instrumental reflexes of higher order in animals. In this case, the influence of the subjective side of the reflection is attenuated. The greater effect of the evidence of the object side was manifested in the communication of compatriots. In this case, differentiation of the sides of reflection led to relatively independent spheres of cognition and reproduction of the cognizant. Elementary acts of actions with an object in perception are combined into some integration, which, when later reproduced, should again break up into known elements of interactions. For messages, the reflection object itself is usually absent, and the representation is due to preserved traces of past interactions. People develop a kind of form of reproduction of the reflected, its materialization, since only through physical means can a message be received. Therefore, a form of transferring knowledge (known) through other types of elementary acts is developed, although somehow corresponding to the acts of initial interactions. For example, imitation of joint actions in dancing highlighted an important side of future hunting, due to the situation and the target. Also, images of prey in dances and drawings reinforced the perception of the object itself. This selection of the object side of the reflection does not remain completely separate from the subjective interest, but begins to be determined in its own quality. The entire essential field of cognition, up to actions with logical judgments, proceeds in the process of ascending the primary forms of reflection to its higher, mental forms. This is the realm of the unconscious. Awareness of the learned begins through communication in the community, when the materialization of the learned favorable actions, presented for the perception of compatriots, is also for the author the possibility of secondary reflection, reflection of the reflected. This process is strengthened with the ratio of similar (materialized) representations by other individuals. - 78 - The creation of tools and their distribution in the community gave decisive significance to the external characteristics of objects, and also to the "ideal." Having become the object of the activities of many countrymen, perception significantly lost the influence of the subject - the creator, as well as the subjects users, increasing attention to the properties of the transformed objects. They thereby became a subjective goal (intention), motivation shifted to the perception of the quality of objects. At an early stage, the perception of a few characteristic features is enough to distinguish the required object. This group of features serves as a completely adequate representation of an object, the real variety of features of which, in fact, is completely unnecessary for many expedient actions. A person only at a fairly developed level began to identify many private details of the appearance of the object. Primitive man, as a rule, was unable to strictly oppose mental activity to real actions with objects of nature. As a result, materialized samples: name, drawing, mimicry - sometimes had equal significance with their actual prototype or carrier. In primitive people, the drawing and the word, for example, the name, were identified with their real representatives. Therefore, they were so zealous about using their true name, because through it a person could be harmed. But the creation of work tools gives the features of objects independent value and thereby expands the scope of perception. In addition, when communicating, the content of perceptions of the same subject is compared by many relatives, which is why it already appears as an external object removed from individual subjects. "Ideal" in reflection acquires an increasing importance of objective, which provides a meaningful base of consciousness. The ideal is embodied in concepts that concealed subjectivity and create the appearance of objectivity of a mental image. The evolution of humanity is undergoing the same problematic stages as the transformation of all natural systems. Therefore, history is filled with conflicts, wars, crises. Over time, the need arose for material support for groups of warriors, workers of large-scale construction projects, but also acquired the independence of the governing body. The alienation of labor products from the - 79 - creator in favor of joint events contributed to breaking the unity of a person with the tools of labor and war involved in him, their isolation as independent objects. The complication of relations among peoples and in communities themselves led to the opposition of personality and society, and as a result to the realization of man as an independent individual. Community members engaged in opposition with other representatives of social associations, which made their consciousness stand out "their own" in contrast to "other." Initially, communal unity was preserved, but over time, during the formation of tribes, but especially states, social stratification occurred, which contrasted people within communities. Consciousness has acquired the quality of self-consciousness. In our time, knowledge is presented to the individual as external objectivity, provided by a more significant institution, for example, an educational or scientific institution recognized by society. From childhood, a person perceives knowledge and methods of knowledge as independent objective values that should be used for effective activity. In reality, the more public knowledge is freed from the influence of the subjective, the more it proves its truth in multifaceted and diverse practice. Individuals create an illusion of his whole objectivity. This is also facilitated by the transfer of knowledge developed in society using a coded system of words, sounds, as if detached from direct interactions with the outside world. Cognition and Creation For man and the human community, natural regularities themselves are targets of cognition. Knowledge and information underpin the creation of physical and mental tools (for example, mathematical methods) for effective interaction with the outside world. With their help, man transforms the surrounding nature, but also creates an artificial organization of society, in particular, the state. Modern cognition is so distant from the primary forms of reflection, where the importance of actions to resolve biological needs clearly affected, that it gives - 80 - the impression that it proceeds independently of practical actions. It is especially when the latter are presented as the final executive part of the activity. Therefore, the influence of cognition on activity is sometimes perceived as if it were not unity, but only the influence of independent one function on another. The fact that the action is launched on the basis of previously realized knowledge, and the latter itself is a consequence of the unsatisfactory active side of previous integrations, is concealed. Moreover, the process of teaching objective knowledge recognized by science does not agree in any way with the fact that knowledge is simply an effective form of interaction with the outside world, even if it arose in the process of mental actions with reflected signs of nature. Even talking about the liquid-crystal transition, we mean not only the metastable, therefore active state of liquid molecules, but also the fact that a specific effect on a number of signs can ensure the formation of a crystal. In other words, there must be consistency between the nature (objective external influence) and the substance (subject with unbalanced potential energy of molecules). Integration manifests their interdependence. Even more clearly, this ratio works on the higher floors of the reflection. The activity of the subject is expressed in its activity in relation to the objects, and the quality that satisfies the purpose of the actions will be reflected (included in the integration). As a result, not only does the "interiorized" external features are increased, but thus the subject expands the form of manifestation of his activity, the form of activity. Fortuitous external influence, ensuring the connection between system elements, becomes a factor in structuring the new integrity. Thus, the contingency becomes necessary. The basis for a holistic system and its activity is the resulting internal need, due to chance. Also, when forming a holistic connection of elements, the termination of the cause that led to integration does not remove the consequence, the latter is fixed in internal relations. It contributes to the formation of a new substrate, which is why its subsequent activation will cause an action that is somehow obligated to a fixed integration. The external cause leads to the connection, which, structuring the new integration becomes in - 81 - further activation an internal cause that determines the action. The effect becomes the cause. At the highest stage of reflection development, in cognition, generalization and abstraction (differentiation) can be distinguished as a subjective introduction. Subjectivity is manifested most of all in the generalization of the developed form of activity. Own activity is characterized by parameters due to the holistic system. With nonspecific activation, a wide range of objects fall under the formed patterns of action, which may be useful for the random detection of objective connections. Differentiation of external influences is also a significant contribution to the reflection process. The final effect is due to both sides of the interaction. The subjectivity of the selection of external features is determined by motivation, the objectivity is due to the non-random relationship of external features to the implementation of the desired goal. Distraction from many, even stable, features inherent in the object is well visible in experiments with differentiation of the conditional stimulus. When producing a reflex to the sound tone, the animal initially responds to the entire range of tonalities, sometimes to stimuli of other modalities. This is a generalized form of reflection. After combinations with the reward one sound tone and the disconfirmation of another, differentiation forms a reflex only on a certain tone. Differentiation throughout life accompanies the process of fixing the reflex. It is manifested in all repeated combinations. In living beings, the emerging single integration must be consolidated in order to become part of the holistic structure of the organism. The long history of reproduction and purification of the body from unnecessary infusions makes repeated combinations desirable, and more often the necessary form of fixing useful qualities. Repetitions, as well as accumulations of the same type of changes, are accompanied by the isolation of the most stable signs, which together consolidated the non-randomness of the new relationship. It was this process that appeared in the eyes of Darwin's followers as the basis for evolution. - 82 - It should be borne in mind the connection, symbiosis, with external objects, their use to achieve the goal. Primary forms are definitely manifested in animals in the production of instrumental reflexes. In primates, the use of objects is a familiar action. Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons administered additional stone pretreatment surgery. Subsequent development has made the instrument as an object for independent interest. Known phenomena were used to create intermediary tools in interaction with nature, corresponding to the qualities of objects and the goals of activity. In the human community, the materialization of the results of the mental actions of individuals, their generalization and presentation as a tested method for all people created the illusion of the involvement of some achievements in purely subjective creativity. For the effectiveness of their actions, a person creates tools, physical (technical) and mental (cognitive techniques, mathematics). They are affected by the previously reflected qualities of external objects, but also by the generalized specificity of the necessary, desired features (in ancient times, this is the sharpness of the tips, the convenient shape of the handle, etc.). To the extent of generalization (subjectivity), they appear as a proper human creation, but to the extent of reproduction of the cognized qualities of the external world, they also carry objectivity. The degree of subjectivity can be very great, as it is manifested in imaginary numbers. Since the toolkit is used, it is maintained while it is effective and useful. Practice determines the value or worthlessness of our creation. Millennia of human practical activity have confirmed the high objectivity of many of his knowledge and tools, so that using them in purely mental actions allows us to draw reasonable new conclusions about nature. Many of the emerging integrations, including the physical ones, which were unsuitable in reality, have disappeared. Many artificial tools suffered the same fate if they were useless in human activities. But auxiliary abstractions, including imaginary numbers as mathematical instrumentation, in various variations turned out to be convenient for solving many problems - which confirmed their validity, and in this form, existence. - 83 - Abstraction is possible not only in relation to the characteristics of a given quality, but also in relation to the number of objects of the same type. In experiments on the development of a reflex on the number, quite successful for many species of animals, including birds, both phenomena, both generalization and abstraction, seem to affect. So the selection of "two" as a kind of signal, an object, is quite understandable even from the standpoint of the principles of lower forms of reflection. Reflected features formed through generalization and abstraction can become independent objects of thought activity. This attitude arises, as already mentioned, with problems that are not solved by previous actions. Since each such object combines in view of its reflective basis and have subjectivity and objectivity, the action with it corresponds to the action with traces of external influences. The result may be an even more generalized, abstract object with a poor content of reflected features. Most of all, such a distraction from reality is attributed to mathematics, where auxiliary abstractions are often used. Mathematics has undoubtedly become the most effective tool for quantitative analysis. Initially, actions with quantities led to a form of addition that easily found confirmation in similar actions with identical objects. Then the reverse action was formed, subtraction. His generalization led to non-natural, real numbers, which has led to negative numbers. They are corresponded a flaw, a debt. The summation of the same numbers was conveniently replaced by a multiplication action. The reverse action, division, led to fractions. Multiplication gave rise to exponentiation. The generalization of the reverse action, the extraction of the root, created imaginary numbers. In science, faced with many facts, assumptions, arising along the way, but also discarded lead to deadlock), the scientist gradually activates elements of private knowledge, on the basis of which at some point a satisfactory general solution may arises. But, having been born, it gradually removes all unnecessary accidents, forming a strictly directed solution to the problem. Thanks to this, the author, who has learned something new, creates a theory that is transmitted to - 84 - others in a form already cleared of non-essential contingencies, that is, purely along the line of necessary relationships. Most often, the transfer of knowledge is carried out in the opposite way: not from the particulars to the general, but from the general to private (proof according to the principle of logic). In this variant, the form of activity of the learner turns out to be more specific, based on previously reflected general dependencies, and therefore is involved in a system of equally formalized knowledge. In art, the process of creating and transmitting the knowledge is performed in a slightly different way. There, the author reveals his thoughts using invented life events in a certain way, in which the structure of the idea he comprehends is traced. In this way, he invites others to make a similar cognition, but along the path lay by him, movement towards this idea, that is, to actually carry out the same process of knowledge, but facilitated by author's guiding events. Unlike science, there are accompanying real random phenomena here, but in a selected combination that simplifies cognition. Distinguishing between the essence of cognition and creation, it is possible to correctly assess the difference used by philosophers between the original and derived intentionality. “According to some philosophers, following John Searle (1980), intentionality comes in two varieties, intrinsic (or original) and derived. Intrinsic intentionality is the about ness of our thoughts, our beliefs, our desires, our intentions (intentions in the ordinary sense). It is the obvious source of the distinctly limited and derived sort of aboutness exhibited by some of our artifacts: our words, sentences, books, maps, pictures, computer programs. They have intentionality only by courtesy of a kind of generous loan from our minds. The derived intentionality of our artifactual representations is parasitic on the genuine, original, intrinsic intentionality that lies behind their creation.” Dennett (1996b, p. 50) The distinction between these forms of intentionality (activated state) is real and is due to the most important achievement of human activity: cognition and creation. Cognition forms a new integration of its own sensory and motor patterns in accordance with certain external properties of objects for using them - 85 - (interaction with them). This can be a consequence of previous interactions, when unresolved activity receives the desired result, introducing into its structure the influence of those external characteristics whose accounting (interaction with which) allows satisfying its intensity. Creation owes more to subjectivity, especially in purpose, but also to the side of cognition, which is more used to create tools. It sometimes assumes almost comprehensive significance in creations. Moreover, in technical creatures, the objective side of knowledge is extremely important, and in thought tools it may not even correspond to reality. Moreover, it can be ghostly in the fiction of humanities. It is this derivative intentionality that really "parasitizes the genuine, original internal intentionality that underlies their creation." But, since Dennett did not know the process of evolutionary transformations and does not know how the hierarchy of previous "intentions" and subsystem integrations operates, he considers the "contours of change" invisible. " The patterns of evolutionary change emerge so slowly that they are invisible at our normal rate of information uptake, so it’s easy to overlook their intentional interpretation, or to dismiss it as mere whimsy or metaphor.” (1996b, p. 61) Formal logical and dialectical thinking The most characteristic error that affects the study of cognition is the implicit absolutization of the usual way of thinking. Explicitly or implicitly formed in our minds ideal types and methods of our mind become the criterion for evaluating all phenomena. It is something like the combined effect of the Bacon's "idols." But there is an area where questioning such an approach is means contradicting oneself. This is the realm of thinking. To doubt your thinking and to "doubt" is also a mental operation, to think that your thinking is limited, weakly. It is somewhat lightweight version of the paradox "I am a liar." However, one can assume: if today's way of thinking exceeds the mental abilities of primitive people, then will it not be equally primitive in relation to the thinking of people of the future. Is it not naive to believe, for example, that formal logical thinking is - 86 - the limit of human thinking forms and subsequent development will not elevate them so much that this logic to the person of the future will seem extremely simple? Perhaps many will find such an assumption far-fetched, but it is not groundless. In this regard, many justifications were made by Kant and Hegel. At one time positivism with confidence began to come up with rules by which science should move in order to gain credibility. At the same time, their representatives were guided only by the principles of formal logic, which was considered the undeniable supreme arbiter of the validity of knowledge. Naturally, these people sought to criticize scientific cognition but not own thinking. They were not confused by the fact that, thanks to science, humanity has existed and been developing for many millennia, that it is the successful statement of man on Earth that is the best proof of its legitimacy. That our formal-logical methods could arise only due to the side of natural relationships that was perceived by us in the limited environment of our existence and during that historically short period when the modern level of thinking was formed. That is, it is necessary to initially bear in mind the meager principles, all the more conscious, of our individual knowledge compared to what is reality and even a phenomenon such as the cognitive product of humanity, science. It would be more reasonable not to evaluate it by methods available to pretentious critics, but on the contrary, to make their attitude to cognition a criterion of the intelligence of these evaluators. But the paradoxicality of self-reflection insures these scientists against self-criticism. Of course, it can be argued that positivists and their followers expressed their rules, referring not to the process of knowledge, but only to the process of proving, justifying the truth or falsity of theories. But the fact is that the opposition of these processes, itself indicates a distorted understanding of cognition, which is fueled by the differentiation of scientific spheres existing in modern society. Usually, scientist is not only involved, but also opposes as person to the common society. He was formed in it, therefore, studied a certain amount of knowledge and research methods achieved. Its solution to the problems - 87 - encountered is limited by individual knowledge, ability, degree of involvement in the general cognitive process. Therefore, ideas should be tested by society, which implies both correspond to previously tested knowledge - theoretical verification, and experimental, practical verification. This is what the stage-separated process of cognition looks like in our time. If it could be considered in integrity, the whole set of actions would appear as a single process in which both comprehension and practice are its inextricable sides. Moreover, the comprehension itself carries proof, since it is carried out in interaction with the outside world (at least in a mental way) and is based on proven cognitive methods and knowledge. The verification principle put forward by the positivists was criticized by Wittgenstein and Popper, since the inductive method is initially limited to the number of checks. True, the principle of falsification put forward by Popper was also unacceptable, since any theory is obliged to indicate the conditions under which its conclusions are feasible. But again, due to the infinity of real influences, no revealed fact can establish itself as completely corresponding to the noted conditions. Therefore, formally, he cannot refute the theory. As for distrust of inductive conclusions, Popper, of course, is right. However, even larger claims can be made to conclusions on analogues. Formally reasoning, it is impossible to prove the transition from a finite number of premises to a general conclusion, a conclusion about "everything," about infinite. This is a serious weakness. But this weakness is embedded in the previous process, from which formal logic usually renounces. So, if you ask the question: how can you collect such isolated information or why such facts turned out to be united in analogy and induction, then you either have to deny the very possibility of the emergence of such a group of premises (its probability is negligible), or declare a paradox: the choice of these premises is possible only on the basis of a general conclusion arising from these same premises. The lack of evidence of the conclusion lies in the formal baselessness of the set of premises. In any randomly taken objects, referring to an infinite or at least innumerable number of properties, you can always find a group of the same type of features and draw a generalizing conclusion. Consequently, such "universal - 88 - laws" will be made equally incidental and incalculable. Their subsequent verification will simply be meaningless. In order to informally understand these conclusions, bearing in mind that the entire hierarchy of lower subsystems is involved in the process of knowledge to one degree or another, you need to turn to the level of reflection preceding the logical one, namely the mental one. Of course, it is necessary to keep in mind the corresponding activation of the lower levels, in particular the physiological level. But it is enough to limit yourself only to the transition from mental to logical. In this regard, it would be easiest to point out the initial associative nature of the relationship between perceived features of objects. In psychology, the concept of associative general is sometimes used, which has the character of integration, but unformed, immature. It can be an association of properties related to a recognizable quality, which is usually formed under the influence of practice and previously understood knowledge. This is not a simple set of characteristics, but also not a certain integration of them. Therefore, the preference of this combination of features implicitly, unknowingly, affects the mental level of understanding of natural interdependence. The very transition from associative representation to general judgment through the stages of special (analogy) and general (induction) represents a significant step in the cognitive process. Thus, a mentally effective uncertain association acquires greater certainty. In inferences, by analogy, the logical content is rather weak even in comparison with induction. By the way, because of this weakness, it turns out to be easily subject to the introduction of more advanced logical forms, which is completely done in logic textbooks. The proof of this principle of the ascension of the mental form of reflection to the logical one through the stages of analogy and induction is best shown by the information of ethnographers. This approach is based on the principle of recapitulation in general, but in a broad interpretation, namely, the consistency of logical with historical. We proceed from the idea that the process of knowledge of modern man repeats in the main features the stages of the formation of mental ability stretched over the millennia. For primitive communities studied in various - 89 - continents and regions of the Earth, the most developed form of thinking was an analogy. Only during the formation of tribes does the process of generalizations begin, i.e. inductive conclusions act. But quite certain syllogistic relations spread among people during the formation of states. The need to develop formal logical thinking was caused by profound changes in the functions of people. The evolution of human mentality cannot be understood without knowledge of the history of social relations, without knowledge of the evolution of mankind. Excessive population growth has become a factor that has influenced significant community changes in ancient times. A disturbed balance with the habitat led to a crisis state, which gave rise to and tightened clashes between societies. Known extensions of associations of people, from primitive communities (families, clans) to tribes, tribal unions, and later to the state are the result of increasingly increasing wars. The primary goal of state administration was the creation of troops and military operations. Primitive man did not oppose himself to other members of the community, however and to the habitat. Communication and the resulting interest in external phenomena led to motivation aimed at similar signs of society and nature. The analogy reflected the unity of the human and natural worlds. When community relations became complicated, and inequality became embedded in new artificially organized communities, attention began to dominate on the individual qualities of the inner and outer worlds, which were generalized in induction. The confrontation forced the creation of an increasingly expanding army and the allocation of funds for its activities. There was a need to quantify the warriors, who were actually identical in their set. The distribution into individual groups, the ratio of private to general in aggregation, quantitative combinations between them became necessary actions not only of managers, but also of all people involved in this activity. In ratios greater/lesser, general/partial, in the rules of inference, syllogisms, in quantitative ratios, the laws inherent in a certain side of reality were manifested. These relationships, with the invariable principle of identity and consistency, being reflected in centuries-old practice, formed the structure of mental actions, in other words, became a form of people's thinking. - 90 - The effect of logical decisions was confirmed by an incalculable number of times and made them an undeniable method of cognition. Generalizations and abstraction were possible due to the fact that the specific variety and distinctiveness of individual objects was based on the structural of the same type, which was revealed just during generalization. The infinity of properties was reduced to essential, attributed to the structure of signs, and made them available to us, finite beings. Another thing is that in generalizations, sometimes to a significant extent, our subjectivity also affected. The concept of "abstract identity," "abstract universality" owes to just any general concept, where there could be significant not so much for the inherent qualities of integrity, as our introduction. This factor turned out to be very important when creating tools for interacting with external nature. It was the distinguished properties of natural objects, quantitatively superior to human capabilities, that people introduced into the machines, devices organized by them, but also into cognitive means. In all creatures (memes), you can find certain features of objects presented in different combinations and with different absolutization. In particular, the computing machines so highly appreciated by Dennett, in terms of content and software, owe them to the knowledge of the rates of atomic and molecular changes excessive in relation to our capabilities, their huge number even in small volumes of substances, as well as the formalization of the known ratios of reality. Alan Turing and his follower John von Neumann, like all programmers and their theorists, use purely formal logic in their evidence. It can be shown that no machine can in principle perform cognitive tasks. The process of learning unfolds in relation to the functioning of computers in the exact opposite way. If computers work based on general programs - from general to private, then a person at cognition moves from private to general, that is, starts from selective perception of specific events of the outside world and only in the process of knowledge goes up to general positions. But since the machine version is well aligned with the principles of formal logic, scientists dominated by this logic are committed to a similar view of thinking. - 91 - A long period of development of science, formal logical thinking was the dominant form in science. Only when natural science began to pay more attention to evolutionary processes and works appeared that destroy the previous idea of eternal and unchanged nature, formalism was seriously shaken. Dialectics was a solution to problems that arose in science. But as well represented as it was, it remained only a promising achievement of Hegel and other philosophers. Traditional mass thinking, like the thinking of many scientists, remained within the usual framework. The situation is the same as if missionaries told primitive man about the laws of formal logic. Archaic thinking would not have changed. The millennia strengthened formal thinking due to many circumstances, and above all the need to interact with many objects of the same type, until the laws of their combinations and quantitative relations became the laws of thought. Changing the usual way of thinking was not easy. Now there is hope that the everaccelerating development of science will significantly reduce the time for the formation of dialectical thinking at least among scientific husbands. Fortunately, science is never drawn into a string before logics, and therefore, not paying attention to their claims, in recent decades theories of qualitative transformations have begun to develop vigorously, which have been studied in physics, chemistry, geology, not to mention biology. Peculiar concepts of leap, bifurcation, necessary randomness, etc. are put forward, which cannot please formalists in any way. The field of transition, evolutionary processes is increasingly occupied by the minds of scientists, but together with the knowledge of these phenomena, their thinking changes and will change. Just as once archaic thinking was replaced by a reasonable analysis of unchanged objects once and for all in a given world, in our time thinking is formed, comprehending a single developing world, which consists of already known details, but in mutual connection, in movement, emergence and disappearance. Dialectical relations are not dogma. No matter how wise Hegel, Marx, Engels present them, no one is obliged to strictly adhere to the set principles. Of