2500 years
of
Buddhism
QeneraC 'Editor:
Trof. T.V. 'Bapat
forwarded 'By
S.
'RacCftakrisftnan
YEARS
OF BUDDHISM
2500
General Editor
PROF.
P. V.
:
BAPAT
FOREWORD BY
S.
RADHAKRISHNAN
*w*wanj*
THE PUBLICATIONS DIVISION
Ministry of Information and Broadcasting
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA
May
24,
1956
PUBLISHED BY THE DIRECTOR, PUBLICATIONS DIVISION
AND PRINTED AT THE GOVERNMENT OI INDIA
PHOTO- LTTHO PRESS, NEW DELHI
PRESS AND THE
DELHI-8,
FOREWORD
Sixth
was remarkable
B.C.
century
unrest and intellectual ferment in
many
we had Lao Tzu and Confucius,
in
for
the
countries.
spiritual
In China
Greece Parmenides and
Empedocles, in Iran Zarathustra, in India Mahavira and the
Buddha.
upon
In that period
their
inheritance
many remarkable
and
developed
teachers
new
worked
points
of
view.
The Purnima
is
or full-moon day of the
month of Vaisakha
connected with three important events in the
Buddha— birth,
enlightenment and parinirvana.
most sacred day
in the
Buddhist calendar.
life
It
of the
is
the
According to the
Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha's parinirvana occurred in
544 B.C. 1 Though the different schools of Buddhism have
their
independent systems of chronology, they have agreed
to consider the full-moon
day of
May
anniversary of the mahaparinirvana of
1956 to be the 2,500th
Gautama
the Buddha.
This book gives a short account of the story of Buddhism in
the last 2,500 years.
The main events of the Buddha's life are well known. He
was the son of a minor ruler of Kapilavastu, grew up in
luxury, married Yasodhara, had a son, Rahula, and led a
sheltered life
four occasions
tells us,
where the world's miseries were hidden. On
when he went out of his palace, so the legend
he met an old
man and
felt that
he was subject to
met a sick man and felt that he was
met a corpse and felt that he was also
subject to death, and met an ascetic with a peaceful
countenance who had adopted the traditional way of the
seekers of religious truth.
The Buddha resolved to gain
the frailties of age,
liable to sickness,
1,
The Bodh Qaya
inscription gives 544 B.C. as the date of parinirvana.
FOREWORD
Vi
freedom from old age, sickness and death by following his
example. The mendicant tells the Buddha:
rmra-puhgava
janma-mrtyu
sramanah
bhitah
1
pravrajitosmi moksa-hetoh
1
am
The
who
a sramana, an ascetic,
and death have
left
sight of the holy
home
in fear of birth
to gain liberation.
life
man, healthy
in
body, cheerful in
mind, without any of the comforts of
life,
impressed
Buddha
that
the
strongly with the conviction
the
pursuit of
was the only goal worthy of man. It makes man
independent of the temporary trials and fleeting pleasures of
the world. The Buddha decided to renounce the world and
devote himself to a religious life. He left his home, wife and
child, put on the garb and habits of a mendicant, and fled
religion
into the forest in order to meditate
causes and the means by which
it
on human
suffering, its
could be overcome.
He
spent six years in the study of the most abstruse doctrines of
religion, suffered the severest austerities,
reduced himself to
the verge of starvation in the hope that, by mortifying the
flesh,
he should surely attain to the knowledge of
truth.
But
he came very near death without having attained the wisdom
that he sought.
mal
life,
He gave up
refreshed
ascetic practices,
himself
in
the
waters
resumed norof.
the
river
pudding offered by Sujata:
nayam atma balahinena labhyah.
After he gained bodily
health and mental vigour he spent seven weeks under the
shade of the Bodhi tree, sitting in a state of the deepest and
most profound meditation. One night towards the dawn his
understanding opened and he attained enlightenment After
Nairafijana, accepted the milk
the enlightenment the
Buddha
person as the Tathagata: he
He wished
"I shall
1.
refers to himself in the third
who
has arrived at the truth.
knowledge he gained and so said:
go to Banaras where I will light the lamp that will
to preach the
A«vaghosa: Buddha en ritfl, V,
17.
FOREWORD
bring light into the world.
go to Banaras and beat
shall go to Banaras
will
I
Vii
the drums that will awaken mankind. I
and there I shall teach the Law." "Give
The
Deathless (amrta, eternal
will
now
instruct.
I
will
life)
O
ear,
mendicants!
has been found by me.
preach the Dharma."
He
I
travelled
from place to place, touched the lives of hundreds, high and
They all came under the spell
low, princes and peasants.
of
He
his great personality.
taught for forty-five years the
beauty of charity and the joy of renunciation, the need for
simplicity
and
equality.
At the age of eighty he was on his way to Kusinagara,
the town in which he passed into parinirvana.
Taking leave
of the pleasant city of Vaisalf with his favourite disciple,
Ananda, he
rested
on one of the neighbouring
hills
and look-
ing at the pleasant scenery with its many shrines and sanctuaries, he said to Ananda, citram jambudvipam, manoramam
jlvitam manusvanam. "Colourful and rich is India, lovable
and charming
is
the
life
of
On
men."
Hiranyavati in a grove of sala
the banks of the river
trees, the
prepared for himself between two
trees.
Buddha had a bed
He
gently consoled
Ananda, who was lamenting bitterly. "Do not
weep, do not despair, Ananda. From all that he loves man
must part. How could it be that what is born, what is subject
to instability, should not pass. May be, you were thinking,
'we have no longer a master'. That must not be, O Ananda.
The doctrine I have preached to you is your master." He
his disciple,
repeated
:
handa dani bhikkhave dmantaydmi vo:
vayadhamma sankhara, appamUdena sampadetha
Verily,
I
say unto you now,
are perishable;
work
out
O
your
monks
:
*ti
All things
deliverance
with
earnestness.
These were his last words. His spirit sank into the
depths of mystic absorption and when he had attained to
FOREWORD
Viii
degree where
that
when
thought,
all
all
conception disappears,
the consciousness of individuality ceases, he entered
into the
supreme nirvana.
II
In the
and
life
of the Buddha, there are two sides, individual
The
social.
inner meditation.
Buddha-image is of a meditating
and withdrawn, lost in the joy of his
familiar
sage, yogin, absorbed
This
is
the tradition associated with the
Theravada Buddhism and Asoka's missions. For these the
Buddha is a man, not God, a teacher and not a saviour.
There is the other side of the Buddha's life, when he is concerned with the sorrows of men, eager to enter their lives,
heal their troubles and spread his message for the good of
Based on this compassion for
the many: bahu-jana-hitaya.
humanity, a second tradition matured in North India under
the
It
Kusanas (70-480 A.D.) and the Guptas (320-650 A.D.).
developed the ideal of salvation for
ot devotion
and the way of
former tradition prevails
latter is
found
in
in
universal
Ceylon,
all,
the
discipline
While the
service.
Burma and Thailand,
the
Nepal, Tibet, Korea, China, and Japan.
All forms of Buddhism, however, agree that the
Buddha
was the founder, that he strove and attained transcendental
wisdom as he sat under the Bodhi tree, that he pointed a way
from the world of suffering to a beyond, the undying, and
those
the
who
follow the path for liberation
wisdom beyond.
This
is
essential unity underlying the
expression that
came
may
also cross to
the root of the matter, the
many
differences in outlook
to characterize
Buddhism
as
it
and
spread
from India to other parts of the world.
The essence of all religion is a change in man's nature.
The conception of second birth, dvitfyam janma,
the central
teaching of the Hindu and the Buddhist religions.
Man is
is,
not one but a multiplicity.
He
is
inwardly discordant.
He is asleep, he is an automaton.
He must wake up, become united,
harmonious within himself and
free.
The Greek
mysteries
FOREWORD
implied this change
Man
our nature.
in
IX
himself
conceived
is
as a grain which could die as a grain but be reborn as a plant
from the
different
A
grain.
be pounded
to
destinies,
sown
bread; or to be
bushel of wheat has two possible
and made
into
flour
and become
ground, to germinate and become
in the
a plant, and give a hundred grains for one that
St.
when he
"Thou
says:
quickened except
it
a being
To
who can
effect this
goal of
all
Our
"It
is
sown.
is
transform himself,
final being.
who can
religions as of
to
is
He
be born again.
change, to be reborn, to be awakened,
subjection
not
it
a transformation of
not a complete
is
is
sown a natural body,
The change
Man
itself.
which thou sowest
that
fool,
die."
raised a spiritual body."
the substance
is
is
Paul borrowed this idea in describing the Resurrection
is
the
Buddhism.
to samsara,
time,
is
due
to avidyd,
unawareness, leading to infatuation, depravity, asava. Ignor-
ance and craving are the substratum of the empirical
From
avidya
When we
we must
to vidya, bodhi, enlightenment.
have vipassanu, knowledge by seeing, clear percep-
we will acquire samata unshakable calm. In all this,
Buddha adopts the Vedic criterion of certainty which is
tion,
the
rise
life.
rooted
%
knowledge which
in actual
experience,
direct
intellectual
is
attained by immediate
intuition of reality:
vathu-
bhiita-nana-dassana.
Ill
The Buddha did not feel that he was announcing a new
He was born, grew up, and died a Hindu. He was
restating with a new emphasis the ancient ideals of the IndoAryan civilization. "Even so have I, monks, seen an ancient
ivay, an ancient road followed by the wholly awakened ones
of olden times
Along that have I gone, and the matters
that I have come to know fully as I was going along it, I
have told to the monks, nuns, men and women lay-followers,
religion.
.
.
.
even, monks, this Brahma-faring, brahmacariya that is prosperous and flourishing, widespread and widely known, become
FOREWORD
X
popular
—
The
safety, fearlessness,
man
for
made manifest
in short, well
for gods
and men."
quest of religious India has been for the incomparable
abhaya, moksa, nirvana.
to strive to elevate himself
It
above earthly
natural
is
things, to
go out from the world of sense to free his soul from the
trammels of existence and gross materiality, to break through
the outer darkness into the world of light and
Buddha aims
at a
new
spiritual existence attained
jnana or bodhi, absolute illumination.
highest goal of a
man
old age, nor fear,
anxieties,
and
to be the stage in
The
through
"But I deem the
which there is neither
nor disease, nor birth, nor death, nor
which there
in
spirit.
no continuous renewal of
is
activity."
pade
tarn
yasminn na jard na bhlr na run na janma
naivoparamo na cddhayah
eva manye purusdrtham uttamam na vidyate
tu
yatra
The Buddha aimed
craving
selfish
It is
is
punah punah kriya2
at a spiritual experience in
extinct
and with
it
which
all
every fear and passion.
a state of perfect inward peace, accompanied by the con-
viction of having attained
spiritual freedom, a state which
Only he who has experienced it
knows what it is. The state is not life in paradise where
"You should feel shame and indignation,
the gods dwell.
if ascetics of other schools ask you if it is in order to arise
words cannot describe.
in
a divine world
that
ascetic
life
is
practised
under the
Gautama."
Even as the Upanisads distinguish
moksa from life in brahmaloka, the Buddha points out that
the gods belong to the world of manifestation and cannot
ascetic
therefore be called absolutely unconditioned.
as
its
correlative non-existence.
The
Existence has
really unconditioned
is
beyond both existence and non-existence. The state of the
mukta, the Buddha, is higher than that of the Brahma. It is
1.
8amyutta-nikffya.
2.
Alvaghoea: Buddhacarita, XI, 30.
FOREWORD
and
invisible, resplendent
unborn,
Upanisads which
is
This
adopted
na
iti,
Udana
unmade,
of
the
1
The
iti.
who has become
he
an
in the
akata,
Brahman
the
is
characterized as na
The Buddha
Brahman.
unbecome,
abhuta,
himself brahma-bhuta,
calls
a higher than
is
Absolute described
asankhata, uncompounded.
Buddha
There
eternal.
the gods, a transcendental.
as ajata,
XL
absolutist
view
of
He felt that
that God would
Ultimate Reality though not a theistic one.
many
abstained
from action
in the faith
They seemed
do everything
for them.
realization
a growth from within.
indulged
is
in
makes
little
rites
When
the educated
speculations about the Inexpressible, the
vain
uneducated treated
ed by magic
to forget that spiritual
God
difference
who could
God forgives
as a being
or sorcery.
If
how we
live.
be manipulatus any
The Buddha
way
it
revolted
and superstition, the dread and the
popular
religion.
Besides,
which accompanied
views generally fill men's minds with dogmatism
against the ignorance
horror,
theistic
and
their hearts with intolerance.
filled
the
world with unhappiness,
Doctrinal orthodoxy has
injustice,
strife,
crime,
and hatred.
The conception of
the world as samsara, a stream without
end, where the law of
karma
functions,
is
common
Indian systems, Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Sikh.
is
to all
Nothing
Even death is not permanew life. The conduct of the
permanent, not even the gods.
must turn to
individual in one life cannot determine his everlasting destiny.
The Buddha does not accept a fatalistic view. He does not
say that man has no control over his future. He can work
out his future, become an Arhat, attain nirvana.
The
Buddha was an ardent exponent of the strenuous life. Our
aim is to conquer time, overcome samsara and the way to
it is the moral path which results in illumination.
The Buddha did not concede the reality of an unchangenent for
it
1. Cf. also "from which the words turn back together with the mind,
not having attained". Tattiriya Upanisad, II, 4. In the Tattiriy» Brahmanas
it is
said
:
"Before the gods sprang into existence, I was**, II,
8,8.
FOREWORD
Xii
able self for the self is something that can be built up by
good thoughts and deeds, but yet he has to assume it. While
karma relates to the world of objects, of existence, in time,
nirvana assumes the freedom of the subject, of inwardness.
We
can stand out of our existential
We
limits.
experience
beyond it. To
stand out of objective existence there must come upon the
the nothingness, the void of the world to get
individual a sense of crucifixion,
a sense of agonizing annihi-
lation, a sense of the bitter nothingness of all the empirical
existence which
maranantam
subject to the law of change, of death:
is
hi jivitam.
ing despair: mrtyor
from the body of
ness
it
not
is
all,
this
there
We
cry from the depths of unyield-
ma amrtam
is
death?
Who
gamaya.
If
death
is
not
cannot be described.
formations,
me
nothing-
something which survives death, though
The
T
the unconditioned, some-
is
do with the body,
thought, which are all
thing which has nothing to
tion,
shall save
all, if
changeable, non-substantial.
When
feeling, percep-
impermanent,
the individual
knows
that
what is impermanent is painful, he becomes detached from
them and becomes free. The indispensable prerequisite of this
of an
or something like it:
is a higher consciousness
T
attena va attaniyena}
self,
the
This
T
is
the primordial essential
unconditioned, whose realization gives us liberty
and power. The self is not body, feeling, consciousness, etc.
But from this it does not follow that there is no self at all.
The ego is not the only content of the self though it is the
only content that can be known objectively. There is another
side to our self
Buddha asks
which helps us to attain nirvana.
When
the
us to be diligent, to strive for salvation, he
v
referring to the
inward principle which
by the current of events, which
is
is
not swept
is
away
not controlled by outward
circumstances, which protects
itself from the usurpations of
which does not submit to human opinion but jealously
society,
guards
himself,
1.
The enlightened is free, having broken all
The ascetic is one who has gained mastery over
"who has his heart in his power, and is not himself
its rights.
bonds.
Majjhima-nikaya,
XXIX.
FOREWORD
Xlli
The Buddha when he attained
from being dissolved into non-being. It is
not he that becomes extinct but the passions and desires.
He is no longer conditioned by the erroneous notions and
in the
power of
nirvana
is
his heart". 1
far
selfish desires that
normally go on shaping individuals.
The
be free from the characteristics
He has vanished from
subject.
individual
an
constitute
that
"Whatever thought he desires,
the sphere of dualities.
Buddha
realizes himself to
that thought will he think, whatever thought he does noi
desire, that thought will
he not think."2
The Buddha taught
and practise compassion, karuna.
We
will be judged not by the creeds we profess or the labels we
wear or the slogans we shout but by our sacrificial work and
us to pursue prajna
Man, weak
brotherly outlook.
as he
is,
subject to old age.
and death, in his ignorance and pride condemns the
sick, the aged and the dead.
If any one looks with disgust
on any fellow being who is sick or old or dead, he would
be unjust to himself. We must not find fault with the man
who limps or stumbles along the road for we do not know
sickness
the shoes he wears or the burdens he bears. 3
what pain
is,
we become
the brothers of
all
who
If
we
learn
suffer.
IV
Buddhism did not start as
It was an offshoot of
religion.
the Hindus, perhaps a schism or a
new and independent
more ancient faith of
heresy. While the Buddha
a
the
agreed with the faith he inherited on the fundamentals of
metaphysics and ethics, he protested against certain practices
which
were
in
vogue
at
He refused to
When he was asked
said,
And as for your
the
time.
acquiesce in the Vedic ceremonialism.
to
perform some of these
1,
2,
Majjhima-nikSyei,
rites,
rudrnk^rn
* 4
XXXII.
Afiguttara IV, 35; Majjhima,
3, C/,
he
XX.
tidasi-katithnnt 9 tripundra?,, bhafwa-dharunaii*
yatrah snarvdni horn a 8 *caj<vp<ih mdt><''id'ir*annm
na eU punanti manujfim
yathft bhuta~ltite-rafih
:
FOREWORD
XIV
saying that for the sake of
sacrificial
which bring the desired
for
I
do not care
is
true
fruit, I
for happiness
of others' suffering."
It
Dharma
should carry out the
I
ceremonies which are customary in
my
family and
do not approve of sacrifices;
which is sought at the price
1
that
Upanisads
the
also
subordinate
the
sacrificial piety to the spiritual religion which they formulate,
way in which the Buddha
was to bring about a reformation in religious practices and a return to the basic
principles.
All those who adhere to the essential framework
of the Hindu religion and attempt to bring it into conformity
with the voice of awakened conscience are treated as avataras
It is an accepted view of the Hindus that the Supreme as
Visnu assumed different forms to accomplish different purposes for the good of mankind. The Buddha was accepted
as an avatara who reclaimed Hindus from sanguinary
rites and erroneous practices and purified their religion of
This avatara
the numerous abuses which had crept into it.
but they did not attack
it
The Buddha's main
did.
in the
object
doctrine helps us to retain the faith of the ancestors while
effecting
reforms
in
it.
Our Puranas
describe the
Buddha
as the ninth avatara of Visnu.
In Jayadeva's astapadi (of the Gitagovinda) he refers to
the different avataras and mentions the
Buddha
as an avatara
of Visnu, and gives the following account
O you of merciful heart denounced the Veda
where the slaughter of cattle is taught, O Kesava,
you, in the form of the Buddha, victory to you, Hari,
lord of the world.
nindasi yajnavidher ahaha srutijdtam
sadaya-hrdaya, darsita paiughatam
kesava-dhrta buddhasanra jaya jagadfsa hare2
1.
Buddhacarita, XI, 64.
yadattha capisiaphaldm kulocitam hurueva dharmaya rnakhakriyam it*
namo makhebhyo na hi kamaye iukham parasya duhkha-kriyayfiyad
2.
1,9.
wyatfi
FOREWORD
The commentator
XV
writes:
veda
yajnasya-vidhdna-bodhakam
nindasi,
na
tu
sarvam
ity
The Buddha does not condemn
but only that part of
it
the whole Sruti
which enjoins
Jayadeva sums up the ten avataras
Who
samuham
arthah
in the
sacrifices.
next verse:
upheld the Vedas, supported the universe,
bore up the world, destroyed the demons, deceived
Bali,
broke the force of the Ksatriyas,
conquered Ravana, made the plough, spread mercy,
prevailed over aliens, homage,
who took
veddn
O
Krsna
the ten forms.
jagan
uddharate,
nivahate,
bhugolam
udbibhrate,
daitydn
ddrayate,
balim
chalayate,
ksatraksayam
kurvate,
paulastyam
jayate,
halam
kalayate,
karunyam
at any at e
murcchayate
mlecchdn
dasdkrtikrte
t
krsnaya
tubhyam namah
karunyam
krpdm
dtanvate
buddha-rupena
vistdrayate
The Buddha
some of
utilized
the
Hindu inheritance
to
correct
He came to fulfil, not to destroy.
For us, in this country, the Buddha is an outstanding representative of our religious tradition.
He left his footprints on
the soil of India and his mark on the soul of the country
with
its
its
expressions.
habits
While the teaching of the
forms in the other countries of
and convictions.
Buddha assumed
distinctive
the world in conformity with their
the
home
of the Buddha,
it
own
traditions, here, in
has entered into and become an
FOREWORD
XVI
part of our
integral
The Brahmanas and the
by the Buddha and the two
culture.
6ramanas were treated
alike
traditions gradually blended.
In a
Buddha
sense the
is
a
maker of modern Hinduism.
humanity
Occasionally
gropings, creates
in
an
after
one great character and then again
intent
on working out
chaos
reflects the
versal
in
loses itself in the all
free
we
with one's self as
future,
and
Yet the chaotic condition of world
affairs
Its
men's
or not.
it
The
become uniEurope nor
all lands and
History has
souls.
subject matter
is
neither
In spite of political divisions, the world
like
at the
from prejudices,
Asia, neither East nor West, but humanity in
ages.
of
existence
crossed racial
in
spirit.
man,
His humanism
one's light, attadipa.
national barriers.
free
own
his
its
The Buddha aimed
too slow process of dissolution.
development of a new type of
number
infinite
purposes of
realizes the
itself,
is
one, whether
up
fortunes of everyone are linked
But we are suffering from an exhausan increase of egoism, individual and collective,
with those of others.
tion of spirit,
which seem
to desire.
to make the ideal of a world society too difficult
What we need today is a spiritual view of the
universe for which this country, in spite of
follies,
may blow through
has stood, which
the doors
and
flinging
must recover the
life
blunders and
again, bursting
open the shutters of man's
lost ideal
no param vidyate.
all its
We
of spiritual freedom: atmalahhan
we wish
If
life.
to achieve
peace we must
maintain that inner harmony, that poise of the soul, which
are the essential elements of peace.
selves
though
to
love, recognizes in all
its
divine,
and
mankind.
all else
be
offers itself
It
casts off
lost.
We
must possess our-
The free spirit sets no bounds
human beings a spark of the
up a willing victim
all
to the cause of
fear except that of
wrong doing,
passes the bounds of time and death and finds inexhaustible
power
in life eternal.
S.
RADHAKRISHNAN
:
CONTENTS
PAGE
Foreword
.
Sarvapalli Radhakrishrtan
Our Contributors
I.
II.
India
xviii-xxiv
.
P. V. Bapai
1-8
P. L. Vaidycr
9-20 i
and Buddhism
Origin of Buddhism
and Teachings
C. V. Josh
III.
Life
IV.
Four Buddhist Councils
The First Council
The Second Council
i
B. Jinananda
Appendix
21-34
35-55
35
41
.
The Third Council
The Fourth Council
v-xvi
44
47
.
I
50
Appendix
II
51
Appendix
111
53
I.
II.
....
AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
ASOKA
P. V. Bapa t
Expansion of Buddhism
V. ASOKA
.
56-%
56
:
A. In India
B.
P. C. Bagch i
.
60
In Northern Countries
Central Asia and China
Korea and Japan
Tibet,
P. C.
J.
Bagch
i
N. Takasak /
65
68
Ladakh and Mongolia
Nepal
V. V.
Gokhale
73
V. V.
Gokhale
82
Majumda r
85
C. In Southern Countries
R. C.
Ceylon
85
Burma
The Malay Peninsula
89
86
Siam (Thailand)
89
Kambuja (Cambodia)
91
Campa (Viet-Nam)
93
Indonesia
.
93
CONTENTS
XVU1
PAGE
jncipal Schools and Sects of Buddhism
Anukul Chandra Banerjee
A. In India
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
The
97-138
Sthaviravadins
the Theravadins
or
Mahisasakas
97
101
104
....
....
Sarvastivadins
105
Haimavatas
107
Vatsiputriyas
Dharmaguptikas
KasyapTyas
107
108
.
Sautrantikas or the Sankrantivadins
108
>
Mahasanghikas
Bahusrutiyas
Caityakas
109
109
....
116
117
Madhyamika School
120
Yogacara School
122
B. In Northern Countries
:
Tibet and Nepal
China
.
.
V. V.
.
(7. //.
.
.
Gokhah*
Sasak /
The Ch'an (Dhyana) School
The Vinaya School
The Tantra School
The Vijnanavada School
The Sukhavativyuha School
The Avatamsaka School
The Madhyamika School
The Tien-t'ai School
.
Japan
.
.
.
.
The Tendai Sect
The Shingon Sect
Pure Land Buddhism
Zen Buddhism
.
The Nichiren Sect
.
J.
N. Takasak /
124
124
125
126
127
127
127
128
129
130
131
131
132
132
134
135
CONTENTS
XiX
PAGE
C. In Southern Countries
P. V. Bapat
.
Ceylon
136
Burma
137
Thailand and Cambodia
VII.
138
.
Buddhist Literature
General
139-175
.
.
.
dhist Sanskrit
in Pali
(i)
The Mahavastu
The Nidanakatha
and Bud142
....
....
143
The Buddha's Teachings
(i) The Pali Sutta-pitaka
.
(ii) The Dhammapada
(Hi) The Sanskrit Saddharma-pundarTka
...
:
The Buddha's Disciplinary Code
Vinaya-pitaka
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
VIII.
The
The
The
The
.
149
152
159
:
...
...
...
....
:
145
156
.
111.
139
Nalinaksha Dutt
.
Biographies
(ii)
II.
.
P. V. Bapat
.
Survey of Important Books
I.
136
162
Patimokkha-sutta
164
Sutta-vibhanga
165
Bhikkhunl-vibhanga
168
Khandhakas
170
Buddhist Education
The Beginnings
The Training of
S. Dutt
176-194
:
a
Monk
.
The
Intellectual Bias
.
.
Maintenance and Endowment
:
.
Chinese Pilgrims and their Testimony
Monastic Universities
:
Nalanda and Valabhl
181
.
.
183
.
.
184
....
Vikramaslla
185
190
Jagaddaia and Odantapurl
Conclusion
178
.
....
Monasteries as Seats of Learning
,
.
192
192
CONTENTS
XX
PAGE
IX.
Some Great Buddhists after Asoka
A. In India
Rulers
:
Menander, Kaniska, Harsa
Bharat Singh Vpadhyaya
:
Authors
Pali
195-254
:
195
Buddhadatta,
Nagasena,
Buddhaghosa, and Dhammapala
Anand Kausalyayana
206
Sanskrit Authors: Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna.
Buddhapalita and Bhavaviveka, Asahga
Vasubandhu, Dinnaga, and Dhar-
and
Bharat Singh Vpadhyaya
makirti
B. In Tibet
219
:
Acarya Dipankara Srijnana
Rahul Sankrityayan
226
P. V. Bapat
239
C. In China
Kumarajiva
Paramartha
.
.
239
.
,
242
Bodhidharma
Yuan Chwang
Bodhiruci
.
.
Shinran
Dogen
N. Takasaki
250
•
251
.
251
.
252
Nichiren
.
252
List
:
1
.
.
253
List 2
.
.
254
Chinese Travellers
Fa-hien
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri
.
Yuan. Chwang
I-tsing
A
249
J.
.
Appendix
XI.
246
.
D. In Japan
Kukai
244
.
>
.
.
A. In India
255
262
.
274
.
Brief Survey of Buiodhist
255-276
Art
277-307
Ramachandran
277
C. Sivaramamurti
289
7\ N.
B. In Other Asian C<>untries
CONTENTS
XXI
PAGE
XII. Places of
A. In Northern India
B. In Western India
S. K. Saraswati
308
D. B. Disk a Ik ar
326
D. B. Diskalkar
336
.
C. In Southern India
XIII.
308-339
Buddhist Interest
.
Later Modifications of Buddhism
Approach to Hinduism N. Aiyaswami
Principles of Tantric Buddhism
340-381
Sastri
340
Anagarika Govinda
358
Mantrayana and Sahajayana H. V. Guenther
XIV. Buddhist Studies in Recent Times
Some Eminent Buddhist Scholars
Padmanabh S. Jaini
In India and Europe
376
382-446
:
In
China
In
Japan
P. V. Bapat
.J.N,
.
Progress of Buddhist Studies
In
Europe and America
In the East
382
397
Takasaki
399
U. N. Ghoshal
401
Bapat
414
:
.
:
1.
India
2.
Ceylon
3.
Burma
4.
Thailand
433
5.
Cambodia
434
6.
Laos
435
7.
Viet-Nam
437
8.
China
439
9.
Japan
XV. Buddhism
in
.
.
P.
.
V.
.
426
.
431
...
.
the Modern
.
J.
World
N. Takasaki
441
447-478
:
Cultural and Political Implications
B. Sangharakshita
Revival of
Society
Buddhism
The
XVI. In Retrospect
Glossary
447
Maha Bodhi
..../).
:
P.
Valisinha
472
Bapat
479-482
V.
483-484
Bibliography
485-488
Index
489-503
Charts,
.
Maps and
Illustrations
OUR CONTRIBUTORS
Bapat, M.A., A.M., Ph.D. (Harvard), Retired Professor
of Ancient History, Pali and Buddhism, Poona University
and Fergusson College, Poona.
P. V.
P. L. Vaidya,
Research
M.A.
(Calcutta), D.Litt.
Institute,
(Paris), Director, Mithila
Darbhanga.
C. V. Joshi, M.A., Retired Professor of Pali, Baroda University.
Bhikshu Jinananda, M.A., Ph.D. (London), Vidya-AbhidhammaSutta Visarada, Professor of Pali and Buddhalogy, Nalanda
Post-Graduate Pali
(The
late) P.
Institute,
Nalanda.
C. Bagchi, M.A., D.Litt. (Paris), Vice-Chancellor
Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan.
V.
Gokhale, B.A., Ph.D. (Bonn), Chairman, Board of
Studies in Modern European Languages, Poona University,
V.
Fergusson College, Poona.
J.
N. Takasaki, Japanese scholar, at present working at the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona.
R. C.
Majumdar, M.A.,
Ancient Indian
Anukul Chandra
Pali
and
Ph.D., historian,
History,
Nagpur
now
Banerjee, M.A., LL.B., Ph.D., Lecturer in
Sanskrit, Calcutta University.
G. H. Sasaki, Japanese scholar, at present working
darkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona.
Nalinaksha Dutt, M.A., Ph.D.,
Head of the Department of
S.
Professor of
University.
Dutt, M.A.,
B.L.,
English, Delhi
D.Litt. (London).
Pali,
at the
Bhan-
B.L., M.P.,
Calcutta University.
Ph.D. (Calcutta), formerly Reader
in
University.
Bharat Singh Upadhyaya, M.A., Head
of the Hindi Department, Jain College, Beraut (Meerut), U.P.
Bhaijanta
Anand Kausalyayana,
well-known
Hindi writer.
OUR CONTRIBUTORS
XXIV
Rahul Sankrityayan,
Tripitakacharya, leading
Mahapandit,
Hindi writer.
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, M.A., Professor of lndology, Mysore
University, Mysore.
Ramachandran, M.A, Jt. Director-General of Archaeology,
Government of India, New Delhi.
C. Sivaramamurti, M.A., Keeper, National Museum, Rashtra-
T. N.
pati
S.
K.
Bhavan,
Saraswati,
New
Delhi.
M.A.
(Calcutta),
Professor
of Fine Arts,
Calcutta University.
D. B. Diskalkar, M.A.,
at present
working
at the
Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Institute, Poona.
Pandit N. Aiyaswamy Sastri,
Professor of Buddhist Studies,
Visva-Bharati, Santiniketan.
Lama Anagarika Govinda, German by
birth
;
eminent writer
on Buddhism.
H. V. Guenther, M.A., Ph.D., Austrian by birth
Russian, Lucknow University, Lucknow.
;
Lecturer in
Padmanabh
S. Jaini, M.A., Tripitakacharya, Professor of
Banaras Hindu University, Banaras.
U. N. Ghoshal, M.A., Ph.D.
(Calcutta),
Pali,
Retired Professor of
History, Presidency College, Calcutta.
Bhikshu Sangharakshita,
writer,
the
D.
British
Founder-President
Maha Bodhi
of
by birth;
the
noted
Buddhist
Kalimpong Branch of
Society.
Valisinha, B.A., General Secretary,
of India, Calcutta.
Maha Bodhi
Society
CHAPTER
India
I
and Buddhism
People from other countries are often intrigued by the
phenomenon
that,
originating
except for a few remnants
in
given place to Hinduism, which
of the country.
fact that
religious
This
is
in
Buddhism should,
Assam or Orissa, have
now the dominant religion
India,
Bengal,
is
particularly strange in view of the
Buddhism, as a humanist force, profoundly affected
and moral ideas in its time, and acted as a powerful
catalytic factor in transforming existing social conditions.
Buddhism
equality.
is
a religion of kindness, humanity and
While the religion of the Vedas allowed animal
sacrifice to
propitiate the gods,
such
sacrifices;
Buddhism set its face against
on the contrary, it waged a merciless cam-
paign against this practice.
The complicated nature of the
who had
The Brahmana therefore came
sacrificial ritual
required the services of brahmanas,
specialized in
that
lore.
to hold a unique position in the social structure of the Indo-
Aryans.
Even
Ksatriya
the
and
the
dvijas (twice-born) enjoyed certain privileges in
the
who as
common with
VaiSya,
brahmana, could not take as prominent a part as the
brahmana in the performance of the sacrifice. The Sudra
on the other hand was assigned menial tasks such as chopping wood and cutting grass for the sacrifices, and dragging
dumb animals, like cows, bullocks
trickling down their faces as described
to the sacrificial ground
and rams, with
tears
in the Buddhist texts such
as
the
Kutadanta-sutta
of the
Digha-nikaya.
The framanas who
lived a life of retirement in the forests
and gave themselves up to philosophical speculation did not
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
2
sympathize with
sacrifices involving the slaughter of animals.
Public opinion was thus being gradually formed against such
sacrifices
and clear indications of
this
change
in
public
opinion can be found in the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata
Purana.
in
Santiparva 1 refers to two sides of the controversy,
which the hermits pleaded for
sacrificial offerings of
corn
or grain, while the gods favoured offerings of living animals.
In chapter 254 of the same parvan, there is a dialogue between Tuladhara and Jajali where animal sacrifice is condemned and the practice of eating meat at such sacrifices is
attributed
to interested
rogues.
In another place
the
in
same parvan (257,6), it is claimed that ahimsa is the highest
principle.
The Bhagavata Punana (1,8,52) says that the killing of animals is not to be condoned because it forms part
of a sacrifice. Indeed, the brahmanas had subsequently to
modify their position and substitute tor live animals images
made of corn-flour (pista-pasu). Clearly, Buddhism scored a
victory in this matter.
In this connection,
it
may
legitimately be asked
how
the
Buddha preached
the principle of ahimsa and kindness to
living animals, if
he himself could eat meat and allow his
followers to do so.
The explanation
is
simple.
In a society
where meat was commonly used in daily food, he and
his followers had to depend upon public alms; so that if they
had refused to eat meat, they would probably have starved
to death.
As a practical man, the Buddha had to avoid
extremes.
He
only
either
saw
Here also he followed the Middle Path.
imposed three
restrictions,
namely,
if
any monk
or heard or even suspected that an animal had been killed
was not to accept the meat
Another special feature was that Buddhism denounced
all claims to superiority on the ground of birth as the
brahmanas claimed. It denounced all social distinctions
between man and man, and declared that it was karma, the
actions of man, that determined the eminence or lowness of
an individual.
In Buddhist literature, there are a number
specially for him, then he
1.
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
ed., 324,
10.
AND BUDDHISM
INDIA
Buddha
of sutras where the
3
(or his disciple)
as holding a discussion with
represented
is
renowned brahmanas and
mately bringing them round
to
ownv way
his
ulti-
of thinking.
and VajrasucX for instance, illustrate the
Buddhist point of view.
In this campaign also. Buddhism
Assalayana-sutta
1
The
achieved success.
pect
is
position of the Buddhists in this res-
appreciated and accepted
Bhagavata 3
The
the
in
Mahabharata 2 and
on the equality of
based on one's actions and not on birth is an
of
the
.
insistence
mediaeval
of
literature
saints
Caitanya, Kabir, Ekanath and others
AD).
The
followers of the
Buddha
did not
integral part
Ramananda,
like
(14th
social status
— 17th
century
belong to the
all
higher classes, but also included the lower classes, such as
Among
barbers, sweepers or candalas.
too,
Tukaram was
the mediaeval saints,
a sudra, Rohidas a cobbler, and Sena a
some sects like the
Mahanubhavas and Ramanandis observe no
barber.
Similarly,
Another
Buddhism was
the
organized religious
that the
of
feature
fact
Buddha was
that
to
life
at
approached
GautamT, he
finally
it
first
on
him
down
certain conditions
servience of
women
significance
in
Sahgha.
behalf
It is
said
women
into
alike.
However, when
Mahapaj5pati
of
agreed, though not without misgivings
about the ultimate result of such a
laid
class distinction.
unwilling to admit
the
the
threw open the doors of
women and men
the religious organization of
Ananda
sociological
great
Lingayats,
to
men.
step.
At
which seem
Nevertheless,
the
same
time, he
to imply the subit
must be remem-
bered that he should not be judged by the standards of the
20th century.
In his day, this was a great step forward,
and
in religious life
women
enjoyed the same right of access
to the highest position, that of Arhatship, for instance, as
it
was recognized that women could also be as learned and wise
as men.
In this connection, the names of distinguished nuns,
like Khema, Patacara and Dhammadinna may be mentioned,
1.
2.
3.
Majjhimu, No. 03.
Udyoga-purva, 43, 27*29.
See 7,11,35 and 9,2,23.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
4
women
Outside the Saiigha,
vatf
all
like Sujata,
achieved positions of eminence
Vi^akha and Sama-
in different spheres.
1
Even courtesans like AmrapalT were not denied opportunities
In the 1 heii-gatha also women
to embrace the religious life.
like Uppalavanna, Subha, Kisa, Gautami and Soma are referred to as having renounced the world out of unhappiness
with
life
They accepted a life of devotion in
mundane suffering and it is said that they
in general.
order to overcome
made
the best use of the opportunities religion offered.
The institution of a band
was at the very foundation of
Buddha's injunction
of disciplined, selfless workers
the Buddhist organization.
to these workers
The
was always to go from
place to place, preaching his teachings throughout the year
He asked them
to have
com-
passion on the people and to work for their happiness.
One
except during the rainy season.
of his important instructions was, as he said, "Let not two
of you go
one and the same direction" (Ma ekena dve
in
agamittha).
Herein
lies
the secret of success of the Buddhist
This practice
missionary activity.
naturally
inspired
the
Buddhist missionaries to create new spheres of activity for
each group.
worth noting that the popularity of the Buddha and
depended upon his method of approach
The Buddha had asked his disciples to preach
to the masses.
his doctrine in the people's own speech (sakdya niruttiya).
It is
his religion largely
The people were
naturally
impressed.
local dialect struck a sympathetic
chord
This appeal
in a
in the hearts of the
people, and they listened to the message of the Buddha, particularly
preachers
as
it
came
who had
to
them through a band of
selfless
travelled long distances.
Though Gautama Buddha belonged to an aristocratic
life and work were those of a democrat.
He
family, his
served the interests of the masses and was concerned with
their happiness.
He
travelled widely for forty-five years,
preaching to them.
To carry out his life's mission, he
founded the Sangha, the Order of the Buddhist fraternity of
1.
AAguttara, Etadagga-vagga.
INDIA
monks and
nuns.
AND BUDDHISM
No wonder
ing of this organization
5
that the constitution
was on democratic
and workEvery-
lines.
one who was ordained as a Buddhist monk could be a member
of the Sangha in a particular locality and all official business
in a formal meeting of the Sangha was transacted according
to democratic principles.
Every member had a vote
and the decision of the Sangha was taken by a vote of the
When a complicated question came up before the
majority.
Sangha, it was referred to a select committee, whose recommendation had to be placed before the Sangha for ratificaIf a member of the Sangha was absent on account
tion.
of illness, his vote was recorded by bringing him, sometimes
carrying him, to the meeting place to cast his vote.
All
members of the Sangha in a parish were required to be present
Questions about fixing
at a formal meeting of the Sangha.
the days of the
the Vassavasa
Uposatha (day of
fast),
or the beginning of
(retreat in the rainy season)
were
settled
by
had to submit to its decision,
was a question of fundamental principles
the majority, and the minority
unless, of course,
it
necessitating the convenirg of a synod or religious council.
The
among
by all. As
leader of the Sangha was generally elected from
the theras or senior
monks and he was
respected
Buddhist monks had no private or personal property of their
own,
all
furniture or things in the monastery for the use of
the monks, such as cots or water jars, belonged to the whole
No one dared to question the
community or the Sangha.
authority of the Sangha which had come to be respected as
one of the Three Jewels (ratnani). The Sangha, however,
was not a close body of people belonging to a particular
place, but was open to monks from all the four directions
In short, no official act of the Sangha was
(catuddisa-sangha).
valid unless
and
visiting
it
monks
communicate
When
it
was decided
voting.
meeting where
all
members
their wishes (chanda).
came
and a responsible
the
at a
in a parish were either present or could
marked sticks (salakas) were used
was appointed to keep watch over
to voting,
officer
As monastic
establishments
developed,
the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
6
Sahgha began
new con-
to appoint office-bearers to supervise
structions, to look after property, the distribution of clothing,
the allotment of dwelling places, the acceptance of property
as a gift to the Sahgha, and the like.
All these officers were
appointed after due election at a meeting of the Sahgha,
where the proposal was announced three times, and if there
was no dissenting voice it was declared carried.
During
lifetime,
his
Buddha allowed
the
things
to
be
decided democratically by the Sahgha; and after his death, too,
he did not want to
appointing
the freedom of the
restrict
own
his
successor.
He wanted
Sahgha by
the
Dhamma
and Vinaya to be its guides after his death and anything
which was not authorized by the Dhamma and Vinaya was
to be rejected
by the Sahgha.
In running
its
from
piration
affairs, the
small
Sahgha no doubt drew
oligarchies
1
the Vajjis or Licchavis of Vaisali
or Kusinani.
2
At one time
the Sakyas also enjoyed a simi-
The Buddha showed
before.
ins-
and of the Mallas of Pava
form of government, but they seem to have
lar
its
(ganarajya) like those of
lost
it
long
great admiration for the Vajjis
or Licchavis when, in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta, he likened
Licchavis
the
to
the
thirty-three
gods (Tavatimsa).
He
warned Ajatasatru's Minister, Vassakara, saying that
the Vajjis would remain invincible as long as they adhered
also
to the seven rules governing their
conduct
aparihaniya
(satta
dhamma), namely,
4i)
unity in action;
(iii)
adherence to old injunctions;
for
respect for
elders;
molested;
out
their
(v)
(vi)
daily
meetings
for
consultation; Ui)
women who were
(iv)
respect
never to be
reverence for places of worship within or with-
territory;
and
<vii>
protection
to
worthy
saints
<Arhats) in their territory.
The
liberal attitude
the doors wide
religious life
1.
2,
open
shown by
to all
the Buddhists in throwing
who wished
to
participate in
seems to have found general acceptance as the
Pron. Vate&li.
M.
i,
231 (Sutta, No. 33): Imesam San<jhanam ga^dtvim seyyathldam
Vajjinam, Malldnat/t 9 etc.
INDIA
AND BUDDHISM
7
The worship of the images of deities
became a common feature of both Buddhist and nonBuddhist religious practice. There was nothing in the
practical life of a follower of the Buddha to which a non-
Gita
indicates. 1
Buddhist could take exception.
Thus, many aspects of the Buddhist religion came to be
accepted by others and gradually no distinction remained.
the
In
of
course
time,
Buddhism was absorbed by
the
reformed religion of Hinduism.
This, however, is not all.
The Mahayana form of
Buddhism, perhaps under the influence of non-Aryan or
aboriginal popular cults in the lower strata of society,
came
assume a darker and debased form of Tantrism. This
might have resulted from a misunderstanding of the symbolic
to
language of the esoteric texts of the Tantric school.
and sorcery and secret
Buddhism, particularly
rites
people
were
rituals
It
antagonized
practices of the Tantrics.
Magic
introduced into later
in respect of the
doubt, alienated the people.
that
and
female
deities,
no
was therefore not surprising
by some of the corrupt
This unhealthy development, too,
must have contributed considerably to the decline of Buddhism. This form of Buddhism was in the ascendant and
was studied at the Buddhist universities of Nalanda and
VikramasTla until the end of the 12th century A.D. when the
invasion of Bakhtyar Khilji swept everything, Hindu and
Buddhist, before
it.
The beginning of the 13th century brought evil days both
For the former, however, the
for Buddhism and Hinduism.
blow proved to be more severe. The monasteries of Bihar
were despoiled and many of the monks fled to Nepal and
Tibet.
The lay Buddhists were left without any religious
guidance, which made it easier for them to be absorbed in
the non-Buddhist community as there was little distinction
left
between the
lives led
by the Buddhists and non-Buddhists.
Nevertheless, a few isolated groups of Buddhists remained in
Orissa, Bengal,
l.
parts of South India.
Assam and
Slriyo vatiyds
MM Sudr&s
it
pi yantipararp gatim f Bhag.
An
ins-
Gitfi, 9,13.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
8
cription1 recently discovered in
monk
Korea
Dhyanabhadra who
called
tells
visited
us of an Indian
KancTpura where
he listened to a discourse on an Avatamsaka-sutra in the
14th century A.D.
the history of
There followed a long interregnum
Buddhism
until in the latter half of the
in
19th
century the attention of European scholars was drawn to
Buddha and his religion.
The reader will find in the following pages the story of
Buddhism not only in India (II IV) but in other countries of
the study of the
the East
—
—
expansion (V),
its
schools and sects (VI),
bearing on the
life
its
its
ramifications into different
literature, particularly the literature
of the Buddha, his teachings and his
disciplinary code (VII).
Chapters have also been devoted
to the discussion of Buddhist ideas
great
men among
on education
(VIII),
some
the Buddhists, both rulers and writers (IX),
Buddhism as revealed by the records
who came to India in the period
between the fifth and the seventh centuries A.D. (X),
Buddhist art in India and abroad (XI), places of Buddhist
interest in India (XII), and later modifications in Buddhism
which paved the way for its absorption into Hinduism (XIII).
The reader will undoubtedly be interested in the revival of
Buddhist studies, both in the East and the West, and the
the prevailing state of
of the Chinese pilgrims
eminent scholars
who were
responsible for
it
(XIV).
Nor
can he forget the work of the Mahabodhi Society to the
same end. nor remain blind
to
the cultural
implications of this revival of the spirit of the
his teachings in the cause of
and
political
Byddha and
peace in the world.
India has
taken a firm stand in the cause of world peace and
must be conceded,
is
in
of her leaders to follow the
reawakened
in
this, it
no small measure due to the resolve
spirit
Mahatma Gandhi,
of the
Buddha which was
the Father of the Indian
Nation.
1.
See Arthur Waley, 'New Light on Buddhism in Mediaeval India9
(Melanges chinois
et
bouddhiques), Vol I (1931-32), pp. 354-376.
CHAPTER
II
Origin of Buddhism
Cult of
The
Sacrifice
which developed out of the prayers
in the Vedic Saiphitas had a powerful hold on the minds of
The elaborate rituals of the cult,
the early Aryans in India.
cult of sacrifice
and the inevitable discussions which took place during its
affair, to keep the participants busy, are
said to be responsible for doctrines which challenged the very
existence of the cult.
The discussions were undoubtedly
performance, a long
valuable in settling knotty points connected with the rituaU
some of
but
any rate, seem to have done more harm
According to a passage in the Mundaka 1 the
these, at
than good.
eult of sacrifice,
of existence, to the heavenly
shaky and unsafe. In another passage 2
said that the merit accruing from its performance is of
across
to
worlds,
it
is
although looked upon as a ship to take one
other shores
the
was
itself
short duration.
It
peace, but to a
life
Vedic
literature
was thus calculated not
to lead to eternal
of perpetual flux.
is
replete with references to
lems unconnected with the present
ing to the origin of the world,
its
life,
many prob-
or to problems relat-
constituents, the next world,
and imaginary happiness as contrasted with the misery of the
present
to
life.
be sought
The foundations
of Indian philosophy are thus
in these free discussions, particularly those
famous Nasadfya-sGkta, now incorporated
and concluding book of the Rgveda.
the
1.
2.
Plat* hy efe adfihd Yajnarupab (Mundaka,
Tad yath eha karmacito lobah kflyaU
evam amuprUn puttyoeitolokab
kflyat*
1,2,7).
in
on
the tenth
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
tO
The
discussions at the long sacrificial sessions were pri-
marily concerned with the performance of the
obviously they could not be confined to
performance of the
but
ritual;
If the
this alone.
could give everlasting results,
sacrifice
the question of thinking on different problems
arisen; but
when
these
would not have
were efficacious only for a
results
short time, man's mind naturally turned to things eternal.
The problems
discussed by the early thinkers mainly con-
cerned the origin of the world or universe, and to
Life
tuents.
is
short,
and a
sacrificial
bring only temporary happiness, they agreed.
mean
on the contrary,
eternal joy;
source of
much
unhappiness.
If
it
that
its
consti-
performance
It
may sometimes
was
so,
could
could
not
be a
was neces-
it
sary to discover the source of eternal peace, but could eternal
peace be achieved through the
life
a sacrificer leads?
should not an alternative be sought?
question.
the
life
The balance was
in
favour of a
of renunciation as opposed to the
by a householder.
the four stages of
If not,
This was the
new mode of
life
next
life,
of plenty led
Subsequently, the system of
aSramas or
was evolved, and the
two, those
life
last
of vanaprastha and sannyasa, gave opportunities for speculation
on the problems
of
ultimate
reality
and absolute
happiness.
Clearly, ascetic
life
was open not only
Brahmana
At any rate,
to the
but also to the other cultivated classes of the age.
was open to the Ksatriyas, the warrior class, as is evident
from the special place the royal sage, Janaka, occupies in
Ksatriya sages were
the field of philosophical speculation.
it
Brahmanas
often responsible for the instruction of the
some
secret lore in
which they were
Although Vedic
literature
in
proficient.
records the
names of some
thinkers belonging to the ascetic cult, there must have been
others outside this narrow group.
It is
not easy to ascertain
whether there were non-Aryan elements within its fold; but
there is no ground for disbelieving that the non-Aryans, too,
influenced the
Aryan mind.
For
instance, according to some,
thinkers like Gosala represented ideas which were peculiar
1
ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM
1
non-Aryan culture.
Turning to non-Vedic literature, one comes across terms
like Sramana as opposed to brahmana.
Some five types of
sramanas including the Nigantha (Jaina) and the AjTva
It is likely that some of them were
<AjTvika) are mentioned.
brought up on Brahmanic lore, but later broke away from it.
The literature of the Buddhists and the Jainas frequently reIt is clear, however, that these sramanas
fers to these sects.
inherited several ideas from, and were often inspired by,
Vedic literature.
The tenets of these different wandering sects can be traced
back to Vedic literature, particularly the literature of the
to
Upanisads.
In fact, the quest for the final or ultimate cause
goes back to the famous Nasadiya-sukta of the Rgveda
idea of
some higher and happier world
is
to be
found
1
;
the
in the
Visnu-sukta"; the concept of the transmigration of souls, that
of the mortals returning to
sukta' or the
Hymn
this world,
is
as old as the
The
to the Fathers.
Yama-
inherent misery of
and the notion of immortality, which was not
attainable by worldly possessions, have been frequently
Speculations on the ultimate
mentioned in the Upanisads.
met with in Upanisadic
frequently
cause of the universe are
the world
literature.
The doctrine of the Chain of Causation as conceived by
Buddha was obviously the result of these speculations.
Indeed, even the highly developed doctrine of the Madhyathe
mika school
that the highest truth lies
treme views, catuskotivinirmukta,
identical ter^is in the last
nisads
doctrines
It
is
beyond the four
ex-
represented in almost
paragraph of the Mandukya Upa-
stands to reason that philosophical ideas and
do not spring up unexpectedly, but grow out
of old
Oldenberg has developed this theme in his Philosophic
der Upanisaden und A nftinge der Buddhismus.
ideas.
1.
x,
2.
Rgveda, I, 54.
Rgveda, X, 14ff.
Ndntak-prajnam na bahi^prajnam obhyatah-prajnam. ..mprajnajp
3.
4.
120.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
12
There
is,
of
literature
however, no definite indication in pre-Buddhistic
the well-known and important principle of
anatmavada or the doctrine of
There are vague
no-soul.
references in the Upanisads, particularly the Brhadaranyaka,
that the
it
body consists of four or five elements, that at death
back into these elements, and that no element
dissolves
of consciousness (saxpjna) remains after death.
This doctrine,
however, cannot rightly be said to be the source of the Buddhistic doctrine of
claimed
that
is
it is
anatma
(or anatta); the
objects are transitory and that there
The admission
is
no transmigration.
body which
that various elements constitute a
ultimately dissolves into those very elements
the
consciousness
so-called
nothing of
There
most that can be
at the root of the notions that all worldly
it is left
is little
or
samjna
may
is
indicate that
unsubstantial as
after death.
information on the non-Vedic ascetic sects*
but some can be found in such works as the Suyagada,
the.
Second Book of the Svetambara Jaina Canon in Prakrit, and
in scattered Buddhist sutras like the Samannaphala-sutta in
the Dlgha-nikaya in Pali, and its Sanskrit counterpart in the
Gilgit
their
None
MSS.
own
These
sects naturally glorify the teachings of
prophets, and
the less
some
condemn
those of their opponents..
reliable information
can be had from
these sources.
It
sects
may
be useful to consider a few names of the ascetic
and the
light they
throw on
their external characteristics..
In Brahmanical literature the names, Parivrajaka, also called
and Mundaka occur. Parivrajaka litemeans one who goes round and has no permanent domi-
Maskarin, Tapasa
rally
cile.
From
a study of the rules of discipline,
it
appears that
one place, except
perhaps during the rains; they were expected to wander from
Some of them
place to place, and to have no fixed residence.
These two features
carried a bamboo staff, called maskara.
were probably common to many sects, but they must have
these ascetics did not generally stay long at
been a special characteristic of a particular group of ascetics.
The name Tapasa, for instance, suggests a code of discipline
ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM
13
based on tapas, or self-mortification in various forms, such as
fasting, living on water and coarse food, subsisting on a particular diet, or restricting one's
movements
to a particular re-
gion, preferably the northern or southern
rivers like the
Ganga.
It
is
bank of sacred
interesting to note that a sect
same name, Mundaka. A
was that its members shaved their
The shaving of the head instead of wearing long hair
heads.
have been common to both Vedic and non-Vedic
to
seems
There
sects as appears from a reference in the Suttanipata
were some sects which bore names to correspond with the
and an Upanisadic
text bear the
special feature of this sect
1
.
mode of their dress. Some used white garments (svetfimbara),
The
some coloured (geruya), while others went naked.
material of the garment also seems to have been a distinguishfeature
ing
indicates.
as
the
term
keSakambalin
The members of each
applied
particular sect,
to
Ajita
no doubt,
followed the practice of their respective teachers.
An
analysis of the doctrinal. or philosophical tenets of the
non-Vedic sects shows that the number of such teachers
thinkers
and
their schools
was very
large.
The Jaina
or
sutras
mention as many as 363, while according to the Buddhist
number is 62 or 63. The Jainas group their 363
sQtras the
Kriyavada 2 the
Akriyavada, the Ajiianavada and the Vinayavada, Mahavira
being shown as the champion of Kriyavada. The principal
schools
broadly
into
namely,
four,
the
,
3
tenets of the Kriyavada school are that misery
i.
2.
is
the result of
Munid pi idhekacce Brdhmand bhavanti (Sutta, No. 30).
To evam akkhanti samicca logam tahdgayd samara mdhand ya
Sayamkatfam n&nnakatfaji ca dukkham dhamsu vijjdcaranam pamokkham
(Suye, 1,12,11.)
Attd*a jo
ya logam gain ca jo jdnai n&gain oa jo sdsayam
j&ya aadsayan oa jdin ca maratia* ca ja^ovavdyam
Aho vi $attdna viutfaxian ca jo dsalam jdiiai itamvara* ca dukkhan ca
jo j&oai nijjaraH ca 90 bhatium arahai Jeiriyavdyaif*
j&iiai jo
(Sftya,
3.
1,12,20-21.)
Anndniyd U kusald vi santd asanthuyd no viHgioeha4innd
Akovtyi dhu akoviyehi an&yuvittu musd vayanti
(Saya, 1,12,2.)
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
14
own
one's
release
acts, and is not caused by anything else; that
from samsara can be secured by knowledge of the
The
highest truth and by good conduct.
existence of soul or
and non-eternal elements
in
doctrine admits the
world and the next, the eternal
self, this
the constituents of the physical
world, birth, death, heavens and hells; and holds that there
are causes of misery which can be controlled.
Jaina sources, Ajita Kesakambalin
is
According
champion of
the
to
the
Akriyavada which roughly corresponds to the Lokayatika or
the Carvaka school.
According to this school, there is no
sin in killing,
and there
sures of the world.
jaya
whom
is
nothing wrong
The champion
in
enjoying the plea-
of Ajfianavada
the Buddhists called Viksepavadin, or
may be Sanone who did
No specific mention of
any teacher who believed in the doctrine of Vinayavada is
found in Jaina sources, possibly because there were too many
to be named.
Buddhist sources condemn the doctrine of
Vinaya which they seem to have called Silabbataparamasa,
the doctrine of liberation through monastic vows and connot adhere to any view categorically.
Buddhists also point to the dangers of
duct.
namely, that
it
this doctrine,
might lead either to pleasure-seeking, or to
rigidity in religious exercises.
They
answerable and unanswered problems.
cussed or settled, one
is
no nearer the
also refer to
Even
truth;
if
many
un-
these are dis-
on the contrary*
the danger of going astray cannot altogether be ruled out.
Sanjaya seemed to have avoided answering these questions out
them boldly
of fear or ignorance, while the Jainas answered
by
their doctrine of
many
possibilities or
There are frequent references
some
six senior
in the
in
Anekanta.
Buddhist literature to
contemporaries of the Buddha, for instance,
DTgha-nikaya (the Samanfiaphala-sutta and
part in Sanskrit).
It
its
counter-
appears from the context of these
refer-
ences that Ajatasatru. the king of Magadha, met a number
of these teachers and asked them each separately to state in
clear
tices.
and unambiguous terms the result of their ascetic pracAll of them were well known in the country as found-
ers of religious schools with a large following.
Their names
BUDDHISM
ORIGIN OF
and the
special doctrines they held are briefly stated in the
It is
text.
is
possible, however, that the information supplied
prejudiced as
it
emanates from
make
the misstatements they
opponents;
their
are
due
partly
All the same,
partly to ignorance.
their
T5
it
in
fact,
to design
and
interesting to study
is
views in order to understand correctly as well as to
appreciate the views of the founder of Buddhism.
Of
these six thinkers,
Nigantha Nataputta, who
is
no
other than Mahavira, the founder, or, according to the Jaina
tradition,
the
prophet
last
seems to have been
of
slightly
preached ethical doctrines without
•
world
present
the
older than
cycle,
the Buddha.
He
oparently knowing that
had been held by an incomparably senior ascetic,
The latter is now acknowledged to be Mahavira's
Parsva.
predecessor and is believed to have lived 250 years before
Mahavira. Parsva's ethical code consisted of four rules,
whereas that of Mahavira consisted of five. Of these, the
similar ideas
first
three, v/^., not to
kill
of use unless they are given,
to the schools of both
living things, not to take articles
and not
to
tell
a
lie,
rule in Parsva's teaching, that of aparigraha, not to
worldly possessions including a wife, was
by Mahavira to make up his code of
wife or to lead a celibate
life,
Mahavira 's code, and not
to
cept clothes, which
is
to constitute jointly
which
fourth
have any
up into two
Not to take a
split
five.
is
common
are
The
Parsva and Mahavira.
the fourth rule in
have worldly possessions ex-
the fifth rule in Mahavira's code,
seem
The main
of Parsva's and
the fourth rule of Parsva.
difference in the practical or external aspects
Mahavira 's code of conduct thus seems to have been that
while ParSva and his followers were acelakas or naked, Mahavira
and his followers wore white garments, but refused to
have any other paraphernalia. In other words, the Jaina
but
faith as preached by Mahavira is the same as Parsva's,
somewhat more modern. It was natural therefore that these
two schools should have become one as ihey actually did
some 250 years after the death of Parsva^ when the disciples
of ParSva and those of Mahavira met at Sravasti and brought
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
[6
about the Union
1
Later, the Jainas explained this fusion
.
of schools differently by adding twenty-two prophets to precede ParSva, thereby making Parsva the twenty-third and
MahavTra the twenty-fourth of their prophets. It would,
however, be quite correct to hold that ParSva and Mahavira
independently evolved a philosophy and l religious system
which had identical tenets.
In the Samaiinaphala-sutta- Nigantha Nataputta is mentioned as having held the doctrine
restraint:
sinful activities
He was
from
free
and had purified himself.
all sins
Udumbarika-sihanada-sutta
^re
fourfold
from the use of cold water as it contains life, and
3
such as killing and sexual intercourse.
restraint
from
of
4
the
restraints
ascribed
In the
him
to
but identical with the four vows of Parsva.
different,
According to Jaina sources, however, Jainism is not
a purely ethical system, but also a philosophy based on the
doctrine of many possibilities, known as Anekanta or
The
Syadvada.
thing,
goes
the
looks at two aspects of everyand the non-eternal. The soul underaccording to good or bad deeds. As
doctrine
eternal
migration
Jainism regards the existence of jfva in everything,
.such behaviour as
does not cause injury to any
soul becomes impure and
is
engulfed by samsara
release,
it is
one must
duct.
from
their
contamination, and
necessary to practise
restraint.
The
sub-
if it is
to secure
To
its
achieve this
resort to or acquire right knowledge, faith
Buddhist sources, for instance,
enjoins
In order to keep
jected to the influence of sense objects.
the soul pure
it
jTva.
and conand
the Aiiguttara,
the seventy-fourth sutta of the TTfc§nipata, ridicule the Jaina
doctrine, particularly
on movements and
1.
its
its
idea of overcoming sin,
insistence
Of. Uttaradhyayana-s,utra, 23,
on
its
restraint
certain .types of clothing.
*
2. i 29.
8,
Also
c/.
Siyodagam vd taha biyakdyaifi dhdyakammam taha itthiyao
jdnatp pajitevamdnd ag&rifro asMttmapd bhavanti
eydiffi
(Soya,
4.
DIgha, No. 25, Para. 16.
2,M0
ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM
The
1
next important contemporary of the
He belonged
Makkhali Gosala.
7
Buddha was
to the sect of the Acelakas
Naked Ones, and, as the first part of his name indicates,
staff of bamboo (maskarin).
It is said that he
was for some time a disciple of MahavTra, but later broke
away from him. Afterwards, he probably founded an independent school known as the Ajivika school. Later writers
mention two predecessors, Nanda Vaccha and Kisa Samor
carried a
kicca,
now
1
thus giving
school three prophets.
this
seems
extinct, but
to
The
This sect
is
have enjoyed popularity and even
by Gosala
advocated
royal
patronage.
styled
samsara-visuddhi or the doctrine of attaining purity
doctrine
only by passing through
all
kinds of existence.
did not believe that there was any special
is
Gosala
cause for either
human beings or for their deliverance. He
did not believe in human effort, and held that all creatures
He maintained that all creawere helpless against destiny.
the misery of
tures,
whether wise or
samsara, and
foolish,
that their misery
completion of the cycle.
lengthen this period.
were destined to pass through
would come
No human
Like a
effort
to
an end at the
would reduce or
samsara had a
ball of thread,
which every being must pass.
The remaining four teachers, who are mentioned as contemporaries of the Buddha, did not leave their mark on pos-
fixed term, through
terity as did
Mahavira and, to a
lesser degree, Gosala.
Of
these four, Purana Kassapa" held the doctrine of Akriya or
non-action.
through actions
killing,
man did
which were popularly known
He
maintained that a
committing
theft,
not incur sin
as bad,
e.g.,
taking another man's wife, or telling
Even if a man killed all the creatures on earth and
Similarly, he
raised a heap of skulls, he incurred no sin.
did not earn merit through a good act, or by staying on the
a
lie.
1.
2.
Majjhima, Nos. 36 and 76.
Idhn chindiUt-marite hatajanlsu Kassopo
pdparp na tamanupasmti puiinom vd patio atfavo
(Samyutta, 2nd, 3rd vagga, 10th sutta.)
8
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
1
bank of the Ganga; similarly, selfand truthfulness did not earn for him any
credit.
The doctrine that Kassapa preached resembles the
doctrine of the Carvakas in many respects.
northern
southern
or
control, gifts,
KeSakambalin was another contemporary of the
Ajita
He
Buddha.
did not believe in the utility of
gifts, in sacri-
the fruits of good and bad acts, the existence of heavenly
fice,
worlds or persons possessing higher or supernatural powers.
He
it
held that the body consisted of four elements, into which
dissolved after death.
He
and have
no
further
after
life
it was useless to
and the ignorant die
also held that
talk of the next world; that both the wise
similar to those of the Carvakas,
death.
and
1
His
are
views
his doctrine
may be
Ucchedavada.
styled
Pakudha Kaccayana
mentioned
probably Kakuda Katyayana as
is
He and
Pra^nopanisad.
in the
referred to in the Suyagada, the Second
bara Jaina Canon.
His doctrine
may be
his views are also
Book
of the Svetam-
called Asasvatavada.
According to him, there arc seven elements which are immutable, and do not in any way contribute to pleasure or pain.
The body
elements.
The
ultimately
is
dissolved into
these seven
eternal
2
among
last
these teachers
is
Sanjaya Belatlhiputta.
Ajatasatru calls him the most foolish and the most ignorant
of
the teachers he had met.
all
His doctrine
is
known
as
Viksepavada, or a doctrine which diverts the mind from the
right
always
1.
According
track.
declined
Natthi
to give
purine ya
to
the
Samanfiaphala-sutta 3 ,
categorical
p&ve va
nitthi loye iomre mrlrastta
vitiafto
vinamnam
hoi dehino
Pat leyam katdne aya je bald je ya pandiya santi piced na
natthi
he
problems
answers to
U
santi
mittovavaiya
(SQya. 1,1,1,11-12.)
2.
Santi panca mahabbhuya ihmegesimdhiya dyachaffha puno
loge
Duhao na
dhu ayd
ya same
vinasaanti no ya uppajyae a earn savve vi MavvahA bhdva
niyattibhdvamayay&
(S«ya. 1,1,1,15-16.)
3.
Para. 32.
ORIGIN OF BUDDHISM
19
human mind.
There are ten unexplained and unanswered questions, that have always exercised the mind of
man and have frequently been mentioned in Buddhist literature, which Sanjaya never even attempted to answer.
It may
facing the
be noted that these questions were also put to the Buddha on
several occasions
that
it
was
and he,
useless to waste time
were not conducive
to
answer them; but
too, declined to
towards them was altogether
his attitude
human
on these
different.
He
said
idle quests as they
progress.
Having taken stock of the trends of philosophical specucoming of the Buddha, it will now be clear
lations before the
why he thought
new
which at once caught the
imagination of the people and was accepted by millions.
Teachers
like
of a
faith
Pakudha Kaccayana and
Kesakam-
Ajita
balin advocated a theory of the universe, according to
it
was
either eternal or non-eternal as represented
respective
better
formulae:
by
still,
sabbam
doctrines
atthi
known
by
which
their
and sabbam natthi, or
Sasvatavada and
as
Ucchedavada.
Gosala thought that the characteristics of
all
things were
that there was no cause or condition
which predetermined them, as represented by the formulae:
sabbam pubbekatahetu and sabbam ahefu-apaccaya.
predetermined, and
and sorrow were due
to one's own deeds or that they were due to some other
cause, as represented by the formulae: sukhadukkham
Another view was
that happiness
sayamkatam and sukhadukkham-parakatant.
Yet another belief was that the aims or values of human
life
by
were realized by the enjoyment of worldly pleasures, or
represented by the formulae:
self-mortification, as
kamesu-kama-sukhallikanuyoxo a nd attakUamathanuyogo.
If
the history of the philosophical thought currents at the
time were surveyed, it would be clear that both Mahavira
and the Buddha had to face thinkers who held extreme
views of the four types mentioned above, and each of them
had their own answer to them.
Mahavira answered the
problems
in
terms ot his Anckantavada or Syudvada. while
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
20
the Buddha's answer was based on his
While MahavTra clung
self-mortification,
Sanjaya, the
as
Paticca-samuppada
1
.
to the doctrine of Attakilamatha or
against
Buddha preached
Kassapa,
Ajita,
Gosala and
the Majjhima-patipada or the
Middle Path.
I.
Svaya,p kr tarn parakrtam dvdbh yaw kftam ahetukam
tdrkikair ixyate dukkham Ivaya t tiktar/i pratUyajarfi
(Lokatitastava,
Nig* rj una.)
CHAPTER HI
and Teachings
Life
was the seventh century before the Christian era. The
civilized part of India was divided into sixteen realms, eight
and the remaining republics.
of which were kingdoms
Among the kingdoms the most powerful were Magadha and
Koiala. The little Sakya republic, in modern Nepal, was
ruled by the king of Kosala who received tribute from the
The Sakyas were of the Ksatriya solar race and
former.
It
In the middle of the century, their
called themselves rajas.
was Sudd hod ana who had
chief
his capital at Kapilavastu.
Mahamaya, was travelling
Devadaha, her parents' home, to
have her first child. On her way, the queen gave birth to
a divine son in her tent in the Lumbini grove between two
In the year 623 B.C. his queen,
from Kapilavastu
in state
tall sal
1
trees,
then in their
at the birth-place of the
250 years
to
full
spring blossom.
A
monument
Buddha, erected by Emperor Asoka
after the event,
still
stands witness to
its
historical
character.
An
old
sage
named
palace and expressed
On
Asita
seeing the marks of greatness on
its
shed
owing
joy that a saviour had
his
tears
of
sorrow.
and shed
delicate limbs, Asita
He
laughed and
to
Suddhodana's
new-born child.
king
visited
a desire to see the
laughed, he said,
come
to the earth for
would
enough to see the
achievements of the child. The child was called Gautama
and nicknamed Siddhartha, or one whose purpose has been
the salvation of the people
not have the good fortune to
fulfilled.
1.
Pron.
»al.
live
tears because he
long
2500 YfcARS OF BUDDHISM
22
While the Sakyas were celebrating the birth of a prince.
Queen Mahamaya passed away seven days after the birth
Gautama was then mothered by
of her child.
Mahaprajapati Gautami, who was also
sister,
his mother's
stepmother.
his
The child preferred solitude and thoughtfulness to the frolics
and pranks natural to his age. His father observed his spiritand
ual inclinations
tried his
best
prince from worldly suffering.
man he was
same
to
the
protect
When he grew
into a
married to Yasodhara, a beautiful
girl
young
young
of
the
He was given three palaces to suit the three
Dancing and singing girls entertained him and he
clan.
seasons.
was taken round
But human
in a
chariot through the capital.
efforts are often
The
balked by destiny.
ten-
der-hearted prince saw a decrepit old man; then a withered
person affected with an ugly disease, followed by a dead body
being carried to the cremation ground by weeping friends.
Lastly,
on the same day he saw an upright ascetic walking
majestically
along the road.
sights but took a
deep
made him ponder over
He
loathed
first
three
interest in the ascetic.
These
sights
the miseries of existence
and also on
the
a way of escaping from them.
The marriage
had
lately
Gautama
of Prince
Gautama and
Princess Yasodhara
been blessed by the birth of a son.
No
sooner did
receive the tidings of his son's birth than he ex-
claimed that an obstacle (rahula) had been
born
to
his
cherished dream of an ascetic
life.
It was regarded as a good
by the King who ordered that the. baby be named
Rahula. He did not, however, actually prove to
be an
sign
obstacle, for
Gautama thought
it
better to relinquish
his
worldly career before attachments grew stronger and to adopt
the course of a wanderer in quest of Truth
Thus did he
him
reason while the dancing girls tried in vain to divert
with their
art.
After midnight the
girls fell
asleep exposing
which had been hidden by their clothes when
they were awake.
Annoyed at the sight, Gautama left
their ugliness
the hall and entered his wife's chamber.
Yaiodhara was also
fast asleep
with the baby in
her
LIFE
An
arms.
oil
lamp
AND TEACHINGS
23
cast a 'dim religious light',
and smoke
bed.
He tore him*
anybody, rode away towards
rose from the incense burner under the
away and, unknown
self
He
a forest.
to
discarded his royal robes, cut his long hair
with his sword and became an ascetic.
he went to a teacher named A<Jara Kalama and then
named Udraka Ramaputra. He imbibed all that
First
to another
they had to teach him, but as his
thirst for
Truth remained
unquenched he moved on and ultimately reached a picturesque land, near modern Bodh Gaya which was surrounded
by luxuriant woods through which ran a gentle stream with
1
,
banks of silver sand.
In accordance with the
Gautama
elevated by emaciating the body,
different kinds of self-torture.
the
that
belief
However, a
mind became
resorted
little
to
experience
taught him that physical torture alone did not lead to an
elevation of the mind.
Thereafter he began to eat and sleep,
although in moderation.
when he was
At the end of
he
thirty-six years old,
six years of
fell
penance,
course
that in the
of the day he would become a Buddha, an awakened one, by
At noon he was
bod hi, or supreme knowledge.
offered a bowl of milk pudding by Sujatu, a rich merchants
daughter, who was devoted to him and in the evening a grassHe
cutter gave him bundles of dry grass on which to sleep.
regarded these as good omens and, sitting (irmly under a
pipal tree on a cushion made of grass, he said. "Let my skin,
my nerves and bones waste away, let my life-blood dry up,
attaining
1
will not leave this posture until
His resolute attempt
that he should not allow
dom.
He
set
I
have perfect attainment." 2
Mara, the god of
Gautama
to
evil,
thinking
escape from his
caused a violent thunderstorm
to
thral-
frighten
Gautama then was, but in vain!
hurled by Mara at his victim turned into
the
Bodhisattva that
All
missiles
(lowers.
Mara
tried to
tempt him with promises of rebirths
in
the
heaven
but the Bodhisattva, or the one destined to achieve enlightcn1.
2.
Pron. Oay&,
MahtniddeflR, p. 47(1 (PT8).
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
24
Mara was discomfited in the end
ment, would not bend.
and his army fled in all directions. This battle, of course,
was a metaphorical conflict between the higher and the lower
During the night Gautama
aspirations in Gautama's mind.
discovered the Law of Causation, a cycle of twelve causes and
effects conditioning the
universe.
This law had not
thought of before by any philosopher.
Gautama from his status
He exclaimed solemnly:
Its
been
authorship raised
of Bodhisattva to that of a Buddha.
Truly when things grow plain
To
brahmana.
Routing the hosts of Mara does he stand
Like as the sun when lighting up the sky.
the ardent, meditating
1
He spent four weeks in contemplation under the tree,
now called the Bodhi, after which he set out on his travels.
On the way the daughters of Mara encountered him and tried
to seduce him with their charms.
The Lord was unmoved
and asked them to go away. He said that such attempts
might have had success with men who had not subdued the
passions but not with him.*
Baffled
daughters returned to their father.
in
their
attempts
Further on,
the
the
newly
awakened Buddha met two merchants, Tapussa and Bhallika,
These
who offered him some gruel of barley and honey.
two came to be the first lay disciples of the Buddha, and this
was the beginning of the formation of a band of lay disciples.
The Lord then began to have misgivings in his mind.
Said he to himself:
many toils I have won.
I make it known?
why
should
Enough,
By folk with lust and hate consumed.
This that through
This truth will not be understood. 3
by Horner).
1.
Vinaya, Mahavagga,
2.
Nidanakatha, Kosambi's edition, para. 131.
Vinaya, Mahavagga, I, 5,3.
3.
I,
1,7 (Translation
:
LIFE
But
better counsel prevailed,
men would
a few clear-sighted
gospel,
AND TEACHINGS
and renounce
tary dejection gave
their
way
that at
felt
His
beliefs.
new
momen-
keen desire to impart his know-
this
new determination he thought
of visiting his old teachers but both of them had died a
Then he thought of going
while ago.
a centre of learning even
group of
to the
and then
left
five
him
in
least
surely understand the
misguided
to a
With
ledge to the world.
and he
25
to Banaras 1 ,
little
which was
those days, to teach his philosophy
monks who had once become
He approached
in despair.
his disciples
the deer park
of Rsipatana (Sarnatlr, near Banaras) where the five
monks
and addressed them on the Middle Path for the first
time, thereby setting ill motion his dharmacakra.
An ascetic
should avoid the two extremes, addiction to pleasures of the
lived,
senses,
as
well
as
to
After a long
course.
and follow the middle
five monks were conThus were laid the foundations
self-torment,
discourse
the
Gautama's view.
of the Buddha's Sarigha (Church).
Kasyapa of Uruvela, a fireworshipping brahmana with
matted hair, was performing a great sacrifice when the
Buddha performed a miracle. The brahmanas could not kindle a fire without the Buddha's permission.
When the fire
was kindled, there was a great flood. The Buddha, however, saved the sacnncers and Kasyapa along with his followAccompanied by them all, the
ers joined the Saiigha.
Buddha went to the hill of Gayasirsa and delivered his
famous sermon on Burning. From Gayasirsa he went on to
Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha, to redeem the promise
he had made to Bimbisara, the king, who had presented his
verted to
bamboo-grove
to the
Then came
Sahgha
for use as a monastery.
the conversion
Buddha's brotherhood of monks.
lived
of the
lips
Magadha
number of pupils inThe former heard
of A£vajit, a Buddhist monk, the following vtrse
Sanjaya, an ascetic, with a large
cluding Sariputra and Maudgalyayana.
from the
foremost pair of the
In the capital of
1.
Pron. Ban&ra*.
2.
Pron. S&rnith.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
26
Of those things which spring from cause
The cause has been told by the Buddha;
And
their suppression likewise
The
great recluse has revealed.
As he
learnt the full
meaning of
1
this verse
from ASvajit,
Sariputra became a disciple of the Buddha, and Maudgalya-
yana followed
his
example.
addition of these intelligent
The Sahgha was enriched by the
bruhmanas, who became the chief
Their earthly remains arc
disciples of the Master.
served and worshipped in sacred places.
A
and
invited
Buddha accordingly came
dana did homage
him
to
to his
to his son as
parental home.
he was
now
To
his wife,
She threw herself
at
his feet
done
and
Suddho-
On
a holy man.
Buddha made a round of
Yatodharfi, he looked more
the monk's garb than he had
The
Kapilavastu.
visit
the following day, the
alms.
pre-
year after the Awakening, Suddhodana heard of his
glory
son's
still
2
the city for
glorious
ifi
in his princely apparel.
said
to
her son. "Dear
Rahula. ask your father for your inheritance."
The Buddha
conferred on the boy a higher inheritance than worldly pelf
by making him a novice, a probationer
for
monkhood.
Hun-
dreds of Sakya rajas doffed their finery and put on yellow
Even Upali, the family barber and keeper of the
royal wardrobe, renounced his home and became a follower
of the Buddha.
robes.
Important additions continued to be made to the congregation of lay disciples.
Sravasti,
Anathapin<Jika\ a rich merchant of
bought from Prince Jeta a large park for as m^ny
gold pieces as would cover Ihe whole ground.
erected a monastery, Jetavana Vihara, and
it
to the Sangha.
rich lady,
There
made a
gift
he
of
Prasenajit, the king of Ko£ala, VLsakha, a
and many eminent people of Kofola became lay
Vinaya, Mahavagfra, I, 10,23.
2. In November 1 952- these relics were reinterred in a specially erected
stQpaat Sanchi from where they had been taken and deposited in a London
1.
museum.
3.
Also called AntHiiapinrlada.
LIFE
AND TEACHINGS
27
Buddha. He then went to Rajagrha where
and was treated by the royal physician, Jivaka
disciples of the
he
fell
ill
Kumarabhrtya, a children's specialist. The patient paid for
his bodily cure by effecting the mental cure of the physician
who
also joined the lay Buddhists.
Three years afterwards a quarrel arose between the
sakyas and Koliyas about the water of the river separating
Had it not been for Lord Buddha's intertheir territories.
vention, the quarrel would have grown into a fierce battle.
This event was followed by the death of Suddhodana and
Gautami, the widowed stepmother of the Buddha, asked her
Ananda, the personal
son for admission to the Sahgha.
attendant of the Master, strongly supported her cause.
was
the beginning of an Order of nuns in India.
women
the country
in
had no
right
to
This
Until then
spiritual
salvation
through the renunciation of the home.
The Master and
Years rolled by.
his disciples travelled
over the country combating old superstitions,
all
the
values based on birth, and animal sacrifice, denouncing
old
the
and praising morality, the threefold path
The Sahgha continued to
of purity and rational thought.
spirit
of revenge
The Master's arguments were
increase in strength.
persua-
sometimes he performed miracles to support
claims much to the chagrin of the brahmanas and other
sive but
his
sec-
They tried to traduce the Buddha with the help of
a courtesan named Ciftca. The poor woman suffered heavy
tarians.
punishment for her
guilt of incriminating
similar fate awaited SundarT,
was
the
Buddha.
that the
A
Buddha
in love with her.
When
of
who claimed
the Buddha was 72
Magadha was murdered by
years of age. King Bimbisara
his
son Ajatasatru.
king was an admirer of Devadatta, a
monk
The new
of the Sangha.
These two had designs on the life of the Master and set murderers upon him.
Instead of doing him any harm they fell
Devadatta hurled a piece of rock at
prostrate at his feet.
from a height but only a splinter hit him. A
was made by letting loose a mad elephant on the
the Master
last effort
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
28
Buddha, but the animal humbly bowed down before (he
Frustrated in his murderous attempts, Devadatta
brought about a schism in the brotherhood and organized a
Before he could commit more mischief he
rival Sangha.
died of bleeding from the mouth.
Master.
Two
years before the passing of the Master, his clan
met with a great misfortune. Vidudabha, a son of King
the
daughter of one of the
Prasenajit of Kosala and of
Sakya rajas, was on a visit to his mother's family, where he
was insulted for,his low birth. Enraged, he vowed to take
revenge on the Sakyas. Undeterred by the expostulations of
the Master, he, after the death of his father, marched against
Kapilavastu and put to the sword the whole Sakya clan.
Great must have been the distress of the old Master to receive
the news of this massacre, in spite of his sermons on Peace.
Still he kept moving from place to place, delivering his sermons on morality, peace, universal love and purity.
