SACRED LANDSCAPE of Buddhist Borobudur--book

SACRED LANDSCAPE Dr Uday Dokras INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE I SACRED LANDSCAPE - BOROBUDUR - COMPLEXITIES of its CONSTRUCTION Check out- http://www.buddhanet.net/bt_conts.htm for 1,000 pics of the STUPA The Borobudur was one of many things or all of them. It was a Vihara for the stay of monks and samaneras. It was an educational monument to teach them It was a Hostel It was an Institute It may have been a University on the lines of Nalanda Like the Byat Ul Hikma it could have been a place for the learned to meet and discuss. Conference place It was an edifice to OUTLINE the glory of the |Buddha A stupa A Candi Whatever it was the construction must have been a complex and intricate process involving many participations and contributions: Architectural Procedural Royal consent Royal scrutiny and approval Discussions on the Project Constructional Raw material procurement Human resources Stores Engineering Quarrying & Mining Procurement of skilled manpower One can only speculate on how things were carried out. Here is that story- There is a dearth of information of the technical sort on the internet.It perhaps exists elsewhere in Indonesia. From whatever is available, one has to create a path to direct this article Buddhist\ Calender Western Major Events World Figures and Events  - 120* 6th Century B.C.E. * • Life of Siddhartha Guatama, the historical Buddha: conventional dates: 566-486 B.C.E. (According to more recent research, revised dates are: 490-410 BCE). • Persian Empire founded by Cyrus the Great (550 B.C.E.) • Confucius (551-479) • Zarathustra (630-553) • Birth of Mahavira (550)  - 20 5th Century • First Buddhist Council at Rajagaha (486) after the Parinirvana*, under the patronage of King Ajatasattu. • The Buddhist Canon as it exist today was settled at this Council and preserved as an oral tradition. • Socrates (469-399) • Plato (427-347) • Battle of Marathon (490) • Greek-Persian Wars (490-479) • Partheon Built (438)  144 4th Century • Second Buddhist Council at Vesali (386) about 100 year after the Parinirvana. • First schism of the Sangha occurs in which the Mahasanghika school parts ways with the Sthaviravadins and the Theravadins. • Non-canonical Buddhist Council at Pataliputra (367) • Aristotle (384-322) • Alexander the Great (356-323) invaded India (327)  244 3rd Century • Reign of Indian Emperor Asoka (272-231) who converts and establishes the Buddha's Dharma on a national level for the first time. • Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra (250) under the patronage of Emperor Asoka about 200 years after the Parinirvana. • The modern Pali Tipitaka now essentially complete. • Asoka's son and missionary Mahinda established Buddhism in Sri Lanka (247) • Great Wall of China (250) • Hadrian's Wall circa 3rd Century AD • Hannibal Barca (247?-183?)  344 2nd Century • Beginnings of Mahayana Buddhism (20O). • Composition of Prajnaparamita literature. • Historical record has it that two Buddhist missionaries from India in 68 AD, arrived at the court of Emperor Ming (58-75) of Han Dynasty. They enjoyed imperial favour and stayed on to translate various Buddhist Texts, one of which, The 'Sutra of Forty-two Sections' continues to be popular even today. • Buddhist monuments: Sanchi, Amaravati, Bodhi Gaya, India. (185-175) • Han Dynasty in China (206-220)   444 1st Century • Entire scriptural canon of Theravada School was committed to writing on palm leaves in Pali at the Aloka Cave, near Matale, Sri Lanka (35-32) • Milinda-pañha or Questions of King Milinda to Venerble Nagasena. • 01BCE Mar 1, Start of the revised Julian calendar in Rome. • Julius Caesar (100-44) • Virgil, Latin poet (70-19)  544 1st Century C.E.* • King Kaniska (78-101) convened the Fourth Buddhist Council at Jalandhar or in Kashmir around 100 C.E. (This is not recognized by the Theravadins). • Buddhism established in Cambodia 100 C.E and in Vietnam 150 C.E. • Composition of Lotus Sutra and other Mahayana Buddhist texts. • Buddhism enters Central Asia and China. • Jesus of Nazareth (0-33 C.E.) • Destruction of Jerusalem and the second Temple: (70 C.E.) • The Buddha first represented in art as human form.  644 2nd Century • The Age of Indian Buddhist philosopher Nargarjuna (150) founder of the school of Madhyamika ('the Middle Way'). • Roman Empire reaches the height of its power. • In 185 C.E, Shunga a Brahman general became the ruler and the Shunga dynasty ruled for 112 years in India.  744 3rd Century • Expansion of Buddhism to Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, and Indonesia. The Yogacara (meditation) school was founded by Maitreyanatha (3rd century). • Buddhist influence in Persia spreads through trade. • Three Kingdoms dynasty (220–265) Division into three states: Wei, Shu, Wu. Many scientific advances adopted from India. • The Emperor Constantine converts to Christianity (312)  844 4th Century • Asanga (310-390) and his brother Vasubandhu (420-500) prominent teachers of the Yogacara school of Buddhism. • Development of Vajrayana Buddhism in India. • Translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese by Kumarajiva (344-413) and Hui-yüan (334-416). • Buddhism enters Korea (372). • Gupta dynasty exemplified by Chandra Gupta II (375-415) dominated North Central India. • Saint Augustine (354-430)    944 5th Century • Buddhist monastic university founded at Nalanda, India. • Buddhaghosa composes the Visuddhimagga and major commentaries in Sri Lanka. • Buddhism established in Burma and Korea. • Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien visits India (399-414). • Amitabha (Amida) Pure Land sect emerges in China. • Sri lankan Theravadin nuns introduce full ordination lineage into China (433). • Mahayana Buddhism was introduced into Java, Sumatra, Borneo, mainly by Indian immigrants. • 5th Century Anglo-Saxon Invasion of England • Earliest hospital in Sri Lanka (437) • Fall of the Western Roman Empire (476)  1044 6th Century • Bodhidharma founder of Ch'an (Zen) arrives in China from India. (526) • Sui Dynasty in Chinese History (589-617) beginning of Golden Age of Chinese Buddhism. • Development of T'ien-tai, Hua-yen, Pure Land, and Ch'an schools of Chinese Buddhism. • Buddhism enters Japan (538) becomes state religion (594). • Buddhism flourishing in Indonesia. • Jataka Tales translated into Persian by King Khusru (531-579). • Prophet Mohammed (570-632) • The Age of Islamic Expansion (630-725) • First pagoda built in China (600)  1144 7th Century • Construction of Potala Palace, Jokang and Ramoche temples to house Buddha images (641-650) • Harsa-vardhana ruler of a large empire in northern India from 606 to 647. He was a Buddhist convert in a Hindu era. • Chinese pilgrim Hsuan-Tsang (602-664) visits India. • Islam sweeps across North Africa (700-800) • Tang dynasty, China (618-906)  1244 8th Century • Academic schools (Jöjitsu, Kusha, Sanron, Hossö, Ritsu, and Kegon) proliferate in Japan. • Great debate between Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist schools. • Ch'an declared heretical in Tibet. • Nyingma School of Tibet Buddhism established. • Borobudur Temple complex built in Java. • Jataka Tales translated into Syrian and Arabic under title: Kalilag and Damnag. • Nara Period in Japanese history (710-784) • First monastery built in Tibet (Sam-ye) (749) • Moslem invasion of Central Asia (760) • Charlemagne (742-814)  1344 9th Century • Khmer kings build Angkor Wat, the world's largest religious monument. • Tendai School (founded by Saichö (767-822) and Shingon School (founded by Kukai: (774-835) appear in Japan. • Great Buddhist persecution in China (845) • Biography of Buddha translated into Greek by Saint John of Damascus and distributed in Christianity as "Balaam" and "Josaphat". • Heian Period in Japanese history (794-1185) • First printed book, Diamond Sutra, China (868)  1444 10th Century • First complete printing of Chinese Buddhist Canon (983), known as the Szechuan edition. • Buddhism in Thailand (900-1000) • Islam replaces Buddhism in Central Asia (900-1000). • Sung Dynasty in Chinese History (960-1279) • 1000 C.E The population at this time was about 200 million people in the world.  1544 11th Century • Conversion of King Anawrahta of Pagan (Burma) (1044-1077) by Shin Arahan. • Atisha (982-1054) arrives in Tibet from India (1042). • Marpa (1012-1097) begins Kargyu School of Tibetan Buddhism. • Milarepa (1040-1123) becomes greatest poet and most popular saint in Tibetan Buddhism. •The bhikkhu and bhikkhuni (monk and nun) communities at Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka, die out following invasions from South India. • Sakya School of Tibetan Buddhism established. • Revival of Theravada Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Burma. • Decline of Buddhism in India. • 1000-1100 There was a Confucian revival in China. • Edward the Confessor, English king (1042-1066) • Great Schism between Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches (1054) • 1st Crusades (1096-1099)  1644 12th Century • Theravada Buddhism established in Burma. • Hönen (1133-1212) founded the Pure Land School of Japanese Buddhism. • Eisai (1141-1215) founds the Rinzai Zen School of Japanese Buddhism. • In 1193 the Moslems attacked and conquered Magadha, the heartland of Buddhism in India, and with the destruction of the Buddhist Monasteries and Universities (Valabhi and Nalanda) - in that area Buddhism was wiped out. • Buddhism in Korea flourishes under the Koryo dynasty (1140-1390). • Omar Khayyam, Persian poet and mathematician (1044-1123) • 1119 Bologna University founded in Italy; Paris University, in France, is founded in 1150. • Kamakura Period in Japanese history (1192-1338)  1744 13th Century • Shinran (1173-1263 ) founds True Pure Land School of Japanese Buddhism. • Dogen (1200-1253) founds Soto Zen School of Japanese Buddhism. • Nichiren (1222-1282) founds school of Japanese Buddhism named after him. • Mongols converted to Vajrayana Buddhism. • Theravada Buddhism spreads to Laos. • Some Buddhist texts still being translated into Arabic, in Persia. • Francis of Assisi (1181-1226) • Magna Carta (1215) • Genghis Khan invades China (1215) • Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) • Mongol conquest of China complete (1279)  1844 14th Century • Bu-ston collects and edits Tibetan Buddhist Canon. • Rulers of the north (Chieng-mai) and northeast (Sukhothai) Thailand adopt Theravada Buddhism (becomes state religion in 1360). • Theravada Buddhism adopted in Cambodia and Laos. • Tsong-kha-pa (1357-1419) Tibetan Buddhist reformer and founder of Dge-lugs-pa (or Gelugpa, or 'Yellow Hat') order. • John Wycliffe (1328-1384) English theologian and biblical translator. • China regains its independence from the Mongols under the Ming dynasty (1368)  1944 15th Century • Beginning of Dalai Lama lineage in Tibetan Buddhism. • In Cambodia, the Vishnuite temple, Angkor Wat, founded in the 12th century, becomes a Buddhist centre. • Development of printing in Europe • Leonardo DaVinci (1452-1519) • Columbus "finds" the new world (1492)  2044 16th Century • Tibet's Gelugpa leader receives the title of "Dalai" from Altan Khan (1578). • "Great Fifth" Dalai Lama meets Qing Emperor Shunzhi near Beijing. • Martin Luther (1483-1546) • Protestant Reformation • Shakespeare, (1564-1616) • Galileo (1564-1642)  2144 17th Century • Control of Japanese Buddhism by Tokugawa Shögunate (the ruling feudal government) (I603-1867) • Hakuin (1686-1769) monk, writer and artist who helped revive the Rinzai Zen Sect in Japanese Buddhism. • Japan closes the door to foreigners (1639) • Pilgrims reach America (1620) • Galileo recants (1633) • English Civil War (1642)  2244 18th Century • Colonial occupation of Sri Lanka, Burma, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam. • King Kirti Sri Rajasinha obtains bhikkhus from the Thai court to reinstate the bhikkhu ordination line which has died out in Sri Lanka. • 1700s Age of Enlightenment introduces revolutionary new ideas to Europe. • American independence (1776) • French revolution (1789-1802)  2344 19th Century • New sects begin to emerge in Japanese Buddhism. • Sri Lankan forest monks go to Burma for reordination (1862). • First Western translation of the Dhammapada. (German-1862). • German translation of Lotus Sutra, 1852 and pioneer Buddhist scholars: - Neumann and Odlenburg, first German monk, Nyanatiloka. • First Chinese Temple in USA (San Francisco) (1853) • 5th Buddhist Council in Mandalay, Burma (1868-1871) where the text of the Pali Canon was revised and inscribed on 729 marble slabs. • Meiji Restoration in Japanese history 1868, marking end of military rule. • 1833 Abolition of slavery in British empire. • American Civil War (1861-1865)  2444-2544 20th Century • Buddhist Society of Great Britain, founded (1907). • Buddhist Mission Society in Germany, founded (1903). • Taishö Shinshü Daizokyö edition of Chinese Buddhist Canon printed in Tokyo (1924-1929). • Chinese control of Tibetan Buddhism (1950). • Founding of World Fellowship of Buddhists (1952). • Buddha Jayanti Year, commemorating 2,500 years of Buddhism (1956). • 6th Buddhist Council held at Rangoon, Myanmar (Burma) (1954-1956). • Dalai Lama fleesTibet to India (1959). • Tibetan Buddhism spreads to western countries. • First Theravada Monastery established in USA (1966). • First Tibetan (Sakya) Centre founded in USA (1971). • Tibetan texts collected, translated and disseminated by Buddhist publishers 1960's. • H.H. Dalai Lama receives Nobel Peace Prize (1989). • Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) • WW I (1914-1918) • Russian revolution (1917-1922) • 1919 Ernest Rutherford splits atom for first time. • WW II (1939-1945) • Cultural Revolution (China) (1966) • Pope John Paul II pardons Galileo (1995) • The Fall of the Berlin Wall, the Cold War ends. (1989)   * The Buddhist calendar starts (year 1) from the Buddha's Parinirvana (death and final release) which occured in his eightieth year. * B.C.E. = Before Common Era (Equivalent to B.C.) * C.E. = Common Era (Equivalent to A.D.) I N T R O D U C T I O N The world-famous Javanese temple of Borobudur is located at the westernmost end of a straight line which includes two “satellite” temples, Mendut and Pawon. Originally, the three buildings were probably connected by a processional path running along this line. It is shown here that the alignment points, at the horizon, where the sun sets in the days of the zenith passages. This orientation is likely intentional and related to a ritual procession which connected the three temples, mimicking the path of the sun in the sky These three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by. In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon. Although this interpretation is well known, it has never been referred explicitly to the specific days of the zenith passages, a connection which instead looks natural: if the “solar path” ritual had to be referenced into in the architecture of the temples, and if the zenith culmination of the sun was, as it seems, a fundamental ingredient of the ritual, then we would expect the procession to go in the direction from sunrise to sunset, and the processional path to be oriented in such a way as to indicate the zenith sunset, as it actually occurs. Finding comparison belonging to the same cultural context would also be of help, but one the problems is that Borobodur architectural conception is almost unique. Besides the already mentioned Bayon, as far as the present author is aware the unique, vaguely reasonable comparison is the so-called 108 stupas monument, located on a hillside directly on the western bank of the Yellow River at Qingtongxia, Ningxia, China. The monument is slightly later than Borobodur, as it was constructed during the Western Xia dynasty (1038–1227 AD), as part of a greater Buddhist temple complex. It is composed by 108 stupas of sun-dried mud bricks, arranged in rows disposed in a triangular formation which narrows with height, from 19 stupas on the first row to the uppermost single one. A front view of this monument is actually quite reminiscent of one side of Borobodur. As far as the present author is aware, the orientation of the 108 stupas monument has never been studied. The azimuth is 120° which, with an horizon height close to zero, gives a impressive declination -24° that is, very close to the winter solstice sunrise. The monument is therefore, with hardly any doubt, astronomically oriented although not to the same solar phenomenon of the Borobodur axis; of course however, at the latitude of Ningxia about 37° north, zenith passages do not occur. Thus presumably the said triad owes its existence as a sacred unity thanks to the circumstance that in the process of its enlargement and embellishment Barabudur — originally a modest stupa sanctuary on the mount [= hillock] — gradually was given the character of a dynastic temple. For the sake of a grand ritual to secure dynastic continuity — a magical ritual that would have included Mendut’s pre-eminently favorable location — the need would have been felt for adding a third temple to the pair. This temple, Pawon, was, according to Van Erp, both “in ground plan and profiling a reduced copy in many respects” of Mendut. The new temple was also situated close to the confluence of two large rivers (the Elo and Progo), a locality that is considered sacred in classical (also in the Central Javanese) literature since “the sacred nature of each river is doubled by means of contact with the other.” This famous Buddhist temple, dating from the 8th and 9th centuries, is located in central Java. It was built in three tiers: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 m2. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. Interesting facts about Borobudur Borobudur is a magnificent Buddhist temple located near Magelang in Java, Indonesia. Borobudur is a Buddhist stupa in the Mahayana tradition and it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. It is one of the world’s most complex buildings. There is no written record of who built Borobudur or of its intended purpose. The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple’s hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 750 AD. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825 AD. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m2. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa. The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the Universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu, and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. This extraordinary structure is built as a single large stupa. An aerial view of Borobudur shows the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala. Borobudur is a unique temple located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes and two rivers. Enormous amount of stones, approximately 55,000 cubic meters, used in the construction of Borobudur were taken from neighboring rivers. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Most temples were built on a flat surface while Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill located 265 m above sea level and 15 m above the floor of a dried-out paleolake. It was built during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty. It was only in 1814 that Borobudur started to gained worldwide attention and fame through the efforts of Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles when Java was under British rule. The first photograph and the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur were published in 1873. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Borobodor, Indonesia’s single most visited tourist attraction is visited by 2.5 million visitors annually. Sacred Landscape Sacred landscapes in Asia have generally been studied in terms of the architecture and imagery of the monuments or with regard to chronology and patronage and more recently within debates of generation of colonial knowledge. Colonial rule after  centuries in South and Southeast Asia, not only altered the nature of linkages that had existed across Asia from at least the middle of thef irst millennium BC onwards, but more significantly redefined our understanding of monuments such as Borobudur which were considered as essentially religious structures have traversed to objects of artistic and aesthetic appreciation. This had far-reaching implications for their study and understanding of the nature of Indic religions. Paul Mus (1902–1969) was a French writer and scholar. His studies focused on Viet Nam and other South-East Asian cultures. He was born in Bourges to an academic family, and grew up in northern Viet Nam (Tonkin). In 1907 his father opened the College de Protectorate in Hanoi and he would graduate from the college some 12 years later. His work Barabuḍur: sketch of a history of Buddhism based on archaeological criticism of the texts represents a profound and far-reaching analysis of the ideas, religious aspirations and building techniques which contributed to the creation of one of the largest Buddhist edifices in the world. Published at Hanoi in french in 1935, it is a survey of the Buddhist religious and philosophical concepts in the background of earlier religious and metaphysical traditon in India, as revealed in the Vedic and Upanishads texts.In his study of Borobudur published in 1935, Paul Mus emphasised the role of architecture as a material representation of religious doctrines of Buddhism. Borobudur temple holds a mystery that raises questions for the people who see through. Researchers, archaeologists, to visitors brought deeper into the mystery and the various questions contained in it when climbing this monument. One simple question that has not been answered until now is: whether the name Borobudur is the real name or not. It seems that the name Borobudur is indeed the real name, but this statement has no solid evidence that can be used to support it. Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist cosmology. In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden footing" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hill. There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration. Building structure Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. The roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways were constructed in corbelling method. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed. The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater to the area's high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara. Hilly Construction: Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument's design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple. The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur's design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia.The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top. The base is 123 m × 123 m (404 ft × 404 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls.] The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala's head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain. This is a basic description of the temple. The Stugas and the reliefs on the walls are subject matter of successive papers. Much effort has been made to investigate this question, but no single interpretation has been proven. So far, the way to find out the real name of Borobudur is to look at the two parts that make up his name, Boro and Budur. This theory was initiated by Poerbatjaraka. He revealed that “boro” can be interpreted as a monastery, which today can be regarded as a vihara. While “budur” itself is the name of a place. Thus, Borobudur can be interpreted as “Vihara in Budur”. A bit of a relic from a monastery was discovered in 1952 when excavations were made in the western courtyard of Borobudur. Found an ancient manuscript named Nagarakrtagama from 1365 which contains the name Budur in it. In the manuscript, budur is a sacred place of.Mahayana.Buddhism. Dutch orientalist and indologist Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis (31 May 1916, – 19 June 2002) succeeded in describing the obsolete portion of the stone charter found in 842 in his seminal book Prasasti Indonesia II: Selected Inscriptions from the 7th to the 9th century A.D., (1956) as readings as “bhumisambharabhudura”, meaning “The Mountain of Virtue from the Ten Phases of Bodhisattva”. The word “Bharabhudura” was taken and converted into Borobudur. The changes used are simplifications that occur due to the pronunciation of the lisa language. On the other hand, the first part of the word sounds similar to “Bumisegoro”, which is the name of the village south of Borobudur. It is interesting to note that before the word is found, there is another word found, that is “kamulan”. This word means “The Holy Place of the Patriarch”. Therefore, it is clearly seen the connection of Borobudur and the temple for ancestor worship. Another simple but difficult question to answer is: how long Borobudur temple is actively used? When did it stop functioning as a monument to glorify the ruling dynasty, or as a Buddhist pilgrimage center? The general assumption is that this temple began not to be used when people converted to Islam in the fifteenth century. Borobudur Temple may have been abandoned when the center of political and cultural activities moved to East Java in the 10th century. It is also spelled Barabuḍur or Baraboedoer and combines the 3 symbolic forms of 1. the stupa (a Buddhist commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), 2. the temple mountain (based on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and 3. the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). The style of Borobudur was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art. The monument was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991. Enigmatic Construction Borobudur was constructed between about 778 and 850 CE, under the Shailendra dynasty. : A painting by G.B. Hooijer (c. 1916—1919) reconstructing the scene of Borobudur during its heyday Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE. But there is no written record of who built it or of its intended purpose.  The construction time has been estimated by comparison between carved reliefs on the temple’s hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th centuries.   This corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 CE, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java, when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. The construction has been estimated to have taken 75 years and been completed during the reign of Samaratungga in 825. There is confusion between Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at Sojomerto suggest they may have been Hindus. It was during this time that many Hindu and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same time as the Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 CE, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur. Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because Sanjaya’s immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE. This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. However, it is likely that there were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka plateau. This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan complex, which was believed to have been erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya dynasty’s reply to Borobudur, but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang. Discovery: It was buried under volcanic ash from about 1000 and overgrown with vegetation until discovered by the English lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford Raffles in 1814. A team of Dutch archaeologists restored the site in 1907–11. A second restoration was completed by 1983. Borobudur, Indonesia© Ramon Abasolo/Fotolia Built with about 2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of gray volcanic stone, Borobudur encloses a small hill and is shaped like a stepped pyramid with three major levels—a square base, a middle level of five square terraces, and an upper level of three circular terraces—totaling, in effect, nine lesser sections (the number nine is mystic in Buddhism). The centre, 115 feet (35 metres) above the base, consists of a large individual stupa. © simon gurney/Fotolia Stupas at Borobudur Each of the monument’s three main levels represents a stage on the way to the bodhisattva ideal of enlightenment; symbolizing this spiritual journey, a pilgrim begins at the eastern stairway and walks clockwise around each of the monument’s nine levels before reaching the top, a distance of more than 3 miles (5 km). At the lowest level, which is partially hidden, are hundreds of reliefs of earthly desires, illustrating kama-dhatu (“the realm of feeling”), the lowest sphere of the  Mahayana Buddhist universe. On the next level, a series of reliefs depict rupa-dhatu (the middle sphere and “the realm of form”) through events in the life of the Gautama Buddha and scenes from the Jatakas (stories of his previous lives). The upper level illustrates arupa-dhatu,  realm of formlessness,” or detachment from the physical world; there is little decoration, but lining the terraces are 72 bell-shaped stupas, many still containing a statue of the Buddha, partly visible through the perforated stonework. During the Waicak ceremony, which occurs once a year during a full moon, thousands of saffron-robed Buddhist monks walk in solemn procession to Borobudur to commemorate the Buddha’s birth, death, and enlightenment. Borobudur- STUPA BIG BUDDHA- as a complete exposition of doctrine Scholars disagree about the nature of Candi Borobudur, for instance, whether it is a symbolic mountain of the Sailendra kingdom, a stupa or a mandala. At its simplest, a stupa is a dirt burial mound faced with stone. In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the Buddha's ashes, and as a result, the stupa began to be associated with the body of the Buddha. Adding the Buddha's ashes to the mound of dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha himself. Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The original foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. Kesariya Stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar, India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE. A stupa, Buddhist commemorative monument usually housing sacred relics associated with the Buddha or other saintly persons. The hemispherical form of the stupa appears to have derived from pre-Buddhist burial mounds in India. Many stupas are Pooja Pradakshina on all levels? What does that mean and how to explain to non- hindus? Puja is paying obeisance to God and pradakshina is circumambulation of the Godly image. Puja involves a ritual= whether in Buddhism or Hinduism. Lighting Candles, Ringing bells, turning prayer wheelsall are rituals. One such ritual kis circumambulation. In Borobudur as well as many other Stupas some discussed below this ritual is and that Stupa are presented.One pays ones respect by circumambulation to the stupa. Kesariya Stupa  seen in the above picture, is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar, India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE. Kesariya Stupa has a circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet (32 m). The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The purpose of stupas were mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of the stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic chambers. SIMILARITIES WITH BOROBUDUR It has been noted that the Kesariya stupa shares many architectural similarities with the Buddhist temple located in Indonesia, Borobodur which points to a historical connections between east India and South East Asia. Both monuments share a circular mandala form with terraces containing figures of Buddha in the niches. Like Borobodur, Kesariya is also built atop of a hill. The excavated chambers at Kesariya show a combination of statues in bhumisparsha (of Akshobya) and dhyanimudra (of Amitabha) on the same side, whereas Borobudur houses four Jina Buddhas, displaying their respective mudras on the four sides of the monument. In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and Budur for Buddha. The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history. Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court, in 1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should have been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain").  Vihara Buddha Uhr: Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill. As far as I understand, Vihara Buddha means the Abode of Buddha and not the city… Inscriptions: The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to Borobudur was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra: Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur.That is however incorrect, even a schoolchild in India will tell you that Bhumi means land.See the pujsa bhoomipoojan or the actress of Bollywood- Bhumi Pednekar. Apart from being called a most impressive monument, Borobudur is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains at Angkor, and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world. Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above. Borobudur: Buddha sculpture and stupas The Thai & Myanmar Stupas-There are three basic forms of the Thai Stupa; each will be explored in turn. These forms — as well as those of India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar’s Bagan (Burma) — are laid out in Fig. below Note that andas are highlighted in green, harmikas in red, chattras in purple, and bases or terraces in black. We will continue to refer to back to this three style framework as we review the stupas in specific temples in sections that follow. . Thai stupa predecessors and types. The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. Maynmar influenced?-For about 250 years, from c. 1044 to 1284 CE, Pagan or Bagan, was the capital of a kingdom covering most of what is modern-day Myanmar (Burma). During this period, more than 2,500 Buddhist monuments—stupas, temples, and monasteries—were built in and around the city alone; further religious edifices were erected in the provincial centers of the kingdom, such as Pakkoku, Sale, Salin, and Myinmu. The people of Pagan were in close contact with other Buddhist communities of South and Southeast Asia, most notably Sri Lankans, Northeast Indians, and the Khmers, and perhaps with the Tibetans and Chinese as well. Between these regions and communities, there was a regular flow of royal ambassadors, Buddhist monks, artists, pilgrims, and other travelers, who exchanged letters and Buddhist scriptures, skills, and ideas. Given this position as a nodal point in a wider Buddhist network, the Buddhism of Pagan was cosmopolitan in nature, embracing influences from various sources and different traditions. Particularly in the late 12th and the early 13th centuries, when increased contact with external Buddhist communities coincided with the maturation of internal developments, Pagan became the crucible in which the major features of Burmese Theravada were mixed. Borobudur represents the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth, which the visitor will search and get as he climbs up the terraces. This transformation occurs while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The indefinable ultimate spiritual state is at the topmost terrace, where an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view, symbolized thsat crystallization of fruition. Borobudur - Buddhist Stupa in the Indian sense There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other levels. What is the difference between stupa and pagoda? While there is not a clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda, a stupa tends to be a structure that usually can not be entered, while a pagoda is often referred to as a building that can be entered. It is easy to get confused because a pagoda is generally a temple, but the design of a pagoda evolved from stupas. In the Borobudur, around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology Religious Aspects of Borobudur Unlike most temples, Borobudur did not have actual spaces for worship. Instead it has an extensive system of corridors and stairways, which are thought to have been a place for Buddhist ceremonies. Borobodur also has six square courtyards, three circular ones, and a main courtyard within a stupa at the temple’s peak. The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant twirling staircase, a style of architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. Borobudur is a three-dimensional model of the Mahayana Buddhist universe. The climb to the top of the temple is intended to illustrate the path an individual must take to reach enlightenment. At the main entrance on the east side, visitors can not even see the top. Scholars believed this was intensional. At the top was the ideal of Buddhist perfection, the World of Formlessness. The architecture and stonework of this temple has no equal. And it was built without using any kind of cement or mortar! Borobudur resembles a giant stupa, but seen from above it forms a mandala. The great stupa at the top of the temple sits 40 meters above the ground. This main dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside perforated stupa. Five closed square galleries, three open circular inner terraces, and a concentric scheme express the universe geometrically. At the center of the top of the temple is a beautifully shaped stupa which is surrounded by three circles of smaller stupas that have the same shape. There are 72 of these, each with a Buddha statue inside. Touching them is supposed to bring good luck. Unfortunately many had their heads lopped off by 19th century explorers looking for souvenirs. The 72 small latticed stupas look like perforated stone bells. The temple is decorated with stone carvings in bas-relief representing images from the life of Buddha— the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. Borobudur is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The ten levels of the temple symbolize the three divisions of the religion’s cosmic system. As visitors begin their journey at the base of the temple, they make their way to the top of the monument through the three levels of Budhist cosmology, Kamadhatu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). As visitors walk to the top the monument guides the pilgrims past 1,460 narrative relief panels on the wall and the balustrades. Borobudur, northwest view Overview of Borobudur Borobudur (or Barabudur - the origin and meaning of the name are unknown) is a squat pyramid-shaped stupa 40km to the north west of Yogyakarta, in a volcanic region on the Indonesian island of Java. Erected in the late 8th or early 9th century, presumably by the kings of central Java, this Buddhist monument was probably abandoned within not much more than a century after construction when the power-base moved to east Java. There is no foundation inscription, no way of dating beyond the palaeography of the workers' inscripitions, and no later mention of the sanctuary until 1709 AD. The quality and importance of Borobudur are world-class, for the sheer abundance and beauty of its figured reliefs, decorated panels and sculptures. In Europe, no such sculptural complexes had been seen since well before the fall of the Roman Empire; and none would be seen until more than 100 years after its abandonment. In the region, it ranks with a much larger complexes at Pagan (Burma) and Angkor (Cambodia). The stupa is some 31.5m high, and almost square with a side of 123m. From a broad podium, the visitor progresses through four relief-covered galleries to a circular terrace, adorned with 72 bell-shaped perforated stupas, each containing a seated Boddhisatva, surrounding a central stupa, once much taller than it is now, which may once have held a relic of the Buddha. Because the structure was built out of a mid- to dark-grey volcanic stone, the tropical climate, with an average rainfall of over 2m per annum, has ensured that the structure has been invaded by mosses and lichens. Originally, it was probably plastered white, and painted in bright colours. There must have been a substantial monastery for the monks who looked after the structure and the pilgrims, but nothing adequate has yet been discovered. The point of the pilgrimage was that the stupa (its shape perhaps intended as a replica of the universe) allowed the pilgrim to mimic a journey from base life through to enlightenment - from this temporal world to the attainment of enlightenment, symbolised by the Bodhisattvas on the circular terrace. (There are parallels here with the mazes found in mediaeval Christian buildings.) The shape of the stupa - like a badly-risen cake, says one scholar - results from a mix of climate and ambition. The first building campaign began with a basement covered in 160 relief panels but, when the substantial weight of the first terrace was added, the land slipped, no doubt because the core of the structure (part natural hill, part infill) soaked up water like a sponge. A decision was taken to abandon the basement by girdling it with a terrace - a corset to ensure against future landslips. Hence we might assume that the profile originally intended was taller and sharper than what we see today. As we see it today, Borobudur is the result of three major restoration schemes. After its description by by the Engineer officer H. C. Cornelius on the commission Sir Stamford Raffles, the English Governor, in 1814, the trees and bushes on the site were felled, and stones dislodged by water and earth movement rolled down to the base (with some damage) to await re-positioning. The resident of Kedu, C. L. Hartmann, did further clearance work in 1834 and 1835. Nevertheless, degradation continued; making casts of all the reliefs was contemplated, and in 1882 it was even proposed that the reliefs be dismounted and displayed in a purpose-built museum. The fact of the filled-in basement was discovered by J. W. Ijzerman in 1885, and this helped provoke the second great restoration which resulted in the monumental monograph by N. J. Krom & Th. Van Erp of 1919, which published photographs of all the sculptures and reliefs, including the hidden base. It is from this monograph that the digital images which adorn our VRML presentation of the stupa were made. Nor was Van Erp's careful and restrained restoration the final one: the volcanoes and the climate saw to that. IFollowing a request of 1967, UNESCO undertook the dismantling, stabilisation and restoration of the monument once more. needs more to finish. Facts & Figures The figures for Borobudur are stupendous: - Stone embankment covering the basement: 11,600 cubic metres; - 1,460 narrative panels covering 1,900 square metres; - 1,212 decorative panels covering 600 square metres; - 100 monumental gargoyles to carry away the rainwater; - 432 Buddha images displayed from the galleries; - 72 Buddhas displayed in stupas on the great terrace) - 1,472 stupa-shaped ornaments; Narrative reliefs: 1,460 Decorative reliefs: 1,212 Gargoyles: 100 Buddha Statues in niches: 432 Buddha statues on the terraces under circular stupas: 72 Decorated doorways: 24 Basement hidden with circa 13,000 cubic metres of stone Total volume of stone used: circa 55,000 cubic metres Total carved stone blocks used: circa 1,000,000 Total length of galleries: circa 2500 metres Total length of hidden basement: circa 400 metres Total area of figurative reliefs: circa 1,900 square metres Total area of decorative reliefs; circa 600 square metres Time to build Borobudur: perhaps 30 years When was it built: probably later 8th century AD Usage period: less than 200 years (Kingdom moved to E Java) Reliefs, their Location and their Subjects Series Location Reliefs Texts Hidden Basement 160 text? Gallery 1, upper rank 120 Life of Buddha Gallery 1, lower rank 125 Buddhist Birth Stories Gallery 1 B, upper rank 372 Jatakas & Avadanas Gallery 1 B, lower rank 125 Jatakas & Avadanas Gallery 2 128 Gandavyuha Gallery 2 B 100 Jatakas & Avadanas Gallery 3 88 Gandavyuha Gallery 3 B 88 Gandavyuha Gallery 4 72 Bhadracari Gallery 4 B 84 Gandavyuha   Educational Purpose derived from the History of Borobudur Borobudur was built by the Sailendra Dynasty kings in the 8th and 9th centuries, around that time that Charlemagne ruled Europe. When it was completed an epic poet from Ceylon wrote: "Thus are the Buddha incomprehensible, and incomprehensible is the nature of the Buddhas, and incomprehensible is the reward of those who have faith in the incomprehensible." According to UNESCO: Founded by a king of the Saliendra dynasty, Borobudur was built to honour the glory of both the Buddha and its founder, a true king Bodhisattva. This colossal temple was built between AD 750 and 842: 300 years before Cambodia's Angkor Wat, 400 years before work had begun on the great European cathedrals. Little is known about its early history except that a huge army of workers worked in the tropical heat to shift and carve the 60,000 square meters of stone. Why it was built remains a mystery. There are no written records on the subject. No ancient cities have been found nearby. There is no clear sanctuary as a place of worship and no room to store icons. Many historians and archeologists believe that Borobudur is not a temple but rather a kind of advertisement for Buddhism. According to an expert on the subject, John Mikic, Borobudur was built to “to engage the mind” and to “give a visual aid for teaching a gentle philosophy of life.” Borobodur was an active religious center until the 10th century when it was abandoned for reasons that are not clear. At the beginning of the 11th century AD, because of the political situation in Central Java, divine monuments in that area, including the Borobudur Temple became completely neglected and given over to decay. In 1006 volcano Merapi erupted violently in conjunction with a violent earthquake that left the landscape covered in ash, landslides and volcanic mud and force much of the population in the Borobodur area to flee to eastern Java. But this is not believed to be the reason it was abandoned. For the next 800 years it lie, for the most part undisturbed, gathering a cover of moss, dirt and vegetation until it was found in 1814 by Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British lieutenant governor of Java. He recognized that the monument was a "remarkable for grandeur of design, peculiarity of style and exquisite workmanship." The ruins were cleared and restored on a small scale by the Dutch who turned it into a picnic spot and built a teahouse on the pinnacle. Major restoration work was conducted under the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. The first restoration campaign was supervised by Theodor van Erp. A second one was led more recently (1973-82). In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to "Borobudur Temple" as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, is derived from Boro for big and Budur for Buddha. The name Borobudur was first written in Raffles's book on Javan history. Raffles wrote about a monument called Borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name. The only old Javanese manuscript that hints the monument called Budur as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca, a Buddhist scholar of Majapahit court, in 1365. Most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language conventions and was named after the nearby village of Bore, the monument should have been named "BudurBoro". Raffles thought that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda ("ancient")—i.e., "ancient Boro". He also suggested that the name might derive from boro, meaning "great" or "honourable" and Budur for Buddha.