course, their conclusions are useful for the subsequent study of development processes, but it is the latter that are the basis for the formation of dialectical methods of - 92 - cognition. The revealed laws of development condition the laws of dialectics, and, being aware, these universal laws become a method of our understanding of reality. Indeed, quantitative changes formal logic is able to assess, this stage of growth is quite accessible to it. But to know the subsequent acts of qualitative transformation, dialectical thinking is necessary. The content of the dialectic will be adjusted, changed, enriched as the laws of this developing world are learned. The functioning of multilevel systems is an ongoing repetition of the history of their formation. The reproduction of subsystems is provided by the system itself, which possesses those substances and features that were historically necessary for the consistent formation of these systems, which later are subsystems. Therefore, a subsequent in-depth examination of even each and every moment of functioning of all creations will create a need for knowledge of the general laws of the development process. This is especially necessary to know the history, the dynamic changes in the past and the trend of future development. Without knowledge of the laws of development, it is impossible to cognize the development of everything on Earth, including the mentality of modern man. All this means that the dialectical form of thinking should become a necessary form of our deeper knowledge of reality, including the evolution of mankind. Information When functions such as irritability, sensation, perception are determined outside of interaction with the outside world due to one or another "intention", a gap arises between the sensory system supposedly providing information and the actions of the "body." " And it has seemed obvious to many theorists—myself included—that what minds do is process information; minds are the control systems of bodies, and in order to execute their appointed duties they need to gather, discriminate, store, transform, and otherwise process information about - 93 - the control tasks they perform.” (1996b, pp. 68-69) "A transducer is any device that takes information in one medium (a change in the concentration of oxygen in the blood, a dimming of the ambient light, a rise in temperature) and translates it into another medium.” (1996, p. 69) “Here is where the very complications that ruin the story of the nervous system as a pure information-processing system can be brought in to help our imaginations, by distributing a portion of the huge task of “appreciation” back into the body.” (1996, p. 73) Dennet uses the concept of "information" in a fairly often used view, as something that exists in itself. “The environment contains an embarrassment of riches, much more information than even a cognitive angel could use.” (1996b, p. 93) “In animals, this complex system of biochemical packets of control information was eventually supplemented by a swifter system, running in a different medium: traveling pulses of electrical activity in nerve fibers.” (1996b, p. 67) “In short, the inner environment, whatever it is, must contain lots of information about the outer environment and its regularities.” (1996b, p. 88) Although information in a more real representation is the result of the interaction of the subject and the object, when the impact of the object is somehow reflected in the subject, philosophical abstraction and irrepressible imagination detach the subject and give the information an ontological character. In extreme form, information was presented objectively existing outside the subjects (people) and independently of them. But in physical objects, purely physical transformations occur. In particular, in a neuron, under super-threshold influence the equilibrium of incoming and outgoing ion flows is disturbed, the neuron is partially destroyed and, like an atom emitting a photon, discharges with an action potential. Should he be presumed to have given the information? The experimenter who registered this potential really gained knowledge, in some sense information, because he has - 94 - knew this event. But for a neuron, as for an atom, it is just a violation of integrity, activation, release of bound energy. There is doubt that the experimenter receives information. It is more correct to distinguish between knowledge and the dissemination of knowledge in society, since these are significantly different activities. Cognition is due to direct or indirect, mental, interaction with the outside world. The process is complex, sometimes long, far from always successful. But man, having learned something, seeks to convey to others the knowledge received. The dissemination of knowledge, extremely relevant in our time is information, the transfer of information. In each communicative association, it could receive a peculiar (largely subjective) initial set of signals - sounds, letters, words, etc. They make up the primary variety of elements when transmitting information. The process consists of three parts. In the first part, the transmitter must decompose its representation into conventional elements, in other words, it must transform the integrative form of reflection into a series of elementary action waveforms developed in this community, consistent with its structure. Physical flow is the necessary beginning for transmission of the learned. In the second part, in the physical environment, these signals propagate, for example, in the form of a suitably structured stream of sounds or a graph of letters. The third link - an individual who perceives this stream should have a similar type of motivation, task and have the form of activity developed in this society with the flow of especial physical elements, sounds or letters. That is, each individual of society should achieve the ability to produce the corresponding stages of the ascent of integrations of the original diversity. Otherwise, he simply will not take the information. The "meaning of information" is significant in the initial and final stages, and not in the transmission and reception of intermediate elements of diversity, although it is the reception and transfer area that is best able to formalize and it is easiest to find ontological "information." This process was studied in great detail by Shannon. But the "meaning" is revealed in interaction with the outside world, knowledge of it and activities based on the learned. - 95 - The usual reports of what is or has happened, we hear all along, and do not consider their perception to be anything comparable to development in cognition. Our current level of thinking is such that we do not attach much importance to the perception of specific information coming from everywhere. There is a significant difference between what cognized and what get to know through the information received. If in cognition the entire hierarchy of sensory and motor subsystems is activated, and the satisfactory result of interaction, at least mentally, forms a similar integration of a higher level, then the "known" is perceived with less global activation when forming the relationship of any subsystem level. It can subsequently weaken significantly, but when reactivated, if this information is effective, it can form a stronger integration, as in cognition. PART 4 PUZZLES WITH ACTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS MDM Multiple Drafts Model The opposite approach to study of consciousness trying to understand it by means of artificial situations because of variety of its efficient forms generates also various attempts something corresponding to think up. Homunculus, pandemonium, Pi phenomenon, global work space, virtual machine, memes, etc. Their authors most often understand insufficiency of these concocted concepts and therefore continue to look for new representations, but in the same style. Dennet as a result offers new approach – a Multiple Drafts model, MDM. In essence by this method he tries to generalize the relation to cogitative human - 96 - activity of our civilization when the self-consciousness was formed, the huge information processes and the self-assessment of own knowledge is widespread. But unacceptance of hierarchical activation of all levels of a brain and, therefore, continuous influence of integrative subsystems is forces him to consider their activity in the plane, equally significant for all narratives. "This skein of contents is only rather like a narrative because of its multiplicity; at any point in time there are multiple drafts of narrative fragments at various stages of editing in various places in the brain." Dennett (1991, p. 135) Therefore in Multiple Drafts model there is not interrelation between conscious and subconscious. Dennet uses concepts unconscious, preconscious, but not subconscious which by all means should be activated as the below-level base of the higher, including conscious levels of thinking. "One can always "draw a line" in the stream of processing in the brain, but there are no functional differences that could motivate declaring all prior stages and revisions to be unconscious or preconscious adjustments, and all subsequent emendations to the content (as revealed by recollection) to be post-experiential memory contamination. The distinction lapses in close quarters." (1991, p. 126) The subsequent problem arises for the experimenter or the person himself to allocate something from a set of narratives creates the content of consciousness. "Similarly — and this is the fundamental implication of the Multiple Drafts model — if one wants to settle on some moment of processing in the brain as the moment of consciousness, this has to be arbitrary." (Ibid) Therefore Dennett is forced to resort to one more invention - "probes". At the same time he faces a set of problems because neither probes from without nor from himself cannot to resolve definitely test. "… There are no fixed facts about the stream of consciousness independent of particular probes." (1991, p. 138) - 97 - "Probing this stream at various intervals produces different effects, precipitating different narratives — and these are narratives: single versions of a portion of "stream of consciousness." (1991, p. 135) "I have not yet been at all specific about the structure of the processes by which elements from among the Multiple Drafts get perpetuated, some of them eventually generating heterophenomenology as the result of one probe or another." (1991, p. 263) Really, if Dennet recognized hierarchical a brain functioning and obligatory activity of the lower mental integrations in a brain then in his performance neither external nor internal test would reveal unambiguously the content of consciousness. The motivation of some given level is the cornerstone of any activity. It is caused first of all by biological or conditioned-reflex subsystems which in turn depend on a condition of the individual, but substantially and from outward situation and/or concrete signal influences. All this complex of the lowest level causes motivation (intention) of the person. Relationship of external influences and the created motivations of the lower level define the most dominant highest motivation of behavior. Changes of any given component of motivation can activate other dominant. Therefore any probes having signal character in itself will create new influence on "intention" of the person and the corresponding behavior. And, it must be kept in mind that a verbal stream, including internally organized, are an activity form, not very well externally expressed or self-contained in the cogitative sphere. In particular, in a Pi-phenomenon experiment the individual at the corresponding dominant motivation will pay attention first of all to movement of a point. Less active other motivation can switch to color of a point. As a result "probes" will be able to create as dominant other activation, having distorted really happened process. The attention of driver who learned the traffic regulation will be directed on colors of the traffic light. If he is a color-blind person, then movement or arrangement of a light signal will be his motivation. But in his brain are hierarchically activated, though weaker, not dominant motives of other, especially the lower level motivation which at certain external influences can - 98 - come to the forefront. For instance, at the sight of snackbars the weak motive of food or thirst can become dominant and he will stop the car to satisfy this wish. The problem of consciousness should be perceived on the basis of those circumstances which generated this quality at people. At the primitive person this quality arose only when he need to the message of his knowledge to the compatriots. For the modern person the communication became so frequent that the most convenient speech form is carried out not only directly at information transfer, but also in the absence of listeners when speech activity becomes isolated in the internal cogitative sphere. Consciousness in such way can be manifested, but whether it will be self-consciousness, understanding of activity by the personality, will depend on activity of the ratios comprehended by the individual in the social environment of this society. Dennett, of course, understands uncertainty of the offered explanations, this assertion of variety of "narratives" at the approved highest mental plane but not hierarchical organization of a brain. "This stream of contents is only rather like a narrative because of its multiplicity; at any point in time there are multiple "drafts" of narrative fragments at various stages of editing in various places in the brain. Probing this stream at different places and times produces different effects, precipitates different narratives from the subject." (1991, p. 113) He forcedly uses the concept "memes" which is invented by Dawkins R. "But if it is true that human minds are themselves to a very great degree the creations of memes, then we cannot sustain the polarity of vision with which we started; it cannot be "memes versus us", because earlier infestations of memes have already played a major role in determining who or what we are." (1991, p. 207) Again lack of knowledge of development regularities and ignoring of complex hierarchy of functioning of a brain make empty and this farfetched concept. It cannot have even superficial compliance to a gene as the embryo comprises the main qualities of a mature being, and in the course of maturation, at a certain reduplication of cages, forms the consecutive interconnected stages of an organism development. "Memes" in itself are not capable creating any stage of reduplication, do not - 99 - comprise into self any germinal qualities. They in essence represent final effect of creation, thereby completing process of the cognition and the subsequent materialization of knowledge with absolutization of desirable features. This approach is a common weakness of many ideas about consciousness. Dennett, not knowing the general laws of development and, consequently, the influence of certain external and internal factors on the emergence and subsequent appearance and manifestation of consciousness, absolutizes easily detectable signs. He attaches independent value to the elements of culture and believes that the emergence of culture and its spread leads to consciousness. The concept of culture can be given a very broad content, but it is also possible to limit it as a generalization of the subjective side of the results of creation, tools and artificially implemented organizations. With this approach, it will be necessary to determine the line between modified and adapted natural objects for their purposes, which is the case with highly developed animals that do not have consciousness, and the tools of modern man, also adapted for certain actions, but realized as tools created by him. In this case, cognition turns out to be a defining function for creation and culture. If we proceed from the history of human evolution, we will have to involve a number of factors that determine the spread of cultural elements. The essential of them is the formation of a new motivation of the highest order, focused on the properties of the tool being created and the organization of joint actions Even at comprehension of the speech, namely of the structured stream of sounds, air fluctuations, the listener only in such case will understand information, if he earlier created the corresponding pyramid of integration of the subsystems which are originally formed the known reflections of the sound code of words, which were developed in language of this community. It is relate also to compliance of the subsequent subsystems with interrelations of these words and so on up to perception of knowledge presented in this sentence. Not only final creation as "meme", in itself does not introduce hierarchy of steps of knowledge, but even the speech and the stated literary works only in such case are perceived in the new contents when in the