Psychological Reports, 1990, 67, 35-42.
O Psychological Reports 1990
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN PATHOLOGICAL GAMBLING '
ALEX BLASZCZYNSKI
NEIL McCONAGHY
ANNA FRANKOVA
Weiirnead Hospital
University of New Socrlh Ibler
Prince of Wales Hospital
Summary.-To test the hypothesis that pathological gamblers seek stimulation as a
means of reducing aversive undenroused states of boredom andlor depression, the
Beck Depression Inventory, Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale and a Boredom
Proneness Scale were administered to 48 diagnosed pathological gamblers and a control
group of 40 family physician patients. Analyses of variance showed pathological gamblers obtained significantly higher boredom proneness and depression scores than those
of controls. That the Boredom Proneness Scale failed to correlate with the Zuckerman
Boredom Susceptibility subscale suggested the two measure differing dimensions.
Results indicated the possible existence of three subtypes of pathological gamblers, one
group characterized by boredom, another by depression, and a third by a mixture of
both depression and boredom.
I t has been suggested that human subjects function at differing levels of
optimal arousal which can be estimated by assessment measures such as
Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Eysenck, 1767; Zuckerman, 1783).
An associated hypothesis was that the drive to reduce aversive states of
under-arousal, i.e., depression or boredom, or excessive arousal, i.e., anxiety,
motivated individuals to engage in addictive or habitual behaviours (Zuckerman, 1783; Marlatt & Gordon, 1785; Jacobs, 1786).
Extending Zuckerman's (1783) theory, Anderson and Brown (1984) and
Brown (1986) advanced a neoPavlovian two-factor model of gambling in
which individual differences in autonomic, somatic and/or cortical arousal in
interaction with irregular schedules of reinforcement produced pathological
gambling behaviours. According to this model, pathological gamblers experienced under-stimulating lifestyles, the hypothesized end result of a
combination of low environmental stimulation and high sensation-seeking
person&ty traits. Gambling, a risk-taking activity associated with increased
subjective and physiological arousal (Anderson & Brown, 1784; Leary &
Dickerson, 1985), would be repeatedly sought by chronic understimulated
gamblers.
Studies of Blas~cz~nski,Wilson, and McConaghy (1786) and
Blaszczynski (1788), replicated by Dickerson (1987) and Allcock and Grace
(1788), have not supported Brown's (1786) hypothesis. Contrary to expectation, gamblers obtained significantly lower Zuckerman's (1983) Sensation
Seeking Scale scores than normals. Blaszczynski, Wilson, and McConaghy
'Send correspondence to A. P. Blaszczynski, Department of Clinical Psychology, Westmead
Hospital, Westmead 2145, Australia. N. McConaghy at University of New South Wales,
Kensington 2033, Australia; A. Frankova at The Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick 2031,
Australia.
36
A. BLASZCZYNSKI. ETAL.
(1986) argued that pathological gamblers were not necessarily sensation seekers but that avoidance of anxiety or dysphoric mood, in conjunction with a
behaviour completion mechanism (McConaghy, 1980), was a major determinant of persistence in gambling activity.
Negative emotional srates including boredom, loneliness, and dysphoria
have been reported as common causes of relapse in substance and nonsubstance addictive behaviours (Marlatt & Gordon, 1985). Cumrnings, Gordon,
and Marlatt (1980) earlier reported that 47% of a sample of 19 pathological
gamblers identified such states as precipitants for relapse.
McCormick (1988) described two subtypes of pathological gamblers
characterised by chronic states of hypoarousal but differentiated according to
the relative presence of depression or boredom. In Subtype A, the recurringly depressed pathological gambler, pervasive premorbid depressogenic
cognitive styles in possible interaction with biochemical deficiencies were
instrumental in establishing a need state relieved by the affect-enhancing
excitement generated by gambling. Subtype B, on the other hand, was
described as chronically understimulated, experiencing not dysphoria but
excessive levels of boredom, low frustration tolerance and a need for varied
stimulation and constant rearousal. As in Subtype A, the inherent arousal
produced by gambling acted as a negative reinforcer reducing not dysphoric
affect, but boredom thereby apparently reinforcing continued gambling.