Amrapali, the famous courtesan, presented her mango-grove
to the
Sangha, the
When
the
last great gift
during the Master's lifetime.
Buddha approached his eightieth year, he felt that
his end was at hand.
He explained to Ananda many matters concerning the
Law (Dharma) and Discipline and told his pupils that he had
unfolded to them all that a good and benevolent
teacher
ought and that henceforth his word should be their teacher.
The massacre of the Sakyas was followed by the death of
Sariputra and Maudgalyayana within one week.
The Master
was at Pava. Cunda, a blacksmith of the town, invited him
to a meal of rice, cakes and sukaramaddava.
There is no
agreement among the scholars about the meaning of the last
word.
It
may be
edible herb.
digest
illness,
it
might have been,
and the Buddha was taken
however, did not prevent
Kusinagara.
some kind of
was difficult to
either a boar's tender flesh or
Whatever
ill
it
with dysentery.
him
from
Hte
going on to
Here he asked Ananda to spread a cloth on
two sal trees. He was born between two
the ground between
sal trees
and was to die
in
a similar place.
He
lay
down
like
AND TEACHINGS
LIFE
29
a lion and gave his last admonitions to thousands of
and lay folk who had assembled
The
him.
have a
decay!
tell
last words: "Now, monks,
you but that all that is composed
I
is
Strive after salvation energetically."
A
His remains were cremated with royal honours.
bat-
the possession of his mortal remains for daily wor-
tle for
ship was stopped by Drona, a brahmana.
Eight stupas were
erected in different parts of India to house his
death of the Buddha took place on the
VaiSakha (May) as did
is
monks
glimpse of
last
following were his
have nothing more to
liable to
to
his birth
The
relics.
moon
full
of
The day
and awakening.
therefore called the thrice-sacred day.
The
teaching of Lord
groups:
(i)
philosophical,
are interwoven in such a
stood properly without a
Buddha may be divided into two
and (ii) moral. The two groups
way that the one cannot be underknowledge of the other. The fun-
damental principle of the Buddha's philosophy
is
the theory
of Causation or Dependent Origination.
According
theory, the continuous existence of a being
is
causes and
their turn
Ignorance gives
effects.
come
rise to actions,
sufferings.
If
the
then in
phenomena (nama-rupa),
consciousness,
effect
last
is
the
becoming, birth
six senses, contact, feeling, craving, grasping,
and
to this
wheel of
like a
be
to
destroyed,
the primary cause, which is ignorance, must be destroyed.
Another important theory of the Buddha concerns the
Four Noble Truths, the
suffering.
The
The second
third truth
end and the
The
is
first
truth
being that
that suffering can be
last that there is
critics
all
existence
is full
of
that all suffering has a cause.
is
a
way
to
made
end
to
come
to
an
suffering.
of Buddhism will no doubt consider the
first
two truths pessimistic but the other two certainly provide
grounds for optimism. Why does the Buddha say that the
Because all beings
existence of a being is full of suffering?
are subject to rebirth, decay, disease, death, and, again, rebirth.
Even pleasures and worldly happiness lead one to sorrow
because they are transitory and the loss of pleasure and happiness
is
worse than never to have had them.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
30
Just as a good doctor tries to discover the cause of the
malady before administering a remedy, the Buddha, the great
the ultimate cause of worldly
spiritual doctor, tried to find
He found
animate creatures.
all
human
not only the suffering of
suffering,
of
or craving arising from
The
it.
their
people to remove
is
It
simi-
and
cessation of suffering
summum bnnum.
and beyond description.
The Buddha
it.
their ignorance of truth
The
craving for happiness.
called nirvana, the
removes the cause
doctor
of the patient's disease and thus cures
larly asks the
beings but that
the cause to be ignorance
beyond
is
logical reasoning
not a negative condition but
a positive, unconditioned state realized by the mind.
How
can
this
dle Path by
By
nirvana be attained?
Truth, the Noble Eightfold Path.
It
the Fourth
Noble
Mid-
also called the
is
He
which the wayfarer avoids the two extremes.
neither follows the path of self-mortification nor that of self-
indulgence.
fasts,
During the Buddha's time ascetics often observed
led abhorrent lives,
exposed themselves to
fires
burn-
them or slept upon spikes thinking that the mind
was exalted by torturing the body. Like the Epicureans of
ing around
Europe, the self-indulgent seekers thought
world and the next, of rebirth,
lives of
luxury and
sin.
nothing of
karma and
its
and
fruit,
The Buddha's Path followed
this
led
neither,
FormuBuddha, it is an evidence of his logical reasonEach step in the process is an
ing and practical wisdom.
inevitable advance on the path leading to the ideal.
but led to vision, knowledge, tranquility and nirvana.
lated by the
The
titions,
first
the cruel
human
step
is
the right view.
animism and primitive
animal or
beings,
and
human
in the existence
its
wrong, one's determination
mental resolve
provided
it
is
is
in
inequality of
of pure reasoning.
rational basis.
bound
to
the foundation of all
communal
supers-
faith
of a prime creator of the
based on the right view,
racial, social or
the
in
own powers
is
all
up your
give
sacrifices,
universe and depend on your
This step gave Buddhism
Rid yourself of
rites,
If one's
view
is
be faulty.
great
if
Right
achievements
one believes
in
discrimination, one's determina-
1
:
LIFE
tion
3
sure to prove baneful to the world.
is
from
sults
AND TEACHINGS
Words
speech.
Right speech
determination and action
right
from
free
lies,
Abstinence from
killing, stealing,
is
preceded by
anger, abuse, calumny
slander are the right speech which
from drinking intoxicants
is
is
re-
and
followed by right action.
indulgence
in
passions and
the negative aspect of right action,
while charity, truth, service, and
kindness constitute
the
positive one.
Right livelihood
means of
is
the
outcome of
Wrong
right action.
livelihood are those which cause suffering to others.
Trafficking in deadly weapons, in animals for slaughter, in
human
beings for slavery and intoxicating drinks and poisons
A monk
are examples.
layman
for a
vice
is
not allowed to do any bodily ser-
He
exchange for food or clothing.
in
must earn his alms only by
his goodwill
towards
others.
Right effort consists in strenuous endeavour by a person for
own mental and moral
his
up
his
from
bad habits,
evil
his
The Buddha
acquired already.
step
give
free
(paramitas)
the activities
lays great stress
which he counted among the ten perfections
that a Bodhisattva must achieve before his
Right mindfulness
enlightenment.
the attention
is
middle path
is
This ability
useful not only to the spiritually inclined but
whether they are
The
right concentration, the fixing
of the mental faculties on a single ^object.
pursuits,
paid to
and weaknesses of one's body and mind.
last step in the
all
first
ones, keep himself
tendencies and promote the good qualities that he
may have
on
He should
elevation.
acquire new good
scientific,
is
is
essential in
literary, artistic
or
religious.
The Middle Path
is
aptly
set
forth
in
verse
Of all sin the avoidance,
Of merit the acquisition,
Of mind the purification.
This
1.
DhftmmAptMln
is
18S.
the Buddha's admonition.
the following
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
}2
Speaking of
this
Noble Eightfold Path, Dr. Rhys Davids
remarkable
life
is
says: "If this Buddhist ideal of perfect
when compared with the thought of India
when looked at from
at that time,
equally instructive
point of view."
lays
of
life
prevailing
some
which he
into
is
everywhere.
ancient Indian theory of karma.
of a being determine the state
"We
be reborn.
will
Some
are
are beautiful, others ugly;
What
it
comparative
1
The Buddha accepted the
down that the deeds
It
the
born
find inequality
rich,
some are
others
poor;
intelligent, others
King Milinda.
anomaly was due to the karma
of each being in his former life and quoted the Buddha's
words in support. "Every living being has karma as its
witless.
the reason of this?" asked
is
His teacher replied that this
master,
its
inheritance,
its
congenital cause,
its
kinsman,
its
karma that differentiates all beings into low
refuge.
and high states.'" The karma or deed may be mental, oral
Its nature is judged by the accompanying volior physical.
It
is
Involuntary or unconscious acts are not treated as
tion.
karma.
According
to the
Buddhist doctrine of karma, one
always compelled by an iron necessity
to
is
not
go through worldly
and sorrows from one life to another. Karma is not
predestination imposed on us by some mysterious creator to
which we must helplessly submit ourselves. Though of preBuddhist origin, the doctrine of karma was highly developed
by the Buddha and his followers, who held that a being
possesses the freedom of will to act, irrespective of his acts
Existence, whether in bad or good
in his previous births.
conditions, is impermanent though the latter is the better of
joys
the two.
The
best
is
freedom from karma, naiskarmya,
ing to Arhatship and consequently to nirvana
Brahmanical philosophy), the
During one of
of
a
lamp,
his
lead-
(moksa of the
total extinction of personality.
sermons, the Buddha pointed to the flame
saying
1.
American Lectures,
2.
Milindrt, 65.
it
was
p. 139.
passing
through
a
cycle
of
The
First
Sermon.
Stone, Gupta, Sarnath. 5th century A.D.
Department of Archaeology. Government of India)
(Courtesy,
The Buddha. Bronze, Sultanganj, Bihar, 5th century A.D. (Courtesy, City
Museum of Art, Birmingham)
LCFE
rebirth
and death.
"The flame is now
longer.
The same
AND TEACHINGS
33
Then he blew out
extinguished.
and said,
burn any
the flame
not
will
It
an Arhaf who attains
nirvana (lit. extinction) for he will be born no more."
Nirvana has a secondary meaning when it stands for the exis
the case with
1
tinction of the springs of action
:
hatred, delusion
craving,
(moha), or their opposites.
Nirvana, the ideal, requires constant spiritual exercise and
Before soaring into the subtle regions
contemplation.
of
thought, the yogin or the spiritual aspirant cultivates the four
noble sentiments, Brahmaviharas, which give a foretaste of
life
in
the
Brahma
Metta or universal love, karuna
world.
or compassion, mudita or sympathetic joy and upekkha or
equanimity are the four sentiments which
time,
space
or
The Buddha
class.
know no bounds
imbued
the
of
robber
Arigulimala's mind with metta and the robber was converted
into a spiritual wayfarer.
When
your fellow beings are in
misery, you must feel compassion for them and
are happy you must feel happiness.
These feelings are not
restricted to
mankind alone but cover
sent, future,
whether of
this
when they
beings, past, pre-
all
world or
of
other
worlds.
Equanimity should be so real that you should feel the same
towards a man who besmears your arm with sandal paste
and one who hacks your other arm with an axe. Universal
love and equanimity are also regarded
as
the
perfections
(paramitas) of the Bodhisattva.
The code of morality of the Buddhist is mainly founded
on the Buddha's word, while the Buddha himself repeatedly
says that the Dharma is ancient and passed on by the rsis or
men from age to age. The rules of conduct for the
monks and nuns are definite and are given in the Book of
holy
Discipline.
The
ideal of the monastic
order
while that of lay devotees, or worldly folk,
They perform meritorious
higher heaven.
is
is
nirvana
rebirth in a
acts, give charities
monks, brahmanas and the indigent people, worship their
The lay
ancestors and observe fasts four times every month.
to
I.
Samyutifl,
I,
139
;
c/.
Suttanip&ta, 235.
;
2500 YEARS Oh BUDDHrSM
34
devotees take the vow to follow the
(silas)
throughout their
any animal of
its
hfe
v
commandments
live
They are forbidden to deprive
take what is not given, to tell false-
lives.
to
hood, to commit adultery and to use intoxicants.
when
For days
are to be observed, there are three additional
fasts
prohibitions.
The Buddha disapproved
of superstitious rites and cere*
He
monies and degrading ascetic practices.
As he
caste distinctions.
strove to
remove
says
One does not become a brahmana
One does not become an outcast by
One becomes a brahmaija by act.
One becomes an outcast by act.
by birth.
birth
1
The Buddha condemned violence
form whatsoever
times
Sacrifices in
human beings— were
were put
to the
spirit.
janu).
and
was a greater
He wanted
and wise and not only a
dharma
killed
—and
battles in
chosen
some-
which men
sword were condemned by him.
ance, according to him,
of the martial
against others in any
which animals
Forbear-
virtue than the exercise
every
few.
man
He
to be virtuous
preached the
and happiness of everyman ibahu"O, monks, go on a round for alms to
Don't go twain to the same place to preach
for the welfare
He
said,
different places.
He
the
Dharma."
his
sermons instead of an
by the learned few
used the mother tongue of the people for
artificial
The Buddha's
language understood only
religion
is
not a dogmatic
way of
life,
of purity in thinking, speaking and acting.
The
Buddha was the first rationalist of the world who asserted
that one was one's own saviour and master without refer-
and elaborate system of
rites,
ence to any outside power.
i.
Suttanip&ta, 641.
runes or prayers but a
CHAPTER
IV
Four Buddhist Councils
The
First
Council
According to
Pali
recorded
tradition
non-canonical literature, three Sahgitis
in
canonical and
or Councils
were held to draw up the canonical texts and the creed in
their
The
pure form.
immediately
after
accepted by
critical
the
Dhamma
the
First
(recitals)
Council was held at Rajagrha
parinirvana
of
the
Buddha.
It
is
scholarship that the First Council settled
and the Vinaya and there
Abhidhamma formed
is
no ground for the
canon adopted
at the First Council.
It is held that Mahakassapa presided
over the assembly in which Upali and Ananda took an
important part. There was seldom dissension over doctrinal
matters, but the Council was necessitated by the pious
determination of the disciples of the Lord to preserve the
view that the
part of the
purity of his teaching.
The
tradition
preserved
in
the
11th
khandhaka of the
Cullavagga has been accepted as authoritative in the different
accounts found
in
extra-canonical
literature,
such
as
the
Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa.
It is
asserted in the Cullavagga that
present at the mahaparinirvana of the
Mahakassapa was not
Buddha at Kusinagara.
While he was proceeding from Pava to Kusinagara with a
large retinue, the news of the decease of the Master was
brought to him by a naked ascetic of the AjTvika sect.
It
recorded that a thera called Subhadda exhorted the monks,
is
who were
vociferous in their lamentations, to refrain from
expressing grief, and called
a good riddance.
upon them
to think the occasion
Since they were treated as so
many
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
36
who often admonished them for
unbecoming conduct, they would now be free to do as
schoolboys by the Master,
their
they thought
remark
filled
tit
without
let
the Venerable
or hindrance.
Dhamma
future safety and purity of the
Mahakassapa
Master.
pointed out in the
also
This irreverent
Mahakassapa with alarm
had other reasons
Mahavamsa
1
.
He
for the
preached by the
for anxiety as
received the garment of
the Master as a token of authority equal to that of the Master
and was determined
lish the
to fulfil the Master's
holy truth.
The remark
command
to estab-
of Subhadda was a clear
indication of the necessity of convening a Council for the
fulfilment of this noble objective.
may be
It
observed
in
this
connection that Subhadda
was not the only person to have such thoughts.
There were
many others who felt that with the passing of the Master
the Dhamma he had taught would disappear. The account in
the Tibetan Dulva and also that of Yuan Chwang refer to
this general feeling of
doubt and consternation as having been
the motive for the convocation of the First Council.
After some deliberation the town of Rajagrha was selected
for the meeting of the Council.
It
is
said that the Council
was held near the Saptaparni Cave, though according to the
Tibetan Dulva it is supposed to have taken place at the
Nyagrodha Cave. The authority of the Cullavagga, however,
need not be called in question and it has been followed by
almost
all
subsequent accounts.
The Lokottaravada account
Council
on
northern
the
side
places
of
the
Mount
venue
of
Vebhara
the
(or
Vaibhara), while in ASvaghosa's account, the Indrasala Cave
of
Mount Grdhrakuta
is
mentioned.
It is
stated in the Pali
Chronicle that the Saptaparni Cave was situated on the side
of
Mount Vebhara and
instance of
that a pandal
King AjataSatru outside of
was erected at the
this cave.
The
the cave, however, has not yet been definitely identified.
the less, there
is
Rajagrha that the
1.
site
of
None
no dispute about the fact that it is at
Council met. It was evidently select-
First
See Mah&vamsa, Chapter III.
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
37
ed because accommodation was plentiful and there was no
It is also said in the Dulva that
difficulty about supplies.
Rajagrha was selected because King AjataSatru was a firm
and that he would therefore
believer in the Buddhist faith
make ample provision for food and lodging. The accounts
in the Mahavamsa and Samanta-pasadika lend support to this
Hence, the omission of the name of AjataSatru
assertion.
in
the Cullavagga need not be regarded as evidence against
the authenticity of this account.
The meeting
actually took place in the second
In the Samanta-pasadika
of the rainy season.
of
description
detailed
the
we
month
find
a
ceremonies which took place
weeks before the actual opening of the session.
Allowing for natural exaggerations, it may be affirmed that
about
six
Mahakassapa took the initiative and chose four hundred
It
is
and ninety-nine bhikkhus to form the Council.
stated in the Cullavagga and confirmed in the Dipavaipsa
number of monks was chosen in pursuance of a
monks assembled on the
that the
vote by the general congregation of
occasion and at the place of the parinibbana of the Master.
There
monks
makes
general
is
selected
it
was
agreement that the number of the
hundred. Yuan Chwang, however,
five
a thousand which
may be an
excusable exaggeration
and Yuan
Chwang's time.
There was, however, some protest regarding the omission
of Ananda from the number of councillors chosen.
In the
considering the long interval between the event
Cullavagga,
it is
stated that the bhikkhus strongly interceded
Ananda, though he had not attained Arhathood, because
of the high moral standard he had reached and also because
he had learnt the Dhamma and the Vinaya from the Master
for
himself.
Ananda was
result of the
eventually accepted by
Mahakassapa as a
The proce-
motion on the part of the monks.
dure followed regarding Ananda has, however, given rise
to a controversy.
It will be observed that Ananda was
brought to trial in the course of the proceedings. The
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
38
Dulva, however, places the
The account
Council.
trial
before the meeting of the
of the Cullavagga
is followed by the
Vinayas of the Mahisasakas and Mahasangliikas and declares
that Ananda had to meet certain charges after the recital of
Dhamma
and the Vinaya, but there is no allusion to
DTpavamsa, the Mahavamsa, Buddhaghosa's Samanta-pasadika and the Mahavastu.
the
Ananda 's
failings in the
Proceedings of the Council
The procedure followed
With
at the
Council was a simple one.
the permission of the Sarigha, the
Venerable Maha-
kassapa asked questions on the Vinaya of the Venerable
Upali.
All these questions related to the four Parajikas, the
matter, the occasion, the individual concerned, the principal
amended
rule, the
this
rule as well as to the question as to
who
and who innocent of these Parajikas.
In
way the Vinaya text was agreed upon at the Council.
would be
The
guilty
turn of
Ananda came
the Sutta-pitaka, in
questions for
all
next.
The
the five Nikayas,
subject matter of
was formulated as
Ananda who gave appropriate
answers. These
questions followed the lines adopted in those on the Vinaya
the occasion of the sermons and the person or persons with
reference to
Ananda
whom
they were given.
settled the
Buddhaghosa
in
The answers
given by
corpus of the Sutta-pitaka.
the Samanta-pasadika gives a detailed
account of the constituent parts of the Vinaya and
the
Sutta-pitaka that were recited at the Council.
According
to all these different accounts, beginning with
and ending with the Samanta-pasadika, the
is said to have been conducted
The Dipavamsa,
Mahakassapa, Upali and Ananda.
the Cullavagga
entire business of the Council
by
however,
gives
a
more
representative
proceedings and the results achieved.
character
The
to
the
texts are said to
have been compiled by the bhiksus following the lead of
Upali in the Vinaya and that of Ananda in respect of the
Dhamma. The works as arranged and settled are ascribed
to the collective authorship of the
whole Council of bhiksus.
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
The account
39
given in the Mahavastu differs materially
It is stated that Katyayana was the
and the subject of the discourse was
Dasabhumis. The Mahavastu, however, is the Vinaya of
the Lokottafavadins, a sect which came into existence long
from the
Pali tradition.
leading exponent
after the
Mahasarighikas had brought about the schism
in
the Church.
There
is,
however, no mention
of
Abhidhamma-
the
pitaka as having been a subject of discussion at the First
Council.
In later literature, however, questions were raised
regarding the authenticity of the
part of the
Canon, and
Abhidhamma
as
an
integral
this is significant.
Charges against Ananda
As
already mentioned, there was considerable agitation
over the admission of
is
Ananda
Mahakassapa
to the Synod.
said to have entertained misgivings regarding his admis-
on the ground of his failure to reach Arhathood,
which he did actually reach on the eve of the session of
But in spite of this achievement and of the
the Council.
sion
and convention that the attainment of Arhathood
man from all guilt and punishment, Ananda
was arraigned by the monks on several charges which he
belief
emancipates a
explained as follows:
(1)
as he
He
could not formulate the lesser and minor precepts,
was overwhelmed with
grief at the
imminent death of
the master.
He had
upon the garment of the Master
while sewing it as there was no one to help him.
(3) He permitted women to salute first the body of the
Master, because he did not want to detain them. He also
(2)
to tread
did this for their edification.
(4)
He was
under the influence of the
forgot to request the Master to enable
evil
him
one when he
to continue his
study for a kalpa.
(5)
He had
to plead for the admission of
women
into
the Order out of consideration for MahaprajapatI Gautarru
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
40
who
nursed the Master in his infancy.
The charges
According
are differently framed in the other Vinayas.
charges also seem
Ananda, first that he failed
to supply drinking water to the Buddha though he had thrice
asked for it and secondly, that he showed the privy parts of
the Buddha to men and women of low character.
His
replies were (6) that the water of the river was muddy, and
(7) that the exhibition of the privy parts would rid those
concerned of their sensuality. These replies may be taken
the
to
Dulva,
two_ other
to have been brought against
as having satisfied the Assembly.
Another important item of business transacted at the
Council was the passing of the highest penalty
(Brahmadanda) on Channa who was the charioteer of the
First
Master on the day of the Great Renunciation.
This
monk
had slighted every member of the Order, high and low,
and was arrogant in the extreme. The penalty imposed
was complete social boycott. When the punishment was
announced to Channa he was seized with profound repentance and grief and was purged of all his weaknesses. In
The punishment automatically
short, he became an Arhat.
ceased to be
Briefly,
effective.
the
four results:
proceednigs of the First Council achieved
(1)
the
leadership of Upali,
settlement
(2)
of the
Vinaya under the
the settlement of the texts of the
Dhamma under the leadership of Ananda, (3) the trial of
Ananda, and (4) the punishment of Channa.
There is, however, a difference between the account of
the Cullavagga and that of the Dulva regarding the trial of
Ananda. According to the former, the trial took place
practically after the conclusion of the main business, whereas
in the Dulva it comes before his admission to the Council.
Prof. Oldenberg is sceptical about the historical authenCouncil. The irreverent remark of
First
ticity of the
in the Mahaparinibbana-sutta, but
found
also
Subhadda is
there
is
Council
not the slightest allusion to the holding of the
This
doubt based on
omission
is
at
best
an
:
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
argumentum ex
all
The unanimous tradition among
Buddhism cannot therefore be brushed
silentio.
the schools of
aside as a pious fabrication.
pancies there
41
In spite of the minor discre-
substantial core of agreement regarding
a
is
the convention of the First Council,
which was a
logical
and
was natural that the creed of the
Church should be determined in a systematic way after the
ecclesiastical necessity.
It
passing of the Master. Fortunately, Prof. Oldenberg appears
to
plough a lonely furrow.
Western, are
all
Scholars, both
Eastern and
united in their rejection of this scepticism.
The Second Council
The Second Council was held at Vaisali a century after
The time recorded should be
the passing of the Master.
taken as a round number.
It
is
recorded in the Cullavagga
monks of the Vajji country were in the habit of
practising the Ten Points (dasa vatthuni) which were regarded
that the
unorthodox by Yasa, the son of Kakandaka. He declared
to be illegal and immoral in the extreme.
The Vajji monks, however, pronounced the penalty of pa^i-
as
these practices
saraniya-kamma upon him.
apologizing to the laity
This necessitated the offender's
who had been
forbidden by YaSa to
carry out the precepts of the Vajji monks.
Yasa defended
eloquent advocacy
the
fury
of
the
his own view before the laity and by his
won them over to his side. This increased
offending monks who pronounced the
punishment of ukkhepaniya-kamma upon him, which meant
his virtual expulsion
The Ten
from the Brotherhood.
Points or Indulgences described in the Culla-
vagga are as follows
(i)
Singilonakappa, or the practice of carrying salt
horn.
This
practice
is
contrary
to
pacittiya
in a
38
which prohibits the storage of food,
(ii)
Dvarigulakappa, or the practice of taking meals when
the
shadow
paCittiya 37
midday.
two fingers broad. This is agajnst
which forbids the taking of food after
is
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
42
Gamantarakappa, or the practice of going to another village and taking a second meal there on
This is opposed to pacittiya 35
the same day.
which forbids over-eating,
Avasakappa, or the observance of the Uposatha
ceremonies in various places in the same parish.
(iii)
(iv)
This practice contravenes the Mahavagga rules of
residence in a parish (sima).
Anumatikappa, or obtaining sanction for a deed
This also amounts to a breach of
after it is done.
(v)
monastic discipline,
Acinnakappa, or using customary practices as preceThis also belongs to the above category,
dents.
(vi)
Amathitakappa, or the drinking of buttermilk
(vii)
meals.
This practice
is in
after
contravention of pacittiya
35 which prohibits over-eating,
Jalogirp-patum. or the drinking of toddy.
(viii)
tice
is
opposed
to pacittiya
51
This prac-
which forbids the
drinking of intoxicants,
Adasakam-nisidanarp. or using a rug which has no
(ix)
This
fringe.
is
contrary to pacittiya 89 which pro-
hibits the use of borderless sheets,
Jataruparajatam, or the acceptance of gold and silver
(x)
which
is
forbidden by rule
18 of the Nissaggiya-
pacittiya.
The Venerable Yasa openly
unlawful.
declared these practices to be
After the sentence of excommunication had been
passed on him, he went to Kausambi
and sent messengers
to the bhiksus of the Western Country and of AvantT and
of the Southern Country, inviting them to assemble and
decide the question in order to arrest the growth of irreligion
and ensure the preservation of the Vinaya.
Next, he proceeded to the Ahogahga hill where
Sambhuta SanavasI dwelt. He saluted the venerable monk
and expounded the Ten Theses advocated by the Vajjian
monks.
He
invited
him
to take
The Venerable SanavSsT agreed
up
to
this question in
do
so.
About
earnest
the
same
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
43
Arhats came from the Western Country
and assembled on the Ahogariga hill. About eighty-eight
some
time,
sixty
from AvantT and the Southern Country also joined them.
These monks declared the question to be hard and subtle.
They thought of the Venerable Revata who was at Soreyya
and was celebrated for his learning and piety. They proposed to meet him and enlist his support. After a good
deal of travelling they met the Venerable Revata Sahajati.
On the advice of Sambhuta Sanavasi, he approached the
Venerable Revata and placed the issue before him. One
by one, Bhiksu Revata brought up the Ten Points and asked
Each one of them was declared to be invalid
for his opinion.
by the Venerable Revata.
Meanwhile, the Vajjian monks were not
went to Sahajati in order to
They
Revata.
rable
Venerable
Revata
enlist the
him
offered
refused
with
idle.
They
also
support of the Vene-
rich
presents
thanks.
which the
However,
they
induced his disciple, Uttara. to lake up their cause, but he
failed.
At
to VaisaJi
origin.
the suggestion of Revata, the
in
order to
settle
Seven hundred monks met
was much rambling
talk
monks proceeded
the dispute at the place of
and
fruitless discussion.
to avoid further waste of time
its
in a Council, but there
In order
and irrelevant discussion, the
matter was referred to a committee consisting of four
monks
from the East and four from the West. Bhikkhu Ajita was
appointed the seat-regulator. The Venerable SabbakamT
was elected president. The Ten Points were put one by
one and they were declared unlawful. The questions were
stated again and the same decision was arrived at in the
full
assembly of the Council.
The unanimous
verdict
of the
assembly declared
the
conduct of the Vajjian monks to be unlawful.
The account given above is taken from the Cullavagga.
The accounts in the Mahavagga and the Dipavamsa add
certain
points and raise the
extraordinarily
high figure.
number of
the bhiksus to an
According to the Dipavamsa
and the Samanta-pasadika, the Council
was held
in
the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
44
reign
King
of
Kalasoka,
a
descendent
of
Ajatasatru.
Kalasoka, though formerly in favour of the Vajjian monks,
was prevailed upon to give his support to the Council of
The Dlpavamsa mentions that the bhiksus of
Vaisali held another Council which was attended by ten
thousand monks. It was called the Great Council (Mahasanglti).
According to the Mahavamsa, a council of seven
hundred theras compiled the Dhamma.
In the Samantapasadika, Buddhaghosa observes that after the final judgment, the seven hundred bhiksus engaged in the recital of the
Vinaya and the Dhamma and drew up a new edition resulting
in the Pitakas, Nikayas, Ahgas and Dharmaskhandhas.
There are slight divergences in the Chinese and 'Tibetan
the Theras.
The Northern*
versions.
the Council
spite of
1
version generally puts the date of
10 years after the nirvana of the Buddha.
these
minor differences there
is
In
substantial agree-
ment on the genesis of the Council and the matters discussed
Oldenberg, however, throws doubt on the
genuineness of the Council on the ground that the Vinaya
and decided.
text
does not take note of the propositions discussed at
but
Vaisali,
enough
to
these
points
are
neither
positive nor strong
prove the unanimous tradition of the Buddhist
The story of the
schools to be an invention of later writers.
Second Council has every reason to be accepted as genuine.
It resulted in a schism in the Buddhist Church and the secession of the Mahasarighikas which is confirmed by later
evidence. 1
The Third Council
The Third Council was held
of
the
celebrated
Buddhist
Asoka was won over
at.Pataliputra under the aegis
monarch,
Priyadar^I
Asoka.
to the Buddhist faith within a few
years of his accession to the throne.
The occasion
for the
Third Council was supplied by the need to establish the
purity of the Canon which had been imperilled by the rise
of
different
1.
sects
and
their
rival
claims,
teachings
Further details will be found in Chapters VI-A and XVI.
and
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
45
According to Kern, the Third Council was not a
general Council but a party meeting of the Sthaviravadins or
practices.
Vibhajyavadins.
Tissa Moggaliputta,
who
converted the Emperor to the Buddhist
is
reputed to have
faith,
was pained
to
observe the corrupt practices that had crept into the Brother-
hood and
of
the
various
heretical
doctrines
descriptions.
He
by sectarians
preached
succeeded
subduing
in
the
and expelling the sectarians from the Church. The
outcome of the Council was that he restored
significant
most
the true faith and propounded the Abhidhamma treatise, the
heresies
Katha-vatthu, during the session of the Council-
There
is
an
account
of
the
miraculous
birth
of
Moggaliputta Tissa and his conversion to the Buddhist faith
Mahavamsa. The cardinal points in the life of Tissa
was born in a brahmana family and learned the
He was, however, won
three Vedas before he was sixteen.
over to the new faith by Thera Siggava and very soon
in the
are that he
attained
to
Arhatship with
all
its
attendant
supernatural
was under his influence that the Emperor made
over \fi the Buddhist Order his son Wahinda and daughter
Sanghamitta.
These two crossed to Lanka (Ceylon) and
converted the whole island to the Buddhist faith.
With the conversion of Asoka, the material prosperity
of the monasteries grew by leaps and bounds and the monks
lived in ease and comfort.
The heretics who had lost their
income and honour were attracted by these prospects to enter
the Buddhist Order.
They continued, however, to adhere to
their old faiths and practices and preached their doctrines as
the doctrines of the Buddha.
This caused extreme distress to
Thera Moggaliputta who retired to a secluded retreat on
the Ahogariga modfitain up the Ganges and stayed there for
powers.
It
seven years.
The number of
the heretics
and
larger than that of the true believers.
false
The
monks became
far
was that for
seven years no Uposatha or Pavarana ceremony was held in
any of the monasteries. The community of the faithful monks
refused
to observe
these festivals with
result
the
heretics.
The
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
46
Emperor was filled with distress at this failure of the Brotherhood and sent commands for the observance of the Uposatha.
A
grievous blunder was committed by the Minister
who
was entrusted with this task. He misunderstood the command
and beheaded several monks for their refusal to carry out
the king's order
When this sad news was reported to Asoka
he was seized with grief and apologized for this misdeed. He
asked the Brotherhood whether they held him responsible.
Some thought him
some not. The king was perplexed
was any among the monks who could
set his doubt at rest.
They all said that only Thera Tissa,
the son of Moggali, could answer his question.
Thereupon
the king sent messengers to the monk asking him to come
and enquired
down
if
guilty,
there
to Pataliputra.
After several unsuccessful attempts, the Elder Tissa was
upon
prevailed
to
monk,
arrival of the great
to
receive
consent
journey
to
the
He went knee-deep
him.
by
boat.
On
the
monarch himself came forward
into
the
water and
extended his right hand to the Thera as a token of great
reverence.
The venerable monk was lodged in the pleasure garden
and shown exceeding reverence and courtesy. He was then
asked to perform a miracle, which request he instantly comThis confirmed the King in his faith, and he
plied with.
asked him whether he was guilty of the murder of the
The Thera answered that
monks through his Minister.
there was
no
guilt
without
intent.
evil
This
satisfied
the
scruples of the King.
The
religion
venerable
of the
monk
Buddha
instructed
t|ie
King
in
the
holy
The King thereafter
whole community of bhikkhus.
for a
week.
convoked an assembly of the
He called the bhikkhus of several persuasions to his presence
and asked them to expound the teachings of the Blessed
One. They set forth their misguided beliefs, such as the
These heretical
doctrine or the eternal soul, and so on.
monks numbering sixty thousand were expelled from the
Brotherhood by the King
He
thereafter
interrogated the
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
47
true believers about the doctrine taught by
Blessed
tlte
One
was Vibhajjavada (the religion of
the Thera corroborated the
truth of this answer, the King made the request that the
brotherhood should hold the Uposatha ceremony so that the
whole community might be purified of evil elements. The
Thera was made the guardian of the Order.
Thera Tissa thereafter elected a thousand bhikkhus of
and they answered
analytical
the
that
it
When
reasoning).
Brotherhood who were well versed
make
the three Pitakas to
in
For nine months he
a compilation of the true doctrine.
worked with
the
monks and
the
compilation of ihe true
Tripitaka was completed
This Council was held
manner and with the same
Thera Yasa respectively.
zeal as those of
In the
in the same
Mahakassapa and
midst of the Council Thera
Tissa set forth the Kathavatthu-pakarana wherein the heretical
doctrines
were
examined
thoroughly
ended the Third Council
in
and
Thus
refuted.
which a thousand bhikkhus took
part.
One
of the
momentous
despatch of missionaries
this
Council was the
the different
countries of the
results of
to
world for the propagation of the Saddhamma.
son
the
of
Asoka, and
Sanghamitta,
charged with missionary work
his
in the island of
have already mentioned the singular success of
in that island.
From
the edicts of
Mahinda.
were
daughter,
Ceylon.
this
We
mission
Asoka we know of
the
various Buddhist missions he sent to far-off countries in Asia,
Africa and Europe.
sionary activities that
It is
to a large extent
Buddhism became
due
to these mis-
the ruling religion
of a large part of mankind.
The Fourth Council
The Fourth Council was held under
who was a
He held sway
Kaniska
race.
the
auspices
of
powerful king of the Saka or Turuska
over a wide tract of country including
Kabul, Gandhara, Sindh v North-West India, Kashmir and
Madhyade^a
He was esteemed as highly by the
Northern Buddhists as was Atoka, From numismatic evi-
part of
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
48
dence it appears that originally he was an adherent of
some form of Iranian religion, and was later converted to
the Buddhist faith. Though we have no indisputable evidence
of the date of his conversion,
it is
almost certain that the date
of the Council held under his inspiration and patronage was
The
about 100 A.D.
place of the Assembly was, according to
one authority, Jalandhar, and according
The Southern Buddhists do
there is no reference to
would not be wrong to
Theravada schools did
According to a Tibetan
Council was the settling
hood.
The
Kashmir.
the Chronicles of Ceylon.
in
it
to another,
not recognize this Council and
It
assume that the Buddhists of the
not
participate
in
the
Council-
record, one of the results of the
of the dissensions in the Brother-
eighteen sects were
all
acknowledged
to be the
According to Yuan
Chwang, King Kaniska became interested in the Buddhist
repositories
scriptures
the genuine
of
and sent for
a
doctrine.
monk
every day to give him instruc-
and was often contradicKing was perplexed and consulted the Venerable
ParSva about the true doctrine. It was on his advice that he
decided to convoke a Council in which the various sects
would be represented. He was anxious to put an end to the
The King built a monastery for
dissensions in the Church.
of
monks
who were called upon to
accommodation
500
the
write commentaries on the Pitakas.
The commentary on the
The VinayaSutta-pitaka was composed in 100.000 slokas.
vibhasa, a commentary on the Vinaya, also consisted of
100,000 slokas, and the Abhidharma-vibhasa, which was
composed in the Council, also ran to the same number.
tion but, as the instruction differed
tory, the
The proceedings
of the Council were thus confined to the
composition of the commentaries.
doctrines which enlisted
agreement were the most strongly
that the
the
monks
Council.
And it appears that
common measure
the greatest
stressed.
It
the
of
appears also
of the Sarvastivada school predominated at
It
is
also
highly
probable
that
the
major
subdivisions of the Sthaviravada schools including the less
orthodox
sections
were also
represented in
fair
number.
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
There
is
no evidence
that
sented in the proceedings,
after the birth of
49
Mahayana Buddhism was repreas it came into prominence only
Nagarjuna which was
after the Council.
The Rajataranginl holds that Nagarjuna flourished after the
Turuska
rule of the
Yuan Chwang
kings.
reports that after the treatises were com-
posed they were inscribed on copper plates and enclosed? in
stone boxes which were deposited in a tope made for the
"The most
purpose.
says Kern, "is that
the sects;
it
Though
it
significant trait of the
Third Council",
closed a period of old quarrels between
did not prevent the rise of
new
aspirations."
the details appear to be exaggerated,
it
would
not be reasonable to disbelieve entirely the tradition which
persisted
cal truth
among
of
the Northern Buddhists regarding the histori-
the
accept the view of
Fourth Council.
La
getic quasi-invention".
We
therefore
Vallee Poussin that
The
fact that
it
demur
to
was "an apolo-
Yuan Chwang
records
the occurrence of the Council after a lapse of five centuries,
and that the records
mony
in the
Tibetan Chronicles bearing
to the convocation of the Council are of
still
testi-
later date,
does not warrant complete scepticism.
It is
a matter of regret that
chroniclers
do not expressly
the woflcs were composed.
Yuan Chwang and the Tibetan
mention the medium in which
It is
not unreasonable to suppose
was the language used at the proceedings. In
fact the Abhidharma-koSa of Vasubandhu is based upon
these Vibhajas, and the commentary of YaSomitra cites
ipsissima verba from the old Vibhasa literature.
Furthermore, the discovery of the work of Gho§aka, the Abhidharmamrta, which is not far removed from the time of Kanaka,
should clinch all controversy. The Fourth Council may thus
be regarded as an epoch-making event in the history of
Buddhism in that it made Sanskrit the vehicle of Buddhist
scriptures.
"All accounts are silent on the idiom of the
that Sanskrit
sacred texts approved or revised at the Third Council, but
from that silence we must not infer that the Chinese pilgrims
had no notion of a canon that was written in another language
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
50
It is an untoward circumstance that all the
but Sanskrit.
works of the old canon, the Tripi|aka in the proper acceptation of the term, so far as they have been preserved, are
only known
through
translations
of
Sanskritized
texts."
These words of Kern deserve careful consideration, and
haps sound a warning against hasty dogmatism.
APPENDIX
per-
I
Councils in Ceylon
According to the Mahavamsa and other Ceylonese
were held in Ceylon.
tradi-
tions three Councils
The first of these was held during the reign of King
Devanampiya Tissa (247 207 B.C.) under the presidentship
of the Venerable Arittha Thera. This Council was held after
—
the arrival in the island of Buddhist missionaries, headed by
Thera Mahinda, a son of Emperor Asoka. According to
tradition, sixty thousand Arhats took part in the assembly,
and as desired by Thera Mahinda, the Venerable Arittha, a
Simhalese bhikkhu, recited the Canon. Thera Arittha is
considered to be the
the
Simhalese
first
Theras
pupil of
Mahinda
and seventh
in
in the line of
succession
of
the
Acariya-parampara (lineage of teachers). The Council took
place at the site of the Thuparama, in Anuradhapura.
this, the next Council which was held during
King Vattagamanl Abhaya (101—77 B.C.) 8 is
considered to be the Fourth by the Theravada school although,
in India, Kaniska's Council was recognized as the Fourth.
According to the Simhalese tradition, not only was the
Tripitaka rehearsed, but its commentaries were revised, recast
said that as Buddhist
It
is
and arranged subject-wise.
religious practice and culture were threatened by growing
materialism and the moral decline of mankind through wars
and famines, the learned Mahatheras decided to hold this
In spite of
the
time
of
1.
See
Kem,
2.
Some
p.
122.
other sources believe the date to be 88-46 B.C.
1
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
5
synod so that the entire Canon and the commentaries might
be committed to writing. At the end of the Council, the
texts along with the Attha-kathas were inscribed on palm
were checked over a hundred times.
500 learned bhikkhus took part in the deliberations under the presidentship of Mahathera Rakkhita.
This is called the Alu-vihara or the Alokavihara Council as
it was held at Aloka Cave in the village of Matale in Ceylon.
It is said that for the most part, it was patronized by a Minleaves
and the
As many
ister
scriptures
as
of the King.
About a century ago,
in
1865 A.D., another Council was
held at Ratnapura in Ceylon under the presidentship of the
Venerable Hikkaduve
months and was
Siri
Sumangala.
patronized
It
continued for
five
by Iddamalgoda Basnayaka
Nilame.
APPENDIX
II
Councils in Thailand (Siam)
The Sangitivamsa
1
,
or the History of the Recitals, written
by a royal Thai patriarch named Somdej Phra Vanarat
(Bhadanta Vanaratana) during the reign of Rama I, in B.E.
2332 (1789 A.D.), records as
these nine Councils, the
fourth, fifth, sixth
ninth in Thailand.
first
and seventh
The
many
as nine Councils.
Of
three were held in India, the
in
Ceylon, and the eighth and
history of the five Councils includ-
first two of Ceylon is the same
vamsa and other Singhalese traditions.
ing the
MahaThe remaining two
as that in the
Councils, as described in the Sangitivamsa, were not Councils
in the true sense of the term.
The Sixth Council
(in
Ceylon)
\
The
i
Sixth Council, as mentioned
in
the
Sangitivaipsa,
1. Only two copies of manuscripts of this book are preserved in
the
National Library of Thailand in Bangkok. It was published in B.E. 246C
!(1923 A.D.) under the royal decree of King Kama VI to commemorate
the cremation ceremony of H.R.H. Prince Chudhadhajadhartiloka Kromkhun
r
|
|Bejboon Indrajaya, a son of King
Rama
V.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
52
was held during the reign of King Mahanama in B.E. 516 in
which only the commentaries were translated from Singhalese
into MagadhI (Pali) by Bhadanta Buddhaghosa whose scholarship had been tested in many ways by the gods and the
learned bhikkhus of Ceylon.
The Seventh Council
(in
Ceylon)
The Seventh Council is said to have revised only the
commentaries of the Tripitaka of the Mahatheras and finally
these were recited at the Council held under the presidentship of the Venerable Mahakassapa.
This took place
in
1587 in the reign of King Parakramabahu the Great.
B.E.
The
Conference, which took place in the royal palace, lasted a year.
The Eighth Council
,
(in
Thailand)
In order to establish
Buddhism on a
firm basis,
King
Sridharmacakravarti Tilaka Rajadhiraja, the ruler of Northern Thailand called this Council in Chiengmai, his capital.
The Assembly was
held
in
Mahabodhi Arama between
B.C. 2000 and 2026 and continued for a year.
ed monks in Thailand took part in
The Ninth Council
(in
All the learn-
this Council.
Thailand)
This Council was held in Bangkok in B.E. 2331, after a
war between Thailand and a neighbouring kingdom. The old
capital,
Ayuthia (Ayodhya), was destroyed by
fire
and many
books and manuscripts of the Tripitaka were reduced to
ashes.
Moreover, the Brotherhood was disorganized and
morally weakened by reason of the prolonged hostilities.
King
Rama
I
and
his brother
laxity of the Sangha.
were perturbed at the moral
They consulted
the learned brethren in
order to convene a Council so that the faith might be restored.
Under the royal patronage 218 Elders and 32 lay scholars
assembled together and continued the recitation of the
Tripi{aka for about a year. During and after this Council,
the revival of Buddhism was in full swing in Thailand.
Monasteries were rebuilt and pagodas were restored. Owing
FOUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
to the enthusiasm of the general public
ies
and temples were also
The
many new
monaster-
built.
APPENDIX
Councils in
53
III
Burma
three Councils having been held in India
first
and
the fourth in Ceylon where Pali books were committed to
was held in order to prepare a uniform
edition of the Pali Canon and to record it on marble slabs.
This great Buddhist Council was convened at Mandalay in
1871 A.D. (B.E. 2414) under the patronage of King Min-donmin, and 2,400 learned monks and teachers participated. The
Elders Jagarabhivamsa, Narindabhidhaja and Sumahgala
Sami presided in turn. The recitation and recording of the
Tripitaka on marble continued for about five months in the
writing, the Fifth
royal
palace.
were
used
for
Various available editions of the Tripitaka
comparison and collation by the learned
many as 729 marble
Mahatheras, and the recording done on as
slabs selected for the purpose.
The Sixth Great Buddhist Council
in
The Sixth Buddhist Council was inaugurated in May 1954,
Rangoon, with the collaboration and participation of the
learned bhikkhus of the various countries of the world, particularly India, Ceylon, Nepal,
Pakistan.
Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and
The Venerable Abhidhaja Maharattha
Guru
Bhadanta Revata presided.
About 500 bhikkhus from Burma, well versed in the study
and practice of the teachings of the Buddha, were invited to
take the responsibility for re-examining the text of the Tripitaka.
Similar groups of
monks were organized
in each of the
Buddhist countries to examine the texts of the Tripitaka.
The
Great Council that was inaugurated in 1954 was to go on
the completion of
that
is,
nirvana.
its
task at the full
moon
till
of VaiSakha, 1956,
the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha's mahapariIt is
believed that this anniversary will bring about
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
54
a great revival of Buddhism and universal peace throughout
the world.
On
the auspicious days of the inauguration of the Sixth
Council, which continued for three days,
many
important messages were received from
all
valuable and
corners of the
Here we reproduce the message of
President of India, and Shri
Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister:
world, including India.
Rajendra
Dr.
Prasad,
the
"In sending my reverential greetings to the Chattha
Sangayana which is being inaugurated in Rangoon on the
VaiSakha Purnima, my thought naturally goes back to
similar Councils which have been held during nearly 2,500
years since the Parinibbana of the Buddha.
and
these great
historic gatherings
The
first
three of
were held respectively at
Rajagrha, Vaisali and Pataliputra, the three places famous in
Buddhist history and sanctified by the repeated tread on their
The other two were held in
of the Great Teacher.
Ceylon and Burma respectively, which received his teaching
and have till today kept it alive in their own life and culture.
It is a great idea to have the original texts revised and reedited and brought out not only in their original form in
soils
Burmese
script with
Burmese
translation but also the original
texts with translations in the
and
The programme
sity
Hindi and English languages
scripts.
which
of establishing a great Buddhist Univer-
will serve as
a centre for radiating
light as a sequel
to this great gathering will help not only to re-enliven
and
revive the teaching of the Master, but will also emphasize
modern times for the spiritual and moral
which can be attained not only by
mankind,
well-being of
supplying its material needs and requirements in however
abundant a measure that may be possible, but kindling in him
the great need in
that spiritual
and moral
light
lems born of greed, hatred
root of all the conflicts that
destruction.
which alone can solve the prob-
and delusion which are at the
threaten to involve mankind in
POUR BUDDHIST COUNCILS
Let us hope that
terest
Buddhism
in
Buddha
is
it
will
55
succeed in not only reviving
in countries
where the
not followed today, but also
strengthening faith in the lives of those
in
in-
religion of the
reinforcing and
who
are fortunate
enough even today to follow that faith. May this great gathering once again bring the message of peace and goodwill to
rajendra Prasad
distracted mankind."
"About a year ago or more,
me
the Prime Minister of
Burma
Synod of Buddhism was
being organized and would be held in Rangoon. My mind
went back to the previous Councils in the history of Buddhism
from the days of the First Council which was called by King
Ajatasatru of Magadha at Rajagrha, to that held in Mandalay
in 1871.
These Councils were landmarks in the history of
Buddhism.
And now I welcome the holding of the Sixth Council of
this great religion.
It is inaugurated on a date of great
historical significance
the 2,500th anniversary of the Buddha.
The full moon which shone with all its brightness on the day
of the birth of the Buddha, on his attainment of enlightenment and on his parinibbana, will be shining again on this
auspicious day after two and a half millenia of human history.
This world Council will consider the doctrines and tenets
of Buddhism and will perhaps codify them afresh for those
of the Buddhist faith.
But the Buddha has been something
greater than all doctrine and dogma, and his eternal message
has thrilled humanity through the ages. Perhaps at no time
in past history was his message of peace more needed for a
suffering and distracted humanity than it is today.
May this
great Council spread anew his great message of peace and
bring a measure of solace to our generation.
i pay my homage to the memory of the Buddha and send
told
that a Great Council or
—
my
respectful greetings
which
is
to
the great Council at
meeting on an auspicious
great need for the world."
Rangoon
anniversary at a time of
jawaharlal nehru
CHAPTER V
Asoka and
the Expansion of
I.
Asoka
of
is
Buddhism
Asoka
upon as the first great royal patron
Indeed, it was through his efforts that
rightly looked
Buddhism.
Buddhism came
to
occupy the prominent position
it
did in
India and abroad.
According to Buddhist literary sources, in his youth A§oka
was known to be a man of fierce temperament and called
Canda Asoka (fierce Asoka). As a prince, he was appointed Governor of Vidisa (modern Bhilsa) where he married a
rich merchant's daughter, who was to be the mother of Prince
Mahendra. As soon as he came to know that Bindusara, his
father, was on the point of death, he rushed to the capital,
Pataliputra, occupied it and killed all the princes barring his
own brother. This act on his part must have aroused strong
popular opposition and it is said that ASoka had to contend
with the situation for four years before he was crowned King
with public acclaim.
Asoka's thirteenth rock-edict says that at the end of eight
years of his reign, he invaded the country of Kalinga,
Orissa.
In
that
invasion,
many thousands
thousands were carried
of
modern
men were
and
well-known
that this tremendous loss of life proved to be a turning
point in the life of ASoka.
He repented and decided to
undertake no further military campaigns.
Instead he
began to think of -religious conquests, of dhammavijaya.
He wanted to spread among his own subjects and among
people outside his kingdom a new life, to inculcate among
killed, several
thousands died from the
off into captivity
effects of the war.
It is
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
them a love of
piety
and
go round
to
officers
To
religion.
this
country on
the
57
end he appointed
periodical
religious
missions.
Asoka thus became a zealous follower of the Buddha
and took upon himself the task of making known to the
people the teachings of the Lord.
In
Bhabra
his
edict,
seven passages occur and most of these have been identified
with
people
—monks
as well as laymen
He
read out to them.
He
people.
Dhamma, his Law, and
He undertook
At
places.
visited
the
he
his
to
visit
pilgrimages
the
twenty
of
a
the
enlightenment and preached his
is
a
pillar,
excommunicating those
the
Buddhist
of
his
holy
reign,
he
Buddha was
the
an
bearing
pillar
Bodh Gaya and Sarnath where
place, there
to
years
visited the place to
paying taxes to his government.
to
the
the Sarigha, his
to
Buddha. Moreover,
the place he exempted the
of
inculcating
Buddha, the
Order of Buddhist
reverence
erected
which says that he
birth-place
have these passages
Lumbimdevi garden, where
There
born.
end
the
all
men and women would become
paid
monks.
—to
thought that by
teachings of the Buddha,
better
He wanted
passages in Pali literature.
certain
inscription
pay homage
to the
commemorate
to
local
people from
he paid
Similarly,
visits
Buddha had attained
sermon. At the latter
the
first
now in fragments, which speaks of
who would break the unity of the
Buddhist Sarigha.
What was Asoka's conception
of the
Dhamma?
He
and condemned the slaughter
At one time,
sacrifices
or otherwise.
of animals, whether as
he said, a large number of animals were killed in his kitchen
recognized the sanctity of
life
for food for his household, but he
to only
every day.
not
be
had reduced the number
two peacocks and one deer, and these were
He
killed
further
in
the
declared
future.
that
even
He wanted
these
the
killed
would
people
to
such as the observance of truth,
cultivate
moral
restraint,
kindness, charity, purity, gentleness, respect,, .obe-
virtues,
dience to one's elders and teachers, liberality to friends,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
58
kinsmen, acquaintances
advocated
and even servants and
slaves,
the Digha-nikaya.
He
enjoined the control of evil thoughts,
such as anger, ferocity, conceit, envy and misguided
He advocated
will.
tolerance
denominations, and respect for
for
all
all
religious
known
and
It is also
that he dedicated caves to the Ajivikas.
religious
self-
sects
pious men, such as the
Sramanas, Brahmanas, Ajivikas and Jainas.
all
as
a famous Pali sutta, the Sigalovada-sutta of
in
denominations to desist from
well
He wanted
self-praise
and
condemnation of others. The pillar edicts of ASoka
which were inscribed towards the end of his reign show
was completely converted to the Buddhist ideas of
kindness to all created beings. He drew up a list of difexempted
ferent kinds of living beings which were to be
from slaughter. He felt that the same consideration should
be shown to does and female pigs that were bearing, or
suckling young ones.
He laid down that animals need not
He condemned the castration of
feed on other animals.
animals and their branding on Buddhist holy days, such
that he
as
the
eighth, fourteenth or fifteenth
of each fortnight, or
on holy days of the Tisya constellation. He also set free
prisoners from his prisons from time to time.
He wanted
all people to come closer to the gods in virtue and thus
minimize the difference between gods and men.
As
already described,
Asoka appointed
religious officers
of various grades to different provinces to help the people
to lead a pious
and stone
pillars.
He had his
The rock edicts
life.
edicts carved
in places at the periphery of his vast
edicts along high
on rocks
are mostly to be found
empire and the
pillar
roads or at places of pilgrimage where
practise the laws of piety,
He wanted his subjects to
and he and his family also prac-
He went on
religious tours instead of going
large
tised
crowds
them.
gathered.
on hunting expeditions, as he thought that these would
enable him to meet ascetics and brahmanas. He could
thus have religious discussions and confer large charities
upon them. He performed pious acts such as planting
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
trees,
digging wells, opening hospitals for
in his
own
men and
beasts,
land and in the lands of his neighbours like the
Colas and the Pandyas,
Kerala and other countries as
in
This, however,
far south as Ceylon.
shall see,
59
was not
As we
all.
Anoka's religious missions found their way to many
far-off countries, too.
As
a staunch follower of Buddhism, he conferred large
upon the monastic establishments of the Buddhists.
This attracted many non-Buddhists to the Buddhist Sangha
for an easier life with the result that the purity of the
Sarigha suffered and consequently its periodical religious
observances were interrupted. Hence it was decided to hold
gifts
a
synod
religious
nature of the
adhere to
learns
Pataliputra
Apparently,
it.
was decided
One
at
Dhamma, and
to
determine
to banish those
it
was
after this
the
.
who would
true
not
Council that
it
to send religious missions to various countries.
from Buddhist
literary
sources that such mis-
sions were sent to the land of the Yavanas (Ionian Greeks),
Gandhara, Kashmir, and the Himalayan regions in the
North; to the western part of India such as Aparantaka; the
southern parts such as Vanavasi and Mysore, and farther
south to countries as far as Ceylon and Suvarna-bhumi, the
Land of Gold (Malay and Sumatra). These records dwell
length particularly on the mission to Ceylon, where
Asoka had sent his son Mahendra and his daughter
at
Sanghamitra.
This information is confirmed and further supplemented
by Asoka's thirteenth rock edict wherein it is stated that he
tried
to
among
far off,
spread the
Dhamma
not only in his territory or
the peoples of the border lands but also in
such as those of Antiochus (Antiyoko)
kingdoms
King of
II,
and the kingdoms of four other kings, still farther
(Antai.e., Ptolemy (Turameya) of Egypt, Antigonos
kini) of Macedonia, Alexander (Alikasundara) of Epirus,
an ancient district of northern Greece, and Magas of
Cyrenia, in North Africa.
He has also mentioned the
names of Yavanas, Kambojas, Parujyas, Colas, Andhras,
Syria,
off,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
60
Pulindas, Ceylon,
edict
we
are
etc.,
told
in
that
this context.
in
practically
In the second rock
these countries,
all
ASoka had opened hospitals, both for men and beasts, had
dug wells and tanks and planted trees and medicinal plants
for the welfare
It
is
and happiness of
all
beings.
ASoka were
clear that the efforts of
largely respon-
sible for the popularization of the teachings of the
in
and outside India.
Buddhist missionaries
Kaniska
—
to take
It
is
who paved
he
—occasionally
Buddhism
helped by
Buddha
way
the
'
for the
kings
to Central Asia, China,
like
Japan
and Tibet in the North, and to Burma, Thailand, Cambodia
and other countries in the South.
II.
Expansion of Buddhism
A. In
India
During the first and second centuries after the Nirvana,
Buddhism could hardly be distinguished from other ascetic
movements. It was evidently in the Maurya period that
Buddhism emerged as a distinct religion with great potentialities for expansion.
But even at the beginning of this
period, its activities were mainly confined to Magadha and
Kosala.
Small
communities
of
brethren
may have come
Mathura and Ujjayini. At
the time of the Second Council, which was held at Vaisali
about a hundred years after the Buddha, invitations were
into existence also in the West, in
sent to communities in distant places like Patheya, Avanti,
Kausambi, Sankasya and Kanauj.
Mathura had become an
important centre of Buddhism in the early years of Maurya
supremacy.
Church in this period was
an undisturbed one. Owing to the
gradual expansion of Buddhism and for want of regular
communications between the distant communities the Church
was gradually losing its unity. Local influences were slowly
affecting the conduct of the various communities and shaping
The
history of the Buddhist
to all appearances not
them
in different ways.
This ultimately gave
rise to various
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
6l
During the reign of Asoka, the Church must have
shown symptoms of serious disintegration and the inscriptions
of ASoka tell us that he took special measures to safeguard
schools.
its
of
unity.
Asoka 's patronage must have contributed
Buddhism not only within the empire
distant
able
lands
that
even
after
in
the*
his
lifetime.
reorganization
It
is
of
to the spread
but
quite
the
also
to
conceiv-
Magadhan
Church at the Third Council and with the co-operation of
the emperor himself, efforts were made to carry Buddhism
to
distant
countries.
The
success of
the
first
missionary
might not have been very great so far as foreign
countries were concerned but the epigraphic records and
activity
Buddhist monuments of post-ASokan times bear clear
mony
to the fact that within the
Maurya empire such
testi-
activities
must have had great success.
With the advent of the Sungas, Buddhism lost official
patronage.
The Buddhisjt accounts are unanimous in representing Pusyamitra Suhga as a persecutor of Buddhists.
The temporary undermining of Buddhism by Pusyamitra,
however, was ineffective, for the people had taken up the
cause of Buddhism. This popular support was at the root
of the great progress made by Buddhism during the SurigaKanva period. This is made amply clear by the very large
number of private donations recorded on the Buddhist
monuments of the period. A number of famous Buddhist
establishments like the Bharhut stupa, the Karle caves, and
the Sanchi stupa belong to the Sunga-Kanva period and
testify to the great prosperity which Buddhism enjoyed then.
Buddhism had developed from a monastic religion into a
popular one. It had become a theistic religion with the
Buddha and his relics as cult objects.
It was at this time that Buddhism was adopted by
the Greeks in the North.
King Menander was a great
champion of the faith. After he had established his
capital at Sakala 1 ,
1.
he performed many acts of
S&gala mentioned at the
piety.
From
commencement of the Milinda-panha.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
62
Menander's time the Greeks
adopted Buddhism
India
in
as their religion, and thereafter played the part of donors
to Buddhist
The
establishments.
Greeks as taking part even
are told that after
country
conversion
the
Buddhism,
to
texts represent the
Pali
missionary
in
of
Moggaliputta
the
We
activities.
Yavana (Greek)
went
Tissa
that
to
country and selected a Greek Elder, Dharmaraksita, for mis-
Dharmaraksita was then sent to the country
of Aparantaka where he successfully preached the Law of the
sionary work.
Buddha and converted thousands of people, including women
and nobles. The Greeks in India were also responsible for
evolving a
new
Buddhist
style of
art,
Greek, which flourished mostly
usually
known
as Indo-
the Punjab and north-
in
western India.
The
time
rapid
expansion
various
to
parts
of
these
was
sects
Buddhism
India
number
Buddhist sects whose
origin
of
of
the
in
rise
due so much
of
The
given as eighteen.
is
not
Asoka's
during
resulted
doctrinal
to
differences, except in certain cases, as to the geographical
With the spread of Buddhism, communities were
founded in various parts of the country. As there was no
coordinating organization,
many of the communities
factor.
developed their
own
traditions for the preservation of the
some
between
That is why a number of
disappeared or merged with the others within
ancient teachings.
In
cases, the differences
the schools were insignificant.
them
a
either
short
time.
The
Mahasarighika
century after the Nirvana
among which
schools,
gave
vada, the Aparasaila, and
schism gave
rise to
second
the
eight
to
different
the Ekavyavaharika, the Lokottara-
the
were prominent.
Uttarasaila
Division started in the Sthaviravada
first
during
rise
two schools
camp
The
a century later.
—the Sarvastivada and the
Mula-sthaviravada (also called the Haimavata).
Since
its in-
ception in Vaisali, the Mahasanghika was mostly confined to
the East from where
followers
strong
of
this
community
it
spread, especially to the South.
school
in
the
probably
did
North as
not
they
The
a
mentioned
constitute
are
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
only in two inscriptions.
own and
literature of its
63
The Mahasarighika developed a
in fact
it
claimed to have preserved
the most authentic tradition of early Buddhism in so far
as it traced its lineage from
MahakaSyapa who was
responsible for convoking
the
which the Canon was recited
The
to tradition.
Buddhist
first
the
for
existence of practically
Council,
time
first
all
at
according
the branches
of the Mahasarighika mentioned in literature in the region
of
Dhanyakataka
important
shows
stronghold
that
of
become
had
it
Mahasarighika
the
the
most
under
the
patronage of the Sata-vahanas and their successors in the
Krishna
These schools continued
valley.
The
the 3rd or 4th century A.D.
other camp, the Sthaviravada, have also
mark
prosper
to
till
schools arising from the
left
their definite
and epigraphy from the Suriga period
right up to the Kusana period and may be said to have
The Sarvastivada
flourished from 200 B.C. to 200 A.D.
and
literature
in
branches
its
flourished
mostly
the
in
North.
The
Sarvastivada school was held in esteem in the entire region
from
Mathura
to
Nagara(hara)
and
from
Taksaslla
to
history
of
Kashmir.
Kaniska's reign
Buddhism.
is
a
also
landmark
in
the
Tradition not only represents him as a great
him with a
galaxy of Buddhist masters who shaped Buddhism in later
It was in this period that the Indo-Greek school of
times.
patron
of
the
but
religion
Buddhist art achieved
its
also
associates
greatest
development. Buddhist
to Central Asia and
monks from India carried
China.' A new form of Buddhism, the Mahayana, of farreaching consequence, also came to be evolved at the same
Buddhism
time.
Kaniska must have contributed a good deal to the
progress of Buddhism.
With
received
the
a
advent
new
of
impetus.
the
Gupta
Although
dynasty,
the
Gupta
Buddhism
emperors
were Bhagavatas, the adherents of a Brahmanical faith,
they were sympathetic towards the cause of Buddhism.
We have a number of important inscriptions recording
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
64
gifts
of private donors in the regions of Kau£ambi, Sanchi,
Bodh Gaya and Mathura from
century A.D.
of
of
There is a large number
by the Chinese pilgrims who came to
period, which throw light on the condition
written
records,
India in
this
Buddhism
with
and
the beginning of the 5th
the end of the 6th.
till
the country.
Moreover, Buddhist art
Mathura, Sarnath, Nalanda, Ajanta, Bagh
Dhanyakataka speaks eloquently of the prosperity
its
in
relics at
Gupta period. Fa-hien, who
Chandragupta II, testifies to the flourishing condition of Buddhism, especially
in
Uddiyana,
Mathura,
Gandhara,
Kanauj,
KoSaku
Magadha and Tamralipti. The foundation of the institutions at Nalanda was also due to the patronage of
the Gupta rulers.
that
came
Buddhism enjoyed
in the
to India during the reign of
From
we have
the middle of the 7th century A.D. again
number of records giving a
of Buddhism in India.
So
it had reached its height in
certain symptoms of decay.
a
clear picture of the condition
far as
its
extent
is
concerned,
also showed
some of the
great centres of Buddhist study like Nalanda and ValabhT
were still keeping the light burning vigorously. King
Har$avardhana in his later days became a follower of
Mahayana Buddhism.
In the West the rulers of the
Maitraka dynasty at ValabhT had become patrons of the
this
period but
it
Nevertheless,
Buddhist faith from the middle of the 6th century A.D.
Numerous Buddhist relics discovered at Valabhi
area up to
the existence of Buddhism in that
testify
the
to
10th
century A.D.
The century that followed Harsa's rule saw a state of
anarchy unfavourable to the growth of a monastic religion like Buddhism, which depended so much on the
patronage
of
the
rulers.
Buddhism
still
lingered
Kashmir, Swat Valley, ValabhT and other places
North but
its
in
in
the
condition was far from prosperous. However,
while Buddhism was slowly disappearing from other parts
of India,
it
experienced another great revival in eastern
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
65
India under the patronage of the Pala dynasty.
Most of
They
the rulers of this dynasty were devout Buddhists.
responsible for new endowments to the Nalanda
monastery and also for the foundation of new monasteries,
such as Vikramasila 1 Odantapur! and Somapurl.
were
,
Thus
it
may be concluded
that,
although some of the
old centres of study had fallen into neglect before the rise
of the Guptas,
but,
during the
new and more vigorous centres came
These new centres were numerous
early Gupta period, Kashmir was the most
into
existence under them.
pre-
dominant
centre of
foundation
shifted
to
of
Buddhist
Nalanda,
eastern
the
India.
studies.
Later,
after the
of
studies
gradually
centre
Nalanda dominated the whole
Buddhist world for nearly three centuries, from the 6th to
In spite of the patronage of the great Pala rulers,
the 9th.
however, Nalanda was soon eclipsed by two other
tions,
institu-
Vikramasila and Odantapuri which had been founded
under the Palas.
Vikramasila,
Eastern India, with
Odantapuri,
monopolized
almost
the
commerce
new
its
institutions,
Vikramapurl,
Jagaddala,
Buddhist
in
etc.,
culture
from the 9th to the 12th centuries A.D.
B. In Northern Countries
Central Asia and China
Although we do not know the
definite date of the intro-
duction of Buddhism to Central Asia,
that the
nomadic
tribes, the Sakas
it
is
almost certain
and Kusanas, as well as
merchants had carried elements of Indian culture
with Buddhism to the different states of Eastern Turkestan
Indian
at least a century
dence
is
now
before
the
Christian era.
Positive evi-
available to prove that small Indian colonies
had been founded in the southern part of this region from
Khotan up to the Labnor region before the Christian era.
An
Indian dialect, similar to that of north-western India,
was the
1.
official
language in some of these
Also written Vikramasila.
states.
The
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
66
Indian colonists were the
first
to
Buddhism
carry
to this
region.
Ancient Khotanese traditions claim that a son of Atoka
named Kustana founded the kingdom 234 years after the
Nirvana,
about 240 B.C., and that
i.e.,
it
was the
latter's
who introduced Buddhism in
Khotan. A Buddhist scholar named Arya Vairocana came
from India and became the King's preceptor. The first
grandson,
Vijayasambhava,
monastery
in
Khotan was
further claims
that
built in 211
B.C.
The
tradition
an Indian dynasty ruled Khotan for
56 generations during which Buddhism continued to be the
dominant religion of the state. In its heyday, Buddhism
Khotan nearly four thousand establishments, includChinese pilgrims,
temples and chapels.
such as Fa-hien, Song-yun and Yuan Chwang, testify to the
flourishing condition of Buddhism in Khotan until about the
Khotan became the place of the dissemina8th century A.D.
tion of Buddhism to other states in the South, such as Niya,
Calmadana (Cherchen), Kroraina (Loulan), and also to
had
in
ing
monasteries,
Cokkuka
(Kashgar).
There were four important
states in the northern part of
Bharuka (Aksu), Kucha, AgnideSa
(Kara-shahr) and Kao-chang (Turfan).
Kucha was the most
powerful among the four states and played a preponderant
role in the spread of Buddhism to other northern states as well
as to China.
Kucha must have received Buddhism in the 1st
Chinese Turkestan,
viz.,
The Chinese annals of the 3rd century clearly
were nearly one thousand stupas and temples
this period.
Kuchean Buddhist monks had gone
eentury A.D.
state that there
in
Kucha
in
to China in this period
and took an
of translation of Buddhist texts.
that
Buddhism was a
flourishing religion in the
about the 8th century A.D.
Buddhism was patronized
Uigur Turks who had
active part in the
work
Archaeological finds show
North
till
After the decline of these states.
till
the 11th century A.D. by the
their capital in the
Turfan region.
China received Buddhism from the nomadic tribes of
Eastern Turkestan towards the end of the 1st century B.C.,
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
and within a century
worthy of toleration.
it
67
was
officially recognized as a religion
Buddhist scholars began coming to
China from the end of the 1st century after Christ and
their
activities
were
intensified
more and more.
period
(65—220
A.D.), although a
the
Han
ars
had come
But
worked among the Chinese and
number of texts into Chinese, Bud-
dhism had a hard struggle with the indigenous
and
its
of schol-
to China,
translated a fairly large
tems.
throughout
number
religious sys-
Confucianism, with its traditional prestige at the
Court
hold on the nobility, looked down upon Buddhism
as
a barbarian religion.
to transform
character was
In the
Han
period attempts were
made
Confucianism into a religion but its religious
much less developed than Buddhism. Taoism
was more firmly established as a
religion but
its
philosophical
background was much weaker than that of Buddhism.
gave
Buddhism
certain
advantages
over
the
This
indigenous
religions.
As Buddhism was a much richer religion than Confucianit possessed a much profounder philosophy than
Taoism, it soon attracted the Chinese. The Chinese literati
themselves started pleading for Buddhism. Thus Mou-tseu,
who lived towards the closing years of the Han period (170 —
ism and as
225 A.D.), wrote a
treatise in which he compared the doctrines
Buddhism with the teachings of Confucius and Lao-tseu
and tried to establish the superiority of the former.
The writings of such people as Mou-tseu gradually
succeeded in creating confidence about Buddhism in the minds
of
of the educated Chinese.
Besides, the
by
who had come
the Indian Buddhists
their
this
Chinese disciples did not
new
faith.
The patronage
life
of purity followed
to
fail to attract
of (he foreign
China and by
the Chinese to
dynasties
in
China also helped the cause of the new religion.
The Wei
dynasty which came to power in the 4th century A.D. was of
foreign origin.
They were great patrons of Buddhism and
were responsible for the beginnings of all the great works of
Buddhist art in that country. The first emperor of the
dynasty
made Buddhism a
State religion.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
68
Henceforward, Buddhism continued
about the 11th century A.D.
until
to prosper in
China
Successions of Indian
teachers from India kept the torch burning.
From
the 4th
century A.D., however, the Chinese monks themselves started
going to India and making a deep study of Buddhism under
A
Indian teachers.
vast Buddhist literature, translated
from
Indian sources by Indian and Chinese scholars, helped the
Chinese to read Buddhism
lations also
had great
Some of the transand came to be looked
in translation.
literary value
upon as classics in Chinese literature.
The influence of Buddhism on Chinese life and thought
was tremendous. Besides certain forms of theistic religious
beliefs, Buddhism introduced in China the doctrine of rebirth, the idea of causality, and the belief in reward and retribution.
Buddhist philosophy, especially
its
conception of
and the notion
of universal impermanence, had an abiding influence on the
poets and artists and influenced China's aesthetic outlook.
Buddhism also brought to the Chinese a deep religious feeling and a profound faith, which inspired the great works of
art in China, such as we find in Yun-Kang, Hong-men, Tunreality
which permeates everything
huang and other
in nature
places. 1
Korea and Japan
Korea, one of the important Buddhist countries in the
Far East, was introduced to Buddhism early in the 4th
Korean peninsula was
divided into three parts, namely, Koguryu in the North,
Pakche in the South-West and Silla in the South-East. The
history of Buddhism in these three parts of Korea is therefore not identical.
Buddhism was first brought to Koguryu
by a Chinese monk in 372 A.D. It was twelve years later
that Buddhism came to Pakche through the agency of a
Central Asian monk named Marananda. Silla was the last
to embrace Buddhism which came nearly 30 years after it
had been introduced in Koguryu.
century
1.
A.D.
In
those
days,
For further information see
the
Chapter VI, pp. 124-131.
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
The
role
for,
chief significance of
Korean Buddhism
69
lies
in
the
played as an intermediary between China and Japan,
although Buddhism received royal patronage almost
it
throughout
its
history in
Korea, there was no notable deve-
lopment in its doctrine.
Korean Buddhism was at the height of its power in the
11th century A.D. during the rule of the Wang dynasty of
Korea.
Before
this
under the influence of the
time, several
Buddhism had been spreading
kings of the Silla dynasty. At this
period,
famous scholars went
to
China
in order to study
Of these, Yuan Ts'o (613 683 A.D.)
of the Fa Sian sect, Yuan Hiao (617—670 A.D.) and Yi Siang
(625—702 A.D.) of the Houa Yen sect are the best known.
the Buddhist doctrines.
After the 11th century A.D., Buddhism, which had hitherto
been the religion of the aristocracy related to the
Silla
dynasty,
became the faith of the common people, owing largely to the
efforts of Yi Tien, P'u Chao and a number of other monks.
Yi Tien, a scholar famous for his editing of the Catalogue
of the Chinese Tripitaka (called Yi Tien Lu), studied
Buddhism in China and then propagated the doctrine of both
the Houa Yen and the Tien Tai sects in Korea.
He also
wrote articles on Buddhism in the Korean language. However, it was P'u Chao who introduced Korea to Zen Buddhism which, in later days, was to play such an important
oart in its history.
During the period when the Yuan dynasty
of the Mongolian Empire had gained sovereignty over the
Wang dynasty, Korean Buddhism was much influenced by
Lamaism.
After the decline of the Mongolian Empire, the
Rhee dynasty of Chosen (Korea) accepted Confucianism as
the leading principle of its culture and thus dislodged
Buddhism from its place of honour. Nevertheless, even
though it lost royil patronage in Korea, Buddhism continued
to flourish as the religion of the masses.
Modern Korean Buddhism is, in fact, Zen Buddhism
with a belief in Amitabha Buddha or Maitreya
tinged
Bodhisattva.
Japan has been called the land of Mahayana Buddhism,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
70
This form of Buddhism originally flourished in China and
travelled to Japan via Korea.
Thereafter Buddhism developed through the efforts of both Chinese and Japanese
monks.
It
held
generally
is
by
Japanese
that
scholars
Buddhism first made its appearance in the year 552 A.D.
and that it came from Kudara (Pakche), one of the kingdoms
of Korea.
For our purpose, the historical division
Buddhism can be made as follows:
—
(i)
The period
of
The period
(iii)
The period
15th century to 20th
(The Muromachi,
century A.D.
of
9th century to 14th
(The Heian and Kamakura period.)
of continuation.
period,
7th
6th century to
importation.
of nationalization.
century A.D.
Edo
Japanese
(The Asuka and Nara period.)
century A.D.
(ii)
of
and the modern
(i) The period of importation.
Buddhism in Japan consisted
Momoyama, and
age.)
—The
first
chiefly in
manifestations
adapting
it
to
For this purpose, Buddhist
ancestor
worship
and
admitted, side by side
monks accepted
with the Buddha's image, the gods of Shintoism on the ground
Shintoism, a native cult of Japan.
that these represented the various incarnations of the
Buddha.
In this manner Buddhism was able gradually to establish
among
the
common
people
without
rejecting
itself
Shintoism
outright.
An
made
important advantage was that when Buddhism
first
was introduced along with
culture
of
China.
It was largely
highly
developed
the
because of its cultural character that Buddhism was accepted
by the aristocracy, which was the intellectual class of Japan
Once it was patronized by the aristocracy,
in those days.
Buddhism rapidly spread throughout the country.
Several
emperors ot ancient Japan adopted Buddhism and accepted
Prince Shotoku
its tenets as their guiding principles in life.
<574 621 A.D.), Regent of the Empress Suiko, made a great
its
appearance
in
Japan,
it
—
Buddhism by founding the Horyuji monastery
and by writing commentaries on three scriptures. In fact,
contribution to
1
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
7
he did for Buddhism in Japan what King ASoka had done
for it in India, and what Constantine did for Christianity in
the
Roman
The
Empire.
from China in those days were six
Abhidharma-kosa school), Sanron
(the Three-Treatise school of the Madhyamika), Jojitsu (the
Satyasiddhi-Sastra school), the Kegon (the Avatamsaka
school), Hosso (the Dharma-laksana school) and Ritsu (the
in
sects introduced
number:
Vinaya
Kusha
school).
It
(the
would, however, be better to
Buddhist institutions rather than religious
call these
sects.
—
The period-vf nationalization. The second period of
Japanese Buddhism began with the founding of two new
sects, the Tendai and the Shingon, by Saicho (767—822 A.D.)
and Kukai (774—835 A.D.), respectively. Their object was
to nationalize Buddhist doctrines in order to make Buddhism
a religion of the common people. At the same time, they
aimed at disciplining the monks in Buddhist monasteries who
kept aloof from the everyday world. The dominant feature
of these two sects is that they laid stress not merely on spiritual
salvation, but also on the fulfilment of the doctrine in this
(ii)
world.
By dint of the efforts of both the Tendai and the Shingon
monks, Buddhism became nationalized and gradually gained
in popularity.
However, a number of problems remained to
be solved. The doctrines were still too scholarly to be easily
understood by the common people, who tended to accept
only the superstitions attached to them.
Furthermore, as the
environment changed with the spread of Buddhism, it induced many people to give up this world in order to seek
spiritual rest in the
A
world beyond.
new Buddhist movement
arose in the
10th century
Amitabha Buddha. Many
people were converted to this faith, and they simply recited
the name of Amitabha Buddha with the object of being reborn in his Pure Land. This movement was followed by
independent new sects which also emphasized belief in
Amitabha. The new sects, which arose during the 12th and
A.D.
in
the
form of
belief in
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
72
13th centuries, were as follows: Yuzu-nenbutsu, founded by
Ryonin (1072—1132 A.D.), Jodo, founded by Honen U133—
1212 AD), Jodo-shin, founded by Shinran (1 173— 1262 A.D.),
and the Ji, founded by lppen (1239— 1289 A.D.). The
factors
common
were to be found
in the defini-
in the efforts to purify
and simplify
to these sects
tion of laymanship
and
Owing
both doctrine and practice.
were able
to attract
many
to these features, they
followers from
among
the farmers,
peasants and warriors.
The Kamakura
during which
period,
It
was
also
in
period
this
One was
appearance.
that
came
these sects
into being, coincided with the rise of feudalism
two new
sects
in
Japan.
made
their
the Zen, introduced by Eisai (1141
—
1215 A.D.) and Dogen (1200—1253 A.D.), and the other was
the
Nichiren,
These two
by
founded
Nichiren
sects also shared the
same
(1222—1282
A.D.).
characteristics as those
of the
Pure Land sects mentioned above, although there
was a
remarkable
contradiction
in
One
their principles.
power of others,
the underlying philosophy of Pure Land Buddhism, and the
believed in salvation
through faith
in the
other in the doctrine of salvation through one's
lightenment on which the
Zen and
Zen Buddhism found
based.
its
own
en-
the Nichiren sects are
adherents mainly
among
the warriors, and influenced Japanese culture considerably.
The
of these
rise
acceptance
of
new
Buddhism
sects
by
the
resulted
in
common
the complete
people.
The
various stages of this process are so clearly demarcated that
terms
such
as
nationalization
For
this reason,
signify
history
of Japanese Bud-
modern Japanese
scholars are apt to
epoch-making landmarks
dhism.
and popularization
in
the
draw special attention to the Kamakura period in which
Buddhism was completely absorbed by Japan.
period of continuation. After the Kamakura
(iii) The
period, there was no significant development in Japanese
Buddhism other than the expansion of the various sects.
During the Edo period (1603—1867 A.D.), Buddhism
acquired the character of a national, religion in Japan under
—
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
of
protection
the
the
Tokugawa Shogunate.
73
The
chief
reason for this development was that the Government hoped
thereby to undermine the influence of Christianity upon the
life
of the Japanese people.
came popular, so
In this period.
Buddhism
be-
that towards the close of this era Buddhist
activities took the form of scholarly studies in Buddhism,
which laid the foundation of modern Buddhist studies.
Having lost its protector after the Meiji Restoration in
A.D.,
1868
Buddhism faced
the
support on account of
public
Fortunately, this risk was obviated by the efforts
Shintoism.
of both
risk of being deprived of
the hostility of nationalistic
monks and laymen.
Furthermore, the Government
guaranteed freedom of religion under the Constitution.
the
same
time,
many monks who had
investigated
At
the
of Buddhism scientifically tried to find a *new'
meaning in the 'old' doctrines. It may also be noted that
some Buddhist missionaries went over to America, Hawaii,
and other countries to propagate Buddhism in the light of
modern studies in Buddhism.
doctrines
Tibet (Central)
and Ladakh
That the teachings of Buddhism, wherever they spread,
were able to arouse a new historical consciousness in the
people's minds is nowhere seen so vividly as in Tibet. Just
as Indian history begins to be recorded in writing from the
days of the great Buddhist emperor, Asoka, Tibetan history,
too, begins to
most
gifted
be written down from the reign of Tibet's
Sroh-btsan-sgam-po (born in 617 AD),
ruler,
who first conceived the idea of reducing spoken Tibetan to
a system of alphabetic writing to facilitate the coming of
Buddhism from India into his own country. Cultural contacts of Tibet with the Buddhist world surrounding her,
namely, India, Khotan, Mongolia, China and Burma, must,
however, have been established at least two centuries before
him. According to a plausible Tibetan legend, for instance,
some Buddhist missionaries from India had approached the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
74
Tibetan King, Tho-tho-ri, with presents of Buddhist books,
but had to return disappointed as none at the royal court
make out what they meant, since alphabetic script
was unknown in Tibet! The precocious young prince,
could
from a sense of isolation and inferiomust have felt keenly the urge to find all possible ways
of removing the backwardness of his people, because when
he came to the throne he resolutely increased his military
prestige to such an extent, that King AmSuvarman of Nepal
in the South, and later the powerful Chinese emperor, Taitsung, in the North, thought it wise to seek an alliance with
him and respect his ardent wishes by giving their own royal
princesses to him in marriage.