[13] However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara ("mountain"). Another possible etymology by Dutch archaeologist A.J. Bernet Kempers suggests that Borobudur is a corrupted simplified local Javanese pronunciation of Biara Beduhur written in Sanskrit as Vihara Buddha Uhr. The term Buddha-Uhr could mean "the city of Buddhas", while another possible term Beduhur is probably an Old Javanese term, still survived today in Balinese vocabulary, which means "a high place", constructed from the stem word dhuhur or luhur (high). This suggests that Borobudur means vihara of Buddha located on a high place or on a hill. The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra.[18] Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means "the place of origin", a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means "the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood", was the original name of Borobudur. Architecture of Borobudur According to UNESCO: “With its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting of ten superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome, Borobudur is a harmonious marriage of stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental arts. Laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur Temple Compounds is an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of indigenous ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten mounting terraces of the entire structure correspond to the successive stages that the Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to Buddhahood. [Source: UNESCO] Borobudur was built in three tiers: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 square meters. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The monument was restored with UNESCO's help in the 1970s. The boundaries contain the three temples that include the imaginary axis between them. Although the visual links are no longer open, the dynamic function between the three monuments, Borobudur Temple, Mendut Temple, and Pawon Temple is maintained. A harmonious marriage of stupas, temple-mountain and the ritual diagram, this temple complex was built on several levels around a hill which forms a natural centre. The first level above the base comprises five square terraces, graduated in size and forming the base of a pyramid. Above this level are three concentric circular platforms crowned by the main stupa. Stairways provide access to this monumental stupa. The base and the balustrades enclosing the square terraces are decorated in reliefs sculpted in the stone. They illustrate the different phases of the soul's progression towards redemption and episodes from the life of Buddha. The circular terraces are decorated with no fewer than 72 openwork stupas each containing a statue of Buddha. The main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was a natural centre: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m2. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu, and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana. https://vbook.pub/documents/borobudur-big-buddha-as-a-complete-exposition-of-doctrine-x25dxl3r9kwp Bas Reliefs at Borobudur Decorating the walls along the pilgrimage route at Borodudur is the world's largest ensemble of Buddhist bas-reliefs (if laid end to end, they would extend for six kilometers). The reliefs depict the Buddha’s journey from life on earth, on the lower levels, to enlightenment on the upper levels. The 160 bas-relief panels at the ground level terrace depict the World of Desire, a state of spiritual development in which an individual is a slave of desire. Many of the bas-reliefs show the consequences of evil deeds such as gossip and murder. The panels that begin on the second level represent the World of Form and depict episodes from the Buddha's life or other sacred Buddhist stories and the life's of the Bodhisattvas. Like the stained glass windows in European churches, there purpose was partly to educated the illiterate masses about religion. Some of the reliefs are exquisitely crafted and deeply incised. Others have a more dashed off look. Look for the ones that shows a white elephant entering the womb of Buddha's mother, Queen Maya, and a revered monk sailing in boat filled with treasure. The ten levels of Borobudur are believed to be representations of the Mahayana school of philosophy which describe the ten levels of Bodhisattva that must be passed to attain the Buddhist perfection. Of the monument’s 2,672 relief panels, 1,460 are narrative, while the other 1,212 are decorative. UNESCO has recognized these panels as the largest and most comprehensive ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. There are bas-reliefs of sea battles. processions of elephants, warriors and dancing girls, monsters, musical instruments, houses, clothes and customs that give some insight into the everyday life of the of people in 9th-century Indonesia. Unfortunately many of the bas-reliefs have been worn away by weather, pollution and time and damaged by vandals and antiquities thieves. According to UNESCO: Stylistically the art of Borobudur is a tributary of Indian influences (Gupta and post-Gupta styles). The walls of Borobudur are sculptured in bas-reliefs, hailed as the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world, unsurpassed in artistic merit, each scene an individual masterpiece. The narratives reliefs on the main walls read from the right to left, those on the balustrade from left to right. This was done for the purpose of the Pradaksina, the ritual circumambulation which the pilgrims make moving on the clockwise and keeping the sanctuary to the right. [Source: UNESCO] The Karmawibangga reliefs on the hidden foot are devoted to the law of karma. The Lalitavistara series do not provide a complete biography of the Buddha, from the Hushita heaven and end his sermon in the Deer Park near the Benares. Jataka are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Sidharta. Awadana are similar to Jataka, but the main figure is not the Boddhisatva, and the saintly deeds are attributed to other legendary persons. The stories are compiled in the Dvijavadana (Glorious Heavenly Acts) and the Awadana Sataka (Hundred Awadanas). The first twenty panels in the lower series of the first gallery depict, the Sudhanakumaravadana. The series of reliefs covering the wall of the second gallery is devoted to Sudhana's tireless wanderings in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. The story is continued on the wall and balustrade of the third and fourth galleries. Its depiction in most of the 460 panels is based on the holy Nahayana text Gandavyuha, the concluding scenes being derived from another text, the Badracari. Reading the Bas Reliefs at Borobudur Reading the bas reliefs at Borobudur requires a specific technique. The panels on the wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming with the pradaksina, a ritual performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction, whilst always keeping the sanctuary to their right. The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the stairs at the eastern corner. The panels depict stories of Karma, of passion, robbery, murder, torture and humiliation. But not all are negative. Some panels also tell of the cause and effect of good deeds, and describe the behavior of the Javanese Society of that day, from religion to livelihood to social structure, fashion, and even the various types of plants and animals. Ultimately, it describes the human life cycle: Birth — Life — Death. Kamadhatu is a picture of highly populated world still dominated by Kama, or lust. This zone is at the bottom level of Borobodur, and is therefore not visible due to some added construction. Some say these structures were added to strengthen the building’s foundations, while others speculate that they have been added to conceal the obscene content of the reliefs. For visitors that wish to see these reliefs, the Karmawibhangga Museum displays pictures of the Kamadhatu. Lalitawistara are a series of beautifully sculpted reliefs that depict the history of Buddha, starting from his descent from Heaven, to his enlightenment under the bodhi tree, and finally to his first teachings in the city of Banaras. Lalitawistara consists of 120 panels, but yet does not tell the complete story of Buddha. These reliefs are found on the temple walls in hallway 1 on level 2. Jataka and Awadana are reliefs telling of Buddha, before he was reborn as Prince Siddharta. These are also engraved in hallway 1 on the second level, and tell of Buddha’s kindness and self-sacrifice as he was reincarnated in various forms of human or animal. It explains of how good works are what set humans apart from animals, and tells of the stages of preparation to the next and higher level of Buddha. Awadana also tells the story not of the Buddha figure, but of the Prince Sudhanakumara. The stories on the awadana reliefs are compiled in the books Kitab Diwyawadana (A Diety’s noble deeds) and Kitab locations of the Borobudar reliefs Bhadracari is a row of 460 neatly carved reliefs along the walls and balustrades. These reliefs are scattered throughout various levels of the temple and tell of Sudhana, the son of a wealthy merchant, who wanders in quest of the ultimate knowledge or truth. These panels are based on the Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, entitled Gandawyuha. The story tells of 10 great vows made by Bodhisattva Samantabadhra concerning his Buddhist practice, which later became the leading guidelines of all Bodhisattvas, and particularly of Sudhana. Understanding the Thousands of Relief Panels of Borobudur From the 5th to 7th levels of the temple, there are no reliefs on the walls. This is because these levels represent the nature of the “Arupadhatu,” which means “without tangible form.” At this level, people are free from all desires of any shape or form, but yet have not attained Nirvana. On this level, there are several Buddha statues placed inside stupas. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the Imperfect Buddha or Unfinished Buddha, which can now be found in the Karmawibhangga Museum. Awadanasataka (A hundred awadana stories.) . Combination of stupa and terraced circumambulatory platforms First of all can be mentioned that nowhere else has it been found a combination of stupa and terraced circumambulatory platforms like what we have at Borobudur. Moreover, the whole structure might be regarded as an integration of the stupa concept and the terraced sanctuary. The last one being possibly inherited from the prehistoric period, functioning as a sanctuary to worship ancestors. Moreover, we found here at Borobudur a combination of circular and rectangular platforms. In terms of religious concepts and their physical-visual interpretations, there are two phenomena that can be indicated at Borobudur. The first is the physical-spatial interpretation of the concept of bhiimi and dhatu as it has been interpreted and exposed in the previous studies of J.G. deCasparis, and the second one is regarding the pantheon and its placing within the structure of the sanctuary. The caitya worship is known as the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Descent or ascent. From being a prince with worldly possessions of immense value and aappeasement, he became a hermit, a wanderer- seeking enlightenment and asking others to meditate and introspect and thus ascend. To a Higher Level! Candi Borobudur and Candi Mendut were the two sites in Central Java that promoted caitya worship. Even before their establishment in the 8th century A.D., it is probable that the belief was already brought into Java by Gunavarma the architect of Borobudur in the beginning of the 5th century A. D.1 Borobudur as a Vihara Vihara, early type of Buddhist monastery consisting of an open court surrounded by open cells accessible through an entrance porch. The viharas in India were originally constructed to shelter the monks during the rainy season, when it became difficult for them to lead the wanderer’s life. They took on a sacred character when small stupas (housing sacred relics) and images of the Buddha were installed in the central court. A clear idea of their plan can be obtained from examples in western India, where the viharas were often excavated into the rock cliffs. This tradition of rock-cut structures spread along the trade routes of Central Asia (as at Bamiyan, Afghanistan), leaving many splendid monuments rich in sculpture and painting (the statues in Afghanistan were destroyed in 2001 by the country’s ruling Taliban). As the communities of monks grew, great monastic establishments (mahaviharas, “great viharas”) developed that consisted of clusters of viharas and associated stupas and temples. Renowned centres of learning, or universities, grew up at Nalanda, in present-day Bihar state, during the 5th to 12th centuries and at Nagarjunakonda, Andhra Pradesh, in the 3rd–4th centuries. Vihāra Buddhism had arrived in the Indonesian archipelago from the India subcontinent and began with trading along the sea routes during the second century. Around the 9th century, the rulers of the Sailendra Dynasty built the Buddhist temple in Java. The Chandi Borobudur had unique connotations of Buddha statues with mudras, stupas, sculptural reliefs, and ornamental motifs, these were combined successfully. And the temple was decorated brilliantly with traditional Javanese arts with the influence of Hindu elements. _________________________________________________________________________________ A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy Cheng Mei K u Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008 pn Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur Kanha Cave vihara in the Nasik Caves, 1st century BCE, is one of the earliest]/5th century Cave 4 at the Ajanta Caves with a Buddha statue in the centre shrine cell. Many Buddhist stupas, pagodas and temples contain relics such as the hair relics of Buddha, statues and the Buddhist credos enshrined in the chamber. The Borobudur’s main stupa had two empty chambers, one above the other, and now there is nothing inside it. According to scholar panhtwa myosein in Cultural Evidence of the Buddha at the Borobudur Presentation, https://www.academia.edu/50467609/Cultural_Evidence_of_the_Buddha_at_the_Borobudur_Presentation_University_of_Sydney_pdf) though Borobudur frescos depict acts of Gautama Buddha in his life until he attains Nivana and focus on the Borobudur’s crowning stupa the questain remains> Did Borobudur’s central dome contain the relics as a concept of the Buddhist stupa? If it did, what’s inside the inner chambers of the central stupa? If it didn’t, the inner chambers of the main stupa are supposed to be empty. Vihāra generally refers to a Buddhist monastery for Buddhist renunciates, mostly in the Indian subcontinent. The concept is ancient and in early Sanskrit and Pali texts, it meant any arrangement of space or facilities for dwellings . The term evolved into an architectural concept wherein it refers to living quarters for monks with an open shared space or courtyard, particularly in Buddhism. The term is also found in Ajivika, Hindu and Jain monastic literature, usually referring to temporary refuge for wandering monks or nuns during the annual Indian monsoons.[2][4][5] In modern Jainism, the monks continue to wander from town to town except during the rainy season (Chaturmas), and the term "vihara" refers to their wanderings.[6][7] Vihara or vihara hall has a more specific meaning in the architecture of India, especially ancient Indian rock-cut architecture. Here it means a central hall, with small cells connected to it, sometimes with beds carved from the stone. Some have a shrine cell set back at the centre of the back wall, containing a stupa in early examples, or a Buddha statue later. Typical large sites such as the Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Karli Caves, and Kanheri Caves contain several viharas. Some included a chaitya or worship hall nearby.[8] The vihara originated as a shelter for monks when it rains. Vallimalai Jain caves are located in Vallimalai village in Katpadi taluk of Vellore district, Tamil Nadu. Inscriptions below the Jain sculptures inside the cave Vallimalai Jain caves contains natural caverns that were inhabited by Digambar monks in early historic period. The monks from Bihar used to come here during the late-maurya period. The smooth and polished beds were carved during the rule of Satavahana dynasty. A total of five inscription are found[4] with one of the inscriptions dating back to 8th century. The Jain carvings were created during the reign of Ganga King Rachamalla II in c. 870 CE after conquest of this region from Chola kings.[6][6][7][8] An inscription, below the sculptures, states the name of Devasena of Bana Kingdom along with his Jain monks Bhavanandin and Aryanandin. Vallaimalai was an important Jain center during 8th-9th century. Jain sculpture Vallimalai is an important Jain site with several carvings of sculptures of tirthankara. The caverns is 40 by 20 feet (12.2 m × 6.1 m) with height varying between 7–10 feet (2.1–3.0 m). There is also a temple in the region which was converted to a Hindu temple. The caves consist of three chambers, two of these chambers contain images of Jain tirthankar. Above this group, there are the remains of a wall, believed to have been a small fort occupied by Jains. A torana is found above Jain images similar to carvings of Badami cave temples. The Jain sculpture are engraved on two spots, one on the norther side of Murugan temple and second on the southern side, with one sculpture with superhuman dimensions. There is an image of Ambika in sukhasana position wearing a necklace, armbands, and crown. Ambika is depicted sitting on a lion with carvings of her two sons below her pedestal. There is also image of Padmavati with 4 hands, holding goad and noose in upper right and left hands. Vihāra is a Sanskrit word that appears in several Vedic texts with context-sensitive meanings. It generally means a form of "distribution, transposition, separation, arrangement", either of words or sacred fires or sacrificial ground. Alternatively, it refers to a form of wandering roaming, any place to rest or please oneself or enjoy one's pastime in, a meaning more common in late Vedic texts, the Epics and grhyasutras. Its meaning in the post-Vedic era is more specifically a form of rest house, temple or monastery in ascetic traditions of India, particularly for a group of monks.[2] It particularly referred to a hall that was used as a temple or where monks met and some walked about.[2][11] In the context of the performative arts, the term means the theatre, playhouse, convent or temple compound to meet, perform or relax in. Later it referred to a form of temple or monastery construction in Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism, wherein the design has a central hall and attached separated shrines for residence either for monks or for gods, goddesses and some sacred figure such as Tirthankaras, Gautama Buddha, or a guru. The word means a Jain or Hindu temple or "dwelling, waiting place" in many medieval era inscriptions and texts, from vi-har which means "to construct". It contrasts with Sanskrit: araṇya or Punjabi: arañña, which means "forest".In medieval era, the term meant any monastery, particularly for Buddhist monks. Matha is another term for monastery in Indian religious tradition,[13] today normally used for Hindu establishments. The northern Indian state of Bihar derives its name from vihāra due to the abundance of Buddhist monasteries in that area. The word has also been borrowed in Malay as biara, denoting a monastery or other non-Muslim place of worship. It is called a wihan in Thai, and vĭhéar in Khmer. Viharas as pleasure centers During the 3rd-century BCE era of Ashoka, vihara yatras were travel stops aimed at enjoyments, pleasures and hobbies such as hunting. These contrasted with dharma yatras which related to religious pursuits and pilgrimage.[3] After Ashoka converted to Buddhism, states Lahiri, he started dharma yatras around mid 3rd century BCE instead of hedonistic royal vihara yatras. Viharas as monasteries The early history of viharas is unclear. Monasteries in the form of caves are dated to centuries before the start of the common era, for Ajivikas, Buddhists and Jainas. The rock-cut architecture found in cave viharas from the 2nd-century BCE have roots in the Maurya Empire period.[15] In and around the Bihar state of India are a group of residential cave monuments all dated to be from pre-common era, reflecting the Maurya architecture. Some of these have Brahmi script inscription which confirms their antiquity, but the inscriptions were likely added to pre-existing caves. The oldest layer of Buddhist and Jain texts mention legends of the Buddha, the Jain Tirthankaras or sramana monks living in caves.[15][16][17] If these records derived from an oral tradition accurately reflect the significance of monks and caves in the times of the Buddha and the Mahavira, then cave residence tradition dates back to at least the 5th century BCE. According to Allchin and Erdosy, the legend of First Buddhist Council is dated to a period just after the death of the Buddha. It mentions monks gathering at a cave near Rajgiri, and this dates it in pre-Mauryan times. However, the square courtyard with cells architecture of vihara, state Allchin and Erdosy, is dated to the Mauryan period. The earlier monastic residences of Ajivikas, Buddhists, Hindus, and Jains were likely outside rock cliffs and made of temporary materials and these have not survived. The earliest known gift of immovable property for monastic purposes ever recorded in an Indian inscription is credited to Emperor Ashoka, and it is a donation to the Ajivikas.[19] According to Johannes Bronkhorst, this created competitive financial pressures on all traditions, including the Hindu Brahmins. This may have led to the development of viharas as shelters for monks, and evolution in the Ashrama concept to agraharas or Hindu monasteries. These shelters were normally accompanied by donation of revenue from villages nearby, who would work and support these cave residences with food and services. The Karle inscription dated to the 1st century CE donates a cave and nearby village, states Bronkhorst, "for the support of the ascetics living in the caves at Valuraka [Karle] without any distinction of sect or origin". Buddhist texts from Bengal, dated to centuries later, use the term asrama-vihara or agrahara-vihara for their monasteries. Cave 12, Ellora, a late multi-story rock-cut vihara. Further decoration of the pillars was probably intende/Plan of cave 1 at Ajanta, a large vihara hall for prayer and living, 5th century Buddhist viharas or monasteries may be described as a residence for monks, a centre for religious work and meditation and a centre of Buddhist learning. Reference to five kinds of dwellings (Pancha Lenani) namely, Vihara, Addayoga, Pasada, Hammiya and Guha is found in the Buddhist canonical texts as fit for monks. Of these only the Vihara (monastery) and Guha (Cave) have survived. At some stage of Buddhism, like other Indian religious traditions, the wandering monks of the Sangha dedicated to asceticism and the monastic life, wandered from place to place. During the rainy season (cf. vassa) they stayed in temporary shelters. In Buddhist theology relating to rebirth and merit earning, it was considered an act of merit not only to feed a monk but also to shelter him, sumptuous monasteries were created by rich lay devotees. The only substantial remains of very early viharas are in the rock-cut complexes, mostly in north India, the Deccan in particular, but this is an accident of survival. Originally structural viharas of stone or brick would probably have been at least as common everywhere, and the norm in the south. By the second century BCE a standard plan for a vihara was established; these form the majority of Buddhist rock-cut "caves". It consisted of a roughly square rectangular hall, in rock-cut cases, or probably an open court in structural examples, off which there were a number of small cells. Rock-cut cells are often fitted with rock-cut platforms for beds and pillows. The front wall had one or more entrances, and often a verandah. Later the back wall facing the entrance had a fairly small shrine-room, often reached through an ante-chamber. Initially these held stupas, but later a large sculpted Buddha image, sometimes with reliefs on the walls. The verandah might also have sculpture, and in some cases the walls of the main hall. Paintings were perhaps more common, but these rarely survive, except in a few cases such as Caves 2, 10, 11 and 17 at the Ajanta Caves. As later rock-cut viharas are often on up to three storeys, this was also probably the case with the structural ones As the vihara acquired a central image, it came to take over the function of the chaitya worship hall, and eventually these ceased to be built. This was despite the rock-cut vihara shrine room usually offering no path for circumambulation or pradakshina, an important ritual practice.[21] In early medieval era, Viharas became important institutions and a part of Buddhist Universities with thousands of students, such as Nalanda. Life in "Viharas" was codified early on. It is the object of a part of the Pali canon, the Vinaya Pitaka or "basket of monastic discipline". Shalban Vihara in Bangladesh is an example of a structural monastery with 115 cells, where the lower parts of the brick-built structure have been excavated. Somapura Mahavihara, also in Bangladesh, was a larger vihara, mostly 8th-century, with 177 cells around a huge central temple. Cave 12, Ajanta Caves, cell entries off a vihara hall//Mahabodhi Temple in India. Variants in rock-cut viharas Usually the standard form as described above is followed, but there are some variants. Two vihara halls, Cave 5 at Ellora and Cave 11 at Kanheri, have very low platforms running most of the length of the main hall. These were probably used as some combination of benches or tables for dining, desks for study, and possibly beds. They are often termed "dining-hall" or the "Durbar Hall" at Kanheri, on no good evidence. Cave 11 at the Bedse Caves is a fairly small 1st-century vihara, with nine cells in the interior and originally four around the entrance, and no shrine room. It is distinguished by elaborate gavaksha and railing relief carving around the cell-doors, but especially by having a rounded roof and apsidal far end, like a chaitya hall. The earliest Buddhist rock-cut cave abodes and sacred places are found in the western Deccan dating back to the 3rd century BCE. These earliest rock-cut caves include the Bhaja Caves, the Karla Caves, and some of the Ajanta Caves. Vihara with central shrine containing devotional images of the Buddha, dated to about the 2nd century CE are found in the northwestern area of Gandhara, in sites such as Jaulian, Kalawan (in the Taxila area) or Dharmarajika, which states Behrendt, possibly were the prototypes for the 4th century monasteries such as those at Devnimori in Gujarat.[25] This is supported by the discovery of clay and bronze Buddha statues, but it is unclear if the statue is of a later date.[25] According to Behrendt, these "must have been the architectural prototype for the later northern and western Buddhist shrines in the Ajanta Caves, Aurangabad, Ellora, Nalanda, Ratnagiri and other sites". Behrendt's proposal follows the model that states the northwestern influences and Kushana era during the 1st and 2nd century CE triggered the development of Buddhist art and monastery designs. In contrast, Susan Huntington states that this late nineteenth and early twentieth century model is increasingly questioned by the discovery of pre-Kushana era Buddha images outside the northwestern territories. Further, states Huntington, "archaeological, literary, and inscriptional evidence" such as those in Madhya Pradesh cast further doubts.[26] Devotional worship of Buddha is traceable, for example, to Bharhut Buddhist monuments dated between 2nd and 1st century BCE.  The Krishna or Kanha Cave (Cave 19) at Nasik has the central hall with connected cells, and it is generally dated to about the 1st century BCE. The early stone viharas mimicked the timber construction that likely preceded them. Inscriptional evidence on stone and copper plates indicate that Buddhist viharas were often co-built with Hindu and Jain temples. The Gupta Empire era witnessed the building of numerous viharas, including those at the Ajanta Caves.Some of these viharas and temples though evidenced in texts and inscriptions are no longer physically found, likely destroyed in later centuries by natural causes or due to war. Viharas as a source of major Buddhist traditions Viharas found at Thotlakonda// The ruins of Shalvan Vihara, the Buddhist monastery that operated between 7th-12th century in what is now Mainamati, Bangladesh.[33] As more people joined Buddhist monastic sangha, the senior monks adopted a code of discipline which came to be known in the Pali Canon as the Vinaya texts  These texts are mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. Each major early Buddhist tradition had its own variant text of code of discipline for vihara life. Major vihara appointed a vihara-pala, the one who managed the vihara, settled disputes, determined sangha's consent and rules, and forced those hold-outs to this consensus. Three early influential monastic fraternities are traceable in Buddhist history.[32] The Mahavihara established by Mahinda was the oldest. Later, in 1st century BCE, King Vattagamani donated the Abhayagiri vihara to his favored monk, which led the Mahavihara fraternity to expel that monk.[32] In 3rd century CE, this repeated when King Mahasena donated the Jetavana vihara to an individual monk, which led to his expulsion. The Mahinda Mahavihara led to the orthodox Theravada tradition. The Abhayagiri vihara monks, rejected and criticized by the orthodox Buddhist monks, were more receptive to heterodox ideas and they nurtured the Mahayana tradition. The Jetavana vihara monks vacillated between the two traditions, blending their ideas. Viharas of the Pāla era A range of monasteries grew up during the Pāla period in ancient Magadha (modern Bihar) and Bengal. According to Tibetan sources, five great mahaviharas stood out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the era; Nalanda, past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura, Odantapurā, and Jagaddala.[34] According to Sukumar Dutt, the five monasteries formed a network, were supported and supervised by the Pala state. Each of the five had their own seal and operated like a corporation, serving as centers of learning.[35] Other notable monasteries of the Pala Empire were Traikuta, Devikota (identified with ancient Kotivarsa, 'modern Bangarh'), and Pandit Vihara. Excavations jointly conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India and University of Burdwan in 1971–1972 to 1974–1975 yielded a Buddhist monastic complex at Monorampur, near Bharatpur via Panagarh Bazar in the Bardhaman district of West Bengal. The date of the monastery may be ascribed to the early medieval period. Recent excavations at Jagjivanpur (Malda district, West Bengal) revealed another Buddhist monastery (Nandadirghika-Udranga Mahavihara) of the ninth century. Nothing of the superstructure has survived. A number of monastic cells facing a rectangular courtyard have been found. A notable feature is the presence of circular corner cells. It is believed that the general layout of the monastic complex at Jagjivanpur is by and large similar to that of Nalanda. Beside these, scattered references to some monasteries are found in epigraphic and other sources. Among them Pullahari (in western Magadha), Halud Vihara (45 km south of Paharpur), Parikramana vihara and Yashovarmapura vihara (in Bihar) deserve mention. Other important structural complexes have been discovered at Mainamati (Comilla district, Bangladesh). Remains of quite a few viharas have been unearthed here and the most elaborate is the Shalban Vihara. The complex consists of a fairly large vihara of the usual plan of four ranges of monastic cells round a central court, with a temple in cruciform plan situated in the centre. According to a legend on a seal (discovered at the site) the founder of the monastery was Bhavadeva, a ruler of the Deva dynasty. Southeast Asia \ Vihara, locally called wihan, of Wat Chedi Luang in Northern Thailand As Buddhism spread in Southeast Asia, monasteries were built by local kings. The term vihara is still sometimes used to refer to the monasteries/temples, also known as wat, but in Thailand it also took on a narrower meaning referring to certain buildings in the temple complex. The wihan is a building, apart from the main ubosot (ordination hall) in which a Buddha image is enshrined.[37] In many temples, the wihan serves as a sermon hall or an assembly hall where ceremonies, such as the kathina, are held.Many of these Theravada viharas feature a Buddha image that is considered sacred after it is formally consecrated by the monks.[38] Entrance to a vihara hall at Kanheri Caves// Wall carvings at Kanheri Caves   Simple slab abode beds in vihara at Kanheri Caves/ Doorways of a Vihara, Bedse Caves Viharas were for the purpose of living, Chaityas were assemblies for the purpose of discussions. Further, Chaityas were with Stupas, Viharas did not have stupas. Both early Chaityas and Viharas were made by woods and later stone-cut Chaityas and Viharas were made. Chaitya was a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa placed in the centre, the purpose was prayer. The Chaitya was divided into three parts, and had an apsidal ending, that is, a semicircular rear end, The central part of the hall (also called the nave) was separated from the two aisles by two rows of pillars, The chaityas also had polished interior walls, semicircular roofs and horse-shoe shaped windows called the Chaitya windows. Viharas were the residences of the monks. Borobudur relief Bhumi is a Sanskrit word for "land" or "ground," and the list of ten bhumis are ten "lands" a bodhisattva must pass through on the way to Buddha-hood. The bhumis are important to early Mahayana Buddhism. A list of ten bhumis appears in several Mahayana texts, although they are not always identical. The bhumis also are associated with the Perfections or Paramitas. Many schools of Buddhism describe some kind of path of development. Often these are extensions of the Eightfold Path. Since this is a description of the progress of a bodhisattva, much of the list below promotes the turning from concern for self to concern for others. In Mahayana Buddhism, the bodhisattva is the ideal of practice. This is an enlightened being who vows to remain in the world until all other beings realize enlightenment. Here is a standard list, taken from the Dashabhumika-sutra, which is taken from the larger Avatamsaka or Flower Garland Sutra. 1. Pramudita-bhumi (Joyful Land) The bodhisattva begins the journey joyful with the thought of enlightenment. He has taken bodhisattva vows, the most basic of which is "May I attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings." Even at this early stage, he recognizes the emptiness of phenomena. In this stage, the bodhisattva cultivates Dana Paramita, the perfection of giving or generosity in which it is recognized there are no givers and no receivers. 2. Vimala-bhumi (Land of Purity) The bodhisattva cultivates Sila Paramita, the perfection of morality, which culminates in selfless compassion for all beings. He is purified of immoral conduct and dispositions. 3. Prabhakari-bhumi (Luminous or Radiant Land) The bodhisattva is now purified of the Three Poisons. He cultivates Ksanti Paramita, which is the perfection of patience or forbearance, Now he knows that he can bear all burdens and hardships to finish the journey. He achieves the four absorptions or dhyanas. 4. Archismati-bhumi (The Brilliant or Blazing Land) Remaining false conceptions are burned away, and good qualities are pursued. This level may also be associated with Virya Paramita, the perfection of energy. 5. Sudurjaya-bhumi (The Land That Is Difficult to Conquer) Now the bodhisattva goes deeper into meditation, as this land is associated with Dhyana Paramita, the perfection of meditation. He pierces through the darkness of ignorance. Now he understands the Four Noble Truths and the Two Truths. As he develops himself, the bodhisattva devotes himself to the welfare of others. 6. Abhimukhi-bhumi (The Land Looking Forward to Wisdom) This land is associated with Prajna Paramita, the perfection of wisdom. He sees that all phenomena are without self-essence and understand the nature of Dependent Origination -- the way all phenomena arise and cease. 7. Durangama-bhumi (The Far-Reaching Land) The bodhisattva acquires the power of upaya, or skillful means to help others realize enlightenment. At this point, the bodhisattva has become a transcendent bodhisattva who can manifest in the world in whatever form is most needed. 8. Achala-bhumi (The Immovable Land) The bodhisattva can no longer be disturbed because Buddha-hood is within sight. From here he can no longer fall back to earlier stages of development. 9. Sadhumati-bhumi (The Land of Good Thoughts) The bodhisattva understands all dharmas and is able to teach others. 10. Dharmamegha-bhumi (The Land of Dharma Clouds) Buddha-hood is confirmed, and he enters Tushita Heaven. Tushita Heaven is the heaven of contended gods, where there are Buddhas who will be reborn only one more time. Maitreya is said to live there also. O'Brien, Barbara. "The Ten Bhumis of Buddhism." Learn Religions, Aug. 25, 2020, learnreligions.com/ten-bhumis-of-buddhism-450015. In Buddhism, Bhūmi (Sanskrit: भूमि 'foundation', Chinese: 地 'land' ) is the 32nd and 33rd place (10th and 11th in simple count) on the outgoing's process of Mahayana awakening. Each stage represents a level of attainment in that case, and serves as a basis for the next one. Each level marks a definite advancement in one's training that is accompanied by progressively greater power and wisdom. Buddhist monks who arrived at Bhūmi were originally called śrāvakas, in opposition to Brahminism. Śakro devānām and Trāyastriṃśa are together called "Bhūmi nivāsin”. The ten bodhisattva stages are also called vihara ('dwelling'). The Daśabhūmika Sūtra refers to the following ten bhūmis. The first bhūmi, the Very Joyous. (Skt. pramuditā), in which one rejoices at realizing a partial aspect of the truth; The second bhūmi, the Stainless. (Skt. vimalā), in which one is free from all defilement; The third bhūmi, the Light-Maker. (Skt. prabhākarī), in which one radiates the light of wisdom; The fourth bhūmi, the Radiant Intellect. (Skt. arciṣmatī), in which the radiant flame of wisdom burns away earthly desires; The fifth bhūmi, the Difficult to Master. (Skt. sudurjayā), in which one surmounts the illusions of darkness, or ignorance as the Middle Way; The sixth bhūmi, the Manifest. (Skt. abhimukhī) in which supreme wisdom begins to manifest; The seventh bhūmi, the Gone Afar. (Skt. dūraṃgamā), in which one rises above the states of the Two vehicles; The eighth bhūmi, the Immovable. (Skt. acalā), in which one dwells firmly in the truth of the Middle Way and cannot be perturbed by anything; The ninth bhūmi, the Good Intelligence. (Skt. sādhumatī), in which one preaches the Law freely and without restriction; The tenth bhūmi, the Cloud of Doctrine. (Skt. dharmameghā), in which one benefits all sentient beings with the Law (Dharma), just as a cloud sends down rain impartially on all things. The first bhūmi, the Very Joyous The First bhūmi, called "Very Joyous", is attained with the first direct perception of emptiness (Sunyata) and is simultaneous with entry into the third of the five paths to awakening, the path of seeing.