Boredom is a relatively neglected psychological construct defined as a
state of "mental weariness and dissatisfaction produced by lack of interest or
activity." Boredom-prone individuals are characterized as experiencing varying degrees of depression, hopelessness, loneliness, distractibility, lack of
motivation, and general dissatisfaction (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986).
Although boredom and depression scores on psychometric scales correlate positively, the two constructs are considered as separate entities differing on dimensions of intensity and quality of mood (Farmer & Sundberg,
1986). Poor tolerance for boredom independent of depression could be a pertinent factor contributing to repetitive gambling behaviour.
Lyons (1985) in investigating this hypothesis administered the Zuckerman's Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1983) and the Beck Depression
Inventory (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erlbaugh, 1961) to 34
Gamblers Anonymous attenders and 28 social gamblers. The Boredom Susceptibility subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale purportedly measured the
degree to which subjects avoided under-stimulated states. Analysis showed
that pathological gamblers were significantly more depressed but not more
susceptible to boredom than social gamblers.
However, in a validation study of an alternative measure of the Boredom Proneness Scale in a sample of 233 undergraduate students, Farmer and
Sundberg (1986) found a small but significant correlation between scores on
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN GAMBLING
37
it and on the Zuckerman Boredom Susceptibility subscale (r = 0.25, p < .01)
but a larger correlation with a self-rating assessment of boredom proneness (r =
0.67, p < .001).
Scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale were correlated significantly
( r = 0.44, p < .001) with scores on the Beck Depression Inventory, whereas
the Boredom Susceptibility subscale scores did not (r=0.05). Hamilton,
Haier, and Buchsbaum (1984) found scores on the Boredom Susceptibility
subscale did not correlate (r = 0.04), with scores on boredom coping, a trait
reflecting individuals' disposition to engage in activities to decrease boredom.
Farmer and Sundberg suggested the two boredom scales assessed different aspects of boredom experience: Boredom Proneness emphasizing "one's
connectedness with one's environment . . . as well as the ability to access
adaptive resources and realize competencies" (p. 10) and Boredom Susceptibility, escape from understimulation and a reaction to the external events.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between
boredom, depression and pathological gambling. It was hypothesized that
pathological gamblers are more prone to boredom and depression than nongamblers.
METHOD
Subjects
Subjects were 48 (43 men and 5 women) consecutive pathological
gamblers attending a specialized hospital pathological gambling behaviour
therapy programme to reduce uncontrollable gambling urges and behaviour,
and 40 (35 men and 5 women) patients attending a family physician for nongambling or nonaddictive related problems. All gamblers met DSM-I11 (APA,
1980) diagnostic criteria for pathological gambling, that is, a chronic preoccupation with gambling, a psychologicaI and emotional dependence on
gambling, and a loss of control resulting in personal, marital, social, legal or
financial dysfunction. The mean age of the gamblers was 39.0 yr. (SD = 10.4
yr.) and the family physician sample, 37.3 yr. (SD = 10.4 yr.). This difference
did not reach significance (F,,,, = 2.83, ns).
Of the 48 gamblers, 18 bet exclusively on horses, 13 exclusively on
slot machines, and 17 on more than one form. Thirty-seven (92.5%) of
the 40 family physician subjects reported no gambling while 3 described nonproblematic gambling of $Aus.lO, 8Aus.20, and bAus.30 per week, respectively.
With respect to marital status, 50% of the subjects in both samples
were single, 39.6% of the gamblers, and 42.5% of the family physician
sample were married, and 10.4% of the gamblers and 7.5% of family physician sample were divorced (Xl
= 0.25, ns).