listener or the reader the previous knowledge levels necessary for this purpose has been developed. Especially the science is - 100 - presented not only by graphic statement of words, concepts, but also by formulas, the equations, diagrams, drawings and other materialized knowledge transmission media. It is itself will not be properly understand, if in the studying individual there is no necessary complex of the previous mentality levels. Invented "meme" not only is absent at conditioned-reflex findings which are not fixed in genes, but also in itself has no physiologically essential qualities of a gene. At Dennett formalistic thinking nevertheless prevails. Therefore he looks for rescue at computer programs though they can be also presented as some kind of "memes" with the same qualities have not some common with physiological processes. "… I am suggesting: Conscious human minds are more-or-less serial virtual machines implemented — inefficiently — on the parallel hardware that evolution has provided for us." (1991, p. 219) "Human consciousness is itself a huge complex of memes (or more exactly, meme-effects in brains) that can best be understood as the operation of a "von Neumannesque" virtual machine implemented in the parallel architecture of a brain that was not designed for any such activities." (ibid) The person, creating any tools, seeks to organize it in compliance with what he already learned. Even in the simplest thermostat he means that any rather complex system should have governing body and hierarchical structure. Therefore the temperature sensors reacting to adverse external conditions start basic operation of heating elements. Naturally, such compound device as the computer consists of physical elements, which all are together designated as "hardware", possesses the multilevel organization. As well management of AI got complex organized language of programs in the final level of the pyramid based on initial active elements on the base of a machine language. It is possible to make an analogy of initial 0 and 1 in computer with "all-or-none" potentials of neurons action. But there is also an essential distinction. Activation of neurons is started by initially basic levels of an organism, but in the computer, on the contrary, managing software programs define a condition of initial elements. The activity of - 101 - receptors and the subsequent biological organs influences on the highest levels of motivations (intentions) which thanks to this basic system define conditions of neurons in the corresponding interrelations in the brain. Such is fundamental difference of functioning of natural organisms and the machines which are artificially created by the person. Dennett does not know this. He seeks to explain the mentality of the creator of machines by him created artificial organization. "So a virtual machine is a temporary set of highly structured regularities imposed on the underlying hardware by a program: structured recipe of hundreds of thousands of instructions that give the hardware a huge, interlocking set of habits or dispositions-to-react." (1991, p. 216) He claims that its theory is a theory of consciousness, but equates it to artificial virtual machines. "Until the whole theory-sketch was assembled, I had to deflect such doubts, but at last it is time to grasp the nettle, and confront consciousness itself, whole marvelous mystery. And so I hereby declare that YES my theory is a theory of consciousness. Anyone or anything that has such a virtual machine as its control system is conscious in the fullest sense, and is conscious because it has such a virtual machine." (1991, p. 281) Even the most modern programs, such as compilation of neural networks, essentially are not capable to be similar to the multilevel function of the nervous system caused by activation of initial subsystems and developed to resolve the dominant motivation activated by internal state and external influences. Chinese room Searle, who emphasizes the subjectivity of consciousness, tried to assert two main assertions. 1. Intentionality in human beings (and animals) is a product of causal features of the brain. 2. Instantiating a computer program is never by itself a sufficient condition of intentionality. (1980, p. 417) - 102 - The first argument is wrong; the intention is described in more detail in the chapter "Internal Intention or Activated State". Directed activity in violation of the structure occurs in all inanimate and living integral systems. In the organization of not only a computer, but even a thermostat, the human creator takes into account a certain activation of work when its state changes, at least under the influence of the program. No action occurs if there is no violation of the neutral state of the whole system. It should be borne in mind that any interrelation of elements occurs and is possible only with they have an opposite states. External influence disrupts this unity, thereby releasing the uncompensated activity of one of the opposite sides with the corresponding vector, "intention". In all created machines a person strives to introduce a cognized organization using the appropriate interrelationships of elements and the activity fulfilled, but in a desirable direction. Therefore, the action of the machines is consistent with the intention of the creator, but also the user. The second assertion is true. Тhe computer even with a modern artificial intelligence program cannot be equalized with a person's thought process. One should not comprehend the mentality based on the operation of this machine. Such principle of approach to the study of consciousness is quite reasonable, but the rationale given by Searle is not so convincing. To prove it, Searle comes up with a thought experiment which is called as "Chinese room". (1980) The description of the artificial situation is as follows: A person is sitting in a closed room, even if Searle himself, who knows English but does not know Chinese. It is endowed with reference books set out in English, a list of rules for responding messages in hieroglyphs and dictionaries necessary for translation. Messages in Chinese are transmitted to him. Thanks to this set of instructions, he composes answers using the list of consistent hieroglyphs, although he does not understand the essence of the questions at all. From the outside, people believe that they are dealing with a person who knows Chinese, although he only makes up the answers according to the rules of correspondence of hieroglyphs of questions and answers available to him. - 103 - In fact, an analogy is presented with the work of a compute in which the prisoner represents something like hardware, instructions are software, and sets of hieroglyphs are database. “But in the Chinese case, unlike the English case, I produce the answers by manipulating uninterpreted formal symbols. As far as the Chinese is concerned, I simply behave like a computer; I perform computational operations on formally specified elements. For the purposes of the Chinese, I am simply an instantiation of the computer program.” (1980, p. 418) Searle refutes the uniformity of human activity and computer operation, noting the fact that a person is aware of his actions but the actions of a prisoner are directed solely at manipulating graphic representations of hieroglyphs. Indeed, a prisoner manipulating the symbols of hieroglyphs, like a computer, does not realize the meaning of these graphic signs. "... The computer and its program do not provide sufficient conditions of understanding since the computer and the program are functioning, and there is no understanding." (Ibid) Searle does not think about the fact that many living beings also act without realizing those external and internal factors that prompt a particular behavior. An animal carrying out an instrumental conditioned reflex is not able to understand the motive (intention) that prompts it to act and those situational and signaling influences that determine this behavior. Awareness is inherent in a person, and by no means in every activity. This function was formed in communities, due to the need to transfer their knowledge to compatriots and developed selfconsciousness. This is described in more detail in the chapter "Consciousness, self-consciousness". The word code, which has been created for thousands of years in different ways in different communities and consists of a set of graphic elements, letters, is displayed in a computer by a certain number of its own codes of 0 and 1. Neurons act in a similar way; action potentials arise in the "all or none" type. In a computer, the activation of levels is carried out in accordance with the formalized mental activity of people, with a similar purposefulness. The final act thanks to - 104 - installing the creator of the program may be the result of a calculation or, in accordance with the formalized semantics ("real scheme") by the robot's action. The argument about the difference between syntax and semantics is also to a certain extent due to the peculiar cognitive activity of people in modern society. Searle notes that in the Chinese room, purely syntactic operations were performed with code designations of concepts but by no means comprehension of questions and answers. There is no semantics or connection with the meaning of concepts; actions are consistent only with syntax. “ In the linguistic jargon, they have only a syntax but no semantics.” (1980, p. 422) “The fact that the programmer and the interpreter of the computer output use the symbols to stand for objects in the world is totally beyond the scope of the computer. The computer, to repeat, has a syntax but no semantics.” (1980, p. 426) It follows from the situation that no matter what manipulations the computer does, in the end it deals only with syntax, it performs operations with zeros and ones. There is no place for meaning and understanding, the computer is devoid of intentionality. I would consider ignorance and unwillingness to understand the problem of cognition, not to mention the development process, to be the main challenge. If we turn to the beginnings of the formation of consciousness, then we will not be able to separate, much less contrast syntax and semantics. Already in animals, the peculiarity of sounds and movements when addressing individuals of their own species creates that complex of actions that are a fused prototype of syntax and semantics in our communication. The motivation for these actions is different from direct physiological requests. It is more consistent with the interconnections in the community, which is also a necessary association, although not integration, for the existence of individuals. But as previously noted the initial activation always must be carried out in physical interactions. Such actions among primitive people were fulfilled in - 105 - streams of semantic sounds, dances, images – all that later peoples eventually embodied in oral and written speech. The child also in the process of development, repeating these stages of evolution, perceives words and drawings as reflections of real events. "Evil", "cruel" and similar words cause fear, flight, and opposite terms, on the contrary, lead to calmness, attractiveness. Also, the lines of his drawings are quite consistent with the relation to any objects. Syntax and semantics are indistinguishable at the initial stage of communication. These begin to be opposed due to certain changes in the life of people's society, namely those that have become the basis for the formation of selfconsciousness. In creative activity when the object of labor is alienated and thus opposed to the manufacturer and users the motivation, later the task, is increased directed to the signs of the object itself. Initially, their orientation was determined by the necessary qualities of objects, but as the activity and cognitive interests expanded, other, even insignificant signs became the object of cognition. Already during the development of instrumental conditioned reflexes, it was revealed that new integrations, with the weakening of previous motivations, can manifest their own activity, which becomes dominant in these conditions. The formed new sensory –motor system shows a new motivation even with a significantly weakened basis – biological need. When cognitive interest, a task, begins to dominate, the integrations of the previous level are obscured against the background of a new orientation (intention) of actions. Hierarchically multilevel activation, depending on the organism state, its control organ, nervous system, but, more importantly, on the situation, the perceived situation and specific reflected signals, highlights the most actualized state. Deprivation and motivation but also the levels of cognition or creation can become dominant. Dennett is right when he denies the possibility of accurately and unambiguously in each case to establish meanings on the part of others and even - 106 - the subject himself. But the proof of an indefinite attitude to words should first of all be found in the hierarchy of "intentions”. The same word can be perceived differently with different "intentions", almost in the same way as an animal can perform different reflexes on the same signal, depending on the dominant motivation. Semantics depends not only on the word, but also on the intention. It should also be borne in mind a peculiar attitude to the reflected external signs. Generalization is manifested even in insects, which sometimes die flying on the light of fire. Until then differentiation of similar signs of reflection has occurred the animal reacts to a generalized complex of similar signals. A more significant generalization takes place in human reflections. Of particular note is his ability to the extreme generalization of features, abstracting their quality. Attention to words, coded sounds or drawings, in itself is an activation aimed at the final product, which in the ancient time can be the toolkit of compatriots. Historically, for a long period, there was a consistent separation of the practical actions themselves from their representations in communication. Drawings, later pictographic, hieroglyphic images were replaced by letters, the structured flow of which, like codes, was consistent with transferred knowledge. The same purpose was served by the stream of encoded in this community sounds. In phrases that initially described the entire chronology of actions that determine a specific event later the details of individual behavior had be removed, highlighting their main meanings. Generalized concepts arose in peculiar sound and letter representations instead of designations of specific types and actions. At the modern level of information exchange, when the communication codes themselves become the goal of cognition, the semantics coincide with the syntax in the very content of the intention. But since there is an interest (intention) in the very relationship of syntax and lower-level integrations, activation of scientists divides the combination of these levels in an objectified form, thereby evaluating the difference between them. A similar intention will determine the discrepancy between the codes that were formed in different communities, and thereby a categorical difference with semantics. But since both syntaxes and semantics in the evaluation of scientists are defined in the form of knowledge, this formalization is quite accessible to equally formal tools, - 107 - dictionaries, translation assistants, but in our time and omnipotent programs in this field. In fact, all the arguments of the supporters and opponents of the two sides, Searle and Dennett, boiled down to the capabilities of artificial intelligence to solve such problems. Moreover, the arguments of both sides are removed from the essential difference between man and his artificial creation, and revolve only around private manifestations of activity in invented conditions. The Turing test (TT) defines an intelligent system that, in a dialogue with a human expert, will be able to convince him that she is also a human being. In the computer program a person can enter everything that he has already learned and is able to present in a formalized form. In addition, instrumentalism allows, in principle, to create sensors that exceed the capabilities of our receptors, and to introduce recognition programs that allow us to identify all those instructions and objects in the room that a person needs. Dennett's main argument is addressed to rational non-verbal behavior in the world, when understanding speech. In him he sees a total TT. But the robot's actions, if there are formalized levels of syntax and semantics in the program, also a structured flow of speech codes and corresponding movements, will coincide to rational behavior. The fallacy of Dennett and many scientists in assessing the ratio of tools that facilitate mental processes and human capabilities comes from ignorance of the difference between formalized procedures and non-formalized cognition of the new. For some