These two queens, Bhrukuti
of Nepal and Wen-Ch'eng of China, bringing with them
to Lhasa the images of Aksobhya, Maitreya and Sakyamuni
as gifts from their respective homes, greatly helped him
Sroh-btsan, suffering
rity,
achieve his ambition to bring his people to the forefront
of
civilization
by
Buddhism
introducing
before he contracted
into
Tibet.
In
marriages the king
had
taken steps to deserve such high matrimonial alliances.
He
fact,
had
these
Thon-mi Sam-
selected a brilliant Tibetan of his court,
go down to the
bho-ta,
with sixteen
famous
seats of learning in southern India to study Indian
other aspirants, to
epigraphy, phonetics and grammar, and after having mastered these subjects to invent
an alphabetic
Tibetan language, and establish
its
script for the
grammatical structure.
Thon-mi fulfilled the task entrusted to him so well that becomposing eight independent treatises on Tibetan
writing and grammar, he also prepared the first Tibetan
translations of certain Sanskrit Buddhist works, so that he
sides
came
to be recognized for all time
literature.
During
his
lifetime
a& the father of Tibetan
promulgated
Sroh-btsan
harmonize with the Ten Virtues prescribed by
Buddhism. He built the famous temples of Ramoche and
Jokhang in Lhasa, and the grand architecture of the elevenlaws to
storeyed palace, called the Potala, also preserves to this day
the remains of an original smaller structure,
begun by him,
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
in
one of
cultural
lower apartments.
its
Buddhism with some of
its
advances and paraphernalia was thus brought to
Tibet to replace the old animistic and Phon religious
The
75
beliefs.
new Buddhistic era in the history
first great monarch of Tibet, Sron-
credit of ushering in a
of Tibet thus goes to the
btsan-sgam-po,
who was
contemporary of
a
Muhammad,
the
founder of Islam, Emperor Harsa of Kanauj and the famous
pilgrim-scholar,
Yuan Chwang
favourable auspices,
it
wage an
incessant
might have wished.
and arduous struggle
centuries against indigenous
remove old
under
such
did not take root in a foreign soil as
easily or quickly as Sron-btsan
to
of China.
had come to Tibet
Although Buddhism
superstitions,
Phon
beliefs.
It
had
for over three
It
had also
make compromises, adapt
its
to
own
doctrines to the strange customs and traditions which had
come down from time immemorial, and
banishment
when
until the
at last
days of AtiSa
Buddhism may be
1
suffer setbacks
and
in the eleventh century,
said to have truly
become
the
national religion of Tibet.
After Sron-btsan, the establishment of Buddhism as a
State religion occurred
in
the reign of his fifth successor,
(755—797 A.D.), who, in spite of the
powerful Phon officials, was able to invite
Khri-sron-lde-btsan
opposition of his
Nalanda University to Tibet, to
spread the genuine teachings of Indian Buddhism among
Santaraksita 's
his people and introduce regular conversions.
eloquent sermons on the doctrines of the Ten Virtues and
of the Chain of Causal Phenomena, however, fell upon deaf
ears.
Certain natural calamities like storms and epidemics,
which raged at this juncture, were interpreted by his antagonists as being the result of his perverse teachings, and
the King had to advise him to leave Tibet for some time to
the learned Santaraksita of
escape the anger and prejudice of the masses. The Indian
was wise enough to see that only a man well versed in
teacher
and beliefs of Tantrism could
make some impression on the people, steeped as they seemed
the
esoteric
1.
methods
Alto written Atfla.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
76
Accordingly,
to be in primitive sorcery and charlatanism.
he recommended that Padmasambhava, the powerful apostle
of Tantrism, should be invited from Urgyan in the Swat
Valley to repay the oppositionists in their
own
coin, until he
could return to Tibet to complete his mission of re-establishing faith in the enlightened teachings of
the great respect in
of
Padmasambhava
them) to
in
this
this
day
is
undertaking.
the reign
of
Buddhism; and
which the Tibetans hold the memory
(otherwise called Guru Rinpoche by
a testimony of the success he attained
Among
other outstanding events of
Khri-srori-lde-btsan
may be mentioned
his vic-
tory over the Chinese armies, celebrated in a pillar inscrip-
and the foundation of the first
on the model of the
Another was the preparation of the
Udyantapuri in Bihar
first catalogue of the translated Buddhist works in the Ldandkar palace and a reorganization of the translation activity
on sound lines by Santaraksita after his return to Tibet,
where he died towards the end of the eighth century A.D.
after lone and distinguished missionary service.
After the
tion in front of the Potala
great Tibetan monastery at Bsam-yas
death of Santaraksita,
who always emphasized
the constructive
aspect of the Buddhist teachings, the nihilistic traditions of
Buddhist philosophy propagated by some Chinese monks
seem to have gained the upper hand in Tibet, and to meet
their challenge the King invited Santaraksita's able disciple
and commentator, Kamalaslla from Nalanda, to deal with
them.
A debate was held between the two parties in the
presence of the King, and Kamala&la was declared to have
won.
The feelings among the defeated partisans of the
Chinese philosopher
monk
were,
however, so embittered
was murdered. His body was empreserved in a monastery to the north of
that the Indian scholar
balmed and is still
Lhasa. King Khri-srori-lde-btsan, who for his prowess and
learning was regarded by his countrymen as an incarnation
of Manju&rl, died broken-hearted soon afterwards, leaving the
heritage
and
of
kingdom to his sensitive
Mu-ne-btsan-po. The Buddhist teachings
a powerful Buddhist
idealistic son,
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
77
of mercy and equality had so touched the heart of this
imaginative prince that, as soon as he came to the throne,
he began
among
distribute wealth equally
to
his subjects.
His plan did not work satisfactorily because dignity of work
had not been given due importance, and inequalities inevitably crept
After a brief period of unpopular
again.
in
own
him and set up his
on the throne. He is known
to have given a fresh impetus to the work of translating
Indian works into Tibetan by patronizing the composition
regime,
his
brother,
Khri-lde-sron-btsan,
and
poisoned
relations
of
publication
the
Sanskrit-Tibetan
first
dictionary
called the Mahavyutpatti (circa 814 A.D.).
named his younger son, Ral-pa-chen
own successor, in preference to his elder
Khri-lde-sron-btsan
(816 — 838 A.D.),
son,
his
Ral-pa-chen
Glari-dar-ma.
countrymen as the
golden
the
age
is
remembered
by
his
third great royal protector of religion in
Buddhism.
Tibetan
of
Buddhism was
so extraordinary that he
take monastic
vows,
gave
various
His devotion
made
his
kinds of
to
young son
and
privileges
administrative authority to the priesthood and even allowed
long locks of hair to be used as a mat by the Buddhist
his
abbots sitting around him to deliver religious sermons.
Ral-
pa-chen extended the boundaries of his kingdom, and the
first
history of Tibet
came
Monarchical rule
Buddhism,
wards
its
pa-chen came
Tibet.
had
which
to
be written under his patronage.
Tibet, as well
hitherto
to
elder
be
murdered
brother,
as the
contributed
prosperity, suffered a setback,
superseded
came
in
prestige
of
much
to-
when one day
Ral-
by the supporters of
Glan-dar-ma.
to the throne as a professed
Buddhist images were
so
enemy
The
of
latter
his
then
Buddhism
buried, monasteries
in
closed,
banned and monks forced to return to
the life of laymen on pain of banishment from the country.
Such excesses created deep resentment everywhere, and retribution came when one day a monk quietly rode up to the
religious ceremonies
king and killed him with a well-aimed dart (841 A.D.).
Glan-dar-ma 's ruthless suppression of Buddhism, which
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
78
resulted in this violent
outburst of public feeling, marks:
a
the
period
decisive
inasmuch as
in
annals
Tibetan
of
politics,
sounded the death knell of monarchical rule
it
The banished priesthood returned to central Tibet
and became more powerful than ever. The weak succes-
in Tibet.
lost their hold on their dependencies
and disintegration set in. Finally, the son of the last king
of Lhasa, Dpal-hkhor-btsan (906—23 A.D.), took farewell of
the capital and migrated to western Tibet, where he estab-
sors of Glaii-dar-ma
an
lished himself as
independent
control
and
Among
the successors of
later
these
distinguished
several
find
ruler.
He
brought the
Spurang and Guge under his
distributed them among his
three sons.
Ladakh,
three districts of
three
rulers,
Buddhism burning vigorously
who
royal
kept
branches,
we
the
of
light
by patronizing learned monks, sending Tibetan scholars to Kashmir to
study the latest developments in Buddhist doctrine, and
furthering
the
of important
translation
One
texts into Tibetan.
in western Tibet
Sanskrit
Buddhist
among
of the most distinguished
them was Hkhor-lde (also known as Jfianaprabha). He
renounced his throne in favour of his younger brother to
become a monk along with his two sons and played an
important part in persuading the great Acarya AtiSa (otherwise called DTpaiikara Srljiiana) of the Vikramasila monastery
in Bihar to come and live as a teacher of Buddhism
in
Tibet.
to
have
In
the
brought
may
century A.D., Atifci
11th
the
last
great
spiritual
be said
impetus
from
Buddhism struck deep roots in
and thenceforward flourished as an indigenous
and philosophical thought.
religious
The
India, with the result that
Tibetan
mode
soil
of
successors of
Tibet,
Tibetan
through
kings
various
continued to rule in western
political
vicissitudes
which
that
part of Tibet underwent, and the direct descendants of the
mighty Sron-btsan-sgam-po, the
in
Lhasa,
The
still
life
to be dealt
live in
first historical
ruler of Tibet
Ladakh.
and work of Ati& in Tibet are too important
with summarily and have therefore been dis-
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
cussed separately. 1
From
Buddhism
Tibetan
time
into
he
the
developed
came
different
79
to
Tibet,
indigenous
In relation to these, the earlier heterogenous and
schools.
unreformed type of Buddhism came to be called Rnin-mapa or the Old School with four main sub-sects. The
followers of this school worship
Padmasambhava
as their
founder and guru, believe in the fulfilment of both the divine
and the demoniacal, and are generally recognized as such
by
red
their
caps.
Yogacara
upon
AtiSa's reformed teachings, based
founded by Maitreya and Asahga,
led to the establishment of the Bkah-gdams-pa school by
his Tibetan disciple, Hbrom-ston.
It took a synthetic view
of the teachings of both the Hinayana and Mahayana, enforced celibacy upon the monks and discouraged magic
the
practices.
It
was on the authoritative
the great
that
A.D.
sect,
much
elaborate
its
the
Dge-lugs-pa
which purified
Dgah-ldan-pa)
of
basis of this doctrine
Tibetan reformer, Tson-kha-pa, founded
century
14th
the
traditions
ritualism
the religious succession of the Dalai
Two
is
now
called
Bkah-gdams-pa of
and today dominates
the
Tibetan Buddhism, both temporally and
fourteenth
(originally
in
spiritually,
Lamas, of
through
whom
the
the head of this theocracy.
other schools, closely allied with the Bkah-gdams-
outlook came to be founded in the
latter half of the 11th century A.D., namely Bkah-rgyud-pa
pa but with a
less ascetic
and Sa-skya-pa.
The Bkah-rgyud-pa (Oral Traditionalism) was founded by the Tibetan Lama Mar-pa, a friend of Ati$a and a
disciple of the Indian Tantrist, Naropa, of Nalanda University.
It
has some
affinities
with the
Dhyana
school,
to
which most of the Northern Buddhists of Japan and China
belong at present, and among its distinguished representatives
is
Mi-la-ras-pa, the great hermit poet of Tibet,
who
was initiated in the mysteries of supernatural powers by
Mar-pa himself. The Bkah-rgyud-pa later divided itself
into several sub-sects, two of which, namely, Karma-pa and
1.
See Chapter IX.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
SO
may
Hbrug-pa,
Karma-pa
the
be specially mentioned.
The
Rari-byun-rdo-rje
was
called
his birth as the spiritual successor of the
called Karma-bak-si,
sect,
who had
third
Head
of
recognized at
second Head of the
died two years earlier.
came
Lama, the
Since this incident the practice of spiritual succession
Thus,
into vogue.
Panchan Lama and
in
the selection of the Dalai
others, a recognized incarnation succeeds
to the office instead of a hereditary successor or disciple.
Karma-pa
Nepal
in
The
Sikkim and its followers
the Karmika.
The second sub-sect,
particularly strong in
is
are
called
Hbrug-pa (or the Thunderer), spread its doctrines so vigorously in Bhutan that the country adopted its Tibetan name for
its
own
people.
The second
school, Sa-skya-pa, derives
Earth" from the colour of the
was
built in 1071
Sa-skya-pa
was
A.D. on the
even
more
soil
site
where
name "Grey
its
its
first
monastery
of the present Sa-skya.
The
with" the
old
related
closely
Rniri-ma-pa school than the Bkah-rgyud-pa and the
of this sect were not celibate either.
They sought
monks
a synthesis
between the old and the new Tantrism on the basis of
Nagarjuna's Madhyamika philosophy and had already developed into a powerful hierarchy before the
rise of the great
Tsoh-kha-pa.
Greatly
devoted
excellent proselytizers
Mongol emperors
to
learning,
they
when they came
in the 13th
proved
themselves
into contact with the
century A.D.
One
of the dis-
became the
Mongolia,
of
Khubilai
who, on
spiritual teacher of Prince
coming to the throne as the first Mongol emperor of China,
conferred the sovereignty of central Tibet upon the High
This was the beginning of
Priest of Sa-skya (1270 A.D.).
tinguished Sa-skya hierarchs, called Hphags-pa,
The Sa-skya-pa produced many eminent Tibetan scholars, among whom the
famous Bu-ston (1290—1364 A.D.) ranks high. He was
a
new
not
era of theocratic rule in Tibet.
only a
renowned commentator of fundamental Budand an authoritative historian, but also the
dhist treatises
first
collector
of
all
the
existing
Tibetan translations of
1
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
8
He arranged them systematically into two
comprehensive groups, called the Bkah-hgyur (the Word of
the Buddha) in 100 volumes, and the Bstan-hgyur (the
Treatises) in 225 volumes.
These have come down to us as
Buddhist works.
the Tibetan Buddhist Canon.
torian
a sect
With the
pa.
in the
Taranatha, the Tibetan
his-
and author (born in 1573 A.D.), also belonged to
called Jo-nang, which was an offshoot of the Sa«skyarise of the great reformer,
province of
Amdo
may be
in
Tsoh-kha-pa, born
1358 A.D., the modern age of
With striking
powers of organization and comprehensive intelligence, he
set himself the task of removing all deviations and super
Tibetan Buddhism
said to have begun.
and establishing a strong order of Buddhist
monks, based on sound learning, discipline and celibacy,
stitious beliefs
which came
to be recognized as the Dge-lugs-pa (the 'School
of the Virtuous', popularly described as the Yellow Hats).
In
1408
he
founded,
not
far
from Lhasa, the Ganden
monastery, where he worked for some years and died
A,D.
The other two
great monasteries.
near Lhasa, and Tashi-lhumpo,
in
Depung and
1419
Sera,
Tsang province, share
power and prestige. They
in the
between them the highest religious
were all founded by his disciples within
the
next
fifty
These centres of learning continued the work of
religious propagation in Mongolia and Siberia so ably and
enthusiastically that after the power of the pioneering Saskya-pas had dwindled through internal feuds and rivalries,
years.
the Dge-lugs-pas
came
to be favoured
chieftains as spiritual leaders
and
by the powerful Mongol
later as
temporal rulers of
Tibet,
When he met
mtso 0546—1587 A.D.), the ruler of Thumed Mongolia,
Altan Khan, became convinced that both of them were respectively the teacher Hphags-pa and his disciple, the great
emperor Khubilai Khan, in their former births and immediately recognized the former as the veritable Tate (i.e.,
Thenceforth,
Dalai, Tib. rgya-mtso) meaning 'the ocean'.
all the hierarchs came to be recognized as Dalai Lamas.
their third hierarch, Bsod-nams-rgya-
The most
distinguished of
them was the Great
Fifth Dalai
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
82
Lama
(1615
— 1680 A.D.), upon whom the sovereignty of the
whole country was conferred by the Mongolian chief, Gusri
Khan, who finally wiped out all opposition from Tsang and
the other provinces of Tibet.
After the preceding period
of about seventy years, during which the High Priests of
Sa-skya reigned as kings over a small part of the country,
the recognition of the
Lama
Dalai
full
and divine sovereignty of the
over the whole of Tibet must be considered as
a turning point
in Tibetan history.
Sanskrit books on grammar, medicine, and other subjects continued to be trans-
lated into Tibetan under the rule of this able
travelled Dalai
Lama.
and widely
His chief Minister, Sans-rgyas-rgya-
mtso, succeeded in keeping his death a secret for several
years in the interests of public welfare, and conducted the
affairs of the state in his name so efficiently that he is remembered as one of the wisest statesmen Tibet has ever produced.
The Seventh Dalai Lama (1708—1758 A.D.) was
known for his deep learning, tolerance and asceticism. His
reign was marked by the visits of Capuchin and Jesuit mission-
aries
to
Lhasa, but religious and cultural relations with
India seem at this
period to have fallen into
oblivion,
mainly because of foreign domination and the consequent
disappearance of the old order in India
itself.
Hereafter
follows in Tibetan history a period of isolation and political intrigue
down
and of
short-lived Dalai
to the present age of
Lamas
until
we come
Asian reawakening, of Indian
independence and of a revaluation of the ancient ideals of
Buddhism, which have nourished the life instincts of Tibet
throughout her chequered career of over thirteen centuries.
Nepal
As
the
home
Nepal occupies
of Sakyamuni,
a
unique
countries of the world.
was born (544 B.C.)
he
position
among
the
Buddhist
Gautama, the son of a Sakya- prince,
LumbinI, about 15 miles from his
at
father's residence in the
in life,
the founder of Buddhism,
Nepalese city of Kapilavastu.
left his father's
kingdom
Early
in search of Truth. After
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
he had attained enlightenment at
his first
sermon
at Sarnath,
Bodh Gaya, he
83
delivered
and subsequently returned home
own kinsmen, among whom
son Rahula became one of his earliest converts. In this
brief reference to Nepal, it may be mentioned that in the
3rd century B.C. ASoka, while yet a prince, is reported to
to declare his revelation to his
his
have successfully quelled a rebellion among one of the
races of Nepal and restored peace and order.
His later
visit to Lumbini and the erection of an inscribed pillar to
commemorate
Buddha
the sacred birth-place of the
important landmark in the history of Buddhism,
his daughter,
Carumati,
is
is
an
Thereafter,
said to have married a Nepalese
and built several
Nepal, of which there are
nobleman,
and
stupas
monasteries
remnants.
still
in
In the early
centuries of the Christian era, the disciplinary rules appli-
cable
the
to
monks
Buddhism
in
life in this
country.
in
the
Mula-sarvastivada
school
of
Nepal reveal certain special concessions in
view of the rigid climatic conditions of that region, which
is indicative of the wide prevalence of Buddhist monastic
The
great Buddhist philosopher of the
4th century A.D., Acarya Vasubandhu,
is
also said to have
Nepal in order to propagate his own doctrine.
Nepal seems to have attained real prominence as a strong
the
supporter and propagator of the Buddhist faith from
gave
He
days of King Aip£uvarman in the 7th century A.D.
visited
his
daughter in marriage to the
Sron-btsam-sgam-po, and
first
among
powerful king of Tibet,
the batch of pioneers
who
undertook to translate Sanskrit Buddhist works into Tibetan under the latter's patronage, the name of a Nepalese
pandita, Silamafiju,
$ita
(8th
and 9th
is
In the age of Santarak-
mentioned.
centuries A.D.) strong
ties,
of religious and
cultural friendship appear to have developed between these
two
countries.
In the succeeding centuries,
invasions of Bihar and Bengal
devastation
of
the
rich
when Muslim
resulted in the wholesale
Buddhist
monasteries
of
those
Buddhist monks found a safe refuge in Nepal.
They took with them a large number of valuable manus-
regions,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
84
cripts,
teries
day.
some of which
and even
closer cultural
still
found
also
their
way
to the
monas-
where they are carefully preserved to this
In the intervening centuries, Nepal probably developed
in Tibet,
political ties with the western
parts of Tibet, but this period of history has not yet been
For centuries Nepal has served as a
on both sides of
the mid-Himalayan range, and until recently the normal
road of communication between India and Tibet led
sufficiently explored.
cultural link between the regions, lying
through Nepal, via Kyirong.
Buddhism had dwindled in India, the popular
form of Nepalese Buddhism gradually shed some of its
After
original characteristics, such as monastic
life,
and discouragement of
mysteries, thus becoming effete as a distinct
caste
distinctions,
Until recently, four
with
several
main
sub-sects,
sects of
own
expressed in two ways,
(involution);
(2)
religious
Buddhist philosophy, each
all
i.e.,
pravrtti
(evolution)
and
its
faith
(1)
things in
ultimate characteristic which
AiSvarika, which puts
God, who
all
spiritual force.
have been prominent, namely,
Svabhavika, which emphasizes the fact that
the world have their
opposition to
and
in
is
nivrtti
a
self-
Karmika, which
believes in a conscious moral effort through which the
world-phenomenon is developed on the fundamental basis
of avidya; and (4) Yatrika, which believes in the existence
of conscious intellectual agency and free will. This repreexistent
is
perfect
infinite; (3)
an almost complete fusion of various philosophical
trends which originated in India and Tibet under the in-
sents
Hinduism and Buddhism. 1
Thus Nepal, lying under the shadow of some of the tallest
peaks of the Himalayas, claims to be a source of great spiritual inspiration and has prized freedom and tolerance above
fluence of both
everything.
1.
Of late, a revival of Buddhist
studies of the Theravada school has taken
place in Nepal and under the auspices of the Dharraodaya Sabha, Buddhist
monks from Ceylon, or Nepalese monks trained in Ceylon, have taken an
active lead in the propagation of their faith.
local dialect translations of several
They have published
popular sutras from Pali literature.
in the
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
85
C. In Southern Countries
Ceylon
According to the tradition preserved in the Ceylonese
the great emperor Asoka (c. 273—236 B.C.)
organized a network of missions to preach the gospel of the
1
Chronicles,
and outside India. He sent his son (or brother)
Thera Mahendra, together with four others, to Lanka or
Ceylon, and they preached the teachings of Gautama
Buddha to king Devanampiyatissa (247 207 B.C.) and his
attendants.
The king and the people of Ceylon were deeply impressed by the new gospel and accepted Buddhism.
Its
progress was phenomenal.
Hundreds of thousands of men
and women embraced the new faith and thousands entered
the Sahgha and adopted the life of bhiksus.
Monasteries
were erected on all sides and rich endowments were made
Buddha
in
—
for their upkeep.
Queen Anuja and a number
of
women
also expressed the desire to receive the pabbajja ordination
But as no monk was allowed to do
for them, emissaries were sent to Emperor Asoka to send
and enter the Sarigha.
this
some distinguished nuns to help them. So Sanghamitra, the
of Mahendra, who had received ordination, was sent
sister
to Ceylon.
Two
great
events
in
the
early history of
a deep impression and
Ceylon
left
among
millions of
its
votaries.
still
Buddhism
in
evoke pious enthusiasm
The
transplantation of a
branch of the Bodhi tree under which Gautama attained
Buddhahood was a happy idea of A£oka. This served as an
inspiration to the people who had recently embraced the
Buddhist religion.
The second event was the bringing
more than 500 years later.
of
the Buddha's tooth from India
Thus, within a short time, the whole of the island of
Ceylon became a stronghold of Buddhism, a position which
1. There is no unanimity among scholars regarding the dates of the
various kings mentioned in this section. The dates given are taken from
the History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol. II—IV (Bombay)*
where the different views are discussed, and reasons given for adopting a
particular date.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
g6
she
retains after
still
the lapse of
more than two thousand
>ears.
The Great Stupa was
gamani
(101
— 77
built during the reign of Duttha-
and
B.C.)
assembly of Buddhist monks
monasteries in India.
a
before
large
list
of names, with other details,
is
Mahavaipsa.
jjiven in the
The
The
consecrated
who had come from well-known
reign of Vaftagamani
(c.
29
— 17 B.C.)
is
an important
Buddhism in Ceylon. Up to this
time the sacred scriptures of Buddhism, as originally recited
by Mahendra, were committed to memory and preserved as
oral traditions.
Arrangements were now made to commit
them to writing, and five hundred reciters and scribes were
employed for the purpose. The Pali Tripitaka, which was the
landmark
in the history of
still survives as the sacred canon of
which the original disappeared long ago from India without
leaving any trace.
result of their labour,
It
is
impossible to overrate the influence exercised by
Buddhism
in
civilization
were derived from
Ceylon.
language of Ceylon and
Practically
still
it.
her whole culture and
Pali
became the
holds that position.
literary
Ceylonese
was an offshoot of Indian literature, and the art
architecture, sculpture and painting
was derived
from India. The Ceylonese alphabet also came from India.
On the other hand, the Buddhist world owes a great debt
to Ceylon.
As mentioned above, the Pali Canon has been
preserved in its entirety in this island and Ceylonese
Buddhism had great influence upon Burma, Cambodia, Siam
and Laos, the only other countries where Theravada Buddhism
Ceylon was not, however, merely a passive
flourishes today.
recipient it contributed to the development of Buddhism
literature
of Ceylon
through
—
its
—
Commentaries. 1
Burma
According to the tradition preserved
Chronicles, two Buddhist monks,
1.
Bee Chapter IX.
in
the Ceylonese
named Sona and
Uttara,
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
87
were sent by Emperor ASoka to preach Buddhism in Suvarnabhumi, which is generally identified wkh Burma. There is,
however, no reliable evidence to show that Sona and Uttara
were actually sent as missionaries by Asoka, and the location
of Suvajria-bhumi is also not beyond dispute. For, while
some identify it with Burma, others place it in Siam or take
it to denote, broadly, the whole of Indo-China.
Barring the story of Uttara and Sona there is no other
evidence that Buddhism flourished in Burma before the
fifth century A.D. Considering the close proximity of Burma
to India, and the existence of not too difficult land routes
between the two even before the Christian era, the possibility is not altogether excluded that Buddhism found its
way
to
century
Burma even
A.D.
before, perhaps long before, the fifth
But from
this
period
onwards there are
definite records to prove not only the existence but also the
flourishing state of
of the Pyus
known
Theravada Buddhism
as Sriksetra with
its
in the old
kingdom
capital near
Prome,
modern Hmawza.
about five
remains
at Hmawza,
The archaeological
miles from modern Prome, and the Chinese accounts leave
no doubt that the Theravada form of Buddhism with Pali
canonical texts was introduced in the region round Prome
the ruins of which
lie
not later than the
fifth
in
century A.D. by Indian missionaries
Deccan and South
India.
But side by side we also find traces of MGlasarvastivada and Mahayanism which probably came from
who came from
the eastern coast of the
eastern India.
There are good grounds for supposing that the Theravada
form of Buddhism also flourished among the Hinduizcd
Mons or Talaings settled in Pegu (Haipsavati), Thaton
(SudhammavatT) and other neighbouring regions
collectively
known as Ramafina-desa. Some
century A.D. Thaton became a very important centre of this
religion.
Earlier still, the Mrammas, a Tibeto-Dravidian
time before the eleventh
had established a powerful kingdom with its capital at
Pagan and given their name to the whole country. The
tribe,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
88
Mrammas were a rude, unlettered people, and a debased
form of Tantric Buddhism flourished among them. In 1044
A.D. a new king, Anawratha (Aniruddha), ascended the
throne of Pagan and was converted to the pure Theravada
form by a Talaing monk of Thaton named Arhan, also
known as Dharma-dar£i. The new king, with the help of
Arhan and a few other monks from Thaton, led a crusade
against the debased religion
and established Theravada on a
There was, however, great need of canonical
Aniruddha sent messengers to Manuha, the king of
Thaton, asking for complete copies of the Tripitaka. Manuha
having refused, Aniruddha marched with his army and
captured Thaton. He returned in triumph and brought back
with him not only king Manuha captive, but all the monks,
firm footing.
texts.
and the Buddhist
and relics which were carried by
Never was a victor more completely
captivated by the culture of the vanquished.
The Burmese
of Pagan adopted the religion, language, literature and script
Aniruddha and his successors became the great
of the Mons.
champions of the Theravada form of Buddhism, and along
scriptures
thirty-two elephants.
with their political authority
The Brahmanical
Burma.
it
extended over the whole of
had prevailed there
religion that
gradually yielded to Buddhism, which even
over the whole country without any
now
flourishes
rival.
With the zeal of a new convert Aniruddha built numerous
pagodas or temples and monasteries, and his example was
followed by his successors. He also brought complete copies
of the Tripitaka from Ceylon and Arhan collated these
with the texts from Thaton. Aniruddha's son, Kyanzittha,
followed in the footsteps of his father and built the famous
Ananda temple
An
at Pagan.
of Buddhism
in
A.D. of a Simhalese
important episode in the history
Burma was
the establishment in 1181-82
order of monks founded by Capata
tion in
those of
Ceylon.
Burma
who
received his ordina-
The Ceylonese monks did not
as validly ordained
shared by Capata and his followers.
and
The
this
consider
feeling
rivalry
was
between
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
the Simhala Sangha and the
and ended
three centuries
Mramma
in the final
89
Sangha continued for
triumph of the former.
The Malay Peninsula
A
large
parts of the
number of inscriptions discovered
Malay Peninsula are written in
in
different
Sanskrit and
AD.
in the Indian alphabets of the fourth or fifth century
At least three of these definitely refer to the Buddhist creed
and thus prove the spread of Buddhism in that region. But
the most important of all the remains are found at Nakhon
Sri Tammarat (Ligor). It was an essentially Buddhist colony
that constructed the great stupa,
Part of the
there.
which
is
still
to be
found
temples which surround the stupa
fifty
also probably belong to a very early period.
Mahayana Buddhism
sixth century A.D.,
if
flourished
not earlier.
scribed clay tablet found near
to
It
in
This
region
this
is
the
in
proved by an
Keddah which may be
in-
assigned
on palaeographical grounds.
contains three Sanskrit verses embodying some philosophithe
century
sixth
cal doctrines of the
A.D.
Mahayana
Two
school.
of these three
verses have been traced in the Chinese translations of a
num-
ber of texts of the
Madhyamika
found together
a Chinese translation of the Sagaramati-
pariprccha
till
1
in
school,
and
all
the three are
(Nanjio 976).
Mahayana Buddhism continued to
the 8th century A.D., possibly much
flourish in this region
later.
An
inscription
found at Ligor refers to the construction of three brick
temples for Buddhist gods and of five stupas by the king and
priests.
The stupas were built in the Saka year 697 which
is
equivalent to 775 A.D.
Siam (Thailand)
Buddhism
flourished in Siam,
now
called Thailand, from
a very early period, about the first or second century A.D.
if not earlier.
This is proved by archaeological finds at Pong
Tuk and Phra Pathom. Phra Pathom is about 30 miles
1.
JQIS,
Vol. VIII, p.
2.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
90
west of Bangkok, and Pong
to the west.
Remains of a
Tuk
lies
the Buddha, inscribed terra cottas
Buddhism
like the
about 20 miles farther
religious structure, the images of
and
symbols of
definite
dharmacakra, belonging probably to the
or second century A.D., have been found in these places.
first
To
a somewhat later period belong the large number of
ruined sanctuaries and some fine sculptures which indicate
the strong influence of the
Gupta
referred to the Dvaravati school.
ing
kingdom
at the time of
half of the seventh century
period.
These have been
Dvaravati was a flourish-
Yuan Chwang,
i.e..
in the first
A.D.
About the eighth or ninth century A.D., both Siam and
Laos formed part of Kambuja (Cambodia) politically and
were influenced by the religious condition of that country.
So both the Brahmanical religion and Buddhism can be found
flourishing side by side in all these regions.
About the
middle of the thirteenth century A.D., the Thais made them-
Siam and Laos and put an end to the politisupremacy of the Cambodians over them. Under the
influence of the Thai rulers, Buddhism of the Theravada
selves masters of
cal
all over Siam and
Thai king, Sn SuryavamSa Rama MahaDharmikarajadhiraja was not only a great patron of Buddhism, but himself adopted the life of a Buddhist monk,
school and the Pali language flourished
The
Laos.
preaching the doctrines of the Buddha all over his kingdom.
About 1361 A.D., he sent some learned bhikkhus and
scholars to Ceylon and induced the great monk called
Mahasami Sangharaja to come to Siam. Under his inspiration and the active efforts of the king, Buddhism and P^li
literature not
to a
only obtained a firm footing, but also spread
number of small Hinduized
called
grama,
Laos,
such
as
Unmarga-sila,
Many
of these
Pali.
From
still
this
Khmerrastra,
Yonakarastra,
and
now
Suvarna-
Haripunjaya.
possess their local chronicles written in
time onwards, Buddhism flourished in Siam
and Brahmanism declined until
almost disappeared, leaving only a few traces in public
and the neighbouring
it
states in the territory
AJavira§{ra,
regions,
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
ceremonies and customs1
91
.
Kambuja (Cambodia)
The
archaeological
finds
and the Chinese Chronicles
fifth century A.D. Buddhism
prove that from the end of the
Cambodia, though it did not occupy a domiit was less popular than some forms of
Brahmanical religion like &ivism.
The great emperor,
Yatovarman, who ruled at the end of the ninth century
A.D., established a SaugataSrama which was specially meant
for the Buddhist monks, and elaborate regulations were laid
down for the guidance oT this asrama or hermitage.
King Jayavarman VII (1181—circa 1220 A.D.) was a
devout Buddhist and received the posthumous title, Mahaflourished in
nant position, as
parama-saugata.
The
records of his reign express beautifully
the typical Buddhist view of
role
His
was magni-
3
A
Sanskrit
interesting
queen.
1.
particularly the feelings of
the founding of religious institutions
in
ficent.
life,
and compassion towards the whole universe.
charity
It
by Ceylon
It
is
inscription
information
is
said
of
Jayavarman
about the religious
that
when Jayavarman
interesting to note here that although
VII gives us
mood
first
of
his
went to
Siam was deeply influenced
debt in some measure when,
messenger to the king of Siam
in respect of its religion, it repaid its
about 1750 A.D., the king of Ceylon sent a
and the latter sent golden and silver images of the Buddha, copies of sacred
texts and a number of monks. It is clear that at that time Ceylon recognized
Siam to be a country where Buddhism prevailed in a much purer form.
2. The account of royal donations contained in the Ta Prohm Ins*
cription of Jayavarman VII makes interesting reading and reveals the magnitude of the resources and depth of religious sentiments of the king. It
concerns the Rajavihara, i.e., the temple of Ta Prohm and its adjuncts where
the king set up an image of his mother as Prajfca-paramita. It is not possible
Altogether
here to record all the details, but a few facts may be noted.
66,625 people were employed in the service of the deities of the temple and
3,400 villages were given for defraying its expenses. There were 439 professors and 970 scholars studying under them, making a total of 1,409 whose
food and other daily necessities of life were supplied. There were altogether
$66 groups of stone and 288 groups of brick houses. Needless to say, the
Other articles, of which a minute list is given, were in the same proportion,
[Continued on next page
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
92
Campa,
showed her conjugal fidelity
by undergoing austerities of diverse types and of long
duration.
She was then initiated to Buddhism by her elder
It is said that she performed a ceremony by which
sister.
she could see before her the image of her absent husband.
When her husband returned, she increased her pious and
his wife, Jayarajadevi,
These included a dramatic performance,
was drawn from the Jatakas and which was
acted by a body of nuns recruited from among castaway
charitable works.
the plot of which
giris.
1
Buddhism continued
to
flourish
in
Kambuja
in
the
must be remembered, however,
that up to this time, although Buddhism was in a flourishing condition, it was neither the State religion, nor even the
dominant religious sect in the country. There is no definite
information as to when Buddhism attained this position.
But the change was undoubtedly due to the influence of the
Thais of Siam, who, as already mentioned, were ardent
Buddhists, and had conquered a large part of Cambodia.
Whereas, in the earlier period, Siam was influenced by
Cambodia, the role was now reversed, and Cambodia, under
the influence of the Thais, was converted, almost wholeEven the Brahmanical gods in the great
sale, to Buddhism.
sanctuaries like Angkor Vat were replaced by Buddhist
thirteenth century
We
images.
A.D.
It
cannot trace the exact stages of
Kambuja and today
there
is
festivities
quantities of gold
and 4,540 other precious stones.
of temples.
and 102
And
some of
the ceremonies
of the people of Kambuja.
and they included huge
pearls
in
hardly any trace of Brahmanical
religion in the country, except in
and
this conversion,
gradually Buddhism became the dominant creed
but,
and
silver, 3.5
diamonds, 40,620
All these relate to a single group
the inscription informs us that there were 798 temples
kingdom, and these were given every year
hospitals in the whole
117,200 khdrikdsof rice, each khdrifcd being equivalent to 3 maunds 8 seers.
In conclusion, the king expresses the hope that by his pious donations, his
mother might be delivered from the ocean of births (bhavdbdht). For the
text of this inscription containing 145 Sanskrit verses, see Kambuja Inscription*
by R.
1.
Majumdar (published by The Asiatic
Kambuia InscriptionMjp. 517.
O.
Society, Calcutta), pp. 460
ff.
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
Cam pa
93
(Viet-Nam)
The southern
part of the territory lying
coast of the Indo-Chinese
peninsula,
called
on the
eastern
Annam, now
name evidently
Viet-Nam, was formerly known as Campa, a
given to it by its Hindu colonists. That Buddhism had
obtained a footing in the country before the third century
A.D. may be inferred from the discovery of a fine bronze
Buddha image of the Amaravati school which may be dated
about that period. We learn from a Chinese chronicle that
when
the Chinese captured the capital
city
of
Campa
605 A.D., they carried away 1,350 Buddhist works.
this
can be inferred that Buddhism
the country for a considerable period
important statement,
must have flourished
in
it
before the seventh century A.D.
Campa
in
From
I-tsing
remarks
that
in
the Buddhists generally belong to the Aryasammitiya
and that there are a few followers of the Sarvastivada
school also.
This would mean the prevalence of the
Sravakayana sect, but it appears from inscriptions of the
school,
eighth century A.D. or thereabouts, that the
Mahayana
sect
of Buddhism was powerful in Campa, and possibly even the
Tantric forms, later offshoots of the Mahayana, also
prevailed
there.
Occasionally,
patronage of kings and high
Buddhism
officials
enjoyed
the
and we have the ruins
of a great Buddhist establishment at a place called
Dong
Duong, including a temple and a monastery built by King
Jaya Indravarman in 875 A.D.
Buddhism of the Mahayana form continued as a living
force in Campa right up to the fifteenth century A.D., when
the country was overrun by the Annamites from the North.
The Annamites formerly lived in Tonkin and derived their
So the Chinese form of Buddhism,
culture from China.
along with Islam, replaced the old religion in Campa.
Indonesia
Buddhism had very
little
hold on the
people
of
the-
of Java at the beginning of the 5th century A.D.
Fa-hien, who visited this island (c. 414 A.D.). observes
island
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
94
that while other forms of religion, particularly
flourished in this island,
tioning".
thanks
But,
"Buddhism
the
to
in
it is
missionary
Brahmanism.
not worth menzeal
of
Guna-
1
varman (an Indian monk) , Buddhism was not only introduced but obtained a stronghold on the island in less than
a quarter of a century after Fa-hien's
Buddhism
was
Sumatra, particularly
usually
identified
inscriptions
found
in the
in
this
Sri-vijaya in the years 683
famous Chinese
kingdom of
Palembang.
with
visit.
introduced early in the island of
also
It
which is
appears from some
Sri-vijaya,
who
ruled
—684 A.D. was a Buddhist.
The
region that the king
traveller, I-tsing,
who
visited
India in the
last ^quarter of the seventh century A.D., says that the king
of
Sri-vijaya, as well
as the rulers of neighbouring states,
favoured Buddhism, and that Sri-vijaya was a very important
centre of Buddhist learning in the islands of southern Asia.
The Buddhist priests in Sn-vijaya numbered more than a
thousand and they studied all the subjects as in Madhyadcfe
(India).
I-tsing
spent
some time
in Sri-vijaya in order to
study Buddhist scriptures and he has
left
a very interesting
account of the popularity of Buddhism in the islands of the
Southern Sea, consisting of more than ten countries. He
"Buddhism
and other smaller islands, and mostly / the system of the Hinayana is adopted except in Malayu
(Sri-vijaya) where there are a few who belong to the
Mahayana".
gives a
is
list
embraced
of these ten countries and states that
in all these
The importance of Indonesia
Buddhism from the seventh till the
Gunavarman
as
a
great
centre
eleventh century A.D.
of
is
belonged to a royal family of India and, taking to the
a Buddhist monk, he visited the island of Java. At first
the Queen Mother was converted to Buddhism and, gradually, the king and
the people adopted the religion. It is said that on one occasion Java was
-attacked by a hostile king and the king asked Gunavarman whether it would
be against Buddhist law if he offered battle. Gunavarman told the king
that it was his duty to fight the enemy. The king now wished to take to the
but was dissuaded by his ministers. The result was that
life of a monk,
the Buddhist religion spread throughout the kingdom.
1.
religious life of
ASOKA AND THE EXPANSION OF BUDDHISM
95
by other facts. Dharmapala, a famous professor
of Nalanda University, visited Suvarna<ivTpa, which was a
general designation of Indonesia, in the seventh century A.D.
also proved
The famous monk and
Dipankara (11th
head of Vikramaffla
University and inaugurated the second period of Buddhism
in Tibet, went in his early life to Suvarna-dvipa in order to
century
study
A.D.),
who
Buddhism under
A
scholar
became
the
AtiSa
the
guidance of
its
High
Priest,
Mahayana was given
by the Sailendra dynasty, who ruled over the/ Malay Peninsula and a large part of Indonesia.
The Sailendra kings
were great patrons of this form of Buddhism and erected
monumental structures like Borobudur, Kalasan and
Mendut in Java. It appears from epigraphic records that
Candrakirti.
strong impetus to the
one of the Sailendra kings had a guru (preceptor) from the
Gauda country (Bengal). There is hardly any doubt that
the Pala kings of Bengal and the Cola rulers of the South
exercised great influence upon Java ^ in religious matters
during
the
Sailendra
lished monasteries at
The Sailendra kings estabNalanda and Nagapattinam and the
period.
Pala and the Cola emperors granted villages for their maintenance.
Under
the influence of the Sailendras,
and Sumatra
the influence of Bengal seems also
ism flourished in Java
Mahayan-
for a long period.
But
to have been responsible
for the introduction of the debased Tan trie forms of Buddhism both in Java and Sumatra. We have a fairly detailed account of some later kings of both these countries
who were
followers
of
these
cults.
We
have also two
Sang hyang Kamahayanan Mantranaya and the Sang hyang Kamahayanikan}
important
Mahayana
texts,
viz.,
the
Javanese translation,
\, The first work consists of Sanskrit verses with a
while the second consists of a somewhat free Javanese version of a Sanskrit
The second text
original mixed with a number of original Sanskrit verses.
gives a detailed exposition of the sacred principles of Mahayana, but the
first
more popular but degraded form of Mahayana.
Mantranaya is probably another form of Mantrayana. In any case>
really an exposition of the Tantrayana or Vajrayana, both in its theoretical
[Continued on next page
gives the picture of a
Its title
•t is
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
96
which give us a
Mahayanism
fair insight into the leading
conceptions of
in Java.
Besides Sumatra and Java,
we have
positive evidence of
Buddhism in the other islands of
Malayasia, particularly Bali and Borneo. The Brahmanical
religion, however, dominated and Buddhism gradually disthe
introduction
appeared
of
in these regions.
and practical aspects, and explicitly refers to the five kinds of sensual enjoyment (kama-paneakan) which no doubt refer to panca-makara. There
1292 A.D.)
exists a fairly detailed account of King Krtanagara of Java (1254
who was passionately devoted to this degraded form of Buddhism.
—
CHAPTER
VI
Principal Schools and Sects of Buddhism
A. In India
appears that even during the lifetime of the Buddha
It
who would
there were people
not accept his authority.
Buddha conspired
cousin, Devadatta, out of jealousy for the
with King Ajatasatru and
He
made
His
several attempts
on
his
life.
Sangha by
Buddhist monks,
also tried to create divisions in the Buddhist
demanding
stricter
conditions of
life
for
such as living throughout the year under
meat and
trees,
foregoing
and refusing all invitations from faithful adherents.
There were also monks like Upananda, Channa,
Mettiya-Bhummajaka, or Sadvargiya (Pali: Chabbaggiya*
who would take the earliest opportunity of transgressing the
fish,
rules of the Vinaya.
among some people
Besides, there
to
has been laid down.
Some
comfort and consequently
dom
is
a perverse tendency
oppose a rule simply because a
like to live a life of ease
all
restrictions
are looked at askance.
on individual
do not do
When
now no
free-
For example, Subhadra. on
hearing of the death of the Buddha, gave a sigh of
ing that he would
rule
and
relief say-
longer have to abide by "do
this,
that".
the
Buddha
died,
he
left
no one
to take his place
supreme authority. In fact he told his personal
attendant, Ananda, that the Dharma and the Vinaya would
be the supreme authority in the future. All statements
claimed to have been made by learned monks or the Sangha
or even the Buddha himself have to be tested by direct refer*
ence to the words of the Buddha recorded in the suttas and
as
the
the Vinaya.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
98
When
the
made under
first recital
Buddhist texts was
(sanglti) of the
the presidency of
Mahakasyapa
five hundred monks, there were some,
cording to Tibetan sources, Gavampati,
at
Rajagrha by
like
Purana.
who
did not approve
or. ac-
what was recorded there was not in
agreement with what they had heard from the Buddha himCommon interests arising from personal attachment to
self.
certain persons or groups of persons, or created by various
them as they
felt that
causes, such as associations, studies, geographical regions, as
well as honest differences of opinion that gathered strength in
the course of time, probably led to the formation of different
sects or schools.
The Buddha's sayings and their commentaries were
handed down orally from teachers to disciples. Unlike the
Vedic texts, however, not enough care was taken for the preservation of the actual words of the Teacher, not to speak
In the Mahaparinibbana-sutta, the
of their interpretations.
Teacher apprehended that his sayings might suffer distortion,
and so, as noted above, he cautioned his disciples about the
four ways in which his instructions were to be verified.
A
and about a hundred years after his
passing, differences arose among the monks about the actual
words of the Teacher and their interpretations.
Once the
century
monks
is
a long time,
took
the
liberty
of
bringing
Sarigha, they went on multiplying
till
reached the figure of eighteen
in the
Buddha's death.
The
ries after the
in the
number
to
the
of sects
second and third centufirst
ed by the Vajjian monks of Vaisali.
Vinaya (Cullavagga) and
dissensions
the
dissension
It
Ceylonese
is
was
stated
creat-
in
Chronicles
the
that
the Second Council was held at Vaisali a century after the
Buddha's parinirvana to discuss the breach of the ten rules
of discipline (dasa vatthuni) by the Vajjian monks. 1
In the Tibetan and Chinese translations of Vasumitra
and others quite a different account appears. Here the
Council is said to have been convened on account of the
differences of opinion
1.
among
See Chapter IV, pp. 41-42.
the
monks regprding
the five
PRINCfPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
99
dogmas propounded by Mahadeva.
Mahadeva was the son of a brahmana of Mathura and
was
man
'a
of great learning and wisdom'.
ordination at
Kukkutarama
He
received his
Pataliputra and then
in
became
head of the Sangha which was patronized by the king.
His five dogmas were:
the
(i)
An Arhat may commit
a
sin
by
unconscious
temptation,
(ii)
be an Arhat and not know it.
Arhat may have doubts on matters of doctrine.
One may
(iii)
An
(iv>
One cannot
(v)
The
attain Arhatship without a teacher,
may
noble ways'
begin by a shout, that
one meditating seriously on
How
such an exclamation as 'How sad!
and by so doing
tion
1
— the
path
is
is,
may make
religion
sad!*
attain progress towards perfec-
attained by an exclamation of
astonishment.
Traditions differ as to
why
the Second Council was called.
All the accounts, however, record
unanimously that a schism
did take place about a century
after
nirvana because of the efforts
the
Buddha's
made by some monks
pari-
for the
relaxation of the stringent rules observed by the orthodox
The monks who
monks.
deviated from the rules were later
called the Mahasaiighikas, while the orthodox
monks were
It was
distinguished as the Theravadins (Sthaviravadins).
rather 'a division between the conservative
and the
liberal,
the hierarchic and the democratic'.
There is no room for
doubt that the Council marked the evolution of new schools
of thought.
The
decision of the Council
monks.
majority
The Vajjians
and
were
quence, the Council
feared schism
the
Sangha.
1.
was
in
favour of the orthodox
refused to obey the decision of the
expelled
from
the Sangha.
In conse-
came to an abrupt close, and the long-
came into being, threatening
The monks who could not
C/. Katha-vatthu, II, 1-4
and XI,
4.
the solidarity of
subscribe to the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
100
orthodox
convened
views
another
Council, in which ten
was a great congregation of monks (Mahasangiti), for which they were
called the Mahasanghikas, as distinguished from the orthothousand monks participated.
monks,
dox
writes,
"and because
assembly
of
(Sthaviravadins).
assembly both
to abide
by the
They were convinced
was
it
All
Beal
S.
common
1
great congregation".
the
unanimously agreed
council.
in the
it
were mixed together,
personages
holy
Theravadins
the
Indeed,
folk
and
called
the
the seceders
historic decision of their
was
that their decision
in
conformity with the teachings of the Great Master and claim-
Thus occurred
ed more orthodoxy than the Theravadins.
the
first
schism in the Sarigha which accounted for the origin
—
the Theravada (Sthaviravada) and the
Mahasanghika in the early Buddhist Sangha. This split
went on widening and in the course of time several sects came
into existence out of those two primitive schools.
of the two sects
—
In the history of the succession of schools,
is
it
found
schism in the Sangha was followed by a series
of schisms leading to the formation of different sub-sects, and
that the
first
in the course of time eleven such sub-sects arose out of the
Theravada
Later,
while
seven
from
issued
appeared
there
other
Mahasanghikas.
the
sub-sects
also.
All
these
branches appeared one after another in close succession within
three or four hundred years after the Buddha's parinirvana.
There are
the
different authorities, such as the traditions of
Theravadins,
SammitTyas,
Mahasanghikas, and subse-
quently the Tibetan and Chinese translations which give us
accounts of the origin of the different schools. Although
unanimous about the
these traditions are not
scholar,
M. Andre Bareau, has
correct conclusion,
in
different
on the
traditions,
2
latter,
a French
recently arrived at a fairly
basis of the information available
which
is
represented in
the
table
given on the next page.
It is
1.
2.
not possible
here
to
give
an
account of
Records of the Western Countries, Vol. II, p. 104.
le* Sectts Bouddhiques du Petit VMcule, (Saigon, J 955.).
all
the
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
Only
different schools.
will therefore
a
1
01
few important ones among these
be considered.
The Sthaviravadins or the Theravddins
The
in
earliest available teaching of the
who may be
called the
This school admits the
is
Buddha
be found
to
Pali literature belongs to the school of the Theravadins,
often represented as
most orthodox school of Buddhism.
human nature of the Buddha and he
having human foibles, though he is re-
cognized as possessing certain superhuman qualities.
described in
some passages
he
Catuma-sutta',
whom
folk,
to
as Devatideva,
impatient
is
is
his bhiksus
he dismisses for making a noise like undisciplined
such as fishermen in a
fish
human weaknesses when he
The teaching of
He
very simple.
accumulate
He
market.
says that he
old and that he has a pain in his back
to
some of
with
He
as in the
still,
:
asks us to 'abstain from
that
all
is
good and
eighty years
me
pitthi
Buddha according
the
also subject
is
is
agilayatir
to this school
kinds of
all
to purify
is
evil,
our mind'.
These things can be accomplished by the practice of what
plained in detail.
and prajna. These have been exSSa or good conduct is the very basis
of
human
are called sSa, samadhi,
progress
all
in
life.
An
ordinary
householder
must abstain from murder, theft, falsehood, wrong sexual
behaviour and all intoxicating drinks.
If he becomes a
monk, he must live a life of celibacy, observe the remaining
four rules of good conduct for the householder and further
refrain from using garlands or decorating his person; he
must avoid soft seats and beds, must not use gold or silver,
nor watch dancing, nor attend concerts or unseemly shows,
nor eat after midday.
Sometimes good conduct
cribed as refraining from the evil ways of
karmapatha),
falsehood,
greed,
i.e.,
is
also des-
(dasa akuSala-
murder, theft and sexual misbehaviour;
harsh words and vain garrulous talk;
and wrong philosophical views. Samadhi,
slander,
ill-will
life
1.
-Majjhima, No. 67.
2.
The Sekha-sutta,
Majjhiroa, No. 53.
2500 YEARS OI BUDDHISM
102
meditation,
is
to be attained
by means of one or other of
The purpose of this medikeep one's mind perfectly balanced so that it
may be possible to gain a proper insight into the real nature
the forty objects of meditation.
tation
to
is
done by cultivating insight (prajna).
one to understand at one
and the same time the Four Noble Truths and the Law
of Dependent Origination, which tries to explain the phenomenon of life by showing the interrelation of life with the
one that precedes and the one that follows. Karma, the
actions of an individual, regulates all life, and the whole
universe is bound by it, so that karma is like the axle of
of
things.
The
This
is
cultivation of prajna helps
1
a rolling chariot.
The philosophy of this school
worldly phenomena are subject to
is
also very simple.
All
three characteristics —they
are anitya, or impermanent and transient; duhkha, or full of
and anatma, that is, there is nothing in them which
can be called one's own, nothing substantial, nothing permasufferings;
All compound things are made up of two elements—
nama, the non-material part, and rupa, the material part.
They are further described as consisting of nothing but five
nent.
constituent
quality,
groups (skandhas), namely, rupa, the material
and four non-material
qualities
—
sensation (vedana),
perception (sanjna), mental formatives (saniskara), and lastly
These elements are also
consciousness (vijnuna).
classified
and objects of sense (ayatanani) and
The former consist of the six internal or-
into twelve organs
eighteen dhatus.
gans of sense
— the
eye, the ear, the nose, the tongue, the
body and the mind (which is, from the Buddhist point of
view, also an organ) and the corresponding objects of sense,
namely,
material
and those things
(dharmayatana).
add
six
objects,
that
In
sounds,
smells, tastes, tangibles
can be apprehended only by the mind
classification,
one must
latter
the
consciousnesses
to
the
list
of
twelve ayatanas,
eye-consciousness, ear-consciousness, nose-consciousness,
i.e.,
tongue-consciousness,
1.
body-consciousness
These have been explained
and
briefly in Cltapter 111,
|j|>.
mind-con31-32.
PRJNCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SfcCTS OF BUDDHISM
sciousness and thus arrive
at
eighteen dhatus.
most orthodox school of Buddhism has a
number of
elements
constituent
the
of
tion
of
The
the constituents increases gradually from two to
be seen
as will
this
concep-
universe.
then to twelve, and finally to eighteen.
five,
Hence,
pluralistic
the
IO3
later,
At
other schools.
increases
still
This number,
further in the case of
the Council of Pataliputra, the teachings
of this school were, according to Pali sources, certified to be
those of the Vibhajyavada school.
In the Abhidhammattha-sangaha, a later
8th— 12th
manual (about
centuries A.D.) of the psycho-ethical philosophy of
school, Anuruddhacarya, the author, gives the follow-
this
four
the
ing as
ultimate
consciousness
categories:
(citta),
mental properties (caitasika), material qualities (rupa), and
Consciousness
nirvana.
is
further classified into eighty-nine
types (a hundred and twenty-one types according to another
classification),
mental properties into
free
from passion,
which
state
is
When an
and material
is .a happy state which
and delusion; in reality it is a
Nirvana
qualities into twenty-eight.
is
fifty-two,
ill-will
beyond description.
individual thus understands the true nature
things, he tries to
renounce worldly
life
of
since he finds nothing
substantial in
it.
He
of the senses
and
self-mortification, follows the
avoids both indulgence in the pleasures
(Madhyama-pratipat), and moulds his
life
Middle Path
according to the
Noble Eightfold Path which consists of Right View, Right
Resolve, Right
Words. Right Actions, Right Livelihood,
Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration. 1
He
realizes that all
hankering Ursna) and that
Suffering
When
to
he
due to craving or
possible for him to bring his
worldly suffering
it
is
is
an end by following the Noble Eightfold Path.
reaches
that
perfect
state
of dispassionateness,
becomes a 'worthy man', an Arhat. The life of
an Arhat is the ideal of the followers of this school, 'a life
where all (future) birth is at an end, where the holy life is
fully achieved, where all that had to be done has been done,
nirvana, he
1.
Set*
Chapter III, pp. 32-33.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
104
and there
no more return to worldly
is
life'.
1
The Mahlsasakas
The confusion
regarding this school
among
various autho-
due to the fact that there were two groups
school which were prominent at two different periods.
rities is largely
of this
this school
According to Pali sources,
along with the Vajji-
puttakas branched off from the Sthaviravadins and gave rise
to the Sarvastivadins, while
Vasumitra
tells
was derived from the Sarvastivadins.
may probably be
sasakas
mentioned
earlier,
ed at at the
first
also spread
to
Jatakatthakatha
to write
2
traced
back
The
Mahl-
earlier
Purana, who, as
to
withheld his consent to the decisions arriv-
Council of Rajagrha.
Ceylon.
is
it
This school,
it
appears,
In an introductory stanza of the
said
that the author
by Buddhadeva, a friend born
it
us that this school
was persuaded
in the
MahKasaka
Like the Theravadins, the earlier Mahlsasakas
tradition.
believed in the simultaneous comprehension of truths.
For
them the past and the future did not exist, while the present
and the nine asarpskrta dharmas did. These nine asamskrta
dharmas were: (1) pratisankhya-nirodha, cessation through
knowledge;
(2)
knowledge,
i.e.,
akasa,
<3>
apratisarikhya-nirodha.
space;
dharma-tathata;
without
cessation
through the natural cessation of the causes;
(6)
(4)
anefijata,
immovability;
akuSala-dharma-tathata, and
dharma-tathata, that
is,
(5)
(7)
kusala-
avyakrta-
suchness of the dharmas that are meri-
and neither the one, nor the other;
and (9) pratftya-samutpada-tathata, or
suchness of the factors of the Path and suchness of the Law
of Dependent Origination. The last corresponds with that
torious, unmeritorious
(8)
marganga
in the
list
tathata;
of the Mahasanghikas.
The Mahlsasakas
believed, like the Theravadins, that the
Arhats were not subject to retrogression.
that those
who were
l.Khind jdti9
ittliattdyd
2.
ti.
See p. 98.
However, they held
were sub-
in the first stage, srotapannas,
vusitam
brahmacariyam.
katarp
karanlyam^ ndparam
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
105
No
to such retrogression.
deva or god could lead a holy
nor a heretic attain miraculous powers. There was no
ject
life,
antara-bhava, or interim existence between this
The Sahgha included
life
and the
Buddha and therefore charito
former
the
were more meritorious than those
ties given
Of the eight factors of the Noble
given to the Buddha only.
next.
the
Eightfold Path, Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood were not to be considered reol factors since they were
mental actions.
not
These were
therefore
to be excluded
from the factors of the Noble Path.
It is
interesting to note that the later
Mahisasakas held
views contrary to those held by the earlier followers of the
Like the Sarvastivadins, they believed
sect.
in
the
exist-
ence of the past, the future and antara-bhava, and held that
the skandhas, the ayatanas and the dhatus always existed in
the
form of
seeds.
The Sarvastivadins
Among
the Buddhist schools which adopted Sanskrit for
their literary
medium, the Sarvastivadins come closest to the
With the decline of the Sthaviravadins in
Sthaviravadins.
India this school bore the brunt of the battle against the
Acarya Vasubandhu, the writer of the
Abhidharma-kosa, was a great champion of this school
before he was converted to Mahayanism under the influence
Mahayanists.
of his brother Asariga.
This school flourished in India in
and the North-West Frontier Provinces (now in
Pakistan) and Kaniska (1st century A.D.) was its great patron.
It was in his reign that a Council was held which became
famous in the history of Buddhism. It is said that at this
the Punjab
Council, held under Vasumitra's guidance, the Buddhist texts
of the Sutra, the Vinaya and the Abhidharma were ordered
to be engraved on sheets of copper and deposited inside a
stupa.
However, these engraved sheets have not yet been
traced.
The
belief that all things exist,
sarvam
asti,
advocated by
2500 years or buddhism
jo6
expression,
the
back
goes
perhaps
school
this
where
belief that has given the school
ravadins,
They believed
Buddhists.
present
the
in
past
Sarvastivadins
the
existed,
that
is
this
among
realists
the
was not only the things
it
but
in
It
With the Sthavi-
also
the
continuity
things
with
in
the
the
pre-
Like the Vatsiputriyas, the Sammitiyas and some of
sent.
Mahasarighikas,
the
name.
were the
Samyutta-nikaya'
occurs.
atthi,
its
that
and future which were
the
to
sabbhum
they
revolted
against the
dominance
who had attained a position of unsurpassed
eminence among the Sthaviravadins. They maintained that
of the Arhats
an Arhat was subject to fall or retrogression, while, curiously enough, they maintained at the same time that a srotain the first stage, was not liable to
They also said that a continuous flow
of mind might amount to concentration (samadhi) of mind.
panna, or an individual
such retrogression.
This school,
like the Sthaviravadins,
denied the transcendent
Buddha and
the Bodhisattva by the
powers ascribed
to the
Mahasarighikas.
for gods
powers.
between
and
They
this
It
that
was
their faith that holy life
even heretics could
life
and the
still
next.
They maintained
had something
still
that
the
ordinary people (prthag-jana) and that
even the Arhats were not free from the
They
have supernatural
believed in antara-bhava. an interim existence
Bodhisattvas were
and
was possible
effects of past actions
to learn.
believed in nairatmya, the absence of any permanent
substance in an individual, though they admitted the per-
manent
believed
reality of all things.
in
the
plurality
Like the Sthaviravadins, they
of elements in the universe.
According to them, there were seventy-five elements, seventytwo of them sarpskrta, compounded, and three asamskrta,
uncompounded, which were akaSa or space, pratisarikhyanirodha, or cessation through knowledge, and apratisarikhyanirodha, or cessation, not through knowledge, but through
the natural
process of the absence of required conditions.
The seventy-two samskrta dharmas were
1.
S. iv,
15; also
cf.
M,
i,
3.
divided into four
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
107
groups: rupa, or matter which was held to be of eleven kinds,
including one called avijnapti-rupa, unmanifested action in
the form of a mental impress; citta, mind, forty-six mental
concomitants
dharmas
(citta-samprayukta
which
were
not
dharmas)
connected
new
viprayukta), the last being a
and
fourteen
mind
with
(eitta-
which were
class of forces
not classed as mental or material, although they could not
be active without a mental or material basis.
five
These seventy-
elements were linked together by casual relations, six
of which were dominant (hetu) and four subsidiary (pratyaya).
According to some the followers of
this
school were also
called the Hetuvadins.
The Haimavatas
The very name
originally
in his
located
book on
suggests that the Haimavata school was
Himalayan
the
in
Bhavya and Vinitadeva look upon
the
Like
Mahasarighikas.
Haimavatas believed
eminence, but
that
unlike
not live the holy
Haimavatas the
Sthaviravadins, but other authorities like
inheritors of the
of
Vasumitra,
regions.
the Eighteen Sects, calls the
life
this school
the
as a branch
Sarvastivadins,
the
no special
they said that the gods could
the Bodhisattvas had
them,
of brahmacarya and that heretics could
not have miraculous powers.
The Vatsiputriyas
The
Vatsiputriyas,
with
whom
the
sub-sect
SammitTyas has been identified, are singled out
of
among
the
the
Buddhists on account of their advocacy of the theory of
the pudgala, the permanent substance of an individual.
stand on passages in sacred texts which
contain the word pudgala and contended that, without the
could not be contemexistence of such a pudgala, rebirth
plated.
Vasubandhu in his Abhidharma-koia tried, in a
This school took
its
end of the book, to refute this view.
The pudgala, according to the Vatsiputriyas, was neither
Like the
the same, nor different from the skandhas.
special chapter at the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
108
Sarvastivadins, they believed that an Arhat could
fall
and
that heretics could also attain miraculous powers.
A
god,
could
not
according
the Sammitiyas,
sub-sect,
their
to
practise the holy
They
life.
also believed in antara-bhava,
Abhidharma, believed in a
and second trance of the SautrSntikas,
and, like the followers of the
stage between the
first
where vitarka, the
application
first
but vicara, or continued
Mahisasakas, they believed
Path.
in
was patronized by
his
sister,
Rajyasrf.
school were sometimes called
this
Like
remains.
the five factors of the
the
Noble
said that during the reign of Harsa, this school
is
It
of thought, disappears,
reflection,
The
followers of
Avantika, the residents
of Avanti.
The Dharmaguptikas
The Dharmaguptikas broke away from
whom
with
the Mahisasakas
they differed on points dealing with gifts to the
Buddha or to the Sahgha. This school proffered gifts to
Buddha and greatly revered the stupas of the Buddha
the
as
is
from
clear
their
rules
Mahisasakas, they believed
of
that
the Vinaya.
Like the
an Arhat was free from
passion and that heretics could not gain supernatural powers.
This school was popular in Central Asia and China,
and had
The
its
rules of
own
Sutra,
Vinaya and Abhidharma literature.
Pratimoksa were followed in ihe
distinctive
its
monasteries of China.
The Kasyapiyas
The Kasyapiyas
on minor points from the
Dharmaguptikas and were closer
to the Sthaviravadins.
Hence they are also called the
Sthavariyas.
Tibetan sources refer to them as Suvarsaka.
The Kasyapiyas believed that the past which has borne fruit
ceases to exist, but that which has not yet ripened continues
Sarvastivadins
to
exist,
thus
and
partially
Sarvastivadins, for
sent.
differed
the
whom
The Kasyapiyas
modifying
the
position
of
the
the past also exists like the pre-
are sometimes represented as having
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
109
compromise between the Sarvastivadins and the
Vibhajyavadins and also claim a Tripitaka of their own.
effected a
The Sautrantikas or
the Sahkrantivadins
According to Pali sources the school of the Sahkrantiis derived from the KaSyapfyas and the school of
the Sautrantikas from that of the Sahkrantivadins, while
according to Vasumitra the two are identical. As the very
vadins
name
suggests,
transmigration
According
this
of
a
school
believed
substance
in
from one
sahkranti, or the
life
to
another.
skandhas of an
individual, there is only one subtle skandha which transmigrates, as against the whole of the pudgala of the Sammitiyas.
This subtle skandha according to the KaSyapiya school is the
real
to
followers,
its
The
pudgala.
of the
latter is the
five
same as the
subtle conscious-
ness which permeates the whole body according to the
Maha-
sahghikas, and
of the
Yogicarins.
doctrine
and
lent
every
is
It
is
of subtle
it
with
identical
possible
the
alaya-vijnana
school borrowed its
from the Mahasahghikas
that this
consciousness
Yogacara school. It also believed that
him the potentiality of becoming a Buddha,
to the
man had
in
On account of such views,
considered to be a bridge between the Sravak-
a doctrine of the Mahayanists.
this school is
ayana (often, though not
and the Mahayana.
justifiably,
called the Hfnayana)
The Mahasahghikas
It is universally believed that the Mahasahghikas were
the earliest seceders, and the forerunners of the Mahayana.
They took up the cause of their new sect with zeal and
enthusiasm and in a few decades grew remarkably in power
and popularity. They adapted the existing rules of the
their doctrine and introduced new ones, thus
Moreover, they made
revolutionizing the Buddhist Sahgha.
alterations in the arrangement and interpretation of the Sutra
Vinaya to
and the Vinaya texts. They also canonized a good number
of sfltras, which they claimed to be the sayings of the Buddha.
fvl^J
HO
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
They
rejected
certain portions of the
accepted
in the First
Buddha's
sayings,
Council, and did not recognize, as the
the
Parivara,
Patisambhida, the Niddesa and
Pari vara
is
Abhidhamma,
the
parts of
the
an appendix to the Vinaya and
is
Jataka.
the
The
probably the
The Abhidhamma was
composition of a Simhalese monk.
compiled
canon which had been
the Third Council held under the patronage of
in
The Patisambhida,
King Asoka.
Niddesa and a part
the
of the Jataka are not accepted as the Buddhavacana even
Opinion
today.
differs as to their authenticity as
canonical
works were compositions of a later period.
All these texts are therefore additional and are not included
Thus
in the canonical collection of the Mah3sanghikas.
texts, since these
compiled afresh the texts of the Dhamma and the
Vinaya and included those texts which had been rejected
they
Thus arose a twofold division
The compilation of the Mahasahghikas was
in
Mahakassapa's Council.
in
the Canon.
designated the Acariyavada as distinguished from Theravada.
compiled
at the First Council.
Yuan Chwang
records
a complete canon of their
parts,
viz.,
the
Sutra,
that
own which
the
Mahasahghikas
the
Vinaya,
had
they divided into five
the
Abhidharma, the
The Vinaya of the Mahasahghikas, according to Yuan Chwang, was the same as
that compiled at Mahakassapa's Council.
He writes that
he studied the treatises of the Abhidhamma with two monks
at Dhanakataka in the South.
He carried 657 Sanskrit
Dharanis and Miscellaneous.'
works from India back to China and translated them into
Chinese under the orders of the Emperor. Among them
were fifteen Mahasarighika works on the Sutra, the Vinaya
and the Abhidharma. Still earlier, Fa-hien had taken away a
complete transcript of the Vinaya of the Mahasahghikas
from Pataliputra to render into Chinese.
furnishes
Vinaya
1.
us
texts,
o/
the
On the Travels of Yuan Chuang, Vol.
Indian Buddhism, p. 4.
Walters,
Manual
Nanjio's Catalogue
names of the two Mahasahghika
the Bhik§u-vinaya and the BhiksunT-vinaya,
with
II, p.
160
;
Korn,
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
III
which are extant in Chinese only
The only original work
of the Mahasanghika sect available to us is the Mahavastu,
or
Mahavastu-avadana.
the
It
the
is
book of the
first
Vinaya-pitaka of the Lokottaravadins of the Mahasanghika
According to it, the Buddhas are lokottara (supramundane) and are connected only externally with the
school.
worldly
much
This conception of the Buddha contributed
life.
the
to
biography
of
growth
of
Mahayana
the
Buddha
the
is
the
The
philosophy.
central
theme of the
Mahavastu and it gives us the history of the formation of
It is written partly
the Sarigha and the first conversions.
in Sanskrit and partly in Prakrit or a mixed Indian dialect
Sanskrit.
The work was probably composed
allied
to
between the 2nd century B.C. and the 4th century A.D.
Inscriptions provide further evidence of the existence of
Mahasanghika canon.
the
instance,
for
and
nuns.
like
In
the
Amaravati inscriptions,
Mahavinaya-dhara
Vinaya-dhara.
Samyukta-bhanaka, have been used for monks and
Nagarjunakonda inscription bears
the
Similarly,
words
the
terms
Digha-majjhima-pamcamatuka-osaka-vacakanam,
Digha-majjhima-nikaya-dharena, and so on.
evidence
it
may
sahghikas was
From
all
this
be concluded that the canon of the Mahain
existence
at
least
as
early
as
the
first
century A.D.
According to Vinitadeva (8th century A.D.), the Mahasanghikas employed Prakrit for their literary medium. Bu-
canon of the Mahasanghikas was
states that the \sutra on
emancipation' of the Mahasanghikas was written in a corrupt
ston
tells
us
that
written in Prakrit. 1
dialect/-
the
Csoma Kdrds
Wassiljew holds that the literature of
this
school
was in Prakrit. 3 The Mahavastu, as already observed, is in
mixed Sanskrit, by which is meant a variety of Prakrit. There
is therefore no room for doubt that the literature of this
school was in Prakrit.
1.
2.
3.
Bu-Hton, Vol. If, p. 100.
J.A.S.B, IH3K, p. 134.
Der HurMhhmuA, pp. 294, 295.
I
I
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
2
During the second century after the Buddha's death, the
Mahasarighika sect was split up into Ekavyaharika
Lokottaravada, Kukkutika (Gokulika), Bahu£rut!ya ^and
1
,
Prajfiptivada
schools.
and
appeared
afterwards
shortly
The Caityakas were
the Saila
so called because of their cult
Both of them paved the way for
the growth of Mahayanism.
The Sailas derived their name
from the hills located round the principal centres of their
activity.
They were also called the Andhakas in the Ceylon-
of the caityas
(shrines).
on
ese Chronicles
Andhra
account of their great popularity in the
The
country.
commentary, however, mentions
Pali
Andhaka
(Caityavadin) and the
that 'both the Cetiyavadin
schools were merely names, remote, provincial, standing for
certain
Among
doctrines'.
the
sections
into
which
the
Mahasarighikas were divided, the Caityakas and the Saila
schools were the most prominent and had great influence in
the South.
In their early career the Mahasarighikas could not
much headway because
dox monks,
make
of the strong opposition of the ortho-
They had to
Magadha; but they
and became a powerful sect.
the Theravadins (Sthaviravadins).
struggle hard to establish themselves in
steadily
This
is
gained
in
strength
borne out by the fact that the sect established centres
at Pataliputra
and Vaisali and spread
the North and the South.
majority of
Mahasanghika
that he found
India),
in
a few
brethren
inferior
in
school'.
the
its
Yuan Chwang
tells
to
—695
Mahasarighikas
in
both
us that 'the
Pataliputra began
at
I-tsing <671
network
the
A.DXalso states
Magadha (central
Lata and Sindhu (western India) and a few
northern, southern and
eastern
India.
The
inscription
on the Mathura Lion Capital (120 B.C.) records that a teacher
named Budhila was given a gift so that he might teach the
Mahasarighikas.
This
is
the earliest
that the Mahasarighika sect existed.
Afghanistan containing the
relics of the
epigraphic
evidence
The Wardak
Buddha was
vase in
present-
ed to the teachers of the Mahasarighikas by one Kamalagulya
1.
Often styled Ekavyavaharika.
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
during the reign of Huviska.
Yuan Chwang found
three
which proves that
sect,
The cave
West.
113
At Andarah (Afghanistan)
belonging to
monasteries
this sect
was popular
Bombay
at Karle in
in the
this
North-
Presidency records
the gift of a village as also of a nine-celled hall to the ad-
herents of the school of the Mahasahghikas.
Mahisahghikas had
Clearly, the
and exercised influence
over the people of the West. However, they were not confined to Magadha alone but spread over the northern and
a centre at Karle
western parts of India and had adherents scattered
of this sect which were concentrated only
inscriptions at
Hamghi
over
all
Nevertheless, this was not true of the branches
the country.
The
the South.
in
AmaravatT and Nagarjunakonda mention the
(Ayira-haghana).
Caityika
the
(Cetiavadaka),
the
Mahavanaseliyana <Apara-mahavanaseliya), the Puvaseie. the
Rajagiri-nivasika (RajasailaL the Siddhathika. the BahuSrutTya
and the MahTsasaka
and, barring
Mahasarighika
sects.
mentioned,
the last
Most of these were
all
local
were branches of the
The Amaravatl stupa is situated about
The stupa was probably con-
sect.
18 miles west of Be/wada.
structed in the 2nd century B.C.
in the
are
Its
outer
2nd century A.D. and the sculptures
supposed
to
Nagarjunakonda
important
monuments
belong
to
represents,
Buddhist
site
in
the
3rd
next to
southern
rail
was erected
in the
century
inner Tail
Amaravati, the
India.
The
A.D.
most
We owe
the
of Nagarjunakonda to the piety of certain queens
and princesses of the royal family of the Ik$vakus who were
devoted to Buddhism. These monuments may be assigned
to the 3rd or the 4th century A.D.. although the Mahacetiya
These structures at Nagaris probably of an earlier date.
junakonda obviously flourished as important centres of the
branches of the Mahasahghika sect and became places of
pilgrimage.
It
extended their
is
thus
activities
apparent that
both
the
towards the
Mahasahghikas
North and the
However, they gained more influence in the South,
particularly in the Gunlur and Krishna districts where the
popularity ol the Caityakas and the Saila sub-sects contriSouth.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
114
buted
much
The name Andhaka
to their success.
to the great popularity of the Sailas in
The
also testifies
Andhra.
general doctrines of the Mahasarighikas with
branches are contained
in
the Katha-vatthu, the
all their
Mahavastu
The
and the works of Vasumitra, Bhavya and Vinitadeva.
Bahusrutiyas and the Caityakas were later offshoots of the
Mahiisanghika sect and differed somewhat from the original
Mahasarighikas
in their views.
The Mahasarighikas,
like
the Theravadins, accepted the
cardinal principles of Buddhism,
different
from them.
and were,
The fundamentals
in this regard,
not
are the four noble
truths, the eightfold path, the non-existence of the soul, the
theory of karma, the theory of pratitya-samutpada, the thirty-
seven Bodhipaksiya-dharmas, and the gradual stages of
tual
spiri-
According to them the Buddhas are
(supramundane); they have no sasrava dharmas
advancement.
lokottara
(defiled elements); their bodies, their length of life
and
their
powers are unlimited; they neither sleep nor dream; they are
self-possessed
they
a
and always
in
a state of samadhi (meditation);
do not preach by name; they understand everything
moment
in
(ekaksanika-citta); until they attain parinirvana, the
Buddhas possess ksayajriana (knowledge of decay) and anutpadajriana (knowledge of non-origination).
In short, every-
Buddhas is transcendental. The Mahasarighika conception of the Buddhas contributed to the growth
Thus the Mahaof the later Trikaya theory in Mahayana.
sarighikas conceived of the Buddha docetically and gave rise
According to them,
to the conception of the Bodhisattvas.
the Bodhisattvas are also supramundane, and do not pass
through the four embryonic stages of ordinary beings. They
enter their mothers' wombs in the form of white elephants
They never
and come out of the wombs on the right side.
thing concerning the
experience feelings of lust (kama), malevolence (vyapada) or
injury (vihimsa).
For the benefit of
beings, they are born of their
existence
they choose.
deification of the
All
own
these
all
classes of sentient
any form of
free will in
conceptions
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
A
led to
the
section of
M
AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS
II*
I
I
the Mahasanghikas,
Mahadeva, maintains
(the adherents of
p that Arhats also have frailties; that they can be taught by
$ others; that they still have a degree of ignorance, and a degree
of doubt; and that they can acquire knowledge only with the
Thus, Arhathood
help of others.
not the
is
stage of
final
sanctification.
The other main
Mahasanghikas are as
of the
beliefs
follows:
(i)
The
vijnanas (sense-perceptions) conduce both
five
(attachment
saraga
to
worldly
to
same
viraga (non-attachment to the
(ii)
The rupendriyas (organs
They themselves cannot
state),
sense are mere
of
and
matters)
flesh.
perceive the vijnanas of
the organs,
(iii)
(iv)
One can
eliminate suffering and obtain the highest
bliss (nirvana)
through knowledge (prajna).
A
(one
srotapanna
sanctification)
Arhat
own
He
dharmas.
of
kinds
has entered the path of
He
offences
also
txcept
the
patricide,
an
his
his
the
and
commit
citta
liable
to
heinous
five
namely,
(pancanantaryani),
crimes
of
through
is
while
knowing
retrogress
to
capable
is
(svabhava)
nature
caitasika
all
liable
is
not.'
is
who
matricide,
murder of an Arhat, shedding the
blood of the Buddha and creating a
split
the
in
Sarigha.
(v)
Nothing
is
indeterminate
(avyakrta),
the
i.e.,
nature of things must be either good or bad for
it
(vi)
cannot be neither good nor bad.
The
original
comes
nature of the mind
when
contaminated
upakle&i
(passions)
it
is
is
pure;
be-
it
by
stained
and agantukarajas
(adventi-
tious defilements).
1.
for
we
This view seems to he held by only a mention of the Mahasanghikas,
are told that another section, and the Mah&devas in particular, held
exactly the opposite viewpoint, i.e., that an Arhat
#
Kvu, XXI,
3
and
N. Dutt, Early Monastic Buddhism, Vol.
II.
srotapanna
is
not.
See
is
its
pp.
liable to fall
commentary,
64-65.
and that a
p.
35
;
also
6
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
I 1
[This view of the Mahasanghikas
sidered the precursor of the
may
be con-
philosophy
idealistic
which the alayavijnana is the
storehouse of pure consciousness which becomes
impure only when it is polluted by worldly objects.]
After death and before rebirth a being has no
of Yogacara,
(vii)
in
existence.
Thus
the
Mahasanghikas
differ considerably
from other
sects in doctrinal matters as well as in their rules of discip1
followers of the school wore a yellow robe, the
The
line.
lower part of which was pulled tightly to the
left.*
The Bahusrutiyas
The Bahusrutfya school is mentioned in the inscriptions
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda and is a later branch of
the Mahasanghikas.
It owes its origin to a teacher who
was very learned in Buddhist lore (bahuSrutiya).
at
As
for the fundamental
doctrines of the BahuSrutiyas,
Buddha concernduhkha (suffering), Sunya (the
anatman (the non-existence of the
they maintained that the teachings of the
ing anityata
absence of
soul)
(transitoriness),
all attributes),
and nirvana
(the final bliss)
were laukika (mundane).
may be
to
On
this
His other teachings
point the Bahusrutiyas
Mahayana
mode which
regarded as the precursors of the later
teachers.
led
were lokottara (transcend-
emancipation.
ental), since they led to
According
salvation
them, there was no
to
(nirvanika).
positions of
Mahadeva
also accepted the five pro-
as their views.
matters they had a great deal in
schools,
while
in
others
was not
Further, the Sahgha
They
subject to worldly laws.
In
common
they were
closely
some
doctrinal
with
the
allied
to
Saila
the
Sarvastivadins.
According to Paramartha,
1.
in
Sir
Oriental, pt. 3, p. 126.