38
A BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL
Materials
AU subjects completed the Beck Depression Inventory (Beck, Ward,
Mendelson, Mock, & Erlbaugh, 1961), the Sensation Seeking Scale (Zuckerman, 1979) and the Boredom Proneness Scale (Farmer & Sundberg, 1986) in
that order. The Beck Depression Inventory is a 21-item clinically derived
self-assessment scale measuring depth of current depression conceptualised as
"an abnormal state of the organism manifested by signs and symptoms such
as low subjective mood, pessimistic and nihilistic attitudes, loss of spontaneity and specific negative signs" (Beck, 1967, p. 202).
The Sensation Seeking Scale is a 40-item self-report questionnaire
which aims to identify optimal functional levels of stimulation reflecting a
biologically based personahty dimension. High sensation seekers become
bored easily, are more sensitive to internal sensations, and less conforming to
external constraints. The measure includes four subscales: Thrill and
Adventure Seelung (TAS), associated with a propensity to engage in sports or
physically dangerous pursuits; Experience Seeking (ES) involving changes in
lifestyle and stimulation of the mind; Disinhibition (Dis), manifested by outgoing social behaviours and gambling; and Boredom Susceptib~lity (BS),
characterized by an inability to tolerate repetitive experiences and monotony.
The Boredom Proneness Scale was developed to assess an individual's
proneness towards experiencing boredom. Although viewed as an independent construct but overlapping with depression, boredom-prone individuals are
considered characteristically to exhibit a lack of interest and varying degrees
of depression, hopelessness, loneliness, and distractibility. Validation studies
of the scale demonstrated strong correlations between Boredom Proneness
and self-report ratings and a Job Boredom Scale, but poor correlation with
the Boredom Susceptibihty subscale of the Sensation Seeking Scale (Farmer
& Sundberg, 1986). The scale has a satisfactory test-retest reliability
(r = 0.88).
For the pathological gamblers and family physician sample means and
standard deviations of scores on the psychological test measures are shown in
Table 1. The mean Beck Depression Inventory score for the pathological
gamblers fell within the category for depression and was significantly higher
than that obtained by the family physician sample (F,,,, = 17.43, p = .0001).
Similarly, the pathological gamblers' mean Boredom Proneness score was significantly higher than that of the family physician sample (F,,8, = 18.44,
p < ,0001). The Boredom Proneness score of the family physician sample was
comparable to the normative data reported for undergraduate male students
(M = 10.44) by Farmer and Sundberg (1986).
Groups did not l f f e r on mean Thrill and Adventure Seeking, Boredom
39
BOREDOM PRONENESS IN GAMBLING
Susceptibility, Disinhibition and Experience Seeking subscale or total score
on the Sensation Seeking Scale.
TABLE 1
Beck
Boredom
Thrill,
Experience
Depression Proneness Adventure SeekingSeeking
In;entory
Disinhibition
Boredome
Susceptibiliiy
Total
Score
5.12
2.18
5.25
4.52
17.54
5.98
Pathological Gamblers
Family Physician Subjects
M
7.45
9.40
5.59
SD
8.52
2.87
1.85
5.02
2.46
The possibility that differences on depression, boredom proneness, and
sensation-seeking scores existed among subgroups of gamblers was investigated. Gamblers were categorized according to form of gambling behaviour.
One-way analyses of variance with a Least Significant Difference multiple
comparison test set at p = .05 indicated no significance between group differences for the 18 horse-race, 13 slot-machine, and 17 mixed-form gamblers on
Beck Depression Inventory, Boredom Proneness, or Sensation-seeking subscale scores.