reason, Dennett attaches great importance to the speed of calculations, considering it insufficient for modern computers, although the ratio is exactly the opposite. It is precisely because of the colossal superiority in the speed of calculations and all programmable actions that computers have become useful for humans. The categorical advantage of natural intelligence lies in something else, namely, in his ability to comprehend natural laws in order to use them when - 108 - creating tools, machines, computers that facilitate its work. No artificial intelligence can successfully pass the TT if give cognitive problems. Behind each computer there are people who have learned specific qualities of natural objects, the use of which, with a certain organization, makes it possible to multiply the effect of human action. But the act of cognition itself is inaccessible to machines, since the initial moment of cognition is due to interaction with unknown phenomena of nature, when they turn out to be inconsistent with what was previously known. Cognition largely depends on the diverse interaction with the surrounding world and on the fortuity that is caused by unpredictable external phenomena. Our usual practice in the environment of finite objects, just like our organism, has been useful for development initial knowledge about the laws of this level. Only when technical tools allowed us to intrude into the atomic world of substances, people learned unusual structures and relationships at this level. New knowledge contributed to the creation of substances with specific properties and incomparably higher speeds in the sphere of elementary particles than in the environment of complex bodies. It was the use of such substances that allowed the creation of computing machines that significantly exceed the mental capabilities of a person in terms of speed. Science forms a universal interconnection of knowledge, repeatedly confirmed in the millennial practice of mankind. Every new knowledge could be perceived in accordance with the previous volume and, if it does not contradict the accumulated knowledge, it is transformed into a theory, as a rule, conditioned by the basic conceptions. In this way, new knowledge can acquire a formalized structure and become acceptable for the device of the machine and the introduction of effective programs into it. Therefore, each computer should be considered only as an element, as a consequence of the creator's activity in the physical organization of the machine and hackishness. "Qualia" - 109 - Another entertainment of philosophers was reasoning about our feelings and perceptions. If we analyze these forms of reflection at lower levels, with manifestations of motivation and behavior of animals, then nothing unusual seems to happen. The usual activity of the organism, due to the internal state with previously reflected external influences, is activated by the corresponding sensory-motor formations. The formed levels of complicated integrations under the influence of certain signs of the environment determine the essence of these sensations and perceptions. They are conditioned by the living being's own state, its motivation (intention), external influence and sensory-motor or associative nuclei of the central nervous system. In this case, purposeful external behavior will be carried out, but, in the absence of the possibility of a useful effect, the activation of the corresponding subsystems will be closed in the internal neural network. In humans, as a result of new spheres of purposefulness, the most significant activity has shifted to the field of cognition and communication. The previous levels, of course, do not disappear, which is why scientists cannot identify something unified in any way. They tend to mix different types of sensations: the agony of pain, the "redness" of red, the "bitterness" of resentment, the "sweetness" of pleasure. Pain is a reflection of the state of the body due to internal or external harmful disorders; a condition in which the developed actions or counteractions of the corresponding subsystems are activated. However, when a scientist invades the analysis of the sensation of pain itself, it already acts as the goal of his own intention. The essence of the process does not change, there is an external factor, there is a certain activity (cognition), and activation of this activity, i.e. both subjectivity and objectivity. But the researcher tries to abstract himself from the specifics of his action, besides from the active levels of the being experiencing pain, highlighting only something imagined by him, "pain" in itself. A similar assessment should be given to other feelings caused by the conditions of a person during his activity in the community. Resentment, pleasure are usually the result of unfavorable or favorable influences for the individual on the part of members of an important association for him. They influence his activity, at least in the mental sphere. All those external factors that contribute to - 110 - the stable vital activity of the creature, most often lead to an increase in the tonic activity of motor systems, when muscle tone increases, but it is insufficient for pronounced movement. Dennett is right when he opposes epiphenomenalism. Mental events are always conditioned by physical events and certainly manifest themselves in the activation of motor systems, but sometimes weakly expressed. As for color and sound sensations, due to the practically necessary differentiation of the spectrum of light and sound frequencies, the gradation of light waves in humans was evaluated as a feeling of colors, and sound waves as a feeling of tones. In some animals, a complex environment has caused reactions to higher or lower frequencies than what is detected by an ordinary person. By themselves, these sensations are no different from all types of reflections and are directly involved in a motivationally formed interaction with the outside world. It should also be borne in mind that, for example, visual reception is created by essentially the same type of cells born from germinal reproduction, which, however, are particularly sensitive under the influence of photons. The incoming energy eventually leads to the disintegration of integrative rhodopsin, the opening of the pores of the neural membrane and subsequent activation of the neural network. But it should be borne in mind that with the strengthening of the specific properties of the receptors, the corresponding capabilities of other cells of the body are weakened. In principle, it is possible to experimentally approximate their properties to receptive ones, but it is extremely difficult to create a similar neural relationship with the brain and its sensory-motor integrative system. Although this should not be excluded, since tactile receptors are also involved in the neural system and, with a kind of activation, are able to influence certain perception subsystems. Psychologists conducted experiments during which the persons, after specific training, seemed to distinguish colors only by the skin cells of their hands. The function of vision manifests itself when certain parts of the nervous system are activated and depends on motivation and external influences corresponding to the goal. Therefore, the initial reception with an inverted image of objects in the eye acquires in the brain again reversed, but already correct - 111 - attitude to these objects. Also, after implantation of lenses that distort the primary picture of appearance, the visual system, in the process of interacting with the environment, after some time again provides an image of the desired objects corresponding to their actual location and appearance. Similar successful experiments have been conducted on both animals and humans. At the same time, it is not the creature's own function that is important, but its conditioning by external influences and internal motivation, his intentional actions. When analyzing the sensations themselves, it is important that their occurrence is due to the creative activity of a person who directs attention to individual signs of external bodies, forming a new level of activity. Specific activity contributes to the identification of external signs already as independent target objects. When scientists direct cognitive interest to these signs themselves, they contribute to their generalization in their own perception. Colors, sounds, a lot of geometric elements, bodies, words, and a huge variety of what are now elements of culture become such. Nevertheless, although generalization increases the degree of subjectivity, the objectivity of the signs is not erased, as is the effectiveness of a new level of sensory–motor integration inward in mentality of these scientists and their intentions. Abstraction from the objective aspects of this activity creates the illusion of the existence of some absolute "redness". For this, the "qualia" was invented. And reasoning about intersubjectivity or intrasubjectivity, taking into account the differences in sensations between subjects or in the subject himself, when the properties of the receptors are violated, only indicate the capabilities of the receptors themselves, a combination of different types of cones. Color blindness, like many physiological abnormalities or even shortcomings, is especially evident in a social environment with artificially organized traffic rules. If sound signals are used for the blind for an accessible street crossing, then colorblind drivers are forced to be determined by the place of the signal at the traffic light, and in the dark by neighboring cars. Otherwise there will be violations. But in ordinary life situations, they do not experience problems. Perhaps the differentiation of light frequencies would be important in strictly - 112 - defined natural situations, but in society these deviations are insignificant. They are valuable only for the entertainment of scientists. Searle, in an effort to prove the inaccessibility of mental phenomena to science, also turns to "qualia". “Suppose that one section of the population had their color spectra reversed in such a way that, for example, the experience they call "seeing red" a normal person would call "seeing green"; and what they call "seeing green" a normal person would call "seeing red" (Block and Fodor 1972). Now we might suppose that this "spectrum inversion" is entirely undetectable by any of the usual color blindness tests, since the abnormal group makes exactly the same color discriminations in response to exactly the same stimuli as the rest of the population.” (1991, p. 43) But thereby he proves the practical basis of these feelings. As for the perception of the variety of colors, they are due to the differentiation of the spectrum of light frequencies emitted by the necessary objects of the environment. A different attitude to them arises with specific cognition, when there is an interest (intention) directed at the sensation itself. In this case, researchers show a kind of activity, which he has tend to absolutize the subjectivity of the phenomenon. What Searle calls "physicalism", this time takes place in the objective side of the sensory-motor processes into the wise man, which he seeks to exclude, focusing only on the subjectivity of sensation. On this topic the American philosopher F. Jackson came up with a thought experiment about Mary, a neuroscientist who knows all the physical facts about seeing colors. But Mary is in a black-and-white room, not knowing everything that can be known about the perception of colors by people, and only after going out and seeing colored objects, acquires new knowledge. Consequently, the philosopher believes, not all facts are physical. And physicalism is false. Jackson, if he himself knew the process of evolution and the formation of complex sensorymotor systems of sensation, would not have opposed the physical and mental. All forms of reflection and knowledge contain both objective and subjective. - 113 - In this thought experiment, most of all ignorance relates to the possibilities of Mary's own subsequent sensations, both physiological and cognitive. Knowing all the facts about the causes and effects of color perceptions is not enough to form a color sensation. Any sensations arise only with the necessary interaction with the corresponding favorable signs of objects. And for their differentiation, it is necessary to correct the opposing effects with the selection of the desired colors. In addition, it is necessary to keep in mind an important period of childhood for the formation of many perceptions. The Zombie Argument Some philosophers were put forward the Zombie argument against materialism being believed that it was possible, at least logically, to imagine the existence of an organism completely indistinguishable from a person in terms of anatomy, behavior and other observable facts, but without consciousness. If we mean the ancestor of a person, then he could well fit the description of a Zombie. But for a person at that stage of development, when consciousness is formed, conditioned by relationships and behavior in society, Zombies are just fiction. The likeness of a Zombie in modern society can essentially be an inferior individual who, for some unfavorable biological or mental reasons, turned out to be an underdeveloped being. But he will differ significantly in behavior from people with consciousness. To draw any conclusions on the basis of invented absurdities hardly contributes to fruitful cognition. A reasonable way should turn to that ancient period of community formation, when life forced people to develop more effective forms of mutual communication and, as a result, to create graphic and sound means as ways of transmitting knowledge. The consequence of the new motivation of behavior (communication) is the formation of consciousness, which is realized in such behavior, at least in a mental form. “Philosophers' zombies, you will recall, seem to perform speech acts, seem to report on their states of consciousness, and seem to introspect. But they are - 114 - not really conscious at all, in spite of the fact that they are, at their best, behaviorally indistinguishable from a conscious person.” (1991, p. 309) Dennett admits the possibility of a speech act in a Zombie that can report its condition, but believes that this does not apply to consciousness. The formation of speech went in parallel with the development of consciousness, which was conditioned by a new motivation (intention) aimed at individual signs of objects, as well as elements of joint community activity. Speech, assessment of one's own state in themselves indicate the presence of consciousness. Zombies are fundamentally unable to deceive the "authentic" owner of intelligence and present themselves as a being with consciousness, since this will require special behavior due to the exchange of information. The whole wisdom of denying consciousness with adequate behavior for some philosophers lies in the alleged mental detachment of consciousness. But, firstly, when an activated motive cannot be realized even in animals in an unfavorable external environment, then all the corresponding activation of the neural system also turns out to be effective, but it is possible without a noticeable manifestation. And, secondly, in a person, the activation of consciousness causes either a corresponding external manifestation, or a similar activity, but in the mental sphere of representations. The experimenter can determine the increase in the tone of the corresponding motor neurons. Dennett, as opposed to Zombies, comes up with another exhibit – Zimbo. “A Zimbo is a Zombie that, as a result of self-monitoring, has internal (but unconscious) higher-order informational states that are about its other, lowerorder informational states. (It makes no difference for this thought experiment whether a man is considered to be a robot or a human — or Martian — entity.) (1991, p. 310) In fact, Dennett imagines consciousness, essentially as self-consciousness, although historically the process of consciousness formation preceded the stage of self-consciousness. Of course, it is impossible to strictly mark the boundary - 115 - between these stages, but it is necessary to understand the conditions that require these transformations. In this case, it is useful to recall the reason for the myths of primitive peoples. This conditioning of mentality from activation unresolved in the created conditions is quite consistent with the state of metastability in physical transformations and with those phenomena in the nervous system that were revealed during the formation of conditioned reflexes. Therefore, when studying consciousness and self-consciousness, it is necessary to identify the form of activity that caused the emergence of these forms of mentality and the activity or behavior that is a positive result of the new activity. In the section "Consciousness and self-consciousness", the circumstances that led to the formation of these forms of thinking are