2.
made an attempt
History of Early Buddhiwt Schools 9 by
Ashutosh Mookerjee Silver Jubilee Volume^ Vol. Ill,
See 'Introduction to the
R. Kimura
this sub-sect
Takakusu, i-teiwp, pp. 66-67.
7
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
II
the two principal systems of Buddhism— the
the Mahayana.
and
Harivarman's SatyasiddhiSravakayana
to
reconcile
Sastra
the principal treatise of this school.
is
The Bahusrutiyas
are
often
described
between the orthodox and the Mahayana
combine the teachings of both.
to
tried
lieved in
and
in
as
bridge
as
Harivarman
atma-nairatmya (the absence of soul
dharma-nairatmya
'a
school',
be-
in individuals)
of
(the soullessness
they
all
things).
Like the followers of the orthodox schools, he believed in
the plurality of the universe which, according to him, contained
eighty-four
elements.
Like
tional
(samvrti)
maintained that,
truth,
Mahayanists, he
the
maintained that there were two kinds
of
truth
—conven-
and absolute (paramartha). He further
from the point of view of conventional
atma or the
classification of the universe into eighty-
four elements existed, but, from the point of view of absolute
truth, neither existed.
truth there
is
From
the point of view of absolute
a total void (sarva-Sunya).
He
believed in the
theory of Buddha-kaya as well as of dharma-kaya, which he
explains as consisting of good conduct
(slla),
concentration
(samadhi), insight (prajna), deliverance (vimukti) and knowledge of and insight into deliverance (vimukti-jnana-darsana).
Although he did not recognize the absolute transcendental
nature of the Buddha, he still believed in the special powers
of the Buddha, such as the ten powers (dasa balani), and the
four kinds of confidence (vaisaradya) which are admitted even
by the Sthaviravadins. He believed that only the present
was real, while the past and the future had no existence.
The Catty akas
The Caityavada school originated with the
Mahadeva towards the close of the second century
teacher
after the
of the Buddha.
He is to be distinguished
from the Mahadeva who was responsible for the origin of
the Mahasanghikas.
He was a learned and diligent ascetic
who received his ordination in the Mahasanghika
Sangha. He professed the five points of the Mahasanglv
parinirvana
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
Il8
and started a new Sarigha. Since he dwelt on the
mountain where there was a caitya, the name Caityaka was
ikas,
given
tions.
Amaravati and
in the
may
It
Furthermore,
adherents.
his
to
mentioned
this
name
also
is
Nagarjunakonda
inscrip-
be noted here that Caityavada was the source
of the Saila schools.
Generally speaking, the Caityakas shared the fundamenof
doctrines
tal
from them
the
minor
in
Mahasarighikas, but differed
original
details.
The
doctrines specially attri-
buted to the Caityaka school are as follows:
(i)
One can
ration
acquire great merit by the creation, deco-
and worship of
caityas;
even
circum-
a
ambulation of caityas engenders merit,
(ii)
Offerings
of
and
garlands
flowers,
scents
to
caityas are likewise meritorious,
(iii)
By making
gifts
one can acquire religious merit,
and one can also transfer such merit to one's
friends and relatives for their happiness
a con-
—
ception
but
faith
(iv)
quite
common
unknown
in
in
Mahayanism.
These
made Buddhism popular among
The Buddhas
Buddhism
primitive
articles
of
the laity,
are free from attachment,
ill-will
and
delusion (jita-raga-dosa-moha), and possessed of
finer elements
They are
(dhatuvara-parigahita).
superior to the Arhats by virtue of the acquisition of ten
(v)
A
powers
(balas).
person having samyak-drsti (the right view)
not free from hatred
free
(dve$a)
and, as
is
such, not
from the danger of committing the
sin of
murder,
(vi)
Nirvana
is
a
positive,
faultless
state
(amata-
dhatu).
It
ikas
is
and
thus apparent that the doctrines of the
their offshoots contain
Mahayana
doctrine developed.
to deify the
led
to
the
Buddha and
complete
Mahasangh-
germs from which the
They were
the
first
later
school
the Bodhisattva, which ultimately
deification of the
Buddha and the
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
119
Bodhisattva in Mahayana, and to the consequent popularity
of
the
among
religion
Sambhogakaya
the
masses.
Their
conception
of
led to the Trikaya theory
which is one of the
prominent features of Mahayana.
The worship of caityas
and the making of gifts advocated by the branches of the
Mahasarighika school was to a large extent responsible for
evolution
the
of
popular
the
form
of
The
Buddhism.
Mahasaiighikas can, therefore, be said to be the precursors of
Mahayana movement, through which Buddhism came to
attract more people than it would otherwise have done.
The commentary on the Katha-vatthu mentions a few
the
more schools, namely
Rajagirika, the Siddhatlhaka, the
the
Pubbaseliya, the Aparaseliya, the Vajiriya, the Uttarapatha,
the Vetulya
and the Hetuvadins. The first four are known
name of Andhakas. About Vajiriya there is
by the general
little
in
information to be had.
the North
Afghanistan.
and
Tathata which, as
the
Mahayanists.
prevailed
the north-western countries including
in
They
The Uttarapathakas
are
will
credited
be clear
This
school
with
later,
the
was a
maintained
doctrine
of
peculiarity of
that
even
the
was fragrant. They maintained
that there was only one path and not four as maintained by
the orthodox schools, and that even laymen could become
Arhats.
The Vetulyakas or the Mahasunyatavadins maintained that the Buddha or the Sahgha had no real existence,
but were merely abstract ideas.
They are also credited
excreta
of
the
Buddhas
with the view, which seems to be influenced by the Tantric
schools, that sex relations
may
be entered upon out of com-
passion, even in the case of recluses.
The Hetuvadins
are,
by some with the Sarvastivadins, while the Katha-vatthu commentary considers them to
be a distinct school and ascribes to them the view that inas already observed, identified
meant for men of the world and
may be handed on by one man to another.
sight is not
Inscriptions of the
among
that happiness
2nd and 3rd centuries A.D.
indicate,
others, the presence of the Sarvastivadins, the
sarighikas,
the Caityakas,
Maha-
the Sammitiyas, the DharmottarT-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
120
yas, the Bhadrayaniyas,
Aparasailiyas,
the
The accounts
Mahisasakas. the PurVasailiyas,
the
Bahusrutiyas,
the
of the travels of
and
KasyapTyas.
the
Yuan Chwang and
the 7th century A.D. give us detailed information
number of monasteries
who
belonged
Buddhist
various
to
and about
that existed
schools.
I-tsing in
about the
their inmates
In
I-tsing's
account there are references to specific sects belonging to
orthodox or Sravakayana and
the
but
is
it
also
clear
the
Reformed Church,
broadly speaking,
that,
the
Buddhist
community was divided into two main groups, the old
Orthodox Church or Sravakayana and the later Reformed
Church or Mahayana.
v
The Madhyamika School
Mahayana Buddhism is divided into two systems
Madhyamika and the Yogacara.
The Madhyamikas were so called on account of
of
thought: the
emphasis they
laid
on madhyama-pratipat
sermon
In
his
the
Middle Path, which
life
first
Banaras,
at
is
the
(the
Buddha
preached
neither self-mortification
devoted to the pleasures of the senses.
the
middle view).
nor a
However, the
middle path, as advocated by the adherents of the Madhya-
mika system,
stands
foi
is
Here, the middle path
not quite the same.
the non-acceptance of the
and non-existence,
and non-self, and so on. In
existence
two views concerning
eternity
and
short,
advocates neither the
it
non-eternity, self
theory of reality nor that of the unreality of the world, but
merely of
relativity.
It
is,
however, to be noted that the
middle path propounded at Banaras has an ethical meaning,
Madhyamikas is a metaphysical concept.
The Madhyamika school is said to have originated with
(2nd century
the teacher, Nagarjuna or Arya Nagarjuna
He was followed by a galaxy of Madhyamika
A.D).
Buddha(3rd century AD.),
thinkers, such as Aryadeva
while that of the
palita
(5th century A.D.),
Bhavaviveka (5th century A.D.),
and Santideva (7th century
Nagarjuna wrote a number of works of which the
Candraklrti (6th century A.D.)
A.D.).
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
Madhyamika-karika
presents
Madhyamika
regarded
is
systematic
a
in
school.
cribable absolute)
It
sunyata
Brahman
is
Pratitya-samutpada.
that
with
the middle path
or
things,
mean
or
a
describes
means
there
is
called
is
Sunyata
of
is
relativity.
of
only non-origina-
Elsewhere he also
sunyata.
Hence
sunyata.
is
in reality
which avokis the two basic views of
kind
of
neither unity nor
going-out, in the law
does to non-origination,
tence and non-existence.
writes:'
nor
Pratitya-samutpada
it
He
Origination) by
Essentially,
equated
sunyata, referring as
of
difference
nirvana
neither origination nor cessation,
coming-in
neither
is
no
In the invocation
permanence nor impermanence,
which
is
and
in a nutshell.
(Dependent
There
eight negatives.
states
There
world)
of the Upanisads.
fundamentals of his philosophy
Pratitya-samutpada
tion
the
sunyata (the indes-
beginning of the work, Nagarjuna gives the
in verse at the
diversity,
of
It
Sunyata or the absolute corresponds to
(reality).
the nirguna
philosophy
that
the absolute.
is
masterpiece.
his
the
teaches
samsara ^(phenomenal
between
neither
as
manner
121
exis-
the relative existence
Prof.
Radhakrishnan
'By sunyata, therefore, the Madhyamika does not
The Madhya-
absolute non-being, but relative being.'
mika view holds Sunyata to be the central idea of its philosophy and is therefore designated the sunyavada. The
Madhyamika-karika further deals with two kinds of truths:
samvrti (conventional or empirical truth) and paramartha
The former
(higher or transcendental truth).
ance or delusion which envelops
impression, while the latter
is
reality
refers to ignor-
and gives a
the realization
things are non-existent like an illusion or an echo.
artha-satya
(transcendental
out resorting
vrti-satya
to
truth)
(conventional
truth)
is
Param-
cannot be attained with-
(conventional
samvrti-satya
false
that worldly
truth).
Sam-
only a means, while paramthe end.
Thus, view-
artha-satya
(transcendental
ed from the
relative standpoint (samvrti), Pratitya-samutpada
explains
1.
truth)
is
worldly phenomena, but looked at from the abso-
Indian Philosophy, Vol.
1, p. 001.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
122
lute standpoint (paramartha),
times and
is
Towards
beginning of the
the
Madhyamika was
A.D.,
the
the
Prasarigika
school
uses
establish
theses,
its
is
and the
It
may
century
and the Svatantra school. The Prasaiimethod of reductio ad absurdum to
while the Svatantra school employs in-
latter
The former was founded by Buddha-
by Bhavaviveka.
Madhyamika works
Madhyamika philosophy.
study of the
the core of
5th
the
dependent reasoning.
A
at all
divided into two schools of thought:
gika school
palita
means non-origination
it
equated with nirvana or sunyata.
reveals that dialectic
be mentioned that the T'ien-fai and San-lun sects
of China advocated the doctrine of sunyata and were thus a
continuation of the Indian
Madhyamika
system.
The San-
ron sect in Japan also followed this system.
The Yogacara School
The Yogacara school is another important branch of the*
Mahayana, and was founded by Maitreya, or Maitreyanatha
Asaiiga (4th century A.D.), Vasubandhu
(3rd century A.D.).
(4th century A.D.), Sthiramati
(5th century A.D.),
klrti
(5th century
Dharmapala
(7th century
AD), Dinnaga
AD), Dharma-
(7th century A.D.), Santaraksita (8th century A.D.)
Kamalasfla (8th century A.D.) were noted teachers of
and
this
They continued the work of the founder by their
and raised the school to a high level. The school
reached the acme of its power and influence in the days of
Asaiiga and his brother. Vasubandhu.
The appellation
school.
writings
Yogacara was given by Asahga while the term Vijnanavada
was used by Vasubandhu.
The Yogacara was so called because it emphasized the
practice of yoga (meditation) as the most effective method for
the
attainment of the highest truth
(bodht).
All
the ten
stages of spiritual progress (dasa
bhumi) of Bodhisattvahood
had
to be passed through before
The
school
bodhi could be attained.
Vijnanavada on account of
is
the fact that
also
it
known
as the
holds Vijnaptimatra (nothing but conscious-
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
ness)
to
be
the
ultimate
In
reality.
subjective idealism, or that thought alone
cara
out
brings
the
Vijnanavada brings
practical
out
an
Larikavatara-sutra,
short,
philosophy,
of
side
work
important
They are unreal
while
The
features."
of
maintains that only the mind (cittamatra)
ternal objects are not.
teaches
it
The "Yoga-
is real.
speculative
its
123
like
while ex-
real,
is
school,
this
dreams, mirages
and "sky-flowers". Cittamatra, in this case is different from
alayavijnana which is the repository of consciousness under-
The alayavijnana
lying the subject-object duality.
womb
the
bandhu's
of
the
Tathagata
Vijnaptimatrata-siddhi
this system.
It
repudiates
all
is
basic
the
is
belief
in
the
also
Vasu-
(Tathagata-garbha).
work
of
reality of the
objective world, maintaining that citta (cittamatra) or vijnana
(vijnanamatra)
is
the only reality,
while
the alayavijnana
contains the seeds of phenomena, -both subjective and objec-
Like
tive.
flowing
water
alayavijnana
is
a
constantly
With the realization of
Buddhahood, its course stops at once. According to Sthiramati, the commentator on Vasubandhu's works, alaya contains the seeds of all dharmas including those which produce
impurities.
In other words, all dharmas exist in alayachanging stream of consciousness.
The Yogacarins
vijnana in a potential state.
further state that
an adept should comprehend pudgala-nairatmya
existence of
self)
and dharma-nairatmya
of the things of the world).
(the
(the
non-
non-existence
Pudgala-nairatmya
is
realized
through the removal of passions (kleSavarana), and dharmanairatmya by the removal of the veil that covers true knowledge (jneyavarana), i.e., by means of true knowledge. Both
these
nairatmyas (non-substantiality) are necessary for the
attainment of emancipation.
The Yogacara
recognizes three degrees of knowledge:
parikalpita (illusory), paratantra (empirical), and parinispanna
(absolute).
Parikalpita
is
the false attribution of an imagi-
nary idea to an object produced by
its
cause and conditions.
only in one's imagination and does not correspond
to reality.
Paratantra is the knowledge of an object proIt exists
j
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
24
duced by its cause and conditions. This is
ledge and serves the practical purposes of life.
the highest truth or tathata, the absolute.
is
paratantra
correspond to samvrti-satya
parinispanna
Madhyamika
paramartha-satya
to
Thus
system.
the
relative
know-
Parinispanna
Parikalpita
(relative truth),
truth)
(highest
Yogacara has three
of
and
and
the
varieties
it
Madhyamika.
The Yogacara differs from the Madhyamika only in that
The former holds that reality
attributes qualities to reality.
is
pure consciousness (vijnanamatra), while the
of knowledge for two of the
latter believes
sunyata.
it is
B. In
Northern Countries
and Nepal
Tibet
The account
been dealt with
of the Buddhist sects in Tibet and Nepal has
in a
previous chapter,
on the expansion of Buddhism
1
as part of the account
in those countries,
and need
not be repeated.
China
It is
said that the Indians arrived in 217 B.C. at the capi-
of China in Shen-si to propagate their religion.
tal
About
the year 122 B.C., a golden statue was brought to the
Em-
peror and, according to the Chinese Chronicle, this was the
first
statue
of
the
Buddha
to
be
brought
to
China
for
worship.
In the year 61 (or 62) A.D., the
embassy
monks
to
to
Emperor
Ming-ti sent an
India to collect Buddhist canons and to invite
come
A
to China.
Kasyapa Matariga, went
to
native of central India,
named
China with them, and translated
a small but important sutra, Forty-two Sections.
According
to the Chinese Chronicle, he died at Lo-yang.
Early
in the fourth century, the
adopt Buddhist monastic
instance, a prince of the
rituals.
Chinese people began to
In the year 335 A.D., for
Ch'au Kingdom,
in the reign of the
Eastern Ts'in dynasty, allowed his attendants to keep Bud1.
See Chapter V,
pp.
73-84.
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
dhist observances.
were established
In this period, a
in
northern
number
125
of monasteries
China, and nine-tenths of the
people were said to have embraced Buddhism.
Between the fourth and seventh centuries A.D., famous
Yuan Chwang came to India and
with
a number of Buddhist texts, which
returned to China
were worshipped alike by high and low. Some Indian schoscholars like Fa-hien and
lars, too,
Among
went
to
China
may
the latter
at the request of
Chinese emperors.
Kumarajiva, Bodhiand Yuan Chwang,
Fa-hien
With
be mentioned
dharma and Paramartha.
they became the founders
of the various schools of Chinese
Buddhism.
When Buddhism
cialized school of
dhists
came
to
China there was no
spe-
any kind, but gradually the Chinese Buddifferent kinds of Buddhism
became acquainted with
and the various
dhist
first
faith
As
practices associated with them.
spread
in
China,
its
the Bud-
sub-divisions also spread
throughout the country from the North to the South. Orthosteadily became heterodox and came to
dox Buddhism thus
acquire characteristics of
its
own.
The Ch'an (Dhydna) School
Bodhidharma evolved
a system of his
own according
to
which the human being could attain Buddhahood only
through a consciousness of the identity of both the relative
and the absolute.
Bodhidharma came to China about 470 A.D. and became the founder of esoteric schools which came to be divided into five principal branches. The esoteric schools are
called dan or ch'an (Skt. dhyana, Jap. zen) in the modern pronunciation.
Bodhidharma was said to be the third royal son
who came either from South India or Persia. It is also
said that he
had practised meditation against the wall of
the Shao-lin-ssu monastery for nine years.
Bodhidharma were
active everywhere,
The
followers of
and were completely
victorious over the native religions with the result that
teachings of the esoteric schools have
come
to
the
be highly
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
126
modern Japan.
prized even in
It
is
natural that Bodhidharma, although a founder of
the esoteric schools, should have based his
own upon
the
most important teacher of
Nagarjuna founded the Madhyamjka
philosophy of Nagarjuna, the
Mahayana Buddhism.
which reduces everything to sunyata
and thus established the Madhyama
school of philosophy,
(non-substantiality),
Pratipad (the Middle Way).
His philosophy influenced
Kau
Hwei-wen, who had studied the sastra Ta-chi-tu-Iun, and
adopted the conception of concentration upon the Middle
Way
(Chung-kwan).
wen,
Tu Hwei-yang and
and Ts'ing-yuen
According
which
hood.
to the
the basis of the ideas of
Kau Hwei-
Lieu Hing-si established the Nan-ngo
schools.
inwards and not to
to these schools, to look
outwards
look
On
the only
is
human mind
is
way
to achieve enlightenment,
same as Buddhaupon Intuition', its
ultimately the
In this system, the emphasis
has no words
is
which to express itself,
no extended demonstration of
its own truth in a logically convincing manner.
If it exIn the
presses itself at all, it does so in symbols and images.
peculiarity being that
no method
it
in
to reason itself out,
course of time this system developed
to such a degree that
it
its
philosophy of intuition
remains unique to
this day.
Chan-Buddhism (Dhyana Buddhism), it may
be worth summarizing the different sub-divisions of Buddhism
Besides the
which, with the exception of the Tien-t'ai
and are no longer
sect,
have declined
active.
The Vinaya School
The Vinaya School
is
based upon the Vinaya of the sacred
books, which were compiled at the Council held after the
Buddha's death.
The founder
Upali (Yeu-po-li; U-P-Li
in
of this school in
India
was
old Chinese, Jap. Upali), one of
He is known as the
He preached the doctrine of the DisFour Divisions. It was Tao Hsuan who established
the ten chief disciples of the Buddha,
author of Si-pu-luh.
cipline of
this
school as a sect in the 7th century A.D.
This school
is
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
also called Hing-si-fang-fei-chi-ngo,
popular
in
Nanking
at that time.
127
was
wear black and
Nan-shan, and
or
Its priests
believe in the protection of oneself against errors.
The T antra School
The founder
of the Tantra school (the secret teaching of
Shan-Wu*Wei (Subhakara). It was recogJapan.
in
About the year 720
Tantrism was introduced into China by Shan-Wu-Wei
(Subhakara) and Kin-kang-chi (Vajramati). Shan-Wu-Wei
was said to be a king of Orissa in eastern India.
Yoga means "to concentrate the mind", and has also
come to mean "containing the secret doctrines". This sect,
Yoga)
nized
is
as
called
a
AD
sect
which taught the magic observances
was so prosperous
absorbed
in
Buddhist practices,
time, this school
and
that the Pan-Jo-tsung (Prajna school)
(Four
Ssu-lun-tsung
in
At one
has another name, 'Yoga-mi-kiau\
Madhyamika
Treatises
school*
were
it.
The Vijnanavada School
This school, which devoted
itself to
the study of the sastra
Wei-shi-lun tNanjio, Nos. 1215, 1240) and other works of
kind,
is
called Wei-shi-siang-kiau.
were Wu-cho and 1
'ien-ts'in,
The authors
who had an
excellent disciple in
Kiai-hien, an Indian living at the monastery at Nalanda.
may
be observed that
this
its
of these books
It
Indian established this school and
much to the arrangement of the Buddhist
canons.
Yuan Chwang, to whom Kiai-hien handed over the
The
Sastra, founded this school in his native land, China.
school is also called Fa-siang-tsung and was led by Yuan
contributed
Chwang's
disciple, Kwei-ki.
The Sukhdvativyuha School
The Sukhavativyuha
in
China by Tan-Ian
or the Pure
(Jap.
Donlan)
dynasty (7th century A.D.).
this sect, the
Western heaven
Land
sect
was founded
in the reign of the
Than
According to the doctrine of
is
the residence of the
Amita
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
128
Buddha (Amitayur Buddha).
the formula that salvation
lute faith in another's
is
This sect bases
belief
its
to be attained "through abso-
power", and lays emphasis on
repetition of the formula,
on
the
Namo'mitabha-Budcihaya (Glory be
to Amita Buddha), which is regarded as a meritorious act
on the part of the believer. The repetition of the formula
is
looked upon as the expression of a grateful heart.
This
was also introduced into Japan and has been revived
in a modified form.
In China the third patriarch of this
school was Shan-tao (Jap. Zendo) in the seventh century
belief
A.D
He preached
Land sect for
humble people to believe in salvation through Amita Buddha.
The Pure Land sect of Shan-tao was introduced into Japan
where it has obtained a firm footing and is a living religion
more than
thirty
the doctrine of the Pure
years, teaching
the
today.
The main
texts of this school arc the Aparimitayus-sOtra
(No. 27), the Sukhavatyamrtavyuha-sulra (No. 200) and
Buddhabhasitamitayurbuddhadhyana-sutra (No.
the
198).
The Avatamsaka Sehool
The Buddhist
sect founded by Fa-shun is called Fa-singmeaning "the school of the true nature** of the Buddhist canons.
Jt concentrates on the Hwa-yen-sutra
(the
Avatamsaka-sutra No. 87). Fa-tsan, the third patriarch of
the Hwa-yen or the Avatamsaka school, built up the sect
and when he died in 643 (or 699 712) A.D. was honoured
tsung,
with the
title.
Seven
Hien-sheu-ta-shi.
works are ascribed
him.
to
Among
Hwa-yen-yi-shan-ciao-i-fan-tshi-can, a treatise
tion of the
of the
meaning of the doctrine of one
Buddha vatamsaka-sOtra (No.
fa-phin-nei-li-san-pao-cao (No. 1592),
can-yun-cien-lei-cie
(No.
1602).
one of the most important
].
Tripitaka.
distinc-
vehicle, ekayana,
1591) 1 Hwa-yen-cin-min-
and Hwa-yen-cin-shi-tsz*-
The Avataipsaka school
sects in
China and,
Thi» and the following numbers refer to those in
of the Chinene
these are
on the
is
like the T'ien-
Nan] io'h Catalogue
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS
AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
representative of the genuine philosophy of
t'ai, is
129
Chinese
Buddhism.
The Madhyamika School
The
school)
San-lun-tsung (or the Three
divided into two groups.
is
Madhyamika Treatises
The first follows the
from Nagarjuna to Kumarajlva; and the second the
tradition from Chi-tsang (549
623 A.D.), a disciple of
Kumarajlva, to the time of its decline (8th century A.D.).
The first tradition is called the "old" and the second the
"new" San-lun-tsung. The main texts of this school consist
of Chun-lun (the Madhyamika-sastra, No. 1179), Pai-lun (the
Sata-Sastra, No. 1188) and Shih-erh-men-lun (the Dvadakmikaya-sastra, No. 1186), which, in the opinion of Chi-tsang,
tradition
—
constitutes the San-lun literature
of
Chinese
Madhyamika
Buddhism.
the
The San-lun-tsung was a Buddhist
Madhyamika doctrine according to
which
laid
which expressed
absolute truth (para-
Besides this sect, there were others
martha-satya, Chen-ti).
losophy.
sect
emphasis on different aspects of Madhyamika phi-
The
texts
of these
sects
are Ta-chin-tu-lun (the
Mahaprajnaparamita-sSstra, No. 1169), Shih-chu-phi-pho-shalun (the Da$abhumivibhasa-£astra, No. 1180) and other texts
together with the
main
texts already mentioned.
The groups
which embrace Madhyamika Buddhism are Si-lun-tsung, Panand Hsing-tsung, in which the San-lun-tsung and
jo-tsung,
Hwa-yen-tsung are also included.
doctrine of samvfti-satya
which
"all beings are
do not come
These schools
stress the
(conventional truth), according to
conditioned and merely interrelated, but
the absolute sense". The
Madhyamika philosophy was exin their approach to human life.
into existence in
practical aspect of the
pressed by these schools
Although these schools contributed to the cultural development of ancient China for eight centuries, today they are
only objects of historical, textual and philosophical study.They no longer exist as religious institutions in China except
in the modified
form of Tibetan Lamaism.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
130
The
T'ien-t'ai
Now
School
The Buddhist school
school in China today.
r
Chi-k ai
called
is
where Chi-k
Chi-k
lished
Tien-t'ai,
died (597 A.D.) in his sixty-seventh year in
ai
followed
ai
Mount
after
T'ien-t'ai-tsung,
the reign of the Souei dynasty.
life,
Buddhist
founded by
to turn to the T'ien-t'ai, the only living
the
by Bodhidharma.
It
is
teachings
said that in his early
of
the
school
Afterwards he grew
new branch
tired
estab-
of this
main
(the Saddharmatexts of which are Miao-fa-lien-hwa-chin
pundarika-sutra, No. 134), Ta-ci-tu-lun (the MahaprajnSparamita-sutra-sastra, No. 1169), Nei-phan-chin (the Mahanirvana-sutra, No. 113) and Ta-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-to*chin (the
system, and initiated a
Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra, No.
Chi-k
which
ai
is
of Buddhism, the
1).
established a threefold system of comprehension
called
Chi-kwan,
or
This system consists of three
'perfected
comprehension*.
comprehensions,
namely,
and 'medial' (chung).
These three modes of comprehending beings are like the
three eyes of the God Mahesvara.
The 'empty' mode
destroys the illusion of sensuous perception and constructs
supreme knowledge (prajna). The 'hypothetical' mode
does away with the defilement of the world, and establishes
Lastly, the 'medial' mode destroys
salvation from all evils.
hallucination arising from ignorance (avidya), and estab'empty' (k'ung),
lishes
'hypothetical' (kia)
enlightened
the
observation
is
mind.
The system
of
threefold
based on the philosophy of Nagarjuna,
lived in south-eastern Jndia
These Buddhist schools
who
about the second century A.D.
in
China had
their
origin
in
Indian Buddhism, but the ceaseless study of the Buddhist
by the Chinese schools resulted in completely new
religious experiences which seem to have grown out of the
historical background of China rather than of India.
Although this development was possible through the introduction of Indian Mahayana Buddhism, its theories were intertexts
preted
in
a
characteristic
for Chinese tradition.
Chinese
The Chinese
way with
its
respect
interpreted the Indian
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS
texts
in
AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
131
consonance with the traditional pattern that they
had inherited from
their ancestors.
Japan
The Buddhist sects in Japan
They are the Kegon
number.
(the
Vinaya
school),
the
Ritsu
the
laksana
school),
Tendai,
are said to be thirteen in
(the
the
the
Avatamsaka school),
Hosso (the Dharma-
Shingon
(Tantric
Bud-
dhism), the Jodo, the Jodo-shin, the Yuzunenbutsu, the
Rinzai, the Soto, the Obaku, and the
the
Nichiren
Ji,
sects.
Besides these, there were three others, namely, the Sanron
(the
(the Three-sastra school of Madhyamika), the Kusha
Abhidharma-kosa school) and the Jojitsu (the Satyasiddhisastra school), but they are more or less extinct and have
little
independent influence.
Most of the Buddhist sects in Japan, it may be noted,
The Kegon, the Ritsu and
originally came from China.
the Hosso have retained their Chinese character while the
others are local creations and have been completely remodelled.
The
chief
features of the latter sects are briefly
discussed in the following pages.
The Tendai Sect
The Tendai
sect was founded in Japan in 804 A.D. by
He
was
who
belter known as Dcngyo-Daishi.
study to
entered the Order young and went for further
China, where he received instruction in the Dharma from
On his return to
teachers at the famous Ticn-fai school.
Saicho,
Japan, he propagated the
Enryakuji on
new
Mount Hid.
doctrine in the temple called
This temple soon grew to be
Buddhist studies and pracall
important to note that not a few of
the founders and scholars of the other sects were associated with this temple as students. Though an offshoot of
the Chinese Tien-t'ai. the Tendai sect absorbed the ideas
an
important
tices in
Japan.
centre
It
of
is
and principles of other doctrines such as Tantric Buddhism,
and those of the Dhyana and the Vinaya schools.
*3 2
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
from the Chinese Tien-t'ai
differs
It
in
its
practical
approach, though both base themselves essentially on the
Mahayana text, the Saddharma-pundarika, laying stress
on the Ekayana theory. Saicho also introduced a practical
method called Kwanjin (intuition of the mind).
The Shingon
Sect
The founder
known as Kobo
An
of Saicho.
of
this
Daishi)
ascetic,
sect
Japan was Kukai
in
who was
a
(also
a younger contemporary
traveller,
famous
and a
calli-
grapher and sculptor, Kukai was a versatile figure and a
remarkable
went
to
scholar.
China
doctrine as a
On
Inspired
by
example,
Saicho's
he
804 A.D., and studied the esoteric Shingon
disciple of the Chinese priest, Houei-Kouo.
in
to
Japan he established the most widely
known monastery
of the Shingon sect on the mountain of
return
his
Koya-san.
The
doctrine of the Shingon sect
the
Mahavairocana-sutra
The
cult
is
essentially
and
the
based mainly upon
is
other
Tantric
siitras.
one of magical or mystical practices
as found in the Tantric
Buddhism of
Tibet.
The name
Shingon comes from the Sanskrit mantra, meaning sacred
According to the doctrine of this sect, enlightenformula.
ment can be attained through
the
recitation
of a
mantra
or Dharani.
The Shingon
sect
is
now
the only sect in Japan which
However, by following a
of development, it was able to avoid
has retained the Tantric ideals.
well formulated line
the degeneration which was the fate of the Tantric Buddhists
of India
and
Tibet.
Pure Land Buddhism
This comprises the Jodo, the Jodo-shin, the Yuzunenbutsu and the
Ji
sects.
The
essential
doctrine of these
can be attained only through absolute
The followers of
trust in the saving power of Amitabha.
this faith recite the name of Amitabha, longing to be re-
sects
is
that salvation
AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS
1 33
born in his paradise through his grace.
The Jodo
He was
was founded
sect
Japan
in
a renowned saint and
is
1175 by Genku.
in
known
better
Honen.
as
His doctrine was based largely upon that of Shan-tao (613
681 A.D.), one of the most famous teachers of the
He
China.
school
in
(both
the
and
larger
Amitayurdhyana-sutra
was
that
it
after death, be
Sukhavati.
Hence
The
common
to the
name
the
the
paradise
his
in
that
gain access to the pure land
life,
Nenbutsu or the
Buddha
called
Amitabha
in
system, being a simple one,
people.
of Amitabha
born
was by believing
it
end of
at the
of one's desire.
and
teaching
editions)
texts,
in
one should,
one could,
smaller
canonical
the Amitabha Buddha.
His principal
was Amitabha who had willed that every
benefits of faith
belief
the
as
Amitabha
SukhavatFvyGha-sutras
the
selected
—
is
among
a natural practice
the followers of this faith, but the emphasis
rather than on practical recitation.
None
suited
is
recitation of the
is
on the
belief
the less, Nenbutsu
should not be considered to be of secondary importance.
It
held
is
that even
their affairs
to
be born
will
plicit
faith
in
the
one of the most
The
Jodo
sect.
are too preoccupied with
name.
Honen's teachings found great
masses and the Jodo sect thus became
influential in Japan.
teachings
Shinran
who
go deeply into the doctrines of Buddhism
the heaven of Amitabha if they have imhis
in
among
favour
those
of
the
introduced
Jodo-shin
several
sect,
important
According to Shinran,
all
founded
reforms
living
in
by
the
beings shall
vow taken by Amitabha. Hence,
name of the Buddha, as also other
be saved on account of the
the recitation of the
practices in ordinary
life,
are but the expression of a grateful
heart.
Shinran introduced several important reforms
organization of the church, the object of which
move
the division between the clergy
and the
did not recognize any difference between
pations.
AH human
the
in
the
was
to re-
laity.
He
two occu-
beings are equally capable of being
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
134
reborn
be
in
no
"There were to
the pure land of the Buddha.
masters
or
All were to be friends
disciples.
brothers before the Buddha."
Shinran,
ing to this sect, led an ordinary
life
as
among
and
belong-
others
the people
and
considered himself not a preceptor, but merely a follower
of Amitabha's way.
Because
among
Shinran's
liberal
and
the
and
the
the
people,
Shin
sect
especially
The religious freefrom him impelled them to
peasants.
his followers learnt
political
outlook,
among
popular
the farmers
dom which
seek
of
became
rapidly
freedom which found expression
social
several revolts of the farmers against their feudal lords
in
in the
16th century
A.D.
The Uzunenbutsu
1132 A.D.) and
the
was founded by Ryonin 1072 —
sect by Ippen (1239- 1289 A.D.).
sect
Ji
(
had no significant influence in Japan. The
doctrine of Ryonin was influenced by the Kegon philosophy and that of Ippen by Zen Buddhism.
These
sects
Zen Buddhism
The word Zen comes from zena (Chinese: Chan) which
is
a
transcription
of
the
Sanskrit
dhyana,
meaning con-
templation.
Zen Buddhism has
the
Rinzai,
was founded
the
in
three
branches
in
Japan,
namely,
Soto, and the Obaku.
The first group
Japan by the Japanese monk, Eisai (1141
—
1215 A.D.), the second by Dogen (1200-1253 A.D.) and
the third by a Chinese
monk
called Igen, about 1653 A.D.
and Dogen spent several years studying in China.
essence of Zen Buddhism is summed up as follows:
into the mind and you will find Buddhahood."
This sect lays great stress on meditation or contemplation
which alone can lead one to enlightenment.
We now turn to the doctrine of Dogen, which is one
of the most important and representative features of Zen
Buddhism.
Dogen started life as a monk seeking an answer to the
Eisai
The
"Look
AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS
question
"Why
:
did so
many Buddhas
practise
I35
way
the
of
self-enlightenment, although all living beings, by their very
had Buddhahood in them." As nobody in
him with a convincing answer, he went
to China to seek light.
There he attained enlightenment
under the instruction of a Zen Buddhist monk. On his
return to Japan he propagated the following doctrine:
"All
human beings have already been enlightened. They are
Buddhas by nature. The practice of meditation is nothing
but the Buddha's act itself."
The Buddha's acts continue incessantly and ceaselessly
for the improvement of human society, but human beings
should also constantly strive for the welfare of the community
in which they live.
Zen Buddhism found great favour among the warriors for
whom steadiness of mind was necessary. Patronized and
encouraged by the Shoguns, Zen Buddhism rapidly spread all
over the country. The Rinzai sect had closer contact with
the Shogunate Government than the Soto, which, however,
was very popular among the local lords and the farmers. As
nature, already
Japan could
far as the
satisfy
number
of followers
now next only to the Shin
Zen Buddhism made
Chinese
culture
black and white, the
of
contribution
significant
culture.
Noh
flower arrangements— all
concerned the Soto sect
is
sect.
a
development of Japanese
higher
is
those
It
to
the
brought to Japan the
days.
The
painting
in
dance, the tea ceremony and the
came
into
vogue as a
result of the
Zen Buddhism. Moreover, we cannot overlook
that the spirit of Zen Buddhism played a consider*
influence of
the fact
able
part
the
in
formulation
of
the
tenets
of
Bushido
(Japanese chivalry).
The Nichiren
This sect
Sect
is
called after
its
A.D.
in
Kominate
in the
who was
He was born in 1222
fisherman. He received
founder, Nichiren,
a great patriot and saint of Japan.
house of a
ordination at the age of fifteen in a
monastery on a
hill
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
I36
He
called Kiyozumi.
and
literature
studied various branches of Buddhist
travelled
widely over the country in search
of the essential doctrine of Buddhism.
After long years
of study and of travel, he declared the Saddharmapundarika (the Lotus of the Good Law) to be the final
revelation of the truth.
He introduced the formula, nemu
myoho rengc kyo (homage to the sOtra of the Lotus of the
Good Law), perhaps to counteract the influence of Ner-
butsu of the Jodo
Buddha
of the
sect.
According
the eternal, absolute
is
to him, the
Buddha and
Saddharma-pundarTka-sutra or even
way of attaining enlightenment.
He expressed his views against
Sakyamuni
the recitation
its
is
the
sects
so
title
best
violently that he
was often
in
other
the
trouble, although he always
had miraculous escapes.
C. In
Southlrn Countries
Fortunately, in the Buddhist countries of southern Asia,
there never arose
of
Buddhism.
is
a
any serious differences on the fundamentals
All
these countries except
Mahayana country— have accepted
Viet-Nam
the
— which
principles
of
Theravada school and any difference there may be
between the various schools is restricted to minor matters.
I
he
Ceylon
Ceylonese sources refer to the schools of Abhayagiri,
Dakkhina-vihara and Jetavana which had brought about
splits in
the Buddhist community of Ceylon.
Of
serious
Abhayagiri school, which was
also
sometimes
Dhammaruci-nikaya, flourished as a respectable
the Mahavihara school from which it differed in
these, the
called the
rival
to
certain fundamentals.
also
called
The
Vetulyavadins.
followers of these schools were
In
the
course
of
the
long
Mahavihara school and the Abhayagiri
school, the former ultimately won in Ceylon.
There are
struggle between the
PRINCIPAL SCHOOLS AND SECTS OF BUDDHISM
now
three different fraternities in Ceylon which
names
their
Upasampada was brought,
the places from which
to
owe
137
Siam, or Upper or Lower Burma.
Le.,
Burma
As we know from
Sasanavamsa 1 the Burmese
Sangha was also split up over minor matters like the interpretation of certain Vinaya rules.
One of the questions
under consideration was whether Buddhist monks upon
being offered an elephant as a gift by the King should retain it for their own use or let it go free into the forest.
Another matter of dispute was whether or not a monk
should make a personal recommendation of his pupil to any
Later, controversies arose as to whether
householder.
monks, when they went begging in a village should cover
only the
left
the
shoulder with their robe, leaving the other bare
(ekamsika), or cover both
shoulders
the
(parupana).
The
argument raged for over a hundred years until the controversy was finally settled by a royal decree in the reign of
King Badoah Pra (1781 A.D.). Sometimes trifling matters
such as the use of a fan or the use of palm-leaves as a
head-dress also became matters of controversy and resulted
in further splits.
At present
in
Burma.
three main fraternities
on questions of personal
there appear to be
These
mostly
differ
behaviour
and
Sudhamma
fraternity
very
little
which
on
is
essential
points.
The
oldest
and the
largest
the
numerically permits the use of umbrellas and sandals, the
chewing of
betel nuts or betel-leaves,
smoking, and the use
of fans at the time of the recitation of the parittas (protective
hymns).
Mahathera
The Schwegin group, founded by Jagara
King Mindon (1 9th century A.D.),
in the reign of
does not permit the chewing of betel nuts or betel leaves
in
nor does it favour smoking. The Dvaragroup of monks uses the expressions kaya-dvara
vaci-dvara, mano-dvara (the doors of body, tongue and
the
afternoon,
nikaya
1,
M. Bode'a
edition, pp. 66-67.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
138
mind)
kamma
instead
of
kaya-kamma,
vaci-kamma and
and mind).
mano-
(actions of the body, tongue
Thailand and Cambodia
In Thailand
nities,
namely,
nikaya which
is
and Cambodia, also, there are two fraterMahanikaya, and the Dhammayuttikadescended from the Ramann sect of Lower
the
Burma. The latter is considered to be stricter in discipline.
In Cambodia, the difference is restricted mainly to the pronouncing of Pali words and to very minor rules of conduct.
CHAPTER
VII
Buddhist Literature
General
As far as our present knowledge goes, we find
main stock of systematized Buddhist literature, in the
or
in translation, is
that the
original
contained mainly in Pali, Sanskrit (pure
and Chinese, although the Buddhist texts
were also translated into the language of the countries* to
which Buddhism spread.
or mixed), Tibetan
In
the
treasure-house
of
Buddhist
literature,
the
Pali
Tripitaka represents the earliest available and most complete
collection of Buddhist sacred literature.
three systematic collections
Book
:
(1)
It is
preserved in
the Vinaya-pitaka, or the
book
Abhidhamma-pitaka, the collection
of books on abstruse philosophy based on psychological
The names of various books in these three Pitakas
ethics.
and their mutual relation can be understood from the table
of Discipline,
of discourses, and
(3)
(2)
the Sutta-pitaka, the popular
the
on the next page
Besides this canonical literature in Pali, there
is
also the
non-canonical literature, consisting of the Milinda-panha, the
Netti-pakarana,
Buddhadatta's
Abhidhamma, commentaries on
Manuals
the
Pali
on
Vinaya
Tripitaka
and
texts,
including the Jatakas, written by or ascribed to Buddha-
ghosa or Dhammapala, Chronicles of Ceylon like the Dfpavamsa, the Mahavamsa, and the Culavamsa and later works
Among the
in Pali modelled on classical Sanskrit poetry.
works of grammar, those of Kaccayana and Moggallana,
the Rupasiddhi and the Saddaniti are also well known.
Buddhaghosa's masterly original work, the Visuddhimagga,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
140
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BUDDHIST LITERATURE
is
veritably a small cyclopaedia
we have
Unfortunately,
Buddhist books preserved
on
141
Buddhism.
no complete canon of
early
at present
in Sanskrit, as in Pali.
It
appears,
however, that the Sarvastivada school did possess the Agamas
corresponding to the Pali Nikayas and seven books of Abhi-
dharma corresponding to the seven books of the Pali Abhidhamma. The Mula-sarvastivadins possessed a Vinayapitaka and large sections of this preserved
Manuscripts have
in several
ponding
now been
published.
in
These
the
Gilgit
texts reveal
places a remarkable divergence from the corres-
Pali
texts,
though they have some resemblance
in
general.
In Sanskrit, pure or mixed, therefore,
we
find several in-
dependent texts or fragments of texts which are of a varied
nature and belong to different schools of both the Hinayana
and the Mahayana type. The Mahavastu is claimed to be
a book on Vinaya belonging to the Lokottaravadins of the
Mahasaiighikas but
find
in
it
its
subject matter
sutras corresponding to
Majjhima, and
the
correspond to some
Suttanipata as
is
well
so varied that
in
as
the
we
Digha, the
stories
which
The Lalitavistara,
account of the Buddha in mixed
in the Pali Jatakas.
an incomplete biographical
Sanskrit,
is
some
considered to be a text of the unorthodox (Maha-
yana) school and forms part of the Vaipulya-sutra. Asvaghosa
is known
for his Buddhacarita and Saundarananda and
Arya£ura for his Jataka-mala, a Sanskrit text, though far
more polished, corresponding to the Pali Cariya-pitaka.
There is also a vast Avadana literature, corresponding to the
Pali Apadanas, containing stories intended to explain the
good or bad effects of good or bad karma.
Among the Mahayanist sutras, nine texts or dharmas are
regarded as the most important, of which special mention
might be made of the Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita, the
Saddharma-pundarlka, the Lalitavistara, the Laiikavatara,
the Suvarna-prabhasa, the Gandavyuha, the Tathagataguhyaka, the Samadhlraja and the DasabhumTsvara. These
are called the Vaipulya sutras. Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu and
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
142
Asariga are the authors of the philosophical works of this
and we
school,
where
have occasion to refer to them
shall
else-
1
.
In Tibet, too. there
a large collection of translations of
is
more than 4,566. These
Bkah hgyur, popularly
of 1,108 texts, and Bstan-hgyur,
Indian Buddhist texts numbering
are divided into two groups, namely,
called the Kanjur, consisting
popularly called the Tanjur, consisting of 3,458
texts.
Kanjur
(1)
divided into the following seven parts:
is
Prajna-paramita,
(5)
Sutra. (6)
There
(3)
Tantra, and
(1)
exists a large
texts into the
Vinaya,
Buddhavatamsaka, (4) Ratnakuta,
Nirvana, and (7) Tantra, while the Tanjur is
(2)
divided into
The
(2)
Sutra.
number of
translations from Indian
In his Catalogue, Bunyiu
Chinese language.
Nanjio records as many as 1,662,
which are
four divisions:
Vinaya-pitaka,
(I)
Sutra-pitaka,
dharma-pitaka. and
later catalogue,
(4)
Miscellaneous.
mentions as
volumes
(2)
many
classified into
(3)
Abhi-
Hobogirin, a
still
as 2,184 texts printed in
Taisho edition. In another 25
volumes, there are supplementary texts, written in China and
fifty-five
Japan.
In
of
the
Japan there are three complete translations of the
Chinese Tripitaka. including the supplementary 25 volumes
in the
Taisho edition of the Tripitaka.
language also there
is
a
translation
In the
Manchurian
of the same, and in
Mongolian, a translation of the Tibetan Tanjur. 2
The
books
intention in this chapter
in
Pali
is
to survey
some important
and Buddhist Sanskrit only.
SURV1:Y OF IMPORTANT BOOKS IN PALI AND BUDDHIST SANSKRIT
There was at one time a vast Buddhist literature in Pali,
It is, indeed,
the Prakrits, mixed Sanskrit and pure Sanskrit.
ironical that not a single Buddhist work, with the exception
of the Manjusrimulakalpa, has been found within the
borders of India.
1.
The main reasons
for such a complete
See Cliapter IX.
Chou Haing Kuang, Indo-Chinese Relation*
Buddhism, pp. 203, 205.
2.
:
A
History of Chine**
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
143
disappearance of Buddhist literature from India are (i) that
study was confined to the ordained monks and novices
its
resident in the monasteries,
(ii)
that the literature,
which was
mostly religious, was preserved in manuscript in the libraries
or the cells of the monasteries and never kept in the houses
of laymen, and
(iii)
that with the decay or destruction of the
monasteries, whether by the
passage of time or through de-
secration and vandalism, these manuscripts were destroyed*
The Buddhist
literature that
we
study today has
come
to us
from monasteries outside India, in Ceylon, Burma, Siam and
Nepal, and in translations from Tibet, China and Mongolia.
An idea of the vastness of the literature can be formed from
the works mentioned in the Chinese and Tibetan Catalogues.
A remarkable addition to our knowledge of Buddhist literature has been
made by
the discoveries of manuscripts
in
Central Asia and Gilgit as well as by the manuscripts photo-
graphed
Prof.
Tibet by Rahul Sankrityayan and collected by
in
G. Tucci.
The
original
Sanskrit manuscripts, found
and Tibet, belonging mostly to the
fifth or sixth century A.D. or to an earlier period, were
preserved in Central Asia and Gilgit in stone chambers built
under the stupas or monasteries, and in temples in Tibet
where they were meant to be worshipped only and not
studied.
These discoveries have thrown a flood of light on
the development of Buddhist literature and the languages in
which it was written, particularly on some extinct Central
Asian dialects into which some of the texts were translated.
Buddhist literature may be divided broadly into two
in Central Asia, Gilgit
sections: the
Mahayana
Hlnayana (in Pali and mixed
mixed and pure Sanskrit).
Sanskrit)
and the
can be further
sub-divided into literatures of different sects of both the
(in
It
Hinayana and the Mahayana schools.
I.
The
life
of the
Biographies
Buddha provided a
fascinating subject for
the ancient Buddhist writers and compilers.
biographies of the Buddha:
(i)
the
There are
five
Mahavastu of the Maha-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
144
sarighikas
(Lokottaravadins),
Sarvastivadins in mixed Sanskrit,
posed by ASvaghosa
in
(iii)
but
now
comthe high-flown kavya
the Buddhacarita
pure Pali forming the introduc-
in
tory part of the Jatakas, and lastly
sutra of the
of the
Lalitavistara
pure Sanskrit in
Nidanakatha
style, (iv) the
the
(ii)
(v)
the Abhiniskramana-
Dharmaguptas, probably written
in
mixed Sanskrit
extant only in a Chinese translation which has been
rendered into English by Beal under the title of The Romantic
Legend of Sakya Buddha 875). Besides these, there are stray
pieces in Pali and Sanskrit Vinaya, as also in the Nikayas,
depicting certain periods or events in the Buddha's life. The
( 1
Mahapadana-sutta, for example, deals with the
life
previous Buddhas, particularly with that of Vipassi,
of the
who
is
almost a replica of Gautama Buddha; the Ariya-pariyesanasutta relates the events after the Bodhisattva's renunciation
up to the delivery of
nibbana-sutta
Mahapari-
his first discourse while the
a
gives
vivid
account of the Buddha's
journey, his cremation and the division of his earthly
Likewise there are
in the Suttanipata, the
last
relics.
Apadana and
Mahavarnfsa pieces dealing briefly with the Buddha's
the
life.
There is a late poetical work in Pali called the Mahabodhivamsa which contains legends about the twenty-four
Buddhas, during whose time Gautama Buddha acquired the
necessary virtues of a Bodhisattva.
A
true picture of the missionary activities of the
which spread over
forty-five years, is
parts of the Jatakas
and the
found
Buddha,
in the introductory
suttas of the five
Nikayas as
well as in the Vinaya-pitaka.
Of
atic
is
the five biographies of the
the
Lalitavistara.
with bold imagery and
its
Its
Buddha, the most system-
sonorous gathas are replete
descriptive accounts in prose
and
poetry, though unrealistic, are calculated to produce faith
and devotion for the Great Being.
Next comes the Maha-
vastu which relates incidents of the Buddha's
to the different traditions, with
nuity of the accounts.
shows
clearly
its
life
according
sudden breaks in the conti-
Its style is
pristine character.
quaint and halting, and
Its
importance
lies
in
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
1 45
the fact that the stories of the past births of the
introduced in
writers,
and even
from such
common
This was a
the Teacher.
Buddha
are
to support incidents in the present life of
it
digressions,
Mula-sarvastivadins.
It
not
practice
among
the ancient
and the Vinaya are not free
speak of the Vinaya of the
the Nikayas
to
not easy to give an estimate of
is
the Abhiniskramana-sutra as the original text has been lost.
From
the abridged English translation of Beal. however,
can be stated that
the Lalitavistara
of
style
this
biography occupies a place nearer
than to the Mahavastu.
Mahavastu
the
and, like the
opens
It
it
to
the
in
recounts the
latter,
Jatakas towards the end to underline the meritorious acts
of the Buddha
in his
The compiler
missionary days.
of the
biography has attended to certain incidents, thereby following
the
of either
tradition
Kasyapiyas
or
of
the
Mahasarighikas or of the
the
The Nidana-
Mahasthaviravadins.
katha. in Pali, has an individual approach.
devotes the
It
whole of the "Distant Epoch" to a detailed account of the
twenty-four Buddhas, during whose time the Bodhisattva was
born
for
in
forms and acquired the virtues necessary
Buddhahood.
Epochs,
much
it
length.
the
Jatakas
with
Buddha's
Like the Mahavastu
without
The Buddhacarita
common
the
reproducing
stands by
biographies,
incidents of the Buddha's
life
being,
who succeeded
account of accumulated merit
life
without
occasionally
the
stories
first
The
Council and
The Teacher
in
at
well-known
the
with certain deviations.
follows the Pali tradition generally.
human
it
and has nothing
itself
except
biography extends to the session of the
as a
and "Proximate"
In the ''Intermediate*'
relates the incidents of the
embellishment.
mentions
in
different
is
depicted
achieving perfection on
in a past
life.
As
a
kavya
it
stands unrivalled in Buddhist literature.
(i)
The Mahavastu
The Mahavastu
is
pages in print) written
the
first
book of
the
an extensive work (covering
mixed Sanskrit. It claims
in
1,325
to be
Vinaya-pitaka of the Lokottaravada
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
146
branch of the Mahasanghikas. The Mahasanghikas, it may
be observed, were the first batch of monks to secede from the
orthodox group, the Theravadins or Sthaviravadins, about a
They lived mostly at
and Pataliputra, and migrated, in course of time, to
Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in the Guntur district of
Andhra State.
Its language and style of composition seem to suggest that
the Mahavastu must have been written as early as the 1st
or 2nd century B.C.
Most of the Indologists who have studied this work are
of the opinion that it lacks in system and is, by and large,
a confused mass of legends and historical facts. This criticism is partially true: none the less the scattered episodes
century after the Buddha's passing.
Vaisali
An
in the treatise are not wholly unrelated.
be
made
in
the
following
pages
to
attempt will
indicate
the
lines
which the compiler or the author followed to bring together
the
floating
mass
of
legends
Sakyamuni's birth and previous
At
and
traditions
concerning
births.
the outset the compiler gives an account of the hells,
and of the
sufferings witnessed there
Then he mentions
by Mahamaudgalyayana.
the four Caryas (courses of attainments)
through which an individual must pass
The
Carya
in
order to attain
in
Buddhahood.
which an individual is expected to be obedient to his parents,
to the Sramanas and brahmanas, and to the elders, to perform good deeds, to instruct others to offer gifts, and to
worship the Buddhas. While a being is in this Carya, he is
Sakyamuni
just a common being and not a Bodhisattva.
practised this Carya from the time of Aparajitadhvaja
Buddha.
The second Carya is called Pranidhi or Pranidhana.
This consists in a being's resolving to attain bodhi in due
Sakyamuni took this resolution five times in the
course.
course of his many existences as the ancient Sakyamuni
Buddha, whose life extended over aeons.
The
first
third Carya, called
is
called
Anuloma
{i.e.,
Prakrticarya,
forward or pro-
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
gressive)
is
a continuation of the previous Carya and con-
acquiring the virtues necessary to
sists in
I47
Sakyamuni began this Carya
Buddha. During the second and
at
become a Buddha.
time
the
Samitavi
of
third Caryas, a Bodhisattva
acquires the virtues mentioned in the Jatakas and advances
from the
first
to the eighth bhumi.
seventh bhumi,
when he was born
The fourth or
the
Carya
last
Sakyamuni reached the
KuSa 1
as Prince
is
.
called
Avivarta
or
Anivartana (non-returning) and commences with the Bodhisattva reaching the eighth
impossible
him.
for
bhumi when retrogression becomes
Sakyamuni was reborn as
When
Meghamanava, 2 he reached
Diparikara Buddha,
who
this
Carya
at
the
time
confirmed his ultimate success
of
in
was reconfirmed by Sarvabhibhti
Buddha when Sakyamuni was born as Abhiya or Abhiji
Subsequently, the Bodhisattva was born innumerbhiksu.
bodhi.
attaining
It
able times 3 in order to cross the eighth and ninth bhumis.
ultimately reached the tenth
bhumi
to
He
be born as Jyotipala-
manava and given Yauvarajyabhiseka by Kasyapa Buddha,
becoming the god of gods in the Tusita heaven. He was
to complete the tenth bhumi as Gautama Buddha under the
at last
Bodhi
tree at
Gaya.
After dealing with the bhumis, the compiler takes up the
story of the last existence of
which
is
Dlpankara as a Bodhisattva
almost a replica of the story of Sakyamuni's birth.
After attaining bodhi he met Meghamanava, a very learned
brahmana student, and told him that he would oecome
Gautama Buddha. A similar forecast was made by Buddha
Mangala when our Bodhisattva was born as Atula
Nagaraja.
The
is
broken here, and
all
Gautama Buddha's missionary
life
continuity of the biography
of a sudden an episode of
introduced.
is
This episode deals with the disappearance of
Not the Kusa of the Kusa-Jataka.
The story of Meghamanavaka, though substantially similar to that of
Sumedha Brahmana of the Nidanakathfi, differs from it in detail.
3. During tne time of the Buddhas listed in Vol. I, pp. 136-141.
1.
2.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
148
a
ravaging
pestilence
Liccbavis, as soon as
Vaisali,
Vajjis
city of the
the
Gautama Buddha stepped
and
into the city
Purana Kasyapa
He recited the Ratana-
to the discomfiture of the heretical teachers,
and others who had
failed to allay
it.
a Sanskritized version of the sutta
sutta,
The compiler concludes
the origin of the Sakyas
this part
in Pali.
of his story by tracing
and Koliyas,
back
to the origin of the
the selection of
world and
Mahasammata
its
as the
which clans the
to
The account goes
parents of Prince Siddhartha belonged.
first
first
inhabitants and
king, from
whom
and Koliyas were descended.
The whole of this part of the Mahavastu corresponds
roughly to the ''Distant' Epoch" of/ the Nidanakatha, with
the difference that the story of the Bodhisattva is carried back
the Sakyas
to
pre-Bpdhisattva existences
his
when he was engaged
in
Prakrticarya,
The
in the
actual biography of Prince Siddhartha
is
to be foun*J
second volume of the Mahavastu and corresponds
the "Intermediate
Epoch" of
the
Nidanakatha.
with an account of the following topics:
selection of time, place, continent
It
to
opens
the Bodhisattva's
and family,
his
birth
at
Lumbinivana. Rsi Asita's visit, the Bodhisattva \s trance at
Krsigrama, the display of skill, marriage, and Rahula's
appearance as a son of Yasodhara, although he was self-born.
The above
is
repeated
in
a slightly different form, perhaps
according to another tradition, and then two Avalokita-sutras
of the semi-Mahayana type
are
relates the topics in verse in a
condensed form.
introduced, one of which
This volume
concludes with the Bodhisattva 's approach to the Niranjana
river
and the defeat of Mara.
The
third
volume of the Mahavastu
1
corresponds to the
"Proximate Epoch" of the Nidanakatha.
deals with concerns the conversion of
The first topic it
Mahakasyapawith an
incidental reference to the rule of Trikabhojana, according
to
which not more than three monks could eat together when
It is followed by a detailed account of the conver-
invited.
1.
p. 47
ff.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
149
and Maudgalyayana, King^ Suddhodana,
Mahaprajapatf, Yasodhara, Rahula and the Sakyan youths
sions of Sariputra
along with Upali.
After an intervening Bahubuddha-sutra. the
The
visit to KapilaVastu is resumed.
story of the Buddha's
narrative then suddenly reverts to the seven
by the Buddha after the attainment of bodhi.
an account of his
first
weeks passed
Next comes
missionary career which is followed
Buddha and King Bimbisara at
up to the conversion of the
Rajagrha.
(ii)
The Nidanakatha
The only biography
Gautama Buddha
of
in Pali
is
the
Nidanakatha which forms the introduction of the Jataka
commentary. Its authorship is not mentioned anywhere, although the author speaks of the three monks, v/z.,
Atthadassi, a recluse, Buddhamitta of the MahTsasaka sect
and Buddhadeva, a monk of clear intellect, who inspired
him to write the Jataka commentary.
About the division of the biography, the compiler of the
Nidanakatha states that the existence of the Bodhisattva
from the time of Diparikara Buddha up to his birth as a
Tusita god are placed in the "Distant Epoch" (Dure nidana),
while the account of the Bodhisattva's descent from the
1
Bodh Gaya is
Epoch" (Avidure nidana). The
the Buddha up to the time of his
Tusita heaven to his final emancipation
at
treated as the "Intermediate
early missionary career of
meeting with Anathapindika and Visakha at Savatthi
is
in-
cluded in the "Proximate Epoch" (Santike nidana).
The "Distant Epoch" opens with the biography of
Sumedha Brahmana. Sumedha was born at Amaravati in
a wealthy Brahmana family of pure lineage but lost his
parents at an early age.
Being
dissatisfied with the
He
learned the Brahmanic sciences.
wealth
left
by
his parents,
he gave
away in charity and became an ascetic, seeking Amatamahanibbana which was free from origin and decay, pleasure
and pain, disease and suffering. He realized that everything
it
1.
See
Khyn
Davicfa, Buddhist Birth »S7ort>*, pp. 1-2*
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
150
in
this
world had two aspects, positive and negative, and
therefore as an
must be something,
which was unborn. He was determined to realize it and
went to the Himalayas to meditate. He took up his abode
at the Dhammaka mountain, and lived only on the fruit that
fell from the trees.
He soon attained perfection in the five
higher powers (abhinna), and in meditation.
At this time Buddha Dipahkara reached the city of
Rammaka in the border country and stopped at Sudassanamahavihara. Sumedha-tapasa found everyone busy making
the place neat and tidy, to welcome the Buddha, so he also
came forward to take a share in it. He was charmed by the
glory of the Buddha's appearance and wanted to lay down
antidote
for him.
his life
Lest the
birth,
there
Buddha should
soil
his feet in
on it like a bridge (mani-phalaka-setu) in
the Buddha and his disciples, who were all Arhats,
the slush he lay
order that
to
flat
might tread over him.
As he
lay thus, he wished he could
own
salvation and become a Buddha himself so that he might be able to rescue endless numbers of beings from the stream of existence. Then Dipankara
prophesied that the great ascetic Jatila would become a
Buddha after innumerable aeons and related in detail where
he would be born, how he would attain bodhi and who
The prophecy was confirmed
his chief disciples would be.
by many miraculous events including an earthquake and
there was no doubt left that Sumedha was a BuddhaHe also realized this
bijankura, a seedling of the Buddha.
by
higher
knowledge
(abhinna) that he
his
fact and ascertained
must acquire the ten perfections (paramitas) which were
refrain
from achieving
his
acquired by the previous Bodhisattvas in order to achieve
Buddhahood.
Dipankara Buddha, Buddha Kondanfia appeared at Rammavati-nagara. At that time our Bodhisattva
was reborn as Emperor Vijitavi and gave a large gift to the
Buddha and his Sangha. When the prophecy that he would
become a Buddha was reiterated by Buddha Kondanfia, he
Long
after
listened to his religious discourses
and became a
recluse.
He
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
I5I
studied the three Pitakas, mastered the eight forms of medi-
and
(samapatti)
tation
obtained
the
powers
higher
five
Then he passed away and was reborn
(abhinna).
in the
Brahmaloka.
In
way
this
the
Nidanakatha
relates
the
forms
of
existence of the Bodhisattva for each of the next twenty-one
Buddhas, the
three of
last
gamana and Kassapa.
a
list
whom
were Kakusandha, Kona-
The Dure nidana
Section ends with
of the Jatakas which depict the Bodhisattva 's perfection
in the ten paramitas.
The "Intermediate Epoch" opens with
the existence
the Bodhisattva as the lord of the Tusita heaven.
of
He was
entreated by the gods to appear in the mortal world to be-
He
come a Buddha.
family, mother,
his
and
agreed and selected the time, place,
limit of
life.
The
rest of the story
from
descent up to the attainment of bodhi follows the tradi-
Mahavastu and the Lalitavistara.
The "Proximate Epoch" begins with the usual account
of the seven weeks immediately after the attainment of
Then follows the acceptance of Tapussa and
bodhi.
Bhallika as lay devotees and the gift of hair relics to them
There is a reference to the
for the erection of a stupa.
tions preserved in the
Buddha's hesitation
in preaching the doctrines, followed
an account of the Buddha's
vinced the five
Brahmana
visit to
by
Banaras where he con-
ascetics in turn of the excellence
and delivered to them the discourses called
Dhammacakka and Anatta-lakkhana.
He then converted
Yasa and his friends so that the number of his disciples rose
of his teaching
to sixty.
He
sent them in different directions to propagate
and himself went to Uruvela and converted the
Kassapas by his sermon on Fire.
his teachings
three Jatila
He was
invited
by King Suddhodana
to visit Kapilavastu,
where he performed miracles to convince the Sakyas of his
and went round the city with his disciples begging
greatness,
The king and Yasodhara felt aggrieved at the
As Yasodhara remained in
her apartments and would not come out to welcome him,
for food.
latter
but could not stop him.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
I5 2
the Teacher himself went to her with his four disciples.
spoke of the
sacrifices she
had made
She
for the sake of her
This led to a reference to her former existence as
lord.
lated in the
re-
Canda-Kinnara Jataka.
After this appears the usual account of the ordination of
Rahula and of the crown prince Nanda on the eve of the
latter's coronation and marriage,
Next comes the episode of the meeting between the
Buddha and Anathapindika at Rajagrha, the purchase of
Jetavana and the construction on it of a monastery. The
biography ends with the Buddha at Sravasti where the merchant Anathapindika, like Visakha, gave away the monastery
to the Sarigha of the four quarters, present and future.
The Buddha's Teachings
II.
<i)
The
Pali Sutta-pi/aka
The Buddha's teachings are contained
which consists of
five
in the Sutta-pitaka
namely,
Nikayas,
the
Digha,
the
Majjhima, the Samyutta, the Ahguttara and the Khuddaka.
The
difference
in
the titles does not always correspond to
in the case of the Samyutta and
Digha there are some long suttas,
most of them are short, and some even shorter than
suttas of the Majjhima.
It contains two suttas, Sahgiti
the
contents except
Ahguttara.
In
the
which
Dasultara,
Ahguttara.
In the
but
,
the
and
should have found a place in the
Majjhima again there are several suttas
which are longer than many
groups of
the
1
suttas, such as the
in the
Digha.
There are certain
Rajavagga. the Brahmanavagga,
and the Vibhahgavagga, which would not have been out of
place in the Samyutta, although it must be admitted that the
method and
greatly.
made under
topics.
tents are
style of the
Majjhima and the Samyutta
Jn the Samyutta, the grouping
a
common
Jn the Ahguttara
arranged
label
the
title
is
numerically and, at
It
the
suttas
is
without any reference to the
and sub-divisions have been strained
cal classification.
of
differ
justified, for the
con-
times, the divisions
to maintain the numeri-
even includes the Vinaya topics where
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
they could
with the numerical classification.
in
fit
153
Kbuddaka-nikaya
not
is
meant "small".
Perhaps,
at all justifiable
the
was
intention
The
title
by khuddaka
if
that
all
is
the
commentaries, which could not be classified
any of the four Nikayas, should be grouped together as a
suttas, texts or
in
collection of supplementary texts.
The grouping
of the suttas into Nikayas does not thereon a very rational basis. It may be that the division is due to the Bhanaka system prevalent in the early days.
Writing was unknovn then, and so the Buddha's sayings, as
fore rest
were committed
group of monks and were handed down
collected by his disciples,
to
memory by
to
their disciples
a
There were probably two such groups, who, in order
to distinguish themselves from each other, became known as
Digha-Bhanakas and Majjhima-Bhanakas. The other two
orally.
Nikayas were
rearrange
later
the
deal with
topics
As
Majjhima.
all
developments, their object being only to
it
is
is
thirty-four suttas, of
The
in
first
Digha
the
and
the
brief
account of only
given.
The Digha-nikaya
long.
with
Nikayas separately, a
the
the Digha-nikaya
as
dealt
not within the scope of this article to
consists
of
three
books containing
which about sixteen might be described
suttanta, Brahmajala, has two parts,
and popular
games and entertainments, and the second summing up the
various doctrinal and philosophical speculations in vogue at
The second suttanta, Samannaphala, also has two
the time.
the
first
parts,
enumerating the superstitious
the
first
stating
the
doctrines
beliefs
of
the
six
heretical
teachers and the second the benefits derived in an ascending
order by a
monk
of the Buddhist Sahgha.
The next
three
Ambattha, Sonadanda, and Kutadanta, for the
part,
discuss the injustice of the Brahmanical view
most
that brahmanas were entitled to certain privileges by birth.
The superiority of the ideal of life envisaged by the Buddha
suttantas,
is
also
brought
out in contrast.
The
sixth
(Mahali),
the
seventh (Jaliya), the tenth (Subha), and the twelfth (Lohicca)
suttantas reveit to the topics of Samanfiaphala in a slightly
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
154
manner.
different
The
eleventh sutta (Kevatta) shows that the
superior to the gods headed
was
alone
were
able
We
not.
away and
to
find
him
telling
answer
here
He
The
which
question
a
Brahma
leading
gods
the
questioner
the
that he could not, in the presence of
know
other gods, say that he did not
question.
Buddha was
by Brahma inasmuch as he
the answer to the
then referred the questioner to the Buddha.
eighth
(Kassapa-sihanada)
suttanta
speaks
of the
various ascetic practices prevalent during the time of the
Buddha, while the ninth (Potthapada) introduces us
to the
type of discourses usually delivered to the wanderers (paribbajakas).
which
The
Both of these suttantas also
Buddhists
the
refer
through
acquired
the fruits
to
holy
practices.
thirteenth (Tevijja) suttanta refutes the notion that the
Brahmaloka can be reached through the methods prescribed
by the Vedic seers and teaches how one can attain it through
self-restraint and the practice of the four Brahmaviharas,
viz.. love, compassion, joy at the success of others, and
equanimity.
The second book
almost
all
of the Digha-nikaya contains suttantas,
of which have a
Maha
prefixed to the
Mahapadana, deals with the lives of
who came before Gautama Buddha and
first,
the
life
of Vipassi, which
The Mahanidana,
of the
beings.
as
its
is
describes in detail
life.
implies, gives an exposition
Law of Causation and discusses the various forms of
By far the best suttanta of this Nikaya is the Maha,
of the Buddha's
of the villages
life.
realistic
through which he passed
the last instructions
being
Sarigha.
of
the
account of the
precepts, meditation,
last
Particularly important are the
Ku&nagara and
1.
Buddhas
but a replica of Sakyamuni's
name
parinibbana 1 which gives a
down
The
title.
the seven
He
on
his
days
names
way
to
he gave for the wellthe observance of
stressed
knowledge and emancipation, and laid
the authenticity of Buddha-
four rules to ascertain
A
fragmentary Sanskrit version of this sutta has been discovered
in
Central Asia and deciphered and published by Prof. E. Waldschmidt (195(0.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
He
vacanas.
also
recommended
to
lay
155
devotees a
Kapilavastu, Gaya, Banaras and Kusinagara.
His
visit to
words
last
Vayadhamma sahkhara appamadena sampadetha
were:
decay and so perform
your duties diligently). The suttanta ends with a vivid account of the cremation of the Buddha's body and the division
constituted things are subject to
(all
of his
relics.
The main
is
object of the next five suttantas
prove that, owing to the fact that
to
(xvii
many
—
xxi)
inhabitants
Kasi-Kosala, Vajji-Malla, Ceti-Vamsa, Kuru-Pancala,
Maccha-Surasena and Ariga-Magadha followed the Buddha's
of
number of
the
teachings,
Of
greatly.
entrants
the five suttantas, the
to
heaven
increased
Mahasudassana
is
an
off-
shoot of the Mahaparinibbana and gives an account of the
past greatness of Kusinagara.
the past,
is
to a cart,
The Mahagovinda,
particularly important in
and
divides
it
that
it
into seven provinces,
viz.,
Potana, Avanti, Sovira, Videha, Aiiga and Kasi.
tanta appears also in the Mahavastu.
tanta,
dilates
it
on
the
a story of
likens
India
Kaliriga,
This sut-
Like the Tevijja-sut-
merits of the practice of the four
Brahma-viharas.
The
last
two suttantas of the volume are the MahaIn the former the path of mind-
satipatthana and the Payasi.
fulness
is
exhaustively explained.
It
consists in keeping the
mind (sati) alert (upatthana) to what is happening to one's
body and feelings. It also exhorts one to perform the duties
and to acquire the virtues prescribed by the Buddha. The
other suttanta is named after a Khattiya teacher and philosopher called Payasi,
who upheld
the materialistic doctrine
was no rebirth after death, and that the acts of
a being, good or bad, were not productive of any effects.
This view was refuted by Kumara Kassapa, a distinguished
disciple of the Buddha.
The third volume contains eleven suttantas, of which the
that there
—
mainly with non-Buddhistic
This suttanta reiterates from
the Brahmajala-suttanta, some of the non-Buddhistic views
first
four
(xxiv
xxvii)
deal
views and ascetic practices.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
156
about the beginning of the world. The next suttanta, the
Udumbarika-sihanada, speaks of some of the evil effects of
rigorous
while
practices
ascetic
Cakkavatti-sihanada
the
self-reliant and make the
Although the Buddha disap-
admonishes the Buddhists to be
Dhamma
their
sole refuge.
proved of any speculation regarding the origin of the world,
the Agganna-suttanta explains how the world began, and
denounces the Brahmana's claim to superiority by
The next two suttantas, the SampasadanTya
Pasadika, contain the
moral instructions.
dissension
occurred
gist
and the
Buddha's teachings and
suttanta was delivered when
of the
The latter
among the
followers of Nigantha Nata-
putta soon after his death, and contains
view of Uddaka Ramaputta,
and
(iii)
a reference to a
(i)
an exposition of the term
(ii)
"sukhallikanuyoga" appearing
tana-sutta,
birth.
the
in
Dhammacakkappavatsome questions
a justification for leaving
unanswered as did the Teacher.
The Lakkhana-suttanta
discusses
in
detail
the
acts
by
which a person acquires the thirty-two signs of great men.
The
Siiigalovada-suttanta
the fact that
it
is
is
very important in view of
the only comprehensive discourse delivered
by the Buddha for the benefit of the lay devotees. It is
regarded by some scholars as the source of Asoka's Dhamma.
The
Atanatiya-suttanta
protection of lonely
The
Buddha
tara,
<ii)
last
is
described as a magic spell for the
monks from evil-minded
two suttantas summarize the teachings of the
Of
as in the Anguttara-nikaya.
which
is
yaksas.
these,
the Dasut-
the last, follows the catechetical method.
The Dhammapada
We may
add a few words here about the
which belongs
to
world
literature.
It
is
Buddhist and non-Buddhist countries, as
universal appeal besides being a
ings.
It
consists of
Dhammapada
equally popular in
it
contains ideas of
manual of Buddhist teach-
423 verses arranged according to topics
and is learnt by heart by young
into 26 vaggas or chapters
monks
in the
Buddhist countries of South Asia.
Jts versified
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
form makes
I57
commit to memory.
Dhammapada means religious word or saying and we
find it used in this sense in the book itself (44, 45).
The
Buddhists say that the teachings of the Buddha are briefly
contained
ciples
of
it
easy to
this
in
book, since
Buddhist
of
it
discusses the essential prin-
and
philosophy
way
Buddhist
the
life.
This
demns
little
all
many
like
other Buddhist works, con-
kinds of sacrifice and the ascetic practices of
mortification,
stabilized
manual,
and
its
main
stress
by concentration
is
on good conduct
self-
(sila),
(samadhi) and strengthened by
sound reasoning (panna). The teaching of the Buddhas in a
nutshell is: "Abstain from all evil; accumulate what is good
and purify your mind." (183.)
Which religion would not
agree with this?
According
compound
to this teaching, all
things are transitory, full of suffering and, consequently, in-
capable of
being
called
one's
own
People
(anatta).
are
exhorted not to look to the external attraction of things, but
to
take cognizance of their unpleasant aspects.
It
recognizes
ignorance (avidya) as being the highest form of impurity (243)
and holds that the suffering
an end only by
Greed,
ill-will
the
in
this
destruction
world can be brought to
of
craving or hankering.
and delusion are considered as dangerous as
and unless they are held in check, it is not possible to
attain a happy life.
And to achieve a happy state of life one must avoid the
two extremes— indulgence in a life of pleasure and the pracfire,
One must follow the Middle Path
Noble Eightfold Path of the Buddhas which is based
on the Buddhist Trinity of the Buddha, the Dhamma and
thcSarigha. According to the Dhammapada, the attainment
tices of self-mortification.
— the
of the different stages on the Buddhist Path
is
to
even to the possession of the whole world (178).
be preferred
It
enjoins
beings to develop those factors of enlightenment which
would enable them to cultivate the mind. It emphasizes the
principle that one makes or mars oneself, and that no one
A man must
else can help one to rid oneself of impurity.
all
:
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
I58
Even the Buddhas are of little help because
It recommends
like signposts they can only guide you (276).
a life of peace and non-violence (129-30, 142), and declares
that enmity can never be overcome by enmity but by kindness (5).
Its advice is to conquer anger by cool-headedness,
evil by good, miserliness by generosity, and
falsehood by
exert himself.
truth
(223).
also enjoins
It
men
not to speak harshly to
do the same
others, as they in their turn are likely to
(133).
book is of considerable literary merit. It
abounds in appropriate similes which touch the heart. While
recommending to a Buddhist monk a spotless life and a life
This
little
of non-interference in
town or
the politics of a
village
it
monk
to eat a red hot iron ball than
to live a life of non-restraint."
"The monk should go
(308.)
and go away without meddling
says: "It
is
better for a
to a village to take his food
in the affairs of the
flower, sucks the
town, just like a bee that goes to the
honey but does no harm to the colour or
smell of the flower." (49.)
A
man who
reads
much good
compared
cowherd who counts the number of cows that go to
pasture under his care, but has no proprietary right in any
of them (19).
When a young man in the prime of life
among his own people is snatched away by death, the author
uses the simile of a flood washing away the whole of the
village that is asleep (287).
A man who becomes entangled
in his own doings is compared to a spider who finds itself
enmeshed in its own web (347).
There are, besides, many verses which contain universal
truths
For
truths for all times and for all countries.
literature but never tries to bring
to
it
into practice
is
a
—
instance
"It
is
easier
to
do
evil
and harmful things than to do
good and salutary things." (163.)
"There are only a few people
insight: most of them are blind."
"To be born
as a
human
in this
world
who have an
(174.)
being
is
indeed a rare thing."
(182.)
"One should never
belittle evil
things saying that they
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
will
I59
never affect one.
A water jar
becomes,
in
course of time,
full
by a constant
dripping of water." (121, 122.)
"It is easy to see the faults of others but not so easy to see
one's
own."
(252.)
'The smell of
flowers goes only with the wind, but the
good men goes even against the wind." (54.)
"This is a thing of old and not of the present day that
people blame one who is silent, or one who talks too much,
There is none
or even one who is moderate in his speech.
in this world who is not blamed!" (227.)
fame
(lit.
smell) of
—
How
It is
sal
telling are these sayings!
on account of such gems of
appeal that
this
number of languages
(iii)
literary merit
book has been
Asia and Europe.
little
in
and univer-
translated into a
The Sanskrit Saddharma-pundarika
The Saddharma-pundarika is one of the earliest texts of
Mahayana Buddhism. It is composed partly in prose and
As is usual with early Mahayana texts, the
partly in verse.
is in fairly good Sanskrit while
mixed Sanskrit. In view of its Buddhological
conceptions and linguistic characteristics, the date of its
language of the prose portion
the veise
is
in
composition should be placed a
little
vastu and the Lalitavistara, that
is,
after that of the
about the
first
Mahacentury
A.D. Its earliest Chinese translations were made by Dharmaraksa in 286 A.D. and by Kumarajiva in 383 A.D. Two
A.D.), Jnanagupta and Dharmagupta
According to Nanjio, there were eight or
nine Chinese translations of this text, of which only the above
centuries later
also translated
(601
it.
mentioned three are extant. It formed the main scripture
of a few Chinese and Japanese Buddhist sects, particularly
the Tendai and the Nichiren sects pf Japan, and it is recited
in all the temples of the
Zen (Dhyana)
sect.
1
This text represents the period of transition from Hina1.
See appendix to Chapter VI.
2500 YEARS OF BVDDHISM
160
yana
A
Mahayana Buddhism.
to
book
large part of the
is
devoted to proving that Hinayana Buddhism was preached
by the Buddhas
the benefit of people of lower
for
gence and modest aims, to
whom
the whole truth
intelli-
was not
Hinayana Buddhists were advised to practise the
thirty-seven Bodhipaksiya dharmas, i.e., dharmas conducive
to enlightenment, in order to rid themselves of moral impurities (klesavarana), to comprehend the Four Truths and
divulged.
Law
the
of Causation, and to
anatman (absence of
soul
or
pudgala-£unyata
realize
individuality)
or
whereby they
could reach a place of temporary rest (nirvana). This text
then points out that the Hinayanists,
fection
in
these
who had reached
were advised
attainments,
to
exert
per-
them-
selves further in their future existences in order to acquire
the merits
and
attainment
the
realize
prescribed
virtues
Buddhahood.
of
for
the
Bodhisattvas for
They were required
to
dharma-sunyata (non-existence of phenomenal objects)
and dharma-samata (sameness of all objects) whereby their
Jneyavarana (the veil covering the Truth) would be removed
and they would become Samyak-Sambuddhas.
The question may be asked, why the Buddhas should
truth.
The text explains that the truth
preach two kinds of
preached for the Hinayanists was only an expedient (upSLyakausalya)
resorted
to
by the Buddhas
in
order
to attract
beings of lower intellect to their doctrines with the ultimate
object of leading them to the highest knowledge.
there
that
is
and not
tion
asserts
Sravakayana. Pratyekabuddhayana and
three.
Bodhisattvayana, the
Buddhas to
mate truth. That
of the
several
It
only one yana (way) for complete emancipa-
well-known
three
were
paths,
only
expedients
lead different types of beings to the
this
was so
figures
assured that they would
is
clear
from the
fact
ulti-
that
the Hinayana school were
become Buddhas in the long
of
all
run.
The Saddharma-pundarika
chapters.
In
the
first,
the
is
text
divided
is
vaipulya-sutra, delivered by previous
into
twenty-seven
introduced as a
Maha-
Buddhas, and handed
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
down
to Dipaftkara
by Varaprabha Bodhisattva, a previous
incarnation of MafijuSn.
points out
l6l
that the
In the second chapter, the
Buddha
highest truth can be realized
by the
Tathagatas only within themselves and was not to be communicated to others. It is thus beyond the reach not only
of Sravakas and Pratyekabuddhas but also of Bodhisattvas
of the highest
bhumi
(avaivartika).
for the sake of beings
world and
its
who
sufferings,
he imparted his teachings
angas (divisions) and taught them
He
initiated only the
The Buddha admits
how
in nine
to attain nirvana.
advanced Bodhisattvas into the deeper
teachings which lead to Buddhahood.