[3][4] It is called "very joyous" because the bodhisattva works at the perfections of generosity and develops the ability to give away everything without regret and with no thought of praise or reward (for themselves). All phenomena are viewed as empty and as subject to decay, suffering, and death, and so bodhisattvas lose all attachment to them. According to Tsong Khapa, first level bodhisattvas directly understand that persons do not exist by way of their own nature. Due to this, they overcome the false idea that the five aggregates constitute a truly existent person. They also eliminate predispositions toward corrupted ethics so completely that they will not arise again. Despite having directly and correctly perceived emptiness, bodhisattvas on the first level are primarily motivated by faith. They train in ethics in order to cleanse their minds of negativity and so they prepare themselves for the cultivation of mundane meditative absorption that comes on the second level. The second bhūmi, the Stainless Bodhisattvas on the second level, the "Stainless", perfect ethics and overcome all tendencies towards engagement in negative actions. Their control becomes so complete that even in dreams they have no immoral thoughts. According to Tsong Khapa for such a bodhisattva, "on all occasions of waking and dreaming his movements or activities of body, speech and mind are pure of even subtle infractions...he fulfills the three paths of virtuous actions-abandoning killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct-with his body; the middle four-abandons lying, divisive talk, harsh speech, and senseless chatter-with his speech; and the last three-abandoning covetousness, harmful intent, and wrong views-with his mind. Not only does he refrain from what is prohibited but he also fulfills all the positive achievements related to proper ethics." And according to Nāgārjuna, The second is called the Stainless Because all ten [virtuous] actions Of body, speech, and mind are stainless And they naturally abide in those [deeds of ethics]. Through the maturation of those [good qualities] The perfection of ethics becomes supreme. They become Universal Monarchs helping beings, Masters of the glorious four continents and of the seven precious objects. Because of this, the bodhisattva's mind becomes purified and equinanimous, which is a prerequisite for training in the four dhyānas (meditative absorptions) and the four arūpajhānas (formless absorptions). The third bhūmi, the Light-Maker Tsong Khapa states that the third bhūmi is called the "Light-Maker" because when it is attained "the fire of wisdom burning all the fuel of objects of knowledge arises along with a light which by nature is able to extinguish all elaborations of duality during meditative equipoise." Bodhisattvas on this level cultivate the perfection of patience. Their equanimity becomes so profound that even if someone...cuts from the body of this bodhisattva not just flesh but also bone, not in large sections but bit by bit, not continually but pausing in between, and not finishing in a short time but cutting over a long period, the bodhisattva would not get angry at the mutilator The Bodhisattva realizes that his tormentor is motivated by afflicted thoughts and is sowing seeds of his own future suffering. As a result, the bodhisattva feels not anger, but a deep sadness and compassion for this cruel person, who is unaware of the operations of karma. Trainees on the third level overcome all tendencies toward anger, and never react with hatred (or even annoyance) to any harmful acts or words. Rather, their equanimity remains constant, and all sentient beings are viewed with love and compassion: All anger and resentment rebound on the person who generates them, and they do nothing to eliminate harms that one has already experienced. They are counterproductive in that they destroy one's peace of mind and lead to unfavorable future situations. There is nothing to be gained through anger and resentment, revenge does nothing to change the past, and so the bodhisattva avoids them. Bodhisattvas on this level also train in the four form meditations, the four formless meditations, and the four immeasurables, and the higher knowledge. The fourth bhūmi, the Radiant Intellect On the fourth level, the "Radiant Intellect", bodhisattvas cultivate the perfection of effort and eliminate afflictions. According to Wonch'uk, this level is so named because fourth bhumi bodhisattvas "constantly emit the radiance of exalted wisdom." He also cites Maitreya's Ornament for the Mahayana Sutras, which explains that bodhisattvas on this level burn up the afflictive obstructions and the obstructions to omniscience with the radiance of their wisdom. They enter into progressively deeper meditative absorptions and attain a powerful mental pliancy as a result. This eliminates laziness and increases their ability to practice meditation for extended periods of time. They destroy deeply rooted afflictions and cultivate the thirty-seven factors of awakening. Through training in these thirty-seven practices, bodhisattvas develop great skill in meditative absorptions and cultivate wisdom, while weakening the artificial and innate conceptions of true existence. The fifth bhūmi, Difficult to Master The fifth level is called the "Difficult to Master" because it involves practices that are so arduous and require a great deal of effort to perfect. It is also called the "Difficult to Overcome" because when one has completed the training of this level one has profound wisdom and insight that are difficult to surpass or undermine. According to Nāgārjuna, The fifth is called the Extremely Difficult to Overcome Since all evil ones find it extremely hard to conquer him; He becomes skilled in knowing the subtle. Meanings of the noble truths and so forth. Bodhisattvas on this level cultivate the perfection of samadhi. They develop strong powers of meditative stabilization and overcome tendencies toward distraction. They achieve mental one-pointedness and they perfect calm abiding. They also fully penetrate the meanings of the four noble truths and the two truths (conventional truths and ultimate truths) and perceive all phenomena as empty, transient and prone to suffering. The sixth bhūmi, the Manifest The sixth level is called the "Manifest" because the bodhisattva clearly perceives the workings of dependent arising and directly understands "the signless" (Mtshan ma med pa, Tibetan. Animitta, Sanskrit). The signless refers to the fact that phenomena seem to possess their apparent qualities by way of their own nature, but when one examines this appearance one realizes that all qualities are merely mentally imputed and not a part of the nature of the objects they appear to characterize. As a result of these understandings bodhisattvas manifest meditative wisdom and avoid attachment to either cyclic existence or nirvana. Having overcome all attachments, bodhisattvas on this level can attain nirvana, but because of the force of the mind of awakening they decide to remain in the world in order to benefit other sentient beings. They cultivate the Perfection of Wisdom, through which they perceive all phenomena as lacking inherent existence, as being like dreams, illusions, reflections, or magically created objects. All notions of "I" and "other" are transcended, along with conceptions of "inherent existence" and "inherent nonexistence." These sixth-level bodhisattvas abide in contemplation of suchness, with minds that are undisturbed by false ideas. The seventh bhūmi, the Gone Afar Bodhisattvas on the seventh level develop the ability to contemplate signlessness uninterruptedly and enter into advanced meditative absorptions for extended periods of time, thus passing beyond both the mundane and supramundane paths of śrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas (Hearers and solitary realizers). For this reason, this level is called the "Gone Afar." According to Nāgārjuna, The seventh is the Gone Afar because The number of his qualities has increased, Moment by moment he can enter The equipoise of cessation, On this level bodhisattvas perfect their skill in means of meditation and practice (Thabs la mkhas pa, Tibetan; Upaya-Kausalya, Sanskrit), which is their ability to cleverly adapt their teaching tactics to the individual proclivities and needs of their audiences. They also develop the ability to know the thoughts of others, and in every moment are able to practice all the perfections. All thoughts and actions are free from afflictions, and they constantly act spontaneously and effectively for the benefit of others. The eighth bhūmi, the Immovable The eighth level is called the "Immovable" because bodhisattvas overcome all afflictions regarding signs and their minds are always completely absorbed in the dharma. At this level, a bodhisattva has achieved nirvana. According to Nāgārjuna, The eighth is the Immovable, the youthful stage, Through nonconceptuality he is immovable; And the spheres of his body, speech and mind's Activities are inconceivable. Because they are fully acquainted with signlessness, their minds are not moved by ideas of signs. Eighth Bhumi bodhisattvas are said to be "irreversible", because there is no longer any possibility that they might waver on the path or backslide. They are destined for full buddhahood, and there are no longer any inclinations to seek a personal nirvana. They cultivate the "perfection of aspiration", which means that they undertake to fulfill various vows, due to which they accumulate the causes of further virtues.[14] Although they resolve to work for the benefit of others and they pervade the universe with feelings of friendliness toward all sentient beings, these bodhisattvas have transcended any tendency to misunderstand anatta. Their understanding of emptiness is so complete that it overturns innate delusions, and reality appears in a completely new light. They enter into meditation on emptiness with little effort. Bodhisattvas on this level are compared to people who have awakened from dreams, and all their perceptions are influenced by this new awareness. They attain the meditative state called "forbearance regarding non-arisen phenomena", due to which they no longer think in terms of inherent causes or inherent causelessness. They also develop the ability to manifest in various forms in order to instruct others. Compassion and skillful means are automatic and spontaneous. There is no need to plan or contemplate how best to benefit others, since bodhisattvas on the eighth level automatically react correctly to every situation. The ninth bhūmi, the Good Intelligence From this point on, bodhisattvas move quickly toward awakening. Before this stage, progress was comparatively slow, like that of a boat being towed through a harbour. On the eighth through tenth bhumi, however, bodhisattvas make huge strides toward buddhahood, like a ship that reaches the ocean and unfurls its sails. On the ninth level, they fully understand the three vehicles - hearers, solitary realizers, and bodhisattvas - and perfect the ability to teach the doctrine. Because of attaining faultlessness and very extensive intelligence in terms of mastery of teaching the doctrine in all aspects, the ninth level is called the "Good Intelligence." Ninth bhūmi bodhisattvas also acquire the "four analytical knowledges"-of fundamental concepts, meaning, grammar, and exposition. Due to this, they develop wondrous eloquence and skill in presenting doctrinal teachings. Their intelligence surpasses that of all humans and gods, and they comprehend all names, words, meanings, and languages. They can understand any question from any being. They also have the ability to answer them with a single sound, which is understood by each being according to its capacities. On this level they also cultivate the perfection of virya, which means that because of the strength of their mastery of the four analytical knowledges and their meditation they are able to develop paramitas energetically and to practice them continually without becoming fatigued. The tenth bhūmi, the Cloud of Dharma On the tenth bhūmi, bodhisattvas overcome the subtlest traces of the afflictions. Like a cloud that pours rain on the earth, these bodhisattvas spread the dharma in all directions, and each sentient being absorbs what it needs in order to grow spiritually. Thus Nāgārjuna states that: The tenth is the Cloud of Dharma because The rain of excellent doctrine falls, The Bodhisattva is consecrated With light by the Buddhas. At this stage bodhisattvas enter into progressively deeper meditative absorptions and develop limitless powers with regard to magical formulas. They cultivate the perfection of exalted wisdom, which, according to Asaṅga, enables them to increase their exalted wisdom. This in turn strengthens the other perfections. As a result, they become established in the joy of the doctrine. They acquire perfect bodies, and their minds are cleansed of the subtlest traces of the afflictions. They manifest in limitless forms for the benefit of others and transcend the ordinary laws of time and space. They are able to place entire world systems in a single pore, without diminishing them or increasing the size of the pore. When they do this, the beings inhabiting the worlds feel no discomfort, and only those who are advanced bodhisattvas even notice. Bodhisattvas on this level receive a form of empowerment from innumerable buddhas. This is called "great rays of light", because the radiance of these bodhisattvas shines in all directions. This empowerment helps them in removing the remaining obstructions to omniscience and gives them added confidence and strength. At the final moment of this stage they enter into a meditative state called the "vajralike meditative stabilization", in which the subtlest remaining obstacles to buddhahood are overcome. They arise from this concentration as Buddhas. Six bhūmis in the Yogācārabhūmi The Yogacara compendium of yogic praxis, the Yogācārabhūmi, contains a subsection on the bodhisattva path (the Bodhisattvabhūmi), which lists six bhūmis:[19] The bhūmi of practicing with ascertainment (adhimukticaryābhūmi, shèngjiě xíng dì 勝解行地, mos pas spyod pa'i sa), The bhūmi of pure exalted conviction (śuddhādhyāśayabhūmi, jìng shèngyìyào dì 淨勝意樂地, lhag pa'i bsam pa dag pa'i sa), The bhūmi of accomplishing practices (caryāpratipattibhūmi, xíng zhèngxíng dì 行正行地, spyod la 'jug pa'i sa), The bhūmi of certainty (niyatabhūmi, duò juédìng dì 墮決定 地, nges par gyur pa'i sa), The bhūmi of practicing with certainty (niyatacaryābhūmi, juédìng xíng zhèngxíng dì 決定行正行地, nges pa'i spyod pa'i sa) The bhūmi of reaching perfection (niṣṭhāgamanabhūmi, dào jiūjìng dì 到究竟地, mthar thug par 'gyur ba'i sa). 5 PATHS The bhūmis are often categorized with or merged into, the separate schema of the "five paths". The main ideas of this schema were inherited by Yogacara from the Sarvāstivāda Vaibhāṣika Abhidharma texts as well as Vasubadhu's Abhidharmakośakārikā (AKBh).[20] This schema continues to be developed in Yogacara texts like Asanga's Mahāyānasaṃgraha (MS), where it is given a more Mahayanist explanation and becomes tied to the bodhisattva path and the bhūmis.[20] The Five Paths (pañcamārga, Wylie Tibetan lam lnga), are:[21][22] Mokṣa-bhāgīya (The state leading up to release) or Saṃbhāra-mārga (path of accumulation, tshogs lam). According to Vasubandhu's AKBh, in this path, one practices morality and contentment, learns and reflects on the teaching, keeps themselves free from unwholesome thinking, and practices the four foundations of mindfulness. In the Tibetan tradition, persons on the path are said to possess a strong desire to overcome suffering, either their own or others and renounce the worldly life. Nirveda-bhāgīya (The state leading up to penetration) or Prayoga-mārga (The path of preparation, sbyor lam). According to the AKBh, in this stage, one observes the four noble truths in terms of its sixteen aspects. In the Tibetan tradition, this path is when one begins to practice meditation and gains analytical knowledge of emptiness. Darśana-mārga (The path of seeing or insight, mthong lam). According to the AKBh, in this path one continues to observe the four noble truths until one realizes it and abandons eighty eight afflictions (kleshas). In Asanga's MS, this stage is when one realizes that all things are mere mental presentations (vijñapti matra), which leads to the first instance of the turning of the basis (āśraya-parāvṛtti). In the Tibetan tradition, this is when one practices samatha and realizes emptiness directly. Bhāvanā-mārga, (The path of cultivation, sgom lam). According to the AKBh, in this stage, one continues to practice and abandons 10 further kleshas. In the MS, one practices in this stage by applying the antidotes (pratipakṣa) to all of the obstructions (sarvā varaṇa) and continues the process of the turning of the basis (āśraya-parāvṛtti). Aśaikṣā-mārga (The path of no more learning or consummation, mi slob pa’i lam or thar phyin pa'i lam) also known as Niṣṭhā-mārga (in the MS). Persons on this path have completely freed themselves of all obstructions and afflictions and are thus perfected or fulfilled (niṣṭhā). According to the MS, one has achieved the bodies of a Buddha. As part of the Bodhisattva path Passage through the grounds and paths begins with Bodhicitta, the wish to liberate all sentient beings. Aspiring Bodhicitta becomes Engaging Bodhicitta upon actual commitment to the Bodhisattva vows. With these steps, the practitioner becomes a Bodhisattva, and enters upon the paths.[23] Before attaining the ten grounds, the bodhisattva traverses the first two of the five Mahayana paths: The path of accumulation The path of preparation The ten grounds of the bodhisattva are grouped within the three subsequent paths: Bhūmi 1: The path of seeing Bhūmi 2-7: The path of meditation Bhūmi 8-10: The path of no more learning In Hua-yen Buddhism there are some 40 previous stages before the first bhumi: 10 faiths 10 abodes 10 practices 10 merit-transferences In Tientai Buddhism the practitioner of the so-called "perfect teaching" is equal in attainment to arhats by just the 4th faith. Mahayana literature often features an enumeration of "two obstructions" (Wylie: sgrib gnyis): The "obstructions of delusive emotions" (Sanskrit: kleśa-varaṇa, Wylie: nyon-mongs-pa'i sgrib-ma) The "obstructions to knowledge" (Sanskrit: jñeyāvaraṇa, Wylie: shes-bya'i sgrib-ma).[24] The obstruction of delusive emotions is overcome at the attainment of the path of seeing, and the obstructions to knowledge are overcome over the course of the path of meditation. This is not a statement agreed upon by all Buddhist schools, e.g. Korean Son's Kihwa states that the obstructions to knowledge are overcome by the 10th bhumi. Additional Bhumis Various Vajrayana lineages of tantra recognize bhumis after the 10th bhumi. Within the Dzogchen and Mahamudra schools of tantra there are either thirteen or sixteen bhumis depending on the lineage. One system of Dzogchen/Mahamudra presents thirteen bhumis: eleventh bhumi of Universal Light  twelfth bhumi of the Lotus of Nonattachment  thirteenth bhumi of the Vajra Holder.  Another system of Dzogchen presents sixteen bhumis: eleventh bhumi of Universal Radiance/Light twelfth bhumi of the Lotus of Nonattachment  thirteenth bhumi of the Gatherings of Rotating Syllables fourteenth bhumi of the Great Samadhi fifteenth bhumi of the Vajra Holder sixteenth bhumi of the Unexcelled Wisdom The Ten Bhumis of Buddhism=Stages of the Bodhisattva Path Jataka King Goodness the Great [Perseverance] King Fruitful and Queen Sivali Rebirth of the Bodhisattva) [chapter 1] Gaining Power [chapter 2] Giving Up Power [chapter 3] A Gang of Drunkards [Sobriety] The Whatnot Tree [Prudence] Prince Five-Weapons and Sticky-Hair [The Diamond Weapon] A Huge Lump of Gold [Moderation] Mr Monkey and Sir Crocodile [Good Manners] A Prince of Monkeys [Carefulness] Two Ways of Beating a Drum [Excess] Two Mothers [Renunciation] The Priest Who Gambled With a Life [Misguided Morality] The Wicked Lady and the Buttermilk Wise Man [Seduction] Country Man and City Wife [Adultery] The Wisdom of Queen Tender-hearted [Lust] Wife and Mother Who Was a Sister First [An Intelligent Woman] The Strong-minded Snake [Determination] The Shovel Wise Man [Renunciation] The Green Wood Gatherer [Laziness] The Elephant King Goodness [Generosity and Ingratitude] Four on a Log [Gratitude] New Homes for the Tree Spirits [Wise Advice] The Fish Who Work a Miracle [Power of Truthfulness] The Meditating Security Guard [Fearlessness] The Dreams The 16 Frightening Dreams [chapter 1] Roaring Bulls With No Fight [chapter 2] The Frightening Sound of 'Munch, Munch, Munch' [chapter 3] Teaching [chapter 4] Illisa the Cheap [Miserliness] A Motherless Son [Betrayal] Fear Maker and Little Archer [Self-deception] Forest Monks in a Kings Pleasure Garden [Pupils without Teacher] The Curse of Mittavinda Jealousy [chapter 1] Greed [chapter 2] Pleasure [chapter 3] A Hero Named Jinx [Friendship] A Question From a 7-year-old [Six Worthy Ways] A Lesson From a Snake [The Value of Goodness] A Priest Who Worshipped Luck [Superstition] The Bull Called Delightful [All Deserve Respect] The Phoney Holy Man [Hypocrisy] One Way Hospitality [Ingratitude] Poison Dice [Deception] The Mystery of the Missing Necklace One Crime Leads to Another [chapter 1] The Mystery is Solved [chapter 2] The Careless Lion [Circumspection] The Holy Man Who Tired To Be Too Holy [Extremism] Clear-sighted the Great [Impermanence] The Prince and the She-devils Five Meals in the Forest [chapter 1] A Feast in the Palace [chapter 2] A Man Named Bad [Self-Acceptance] A Man Named Wise [Cheating] Achieving Nothing [Nothing] A Mother's Wise Advice [Non-violence] Bottom of Form Reliefs in Borobudon Temples Borobudur in Central Java is the world’s largest Buddhist temple. And the structure is here to stay. Borobudur has survived volcanic eruptions of Gunung Merapi, terrorist bombings and the earthquake of 2006. Rising high above the breathtakingly green rice fields and their accompanying kampung, or rice villages, this monumental structure can make Indonesia’s other temples look pedestrian. It looks like an ornately carved pyramid with fortified walls surrounding the bottom and five stories worth of statues ascending to the top. In fact, the central dome is crowned by an impressive 72 Buddha statues. Perhaps the most impressive thing about the monument is that it was built by hand in the 9th century. And visitors agree — it looks like it will stand forever. There are 3 papers devoted to this temple General Introduction: Which is a scopic review of general descriptions abpot the Temple complex with the intent of introducing it to the reader. Reliefs in Borobodur Temples Design elements: Archeocosmology Introduction: Borobudur, located in Yogyakarta, Java, is one of the biggest Buddhist monuments in the world. It was built in 8th–9th AD as a stepped pyramid with 9 platforms and approximately 2670 individual reliefs which cover its facades and galleries. Among them, 1460 are narratives and 1112 are decorative. The narrative panels are grouped into 11 series and distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu). The hidden foot contains the first series of the narrative panels of karmic law and the remaining 10 series are distributed in four galleries. They are Buddhacharita, the life of Buddha; Jakatas, the previous lives of the Buddha, and the story of Sudhana's visits to the 53 virtuous personalities as given in Gandvyuha, or the chapter of “the Entry to the Realm of Reality” in the Avatamsaka Sutra. RELIEFS The stories are compiled in the Dvijavadana (Glorious Heavenly Acts) and the Awadana Sataka (Hundred Awadanas). The first twenty panels in the lower series of the first gallery depict, the Sudhanakumaravadana. The series of reliefs covering the wall of the second gallery is devoted to Sudhana's tireless wanderings in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. The story is continued on the wall and balustrade of the third and fourth galleries. Its depiction in most of the 460 panels is based on the holy Nahayana text Gandavyuha, the concluding scenes being derived from another text, the Badracari. Reading the Bas Reliefs at Borobudur  Reading the bas reliefs at Borobudur requires a specific technique. The panels on the wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming with the pradaksina, a ritual performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction, whilst always keeping the sanctuary to their right. The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the stairs at the eastern corner. The panels depict stories of Karma, of passion, robbery, murder, torture and humiliation. But not all are negative. Some panels also tell of the cause and effect of good deeds, and describe the behavior of the Javanese Society of that day, from religion to livelihood to social structure, fashion, and even the various types of plants and animals. Ultimately, it describes the human life cycle: Birth – Life – Death.  Kamadhatu is a picture of highly populated world still dominated by Kama, or lust. This zone is at the bottom level of Borobodur, and is therefore not visible due to some added construction. Some say these structures were added to strengthen the building's foundations, while others speculate that they have been added to conceal the obscene content of the reliefs. For visitors that wish to see these reliefs, the Karmawibhangga Museum displays pictures of the Kamadhatu.  Lalitawistara are a series of beautifully sculpted reliefs that depict the history of Buddha, starting from his descent from Heaven, to his enlightenment under the bodhi tree, and finally to his first teachings in the city of Banaras. Lalitawistara consists of 120 panels, but yet does not tell the complete story of Buddha. These reliefs are found on the temple walls in hallway 1 on level 2.  Jataka and Awadana are reliefs telling of Buddha, before he was reborn as Prince Siddharta. These are also engraved in hallway 1 on the second level, and tell of Buddha's kindness and self-sacrifice as he was reincarnated in various forms of human or animal. It explains of how good works are what set humans apart from animals, and tells of the stages of preparation to the next and higher level of Buddha. Awadana also tells the story not of the Buddha figure, but of the Prince Sudhanakumara. The stories on the awadana reliefs are compiled in the books Kitab Diwyawadana, (A Diety's noble deeds," and Kitab Awadanasataka, (A hundred awadana stories.)  Bhadracari is a row of 460 neatly carved reliefs along the walls and balustrades. These reliefs are scattered throughout various levels of the temple and tell of Sudhana, the son of a wealthy merchant, who wanders in quest of the ultimate knowledge or truth. These panels are based on the Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, entitled Gandawyuha. The story tells of 10 great vows made by Bodhisattva Samantabadhra concerning his Buddhist practice, which later became the leading guidelines of all Bodhisattvas, and particularly of Sudhana. locations of the Borobudar reliefs   what it might have been like when Borobudur was a working temple Understanding the Thousands of Relief Panels of Borobudur From the 5th to 7th levels of the temple, there are no reliefs on the walls. This is because these levels represent the nature of the “Arupadhatu," which means “without tangible form." At this level, people are free from all desires of any shape or form, but yet have not attained Nirvana. On this level, there are several Buddha statues placed inside stupas. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa. The Story of the GOOD MAN Sudhana: This paper is a preliminary study exploring the various reliefs on the walls of the temple.To understand the relifs some fundamental buddist beliefs need to be portrayed here albeit in short: A Buddhist Mahayana Sutra of Indian origin dating roughly c. 200 to 300 CEis known as the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra or The Excellent Manifestation Sūtra , Sutra of the Tree's Display; cf. Skt "gaṇḍi", "the trunk of a tree from the root to the beginning of the branches”) . It depicts one of the world's most celebrated spiritual pilgrimages, and comprises the 39th chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, or Flower Ornament Scripture. In Buddhabhadra's Chinese translation of the Avatamsaka, this 39th chapter is entitled "Entrance into the Dharma Realm".The Sutra is described as the "Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth", as the sutra chronicles the journey of a disciple, Sudhana ("Excellent Riches"), as he encounters various teachings and Bodhisattvas until his journey reaches full circle and he awakens to teachings of the Buddha. The penultimate master that Sudhana visits is the Mañjuśrī Bodhisattva, the bodhisattva of great wisdom. Thus, one of the grandest of pilgrimages approaches its conclusion by revisiting where it began. The Gaṇḍavyūha suggests that with a subtle shift of perspective we may come to see that the enlightenment that the pilgrim so fervently sought was not only with him at every stage of his journey, but before it began as well—that enlightenment is not something to be gained, but "something" the pilgrim never departed from.The final master that Sudhana visits is the bodhisattva Samantabhadra, who teaches him that wisdom only exists for the sake of putting it into practice; that it is only good insofar as it benefits all living beings. The story goes( on the Panels) of the visit of the good man, Sudhana who also had a good track record of his previous lives. There are 460 panels that describe this visits He expressed his sincere wish to learn the way of Dharma and visited Manjusri asking for his advice. Manjusri showed him the path. He then visited 53 Kalyanamitras inclusive of Gods, Goddesses, monks, laymen, travelers, kings and Bodhisattvas. The 53rd visit was to Maitreya who showed him the door of Dharma and told him to visit Manjusri again. Manju sri empowered him with wisdom and told him to visit Samantabbadra. Through Samantabbadra's Adhishthana or aid he reached perfection at the end. The temple is a massive step pyramid structure made from giant stone blocks, built on a hill, surrounded by valleys and hills. The levels rise up representing the stages of enlightenment. Borobudur stupas overlooking a mountain. For centuries, it was deserted. A main dome, located at the center of the top platform, is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues seated inside a perforated stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness).The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam. Worldwide knowledge of its existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia’s single most visited tourist attraction. Etymology In Indonesian, ancient temples are referred to as candi; thus locals refer to “Borobudur Temple” as Candi Borobudur. The term candi also loosely describes ancient structures, for example gates and baths. The origins of the name Borobudur, however, are unclear,although the original names of most ancient Indonesian temples are no longer known.The name Borobudur was first written in Sir Thomas Raffles’s book on Javan history. Raffles wrote about a monument called borobudur, but there are no older documents suggesting the same name.The only old Javanese manuscript that hints at the monument as a holy Buddhist sanctuary is Nagarakretagama, written by Mpu Prapanca in 1365. The name Bore-Budur, and thus BoroBudur, is thought to have been written by Raffles in English grammar to mean the nearby village of Bore; most candi are named after a nearby village. If it followed Javanese language, the monument should have been named “BudurBoro”. Raffles also suggested that Budur might correspond to the modern Javanese word Buda (“ancient”)—i.e., “ancient Boro”. However, another archaeologist suggests the second component of the name (Budur) comes from Javanese term bhudhara (“mountain”). The construction and inauguration of a sacred Buddhist building—possibly a reference to Borobudur—was mentioned in two inscriptions, both discovered in Kedu, Temanggung Regency. The Karangtengah inscription, dated 824, mentioned a sacred building named Jinalaya (the realm of those who have conquered worldly desire and reached enlightenment), inaugurated by Pramodhawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga. The Tri Tepusan inscription, dated 842, is mentioned in the sima, the (tax-free) lands awarded by Çrī Kahulunnan (Pramodhawardhani) to ensure the funding and maintenance of a Kamūlān called Bhūmisambhāra. Kamūlān is from the word mula, which means “the place of origin”, a sacred building to honor the ancestors, probably those of the Sailendras. Casparis suggested that Bhūmi Sambhāra Bhudhāra, which in Sanskrit means “the mountain of combined virtues of the ten stages of Boddhisattvahood”, was the original name of Borobudur. Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta and 86 kilometres (53 mi) west of Surakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese “sacred” place and has been dubbed “the garden of Java” due to its high agricultural fertility. During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line.A ritual relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual process is unknown. Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of a dried-out paleolake. The lake’s existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the 20th century. In 1931, a Dutch artist and scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that the Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment. The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as ca. 1365, in Mpu Prapanca’s Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning “the vihara in Budur”.  Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century. The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the “Redi Borobudur” hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, “he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)”. Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later. Architecture The archeological excavation into Borobudur during reconstruction suggests that adherents of Hinduism or a pre-Indic faith had already begun to erect a large structure on Borobudur’s hill before the site was appropriated by Buddhists. The foundations are unlike any Hindu or Buddhist shrine structures, and therefore, the initial structure is considered more indigenous Javanese than Hindu or Buddhist. Design Borobudur ground plan taking the form of a Mandala Borobudur is built as a single large stupa and, when viewed from above, takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 metres (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures. Stairs of Borobudur through arches of Kala Lion gate guardian The design of Borobudur took the form of a step pyramid. Previously, the prehistoric Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia had constructed several earth mounds and stone step pyramid structures called punden berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan, Cisolok and Gunung Padang, West Java. The construction of stone pyramids is based on native beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode of ancestral spirits or hyangs. Thepunden berundak step pyramid is the basic design in Borobudur, believed to be the continuation of older megalithic tradition incorporated with Mahayana Buddhist ideas and symbolism. The monument’s three divisions symbolize the three “realms” of Buddhist cosmology, namely Kamadhatu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world). Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form and experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana.The liberation from the cycle of Saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, the complete voidness or the nonexistence of the self. Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), andArupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between the three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms—where men are still attached with forms and names—changes into the world of the formless. Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed in a walking pilgrimage. Pilgrims are guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed to symbolize Buddhist cosmology. In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The “hidden footing” contains reliefs, 160 of which are narratives describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs have short inscriptions that apparently provide instructions for the sculptors, illustrating the scenes to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument into the hills. A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden footing was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of why it was commissioned, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design and with aesthetic and religious consideration. Building structure Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of andesite stones were taken from neighbouring stone quarries to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. Reliefs were created in situ after the building had been completed. The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area’s high stormwater run-off. To prevent flooding, 100 spouts are installed at each corner, each with a unique carved gargoyle in the shape of a giant or makara. Borobudur differs markedly from the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of being built on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. However, construction technique is similar to other temples in Java. Without the inner spaces seen in other temples, and with a general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as ashrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. The meticulous complexity of the monument’s design suggests that Borobudur is in fact a temple. The basic unit of measurement used during construction was the tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance. The unit is thus relative from one individual to the next, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry in Borobudur’s design. This ratio is also found in the designs of Pawon and Mendut, nearby Buddhist temples. Archeologists have conjectured that the 4:6:9 ratio and the tala have calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as is the case with the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. The main structure can be divided into three components: base, body, and top.  The base is 123×123 m (403.5 × 403.5 ft) in size with 4 metres (13 ft) walls. The body is composed of five square platforms, each of diminishing height. The first terrace is set back 7 metres (23 ft) from the edge of the base. Each subsequent terrace is set back 2 metres (6.6 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of three circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center, the top of which is the highest point of the monument, 35 metres (115 ft) above ground level. Stairways at the center of each of the four sides give access to the top, with a number of arched gates overlooked by 32 lion statues. The gates are adorned with Kala’s head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The main entrance is on the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. Stairways on the slopes of the hill also link the monument to the low-lying plain. Reliefs Reading the Bas Reliefs at Borobudur  Reading the bas reliefs at Borobudur requires a specific technique. The panels on the wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming with the pradaksina, a ritual performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction, whilst always keeping the sanctuary to their right. The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the stairs at the eastern corner. The panels depict stories of Karma, of passion, robbery, murder, torture and humiliation. But not all are negative. Some panels also tell of the cause and effect of good deeds, and describe the behavior of the Javanese Society of that day, from religion to livelihood to social structure, fashion, and even the various types of plants and animals. Ultimately, it describes the human life cycle: Birth – Life – Death.  Kamadhatu is a picture of highly populated world still dominated by Kama, or lust. This zone is at the bottom level of Borobodur, and is therefore not visible due to some added construction. Some say these structures were added to strengthen the building's foundations, while others speculate that they have been added to conceal the obscene content of the reliefs. For visitors that wish to see these reliefs, the Karmawibhangga Museum displays pictures of the Kamadhatu.  Lalitawistara are a series of beautifully sculpted reliefs that depict the history of Buddha, starting from his descent from Heaven, to his enlightenment under the bodhi tree, and finally to his first teachings in the city of Banaras. Lalitawistara consists of 120 panels, but yet does not tell the complete story of Buddha. These reliefs are found on the temple walls in hallway 1 on level 2.  Jataka and Awadana are reliefs telling of Buddha, before he was reborn as Prince Siddharta. These are also engraved in hallway 1 on the second level, and tell of Buddha's kindness and self-sacrifice as he was reincarnated in various forms of human or animal. It explains of how good works are what set humans apart from animals, and tells of the stages of preparation to the next and higher level of Buddha. Awadana also tells the story not of the Buddha figure, but of the Prince Sudhanakumara. The stories on the awadana reliefs are compiled in the books Kitab Diwyawadana, (A Diety's noble deeds," and Kitab Awadanasataka, (A hundred awadana stories.)   Bhadracari is a row of 460 neatly carved reliefs along the walls and balustrades. These reliefs are scattered throughout various levels of the temple and tell of Sudhana, the son of a wealthy merchant, who wanders in quest of the ultimate knowledge or truth. These panels are based on the Mahayana Buddhist scriptures, entitled Gandawyuha. The story tells of 10 great vows made by Bodhisattva Samantabadhra concerning his Buddhist practice, which later became the leading guidelines of all Bodhisattvas, and particularly of Sudhana. Understanding the Thousands of Relief Panels of Borobudur From the 5th to 7th levels of the temple, there are no reliefs on the walls. This is because these levels represent the nature of the “Arupadhatu," which means “without tangible form." At this level, people are free from all desires of any shape or form, but yet have not attained Nirvana. On this level, there are several Buddha statues placed inside stupas. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the Imperfect Buddha or Unfinished Buddha, which can now be found in the The stories are compiled in the Dvijavadana (Glorious Heavenly Acts) and the Awadana Sataka (Hundred Awadanas). The first twenty panels in the lower series of the first gallery depict, the Sudhanakumaravadana. The series of reliefs covering the wall of the second gallery is devoted to Sudhana's tireless wanderings in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. The story is continued on the wall and balustrade of the third and fourth galleries. Its depiction in most of the 460 panels is based on the holy Nahayana text Gandavyuha, the concluding scenes being derived from another text. The position of narrative bas-reliefs stories on Borobudur wall Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces. The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas andapsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship. Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur. The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus. NARRATIVE PANELS DISTRIBUTION SECTION LOCATION STORY #PANELS hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160 first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120 Jataka/Avadana 120 balustrade Jataka/Avadana 372 Jataka/Avadana 128 second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100 main wall Gandavyuha 128 third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88 balustrade Gandavyuha 88 fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84 balustrade Gandavyuha 72 Total 1,460 Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu). The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara, are grouped into 11 series that encircle the monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right. The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha’s former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana’s further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom. The law of karma (Karmavibhangga) The Karmavibangga scene on Borobudur’s hidden foot, on the right depicting sinful act of killing and cooking turtles and fishes, on the left those who make living by killing animals will be tortured in hell, by being cooked alive, being cut, or being thrown into burning house. The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect.  There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). The encasement base of the Borobudur temple was dissembled to reveal the hidden foot, and the reliefs were photographed by Casijan Chepas in 1890. It is these photographs that are displayed in Borobudur Museum(Karmawibhangga Museum), located just several hundred meters north of the temple. During the restoration, the foot encasement was reinstalled, covering the Karmawibhangga reliefs. Today, only the southeast corner of the hidden foot is revealed and visible for visitors. The story of Prince Siddhartha and the birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara) Prince Siddhartha Gautama became an ascetic hermit. The story starts with the descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.  The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal). The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in the heavens and on the earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva. Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya’s right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha. While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand, and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha. The stories of Buddha’s previous life (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana) Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. They are the stories that tell about the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and animal form. The future Buddha may appear in them as a king, an outcast, a god, an elephant—but, in whatever form, he exhibits some virtue that the tale thereby inculcates. Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur. The first twenty lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana, or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala. The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama’s forefather). Sudhana’s search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha) Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana’s tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery, comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha’s samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti. During his search, Sudhana visited no fewer than thirty teachers, but none of them had satisfied him completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order) Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, theupasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery. After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra, depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana’s achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth. Buddha statues: Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level), as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level). The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At theArupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, which adds up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless), and 43 are missing (since the monument’s discovery, heads have been stolen as collector’s items, mostly by Western museums). A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra (turning the Wheel of the Law) Buddha statues inside and outside a stupa At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras, or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of theFive Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. Following the order of Pradakshina (clockwise circumumbulation) starting from the East, the mudras of the Borobudur buddha statues are: STATUE MUDRA SYMBOLIC MEANING DHYANI BUDDHA CARDINAL POINT Bhumisparsa mudra Calling the Earth to witness Aksobhya East Vara mudra Benevolence, alms giving Ratnasambhava South Dhyana mudra Concentration and meditation Amitabha West Abhaya mudra Courage, fearlessness Amoghasiddhi North Vitarka mudra Reasoning and virtue Vairochana Zenith Dharmachakra mudra Turning the Wheel ofdharma (law) Vairochana Zenith http://artserve.anu.edu.au/htdocs/bycountry/indonesia/borobudur/photos/gal4balus/index.html Main Image: 4166.JPG Series: Main stupa Plate: IX Image: 4192.JPG Series: Main stupa Plate: IX Image: 4193.JPG Series: Main stupa Plate: IX Image: 4162.JPG Series: Plate: V Buddha Statues Image: 4181.JPG Series: Plate: V Image: 4182.JPG Series: Plate: V Image: 4163.JPG Series: Plate: VI Image: 4183.JPG Series: Plate: VI Buddha Statues Image: 4184.JPG Series: Plate: VI Image: 4185.JPG Series: Plate: VI Image: 4164.JPG Series: Plate: VII Image: 4186.JPG Series: Plate: VII Buddha Statues Image: 4158.JPG Series: Plate: I Image: 4173.JPG Series: Plate: I Image: 4174.JPG Series: Plate: I Image: 4159.JPG Series: Plate: II Buddha Statues Image: 4175.JPG Series: Plate: II Image: 4176.JPG Series: Plate: II Image: 4160.JPG Series: Plate: III Image: 4177.JPG Series: Plate: III Buddha Statues Image: 4178.JPG Series: Plate: III Image: 4161.JPG Series: Plate: IV Image: 4179.JPG Series: Plate: IV Image: 4180.JPG Series: Plate: IV Buddha Statues Image: 4187.JPG Series: Plate: VII Image: 4188.JPG Series: Plate: VII Image: 4165.JPG Series: Plate: VIII Image: 4189.JPG Series: Plate: VIII Buddha Statues Image: 4190.JPG Series: Plate: VIII Image: 4191.JPG Series: Plate: VIII Image: 4167.JPG Series: Main stupa Plate: X Image: 4194.JPG Series: Main stupa Plate: X Buddha Statues Image: 4195.JPG Series: Main stupa Plate: X Image: 4168.JPG Series: typology Plate: XI Image: 4196.JPG Series: typology Plate: XI Image: 4197.JPG Series: typology Plate: XI Gallery of reliefs Borobudur is constructed in such a way that it reveals various levels of terraces, showing intricate architecture that goes from being heavily ornamented with bas-reliefs to being plain in Arupadhatu circular terraces. The first four terrace walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship. Today, the actual-size replica of Borobudur Ship that had sailed from Indonesia to Africa in 2004 is displayed in the Samudra Raksa Museum, located a few hundred meters north of Borobudur. The Borobudur reliefs also pay close attention to Indian aesthetic discipline, such as pose and gesture that contain certain meanings and aesthetic value. The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas are usually portrayed in tribhanga pose, the three-bend pose on neck, hips, and knee, with one leg resting and one upholding the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus.[90] During Borobudur excavation, archeologists discovered colour pigments of blue, red, green, black, as well as bits of gold foil, and concluded that the monument that we see today – a dark gray mass of volcanic stone, lacking in colour – was probably once coated with varjalepa white plaster and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[91] The same vajralepa plaster can also be found in Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temples. It is likely that the bas-reliefs of Borobudur was originally quite colourful, before centuries of torrential tropical rainfalls peeled-off the colour pigments. Narrative panels distribution Section Location Story No. of panels hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160 first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120 Jataka/Avadana 120 balustrade Jataka/Avadana 372 Jataka/Avadana 128 second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100 main wall Gandavyuha 128 third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88 balustrade Gandavyuha 88 fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84 balustrade Gandavyuha 72 Total 1,460 Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square metres (27,000 sq ft), and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu). The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,  are grouped into 11 series that encircle the monument with a total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels, and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while those on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right. The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also the balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom. Borobudur, Indonesia (photo: Claire André, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) Why was the original base encased? Many theories and conjectures have been put forwards. These can be summed up in two trends of thought, whether the base was covered for technical structural/architectural reasons, or for conceptual/religious reasons. The present author’s study has led her to a conjecture in favour of the religious reasons. During the two restorations of the monument, in the 1970s and in the early 20th century, numerous unexpected technical and architectural features were brought to the light. These new data could only be explained by one hypothesis: the Borobudur as we see it today is not the monument that was originally planned. At some point during its construction, the original plans were changed: not only the base was hidden by a broad terrace, but balustrades were added and entrances were narrowed. These modifications, probably carried out by the command of a new architect, possibly reflect a change of the religious tendencies. Certain aspects of the reliefs of the hidden base would indeed not have been suitable for the Mahayana teachings as professed in 9th century Java. Lots have been said about the religiously or conceptually ‘unsuitable’ features of this set of reliefs in relations to Buddhist thinking, as well as in the eyes of the later priestly architect of Borobudur, who must have been the one who gave order for the encasement of the old base. There is violence in many hell scenes, with many gruesome forms of severe punishment vividly and elaborately unfolded in front of the spectators’ eyes . The ratio with the happy ones is even-handed - good deeds and their rewards.. And yet, we notice that the ‘positive’ scenes of rewards and of paradises are rather stereotypical and quite cursory unfolded, usually without any specification or distinguished detail, in contrast with depictions of the retributions in the hells. The Karmavibhanga itself actually gives only cursory references to the rebirth in hells, without further specifications. Vivid, variant descriptions of the many types of hells were obtained by the priest-designer from other sources (a.o. the Abhidharmakosa). The emphasis of his intent and his visual presentation did appear to lie heavily and more vividly on such violent ‘negative’ and gruesome scenes . Hell scenes usually form part of visual depictions of Buddhist cosmology only when these explain the geography of the universe, but rarely or never are included in such sacred designs on which worshippers are meant to meditate on. A similar concept, based on the auspicious features (mangalas/sarvamangala) that will bring good tiding, prosperity and success, is also found visually depicted and elaborated many times in the reliefs on the 3rd and 4th galleries of Borobudur itself (reliefs nos. III, 51-77 and IV B 1-17). While the texts repeatedly refer to ‘all dominions of the universe’ where the grace and compassion of the Buddha and the redeeming force of Buddhahood pervade, no visual depictions of the unhappy worlds of hells are represented on the upper galleries of Borobudur. The set up: of Borobudur conforms to that of a diagram for contemplation and meditation, which should exclude ‘negative’ elements of evil thought and deeds, of mistakes and violence – the non-beneficial elements that would only gather like dusts of defilement to cloud and weigh down the mind on its upwards surge to purity and Salvation. This violent opening scene may have shocked or at least disturbed the new priestly advisor of the Shailendras, who took charge of the final site.In all panels dealing with suffering and punishments in hell (reliefs nos. 86-91), and in the unhappy world of the hungry ghosts (relief no. 95) and the animals (relief no. 93), the victims are all on their own, entirely dependent on their own karmas. This paradigm of absolute self-reliance would have clashed uncomfortably with the spirit of the Mahayana, the religion of the Shailendras, which centred round the worship of the Bodhisattva Saviours and Tara Saviouresses, such as we know from their monuments and inscriptions, and as being unfolded repeatedly in the reliefs of the 3rd and 4th gallery of Borobudur itself. The usual Mahayana way of depicting such scenes of torment and suffering would have been to add an image of the Saviour, either in the form of a The Mahayana texts Gandavyuha and Bhadracari, visually unfolded on the 3rd and 4th galleries of Borobudur, consistently emphasise the concept of ‘the Buddhas of all Dominions’. Furthermore, Maitreya, the Future Buddha, set examples for all the Future Buddhas including Samantabhadra and Sudhana who play the principal roles in the Gandavyuha and Bhadracari scenes on these upper terraces, to preach and to save living beings of all kinds and in all forms, be they high or low, good or wicked, happy or miserable, in all the six dominions, the ten quarters and the three time spans of the universe (reliefs nos. III, 67-76 and IV, 2-72). There seem to have been many ‘unsuitable’ aspects of this set of reliefs in the eyes of the new priest-designer of Borobudur. Certain changes in religious perception would have been expected to take place during the construction of Borobudur. The Shailendras’ inscriptions, dating from 778 CE to the first half of the 9th century, contain indications of new religious trends that entered their world during this period. One or more of the later gurus, acting as chief architect-designers of their sacred foundations, must have been responsible for the change of plan at Borobudur, and likewise to the encasement of its original base. The decision to remove this series had obviously been taken before the base was entirely finished, possibly simultaneously with the making of the new structural plan for the monument, which included a new design for all its terraces. This, according to Dumarçay would have taken place around 792 CE. This attempt to delete the scenes must have been made before the architect-designer decided to encase the entire lower base altogether within the new terrace that formed part of the new structural design of Borobudur. The main purpose was obviously to blot out this ‘unsuitable’ series from the visions of the on-lookers. The destructive operation would have begun by having the components of the scenes chiselled away part by part. The damaged panels and their photographic images from 1890-1891 thus tell their story, which is to be interpreted in favour of religious motivations to encase the original base including - or rather because of - its ‘unsuitable’ or ‘ unhappy’ sculptured components. There could have also been certain technical requirements in the course of the building operations, but such would not have been essential reasons for the base to be covered. If structural requirements had actually been the primary concern and a true necessity, there would have been no need to waste time nor labour to carefully scrape away the sculptured scenes first before eventually encasing them forever in a shell of stone. Reliefs depicted at Borobudur’s “hidden foot” are scenes taken from the Karmawibhangga texts. These reliefs depicted in 160 panels were rediscovered by J.W. Ijzerman in 1885, and in 1890- 1891 were photographed by Kassian Cephas before the reliefs were closed down once again. The Karmawibhangga deals with the Law of Cause and Effect, the Karmic Law. The doctrine was very important for the Buddhist visitors. In order they understand easily the episodes they saw, the sculptors portray many aspects of the early life in Java from the 9th to 10th century AD, during Borobudur’s era. The reliefs were studied by N.J. Krom, S. Levi, and Jan Fontein. Fontein studies these reliefs by comparing the episodes with two Karmawibhangga texts which were translated into Chinese named as T 80 and T 81. The purpose in writing this paper is to find out the Karmavibhanga text(s) used by the sculptors in carving the Karmawibhangga at Candi Borobudur. In this case I use the Historical-archaeology as a method; this approach seeks an equal combination of “historical” and “archaeological” data to the study of the past Research on the Karmawibhangga reliefs at “the hidden base” of Candi Borobudur have been carried out by several scholars, among others are N.J. Krom (1920), Sylvain Levi (1931), and Jan Fontein. The result of the study, each of them has a specific text related to the Karmawibangga text which deals with the Law of Cause and Effect, The Karmic Law. In this article I intent to find out which text used by the sculptors to carve the relief Karmawibhangga at candi Borobudur. 1 By using the Historical-Archaeological approach, the sculptors used only one single text, which was the original Sanskrit text of T80. According to Fontein the T 80 consists of paragraphs, and each paragraph consists of 10 types of actions (Cause) and the result for all beings in their rebirth (Effect). We can see the relationship between the Cause-Effect of the paragraphs on the episodes of the relief Karmawibhangga at Borobudur, for instance in paragraph I, “rebirth of short duration” was mentioned as the Effect and we saw a small child (“short duration”) dead as a result of one of the types of action in paragraph I. REFERENCE Identification of Karmawibhangga Reliefs at Candi Borobudur, Hariani Santiko, Researchgate, Article · December 2016  ii The Incipient Tantrism of Borobudur We as human have struggled to find ways to conceptualize the relation between textuality and forms of the built environment. Ever since its discovery by Raffles in 1814, Borobudur has been an object of mystery. Its imposing size and the magnificence of its conception and carving aside, the uniqueness both of its structural design and its iconography among religious monuments, not only in its temporal and spatial proximity, but anywhere in the Indic world, has heightened its aspect of enigma, inviting conjecture on its intention. Who made Borobudur ? what was it used for? why was it made the way it was made? these and similar questions arise immediately in connection with the monument. Though more than 150 years have passed since its discovery, none of these questions have been definitively answered, though some important preliminary headway has been made, in establishing the period of its construction and in conclusively identifying the textual sources of the carving.Borobudur, begun around 825, is the quite simply the largest Buddhist temple in the world. It is decorated with around 500 statues of Lord Buddha, arranged in terraces of decreasing size, as if on the sacred slopes of Mount Meru. It was built possibly by the Sangramadha Nanjaya Sailendra dynasty of Mataram, Central Java, or maybe “charismatic religious leaders rather than kings.” For surprisingly there is no great temple or palace complex associated with it. The only inscription associated with Borobudur dates from 842 and is from a woman who gave land to sustain it. For all the mystery, this is the climax of the ninth century golden age of Java, when so many remarkable monuments were built here, both Hindu and Buddhist. Like many other monuments of this period Indic ideas have been taken and dramatic new forms created with and from them. Twelve-Armed Chakrasamvara and His Consort Vajravarahi, ca. 12th century, India (Bengal) or Bangladesh A stone Kālacakra Mandala at the Hiraṇyavarṇa Mahāvihāra, a Buddhist temple in Patan, Nepal built in the 12th century. Max Nihom in a 1994 monograph Studies in Indian and Indo-Indonesian Tantrism: The Kuñjarakarṇadharmakathana and the Yogatantra accounted for some anomalies in the evidence from insular Southeast Asia on the history of esoteric Buddhism, moving between sources in Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Old Javanese.  From the 8th to the 14th century, Tantric traditions rose to prominence and flourished throughout India and beyond. By the 10th century, the main elements of tantric practice had reached maturity and were being practiced in Saiva and Buddhist contexts. This period has been referred to as the "Tantric Age" by some scholars due to prevalence of Tantra. Also by the 10th century, numerous tantric texts (variously called Agamas, Samhitas and Tantras) had been written, particularly in Kashmir, Nepal and Bengal.  By this time, Tantric texts had also been translated into regional languages such as Tamil, and Tantric practices had spread across South Asia. Tantra also spread into Tibet, Indonesia and China. Gavin Flood describes this "Tantric age" as follows: Tantrism has been so pervasive that all of Hinduism after the eleventh century, perhaps with the exception of the vedic Shruta tradition eeverything is influenced by it. Śrauta is a Sanskrit word that means "belonging to śruti", that is, anything based on the Vedas of Hinduism. It is an adjective and prefix for texts, ceremonies or person associated with śruti. The term, for example, refers to Brahmins who specialise in the śruti corpus of texts, and Śrauta Brahmin traditions in modern times can be seen in Kerala and Coastal AndhraAll forms of Saiva, Vaisnava and Smarta religion, even those forms which wanted to distance themselves from Tantrism, absorbed elements derived from the Tantras.  Though the whole northern and Himalayan part of India was involved in the development of tantra, Kashmir was a particularly important center, both Saiva and Buddhist and numerous key tantric texts were written there according to Padoux. According to Alexis Sanderson, the Śaiva Tantra traditions of medieval Kashmir were mainly divided between the dualistic Śaiva Siddhanta and the non-dualist theology found in Śakta lineages like the Trika, Krama and Kaula. The non-dualists generally accepted and made use of sexual and transgressive practices, while the dualists mostly rejected them. In Khmer Saiva tantra was especially successful because it managed to forge strong ties with South Asian kings who valued the power (shakti) of fierce deities like the warrior goddess Durga as a way to increase their own royal power. These kings took part in royal rituals led by Saiva "royal gurus" in which they were symbolically married to tantric deities and thus became the earthly representative of male gods like Shiva. Saiva tantra could also employ a variety of protection and destruction rituals which could be used for the benefit of the kingdom and the king. Tantric Shaivism was adopted by the kings of Kashmir, as well as by the Somavamshis of Odisha, the Kalachuris, and the Chandelas of Jejakabhukti (in Bundelkhand). There is also evidence of state support from the Cambodian Khmer Empire. As noted by Samuel, in spite of the increased depiction of female goddesses, these tantric traditions all seemed to have been mostly "male-directed and male-controlled." During the "Tantric Age", Buddhist Tantra was embraced by the Mahayana Buddhist mainstream and was studied at the great universities such as Nalanda and Vikramashila, from which it spread to Tibet and to the East Asian states of China, Korea, and Japan. This new Tantric Buddhism was supported by the Pala Dynasty (8th–12th century) which supported these centers of learning. The later Khmer kings and the Indonesian Srivijaya kingdom also supported tantric Buddhism. While the sexual and transgressive practices were mostly undertaken in symbolic form (or through visualization) in later Tibetan Buddhist monastic contexts, it seems that in the eighth to tenth century Indian context, they were actually performed. In Java The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. Although the majority of Indonesian Buddhists are of the Chinese Mahayana school, more often than not the representative of Buddhism as selected by the Government would happen to be a Theravada monk. The Buddha died in the early 5th century B.C. His teachings, called the dharma, spread over Asia and developed into three basic traditions: Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana. Buddhists call them "vehicles," meaning they are ways to carry pilgrims from suffering to enlightenment. That being said, very rarely one reads about the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan when discussing the architecture of the incredible Borobudur stupa monument. Borobudur's popular terms of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. In other words the design frescos of the Borubudur are directly influenced by the contents of the Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan. This document is part of the prose literature of Javanese people. This Tantric Buddhist treatise describes Javanese Buddhism, architecture and iconography.  The back side of this literature contain a name of Javanese king, i.e. Mpu Sindok, who ruled East Java from 929 to 947 CE. The structure of Borobudur actually shows the developmental stages of a yogi’s experiences to achieve Buddhahood where feelings and thoughts stop. Borobudur's popular term of Kamadhatu, Rupadhatu, Arupadhatu are also contained in Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. It was written about 929-947 CE by Mpu Shri Sambhara Surya Warama from East Java, the successor of the Mataram Kingdom which was shifted to East Java. However the development of Esoteric Buddhism has a long history connected to the original birthplace of Buddha and the trails and tribulations of the dogma of that time Containing  Mahayana (especially Vajrayana) Buddhism teachings, mostly about the list of deities in found Mahayana Buddhism- which is often matched with the placement of the Buddhist kings in the Borobudur temple. The literature also contains the procedures in meditation.It teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first practice Pāramitā, then described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. As an addition, it also explained the philosophy of Adwaya that overcoming the dualism "existence" and "non-existence”. The text is restricted for the teachings in the Mahayana school, with focus on the tantric path of the Yogacara School using Mantranaya or the Mantra method. The text has been divided into two parts, each of which can be read independently. The first section entitled Sang Hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya, consists of 42 Sanskrit verses, each with a related commentary in elaborate old Javanese and regrouped under 11 subtopics and a conclusion. The second section consists of instructions in 86 verses, written mainly in old Javanese, with a few middle level Sanskrit references. Both texts belong to the same school and are connected. The text is in a question and answer form. The Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan consists of two parts, each of which forms a separate track. The fi rst part consists of a connected series of Sanskrit strophes with a more or less elaborate Old-Javanese commentary attached; at the end, the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya is given as the title. It bears the same meaning as what is called mantracaryānaya in the verses and generally known as the Mantrayāna. The second part is a doctrine written in Old-Javanese, punctuated with a few Sanskrit quotations of less high form, belonging to the same school as the first part, as per the examination of the content. The practical teachings in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan are set out in four steps. The first, Mahāmārga (the great path); second, Paramabodhimārga or Paramamārga (the supreme path) has already been dealt with in the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya and at the beginning of the Sang Hyang Kamahāyānan Advaya Sadhana. Third, Mahāguhya (the great secret) and fourth, Paramaguhya (the supreme secret) is the subject of this part of the text. The above practices are entry level meditations for tantric practices. Sanghyang Kamahayanikan teaches how one can attain Buddhahood, i.e. a student must first practice Pāramitā, then the described Paramaguhya and Mahaguhya. Additionally, it also explains the philosophy of Adwaya; overcoming the dualism of “existence” and “non-existence”. In the book, there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepares himself for the spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worship. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines are meditation towards the Five Tathagatas. By worshipping them, a yogi can attain purity of mind. Esoteric Buddhism is the mystical interpretation and practice of the belief system founded by the Buddha (known as Sakyamuni Buddha, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE). It is known by several names and is characterized by a personal relationship with a spirit guide or deity who leads one to enlightenment. An initiate must first study with a master who shares writings, teachings, and knowledge not widely known and often referred to as "secret". The student masters various meditation techniques and studies the tantra, generally understood to mean "the continuum" as expressed in Tantric texts. This continuum is the pattern of universal love and compassion shown throughout time by the supernatural entities of buddhas, of which Sakyamuni Buddha was only one, to humanity. An adherent of Esoteric Buddhism forms a relationship with one of these buddhas and is then spiritually led by the entity (or deity) on the path toward enlightenment as a bodhisattva. Vajrayana Buddhism (also known as Tibetan Buddhism) is regarded as a form of both Mahayana Buddhism and Esoteric Buddhism as it combines elements of both, and most schools, like Zen Buddhism, follow this same pattern in taking what works best from other schools to supplement the foundational teachings. The beliefs and practices of Esoteric Buddhism are not as well known or widely recognized as those of the popular Mahayana Buddhism because they are not supposed to be. The belief system is open only to those who feel called to follow it and are willing to submit themselves to instruction by a master. The belief system may have developed as a reaction to the Hindu Revival of the 8th century CE inspired by the work of the philosopher Shankara (though this claim is challenged), which emphasized many of the same aspects of faith and knowledge later espoused by Esoteric Buddhism, including foundational knowledge, submission to a master’s teaching, and the importance of personal revelation. Early Religious Reform During the Vedic Period (c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE) in India, the belief system known as Sanatan Dharma ("Eternal Order"), better known as Hinduism, developed from earlier beliefs through the written works known as the Vedas which preserved a much older oral tradition. Hinduism was highly ritualized at this time. The Vedas ("knowledge") were composed in Sanskrit which most people could not understand, and the priests needed to interpret the texts, which were thought to explain the universe, human life, and how one should best live it. The Vedas maintained that there was a divine being, Brahman, who both created and was the universe. A spark of the divine (the atman) was within each person, and the purpose of life was to awaken this spark and live virtuously so that, after death, one’s own divine light would merge with Brahman in eternal unity, and one would be freed from the cycle of rebirth and death (known as samsara), which was associated with suffering. Buddha Sculpture in Ajanta/ The Vedas (Rig-veda) Around 600 BCE, a religious reform movement swept across India that questioned orthodox Hinduism. Different schools of thought developed at this time known as astika ("there exists"), which supported the Hindu claim regarding the existence of the atman, and nastika ("there does not exist"), which rejected that claim as well as almost all of the Hindu vision. Nastika: The most famous nastika schools of the time were Charvaka, Jainism, and Buddhism. The first was entirely materialistic and denied the existence of the soul. The second two, while also denying the Hindu atman, recognized a self undifferentiated from the universe which suffered under the illusion it was a separate self distanced both from its source and from other selves in the world. Buddhism: Establishment & Development Buddha, according to tradition, was a Hindu prince named Siddhartha Gautama who renounced his position and wealth to seek spiritual enlightenment. He realized that suffering comes from attachment to transitory aspects of life and life itself, which was in a constant state of change and so could not be held, kept, or controlled, but which people insisted should be lasting. One suffered by continually insisting on an impossible permanence. By recognizing this, and following a path of non-attachment, one could attain nirvana ("liberation") at one’s death, freeing the self from samsara and attendant suffering. Buddha founded his system on acceptance of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and taught his disciples a spiritual discipline whereby they could attain individual enlightenment just as he had. On his deathbed, he requested that no spiritual leader be chosen to replace him and each of his disciples should continue on his own path. After his death, however, a leader was chosen, and rules were written, and Buddha’s teachings were institutionalized. The new faith splintered in 383 BCE over doctrinal differences, and many Buddhist schools developed including Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika, which would encourage still more. Buddhism at this time was vying with the more firmly established religions of Hinduism and Jainism for adherents and made little headway until it was embraced by Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) of the Mauryan Empire who not only helped establish the system in India but spread it to Sri Lanka, Korea, Thailand, China, and Japan. Shankara & Hindu Revival Buddhism was enthusiastically received in these other lands but continued to struggle to gain and hold followers in India. Hinduism offered a greater variety of ritual and pageantry while also advancing the concept that everyone held a spark of the divine, was in fact a divine being and part of the universe, which contrasted sharply with the Buddhist doctrine of emptiness-of-self and simplicity of observance. Buddhist efforts at conversion were hampered further by the Hindu Revival of the 8th and 9th centuries CE encouraged (according to tradition, at least) by the sage Shankara who advocated the doctrine of Advaita Vedānta ("non-duality") emphasizing the ultimate reality of Brahman, the existence of the atman, and the illusory nature of all else. Only Brahman existed and human beings existed, through the atman, as parts of Brahman. Shankara attacked Buddhist thought for its denial of the atman, but his understanding of liberation through oneness of the atman with Brahman is similar to the Buddhist concept of attaining nirvana through non-attachment. Shankara’s doctrine relied on an adherent accepting a program based on revelation of ultimate reality. The program had four aspects of equal importance: Śāstra – scriptures Yukti – reason Anubhava – knowledge through experience Karma – spiritually relevant actions A student submitted to a teacher who helped them understand scripture, apply reason and experience to interpretation of scripture, and act correctly on that interpretation. According to some scholars, this paradigm directly influenced Esoteric Buddhism. According to other views, the fundamentals of Esoteric Buddhism, especially a personal relationship with a spirit or deity, were already centuries old by the time Shankara appeared. In this view, Shankara may have influenced the 8th century CE form of Esoteric Buddhism, but his doctrine did not inspire or inform the fundamental beliefs and practices. Undeniably the text [of these works] exhibits some of the trappings of an Indian Buddhist text, including many Sanskrit technical terms and doctrines of Indian origin. In an age when Chinese Buddhists were looking to India for the authentic Buddhism, giving a Chinese composition a Sanskrit veneer would make its presentation of a belief in the Absolute more credible. (435) The belief system traveled from China to Japan where it was famously encouraged by Prince Shotoku (r. 594-622 CE) who helped to establish it throughout the country. Esoteric Buddhism was refined, systematized, and spread further by Kukai (also known as Kobo Daishi, l. 774-835 CE), a scholar-monk and poet who founded Shingon Buddhism in Japan. Shingon ("True Word") Buddhism adhered to the cosmic vision of Buddhism as an eternal set of strictures which had been articulated clearly by the Buddha but not conceived of by him, nor had he been the first buddha and certainly not the last. Shingon, like Vajrayana Buddhism, claimed one could attain complete enlightenment in one’s lifetime and only by submitting to the discipline of a virtuous teacher. Copy of the Heart Sutra/ Chinese Diamond Sutra Mainstream Buddhism emphasized adherence to the Eightfold Path after a recognition of the Four Noble Truths which led one to enlightenment and freedom, at death, from the cycle of rebirth. Esoteric Buddhism offers the same basic platform but claims one can attain results more quickly by embracing and then letting go of the attachments of life as one becomes more spiritually mature. One should not, then, renounce the world of illusion but recognize its value since one could not accrue spiritual merit without it and, without the spiritual merit one earned through the discipline of distancing oneself from that world, one could not advance toward enlightenment. Buswell and Lopez note how one of the names for Esoteric Buddhism is Mantrayana and the importance of reciting a personal mantra in staying the course toward higher values. In the book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan there is a very detailed description of how a tantric yogi prepare himself for spiritual path, from the start until the implementation of multilevel worships. It is said that the Vajrayana doctrines is meditation towards Five Tathagata. By worshipping them, a yogi can attain the purity of mind. The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to the history of Hinduism, as a number of empires influenced by Indian culture were established around the same period. The arrival of Buddhism in the Indonesian archipelago began with trading activity, from the early 1st century, by way of the maritime Silk Road between Indonesia and India. The oldest Buddhist archaeological site in Indonesia is arguably the Batujaya stupas complex in Karawang, West Java. The oldest relic in Batujaya was estimated to originate from the 2nd century, while the latest dated from the 12th century. Subsequently, significant numbers of Buddhist sites were found in Jambi, Palembang, and Riau provinces in Sumatra, as well as in Central and East Java. The Indonesian archipelago has, over the centuries, witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires, such as the Sailendra dynasty, the Mataram, and Srivijaya empires. Borobudur Temple Compounds, located in Central Java, Indonesia According to some Chinese source, a Chinese Buddhist monk I-tsing on his pilgrim journey to India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based on Sumatra in the 7th century. The empire served as a Buddhist learning center in the region. A notable Srivijayan revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti, a Srivijayan prince of the Sailendra dynasty, born around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra.[7] He became a revered scholar-monk in Srivijaya and moved to India to become a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum. Other Buddhist monks that visited Indonesia were Atisha, Dharmapala, a professor of Nalanda, and the South Indian Buddhist Vajrabodhi. Srivijaya was the largest Buddhist empire ever formed in Indonesian history. A number of Buddhist historical heritages can be found in Indonesia, including the 8th century Borobudur mandala monument and Sewu temple in Central Java, Batujaya in West Java, Muaro Jambi, Muara Takus and Bahal temple in Sumatra, and numerous of statues or inscriptions from the earlier history of Indonesian Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms. During the era of Kediri, Singhasari and Majapahit empire, buddhism — identified as Dharma ri Kasogatan- was acknowledged as one of kingdom's official religions along with Hinduism. Although some of kings might favour Hinduism over another, nevertheless the harmony, toleration, and even syncretism were promoted as manifested in Bhinneka Tunggal Ika national motto, coined from Kakawin Sutasoma, written by Mpu Tantular to promotes tolerance between Hindus (Shivaites) and Buddhists.[8] The classical era of ancient Java also had produces some of the exquisite examples of Buddhist arts, such as the statue of Prajnaparamita and the statue of Buddha Vairochana and Boddhisttva Padmapani and Vajrapani in Mendut temple. Shailendra dynasty,a dynasty that flourished in Java from about 750 to 850 after the fall of the Funan kingdom of mainland Southeast Asia. The dynasty was marked by a great cultural renaissance associated with the introduction of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and it attained a high level of artistic expression in the many temples and monuments built under its rule. During the reign of one of its kings, the famous stupa of Borobuḍur (q.v.) was built. The Social Context of Politics and Culture Borobudur was built at the peak of the Shailendra dynasty’s reign during a period when the system of government was highly feudalistic and rulers were selected through conquest and lineage. At that time, there were two competing forces in the region, namely the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty and the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty. The only written evidence of the existence of the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java is the Canggal inscription, which is dated to 732. After that, the Sanjaya dynasty was suppressed by the Shailendra dynasty, and the area was dominated by inscriptions from the Shailendra family. Except for its legacy of monuments, little is known of the dynasty. It apparently emanated from the agricultural lowlands of interior Java but extended its real power to the northwestern coasts of the island, from which its emissaries traded with and raided the Malay peninsula and Indochina. There is a Khmer tradition of Shailendra overlordship in the latter part of the 8th century. The Shailendra dynasty was driven to Sumatra (Palembang) in the mid-9th century. bas-relief from the Shailendra dynasty-King and queen with subjects, bas relief from the Shailendra dynasty, 8th century; in Borobudur, central Java, Indonesia. The Buddhist temples that the Shailendra dynasty built were also magnificent and luxurious in the southern region of Central Java, with Borobudur being the largest temple there. Construction of the temple began around 750 AD and ended in the early decades of the 9th century. By the mid-9 th century, relations had deteriorated severely between the Shailendra and Sanjaya dynasties. The ending of the Shailendra dynasty in Java is generally dated to around 852, when the Sanjaya ruler Pikatan defeated Shailendra’s ruler Balaputra. This sequence of events indicates that far from strengthening the Shailendra dynasty, the construction of the temple might have imposed an untenable burden on the population, possibly weakening their support for their ruler and increasing their vulnerability to invasion and defeat. The phenomenon of monumental buildings in the development of human civilisation is very important and interesting to study for several reasons. Firstly, the phenomenon shows the dynamics of the transformation of the metaphysical dimension in the form of material culture, which provides an overview of the dynamics of the economic development, power, technology and ideology of the civilisation concerned . Secondly, the establishment of monumental buildings in principle involves the allocation of scarce resources, which has consequences on the development of social welfare. It is important to evaluate the financial and economic feasibility of allocating these resources as the misallocation of resources has a great potential to reduce the level of social welfare.1 One of the most remarkable monumental buildings representing ancient Javanese culture is the Borobudur temple in Central Java, Indonesia, built by the Shailendra dynasty during the HinduBuddhist period of the 9th century AD . It is the largest Buddhist site in the world and it remains in use today A major attraction of Borobudur lies in the mystery that surrounds it – There are no records that enable people living in the world today to know exactly who constructed it and why it was constructed. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits were derived by people living at that time. how the extravagant costs incurred in its construction were handled and what benefits were derived by the Royalty who commissioned it. structure and spirit of Borobudur can only be understood from the perspective of Buddhism, which originates in the Sutras and Tantras. It can be said that the reliefs carved on the walls of the Borobudur indicate the existence of distinctive Buddhist teachings, which were a subtle integration between Mahayana and Tantric teachings of Buddhism, particularly from the Sanskrit and Ancient Javanese book Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan. (See my paper of the same name) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple Irmawati Marwoto1 , Mandala Manurung2 1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia, 2Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Indonesia International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749 This distinctive blend of indigenous Javanese and Indian Buddhism is also evidenced by the selection of sutras and tantrasthat can be practisedin harmony, with no apparent cosmological conflict. This implies that the monasteries in Java already had comprehensive religious libraries, thus allowing the integration of religious teachings in a unified and holistic manner. The predominance of these two Buddhist schools affecting the Borobudur temple does not mean that the other streams did not have any influence on its form and uses. Archaeologists have identified many Buddhist streams in the Borobudur reliefs. The similarity among the various schools of Buddhism is evinced in their agreement that life is suffering, that the cause of suffering can be eliminated, and that there are ways to eliminate it. Thus, the way (yana) of eliminating the cause of suffering was developed by the various schools of Buddhism. Borobudur and Kedu Plain Mount Merapi, colour lithograph, Junghuhn and Mieling, 1853–1854 Borobudur The Kedu Plain lies to the north west of Yogyakarta and west of Gunung Merapi and south west of Magelang, in Central Java. Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia. The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian civilization. The temples in the region include- Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by the Sailendras. Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani. Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located between Mendut and Borobudur. Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut temple. Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta. Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered. Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan. Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings of Mataram. Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi (literally Fire Mountain in Indonesian and Javanese), is an active stratovolcano located on the border between the province of Central Java and the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia adjoining the Kedu Plains. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted regularly since 1548. It is located approximately 28 kilometres (17 mi) north of Yogyakarta city which has a population of 2.4 million, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1,700 metres (5,577 ft) above sea level. Smoke can often be seen emerging from the mountaintop, and several eruptions have caused fatalities. A pyroclastic flow from a large explosion killed 27 people on 22 November 1994, mostly in the town of Muntilan, west of the volcano.[3] Another large eruption occurred in 2006, shortly before the Yogyakarta earthquake. In light of the hazards that Merapi poses to populated areas, it was designated as one of the Decade Volcanoes. Borobudur. 9th-century Buddhist monument, reportedly the world's largest. Seven terraces to the top represent the steps from the earthly realm to Nirvana. Reliefs of the birth, enlightenment and death of the Buddha. A UNESCO World Heritage Site. Pawon. 8th-century Buddhist temple. Mendut. 8th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple. Ngawen. Five aligned sanctuaries, one decorated with finely sculpted lions. 8th-century Buddhist temple located east from Mendut temple. The name linked to Venuvana, "the temple of bamboo forest". Banon. 8th-century Hindu temple located north from Pawon temple. The few remains make it impossible to reconstruct the temple. The Hindu god statue from this temple is now located at the National Museum in Jakarta. Umbul, a 9th-century bathing complex in Grabag, Magelang Gunung Sari. Ruins of three secondary temples and the foot of the main temple remain. Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest inscriptions on Java, written in 732 CE, found here. Only the bases remain of the main sanctuary and three secondary temples. In anticipation of Mount Merapi’s possible eruption, the Borobudur Conservation Agency covers many stupas in the eighth level of the Borobudur temple in Magelang, Central Java. The agency may cover the remaining stupas if volcanic activity increases. Back in 2010, the ninth century temple was affected by a major eruption. At the time, acidic volcanic ash from Mt. Merapi covered 72 stupas. The part of present-day Central Java then known as the Mataram kingdom was the geographical area of the kingdom contested by the Shailendra Buddhist dynastie and Sanjaya Hindu. That is why temples in southern Central Java are mainly Buddhist, whereas those in northern Central Java are Hindu, The Mataram Kingdom was a Javanese Hindu–Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was based in Central Java, and later in East Java. Established by King Sanjaya, the kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty.During the intervening period of late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. Temples dotted the landscape of its heartland in Mataram. The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta.  Later the dynasty divided into two kingdoms identified by religious patronage—the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war followed. The outcome was that the Mataram kingdom was divided into two powerful kingdoms; the Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led by Balaputradewa. Hostility between them did not end until 1016 when the Sailendra clan based in Srivijaya incited a rebellion by Wurawari, a vassal of the Mataram kingdom, and sacked the capital of Watugaluh in East Java. Srivijaya rose to become the undisputed hegemonic empire in the region. The Shivaist dynasty survived, reclaimed east Java in 1019, and then established the Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga, son of Udayana of Bali. In the middle of the 9th century however, the two dynasties were united through the marriage bonds between a prince of Sanjaya, Rakai Pikatan and Pramodawhardani, a daughter of the Shailendra dynasty. Nonetheless, the two dynasties appeared to have competed with each other to build temples. The Sanjaya dynasty constructed Hindu temples, the largest of which was the Prambanan temple in Yogyakarta. Tthe Shailendra dynasty constructed Buddhist temples, of which the largest was Borobudur, also known as Kamulan.1 The financial infeasibility of the construction of the Borobudur temple is evaluated based on the rationality of resource use. Table 1 above shows that the net flow of funds would have always been negative from the beginning to year 100. This means that additional financial costs for construction and maintenance would have been greater than any financial benefits. The flow pattern shows that the construction of Borobudur temple was financially irrational or unfeasible. This raises the question of whether the funds allocated to construct the Borobudur temple were the cause of the collapse of the Shailendra dynasty. The need for funds to complete the construction of the Borobudur temple was IDR 28 trillion, which in the present context is still a very large amount of money. If the Shailendra dynasty currently still had control over the area of Central Java, then building Borobudur would require additional tax revenues greater than IDR 28 trillion. The target additional tax revenue would not be possible to achieve, as the current total tax revenue of Central Java province is only IDR 10 trillion per year A house of worship that should represent divine presence, a place where truth, freedom, peace and prosperity flourished turned into a place rampant with the struggle for power and influence. The house of worship became a representation of conflict rooted in the thirst for power. The Indic tradition of Hindu-Buddhist architecture recognize the concept of arranging elements in three parts or three elements. Subsequently, the design, plan and layout of the temple follows the rule of space allocation within three elements; commonly identified as foot (base), body (center), and head (roof). The three zones is arranged according to a sacred hierarchy. Each Hindu and Buddhist concepts has their own terms, but the concept's essentials is identical. Either the compound site plan (horizontally) or the temple structure (vertically) consists of three zones. Bhurloka (in Buddhism: Kāmadhātu), the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals also demons. Where humans still bound by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhurloka. Bhuvarloka (in Buddhism: Rupadhatu), the middle realm of holy people, rishis, ascetics, and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The middle courtyard and the body of each temples is symbolized the realm of bhuvarloka. Svarloka (in Buddhism: Arupadhatu), the highest and holiest realm of gods, also known as svargaloka. The inner courtyard and the roof of each temples is symbolized the realm of svarloka. The roof of Hindu structure usually crowned with ratna (sanskrit: jewel) or vajra, or in eastern Java period, crowned by cube structure. While stupa or dagoba cylindrical structure served as the pinnacle of Buddhist ones. Style Soekmono, an Indonesian archaeologist, has classified the candi styles into two main groups: a central Java style, which predominantly date from before 1,000 CE, and an eastern Java style, which date from after 1,000 CE. He groups the temples of Sumatra and Bali into the eastern Java style. Structure elements Bima temple, one of Dieng temples. It was one of the earliest temples in Java. Central Java style(Bubrah temple)/Eastern Java style-Bajang Ratu gate/Bubrah temple near Prambanan, an example of Central Javanese style, while Bajang Ratu gate in Trowulan is an example of Eastern Javanese style. Parts of the temple Central Java Style Eastern Java Style Shape of the structure Tends to be bulky Tends to be slender and tall Roof Clearly shows stepped roof sections, usually consist of 3 parts The multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure smoothly Pinnacle Stupa (Buddhist temples), Ratna or Vajra (Hindu temples) Cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes Dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples) Portal and niches adornment Kala-Makara style; Kala head without lower jaw opening its mouth located on top of the portal, connected with double Makara on each side of the portal Only Kala head sneering with the mouth complete with lower jaw located on top of the portal, Makara is absent Relief Projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style Projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stylized style similar to Balinese wayang image Layout and location of the main temple Concentric mandala, symmetric, formal; with main temple located in the center of the complex surrounded by smaller perwara temples in regular rows Linear, asymmetric, followed topography of the site; with main temple located in the back or furthermost from the entrance, often located in the highest ground of the complex, perwara temples is located in front of the main temple Direction Mostly faced east Mostly faced west Materials Mostly andesite stone Mostly red brick There are material, form, and location exceptions to these general design traits. While the Penataran, Jawi, Jago, Kidal and Singhasari temples, for example, belong to the eastern Java group, they use andesite stone similar to the Central Java temple material. Temple ruins in Trowulan, such as Brahu, Jabung and Pari temples use red brick. Also the Prambanan temple is tall and slender similar to the east Java style, yet the roof design is Central Javan in style. The location also do not always correlate with the temple styles, for example Candi Badut is located in Malang, East Java, yet the period and style belongs to older 8th century central Javanese style. The earlier northern central Java complexes, such as the Dieng temples, are smaller and contain only several temples which exhibit simpler carving, whereas the later southern complexes, such as Sewu temple, are grander, with a richer elaboration of carving, and concentric layout of the temple complex. The Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian megalithic design elements, such stepped pyramids (punden berundak). These design cues are seen in the Sukuh and Cetho temples in Mount Lawu in eastern Central Java, and in stepped sanctuary structures on the Mount Penanggungan slopes that are similar to meso-American stepped pyramids. MATERIALS Most of well-preserved candi in Indonesia are made from andesite stone. This is mainly owed to the stone's durability, compared to bricks, against tropical weathers and torrential rains. Nevertheless, certain periods, especially the Majapahit era, saw the extensive use of red brick as temple and building materials. Interlocking andesite stone blocks forming a corbeling arch in Borobudur. LEFT PIC . The materials commonly used in temple construction in Indonesia are: Andesite is an extrusive igneous volcanic rock, of intermediate composition, with aphanitic to porphyritic texture. Its colour ranges from light to dark grey. Andesite is especially abundant in the volcanic island of Java, mined from a certain cliffs or stone quarry with andesite deposit formed from compressed ancient magma chamber or cooled down lava spill. Each andesite stone is custom made into blocks with interlocking technique, to construct temple walls, floors and building. Andesite stones are easily formed and carved with iron chisel, making it a suitable material for temple walls and decorations carved as bas-reliefs. The walls of andesite was then carved with exquisite narrative bas-reliefs, which can be observed in many temples, especially in Borobudur and Prambanan. Andesite rocks are also used as the material for carved statues: the images of deities and Buddha. Red brick Jabung temple, dated from Majapahit period. Brick is also used to construct temples. The oldest brick temple structure is the Batujaya temple compound in Karawang, West Java, dated from 2nd to 12th century CE. Although brick had been used in the candi of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it.[15] Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo. Temples of Sumatra, such as Bahal temple, Muaro Jambi, and Muara Takus are made from bricks. However, compared to lava andesite stone, clay red bricks are less durable, especially if exposed to hot and humid tropical elements and torrential monsoon rain. As a result, many red brick structures were crumbling down over centuries, and reconstruction efforts require recasting and replacing the damaged structure with new bricks. Tuff is a volcanic rock that is quite abundant near Javanese volcanoes or limestone formations. In Indonesian and Javanese languages, tuff is called batu putih (white stone), which corresponds to its light color. The chalky characteristic of this stone, however, has made it unsuitable to be carved into bas-reliefs of building ornaments. Compared to andesite, tuff is considered as an inferior quality building material. In Javanese temples, tuff usually are used as stone fillings — forming the inner structure of the temple — while the outer layer employed andesite that is more suitable to be carved. The tuff quarries can be found in Sewu limestone ranges near Ratu Boko hill. The tuff fillings in the temple can be examined in Ratu Boko crematorium temple. Tuff was used as building material of outer walls of temple compound, such as te walls found buried around Sewu and Sambisari temple. Stucco is materials similar to modern concrete, made from the mixture of sand, stone, water, and sometimes ground clamshell. The stucco as temple building material is observable in the Batujaya temple compound in West Java. Traces of worn off vajralepa plaster on Sari's relief. Plaster called vajralepa (Sanskrit: diamond plaster) is used to coat the temple walls. The white-yellowish plaster is made from the mixture of ground limestone, tuff or white earth (kaolin), with plant substances such as gums or resins as binder. The varjalepa white plaster was applied upon the andesite walls, and then painted with bright colors, serving perhaps as a beacon of Buddhist teaching.[16] The traces of worn-off vajralepa plaster can be observed in Borobudur, Sari, Kalasan and Sewu temple walls. Wood is believed to be used in some of candi construction or at least as parts of temple building material. Sari and Plaosan temples, for example, are known to have traces of stone indentions to support wooden beams and floors in its second floor, as well as traces of wooden stairs. Ratu Boko compound has building bases and stone umpak column base, which suggests that the wooden capitals once stood there to support wooden roof structure made of organic materials. Traces of holes to install wooden window railings and wooden doors are observable in many of the perwara (complementary smaller) temples. Of course, wooden materials are easily decayed in a humid tropical climate, leaving no traces after centuries. MOTIFS Kala-Makara Kala-makara on the portal of Borobudur gates, Kala's head on top of the portal and makaras flanking either sides. The candis of ancient Java are notable with the application of kala-makara as both decorative and symbolic elements of the temple architecture. Kala is the giant symbolizing time, by making kala's head as temple portals element, it symbolizes that time consumes everything. Kala is also a protective figure, with fierce giant face it scares away malevolent spirits. Makara is a mythical sea monster, the vahana of sea-god Varuna. It has been depicted typically as half mammal and half fish. In many temples the depiction is in the form of half fish or seal with the head of an elephant. It is also shown with head and jaws of a crocodile, an elephant trunk, the tusks and ears of a wild boar, the darting eyes of a monkey, the scales and the flexible body of a fish, and the swirling tailing feathers of a peacock. Both kala and makara are applied as the protective figures of the temple's entrance. Kala is the giant head, often takes place on top of the entrance with makaras projected on either sides of kala's head, flanking the portal or projecting on the top corner as antefixes. The kala-makara theme also can be found on stair railings on either sides. On the upper part of stairs, the mouth of kala's head projecting makara downward. The intricate stone carving of twin makaras flanking the lower level of stairs, with its curved bodies forming the stair's railings. Other than makaras, kala's head might also project its tongue as stair's railings. These types of stair-decorations can be observed in Borobudur and Prambanan. Makara's trunks are often describes as handling gold ornaments or spouting jewels, while in its mouth often projected Gana dwarf figures or animals such as lions or parrots. Linga-Yoni Central Javanese linga-yoni with spout decorated and supported by nāga serpent, Yogyakarta 9th century. In ancient Javanese candi, the linga-yoni symbolism was only found in Hindu temples, more precisely those of Shivaist faith. Therefore, they are absent in Buddhist temples. The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva. The lingas that survive from the Javanese classical period are generally made of polished stone of this shape. Lingas are implanted in a flat square base with a hole in it, called a yoni, symbolic of the womb and also represents Parvati, Shiva's consort. A yoni usually has a kind of spout, usually decorated with nāga, to help channeled and collects the liquids poured upon linga-yoni during Hindu ritual. As a religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual. Oldest remains of linga-yoni can be found in Dieng temples from earlier period circa 7th century. Originally each temples might have a complete pair of linga-yoni unity. However, most of the times, the linga is missing. In the tradition of Javanese kingship, certain lingas were erected as symbols of the king himself or his dynasty, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's consubstantiality with Shiva. The example is the linga-yoni of Gunung Wukir temple, according to Canggal inscription is connected to King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE).[17] Other temples that contains complete linga-yoni include Sambisari and Ijo temples. Eastern Javanese temples that contains linga-yoni are Panataran and Jawi temple, although the linga is missing. Bas-reliefs The most exquisite of the temple bas-reliefs can be found in Borobudur and Prambanan temples. The first four terrace of Borobudur walls are showcases for bas-relief sculptures. These are exquisite, considered to be the most elegant and graceful in the ancient Buddhist world. The Buddhist scriptures describes as bas-reliefs in Borobudur such as Karmavibhangga (the law of karma), Lalitavistara (the birth of Buddha), Jataka, Avadana and Gandavyuha. While in Prambanan the Hindu scriptures is describes in its bas-relief panels; the Ramayana and Bhagavata Purana (popularly known as Krishnayana). The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java, from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier, soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia. One of the famous renderings of an 8th-century Southeast Asian double outrigger ship is Borobudur Ship. Hanuman battling enemy, bas-relief of Ramayana on Penataran temple, East Java style. There are significant distinction of bas-reliefs' style and aesthetics between the Central Javanese period (prior of 1000 CE) and East Javanese period (after 1000 CE). The earlier Central Javanese style, as observable in Borobudur and Prambanan, are more exquisite and naturalistic in style. The reliefs is projected rather high from the background, the images was done in naturalistic style with proper ideal body proportion. On the other hand, the bas-reliefs of Eastern Javanese style is projected rather flat from the background, the images was done in stiffer pose and stylized style, similar to currently Balinese wayang images. The East Javanese style is currently preserved in Balinese art, style and aesthetics in temple bas-reliefs, also wayang shadow puppet imagery, as well as the Kamasan painting. Deities Kalpataru and Kinnaras Kinnara (male), Kinnari (female), Apsara, and Devata guarding Kalpataru, the divine tree of life. 8th century Pawon temple, Java, Indonesia. The images of coupled Kinnara and Kinnari can be found in Borobudur, Mendut, Pawon, Sewu, Sari, and Prambanan temples. Usually, they are depicted as birds with human heads, or humans with lower limbs of birds. The pair of Kinnara and Kinnari usually is depicted guarding Kalpataru (Kalpavriksha), the tree of life, and sometimes guarding a jar of treasure. There are bas-relief in Borobudur depicting the story of the famous kinnari, Manohara. The lower outer wall of Prambanan temples were adorned with row of small niche containing image of simha (lion) flanked by two panels depicting bountiful kalpataru (kalpavriksha) tree. These wish-fulfilling sacred trees according to Hindu-Buddhist beliefs, is flanked on either side by kinnaras or animals, such as pairs of birds, deer, sheep, monkeys, horses, elephants etc. The pattern of lion in niche flanked by kalpataru trees is typical in Prambanan temple compound, thus it is called as "Prambanan panel". Boddhisattva and Tara A Bodhisattva flanked by two Taras in Sewu temple. In Buddhist temples, the panels of bas-reliefs usually adorned with exquisite images of male figure of Bodhisattvas and female figure of Taras, along with Gandarvas heavenly musicians, and sometimes the flock of Gana dwarfs. These are the deities and divinities in Buddhist beliefs, which resides in the Tushita heaven in Buddhism cosmology. Bodhisattvas are usually depicted as handsome man with peaceful and serene facial expression, adorned with luxurious jewelry akin to a king or a deity. While the Taras are his female counterparts, figures of beautiful celestial maidens. Both figures are depicted gracefully, usually holding various kinds of lotus (red padma, blue utpala, or white kumuda), monk staff (khakkhara) or fly whisk (chamara), and standing in tribhanga pose. The notable images of boddhisattvas could be found adorning the outer walls of Plaosan, Sari, Kalasan, Sewu, Pawon and of course Borobudur temple. Devata and Apsara A Devata flanked by two apsaras in Prambanan temple. In Hindu temples, the celestial couple; male Devatas and female Apsaras are usually found adorns the panels of temple's walls. They are the Hindu counterpart of Buddhist Bodhisattva-Tara celestial beings. On the other side of narrative panels in Prambanan, the temple wall along the gallery were adorned with the statues and reliefs of devatas and brahmin sages. The figure of lokapalas, the celestial guardians of directions can be found in Shiva temple. The Brahmin sage editors of veda were carved on Brahma temple wall, while in Vishnu temple the figures of a male deities devatas flanked by two apsaras. The depiction of celestial beings of lesser gods and goddesses- devatas and apsaras, describes the Hindu concept of sacred realm of Svargaloka. This is corresponds to the concept of the towering Hindu temple as the epitome of Mount Meru in Hindu cosmology. Guardians-Dvarapala One of dvarapala statues guarding Sewu temple. Most of larger temple compound in ancient Java were guarded by a pair of dvarapala statues, as gate guardians. The twin giants usually placed flanked the entrance in front of the temple, or in four cardinal points. Dvarapala took form of two fierce giants or demons that ward off evil and malevolent spirits from entering the sacred temple compounds. In Central Javanese art, dvarapala is mostly portrayed as a stout and rather chubby giant, with fierce face of glaring round goggle eyes, protruding fangs, curly hairs and moustaches, with fat and round belly. The giant usually depicted as holding gada and sometimes knives as weapon. In East Javanese art and Balinese version however, the dvarapala usually depicted rather well-built and muscular, with a fine example taken from Adan-adan site near Kediri.[19] The exception is a gigantic dvarapala of Singhasari near Malang, East Java that measures 3.7 metres tall. The most notable dvarapala statues are those of candi Sewu, each pair guarding four cardinal points of the grand temple complex, making them a total eight large dvarapala statues in perfect condition. The dvarapalas of Sewu temple has become the prototype of Gupolo guardian in later Javanese art, copied as guardians in Javanese keratons of Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Another fine example is two pairs of dvarapala guarding the twin temples of Plaosan. Lion Lion guardian of Borobudur. The statues of a pair of lions (Sanskrit: Siṁha, Indonesian and Javanese: Singa) flanking the portal, are often placed as the guardians of candi entrance. Lions were never native to Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lions in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from the naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the depictions were all based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lions as the noble and powerful beasts in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture especially through Buddhist symbolism. Statues of a pair of lions often founds in temples in Southeast Asia as the gate guardians. In Borobudur Buddhist monument Central Java, Indonesia, andesite stone statues of lions guard four main entrances of Borobudur. The thrones of Buddha and Boddhisattva found in Kalasan and Mendut Buddhist temples of ancient Java depicted elephants, lions, and makara. The statue of winged lion also found in Penataran temple East Java. Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur. The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples. The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika)[20] sits on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti). Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. Prambanan vajra pinnacle. Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple. In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts. Java Cangkuang, Garut West Java Batujaya, a compound of Buddhist Stupa made from red brick and mortar located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably dated back to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD. Cibuaya, a compound of Vishnuite Hindu temples made from red brick and mortar also located at Batu Jaya, Karawang, West Java. Probably linked to Tarumanagara kingdom in the 6th century AD. Bojongmenje, ruins of Hindu temple in Rancaekek, Bandung Regency. Candi Cangkuang, the only one of the few surviving West Java's Hindu temple estimated dated from the 8th century, located at Leles, Garut, West Java. Located on an island in the middle of a lake covered by water lilies. Unlike other Javanese temple characteristics by grand architecture, Cangkuang temple is more modest with only one structure still standing. Shiva statue faces east toward the sunrise. Date uncertain. Central Java-Dieng Plateau Arjuna group of Dieng temples The Hindu temple compound located in Dieng Plateau, near Wonosobo, Central Java. Eight small Hindu temples from the 7th and 8th centuries, the oldest in Central Java. Surrounded by craters of boiling mud, colored lakes, caves, sulphur outlets, hot water sources and underground channels. The temples are: Arjuna temple Semar temple Srikandi temple Puntadewa temple Sembadra temple Dwarawati temple Gatotkaca temple Bima temple Gedong Songo Gedong Songo III South-west of Semarang, Central Java. Five temples constructed in 8th and 9th centuries. The site highlights how, in Hinduism, location of temples was as important as the structures themselves. The site has panoramas of three volcanoes and Dieng Plateau. Slopes of Merapi As we know, the rulers of Sanjaya built many magnificent and luxurious Hindu temples in the northern region of Central Java, the largest of which is the Prambanan temple. This temple compounds date from the 8th to 9th century CE, linked with historic Mataram Kingdom that ruled Central Java during that period. Shailendras, the ruling family of the kingdom were known as the avid temple builders. Indeed, some temples in the area, including Kalasan, Sari, and Sewu are credited to their second monarch King Panangkaran. Among these temple compounds, Sewu is the oldest, completed in 792 according to Manjusrigrha inscription. Lumbung and Bubrah also dated from around the same period or slightly later. Prambanan however, was the latest addition in the complex, finished and inaugurated in 856 during the reign of King Pikatan according to Shivagrha inscription. The high concentration of candi can be found especially dense in Sleman Regency in Yogyakarta, also Magelang and Klaten in Central Java; which corresponds to the historical region of Kedu Plain (Progo River valley, Temanggung-Magelang-Muntilan area) and Kewu Plain (Opak River valley, around Prambanan), the cradle of Javanese civilization. Other sites with notable temple compounds. includes Malang, Blitar and Trowulan areas in East Java. West Java also contains a small number of temples such as Batujaya and Cangkuang. Outside of Java, the candi type of temple can be found in Bali, Sumatra, and Southern Kalimantan, although they are quite scarce. In Sumatra, two exceptional sites are notable for its temple density; the Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds in Jambi and Padang Lawas or Bahal complex in North Sumatra. The candis might be built on plain or uneven terrain. Prambanan and Sewu temples for example, are built on even flat low-lying terrain, while the temples of Gedong Songo and Ijo are built on hill terraces on higher grounds or mountain slopes. Borobudur on the other hand is built upon a bedrock hill. The position, orientation and spatial organization of the temples within the landscape, and also their architectural designs, were determined by socio-cultural, religious and economic factors of the people, polity or the civilization that built and support them. Map showing the location of the main sites of the so-called "Indonesian classical period" or Hindu-Buddhist period. Black dots represent Hindu sites and red dots Buddhist sites. After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected. For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and shaken by earthquakes. The temple collapsed in about 1600s due to a massive earthquake. Prambanan is a Hindu temple compound dedicated to Trimurti, the three highest gods in Hinduism, while Sewu, Lumbung and Bubrah temples are Mahayana Buddhist. Both Prambanan and Sewu are actually temple compounds arranged in the mandala layout, surrounded with hundreds of pervara (guardian complementary) temples. Originally, Prambanan consists of 240 structures, Sewu consists of 249 structures, while Lumbung temple consists of 17 structures. With combined numbers of over 500 temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural treasure, but also an example of religious harmony and peaceful cohabitation between faiths in Indonesia's past. Prambanan Prambanan temple or locally known in Javanese as Rara Jonggrang, is a grand Hindu temple complex dating from the 9th century, it is notable for its shrines and statues of Hindu patheon and Ramayana bas relief. Murtis or Hindu deity statues venerated in Prambanan complex including the main deity Shiva Mahadeva, Vishnu, Brahma, Durga Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha, Agastya, and Nandi bull. Sewu Sewu or originally known as Manjusrigrha complex, with its four pairs of Dvarapala giant statues, is the largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia, and the second largest Buddhist temple after Borobudur. Archaeologists believe the original name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha, which means "the house of Manjusri", one of the main boddhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism belief. Bubrah Bubrah is a 9th-century Buddhist temple located between Lumbung in the south and Sewu in the north. Experts believe that the temple was designed as a part of the greater Sewu temple compound mandala. Lumbung Candi Lumbung a 9th-century Buddhist temple compound located within the complex of Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, Central Java, Indonesia. The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple "candi lumbung", which means "rice barn temple" in Javanese language.   Sewu temple compound/Lumbung temple/Bubrah Plaosan. Buddhist temple located a few kilometres east from Sewu temple compound. The temple probably dated from 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Boddhisatva and Tara. Also rows of slender stupas. Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone enclosure, all located on top of the hill. Sajiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and staircase are decorated with animal fables from the Jatakas. Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof. Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the slope of the hill. Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a large lingam and yoni. Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing different poses and expressions. Kalasan. This 8th-century Buddhist temple is the oldest in the area. Built to house the image of Boddhisattvadevi Tara by King Panangkaran, ornamented with finely carved reliefs. Sari. Once a sanctuary for Buddhist monks. 8th century. Nine stupas at the top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for monks to meditate. Sambisari. 9th-century Hindu temple discovered in 1966, once buried 6.5 metres under volcanic ash. The main temple houses a linga and yoni, and the wall surround it displayed the images of Agastya, Durga, and Ganesha. Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4 metres deep. Square base of main temple visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. The Shiva temple Candi Prambanan consist of three ascending realms, temple's base (Bhurloka), body (Bhurvaloka) and roof (Svarloka). The candi structure and layout recognize the hierarchy of the zones, spanned from the less holy to the holiest realms. The Universal Mandala: Borobudur Built in the 8th century by the ruling Shailendra dynasty of central Java, Borobudur is a unique cultural universe combining the features of a mountain, a stupa, and a pyramid of the megalithic period, showing how Indian themes were grafted onto a pre-existing Javanese genius. Its vast reliefs depict two major Buddhist narratives: the Lalitavistara, which narrates the life of Buddha, and Gandavyuha, which portrays the pilgrimage of the youth Sudhana in his search for knowledge. While the life of Buddha is sketched in many Buddhist monuments around Asia, the reliefs of Borobudur contain important variations. One example is the “Great Departure” of Prince Siddhartha from the royal palace as he embarks on his quest for enlightenment. The feet of his horse are lifted by Hindu gods Indra and Brahma to stop any noise that could wake up the guards assigned to prevent his departure; a perfect blending of Buddhist and Hindu narratives of Nirvana. As a Buddhist text, Gandavyuha was circulated widely around Asia, sometimes as a gift among rulers. For example, the Chinese emperor received a Sanskrit language text of the book as a gift from the king of Odisha in the 8th century. Gandavyuha gives Borobudur a special meaning as a universal mandala. Its message, as leading Borobudur scholar John Miksic notes, is “that one should not expect to find enlightenment only in one place, or in one source. Sudhana’s Good Friends [spiritual instructors] are women, men and children from all levels of society, as well as supernatural beings. Anyone is eligible for enlightenment and there is no suggestion that wisdom is something to be jealously hoarded and imparted only to the elite.” Relief in Borobudur showing the “Great Departure” (Siddhartha leaving the palace). Sunrise to RIGHT Borobudur thus represents the essence of the Nirvana Route. Its Buddhist-Hindu conception of enlightenment beckoned all people, irrespective of age, sex, wealth, or place of origin. What a far cry from the European Enlightenment, with its parochial Eurocentric worldview that contributed much to racism, elitism, and imperialism! R E F E R E N C E Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan: Translation and Analytical Study Ven. Budi Utomo Ph.D. (Bhikkhu Ditthisampanno) Lecture and Principal of Smaratungga Buddhist College, Indonesia. Ph.D. Candidate in Buddhist Studies, Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University. ditthisampanno@gmail.com This famous Buddhist temple, dating from the 8th and 9th centuries, is located in central Java. These Compounds form one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world, and were built in the 8th and 9th centuries AD during the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. It was built in three tiers: a pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500 m2. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha. The monument was restored with UNESCO's help in the 1970s. The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu, and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to our desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name and form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument of the Syailendra Dynasty that ruled Java for around five centuries until the 10th century. The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and  two smaller temples situatued to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana. Borobudur Temple Compounds with its stepped, unroofed pyramid consisting of ten superimposing terraces, crowned by a large bell-shaped dome is a harmonious marriage of stupas, temple and mountain that is a masterpiece of Buddhist architecture and monumental arts.It also represents an outstanding example of Indonesia’s art and architecture from between the early 8th and late 9th centuries that exerted considerable influence on an architectural revival between the mid-13th and early 16th centuries. The design is laid out in the form of a lotus, the sacred flower of Buddha, Borobudur Temple Compounds is an exceptional reflection of a blending of the very central idea of indigenous ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The ten mounting terraces of the entire structure correspond to the successive stages that the Bodhisattva has to achieve before attaining to Buddhahood. Phasewise Construction In my article TEMPLE TRIAD-Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples (https://www.academia.edu/42703156/Temple_Triad) I have explained additions or extensions at Borabudur and Mendut by successive Shailendra rulers, possibly without exception, which have come to light during restoration activities at those temples, one needs to understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did increase to a great extent from the building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred construction work would be an incentive to join the creed while it would help the initiate in his meditations aiming at the attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the “accumulation of religious merit” which the monarch earned through the construction of a magnificent temple would also benefit his realm — “the thriving State of the Shailendras” as it is designated in the inscriptions of the period. This topographical relationship looks hardly casual, as probably a processional way ran along the line in ancient times (the path is still partly mimicked by the modern road from Borobodur to Pawon up to the river Pogo). Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world) Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular, topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the influences of Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology: Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world. Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAVON supplement the temple complex. They were built during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole temple complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the Divine life, to the state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern entrance to Chandi Mendut, passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there were walls with numerous towers, niches, and sculptures. Chandi Mendut, Chandi Pavon, the famous Borobudur temple complex.   Pawon Temple Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two other Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres away from Borobudur. , Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra dynasty (8th–9th centuries). Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is slightly older than Borobudur. The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning that binds these temples. “Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending Borobudur.”1 The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the word “dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple for a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses the dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still unknown. Local people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name of the village. Bajranalan is derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial tool) and Anala (fire, flame). Due to its small size, Pavon resembles a memorial monument. When the temple was found, it was in a very poor condition. Themes of decorative reliefs in Pavon include the “heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts, bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces, rings and jewels from boxes. Such themes are explained by the fact that Chandi Pavon is dedicated to the deity of wealth Kubera, who was usually depicted at entrances to temples. Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone. Although no statues have been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer wall reliefs that the temple once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and wealth. There are also extant images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and Buddhist traditions. The desires ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be fulfilled. In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur. As it has been mentioned above, between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small Chandi Pavon,   Mendut Temple Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown. Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it. Studies conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it shows that the three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno (Ancient Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods . These studies led to an interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples located in the east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also identifies that the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past. Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no study has been conducted revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen Temples in the past. To further observe the association between the four temples, this study will focus on their location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes that this research would provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in the future.Field observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and Ngawen was conducted. The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it . Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river,which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur .According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur. The layout of Chandi Mendut is traditional. It is a temple with a deity figure placed on a pedestal, intended for ritual processions. The walls contain thematic reliefs with scenes from Buddhist parables. The reliefs contain well-preserved images of Bodhisattvas. Inside Chandi Mendut itself there are three statues: Gautama Buddha in the middle, Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara on the left, and a non-identified Bodhisattva on the right (there is an assumption that it is a statue of Vajrapani).   The most unusual thing is that Shakyamuni Buddha is sitting in a “European” or “royal” pose with his both feet put on the lotus pedestal and his knees widely parted, without any traces of clothes. Bodhisattvas are sitting in traditional poses with one foot under their body and the other foot lowered.In traditional Buddhist iconography the image of the body part relating to genitals is always hidden by either a pose (asana) or pleats on the clothes (when Buddha is standing or lying). Hence, for adherents of canonical Buddhism the aforesaid depiction of Buddha is probably somewhat shocking. Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples: Two major schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Buddhism.Mahayana Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays on the Earth, rather than going to heaven, in order to be able to help. Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva. Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building. According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures. The most important argument for the coherence of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon in my view is the fact — which Van Erp discovered by chance — that the three of them had been lain out along one straight line: 15Pawon on the right shore of the Progo River, 1750 m East of Barabudur, and Mendut 1150 m further East, on the left shore of the Elo River, just upstream from its junction with the Progo.16 Van Erp considered this fact and, as it were, the logically deducible. a. for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Barabudur; b. for the Suryaloka, the bhavagra ― the top level of the Akanistha Heaven; c. for the east, Candi Mendut; and d. for the zenith, Candi Pawon. TRIAD Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to keep watch over his creation through the ages." There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th century. The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called Bara-Budur in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara. The Sultan sent troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be executed. The next documented visitor to the monument was the heir apparent of Yogyakarta, a defiant young prince who had a reputation for rebellious and depraved behavior. In 1758, he set out to visit the "mountain of a thousand statues" against the advice of a prophecy that royalty who climbed the mountain would die. When he did not return to court, the king sent his men to bring back the wayward son. He was found vomiting blood and soon after died. But records revealed no consensus on the meaning of the name "Borobudur." Two alternatives were proposed based on Javanese manuscripts from 842 AD: "the mountain of the accumulation of virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva," or "the mountain which is terraced in successive stages." Sir Thomas Raffles, the British governor of Indonesia responsible for the excavation of Borobudur in 1814, thought that "boro" might mean "great" and "budur" might correspond to the more modern Javanese word "buda," interpreted as "The Great Buddha." One Javanese expert indicated that "boro" is related to the word for "monastery," and "budur" is a place name. This would suggest that Borobudur means "Monastery of Budur."Fortunately, because of the native tolerance of religious diversity, many of the monuments of Java were simply abandoned rather than destroyed or defaced, and a cloud of mystery and superstition descended on Borobudur. The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and N. J. Kroom,2 which coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the similarities with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples it indicated an association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon Temple and Mendut Temple. They seem to have been built in the same period, that is, the Sailendra dynasty era. The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s 3 connected the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple. Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-Siddhanta. Another study conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples,showing that the three temples were built along a straight line Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) . Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur . According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be drawn, connecting it to the other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen Temple and end in Borobudur. Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of Buddhist temples is the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of structures. Bodobodur and Merapi Volcano: Borobudur was mysteriously abandoned by the 1500s, when the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam arrived on the island in the 13th and 14th centuries. Perhaps Mount Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus, and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Some scholars believe that famine caused by an eruption of Mount Merapi forced the inhabitants of Central Java to leave their lands behind in search of a new place to live. When people once again inhabited this area, the glory of Borobudur was buried by ash from Mount Merapi. Mountain peaks, according to Buddhist thought, are the place where contact with divine truth may take place. There are 129 volcanoes in Indonesia and smoke can be seen emerging from the mountaintop at least 300 days a year. Mount Merapi, which stands at about 9,551 feet (2,911 meters) tall, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta, on the island of Java.It is a stratovolcano being the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain extending north and northwest, to the Mount Ungaran volcano. The name Merapi could be loosely translated as "Mountain of Fire" from the Javanese combined words "Meru," meaning "mountain," and "api," meaning "fire."Tectonically, Merapi is situated at the subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the Eurasian Plate. It is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines and volcanoes stretching from the western coast of South America, Alaska through Japan and Southeast Asia. Merapi has been active for about 10,000 years. The volcano's biggest and most devastating eruptions occurred in 1006 and 1930. The eruption of 1006 was so bad that many believe the existing Hindu kingdom in the area was destroyed, as it spread ash over all of central Java. During the 1930 eruption more than 1,300 people were killed."The material has to travel 30 miles [48 km] to get to the surface; there has to be enough propellant force to push them all that way and out.Merapi is the poster child for unstable lava domes," Wunderman said. "The dome on Merapi rests on a steep, unstable environment, and it is easy for pieces to break off and do damage; for example, hot gases can be released and form a superheated, high speed cloud that rolls down the mountain. The volcano is considered sacred by some local people who believe a supernatural kingdom exists atop Merapi, according to Indhanesia.com, an informational website about Indonesia. Every year a priest climbs to the top to make an offering. Creation Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such, there are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi. Although most nearby villages have their own myths about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities. It is believed that when the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because of the placement of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure balance, the gods (generally represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be moved to the centre of Java. However, two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi, were already forging a sacred keris at the site where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved. The gods warned them that they would be moving a mountain there, and that they should leave; Empu Rama and Empu Permadi ignored that warning. In anger, the gods buried Empu Rama and Empu Permadi under Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits later became the rulers of all mystical beings in the area. In memory of them, Mount Jamurdipo was later renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire of Rama and Permadi." Spirit Kraton of Merapi The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by spirits (makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces (in Javanese kraton) used by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by Empu Rama and Empu Permadi. This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to the Yogyakarta Sultanate, complete with roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and domesticated animals. Besides the rulers, the palace is said to also be populated by the spirits of ancestors who died as righteous people. The spirits of these ancestors are said to live in the palace as royal servants (abdi dalem), occasionally visiting their descendants in dreams to give prophecies or warnings. Spirits of Merapi To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's coronation. For Yogyakarta Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological symbolism, because it forms a sacred north-south axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north, the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun (square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to Bantul and finally reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and Southern Ocean. This sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since ancient times—often identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of Yogyakarta as the leader of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the Southern Ocean, the female ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical consort of Javanese kings. Abandonment Borobodur lies 28 KM away from the mountain. No one knows what happened to the culture that built the monument. Perhaps Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus, and Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment. The monument is mentioned vaguely as late as c. 1365, in Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur".Soekmono (1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th century. The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the History of the Mataram Kingdom)4 , the monument was associated with the misfortune of Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill and died one day later. During the Britiash administration from 1811 to 1816, Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles was appointed governor who took great interest in the history of Java. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to see the site himself, but sent Hermann Cornelius , a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity explorations had uncovered the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate. In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles, including various drawings. Although Raffles mentioned the discovery and hard work by Cornelius and his men in only a few sentences, he has been credited with the monument's rediscovery, as the one who had brought it to the world's attention. Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the Resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work, and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa. In 1842, Hartmann investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is unknown and the main stupa remains empty. The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The government then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later. The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen. Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a result, the government appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the archaeological collection of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences,[38] to undertake a thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact. Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted, some even with colonial-government consent. It is said that in 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief panels, five buddha images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts, most notably the lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok. The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by Moens. In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur; for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon. Role of the moon: It is worth mentioning that the role of the moon is quite relevant in Buddhism, since festivals and recurrences associated with Buddha's life are timed by the full moon. As is well known, in the course of a 18,6 years cycle the maximal declination of the Moon in her monthly cycle undergoes a slow variation from a minimum to a maximum, equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic minus/plus the obliquity of the earth-moon plane (=5° 9') with respect to the ecliptic. This leads to a minor standstill at declination and a maximal standstill at declination . In 800 AD the obliquity of the ecliptic was about 9' greater than today so =23° 39' and the two standstills correspond to declinations 28° 48' and to 18° 30' respectively. The last matches impressively well the orientation of Pawon, while the first is not far (less than two degrees in declination, corresponding to less than 2 degrees also in azimuth) from that of Mendut (parallax corrections are negligible at these latitudes). Since the minor standstill of the Moon is always mimicked by the sun two times a year, it is impossible to distinguish it from a solar orientation in the case of a single building. However, the coincidence of two buildings possibly related to the two standstills is, to say the last, impressive. In this respect it is important to remember that precise azimuths for the major standstills of the Moon are very difficult to individuate, and major standstills lunar orientations should always be understood as aimed to the full moon closest to the solstice, which always attains a declination close to the extremal one in the years of the standstills. The choice of orientation to the extrema of the moon might thus have arisen from calendrical reasons.6 Moens: Confirmed that the temple triad of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon dates from the period of the Shailendra dynasty, 1,3 which in close cooperation with the kings of the Sanjaya dynasty dominated Central Java for nearly two centuries, is no longer liable to doubt since the explorations of Van Erp and Krom. In his extensive Barabudur-monograph, Van Erp called the three temples “...a triad that according to (their) architecture and ornamentation derive from the same time period.” 7This observation of course concerns the style of the temples as we are familiar with today, that is to say following the renovations and extensions which must have been executed by the end of the ninth century when Shailendra hegemony in Java came to an end. REFERENCES 1. and 3. .J. L. Moens (1951). "Barabudur, Mendut en Pawon en hun onderlinge samenhang (Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon and their mutual relationship)" (PDF). Tijdschrift voor de Indische Taai-, Land- en Volkenkunde. Het Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen: 326–386. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 10, 2007. trans. by Mark Long 2. 1.Beschrijving van Barabudur,Krom (N.J.) & Van Erp (T.),Martinus Nijhoff, 1920-31., 1920 4."Mataram, Historical kingdom, Indonesia". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 January 2015. See also The Role of Dutch Colonialism in the Political Life of Mataram Dynasty: A Case Study of the Manuscript of Babad, Tanah Jawi, Asian Social Science 10(15) · July 2014  5. Art of Indonesia: Pusaka, Haryati Soebadio, Bambang Sumadio, et al. | 1 March 1998 6.Archaeoastronomy of the “Sun path” at Borobudur,Giulio Magli,School of Architecture, Urban Planning and Construction Engineering,Politecnico di Milano, Italy 7. BESCHRIJVING VAN BARABUDUR. EERSTE DEEL. ARCHAEOLOGISCHE BESCHRIJVING DOOR, Krom, N.J.; Erp, T. van.,Published by 's-Gravenhage, 1920. (1920) Phasewise Restoration Restoration Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem IJzerman Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In 1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the monument: Jan Lourens Andries Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp [nl], a Dutch army engineer officer, and Benjamin Willem van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the Department of Public Works. In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards, proper maintenance should be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders. The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal, which was approved with the additional cost of 34,600 guilders. At first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. Van Erp went further by carefully reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on top of the main stupa. However, he later dismantled the chattra, citing that there were not enough original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown. The dismantled chattra now is stored in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few hundred meters north from Borobudur. Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough renovation was urgently needed. ...nature takes a toll But during the 19th century, as Borobudur's past became more clear, its future grew much less certain. The climate of Java is particularly ruthless to man-made structures. In the words of Professor Soekmono, former head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia: "For over a thousand years, the rigours of the tropical climate have probed the latent weaknesses of the edifice. Sudden changes of heat and cold between day and night, where temperatures may vary by 40 degrees Fahrenheit in twenty-four hours, cause stones to crack. But the worst havoc has been caused by the heavy rains, over eighty inches a year on average, with torrential downpours of up to half an inch in five minutes. They overwhelmed the inadequate drainage system, percolating down into the central core where they washed away the earth and weakened the foundations." "Moisture on the stones had also corroded many of the beautifully carved reliefs and favored the growth of disfiguring patches of mosses and lichens. The terrace walls sagged and tilted at crazy angles and the floors sloped inwards. Had the lower terrace walls collapsed, the whole colossal structure would have come tumbling down in a great slithering avalanche of earth and masonry." Nature itself was destroying the monument, literally tearing Borobudur apart. Despite repeated efforts at restoration throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, major decay and structural disintegration plainly threatened Borobudur with inevitable and irreparable collapse. Several interesting suggestions for protection of the monument were made during that time. One of the preservationists suggested that Borobudur be covered by a giant umbrella to keep the rain off. Another proposal was to demolish the entire edifice and deposit the reliefs in a museum. In 1907, Theodore Van Erp, a Dutch engineering officer, led a major restoration project. He rebuilt the crumbling stupas and heaving floors of the upper terraces, cleaning the sculptures of moss and lichen. But after four years, the limited funds were exhausted before work could begin on the lower galleries, and the basic problem of drainage had not been solved. Carvings were rapidly disintegrating; walls were crumbling. By 1948, when the Republic of Indonesia came into existence, Borobudur was on the brink of ruin. According to Soekmono, 5"Deterioration was so widespread all over the monument that no partial restoration could effectively ensure its safeguard. Since the Indonesian people were determined to pass on the best of their cultural heritage to forthcoming generations, drastic but deliberate action was called for in the form of a gigantic project." But it would be several decades before attention would again turn to Borobudur. Little is known about the early history of Borobudur except that it was built some time between AD 750 and 850, during the Sailendra Dynasty. A huge workforce must have been required to hew, transport and carve the 60,000 cubic metres of stone in constructing the temple, but the details remain as vague as the monument's name, which possibly derives from the Sanskrit words ‘Vihara Buddha Uhr’, meaning Monastery on the Hill’. The original materials were used to reconstruct the temple in two phases in the 20th century: after the turn of the century and more recently (1973-1983). Mostly original materials were used with some additions to consolidate the monument and ensure proper drainage which has not had any significant adverse impact on the value of the property. Though the present state of Borobudur Temple is the result of restorations, it retained more than enough original material when re-discovered to make a reconstruction possible. Borobudur as a Temple for the Sanghyang Adi Buddha Very few people know that the Indonesian Government Regulation Number 21/1975 about the vow of the civil bureaucrat, arranges the vow for the Buddhist bureaucrat by mentions "Demi Sanghyang Adi Buddha" ("by Sanghyang Adi Buddha") in the beginning of the vow.Or that the Borobudur is built to salute the Sanghyang Adi Buddha  Sanghyang Adi Buddha is a concept of God in Indonesian Buddhism. Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools. Nepalese uses the term: Adinata, which means "main protector" and  Swayambhulokanatta, which means "the unborn protector of the universe."other Tibetan terms such as  Vajradhara (Tibet= Dorjechang; lit. "ruler of all the mysteries"). This term was used by Ashin Jinarakkhita at the time of Buddhist revival in Indonesia in the mid-20th century to reconcile the first principle of the official philosophical foundation of Indonesia (Pancasila), i.e. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (lit. "Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence") that requires the belief in a supreme God, which Buddhism, strictly speaking, does not believe in. This concept is used by the Indonesian Buddhist Council, an organization that seeks to represent all Buddhist traditions in Indonesia such as Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana.The formulation of Pancasila took place in the mid-20th century immediately after the end of the Second World War. Thus, the ideology reflects the socio-political conditions of the late colonial period in Indonesia and the ensuing war. Its concept derived and synthesized from the ideas and ideals of Indonesia's founding fathers, most prominently Sukarno's. The historical period that most influenced Indonesia's founding fathers was the socio-political conditions of the Dutch East Indies in the early and mid 20th century.By the first half of the 20th century, some ideologies that had been established or made their way to the Dutch East Indies included imperialism and its antithesis anti-colonial nationalism, traditional Javanese statecraft, Islamism, democracy, socialism, and communism. Proponents of these ideologies had formed political organizations or parties to forward their respective causes. The Islamist party Sarekat Islam was established in 1905 followed by Masyumi in 1943. The Communist Party was established in 1914, while Sukarno's nationalist Indonesian National Party was established in 1927. Favoring one ideology over another would not satisfy the whole spectrum of Indonesian people, thus it was decided that the new republic need to synthesize a new ideology derived from indigenous Indonesian values as well as common shared values derived from various ideologies Namasangiti Text of Candrakīrti (a monk who was staying in Indonesia), and the symbolism of Borobudur's mandala stupa, provided evidence that the Buddhism embraced by Indonesian people since the days of Srivijaya, Ancient Mataram, Sailendra, and Majapahit is the Buddhism which honors the Primordial Buddha. Indonesian sacred texts which contains the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha are Guna Karanda Vyuha text In the time of nothingness, Shambu was already exist, this is what is called Svayambhu (self-manifested), and preceded all things, this is why he is called the Adi Buddha. Sanghyang Kamahayanikan text All praises for Sanghyang Adi Buddha, this is the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan that I have been wanted to teach you, to the sons of Buddha (whom also) the family of Tathagata, the grandeur of 'Sanghyang Mahayana' practices is what i have to teach you. Herman S. Hendro (1968) in his paper mentioned-The closed uppermost large stupa [of Borobudur] is the epitome of a man who has reached the Absolute Freedom (Nirvana) and united with Adi Buddha. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by human. 1 Adi-Buddha is a term used in Tantric Buddhism to refer to the Primordial Buddha. The term Sanghyang Adi Buddha is agreed upon and used by the Indonesian Supreme Sangha and the Indonesian Buddhist Council as the designation for God Almighty. This term is not found in Pāli Canon, but used in some old Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. Sang Hyang Adi Buddha refers to "the seed of Buddhahood" inside every being. In Mahayana Buddhism, Adi Buddha refers to the primordial Buddha that outlines the same Universal Dhamma.[3] The Adi-buddha is not a monotheistic deity as in the Abrahamic traditions, but is rather the primordial nature of mind, the part of the mind that never enters samsara, and is thus the "primordial Buddha." As the Primordial Buddha never entertains conceptual ignorance or proliferation, all that arises is referred to as "self-liberated." Sogyal Rinpoche writes: "[Kuntuzangpo] represents the absolute, naked, sky-like primordial purity of the nature of our mind.” For the purposes of official recognition as a religion by the state, Mahabhiksu Ashin Jinarakkhita encouraged Indonesian Buddhists to present the Adi-Buddha as: a concept of “supreme divinity” in the Dharma that would be most readily recognizable and acceptable to predominantly Muslim authorities. Adi-Buddha is the Primordial Buddha, or Paramadi Buddha (The first and incomparable Buddha). He has some other names in other Buddhist traditions such as Adau‐Buddha (Primordial Buddha), Anadi‐Buddha (Uncreated Buddha), Uru‐Buddha (Buddha of the Buddhas). He also called Adinatha (The first Protector), Svayambhulokanatha (self-originating World Protector), Vajradhara (Vajra Holder), Vajrasattva (Vajra Being), Svayambhu (the Self-Originating One), or Sanghyang Adwaya (Unequalled). In Chinese language, Adi‐Buddha is Pen‐chu‐fu, while aramadi‐Buddha is translated as Sheng‐chu‐fu. In Tibet Dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, Mchog‐gi‐dan‐pohi‐sans‐rgyas, or Thogmahi‐sans‐rgyas are all refers to "Buddha of the Buddhas", that existed since the beginning, as the first: Paramadi‐buddhoddhrta‐sri‐kalacakra‐nama‐tantraraja and Jnanasattva‐manjusryadi‐buddha‐nama‐sadhana Mahayana Buddhism believes that Buddha has three bodies (Trikaya), i.e.: "The Created Body" (Nirmanakaya) to teach common human being; "Body of Mutual Enjoyment" (Sambhogakāya) or the body of bliss or clear light; and "Truth Body" (Dharmakāya) which is eternal, omnipresent, non-individual, almighty, non-dual, and self-originating (svabhava‐kaya). There may be many Buddhas, but only one Dharmakaya. This Dharmakaya is identical with Adi‐Buddha. The sources of this Trikaya doctrine are Avatamsaka Sutra and Mahayana‐sraddhotpada‐shastra. The last one was the work of Asvagosha, a monk who lived around the first century AD. Vetulyaka Lokottaravada School says that Sakyamuni originally was the manifestation of Adi‐Buddha in this world. Herman S. Hendro (1968) wrote: "Dalam Kitab Sutji Sang Hyang Kamahayanikan, pupuh ke-19 didjelaskan bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama telah menunggal dengan Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha atau dengan kata lain bahwa Sang Buddha Gautama adalah pengedjawantahan dari Sang Adhi Buddha. Karena itu bila kita menjebut Sang Adhi Buddha maka itu adalah Sang Buddha jang tidak berkarya (saguna)." "In the Sacred Book of Sanghyang Kamahayanikan, 19th stanza, is explained that the Buddha Gautama was merged with Sang Hyang Adhi Buddha, or in other words the Buddha Gautama was the manifestation of the Adhi Buddha. Therefore if we refers the Adhi Buddha then He is the Buddha who is inactive (saguna)." With his power, he emanates into five Dhyani Buddhas. The Pure Land of the Adi Buddha is called Ogamin in Tibetan or Akanistha in Sanskrit (lit. "not down" or "without (back) to the bottom"). Buddhist concept In Udana Nikaya (viii: 3), Sakyamuni gave his teaching: There is, O monks, an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. Were there not, O monks, this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, there would be no escape from the world of the born, originated, created, formed. Since, O monks, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, therefore is there an escape from the born, originated, created, formed. What is dependent, that also moves; what is independent does not move. Where there is no movement, there is rest; where rest is, there is no desire; where there is no desire, there is neither coming nor going, no ceasing-to-be, no further coming to be. Where there is no ceasing-to-be, no further coming-to-be, there is neither this shore [this world] nor the other shore [Nirvana], nor anything between them. From the Pali language: Athi Ajatam Adbhutam Akatam Samkhatamor "the Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, and Absolute One". The Primordial Buddha is something without ego (anatta), unpersonified, and indescribable in any form. But for there is the Absolute, the unconditioned (Asamkhatam), one can attain the freedom from the wheel of life (samsara) by meditating. Sanghyang Adi Buddha is the origin of everything in the universe, but he himself is without beginning or end, self-originating, infinite, omnipotent, unconditioned, absolute, omnipresent, almighty, incomparable, and immortal. However, those words are unable to describe the true self of Sanghyang Adi Buddha. The existence of Adi Buddha demonstrates that this life is not the product of chaos, but the product of spiritual hierarchy. By the presence of Adi Buddha, this life becomes useful and be possible to attain enlightenment and Buddhahood. The Indonesian Supreme Sangha describes God in Buddhism and (for the purposes of state recognition as a religion) defines God as "the source of everything that exists": Almighty, eternal, everything in the universe are His exposition, intangible and doesn't manifest Himself. Indonesian National Encyclopedia Indonesian National Encyclopedia (1988) describes Adi Buddha and the traditions that are used this term thus: Adi-Buddha is a term for the Almighty God in Buddhism. This title came from the Aisvarika tradition of Mahayana in Nepal, which is spread through Bengal, and became also known in Java. Aisvarika is the term for the disciples of theist view in Buddhism. This word came from 'Isvara' which means 'God' or 'Great Buddha' or 'the Almighty', and 'ika' which means 'follower' or 'disciple'. This term is used by the Svabhavavak Buddhism in Nepal. This school is one of the branch of Tantrayana school of Mahayana. The term for God Almighty in this school is Adi-Buddha. Later, this view also spread to Java in the time of Srivijaya and Majapahit. The present scholars knows this term from the paper of B.H. Hodgson, a researcher who studied the religious in Nepal. According to this view, one can coalesce (moksha) with Adi-Buddha or Isvara through his efforts with the ascetic path (tapa) and meditating (Dhyana). The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism The Seeker's Glossary of Buddhism gives the following definition for Adi Buddha: Term used in Mahayana Buddhism, especially in Nepal and Tibet, for the 'primordial Buddha', the Buddha without beginning." (Ling: 8) The primordial Buddha. Although the concept itself can be traced to early Buddhism, it is widely acknowledge that the notion of the Adi-Buddha was fully developed in esoteric Buddhism. In [traditional Mahayana] Buddhism, the Adi-Buddha is represented by Mahavairocana Buddha". (Preb: 38) Since the time of Sailendra and Medang Kingdom, Indonesian Buddhists have the same belief in the existence of the Adi-Buddha as the Buddhists in Tibet, Nepal, and the northern schools. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood The unfinished buddha statue of the main stupa of Borobudur Temple at Karmawibhangga Museum. Since Indonesian independence in 1945, the founders of this new state had agreed on a proposed ideology as a national foundation for uniting all ethnicities, religions, and races, i.e. Pancasila as the basic foundation of the state and nationhood. The first precept of Pancasila is "Belief in the Almighty Godliness" ("Recognition of the Divine Omnipotence"). The majority of Indonesian people mistranslated the sanskrit "Esa" -Almighty (absolute in virtues)- as "Eka" -One. This misconceptions makes some factions questioning the doctrine of Buddhism whether it acknowledges the Belief in God Almighty or not. Following the attempted coup of Communist Party of Indonesia's (PKI) in 1965, Indonesian Government rejects and prohibits the development of all views that correspond to communism or atheism.  Consequently, there was some doubt within the Indonesian Government at the time whether Buddhism can be accepted as an official religion.  The Buddhist Prist Ashin Jinarakkhita proposed the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as the God of Buddhist teachings. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. It was submitted to the Minister of Religious Affairs, and the government eventually accepted Buddhism as a state religion in 1978, as stated in GBHN (Outlines of Indonesian State Policy) of 1978, Presidential Decree No. 30 of 1978, and the Form Letter of Indonesian Department of the Interior No.477/74054/1978 (November 18, 1978). COMPROMISE resulting in the Almighty God (First precept of Pancasila) The use of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a name for a supreme God is controversial among Indonesian Buddhists to the present day. The reason is that the concept of Sanghyang Adi Buddha, which only exists in Tantrayana/ Vajrayana traditions, is not a god in the sense of a personal god of the monotheistic religions. The use of the name of Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a personal god, is the product of a compromise with political reality, and is contrary to the teachings of Buddhism. Because of this political compromise, Indonesian Buddhism differs from mainstream Buddhism. This controversy also extends to Very Venerable Ashin Jinarakkhita as the originator of the term Sanghyang Adi Buddha as a god in Buddhism. While the State seemed to be easily satisfied with Ashin Jinarakkhita's assurance, questions came from their fellow Buddhists and, later, also his primary disciples who were on the same boat with him in the beginning. Since then, debates, disintegration, and splits could not be avoided within Buddhist organizations. The strongest opposition was coming from the Theravādin members, and it seemed to happen partly because of the influence of the Thai Buddhist’s purification movement started in the nineteenth century by King Mongkut as later on many Thai Bhikkhus coming to Indonesia. Though there were also Buddhist monks coming from Sri Lanka and Myanmar, such as Narada Mahathera, Mahasi Sayadaw and other Sangha members, they only came a few times during these early years. In the same year when the controversy was erupting (1974), the Indonesian Directorate General Guidance of Hindu-Buddhism (Gde Puja, MA.) issued a resolution on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism that they should believe in the presence of an Almighty God (First precept of Pancasila), and while each of this sects may give different names to Him, He is essentially the same entity. This resolution became indirectly a government imposition of the doctrine of Oneness of God on all schools/ traditions of Buddhism. Any schools/ traditions that do not believe in the existence of One God would be dissolved. This happened to the Mahayana school/ tradition of the monk Sun Karma Chandra which was dissolved on July 21, 1978. Nowadays, the term of Sanghyang Adi Buddha only used mostly by Indonesian Buddhayana Council and Indonesian Supreme Sangha. Some schools treat the concept indifferently, while the others simply refuse and consider the idea as heresy (especially the Indonesian Theravada Sangha), and only a fraction supports it fully or partially. Religious usage-Salutation Sanghyang Adi Buddha is used in greeting especially by Indonesian Buddhayana Council, i.e. Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. This salutation was popularized by the late Venerable Mahawiku Dharma-aji Uggadhammo, one of the five first disciples of Ashin Jinarakkhita, whose ordained as the first Indonesian Buddhist monks after the independence of Indonesia. The complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books' preface, letters, or meeting is: Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya. Vandana The tribute to Sanghyang Adi Buddha is often included in the vandana (devotion) section of ritual books. 1.VANDANA Terpujilah Sanghyang Adi Buddha Tuhan Yang Maha Esa ("Homage to Sanghyang Adi Buddha the Almighty God") Terpujilah Bhagavā, Yang Maha Suci, Yang telah mencapai Penerangan Sempurna ("Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One") Terpujilah Para Bodhisattva-Mahasattva ("Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings") VANDANA Namo Sanghyang Ādi Buddhaya (3x) "Homage to the Almighty God, shout the whole world" Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Sammā-sambuddhassa (3x) "Homage to the Blessed One the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One" Namo Sarve Bodhisattvāya-Mahāsattvāya (3x) "Homage to all Holy Beings and Great Beings" III WAS THE BOROBUDUR BUILT FOR THE SANGHYANA ADI BUDDHA ? A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure. Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple. Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth. Borobudur consists of two million blocks of lava rock, 2,700 carved story panels and 504 Buddha statues. Borobudur is actually a giant textbook of Buddhism, as its base reliefs tell the story of the life of Buddha and the principles of his teachings. A universe in small scale Bhumisambara (Borobudur’s original name) was built as a stepped pyramid. At the base of the massive temple, reliefs of Karmawibhangga — depiction of human life in the endless cycle of death and rebirth (Saṃsāra) as well as the law of cause and effect (karmic law) — were carved on all sides. All Buddhas sit in small bell-like stupa structures covering them, corresponding with what the Prajnaparamita sūtra calls “the Womb of the Buddhas”, symbolizing their Enlightened State. Viewed from above, Borobudur takes the form of a giant mandala, symbolically depicting the path of the bodhisattva from samsara to nirvana, through the story of Sudhana described in the Gandavyuha sūtra, a part of the Avatamsaka sūtra. The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. The temple is oriented to the four directions and is expanded vertically in accordance with Buddhist cosmology to construct the Universe in a small scale. There are all total four entrances and four complete steps for ascending the highest point from the lowest point from the four directions of East, South, West and North respectively to enter the monument. Once a year, Buddhists from the whole world celebrate Vesak at the temple. Built in 800 CE by the Shailendra dynasty, Borobodur is a Mahayana Buddhist complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built ( and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total harmony. Borobudur perfectly reflects Buddhist cosmology, which divides the universe into three superimposing levels. The three levels are Kamadhatu (world of desire), Rupadhatu (world of forms), and Arupadhatu (world of formlessness). Kamadhatu (Bhurloka) — The outer courtyard and the foot (base) part of the temple represents the lowest realm of common mortals; humans, animals and also demons. Where humans are still binded by their lust, desire and unholy way of life. The Kamadhatu level pictures the world of passion and the inevitable laws of karma — Karmavibhangga. The first 117 panels show various actions leading to one and the same result, while the other remaining 43 panels demonstrate the many results that follow one single effect. Rupadhatu (Bhuvarloka) — The middle courtyard and the body of the temple represents life on earth in which the soul has been purged of all desires. The middle realm of holy people, rishis and lesser gods. People here began to see the light of truth. The reliefs of the Rupadhatu level show the stories based on the manuscripts of Lalitavistara, Jataka-Avadana and Gandavyuha. Arupadhatu (Svargaloka) — The inner courtyard and the roof of the temple represents the soul’s departure from the body and uniting with the gods in Nirvana. This is the highest and holiest realm of gods, or Svarga loka. On the last three circular uppermost terraces, 72 stupas circle the huge main stupa that crowns the top of the temple. The circular form represents the eternity without beginning and without end, a superlative, tranquil, and pure state of the formless world. There are no reliefs on the three circular terraces. Arupadhatu takes the shape of a circle, representing the formless world. The kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big stupa. The whole structure shows a uniquely Javanese blending of the very central ideas of ancestor worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana: • Ordinary sentient beings live out their lives on the lowest level, the realm of desire. • Those who have burnt out all desire for continued existence leave the world of desire and live in the world on the level of form alone: they see forms but are not drawn to them. • Finally, full Buddhas go beyond even form, and experience reality at its purest, most fundamental level, the formless ocean of nirvana. The liberation from the cycle of saṃsāra where the enlightened soul had no longer attached to worldly form is corresponds to the concept of Śūnyatā, or the nonexistence of the self. A series of five square bases is succeeded by three circular terraces ringed by those 72 stupas, representing the spiritual journey from the life of desire, through meditation to Nirvana. While viewed from above the whole resembles the sacred lotus flower. On these circular platforms, the famous 72 bell-shaped stupas are situated, inside of each a statue of a Buddha is placed. The top and centre of the entire structure is a large and empty stupa. All terraces and platforms can be reached by means of stairways which are situated at the four sides of the structure. The entire structure is formed in the shape of a giant twirling staircase, a style of architecture from prehistoric Indonesia. At the 10th and highest level of the temple, is the largest and tallest stupa in Borobudur. Within this stupa was found the ‘Unfinished Buddha’ symbolizing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, which is now in the Karmawibhangga Museum. The Jātaka level — Bhikkhuṇī Candraprabhā and Advisors warn the king. An extremely well-balanced structure Borobudur‘s 10 levels are designed to correspond with the path to enlightenment. The base is stacked with 5 concentric square terraces connected by staircases in each direction, which are then topped by 3 circular terraces and ultimately by a monumental stupa. The temple is designed so that visitors can walk clockwise down the open-air paths along the terraces as they move upward while meditating upon the path to enlightenment. The Buddhas are placed in three circles of 16, 24 and 32 and each looking at a specific spot on three corresponding circles which are situated outside of the perimeter of the structure. Esoterists from all over the world are still trying to find out the meanings contained in the structure of the temple. There are in these four galleries 432 larger statues of the Lord Buddha ranged at regular intervals along the upper part of the walls, each sitting in its own niche or recessed shrine. All the 108 images on each side are seated with mūdra. On the North, the mūdra is Abhaya mūdra — Have no fear; on the East, the mūdra is Bhūmisparsha — Touching the earth; on the South, Dāna — Giving; on the West, Dhyāna — Meditation. Upon either wall of the four galleries we find a continuous series of bas-reliefs illustrating the religious phenomena in ascending gradation. • the first gallery, that is to say, displays a selection of scenes from the historical life of Buddha • the second shows us the minor deities of the Brahmanic worship adopted into the Buddhist Pantheon • the third contains the higher deities, at the plane in which the shrine rather than the deity itself is worshipped • in the fourth we find only groups of Dhyāni-Buddhas. In the middle of each of the four sides of the square a steep stairway ascends, the gateway to each stairway being guarded by sitting lions, and spanned by ornate arches of the highest architectural perfection. The main entrance is on the eastern side. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, boddhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and apsaras. The reliefs of noblemen, and noble women, kings, or divine beings such as apsaras, taras and boddhisattvas usually portrayed in tribhanga pose. The three bent pose on neck, hips, and knee with one leg resting and one uphold the body weight. This position is considered as the most graceful pose, such as the figure of Surasundari holding a lotus. The square lower part of the structure shows us, through hundreds of carved stone panels, all aspects of social or communal life. It is only after this ‘school of human development’ is passed, that the circular platforms with the 72 Stupas are reached. Where the lower part of the structure concerns itself with earthly matters, the upper part seems to be directed towards the cosmos and as such rises far above the lower levels in more than one sense. Scheltema, in his book Monumental Java, describes it as “the most consummate achievement of Buddhist architecture in the whole world”. A variety of Javanese motifs and entities are also found in theses compositions, such as the structure of Javanese cottage houses, the birds on its roof or the motifs of trees and leaves. A scripture set in stone- Borobudur is constructed from 2 million volcanic rocks, and assembled using a complex interlocking technique without the use of cement or mortar. The monument has 2,672 relief panels that if aligned in a row, would stretch a length of over 6 kilometers. The reliefs are intended to impress lessons of wisdom on the believer’s mind as he ascended the stūpa, and so to prepare him for the attainment of the highest insights of Buddhism. Reading the panels on the temple walls requires a specific technique. The panels on the wall read from left to right, while those on the balustrade read from right to left, conforming with the pradaksina. The story begins and ends at the eastern side of the gate at every level. Stairs connect each level to the next from each direction of the compass, but the idea is to always ascend from the stairs at the eastern corner. The ten levels of Borobudur are representations of the Mahayana philosophy which describe the ten levels of Bodhisattva that must be passed to attain the Buddhist perfection. Jatakas or Buddha´s previous life Seen from the sky, Borobudur is built in the form of Mount Meru, and is a vertical representation of the Sri Yantra. Borobudur teaches all the steps of Buddhist theology to reach the supreme Buddha state. When ascending from lower levels to the upper levels, the density of the numbers of human figures gradually becomes very much diluted and also their physical gestures become highly controlled and less suggestive. In the final upper galleries the compositions contain only the extremely calm, isolated rather static figures in few numbers in compositional space. It is a clear symbolization of the transformation from the earthly sinful life of action and reaction towards the spacious and peaceful state of isolation, meditation and transcendental mind. In the center and on top of the Borobudur mandala-temple, is located the Main Stupa, symbolizing something much bigger than individual Enlightenment. This Universal Stupa corresponds with “Emptiness beyond Emptines” or Absolute Emptiness in which Relative Emptiness (Enlightenment) disappears, also called Nirvana or Absolute Bottomlessness of the Cosmos. The Pawon-Mendut alignment--RIGHT An astronomical temple The 4:6:9 ratio has a calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance, as in Angkor Wat. The gates are adorned with Kala’s head carved on top of each and Makaras projecting from each side. This Kala-Makara motif is commonly found on the gates of Javanese temples. The positioning of the 72 ‘occupied’ Stupas in three circles of 32, 24 and 16 might give us an indication as to what specific aspects of the cosmos these bell-shaped structures point. The circular platforms on which the Stupas are situated seem to concern themselves with the stars. The ship reliefs on the East depict a ship underneath celestial objects, commemorating a voyage to Africa. This shows the Indonesians crossed the ocean without a compass, depending solely on the stars for navigation. In 2003–2004, a wooden replica of the Borobudur ship was made and sailed the Cinnamon Route from Jakarta to Accra in Ghana to demonstrate the trans-Indian Ocean trading links of medieval Indonesians and Africans. A temple to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha In Buddhist temples throughout in the world, Gautama Buddha is the central figure. Borobudur transcends this. Inside the topmost, central stupa originally stood an incomplete and rough Buddha statue representing Sanghyang Adi-Buddha, or God Almighty, as described in esoteric Indonesian Vajrayana texts such as the Sanghyang Kamahayanikan. That is why all small stupas are eventually culminating into the Great Stupa, dedicated to Sanghyang Adi-Buddha on top of the temple. Borobudur therefore is an absolutely unique symbol of Ultimate Truth. The Krakatau eruption But in the year 915 A.D. there occurred a terrible volcanic outburst. The great volcano of Krakatau (then called the Rahata or Cancer-volcano) broke out into an eruption so tremendous that it split the whole island into two parts — now called Java and Sumatra respectively — and brought into existence the Straits of Sunda. At the same time, the volcano Merapi threw out an incredible amount of sand and ashes, destroying almost the whole of Airlanggha’s kingdom, and entirely burying Borobudur, Mendut and Prambanan temples. This catastrophe is mentioned in the inscriptions of King Airlanggga — sometimes called Jala-langgha (“he who walks over the waters”, apparently because he escaped from the floods caused by the eruption, and retired on Mount Lawu in Surakarta, where be met some Brahmans who were living in the woods there as ascetics. After some time, however, he came out of his seclusion and made his way into East Java, where he married the daughter of the King of Kediri, and inherited his throne. Under his auspices, Sanskrit learning made great advances in the Kediri and Janggala regions, Buddhism and Hinduism flourished equally under his rule, and started to blend into the Shiva-Buddha religion. The present royal families of Bali and Lombok are descended from Airlangga. The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur: Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana. During the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe the Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut temple, past Pawon and then to Borobudur. The ritual takes the form of Buddhist prayer and pradakshina. For local Javanese who follow Kejawen or Buddhism, praying in Mendut temple is believed to help to heal diseases. Indonesian Buddhism in the early 1990s was the unstable product of complex accommodations among religious ideology, Chinese ethnic identification, and political policy. Traditionally, Chinese Daoism (or Taoism), Confucianism, (agama Konghucu in Indonesian) and Buddhism, as well as the more nativist Buddhist Perbuddhi, all had adherents in the ethnic Chinese community. Following the attempted coup of 1965, any hint of deviation from the monotheistic tenets of the Pancasila was regarded as treason, and the founder of Perbuddhi, Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sang Hyang Adi Buddha. He sought confirmation for this uniquely Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and even the shape of the Buddhist temple complex at Borobudur in Jawa Tengah Province. In the years following the 1965 abortive coup, when all citizens were required to register with a specific religious denomination or be suspected of communist sympathies, the number of Buddhists swelled; some ninety new monasteries were built. In 1987 there were seven schools of Buddhism affiliated with the Perwalian Umat Buddha Indonesia (Walubi): Theravada, Buddhayana, Mahayana, Tridharma, Kasogatan, Maitreya, and Nichiren. According to a 1987 estimate, there were roughly 2.5 million followers of Buddhism, with 1 million of these affiliated with Theravada Buddhism and roughly 0.5 million belonging to the Buddhayana sect founded by Jinarakkhita. Other estimates placed Buddhists at around only 1 percent of the population, or less than 2 million. Buddhism was gaining in numbers because of the uncertain status of Confucianism. Confucianism was officially tolerated by the government, but since it was regarded as a system of ethical relations rather than a religion per se, it was not represented in the Department of Religious Affairs. Although various sects approach Buddhist doctrine in different ways, a central feature of the religion is acknowledgment of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths involve the recognition that all existence is full of suffering; the origin of suffering is the craving for worldly objects; suffering ceases when craving ceases; and the Eightfold Path leads to enlightenment. The Eightfold Path invokes perfect views, resolve, speech, conduct, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration. Buddhism originally was an intellectual creed, and only marginally concerned with the supernatural. However, political necessity, and the personal emotional desire to be shielded from the terrors of the world by a powerful deity, have led to modifications. In many ways, Buddhism is highly individualistic, with each man and woman held responsible for his or her own self. Anyone can meditate alone; no temple is required, and no clergy is needed to act as intermediary. The community provides pagodas and temples to inspire the proper frame of mind to assist the worshippers in their devotion and self-awareness.(...) Later, Dumarçay (1973) characterised scholarly debates on Borobudur as particularly spirited because the sanctuary underwent five phases of construction that involved major shifts in religious doctrines and the builders’ intentions. This likely explains why scholars have been unable to agree on an organising principle for Borobudur (Brown 1986), including the concept of the mandala. In Hindu-Buddhist traditions, a mandala is a cosmogonic diagram that represents the organisation of the universe as well as the spiritual progression of the worshiper towards enlightenment. Sanctuaries and urban configurations such as the ancient Khmer capitals of Angkor were designed in the shape of the mandala to provide a physical manifestation of the celestial order on Earth. In Indonesia, the concept of the mandala has its roots in pre-Islamic religious syncretism. Some scholars have argued that the plan of Borobudur represented a mandala, in line with the Tantric Buddhist tradition. By contras: Brown (1986) questioned whether the sanctuary’s physical shape represented the tantric mandala. Klokke (1995) argued that the Saliendra dynasty practised Mahayana Buddhism, not Tantric Buddhism, and that the form of the temple is inconsistent with the constitutive elements and organisation of the tantric mandala. Nonetheless, the mandala hypothesis has not been rejected entirely. Snellgrove (1996: 480) suggested that Borobudur conforms to a more general idea of the mandala, which has no direct connection with tantrism: The Buddha statues on the terraces symbolise the invisible petals of the lotus, and, walking towards the central figure, the worshipper gradually enters a magic world. In contrast with Zimmer, Mus (1932) himself argued that the metaphor of the mandala is too simplistic to illustrate the complexity of meanings and symbols tied up with the design of Borobudur. The JICA experts nonetheless drew on the concept of the mandala in their 1979 management plan. In their view, Borobudur represents a stupa as well as Mount Meru, the mythical mountain regarded in Hindu and Buddhist mythologies as the axis of the world. The sacralised territory extended as far the five mountains—Sumbing, Telomoyo, Andong, Merbabu and Merapi—that encircle the temple. The JICA experts argued that the Saliendra dynasty built their capital based on the pattern of a specific type of mandala, the Pursha Mandala. This mandala was formed when various parts of the crushed body of a primitive man called Pursha were inhabited by the gods to prevent him from causing a commotion on Earth (see fig. 2) (JICA 1979: 6). Fig. 2. The Pursha Mandala according to JICA 40The JICA management plan aimed to render this sacred Buddhist cosmography visible by linking the three inner zones of protection with the three spiritual steps of the worshipper, who moves along the path from desire (zone 3, the “scenic conservation zone”) to meditation (zone 2, park development area) and, finally, to formlessness (zone 1, the sanctuary itself) (see fig. 3). Fig. 3. View from the top of Borobudur towards the mountains that encircle the cultural landscape 41BPPI activists acknowledge the debate among Western scholars, but in their own analyses draw more heavily on vernacular knowledge which imbues local practices. References to this embodied, spiritual knowledge enable them to emancipate themselves from the longstanding colonial influence of the West in the production of local histories and conceptions of heritage. The BPPI—and local academics and activists who support the organisation—refer to a conception of the mandala that they see as a constitutive component of the Indonesian cultural landscape as saujana budaya. In this view, the mandala is not only the legacy of a past religious tradition documented by Western scholars, but also a sacred conception of space that is deeply embedded in the practices and values of the contemporary local population (Tanudirjo 2013). According to Priyana (2015), the Borobudur mandala reflects the Javanese concept of the mancapat (or mancalima), a sacred, compass-shaped diagram with a dot at its centre. The sanctuary itself represents the centre, “a small universe, showing the journey of purifying the human soul” (Priyana 2015: 108). The mancapat merges an Islamic symbolic pattern called kiblat panipat with the Hindu-Javanese pattern of the mandala. Vertically, the mancapat relates to the macroscopic relationships between humans and God; horizontally, it governs the relationships between humans and their environment. Villages can be organised according to this sacred scheme, with the central village surrounded by four other villages like the points of a compass (Ciptandi & Sachari 2018). The local market rotates between the five locations, giving each village the opportunity to sell its own products and meet its own needs (pancawarna). In this way, the sacred layout ensures the vitality of the entire village system (Maulidi & Rukmi 2019). In the Borobudur region, the temple at the centre spreads its energy towards the five surrounding mountains. For this reason, the perimeter of the cultural landscape to be protected should extend as far as the mountains that border the Magelang Regency, covering 372 villages and amounting to a total surface area of 1,085.73 km2. oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo IV The STRUCTURE of the Borobudur as a large base Stupa The evidence for a belief in Adi-Buddha is also evidenced by the symbolism of Borobudur’s final stupa. Inside that stupa once was an incomplete and rough Buddha statue which is depicting the Adi Buddha which is unimaginable by humans. This is seen as proof that theistic Buddhism was present in Java since at least the 8th century. Indonesian Buddhayana followers use the greeting Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya. The complete salutation which is commonly used as a greeting in the books’ preface, letters, or meetings is: Namo Sanghyang Adi Buddhaya Namo Buddhaya, Bodhisatvaya Mahasatvaya Various unique forms of Buddhist architecture developed in Indonesia and Malaysia the most common of which is the stone Candi which are built as a symbol of Mount Meru. Others were built in punden berundak (step pyramids) style — small terraced sanctuaries built on mountains — and pertapaan, (‘places of austerities’ or hermitages) built on mountain slopes. Approximately 40 kilometers (25 mi) northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo. According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility. Besides Borobudur, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples in the area, including the Prambanan temples compound. During the restoration in the early 1900s, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are lined in one straight line position. It might be accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual process is yet unknown Suroloyo Peak is the highest summit at the picturesque Menoreh Hills, which share the neighbourhood with the renowned eco-tourism destination Kulon Progo. This peak is one of the most popular spots to catch Yogyakarta’s most glorious sunrise that cast rays of light upon the Borobudur Temple and Java’s big four mountains: Merapi, Merbabu, Sumbing, and Sindoro. Other than the breathtaking view, this peak also holds some religious artefacts, including ascetic pavilions and statues. Unlike other temples, which were built on a flat surface, Borobudur was built on a bedrock hill, 265 m (869 ft) above sea level and 15 m (49 ft) above the floor of the dried-out paleolake. The lake's existence was the subject of intense discussion among archaeologists in the twentieth century; Borobudur was thought to have been built on a lake shore or even floated on a lake. In 1931, a Dutch artist and a scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J. Nieuwenkamp, developed a theory that Kedu Plain was once a lake and Borobudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on the lake. Lotus flowers are found in almost every Buddhist work of art, often serving as a throne for buddhas and base for stupas. The architecture of Borobudur itself suggests a lotus depiction, in which Buddha postures in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, mostly found in many Mahayana Buddhism (a school of Buddhism widely spread in the east Asia region) texts. Three circular platforms on the top are also thought to resent a lotus leaf. Nieuwenkamp's theory, however, was contested by many archaeologists because the natural environment surrounding the monument is a dry land. Geologists, on the other hand, support Nieuwenkamp's view, pointing out clay sediments found near the site.  A study of stratigraphy, sediment and pollen samples conducted in 2000 supports the existence of a paleolake environment near Borobudur, which tends to confirm Nieuwenkamp's theory. The lake area fluctuated with time and the study also proves that Borobudur was near the lake shore circa thirteenth and fourteenth century. River flows and volcanic activities shape the surrounding landscape, including the lake. One of the most active volcanoes in Indonesia, Mount Merapi, is in the direct vicinity of Borobudur and has been very active since the Pleistocene. The overall structure of Borobudur is made up of a square foundation along with a total of nine platforms. Of those nine platforms six of them are squared while the remaining three are circular. The structure can be further divided into three main levels: a base, a body, and the top. The architecture of Borobudur would also signify a gradual process as it starts off square in the lower terraces, transitions to elliptical with the first two upper terraces and finally becomes circular in the third upper terrace. Stupa, Ratna and Vajra pinnacles Bell-shaped perforated stupas of Borobudur. The religions dedicated in the temples of ancient Java can be easily distinguished mainly from its pinnacles on top of the roof. Bell-shaped stupa can be found on the Buddhist temples' roof, while ratna, the pinnacle ornaments symbolize gem, mostly founds in Hindu temples. The typical stupas in Javanese classical temple architecture is best described as those of Borobudur style; the bell-shaped stupa. The stupa in Borobudur upper round terrace of Arupadhatu consist of round lotus pedestal (padmasana or "lotus pad"), gently sloped bell-shaped dome (anda), a rectangular or octagonal shape (harmika) sits on top of the dome serves as the base of hexagonal rod-like pinnacle (yasti). Each stupa is pierced by numerous decorative openings, either in the shape of rectangular or rhombus. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced stupa enclosures. Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of worship. Prambanan vajra pinnacle. Ratna pinnacle took form of a curved obtuse pyramidal shape or sometimes cylindrical, completed with several base structure or pedestals took form as some ornamental seams (Javanese:pelipit). This form is known as keben pinnacle or the form of Barringtonia asiatica fruit. It can be found as the pinnacle of both Hindu and Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, it is most prevalent in Hindu temples. The example of temple with ratna pinnacle is Sambisari and Ijo temple. In Prambanan, the stylized vajra replaced ratna as the temple's pinnacles. In ancient Javanese temple architecture, the vajra pinnacle is probably served as the Hindu counterparts of Buddhist stupa pinnacle. This practice is preserved in Balinese Hindu temples of later period where the multi-tiered meru towers are crowned with vajra pinnacles. Nevertheless, vajra is actually a familiar symbols in both dharmic faiths. In later periods of Eastern Java temple architecture, the false lingga-yoni, or cube can be found in Hindu temple's roof, while cylindrical dagoba on top of Buddhist counterparts. By virtue of their spatial connection to the terrain and the necessity for secure foundations, works of architecture differ from objects that can be inverted or carried away. The bottom edge, where a building rests on the ground, requires a different treatment than all other edges and surfaces (> tectonics). The base reveals the relationship between a building and the ground: it pushes into the earth, rests on the ground, or is detached from it. Whether a building makes the impression of standing upright, reclining or floating depends upon whether it has a base, and if so on its formation. The connection between the building and the ground also determines the way in which the building relates to the terrain of the exterior space and how the two join together to form a spatial unity. Depending upon its design, the base shows us how a building rests upon the ground. Solidity and robustness produce a tectonic expression of load-bearing capacity. Particularly in historic buildings, these qualities are achieved by means of rough rusticated masonry or the use of natural stone in the pedestal zone, or by squat proportions and apertures smaller than those in upper storeys. Bases also ensure that individual architectural elements, such as > columns and pillars, neither sink into the earth optically nor seem detached from it. Although the base belongs to the building, and not to the earth, it fulfils the task of creating a connection to the terrain, broadening out by means of transitions, steps, pedestals or terraces. In ways comparable to the shoes we wear on our feet, materials also convey distinctions between the fineness of the interior and the coarseness of the exterior. Along with the building, the base also brings its occupants down to earth, shaping direct contact with the passersby and vehicles that move around the building. Through its palpable presence and tactile qualities, the base constitutes the first zone of contact for approaching a building within its immediate surroundings, and is its first distinctive identifying symbol. Essentially, it is reminiscent of the role of the pedestal, which provided stability to ancient temples as the first islands of civilization within inaccessible terrain. Under certain circumstances, the task of the base, namely to provide stability and an optical foundation, may be extended by its use as a basement storey. With reduced apertures, the rooms contained in the base are partially inserted into the ground. The unfortunately widespread bad habit, however, of digging out the base in order to provide living space with improved illumination deprives a building of stable grounding. The mental state of the inhabitant of a massive basement storey that serves a building as a base, on the other hand, is shaped by a sense of the apartment’s anchoring into the ground. Right from the 2 nd Century onwards, Kushans in order to house relics of the Buddha, which may have been sourced from earlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78 CE. Buddhist texts mention that frankincense was used during religious services at Dharmarajika, while the complex was paved with colourful glass tiles. Though not Buddhists,he Kushans in general were great patrons of Buddhism, and, starting with Emperor Kanishka, they also employed elements of Zoroastrianism in their pantheon. They played an important role in the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and China.These have a Large square or circular plinth and several diminishing terraces as mentioned before. “Prambanan,” explains archeologist Manggar Sarl Ayuati, “is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Asia with an enclosed area 390 meters on a side. It was built in 856 by King Rakai Pikatan of the Sanjaya dynasty, which ruled the Mataram Kingdom, and was expanded by later kings. It is dedicated to Siva.” Prambanan has three concentric courtyards. The innermost contains 16 temples, including the 156-foot-high main temple to Siva and 108-foot temples to Vishnu and Brahma. Each is faced by a smaller temple for the God’s vahana (mount): Nandi the bull for Siva, Hamsa the swan for Brahma and Garuda the eagle (Indonesia’s national symbol) for Vishnu. Scenes from the Ramayana and the life of Krishna are carved on the outer walls of the temples. The Siva temple has multiple chambers - Siva in the center, Durga in the north, Rishi Agastya in the south and Ganesha in the west. The second courtyard originally contained 240 small temples; only 129 have undergone any degree of restoration. The rest are just piles of rocks. No structures remain in the third courtyard, and the historical use of that area is unknown. The complex also contains four Buddhist temples, built by a Hindu king for his Buddhist wife. Prambanan was abandoned in the 10th century, likely when the Mataram kingdom moved to East Java following a huge eruption of nearby Mount Merapi that covered the entire area in volcanic ash. A major earthquake in the 16th century collapsed the upper parts of the main structures. The temple sustained additional damage in the 6.5-magnitude earthquake of 2006. Repairs were still underway during our 2014 visit. I was saddened to hear this spectacular place referred to as a dead monument and to see it reduced to a picnic spot for tourists. Puja is performed here only once a year, but that brings thousands of people from all over Indonesia to worship Siva, Brahma and Vishnu. With some difficulty, puja can be arranged at other times of the year. Diagram of the main Siva temple; repairs underway shortly after the 2006 earthquake; (inset) the partially collapsed central Siva temple around 1895, after its rediscovery by the British. taxila an illustrated account of archaeological excavations,By Marshall John, google books Top of Form One prime example of the large base and conical top design id the Dharmarajika Stupa also referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila which is a Buddhist stupa near Taxila, Pakistan. It dates from as early as the 2nd century CE, and was built by the Kushans to house small bone fragments of the Buddha. It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built over the remains of an even older stupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE,  though other archeologists alternatively suggest that this is unlikely. Indo-Greek coins found at the site date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting earliest possible establishment of a religious monument at the site. The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developed around it, forms part of the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980. The Kushans were most probably one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation, an Indo-European nomadic people of possible Tocharian origin, who migrated from northwestern China (Xinjiang and Gansu) and settled in ancient Bactria. The founder of the dynasty, Kujula Kadphises, followed Greek religious ideas and iconography after the Greco-Bactrian tradition, and also followed traditions of Hinduism, being a devotee of the Hindu God Shiva.  Small stupas that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajika site, and surrounded an earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier core stupa contained a pathway for circumambulation that was made of plaster, and decorated with shell bangles in geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial directions. The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period of stagnation. Large-scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite era which added numerous monasteries and stupas to the site. Plan of the Dharmarajika Stupa. The site was devastated by the White Huns in the 5th century CE, and then abandoned. The location of the stupa and its monastic community about 1 kilometre outside of Sirkap aligns with ancient Gandharan beliefs that the Buddha recommended monasteries should be neither "too far" nor "too close" to adjacent towns. Three distinctive types of masonry in the buildings around the main stupa suggest the contributions of different periods to the building activity. Core stupa The passageway between the main stupa and several smaller stupas was used for the practice of pradakshina. Dharmarajika Stupa is the largest of all stupas in the Taxila region, Surrounding the main mound is a passageway for pradakshina — the ancient practice of walking around a holy site. The stupa's large anda, or hemispherical mound, is damaged − though the plinth of the mound, known as the medhi, is still largely intact. The anda mound was made of ashlar stone. The stupa's harmika, or fence like structure built atop the anda mound, has been lost. The stupa's southern gateway was initially considered the most important, though the construction of four smaller stupas (termed G7, G8, S7, Q1) to the west of the stupa indicate that this then likely became the preferred entrance for those performing circambulation. Later constructions around the "Eastern Avenue" then shifted the preferred route for circambulation to the eastern side of the stupa. Before entering the main sacred areas, visitors to the shrine from Sirkap would pass through a large building, now termed building H, that would openly display relics.  Visitors likely venerated the relics at building H before entering the main stupa area. It is both a temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world. Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. SOLID STRUCTURE There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above. The Borobodur complex is an open monument; there are no chambers ; it has no roof and no vaults, (like Candi Sewu). The complex is built in the form of a giant pyramid shaped mandala with 10 ascending layers: the 10 Buddhist worlds represented by the 10 layers. Ascending from the base, there are six square terraces and a courtyard and then, at the top 3 round terraces and at the top, a central main stupa measuring 35 meters from the base or 42 meters tall. A complex of stupas – a gigantic Buddhist monument – at 42 meters or 100 feet tall and a total of 504 stupas in its 123 square meter grounds, it is the largest Buddhist monument in the world. The hundreds of stupas are not just a mass of stones ( laval andesite rocks ) but carved and built ( and all laid without mortar ) on top of a natural hillock, where using the terraces of the natural hills, the builders stacked stones to make these monumental stupas in perfect symmetry and total harmony. A map of India in the 2nd century AD showing the extent of the Kushan Empire (in yellow) during the reign of Kanishka. Most historians consider the empire to have variously extended as far east as the middle Ganges plain, to Varanasi on the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna, or probably even Pataliputra. The mandala is a diagram representing a spiritual practice of attainment in the Tibetan school of Vajrayana and also in the Sri Vijayan school as well. What type of mandala is Borobodur ? This is difficult to say. There are as many as 3,500 types of mandalas and we cannot precisely fix Borobodur as a particular type of mandala. Each side of the Borobodur complex is 120 feet long and decreases as it goes up. If we were to circumambulate each level, it would encompass a total of 5 km.The entrance to Borobodur is at the east and the Buddhas face east. Borobodur took about 70 years to be built by the architect Gunadharma .There is a small hill directly facing Borobodur and folklore says that this hill is said to represent the sleeping body profile of Gunadvara. There are a total of 504 stupas in the entire complex, each stupa enclosing a life size stone Buddha. However, many are now empty due to pillage. Remarkably, no Buddha image is the same, each Buddha image faces all various directions and with various hand mudras with all the 6 types of mudras all represented. The 3 upper terraces have 72 Buddhas; the lower terraces have 432 with total of 504. All the numbers add up to the number 9 ( the largest single digit indiger ). All the stupas have the stocky bulbous Central Java shape. Each stupa consists of the top or harmuca which holds holy relics relic holding top and the main body or anda sitting on a lotus base. But, not all stupas in Borobodur look the same. The stupas in the upper and lower terraces are differentiated by the harmuca and the anda. The stupas of the lower terraces have octogonal shaped harmuca and the anda enclosing the Buddha have many tiny square shaped openings or holes. However, the stupas of the upper terraces have a square shaped harmuca and diamond shaped openings in the anda. PERFECT SYMMETRY The base of each stupa equals the height of the stupa. Absolutely perfect symmetry! In fact, all measurements from every corner and the height of all stupas of Borobodur are governed by this perfect symmetry. The main central stupa at the top which measures 42 meters is still in the process of restoration – the top has not yet been restored – and is missing the 3 layers of the parasol or ‘chatra’ as can be seen at the Sarnath temple in India.Mahayana bas relief panels cover each of the 10 layers of terraced carvings. Each gallery is a masterpieces of Sri Vijayan or Gandaran art. No one panel is the same, each gallery in each layer representing different Jataka stories and as one goes further up the galleries, the Jataka stories brought to life by the panels get from the ordinary to the more conceptual.and.spiritual. As the Borobodur complex was being built from 830 CE to 938CE, it was archaeologists discovered that it could have been revised by as much as three times from the original plan. In any event, there were no blueprints then and restorers can only surmise by taking apart the stones and putting them back again. It was abandoned in 938 CE. No one quite knows why except that, the champions of Buddhism, the Shailendra dynasty were chased out of Java in 825 CE and this meant that for the next 30 to 40 years thereafter, the royal patronage for Buddhist temples in java was lost. After the Shailendras were removed, the Sanjayan family which was a Hindu princely family still continued to support Buddhism but it began to wane. The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of reality at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the ultimate condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument effectively proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was meant to be transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering illustrations of progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost terrace, whose main stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the spectator’s view, symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas on the circular terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete states of enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay reverence to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast series of reliefs about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would thus be read by the visitor in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll panels, and a hundred monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on the stairways between terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala monster at the apex spouting his scrolls. IMPACT OF THE TRADITIONAL INDONESIAN STEP PYRAMID DESIGN Punden terraces or terraces are a building layout structure in the form of multiple terraces or traps that lead to one point with each terrace getting higher in position. This structure is often found on archaeological sites in the archipelago , so it is considered one of the characteristics of the original culture of the archipelago. Ceto Temple, a Hindu-style temple with a staircase punden structure. The basic structure of the terraced punden is found in archaeological sites from the pre-Hindu-Buddhist Megalithic - Neolithic culture of the Austronesian people , although it was also used in buildings from the later period, even until the Islamic period entered the archipelago. Its distribution is recorded in the archipelago to Polynesia , [1] although in the Polynesian region it is not always in the form of steps, in a structure known as marae by the Maori. The entry of religions from outside could fade manufacturing practices punden at several places in the archipelago, but there is a hint of the adoption of the original elements of this in the buildings of the next period of history, as seen in Borobudur , Candi Ceto , and Complex Funeral Kings Mataram in Imogiri . The word "pundèn" (or pundian ) comes from the Javanese language . Said pepund è n which means "cult objects" similar understanding with the concept kabuyutan the Sundanese people. In punden terraces, the basic concept held is that the ancestors or those who are worshiped are in high places (usually mountain peaks ). The term punden terraces emphasizes the function of worshiping/respecting ancestors, not just the basic structure of the spatial layout. Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a seventiered pyramid called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV. Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons. Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The ling-am probably stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier some scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of Garudas were made. The main pyramid of Sukuh temple As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok[n and in Cipari near Kuningan. The construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places are the abode for the spirit of the ancestors. The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture, as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java during the late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.Borobudur carries with it elements of both the Pundan terraces and Te Gupta architecture of the sanchi Type. Post-Borobudur candis Impact on Post-Borobudur candis illustrate the Buddhist doctrine in different ways. Kalasan, for example, built in the second half of the 8th century, was a large square shrine on a plinth, with projecting porticoes at the centre of each face. The roof was surmounted by a high circular stupa mounted on an octagonal drum, the faces of which bear reliefs of divinities. Topping each portico was a group of five small stupas, and another large stupa stood at each disengaged corner of the main shrine. The moldings were restrained and elegantly profiled. Each section of the exterior wall contains a niche meant for a figure sculpture. The decorative scroll carving is especially fine. Another shrine from this period, Candi Sewu, consisted of a large cruciform shrine surrounded by smaller temples, only one of which has been restored. All of the temples seem to have had roofs in the form of tiered stupas, compressing the overall Borobudur scheme into the scope of a storied shrine tower. From Candi Plaosan came many beautiful sculptures, donor figures, and iconic images of bodhisattvasPerhaps the most interesting of the post-Borobudur Buddhist shrines of the 9th century is Candi Sari. It is an outstanding architectural invention. From the outside it appears as a large rectangular three-storied block, with the main entrance piercing the centre of one of the longer sides. The third story stands above a substantial architrave with horizontal moldings and antefixes. Two windows on each short side, three on each long, open into each story, though at the rear they are blind. The windows are crowned by large antefix-like cartouches of ornamental carving based on curvilinear pavilions hung with strings of gems. The uppermost windows are hooded with the Kala-monster motif. The roof bears rows of small stupas, and perhaps there was once a large central stupa. Inside, Candi Sari contains a processional corridor around three interior shrines that were possibly intended for images of the garbha-dhatu deities, as at Candi Mendut. The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze. Candi Sewu Layout Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the center. The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept. The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of the structures are made from andesite stones. The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples together into one main building with five rooms. The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster. Sewu Layout According to literary tradition, Nalanda, 10 kilometres north of Rajgir and a suburb of the ancient city, was visited by Buddha and Mahavira. Ashoka is said to have worshipped at the chaitya-niches of Sariputra, Buddha's disciple, and erected a temple. By the time of Harsha  A.D. 606-648, Nalanda had become the principal centre of Mahayana learning and a famed University town with numerous shrines and monasteries which attracted scholars from far and near. The Chinese Pilgrims Huien Tsang and Fa-hien studied at Nalanda and have left account of the settlement and its life. Temple 3 was more than 31 m. high and consisted of seven successive accumulations of which the two latest belonged to the 11th and 12th centuries and the fifth one, dating from circa 6th century, was notable for its sculptural wealth. The monasteries were imposing rectangular buildings, each with an open courtyard, enclosed by a covered verandah which leads into cells, arranged on the four sides. The cell facing the entrance served as a shrine. Nalanda was an important centre of Pala sculptures and bronzes and has also yielded seals and sealings of great historical significance. Nalanda University; Conjectural Reconstruction from Excavated Remains of Temple no. 3 or 5th Stupa (Sariputra Stupa), c. 6th century CE Temple no. 3 (also termed Sariputta Stupa) is the most iconic of Nalanda's structures with its multiple flights of stairs that lead all the way to the top. The temple was originally a small structure which was built upon and enlarged by later constructions. Archaeological evidence shows that the final structure was a result of at least seven successive such accumulations of construction. The fifth of these layered temples is the most interesting and the best preserved with four corner towers of which three have been exposed. The towers as well as the sides of the stairs are decorated with exquisite panels of Gupta-era art depicting a variety of stucco figures including Buddha and the Bodhisattvas, scenes from the Jataka tales. The temple is surrounded by numerous votive stupas some of which have been built with bricks inscribed with passages from sacred Buddhist texts. The apex of Temple no. 3 features a shrine chamber which now only contains the pedestal upon which an immense statue of Buddha must have once rested. According to Win Maung, the stupa was influenced by Gupta architecture, which itself had Kushana era influences. In a shrine near the bottom of the staircase, a large image of Avalotiteshvar was found which was eventually moved to the Museum. Map of Nalanda by Alexander Cunningham, 1861-62 When a building is tapered, the exterior surface area where the wind load is applied is reduced at higher levels, and increased at lower levels. The convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above. The stupa complex at Borobudur in Java, Indonesia.Robert Harding Picture Li Sanchi Stupa Kalasan also known as Candi Kalibening, is an 8th-century Buddhist temple in Java, Indonesia. It is located 13 kilometers (8.1 mi) east of Yogyakarta on the way to Prambanan temple, on the south side of the main road Jalan Solo between Yogyakarta and Surakarta. Administratively, it is located in the Kalasan District (kapanewon) of Sleman Regency. According to the Kalasan inscription dated 778 AD, written in Sanskrit using Pranagari script, the temple was erected by the will of Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (the Jewel of Sailendra family) who succeeded in persuading Maharaja Tejapurnapana Panangkaran (in another part of the inscription also called Kariyana Panangkaran) to construct Tarabhavanam, a holy building for the goddess (boddhisattvadevi) Tara. In addition, a vihara (monastery) was built for buddhist monks from the Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran awarded the Kalaça village to sangha (buddhist monastic community). According to the date of this inscription, Kalasan temple is the oldest of the temples built in the Prambanan Plain. Despite being renovated and partially rebuilt during the Dutch colonial era, the temple currently is in poor condition. Compared to other temples nearby such as Prambanan, Sewu, and Sambisari the temple is not well maintained. The temple stands on a square 14.20 meters sub-basement. The temple plan is cross-shaped, and designed as a twelve-cornered polygon. Each of four cardinal points has stairs and gates adorned with Kala-Makara and rooms measuring 3,5 square meters. No statue is to be found in the smaller rooms facing north, west, and south; but the lotus pedestals suggest that the rooms once contains statues of Bodhisattvas. The temple is richly decorated with buddhist figures such as the Bodhisattva and gana. The Kala Face above the southern door has been photographed and used by a number of foreign academics in their books to give an idea of the artistry in stone by Central Javanese artists of a millennia ago. Niches where the statues would have been placed are found inside and outside the temple. The niches adorned an outer wall intricately carved with Kala, gods and divinities in scenes depicting the svargaloka, the celestial palace of the gods, apsaras, and gandharvas. The giant Kala's head on the southern door/ One of the niches on the wall of Kalasan temple adorned with carvings of Kala giant and scene of deities in svargaloka The roof of the temple is designed in three sections. The lower one are still according to the polygonal shape of the body and contains small niches with statues of boddhisatvas seated on lotus. Each of this niches is crowned with stupas. The middle part of the roof is in octagonal (eight-sided) shape. Each of this eight sides adorned with niches contains statue of a Dhyani Buddha flanked by two standing boddhisatvas. The top part of the roof is almost circular and also have 8 niches crowned with single large dagoba. The octagonal aspect of the structure has led to speculation of non-buddhist elements in the temple, similar to some interpretations of the early Borobudur structure. The temple is facing east, with the eastern room also served as access to main central room. In the larger main room there is lotus pedestal and throne carved with makara, lion, and elephant figure, similar to the Buddha Vairocana throne founds in Mendut temple. According to the Kalasan inscription, the temple once houses the large (probably reaching 4 meters tall) statue of the Boddhisattvadevi Tara. By the design of the throne, most probably the statue of the goddess was in seated position and made from bronze.  Now the statue is missing, probably the same fate as bronze Buddha statue in Sewu temple, being looted for scrap metal over centuries. On the outer wall of the temple found the traces of plaster called vajralepa (lit: diamond plaster). The same substance also founds in nearby Sari temple. The white-yellowish plaster was applied to protect the temple wall, but now the plaster has worn off. The temple is located on archaeologically rich Prambanan plain. Just a few hundred meters north east from Kalasan temple is located Sari temple. Candi Sari most probably was the monastery mentioned in Kalasan inscription. Further east lies the Prambanan complex, Sewu temple, and Plaosan temple. Jordaan, R. E. (1998). The Tārā temple of Kalasan in Central Java. Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 85, 163–183. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43733871 3 pre-Angkorean architectural styles : Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): were built in rounded, plain colonettes with capitals that include a bulb. Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings were more heavily decorated but had general decline in standards. Kompong Preah style (700–800): Having decorative rings on colonettes which remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued. The following periods and styles may be distinguished Kulen style (825–875): Tower is mainly square and relatively high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal colonettes begin to appear. Preah Ko style (877–886): small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their lintels. Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. Koh Ker Style (921–944): Scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick still main material but sandstone also used. Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the state temple mountain of Pre Rup. Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing with scenes from Indian mythology. Khleang Style (968–1010): First to use galleries. Cruciform gopuras. Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas. Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of King Udayadityavarman II  Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175: come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. Bayon Style (1181–1243) exhibit a hurriedness of construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat. Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. In the past, the ancestors of the Indonesian people learned that carving techniques indeed originated from India. This can be compared to the results of the two places that show similarities, although on the other hand in Indonesia there has been a Megalithic era which is closely related to stone processing and an older era namely Neolithic that is closely related to metal processing. Without the knowledge of metal processing, it is certain that it will be difficult to create metal chisels to process hard stones like andesite. Indonesia has a different technique from South India, especially in forming roof cavities, with the technique of stacking rooms, while in India a flat ceiling was used as a consequence of the post-and-lintel technique. It was only in the 10th century that new cavity stacking techniques were used in South India, which is identical to Java. In Java itself this technique had already been known since the early 7th century or even before that, in the Old Classical era. This technique then developed rapidly in the Middle Classical era and reached its peak when Prambanan was built. Prambanan is the first tallest building in Southeast Asia. In addition, in the era of the Prambanan and Borobudur Temples, the construction technique of the connection between the stone and certain keys that support the building to be made larger and taller was known. In South India there were no large and tall temples in this particular era, as it was not until the 10th century that high buildings were recognized in the remains of the Chola. By looking at the phenomena above it can be estimated that the architecture of large temples in India cannot be ruled out to have been influenced by Javanese tradition, especially starting in the 10th century considering that on the island of Java many large temple buildings had been built at the end of the 8th-9th century. This can indicate the existence of backflow from Indonesia to India. On the other hand, relations with India were actually quite close, as demonstrated in the 9th century by Balaputradewa, King of Sriwijaya in the Ancient Mataram Era. A Reinterpretation of the Relationship between the Architecture of Ancient Mataram Era Temples in Indonesia and of 7th-10th century Temples in South India,Rahadhian Prajudi Herwindo',Basuki Dwisusanto,Indri A-International Journal of Engineering Research and Technology. ISSN 0974-3154, Volume 13, Number 2 (2020), p The Borobudur temple: the Buddhist architecture in Indonesia ,the author Katarzyna Kowal presents the genesis of the temple, the facts concerning its rediscovery after centuries of oblivion, and Buddhist cosmology embodied in the form of a three-dimensional mandala on which the architectural form of Borobudur is based. The author studies Buddhist symbolism of the architectural form, reliefs and sculptures created on the basis of regional patterns and local Javanese culture of everyday life. This temple is one of the most perfect examples of translation of Buddhist cosmology and symbolism into an architectural form. Being the oldest temple in Indonesia, Borobudur Temple has survived over 1200 years of volcanic eruptions, terrorist bombs and earthquakes. The Borobudur Temple has a base of 1200 square metre terrace topped with 6 tiers and has the majority of this monument walls adorned with numerous Buddha statues. Its’ foundation hints to hold more indigenous Javanese traits than Hindu or Buddhist. The monument is large and given if one were to place the galleries end to end, it spans at least 5 kilometres. The monument also took the form of a step pyramid and followed a mandala plan.  In 1885, a  group of buddha reliefs was found hidden at the back of the line stones at the base. Words inscribed in ancient Javanese script were also found there describing how the earthly world is dominated and led by greed. The real base is hidden by an encasement base which till today no one knows why.  However, a theory stands to say that it was built because the original footing goes against the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning.  Buddhist Cosmology After much research on the Borobudur Temple, there is no found evidence as to the purpose of the construction of the temple. However, given a theory, it states that the monument represents Buddhist cosmology and symbolises some sort of Buddhist mandala. Borobudur Temple pushes to represent the 3 realms of Buddhist cosmology. The base represents the world of desire followed by the world of form and lastly the world of formlessness which is the highest level of enlightenment and located at the top of the temple. The experience walking through the gallery and entering the world of form shows engraved people that seem to be trying to achieve excellence over worldly desires. There is evidence of women trying to seduce buddha where he is seen to be meditating and ignoring the seduction of the women.  COMPOSITION Borobudur Temple is made with andesite stones taken from neighbouring stone quarries. The stones were all cut to size and then brought over and stacked onto one another. Instead of using mortar, knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to join the stones. As for the roof of stupas, niches and arched gateways, they were all built with the corbelling method.  The reliefs of the monument are all done on-site. The drainage system was also in mind when the monument was built. Borobudur temple catered to its region’s high stormwater run-off by installing 100 spouts each with a unique carved gargoyle that looks like a Makara. The spouts are all installed at the corners of the monument. As for the Borobudur Temple foundation, it was built on a natural hill and due to its pyramid shape, it was first thought to be a stupa that was intended as a Buddha shrine, not a temple. Stupas are typically constructed as a sign of devotion towards Buddhism whereas a temple is made to be a place of worship towards a religion. After much study and excavation, Borobudur is settled to be a temple due to its meticulous details and structure. Interestingly, in the past, they did not use the metric or imperial system. Instead, they used tala, a basic unit of measurement used during that time. Tala is the length of a human face, starting from the forehead’s hairline to the tip of the chin or the length of the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when the hand is fully stretched out. Tala is relative from one individual to another.  Furthermore, the Borobudur Temple also holds a 4:6:9 ratio around the monument. Gunadharma, the architect, used the 4:6:9 ratio to layout the accurate and precise dimensions of the fractal and self-similar geometry that the Borobudur Temple holds. This same ratio can also be found in neighbouring Buddhist temples.  To add on, the ratio also possesses calendrical, astronomical and cosmological significance which seems appropriate in the design of the Borobudur Temple. All in all, the Borobudur Temple has attracted many tourists alike to visit and further indulge in this 9th century-built temple. As much as research goes, the true meaning as to why it was built is unknown, but this structure still stands to fascinate and allow anyone who visits to feel calm and captivated by this form of architecture.  Reference Borobudur: Golden Tales of Buddhas by John N. Miksic and Marcello Tranchini.    Buddhist Stupa Monograph Architecture Borobudur ground plan took form of a Mandala Borobudur is built as a single large stupa, and when viewed from above takes the form of a giant tantric Buddhist mandala, simultaneously representing the Buddhist cosmology and the nature of mind. The foundation is a square, approximately 118 meters (387 ft) on each side. It has nine platforms, of which the lower six are square and the upper three are circular. The upper platform features seventy-two small stupas surrounding one large central stupa. Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures. Approximately 55,000 cubic metres (72,000 cu yd) of stones were taken from neighbouring rivers to build the monument. The stone was cut to size, transported to the site and laid without mortar. Knobs, indentations and dovetails were used to form joints between stones. Reliefs were created in-situ after the building had been completed. The monument is equipped with a good drainage system to cater for the area's high stormwater run-off. To avoid inundation, 100 spouts are provided at each corner with a unique carved gargoyles in the shape of giants or makaras. Half cross-section with 4:6:9 height ratio for foot, body and head, respectively. Borobudur differs markedly with the general design of other structures built for this purpose. Instead of building on a flat surface, Borobudur is built on a natural hill. The building technique is, however, similar to other temples in Java. With no inner space as in other temples and its general design similar to the shape of pyramid, Borobudur was first thought more likely to have served as a stupa, instead of a temple. A stupa is intended as a shrine for the Lord Buddha. Sometimes stupas were built only as devotional symbols of Buddhism. A temple, on the other hand, is used as a house of deity and has inner spaces for worship. The complexity of the monument's meticulous design suggests Borobudur is in fact a temple. Congregational worship in Borobudur is performed by means of pilgrimage. Pilgrims were guided by the system of staircases and corridors ascending to the top platform. Each platform represents one stage of enlightenment. The path that guides pilgrims was designed with the symbolism of sacred knowledge according to the Buddhist cosmology. A narrow corridor with reliefs on the wall. Lion gate guardian. Little is known about the architect Gunadharma. His name is actually recounted from Javanese legendary folk tales rather than written in old inscriptions. The basic unit measurement he used during the construction was called tala, defined as the length of a human face from the forehead's hairline to the tip of the chin or the distance from the tip of the thumb to the tip of the middle finger when both fingers are stretched at their maximum distance.] The unit metrics is then obviously relative between persons, but the monument has exact measurements. A survey conducted in 1977 revealed frequent findings of a ratio of 4:6:9 around the monument. The architect had used the formula to lay out the precise dimensions of Borobudur. The identical ratio formula was further found in the nearby Buddhist temples of Pawon and Mendhut. Archeologists conjectured the purpose of the ratio formula and the tala dimension has calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes, as of the case in other Hindu and Buddhist temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. A carved gargoyle-shaped water spout for water drainage. The main vertical structure can be divided into three groups: base (or foot), body, and top, which resembles the three major division of a human body. The base is a 123x123 m (403.5x403.5 ft) square in size and 4 meters (13 ft) high of walls. The body is composed of five square platforms each with diminishing heights. The first terrace is set back 7 meters (23 ft) from the edge of the base. The other terraces are set back by 2 meters (7 ft), leaving a narrow corridor at each stage. The top consists of 3 circular platforms, with each stage supporting a row of perforated stupas, arranged in concentric circles. There is one main dome at the center; the top of which is the highest point of the monument (35 meters (115 ft) above ground level). Access to the upper part is through stairways at the centre of each 4 sides with a number of arched gates, watched by a total of 32 lion statues. The gates is adorned with Kala's head carved on top center of each portals with Makaras projecting from each sides. This Kala-Makara style is commonly found in Javanese temples portal. The main entrance is at the eastern side, the location of the first narrative reliefs. On the slopes of the hill, there are also stairways linking the monument to the low-lying plain. The monument's three divisions symbolize three stages of mental preparation towards the ultimate goal according to the Buddhist cosmology, namely Kāmadhātu (the world of desires), Rupadhatu (the world of forms), and finally Arupadhatu (the formless world).] Kāmadhātu is represented by the base, Rupadhatu by the five square platforms (the body), and Arupadhatu by the three circular platforms and the large topmost stupa. The architectural features between three stages have metaphorical differences. For instance, square and detailed decorations in the Rupadhatu disappear into plain circular platforms in the Arupadhatu to represent how the world of forms – where men are still attached with forms and names – changes into the world of the formless. In 1885, a hidden structure under the base was accidentally discovered. The "hidden foot" contains reliefs, 160 of which are narrative describing the real Kāmadhātu. The remaining reliefs are panels with short inscriptions that apparently describe instruction for the sculptors, illustrating the scene to be carved. The real base is hidden by an encasement base, the purpose of which remains a mystery. It was first thought that the real base had to be covered to prevent a disastrous subsidence of the monument through the hill. There is another theory that the encasement base was added because the original hidden foot was incorrectly designed, according to Vastu Shastra, the Indian ancient book about architecture and town planning. Regardless of its intention, the encasement base was built with detailed and meticulous design with aesthetics and religious compensation.Reliefs Narrative Panels Distribution section location story #panels hidden foot wall Karmavibhangga 160 first gallery main wall Lalitavistara 120 Jataka/Avadana 120 balustrade Jataka/Avadana 372 Jataka/Avadana 128 second gallery balustrade Jataka/Avadana 100 main wall Gandavyuha 128 third gallery main wall Gandavyuha 88 balustrade Gandavyuha 88 fourth gallery main wall Gandavyuha 84 balustrade Gandavyuha 72 Total 1,460 Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212 decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500 square meters (26,909.8 sq ft) and they are distributed at the hidden foot (Kāmadhātu) and the five square platforms (Rupadhatu). The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara. are grouped into 11 series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 meters (9,843 ft). The hidden foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping the sanctuary to their right. The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his attainment of the Perfect Wisdom. The law of karma (Karmavibhangga) The 160 hidden panels do not form a continuous story, but each panel provides one complete illustration of cause and effect. There are depictions of blameworthy activities, from gossip to murder, with their corresponding punishments. There are also praiseworthy activities, that include charity and pilgrimage to sanctuaries, and their subsequent rewards. The pains of hell and the pleasure of heaven are also illustrated. There are scenes of daily life, complete with the full panorama of samsara (the endless cycle of birth and death). The birth of Buddha (Lalitavistara) Queen Maya riding horse carriage retreating to Lumbini to give birth to Prince Siddhartha Gautama. The story starts from the glorious descent of the Lord Buddha from the Tushita heaven, and ends with his first sermon in the Deer Park near Benares.[48] The relief shows the birth of the Buddha as Prince Siddhartha, son of King Suddhodana and Queen Maya of Kapilavastu (in present-day Nepal). The story is preceded by 27 panels showing various preparations, in heavens and on earth, to welcome the final incarnation of the Bodhisattva.[48] Before descending from Tushita heaven, the Bodhisattva entrusted his crown to his successor, the future Buddha Maitreya. He descended on earth in the shape of white elephants with six tusks, penetrated to Queen Maya's right womb. Queen Maya had a dream of this event, which was interpreted that his son would become either a sovereign or a Buddha. While Queen Maya felt that it was the time to give birth, she went to the Lumbini park outside the Kapilavastu city. She stood under a plaksa tree, holding one branch with her right hand and she gave birth to a son, Prince Siddhartha. The story on the panels continues until the prince becomes the Buddha. Prince Siddhartha Gautama become an ascetic hermit. Prince Siddhartha story (Jataka) and other legendary persons (Avadana) Jatakas are stories about the Buddha before he was born as Prince Siddhartha. Avadanas are similar to jatakas, but the main figure is not the Bodhisattva himself. The saintly deeds in avadanas are attributed to other legendary persons. Jatakas and avadanas are treated in one and the same series in the reliefs of Borobudur. The first 20 lower panels in the first gallery on the wall depict the Sudhanakumaravadana or the saintly deeds of Sudhana. The first 135 upper panels in the same gallery on the balustrades are devoted to the 34 legends of the Jatakamala.[50] The remaining 237 panels depict stories from other sources, as do for the lower series and panels in the second gallery. Some jatakas stories are depicted twice, for example the story of King Sibhi (Rama's forefather). Sudhana's search for the Ultimate Truth (Gandavyuha) Gandavyuha is the story told in the final chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra about Sudhana's tireless wandering in search of the Highest Perfect Wisdom. It covers two galleries (third and fourth) and also half of the second gallery; comprising in total of 460 panels. The principal figure of the story, the youth Sudhana, son of an extremely rich merchant, appears on the 16th panel. The preceding 15 panels form a prologue to the story of the miracles during Buddha's samadhi in the Garden of Jeta at Sravasti. During his search, Sudhana visited no less than 30 teachers but none of them had satisfied him completely. He was then instructed by Manjusri to meet the monk Megasri, where he was given the first doctrine. As his journey continues, Sudhana meets (in the following order) Supratisthita, the physician Megha (Spirit of Knowledge), the banker Muktaka, the monk Saradhvaja, the upasika Asa (Spirit of Supreme Enlightenment), Bhismottaranirghosa, the Brahmin Jayosmayatna, Princess Maitrayani, the monk Sudarsana, a boy called Indriyesvara, the upasika Prabhuta, the banker Ratnachuda, King Anala, the god Siva Mahadeva, Queen Maya, Bodhisattva Maitreya and then back to Manjusri. Each meeting has given Sudhana a specific doctrine, knowledge and wisdom. These meetings are shown in the third gallery. After the last meeting with Manjusri, Sudhana went to the residence of Bodhisattva Samantabhadra; depicted in the fourth gallery. The entire series of the fourth gallery is devoted to the teaching of Samantabhadra. The narrative panels finally end with Sudhana's achievement of the Supreme Knowledge and the Ultimate Truth. Buddha statues A headless Buddha statue inside a stupa./ A Buddha statue with the hand position of dharmachakra mudra (turning the Wheels of the Law). Apart from the story of Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the Arupadhatu level). The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth 72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At the Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16, that add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as collector's items, mostly by Western museums). At glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East, South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West, of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra. Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its own symbolism. They are Abhaya mudra for Amoghasiddhi (north), Vara mudra for Ratnasambhava (south), Dhyana mudra for Amitabha (west), Bhumisparsa mudra for Aksobhya (east) and Dharmachakra mudra for Vairochana (zenith). VI BIOMIMICRY as a Inspiration for the Borobudur Architects and painters of Borobudur before starting that new project, must have had an have an empty canvas in front of them. The cleanness of the canvas or white parchment opened infinite possibilities of design ideas for a future project. But how should an architect start his/her projects? How do architects get inspired? Some architects find inspiration by the historical context of the site, others prefer to retake materials’ qualities, and finally, some architects prefer to observe their surroundings and the environmental typologies. The latter design approach is what characterizes some projects that are the result of forms inspired by nature. Architects have long been inspired by nature. ... New technologies are now helping architects recreate complex structures found in the nature by using modern construction methods and materials. Biomimetic architecture draws its influence from the Earth. Nature has been one of the most evident influences in architecture and in various forms over the years. The humbleness and the beauty of nature have been one of the most inspirational idea for the humans. Small dwellings and the pattern of their arrangement have been inspired by nature. What is architecture inspired by nature called? Organic architecture uses nature-inspired geometrical forms in design and seeks to reconnect the human with his or her surroundings. These strategies, which are introduced in this paper as 'nature-inspired design strategies', provide pathways and principles aimed at developing designs that are in natural balance with their environment. Common principles include the use of materials in closed loops and using solar driven energy systems. Why is nature important in design? Nature has an endless palette to call on for inspiration, a library of textures, patterns, and motifs. Nature informs the moods of interior spaces; their qualities of light, their warmth, their tactility and their familiarity to human hands Why are we inspired by nature? Nature has a way of removing distractions, of commanding our deepest attention. ... Following this kind of thinking, nature is full of lessons we can draw from, lessons which can inform and inspire our daily lives.Ancient as well as modern buildings have been inspired by nature. So, why not the Borobudur? It is quiet possible that apart from the many design influences upon it due to Buddhism and/or its predecessors in Stupa building, nature too may have had an effect. Antoni Gaudí | Info-graphic - Design by nature | Basílica i Temple Expiatori de la Sagrada Família: Detail of the roof in the nave. Gaudí designed the columns to mirror trees and branches. SBA73 from Sabadell, Catalunya - Tot conflueix / All's conected La Sagrada Família per fí té un interior acabat: és una meravella, el fruit del geni únic d'Antoni Gaudí. Falten les paraules per descriure- This is the crossing and dome of the Sagrada Família basilica, Barcelona, Catalonia. The catalan basilica of La Sagrada Família (The Holy Family) is a major icon of Barcelona. After more than a century of construction, in 2011 the interior was finished and consecrated by the pope Benedict XVI. Work began in 1882 and is scheduled to be completed in 2026.  TITOBOWL is a vessel specially designed for tasting different varieties and dressings olives with pit, although it has been adapted for tasting pitted olives and other snacks because turning the top cap of the container, it becomes a toothpick holder BOROBUDUR resembles the structural concept and entity of Petronas Twin Towers Petronas Twin Towers, pair of skyscraper office buildings in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, that are among the world’s tallest buildings. What type of structure are the Petronas Towers? The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that contains 88 stories of occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender steel spire. Both rise to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6 metres) for pinnacle and spire – much like the borobudur.It is the The 7th Tallest Building In The World Today. When it was built in 1998, the 88-storey Petronas Towers held the top record for the tallest building in the world at a staggering height of 1,483 feet! ... As such, the Petronas Towers still stands today as the tallest twin towers in the world.Just like the Borobudur, the Petronas twin towers built to represent Malaysia's increasing wealth and the nation's desire to feature more prominently on the international stage, it was decided to build a pair of landmark 88-storey towers to house the offices of the national oil and gas company, Petronas. The Twin Towers, built to house the headquarters of Petronas, the national petroleum company of Malaysia, were designed by the Argentine-born American architect Cesar Pelli; they were completed in 1998. The plan for each tower is identical: an eight-lobed circular structure that contains 88 stories of occupiable space and a pyramid-shaped pinnacle surmounted by a slender steel spire. Both rise to a height of 1,483 feet (451.9 metres), which includes 242 feet (73.6 metres) for pinnacle and spire. Each building is supported by 16 large columns around its perimeter, which, along with the rest of the frame, are made of high-strength, steel-reinforced concrete rather than of structural steel; the exterior sheathing consists of stainless steel and glass. A skybridge two stories tall links the two towers between the 41st and 42nd stories.1 In 1996, after the spires had been attached to the buildings (and each had thus reached its full height), the Petronas Twin Towers were declared the world’s tallest buildings, eclipsing the former record holder, the 110-story Sears (now Willis) Tower in Chicago. The roof of the Sears Tower was actually more than 200 feet (60 metres) higher than those of the Twin Towers, but the spires on the towers’ pinnacles were regarded as integral parts of the overall architectural structure. The Twin Towers, in turn, lost their preeminent status in 2003 after a spire was put in place atop the Taipei 101 (Taipei Financial Center) building, in Taipei, Taiwan, and that structure reached a height of 1,667 feet (508 metres). Development of the Petronas Towers Tower 1 level 43 floor plan from a Rub el Hizb symbol. The cross section of the Petronas Towers is based on a Rub el Hizb, albeit with circular sectors similar to the bottom part of the Qutub Minar. Base of the Christ steeple under construction (2009)Etan J. Tal - Own work-Rebars of Sagrada Familia roof in construction Note rust and corrosion of rebar and different materials used for the rebar in different areas Petronas Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, designed by Cesar Pelli & Associates. J. Apicella/Cesar Pelli & Associates Seashell Architectures,Kamon Jirapong,Robert J. Krawczykhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/239537510_Seashell_Architectures/stats INDO NORDIC AUTHOR’S COLLECTIVE ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS © Dr. Uday Dokras- DEAN INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE Institute of International Historiography B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN Vaastu and Astrology Consultant Holder of the 7 WORLD RECORDS Highest number of research Papers and Books written Hindu Temples Buddhism Vaastu #1x 7 2 - Worldwide Book of Records 2 - Unique World Record 1-INDIA Book of RECORDS 1-Kalam Book of Records 1 Institute of International Historiography 700- BOOKS & 2400 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu. 3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024. Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories for having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture, Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo China. A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB. He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB. He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labor laws of Seychelles. Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English- SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir. His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant in Vedic Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm, SWEDEN and President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare , FINLAND. Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA. 2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and literary Fora. World#1 Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-record https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-dhamma Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records. Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan) Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR https://www.academia.edu/110112500/Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Books_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy, Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy https://www.academia.edu/110112203/Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis Dwarpals or door guardians. https://www.academia.edu/109139672/Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work  https://drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing  World Record Holders 2023 Maximum Number of Research Papers Completed by an Individual Person Dr Uday Dokras From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018 Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44) Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020) Meditation Center Project for HARIOM Cow Shelter by Dr Uday Dokras Design Consultant to OCTAGONAL Meditation Center for REIKI MASTER- Mrs.Tracey Stanfield,Fish Creek, AUSTRALIA Also a good thinking = A good house plan = Optimal use of your investment to build your house Also a good thinking = A good house plan = Optimal use of your investment to build your house Top of Form Bottom of Form 148