noted. At the same time, in the new achievements of mentality, it is necessary first of all to highlight the ability of formal thinking, the ascent from the psychical associative generalization to the logical relations of the general, special, singular. Informational communication and formal logical thinking have developed activities aimed this time at the early cognized phenomena. Since the mental events preceding them can be carried out without external physical manifestations, some philosophers distinguish them as existing outside of any influence on physical events - epiphenomenalism. It should always be borne in mind that any physical processes are necessarily accompanied with the activity of motor subsystems, which in some cases are not so significant as to have a physical impact in the external environment, but the so-called tonic effect on the physical state of a thinking individual is always exerted. The philosophers' mistake in determining the qualities of an invented Zombie is most likely explained by an analogy with a robot. They should have borne in mind that the creators of robots introduce a program into it, which organize speech imitation and evaluation of the parameters of the state of this mechanism as much as it can be realized and formalized by the programmer. As a result, the consequence of his consciousness is imitated. - 116 - The Turing text can distinguish a person from a robot, from a Zombie and a Zimbo, if you set the task of cognizing what was not previously known and formalized in the implemented program. Personality assessment. “Where am I?" Again, philosophers get confused and confuse readers when they try to understand a person, completely distracting from the level of social development that conditioned the self-consciousness of modern man and in which he existed and acted during this period. They dig into his inner world regardless of the environment that forced and gave birth to this quality. Naturally, with the help of introspection, difficulties arise when trying to discover a personality. This is indicated, for example, by Hume's reasoning about the search for the Self in selfreflection. “For my part, when I enter most intimately into what I call myself, I always stumble on some particular perception or other, of heat or cold, light or shade, love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never can catch myself at any time without a perception, and never can observe anything but the perception.” (1739, p. 479) Even more useless, perhaps even ridiculous, are the numerous puzzles with the dismemberment of individuals, with the removal of the control organ itself, the brain, or its parts from the main body. One of the favorite techniques is the separation of the hemispheres, their somehow joining the also separated hemispheres of other people, at least twins, and then thinking - which will be the former personality of "I". Behavior and memories, as some philosophers believe, will be identical, and in their view this means a coincidence of personalities. In an integral system, such as a person, multilevel controls not only contain higher sensory –motor integrations, but also dependence on the activity of previous somatic levels. - 117 - If it is possible to replace some relatively autonomous biological organs while maintaining the influence of control organs, then replacements of even the highest parts of the nervous system, not to mention the hemispheres, do not usually occur without disruption of mental activity. Of course, like any natural complex integration, the brain has many compensatory capabilities. But, firstly, they are not unlimited, and secondly, they manifest the function of the previous content when activating other, undisturbed, preserved areas of the brain. You can only make up groundlessly what will happen as a result of the transfer of the hemispheres. Even less justified is the entertaining version of the dismemberment of a person, the separation of the head from the body. At the same time, it is believed that it is possible in some way, with the help of ultramodern means, to maintain the connection of the nervous system of the body with the brain. In this puzzle, the tricky question concerns the location of the personality – where am I if the body is in one place and the head is many kilometers away? It is believed that in a puzzle with a brain separated from the body, moreover, with a split brain, when only the switch of the body's communication transmitter with one or another hemisphere of the brain is active, it is possible to determine which personality will eventually be. Generally speaking, with all such far-fetched actions with the head control body, it should be borne in mind that the formation of special departments or nuclei of the brain somewhat weaken the properties of other neural formations, despite the fact that they all have a common substrate. A special function of the sensory-motor subsystems is highlighted and enhanced, which, under certain conditions, has a specific effect, but can, if a single relationship is violated, show effectiveness in the most unusual way. Therefore, initially it was necessary to be very critical of the conclusions based on such a gross violation of the brain. The authors of the puzzles conclude that it depends on switching whether the personality will be tough, aggressive, unbalanced or always calm, gentle caring and reasonable. The state of the body turns out to be insignificant for them, although there is a lot of evidence that even the content of food, microorganisms in the intestine, and blood composition can affect the change in all the characteristics noted by Dennett. The conclusion that - 118 - the principle of "one organism — one personality" is accidental could be made without puzzles, all living beings have an organism. “According to Gazzaniga's view, the mind is not beautifully unified, but rather a problematically yoked-together bundle of partly autonomous systems.” (1992, p. 111) Such an idea of the mind, which Dennett also adheres to, is extremely one-sided, the brain has both unity, an integral hierarchical structure, but also partially autonomous interrelations of perceptions and representations. Such organizations are natural for all holistic objects, in which the formed structure ensures stability and unity, but endless environmental influences, especially during the formation of final essence, cause diverse private formations. When assessing a person, it is necessary to keep in mind a stable unity, but also the presence of autonomous entities. Talking about personality with a separated brain and body is meaningless; the brain and body are not able to function separately. It is possible to involve in integrity only by lengthening the neck without violations. But the puzzle is designed for our habitual perception of the spatial extent of the whole organism. A similar question: where am I, at the top, where is the head, or at the bottom, where is the body? – hardly is a problem. I am a single holistic organism with a body and a head. But our ability to pay attention and evaluate individual signs of objects and their parts also leads to the ability to separate the body and the head and ask questions like: is my body? The brain of a modern person is such a complex system that with many violations of its activity, various manifestations of mentality may arise. There may be mental abnormalities, reactions to phantom sensations, visions of people who do not exist in this space, perceptions of oneself as being outside the body, perception of oneself from the outside, and many distortions of reality perception, as evidenced by psychiatrists, therapists, surgeons. But this creates a huge field for the entertainment of philosophers who, instead of studying the patterns of development and complication of human functioning, are carried - 119 - away by private manifestations of his mentality, especially in cases of brain disorders. Dennet comes up with six criteria to determine the identity. (1976) The first and most obvious criterion is that persons are rational beings. Like any living being, he is rational in the environment in which his useful behavior was formed, but he is also not rational if his need, motivation, interest cannot be realized under changed circumstances. However, Dennett refers to Kant's ethical theory, which determines the attitude towards other people. But even in this definition, unknown situations may arise when behavior towards similar creatures will not be rational. Intentional systems are due to the level of organization of the being, which is formed through the integration of internal motivations and reflected, perceived, cognized, signs of the environment. Therefore, philosophers have to invent several orders of such systems, although in essence they are diverse and correspond to the activated levels of the hierarchical structure of the organism, including its management body. The second criterion is that persons are beings to which states of consciousness are attributed, or which psychological or mental or Intentional predicates, are ascribed. This criterion actually concretizes the levels of organization of beings, highlighting the physiological, mental and conscious levels, but linking their manifestations with intentionality. Each of these levels could be divided into several levels of its own, formed in the process of complication of organisms, especially their nervous systems. “The third theme is that whether something counts as a person depends in some way on an attitude taken toward it, a stance adopted with respect to it.” (1976) This time, Dennett introduces the attitude factor to other beings. Moreover, he simplifies this path, which is extremely important for a person, in order to give an additional assessment of the Intentional System that is significant in his theory. - 120 - He reflects on its already second order, which in an explicit representation will be associated with words. If, instead of this far-fetched concept, Dennett relied on well-known scientific concepts of an integral system, especially the functioning of such a multi-level system, then a set of 6 criteria would not be needed. Realizing that the first three criteria can also be attributed to beings less developed than man, he expands the applicability of this concept. «There may in every case be other ways of predicting and explaining the behavior of an Intentional system - for instance, mechanistic or physical ways but the Intentional stance may be the handiest or most effective or in any case a successful stance to adopt, which suffices for the object to be an Intentional system.» (1976, p. 180) The concept of the activity of any integral system would be the same for all physical and biological bodies when there is a disadvantage for its neutral state. Such activity always has a certain direction, expediency. It would be necessary to evaluate the form of activity at different levels of structure or organization, bearing in mind its artificiality. Many of the examples of behavior evaluated by Dennett are fully explained by conditioned reflexes of different levels and corresponding motivations. The fourth theme is that the object toward which this personal stance is taken must be capable of reciprocating in some way. This reciprocity has sometimes been rather uninformatively expressed by the slogan: to be a person is to treat others as persons, and with this expression has 'often gone the claim that treating another as a person is treating him morally perhaps obeying the Golden Rule; but this conflates the reciprocity of different species. This moral criterion is contrary, however unpleasant it would be to Dennett to the relationships formed during a certain period of the evolution of mankind, which became the basis for the emergence of self-consciousness and the formation of personality; thus, it contradicts criterion 6. The fifth theme is that persons must be capable of verbal communication. - 121 - Of course, nowadays verbal communication plays a huge role, but it is not decisive for the personality. Words, as a materialized form of knowledge transfer, have gained a different representation in different communities. Ignorance of a given language of a person of another community cannot exclude him as a person. There may be physiological disorders in some people who have made verbal communication impossible. But we also perceive them as individuals. The excessive value of words and narratives leads to the problem of how to combine your own but and external diverse narratives about personality. The idea of some abstract 'center of narrative gravity' does not create any certainty. If it is possible to find the center of gravity for physical bodies, then it is impossible for a person in narratives to do this. By itself, an external or internal attempt to describe a person will introduce a kind of context that depends on both the specific interest and the state of the person at the moment. Under different circumstances and in a different state, a completely different narrative may appear. “The sixth theme is that persons are distinguishable from other entities by being conscious in some special way: there is a way in which we are conscious in which no other species is conscious.” (1976, p. 179) The presence of consciousness in primitive man did not mean that he was singled out as a person. Self-awareness has conditioned this quality. But its occurrence was caused by such serious changes in the internal and external relationships of people in communities that it is this process that should be understood in order to identify the cause and essence of such a phenomenon as a person in a community. It is the change in the relationship between communities and within them that forms the identification and opposition of individual individuals, the assessment of their actions and the corresponding formation of their selfconsciousness as individuals, personalities. In the initial period of existence, the community was an integral system in which a separate element, a member of the community, was in unity with other - 122 - members. He didn't stand out as a person. Everything that affected the values of the life of each member of the community affected the whole of it. And in the same way, the blood feud did not relate to a specific culprit, if he belonged to another community, but to it as a whole. The object of revenge was any member of the group of the real or alleged killer, and not necessarily himself. After all, any tragic incident weakens the group in relation to the outside world, and in this sense, revenge is designed to ‘even the score’ or ‘restore balance'. Moreover, it does not matter whether the bloodshed occurred intentionally or without the fault of the members of this community. To allow revenge, it was enough to punish, kill someone from this community, not necessarily the murderer himself. Murderers are satisfied with killing not any particular person they hate, but in principle any individual from the enemy camp. This information about the Australian Aborigines was characteristic of other peoples. So the Bushmen also had an impersonal revenge, and instead of the killer, any member of his group, including a woman, could be killed. The bloodier outcomes concerned the entire male population, the capture of women and children, followed by the adoption of the latter. There were also some peculiar options. The murderer could settle with the relatives of the murdered man, and then the case was resolved by formal punishment. (Spencer G. ,1927, Warner W. L., 1964, Berndt R.M., Berndt C.H., 1970) The relationship is similar to the state of elements in integral systems, when its unity is violated by the loss of one of the elements of the relationship and when the restoration is ensured by the addition of a similar element. The essence of personality does not exist. It is not true that developed speech, in turn, is a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of self-consciousness. Speech arises and develops in the process of communication already during the activity of communities. But self-consciousness is forced not by communication, but by the opposition of individuals, which occurs due to the complication of the relationship between communities and the subsequent internal stratification of their population. Then inequality is created between people, their confrontation, the highlight of the "I" in relation to the "other". Accordingly, the norms of mutual relations and penalties for non-compliance with them are already being formed - 123 - artificially, on the part of the board. The personality is conditioned by the selfconsciousness of its Self different from others, which is reinforced by the legal assessment of its actions. Internal and external factors determine the essence of personality. The primary allocation of a person from the community is interesting. He was, as a rule, the chief, the leader of the troops. His name meant a special personal quality. Just as over time, in communities and tribes, in the process of