Buddha
that
believe in the existence of the
In this chapter, the
refers to his hesitation in preaching his
Brahma
doctrines
which he changed his
mind. In the third and fourth chapters, there are two most
interesting stories which show that the compassionate Buddhas could not be partial to anybody and that they were
and
to the intervention of
at
as solicitous of the welfare of the Sravakas as of that of the
In the fifth chapter, the Buddha is compared
and the sun, raining and shining over all without
any discrimination. The meaning of nirvana is then explained
The
as the realization of the sameness of all objects.
nirvana of the Sravakas is only a respite (visrama) and is not
Bodhisattvas.
to a cloud
the ultimate nirvrti (quietude).
Hinayana Arhats and
and then
non-Arhats would become Buddhas
declares that in one of his previous existences, he had received this sutra from a hermit, who was reborn as Devadatta subsequently. He foresaw that there would be persons
who would speak ill of this sutra and thereby commit grave
Sakyasirpha announces
1
that several
in the long run,
sins.
With a number of
similes he exalts the
sutra
and
enjoins the faithful to erect stupas at the site where this
would be delivered and to honour it with the same
devotion they would bestow on a caitya housing the Budsutra
dha's relics 2
1.
.
Saddharma-pundarlka, Chapters VI, VIII, IX and XII.
Chapters X, XI, XIII and XIV.
2. Ibid.,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
l62
two
Buddhas
In the next
life
of the
believed
by
that the
Buddha
chapters,
is
particularly
all,
it
is
that the length of
said
unlimited and that this might not be
by the Hinayanists who hold
Gaya and lived for forty
attained bodhi at
years after his emancipation.
The Buddha
asserts
that
it
was he who created Diparikara Buddha and the other Buddhas and caused them to deliver discourses on Arya-satyas
and Pratitya-samutpada. Again, it was he who made them
attain parinirvana for the benefit of those whose mental
equipment was not of a high order, and likewise caused them
to deliver discourses on the paramitas and Tathagata-jiiana
for the benefit of the Bodhisattvas who had higher aims.
The remaining chapters are devoted mostly
the
to
re-
counting of merit acquired by a being for reciting, propagating and appreciating the sutra.
A
digression
is
esvara Bodhisattva
made
is
in
Chapter
XXIX, where
introduced and eulogized.
AvalokitIt
is
said
that anyone uttering the words, Namo-namas tasmai abhayamdada avalokitesvaraya bodhisattvaya mahasattvaya, would be
saved from all calamities of shipwreck, fire, or moral impurity,
as this Bodhisattva would take the forms of the beings he is
to save and deliver them from all troubles.
The text ends with the Buddha's exhortation to all to
preserve and propagate the sutra.
He says, "I bequeath
unto you this Samyaka-sambodhi and entrust you with the
responsibility of propagating it far and wide, thereby becoming the donors of Buddha knowledge."
III.
The Buddhas
Disciplinary
Code
Vinaya-pitaka
All the disciplinary rules framed
conduct and
for the
monks and nuns are collected in the
The Buddhist order of monks was organized
Vinaya-pitaka,
wholly on a democratic basis. The Buddha nominated no
guidance of the Buddhist
successor and wanted his followers to perform
cal acts
and duties according
course, not possible for the
all ecclesiasti-
to his instructions.
Buddha
to lay
down
It
all
was, of
the rules
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
in anticipation of
what
is
a growth of centuries out of the basic rules
In the Pali
it
for-
Canon,
which are arranged
1
divided into five parts
is
to
Hence, the Vinaya-pitaka, as
mulated by the Teacher himself.
Pitaka
monks might do
the unrighteous
evade or misinterpret them.
stands today,
163
this
the
in
following manner: (A) Khandhakas:
(i)
Cullavagga; (B) Sutta-vibhariga
Parajika to Nissaggiya
and
(iii)
:
Mahavagga, and
and Bhikkhuni-vibhanga; and
This arrangement holds good for a picture
Pacittiya to Sekhiya
(iv)
(C) (v) Parivara.
of the growth of the
Buddhist Saiigha but does not
cate the chronological growth of the Pitaka.
and
contents
quaintness
of
the
language
Pali
was the
sutta
appear separately but
appears
as
present
the
the
edition
the
can
it
safely be asserted that the Patimokkha-sutta
In
indi-
Both from the
composition.
it
(ii)
earliest
does
not
included in the Sutta-vibhanga, where
is
purposes
for
text
comment.
of
The
Sutta-vibhanga was no doubt written at a subsequent date
and contains many additions
The Mahavagga
law book.
from
its
Pitaka.
inception and
Its
like the case laws of a
thus rightly the
is
contents and
of
style
first
book of the
composition, however,
reveal a date later than that of the Sutta-vibhahga.
lavagga contains
part of
the
many
Pitaka.
modern
growth of the Saiigha
traces the
The
Cul-
topics which should form the closing
describes
It
which an ecclesiastical punishment
accepted by the guilty.
detail
in
is
also contains
It
to
the
manner
in
be inflicted and
some general
rules
life of the monks, the proper place for
It seems that the Cullavagga
the Mahavagga.
regarding the daily
which
in
is
was either a much
that
it
later
compilation than the Mahavagga or
incorporated those topics which, in the opinion of
the compilers,
could
not
be included
in
any other
part.
Accounts of two Buddhist Synods, one of which was held
The
mnemonic manual for the
monks not
is to help the
a century after the Buddha's demise, are also included.
last
part,
use
of
the
the
Parivara,
monks.
Its
is
a
object
only to remember the rules but also to be aware of the facts
1.
See table on
p.
140.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
I64
and circumstances which would bring a monk within the
orbit of the rules.
The Patimokkha-sutta.—TYiz Patimokkha
(i)
oldest part of the Pali Pitaka
and
sions
of
have
text
this
been
the
It is
language appears to be
its
Two
older than that of the Nikayas.
Prati-
(Skt.
moksa-sutra) forms the nucleus of the Vinaya-pitaka.
complete Sanskrit ver-
discovered,
one
Kuca,
at
published by Louis Finot in Journal Asiatique, 1913, and the
other at Oilgit, published by A. C. Banerji in Indian Historical
Quarterly,
two
Besides these
1953.
the text have been published by
fragmentary
of
text
Waldschmidt.
the
several fragments
Research Institute there
a photographic copy of the Pratimoksa-sutra of the
sanghikas.
The
by E.
Bhiksuni-pratimoksa-sOtra
In the Jayaswal
of
La Vallee Poussin and a
greater antiquity of the text
is
is
Maha-
established
by the references made to this text in the Nikayas, particularly in the Majjhima and the Aftguttara.
It seems to be the
earliest
manual
of
disciplinary
rules
compiled
for
the
guidance of monks and nuns.
The Patimokkha consists of two parts, namely, the
Bhikkhu-patimokkha and the Bhikkhuni-patimokkha. for
monks and nuns respectively. The offences that may be committed by monks and nuns have been classified according to
their gravity.
The worst offences grouped under the heading
Parajika, which entailed the expulsion of the guilty from the
community of monks, are
lack of continence,
(i)
(ii)
theft,
murder or abetment of murder, and (iv) exaggeration
The next group
of one's power to perform miracles, etc.
of offences, mentioned under the heading Sarighadisesa
(Sarighavasesa) entailed temporary suspension of the offending
(iii)
monks.
They could be
re-admitted to the Saiigha
admissible by a chapter of
thirteen
offences
monks and women,
arising
at least
out
of
the
h
relation
if
found
mentions
between
the construction of a hermitage, false ac-
cusations, dissensions in the
third section, called the
cases which
twenty monks,
Sangha,
and obstinacy.
The
Aniyata (uncertain), speaks of two
require circumstantial evidence to ascertain the
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
The
offence.
fourth section
is
165
the Nissaggiya-pacittiya which
deals with twenty-six offences that can be committed
monk who
The offending monks could be absolved
not permissible.
if
with
parted
they
by a
appropriates certain articles of use which were
the
article
in
question
(nissaggiya-
naihsargika) and confessed their guilt (pacittiya payantika).
The
section,
fifth
relating
offences
cide,
to
lack
entitled
to
of respect
disciplinary code
Pacittiya,
careless
for
enumerates ninety-two
leading
acts
the
to
insecti-
Buddhist teachings and
and to non-compliance with the
directions
given in the latter, an^i lastly to indiscreet acts in the use of
beds, seats, robes, etc., while dwelling in a monastery.
The
only
four
sixth
section, called
Patidesaniya,
speaks
of
monk's taking food which has not been
Absolution from all the offences mentioned
offered to him.
in these two sections can be obtained by a formal confession
offences relating to a
The seventh
of guilt before the Sangha.
(Saiksa), gives seventy-five instructions to
monk
in
his
daily
life,
for instance,
section.
Sekhiya
be observed by a
how he must
enter
a village or a town, take food inoffensively, enter a sick room,
and so on. These are not treated as offences and no punishment is therefore prescribed for them. The last section is
called
the
Adhikarana-samatha or the means of
There are seven of
putes within the Sangha.
first is
to place the
second to
two quarrelling monks face
that his memory had
make one admit
gard to the point of dispute, while the third
monk admit
that he
point of dispute arose.
was not
The
in his
is
settling dis-
these.
The
to face, the
failed in re-
to
make
a
normal mind when the
fourth relates to the formality of
confession, the fifth to the use of salaka (voting sticks), the
sixth to prevarication
and punishment for
it.
and the
last to
the avoidance of publicity to a dispute within the Sangha.
—
The Sutta-vibhahga. The Sutta-vibhanga is a commentary on the Patimokkha-sutta. It opens with an account
of a famine at Veranja when the Buddha visited the place.
The famine was of such intensity that the people had to resort
(ii)
to rationing
(salakavutti).
The Buddha then
left
Veranja
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
166
and passed through Soreyya, Samkassa, Kannakujja, and
Payaga, where he crossed the Ganga and reached
Banaras.
From Banaras he went to Vesali and stopped at
reached
Mahavana Kutagarasala.
Near Vesali was the village of Kalandaka, where there
a rich banker, whose jion, Sudinna, listened to the
Buddha's discourses at Vesali and became his disciple. At
lived
that time a famine
broke out
in the
land of the Vajjis.
As
Sudinna had many rich friends and relatives at Vesali, he
decided to go there, so that he and his brethren might obtain
ample alms.
own
his
One day Sudinna went on a begging round in
and asked for the kummasa (rice-junket)
village
which the maidservant of
When
away.
his
his
parents was about to throw
mother heard the news of
his arrival, she
persuaded his wife to meet him and beg for a son.
granted
her wish and
repentant and
went back
reported
the
to his monastery,
Sudinna
became
matter to his fellow brethren.
When
this was brought to the notice of the Buddha, he reprimanded the erring monk severely and laid down a rule
that if a monk committed sexual indulgence, he would be
guilty of parajika,
is
the
first
and thus become unfit
Patimokkha.
to be a
monk.
This
rule of the
manner indicated above, each rule was framed by
Buddha to deal with the failings of the monks.
The
not,
however,
stories of such lapses do
represent actual incidents but were usually inventions of the commentator. The
In the
the
commentator then explained the rule in detail. Apart from
the comments made on the phraseology of the rules, there are
many discussions on what a female is; what would happen
the probable ways of sexual inif a change of sex occurs
1
;
dulgence and related subjects.
ces which
The
cases of sexual indulgen-
do not come within the purview of the rule are
also discussed.
On this interesting problem, see P. V. Bapat's paper on "Change of
Buddhist Literature" submitted to the 18th Session of the All-India
Oriental Conference (Pali and Buddhism Section); see also the summary of
1.
Sex
in
papers of that Session and Dr.
S.
K. Belwalkar's Commemoration Volume.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
The second
rule deals with theft
167
which also involved the
expulsion of the guilty from the community of monks.
subject
introduced through the story of the
is
who
a potter's son,
mission
to
build
collected
wood without anybody's
hermitage.
his
In
The
monk Dhaniya.
commenting upon
per-
the
commentator has discussed the definiarticle and of theft.
At the end he has pointed
forms
taking
things
of
which
the
do not come within the
out
words of the
tions of an
rule, the
purview of the rule.
The other two rules of the Parajika have been dealt with
likewise, covering in
over 109 pages of the third volume
all
1
of the Vinaya-pitaka.
The first rule of Sarighadisesa was laid down at Savatthi,
The
where a monk called Seyyasaka committed self-abuse.
commentator enumerates the various ways in which such indulgences can take place and come within the purview of the
rule as well as those cases which deserve exemption.
The second
monk must
woman.
down
rule of the Sanghadisesa lays
not
come
close touch
in
that a
with the body of a
down at Savatthi, near which in a
monk, UdayT, who touched a brahmani when
This rule was laid
forest dwelt a
she visited his hermitage.
The commentator
first
raises the questions,
"whether such
contact was intentional or accidental", "what contact actually
is",
and ends with the statement that such contact with one's
mother,
sister
or daughter does not
come
within the purview
of the rule.
The same monk is cited as the cause of the subsequent
three rules.
The commentator discusses various types of
girls and wives, the various circumstances in which a monk
commits offences under these rules and what constitutes
an exception. The rest of the rules are illustrated, commented upon and elaborated in the same way.
In
commenting on the Nissaggiya-pacittiya
section, the
enthusiasm of the commentator seems to have abated to a
large extent.
1.
He
does not discuss
Oldenberg's edition.
many
cases which
may
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
168
may
or
not
come
instance,
if
a
monk
in the Sarigha to
very general terms.
in
has an unbalanced mind, or
commit the
offence, or
are such that the breach of the rule
is
if
is
made
rules.
the ninety-two rules of pacittiya open
false statements in a disputation
This led the Buddha to lay
ing falsehoods wittingly
tator details
first
he need not
inevitable,
with an account of Hatthaka, a Sakyan monk,
ly
the
the circumstances
be considered guilty of the breach of any of the
The comments on
The
For
the purview of the rules.
within
exemptions allowed are stated
is
down
who
deliberate-
with the heretics.
the rule that anyone utter-
guilty of pacittiya.
the circumstances in
The commen-
which the offence takes
The second rule was occasioned by the Chabbaggiya
monks who spoke disparagingly of the other monks.
The
place.
commentator
illustrates the evil effects of
story of the bull, Nandivisala,
and
such words by the
in the process of deciding
whether the words were disrespectful or not, he enumerates
the
various
person or a
common
castes,
monk
professions
and
qualities
which
set
a
high or low in the estimation of the
people.
The four
rules of the Patidesaniya
and the
seventy-five
have been concisely commented upon
while the seven ways of settling disputes have been passed
over without any comment whatsoever.
rules of the Sekhiya
(iii)
The Bhikkhunl vibhahga.
—There
of offences in the BhikkhunT-vibhanga.
Parajika
to
Adhikarana-samatha
are seven groups
These range from
(settlement
of
disputes),
and are arranged according to their gravity.
The first section on Parajika includes four rules in addiIn
tion to the four prescribed in the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
commenting on the fifth rule, namely, that a nun with a lustful
mind must not rub or touch the middle part of a male's
body, the commentator tells the story of Sa|ha, the grandson
of Migara, who managed to meet young Sundarinanda
Bhikkhunl and exposed her to the aforementioned offence.
Then follow comments on the words of the rules in detail
but cases which may or may not come within the purview
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
The commentator only mentions
The other three rules are
of the rule are not cited.
the
exceptional
similarly
cases
169
as
usual.
commented upon.
In the second section, or the Sanghadisesa, seven rules
are taken from the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
The other ten
community of nuns. The
first rule instructs a nun to shun legal suits.
This was occasioned by a will left by a lay devotee who gave away a
portion of his property to the nunnery. It -was disputed and
the matter was placed before the Law Minister (Voharikamahamatta) for decision. The second rule enjoins a nun to
prescribed
are specially
for
the
any information that she
Here the proper authorities are
disclose to the proper authorities
may have
concerning a
theft.
Sahgha, gana, puga and
raja,
The next
seni.
eight rules
nuns from moving about alone, from coming into
restrict the
contact with men, from quarrelling and from showing lack
of respect to the Triratna.
The comments
are confined to
the words of the rules only.
Of
the thirty rules in the Nissaggiya-pacittiya, which
is
from the Bhikkhusome nuns
The commentator describes differto collect begging bowls.
ent types of bowls and offers advice on what a nun should do
The next rule relates to the
to avoid committing the offence.
the
third
section,
eighteen
The
patimokkha.
in
irregularities
first
are taken
rule refers to the habit of
the distribution of robes.
The
following
by nuns in the matter of
The eleventh and twelfth rules prohibit
their requirements.
a nun from asking for a woollen robe worth more than four
kamsas which are equivalent to sixteen kahdpanas or for a
khoma robe worth more than two and a half kamsas or ten
eight rules deal with prevarications
kahdpanas.
In the fourth section, on the Pacittiya, the commentator
comments on
rules.
The
common
to
In the
ninety-six out
of one hundred and
sixty-six
rules relate to various matters concerning lapses
women.
fifth section,
the Patidesanlya, the nuns are for-
bidden to take clarified butter,
oil,
honey, molasses,
fish.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
170
meat, condensed milk and curds.
The
and seventh
sixth
sections, Sekhiya
and Adhikarana-
samatha, are taken from the Bhikkhu-patimokkha.
The Khandhakas.— The Khandhakas are divided into
Mahavagga and the Cullavagga.
The topics
dealt with in the two parts have not always had a clear distinction, besides lacking sequence, and so some of the chapters of the Mahavagga and the Cullavagga have been put
(iv)
two
parts, the
together here to enable the reader to have an idea of the
subject as dealt with in both the parts.
Among
the
manuscript finds at Gilgit
Kashmir, a
in
portion of the Vinaya-pitaka of the Mula-sarvastivadins
This manuscript has been published and throws
discovered.
The
a flood of light on the growth of the Vinaya-pitaka.
order of
the
(i)
Pravrajya,
(v)
Carma
1
,
chapters
and
(x)
(iii)
manuscript
is
Pravarana,
(iv)
(vii)
Karma*,
Sahghabheda 5
figure of the
this
Bhaisajya',
Parivasika, (xiv)
(xvi)
in
Posadha,
(ii)
(vi)
Kosambaka, and
(xiii)
was
(xi)
Civara,
To
follows:
Varsa, and
Kathina,
(viii)
Pandulohitaka,
Posadhasthapana,
.
as
(xii)
(ix)
Pudgala,
Sayanasana",
(xv)
introduce Devadatta, the chief
Sahghabhedavastu, the compiler of the Sanskrit
has started the biography of the Buddha
from Prince Siddhartha's vision of the four stages of human
beings, and carried the story up to his visit to Kapilavastu
Vinaya-pitaka
and the conversion of the Sakyan youths including Devadatta
In the Pali Vinaya-pitaka, the biography
is
put at the begin-
ning of the Mahavagga, while the story of the conversion of
the Sakyan youths
lavagga.
On
is
placed in the seventh chapter of the Cul-
comparing the
Pali
and Sanskrit
texts,
it
ap-
pears that the compilers of the two versions have depended
upon an older model and made sporadic
arrangement and the
1.
detail
of
See Gilgit Manuscripts, Vol. Ill, part
2. Ibid.,
part
3. Ibid.,
part
ii.
4. Ibid.,
part
iii.
5. Ibid.,
part
iv,
i.
pp. 211-255.
variations in the
the accounts.
iv.
Both of them
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
I7I
preserve substantially the same traditions and disciplinary
rules, the
only difference being that while the Sanskrit ver-
reproduces stories and episodes extensively, the Pali
version has avoided doing so as far as possible.
sion
The Mahavagga can
well be described as the history of
the development of the Buddhist Saiigha.
It opens with an
from the day he attained bodhi
on the bank of the Niranjana and carries the story up to the
conversion of Yasa and his fifty-four friends including
Vimala, Subahu, Punnaji and Gavampati who were despatch-
account of the Buddha's
ed
life
in different directions to
preach the Dharma.
However,
these young, untrained missionaries were not capable of decid-
ing on the type of persons
For the guidance of such
for admission to the Sangha.
tit
the
disciples,
when occasion
elaborate rules, as and
Buddha
laid
down
arose, relating to the
ordination of a newcomer.
The second chapter
of
a
fortnightly
(Posadha).
If
of the text
assembly,
he was not permitted to stay
also been dealt with
devoted to the institution
known
usually
anyone was found
in the
is
as
Uposatha
guilty of a serious offence,
in this assembly.
This had
ninth chapter of the Cullavagga
under the sub-heading, Patimokkha-thapanam (laying aside,
Le.
t
One of
monks living
not holding the Patimokkha assembly).
ditions of these assemblies
was that
all
the con-
within a
parish must be present at the meeting held at a particular
In case of sickness the monk concerned was required to depute a proxy, whose duty was to declare his faults
monastery.
of omission or commission
if
any.
Strictness
on
this score
led to the necessity of defining the boundaries of a parish,
so elaborate rules had to be laid
of such boundaries and
down
and
for the determination
such determination also had to be
declared at a formal meeting of the Sangha by moving
resolution three times and having it passed unanimously.
the
and fourth chapters deal with the monk's
residence during the rains and the ceremony to be performed
The
third
at the close of the Vassavasa.
The monks were asked
to be
generally itinerant as the chances of a lapse would be greater
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
172
if
they resided at one place for a long time.
three
But during the
months of the rainy season the monks were for many
reasons directed to remain at a fixed abode.
This practice
was known as Vassavasa. It was also observed by the Jaina
and other recluses of the Buddha's time. There were, however, some occasions which urgently needed the presence of
a
monk
outside the limit of his abode.
was allowed
to
go outside
monks should misuse
mentioned for which
this
this
Accordingly, a
his limits for
privilege,
one week.
specific
monk
Lest the
purposes are
permission could be granted.
This
topic concludes with the enumeration of circumstances which
ending of the Vassavasa before the appointed time.
During the Vassavasa, the monks were expected to live in
concord and observe the disciplinary rules. As this was not
justify the
always possible, the Teacher prescribed that at the end of the
Vassavasa the monks should meet
their acts of omission
in
and commission.
assembly and declare
The
formalities to
be observed in the assembly are the same as those prescribed
Uposatha ceremony. Such an assembly at the end
of the Vassavasa was called Pavarajja.
There are many
instances of irregularities, to remedy which the Teacher
framed several rules.
Part of the Pavarana ceremony was the distribution of
It was called the Kathina
robes collected on the closing day.
On the day of Pavarana, the laity offered unceremony.
sewn cloth to the resident monks. It was laid down that if
the Sarigha received such offers, the monks were expected to
meet and declare formally that they were going to celebrate
The main function of this ceremony
the Kathina ceremony.
was to entrust certain monks with the cutting, sewing and
dyeing of the robes, and all this was to be finished in one
When the robes were ready, they were distributed
day.
There were, however, cases of doubtamong the residents.
ful claimants, and so rules were framed to determine who
for the
1
was
really entitled to a share of the robes.
The
1,
fifth
chapter opens with the story of Sona Kojivisa,
See Mah&vogga, Chapter VI J.
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
I73
the son of a very wealthy
man.
His body was so delicate
grew even on the soles of his feet. He was given
ordination by the Teacher himself. As a monk he walked
that hairs
barefoot while performing religious exercises.
His feet bled
and stained the places he walked on. The Buddha then asked
him to put on shoes but he demurred that as a monk it would
him
not be proper for
do so.
This led the Buddha to
monks and he prescribed certain
could be used by the monks.
to
allow the use of shoes to
forms of shoes that
The sixth chapter
sick monks and nuns.
all
discusses the medicines permissible to
It relates
how,
at the
instance
Jrvaka, the famous physician, the
Buddha allowed
monks
and surgical aids they
quired.
have
to
all
medical
the
of
the sick
re-
This chapter contains a very interesting account of
and instruments, of drugs and their preparation, of containers and store-houses for medicines, and
lastly, of medical aids such as hot baths and special diets
which included fruit and fruit juice, milk products and someReference is also made to Jivaka's skill
times meat broth.
An account of the visit of the
in surgery and medicine.
Buddha to Pataligama, taken almost verbatim from the
surgical operations
Mahaparinibbana-sutta,
is
also included.
Gradually the monks were permitted to enjoy not only
medical aid but also many other amenities of life, which arc
detailed in the Cullavagga.
Detailed
descriptions
of monasteries
fitted
with doors,
windows and other necessary adjuncts constructed by the
laity for the use
in the sixth
of the
monks
of the four quarters are given
chapter of the Cullavagga.
The
construction of
Vinaya rules, was supervised
These monasteries were
by a monk called Navakammika*
In this
furnished with seats and beds of an austere type.
connection, the story of the gift of the Jetavana monastery has
been introduced, and with it is given an account of how
Anathapindika met the Buddha at Rajagrha and became a
the monasteries, according to the
devotee.
In the
fifth
chapter of the Cullavagga there are several
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
174
directions relating to baths, the
and
needles,
girdles,
shoes, hair-cutting, and so on.
monks must
that the
the power of miracles
down
monk's begging bowls,
latrines, urinals, slings to carry
Incidentally
is
bowls,
mentioned
not sing the gathas aloud, or exhibit
if
they possessed any, and should turn
bowls at the houses of laymen
their
it
scissors
who were not
sufficiently respectful to the Triratna.
The
two chapters of the Mahavagga are devoted to
last
irregularities
monks
is
in
ecclesiastical
fixed for the
acts.
A
minimum number
of
performance of different
ecclesiastical
a continuation of the
Mahavagga,
duties or acts.
As
it
the Cullavagga
takes up, in the
first
is
four chapters, the different punishments
prescribed in the Vinaya-pitaka and gives instructions as to
how
are
monks should behave when undergoing punishment.
In the eighth chapter the resident monks of a monastery
instructed how to receive monks from other places or
the
forests
and
to look after their comforts.
The seventh chapter
is
devoted to an account of the
dissensions that were about to break out within the Saiigha
during the Buddha's
As Devadatta,
lifetime.
a Sakyan re-
lative of the Teacher, turned out to be the leader of the dis-
sentient
monks, the chapter
gives,
by way of an introduction,
an account of the conversion of the Sakyan youths, namely,
Anuruddha, Bhaddiya, sakyaraja, Ananda, Bhagu, Kimbila
and Devadatta, and their barber, Upali.
Devadatta joined hands with Ajatasatru and made a
heinous attempt on the Buddha's life by hiring a gang of
Devadatta at
ruffians, by using a stone, and an elephant.
last found a few friends and demanded that the Sangha
should make the following five rules compulsory for all monks,
viz., that the monks were (i) to live only in forests, (ii) to
subsist on alms, (iii) to dress in robes made out of rags, (iv) to
dwell under a tree and never under a roof, and (v) never to
When his demand was rejected by the
eat fish or flesh.
Buddha, he formed a band of his own from amongst the
Vajjiputtaka
monks
of Vesall.
The chapter concludes with
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
I75
a note on the conditions in which an actual dissension
in
the
Sarigha would be regarded as a Sanghabheda. 1
The
tenth chapter relates the story of the formation of the
Order of nuns at the instance of Mahaprajapati GautamI
and the mediation of Ananda. The Buddha very relucits formation and imposed eight disabilities
(garudhamma) on the nuns. At first the Teacher wanted the
nuns to depend on the monks for all their ecclesiastical acts,
tantly agreed to
and also receive from them instruction on Vinaya as well as
it was found that sometimes the monks were
on Dhamma, but
not wise and discreet
nuns.
in the
discharge of their duties to the
This led the Buddha to permit the nuns to perform
most of
their ecclesiastical acts themselves,
cedure were laid
detailed
down
instructions
for them.
and rules of pro-
In this chapter there are
to check the frivolities of the
female
sex regarding dress, toilet, beds, seats, and so on.
The
last
two chapters, which,
strictly
speaking, should
not have formed a part of the Cullavagga,
description of the
first
two Councils, held
Rajagaha and Valikarama of
of the first two Councils was
of
Vesali.
to
compilation of the Buddha's sayings.
at
contain
The main
make an
It
a full
Sattapanniguha
object
authoritative
was presided over
by Mahakassapa, Ananda taking tht responsibility of
recit-
ing the discourses delivered by the Buddha, and Upali the
disciplinary
rules
framed
by
the
Teacher.
This compila-
with a few
was accepted by the monks in
exceptions.
The second Council was held a hundred years
later.
main purpose was to suppress the deviations
Its
made by the Vajjiputtaka monks of Vesali in' some of the
The deviations were declared illegal by
disciplinary rules.
a committee of eight monks, of whom four were selected
general
tion
from the orthodox monks of the western countries and four
from the dissident party of the eastern countries.
the monks, however, accepted the findings of this
tee
and a new
into existence.
sect, well
known
Not
all
commit-
as the Mahasarighikas,
came
CHAPTER
VIII
Buddhist Education
Education as one of the functions or activities of a State
is a concept of purely modern growth.
In Europe in olden
times it was a function of the Christian Church; in India
it was that of her diverse religious orders and organizations
which devised their own educational systems. Of these, the
Brahmanical system is the most ancient. Its educational
tradition, dating back to the Vedic age and followed in this
country up to the present time, is essentially based on an
individual teacher with his small group of disciples and
pupils the gurugrha (the Teacher's House) as it is termed.
The tradition of the Buddhist system, on the other hand,
it functioned within the regimen of monastic
is monastic:
—
life.
The
difference
lines of evolution.
ment
in the
is
significant:
'The
it
led in India to different
necessity of a domestic environ-
Brahmanical system", observes Prof. Mookerji,
"did not favour the expansion of the small school under an
individual teacher into a large educational federation, controlled
by a
teristic
birth to
collective
body of
those
large-scale
was the characHence the latter gave
teachers, as
of the Buddhist system." 1
monastic
universities,
with thou-
sands of teachers and students in the congregation, which
Buddhism in India
and attracted students from
various parts of the continent. These latter-day universities
during the
last three to
were famous
1.
all
four centuries of
over Asia
Ancient Education, 2nd ecL, p. 460.
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
Nalanda, Valabhi, Vikramasila,
like
1
I77
Jagaddala and Odanta-
purl represent in fact the last term of an evolution that had
continued
for well over a millennium and a half.
Its
comes to us through the centuries, dispersed and in
glimpses, from early books of ihe Buddhist Canon, and
then, with a vast yawning gap of many centuries, from
Chinese and Tibetan records, sometimes, but rarely, cross-
history
by such casual
lighted
information as
by the
afforded
is
colophons of manuscripts, mostly of Chinese and Tibetan
provenance.
Its
history cannot be traced with
to completeness,
main
but
it
possible to trace
is
lines of evolution.
The
Buddhist
of
history
education
aspect of the history of Buddhist
flects
in
teries
—
the gradual
centuries,
under
interests,
finds
becomes not
of
seat
a
just
and
place
horizons,
this
life,
intellectual
needs and
the
monastery
until
cloistered meditation, but a
for
learning.
this history,
re-
of the monas-
over the course of the
new
of
new mental
culture
But
sities.
impact
the
effect
It
and expansion. Starting as a
monk, it expands its scope and
system of training for a
purpose
itself.
and progressive enrichment of
unfolding
its
life
one
forms
really
monachism
process the inner intellectual
its
broadening and liberalizing
its
any approach
and follow the
Some develop
into univer-
spanning nearly the whole duration
of post-Vedic ancient India, comes to an end, abruptly and
definitely,
the closing years of the twelfth century A.D.
in
The conquests
of Bukhtyar Khilji in
and Bengal) put
1.
lia,
The name
is
India
(Bihar
the long, long story.
also written as
The University of
some
finis to
eastern
N alandn, p.
H. D. Sanka"owing, according to
monks, and also because of
Vikramasila.
181,
where
it
writers, to the high moral character of its
is
See Prof.
said,
where a certain Yaksa or genius of the name Vikramu
was called Vikramasila. Also see Phanindrauath Bose,
Indian Teachers of Buddhist Universities (192:1), p. 33; Satish Chandra Vidyabhushan, Indian Logic Mediaeval Svhocl (1909). Appendix 'C*, p. 150, reads
its
being the
site
was suppressed,
it
:
Vikramasila, although footnotes
vihariya,
and
2
and
.'{
read (I) Vikramaslln-deva
Maha
(2) Vikramasilasi Vihiire, respectively.
General Editor.
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
178
The Beginnings
The Training
When
the
Monk
the Buddhists
first
arose
question
of
down
settled
monasteries— probably in
the
in
of a
training
to cenobitical life
century
the
4th
the
neophyte
B.C.
who had
been ordained and had joined a monastery. The system was
known
Nissaya,
as
meaning,
dependence
literally,
on a
The Nissaya period was one of learning and noviwhich preceded the attainment of the full status of a
monk and it is sometimes called by the same term, brahmacarya as is used in Brahmanical books for the student
period of a man's life. It was a system which reproduced
within the communal monastic life the pre-Buddhistic
Brahmanical 'small school' or 'teacher and a group of
teacher.
tiate
A
system.
pupils'
monastery might, as
competent person joining a
laid down, live in Nissaya for a
learned,
it
is
period of five years only, while another might do so
A
life.
guide
called
all his
neophyte used to have at his ordination a spiritual
who was called Upajjhaya, and a regular instructor
Acarya who had to be a senior monk of at least ten
years' standing.
we
In the age
word of mouth and
ly
proved by the
teaching had to
all
memory. This is clearmention of any manuscript
retained in the
total lack of
or writing material
among
monk
Vinaya-pitaka.
books,
in
listed
apart
the
personal
In
class
much
Mathura.
of a
we may
defaced sculpture in the
teacher
is
of
or copper-plate inscriptions
lithic
came much later— probably not before
The monk instructor (Acarya) took
informally:
The
belongings
fact, the writing
century B.C.
small
of
the
from brief
for official use,
first
modern
be imparted by
are speaking of, literacy in the
sense did not exist and
seen in
the
his
how from a piece
archaeological museum at
visualize
it
with a parasol over his
head held at an angle in the left hand, discoursing to a small
group of novices who squat in front of him in various postures of attention on the bare ground and under the open sky.
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
The
179
no
doubt related to the
monkish learning of the age the monastic regula (Vinaya),
the holy legends (the making of which seems to have been
teacher's
discourses
—
a continuous literary industry in the convents over several
centuries), the Buddhist moral fables (Jatakas), hymnology
and fundamental doctrines. The teaching was reinforced
by the practice of frequent recitation of the texts and their
chanting by the whole congregation in chorus on special
occasions (sahgiti).
The object was to fix the texts of the
Canon in the memory.
The unwritten canonical lore which formed the exclu-
had a standard
twofold division into Dhamma (the religion as set forth and
expounded in the suttas, the Lord's discourses) and Vinaya
(the rules of monastic life as laid down by the Lord).
In
the better class of monasteries there were specialists in both
the divisions
they were called suttantikas and vinaya-dharas
sive subject-matter of a novice's education
:
Besides,
respectively.
were
there
portions, e.g., matika-dharas,
who
specialists
in
particular
specialized in matikas or
formularies.
The
earnestness in the study of the
monks is
Canon itself.
generations of
inset in the
Canon by
the early
by a small incident
solemn ceremony in the monas-
reflected for us
A
was the Pavarana which marked the end of the period
of rain retreat (vassa). But on one occasion, as is reported,
this ceremony had to be cut short because the best part
of the previous night had been sleeplessly spent by the
monks in study and debate some reciting the Dhamma:
the suttantikas propounding the suttantas, the vinaya-dharas
discussing the Vinaya, and the dhamma-kathikas conversing
teries
—
about the
The
Dhamma.
expression,
1
Dhamma-kathika,
be noticed that the word,
to— first,
sage referred
Dhamma,
in
the
is
intriguing.
general
1.
sense of religion,
Turning the Wheel of the Dhamma*, and,
the more specialized sense of Doctrine. Katha
in the phrase,
secondly, in
It will
occurs twice in the pas-
Mahavagga
(in
the Vinaya-pitaka), IV, 15,4.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
l8o
was a discourse or debate
Religion.
specifically
on the doctrines of the
1
These Kathas or Debates on Doctrines seem to have
been an important and significant feature of monastic educa-
Out of these debates a methodoit is known as the Abhidhamma
tion in those early days.
logy seems to have evolved;
which
explained as the 'doctrinal explication of the spe-
is
meanings of the
cial
The substance
texts'.
of these Kathas
number of text-books which were included subsequently
in the Abhidhamma-pitaka of the
Canon. It was by no means a one-way traffic of the mind,
was
collected
for
down
laid
is
it
a
in
who is apt in "instructing
Dhamma, in what pertains
making another
doctrine
that
must be one
what pertains to the
that while the teacher
the pupil in
to the
Vinaya,
discuss, according to the
might arise", 2 the
pupil
or
discussing
in
Dhamma,
at the
a false
same time
is
enjoined to "combat by discussion any false doctrine that
the teacher might take to or to get others to
This
cation
is
as
Canon.
the outline of the initial
presented
in
the
learning
of
section
the
for
the
it".
3
of Buddhist edu-
Vinaya-pitaka
was meant exclusively
It
based on the cloistered
mode
do
of
ordained;
age- inbred
the
was
and
closed except for one important opening.
This was the unrestricted freedom to argue, to dispute
and
to
debate allowed to every qualified
fraternity:
monk
in a
monastic
each was expected to think, reason and decide
for himself in all matters relating to both the
the Vinaya.
Dhamma and
There were procedural rules for the
formal
submission of points of controversy to the judgment of the
corporate body of
monks
the Sangha, which
was based under the Sarigha constitution
1.
is
The
titled
groat polemical
Katha-vatthu
(
(Saiigha).
But even the verdict of
work of the Asokan age, dealing with doctrines,
Matters of Kathas or Doctrinal Debates).
canonical legend (Mahagosinga-sutta), two
monks
are referred
In a
to as holding
an Abhidhamma -katha, putting questions to one another, furnishing answers
and not collapsing hut gaining edification by their discussions.
2. Mahavagga, i, 30,13%
3. Mahavagga, i, 25,20.
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
l8l
on majority opinion ascertained by ballot voting (Salaka),
was not allowed to stifle individual conviction: the dissidents were allowed under the rules to form a party. While this
state of affairs in monastic life and community tended to
stimulate, sharpen and put a premium on independent thinking and intellectual ability, it became also the seed bed of
the sectarianism which is so prominent a feature of Buddhist history.
Buddhism embraces almost countless sects
and sub-sects, each in its origin representing a fresh current
of thought, a new movement of the monk mind.
Monasteries as Seats of Learning
The
Intellectual Bias
above sketch of the primitive system of a monk's
emphasis is noticeably on making a monk intellectually keen.
This particular emphasis grew in Budmonasticism
until many monasteries began to funcdhist
In the
training, the
tion as seats of learning rather than as
sequestered
spiritual
culture.
grims like Fa-Hien and
many
of
the
monastery's
scholar
dence
Yuan
monasteries
past
We
monk who composed some
there.
It is
a pointer
to
name
great
Chinese
while
record
visited,
the
shelters for a
that
Chwang,
they
traditions
mere
find
pil-
describing
among a
some renowned
work while in resiof
a fresh development in the
character of the monasteries, their growth as seats of learn-
and scholarship, which probably became apparent in the
century A.D. or perhaps even earlier.
The actual predisposing conditions for this development
are not far to seek: in the first place, Buddhism was a proselytizing religion that sought and welcomed converts; in the
second, the Buddhist monasteries had to depend for their
existence on princely patronage or popular support of which
the monastic community had to prove itself deserving.
Occasions for proving it lay in an ancient traditional
ing
1st
institution in the history of India's culture, the holding of
assemblies
or
conventions
and debate between
sect
of
and
the
learned
sect of the
for
discussion
same
religion or
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
182
between representatives of
religious
rival
systems.
There
are outstanding historical examples of this peculiarly Indian
institution
— both
and late— in remote Vedic times, as
Asoka (3rd century B.C.) and in that
century A.D.) and later.
It was perhaps for
early
well as in the reign of
of Harsa (7th
reason that the urge developed in the Buddhist system
this
of education for dialectical
skill
and
ability in
argumentation.
In a well-known Buddhist Sanskrit work of circa 400 A.D., for
example, we find included a complete^
and
principles of debate. 1
the 'Mediaeval School'
dhist scholar
is
covered in Tibetan by Pandit
in the process of
teries into scats of learning
character
cloistered
No
the rules
lost in
India, were dis-
C. Vidyabhushan in the
S.
2
important feature —and one of far-reaching cultural
consequence—
and
on
almost wholly represented by Bud-
monks whose works,
early years of the present century.
An
treatise
In the history of Indian logic,
development of the monas-
was the dissolution of
of
their
old
the inbred
monastic
learning.
was the Canon of Buddhism the end all and be
The monks were trained in more
of a monk's study.
longer
all
varied cultural
subjects— in the tenets of other
faiths,
in
systems of philosophy (of course, within the framework of
Buddhist thought) and, at some monasteries, even
in sub-
of merely pragmatic importance like agriculture and
jects
and
upkeep of monastic establishments. After the first century
B.C., when the writing of books came into vogue, they were
architecture, useful for the proper lay-out, construction
collected
and preserved
in the
monasteries and were the pre-
cursors of the splendid manuscript libraries of universities
Nalanda and Vikrama£ila of a
like
But the
'seats
later age.
of learning' kept up throughout their
monastic character, imposing on the inmates the
monastic
life,
although from references in the accounts of
the Chinese pilgrims
1.
it
clearly appears that admission
was
by Maitreya, deals in
volume with the Art of Debate in seven chapters.
Indian Logic: Mediaeval School, by S. C. Vidyabhushan (1907),
Saptadasabhiimi-sastra (Nanjio 1170),
fifteenth
2.
own
rules of
its
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
open not only to monks of
different
1 83
Buddhist
sects,
but also
to unordained seekers after Buddhist learning, even presum-
ably to non-Buddhists.
sake of
caris
in
distinction as
The latter are designated for the
Manavas (commoners) and Brahma-
(students).
For the
monastery,
there
a
and learning
benefits of residence
could
course be no question of
of
payment.
Maintenance and Endowment
had always been regarded by
Gifts to monasteries
and people
ces
alike as
an act of
who favoured Buddhism might
spiritual merit.
prin-
A
king
assign the revenue of a
vil-
lage or a group of villages for the
permanent upkeep of a
and buildings had possibly been the
donation of a merchant prince or of wealthy lay devotees.
Thus many monasteries grew rich, had fine buildings and
assembly halls, overflowing granaries and considerable immovable assets. A number of single monasteries, lying
close to each other, was sometimes gathered within a
monastery whose
circuit wall,
site
forming a unitary establishment.
Fa-Hien describes
how
kings and 'heads of the Vaisyas',
by which he meant leading merchants, would build Viharas
(monasteries) for
gardens,
monks and endow them with
orchards and
dent population.
Royal
cattle, in
grants
fields,
houses,
co-operation with the
to
resi-
monasteries used to be
"engraved on plates of metal and were handed
down from
"When
king to king without anyone daring to annul them".
a king
makes
his offeripgs to a
community of monks,
ministers,
'The
supplies
them with food with
his
own
he
and
takes off his royal cap and, along with his relatives
hands."
families of people supply the societies of these
monks
with an abundant sufficiency of what they require so that
no lack or stint." Many monasteries, late in the
seventh century, had in fact become so wealthy that the
Chinese pilgrim, I-tsing, visiting them in the closing decades
there
is
of that century, strikes a rather censorious note.
"It
is
un-
seemly"' he observes, "for a monastery to have too great
1
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
84
wealth, granaries full of rotten corn,
many
male
servants,
and female, money and treasures hoarded without use
in the
treasury/'
Chinese Pilgrims and their Testimony
Fa-Hien
in
the early part of the fifth century visited
monasteries at Pataliputra which were typical of what
of the greater monasteries
two
some
different parts of the country
in
One of them, described by
and beautiful'', was a Mahayanist
monastery, while the other was a Hinayanist one. Together
they housed six to seven hundred monks.
He speaks thus
of these two establishments: "The rules of demeanour and
the scholastic arrangements in them are worthy of observation.
Sramanas (monks) of the highest virtue from all quarters,
were
in the
him
as
process of becoming.
"very
grand
and students, enquirers wishing to find out the truth and the
grounds thereof, all resort to these monasteries."
Their academic aspect seems thus to have struck even
Fa-Hien
who was more
of a pious pilgrim than an
scholar in search of learning in India as
Yuan Chwang.
was
eager
his successor,
This aspect of the monasteries seems to
have developed during the two centuries that separate Fa-
Hien and Yuan Chwang.
It
grew
prominence: monks
into
from different parts of the country came to some of them
to write books, to study
and
scholar pilgrims, chiefly Chinese,
eye-witness
monastic
India
accounts
establishments)
and as radiating
of
that
foci to
their
Buddhist lands,
seats of learning spread to other
able
and
to learn,
who have
some
left
attracting
us invalu-
Mahaviharas
functioned
as
fame as
(great
centres
in
other lands of Buddhist culture
and learning.
The whole of China, both North and South, had by
500 A.D. embraced Buddhism. To quote Fitzgerald, "Buddhist rites and ceremonies were everywhere practised; temples and monasteries had arisen in every district; priests
But
and nuns were numerous and highly respected." 1
1
.
Short Cultural History of China, p.
276.
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
Buddhism
1 85
China at the time was strongly adulterated
It was therefore felt by
must
the Buddhist monks of China of that era that they
the
homeland
to
of
reform
and
turn
Buddhism in order to
in
with Taoist beliefs and practices.
Buddhism— to
Chinese
purify
scriptures
original
collect
and learn the proper rites and ceremonies. This, apart
from the spiritual benefit of pilgrimage, was the motive that
started a stream of intrepid Chinese scholar monks on the
long trek to India, thousands of miles over deserts and
mountains. According to the findings of a modern Chinese
many
who went
as
historian, as
pilgrims
162, out of the
number of
Chinese
out to India during the 5th, 6th, 7th and
8th centuries, can be traced from Chinese sources of infor-
The
mation. 1
'records'
(Ki in
Chinese) of only three of
—
them have been explored and translated by Sinologists
those of Fa-Hien, Yuan Chwang and I-tsing, covering the
periods 405-411 A.D„ 629-646 A.D. and 671-695 A.D.
respectively.
Monastic Universities
Nalanda and Valabhi
During the period of
who was
India, Yuan Chwang,
monk, studied Indian philo-
his stay in
a learned Mahayanist
sophy, both Buddhist and Brahmanical, at several monasteries,
singly or under Indian teachers of
He
nown.
makes
special
mention
of
contemporary
two
re-
educational
establishments that were pre-eminent in India, Nalanda and
Valabhi, in
latter,
seem
eastern
and
western
India
which was a centre of Hinayana
to
The
Buddhism, does not
have attracted Mahayanist scholars much, but of
Nalanda he has
mented
respectively.
left
a detailed description which
with further details
by
his disciple
is
supple-
and biographer,
Liang Chi-chao. His researches in Chinese history, which
1. Prof.
remain untranslated still, are summarized in a paper, 'Chinese Sources of
Indian History % contributed by Dr. Lo Lia-chuen to the Silver Jubilee
Session of the Indian Historical Records Commission in December, 1948.
Dr. Lo, an eminent Chinese scholar, now serving in the Government of
Formosa, was China's Ambassador to India in 1945-50.
1
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
86
At Nalanda, Yuan Chwang
Hwui-Li.
studied the
Yoga
philo-
sophy under the head of that institution, Silabhadra, for five
years or more.
With its full complement of schools of
studies,
lecture
and attendance
halls,
libraries,
at lectures,
regulations
for
admission
conduct and discipline (with pres-
cribed penalties for a breach of these), and a complete system
it
was a full-fledged monastic
immense size. Its magnitude can be judged
from Yuan Chwang's report that the number of teachers was
to
1,500 and of learners 10,000, though the figure seems
of academic administration,
university of
have come down
in
later,
time,
I-tsing's
to a little
over
3,000.
many
said that as
It is
as one hundred chairs or pulpits
The
were daily arranged for the lectures and discussions.
range
of
studies
Brahmanical
Chwang's
make
to
by
life
of
subjects
both
learning,
had
learners
covered
and
sacred
choice
their
Buddhist and
both
secular,
among
and the
Yuan
them.
Hwui-Li gives us an idea of the subjects
He
studied at Nalanda.
says
(p.
112):
"The
priests belong-
ing to the convent (of Nalanda) or strangers (residing therein)
always number 10,000 and
all
study the Great Vehicle, as
well as the works belonging to the eighteen sects,
only so, but even ordinary works
and not
such as the Vedas and
other books, the Hetuvidya, the Sabdavidya, the Cikitsavidya,
the
works on magic (Atharva Veda), and the Sarikhya; besides,
they thoroughly investigate the 'miscellaneous' works.
There
men who can explain 20 collections of sutras and
Sastras; 500 who can explain 30 collections and perhaps ten
men, including the Master of the Law, who can explain fifty
are 1,000
collections.
Silabhadra alone has studied
and understood
the whole number."
In Chapter
XXXIV
gion, I-tsing also gives
learning
Sanskrit
scholar.
followed
in
Record of the Buddhist Relius information about the method of
of his
Indian
educational
establishments.
grammar was always one of the basic studies
I-tsing says
"The old translators (of Sanskrit
Chinese) seldom
:
tell
of a
into
us the rules of Sanskrit language...!
:
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
up many
clear
translation."
way
a thorough study of Sanskrit grammar
now
trust that
we encounter
difficulties
He
1
1 87
on
goes
systematic
the
describe
to
grammar was conducted.
in which the study of
may
whilst engaged in
It
is
from commentaries such as those of YaSomitra that
clear
Pimm's grammar formed a
young
scholar.
part of the basic training of a
mentions the grammatical works a
I-tsing
scholar was required to study.
Panini's
These include the following
Dhatupatha,
sutras,
Astadhatu,
Un5di-sutras,
(perhaps the same as Patanjali's
Kasikavrtti, Curni
Maha-
Vakyapadiya and Pei-na or
Bedavrtti.
He further adds that young scholars "devote
and metaphysics (Abhithemselves to logic (Hetuvidyii)
bhasya),
Bhartrhari's
dharma-kosa).
Jataka-mala
He
the heretics as they
two
melts
frost."
memory
the intellect
bet fixes one's ideas.
In
3
He
ways
traditional
to great intellectual power.
ing to
priests
learn
besides
all
sastras as
would drive beasts
middle of a plain and explain away disputations
as boiling water
are
and by studying the
comprehension increase". 2
of
"The
say:
to
They oppose
(deer) in the
there
powers
works and investigate the sutras and
the Vinaya
well.
Nyaya-dvara-tarka-sastra,
the
inferences (anumana);
their
on
goes
learning
In
draw
they rightly
Sastra,
in
Firstly,
is
also
adds, "In India,
which one can attain
by repeatedly commit-
developed; secondly, the alpha-
this
way, after a practice of ten
days, a scholar feels his thoughts rise like a fountain, and
can commit to
memory whatever he
quiring to be told twice).
for
I
This
is
has once heard (not
far
re-
from being a myth,
myself have met such men." 4
At the conclusion of the curriculum, academic degrees
were granted according to the supplicant's status and qualifications.
The daily time-table was regulated by means of
a clepsydra (water clock), a contraption consisting of a large
1.
Record of Uie Buddhittt Religion*
2. Ibid,,
pp. 176-77.
3. Ibid., p.
4. Ibid.,
181.
pp. 182-83.
p. 168.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
188
bowl of water with a smaller perforated one
floating in
it,
each immersion of the smaller bowl indicating a quarter of
an hour which was announced by one stroke on a drum.
working day for teachers and students was eight hours.
A
Nalanda became famous for
'Schools of Discussion':
its
more ancient and established
tradition of monastic education—to the Kathas, an institution of primitive monasteries as we have seen.
The Schools
attracted learners not only from all over India, but also from
the Far East and later from Tibet.
"Learning and discussing/' says Yuan Chwang, "they find the day too short."
The
uninhibited scope and freedom of these discussions at
Nalanda and also at all other monastic universities must be
indeed, they harked back to a
coun&d
as
great contributory
a
factor
in
that
process of
fusion of Brahmanical and Buddhistic thought and culture
which makes
so intriguing a feature of the final period of
it
the history of ancient Indian culture.
Traditional
legends of the vast
manuscript wealth
of
Lama
Nalanda's libraries come from Tibetan sources, from
Taranatha and other Tibetan writers on the history of Buddhism, belonging to the 17th and 18th centuries. A whole
area of the
campus was, according
to the
Tibetan writers, set
apart for the libraries and was covered with huge, manystoreyed library buildings, three of which had the fancy
names of Ratnadadhi (Sea of Jewels), Ratnasagara (Ocean of
Jewels) and Ratnaranjaka (Jewel-adorned), the first-named
edifice
being
The Tibetan legend
nine-storeyed.
that
is
these great libraries were reduced to ashes by the deliberate
act of an infuriated incendiary, a
Turuska (Turk).
Nalanda, founded as a monastery centuries before, must
have touched
its
peak of fame as a university some time in
the 6th century, between the time of Fa-Hien and that of
Yuan Chwang and continued
to function,
though dimmed
perhaps by the rising glory of the University of VikramaSfla,
situated within a measurable distance of Nalanda, for
three
centuries
Muhammadan
after.
It
certainly
did
not
about
survive
the
invasion of Bihar, about 1197 A.D., which,
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
as
we know from
attended
with
the contemporary account of Minhaz,
wholesale
the
massacre
was
1
Nalanda was probably the grandest and
Architecturally,
most magnificent of
in
89
'shaven-headed
of
Buddhist monks were described.
priests', as the
century A.D.
1
monastic establishments
all
We
India.
7th
in the
have not only Yuan Chwang's
testimony for
it, but also a descriptive reference in an inscripKing Yasovarman of the following century which
mentions Nalanda's Vows of monasteries with their series of
tion of
licking
turrets,
the
Hwui-Li
clouds'.
provide more details.
Yuan Chwang
and
in
which the
chambers are located are of four stages. Each stage
has dragon-like projections and coloured eaves, pearl (jewel?)red pillars carved and ornamented, richly adorned balus-
"All
outside
courts,
priests'
trades, etc., while the roofs arc covered with tiles that reflect
the light
beauty
lishments)
thousand shades.
a
in
of
the
of
These things add
to
The Sarigharamas (monastic
scene.
are counted by myriads, but this
India
most remarkable for grandeur and height."
the
estabis
the
(Hwui-Li.) "In
work of successive kings, the sculpture
perfect and really beautiful."
is
(Yuan Chwang.) The
natural surroundings in which this grand masterpiece of
architecture was situated, made a perfect setting.
The
this establishment, the
grounds were variegated with ponds with a great profusion
of blue lotuses, and
flowers
springing
to
up
their
blue
exquisite
everywhere
joined
the
kanaka
deep
their
red,
while the mango-groves chequered the landscape with their
and man-made beauty
of Nalanda nothing remains now but mouldering mounds,
scattered debris and broken stone images here and there.
The archaeologists have been busy with spade and shovel
grateful
shade.
Of
all
of
Bargaon, a few miles from
this
natural
over them.
The
village
(Rajgir in Bihar State),
is
the site of Nalanda.
It
Rajagrha
has been
excavated by archaeologists and the finds are housed in a
museum on
1,
the
site.
Among
these finds
is
the official seal of
See Tabakat-i-Na&iri (Kaverty's translation) p, 552.
f
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
190
Dhamma,
the University, engraved on stone, with the wheel of
flanked with a gazelle on either side, bearing the inscription:
Community of Monks of the Nalanda MahaThe seal proves the University to have been a unitary organization comprising a number of viharas (monasteries), built, as we know from Yuan Chwang's account,
in
different centuries —such an organization being known as a
'Venerable
vihara'.
Mahavihara (Great Monastic Establishment).
The other pre-eminent Mahavihara, spoken of by both
Yuan Chwang and I-tsing, was at Valabhi in western India.
I-tsing reports Nalanda and Valabhi to be the two places in
India where it was usual for scholars to reside for two or
three years to complete their education.
have been
in that
in India, as
Valabhi seems to
century the largest Hinayanist establishment
Nalanda was the
largest
Mahayanist.
Vikramasila
Nalanda and Valabhi
figure
in
Chinese pilgrims of the seventh century.
the
accounts of the
However, there were
other Buddhist universities that flourished after the heyday
of these older universities and they functioned right
the
Muhammadan
conquest of Bihar and Bengal.
down
to
We know
about them from Tibetan sources— from Taranatha's description in his 'History of Indian Buddhism' (early 18th century
and other minor historiographical works and from mention
of them in the colophons of a number of manuscripts
recovered from Tibet. The greatest and most famous of
them was Vikramasila.
The monasteries of Vikramasila were situated on a 'bluff
hill' on the right bank of the Ganga 'where the Holy River
1
The site cannot be definitely identified:
was washed away long ago by the river's erosion.
flows northwards*.
perhaps
It
was
it
in its
peak period under the patronage of the Buddhist
Pala kings of Bengal— a grand and stately establishment with
six
noble gates, each guarded by a scholar officer of the Uni1.
This fact
is
taken to be a justification for the spelling Vikramasila.
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
versity
who bore
the designation
The
(Dvara-pandita).
University
191
of 'Gatekeeper Scholar'
granted
the
degree
of
Pandita, equivalent to Master of Arts.
is
The fame and prestige of Vikramasila in Tibetan records
due perhaps in a large measure to its association with the
great
name
of Dipankara Srijiiana
(980—1053 A.D.), a
re-
nowned scholar, who, after finishing his
became the head of the University of Vikramas'ila in
1034—38 A.D., migrated to Tibet at the invitation of its king
and led a movement for the reform of Buddhism, then the
education at Odanta-
puri,
State religion in that country.
He was nearing his
when he received
sila,
sixties
and was the head of Vikramawas
the Tibetan king's invitation and
persuaded by the king's emissaries, though much against his
will, to
undertake
tale of his
this
strenuous and
difficult mission.
journey to Tibet across the Himalayas through the
winding, windswept las (mountain passes),
his
colourful reception at the capital, his organizing
cultural
realistic
name),
propaganda are
details
still
in
current
a
all
life
among
many
described with
of
AtiSa
grand and
work
Tibet,
scholars in
.
Tibetan
written
he died,
terrain,
full
of
years
in the interior called
by
After thirteen
years of missionary work in that country of severe cold
an obscure place
and
quaint yet
(Dipankara's
Dipankara's chief Tibetan disciple, Nagtcho 1
difficult
The
and honours,
Nethan.
and
at
His tomb
and pictograph of it will
be found in Lhasa and its Mysteries (1905) by Captain Waddel
who paid a visit to the tomb at the turn of this century.
still
a description
stands there:
Dipaiikara
the founder of
is
Lamaism
in
Tibet and he
At Ghoom
West Bengal) there is a secluded Tibetan
monastery where, among the monstrous Tantric divinities of
the Lamaist pantheon, a solitary, humanized stone image of
Ati£a may be seen.
has been deified
near Darjeeling
in
Tibet under his Tibetan name.
(in
1. An abridged English version of the important parts of this work iff
given in Sarat Chandra Das's book, now rare, entitled Indian Pandit* in the
Land of Snow (ISM).
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
192
Jagaddala and Odantapuri
The Buddhist Pala kings of Bengal were patrons of
King Ramapala who reigned between 1084 and
130 A.D. built a new capital for his kingdom at the junction
of the Ganga and one of its deltaic tributaries, the Karatoa,
learning.
1
and christened
university
Here he established a Buddhist
Ramavati.
it
Jagaddala.
called
functioned
It
century and a half and was swept
Muslim invasion of Bihar.
barely
for
away by
a
the violence of
this comparaproduced a number of famous scholars
whose names are known to us from the colophons of their
the
tively brief period,
works, both
But during
it
and
in Sanskrit
in Tibetan.
Odantapuri, where at one time a thousand monks were
in residence, existed before the Pala dynasty, but
the
Pala kings that
endowed
Buddhist
and
much
enlarged.
monastery
was under
it
throve as a university, munificently
it
built
is
said
Tibet
was
It
in
that
the
first
on
modelled
Odantapuri.
The
tradition of
universities
Nalanda was carried on by these Buddhist
of later days,
Muslim conquest, and
many
it
functioning
seems
till
that
the
eve of the
thereafter
a
good
scholars migrated from their ruins to Tibet and wrote
some of
their
works
there.
They are
included
Tibetan encyclopaedia of Buddhist works, some
in
the
in original
from the Sanskrit. The
Tibetan script itself was fashioned by Dipahkara out of the
old Indian script and the migrating scholars had little difficulty in acquiring the Tibetan language- and in writing in
Tibetan and others
its
in
translations
script.
Conclusion
From
the foundation
until the extinction of
of the
Buddhism
first
Buddhist monasteries
as an organized religion in
India, the system of Buddhist education passed through
evolution of
many
centuries, of
which the
last
term
is
an
re-
presented by the great monastic universities of Chinese and
Tibetan fame.
centuries.
The
story
goes back to well over fifteen
BUDDHIST EDUCATION
1 93
*
The system remained monastic throughout:
it was reguand by the ethos of monastic life.
A time came, however, when the femphasis latent in
primitive Buddhism, on intellectual ability and the urge to
know, to think and to reason for onself seems to have out-
and conditioned by the
lated
rules
weighed the original purpose of secluded spiritual cultivation.
Slowly the convent was transformed: it developed in
the
course of centuries into a seat of learning, a means of scholarplace where the faculties were sharpened for
ship, a
Dhamma
understanding of the
ing naturally outgrew
took
in
it
monk
and systems.
larger
and more
it
it
the
learn-
had also the
liberal;
it
enabled the Bud-
own among
to hold his
But
The
original confinement to the texts of
became
both sacred and secular subjects;
dhist scholar
sects
its
Canon:
the Buddhist
and meditation.
the rivalries of
effect of
producing
framework and cast
of Buddhist thought, introducing into it new elements from
subtle
and gradual changes
the old
in
outside.
By
a perfectly natural transition, these "seats of learning'
developed, though
never foregoing
their
original
monastic
was
character, into educational seminaries where admission
thrown open not only to monks but also to other seekers
after knowledge, irrespective of sect, religious denomination
and
They partook
nationality.
of
character
the
of
studium generate of mediaeval Europe, and from the
the
fifth
or sixth century onwards, several of them were organized
as universities
Of them,
and functioned as such.
Nalanda
the University of
Si-yu-ki (Western
self
was one of
honoured both
World Record) of
is
highlighted in the
Yuan Chwang who
him-
most distinguished alumni, respected and
and in China. The fame of Nalanda
its
in India
and other Buddhist
universities spread over all the Buddhist
lands of Asia through the works and achievements of the
eminent scholars they produced.
Yuan Chwang
took
home
with him
many hundreds
of
bundles of manuscripts and devoted the rest oi his life to
translating into Chinese as many of them as he could with
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
194
the help of devoted collaborators.
of
one
of
the
Fa-hsiang school
bhadra,
A
of
He was
also the founder
Buddhism
Nalanda scholar,
Chinese
which claims the
Yuan Chwang's
initiator.
Chwang
Ten Schools
—the
Sila-
instructor at that university, as
contemporary
and
fellow
its
Yuan
named Thonmi
student
of
Nalanda was a Tibetan scholar,
Sambhota, who in his own country had been Minister to the
Tibetan king.
He had been commissioned by the king, who,
having had a Chinese Buddhist wife, was inclined towards
Buddhism, to study that religion at its source in India. He
went back to the Tibetan court after a course of study at
Nalanda to report on what he had learnt. The king was
converted and Buddhism for the first time was declared the
State religion of Tibet.
A few centuries later, Dipankara
went from the University of Vikramasila and gave the religion
its present Lamaist organization.
Thus the outflow of influence from the Indian Buddhist
universities led not only to the propagation of knowledge and
at
appreciation of the teachings and
tenets of
Buddhism
in
other Asian lands, but also to certain historic reforms there.
CHAPTER
Some Great
IX
Buddhists after Asoka
A. In India
Rulers
Menander, Kaniska, Harsa
:
Asoka
After
Buddhism was kept burning by
the torch of
the efforts of Milinda (Menander), Kaniska,
rulers of the Pala dynasty
(750—1150
A.D.).
Harsa and the
Menander, the
was a great patron and supporter of
Buddhism.
During the two centuries that followed the decline of the power of the imperial Mauryas, the Greek invaders
Indo-Greek king,
held suzerainty over north-western
Some
thirty rulers flourished
King Menander has
mind.
This
is
left
during
India and
Afghanistan.
this period, of
whom
only
a permanent impress on the Indian
due
evidently
to his
association
with the
Dhamma.
King Menander
Pali
figures as
one
of the characters
name Milinda
Ancient
is
the
in
The
book, Milinda-pafiha or 'Questions of Milinda'.
an adaptation of the Greek word Menandros.
authors used
various other
Indian
forms of
the
name.
Thus, in Ksemendra's Avadanakalpalata, he has been given the name Milindra which is the
same as that found in the Bstan-hgyur collection (popularly
known as Tanjur) of the Tibetan Tripitaka. The Shinkot
Greek
King's
casket inscription in the Kharosthi script gives his
Menadra.
The
name
as
from which information may
Indo-Greek king are the Milinda-
chief sources
be gathered about
this
panha, the accounts of Greek historians such as Strabo.
Plutarch and Justin, and the coins of King Menander himself,
bearing
the
inscription
which have been found
in
Basileus
Soteros
Menandros,
twenty-two different places
in
the
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
196
Kabul and the Sindh
valleys of the
districts of
There
and
the
in
western
Uttar Pradesh.
is
a great divergence of opinion
concerning the
Smith, h£ flourished
in the
it
means
atikkantc, which
to
that
in
the
King Milinda
Buddha.
after the parinirvana of the
century B.C.
first
In
Parinibbanato pancavassasate
stated.
is
the scholars
According
middle of the second century B.C.
H. C. Raychaudhuri places him
the Milinda-panha
among
King Menander.
date of
It
is.
lived
500 years
therefore, reason-
able to assume that the Greek king reigned in or about the
century B.C., which
first
also borne out by other facts.
is
Menander (Milinda) has been
Yonakas Yonakanam raja
MHindo,
The Pali word Yonaka or Yona (Skt. Yavana>
is the same as the old Persian word Yauna, meaning origiMilinda-panha
the
In
described as the king of the
nally Ionian Greeks, but later the
Yonas and
lands of the
in
the
Greeks
in
general.
Kambojas were known
the sixth century B.C. as
is
The
to Indians
evidenced by the A$salayana
suttanta of the Majjhima-nikaya which states that the people
had only two varnas or social grades, viz.,
Arya and the Dasa instead of the four classes of Indian
of these regions
the
society.
It
is
a well-known fact that after the third Buddhist
Council held at Pataliputra, Buddhist missionaries were sent
u> the distant
chos
II
Yona country comprising
of Syria, Antigonos Gonatos of Macedonia,
mentioned
Asoka.
in
It
1
is
— Yona
Dhammarakkhita -was deputed
he Aparantaka country to preach the
clear
begun
to
etc.,
as
and the thirteenth rock edicts of
also stated that the Greek bhikkhu named
the second
Dhammarakkhita
thus
the realms of Antio-
that
the
blessed
teachings
Dhamma
of
the
there.
to
It is
Buddha had
appeal to the Greek mind even before the time of
Menander whom we
first
see as obsessed with doubts
and
dilemmas about the teachings of the Buddha and then as a
devout
Buddhist
ruler
propagating
the
teachings
of
the
Buddhist religion when his doubts and misgivings had been
removed by the Venerable Nagasena.
It
is
stated in the Milinda-panha that Milinda
was born
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
in a village
named
of Alasanda, 1
i.e.,
I97
Kalasi (Kalasigamo) in the dipa or
Alexandria (modern Kandahar).
Doab
His capi-
which is the same as Sangal of the Greek
and the Sagal or Euthumedeia of Ptolemy.
This city is identified with the modern Sialkot in the Panjab.
Menander's dominions comprised Peshawar, the upper Kabul
valley, the Panjab, Sindh. Kathiawar and western Uttar
tal
was
at Sagala,
historian Arrian
Pradesh.
Menander was a well-informed scholar and a keen debater.
He was well versed in various branches of learning and expert
in argument.
He wanted to understand the true essence of
Buddhism which
solve
his
difficulties.
Menander was
''Empty, alas,
There
no
is
chance that
is
Keen seeker
India.
all
solving
his
none could
of
truth
India
as
He
was,
he
exclaimed,
but vain gossip.
is
brahmana who
is
capable of disputing
my
It
was by a fortunate
doubts."
2
saw a
one day he
Nagasena going on
All
and knotty
difficulties
teachers, but
greatly disheartened by this.
ascetic or
me and
with
him several
raised for
He approached many
problems.
Buddhist
monk
named
The calm and
begging round.
serene
personality of the sage had a silent but powerful influence
on the
king's mind.
Next day,
company
the
in
of
five
hundred YonakasT he went to the Sankheyya monastery at
Sagal where the monk was staying at that time.
They had
king,
was later
a conversation which, at the request of the
resumed at the palace.
The monk who was no ordinary
teacher told the king that he was agreeable to a discussion
only
not
if
in
it
was held
the royal
in the scholastic
way
(Rajavfida).
to the teacher in a fitting
by one before the sage
entire satisfaction.
king had with the
is
way (Panditavada) and
The king paid homage
manner and put his difficulties one
ably solved them all to the king's
who
On
monk
this celebrated
is
dialogue which the
based the Milinda-panha which
considered to be the most notable book
cal Pali literatufe of Early
1.
Milinda, 82.
2.
Milinda, 5,21.
Buddhism,
in the
cited
non-canoni-
by Buddhaghosa
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
iy8
as an authority.
not possible for us here to go into
It is
the details of the topics discussed in this book.
to say that the deepest spiritual
Suffice
it
problem with which the king
was confronted was his inability to understand how the
Buddha could believe in rebirth without believing in a
This knotty problem has been
re-incarnating self or ego.
solved by the Venerable Nagasena in a masterly
book
for all time.
lasted for
monk
for
some days,
At
way
in this
the end of the conversation which
the king expressed his gratitude to the
having resolved
He was
his doubts.
all
filled
with spiritual joy and took refuge in the Three Jewels and
entreated Nagasena to accept
him as an upasaka from that
day onward as long as he lived. Upasakam mam bhante
Nagasena dharetha ajjatagge panupetam saranani gatam ti. J
The king who was now a convert to Buddhism built a monasnamed Milinda-vihara and handed it over to Nagasena,
He also made large donations to the Bhiksu-sangha. According to the Milinda-pafiha, King Menander died a Buddhist
tery
monk having
kingdom
to
retired
his
from the world
He
son.
Arhatship (arhattam) which
after
also said
is
is
to
handing over his
have attained to
the last stage of sanctification
according to Theravada Buddhism/
Plutarch, the
occurred
in a
Greek
historian, says that
camp and
there
was
Menander's death
a dispute
among
several
for the possession of his ashes which were
and a memorial erected in each. We know that
exactly the same thing had happened at the time of Lord
Buddha's parinirvana. It is also significant that the coins of
Menander bear the Buddhist wheel (dharmacakra). This
is an unmistakable sign that he was a devout Buddhist.
The
Shinkot inscription proves beyond a doubt that the Greek
Indian
cities
divided
king helped in the propagation of Buddhism in the region
between
1.
2nd
the
Hindukush and
Sindh. 3
Plutarch
says
that
Milinda, 420.
2.
Milinda, 420.
3.
The History and Culture of
ed., 1953), Vol. II, pp.
the
Indian People ($haratiya Vidyabhavan,
112-115; also Raychaudhuri, Political History of
Ancient India (6th ed., 1953),
p. 382.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
Menander had
as a ruler
by
loved
dearly
a
keen sense of
people. 1
his
Though
199
justice
established in India disappeared with his death, the
and
of this just
enshrined
wise Buddhist
for ever
ruler will
and was
power he had
the
memory
remain
own
the pages of the Milinda-panha as in his
in
coins bearing the dharmacakra.
After Milinda there comes another
which
equally illustrious
is
Buddhist tradition.
is
the
name
in
Indian history
the rulers of India
and
name
who com-
of Kaniska
work of Asoka and helped
the
pleted
This
among
in
the
in the
triumphant
Kaniska
spread of the Buddha-dharma throughout Asia.
belonged to the Kusana (Kuei-Shuang) branch of the Yueh-
which originally inhabited parts of Chinese Turkestan (modern Sinkiang). The first Kusana chief who occupied
(Kujul-Kasa) who was a
territories in India was Kadphises
Some of his coins which have been found in the
Buddhist.
chi tribe
1
Kharosthi script
the excavations at Taxila bear the ins-
at
Kusana-Yavugasa dharma-thidasa,
Kusana chief, who is steadfast in
That by the word 'Dharma' is meant here the
the Dharma\
Buddhist religion is made clear by some other coins which
Kujul-Kasasa
cription.
'of
i.e.,
have
Kujul
such
words sacra dharma-thita
the
Dharma)
an
Kasa. the
of
instead
illustrious
dharma-thita.
forefather
India in the last quarter of the
that
first
(steadfast
It
was
Kaniska
in
in
the
came
the
true
line
to
of
rule
century A.D.
Kaniska's reign (78—101 A.D.) also marks a turning point
in the history of
nessed the
rise
of
Buddhism and Buddhist literature. It witMahayana Buddhism and the magnificent
by Parsva. Asvaghosa. Vasumitra, and
this age that Pali gave place to Sanskrit.
literary activity started
others.
It
was
in
Gandhara sculptures developed and figures of the Buddha and Bouhisattvas began
to appear. It was during Kaniska's reign and largely through
In the field of art, the celebrated
his efforts that
Buddhism was successfully introduced into
There was ceaseless missionary
Central and Eastern Asia.
activity
1.
throughout his vast
See footnote 3 on p. 198.
empire
which
extended
from
2500 YfcARS OF BUDDHISM
200
Madhyadesa
Asian culture came into existence at
was on
highest purposes
the
A
India to Central Asia.
in
of
time, based as
this
which
for
life
truly integrated
it
Buddhism
stood.
The story of Kaniska's conversion to Buddhism followed
the same lines as that of Asoka.
It is said that the Yueh-chi
monarch in his early life had no respect for the Buddhist
religion.
He did not believe in Karma, and treated Buddhism
with
contumely.
during
that
1
was
It
conquests
his
drew him
his
remorse
Kashgar,
of
the
at
bloodshed
Khotan
Buddhism which
Yarkand, and
to the quietist teachings of
he propagated later with such zeal.
The crowning service which the Indo-Scythian monarch
rendered to Buddhism was the convocation by him of a
council which was held at a monastery named Kundalavana
Vihara in Kashmir according to some authorities and at
the Kuvana monastery at Jalandhara according to others.
Yuan Chwang who is considered to be the leading authority
on the subject states that the Council met in Kashmir. The
aim of
chief
which was the fourth
the Council,
tory of Buddhist Councils,
was
in
the his-
the compilation of the doc-
of Buddhism and the writing of commentaries on
them according to the Sarvastivada school of Buddhism.
Kaniska summoned this Council at the instigation of an
Vasumitra was the
old and learned monk named Parsva.
President of the Council while Asvaghosa, who was invited
trines
from Saketa to help
in
the redaction of the
acted as the Vice-President.
Five hundred
in the proceedings of the assembly and
mentaries,
known
as
the
this
Council
explaining
composed
the
canonical
part
they compiled com-
on
Vibhasa-sastras,
Pitakas of the Buddhist Canon.
Commentaries,
monks took
Yuan Chwang
the
three
states that
100,000 stanzas of Upade£a-£astras
sutras,
100,000
stanzas
Vinaya-vibhasa-sastras explaining the Vinaya,
and
of
the
100,000
stanzas of the Abhidharma-vibhasa-sastras in explanation of
T.
in India, hy T. Watters (edited by
1. On Yuan Chwrwa'* Travels
W. Rhys David* and S. W. Bushel!, London, 1004-5), Vol. I, p. 203.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
The Mahavibhasa, which
the Abhidharma.
in
is
201
still
preserved
Chinese, perhaps represents the commentaries prepared
by this Council. The treatises, prepared at this Council,
were copied on copper plates which were enclosed in stone
boxes and safely deposited
in
a stupa which Kaniska had
After the completion of
specially erected for this purpose.
work of
the
assembly, which
the
lasted
days,
for several
Kaniska, following the example of Asoka, donated the king-
dom
of
Kashmir
to the
Buddhist Sangha.
According to Kalhana\ Rajatararigini Kaniska founded
many monasteries and caityas. He founded a city named
modern
Kaniskapura
which
Kanispur
Kashmir. Kaniska erected a great tope which
in
was named
has
after him.
been
To
with
identified
the
the west of the tope he built a
large monastery which was known as Kaniska Mahavihara.
Both these structures were erected at Purusapura (modern
The Great Tope or
Peshawar).
the
Kaniska Tope was a
magnificent structure 400 feet high, the base being
in
five
and 150 feet high. The Chinese pilgrims Fa-hien,
Sung-Yun and Yuan Chwang have lavished great praise on
stages
The
the architectural beauty of this important relic tower.
Kaniska Mahavihara, referred
tery'
the
at
time
when
seventh century A.D.
^Its
to
above, was an 'old monas-
Yuan Chwang
visited
upper storeys and
it
many
in
the
terraces
were connected by passages and although the buildings were
There were
in ruins they could be said to be of rare art.
still
in the
monastery a few brethren,
all
Hinayanists.
From
was built it had yielded occasionally extraordinary men, and the Arhats and sastra-makers by their
pure conduct and perfect virtue were still in active inAl Biruni speaks of a Kanika Caitya (Kaniska
fluence/'
Caitya) at Purusavara (Peshawar), built by Kanika (Kaniska).
Ostensibly, this was the same building as Kaniska Maha-
the
time
it
1
vihara.
The Kusana
line of rulers exhibited a
wide
spiritual cul-
1. On Yuan Chwang* 8 Travelsin India, by T. Wnttera (edited by
Rhys Davids and S. W. Biuhell, London, 1904-5), Vol. I, p. 208.
T. \V.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHJSM
202
its members professed different forms of religious
As observed earlier, the first Kusana chief, Kadphises I,
was a devout Buddhist. Then came Kadphises II who was
Kaniska who succeeded Kadphises II was, as has
a Saiva.
as
ture,
faith.
been seen, not only an ardent Buddhist
propagator of Buddhism.
defatigable
who
worthy that Vasiska
This
vata.
dom and
feature
is
Indian
an
also
no
religious
in
in-
note-
less
succeeded Kaniska was a Bhaga-
culture as
a
all
free-
marked
is a
Though an ardent
which
faith
whole.
Buddhist himself. Kaniska respected
shown by
is
keeping with the tradition of absolute
in
toleration
of
but
It
other forms of faith,
which bear images of gods worshipped by the Greeks, Persians and Indians. Thus, besides
Sakaymo Bodo (Sakyamuni Buddha), there is Oesho (Siva),
as
is
his coins,
god Athsho (Persian: Atash), the Greek sun god
and several others. This liberal attitude in matters
of religious worship was shown equally by another Buddhist
the
fire
Helios,
ruler,
Harsa.
He came
nearly six centuries after Kaniska
and showed equal reverence to Siva, the
cult of the
Sun and
certain other forms of religious faith.
Harsa
Vardhana
was
a
great
conqueror.
He waged
continuous warfare for thirty-six years before he could unite
India
under
one
sovereign
rule.
When
this
object
achieved he devoted himself to the arts of peace
was also a
patron
great
Bana adorned his
repute.
The three
court.
was
Harsa
of learning.
The famous poet
Harsa himself was an author of
Sanskrit dramas,
Nagananda, Ratnavali,
and Priyadarsika, are ascribed to him, although there are
scholars who doubt Harsa's authorship of these works.
The play, Nagananda, deals with the legend of Jimuta-
vahana
(cloud-riding)
Bodhisattva
who
sacrificed
himself
for a naga.
In his early
family.
life
Harsa had seen much suttering
in
his
His mother, Yasomati, after the death of her hus-
band, had burnt herself alive on the bank of the river Saras-
Rajya Vardhana, his elder brother, was killed by
Sasarika, the king of Gauda.
The story of his unfortunate
vati.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
203
Rajyasn,
is well known. Her husband. Grhavarma, was
by the king of Malva and she was rescued by Harsa
only by a happy chance, when she, in her excessive grief,
sister,
killed
was ready to mount the funeral pyre. These bereavements
and misfortunes had their inevitable effect on the susceptible
mind of Harsa, who was not prepared to accept the kingdom
of Thaneswar after the death of his elder brother, Rajya
Vardhana, or of Kanauj after the death of Grhavarma who
had left no heir. He wanted to take to an ascetic life. The
force of circumstance and the necessity of the times, however, not only compelled him to accept the kingdom of
Thaneswar and Kanauj but also to wage wars to bring the
whoie of India under one sovereign rule. This was the
great political and cultural need of the time in which Harsa
lived.
He took upon his shoulders this onerous responsibibut without the attendant vanity of kingship.
lity,
stated
It
is
by Yuan Chwang that when Harsa was being request-
ed by the ministers to ascend the throne after the death of
Rajya Vardhana, he was perplexed and
He went to the statue of
could not decide what to do.
to
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva on the banks of the Ganga
his elder brother,
seek guidance.
It
seemed
to
him
to be the will of Avalokites-
vara that he should dedicate himself to the affairs of state
Buddhism and should not style himself
Out of a sheer sense of desireless duty, however,
Harsa became the ruler of the country, but he did not use
He was simply called
the title, Maharaja, with his name.
in
the service of
king.
"Rajaputra" or
5>iladitya.
Vardhana,
was a sun-worshipper and Tiis elder brother and sister were
devout Buddhists. Harsa himself showed devotion not only
to the cult of the Sun and Buddhism but also to the god
Siva.
He erected temples for the Saivas as well as monasHarsa's father, Maharajadhiraja Prabhakara
teries
for
the
Buddhist
brethren.
He
practised
religious
an extent that sometimes there is confusion
about the religion which Harsa
scholars
among
the
even
toleration to such
actually professed.
On some
epigraphic evidence Dr. R. C.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
204
Majumdar
regards Harsa as a 'pious and devoted SaivaV
This view
is
evidence
in
hardly
tenable in
Harsa
favour of
The
very circumstances of his
the
only
life
which would
religion
the
face of overwhelming
being
while out of a deep sense of
devoted
a
Buddhist.
prove that Buddhism was
satisfy
filial
spiritual
his
needs,
he continued to
piety
worship the gods of
his forefathers, which did not seem to
him to be incompatible with his devotion to Buddhism.
Thus although Harsa worshipped the god Siva and the Sun,
he was himself a Buddhist.
He was a patron of Nalanda
University and erected a vihara and a bronze temple
there.He also built several thousand stupas on the banks
of the Ganga/'
It is said that in his early life Harsa was
a devotee of the Sammitiya school of Hinayana Buddhism,
but later, under the influence of Yuan Chwang, was drawn
An
towards Mahayana teachings.
religious
life
important feature of the
of India in the seventh century A.D. was the
emergence of what has been called Turanic Hinduism' or
'Neo-Hinduism' with
ness between the
Yet
in
bitter-
Brahmanas and the Buddhists of that age.
was accorded to all religious sects
Yuan Chwang
equally.
emphasis on image worship and a
patronage
royal
viands
its
up of the caste system which resulted
tightening
were
provided
%
states
for
that
'
at
the
1,000 Buddhist
royal
lodges
monks and 500
4
Brahmanas everyday".