TABLE 2
PEARSON
CORRELATION
COEFFICIENTS
FOR BECKDEPRESSION
INVENTORY,
SENSATION
SEEKING,
AND BOREDOM
PRONENESS
SCORESFOR48 PATHOLOGICAL
GAMBLERS
AND 40 FAMILYPHYSICIANS'
PATENTS
Measures
1. Beck Depression Inventory
2. Boredom Proneness
3. Boredom Susceptibility
4. Disinhibition
5. Experience Seeking
6. Thrill, Adventure Seeking
7. Total
1
0.66*
-0.11
-0.05
0.18
0.18
0.54
2
3
4
5
6
-0.24
-0.12
0.04
0.33*
-0.03
-0.47*
0.33
0.16
0.76*
0.42'
0.10
0.70'
0.46*
0.78*
0.56'
As seen in Table 2, although a significant correlation was found between
Beck Depression Inventory and Boredom Proneness scores, no such relationship was observed for the Boredom Susceptibility or other Sensation-seeking
subscale scores. There was a negative but insignificant correlation between
the Boredom Proneness and Boredom Susceptibility scores.
40
A BLASZCZYNSKI, ETAL.
In the present study, pathological gamblers obtained significantly higher
boredom proneness scores and, consistent with the literature (McCormick,
Russo, Ramirez, & Taher, 1984; Blaszczynski, Wilson, & McConaghy, 1986;
Blaszczynski & McConaghy, 1988, 1989), higher depression but not sensation-seelung scores compared with a control group of f a d y physician
patients. This finding is consistent with the notion which has been put forward by Jacobs (1986) and Blaszczynski and McConaghy (1989) that
pathological gambling is in part a maladaptive coping strategy to deal with
affective disturbances.
I t was further argued (Blaszczynski, Winter, & McConaghy, 1986),
however, that gambling led to an elevation of positive mood and conversely a
reduction in depression for horse-race but not slot-machine players who gambled to reduce anxiety states. The present results did not support this view.
Classifying pathological gamblers according to forms of gambling yielded
no significance between group differences or measures of depression, boredom process, or sensation-seeking. This finding suggests that some psychological parameters at least can be generalized to apply to gamblers irrespective of whether they indulge exclusively on horse-race gambling, slotmachine play or engage in multiple forms of gambling.
According to Farmer and Sundberg (1986) boredom prone individuals
are characterized by a proclivity towards amotivation and lack of effort, experience dissatisfaction with work, retain little sense of psychological well
being, and are prone to depression. Replicating the finding of Sundberg and
Farmer (1986) the Boredom Proneness measure in the present study correlated significantly with the Beck Depression Inventory. With respect to face
validity, items of the Boredom Proneness scale tap nonaffectively laden components of personality. Nevertheless, Farmer and Sundberg's (1986) assertion
that Boredom Proneness is a separate but overlapping construct to depression
requires further empirical support.
If it is correct, the correlation between scores on Beck Depression and
Boredom Proneness found in this study suggests that in addition to the two
subtypes of gamblers, hypothesized by McCormick (1988), one depressed
and the other bored, a third group exists who are both depressed and prone
to boredom. Some gamblers (McCorrnick Subtype A), if exposed to significant adverse life events or experiencing coping difficulties, report depression
as the key factor causing their gambling. Some (McCorrnick Subtype B), if
not exposed to similar conditions, report dissatisfaction and boredom as the
key factor. The third group reports both factors.
Failure of the scores on the Boredom Proneness Scale to correlate with
those on Zuckerman's Boredom Susceptibility subscale which further, unlike
the Boredom Proneness Scale, did not correlate significantly with scores on
BOREDOM PRONENESS I N GAMBLING
41
the Beck Depression Inventory indicates that these two boredom scales
measure independent dimensions.
The failure to find a correlation between Boredom Proneness and
Boredom Susceptibility scales requires further explanation. One possible interpretation is that Zuckerman's Boredom susceptibility subscale assesses an
individual's propensity to react to his environment by actively seelung enhanced levels of stimulation and excitement as a positive reinforcer in its
own right. The Boredom Proneness, on the other hand, assesses an individual's intolerance of aversive underaroused states of boredom and/or depression.
Thus, underaroused individuals may seek varied but not necessarily excitement-generating activities to reduce boredom. If so, then intolerance for
boredom and seeking excitement should not necessarily be expected to correlate significantly. Pathological gamblers may persist at gambling as a means
of reducing either or both of these two aversive moods.
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Accepted June 15, 1990.