communication, special signs of the tools used began to be distinguished, so some distinctive signs of familiar animals were distinguished in the names of totems, or even assigned by the leader. Since initially a person perceived himself in unity with the natural world, the quality of living beings, valuable for a warrior, with whom the tribe usually interacted, was used for the name of the leader. Subsequently, such names were more widely used, but the significance of the name was comparable to the vital qualities of the person himself. That was the beginning of identity determination. «Our tales are spun, but for the most part we don't spin them; they spin us. Our human consciousness, and our narrative selfhood, is their product, not their source." (1991, p. 418) The self-consciousness explains the relationship between internal and external factors that form a multifaceted and, moreover, changeable personality image, which should not be unambiguously defined as a product or as a source of anything. In the process of becoming a person from childhood to adulthood, changes occur in his self-consciousness depending on his own activities, most of all on his knowledge of the world and his attitude towards compatriots, and on the assessment of his significance by society. The diversity of external and internal influences results in equally diverse manifestations of selfconsciousness. It is impossible to give unambiguous personality characteristics from the outside. Therefore, there is a significant variety of its definitions on the part of philosophers and psychologists. Its essence is revealed only as selfconsciousness in contrast to other subjects of the community. Various concepts of personality can be explained in a huge amount of memory of the past, self-assessments of the individual himself and assessments - 124 - from the immediate environment, including government agencies. That is why philosophers, highlighting one or another side of the personality's activity, create many definitions of it. Dennett, William James, Neisser, Strawson describe a variety of personality characteristics. In particular, Gallagher tried to combine many personality assessments by presenting the two most important aspects: the 'minimal' self and the 'narrative' self. “The notion of a minimal self is first clarified by drawing a distinction between the sense of self-agency and the sense of selfownership for actions.” (2000, p. 3) In some way, he distinguishes between both sides of personality: personality as an active being (activity in society), but also as a physiological entity (individual). Free will and responsibility Two essential determinants of personality: personality as an integral being and as an individual opposed to other persons and society as a whole - have given rise to a huge field of philosophers' assessments of his behavior. On the one hand, it is important that an individual's actions are conditioned by internal and external factors, and on the other hand, responsibility towards compatriots and society as a whole. Arguments about determinism and indeterminism of behavioral actions have gained particular importance, and in relation to responsibility - compatibilism and incompatibilism. Compatibilism (compatibility) believes that if determinism determines our actions, they are still free for the individual, although they are subject to moral assessments. Incompatibilism believes that determinism is incompatible with free will and moral responsibility. At the same time, determinism is spread to the whole world, including the mega- and macro-worlds. I prefer to talk only about the macrocosm, which is primarily a perceived environment for us and in which our body is mainly generated. Therefore, this world is best known to us. So, as it was said in the paragraph "Qualitative transformations in physics and chemistry", the development is necessarily due to random influences from - 125 - the outside world on a system of homogeneous elements in a metastable state. This means that the structure of objects depends on fortuity, that the emerging law of relationships is not initially deterministic. The fortuity becomes the necessary. It is also important that the subsequent activity of the resulting holistic system is due to these by fortuity introduced changes in interrelated elements. The effect becomes the cause. Finally, the integral object is complemented by a multitude of inclusions of other elements that create a peculiarity in the manifestations of its activity. Therefore, it is not true that with real determinism, the world has only one possible future. It involves in itself the randomness. Moreover, the whole complex of accidents should be kept in mind when analyzing the behavior of living beings. Dennett describes the determinism of actions in preparation for laying eggs wasp Sphex. The wasp will repeat the sequence of genetically fixed actions, even if they are interrupted by external influences. Indeed, at this level of evolution of the living world, the genetic structure of individuals turns out to be dominant activities essential for reduplication. It is possible to note other actions caused by genes. In particular, flights into the fire which is reflected as light. But actions are also performed that correct the behavior of animals, for example a fly around oncoming obstacles, identify convenient places for food or egg laying and so on. The behavior of bees in their community inside the hive is determined by their inherent forms of activity, including not only the search for fruitful places but also the message about the found useful field. It is much more important to keep in mind the activity of creatures with a complex nervous system, which reflects a greater number of signs of the external environment necessary for existence and reproduction. Accordingly, a large variability of behavior is formed. The development of conditioned reflexes (CR) and a variety of behavioral forms allow highly developed animals to choose the most profitable actions. Sometimes they are carried out according to a kind of deterministic internal structure, but it is also possible the development of a new type of beneficial behavior, sometimes the creation of a new CR. The degree of freedom of their behavior is determined by the measure of reflection of favorable signs of the environment. - 126 - Complicate behavioral skills are initially manifested in the activities of members of primitive communities. Their children in the process of development, during the period of maturity, master the forms of relationships inherent in the community, but also learn the skills of work. To the extent that they perceive the necessary functions, they are free to perform them. At the same time, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the behavior of individuals, especially in primary communities, is not subject to any moral responsibility. In essence, they should be defined not as individuals, but as elements of this integral community. But the subsequent, for us, long stage of human history represents other forms of communities. Tribes, but especially states, were largely artificial organizations with norms and laws validated by the government. An army was formed, but also violent bodies were created to maintain the established order. There was a stratification of society in which different segments of the population had their own private interests, sometimes peculiar norms of behavior, communication, their own morals and so on. The concept of "freedom" became especially attractive during this period of history, when wars also suppressed peoples and subordinated them to the will of the victors. In earlier centuries, when political power had a significant influence on people's behavior, freedom was corrected by obeying the laws introduced. This is how Charles Louis de Montesquieu defines freedom: "Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws permit, and if a citizen could do what they forbid he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his fellow-citizens would have the same power." (1748, p. 112) But he distinguishes between philosophical and political freedom. «Philosophic liberty consists in the free exercise of the will; or at least, if we must speak agreeably to all systems, in an opinion that we have the free exercise of our will. Political liberty consists in security, or, at least, in the opinion that we enjoy security.» (1748, p. 135) It is valuable to consider that the absence of external obstacles to the implementation of desired actions is important for freedom. This factor concerns the level of human cognition. Since his life is conditioned by interaction with the - 127 - outside world, one way or another his desired activity cannot be absolutely independent. Therefore, the generalized concept of freedom is conditioned by the knowledge of the external world. For Spinoza, it is the power of reason that is the way or path leading to freedom. For Hegel, moreover, reality is the formation of an absolute idea, so that freedom as a cognition necessity is realized with the self-knowledge of the spirit. But he also means the difference between the cognized and the known. Nowadays, when information has a huge impact on people's mentality, the distinction between the cognized and the known becomes important for understanding freedom. Modern society cannot be defined as an integral system. It is variegated by many aspects of people's lives. But it was this state that opened up a huge field for all kinds of philosophers' points of view. They either began to perceive freedom as an unconditioned, eternally existing ultimate abstraction in the style of Berdyaev, or, being carried away by the mental sphere of man, ignored its essential basis. Since the future is exactly inaccessible to the mentality, then they determine the basis of freedom through a purely personal intention, simplistically - this is will, desires. And since modern man has consciousness and is able to use language, he can be aware of these desires and even revise them. Thus, many basic phenomena that condition consciousness, language, and desire themselves are ignored. Carried away by the populist idea of freedom, limited by its involvement in will and self-appraisal, a number of philosophers are looking for a solution in the alternatives, define freedom as the ability to choose from several behaviors. But this is exactly what does not correspond to true freedom of action. Only when a person has come to know reality, his actions lead to the realization of his need, desire, will. Otherwise, the unknown forces the search, at best, for a number of alternative options. Therefore, for Dennett, determinism in his understanding excludes free will. The second side of the personality of a modern person is conditioned by associations such as family, inner circle, collective, but also the community in which the individual lives. Therefore, people are responsible for their actions and - 128 - some form of assessment, even punishment for their actions, is created. This aspect of people's lives in modern societies, which are by no means internally interconnected as integral systems, has come to the fore in the theories of Dennett and other philosophers. But if Montesquieu pointed to knowledge of the laws of the state, then in our time, bearing in mind the diverse environment of the individual and forms of morality with sometimes equally diverse norms, the choice of alternatives will not become unambiguous. Modern communication between people from different countries creates even greater difficulties of moral responsibility, since morality often differs in different communities. Again, knowledge of these idiosyncrasies is important; freedom of will depends on knowledge. Not restrained in any way, especially by cognition, the brain of philosophers came up with another variant of conditioned will. How it can be evaluated if a certain neurophysiologist could be influence an individual's brain and thus change his choice, for example, force him to vote for a previously undesirable candidate. But in essence, this is just a completely worthless fantasy. The mass media constantly influence the brains of voters, often distorting their preferences with outright lies. It doesn't matter if it happens at the moment of selection or a little earlier. For a philosopher, it is important that this is information knowledge, which is less important for freedom than cognition. A lot of similar inventions with manipulations of consciousness and subsequent moral responsibility entertain the sages, but relate only to an abstractly perceived kind of free will. The ability to give an account and revise something, besides using language, arose as a result of the need to communicate, transmit or perceive what is cognized or known in a public environment. The subsequent form of this secondary reflection of reality in thought processes does not exclude the imagined interaction with the outside world. This must be borne in mind, no matter how scientists try to isolate themselves from the physical person, studying his seemingly purely subjective manifestations. The basic reasons for their formation were certainly activated factors of objective interactions. - 129 - For the concept of freedom, the assessment of external counteractions has a greater importance. To the extent that the environment of the individual's activity is cognized by him, the fulfillment of the desire will be effective; otherwise the result may even be disastrous for the subject. It is also necessary to analyze what desires are, why they arise, what their changes are. If we turn to the history of the development of living beings, then initially "desires" were conditioned by deprivation, a biological "shortcoming", later by motivation, the unresolved activity of which could well be defined as desire. Subsequent mental installations and later cognitive interests complicated the unresolved state, which could be called desire. Moreover, all the previous levels of mentality in one way or another were certainly activated in a waking person, and under certain circumstances dominant. But it is very important to know how and why there was a complication of these intentions, and hence desires. A child, even at the age when the initial base of speech is formed, but the spatial relations of the top and bottom are not known, carries out the desired movements already developed on the surface of the window and at times falls out, often with tragic consequences. Unfortunately, there are many examples of such situation. For some philosophers, the result is unimportant, the main is desire. But in desires, excluding suicide, there is no death; it is unnatural to all living things. Therefore, the development of desires is due to the knowledge of the world in which we live and interaction with which is necessary for existence. The desires themselves in the movements become different, reasonably limited, as soon as the child comprehends the vertical relations. Abstract understanding of desire, withdraws from its base, from what created it, when we try to present desire, will as a kind of independent quality of personality. Therefore, freedom of will is confined to the state of the subject himself. Some support for this view is provided by extremely widespread information flows in our time. They in their huge mass, as a rule, do not penetrate into the depths of our mentality as this happens with cognition. After acquiring information, some messages may affect a number of higher levels of consciousness and form an appropriate behavioral urge. Therefore, even the - 130 - ideas of death and the afterlife that are opposed to our essence in some, albeit very rare cases, cause corresponding intention and lead to disastrous actions. As for not so critical actions, they manifest themselves today in a huge number of diverse and far from the spheres of cognized actions that create the illusion of free will. It is very important in our time to constantly keep in mind the difference between the known, abundantly presented by the flows of information, and the cognized one which determines our reasonable behavior. Philosophers, despite the fact that they consider the will outside of its objective basis, somehow try to present an assessment of behavior on the part of the individual himself, believing that only in this case a person can be responsible for his actions. So, if you fixate on the subject himself, then his comprehensive self-assessment will have to accept that at the time of the action, bearing in mind the external circumstances and his dominant state, desire, he could only do as he did. No other description, choice of desire can relate to the specific state and circumstance in which this action was performed by this subject. And even more so, speech and language in freedom of choice and self-assessment of responsibility mean nothing. A different description and a different desire could arise in an individual under different circumstances, at a different moment in a different state, which is not easy to understand at