The humanistic work
minds one of Asoka.
living creature for food.
for
He
which Harsa was responsible
re-
prohibited the slaying of any
Following the example of Asoka,
he built Dharmasalas which were provided with food, drink
and medicine
is
for the benefit of the
poor and the
said that the King "forgot sleep and food
1.
See
hU paper 'Harsavardhana and His Time*
Culture of the Indian
19.>4),
2.
People, Vol. Ill
in his
in
3. Ibid.,
4. Ibid.
Vol.
I, p.
9
*
Travels in India, Vol. II, p. 171.
344.
It
The History and
(Bharatiya Vidyabhavan,
p. 117.
On Yuan Chwang
sick.
devotion
Bombay,
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
to
good
of
The most important event in Harsa *s
the Chinese pilgrim. Yuan Chwang. to
works*'.
1
from 630
led in this country
him
from
205
reign
He
India.
644 A.D.
to
the visit
is
Harsa
travel-
first
met
Kajangala near Rajamahal while he was returning
at
Harsa treated the Chinese
his conquest of Orissa.
He
grim with the utmost reverence and hospitality.
pil-
took
him to Kanauj (KanyakubjaJ where a special assembly was
convoked in honour of the distinguished guest. This assembly was attended by Bhaskaravarma (also called Kumara),
the king of Kamrup and several other rulers owing allegiance to Harsa, besides four thousand learned monks, of
whom
one thousand came from Nalanda University,
three
thousand
and
Jainas
Chwang was appointed
orthodox
Yuan
A
golden
'Lord of the Discussion*.
image of the Buddha, equal to the king in
in a tower which was a hundred feet high.
Three,
the
Sarigha
Jewels
—
Buddha,
the
-was performed with
and
brahmanas.
stature,
was kept
The worship
of
Dharma and the
pomp. The ceremonies
the
great
which lasted for twenty-one days were terminated by an
unfortunate atterppt on Harsa *s life which was happily
foiled.
After the assembly's deliberations were over. Harsa took
his
honoured guest
to
Ganga and Yamuna.
Prayag at the confluence of the rivers
It
had been a practice of the king for
the past thirty years to hold a quinquennial assembly at the
confluence of the two rivers at Prayag and this was the sixth
of such assemblies.
The Chinese
which was attended by
eminent scholars of
for
days.
seventy-five
On
all
all
away
all
the vassal kings of Harsa
On
the
parted with
1.
the second
he possessed.
all
The assembly,
the religious sects in
first
and
Sun and Siva were worshipped
worshipped.
pilgrim describes in detail
which took place.
the imposing ceremonies
day the Buddha was
third days images of the
respectively.
Yuan Chwang
in
Harsa
states that after he
he had, Harsa begged his
On Yuan Chuxmy't TrarcU
and the
India, lasted
Jtvlia, Vol. I,
sister,
j>.
344.
gave
had
Rajyasri, to
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
206
him an old garment which he put on to worship the
give
'Buddhas of the ten
regions'.
Harsa maintained diplomatic relations with the Chinese
He sent an envoy with a letter to the Chinese
Emperor who in return sent an envoy with the customary
empire.
presents which were received by Harsa with great courtesy
and honour. This interchange of embassies between India
and China in Harsa 's time was the fruit of Harsa 's great
friendship with Yuan Chwang and marks an important
landmark in the history of Sino-Indian friendship based on
mutual love and respect.
Yuan Chwang
After witnessing the ceremonies at Prayag
stayed for ten days
ed on
his
more with
journey overland to China
Chinese pilgrim
the
from
may
Harsa as a Buddhist ruler
Authors:
Pali
India
Nagasena,
to con-
With the departure
duct the pilgrim safely to the frontier.
of
start-
under a military escort
who was charged by Harsa
by Bhaskaravarma
led
and then
his royal host
account of
brief
this
be brought to a close.
Buddhaghosa, and
Buddhadatta,
Dhammapula
It
is
occupies
as
it
indeed
in
strange
should be
India.
in
the
that
Indian literature
It
unique
place
not appreciated
is
is
not realized
that
Pali
and valued
that
the Pali
language and literature have not only influenced modern
Indian languages, but have also affected the growth of the
languages of Ceylon,
that
its
intensive
our cultural
ties
Burma and Siam.
study
should
help
us
It
in
is
but natural
strengthening
with our neighbours.
Another important reason why we should interest ourmore than we have done is that
Pali literature is a storehouse of basic material which would
selves in the study of Pali
be invaluable
in
rewriting
many
a dark chapter of ancient
Indian history.
The
fact that the
whole of
this literature revolves
round
the personality of the Buddha makes it all the more valuNeumann, in his preface to
able for students of Buddhism.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
207
the translation of the Majjhima-nikaya, once wrote:
who knows
sound
like
Among
who have
light
truth.
the
Pali
and exponents of Buddhism
writers
helped us and continue to help us to understand
Buddha,
the abstruse teachings of the
parently
teachings
conflicting
of
harmonize the ap-
to
Master, and to grasp
the
meaning of the doctrine, four illustrious names
Nagasena,
Buddhadatta,
Buddhaghosa and
the inner
out
stand
"One
from outside." It might
the outburst of a devoted heart, but he was not
from the
far
no
needs
Pali
—
Dhammapala.
After the Pali scriptures, the Milinda-pafiha
or 'Questions of King
Milinda\
supposed
compiled by Mahathera Nagasena,
to
have
been
considered almost as
is
authoritative a text.
What can
be
almost
said
with
certainty
Milinda-panha must have been written either
Menander
or
after
him,
but
surely
Buddhaghosa,
who
has
so
often
is
that
the
at the time of
before
the time ol
quoted
Nagasena's
That is to say. it must
have been written between 150 B.C. and 400 A.D. Even
when it is conceded that 'Questions of Milinda' has some
historical basis, it remains to be considered as to who compiled the book, when it was written, whether additions and
interpolations were made, and, if so, when they were made.
as an
Milinda-pafiha
It
has been suggested that the Milinda-panha
unitary
text.
than one
later
authority.
Hence
style.
A
additions.
however,
Chinese
different
Its
the
is
is
are
written
is
not a
in
more
probable that some chapters are
conclusive proof of the above theory,
fact
between
it
chapters
317
that
book was translated into
and 420 A.D. and that its
the
A.D.
Chinese version, known as the Nagasena-sutra. contains only
From this
the first three chapters of the Milinda-panha.
it
has been concluded that the remaining four chapters of
the
Milinda-panha
are
later
additions.
which supports the above view
third chapter,
have come
to
it
is
is
that,
Still
at
another fact
the end of the
stated that the questions of
King Milinda
an end and the fourth chapter looks
like
a
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
208
new
Admitting every possibility of later addiand interpolations we are probably not altogether justi-
beginning.
tions
fied
in setting aside the assumption that Nagasena, or
whoever the author may have been, wrote the whole of the
book as it has come down to us. For it is not impossible
that
Chinese translator himself preferred to limit his
the
translation only to the
The Milinda-panha.
Out of
seven chapters.
three chapter...
first
as
stands
it
present,
at
these seven, the
one
is
all
doctrinal.
much
pains to
first
personal and historical while the others are
It
tell
strange that while Nagasena took so
is
us about
his past
does not give us
life
and
contains
largely
King Menander, he
that of
much information about
present
his
life.
Humility bordering on self-effacement has been a general
This much, how-
characteristic of all our ancient writers.
from the Milinda-panha that
the birth-place of the Elder Nagasena was Kajarigala. a
well-known town near the Himalayas on the eastern border
ever,
can easily be derived
brahmana
of the Middle country and that his father was a
When Nagasena was
Sonuttara.
called
well
versed
in
the
study of the three Vedas, history and other subjects, he
studied
Buddha's doctrine under the Elder Rohana and
the
entered
Order.
the
Assagutta
Pataliputra
Buddha's
he
Later
Vattaniya.
of
made
(Patna) where he
doctrine.
In
end
the
under
studied
Afterwards
he
special
a
he
Elder
the
was
sent
to
study of the
proceeded
the
to
Saiikheyya monastery of Sagala, where he met King Milinda.
Menander was not
ligious teachers,
and
his
satisfied
with the contemporary
arrogance found expression in the
"Jambudvipa
Jambudvipa is devoid
following sentiments:
is
hollow.
brahmana
who
Nagasena,
however,
1.
Tucrho
Natthi
could
oa tii bho
ko<'i
re-
of
empty, Jambudvipa
any
In
me."
Menander met one
argue
king
is
with
1
sramana
the
or
Elder
who com-
Jambmti f>o /xilapo rata bho Jambudipo
vti Hrdhmano va yo wtiifii MttfMhim Mtiiljritutn
Santano
wikkolikniikhnm pa$inin<xhtutn
ti
(Milinda, p. 5.)
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
subdued him
pletely
not
only with
209
his superior
intellect
but also with his impressive and persuasive diction.
had exchanged formal
said that as soon as they
the
King
said:
"Sir.
what
How
your name?
is
It
is
greetings,
you
are
known?"
"Maharaja,
bhikkhus
am known
me thus.
I
address
Nagasena, Surasena,
reality there
etc.,
as
but
My
Nagasena.
Parents
call
this
all
is
their
brother
children
usage.
just
In
does not exist any individual as such."
This statement of the Elder Nagasena
set
the ball roll-
and there followed a series of questions and answers,
including the famous chariot illustration which maintained
ing
as
that just
of a
parts
the
chariot
put together
make
a
and there is no chariot apart from them, similarly
the different components of an individual make an individual and that the individual does not exist apart from them.
No more profound, or appealing statement of the docchariot,
trine
Anatmavada can be found than
of
ciation
of the
literature,
with
Milinda-panha
Buddhist
Elder Nagasena
Buddhism.
As
the
a comprehensive exposition
such,
but
it
Apart from
the Milinda-panha
above enun-
whole of Buddhist
exception of the scriptures.
the
is
metaphysics,
psychology.
the
in
is
is
its
also
Buddhist
of
Thus the
not only of
ethics
and
indispensable for the student of
importance as a Buddhist
text,
also to be valued as a historical docu-
The
literary achievement of great eminence.
Milinda-panha provides an unsurpassed testimony to Indian
ment and a
prose literature of the
first
century.
In short, the Milinda-
panha occupies a unique position in Indian letters, whether
looked at from the point of view of metaphysics, or literaIt
is an inture, or history, or knowledge of geography.
literature,
no other
disputable fact that in post-canonical
treatise
on Buddhism equals the Milinda-panha.
Chronologically
number
Milinda-panha
the
of commentaries
1
on the
is
followed
by a
different texts of the sacred
1. For a complete li»t of these commentaries,
Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon, pp. 1-2.
see E.
W. Adikaran
,
210
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
More than half of these are ascribed by tradiBuddhaghosa.
Undoubtedly he was the greatest
commentator that the sacred Buddhist texts have known.
scriptures.
tion
to
Before
we
discuss the life and works of
would perhaps be desirable to begin with
Buddhadatta who, though a contemporary of
had preceded him in Ceylon. According to
it
Acarya
ghosuppatti,
Ceylon to
way
his
Buddhadatta had
study the word of the Buddha.
India after having completed
to
Buddhaghosa,
an account of
Buddhaghosa,
Buddha-
the
gone
earlier
When
he was on
his
studies,
to
his
boat crossed another which carried Acarya Buddhaghosa to
Ceylon. As they met each other, they introduced
them-
and exchanged
selves
"The doctrine
in the
as
is
said,
available
1
am proceeding to Ceylon to
MagadhT." Buddhadatta replied, "Brotoo had come to Ceylon for the same purpose, but
into
shall not live very long
I
As
I
Acarya Buddhaghosa
Simhatese language.
render them
ther,
greetings.
(commentaries) of the Buddha
the two Elders were
now,
still
1
cannot
finish the task."
conversing, the boats
1
passed
each other beyond hearing.
It appears that as they departed, Buddhadatta requested
Buddhaghosa to send copies of each of his commentaries to
him in India, which in all probability Buddhaghosa did.
Buddhadatta later summarized Buddhaghosa's commentaries on the Abhidhamma-pitaka in the Abhidhammava-
and those on the Vinaya-pitaka in the Vinaya-vinicchya.
Buddhadatta had come from Uragapur, the present Uraipur,
in the kingdom of Coja.
Like Buddhaghosa, he too had
lived and studied the Buddha's doctrine at the Mahavihara
in Anunldhapur.
On his return from Ceylon, he wrote his
books in a vihara built by a certain Vaisnava called Krsnatara
dasa or Visnudasa, on the banks of the Kaveri.
Among
l.
Buddhadatta's
works,
the
Abhidhammavatara
Avuno Buddknglumi ahum Utyd puhb* Ltink&dfip? BhuyaruU*
Sasrtnam k&tum dqatornhi ft vatra afuitn app&yuko.*,,
(BuddhaghoKuppatti,
S'thitya
kd Itiham.)
p. 50,
quoted
in
liliarat
Singh Upadhyaya'x
PqU
T
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
Although
stands supreme.
only a
is
it
summary
21
of Buddha-
ghosa's commentaries on the Abhidhamma-pitaka, Buddhanot follow Buddhaghosa blindly.
According to
Buddhaghosa, there are five metaphysical ultimates, i.e., rupa
sankhara
(forms), vedana (sensations), sanna (perceptions;,
datta did
(various intellectual differentiations),
but
ness),
and dealt with them as
citta
And now
classified
(consciousness), cetasika (cons-
rupa (forms), and nibbana.
tituents of consciousness),
name of post-Tripitaka
do to serve and lengthen
to turn to the greatest
What
literature.
and vinnana (conscious-
Abhidhammavatara Buddhadatta
in the
did Buddhaghosa
almost certain that
It
of Buddha-sasana?
is
example
other
like
his.
Considered
not only
no
there
from the point of view of its magnitude but also for its imperiod
the
is
portance,
Among
hardly credible that a single individual could
is
it
much towards
contribute so
the enrichment of Pali literature.
the books which shed some
light
on the personal
of Buddhaghosa, the Mahtlvamsa alone can claim to have
life
provided reliable material. Besides the Mahavamsa, there are
Buddhaghosupatti, the Gandhavamsa, and the Sasana-
the
vamsa, but these contain
useful information.
little
According to the Mahavamsa. Buddhaghosa was born
near Bodh Gaya.
Another view is that he came from the
The Burmese claim that Burma was his
birth-place.
Whatever may be the truth, it is believed that
he stayed at Bodh Gaya for a long period.
At this time the
vihara at Bodh Gaya was in the hands of thebhikkhus from
Tailanga country.
Mcghavarna
of Ceylon, with the permission of Maharaja Samudra Gupta,
had caused a vihara to be built at Bodh Gaya, so that the
Ceylon.
In the fourth century A.D., Kirti Sri
bhikkhus sent
experience no
from Ceylon
to
In Buddhaghosa's time. Pali
much
hand.
the
first
of
its
worship
Vajrasana
might
difficulty.
popularity.
Buddhism
in
India had lost
the upper
Sanskrit had regained
Even Buddhist scholars had accepted Sanskrit as
medium
century
of
expression.
A.D., wrote
ASvaghosa,
his
poetical
who
works
lived in the
in
Sanskrit.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
212
great thinkers like Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu and
Dinnaga also wrote in Sanskrit. Even the Gupta kings no
longer showed any interest in Pali and patronized Sanskrit.
Thus, both Pali and Theravada gradually dwindled into
Similarly,
insignificance in India.
However, the bhikkhus who then resided at Bodh Gaya,
in the 5th century when Buddhaghosa was initiated
At
into the Order, stood firm in their allegiance to Pali.
even
Mahasthavira Revata was the head of the monas-
that time
Gaya.
tery at
In
in
those days religious discussions
Ghosa
the country.
Vedas and
own
his
,
who was
were very
common
eminently versed
in
the
and well qualified to hold
arguments, went from place to place in quest of
allied
in
literature,
One day
adversaries.
ing
1
from
sutras
of
correctness
the Mahasthavira heard
He was
Patanjali.
pronunciation
Ghosa's
so
Ghosa
recit-
by the
probably with
impressed
that,
him to Buddhism, he engaged
discussion with him.
Ghosa asked, Do you under-
the intention of converting
4k
a
in
stand these sutras?"
Mahasthavira
%t
Yes,
Revata
I
do; they are faulty/'
criticized
these sutras so severely
Ghosa
was struck dumb.
Then Ghosa requested
Mahasthavira Revata to enunciate his doctrine, whereupon
the latter read an extract from the Abhidhamma-pitaka.
It
was beyond Ghosa's comprehension. He asked, "Whose
mantra is this?" Mahasthavira replied, "It is the Buddhatk
mantra." Ghosa again asked, Would you please teach it
that
to
me?"
"Provided you enter the Order according to the
Sarigha", was Mahasthavira's reply.
Ghosa
was ordained and came to be known as Buddhaghosa.
Under Mahasthavira Revata, he studied both the Dharma
and the Vinaya and later became renowned as the greatest
exponent of the doctrine of the Buddha.
While living at the vihara where Buddhaghosa received
rules
of
the
compiled his first book, namely,
Then, according to tradition, he wrote the
his ordination, he
daya.
1.
This
is
believed to be Bu<ldhaghona'tt original name.
KfanoAttfia-
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
commentary on
salini, a
he was about to
suttas.
start
213
Dhamma-sangani. Hearing that
writing a commentary on the Parittathe
instructed
him
original Tripitaka alone has been brought here
from
his
teacher,
Mahasthavira
Revata,
thus:
'The
Here we neither possess commentaries, nor the tracoming down from various teachers. But in Lanka,
there are commentaries originally brought down by the wise
Mahinda and later translated into the language of the island.
Go there and study them, so that they may be beneficial
Ceylon.
dition
to all/"
As asked by
his teacher,
Buddhaghosa
Ceylon
started for
Mahanama.
and arrived there during the reign of King
Havup his residence in a building of the Mahavihara,
known as Mahapadhana, he heard all the Sirphalese commentaries and the tradition of the Elders from Thera
Sanghapala and was convinced that they were the exact and
Then he made the followtrue teachings of the Tathagata/
ing solemn request to the bhikkhu Sahgha: "I want to transing taken
the
late
commentaries from
should have free access to
Sirphalese
all
into
the books/*
bhikkhus gave him two stanzas
in Pali in
3
Magadhl.
I
Thereupon, the
order to
test
his
and asked him to comment upon them. Buddhaghosa
wrote a compendium of the whole of the Tripitaka and
named it Visuddhimagga or the Path of Purity. Highly
satisfied with this performance, the bhikkhus entrusted him
ability
1.
Tattha Nanodayatn
noma
katru jmkaranam
tadfi
J))iammamwgafit7/akaxi kuridaw so AHhosulirM.
Poritta ffltahitham ceist
Tun* dUva Jtevato
katum arubhi buddhinUi>
Them
idattt v<irmt<nn
Palimattam idlianitam witthi
A
t
obruvi,
fhakutha idha 9
Tathacariyavada ca bhuwaritpii na vijjare
Siltalatthakatha fiuddha
MaMndenn
mtih'tnuta,
Sangltittayam arulhain Nfimntaaambuddha-dfititam
Katd Sihulabhusuya Slhaletm pnvuttali,
Tarn tattha yuntvd sutva tvnm Mayadlulmim nirnttiya,
Parivaltefti sd
hod tialbalokahitavahu.
(
2,
D1iatmn<i*amiN8a eao va ndhippayo
3. R<tM*ni
affhakatham inn ma
ti
jjottfuikc
MuhTivaniwi, 37,225-230.)
nicehiya
dctha
(MahuvumSu.
37,233).
(Mahflvumsa, 37,234).
.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
214
with the whole of the literature.
Residing
in
Granthakara
Parivena at Anuradhapur. Buddhaghosa completed his task
of rendering Simhalesc commentaries into Magadhi.
after he returned to his
the Bodhi
tree.
There-
mother country and there worshipped
1
Kosambi for some reason do
was the birth-place of Buddhaghosa and favour the Burmese tradition that he came from
the South.
Prof. Kosambi even doubts that Buddhaghosa
was a brahmana. 2 We. on our part, do not see any serious
Scholars
D.
Prof.
like
not believe that North India
objection to believing the
Mahavamsa
tradition, according to
which he was a brahmana born in North India.
It
is
not known where this great Pali commentator
attained nirvana.
In Cambodia, there is an ancient vihara
known
as Buddhaghosa Vihara and a living tradition that
Buddhaghosa spent his last days in that country. There is
no reason to doubt this belief.
It would be beyond the scope of this biographical note to
discuss all the sources of the Pali commentaries but a brief
introduction to some of Buddhaghosa \ works may not be out
of place.
The Visuddhimagga was
w
Ceylon.
In
may
Buddhist literature
k
is
truly
work of Buddhaghosa
Throughout the book,
from almost the whole of canoni-
Buddhaghosa quotes freely
and even post-canonical
it
first
be found.
cal
states,
the
'something of almost everything' in early
it
a
literature.
summary
As
the
Mahavamsa
of the three Pitakas together
with the commentary'.
As
as
written.
in
we cannot be
which they were
Nor does internal evidence help us in placing them
regards the other works of Buddhaghosa
definite
to
the chronological order in
any chronological order, for almost every commentary
V'MidUwn. ho Muh&hwlhini
1
Jnmbudlpam uprigami( Mahavairisa,
is
37,246).
Devanagari
edition of the VisuddhiniagKa and confirmation of his views about Buddhaghosa s birth-place in an article by Dr. R. Subrahm^nyam and Mr. S. P.
Nainar in Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, Vol. XIX, part IV (1952),
2.
For,J>. Kosambi'* view,
v
pp. 278-284.
see,
his Preface
(xii-xvi)
to
his
5
:
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
mentioned
in
pasadika
a
is
work was
the
other
commentaries.
commentary on
21
The SamantaThis voluminous
the Vinaya.
written at the request of Thera
Buddha Siri. In
Buddhaghosa
himself describes his work as follows:
"In commencing
this
commentary, having embodied therein the Mahaatthakatha, without excluding any proper meaning from the
decisions con tamed in the Maha-paccan, as also in the
famous Kurundi and other commentaries and including the
introduction
the
to
Samanta-pasadika,
the
opinion of the Elders
.
.
.
from these commentaries,
after
casting off the language, condensing detailed accounts, includ-
authoritative
ing
idiom
(I
decisions,
without
proceed to compose
shall
Buddhaghosa wrote
a
overstepping any
my
commentary on
work)."
the
Pali
In addition,
Patimokkha known
It was based
as the Kahkhavitarani or the Matikatthakatha.
on the Mahavihara tradition and was written
of a thera
Buddhaghosa
cipal
request
at the
named Sona.
Nikayas,
also wrote
the
commentaries on the four
Sumarigalavilasinf on
the
prin-
Diigha,
the
Papancasudani on the Majjhima, the SaratlhappakasinT on the
Samyutta and the ManorathapuranT on the Ariguttara. The
Sumahgalavilasini was written at the request of Thera
Dathanaga of the Sumarigala Parivena.
commentary was probably suggested bv
Parivena itself.
The Papancasudani was
quest of Thera Buddhamitla.
He was a
mentator with
India.
whom
written at
is
said
to
the
the
the re-
friend of the
he had lived at Mayuia-patlana
The Saratthappaknsini
at the request of
The name of
name of
the
in
comSouth
have been written
another thera named Jotipala.
Among these, special mention may be made of the
Manorathapurani, the commentary on the Ahguttara-nikaya.
It
contains
biographical
notes
on
almost
all
the
chief
Lord Buddha, besides an enumeration of the
names of all the places where the Buddha went during the
rainy season.
According to the Manorathapurani. the
Tathagata had spent his rainy seasons at the following
disciples of the
places
216
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
Rainy seasons
Places
R si-pa tana
First
Second to fourth
Rajagrha
Fifth
Vaisali
Sixth
Mankula-parvata
Seventh
Trayastrimsa
Eighth
Bhesakafavana, near
Ninth
Kausambi
Tenth
Pari ley yaka
Heaven
Sumsumara-giri.
Nala
Eleventh
Twelfth
Veranja
Thirteenth
Caliya-parvata
Fourteenth
Jetavana
Fifteenth
Kapilavastu
Sixteenth
AJavI
in
Sravasti
Seventeenth
Rajagrha
Eighteenth to nineteenth
Caliya-parvata
Twentieth
Rajagrha
Twenty-first
to
forty-
Jetavana
Pubba-
or
1
rama in Sravasti.
The Visuddhimagga and the commentaries on the four
Nikayas mentioned above are undoubtedly the works of
Buddhaghosa. though there may be some dispute about the
other works attributed to him.
Buddhaghosa is also credited
with the commentaries on the four books belonging to the
Khuddaka-nikaya, namely. Dhammapada, Jataka, Khuddakapatha. and Suttanipata.
The Dhammapadatthakatha is also a Pali translation of an
original Simhalese commentary.
Some scholars suggest that
this is not the work of the great commentator Buddhaghosa.
Their chief argument is the diirerence in style, which may
well be due to the difference in the subject matter.
Ihe Jatakatthakatha is an extensive commentary which
was written at the request of three theras. namely,
sixth.
Atthadassi. Buddhamilta and Buddhadeva.
I.
S«;i-
A Cm.,
ii,
llM-25;
rf.
Buddhadeva
RiiiMlmvatMsii Cm., p. 3;
MCm.,
ii,
is
1*>5.
SOMV. OKtAT BViDDHBTS AFTIR ASOKA
217
mentioned as belonging to the Mahisasaka sect, but the
Jatakatthakatha is wholly based on the Mahavihara recension.
This indicates that there was no antagonistic feeling between
the
Theravada and the Mahisasaka
The Paramatthajotika
sects, at least at that time.
commentaries on
Khuddaka-patha and the Suttanipata. In all probability,
these two commentaries were not written by the great commentator but by another author bearing the same name.
The commentaries on the seven texts of the Abhidhammaconstitutes the
the
Buddhaghosa at the request
They too are based on
Singhalese commentaries as well as on the accept-
were also written
pitaka
by
of a thera bearing the same name.
the original
ed tradition of Mahavihara.
a
on
commentary
the
There are also the AtthasalinL
Dhammasangani.
Sammoha-
the
vinodani, a commentary on the Vibhariga. and the Pancap-
pakaranatthakatha on the remaining
Dhalu-katha,
Katha-vatthu,
the
Yamaka and
live
namely, the
texts,
Puggalapannatti,
the
the
the Patthana.
Buddhaghosa
with the authorship of a
also credited
is
few other works which arc no longer available.
Even without these books, Buddhaghosa \ Visuddhimagga,
which shows
his
encyclopaedic knowledge, keen
intellect
and
numerous commentaries give him an
Indian thinkers and scholars.
After Buddhaghosa there is at least one more commenThis is Thera
tator whom we should not fail to mention.
deep
insight,
and
his
unassailable position
Dhammapala who
among
lived at Badaratittha, a place
He was probably born
east coast of India.
in
Since he mentions Buddhaghosa \ commentaries
it
may
be concluded that he
dhaghosa.
He
is
credited
came
on the south-
at a later period
with
the
writing
South.
the
his
in
work,
than Bud-
of
all
the
commentaries on such books as the Khuddaka-nikaya which
had been left undone by the great commentator, Buddhaghosa, i.e., on the Udana. the Itivuttaka, the Vimana-xatthu,
the Peta-vatthu,
Cariya-pitaka.
He has
the
Thera-gatha,
the
TherT-gaffha,
and the
All these are jointly called Paramallhndipanl
also written a
commemar\
called
the Paramattha-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
21 8
manjusa.
when
of the Visuddhimagga says that
and
new body
cast aside, a
Mundayna
22Y
born
is
in
tfka
XVH
body
a
worn out
is
another world, and
in
693 of the Burmese edition of the Tika.
Press) the famous stanza of the Bhagavadgita
further echoes
(II.
This
chapter
Visuddhimagga.
Buddhaghosa's
or
while commenting on nava-sarira-patuhhiivo
in the
Vutthdni
(p.
following stanza:
jinnani
pahdya
yafhd
ganhuti
naviini
naro pardni
Nikkhippa
jinnamevam
id ha
cicluim
jtmhati
attdbhinavam sukhesi
ti
This commentary often refers to the views of other schools
or
teachers,
like
Vasudhamma
of
Mahasarighikas
the
or
Kanada, Kapila, Ajivika or other works like Atthasalini, the
Sammoha-vinodani and the Patthana-atthakatha. It also reto
fers
views of the
the
Abhayagiri school and mentions
Upatissa and his Vimuttimagga
in
one
A
place.
Dhammapala \ commentaries would
of
be
close study
very
helpful
in
understanding the contemporary religious condition of South
Dhammapala,
India and Ceylon.
taries
made
also
in
too,
on original Simhalese works.
It
based
is
commen-
his
probable that
use of Dravidian commentaries available to
he
him
South India.
It
is
commentary on
said that he wrote another
This was written
canonical work, namely, the Netti.
a
post-
at the
Dhammarakkhita. It is recorded
lived at Nagapattana in a
vihara built by King Dharmasoka.
Pali commentaries have often been bracketed with Sansrequest of a thera called
that at
that
bhasyas
krit
time
and
Dhammapala
But
tikas.
there
is
nothing
in
Indian
bhasya literature which could stand comparison with the Pali
Atthakatha.
Along
Atthakathas abound
importance.
1.
Pali
with
in
textual
historical
explanatory
material
notes*
the
of the greatest
commentators have given proof of a
Vfotdmsi jirn&ni ynthu vihayn ri'ivani grhriati naropttrnnj
TathA iarirani vihdya jiniani anyimi snmyati navnni dehi
his-
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
219
met with elsewhere in bhasya literature.
While the literature of Theravada Buddhism is in Pali,
the Sarviistivadins (who are classed among the Hmayanists)
torical sense not
and the Mahayanists chose Sanskrit as
pression for their religious literature.
medium
the
of ex-
Accordingly, some of
the authors connected with the history of Sanskrit Buddhism
are discussed here.
Sanskrit Authors:
Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna. BuddhapalUa and
Vasuhandhu, Dhvulga. and
Bhavaviveka, Asahga and
Dharmakirti
Asvaghosa, a
contemporary of King Kaniska. was a
and philosopher. He occupies a unique
great Buddhist poet
position
not
only
in
the
history
of
Buddhist thought" but
also in the whole tradition of Sanskrit poetry inasmuch as
he was an
important successor of Valmiki,
whom
he calls
fc
Dhiman', and a notable predecessor
and
of Kalidasa and Bhasa.
Indeed, some scholars in India
and abroad believe Kalidasa owed much to him.
The
chief contribution which Asvaghosa made to the history of
Buddhist thought was his emphasis on Buddha bhakti.
'Adi
Kav'f
Though
at least
first
two
the Mahayanist teachings had been spreading for
to three centuries before his time, they find the
notable expression
in
his writings,
in
spite of the fact
that he belonged to the Sarvastivada school.
Our knowledge
the
little
of Asvaghosa's
life is
very scanty.
From
some
known that he was a
his mother's name was
information the poet has given at the end of
of his poetical compositions,
it
is
native of Saketa (Ayodhya) and that
At the end of his three well-known ^works —
the Buddhacarita, the Saundarananda and the Sariputraprakarana he says, Arya Stivarnaksiputrasya Saketakasya
bhiksor dcarya-bhadantasvaghosasya mahakaver Mahavadinah krtir iyarn. This shows that the illustrious poet was
Suvarnaksi.
and an eminent
Buddhist monk, possessing great powers of argument and
also a scholar, a religious controversialist
discussion.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
220
Asvaghosa 's two important poetical compositions are the
and the Saundarananda. The former is a
Mahakavya, depicting the life of Lord Buddha in a chaste
and stately style, though written with considerable restraint.
The original poem, as known to 1-tsing in the Chinese
Buddhacarita
translation in the seventh century A.D., contains 28 cantos.
The Tibetan
Hence
Of
ed of 28 cantos.
as
these, only
today, and generally only the
krit
same number of cantos.
translation also has the
the original Sanskrit version must also have consist-
authentic.
says
I-tsing
poem was "widely read
that
17 are preserved in Sansfirst
thirteen are regarded
his
in
time
this
beautiful
or sung throughout the five divisions
of India, and the countries of the Southern Sea".
Asvaghosa not only gives us the best account
and teachings of Lord Buddha, but also gives
In this epic
of the
life
evidence of his encyclopaedic knowledge of India's mytho-
and pre-Buddhistic philosophical systems,
traditions
logical
The Saundarananda-kavya narrates
by the Buddha of Nanda, his half-brother.
Besides these two significant poetical works. Asvaghosa
wrote three Buddhist dramas which were discovered by
notably
the
Sarikhya.
the ordination
H. Luders
century.
in
Of
nine acts,
is
work extant
lyrical
poem
29 stanzas
Turfan
these,
in
Central Asia at the beginning of this
the Sariputraprakarana. a
the most important.
in
Sanskrit literature.
called
in the
It
is
prakarana in
the oldest dramatic
Asvaghosa also wrote
a
the Gandistotra-gatha which consists of
sragdhara metre.
E. H. Johnston questions
Asvaghosa's authorship of this work, but as Winternitz observes, "It
in
is
a
beautiful
form and content."
poem, worthy of Asvaghosa both
1
Nagarjuna, who was a friend and contemporary of the
Satavahana king. Yajnasri Gautamiputra (166 -196 A.D.),
was
a Buddhist philosopher of towering personality.
ed an age
in the history
definite turn.
He propounded
dhist philosophy,
1.
Hvtlwj
which
qffntiitiH
Fie creat-
of Buddhist philosophy and gave
is
also
Ltlfmtwrr
it
a
Madhyamika school of Budknown as Sunyavada. A greater
the
.Vol. Jl (Calcutln University, 19.'*3u p. 26(5.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
dialectician than
221
Nagarjuna the world has never
His
seen.
great philosophical work, the Madhyamika-karika or
Madhya27 chapters and is the
mika-Sastra consists of 400 karikas in
groundwork of
his philosophy.
an epitome of the teachand displays rare in-
It is
ings contained in the Mahayana-sutras
sight into the science of logic
This work alone
thought.
and unsurpassed flights of daring
enough to show what a master
is
mind Nagarjuna was and how he
among
According
to the
biography of Nagarjuna translated
Chinese by Kumarajiva
born
shines in solitary splendour
the intellectuals of this country, past and present.
in
South India
in
in
a
Brahmana
however, states that he was born
ancient
into
about 405 A.D., Nagarjuna was
family.
in
Yuan Chwang,
South Kosala or the
(modern Berar).
province of Vidarbha
Nagarjuna
studied the whole of the Tripitaka in 90 days, but was not
satisfied.
monk
He
in the
received the Mahayana-sutra from a very old
Himalayas, but spent most of his
vata or Sri Sailam in South India which he
life at Sri
made
Par-
into a centre
Buddhism. The Tibetan accounts
show that Nagarjuna lived at Nalanda also. Yuan Chwang
speaks of 'the four suns which illumined the world'. One of
these was Nagarjuna, the other three being Asvaghosa,
the
for
propagation
of
Indeed as a
Kumaralabdha (Kumaralata) and Aryadeva.
philosophical thinker, Nagarjuna has no match in the history
of Indian philosophy.
the wonders
T. Watters rightly calls
and mysteries of
About twenty
later
tioned by Bunyiu
A
Chinese translations are
these, eighteen are
men-
Nanjio in his Catalogue as Nagarjuna's
com-
generally ascribed to Nagarjuna.
positions.
Buddhism'.
treatises available in
him 'one of
1
Of
reference has already been
made
to the
Madhya-
mika-karika or the Madhyamika-sastra as the principal work
of Nagarjuna
who
the Akutobhaya,
1.
2.
himself wrote a commentary on
The
Safe
One'."
it
called
Mention may be made
On Yuan Chwang*» Travels in Indiu, Vol. U, p. 203.
The Tibetan text was translated into Sanskrit by the
late
Miss
Indu Datar for a thesis for the Doctor's degree of the University of Bombay
which is not yet published.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
222
here of only one more treatise of Nagarjuna, which he wrote
as
a
letter
treatise
to
his
known
is
children committing
of
Gautamiputra.
Sri
time of his
I-tsing tells us that at the
long study
Yajna
friend.
This
as the Suhrllekha or 'Letter to a Friend\
it
to
This
it.
memory and
treatise
to India
visit
shows
he saw
making a
adults
unmistakably
life-
that
Nagarjuna was not a destructive thinker as he is generally
to be and morality plays as important a role in
supposed
his
philosophy
Sunyala
of
as in any other
philosophical
discipline.
Sthavira Buddhapalita and Bhavaviveka (or Bhavya)
may
be mentioned here as important exponents of the bunyavada
doctrine
propounded by Nagarjuna. They both belong to
and their chief importance in the history
the fifth century A.D.
of Buddhist thought
tive
lies in
the fact that they are the respec-
founders of two schools of logical thinking
known
as the
Prasarigika and the Svatantra schools.
The
founded by Buddhapalita attempts
develop a method
reasoning
tion
in
which an individual
in
to
Prasarigika school
puts such questions to his adversary as would defeat
him
completely
and
make
position
his
Svatantra school as propounded by Bhavya,
the
of
order to establish his posi-
truth
independent
of
the
Madhyamika
(svatantra)
The
by
advancing
Aryadeva.
Santideva*
doctrines
arguments.
absurd.
tries to establish
Santaraksita and Kamalasila are other distinguished thinkers
Madhyamika school.
The two illustriuos brothers. Asariga and Vasubandhu.
who both lived in the fourth century A.D.. are among those
creative thinkers who brought about what may be called the
classical age of Buddhist philosophy.
They were in fact three
brothers, of whom Asariga was the eldest.
Vasubandhu was
of the
the second brother, while the youngest was called Virincivatsa.
Asaiiga and Vasubandhu were born in Purusapura in the
Gandhara country. They belonged to a Brahmana family of
Kausika gotra and were well versed in Brahmanical learnThey were educated in Kashmir where they studied the
ing.
Vibhasa-sastra.
Originally Asaiiga and Vasubandhu be-
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
longed
223
Sarvastivada
the
school which held sway in
Kashmir and Gandhara in those days. They also sojourned
According to Paramartha. the
in Ayodhya for some time.
biographer of Vasubandhu. th$ latter died in Ayodhya at
to
the age of eighty.
Asahga has been regarded as
the most prominent teacher
of the Yogacara or Vijnanavada school.
his
younger brother. Vasubandhu,
new
school and join the
Maitreyanatha
nanavada
who
school.
is
school.
He
also induced
to leave the Sarvastivada
Asahga was
a
pupil
of
regarded as the founder of the Vij-
The most important works
of
Asahga
are the Mahayana-samparigraha, the Prakarana-aryavaca. the
and the
Mahayana-sutralahkara.
two works are most important from the ethical and
1
Yogacara-bhumi-Sastra
The
last
doctrinal
which
in
points
its
of
The
view.
original Sanskrit
Rahul Sankrityayan,
is
form
Yogacara-bhumi-sustra,
lias
been discovered by
divided into seventeen bhumis and
describes in detail
the path of discipline according to the
Yogacara school.
work of Asahga
The Mahayana-sutralahkara
is
the joint
The
and his teacher Maitreyanatha.
commentary
their
karikas were written by Maitreyanatha and
by Asahga.
Vasubandhu, who in the latter part of his life joined the
Vijnanavada school of Mahayana Buddhism at the inspira
the
tion of his elder brother, was a celebrated teacher of
Vaibhasika branch of the Sarvastivada school.
His greatest
an encyclopaedia of Buddhist
from the point of view
originally
philosophy and was written
of the Vaibhasika branch of the Sarvastivada school, which
work, the Abhidharma-kosa,
is
was dominant in Kashmir, as the author himself observes at
the end of the work, Kasmiravaibhasikanhisiddhah prdyo
mayayam kathito 'bhidharmah. This grand work written in
600 karikas proved invaluable for the propagation of Buddhism
in Asia.
It is
not possible here to give an idea of the
edited from an incomplete
1. The Abhidharma-8«mu<:caya, recently
manuscript by Prof. Prahlad Pradhan and published in Vitea lih-arati Studue,
Santiniketan, might also be added.
BUDDHISM
2 500 YEARS OF
224
philosophy contained in the Abhidharma-kosa.
Suffice
it
to
work elicited
praise not only from the Buddhists but also from others.
Thus, in the seventh century, Bana while describing the hermitage of the Buddhist monk, Divakaramitra, in his Harsacarita says that even the parrots there explained the Kosa
from the very beginning
say
that
(i.e.,
the Abhidharma-kosa) to
this useful
one another.
kosam samupadisadbhih-
sasanakusalaih
Sukairapi Sakya-
Yasomitra,
who
wrote a commentary named the Sphutartha on Vasubandhu's
Abhidharma-kosa-bhasya
1
,
says that, on account of his spiri-
Vasubandhu was known as a second Buddha
contemporaries. Yam buddhimaidm agryam dvitiya-
tual attainments,
by his
miva Buddham ityahuhr This
The
tal.
vast
commentarial
dharma-kosa points
is
no ordinary praise for a moron the Abhi-
literature written
the great
to
influence
work has
the
Besides the Abhidharma-kosa,
exercised on men's minds.
Vasubandhu wrote the Paramartha-saptati which was an attack
on the Sarikhya-saptati of the well-known Sankhya teacher,
Vindhyavasi, who was a contemporary of Vasubandhu. He
also wrote two treatises on logic, namely, the Tarka-sastra
and the Vada-vidhi. As a Mahayanist teacher he wrote com-
mentaries on the Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, the Mahaparinirvana-sutra and the Vajracchedika-prajna-paramita.
He
has
book called the Vijnaptimatrata-siddhi.
It is found in two recensions entitled the
Vimsika and the Trimsika which contain twenty and thirty
also given us an invaluable
little
karikas respectively.
Among
made
Vasubandhu mention should be
younger Dharmapala and his pupil
the inheritors of
of Sthiramati, the
Candrakirti.
In the history of Buddhist logic the
occupies a pre-eminent
place.
He
is
name
of Dinnaga
the founder of Bud-
1. Vaaubandhu wrote his own
Bhasya on the Koaa. The manuscript
of this also was recovered from Tibet by Rahul Sankrityayan and is understood to have been edited by Prof. Prahlad Pradhan for publication by
the Jayaawal Research Institute, Patna.
2.
Opening
linea of the
Sphutartha.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
dhist
and has been called the
logic
Nyaya
He
whole.
as a
lived
at
Father
225
of
Medieval
the beginning of the fifth
According to Tibetan sources he was born in
Simha-Vaktra. a suburb of Kane! m the South, in a Brahmana family. He was first a Hinayanist Buddhist of the
Vatsiputriya sect and later devoted himself to the teachings
century A.D.
of Mahayanism.
According to the Tibetan tradition, he was
Vasubandhu. Dinnaga also went to the Nalanda
Mahavihara where he defeated a Brahmana logician named
a pupil of
Sudurjaya
He
in a religious discussion.
also toured the pro-
and Maharattha (Maharashtra),
holding religious contests with scholars.
He is said to have
died in a jungle in Orissa.
Dinnaga is credited with the
authorship of about a hundred treatises on logic.
Most of
these are still preserved in Chinese and Tibetan translations
and have been mentioned by Bunyiu Nanjio in his famous
vinces of Odivisa
Catalogue.
(Orissa)
I-tsing
says that
Dinnaga's treatises on logic
were read as text-books
at
Among
works of Dinnaga are the
greatest work, the Nyaya-pravesa,
the
time
of his
visit
to
India.
most important
the
Pramana-samuccaya, his
the Hetucakra-damaru. the Pramana-sastra-nyayapravesa, the
Alambana-pariksa and several others, all written in a terse
and difficult style. In his works Dinnaga criticized some of
the theories
propounded by Vatsyayana
in his
Nyaya-bhasya.
Udyotakara
was as a defence of Vatsyayana's
Dinnaga is thus an imporlater wrote the Nyaya-vfirtika.
tant link between the Buddhist and the orthodox Nyaya sysposition, that
It
tems of India.
DharmakTrti,
in
who was born
the Cola country,
was
in a village
a successor of
cian of unsurpassed genius.
named Tirumalai
Dinnaga and a
logi-
Dr. Stcherbatsky rightly regards
him as the Kant of India. Even his Brahmanical adversaries have acknowledged the superiority of his reasoning
powers.
Dharmakirti
lived
in
the
seventh
century.
He
from Isvarasena who was among Dinnaga's
Nalanda and became a disciple of
studied
logic
pupils.
Later, he went to
Dharmapala who was
at that time the Sahgha-sthavira of the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
226
Mahavihara and a prominent teacher of the Vijnanavada
Dharmakirti's fame as a subtle philosophical thinker
was till recently shrouded in obscurity.
dialectician
and
school.
Rahul Sankrityayan has done signal service not only to
Buddhism but to Indian logic by discovering in Tibet the
original Sanskrit version of the Pramana-vartika, the
magnum
The other important works
opus of DharmakTrti.'
written
by Dharmakirti are the Pramana-viniscaya, the Nyaya-bindu,
Sambandha-parTksa.
the
Hetu-bindu,
the
Vadanyaya
the
works deal
disgenerally with the Buddhist theory of knowledge and
Dharmakirtfs
thinking.
play great erudition and subtle
writings mark the highest summit reached in epistemological
speculation by later Buddhism.
They have also a place in
and
Samanantara-siddhi.
the
these
All
the general development of Nyaya-sastra in India.
it
In fact,
was through the incentive provided by Dharmakirti that
Vacaspati Misra
in the
ninth century
his Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-tika in
whom
Nyaya-vartika
came forward
Dharmakirti attacked
B. In
to write
defence of the writer of the
in his writings.
Tibet
Acarya Dipankara Srijnana
Acarya Dipahkar Srijnana's name stands foremost among
who had worked selflessly to bring Tibet and India
the Indians
In Tibet his fame is only next
Buddha and Padmasambhava. Undoubtedly,
closer together culturally.
to that of the
of
the Indian scholars
all
the
greatest
Acarya
were
who went
Acarya
Santaraksita
Acarya
KamalaSila.
to Tibet
works
his
known
1.
to
is
Tibetans
known
A commentary
in
in
on
in Tibetan.
It
translated forms.
I'atna.
is
interest-
names are
Thus Dipankara
Tibet as Dpal-mar-med-mdsa Ye-^es
this
work
called
Pramina-v&rtika-bhigya or
by the Jayaawa)
Vai'tika-alnnknrah hy PrHJnakr.ragupta was published in 1953
Research Institute,
disciple,
too,
ing to note that with a few exceptions, all Indian
Srijnana
India,
was a great
other two in making
Dipankara,
scholar and he stands higher than the
available priceless Sanskrit
and
from
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER
and Santaraksita as Shi-Va-Chho.
Acarya Diparikara Jo-Vo-rJe Pal
ASOFCA
227
The Tibetans also
Dan Atisa (Svaml
call
Sri
Atisaya) or merely AtiSa.
Acarya Dlparikara's father was king Kalyana Sri, and
He was born in the 'water-manhis mother Sri Prabhavatl.
the
year
of Manmath, Vikram era 1039,
horse' year (i.e..
982 A.D.) in Sahor in eastern India. Not far from the
Kalyana Sn palace where Diparikara was born, was the
Vikrama-vihara, which was also called the Vikramasila
Vihara. There has been useless controversy as to whether
Authoritative
Dipankara was born in Bengal or in Bihar.
Tibetan sources leave us in no doubt that he was born in
1
Bhagalpur.
The
parents of Dipankara were intimately connected with
which was widely known throughAccording to tradiparents went to this vihara for worship
the Vikramasila Vihara
out the Buddhist world in those days.
tion, at his birth, his
and took him with them in a procession of 500 chariots.
The King had three sons Padmagarbha, Candragarbha and
The second, Candragarbha, became famous as
Srigarbha.
—
Diparikara Srijnana
when he took
the Order.
As was customary for the children of the
time, the astrologers predicted
nobility at that
many wonderful
things about
Candragarbha when he was born. He was an intelligent
child and was sent to school at the age of three.
By the
age of eleven, he had mastered the three R's and had
become a grammarian. However, since Prince Candragarbha
was not the eldest son of the king, he was not destined for
the throne.
In those days higher education was provided only at the
viharas
Fortunately, the world-famous VikramaSila
Maha-
vihara was not far from his father's capital, but Nalanda
was still held in great esteem. The prince while roaming
one day went by chance to a nearby jungle. There he met
Acarya Jitari 2 who lived in a cottage.
1.
2.
See note on this word in Chapter VIII, p. 177.
See note on this name in the Appendix to this Chapter.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
228
Jitari
"Who
was renowned as a grammarian and erudite scholar.
you?" he asked the prince. "I am the son of
are
the master of
Jitari
land", replied Candragarbha.
the
thought
that
answer
this
neither have any master nor
any
slave.
showed pride.
If you are the
"We
ruler
of the land, then go away", he answered.
This was the age of the eighty-four Siddhas, and Tilopa
and Naropa were still alive. Although Jitari was not
among
counted
these eighty-four, the prince
knew
that, not-
withstanding his great scholarship, he had forsaken the world.
Very humbly he
him
told
that he
wanted to renounce the
world.
him to go to Nalanda, as he
was ordained too close to his
father's capital, it would be difficult for him to overcome pride.
No one, however, was allowed to become a Buddhist monk
without the consent of his parents.
Candragarbha did not
find it easy to persuade his father and mother to share his
desire. Finally, when he was permitted to go to Nalanda
with a few attendants, the King of Nalanda expressed sur-
At
prise.
Jitari
this,
thought
that
"How
advised
the prince
if
is
it
that
you have come here, although you
have the mahavihara of Vikramasila
hood?" he asked.
The prince spoke
in
your
neighbour-
him of the greatness of the Nalanda.
At this, the King relented and recommended him for residence at the Nalanda Vihara. Accordingly, the prince
reported
himself
to
to
head
the
As one could be
Bodhibhadra.
(he age of twenty, the prince
nine
tiated
\vear
into
the
satfron-co loured
Srijnana.
the
In
Buddhist
life
vihara;
had perforce to wait
Meanwhile, however, AcSrya
years.
him
of
initiated as a bhiksu
lore,
and
called
Diparikara
is
for nearly
Bodhibhadra
of a sramana (novice),
clothes
Bhiksu
only at
him
ini-
made him
Dipahkara
a highly revered
was the name of a Buddha who came long
before Sfikyamuni. the historical Buddha.
Srijnana was
added to his name as he was expected to become a scholar.
Maitri Gupta, the guru of Bodhibhadra, was living then.
name, because
it
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
He had abandoned
229
the path of scholarship and taken to the
ways of the Siddhas. Consequently, he was called Maitrlpa
Advayavajra or Avadhutipada. Bodhibhadra once took
his young disciple to Avadhutipada who lived at Rajagrha,
and prevailed upon him to accept Dipankara as a disciple.
The guru agreed and the twelve year old Dipankara stayed
In this period, he made a
with him until he was eighteen.
thorough study of the scriptures.
As
the cult of the mantras and the Siddhas
was domin-
ant in those days, he had of necessity to study these subjects.
And who
could be a better guru for these than Naropa
(Nadapada or Narottamapada)? Naropa was a Siddha, but
he was also a great scholar. The Nalanda and Vikramasila
mahaviharas were great centres of learning, and prospective
pupils had to pass many difficult examinations before they
were allowed to enter these universities. At every gate of
Vikramasila there used to live an erudite scholar. Naropa
was in charge
Dipankara went
northern
the
gate.
From Rajagrha,
and remained with him for eleven
other disBesides Dipankara, Naropa had many
such as Prajnaraksita, KanakaSri and Manakasri, all
years.
ciples,
of
of
whom
to him,
distinguished themselves as great scholars in later
came even from
years.
Pupils
feet of
Naropa.
This
is
foreign lands to study at the
evident from the fact that the most
famous Siddha of Tibet (the great poet Mila Repa's guru,
Marpa) was also a disciple of Naropa.
Dipankara completed his studies at Vikramasila, but his
The chief bhiksu
thirst for knowledge was not quenched.
of Vajrasana Mahavihara at Bodh Gaya was renowned for
his learning.
He was known as Vajrasanipada (Dorje
name. Dipankara
danpa), although this was not his real
went
to
ciple
of
the Mati Vihara in Vajrasana
Mahavinayadhara
pitaka scholar.
He
Silaraksita,
and became the
the
great
studied the Vinaya-pitaka with
dis-
Vinaya-
him
for
two years. Thus, by the time he reached the age of 31,
Dipankara Srijfiana had already become a master of the three
Pitakas and the Tantras. and an all-round scholar.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
230
At that time Acarya Dharmapaia oi Suvarna-dvipa
(modern Sumatra) was famous for his scholarship throughIndians in that age did not suffer
out the Buddhist worJd.
from the complex of having a monopoly of great learning.
In fact, one of the eighty-four Siddhas, Ratnakarasanti, who
had earned the title of Kalikala-sarvajha, omniscient of the
Kali Age, was a disciple of Acarya Dharmapaia.
Jnanasri
Mitra, the great exponent of dialectics, and Ratnakirti had
also sat at the feet of Acarya Dharmapaia.
Dipahkara had
met these scholars at Vikramasila and had probably learnt
a good deal from the disciples of Acarya Dharmapaia.
His Wanderlust, however, was not satisfied. From Bodh
Gaya he went to the seacoast, perhaps to Tamralipti, the
In
present Tamluk in the Midnapur district of West Bengal.
the Tibetan biographies of Dipahkara Srijnana, there is no
other mention of his travels, but it is certain that he must
have visited Sarnath (Rsipatan), Sravasti, Kusinara and other
holy
(960
he
before
places
— 1040
set
This was the
sail
Sumatra.
for
Vijayapala
Magadha in those days.
time when Mahmud Gha/navi (997—1030 A.D.)
A.D.) was the
king of
invaded India and plundered Kanauj, Mathura, Banaras and
Kalanjar.
In his last invasion in
laid waste.
1023 A.D., Somnath was
Dipahkara had started on
his
voyage only ten
years earlier.
months and during
this period he might have visited Burma and Malaya also.
No vestige of the Buddhist religion is left in Sumatra now
except for the ruins of some old viharas. but when Dipahkara
went there, it was famous for Buddhist learning. It was
usual for foreign monks on their way to India to stay in
Sumatra for some time to acquire proficiency in Sanskrit.
This is known from the accounts left by Chinese pilgrims
Dipahkara
travelled
for
fourteen
four centuries earlier.
At
monks
first,
Dipahkara
came to
Dharmapaia and
see
lived
him.
remained
quietly by himself
Then
with
he
him
studying the books he already knew.
went
for
Of
andjnany
to
Acarya
twelve
these, the
years,
Abhi-
1
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
samayalankara
are
Santideva
in
and
Bodhicaryavatara
the
Dipankara
extant.
mysteries of the Tantras and
the
those days
great
by Asanga
still
it
was customary
master for
methodically.
a
Even
long
in
23
was also
initiated
other scriptures.
for a scholar to
by
In
with a
stay
period to study the great works
our
own age
sometimes
scholars
spend something like twelve years to read only eight to ten
pages of the Tatvacintamani by Gahgesh Upadhyaya.
At the age of forty-four, Dipankara Srijnana left Sumatra
By virtue of his extraordiand returned to Vikramasila.
and
ability,
he
became
the chief among the 51
learning
nary
scholars
and
leader
the
Bhutakotipada
of
108
temples
in
the
vihara.
Santipada and
Avadhutipada were
Avadhutiall responsible for what he became eventually.
pada was the disciple of Siddha Damrupa and was the grand
Jalandharapa,
disciple of the great Siddha poet, Kanhapa.
the guru of Kanhapa, was one of the most important among
Siddha
the eighty-four
Siddhas.
Dipankara
was thus not only a
great scholar, but also well versed in the mysteries of the
Siddha
At
cult.
that
time
Nalanda,
Uddantapuri
(Bihar Sharif),
Vajrasana and Vikramasila were the four greatest viharas of
Of
was the most important and
Dharmapala of the
Pala dynasty, while on a visit to these parts, was greatly
attracted by the sight of a beautiful hillock on the banks of
the Ganga and decided to found a vihara at the place.
The vihara, which thus came to be built at the end of 8th
century A.D., grew into a great seat of learning two and a
half centuries later.
The number of students who came from
foreign parts to study here was greater than at Nalanda
Among the teachers who taught at Vikramasila were 108
scholars, eight famous savants, and the great scholar
Ratnakarasanti who w*s the head of the vihara. SantiIndia.
these, Vikramasila
had an interesting
bhadra, MaitiTpa
origin.
The
great king
(Avadhutipa),
pombipa
Smrtyakara-Siddha (a Kashmiri) and
were among the eight great pandits.
Sthavirabhadra,
Dipankara
Srijnana
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
232
There was a beautiful temple of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara at the centre of the vihara, besides the fifty-three big
and small temples
goddesses
worshipped
in
Tantric icons.
beautiful
longed
in the
to
the
Among
compound.
temples,
these
The other
kingdom of
three
the Palas,
and
were some
the gods
there
viharas also be-
who had
special ties
The eighty-four Siddhas lived during
the Pala regime (765—1200 A.D.) and most of them were
connected with Vikramasila in one way or another. Acwith
Vikramasila.
cording to Tibetan writers, the Tantrics of Vikramasila had
put
the
Turks
to
flight
many
history has a different story to
times
by magic
spells,
but
tell.
Jn the middle of the 9th century A.D., the Tibetan Prince,
Ni-Ma-Gon, moved to the west and founded a new kingdom.
At his death it was divided into three, and a part given to
one of his sons, Lde-Chug-gon. This king showed so much
zeal for Buddhism that Cakrasena, another son, became a
Buddhist monk and assumed the name Jnanaprabha.
it must be remembered that Buddhism came to Tibet
at a time when India was entering the age of Tantrism.
Jn fact by Jnanaprabha's time, Tantrism had devoured all
In spite of this, Jnanaprabha himself
the religions i>f India.
was not attracted to Tantrism. On the contrary, he wrote
The Tantrics of Tibet believe that the
a book against it.
royal ascetic went to hell for writing this book.
Jnanaprabha was the eldest son of the king of Guge
(Shen-shung) and had become bhiksu.
He had read the
scriptures, was a rationalist, and had inherited from his
forefathers a great faith in Buddhism.
He realized, however, that the task of combating the
evils of Tantrism was so stupendous that his single-handed
efforts would not suffice.
He therefore selected 21 intelligent Tibetan youths, educated them for ten years in the
country, and then sent them to Kashmir for higher studies.
None
of these, however, could stand the rigours of Kashmir's
and all of them died except Ratnabhadra (Rin-ChhenZang-Po) and Suprajfia ( Legs-Pa hi-Shes-Rab).
climate,
SOMl: GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
Ratnabhadra
in
considered to be the greatest translator
is
When
Tibet.
233
he
returned
end
the
at
of
his
studies,
Devaguru Jnanaprabha was naturally delighted, but the work
of reform for which he had striven so hard was too large an
He came to the conclusion
undertaking for an individual.
that since the students from Tibet found it very difficult to
stand the climate of India, it would be better if some
scholar were to come from India and work in Tibet.
Students from western Tibet used to come to the Indian
mahaviharas for study. Jnanaprabha came to learn from
them that there was a great scholar called Dipahkara
the
Srijnana in
party,
a
sent
Vikramasila
Vikramasila mahavihara.
properly equipped
to
invite
however, for
failed,
for
Dipankara
the
party
master to undertake a journey
Jnanaprabha was not one
to
Accordingly, he
long journey, to
the
The
Tibet.
mission
could not prevail upon the
to Tibet.
to
be daunted by
failure.
He
decided to send another party, but funds were lacking, so he
went
to the
refers to
a
Gartog Province
place
to
This probably
collect gold.
named Gartog, which was
north of the Manasarovar lake and
situated to the
had a gold mine.
It
is
recorded that the king of Gartog put him under arrest and
When
held him up for a big ransom.
bha 's arrest reached
his son,
the
news of Jnanapra-
Bodhiprabha (Byang Chub Od>,
he thought that he had collected enough money to effect his
release.
The amount, however, proved inadequate, but
before he could go back to obtain more money, he went to see
"My son," said Jnanaprabha, "you
his father in prison.
know
am
I
am grown
likely to
old.
Even
if
I
do not
do so within the next
die immediately,
ten years.
So,
if
I
you
squander money on me, we shall not be able to send for a
How splendid it would be if I were to
scholar from India.
and you could send all
Moreover, it is not
fetch the scholar!
die for the sake of the great cause
the gold to India to
certain that the king will release
me
ed the stipulated amount of gold.
even after he has receivSo,
my
son, instead of
worrying about me, you had better send an emissary to
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
234
Atisa.
1
am
sure he will agree to
when he
the Bhots (Tibet), especially
come
to the country
hears about
my
of
present
some reason he cannot come, then you should send for some other scholar who
has worked under him." Thus Devaguru put his hand on
the
his son and blessed him as he took leave of him
for
plight, for
last
he
will take pity
on
us.
If for
time.
At that time, it was customary to call all royal monks
Devaguru Bodhiprabha began to
Devaguru (Lha Bla-ma).
look for people who would act as emissaries for the mission
entrusted to him by his father.
The Upasaka Guri-Thari-Pa
had been to India and lived there for two years. Devaguru
secured his services for this work. Gun Than persuaded
Bhiksu Chul-Khrims -Gyal-Va (Silajaya or Jayasila), an inhabitant of Nag Choho. and some other people to accompany
him.
In all, some ten people reached Vikramasila by way
of Nepal.
The beloved disciple of Dipahkara Srijnana wrote
teacher,
in the Gurugunadharmakjra. the biography of his
that when these ten men reached the banks of the Ganga,
The boatman whose boat was althe sun had already set.
ready full said that he would come back to take them across
But as it was getting late, the Tibetan travellers
the river.
began to have doubts about his return. They suspected foul
play, so they concealed the gold in the sand and were preparing to spend the night there when the boatman returned.
The travellers said, "We thought you would not return."
"How could 1 leave you on the banks of the river and thus
break the royal law?" the boatman replied.
By the lime the boatman took them across the river,
the gates had closed; so he advised the travellers to spend
the night in the inn outside the western gate.
gate opens in the morning,
you may go
in",
"When
he added.
Just above the gate, there lived a bhiksu called
(Vikramasinghh
who heard
the
travellers
the
Tson Sen
talking
in
his
mother tongue. Naturally, his curiosity was aroused and he
enquired about the newcomers. Vikramasingh came from
1.
Pron. Thim.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
Gya, the
Ladakh
last
on the way
village
235
Kulu, which
to
is
no longer inhabited.
When Vikramasingh was
them not
he advised
visit,
told about the object of their
say
to
outright
they had
that
come to take Atisa to Tibet. He told them to say that they
had come to study, otherwise they could not hope lo succeed
He also promised to take them to Atisa
in their mission.
at a suitable time.
A
lew
days
scholars met at
patriots there
ly
alter
their
Vikramasila.
arrival,
congregation
a
Vikramasingh took
and they were able
his
of
com-
to see the scholars, especial-
Ratnakirti, Tathagataraksita. Sumatikirti, Vairocanaraksita
and Kanakasri. who worked under Atisa.
for themselves the high esteem in
They
also
which Atisa was
held.
saw
After a few days. Vikramasingh took his countrymen to
meet the master.
fore him,
and
told
They saluted Atisa. placed the gold
him the tragic story of the death of
be-
the
loyal ascetic, Jnanaprabha. in prison.
Dipaiikara
was much moved and he
said,
"There
no
is
doubt that Jnanaprabha was a Bodhisattva, the Buddha
be,
because he had sacrificed himself
fulfil
his desire, but
ponsibility for
moreover,
I
you
OS temples
many
eighteen months
must
rests
I
keep
this gold."
The Tibetan
Dharma
the
realize that
on
my
other duties to attend
to.
Jt
travellers
showed
In the
to
I
will
heavy
res-
shoulders.
to be relieved of these duties.
be able to go to Tibet.
shall
for the
1
will
have,
take
me
Then only
mean time you must
the utmost satisfaction at
down there, ostensibly to
to make preparations for his
At this time (1030 AD.) he was 57-58 years old,
departure.
but his age did not stand in the way of his resolution. At
words of Atisa and
study.
Atisa also began
these
settled
opportune moment, Dipaiikara informed Ratnakarasanti,
the Chief Abbot of the mahavihara, about his intentions.
Ratnakara was reluctant to let him go and said to Gun Than
Pa and his friends, "My Tibetan friends, you say that you
the
have come here to study, but have you not
really
come
to
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
236
take Atisa away?
At present Atisa is the eye of
Are you not aware that the Turks are knocking
western gates of the country?
then the sun of the
this juncture,
Lord will set."
Ten years
earlier,
Atisa
If
the
were to leave at
Dharma preached by
Mahmud had
1029 A.D.,
in
away, but the Panjab was
India.
at
the
passed
under Ghazni domination.
still
Buddhism had almost disappeared from Central Asia with the
Mahmud's
impact of Islam.
was
of
of
wandered
India.
all
last,
to Tibet.
— 1040 A.D.),
In the course
in
Central
had been ruined.
India
to
viharas
At
Masud (1030
Asia, hundreds of BudThousands of bhiksus had
as refugees and found shelter in the
Thousands of homeless men and women
wars
bloody
the
dhist viharas
come
son,
the time poised to invade Kanauj.
all
over the country.
mahavihara allowed Atisa to go
Atisa sent for the gold, a quarter of which he
gave to the
the Chief of the
quarter
pandits, a
Bodh Gaya,
for
worship
in
Vajrasana
and the rest
various
religious
works.
Then
he
sent some
the
king
for
to
of the Tibetans with his own men to Nepal, and with the
interpreter, Vikrama of Gaya, and some other men, altogether
Before leavtwelve people, Atisa set out for Bodh Gaya.
ing India, he felt the need to see once more the place where
Siddhartha Gautama had become the Buddha.
at
Atisa
a quarter to Ratnakarasantipada
visited
Vajrasana
Then along with
the
many
a:.d
scholars,
other
holy
Ksitigarbha and
he reached a small vihara on the frontier of India.
ton-pa writes, "at the time the masted
was, as
it
were, at
its
in his lap
India,
pom-
Buddhism
lowest ebb." Near the frontier, AtiSa
found three helpless puppies.
them
left
places.
19 others,
He took
and fondled them.
the race of those puppies
is
to be
pity
on them, took
It is said that
found
in
Dan
even today
(Tibet).
Having crossed the border, AtiSa and his party entered
Nepal and arrived at the capital in due course.
At this
time, King Jayakamadeva of the Thakuri Dynasty was probably the ruler of the country.
He showed them
the utmost
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
237
them to stay in Nepal.
Atisa could not
refuse his request and lived there for one year.
During this
period he initiated one of the princes of the royal blood into
respect and asked
the Order.
It
is
from Nepal
that the master wrote a letter to
Nayapala (1040—55 A.D.) of the Pala dynasty.
is
available in
tion.*
The
King
letter
Tibetan translation in the Tanjur Collec-
its
Similar letters written by the Buddhist masters from
India are preserved in their Tibetan translations."
Leaving Nepal behind, the master and his party reached
meanwhile Vikramasingh, the interpre-
the Thuii vihara, but
had
ter,
fallen
He
ill.
did not recover
medical care bestowed on him.
in
spite of
all
the
Atisa was greatly distressed
hope of ever reaching Tibet. "With the interis useless for me to go to Tibet", he said.
However, there were other interpreters, such as Jayasila,
who consoled him. As he entered the kingdom of Guge,
the men sent by the royal ascetic Bodhiprabha were already
there to welcome him.
Everywhere arrangements were made
to make the stay of the master and his retinue comfortable.
The people vied with one another in doing honour
and
lost all
preter dead,
to
him.
in the
it
Before reaching Tho-liii. the capital of Mriah Ris
Manasarovar region,
1042 A.D.),
'Citra-bhanu,
in
the
him
the
king
year
came
'water-man-horse'
to
receive
him
Tho-lih vihara.
This
vihara had been built by the late king Jfiunaprabha.
The
reverentially
and
master stayed in
took
to
this vihara for
the
nine months and preached
Dharma. Here he translated many books and wrote his
famous work, the Bodhipatha-pradipa. The Tibetan translaAtisa lived in the Manation of this book is still extant.
Then he went to Purah
sarovar province for three years.
(Spu Raris) to the east of Manasarovar in the year 'tree-manmonkey' (1044 A.D.). It was here that his very dear and
devoted disciple, pom-Ton-Pa, met his preceptor. He
the
1.
pre&ito
2,
Mdo-hgrel,
XCIV,
33,3. &Uftuoira-nuuJidpatidit<*'l>ipf'nkttra-Sr1jfianctia
" Vimeildrthalekho**.
See List I in Appendix
to tins Chapter.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
238
followed him everywhere like a shadow until the day he died
He wrote a biography of his guru, which
Gurugunadharmakara.
From far and near, people came to listen to the great
scholar who was always on the move and was honoured
everywhere.
His knowledge of the Tibetan language was
1054 A.D.
in
is
called the
elementary.
In fact, the story goes that he did
not
know
the difference between the words for 'pebble' and 'stone slab*.
Truly speaking, Atisa had
little
time to spare for the Tibetan
had
travelling, he
Besides
language.
many important
translate or review
write
to
books and
His
Sanskrit books.
knowledge of the language of the country, however, was no obstacle to Atisa, for he always had a competent interpreter with him.
The great master Ratnabhadra.
insufficient
who had been
by Jnanaprabha to Kashmir, had
sent
turned as a great scholar of Sanskrit.
a
mood
He was
re-
at first not in
Gradually,
to receive the Indian scholar properly.
however, he was so greatly impressed by his scholarship and
his kind
behaviour that
devotees
and
he
him
assisted
became one of
translating
in
his staunchest
many important
books.
During the
in
Tibet,
latter part of his
Atisa
spent
three
long stay of thirteen years
years
years in middle Tibet and six years in
the
Sam-ye vihara
1
boar (1047 A.D.).
in
central Tibet
This was the
in
the
in
first
mSfah
Ne Than.
four
Ris,
He went
year
to
'fire-man-
vihara founded by the
Indian master Santaraksita in Tibet during the regime of
Emperor
Khri'-Sroii-lde-btsan
(755
— 80
here that Tibetans were initiated for the
Many
A.D.) and
first
it
was
time as bhiksus.
Sanskrit books were also translated here.
The
library
was so rich that the master was surprised to
find certain books that were not to be found in the viharas
Unfortunately, this vihara was later reduced to
of India.
I3th
ashes, although it was rebuilt in the first half of the
century by the interpreter, Vajrasri (Dorje Dpal). Dipaftkara
is remembered in all the places he visited even to this day.
at this vihara
I.
Pron. Thi.
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
He
239
stayed in Yer-Va in the year 'iron-man-tiger' (1050 A.DJ.
This place
to
lies
the north-east of Lhasa, a day's journey
from Lhasa. Ft is here, in 105 A.D., that he wrote his commentary on the Kalacakra. Half a day's journey to the
south of Lhasa, there is a place called Ne Than, the last
place where Atisa lived.
Here, in the year 'tree-man-horse'
1
(1054 A.D.), on the 18th day of the 8th lunar month,
great savant passed
away
at the
this
age of seventy-three.
C. In China
Kumdrajiva
Kumarajiva (transliterated from the Chinese Ciu-mo-loshi) was born of an Indian father and a Kuchean mother. His
father, Kumarayana, came from an illustrious family but for
1
some reason
across
the
left
and
the country
Pamirs arrived
Here
Kuci.
in
of the royal family of Kuci,
fell
an arduous journey
after
in love
Jiva, a princess
with him and
ulti-
Kumarajiva was born of this union at
Kara-shahr.
Soon afterwards, Jiva was converted to Buddhism and became a nun. Kumarajiva began his education
mately married him.
in
Kuci
but
when
was
he
nine
years
old
took him to Kashmir to give him a thorough
his
mother
grounding
in
Buddhist literature and philosophy.
His teacher in Kashmir was Bandhudatta
to
be converted to the Mahayana
faith
who was
later
through the discourses
Kumarajiva acquired
great proficiency in all branches of Buddhist learning, and at
On the way he visited
last returned to Kuci with his mother.
of his one-time pupil.
In a few years
several centres of Buddhist studies in Central Asia.
mother and son
met an Arhat who prophesied that if Jiva carefully guarded
her son against the temptations of youth and if he remained
blameless till his thirty-fifth year, he would one day be able
It is
said that
on
their
way back
to propagate the doctrine of the
to Kuci,
Buddha among
people and thus bring them salvation.
1.
344-413 A. D.
the
common
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
240
Kumarajiva acquired such eminence as a scholar that he
to
himself Buddhists from
Khotan. Kashgar.
attracted
Yarkand. and other parts of Eastern Turkestan
While on a visit to Kashgar in 355 AD. Kumarajiva was
introduced by Suryasoma in the Mahayana doctrine and
made
study
special
a
to
Madhyamika
who had
the
of
monk
Vimalaksa. a Buddhist
China by the Central Asian route early
also instructed
Kumarajiva
which Kumarajiva
Not
long
after
5th century,
in the
the
in
work of
from
Kashmir,
account of a
to China,
parts
of
rupture
in
the
relations
political
Kumarajiva was brought
in
Chinese
a
expeditionary force was led against Kuci by Lii
countries.
transla-
famous.
is
return
his
travelled
Sarvastivada Vinaya and
the
in
subsequently collaborated with him
tion for
treatises.
of Kashmir,
Kuang on
of the two
401 A.D. as a captive
where he was already known. Scholars from all
country came to visit him and many stayed
the
behind as disciples.
Chinese Chronicles record
that, in the year
405 A.D.. the
king Af the Tsin dynasty showed great respect to Kumarajiva.
During the
latter's
nine years at Changan. he organized a
translation bureau to which
more than
and scholars were attached.
It is
eight
hundred
an ardent disciple of the new religion, held
texts in his
hand as
that during that time
prepared
priests
said that the king, himself
original
the
work of translation proceeded and
more than three hundred volumes were
the
under the supervision of Kumarajiva.
Until
he
413 A.D., he continued to devote his missionary
zeal and the knowledge he had gained to the propagation of
Buddhism, with the result that a large number of Buddhist
died, in
monasteries were established
in
North China.
Nine-tenths
of the ordinary people are said to have been converted to
the faith of the great Indian genius.
One
of the reasons
why
Kumarajiva and the faith he expounded were held in high
in China was probably the fact that Buddhism enjoyed
esteem
the patronage of the Imperial House.
Kumarajiva
is
traditionally regarded as the
first
teacher
:
SOMF GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
24I
Madhyamika doctrines in China and an expounder of
Ch'eng-shih-tsung (the Satyasiddhi school) and also of Niehp'an-tsung (the Nirvana school).
of
The work of Kumarajiva heralded
spread of Buddhism to China.
With
a
new epoch
in the
deep knowledge of
Buddhist philosophy and its various schools and his command
of Sanskrit and Chinese. Kumarajiva was able to bring
greater clarity and distinction to his translations than the
his
had done.
Between 402 A.D. and 412 A.D., Kumarajiva translated
numerous works, and wrote a treatise and a number of
earlier missionaries
verses
Chinese.
More than 3,000 priests became his
and ten of them subsequently became famous authors
in
disciples
of Buddhist treatises.
The following
tome of
are
the important texts translated
by Kumarajiva
Ta-c-tu-lun (the Mahaprajnaparamita-sastra). Nanjio's
Catalogue, No. 1169.
Pai-lun (the Sata-sastra), No. 1188.
Fo-shwo-o-mi-to-cin
Sukhavatyamrta-vyuha),
(the
No. 200.
Miao-fa-lien-hwa-cin
(the
Saddharmapundarika-sutra),
No. 134.
Mo-ho-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-cin
sutra),
No.
(the
Mahaprajnaparamita-
3.
Cin-kan-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-cin
(the
Vajrachedika Prajfta-
pSramita-sutra), No. 10.
When Kumarajiva was on
have told
upon
he
his death-bed,
his followers to accept his
his life as
an ideal one.
"The
said, 'Move the lotus but not the
Kumarajiva
is
a
he
is
reported to
work but not
to look
lotus grows in the
mud,"
mud."
symbol of the
spirit
of
cultural co-
operation between India and Central Asia and of the efforts
made by Buddhist
China.
scholars
to
spread
Indian
culture in
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
242
Paramartha
Paramartha 1
Cu-na-lo-tho,
known
also
(Po-lo-mo-tho),
as
Cen-ti
or
was a sramana of
western India, which was a great
and
Tshin-i,
Yiu~shan-ni, or Ujjain in
Gunarata,
centre of Sanskrit scholarship.
It
believed
is
completed
Paramartha
after
that
his
Buddhist education at Ujjain he went to North India and
About
probably settled in Pataliputra.
Magadha
Chinese emperor had sent a mission to
who
the king to send a scholar
the
Buddha
to China.
It
is
same time a
the
to request
could teach the gospel of
generally accepted that Para-
martha accompanied the Chinese envoys back to China in
response to this request. He carried with him a large collection of Buddhist texts and travelled by the sea route,
Nanking (Kien-yeh)
arriving in
548 A.D.
in
In accordance
with the desire of the emperor, he began to translate the texts
he had brought with him and
nearly ten years.
from place
China.
An
attempt
Islands proved
winds.
The
on account of
place
to
made by him
unsuccessful
last years
of his
on
life
and when he died
retirement
seventy-one
had
he
laboured continuously for
Thereafter he was compelled to wander
left
political
upheavals in
to sail to the South Sea
account
of
were spent
in
behind
569
in
A.D.
Chinese
unfavourable
solitude and
at the
age of
translations
of
nearly 70 Buddhist treatises.
Paramartha, Bodhiruci, and Yuan Chwang were the three
main representatives of the Vijnana school who translated
Sanskrit texts into Chinese.
Paramartha's career of translating Sanskrit texts can be
into two parts, namely, the period from 548 to
557 A.D. and that from 557 to 569 A.D. During the first
phase he translated about 10 works, of which six were in
existence in 730 A.D.
In the second period, he worked on
divided
numerous
texts
under the patronage of the
continued his labours
till
he died
in
Han dynasty and
569 A.D.
Paramartha established the She-lun-tsung
1.
513-569 A.D.
(the
Mahayana-
:
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
243
samparigraha-Sastra school) in China. This school was based
upon many Sanskrit texts translated by him, the most
important
being
Mahayanasamparigraha-sastra, a basic
the
This school had eminent disciples and
Buddhist scholars in China for about 80
text of that school.
prevailed
among
However,
years.
school,
too,
like other
of
deterioration
the
support.
Besides
Buddhist schools
from
suffered
general
and
the
conditions,
the
temples,
these
in
China,
this
restrictions,
political
loss
of
popular
popularity of the
Dharmalaksana school established by Yuan Chwang might
also be considered one of the reasons for the decline of the
She-lun-tsung (the Mahayanasamparigraha-sastra school).
the
Paramartha greatly emphasized the necessity of studying
Mahayanasamparigraha-sastra, but Yuan Chwang, in his
turn,
lun)
translated
and
selected
laid
the
Vidyamatrasiddhi-sastra
(Chen-wei-shi-
emphasis upon the necessity for the study of
texts,
which
consist
of
sutras
six
and
eleven
and include the Mahayanasamparigraha-sastra.
Thus the She-lun-tsung (the Mahayanasamparigraha-sastra
school) established by Paramartha was absorbed by the
Dharmalaksana school founded by Yuan Chwang. This
school was called the New Translation Method while the
She-lun-tsung founded by Paramartha was known as the Old
sastras,
Translation Method.
In spite of the fact that the She-lun-tsung
by another school,
tution, since
it
is
a
the correct
was absorbed
permanent Chinese Buddhist
insti-
understanding of the Vijnanavada
philosophy can come only through a comparative study of
the
Dharmalaksana and the
Mahayanasamparigraha-sastra
schools.
Paramartha's translation of Sanskrit texts runs into 275
volumes, of which the most important are as follows
1.
Fo-shwo-cie4sie-cin
(the
Sandhinirmocana-sutra),
Nanjio, No. 151.
2.
Cin-kan-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-cin
Prajftaparamita-sutra), No.
(the
10.
Vajracchedika
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
244
3.
Sho-ta-shan-lun (the Mahayanasamparigraha-£3stra),
No. 1183.
4.
Kun-pien-fan-pieh-lun
5.
O-phi-ta-mo-ku-sho-shih-lun
Madhyantavibhaga-
(the
No. 1248.
sastra),
Abhidharma-kosa-
(the
vyakhya-sastra). No. 1269.
Mahayanasamparigraha-
6.
Sho-ta-shan-lun-shih
7.
Luh-Yh-shi-Yh-min-liao-lun
(the
sastra-vyakhyah No. 1171(2).
prasannartha-sastra). No.
8.
Vinaya-dvavimsati-
(the
1139.
Shi-pa-khun-lun (the Astadasakasa
dasa-sunyata-sastra),
or
Asta-
the
No. 1187.
Bodhidharma
It
has been established that Bodhidharma' or Dharmabodhi
(Ta-ma-phu-thi) was a sramana in India and that he
for
China
in
India
left
526 A.D. with the special purpose of propagating
his system of philosophy but the details of his life are not
known.
According
reading,
and
clearly
monasteries
historians.
to
his
much
system
Bodhidharma
denied
made the
and much more
therefore
less intellectual
canon
Buddhist
meditative
than they were ever before.
When Bodhidharma came
was received with
Nanking by Liang
to China, he
honour due to him. and invited to
an emperor of southern China.
believed to have had with the emperor
for it makes his doctrine clear:
the
Wu-ti
%t
The emperor
I
A
?
said.
Since
my
is
discussion he
succession to the throne
How
have been incessantly establishing temples and so on.
much
merit
came.
may
I
"none'\
expect for that good conduct?"
The
emperor
Bodhidharma answered. "All
ficant effects of
said,
1
"Then, what
Died
in
is
is
asked,
reply
none?"
shadow followThe emperor
sense of the word?"
It is
without real
the
entity."'
merit in the true
528 or 5H6 A.D.
"Why
The
these things are merely insigni-
an imperfect cause.
ing the substance and
is
reproduced here,
"
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
Bodhidharma
replied,
"It
consists
ment, completeness and depth.
by
accumulated
worldly
the
emperor
sacred
asked,
doctrines?"
non-substantiality,
is
and
As
know who he
from
clear
is
and sunyata
(sunyata),
is
When we
the
mystic
trend
of
there
no doubt
moulding of the
been derived
spirit
with
core
negative form.
in the
people,
we have
philosophy
life
and
to
keep
this
in
mind,
for
has had a great deal to do with the
of Chinese
Buddhism
Zen
Japanese
replied
Bodhidharma's
it
essential
Buddhist influence on the
Chinese
that
the
the philosophy of emptiness
also
speak of the
of
literature
dialogue,
is
beyond demonstration of any kind.
Bodhidharma
Therefore,
!
is
this
of Bodhidharma's doctrine
The emperor asked,
Bodhidharma replied. "1
me?"
he that replies to
is
myself do not
is
The
means".
no such thing as 'sacredV
is
"Who
enlighten-
Merit as such cannot be
"Which is the most important of
Bodhidharma replied, "Everything
there
and
purity
in
245
Buddhism from which
Buddhism) has
(Contemplative
modifications to render
suitable to the
it
genius of the Japanese people.
It
sometimes said that the Meditative school of Bodhi-
is
dharma
is
not a proper form of Buddhism at
all,
but a syncre-
tism of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.
position
is
not correct, for, as
of Buddhism
is
as
Meditative
it
grew
discipline of this school
Order, and
its
tual influence
Japanese
said, the spirit
the spirit of the Meditative school.
Bodhidharma's
many changes
Bodhidharma
Such a sup-
monastic
among
school
in the
is
life
naturally
underwent
Chinese environment.
The
akin to that of the Franciscan
still
exercises a powerful spiri-
the Chinese, and especially
among
the
intelligentsia.
Bodhidharma himself recognized no sanctity in canon
and laid stress on meditation, by which alone
reading,
enlightenment should be attained.
Therefore, he translated
no more than one work, the exact date of which is not known.
That work is Ta-pan-nie-phan-cin-lun (the MahaparinirvanaBodhidharma had five successors,
sutra-$astra), No. 1206.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
246
who
quiet
led
lives
Bodhidharma, and were held
like
in
high esteem by the emperors of the T'ang dynasty.
Yuan Chwang
Yuan Chwang was
Ho-nan, who received his
1
a
Chinese Sramana of Lo-yan in
ordination at Chen-tu, in 622 A.D.
Under
the patronage of the Eastern
Tsin dynasty (317—420
A.D.),
Yuan Chwang became one
of the most noteworthy
scholars in China, both as a writer of historical records (Ta-
and as a translator of Sanskrit texts.
on his well-known journey to India in
629 A.D., and returned to the capital of China in 645 A.D.
during the Cen-kwan period.
He started the work of
translating shortly afterwards and was employed in this
pursuit until he died in 664 A.D. in his sixty-fifth year.
While he was in India, he had lived in the monastery of
Nalanda for five years and devoted himself to the study of
Brahmanical literature and Buddhist canons. The knowledge and experience thus gained stood him in good stead
in the course of his work and he translated as many as 75
tan-si-yu-ki)
He
started
treatises
into
1,335
While he was
in
fasciculi.
India,
Yuan Chwaim
studied the Vij-
nanavada philosophy under the guidance of Silabhadra and
introduced the Vijnanavada philosophy of Dharmaraksita.
Thus, he became the founder of the Dharmalaksana school
which is based on the Vijnanavada texts and their commentaries.
Yuan Chwang brought with him from
of relics taken
from the Buddha's
seat, a
India
115 grains
gold statue of the
Buddha with a transparent pedestal, and other images of
He also
the Buddha made of silver and carved sandal-wood.
took with him an extensive collection of Sanskrit texts which
he translated in China.
The voluminous
literature
1.
contribution
made by him
to Chinese
through translations from Sanskrit texts consists of
602-MS4 A.
U
:
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
247
the following according to Khai-Yuen-lu
Ta-Shan-pu (Mahayana)
416 works
Shang-tsu-pu (Theravada)
14
»>
San-mi-ti-pu (Sammitiyas)
15
*9
Mi-sha-se-pu (MahiSasakas)
22
f>9
Kin-she-pi-ye-pu (Kasyaplyas)
17
99
Fa-mi-pu (Dharmaguptas)
42
*»
Shwo-i-tsie-yu-pu (Sarvastivadas)
67
>
Ta-shung-pu (Mahasanghika)
15
»*
Yin-lun (Hetusastra)
36
9»
Shen-lun (Sabdasastra)
These works, numbering 657, were carried by twenty-two
Soon after he came back to China, he went to
horses.
Ch'ang-an to translate them.
Yuan Chwang was
also
a
distinguished
in
litterateur
When he
was considering the propriety of following Paramartha's
method which sometimes omitted repetitions and made
certain additions, Yuan Chwang was deterred by a dream
addition to being a translator of unusual merit.
and resolved to do a free translation in order to make the
Along with his disciples, Yuan
original meaning clear.
Chwang followed a method of translation which was a
Yuan
followed by Paramartha.
departure from
that
Chwang's method of
translation
'New Method', while
called
the
known
as the 'Old Method'.
subsequently
that
came
be
to
of Paramartha
was
Thus, the academic tendency
in the translation of Paramartha and his disciples was
replaced by the freedom of Yuan Chwang and his school.
Under the patronage of the emperor, the Buddhist acti-
of
vities
but
Yuan Chwang and
the
situation
his school flourished satisfactorily,
of Buddhism
deteriorated
considerably
during the time of the sixth emperor of the T'ang dynasty.
Early
in the eighth century, the Confucianists started
movement
to suppress
Buddhism.
In 714 A.D.,
a
Yen Ts'ung
pronounced the view that Buddhism was pernicious to the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
24?
Buddhism
country, and ascribed to
the early termination of
those dynasties that had been favourable to
it.
As
a result
of an edict issued at this time, nearly 12,000 priests and nuns
were compelled to abandon
their vocations and return to the
During the reign of Queen Wu, there was a ban on
the writing of sacred books and the building of temples.
lay
life.
The
which the work of transbe
divided
China
can
historically into
progressed
three periods of which the following dates are symbolic:
several hundred years during
lation
in
67 A.D.. when Buddhism entered China for the
1.
first
time.
2.
405 A.D., the age of Kumarajiva.
3.
646 A.D., the age of Yuan Chwang.
According
the work of
scholars.
It
Chwang,
the
to
historians,
is
also
Yuan Chwang was
and
translation
said
revision
that,
at
assisted
some
by
in
Sanskrit
of Yuan
new monks
The total number
request
the
emperor issued an order that
should be received into every monastery.
five
of monasteries in the empire at that time was 3,716.
Of
ciples,
the
works translated by Yuan Chwang and
his dis-
the following are the most important:
1.
Ta-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-to-cin (the MahaprajnaparamitfSsutra), Nanjio's
2.
Catalogue, No.
1.
Wei-shi-san-shi-lun (Vidyamatrasiddhi-tridasa-Sastra),
No. 1215.
3.
Ta-shan-chan-yeh-lun
4.
Wei-shi'rh-sht-lun
sastra),
(the
Karmasiddhaprakarana-
No. 1221.
Vidyamatrasiddhi-sastra),
(the
No. 1240.
5.
Pien-cun-pien-lun
6.
Sho-ta-shan-lun-pan
(the
Madhyantavibhaga-gastra),
No. 1244.
(the
Mahayanasamparigraha-
Sastramulah No. 1247.
7.
O-phi-ta-mo-shun-can-li-lun
(the
nyayanusara-Sastra), No. 1265.
Abhidharma-
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
Yin-min-nin-can
8.
li-lun
(the
Hetuvidya-nyayapra-
No. 1216.
vesa-sastra),
Yin-min-can-li-man-lun-pan (the
9.
Sastra),
Nyayadvaratarka-
No. 1224.
Nan-twan-cin-kan-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-cin
10.
249
Vajrac
(the
chedikaprajnaparamitS-sutra). No.
13.
Bodhiruci
Bodhiruci
1
,
the literal translation of
whose name
Ciao-ai,
is
or 'intelligence-loving', was originally called Ta-mo-liu-ci, or
The
Dharmaruci.
name can be translated as Fa-hhi,
The original name, Dharmaruci, was
latter
1
literally
law-loving
changed
to Bodhiruci
.
by order of the empress
Wu
Tso-thien
was a sramana of southern
India who came from a Brahmana family of Kasyapa Gotra.
(684—705
Bodhiruci
A.D.).
During
the
days
of
the
early
T'ang
dynasty,
many
renowned Buddhist monks came to China from Ceylon, India
and Japan. Bodhiruci was among those foreign Buddhists
who came
to settle
According
sciences
etc.,
as
permanently
in
China.
to a Chinese chronicle, Bodhiruci studied such
astronomy,
medicine,
and became a Buddhist
geography and
divinity,
in his twelfth year.
Yasaghosa, a Mahayana thera, recognized his extraordinary abilities and instructed him in Buddhist practices. Witha
in
period
of only
three
years,
acquainted with the Buddhist Tripitaka.
heard of
his activities,
Bodhiruci translated,
(the
he invited him to
in
693 A.D.,
became wellWhen the emperor
the capital, where
Bodhiruci
the Fo-shwo-pao-yu-cin
Ratnamegha-sutra, Nanjio's Catalogue, No.
Just before his death, he abstained from
ing and worshipping Sanskrit texts.
When
all
151).
meals, hold-
he was about to
he asked his followers to leave him, and passed away in
his solitary room.
It is said that Bodhiruci was in his
156th year when he died in 727 A.D., having devoted his
die,
entire life to the
work of
The regime of
1.
571-727 A. D.
translating Sanskrit texts.
the T'ang rulers
was favourable
to
Bud-
:
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
250
dhism and. such scholars as Yuan Chwang and Bodhiruci
freely translated many Buddhist texts brought from India.
In
693—713
A.D., Bodhiruci translated 53 works which
Of
ran into 111 fasciculi.
were already missing in
these, 12
730 A.D. In the history of Buddhism in China there were
two outstanding scholars who were both called Bodhiruci.
One
of these
worked under the patronage of the T'ang
dynasty while the other was the founder of Ti-lun-tsung (the
Dasabhumika
school)
under
Wei
the
Although
dynasty.
the former Bodhiruci was not a founder of any school, he
was recognized as one of the greatest
translators of
Buddhist
texts.
His most important translations are
1.
Shih-sian-pan-jo-po-lo-mi-cin
(the
Prajnaparamita-
ardhasatika), Nanjio's Catalogue, No.
Ta-pao-tsi-cin
3.
Wu-lian-sheu-ju-lai-hwui
4.
Wan-shu-sh'-li-phu-man-hwui (the
No.
(the
Amitayusa-vyuha),
23(5).
parivarta),
5.
(the
18.
Maharatnakuta-sutra), No. 23.
2.
Samantamukha-
No. 23(10).
Yiu-po-li-hwui
(the
Vinayaviniscaya-Upali-pari-
prccha), No. 23(24).
6.
Mi-lo-phu-sa-su-wan-hwui (the Maitreya-pariprccha),
No.
7.
23(42).
Ta-shan-cin-kan-ci-cu-phu-sa-siu-hhin-fan-cin
Mahayanavajra
sutra), No. 86.
8.
-
(the
cudamani-bodhisattva-carya-varga-
Fo-shwo-pao-yu-cin
(the
Ratnamegha-sutra),
No.
151.
9.
Ta-shan-cie-ye-shan-tin-cin (the sutra of the
Maha-
yana), No. 241.
10. Wan-shu-shMi-pao-tsan-tho-lo-ni-cin
(the
ManjuSri-
ratnagarbhadharani-sutra), No. 448.
D. In Japan
There are 13 principal
the founder of each
is
sects of
Buddhism
in
Japan and
regarded in that country as a great
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
An
Buddhist monk.
account
monks who contributed most
251
given below of the four
is
to the establishment of Japanese
Buddhism.
Kukai
No
other
among
monk
Japanese
the
nor
regarded
He
throughout the ages.
known
group of people
more popular than Kukai1
has been
with
greater
respect
among
As a monk
even more famous
is
as the
Kobo
Daishi.
a
of
the Shingon sect he systematized the doctrine of his sect by
on the ten stages of the
on the distinction
between Tantric Buddhism and other sects) and other works.
writing Ju-ju-shin-ron
treatise
(a
Ken-mitsunikyo-ron
mind),
(a
treatise
His contribution to Japanese culture
education, and
popular even now,
dhism
is
of
sists
called
taught in
A poem,
which the principal doctrine of Budeasy, beautiful Japanese and which conin
forty-seven
the
Iroha-uta,
of the arts,
in the field
welfare was considerable.
social
of
letters
also
is
attributed
Japanese alphabet,
the
to
He
him.
Kongobuji, the leading monastery of the Shingon
his followers
think
that he
died
at
sect,
but
merely entered into Nyujo,
i.e.,
eternal samadhi.
Shinran
Shiran 2
,
the founder of the Jodo-shin sect,
important personality by whose
deep into the hearts of the
efforts
common
is
the
most
Buddhism penetrated
people of Japan.
Quite
monks, he lived an ordinary life
and never called himself a teacher. During the long 90
unlike the other Buddhist
years of his
life,
he spent
many
farmers and peasants and found
lei low-devotees'.
He
years in the country
among them
wrote in easy Japanese
a
among
number of
many
articles
Amitabha Buddha.
which showed his profound
Of these, Tannisho' and 'Kyo-gyo-shinsho' are the most
devotion to
important.
J.
774-835 A.D.
2.
1175-12**2 A.D.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
252
Dogen
Dogen
1
the founder of the Soto
,
Zen
sect, is
known not
only for his stern religious character but also as one of the
most prominent philosophers of Japan.
monk of Zen Buddhism he cared little for worldly
He lived a life of strict discipline and devoted himself to discovering those individuals who were really worthy
of being the teachers of mankind through Zen meditation.
As
a
honour.
Residing at Eiheiji, the leading monastery of the Soto sect,
which he had founded, he
laid
down
monasteries which were accepted
Buddhism
in
his disciples
Of
Japan.
who
rules of
by
all
conduct in Zen
followers of
He gave
collected
regular sermons at
and published them after
these sermons, the most important
Zen
Eiheiji to
his death
4
is
called Sho-bo-gen-zo
True Doctrine), which is considered to be
one of the most eminent philosophical works in Japan, not
(the Essence of the
only by his followers but also by the philosophers of other
schools.
Nichiren
Nichiren 2 was as eminent a Buddhist
great patriot.
He
faced with the danger of invasion by the
of China.
monk
as he
was a
when Japan was
Mongolian Emperor
Buddhism taught in
lived during the period
He was convinced
that the
Saddharmapundarika-sutra was the only real one and
that it alone could save his nation from the danger of foreign
the
invasion.
His life was a succession of persecutions by the
Government on account of his views. Nevertheless, the
burning patriotism he preached
simple doctrine gained for him
among
the Japanese people.
in his
called the Nichiren sect after him,
by the followers of the Nichiren
who
1.
2.
saved the nation.
1200-1253 A.D.
1222-1282 A.D.
sermons as well as
his
much sympathy and devotion
The sect founded by him was
and he was looked upon
sect as a 'Mahabodhisattva*
SOME GREAT BUDDHISTS AFTER ASOKA
253
APPENDIX
List No.
1
Letters of Indian Pandits preserved in Tibetan
Name
To
From
Time
Tanjur
(Mdo-ljgrel)
Matrcefca
.
Kaniska
.
Maharaja
Nftgarjuna
.
Ud&yibhadra
Viraratna-
Suhf Ilekha
Sisyalekha
kfrti
Jit&ri*
.
.
Cittaratna-
Sajjana
.
Dipankara
.
.
Suksmajnana
Putralekha
.
Nayapala
Vimalaratna-
.
G
32,
Ne
27
6th century
Gi 33,
Ne
28
i
Gi39,
Ne 30
Do.
Do.
Do.
Gi 30,
Ne
Gi 30,
Ne
31
32
Gi 103, Ne 33
lekha.
SrTjfiana
Jaganmitra-
2nd century
A.D.
A.D.
krama.
Gurulekha
..
29
11th century
.
vifodhan-
Bodhibhadra
(Somapun).
Ne
A.D.
"
..
34,
century
A.D.
(S&tavahana)
Candragomin
Gi
1st
Kaniska.
Jayaoandra
.
nanda.
Jetari, according to the
Candrarajalekha.
12th century
Gi 103,
A.I).
Tohoku University Catalogue
(1034).
Nc 34
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
254
List No. 2
Some important works
of Atiia translated into
help of Tibetan translators
Name
of
Book
Madhyamaka-ratnapradipa
Tibetan with
Author
Translator
Bhavya
.
Rfiyu Chon, Grus, Sen
Ge
Madhyamakahrdaya-kfirika
the
Bhavya
.
(Vikramasingh)
(Nag.
Cho)
Chhut,
Khrims rGyal
Va (Siiajaya or Jaya£ila),
Lhasa.
Bhavya
Do.
Madhyamakartha-sangraha
Bhavya
Do.
Madhyamakabhramaghata
Aryadeva
Madhyamakahrdaya-karika
Vrtti.
Do.
Pancaskandhaprakarana
Candrakirti
Ratnakarandodghata
Dipafikara SrTjnana
.
Do.
,
Ktrya
Lochava and
Siiajaya (Jayasila).
Siksasamu' eayabhisamaya
eayabhisamava
,
Suvarnadvipiva
Siiajaya,
Dharmapala
Bodhipathapradipa
Dtpankara Srijnana
(Shu.) dGe-Vahi-Blo
G ros.
Bodhipat hapradipa-pafij ika
Mahasfit rasamuccaya
Do.
Siiajaya
Do.
Jayanand and (Pa
Chhab.) Ni MaGrags.
(Jayasila).
CHAPTER X
Chinese Travellers
About the seventh century A.D., when Europe was still
Dark Ages', India and China lived an intense political,
intellectual, religious and artistic life.
The common bond
created between them by Buddhism generated a great current of humanism which spread from Ceylon to Japan. After
4
in
the
a thousand years of eventful development, Buddhist mysti-
cism reached
apogee and Indian aesthetics and philosophy
it.
Silabhadra of Nalanda
its
received fresh inspiration from
and
Yuan Chwang,
his pupil.
the Master of the
Law from
China, represent one aspect, while the outburst of naturalism
in art at
Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram) may be taken
forces of enduring
creative
Tang
unity under strong
and ready
influence
allow
to
of
to
Both were borne along by a current of
represent another.
India.
its
China, realizing a new
value.
was hospitable
rule,
force
to
to
new
ideas
be softened by the gentle
Yuan Chwang and I-tsing, only two
among many, have left records which
vast movement in which even Japan had
well-known pilgrims
much of this
share.
The temple
recall
a
Taisha at Nara
witness
of
earlier,
was
607 A.D.,
in
still
founded
Shotoku
by
remains the time-honoured
transformation
this
its
Horyuji.
of
two
Fa-hien,
centuries
precursor, the earliest Chinese visitor to India
to leave a record of his travels.
Fa-hien
Fa-hien,
recorded his
the
first
own
of
the
travels.
way from Central China
three
He
across
Chinese
practically
the
Gobi
pilgrims,
walked
all
has
the
desert, over the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
256
Hindu Kush and
Northern India to the seaport
There he embarked for Ceylon
and returned to China by sea after an adventurous voyage
marked by several hairbreadth escapes. He brought back
with him what he had gone to seek in India—sacred books
of Tamralipti
in
right across
Bengal.
Buddhism and images of Buddhist deities.
Fa-hien was distressed at the state of the Buddhist 'disciplines' in China, and made up his mind, together with
several friends, to go to India and try to obtain the "rules'.
of
Chang-an and travelling by stages they reached
end of the great wall; the governor of that
place gave them all that was required to enable them to cross
the Gobi desert.
In this desert", records Fa-hien, "there
Starting from
Tun-huang
at the
* k
many
are a great
evil spirits
and also hot winds; those who
encounter them perish to a man.
There are neither birds
Gazing on all sides as far as eye
above nor beasts below.
can reach
order to mark the track, no guidance
in
to
is
be
obtained save from the rotting bones of dead men, which
point the way."
He
notices the prevalence of Indian culture in the states
he visited
in
of the Lesser Vehicle and the
religion
point
of
travelling
through are
all
India
those
all
with
some four thousand
common
the
nations
similar in this respect
who have
left
the
"From
one
that
... At
family'
priests
people practised the
modifications.
certain
westwards,
Shan-Shan
In the country of
Central Asia.
(south of Lop-Nor) there were
(priests
passes
same time,
and novices)
the
study Indian books and the Indian spoken language."
pilgrim spent
two months and some days
in
this
The
Kara-shahr which
also had over 4,000 priests of the Lesser Vehicle.
His next important stage was Khotan, a prosperous and
happy State with
tens of thousands of priests, mostly of the
Fa-hien and his companions were lodged
and comfortable Gomati Vihara by the ruler of
"At the
the country.
Discipline in the vihara was perfect.
sound of a gong, three thousand priests assemble to eat.
When they enter the refectory, their demeanour is grave and
Greater Vehicle.
\n the large
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
ceremonious; they
silence; they
sit
make no
down
257
keep
and they
in regular order, they all
clatter with their bowls, etc.;
do not call out to the attendants to serve more food, but
only make signs with their hands."
While some of his companions advanced to Kashgar,
Fa-hien and others stayed behind in Khotan for three months
to be able to witness the impressive procession of images
in
which the
priests of the
Gomati took the
first
place
among
the fourteen large monasteries (without counting the smaller
ones) and the king
part.
large
and queen and the Court ladies also took
The procession was like the Car Festival held in a
Indian temple to this day, only more gorgeous. "The
cars are
all different;
procession, beginning
lasting
until
its own
moon and
each monastery has a day for
on the
the fourteenth
first
when
of the fourth
the processions end
and
the king and queen go back to the palace."
Seven or eight
—a
//
// is
about a third of a mile— to the
New Monastery
which took eighty years to build, was about 250 feet high
west of the city of Khotan was the king's
and commanded the devotion and munificence of the kings
of six countries.
After the processions were over, Fa-hien
reached Kashgar after more than
witness the panca-parisad,
4
the
moved on and
two months,
in time to
great quinquennial assembly
held by the king of that country. Such an assembly was
held in India at a later date by the great Harsa Vardhana
of Kanauj in the presence of
Yuan Chwang.
The Kashgar assembly must, however, have been much
smaller.
The pious and credulous Fa-hien says of Kashgar.
"This country has a spittoon which belonged to the Buddha;
made of stone and is of the same colour as his alms bowl.
There is also a relic of the Buddha ls teeth, for which people
have raised a pagoda." Many notes on relics and miracles
it is
can be found throughout the narrative, but we must
pass
them by, stopping to note only the most interesting or significant among them.
A
particularly dangerous section of his route along
the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
258
Bolor-Tagh range and the
cribed
first
crossing of the Indus as des-
"Keeping to the
by Fa-hien are worth reproducing.
range, the party journeyed on in a south-westerly direction
for fifteen days over a difficult, precipitous,
and dangerous
road, the side of the mountain being like a stone wall ten
thousand
feet
in
height.
On
nearing the edge, the eye
becomes confused; and wishing to advance, the foot finds
no resting place. Below, there is a river named Indus. The
men of former times had cut away the rock to make a way
down, and had placed ladders on the side of the rock. There
are several hundred rock-steps in all; and when these and
the ladders have been negotiated, the river is crossed by a
suspension bridge of ropes.
The two banks of the river
are somewhat less than eighty paces apart."
After spending the next summer in retreat in Udyana,
then a flourishing centre of Buddhism, Fa-hien marched
South to Gandhara and Taksasila, where the Master cut off
his head for a fellow creature, and records the Buddha's prophecy that Kaniska would raise a pagoda in Peshawar.
This pagoda was seen and described at length by
Chwang, and
its
Yuan
foundations are believed to have been
dis-
by archaeologists. Fa-hien also writes:
"Of all
the pagodas and temples seen by the pilgrims, not one could
covered
compare with
grandeur and dignity, and tradition says
this in
that of the various pagodas in the inhabited world this one
takes the highest rank."
From Peshawar
Fa-hien proceeded alone to Nagarahara
(Hadda), his companions having
shrine containing the
Buddha's
left
him.
skull
That
bone.
It
city had a
was sealed
with eight seals every night for safety, each in the custody
of one of the leading
men
in the city.
king makes offerings and worships the
"Every morning the
Half a yojana
relic."
to the south of the city the pilgrim notes the cave inside
which the Buddha left his shadow. "The kings of the
various countries round about", he affirms, "have sent skilful
artists to sketch it, but they have not been able to do so."
Fa-hien also notes the other sacred spots and relics in the
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
259
neighbourhood.
In Afghanistan, which he entered after crossing the Safed
Koh, there were three thousand
the Greater
and Lesser Vehicles; there were the same number
Bannu, but
at
belonging to both
priests
all
Mathura country
ing the Panjab, the pilgrim reached the
after passing
thousand
many
priests.
Cross-
belonging to the Lesser Vehicle.
monasteries where there were nearly ten
Buddhism
was
very
popular
the
in
Mathura region and its priests were honoured by
and the officials of the Court who waited personally upon
them at table. "At the end of the meal they spread carpets
on the ground, and sit down facing the president not venturing to sit on couches in the presence of priests" an
arrangement handed down from the days of the Buddha.
Then Fa-hien reached the Middle Kingdom, the heart of
the people
—
the
try
Gupta Empire.
is
His oft-quoted description of the coun-
brief but to the point:
"It has a temperate climate,
without frost or snow; and the people are prosperous and
happy, without registration or
those
who
till
profit they
those
the
tration
restrictions.
Only
much on the
go away may go;
Those who want to
may stop. The King
make.
who want
official
King's land have to pay so
to stop
in his adminis-
has no corporal punishments; criminals are merely
fined according to the gravity of their offences.
a second attempt
at rebellion the
The men
of the right hand.
punishment
is
Even
for
only the loss
of the King's body-guard have
what he says, however,
Fa-hien seems to apply to the whole country what he observed
in the viharas; for he affirms: 'Throughout the country
no one kills any living thing, nor drinks wine, nor eats onions
all fixed salaries."
or garlic."
In
Again, "In
the
this
rest
country they do not keep pigs
or fowls, there are no dealings
or
distilleries
in
of
in cattle,
their market-place."
cularly of the candalas
(untouchables)
no butchers' shops
He takes note partiwho lived apart, had
to announce their presence on the roads in the city or near
the market by beating a piece of wood, and were the only
class that
went hunting and dealt
in
flesh.
Cowries were
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
260
used as a
in
medium
of exchange, and charitable
endowments
favour of Buddhist priests were numerous, time-honoured
and well respected. "Rooms with beds and mattresses,
food and clothes are provided for resident and travelling
priests without fail, and this is the same in all places/*
Fa-hien then visited in succession
Sankafya
(Kapitha);
Kanyakubja
(Kanauj)—'the city of hump-back maidens';
Sha-ki, Saketa or Ayodhya; Sravasti with its shrine of the
Garden of Gold, a place where many miracles were performed
and are duly noticed by the pilgrim; Kapilavastu, the city
of Suddhodana, the Buddha's father 'then just like a wilderness, except for priests and some tens of families'; Vaisali
(Besarh); and the country of Magadha and the city of Pataliputra where he saw the marvellous palace of ASoka 'all built
by spirits'. He has high praise for Magadha. "Of all the
countries of central India, this has the largest cities and
towns.
Its people are rich and thriving and emulate one
another in practising charity of heart and duty to one's
Regularly every year, on the eighth day of the
neighbour.
second moon, they have a procession of images." He men-
—
much admiration.
From there he went to Nalanda (Bargaon), Rajagrha and
Gaya 'a complete waste within its walls', but surrounded
by many hallowed spots, all duly noted by Fa-hien; Banaras,
including the Deer Forest at Sarnath, where the Buddha
tions the free hospitals in the cities with
—
first sermon, and lastly Kausambi with its garden of Ghociravana, the Ghositarama of recent discovery.
At this point he records what he heard of the Paravata
preached his
monastery in the Deccan; the account
easily matched by known facts.
From Banaras
Fa-hien
returned
is
to
unreliable
Pafaliputra.
he records of his efforts to gain written texts of
is
to
What
Buddhism
Usually, they were transmitted orally from
interesting.
generation
and not
generation,
Garden of Gold
and only
in Sravasti in
a
at
the
shrine
of the
monastery of the Greater
Vehicle he 'obtained a copy according to the text accepted
at the First Great Assembly and practised by priests gene-
1
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
while the
rally
modern
Buddha was
still
alive'
26
—a
declaration that
scholars will not be ready to accept.
three years learning to write
and copying out
ing out sutras
He
the Disciplines'.
Tamluk by way of Campa and
and
drawing
Fa-hien spent
and speak Sanskrit
then
(or Pali)
moved on
to
stayed two years there 'copy-
images'
of
pictures
before
embarking for Ceylon on his way back to China.
Sailing in a big merchant vessel with the first favourable
monsoon wind, Fa-hien reached Ceylon in fourteen days
and spent two years there collecting and copying Sanskrit
Early in his stay on the island,
texts unknown in China.
Fa-hien felt homesick. "He had now been away from his
own
had
in
land of
Han
travelled with
these
only his
for
many
him had
years
left
own shadow, he was
when suddenly, by
.
.
moreover, those
who
—some remaining behind
being
others
countries,
.
him
dead.
Now, beholding
constantly sad at heart; and
the side of this jade image (of the
Buddha
of Abhayagiri vihara of Anuradhapura), he saw a merchant
make
offering of a white silk fan
overcame him and
From Ceylon
vessel
his feelings
Fa-hien des-
and Mihintale, and gives
account of Simhalese Buddhism as a whole.
cribes the viharas, the
an attractive
from China,
his eyes filled with tears."
Tooth
Fa-hien
festival,
sailed
carrying two hundred
smaller vessel also in tow.
in
souls
another
big merchant
or more; there was a
After sailing for two days the
ship encountered a violent storm which lasted for thirteen
days; Fa-hien spent his time in prayer fixing his thoughts
upon Kuan Yin, the Hearer of Prayers, and put
the hands of the Catholic Church in China.
his life into
He was
also
and images
But nothing happened; a leak in the vessel was
discovered near an island and stopped, and Java was
reached after another storm-tossed voyage of over ninety
days.
Fa-hien stayed in Java for five months or so; there
he found Brahmanism flourishing 'while the Faith of the
Buddha was in a very unsatisfactory condition'. Another
big merchant vessel and an equally troublesome and proafraid that the merchants might throw his books
overboard.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
262
tracted voyage brought
him
to the prefecture of Ch'ing-chou
China where he spent a winter and a summer before going
south to the capital, Nanking, where he handed over to the
ecclesiastics the sOtras and the Disciplines he had collected.
The conclusion of his account is very touching; he says:
"Fa-hien spent six years in travelling from Ch'ang-an to
central India; he stayed there for six years, and it took him
in
more to reach Ch'ing-chou.
The
through amounted to rather fewer than
three
countries he passed
thirty.
From
the
sandy desert westwards all the way to India the dignified
deportment of the priesthood and the good influence of the
Faith
were beyond
the ecclesiastics at
still
more
life,
but
expression in detail.
home had had no means
these things, Fa-hien
important
all
difficulties
of hearing about
had given no thought to
came home
As, however,
his
own
un-
across the seas, encountering
and dangers.
Happily, he was accorded
protection by the divine majesty of the Precious Trinity, and
was thus preserved in the hour of danger. Therefore, he
wrote down on bamboo tablets and silk an account of what
he had been through, desiring that the gentle reader should
share this information."
Yuan Chwang
Born at Lo-yang in 602, Yuan Chwang amazed his father
even at the age of eight by his observance of the Confucian
rites, and it looked as if, like many of his ancestors, he would
be a famous literary man of the traditional type.But the
example of his elder brother who had just become a Buddhist
monk influenced him, and he also took his vows in the
monastery of Lo-yang when he was just thirteen.
He began
the study of Indian philosophy and soon mastered its intricacies.
About 617 A.D., the end of Sui rule plunged the
country into disorder from which it did not recover till
Emperor T'ang
T'ai-tsung
series of brilliant
established
campaigns begun
in
his
firm rule after
a
618 A.D., the year in
which Yuan Chwang sought refuge from anarchy in the
mountains of Spu-ch'uan. In spite of the trouble, however,
—
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
Law
he soon mastered the
He
popular discourses.
263
of Buddhism and held
many
thus rapidly qualified for the
first
place in philosophical debates wherever Sanskrit learning
—from
Deccan
from
Turfan to
Sumatra. The capital of the new dynasty, Ch'ang-an (now
Si-am-fu), one of the chief centres of Buddhism in the Far
East, became the centre of his activity from 662 A.D.
But
soon he was struck by the numerous differences among the
schools and uncertainties in doctrine, and he made a vow
to travel to the countries of the West and learn the truth
from the wise men there on the points which were troubling
prevailed
his
the
to
Japan,
mind.
But when he applied for permission to leave China, the
Emperor refused it. However, putting his trust in the invisible
protection of the saints of Buddhism, the intrepid
sisted in his plan.
his journey,
the North.
but
were
He was
and handsome and
People discouraged
impressed
by
monk
per-
when he set forth on
like many Chinese of
twenty-six
his
tall,
him on sundry occasions,
courage and helped
calm
him to the best of their ability. He travelled secretly, hiding
by day and travelling by night. Mirages and apparitions
thwarted him often; near one frontier fortress he was shot
In spite of
at and narrowly escaped death from an arrow.
everything, he crossed the desert
guide him except his
he received an invitation from the
known
alone
all
own shadow and
with nothing to
reached Ha-mi, where
king
of
Turfan (then
as Kao-ch'ang), a pious Buddhist.
Turfan
in the central part
of the Gobi, to
all
intents
and
purposes dead to-day, then throbbed with the lively economic, political and cultural
life
ing a dialect of Tocharian.
of a Buddhist population speakIts ruler,
Ch'u-Wen-tai (620
40 A.D.), was of Chinese extraction; he was a vassal of the
Turkish Khan and had relations with T'ai-tsung. His invitation to Yuan Chwang was a command and the pilgrim was
almost carried off by force to Turfan. A pious Buddhist, but
somewhat rough and ready, Ch'u-Wen-tai, although most
hospitable and respectful to Yuan Chwang, had planned to
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
264
detain
him personally
in his
Court as
its
ecclesiastical head.
you my
homage, and it would be easier to shift the mountain of
Pamir than to shake my determination." "It is for the sublime Law that 1 have come," replied Yuan Chwang heroically, "the king will only be able to keep my bones; he has no
power over my spirit nor my will." He followed this up
by refusing to touch food for three days; the king became
alarmed and yielded. The Master of the Law agreed to stay
a month longer to preach at the Court, and at the end of the
"I insist on keeping you", he said, "in order to offer
month
the king let
to all the kings
him go well provided with introductions
on
his route, including
the
whose writ ran to the very gates of India.
was no longer an unknown refugee fleeing
accredited pilgrim with an official standing.
Khan
Yuan Chwang
Turkish
in secret;
but an
He was sump-
tuously provided for for the rest of the journey to India.
From Turfan he proceeded
to Kara-shahr, also
a Tocha-
some ten monasteries and
The people here
two thousand monks of the Hinayana sect.
were friendly to Yuan Chwang, but not to his Turfan escort;
so he spent only one night there and moved on to Kucha
(Skt. Kuchi), perhaps the most important town in Central
Asia at the time and an Indian outpost, but subject to
Iranian influences also. Its material prosperity and the
brilliance of its civilization impressed Yuan Chwang, and
rish-speaking city, which contained
archaeological explorations
in
the
twentieth century
have
many a probable scene in
Law may have taken part. But
enabled scholars to reconstruct
which the Master of the
Kucha was only an oasis in the Gobi, surrounded and coveted
by the Turko-Mongols, and its ruling classes were forced to
The throne of Kucha was
remain warriors.
a Tocharian
ruler,
Suvarna-puspa.
whom
tic
In his
kingdom
he gave active protection.
relations
Chwang
monks who
with
engaged
still
occupied by
Suvarna-deva, the son and successor of
the
in
Tang
there were 5,000
He maintained
emperor.
monks
to
diploma-
At Kucha Yuan
religious disputations
with Hinayana
did not take kindly to the Yoga-£astra which
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
Yuan Chwang
265
But the difference did not take
and amiable relations were maintained
with the old sage Moksagupta of Kucha during two
more months that the Master of the Law was forced to spend
When he left, the king
there on account of the weather.
gave him servants, camels, horses, a whole caravan, and
accompanied him to the outskirts of the city followed by the
monks and lay devotees of the town.
Two days after he had left Kucha, Yuan Chwang encountered robber bands on the road; and then came the glaciers
on the slopes of the Tien-Shan. These he has described picturesquely, anticipating some of the great explorers of recent
times.
He worked his way to the region of Issiq-Kul (warm
lake) where the great Khan of the Western Turks had
encamped. This was early in 630 A.D. The Khan was not
devoid of religious culture and had leanings towards Bud-
an unfriendly
preferred.
turn,
dhism which his predecessors had been taught fifty years
before by a monk from Gandhara, Jinagupta by name. The
Khan had established his sway as far as Gandhara. He
treated Yuan Chwang with great deference, invited him to
dinner with the Chinese envoys and ambassadors from the
king of Turfan and provided him with 'pure food' rice
cakes, cream, milk, crystallized sugar, honey and raisins.
At the end of the dinner, the master expounded the principles
—
of his faith, and the
Khan
teaching with the faith.
joyously said that he accepted the
After making an unsuccessful effort
to dissuade the master from continuing his journey, he gave
him
his official
protection for the journey to India which
enabled him easily to cross the passes of the Pamirs and
Bactria.
Samarquand, Marakanda of
was already an ancient
was the capital of Sogdiana
and Yuan Chwang's next important halt.
It was the terminus of the caravan routes between India and China, and was
It wavered between
rich in rare and precious merchandise.
Zoroastrianism and Buddhism and the master's visit did much
to raise the status of Buddhism in this Turko-Iranian kingcity in the seventh century.
It
old,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
266
dom; he held an assembly at which he ordained a number of
monks and restored the old desecrated monasteries for worship.
From Samarquand, the pilgrim marched South over
difficult
mountain routes
he reached the 'Gates of Iron\
till
the southern frontier of the Western Turkish Empire, at the
end of the
defile
through which even
Samarquand and
track between
now
passes the caravan
the Oxus.
South of the Gates of Iron, Yuan Chwang crossed the
Oxus and entered
Bactria, then under the rule of
Khan of the Turks, and
Turfan, who was also a
a son of the great
king
the
of
Bactria probably received
missions
of
its
At
ASoka.
pious
Buddhism very
time
of
the
Tardu Shad,
brother-in-law of
Buddhist.
early
master's
from the
arrival,
Tardu
Shad took a new queen almost immediately, but she loved
occurred the death of the Turfan princess.
there
more than her husband; she poisoned the king
and put her lover on the throne. The latter was friendly to
Yuan Chwang and persuaded him to visit Balkh, the capital
Balkh and Bactria still had many
city, before going South.
monasteries, in spite of the ruin wrought by the Huns in the
her stepson
and though they were all Hinayanist,
terms with them and he derived
much good, he says, from his conversations with one of
Then the pilgrim made the most
their doctors, Prajiiakara.
difficult crossing of the Hindu Kush and reached Bamiyan,
a station of primary importance on the road from Central
Asia to India. Modern archaeologists were struck by the
fifth
and
sixth centuries,
the master
was on
friendly
accuracy of his description of the
says,
"it
leans against the
site.
"On
steep rock.
winter corn, but few flowers and
fruits.
the north", he
This country has
It
is
suitable for
and abounds in sheep and horses. The
Manners are rough. Clothing is of
cold.
very
climate is
fur and coarse woollen materials, which are also products
of the country." There were ten Buddhist monasteries with
cattle
several
breeding
thousand monks in them.
the celebrated grottos
Yuan Chwang mentions
and the two colossal
Buddha, about 170 and 115
feet high, but
statues of the
somehow not
the
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
267
The
frescoes which have evoked great interest in our times.
surface of one of the large
gilt
Buddhas
him
led
to think
was a statue of bronze.
left Bamiyan for Kapisa by the difficult pass of Shibar,
9,000 feet high, where he was overtaken by a storm and lost
that
it
He
way which he regained with the aid of local hunters.
Kapisa (now the village of Begram) to the north of Kabul
his
commanded
Hindu Kush, and consequently the great trade routes between India and Bactria; it
abounded in every kind of merchandise. The king was a
the principal passes of the
To
devout Buddhist of the Mahayana persuasion.
please
Prajnakara, his travelling companion from Balkh, the master
lived in a
Hinayana monastery, but
at the king's request,
took
part in an assembly of different sects, which lasted five days.
summer of 630 A.D. there, he took the road
and reached Jalalabad, ancient Nagarahara,
through Lampaka.
Here he was on Indian soil proper and
he duly noted the contrast between the mountain country he
had left behind with its sturdy people, and the hot plains of
"At Lampaka the ground
thinner, easy-going men. He says
After spending the
to the east again
:
is
and produces a large
suitable for the cultivation of rice,
quantity
of
sugar-cane
The
never snow
*
.
.
climate
fairly
is
mild.
The inhabitants live
some frost but
They are, moreover,
in ease and happiness, and love song.
They are
effeminate, pusillanimous and given to fraud
short in stature and their movements are brisk and impetuous.
The majority are clothed in white cotton, and like to
There
is
.
.
.
.
adorn
their
costume with
suffered terribly at the
.
coloured ornaments."
brilliantly
This land of Greco-Buddhism, rich in
bad
.
its
artistic tradition,
hands of the Huns and now had
only ruined monasteries and works of
art.
The Arab
sion, twenty years later, dealt the final death-blow.
here the master
made a hazardous
ed with brigands to
a cave
inva-
From
diversion on a road infest-
which the Buddha after
shadow. He gives
a thrilling account of his encounter with robbers, and of the
miracle vouchsafed to him in the cave, a remarkable instance
quelling
the
visit
Naga Gopala had
in
left his
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
268
of courage, persistence and
From Lampaka
faith.
entered Gandhara by the
Khyber Pass. This was a second holy land of Buddhism
where art had flourished for nearly six centuries without a
break under strong Greco-Roman influence. Peshawar,
the capital of Kaniska, had given birth to Asanga and
Vasubandhu, the two chief authors of mystical idealism so
dear to Yuan Chwang. But when he came to Peshawar, it
had suffered from the Huns like other places. He notes
sadly:
"The royal race is wiped out and the country has
been annexed to the kingdom of Kapisa. Towns and villages are almost empty and abandoned, and only a few inpilgrim
the
habitants are seen in the country.
One
corner of the royal
town (Peshawar) contains about a thousand families
There are a million Buddhist monasteries which are in ruins
and deserted. They are overgrown with weeds and they
make a mournful solitude. The majority of the stupas are
.
also in ruins."
Still
the
pilgrim
made
point to
a
it
.
.
visit
main road to India
for a northerly excursion into the mountain country of
Udyana or Uddiyana which had suffered even more than
Gandhara from Hun inroads; once it had 1,400 viharas and
18,000 monks; the country had not yet ceased to be Buddhist and the people were divided between the two vehicles,
though Mahayana Buddhism was tending towards Tantrism.
Leaving Uddiyana and Gandhara, the master crossed the
most of the hallowed
spots,
till
he
left
the
Indus at Udabhanda or Udakakhanda (north of Attock) and
visited
Taksasila where too there were
From
ruined by the Huns.
Kashmir where Buddhism
many
still
prevailed.
a hundred monasteries with 5,000 monks,
cherished memories of
Kashmir
received
the
monasteries
there he went for a while to
There were still
and the country
A£oka and Kaniska. The king of
with great honour in his
pilgrim
Pravarapura (Srinagar). Yuan Chwang found there
a venerable Mahayanist doctor aged seventy, from whom he
capital,
was able
school
to receive in all
of
Buddhist
its
purity the tradition of the idealist
philosophy.
He
spent
two years
in
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
269
Kashmir, from May 631 to April 633 A.D., studying philosophy and having Buddhist sutras and Sastras copied to take
home with him to China.
Coming down from Kashmir, one
of his
first
halting
places was Sakala (Sialkot), the seat of the Greek king
Menander of old, and of the Hun tyrant Mahirakula (or
Mihirakula) of more recent times, but also the shelter, two
before
centuries
the
master's
visit,
of the illustrious philo-
On his way thence to Clnabhukti on
bank of the Beas, the master narrowly escaped a
sopher, Vasubandhu.
the left
band of brigands and then met an old brahmana who was
learned in Buddhist doctrine (Madhyamika) with whom he
spent a month in a village.
He lived over a year in Clnabhukti and went in 634 A.D. to Jalandhara during the rains.
He next went to Mathura, famous in Hindu tradition and
Buddhist art, and it may be presumed that he saw and
admired the celebrated standing Buddha, a masterpiece of
Gupta art, now in the National Museum, New Delhi. From
Mathura he ascended the Yamuna up to Sthanesvara in Kuruksetra;
modern scholars are agreed that his remarks about
show that he recalled the Mahabharata war and
the latter
the essence of the Bhagavadgita.
the
Travelling East, he reached
upper Ganges and observed the growing triumph of
Hinduism and the relative decline of his own creed. He
Kapitha (old Sarikasya) and like Fa-hien witnessed
the miracles associated with the place. Though he spent
some months in Kanyakubja, which Harsa had made the
political capital of the North, he did not meet the king who
was away in the East and afterwards became his great friend
and patron. His account of Harsa is marked by deep
admiration: "His rule", he says, "was just and humane.
He forgot to eat and drink in the accomplishment of good
visited
works."
On
Chwang
exaggerates the monarch's Buddhist leanings just as
his
the
whole,
however,
Court poet Bana lays undue
we
stress
think
that
Yuan
on the 6aivism of the
king, who seems really, like many other Indian rulers, to
have held the scales even between the different creeds which
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
270
existed in his kingdom.
way
to
After visiting
Ayodhya and on
Prayag along the Ganges, the master
fell
his
into the
hands of water thugs, devotees of Durga, who wanted to
sacrifice him to their goddess; courage, prayer, and a miraculous and timely storm saved the pilgrim's journey from
an untimely end. At Prayag he noted again with regret that
Buddhists were in the minority, and passed on to Kausambl
where he was shown mementos of the Buddha's visit, of
Vasubandhu's writing and of Asariga's life, though as everywhere else Brahmanism was in the ascendant.
Here the master made up
place of the
North.
First
mind
his
to
visit
the birth-
Buddha without further delay and turned due
he came to Sravasti, the hamlet of Sahet-
bank of the Rapti, practically deserted
memories; then
of sacred spots and
Kapilavastu. the Buddha's native town with the garden of
Lumbini where he was born; then Ramagrama and lastly
Kusinagara (Kasia, on the right bank of the middle Gandak)
where he attained nirvana. All these places have been
satisfactorily identified by modern archaeology, and this
Mahet, on the
right
at the time but full
imparts a
vivid
significance
what he saw and heard.
to
From
the
pilgrim's
here,
narrative
of
Yuan Chwang went
along a forest route straight to Banaras, a place sacred alike
to
Hindus and Buddhists.
Yuan Chwang's account of Banaras is curiously modern.
'The greater part worship Siva. Some cut off their hair,
Some there are (the
others pile it on the top of their heads.
Jain£s)who are naked, others rub
their
or
order
practise
cruel
mortifications
in
bodies with ash,
He mentions a colossal statue
grandeur and majesty'. He must also have
sara
.
.
."
to
escape
of
&va
sam-
4
full
of
seen at Sarnath
Buddha turning the Wheel of Law, 'the purest
incarnation of the Gupta ideal' in art. The city was full
the seated
of tender and marvellous legends.
From Banaras
grim went further north to Vaisali (Besarh), the
the
pil-
city of the
famous courtesan Amrapall who
offered to the Sarigha the
park of mango
also the second Buddhist
trees;
at
Vaisali
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
271
Council had been held a hundred years after the Buddha's
passing.
Magadha
southern Bihar was the true sacred land of
in
Buddhism, the most important region for the pilgrim. Its
capital, Pataliputra, the centre of two great empires in the
was
past,
decay, and the pilgrim saw the ruins of
in
viharas of which
palaces and
stood.
He
Pataliputra
still
with deep emotion his journey from
describes
Bodh Gaya,
to
many
two or three
scarcely
where the Buddha
place
the
attained knowledge and where almost every square foot of
Yuan Chwang was
ground had witnessed sacred scenes.
not only a keen philosopher learned in the doctrine, but a
man
of tender piety which suffuses the narrative of his visits
To
to these sacred spots.
Nalanda,
the
great
Yuan Chwang's
dation, richly
is
Bodh Gaya
university
detailed description of this
endowed by
kings and nobles,
the north-east of
international
of
the
lay
time.
enormous foun-
the munificence of generations of
well borne out by
modern excavations.
There were ten huge viharas with spaces between divided
into
eight
courtyards,
all
within
There were ten thousand monks,
yana.
They eagerly
studied,
brick
a
all
wall
enclosure.
followers of the
besides
Maha-
Buddhist works, the
Vedas, medicine, arithmetic, the occult sciences and other
popular subjects.
The head
old and venerable Silabhadra
of
Asariga
of the establishment
who came
in
was the
the direct line
and Vasubandhu's pupils and summed
up
in
himself the final result of seven centuries of Indian thought.
Some
time earlier he had had a dream which warned
him
coming of the Chinese Master of the Law; so he
received him with honour, and the pilgrim spent fifteen
months there learning the Yogacara doctrine which he
afterwards cast in the form of a book known as the Siddhi;
of the
he also studied Brahmana
philosophy and perfected his
knowledge of Sanskrit. He interrupted his studies for a
while only to visit Rajagrha of ancient fame where the first
Buddhist Council had met soon after the death of the Blessed
One. After leaving Nalanda, Yuan Chwang spent the year
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
272
638 A.D. in Bengal and Campa, and
lipti,
embark
intending to
finally
reached Tamra-
Ceylon to study the Hinayana
for
there.
Tamralipti was a great emporium in those days and the
pilgrim must have met
many
and traders from the
and valuable,
though brief, account of the Hindu kingdoms of contemporary Indo-China.
Some monks from the South told
eastern
lands;
Yuan Chwang
sailors
he
gives
that
Ceylon was within easy reach of South
a
accurate
fairly
and there was no need to risk a long sea voyage. He
accepted the advice and worked his way south to Kaficipuram by way of Orissa, Mahakosala, the land of Nagarjuna
and Arya Deva, as also Kipling's Mowgli, Andhra and
His observations on the people
the Telugu-Goda countries.
and politics are very valuable. He probably spent the
rainy season of 639 A.D. at Amaravati and reached Kaiici
There he learned that Ceylon was in turmoil; a
in 640 A.D.
civil war was raging and he had to give up his idea of a
He worked his way back to the North
visit to the island.
by western Deccan, no doubt meeting Pulake&n II, the
great Badami Calukya ruler at Nasik (641 A.D.), and visiting
Bharukaccha (Bharoch) and Valabhi. Here he learnt much
about Iran on the eve of the onslaught of Islam and his picIndia,
ture of the Sassanid empire just before
its
fall
is
of great
value to history.
After
Chwang
visiting
turned
Nalanda and
its
and
Sindh
towards
the
Multan
East
neighbourhood
the
in
for
a
West,
second
Yuan
stay at
where great Mahayana
like
Jayasena lived; when his visits to the holy
were over, the master gave his time up fully to his
scholars
places
studies;
he was interested
encyclopaedic learning.
cal
in
He
many
subjects
and had
vast,
often took part in philosophi-
debates and delighted in exposing the flaws in other
But his thoughts were ever directed to his return
China to give her the benefit of his new learning, and he
turned down the request of the monks of Nalanda that he
should not leave them. Indian kings heard of the Chinese
creeds.
to
CHINESE TRAVELLEftS
2J$
and Bh&skaravarman, the king of
him to his Court. So he went
there, and his notes on Assam are remarkably accurate.
Very soon Harsa Vardhana sent word to Assam, whose king
was his friend and vassal, inviting Yuan Chwang to his own
camp on the Ganges; they went and were warmly received
by Har§a who had been impatient at the delay in their
arrival.
In 643 A.D. Yuan Chwang attended the two celebrated assemblies convened by Harsa at Kanauj and Prayag,
of which we have detailed descriptions from Yuan Chwang
and his biographers, though these are obviously one-sided.
Har?a, according to these accounts, had difficulty in protecting
the Mahayanist doctor from the debating zeal of the followers
master's
great ability,
Assam (Kamrup),
invited
of other creeds, particularly the brahmanas; drastic rules
calculated to
the lives
Such
is
stifle
free speech
caused resentment and even
of the king and the pilgrim were endangered.
the account that
we have no means
of verifying.
The assembly
at Prayag was the usual quinquennial meeting
which the king gave away his accumulated treasure. This
was the last function for which the Master of the Law put
Harsa also failed to dissuade him
off his return to China.
from returning to his native land, and very unwillingly bade
him farewell. After spending two months of the rainy season in the region to the north of Kanauj, Yuan Chwang
crossed the Panjab by way of Jalandhar and Tak§a4ila.
taking in the opposite direction the route he had taken ten
years before. Crossing the Indus, early in 644 A.D., he
at
was met at Udabhancja (Und) by the kings of Kaptta, and
Kashmir, the former helping him to get from U<UJiyana fresh
copies of some of the books which had been lost in crossing
the Indus. He lodged in a monastery in Nagarahara for
some time.
Then he crossed the Hindu Kush with great
difficulty
644 A.D.. despite the aid of the king of KapiSa. and
farther on a Turkish prince gave him an escort for the cross-
in July
His narrative here contains many marvellous tales and dramatic adventures. He duly noted the
ing of the Pamirs.
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
274
Indian origin of the civilization of the Central Asian states;
he passed through Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan where he
to eight months from September 644 A.D.;
during this period he replaced the manuscripts lost in transit
spent seven
and awaited the permission of
the imperial government to
return to the country which he
without a proper permit.
show
clearly
had
ten years earlier
left
His notes on the places he visited
the geographical
changes that had occurred
After resting some time at Tunhuang, he approached Ch'ang-an in the Spring of 645 A.D.
since the days of Fa-hien.
and was received with great honour
by
the
monks of the capital. He presented his
Emperor T'ai-tsung at Lo-Yang some days
was
and
officials
respects
later.
to
the
Not only
from China forgiven, but he soon became
the hero of the hour and part of the glory of the Tangs, the
Emperor himself congratulating him on having risked His
life for the salvation and happiness of all men.
He refused
to accept the post of Minister offered him by the Emperor,
and spent the rest of his life in a monastery, specially built
in the capital to lodge him and his band of translators who
rendered into Chinese the six hundred Sanskrit works
brought from India. The Emperor Tai-tsung died in July
649 A.D.; his successor was quite friendly, but Yuan
Chwang's visits to the palace became less frequent and he
devoted himself more and more to translation and active
preaching.
He Knew his end was approaching, and died in
peace and content in 664 A.D. with the consciousness of
having led a good and purposeful life.
his secret exit
l-tsing
was about ten years
returned to China, but he had
He was
of a Buddhist monk.
he was fourteen. Though he
I-tsing
to India in
of age
when Yuan Chwang
prepared himself for the
admitted to the Order
when
formed the idea of travelling
652 A.D., he did not carry
seventh year (671 A.D.).
life
He was away
it
out
till
his thirty-
for 25 years (671
695 A.D.) and travelled through more than
thirty countries.
CHINESE TRAVELLERS
275
After his return to China in 695 A.D., he translated 56 works
out of about 400 he had brought back with him, between
the years 700 and 712 A.D. He died in 713 A.D. in his
seventy-ninth year.
He
took the sea route to India both ways.
lack the variety
and
His itineraries
interest of those of
scientific
Yuang
Chwang, but they are full of human interest. On his outward voyage (671 A.D.) he spent eight months in Sumatra, six
at Sri^vijaya, a rising maritime state (now Palembang), and
two in Malaya in the neighbourhood. He landed at Tamralipti in 673 A.D., and thence went to Magadha, the holy land
par excellence and worshipped at Bodh Gaya and other sacred
He
spots.
spent ten years at Nalanda, hearing the teaching
of the Doctors of the
many companions
account
later,
them again,
in
He had
collecting holy books.
whom
he was to write an
and from them he took leave, never to see
685 A.D. when he left India again by way of
v
He
Tamralipti.
Law and
with him of
spent four
years
Sri -vijaya with
in
its
Sanskrit background in order to translate the sacred works;
in
689 A.D. he went to China to fetch collaborators for his
work and
after
another
five
returned to China in 695 A.D.
him he found the Court
given an
years at Sri-^vijaya he
finally
Chwang
before
Like Yuan
interested in his voyages
One
of
I-tsing's
works,
A Record
Religion as practised in India and the
been
has
scholar,
J.
translated
Law
into
English
the
in the
version by
of
Western Countries; of
Chavannes
is
available.
It
the
Buddhist
Malay Archipelago,
by the Japanese
in some ways are his
More interesting
Eminent Monks who went
Takakusu.
Memoirs on
the
and was
official reception.
this
in
work
Search of
a French
gives us a fair idea
of the earnestness and devotion of the pilgrims whose num-
were larger than we are apt to imagine and of the
bers
spirit
prise.
of
with which they braved the dangers of their enterIt is,
pathetic
in fact, a
incidents
remarks wistfully
:
melancholy succession of tales, full
both on land and sea. I-tsing
"However triumphal,
the path
was strewn
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
276
for away and vast.
and flowers, and of
there was scarcely one who
bore any fruit or produced any real results, and few who
completed their task. The reason for this was the immensity
of the stony deserts of the Land of the Elephant (India), the
great rivers and the brilliance of the sun which pours forth its
burning heat, or else the towering waves heaved up by the
giant fish, the abysses, and the waters that rise and swell as
high as the heavens. When marching solitary, beyond the
Iron Gates between Samarquand and Bactria, one wandered
amongst the ten thousand mountains, and fell into the bottom of precipices; when sailing alone beyond the Columns
of Copper (South of Tongking), one crossed the thousand
deltas and lost one's life
That is how it is that those
who set out were over fifty in number, while those who
survived were only a handful of men." Several Korean monks
had gone to India, the majority across Central Asia, some by
the sea route; of them I-tsing says: "They died in India,
and never saw their country again." Indeed the Central
Asian route was becoming more and more difficult after the
weakening of the T'ang empire and the revolt of Tibet, not
to speak of the Islamic Arabs who soon appeared on the
with
difficulties;
the
Holy Places were
Of dozens who brought forth
several who made an attempt,
.
.
leaves
.
scene.
On the maritime route the Chinese pilgrims saw India
coming out to meet them. The impress of Indian civilization on Indo-China and Indonesia could not escape their
notice, and I-tsing recommends that one should stay in
Srivijaya and perfect his knowledge of Sanskrit before
going on to India. During this period there was a perpetual exchange of ideas, books and art products between
India and Ceylon and Java, Cambodia, Campa and the
ports of the Canton region of China.
Thus,
in this bright
period of Asian history, the Chinese
pilgrims of the great T'ang dynasty linked the Far East to
India
more
closely
Sacred Books.
by
their travels
and
their translations of the
CHAPTER XI
A
Brief Survey of Buddhist Art
A. In India
The followers of the Buddha came largely from the
commercial classes and their wealth made it possible for the
gigantic stupas and caityas to be built at Sanchi and
Bharhut in central India, AmaravatI and Nagarjunakonda
in South India and Karle and Bhaja in western India.
The
creation of the Orders of Buddhist monks and nuns
(bhiksus and bhiksunls) is evidence of the Buddha's altruism
The monks and the nuns, like their Master, adopted an itinerant life and moved from place to place, from
caves to rock-cut dwellings. As the Buddhist church grew,
the merchants and royal votaries, foremost among whom was
Emperor Aioka, endowed the Buddhist Sarigha and built
caityas, stupas and monasteries or viharas. With corporate
life came the monastery, and into the monastery were introduced temples and chapels. Thus on the cool and peaceful
hills, where Buddhist monks and nuns gathered, arose marvellous Buddhist cave temples as at Karle, Kanheri and Bhaja in
Bombay State and Ajanta in the Deccan.
Painting and
(karuna).
sculpture which evoke the artist's admiration were enlisted
to display the glory of the
Tris
Buddha, and the life of the Master,
and other edifying legends be-
past births (the Jatakas)
came
their subject matter.
before and after the birth of
phenomenal growth of Buddhist art
and culture.
A large number of stupas and caityas built
during this period were richly carved with scenes from the life
of the Buddha and his previous births. The inspiration of
In the three
centuries
Christ, India witnessed a
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
278
Buddhist art came from religion and the sculptural wealth
of Buddhist edifices goes to prove that religion did not necessarily
mean
ritual or doctrine,
but that latent spiritual quality
which finds 'tongues in trees, books in the running brooks.
sermons in stones and good in everything'. In the Northwest, owing to the impact of Greece and Rome, a hybrid art
developed and a complete Buddhist imagery called Gandhara
was elaborated.
Gradually the orthodox Buddhist doctrine
underwent a change. Popular beliefs, magic and sorcery, collectively known as tantra, began to spread among the people
and through it Buddhism and Hinduism were brought closer.
The former was about to be absorbed into Hinduism when
the Muslim invaders descended on the scene, swept Buddhism
from the Indian soil, destroyed the viharas, where the bhik§us
and bhiksunis lived, scattered them and broke their hierarchy.
The Stupa
The
in
Buddhist Art
highest objects of worship for the Buddhist are the
(1) the Buddha, (2) the Dharma,
There are also other objects of worship
which, when compared with the Triratna, can only be described as material or formal, but which appealed more
and
forcibly to the layman than all the precepts, parables
Triratna or the three jewels:
and
(3)
the Sangha.
sayings of the
Buddha put
holy persons like the
These are the
together.
were erected by a 'grateful
relics,
posterity'.
monuments
In the majority of cases,
what are called dhatus which can
niently grouped into
real
of
Buddha, the Pratyeka-buddhas, the
Arhats, and the Cakravartins, over which great
these relics are
relics
bfc
conve-
three classes, namely, Saririka or corpo-
uddesika
or
and paribhogika or
Buddha, sacred spots, holy
memorials
'objects having been of use to the
and the like'.
According to tradition, the oldest corporeal relics are the
hairs of the Buddha which were given to the merchants
Tapusa and Bhallika, and later deposited by them in a shrine
trees,
built in their native city in Orissa.
The
chief corporeal relics are 'those
which are properly
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
called Sarlras,
i.e.,
The Buddha died
to his bones
279
the remains of a corpse after cremation'.
in the land of the
Mallas
who
did honour
with dancing, music, garlands and perfumes.
Ajata&tru from Rajagrha, the Licchavis of Vaisali, the
S>akyas of Kapilavastu, the Bulis of Allakappa, the Mallas of
Pava, the Koliyas of
Vethadipa
—
Ramagr3ma and
a
brShmana from
claimed their share in the division of the
all
relics.
It
appears that after the division had been
made, a
messenger of the Mauryas of Pippalivana came for a portion
of the
As
relics.
coal which the
there was nothing left, he took pieces of
Mauryas began to revere and placed in a
Thus, originally there were eight stupas
stupa.
Vaisali,
Kapilavastu,
in Rajagrha,
:
Ramagrama, Vethadipa,
Allakappa,
Pava and Ku&nagara, besides those erected by Brahmana
Drona and the Mauryas of Pippalivana.
In addition to these
relics,
one of which
relics, there
is
are
the
others,
tooth
worshipped in heaven, another in
Gandhjira, and one each in Kalihga and the land of the Nagas
The Daladavamsa (composed about 310 A.D.)
respectively.
speaks of the history of the eye-tooth (damstra)
was taken
relic
Dantapura or Kaliriga-nagari, the
to
which
capital
of
Kalinga.
The paribhoga-dhatus which
served the
Buddha and
saints are such objects as garments, bowls, sticks,
These were worshipped equally with the bone
like the latter, possessed
miraculous powers.
It
and
relics,
is
the
trees.
and
difficult
which these holy remains began
to be venerated, but there is no doubt that the practice
to determine the period in
of worshipping
in the
relics
North and
mediaeval times.
the Buddha's
was already
fully
established,
both
in the South, long before the beginning of
staff,
The Chinese
kasaya
pilgrims speak of having seen
and
sanghati, in the neighbour-
hood of Nagara.
Referring to his visit to Peshawar, Fa-hien
speaks of the alms bowl of the Buddha. The Simhalese
chronicle, Dipavamsa. speaks of many paribhoga relics, such
as 'the drinking vessel of
Buddha Kakusandha,
the girdle
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
280
of Kogagamana,
bathing
the
Kassapa, and that
of
cloth
of Gautama', and records that the latter's girdle was preserved
in the
Kayabandhana-Cetiya.
Similarly,
Prince
Yuan Chwang
Siddhartha,
Konkanapura
Chinese
in
them
associating
We
South India.
pilgrim
for
with
the
vihara
at
are also indebted to the
reference,
his
of
speaks of the head-dresses
in
his
account,
to
which were also worshipped. Thus, the
Buddha is said to have left his shadow in certain places near
Kau£ambi, Gaya and Nagara, to which the believers go even
today to pay homage. The Chinese pilgrim says that he was
lucky enough to see the shadow of the Lord at Gaya. We also
hear of places where the Buddha is said to have left his footcertain other relics
prints for the faithful to worship.
kinds have risen in
all
Sanctuaries
of
different
these places and the relics within
them
are worshipped to this day.
The most
general
name
for a sanctuary
is
and
stones, holy spots, images
all edifices
religious
ing architectural relic
is
is
The
earliest surviv-
the caitya of the Buddhist period,
not specially Buddhistic but was adopted by the
Buddhists from Vedic architectural models.
memorial mounds were erected over the
people even in the pre-Buddhist age.
derived from the word
cita,
or funeral
thing connected with a funeral pile,
over the bones of a dead
caitya
term
trees,
having the character of a sacred monument are
caityas but not all caityas are edifices'.
which
caitya, *a
memorial
Hence,
inscriptions.
not only applying to buildings, but to sacred
means a
saint.
relic shrine
We
relics of
The word
pile,
e.g.,
learn that
worthy
caitya
is
and denotes any-
the tumulus raised
Although generally speaking
or a temple or any place of wor-
mound. The term stupa is
means a mound, or something
which is raised. Later, the term caitya came to mean a
shrine, an altar or a temple.
For our purposes it is necessary
for us to understand caitya as meaning a mound containing
a relic, e.g., ashes, bones, hair or a tooth of the Buddha.
Caitya is a religious term, while stupa is an architectural term
ship, technically
it
means
analogous to caitya, as
it
a
also
1
.
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
mound
The stupa is
28
for a relic
often identified with the dagoba, but in-
dagoba is only part of the stupa. The
whole monument, while the dagoba is only the
area where the relic is deposited. As most of the stupas
correctly so, since a
stupa
the
is
are erected over
they
relics,
may
however, contain
also be called dagobas.
many were
Not
on
some memorable event connected either with
of the Buddha or his Jatakas had taken place. Two
all stupas,
relics, since
built
spots where
the life
stupas are thus said to have been erected near Banaras where
Buddha preached
the
his first
sermon and where 500 Pratyeka-
buddhas entered nirvana.
The
and
such as those found in the Bharhut
earliest stupas,
show a circular or square base, with
Over this base rests a dome which is
the Sanchi sculptures,
or without a railing.
surmounted by a graduated inverted pyramid. This is connected with the dome by means of a short neck (gala). The
whole is surmounted by a chattra or chattras, one above the
other, with flags and garlands suspended from them.
The oldest stupa in brick is the remnant at Piprawha, on
the Nepal frontier, which probably dates from about 450 B.C.
The remains at Piprawha show that brick was used for building long before the birth of rock architecture.
The most typical form of the stupa, which is known to
be the earliest Buddhist building, is furnished by the stupas
at Sanchi.
It is said of the Great Stupa that it was originally
built in brick by Atoka and hence dates from the third century
B.C.
Its stone casings, railings and gateways were added
a century
later.
It is in the
shape of a hemispherical
dome
<an<Ja) truncated at the top and placed over a lofty terrace.
This terrace must have been a procession path for pradak$ina.
A
railing or balustrade of stone (prakara), 'which
nally of
wood, and was
dome and
the terrace.
was
origi-
copied later in stone', encloses the
The dome
is
surmounted by a pavilion
(harmika) from which rises the shaft (danda) of the umbrella
Indian emblem of sovereignty, signifying the
reign of Dharma, the religious faith propagated by Atoka, the
(chattra), the
2S00 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
282
The finial
word htu
great Buddhist Dharmaraja'.
is
derived from the Burmese
The stupa underwent an
chattra which,
became a
it
till
from being one
cluster
appearance to the
later
interesting
stupa
spire, the
called the tee
of umbrellas, giving an elongated
the shape of the Indo-
'in
itself inclining
to the
These umbrellas which may be two,
we may
all
form of a tower'
three, five, seven, nine
is
placed
suggest divisions of the universe.
Thus
surmise
safely
its
number
stupas such as those in China and
or thirteen, and the gradations of the pavilion which
over the dome,
which
development in
originally, increased in
Nepal, and slowly lengthening out
Aryan
is
that
a
symbolical
attached to each part of the stupa, the stOpa
significance
itself
is
representing
Mount Meru.
The elongation
that the
dome
gradually underwent can
be seen in the caitya of Svayambhunatha of Nepal and the
Thuparama dagoba of Anuradhapura in Ceylon
B.C.).
The earlier evolutions are best illustrated in
achieved
tope
the
in
at
(circa
246
the forms
Manikyala (Rawalpindi district),
more elaborate example at
ascribed to about 30 B.C. and the
Ahin Posh
of the last
The important
in the Jelalabad valley.
named
features
stupa are the storeyed terrace and the
stair-
case at the four quarters, a scheme which might have been
carried to Java, as illustrated in the plan of the Borobudur.
In Burma,
the
early
modifications that
type in them
it is
In> the
Indian model went through so
difficult to
recognize
its
many
original proto-
Mingalazedi Pagoda in Pagan, dated
1274 A.D., the platform
is
and the dome
the finial which ter-
in storeyed terraces,
shrinks into a cone, almost merging into
minates in a spire, the umbrella having already disappeared.
The
intermediate stage, however,
is
well illustrated in the
carved representations of the stupa met with on the marble
Amaravati in South India.
railings which consist of pillars (stambhas), pierced
with cross bars (sdei) and sunpounted by copings (usnisa) are
slabs at
The
also characteristic features of Buddhist architecture.
are a convincing proof that
wooden
They
architecture preceded
SvaynmbhunatJia
Nf»oaI
Mingala/cdi Pagoda. Pagan, Burma. nth century VI). (Courtesy, Department
of Archaeolofiy.
Burma)
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
From mere
stone in the history of Buddhist architecture.
imitations in stone of plain
ed into the
wooden
balustrades, they develop-
examples, such as the railing at
later
and the elaborately carved marble
railings at
The reader who wishes
century A.D.).
283
to
Bodh Gaya
AmaravatI (2nd
know
the history
of the various stQpas to be found in different parts of India,
Burma and Ceylon,
the travel accounts of the
find
will
Chinese pilgrims interesting.
The stupa
its
to
affinity
so constructed that
is
its
very shape suggests
dome answers
the grave-mound; the
the
to
tumulus, the railing to the fencing or circle of stones, and the
top to the stake or column on the grave.
there are
some dagobas
bell shaped, the generally
While, however,
which the domes are
in Ceylon, of
approved form of the stupa
'that
is
of a water bubble surmounted by three umbrellas, one of the
gods, the second of men, the third of final Deliverance or
Nothingness'.
A
Borobudur
strate how,
Java and at Mingyun in
in
study of a different type of stupa found at
in the course of its
Burma
will
demon-
development, the stupa acquir-
ed the characteristics of a prasada or tower with a number
An example
of stair-like divisions.
is
the
Mahal Prasada
at
Polonnaruva in Ceylon.
Sculpture and Bronze
Sculptures and bronzes in India have not only been re-
garded as works of art but also as objects of religious veneration.
They have now assumed
graphic
importance,
although
archaeological
and icono-
appeal
also largely
their
is
aesthetic.
Between the
the historical
exists a big
proto-historie art of the Indus Valley
Mauryan period
gap which has
mains of material
we meet
to
—3rd century B.C.)
be
filled
and
there
by the actual
re-
In the 3rd century B.C., however,
with Indian stone sculpture springing into magni-
ficent forms.
of
culture.
still
<4th
Ramapurva
The
lion capital of Sarnath
are masterpieces of
for their vigour
and
and the stone bull
Mauryan
their expression.
sculpture both
Besides the refined
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
284
by these lion or bull capitals, there
an archaic religious art based on a wideof tutelary deities, such as the yak^as and the
courtly art exemplified
flourished
also
spread cult
The majesty
yaksls.
of such figures as the
Parkham Yak$a,
Yaksa and the Yak$I figure from Didarganj (3rd
century B.C.) owes more to their size, volume and form, than
However, no bronze images
to their spiritual expression.
have yet been found which are representative of either the
Patna
courtly art or the archaic religious art of
Mauryan
times.
Indian art entered a phase of intense activity in the 2nd
century B.C.,
when under
the direct influence of
Buddhism
a synthesis suitable to the Indian genius was effected between
the higher and the lower forms of beliefs.
very rich sculpture, which
is
This produced
preserved on the railings and
(Bhopal) and Bharhut
and
Nagarjunakonda (Guntur
(central India),
district, South India).
Some bronze images of the Buddha,
dating not earlier than the 2nd century A.D., have also been
found in Amaravati and its neighbourhood. From the 2nd
century A.D. onwards the image of the Buddha was sufficient-
gateways of the stupas of Sanchi
Amaravati
ly popular for artists to carve or cast
with
the
sequence of the
it
as a matter of course,
we have today an
Buddha image.
result that
extensive sculpture
Though the art of metal casting is of great antiquity, as
shown by the first example of the dancing girl from Mohenjodaro of the third millennium B.C., we do not come across
any metal images until the 1st century A.D., when small
figures
appear in Taksa&la
in the
North and Amaravati
in
the South.
A
vital and prolific school of Indian sculpture sprang
Mathura in the 1st century A.D., remarkable both for
its statuary which is illustrative of sectarian belief and for its
beautiful figure sculpture, of which the best examples are
feminine forms carved on the railing pillars with birds, flora,
fauna and flowing streams.
The school of Mathura found its fulfilment in the Gupta
age (4th 5th century A.D.) which ushered in the golden age
up
at
—
,.**'> >
"
Adoration of the Buddha's Alms Bowl. Limestone. Amaravati. '2nd century
(Courtesy. Madras Government Museum, Madras)
\.l>.
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
285
The sensuous freedom and plasticity of the
art.
Mathura figures were now replaced by restraint, elegance of
form and spiritual expression. The great Buddha figures of
Mathura. Sarnath, Ajanta, and Bihar are immortal specimens which symbolize the ideals of a whole age. The faces
are radiant with spiritual ecstasy and the smiling countenance
of Indian
with downcast eyes adequately conveys the divine, compassionate love (karuna) of the
the Guptas that
Buddha type of
we owe
Buddha
the
for all beings.
It is to
image of the
perfect visual
being, which has rightly been considered the
greatest creation of Indian art.
Bronzes of the Gupta period
rank with
the best stone
Buddha from Sultanganj in
is now in the Birmingham
Art Gallery, and the beautiful Brahma image from the
Mirpur-khas stupa in Sindh. Metal images became increas-
sculpture such as the life-size
Bihar (5th century A.D.), which
from about the 8th century A.D.
ingly popular
Elegance of form and richness of
spiritual
expression
(9th— 12th century
A.D.) from Nalanda and Kurkihar, both in Bihar. The
characterize the bronzes of the Pala period
development
of
Taranatha,
best seen at Nalanda, the importance of which
is
the
Pala
school,
the
eastern
school of
as a centre of Buddhist learning continued undiminished, in
decadence of Magadha, until the monaswere destroyed by the Muslims about 1197 A.D.
Nalanda has been the richest source of the well-known,
spite of the political
teries
smooth images
series of
in
black slate and has also yielded an extensive
Buddhist bronzes.
The importance
of Nalanda as
a centre of Buddhist culture and as a source of iconographic
and stylistic influences throughout the East, is well illustrated
by the close relations that existed between Nalanda and
Sumatra and Java in the 9th century, as shown by the copper
plate of Devapala-deva in which references are made to the
important monastery at Nalanda built by Balaputra of
Suvarna-dvlpa (circa 860 A.D.). Nepal and Burma, too, were
closely connected with Nalanda.
Eastern India, comprising
Bihar and Bengal, which can be treated as one province from
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
286
and
and Mayurbhanj followed the classical traditions
evolved in the Gupta period.
Another large series of remarkable metal images from
Kurkihar in the district of Gaya in Bihar shows a close affinity
to those at Nalanda and belong almost to the same period
and school. Yet another large series of Buddhist metal
images, perhaps of Nalanda origin, has been found at
Chittagong in East Bengal, and appears to date from the 10th
to the 1 3th century A.D.
Some others, found in Kashmir, are
evidently of the same type.
A great and prolific school of sculpture existed in eastern
the point of view of the development of art, under Pala
Sena
rule,
India during the Pala period (9th
finds of metal
images
— 12th century A.D.).
belong to
that
this period,
All
whether
they are Buddhist, Brahmanical or Jain, and whether they
are
made
at
Kurkihar or Nalanda
in Bihar, or at
Rangpur,
Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Dacca, or the Sundarbans in Bengal, are
examples of Pala
good, although
is
art.
it
in those of the
is
The modelling
not their
Gupta
of the Pala bronzes
is
most remarkable feature as
it
period.
The
lines
and
soft curves of
the figures are pleasing, and their expression has an appeal
which
justifies the
modern enthusiasm
The Buddhist images found
for the Pala bronzes.
at Jhewari in Chittagong (9th
13th century A.D.), on the other hand, are
ness and constraint. These
marked by rugged-
may
be called provincial variations
of the Pala school, although they probably have affinities with
the school that flourished in
Burma and Assam
in this period.
Small metal images, particularly those of Buddhist divinities
found at Nalanda and Kurkihar, have provided the inspiration
for the Nepalese copper gilt images.
Some
of these Buddhist
and Hindu metal images, however, must have been brought
by Javanese pilgrims who came to visit the sacred shrines of
eastern India.
Although they are rare, Buddhist bronzes are occasionally
found in South India, mostly in the Tanjore district, and date
from the 10th to the 15th century A.D. Since 1856, about
350 Buddhist bronzes of the Mahayana, some of which are
I'admupam. <;>lt-Kron/«\ Kurkihar,
i\
12th
reiitur>
Publications Division)
\.l>.
(Photo by
in Cam pa, 3rd century A.D,
(Courtesy, Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, Hanoi)
The Buddha. Bronze, Dong Duong
—
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
287
inscribed, were recovered
from the sites of the viharas raised
Nagapattinam by the Sailendras of Sumatra during the
time of the Cola kings, RSjaraja I and Rajendra Coja I.
in
Some
of these bronzes belong to the early Cola period (871
1070 A.D.) and a large number of the
period (1070—1250 A.D.).
rest to the later
Cola
The Amaravati, Nalanda and Nagapattinam Buddhist
sculptures
and bronzes bring us
to a
most
interesting study,
namely, to that of the culture of South-East Asia, and of the
extent to which Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Sumatra, Java
and Indo-China derived their arts from
It is known that Asoka (250 B.C.)
aries to South-East Asia.
Two
of them, Sona and Uttara,
went to the 'Land of Gold', which
Indonesia.
India.
sent Buddhist mission-
is
the western part of
In the second and third centuries A.D., Amaravati
Andhra-desa was a great centre of Hinayana Buddhism,
and the influence of the Amaravati school of art was felt in
in
Ceylon, in lower and Central Siam (Thailand) and possibly
Burma and Siam are still Buddhist in faith,
in Sumatra.
though they have witnessed repeated invasions through the
centuries, involving them in much bloodshed and anarchy.
The Indian colonies were bound to the motherland by the
silken ties of art, culture
and
religion.
In the 5th century
A.D., the Golden Age in northern India under the famous
Guptas and in South India under the glorious Pallavas left
its
mark on
The last
the colonies 1 and their culture.
trend of Indian art to influence colonial art
is
kingdom of
Bihar and Bengal. Under the spell of Pala art and faith,
the early Burmese kings of Pagan became intimately connected with Bodh Gaya and Nalanda which led to the introduction of a new image of the Buddha of the Sthaviravada
This form of the Buddha image gradually found its
school.
way from Burma into North Siam where it became the forefound
in the
1
1th century products of the Pala
runner of the Siamese school of
1,
culture.
The term
colonies
is
art.
An
account of
how
the
u«ed here in the sense of outgrowths of Indian
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
288
Siamese national school was later influenced by a new form
of the
Buddha image from Ceylon and from South India
covers eight different periods of Thailand's interesting history.
The spread
faiths,
and
of Indian scripts, languages, literatures and
especially
fascinating story.
Buddhism, to South-East Asia
The Buddhist images
is
a most
of South-East Asia
between India and Greater India
show that Indian art in South-East Asia is a
continuation and development of the Indian creative genius
illustrate artistic contacts
and help
to
under colonial conditions.
Indeed, the arts of Java, Sumatra,
Cambodia, Siam and Burma, recover for us one of the
pages in the history of Indian
lost
art.
Painting
There are innumerable references to painted decorations
and other Buddhist literature. The earliest
surviving examples of Buddhist paintings dating from the
in the Jatakas
2nd century B.C., are found
Ajanta
period
in
is
the
in
Deccan.
principal
cave No. 9 which
of $addanta Jataka.
have attained
(5th
A
its
some of the
in
is
wall painting of the
devoted to the illustration
However, Buddhist painting seems to
maturity only during the Gupta period
—6th century A.D.).
The
finest
are to be found in the caves at
The mural
Ajanta.
caitya halls at
specimens of
Bagh
(central
this period
India)
and
paintings in the Ajanta caves contain
representations of scenes from the Buddha's
life,
from the
conception to the attainment of nirvana, as well as from the
Jataka
stories,
such as the §a<Jdanta, Vigvantara, K$antivadin,
and several others. These stories are represented in continuous narrative. The human and animal figures display
vigour, adding grace and vitality to the style which reveals
great delicacy and depth of feeling.
A quiet dignity, poise
and detachment are the hall-marks of classical Buddhist
paintings in India.
A few
Buddhist paintings, as already noted, are found on
the walls of cave No. 4 at Bagh.
in
theme and
allied to
Ajanta in
Though they
style,
are Buddhist
they are basically secu-
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
289
and significantly reflect contemporary life.
The mediaeval period in eastern and western India was
lar in character,
a period of intense activity in manuscript writing.