another time in other internal and external states. The assessment of actions and responsibility for them is carried out by the society in which the individual lives and depends on. Therefore, a number of scientists linked freedom with actions subject to norms, laws approved in the community. If you know that these laws are artificial, put forward by the authorities, that the deep stratification of society leads to a variety of interests, desires that are not always consistent with the laws, then it is impossible to come up with any single base of assessments and responsibility. One should nevertheless recognize the most capacious and wise formula of freedom: freedom is a cognized necessity. Since it is cognized, and not just known, it is conditioned by the behavior inherent in the subject, consistent with the content of the external world. At the same time, not only natural, but also - 131 - artificial laws embedded in social relationships can be known. When a person encounters unknown natural external forces for him, he is exposed to their undesirable effects, he is not free. His will, activity due to obstructing circumstances should be unrealizable. Having learned new laws, a person thereby complicates his structure and its pattern of actions, introducing into his essence a previously absent side of the external world, at least in an ideal form. Having comprehended it, a person expands his freedom, since he successfully acts in accordance with new cognized law, which also determines a reasonable will. Freedom is relative. It is impossible to gain absolute freedom, because the world is infinite, but also because the development of humanity changes the existing structure, the regularity of relationships in it, but also, on the other hand, as an element of nature itself leads to the conjugate development of its environment. The diversity of variations of free will corresponds to the modern diverse state of humanity. But the trend of evolution over time, so far very distant, will lead to the unity of societies and people. Therefore, it makes sense to evaluate the peculiar ratio of freedom and degrees of freedom. It should be borne in mind that in a holistic system, an element has significantly lower degrees of freedom than in a summed system, due to the many internal relationships that order its state. In such a glorified liberal society, a person really has many degrees of freedom. The rapture concerns the weakened political power over people's behavior. But progress involves a person in interrelationships and again reduces his degrees of freedom. The integration process very soon begins to exert its ordering influence. A liberal society is only a moment in evolution. As soon as a large industry began to be created, the market began to be stabilized, and diverse institutions of certain activities are organized, liberality is removed, this time not because of the violence of the authorities, but because of the expansion of the interdependence of people's behavior. Even today, a person voluntarily seeks to work in organizations with especial responsibilities that limit his degrees of freedom, because in them he finds the freedom of existence and activity that he - 132 - lacks. The opposite gradients of freedom and degrees of freedom in a process of evolution will lead to an increase in freedom, but thereby with diminish of degrees of freedom. One can imagine that in the future unified system of humanity, individuals will have a maximum of freedom, but a minimum of degrees of freedom. Persona and community After a lot of discussions about personality as such, finally, the idea of a collective in which a person exists and without which he is only a biological being is expressed. But in accordance with the typical way of thinking of this circle of philosophers, the concept of personality is given the factor of collective creativity. I.e. personality is also the result of creativity, and not some objective reasons. Dennett also emphasizes the role of external influence: "So a person begins not as a single or multiple personality, but without a government in his head at all. In the case of normal development, he gets acquainted with various options for the design of his own personality, which can work — partly with the help of introspection, partly with the help of external influence" (1998, p. 43) As usual, Dennett does not study the reason for the forced "various options for the design of his own personality", as such, within society. Therefore, you just have to separate the two images. One is determined by the personality itself, the other - "partly by external influence". By this understanding of personality there is a bifurcation of two defining sources. On the part of the individual, the inner content should be formed: "thoughts, feelings, hopes" so that preferences, desires, intentions are fixed for a separate agent. On the part of collective creativity, a unique pattern of these signs should be determined. - 133 - Bearing in mind the hierarchical structure and the form of activation of the mental system, the past organismic structural and lifetime influences on a particular individual determine its uniqueness. With the deterioration of shortterm memory, long-term memory is very often activated when a person remembers many phenomena of childhood life that left a trace in its peculiar formation. But in addition to significant accumulations in his history, there is also the influence of many less significant private events that determine his personality as a whole. It should be borne in mind the significant effect of various influences on his condition and behavior, ultimately creating a variety of the essence of a particular person. In this regard the period of personality formation is interesting. The fact is that as ontogenesis repeats phylogeny, and as the necessary stages of the development of living beings in the historical process are fixed in the structures of highly developed animals, so many periods of human formation in some features in childhood repeat the main stages of the development of ancestors. Of course, an important role in this process is played by the influence of modern forms of relationships established by parents and others, especially school education. But some manifestations of the primary forms of the self, the special Self, unlike others, are observed in childhood. At a certain age, a baby can identify himself with some animals that he has learned about from adult stories, or even with devices, with machines, some signs of which have become desirable. Over time, the influence of the environment, and later special relationships in public organizations, create a more definite opposition of a person to the outside world and self-awareness of his own qualities. Usually, the former children's involvement in various images is erased under the influence of more significant and better realized relationships in society. But the effectiveness of past self-identification can be preserved in a rare accident if it was caused by indelible effects on the child in memory. Therefore, multiple personality syndrome is a real mental phenomenon in which a man can perceive himself as two or more different personalities. The example of the fictional character Mary is quite understandable. Mary, who - 134 - experienced an unforgettable trauma of the psyche in childhood, has retained the effectiveness of identifications with Sally, Haytie, Peggy, which she became in various undesirable states in her past life. At the same time, it should be borne in mind the multilevel activation of the nervous system and the possible change in dominant motivation depending on external and internal factors that form a specific human condition. Several properties attributed to the character cannot in any way encompass that diverse hierarchy of human qualities, without which of their higher levels are impossible. In addition, without taking into account the influence of the outside world, including society itself on a person, the very essence of a person as a person is impossible. Mental content does not arise and cannot manifest itself by itself, it functions every time due to the activation of those initial external and internal states in which it originated. Dennett doubts the reality of Multiple Personality Disorder. “Our answer is that unless and until MPD can be shown to be theoretically possible—that is, to be neither a logical nor a scientific contradiction—any discussion of the evidence is likely to be compromised by a priori disbelief.” (1998, pp. 37-38) But such situation is possible, as well as many mental disorders caused by the unbecoming modern sides of our community. On the other hand, this diversity introduces ambiguity into the collective assessment of the individual. It is also necessary to take into account the diversity of the members of collective creativity themselves. A more stable attitude towards an individual can be shown by the management links of the organization of society, but at the same time only assessing his behavior and role in the overall activity. This complex of external assessments of a particular person somehow has an impact on the mentality of an individual. Philosophers have to invent something. It is desirable for them to have some kind of identical decision about the personality, but they have to think not only about the adverse phenomena of modern society, but also about the general - 135 - problem of the identity of all material objects, the problem of the general and the individual. The task is typical for the knowledge of all things. Science is only doing that, learning the laws of natural objects that differ from each other in some way, revealing a single structure for them. For some philosophers the law determines only the similarity of subjects subordinate to it, their compliance with its formulations. The law in this view is somehow an invented formulation that similar objects and subjects obey. When it comes to the individual, a dilemma arises: the monad or identity of the individual is a pseudo-problem. Dennett and his followers do not deny, even, on the contrary, emphasize almost the basic principle of replication inherent in evolution, which operates even in macromolecules, huge crystals. It should be understood that macromolecules, like other bodies, represent a certain interconnectedness of elements, their integration, thanks to which they can persistently exist in a given environment. The formed structure, the law of interconnection, is precisely due to stability in this environment, capable of replication under certain circumstances. Their identity or the general law of interrelation is contained in the structure, and the specific type, form also depends on the numerous influences of the surrounding world, which can give a variety of the special one with the unity of the common. If there were an absolute difference between all objects without a common structure, then there could be no science. The problem with the definition of personality is that he is an individual who, of course, has many signs of a separate subject. When cognizing, it is necessary to keep in mind the state of the environment that forced the new especial quality. In the ancient community a person was also formed in certain qualities, but he did not act as a person. It was one of the interconnected, co-existing and cooperating members, elements of the community. As a result of communication, consciousness and speech were formed, but these qualities did not distinguish the personality. Moreover, the interpretation, evaluation and correction of one's own states, which some philosophers unreasonably believe is a necessary and sufficient condition for the realization of free will, become a means of self- 136 - assessment and evaluation of the individual in a completely different society, which has not a structure, but an artificial organization. It is in her that a personality stands out, in certain qualities opposed to other individuals and society itself. Since many philosophers dig into brains and try to identify personality in them, they eventually come to the conclusion that the search for personality is an empty occupation, which means that personality is a fictional abstraction. Ignorance of the laws of the development and evolution of mankind leads philosophers into the framework of mentality, so that consciousness and speech for them become the defining qualities of a person. As a result of what causes and circumstances they arose and what their manifestations are along with the basic functions, philosophers simply do not care, it seems, they do not want to know. Throughout his life, especially from childhood to adulthood, a person acquires many qualities of a higher order than the initial qualities developed on the basis of the genome. The subsequent stage of development is due to the influence of the knowledge achieved by this society, but also those norms of the organization that have established themselves in it. Each act of cognition by a person in the learning process forms his highest levels of relationship with the surrounding world. The knowledge is somehow based on the cognition of any aspects of the surrounding world, including the organization of artificial objects created in society, and determines the further activity of the individual, both practical and mental. In the formed complex hierarchy of interrelations, starting from biological structures up to the recognized signs of the external world, it is possible to weaken of some, especially higher, structural levels, as well as the formation of new integrations. When talking about a person, one should keep in mind the possible range of his states, but also the diversity of opinions from other members of society, as well as no less difference in their judgments, but mainly the assessment of the governing bodies of the state, again interested in different ways. There is simply no need to absolutize the beliefs, desires, motive of an individual's behavior and - 137 - other manifestations of his essence that depend on many specific circumstances. The activity of a modern person in society and for the benefit of society determines his basic personality quality in relation to society itself and other compatriots. BIBLIOGRAPHY Berndt R.M., Berndt C.H., 1970, Man, Land and Myth in North Australia. East Lansing. Dennett, D. C., 1976, "Conditions of Personhood," in A. Rorty, (ed.), The Identities of Persons, University of California Press. Dennett, D. C., 1991a, Consciousness Explained, Boston: Little, Brown Dennett D. C., 1992, “The self as a center of narrative gravity” / / Self and consciousness: Multiple perspectives / F. Kessel, P. Cole, D. Johnson (eds.). Hillsdale, NJ. Dennett D. C., 1996a. Darwin’s Dangerous Idea. Evolution and the Meaning of Life. Published in Penguin Books Dennett D. C., 1996b. Kinds Of Minds: Toward An Understanding Of Consciousness. Published by BasicBooks, A Division of HarperCollinsPublishers, Inc. Dennett D. C., 1998, Brainchildren: Essays on designing minds. A Bradford Book. The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts. Gallagher, S. 2000, “Philosophical conceptions of the self: implications for cognitive science”, Article in Trends in Cognitive Sciences • January - 138 - Haken, H., 1978, Synergetics : an introduction : nonequilibrium phase transitions and self-organization in physics, chemistry, and biology. Berlin New York: Springer-Verlag. Hall A.D. and Fagen R.E., 1956, “Definition of System”. General Systems 1 (1956): 18-28. Hegel F., 2017. The Philosophy of History. (From his Lectures on the Philosophy of World History, given at the University of Berlin in 1830.) Our Open Media (2017): 389. Hume D., 1739. Treatise on Human Nature. London: John Noon. Levi-Strauss C., 1966, The savage mind, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Locke J., 1685, Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1982. Montesquieu C., 1748, The Spirit of Laws, Electronic edition, copyright 2003, 2005 Lonang Institute. Popper K. R., 1966, The open society and its enemies, Vol.2, London: Routledge. Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I., 1984. Order out of Chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature. Flamingo. Searle, J. R., 1980, “Minds, Brains, and Programs”, Behavorial and Brain Sciences 3:417- 457 Searle, J. R., 1992, The Rediscovery of the Mind, MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England Spencer V. and Gillen F. J., 1927, The Arunta, v. 2, London; - 139 - Warner W. L., 1964, A Black Civilization, New York. INDEX Berndt R.M., Berndt C.H., 123 Dennett D. C., 5–7, 9, 16, 20, 31–3, 43, 53, 57, 69, 85, 86, 91, 97, 100–2, 106, 108, 111, 114-5, 118–21, 124-5, 128, 133–5, 137-8 Gallagher S., 134 Haken H., 21-3 Hall A.D. and Fagen R.E., 16 Hegel F., 10-1, 36-7, 86, 92, 127 Hume D., 117 Levi-Strauss C., 75 Locke J., 12 Montesquieu C., 127-8 Popper K. R., 62, 87-8 Prigogine, I., 19, 22-3, 26-7 Searle, J. R., 11-4, 85, 102-5, 108, 113 Spencer V. and Gillen F. J., 123 Warner W. L., 123 - 140 - - 141 -