As the
authors of manuscripts wanted to embellish their books with
illustrations, the use of
The miniature
miniature painting
came
into vogue.
paintings of eastern India of the Pala period
deal mostly with Buddhist gods and godesses and the art,
though
lines
simple in
and
composition,
subdued
is
Some
tones.
characterized
of
by sinuous
the best examples of
miniature paintings are to be found in the Prajnaparamita
and other Buddhist
texts of the 12th to the 14th century
Other Asian Countries
B. In
The
Asia.
mains
A.D.
influence of Buddhist art has probably no parallel in
When
in
it
is
remembered
that the earliest historical re-
India are generally Buddhist, the continuous deve-
lopment of Buddhist
art in
and outside India forms a
fasci-
Successive dynasties of kings while patronizing
nating story.
brought into being great monuments worthy of not only
art
the highest veneration by devotees, but of admiration of art
connoisseurs from
If
all
parts of the world.
the study of Indian art of the historical period begins,
to all intents
and purposes, with the very few, but most
valu-
Mauryan period,
animals
show a vigour
crowned by
able specimens of the sculptor's art of the
the
Asokan
pillar capitals
which strangely combines indigenous tradition* with importIt is known from the inscriptions of Asoka
ed influences.
that he had wide contacts with foreign powers and it
is
no wonder that such influences from Persia are seen
these
pillar
capitals.
in
There are several terracottas of the
was
early centuries of the Christian era from Mathura, which
a great centre of Buddhism, showing peculiar caps in terra-
During the time of the Satraps of Mathura,
the fusion of foreign with indigenous traditions continued and
in the Kusana period we have several examples of these intercotta figurines.
esting features in stone
some
cases
show
and
strong
clay.
If
the
Gandhara
Kusana
sculptures in
influence,
it
is
to
be
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
290
accounted for by the fact that the large empire of the Kusanas
included
Kusana
the
north-western
frontier
also.
If
the
sculpture of the 2nd century A.D. with such charm-
and other similar carvings is closely allied to similar sculptures from the Krsna
valley in Amaravati and elsewhere, where the traditions of
ing carvings as the Bhutesar yaksis
is
because both
common
source in the
fusion with foreign elements also existed,
schools grew out of an
the
earlier
Mauryan period and were continued
it
in the
North and South
by the ^urigas and the Satavahanas respectiyely, of
whom
the former were succeeded by the Kusanas in the North.
It is startling
indeed to discover that the exquisite ivory
Begram
from Mathura of
Kusana sculpand 2nd centuries A.D.; but
this is easily understood when it is remembered that they are
from the western end of the Kusana empire and are reminiscent of sculpture found along the eastern and western borders
carvings from
ture
1
so closely resemble the
the 1st
of the Satavahana empire.
The torana gateways,
scenes, the mithunas, the makaras, the lotus motifs
the toilet
and the
long undulating creeper motif of the kalpavalli type are
all
Kusana sculpture of Mathura.
It is the same toilet box here as at Sanchi.
The type of
mirror held by the damsel decorating herself and arranging
her coiffure is the same as in Mathura or even Amaravati.
favourite themes equally in the
Indeed, one of the medallions depicting the toilet scene of
Mayadevi as Suddhodana visits her, from one of the crossbars of the Amaravati rail, cannot but flash across the mind
of anyone examining these ivories.
The motif of two maidens closely held together under an
arched gateway, which is of frequent occurrence in these
ivories, is strongly suggestive of a similar pair of maidens in
Kusana workmanship from Mathura.
The drunken lady almost sinking to the ground and supported as she is raised, a motif that is a favourite one in
1. In Afghanistan.
An excellent comparative study on this aspect ha«
been made by Mile. Jeanine Auboyer in <La vie privee dans Ulnde tmcienne
d'apr&s lea ivoirea de Begram', in NouvelUs Recherche* archJologiques a Begram,
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
Mathura
291
its prototype in Begram also.
The slipping on of the manjlra on the foot of the lady
in Begram is not only frequently met with in Kusana sculpture from Mathura and in Satavahana sculpture from the
sculpture, has
Amaravati'rail, but continues even later as a pleasing motif
Gupta art. One has only to recall in this connection the
vamanika busy adjusting the manjira of the queen; one of
the gems of Cakravarti MandhatS from an Amaravati sculpin
ture
now
preserved in the British
adjusting
the
anklet
at
Begram
Museum.
is
The prasadhika
an equally interesting
vamanika with whose performance her
mistress
highly
is
pleased as seen from her beaming face.
The
adjusting of the necklace in an artistic fashion as
depicted in a Mathura sculpture from Sankasya,
served in the Indian
Museum,
one examining a similar
manjiras are presented to
seat waiting
to
elsewhere
India,
in
now
pre-
bound to strike
ivory carving from Begram.
The
the lady who sits on a low circular
Calcutta,
be decorated, as
is
is
the case
in
sculpture
where the
her the anklets on
for instance, at Amaravati,
prasadhika kneels at her
feet,
and
offers
a tray.
The
adjusting of the ear ornament (kundala), as
at
Begram,
at
Nagarjunakonda.
calls attention to the
The woman wringing
shown
it is
padmaraga type of
ear-ring
from her long, flowing
tresses after her bath while a swan hastens to swallow the
drops of water mistaking them for pearls is as pleasing a
the water
motif here as in Mathura.
The
beautiful description of the lady riding a richly capa-
risoned horse, as given in the Harsacarita
bably most effectively depicted
by Bana,
in sculpture at
is
pro-
Begram.
The dancing scenes from Begram have their counterparts
at Mathura and Amaravati and the harp-shaped vina, the
flute, the karatala and the mrdanga are easily recognized.
The lady carrying food and water, the former on a plate
with a conical
It
lid, is
found both
occurs again and in the
at
Amaravati and Mathura.
at Begram also and
same manner
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
292
common
the
heritage
Another phase of
ful
is
unmistakable.
Gandhara shows the powerGreco-Roman traditions on this area where
finest figures of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were
fact, the earliest images of the Buddha in human
this art in
influence of
some
of the
In
created.
form, which were contemporary with,
not earlier than, the
if
earliest similar representations of the
indigenous schools at
Mathura and at Amaravati, are the Gandhara images of the
Buddha. The Master is here conceived in Greek pattern
—
almost Apollonian in physical beauty and even the garments that adorn him are arranged with folds characteristic
of
Greco-Roman
everything except the jewellery
tion
and execution.
feature
is
Even
sculpture.
these
In
is
for the Bodhisattvas
well-nigh
Gandhara
Greek
in
figures
a
notable
the presentation of the physical form with
emphasis on anatomy.
The
concep-
its
great
sculptor does not round off the
contours, but takes great pains to indicate the modelling of
the
human form
in
way
such a
as to suggest the strength of
physical perfection through the disposition of the muscles.
In indigenous sculpture, on the other hand, the angularities
are not
shown and
the contours are rounded to suggest some-
thing spiritual, avoiding the element of flesh.
Some
of the
masterpieces of Gandhara sculpture demonstrate the great
care and study the sculptor bestowed on depicting the physical form.
The Buddha
as an ascetic, almost skin
and bone with the
veins standing out, could never have been conceived by a
and
sculptor of the indigenous school,
Gandhara
sculpture.
the emaciated
The sunken
Buddha
The most
is
perfect
The
shown
representation
eyes, the skeletal features,
of
Museum.
and the protruding
make
it
indeed a rare
art.
representations of Siddhartha's birth in indigenous
sculpture
human
depicted only in
preserved in the Lahore
veins of this figure of the Master
specimen of Gandhara
is
all
over the country never portray the child in
form, whereas in Gandhara sculpture the child
as issuing
from
his mother's side.
Even
at
is
Amara-
Toilot
Scent-. Ivory,
BeRram. lst-2nd centun
Musee (iuimet, Paris)
A.I).
(Courtesy,
Colossi iiuddh.i. Bami.yan, 4th-5th century
A.l).
(Through E.A.M.)
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
vati
and
293
Nagarjunakonda where the physical form of the
into vogue by the second century of the
Christian era, the child's birth is indicated by footsteps on
the silken garment held by Indra and it is only in Gandhara
sculpture that the human form of the new-born babe is
at
Buddha came
represented.
The presence
is
Buddha
Gandhara sculpture depict-
of Vajrapani as a body-guard of the
another feature that
is
found
ing scenes from the Buddha's
in
life.
Vajrapani
conceived
is
here almost like Hercules with a very rough bone shaped
The milder Vajrapani
thunderbolt in his hand.
in
Amara-
and Nagarjunakonda sculpture may well have been
derived from this type.
However, in the former case both
the figure of Vajrapani and the form of the vajra undergo a
transformation.
The thunderbolt becomes three-pronged on
either side and the wielder of this weapon becomes an
attractive deva very different from the bearded and seminaked muscular figure in Gandhara sculpture.
vati
Even
Buddha's
in
the representation of individual scenes of the
life
in
which Gandhara
abounds, there are
art
several special features which are noteworthy.
the
Buddha attending school and
The scene of
his scholastic
life
are a
great favourite of this school of sculpture and the prince
generally represented as travelling in
rams.
a
chariot
is
drawn by
Taksasila being a great seat of learning, the sculptor
never missed an opportunity of representing the prince slate
in
hand, busy learning the alphabet.
departure in Gandhara sculpture
the preceding scene of the
is
The scene of
the great
always accompanied by
prince taking a last look at his
and his new-born child. The sending of the
assasins by Devadatta is another common scene in which
the Gandhara sculptor takes great pains to show the ruffians
faithful wife
as
specimens of great
muscular strength.
Probably,
the
best representation of the Buddha in Gandhara sculpture is
that in
It must be noted
the one from Hoti-Mardan.
Gandhara sculpture the halo of the Buddha is of the simplest without any border decoration as in the Mathura
2 500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
294
Kusana
The
figures
where the scalloped edge is a typical feature.
from Shahji-ki-dheri from the stupa near
reliquary
Peshawar excavated by Spooner is important as it bears
an inscription with the name of Kaniska and of Agisala, the
Greek craftsman who made it. It is a valuable treasure of
the Peshawar Museum.
It is noteworthy that here the row
of geese with their necks bent and beaks thrust forward
is
on the ASokan lion capital from
Ramapurva, except for the fact that their wings are extended.
Below this frieze the reliquary is decorated with a
garland roll carried by playful juvenile cupids. The Buddha
is seated on the lid of the casket with two attendant figures
on either side.
In Bamiyan in Afghanistan there are colossal figures of
the Buddha modelled on an earlier Gandhara type, belonging to the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D.
These colossal
images, one of them 175 feet high and another about
120 feet evoked the admiration of Yuan Chwang who saw
them on his way. These figures are carved out of a sandstone cliff in the region in niches, like the monasteries and
temples that honeycomb the area for over a mile. The
very similar to the one
creation of these
of the later
is
undoubtedly one of the boldest strokes
Gandhara
colossuses the object
is
sculptor.
to
Clearly, in producing such
emphasize the mahapurusa aspect
of the great Master, who, according to legend, could
largest throne as he did
when he went
to heaven.
fill
the
He was
represented as a towering figure of gigantic height to dominate
and
arrest attention.
It
is
this
concept that accounts
for the gigantic images found elsewhere, for instance, in
Ceylon and Thailand and Chandi Mendut in Java. It may
be recalled that the great parinirvana figure of the
at
Ajanta of the Gupta-Vakataka period
is
Buddha
also colossal.
The Gandhara stupa is interesting as a phase of development from the earlier simpler stupa with emphasis on the
square base, the circular drum, and the large knd conical
finial over the harmika, and a similar development will be
observed in Ceylon, Burma and Thailand also.
liodhisattva. Terra -cotta, Fondukistnn,
c.
7th century A.D.
Thuparama Dagoba. \nuradhapura, Ceylon (Courtesy, Department
Archaeology, Ceylon)
of
.
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
The
295
lantern roof of the sanctuaries at
The
cularly noteworthy.
laying of
Bamiyan is partibeams diagonally across
the corners of a square in successive tiers of diminishing
dimensions
it
especially associated with this area from
where
must have spread to both western Asia and Turkestan.
is
From Hadda come some
1
of the finest figures in stucco
which probably go back to the 4th and 5th centuries A.D.
They are remarkably well made and are full of life and
animation.
There
stucco figures.
is
a rare strength and
The element
vitality
of portraiture
is
it may be said to have reached perfection in
From Fondukistan 2 are derived some of those
and
in
these
very strong
this area.
exquisitely
worked and extraordinarily beautiful figures of Bodhisattvas
and Buddhas, the former wearing flowing garments on their
youthful bodies which are so modelled as to suggest softThe figures are animated and have the
ness to the touch.
rare grace that one comes across in Gupta works of about
The bejewelled Buddha
the same period in Indian art.
from Fondukistan represents a compromise between the
emperor and the monk, for it must not be forgotten that the
astrologers had predicted two possibilities for the child of
Suddhodana either that of a universal emperor or that of
—
Master after enlightenment. This almost incongruous combination of a monk's garb with royal decoration in a variety of rich jewellery was probably a special
a
universal
feature of Fondukistan as of the mediaeva* sculpture of the
eastern Indian school under the Palas.
it
ly
In this connection,
crowned Buddha commonshould be remembered
met with in Pala sculpture was a replica of this earlier
that the
Fondukistan variety; but while here the curls of the Buddha
are still the same as in normal figures with ear ornaments,
necklets and other jewels, the crowned
ture has a regular
crown on
his
head
Buddha of Pala
sculp-
in addition.
The classical Indian element can still be found at
Bamiyan and in Chinese Turkestan where the paintings
1
2.
In Afghanistan.
Also in Afghanistan.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
296
show
and Bagh. The
from the large Buddha niche from
comparable to a similar figure from the
great affinity with those at Ajanta
painting
damsels
of
Bamiyan, which
is
Treasure Cave in Kizil in Turkestan,
Asia.
scene
as
It
pond
rise
The
yet another
is
found
in
verse of Kalidasa describing a
the lotus stalks in the
Central
summer
out of the water
recedes from the steps of the pond, so that the damsel
it
up
stands only
her bath:
Hariti
sculpture.
her hip in water as she steps in for
to
uddandapadmam grhadirghikdnam narinitamba-
dvayasarn babhuva 1
.
has been given an honoured place in Buddhist
She
is
a great favourite as she comes closest to
highest of the matrka
the
Uiliq
figure of classical Indian grace
recalls a
when
a case in point.
Dandan
lady in the lotus tank from
example of a
is
the purest maternal affection
Hariti with that of Paficika
—
the mother bestowing
on her children. The figure of
concept
is
probably as
much
a favourite
Gandhara sculpture as is Hariti by herself in Chinese
Turkestan and in Java. A fine sculpture, remarkably akin
to similar Indian representations, is a modern Japanese
image of Hariti in the collection of Mr. Henry H. Getty. She
has her place in Chinese sculpture also and is shown with a
in
child in her lap as in the Japanese figure.
from
Domoko
Museum,
like
Museum
in
Chinese Turkestan, and
A
wall painting
now
in the British
another painting from Turfan, at present
in
Volkerkunde in Berlin, shows this mother
around her as in the case of the
standing Hariti from Gandhara in the Lahore Museum.
Among the paintings from Chinese Turkestan, there is
one from Kizil in the Kucha area in which a remarkable
the
with
children
fur
playing
scene from the Buddha's
life is
presented.
India,
where the
few scenes at
such scene.
no
unfortunately
has
Amaravati,
Bharhut and
story of Ajatasatru has been represented in a
This remarkable painting depicts king Ajatasatru as the story
Buddha is narrated to him. It was
of the passing of the
feared that the disclosure of the
1.
RaghnvaniMti,
XVI,
4*J.
news would so shock the
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
297
it would at once cause his death.
His wise minisVarsakara, caused the principal scenes from the Buddha's
to be presented on a canvas in order to be shown to the
king that
ter,
life
king so that he could understand the final death or the
nirvana of the Buddha by a narration beginning with his
enlightenment, his
birth, his
first
sermon and concluding with
In this remarkable painting there
his death.
is
a fine admix-
and Chinese elements, though the
central painting, the scroll shown to Ajata£atru, is almost
ture of Indian, Persian
completely Indian in feeling.
The
influence of Buddhist art
from
India can also be
Buddhas in the Thousand Caves
Tun-huang in China. The wall paintings
these caves are akin to those at Bamiyan and may be
traced in the figures of the
of the
in
Buddhas
at
said to be related to those at Ajanta.
roof at
ings at
Bamiyan
is
Yun Kang
figures are
draped
The
so-called lantern-
also found in Tun-huang.
clearly
show Indian
origin.
in the Indian dhoti style
which suggests
that the artists themselves
were probably Indian.
Hope Province
west of Peking),
(to
the
caves have been discovered.
oldest Buddhist
in
the
style
monuments
Rock carvSome of the
In Shansi-
twenty-one
They are supposed
to
big
be the
Their sculptures are
in China.
of Bamiyan, Gandhara and Ajanta and
the
human
So also are the newly discovered
figures are Indian.
on Maichi mountain (Kansu Province), where figures
are seen in Indian drapery (dhoti uttardsanga) with crowns
on their heads.
grottos
The Chinese Buddhist Association
recently
published
(Nationalities Publishing House, Peking, 1955) a number of
colour plates illustrating Buddhist scenes and monuments in
China and Tibet. They show Buddhist sculptures from the
4th century onwards in the groltos of Yun-kang, Maichishan and of Pingling temple as well as in the caves at Tunhuang.
These
art
monuments show
the
influence of the
school as well of the pure Indian style of the
Gandhara
Gupta period.
The characteristics of
the art of painting in Central Asia
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
398
and China provided
of
Tang
the
Horyuji
in
a prototype for the Buddhist paintings
period
in
The
Japan.
China and for the paintings at
paintings on the walls of the
Horyuji Monastery (8th century A.D.) clearly recall Indian
may perhaps have come through China.
Like the Hariti figures which abound wherever Bud-
influence which
dhism
spread,
sculptures
and
paintings
representing
guardians of the quarters are to be found in
all
the
areas which
came under the influence of Buddhism. One tier in the great
stupa at Borobudur is entirely devoted to the guardians of
the quarters such as Virupaksa, Virudhaka, Dhrtarastra and
Kubera, and there are similar representations in Tibet and
China and even in far-off Japan. From Nara comes the
image of Komoku-ten, the guardian of the west and a counterThis Nagaraja is shown standing on
dwarf yaksa very similar to other early yaksa
particularly the Kupira yaksa from Bharhut.
The
part of Virupaksa.
a crouching
figures,
persistence of this iconographic motif of a normally propor-
tioned yaksa standing on a dwarfed one, a feature also found
in
similar representations in early sculpture in India
from
Bharhut and elsewhere, even in representations from other
on the Gudimallam liriga in South
faiths, for instance, Siva
and popular yaksa cult.
two oldest stupas from Nepal, the Sambhunath and
the Bodhinath, the latter presents a typically Nepalese form.
It is a tumulus over a square base with the box-like harmika
India, points to a very ancient
Of
on
top,
teristic
the
surmounted by the conical
cluding Ceylon and Burma.
is
that the
pairs
finial
which
is
so charac-
of stupas from other parts of South-East Asia,
Buddha
of colossal
is
in-
But here the noteworthy feature
conceived of as all-seeing; hence the
eyes looking in
all
the
four directions.
caturamukha in
Even
the
colossal faces
the case of Siva and other deities.
looking in the four directions at Bayon at Angkor Thorn are
probably meant to reflect the omnipresence which is indicated by Brahma's four faces.
The Tibetan stOpa is not very different from the Nepalese
This concept
is
to be traced to the idea of
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
299
one, but the most famous chorten or stupa from Gyan-Tse
with its unusual plan and elevation reminds one of the
Borobudur stupa
The
in Java.
Nepal and Tibet is largely derived from Pala
Buddhism itself was introduced in this area from
Nalanda. The Buddhist pantheon comprises many gods and
goddesses the Dhyani Buddhas, the Manusi Buddhas, the
Bhaisajya Buddhas or medicinal Buddhas, Maitreya, the
future Buddha, the Bodhisattvas or potential Buddhas,
art of
art, just as
—
Taras, Marici, the Lokapalas, Jambhalas and several other
The monasteries in Tibet contain stucco
gods and goddesses.
figures,
in
wood
carvings and tarika paintings illustrating belief
transmigration, magic circles and astrological diagrams
as also gods and
goddesses of the pantheon. There are
from Tibet illustrating great masters like
Padmasambhava, Acarya Atisa and others who were res-
several
portraits
ponsible for the propagation of the faith in that country.
Some
of the most marvellous
monuments
in the
Buddhist
world belong to Ceylon, and her sculpture is closely associated with the early art of the Krishna valley and the later
Pallava and Cola
kings owing to the close relations that
and Ceylon. The lovely standRuanweli stupa, believed to
represent king Dutthagamani and dating from the 2nd
century A.D., is equal to any of the best sculptural representA standing
ations from Amaravati of the rail period.
Buddha from the same place and of the same date is an
exact replica of similar figures from Amaravati and allied
sites.
When it is remembered that Amaravati was a great
centre of Buddhist sculpture and metalwork and that several
bronzes of the Amaravati school have been found in the
Malayan Peninsula and beyond—the figures from Dong
existed between South India
ing figure
of
a
prince
near
Indo-China and from Sempaga in the Celebes
being very famous examples of the Andhra metal images in
distant places in South-East Asia— this feature becomes
Duong
in
easily intelligible.
Probably the most remarkable image of the Buddha of
W/W>H1SM
a very early date
is
the
seated
one
in
Anuridhapura.
The Nagaraja
^
pUttya-kala£a in his
work.
This
is
^n
from
as dvara-pala at AnunTdhapura
with a
hand and a lotus with a long stalk in
the
has the grace of an Amaraan indication of the gradual substitution
other in early Pallava style
vati
m»A-<
mcdlta
still
of the former by the motif of the river goddess as guardian
of the gateway, which starting at Amaravati continues in a
modified form in the representation of the lady with a creeper
This motif is a common feature of doorways
South Indian temples. With the makara and the lotus as
on a makara.
in
motifs for decoration the sculptor of Ceylon has achieved
very pleasing effects as
in
some of
the South Indian Pallava
and Cola temples.
The elephant
found so often
puram and
as the supporter of the universe,
in caryatid
form
which
the colossal rock-cut temple at Ellora, has a
earlier representation in a dedicatory stupa
pura which goes back to the pre-Christian
The moonstone
is
Mahabali-
in the rathas at
still
from Anuradha-
era.
doorstep, irihanda gala, with a pleasing
pattern of lotus petals as in a halo encircled by a border
composed of rows of geese and animals
separated
similar
The
by
intervening
floral
in successive
designs,
at
once
bands
recalls
moonstones from Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda.
strong influence of the rsi cult and the veneration for
sages, particularly Agastya in South India, has
sculptural
efflorescence
not only
in
Peninsular India, but also in Ceylon and Java.
guru of Java
in the ship
is
had a special
the extreme
If
south of
Bhatara-
and the Agastya figure occurs
Borobudur monuments, the features
so important
carved
in the
of the saint are equally prominent in the carving presenting
Parakramabahu
Of
at Polonnaruva.
the later figures of the 11th
and 12th century A.D.
in
Ceylon, the colossal one from Polonnaruva of the parinir-
vana of the Buddha, lying in great calm, with his beloved
Ananda standing beside him with his hands crossed in
devotion and veneration,
is
probably one of the greatest
Apsaras. Sigiriya, Ceylon, 5th century A.D. (Courtesy, Department of
Archaeology, Ceylon)
g^^
^
^'
10
Moonstone at Queen's Pavilion, Anuradhapura, Ceylon
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
masterpieces of Buddhist art from Ceylon.
The metal image of the Buddha from Badulla,
served
in_
Colombo Museum,
the
Amaravati bronzes while the
and Cola traditions.
later
301
now
pre-
modelled after the
images follow the Pallava
is
The paintings from Sigiriya are probably more intimateconnected with the Pallava paintings from Sittanavasal,
Panamalai and Kancipuram than any other.
ly
The stOpa in Ceylon is a circular drum on a square base
with a long succession of compressed umbrellas forming a
conical top over a box-shaped harmika, of which the
Thuparama Dagoba
at
Polonnaruva several
late
Anuradhapura is a fine example. At
Pallava and early Cola features are
easily discerned in the guardian figures, the balustrades with
makara motifs and a frieze of lions. A remarkable mandapa
from Polonnaruva is composed of pillars shaped like stout
lotus stalks of which nothing now remains except the free
standing pillars. The Satmahal pasada is a seven-storeyed
pavilion which recalls similar pavilions, for instance, the
Baksei Chamkrong from Angkor.
In Burma, the earliest stupas are simpler and nearer to
The Ngakye Nadaun stupa of the
their Indian prototypes 1
10th century A.D. from Pagan is almost similar to the
.
Dhamekh
stupa
at
Sarnath.
The Mahabodhi temple
at
the same place, which belongs to the 13th century A.D., at
once recalls the Mahabodhi temple at Gay^. Other stupas
of the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. from Pagan rise in tiers
on a square base and are somewhat more complex than the
most modern Shwe-dagon at Rangoon which is more like
a top with its head cut flat and placed upside down. In
the Ananda temple at Pagan, which belongs to the late 11th
century, the whole story of the Buddha is narrated in interesting panels in
which the influence of the Pala as well
near the Sa#ain Hills in Upper Burma
A stupa of a similar shape
but with a flame-like projection on the top is also found in the precincts of
1.
comes
The stupa
of
Kuang Htmiriaw
closest to the stupa of Sanchi in India,
Vat Visun
in
Luang-prabang (Laos).
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
302
workman
as Kalinga
obvious.
is
dents like the carrying of
Maya
Several
important inci-
to lake Anotatta for her
bath by the queens of the guardians of the quarters, are
Such representations are rare even
presented graphically.
and occur only once
in India
sage Asita
The
Amaravati.
at
of
visit
as great a favourite in the Burmese narration
is
of the Buddha's story as at Amaravati and Nagarjunakoncja,
The
birth scene, particularly in this series, recalls strongly
combination of Cola and Pala workmanship, which
impossible as
was active
The
labels
tute
it
was
in the
Bay of Bengal and
an invaluable collection of
valley
is
and the
fleet
at
descriptive
Pagan
consti-
pictorial representations of
The
the Jatakas in the 11th century A.D.
these Jatakas
inscribed
Pagoda
in the eastern Petleik
not
is
Rajendra Coja's
the Indian Ocean.
of Jataka scenes with
series
found
at this time that
a
script recording
based on the Verigi type from the Krishna
forms of the Indian.
figures are modified
the Canda-kinnara Jataka
In
the kinnara pair recalls a similar
The Valahassa Jataka
from Mathura of the Kusana
kinnara representation at Borobudur.
recalls
the
representation
The portraying of scenes from the Jatakas has
been such a living art that in the modern Pathodawgyi
period.
Pagoda
at
Amarapura,
representations are
as
built
lively
1820 A.D., the pictorial
in
as
ever, especially that of the
Kakkata Jataka which recalls similar representations at
Bharhut two thousand years earlier. The Kakkata Jataka
occurs in a similar fashion even in the Petleik Pagoda, nine
The scene of the Mandhatu Jataka shows
king passing away in his park on a couch and
centuries earlier.
the fallen
explaining to his people the emptiness of worldly wishes and
desires.
There
is
a
similar
representation
at
Nagarjuna-
konda.
The
incident of
from a great storm
Naga Mucalinda
for seven days
protecting the
and nights
lightenment, a great favourite in the Krishna valley,
bably
nowhere
so
prominent
as
sculptor takes the utmost delight in
Buddha
after his enis
pro-
The Khmer
representing the Buddha
in
Siam.
The Buddha's Descent.
Sianx, after
Salmony
The King's Dream. Borobudur, 8th century A.D.
The
The King
Sacrifice.
Borobudur, 8th century A.D.
listening to the Bpdhisattva.
Borobudur, 8th century
A»,
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
303
on the Naga with the hoods held over his head.
Even in the earliest AmaravatT sculpture where the footprints of the Buddha represent the Master, the Naga
Mucalinda is shown coiled round the footprints with his
hoods over his own form, represented in anthropomorphic
seated
in addition to the zoomorphic, in an attitude of
devotion with the hands brought together in anjali. This
fashion
incident
of
is
presented as effectively centuries later in the art
Cambodia and Siam where
the
human
figure
of the
Master is seated with that enigmatic smile characteristic of
the wide-mouthed Khmer figures on the coils of the snake.
Another important incident from the Buddha's life,
which has its earliest representation at Bharhut and which
is also a great favourite in Gupta and mediaeval sculpture, is
the descent of the Buddha from the Trayastrim&t heaven
This is deafter he had preached the Law to his mother.
picted in a variety of forms in Siam and is not known to
have occurred elsewhere in isolation. It is a suggestive
mode of representing the Buddha's descent from heaven at
Sarikasya.
In Bharhut, where the physical form of the
Buddha is absent, this descent is depicted by a triple ladder
and the feet of the Buddha, one at the top and the other at
the bottom.
In Gupta sculpture the Buddha flanked by
Brahma and Indra, the one holding a parasol and the other
a chauri,
is
shown with
and below him.
In
later
the steps of the ladder at his feet
mediaeval sculpture the ladder
very often omitted by the sculptor altogether.
feature of this
scene from
Siam
is
that
the
The
sculptor
chosen to represent suggestively the descent of the
as he traverses the sky to reach the earth.
He
is
is
special
has
Buddha
flanked
by the attendant figures but the ladder is shown in order
The sky no doubt could be represented
by the sun or moon, but since a circle or a wheel would
to suggest the sky.
suggest the dharmacakra and create confusion by making it
appear as a scene of dharmacakra-pravartana, the eagle
has been chosen instead to suggest Visnupada, the sky. As
the word Visnupada means both the sky and the vehicle of
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
304
Like
mahapurusa Tlrthankara wearing Srivatsa on the chest
in the manner of the Purusottama Visnu, the Buddha as
the mahapurusa is shown riding the vehicle of Visnu which
suggests Visnupada, the sky, whence he descended.
The greatest period of Buddhist art in Java was during
the time of the Sailendra kings, from the eighth to the tenth
century A.D. The great Sailendra monarchs were intensely
devoted to the Buddhist faith and were in active touch with
the Pala and Co|a kings in India. This Javanese influence is
obvious both at Nalanda and at Nagapattinam, and these
Visnu, the eagle has been chosen to suggest the sky.
the
Javanese sculptures in their turn
The
copper-plate
grant
of
in this is
Balaputra
Indian origins.
to
shows the close
Devapala-deva
relationship between the Sailendra
and
point
and
the
empires
Pala
mentioned the important monasteries built by
Suvarna-dvipa
of
in
Rajaraja, the great Cola emperor
the
who was
A.D.
century
9th
a devotee of
$>iva,
but very tolerant in religious matters, was munificent in his
Buddhist Cudamani Vihara
the
Nagapattinam
gifts
to
built
by the Sailendra king, Maravijayottungavarman.
The Buddha
temple
duced
found
Gupta
is
Java.
in
at
flanked
It
is
is
Bodhisattvas seen
is
not dissimilar to the seated
Gupta and
The back
in the
probably the loveliest pro-
Ajanta and elsewhere and closely follows
prototypes.
seated
by the
Chandi Mendut
at
in
Buddha
its
earlier
of the simhasana on which he
characteristic of similar representations of the late
early mediaeval periods in
India.
The Chandi
Mendut. though a small monument, has very interesting
carvings, some of them illustrations of well-known fables from
Indian collections.
the
monkey
gusto.
A
and
The
stories of the
talkative
tortoise,
the crocodile are portrayed with great
fine representation of Hariti also
comes from
this
monument.
Close to it is the famous Borobudur stupa, which is a
marvel of architectural and sculptural beauty. Scenes from
the
life
of the Buddha, from the Jatakas and from the story
of Sudhana in quest of enlightenment are
shown
in the tiers
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
305
of this great monument.
The Buddha as he finally evolved
One in the course of successive births
into the Enlightened
represented in his
is
well-known dhyana posture in rows of clearly perceptible
figures
on the four
the lattice-walled miniature stupas arranged
tially visible in
in
higher
the
These are only par-
sides of the stupa.
and
tiers,
invisible in the
finally
crowning
stupa with no lattice work to reveal the figure inside.
This
from the gross and physical to
is
the subtle and the infinite, from sarupa to arupa.
The stupa of Borobudur is a monument of wonderful
symbolic of the transition
and
grace
approximates to the
sricakra
pattern
sarvatobhadra fashion with the central bindu in
at
The
the top.
flights
of steps leading
up
the four sides face the cardinal points with
makara-mukha
and
trades
makaramukha
toranas
at
in
the
Meru form
to the top
makara
on
balus-
intervals.
The
below it occurs as
and resembles its Indian prototype.
The first of the covered row of carvings at the base
of this stupa shows scenes of torment in hell and the
fruits of good deeds in heaven based on the early Indian
a gargoyle
with
How
Vat.
caryatid
figure
at several points
concept of the
type in the
the
beyond.
life
Yamapata
the
has
It
its
of which there
Bodhisattva
in
the
is
Brahmanical protoa version at
form
of
a
Angkor
tortoise
helped to save shipwrecked sailors by carrying them ashore,
how
he was patience
received
in
his
king the great
among
Law
itself
as
life
a
in
spite of the
buffalo,
provocation he
how he preached
to the
even when he was born as a peacock are
the stories graphically represented in exquisite sculp-
ture at Borobudur.
The
representation of a ship in sculpture
nowhere more beautiful than at Borobudur.
In the narration of scenes from the Buddha's life in the
Lalitavistara, the sculptor has created numerous master-
is
pieces in addition
to
portraying various aspects of Hindu
where a boy is put to school, the
mahasankalpa on the Sravana-paurnima day when he begins
his studies, which is still a living custom in India, has its
samskaras; for instance,
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
306
sculptural parallel carved over 1,200 years ago at Borobudur,
where a row of students are represented with
clasped
in
padya
Arghya,
The
acamaniya
splendidly
are
guests
and
guru
while the
saiikalpa,
utters
in
hands
mantra.
appropriately
offered
delineated
their
the
the
to
sculptural series.
purna-kumbha to a mahapurusa, a
custom alive to this day in South India, has an early
parallel at Borobudur where the purna-kumbha is offered to
welcome the Buddha. The sprinkling of holy water by the
priest in asirvada which again is a living practice in India,
is presented in sculpture at Borobudur in several scenes, including one of the marriage of prince Siddhartha and Gopa.
In a Jataka scene, which still awaits interpretation and
which may well be identified with the Mahasupina Jataka,
Brahmadatta, the king, is having his dreams interpreted by
brahmanas. They terrify him and suggest the performance
of a sacrifice, for which a host of animals and birds are
gathered, but a young pupil of the king's chaplain questions
the propriety of this sacrifice.
With the help of a Bodhisattva,
who according to this tale was born a brahmana, but
renounced the world to become a hermit, the king is admonished, the sacrifice averted and the animals freed.
Here is a
of
presentation
graphic presentation of the rtvik priests assembled round the
fire
on a
sacrificial altar
for the sacrifice,
The
flight of
the
divine
dress, the
palaces
in
a
all
the animals
and birds ready
succeeding panel are released
admonition of the king by the Bodhisattva.
after the
of
which
with
Vidyadharas on the clouds, the ovoid halos
the pattern of ornamentation and
figures,
architectural details of temples
in sculpture, the
variety of musical
and mandapas and
orchestra for music
composed of a
instruments, including the harp and the
and drums of the urdhva, arikya
poses in representations of dance
guitar shaped vlna, the flute
and
alirigya,
the
dance
and music, the throne, the chariot, the palanquin, the
sword and shield, the variety of lamps and utensils used for
worship all these motifs in Borobudur recall Indian prototypes, particularly of the Pallava
and Calukya
type.
Mr
view
of
Knrobiidur, .lava
(Courtesy, ninas-Purbakala,
Djakarta)
A BRIEF SURVEY OF BUDDHIST ART
A
307
remarkable masterpiece of the twelfth or thirteenth
is the famous Prajfiaparamita, now preserved
Leyden Museum. This image from Singasari is probably the best of this deity anywhere in the world. Of
other Buddhist figures in which Java abounds,
there are
some in metal, particularly the one of Padmapani in silver
century A.D.
in the
at the
Museum
in Djakarta.
Buddhist art outside India has produced a magnificent
wealth of sculpture which includes
which have no
displayed
great
parallel
in
India.
many unique specimens
The sculptor has often
and thought in producing these
compel the attention of scholars and
vision
masterpieces which
connoisseurs of art
all
over the world.
CHAPTER
XII
Places of Buddhist Interest
A. In Northern India
Gautama Buddha has left his footprint on the soil of
mark on the soul of mankind. This human
India and his
eclipsed even the heavenly gods and the places
consecrated by his presence were held in great veneration.
Before his parinirvana, the Buddha spoke of the four places
teacher
which a pious believer should
visit
with faith and reverence.
They are the Lumbini-vana where the Tathagata was born;
Gaya (Bodh Gaya) where he attained bodhi (enlightenment); the Deer Park at Isipatana (Sarnath) where he proclaimed the Law for the first time; and KuSinagara where
he reached the unconditioned state of nirvana.
In the Buddhist sacred lore there are four other places
which with the above four make up the at{hamahathanani
(astamahasthanani) or eight sanctified spots. They were the
scenes of four of the principal miracles that the
One was
said to have performed.
At
Blessed
Sravasti, the capital
of KoSala, the BcTddha gave a display of his miraculous
powers to confound the leader of the TIrthika sect. Next,
in accordance with the practice of the previous Buddhas,
he ascended the heaven of the thirty-three gods, preached
the Abhidhamma to his deceased mother and descended to
earth at SarikaSya. Rajagrha, the capital of Magadha, was the
scene of another miracle in which he tamed the mad elejealous
phant, Nalagiri, that had been let loose by his
In a mango grove at Vaisali, a number
cousin, Devadatta.
of monkeys offered him a bowl of honey. The famous
by their
cities in India at that time were thus hallowed
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
309
association with the Buddha's religion.
These holy places became centres of great attraction for the
pious believers and pilgrimages were religiously undertaken
Asoka
to these places.
calls
such pilgrimages dhammayata
(dharmayatra), or tours of piety.
Many
other places, too,
rose into prominence as the influence of
Buddhism
The places of Buddhist
of Gautama Buddha and
many
tity,
no
visitors
less
significance are
spread.
in the land
in their flourishing days their sanc-
than their splendour and magnificence, attracted
from
far
and wide.
Lumbinl
Among
the Blessed
the sacred places of Buddhism,
One was born must
has been identified with the
Nepalese
grew
site
As
Terai.
in sanctity
the
a
in existence.
pillar
inevitably
of
birth-place
and importance.
lishments that rose on the
now
site
Of
Lumbini where
come
first.
Many
are the estab-
Very few, however,
site.
course, there
It
Rummindei, in the
of the Buddha, the
still
are.
stands at the site
engraved with an inscription commemorating the
great Atoka's pilgrimage to this place in the twentieth year
"Here the Buddha was born", says
after his consecration.
the emperor, and this statement proves the identity of the
beyond any doubt. Apart from the pillar,
an ancient shrine with an image representing the
of the Lord as described in the sacred texts.
sanctified spot
there
is
nativity
Bodh Gaya
Bodh Gaya where
(bodhi) lies six
the
Buddha
attained supreme
miles to the south
Hindu pilgrimage.
To
wisdom
of Gaya, a place of
the devout Buddhist there
is
no
place of greater interest or sanctity than the holy spot of
the Buddha's enlightenment. 1
Sacred shrines and stately
have been discovered at this site,
1. Several interesting inscriptions
according to which Ceylonese, Burmese and Chinese people visited this place
of pilgrimage. Two Ceylonese inscriptions in Sanskrit tell us about one
[Continued on next page
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
310
monuments were
around and the account of the
raised all
Chinese pilgrim, Yuan Chwang, gives us a glimpse of the
past splendour of this sanctified site.
Yuan Chwang
the
ascribes
erection
of
the
original
Bodhi shrine to Emperor ASoka. According to one of his
rock edicts, Asoka visited this place, which is called
Sambodhi
in
the inscription,
and
ten years,
is
it
when he had been consecrated
more than probable
that the great
No
peror constructed a shrine on this holy spot.
em-
vestiges
of such a shrine can, however, be found at present. Scholars
are of the opinion that the Bodhi shrine carved in a Bharhut
relief (circa
by Asoka.
2nd century B.C.) might represent the one erected
It seems to have consisted of a balustraded gal-
lery enclosing the
Bodhi
tree,
preceded by a column of the
on which ASoka's edicts are carved.
type
balustrades seem to have been
which was
later translated
into
wooden
The
stone.
The
of
original
construction,
stately
which we see nowadays, is a later erection.
temple has been restored and renovated many times.
ture,
the description of
essentially
already
temple
As
in
in
in
it
its
the
Yuan Chwang
it
struc-
This
From
appears that the temple,
and appearance, existed
A.D.
The Mahabodhi
a prototype of this grand temple.
present
seventh
Burma is
now stands,
the
shape
century
Mahabodhi temple
at
Bodh Gaya
approximately 160 feet high and consists of a straight
pyramidal tower surmounted by a stupa, complete with the
is
harmika and the
ber.
hti
The tower has
with a fluted amalaka-like lower
mem-
angle amalakas at the corners, demar-
an image of the Buddha and conBurmese inscriptions in
corrupt Sanskrit (in Nagarl characters) and in Burmese tell us of repairs and
offerings to the shrine made on behalf of Barma from time to time*
The two Chinese inscriptions (10-1 lth centuries A.D.) are written by Chinese
pilgrims.
One of them mentions the names of several Chinese pilgrims who
visited the place, along with its author, Che-Yi, and who had taken a vow to
do such meritorious deeds as would lead to their birth in the Tusita heaven.
The second, written by K'oyun (and not by Yu-shu, for which see Sino-Indian
Studies, Vol. I, Part II, p. 114), is a eulogy of the three kayas of the Buddha,
namely, Nirmana-kaya Sambhoga-kaya and Dharma-kaya.
Mahanama
(II) of Ceylon,
who
offered
structed a palatial building (prfodda) at this place.
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
eating
its
311
The entrance porch, evidently
on the east. Each of the
different stages.
later than the original temple, is
four sides of the tower presents several tiers of niches, while
the front face has a
light into the
tall
lancet opening for the admission of
At
sanctum.
rises a turret at
tower
the base of the
there
each of the four corners, a miniature replica
of the main spire.
The
Blessed
temple
One
enshrines
a
temple, there
of
figure
Along the northern
a narrow masonry platform
is
four feet above the ground.
shrine of the
the
This
is
side of the
about
raised
known
as the "jewel
walk" or the Buddha's Promenade (cankama),
enlightenment the Great Teacher is
attaining
after
said to have spent a
At the
tion.
gilded
touching the earth which symbolizes the supreme
event of enlightenment.
where
great
week walking
to
and
fro in
deep medita-
points where he set his feet, there are sculptur-
ed ornaments representing the miraculous blossoms which
are said to have sprung up in his footsteps.
Passing along
promenade and to the west of the temple stands the
Bodhi tree and the holy spot of enlightenment, now marked
by a red sandstone slab, representing the Vajrasana on which
the Master is said to have reached Perfect Wisdom.
The
original Mahabodhi shrine, as represented in the early rethis
liefs,
is
Bodhi
conical
portrayed as enclosing this holy spot including the
The
tree.
idea
of erecting a
tower necessitated
its
erection
of this holy spot so that the holy spot
now
temple with a
lofty
the
east
and the Bodhi
tree
a
little
to
stand at the back of the temple.
Around
the temple
lie
which
innumerable remains of
the most important are portions of the stone railing which
represent two different periods of construction,
the earlier
going back to about the 2nd century B.C. and the
the early
Gupta
period.
Interesting carvings are
latter to
still
to be
and of these the figure of Tndra as
drawn by a fourthe Sun god,
and
horsed chariot, are noteworthy. Beautiful sculptures
seen on these
Santi,
rail
posts,
and that of Surya,
richly decorated votive stupas, scattered all round,
still
con-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
312
tinue to attract the admiring gaze of pilgrims
The
in
who was
residence of the Mahanta,
charge of the temple precincts,
is
and, like the sculpture shed nearby,
sculptures
and
with
relics
visitors.
a store-house of fine
is
which
once
In the immediate vicinity are
holy spot.
sacred
other
and
a long time
close to the great temple
for
embellished
this
seven
situated
which, according to tradition, were identical
sites,
where
those
the
Lord
said to have passed seven
is
tranquil weeks in the enjoyment of his
Buddhahood.
Sarnath
Sarnath marks the birth of the religion of Gautama
Buddha. Hence it became a great centre of Buddhist activities and remained so for more than a millennium and a
half.
The
"Monastery
inscriptions refer to the site as the
of the Turning of the Wheel of Righteousness" (Saddharma-
cakra-pravartana vihara) by which
was known
is
name
this
Though very
to ancient Buddhist writers.
known of
sacred place
little
Deer Park during the early
the history of the
centuries of Buddhism, the place acquired celebrity, like the
other holy places of Buddhism, from
the
time
of ASoka.
This saintly monarch erected a series of monuments, including a pillar inscribed with an
monks and nuns
edict
warning
the resident
against creating schisms in the church.
Yuan Chwang,
Fa-hien and
Chinese
pilgrims,
place
the 5th and 7th centuries A.D. respectively,
in
us valuable information regarding
later periods also, the site
inscriptions
grew
and other evidence
in
this
size
visited
important
and
site.
The
the
left
In
and prosperity and
relate to the. building of
new
shrines and edifices, as well as to the renovation of old ones,
one of the
latest
being the Temple of the Wheel of the
Law
founded by Kumaradevi, one of the queens of King Govindaof the 12th century A.D.
was destroyed, presumably by the armies
of Muhammad Ghori., There is evidence of earlier vandalism,
once probably by the Hunas and later during the sacking of
Such damage,
Banaras by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni.
candra of Kanauj,
Soon
in the first half
after, the place
Lion Capital of Asoka's Column. Stone, Sarnath, 3rd century B.C. (Courtesy,
Ttonaftmnnt- nf
&rrhapMnrv Government of India)
Main Stupa. Sanchi,
B.C.— 1st century B.C. (Courtesy, Department
Archaeology, Government of India)
3rd century
of
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
313
however, was immediately repaired by pious devotees, but
this
final
catastrophe
brought waste and desolation to the
prosperous establishments.
The
ruins of Sarnath
an
cover
extensive
area.
The
Archaeological Department has done a good deal of excava-
monuments and
workmanship have come
As one approaches the site from Banaras, the first
tion at the site
and a number of
interesting
sculptures of exquisite beauty and
to light.
landmark that attracts the eye is a lofty mound of brickwork, locally known as the Chaukhandi, surmounted by an
The mound
octagonal tower at the top.
represents the ruins
of a stupa on a terraced basement erected to
mark
the spot
where the Buddha, on his way from Gaya to Isipatana, first
met his five former comrades who were soon to become
converts to his Faith.
Half a mile to the north
is
the site of the Deer Park, which
must have had imposing buildings
greatness.
Dhamekh
All
is
now
in ruins,
stupa, which rears
in the
days of
its
save a battered structure, the
its
head to a height of nearly
150 feet above the surrounding country.
The
ruins have been
bare by the spade of the archaeologists and the
laid
pristine
site,
as
exposed, shows that temples and stupas occupied the central
position with monasteries in the area around them.
They
belong to different periods of construction, the earliest going
back to the days of Asoka. Traces of successive restorations
and renovations are also evident in some of the important
buildings.
Yuan Chwang, has been identified with the ruins of a large brick stupa, commonly known
as Jagat Singh's stupa after Jagat Singh, the Diwan of Raja
Chait Singh of Banaras. He dismantled it in 1794 for bricks
for the construction of a market in Banaras.
The site of
this stupa probably marks the spot where the Buddha deliThe Asoka
vered his
first
of the Law.
stupa, seen by
discourse and thus literally turned the
A
little
Wheel
farther to the north stands the broken
stump of the Asoka pillar, the magnificent Lion Capital of
which may now be seen in the Archaeological Museum
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
314
On
nearby.
the east
may
be seen the ruins of a temple,
designated the main shrine, which must date from the Gupta
period,
if
not earlier.
Around
the main shrine there
a paved court with a
is
In this court are found
similar approach from the east.
innumerable remains of stupas of various shapes and sometimes also of shrines, the remnants of pious benefactions of
and pilgrims who flocked to this holy spot. On the
north and south were ranged monastic establishments.
Among the ruins at Sarnath, the most imposing is no
votaries
doubt the
of the
from
Dhamekh
its
built of
stupa situated at the south-east corner
Battered though
site.
it
is,
it
still
Indeed,
original foundations.
it
stands 143
is
ft.
high
a solid structure,
massive blocks of stone at the lower stage and of
brick, probably faced with stone, at the upper.
cylindrical shape
and
is
It
is
of
relieved in the lower section by eight
projecting bays, each with a large niche originally containing
an image.
This lower section has a broad belt of carved orna-
mentation of intricate geometric pattern with
ques above and below
floral
arabes-
The modern name, Dhamekh,
it.
is
probably derived from the Sanskrit dharmeksa, meaning "the
pondering of the Law", and since
it is
in
a line with the Dhar-
marajika stupa of Asoka which stands due west of
it,
it
The original
must have been an important, monument.
structure on this spot also possibly dated from the days of
Asoka.
Apart from the ruins and relics of the past, a place of
interest is furnished by the Mulagandhakuti Vihara,
modern
erected by the
tain
Buddhist
Mahabodhi
relics
Society where are enshrined cer-
discovered at Taksasila (Taxila), Nagar-
junakonda and Mirpur-khas
The
antiquities
numerous and
so
consist of
in
far
Sindh.
discovered
sculptures,
in
the
bas-reliefs,
ruins
rail
are
frag-
ments, terra cotta figurines, seals and sealings, inscriptions,
pottery vessels, and various other objects.
With very few
exceptions, they pertain to the Buddhist religion and cover
a period of approximately 1.500 years, from the 3rd century
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
315
They have been housed
B.C. to the 12th century A.D.
in
a
Museum and
which well repays a visit. The Lion Capital, originally surmounting the Atoka pillar, now occupies a place
neat
a sculpture shed, situated near the
little
ruins,
of honour in
the
Museum.
It
of four addorsed
consists
lions, supported on an abacus over a bell-shaped lower
The
ber.
capital
was
originally
mem-
crowned by a wheel,
fragments of which have been recovered from the
the
ruins.
Symbolical of India's message of peace and goodwill to the
world, the capital
One
now forms
the crest of resurgent India.
of the foremost of the sculptures in the
Museum
is
famous sandstone image of the Master in the act of setting
the wheel of the Law in motion {dharmacakra-pravartanamudra), which is a masterpiece of Indian plastic art.
the
Kusinagara
KuSinagara or Kusinara
is
it was
Lord passed
sacred to Buddhists as
the place where under a grove of sal trees the
into nirvana in his eightieth year.
The
has been identified
site
with Kasia in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
Like the other sacred places connected with the eventful
life
of the Master, Kusinara rose to be an important place
of pilgrimage and in the course of time was covered with
For reasons unknown, howwas deserted early in its history, and both
Fa-hien and Yuan Chwang note the utter ruin and desolation
sacred shrines and monasteries.
ever, the place
of this once important
tially laid
site.
The remains
that have been par-
bare by excavations are extremely fragmentary, but
the identity of the place with the site of the parinirvana
settled
beyond doubt by the discovery of
ring to the Parinirvana Caitya.
which Atoka
to light.
is
is
inscriptions refer-
The stOpa
of parinirvana
said to have built has not yet been brought
The Parinirvana Caitya
to
which the inscriptions
Atoka
from the Gupta period and it
stupa lies buried under the
Among
the other sacred edifices that
refer dates
is
possible that the
later
construction.
may be
mentioned the Matha Kunwar ka Kot which enshrines a
still
remain
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
316
large
recumbent
figure of the
The image was found
in
Buddha
in the state of nirvana.
fragments and has been skilfully
The great stupa which stood on
body of the Lord was cremated and
where the relics of the Master were divided into eight equal
portions is probably represented by a large mound locally
known as Ramabhar. This mound has only been partially
examined and a more systematic exploration is expected to
restored by Mr. Carlleyle.
the
spot where the
bring to light important material relating to the history of this
venerable spot.
Sravasti
(modern Saheth-Maheth
Sravasti
the ancient
because
it
in U.P.), the capital of
kingdom of Kosala, was sacred to the Buddhists,
was here that the Master, in accordance with the
practice of the previous Buddhas, performed the greatest of
his miracles.
in
It
was here
that the
Buddha had
to take part
a contest of miraculous feats with the Tirthikas before
King Prasenajit of Kosala and the assembled audience. The
his seat on a thousand petalled lotus and created multiple representations of himself which went up to the
Buddha took
The
highest heaven.
heretical
teachers discomfited at this
miraculous event dared not show their
own
feats
and were
confounded by a violent thunderstorm and obliged
The supreme position of the Master was thus
to run away.
vindicated and he preached the Law before a huge assemblage
finally
of
people
that
had come to witness the miracle. The
theme in Buddhist art
Sravasti episode has been a favourite
from very early times.
Even from the days of the Buddha, Sravasti was an active
centre of Buddhism and it was here that the merchant Anathapindika built, in the garden of Prince Jeta purchased at
a fabulous price
in gold,
of the Master.
The
a large monastery for the reception
its purchase and its eventual
was a favourite theme in early Budtimes also shrines and monasteries arose
story of
presentation to the Lord
dhist art.
on
In later
this sacred spot
which continued
to
be a flourishing centre
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
317
of the Buddhist faith for a long time.
Saheth-Maheth consists of two
distinct sites.
The
larger
one, Maheth, spreads over about 400 acres and has been identified
with the remains of the city proper.
Saheth, covering
about 32 acres and lying about a quarter of a mile to
south-west,
is
the site of the Jctavana monastery.
vations on the former
site
have
laid bare the
The
the
exca-
remains of the
massive gates of the city and the ruins of other structures,
indicating the prosperous state of the city in days gone by.
The
latter, sanctified by the Master's association, rose to be
an important place of pilgrimage and numerous shrines,
The remains so far
stupas and monasteries were built in it.
brought to light date approximately from the Mauryan epoch
down to the decadent days of Buddhism in the 12th century
A.D. One of the earliest stupas, the original foundation of
which may go back to the 3rd century B.C., if not earlier,
contained some bone relics, probably those of the Master
himself.
A colossal statue of the Master was found at the
site.
One of the latest patrons of the establishment was
Kumaradevi, the queen of Govindacandra, the Gadhavala
king of Kanauj, who donated some land for the maintenance
28-29 A.D. Budof the Jetavana monastery in the year
dhism was already on the decline and the prosperity of this
site finally ended with the Islamic occupation of the land.
1
1
Sahkasya
Another holy spot connected with the life of the Master
was Sankasya (SankiSa-Basantapur, Etah district, Uttar Pradesh) where the Buddha is said to have descended to earth
from the TrayastrimSa heaven (Heaven of the Thirty-three
Gods) where he went to preach the Abhidharma to his
mother and other gods. This event is said to have occurred
after the Great Miracle was performed at Sravasti, as it was
an immutable law that all Buddhas should resort to the
Heaven of the Thirty-three Gods after they had performed
their greatest miracles.
According to Buddhist legend, the
Lord came down by a triple ladder, accompanied by the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
3l8
/
gods,
motif
Brahma and
in
SarikaSya
Buddhist
came
Sakra, and the incident forms a favourite
art.
Owing
to
this
sacred
association,
to be an important place of pilgrimage,
and
important shrines, stupas and monasteries were raised on the
site
in the heyday of Buddhism.
Both Fa-hien and Yuan Chwang
and left
Through
long neglect, however, all is now in crumbling ruins.
The
accounts of the Chinese pilgrims also are too
meagre to
admit of any proper identification of the remains extant. The
present village is perched on a mound, locally known as the
fort, 41 feet high and with an area, 1,500 feet by 1,000.
A
quarter of a^mile to the south is another mound, composed
of solid brickwork and surmounted by a temple dedicated to
Bisari Devi.
Other mounds containing masses of brickwork
may be seen scattered around and there are also the remains
of an earthen rampart over 3^ miles in circumference. The
trial diggings, undertaken long ago by Cunningham, indicate
visited the place
interesting accounts of the important
monuments.
the extremely fragmentary nature of the remains
urgent necessity of
more systematic
explorations.
phant Capital that once surmounted a column
relic
of the
is
and of the
The
Ele-
an important
days of Asoka
expected to lay
and further explorations are
bare important material which has relevance
to the history of this site.
Rajagrha
Rajagrha, (modern Rajgir in the Patna
district of Bihar),
Magadha, was sacred to
Not only did the
the Buddhists for more than one reason.
Master go into a retreat several times in this famous city,
but it was also the place where Devadatta, his wicked cousin,
made several attempts on his life. Moreover, in this city,
in the Sattapanni (Saptaparni) cave of the Vaibhara hill, was
the capital of the powerful state of
held
the
first
Buddhist
Council
(Sanglti)
just
after
the
parinirvana.
The remains of the ancient city are few and fer between.
The site appears to have suffered much at the hands of
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
The
time.
3*9
ruins indicate that the followers of different
gious denominations live here. The
cept for stray and isolated images, are scanty, and
reli-
Buddhist remains, exit
through religious
Council,
Sattapar?i?i cave, the site of the first
According
doubt.
the
to
situated
on the northern
may
right
be
when he
canonical
fringe of the
is
not
is
monuments were denuded
Even the identitication
animosities.
impossible that the visible
partly
of the
not beyond
the cave
texts,
Vaibhara
hill
was
and Stein
identifies the site with the large terrace
with a group of cells at the back in a semi-circular bend of
A
the rock on the northern scarp.
known
remarkable
structure,
as Jaiasandha ki Baithak, on the eastern slope of the
Vaibhara
identified
irregular cells at the sides has
with
hill,
been
Some
by some with the residence of Pippala.
of
the Pali texts describes the Pippala cave as the residence of
Mahakasyapa, the organizer of
the
First
Council.
From
the cyclopaean masonry, analogous to that of the city walls
and
its
to be
bastioned gateways, this erection appears, however,
more
A mound
military than secular or religious
to the west of the citadel
is
in
character.
usually connected with
a stupa, which, according to Fa-hien, was
built
by Ajatasatru,
and by Asoka according to Yuan Chwang. Trial diggings
on this mound have exposed several strata, none of which,
however, can be traced back to the pre-Christian epoch. The
cave, called the Sonbhandar, on the southern scrap of the
Vaibhara
hill
might have been a Buddhist excavation, though
the possibility of
not altogether
its
be
having been a Jaina establishment canruled
which was a favourite
the
out.
The Grdhrakuta mountain,
resort of the
Buddha,
is
not far from
city.
Rajagrha was also an active centre of Jainism in ancient
it is now, and interesting remains of Jaina shrines
times, as
and sculptures are still extant.
A singular monument may
be recognized in the cylindrical brick shrine, almost at the
centre of the old city.
It is known as Maniyar Matha, and
was dedicated, according to local tradition, to the worship
of Mani-naga, the guardian deity of the city of Rajagrha.
2500 YEARS OF BVDDWSM
32Q
Vaisali
The
city of Vaisali (Basarh in the
Bihar), the capital of the
stronghold
Buddha
is
Buddhism
of
Muzaffarpur
powerful Licchavi
the
in
said to have visited
early
district
was
clan,
of
a
Gautama
days.
three times during his life-
it
In one of these visits several monkeys are said to
have offered the Lord a bowl of honey, an incident men-
time.
tioned
Master.
among
It
the
eight great events in the life of the
was here again
that the
Buddha announced
his
approaching nirvana, and after the nirvana the Licchavis
are said to have erected a stupa over their share of the re-
mains of the Master.
A
To
over a hundred years after
little
Buddhist Council was held here.
the nirvana, the Second
the Jainas also, Vaisali
was equally sacred, being the
birth-place of Mahavira, the twenty-fourth Jaina Tfrthankara.
The
site
the citadel of Vaisali.
mound, about
less
8 feet
than a mile
a ditch,
it
Gadh
of Raja Bisal ka
in
It
believed to represent
above the surrounding
circumference.
was approached by
from the south.
is
Gupta
level
and
slightly
Originally surrounded by
broad embanked causeway
a
Trial diggings have exposed the foundations
of old buildings of irregular plan which
the
brick-covered
consists of a large
period.
may
date back to
All these buildings were of
purely
a
The most interesting finds consist of a
number of clay seals, official and private, the latter
bearing the names of individuals or guilds of merchants,
The official seals indicate that Vaisali
bankers and traders.
was an important administrative headquarters in the Gupta
secular character.
large
period, and an interesting seal, engraved in characters of the
Maurya period,
The Chinese
refers to the
patrol
pilgrims, Fa-hien
outpost
Vaisali.
at
and Yuan Chwang,
ed Vaisali in the course of their travels.
The
latter
visit-
described
the city as covering an area of 10 to 12 square miles.
He
wrote that, within and without and all around the town of
Vaisali, the sacred monuments were so numerous that it was
difficult to
mention them
practically
denuded of any
all.
Unfortunately, the area
visible
remains of religious
is
now
edifices.
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
321
At Kolhua, two miles to the north-west of Raja Bisal
kS Gadh, there stands a monolithic pillar (locally known as
Bhimsen's Lath) of highly polished sandstone surmounted by
a bell-shaped capital that supports the sedent figure of a lion
on a square abacus. It is about 22 feet above the present
ground level, a considerable portion having sunk underground in the course of time. In style it resembles the edict
pillars of ASoka, but diggings round the shaft have failed to
Nevertheless, it can be
reveal any ASokan inscription.
identified with one of the ASoka pillars mentioned by Yuan
Chwang
The
at the site of ancient Vaisali.
Champaran and Muzaffarpur
in the
districts
line of pillars
—at Ramapurva,
— be-
Lauriya Araraj, Lauriya Nandangadh, and Kolhua
lieved
is
have marked the stages of a royal journey from
to
Pataliputra to Lumbini which
Asoka undertook in the 20th
Nearby to the south, there is a
Rama-kunda, identified by Cunningham
year of his consecration.
small
tank, called
with the ancient Markata-hrada (monkey's tank), believed to
have been dug by a colony of monkeys for
To
Buddha.
present
65
feet
only
at
the
15
the
north-west
feet
base,
high
there
is
a
the
use of the
ruined mound, at
and with a diameter of about
which
has
been
identified
with the
Asoka stupa mentioned by Yuan Chwang.
summit of this mound stands a modern brick temple
remains of the
On
the
enshrining a medieval image of the Buddha.
It
will
not be out of place to recount also a few other
memorable sites of Buddhism, the sites of sacred shrines,
spread
of
In the course of the
stupas and monasteries.
Buddhism in India, such sites, though not particularly
associated with the life and legend of the Buddha, rose into
prominence on account of the imposing monuments that
were raised in and around them. Of these, Sanchi in the
former Bhopal State is important as the site of one of the
earliest of the stupas, which later grew into an important
centre of Buddhist monuments. Tak$asila, (modern Taxila).
now
in
West Pakistan, also rose to be a very prominent site
KauSSmbi, the capital city of the Vatsa
the early days.
in
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
322
kingdom, was an early centre of Buddhism, and it was here
that the famous Ghositarama Vihara stood. The remains of
monastery have been
this
of Kosava, the
val
site
laid bare in the recent excavation
of ancient Kaugambi, while in the medie-
period the Nalanda monasteries in Bihar were famous
throughout the Buddhist world of that time.
when Buddhism
important
sites
many
flourished,
other
sites,
In the days
too,
became
of the good faith (Saddharma).
Sanchi
Sanchi (549 miles from Bombay)
extensive Buddhist remains
the site of the
is
now known
in India.
most
The
site
had no apparent connection with the traditional history
Gautama Buddha; the place is scarcely mentioned in
of
Buddhist
literature.
Even
the
itineraries
of the Chinese
pilgrims, which are a mine of information about the other
ancient centres of Buddhism, do not refer to this site at
It is
surprising therefore that the
now form
the
most
monuments
all.
at Sanchi should
and perfect examples
There seems to be consider-
magnificent
of early Buddhist art in India.
able force in the view that Sanchi
is
the
modern
representative
of Cetiyagiri of the Ceylonese Chronicles, which was situated
in the
neighbourhood of Vidisa.
It
is
connected with the
story of ASoka's marriage with a merchant's daughter and the
erection of a monastery
son by that marriage,
on the
is
hill
said to
where Mahendra, ASoka's
have halted on the way to
Whether the story
is
true or not, the fact remains that the earliest
monuments
at
Sanchi date from the time of Asoka and
not impossible
his proselytizing mission
in
Ceylon.
it is
was the patronage of this Constantine of Buddhism
which made the place an active centre of the religion of
Gautama Buddha and was responsible for the splendour of
the site in days gone by.
Most of the monuments are situated on a plateau on the
hill top which was enclosed by a wall of solid stone about
1100 A.D. Of the stupas, there are many dating from the
3rd century B.C.
They vary in size ranging from the
that
it
PI
ACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
323
Great Stupa that measures 100 feet in diameter at the base
and has a vast, imposing dome nearly 50 feet high to miniature ones no more than a foot high.
Originally built of brick in the time of Asoka, the Great
Stupa was enlarged to nearly twice
previous
its
faced with stone, perhaps a century later,
when
size,
and
the massive
balustrade and the four
imposing gateways were added.
These gateways (toranas) on the four cardinal faces constiwith
tute,
their
carved decorations, a most striking
richly
contrast with the simplicity of the structure behind.
All the
four gateways are of similar design, and the technique emin their construction shows that they were more the
work of carpenters than of stonemasons. The gateways, with
columns and superstructures, are richly carved with bas-
ployed
Jataka
reliefs illustrating the
tales,
scenes in the
life
of the
Master, and important events in the subsequent history of
Reference
the Faith.
may
be
made
to
one singular
relief
panel in an architrave of one of the gateways which represents the visit of
The
Asoka
greatest patron of
any other monument
may
in
the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya.
to
Buddhism has not been portrayed in
This portrait of the Emperor
India.
not be authentic, but this unique representation of one
of the greatest figures of Indian history must be cherished by
all his
Of
countrymen.
the
many other stupas on this site, three are specially
One of these, stupa No. 3, is to the north-east
noteworthy.
of the Great Stupa and although smaller
design.
cal
Cunningham
In the relic
discovered
chamber of
the
relics
is
this
of
of almost identistupa. General
Sariputta
and
Mahamoggallana, two of the famous disciples of the Lord,
which were recently brought back from London for conAnother small stupa,
secration in a new shrine at Sanchi.
on the western side, enshrined the
of KaSyapa and Moggaliputta, well-known Buddhist
near the foot of the
relics
hill
apostles of the 3rd century B.C.
In the surrounding region, groups of stupas
and of
lie
scattered
these a few have proved to be of particular sanctity
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
324
on account of the relics enshrined in them.
Of more historical value are the battered remains
of the Asoka pillar, with its capital of four lions back to
back.
It
situated close to the south gate of the Great
is
On
Stupa at Sanchi.
edict
schism
in
which
the
its
broken stump one can
Emperor
the Church.
in
style place
it
Its
see the
still
any
forbids in strong terms
lustrous polish,
its
design and
with similar edict pillars of Asoka.
The chief fascination of Sanchi no doubt rests on these
grand old stupas, not only on account of their sanctity but
also
because
fascination
is
of their rich and elaborate carvings.
further enhanced by the shrines
life
on
most noteworthy
This
monas-
around them and give a vivid picture of
teries that cluster
monastic
and
this
is
peaceful
hill
top.
Among
these, the
the Caitya Hall (Temple No. 18), situated
gateway of the Great Stupa. and
especially interesting as one of the few examples of this
directly opposite the south
is
kind of structural
edifice.
Another structure recalling the classic temples of Greece
may be seen in a tiny and unpretentious shrine (Temple
No. 17), consisting of nothing more than a simple flat-roofed
square chamber with a pillared portico in front. Though
modest in dimensions, its structural propriety, symmetry and
proportions, appreciation for plane surfaces and restraint in
ornament may very well compare with the
best architectural
creations of classical Greece.
Of
they
the monasteries at Sanchi, there are five examples
date
from
the 4th to the
and
A.D. The
were built of wood
12th century
once occupying the site,
and have perished or been buried under the foundations of
Those that have survived, or are now
later structures.
exposed to view, are built more or less on the usual plan
by ranges of
of an open quadrangular court surrounded
earlier ones,
two-storeyed apartments.
The incomparable monuments of Sanchi were rescued
from centuries of oblivion as early as 1818 and a host of
scholars and archaeologists have tried to resuscitate
this
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
memorable site of the past. The major
tion and restoration work goes to the
Marshall,
a
who
India,
former
Director
325
part of the exploracredit of
General
John
Sir
Archaeology
of
in
has not only excavated the numerous remains,
but also recreated the structures.
Nalanda
The
monastic
far-famed
establishments
Nalanda
at
<Bargaon near Rajgir) were of supreme importance
of
history
Buddhism.
latter-day
was
the place
According
visited several times
in
the
tradition,
to
by the Buddha and the
history of the monastic establishments can be traced
back to
But excavations have not yet revealed
the days of Asoka.
any proof that it was occupied prior to the time of the
Guptas; and inscriptions, seals and other remains, coupled
with references
provide a glimpse of the flourish-
in literature
ing state of this famous monastic
of the 12th century A.D.
It
celebrated Chinese pilgrim,
He
time.
gives a detailed
different establishments
their
of
several
his
institution.
was
at this
monastery that the
and graphic
with
as
He
predecessors
as
I-tsing,
from the 5th to the end
Yuan Chwang,
practices.
and
rules
site
many
also
as
stayed for
account
10,000
mentions
beneficent
some
of
the
inmates,
and
Harsa
patrons
of
this
another Chinese traveller, has also
left
us a picture of the life led by the Nalanda monks,
who
were maintained by 200 villages donated by different kings.
Nalanda was known throughout the Buddhist world of that
time for
its
learned and versatile teachers, and the names of
Acarya Silabhadra, Santaraksita. and Atisa or Dipankara.
among
shining luminaries
up a
vision of the
vihara throughout
The
ruins of
structures
a galaxy of
many
others, conjure
supreme eminence of the Nalanda Mahaits
prosperous history.
Nalanda extend over a large
exposed
to
view
represent
only a
extensive establishment and consist of monastic
sites
and temple
sites.
area.
part
The
of the
sites,
stupa
Lengthwise they extend from south
to north, the monasteries on the eastern flank and the stflpas
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
326
and
the
built
on more or
on
temples
less the
The monasteries were
west.
the
same plan
each case, with rows
in
courtyard
of cells preceded by a corridor round a central
and a shrine against
all
the back wall, opposite the entrance.
Different strata, accumulated
one above the other, are clearly
seen and indicate successive repairs and renovations. There
is also evidence that these monasteries were storeyed structures; and they convey, even in their ruins, a memory of
their imposing and glorious past.
Stupa site No. 3 represents a huge structure standing in
the middle of a court on the south-western flank, surrounded
by a number of votive stupas.
To
the north of this stupa
and
same alignment,
which consists
the
in
there have been exposed structures each of
of a temple erected directly over the remains of an earlier
one.
In the
tures
Museum
and other
nearby are deposited numerous
and these, by their great variety and
most impressive.
The wealth
workmanship, are
fine
of epigraphic material
is
no
includes copper-plate and stone inscriptions
on bricks and terra-cotta
the official seal
seals.
Among
less telling.
and
It
inscriptions
the latter,
we have
belonging to the community of venerable
monks of the great monastery.
The Buddhism that was practised
contemporary
sculp-
antiquities recovered during the excavations,
institutions
in
longer the simple Hinayana; nor was
Nalanda and other
and Bihar was no
at
Bengal
it
the
Mahayana
of the
was strongly imbued with ideas of Tantrism
not far removed from Tantric Brahman ism. The Muslim
invasion dealt a death blow to these cloistered strongholds
and the flickering remains of the religion of Gautama
Buddha, which had been so transformed as to have been
absorbed, almost unawares, into modern Hinduism.
early days.
Tt
B. In
It
Western
India
cannot be said with certainty when Buddhism spread
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
to
However, there seems
Saurashtra.
be no reason to
to
suppose that any fofm of Buddhism existed
Asoka
before
one of
in the province
sent his missionaries to propagate
his edicts
Girnar
327
on a rock
incised
Junagadh
near
the
in
He had
it.
at the foot of
heart
of
the
Mount
province.
Buddhism soon spread in the province as a result of his
and several Buddhist caves have been excavated
in the southern and south-eastern parts of Saurashtra. From
activities
from the general
seem that they belonged
extremely simple architecture and
their
absence
of
sculpture,
to a very early period,
would
it
probably the second century B.C.,
if
not earlier.
Junagadh
Junagadh, the capital of the province, which owing to
the presence of the
among
Asoka
edict
had already become famous
Buddhists, became a centre of attraction for them.
we find now on a huge rock
what are known as the Fourteen Rock Edicts.
characters
on this rock is
inscribed in Brahmi
In the vicinity of Girnar Hills,
the full text of
The
text
Naturally, the most important
remarkably well preserved.
of
the
caves
Junagadh.
continued
of
the
Yuan
excavated
They
to
be
seventh
Chwang
must
Saurashtra are
in
have
important
century,
had
been
at
for
noticed
with at least three thousand
very
least
while
at
monks
up
and around
numerous and
in
to
least
of the
middle
the
visiting
fifty
Junagadh,
convents
Sthavira
sect.
These caves fall into three groups, namely, those in
Junagadh proper, those in Uparkot and those called Khaprahave
khodia, close to the town. The caves at Junagadh
two to three storeys and have been excavated in three stages.
Two of them measure e 28'xl6' and 26'x20'. Among the
caves in Uparkot, which was the citadel of the old city, the
caitya windows, the deep tanks, measuring seventeen feet
square, and the two wells, popularly called Adkxji-vav and
Navaghan-vav, are the most interesting. One of the three
Khaprakhodia caves, locally known as Khanjar-mahal,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
328
measures 250' x
measures 61' x
The other is 38'
The second and
80'.
60'.
square, and the third
the third caves have
No
four and sixteen heavy pillars respectively.
has been found in any
One can imagine from
the evidence on the spot that in
early times large monasteries
must have existed
The remains of two
and mount Girnar.
away from Asoka's
found there
is
edict.
Junagadh
at
brick-built stupas
have recently been exposed at Intwa on a
miles
inscription
of the caves.
about three
hill
The only
inscribed object
a baked clay seal belonging
bhiksu-
a
to
Maharaja Rudrasena.
This king was most probably Rudrasena I of the Ksatrapa
family who ruled from 199 to 222 A.D.
Besides Junagadh, many places have become important
in Saurashtra owing to the Buddhist caves found there.
sarigha which resided in the vihara of
Dhank
Dhank
thirty miles north-west of
is
miles south-east of Porbandar.
Junagadh and seven
Here, four plain caves are
preserved, the rest having been destroyed through decay in
However, the octagonal pillars with their
still stand.
There are also to be
the soft rock.
square bases and capitals
found some rude mythological sculptures of a
later date,
besides a well called after Manjusri.
Siddhasar
A
few miles
there are
a
to the
number
west of
of caves
Dhank
is
situated in
Siddhasar where
a
ravine
called
Jhinghar Jhu.
Talajd
Besides Junagadh, Talaja, thirty^ miles south of Bhava-
nagar near the mouth of the Satrunjaya river, also seems to
have been a great Buddhist centre. There are 36 caves and
One of the largest of the
a tank measuring 15' x 20'
caves
and
is
locally
H¥
high.
known
It
as the
Ebhal-mandap and
had four octagonal
pillars
is
75' x 67$'
but no
cells.
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
One
The
of the caves had a dagoba.
329
of
simplicity
the
arrangement and the complete absence of sculptures in the
caves show that they belonged to an early date, probably
only a little later than the reign of Asoka.
Sdndh
The caves
Sanah, which
at
is
to the south-west of Tajaja
Both
and sixteen miles north of Una, are important.
of the
hill
are
honeycombed with more
They are of a plain type and
The largest of them
water.
mandap and measures 68}'
well supplied with tanks for
is
locally
known
x
61'
16}'.
pillars in front
but none inside.
Saurashtra are
among
the
sides
62 caves.
than
x
Although
most
as
It
caves
the
ancient,
Ebhal-
has
they
do
six
in
not
many of the same
caves there
numerous
period found elsewhere. Among the
is not a single caitya cave which can be compared with the
possess the interest that
caves
of
this
class
in
attaches
other
to
parts
of
the country.
viharas, too, are very simple and do not show
any
The
im-
portant architectural features.
Valabhl
From
the sixth century A.D., Buddhist
activities
in
Saurashtra seem to have centered in a
new place called
Valabhi, twenty-two miles to the north-west of Bhavanagar.
It
acquired great importance as a place of Buddhist interest
and Yuan Chwang spoke of it in glowing terms when he
visited it in 640 A.D.
According to him, there were one
hundred convents where six thousand devotees of
the
Sammitiya school resided. In those days, Valabhl was
considered to be next in importance to Nalanda as a centre
of Buddhist learning, and
nowned Buddhist
less
became
home
the
scholars, Sthiramati
of
the
re-
Not
seventh and
and Gunamati.
than thirty copper-plate inscriptions, of the
eighth century A.D., have been found.
These record that
land grants were given by the Maitraka rulers of Valabhi
to
no fewer than
fifteen
Buddhist monasteries built there by
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
33 o
members of
saints.
The
the royal family,
inscriptions,
and
officers
their
however, do not
state
Buddhist
whether any
of these monasteries enshrined the earthly remains of BudUnfortunately, Valabhi
dhist saints.
nothing remains to prove
now
is
ruins,
in
and
former glory.
its
Kampilya
Curiously enough,
Buddhist interest
in
we do not come
across any place of
Only a
Gujarat proper.
solitary place
named Kampilya, near Navasarl, seems to have been of
some importance. A copper-plate inscription of the Rastrakuta king, Dantivarman of Gujarat, dated
records
Purna
that,
in
after
bathing
the
in
request of the
Sindhu
king,
monk, Sthiramati,
Desa.
Dharavarsa,
monastery
(modern
Puravi
the Surat district), the king donated lands at the
in S.
Another
monks
of
inscription
records
a
Kampilya
Sangha
in favour of the
vihara, where there lived five hundred
of
789 (867 A.D.),
S.
river
similar
806 (884 A.D.).
It
of the
Rastrakuta
the
grant
to
the
same
seems that the Buddhist
community migrated from Sindh, presumably for fear of the
Muslims and founded a vihara at Kampilya which was
already known as a sacred place.
Buddhism was most popular in Maharashtra from the
time of Asoka who sent Buddhist missionaries to
preach
there and had one of his edicts engraved on a rock at
Sopara on the West Coast. From this time, right up to the
decline
and disappearance of Buddhism, Maharashtra
continued to be favourably inclined towards Buddhism.
Consequently a number of Buddhist places of interest are
to be found in the province.
It is
well
known
that, just as
Buddhist structural monasteries were built above ground in
flat
regions, Buddhist rock-cut
excavated
underground
sanctuaries
in hilly tracts.
were
The
latter
always
could
not therefore be at places sanctified by the association of
the
Buddha or of Buddhist
in western
saints.
Maharashtra with
for rock-cut architecture.
It
The Sahyadri mountain
its hard trap was best suited
was accordingly honeycombed
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
with
at every possible spot, so that
cells
the Buddhist caves in
331
the majority of
India are found in western
Maha-
was also customary in ancient times to adorn
The skill involved in
these caves with mural paintings.
rock-cut architecture and its decoration was held in such
esteem that the masons who excavated the caves and the
artists who decorated them were rewarded with gifts of land
as is evident from some of the inscriptions.
The places in Maharashtra which assumed great importance in Buddhist times owing to their rock-cut archiPitalkhora,
Ajanta,
Bedsa,
tecture are Bhaja, Kondane,
Nasik, Karle, Kanheri and Ellora (Verula).
rashtra.
It
Bhaja
The
B.C.,
earliest caitya hall, dating
found
is
from the second century
The inward
at Bhaja.
slope of the pillars,
girders and the free use of timber show
was an imitation of a wooden prototype.
wooden roof
the
that
The
this
hall
actual use of
wood
in rock-cut architecture is a special
feature of the earlier period.
the walls are plain.
figures
of the
discernible.
riding
The octagonal
pillars
and
chauri-bearers are
still
Traces of paintings on the
Buddha attended by
Sculptures
Surya
of
near
pillars
and
royal
personages
on elephants can also be found.
Kondane
The Buddhist caves
from Karjat, are of
The facade
at
Kondane, which
slightly later date
pillars are in stone instead
is
seven miles
than those at Bhaja.
of wood.
The
caitya
one of the earliest and is an important landmark in
the development of rock-cut architecture.
hall
is
Pitalkhora
In the Buddhist caves at
inscriptions are
Pitalkhora,
seven
painted
found which record the names of Buddhist
monks who bore
the cost of the frescoes.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
332
Ajanta
There are no fewer than twenty-nine caves of various
They are cut in the hard volcanic rock,
sizes at Ajanta.
some of them going
as far
100'
as
into
which
rock,
the
naturally considered a remarkable architectural achieve-
is
ment.
hall in
Cave No.
Cave No.
has a double
The
the finest vihara in India.
is
1
10 measures
tier at the base
Cave No. 26 contains
1
and
00' x 40' x 33
and
a gigantic
its
stupa
dome.
a slightly elongated
sculpture
caitya
the Buddha,
of
considered to be one of the finest in the whole of India.
However, Ajanta
than for
its
The
caves.
more famous
is
for
architecture or for the carved sculptures in the
walls, the ceilings,
and the
the caves were once decorated with
which are found only
scenes from the
there are
many
They
in thirteen caves.
of the
life
pillars of nearly all
paintings, remains of
Buddha and
depicted in the frescoes.
development
depict chiefly
the Jatakas,
paintings of a secular nature too.
of the period and scenes of everyday
life
beautiful paintings
its
in
life
but
The Court
are graphically
Indian painting reached
its
finest
and 6th centuries A.D. and the
Ajanta.
Everything is drawn with grace
the 5th
best can be seen at
has
and mastery and delicately modelled. As an
artist
said, the more one contemplates the Ajanta frescoes
the
more one appreciates the subtle relationship that exists
between the groups of
figures.
The
caitya hall at Bedsa,
the
railway
of
The base of
the
station
column
of
is
which
is
Kamshet,
four miles south-east
measures
vase shaped and
its
45i'x21'.
capital
is
surmounted by pairs of men and animals seated on kneeling
horses and elephants.
on the
Traces of paintings can also be seen
pillars in the stupa.
Nasik
There
first
is
a group of twenty-three cayes, dating from the
century B.C. to the second century A.D.
Some of
Buddhists
between
the
at
Nasik.
and adapted by the Mahayana
sixth and seventh centuries A.D.
these were altered
>»fc^
I'aradr
«,
11
(Courtesy,
India. 2nd century B .C.
riitvi Hail Bhaia, Western
(
of India)
i^partment of irVhae«lo B >, Government
Mahakapi Jalaka.
Stone, suiiRa,
stone,
Sun B a, Hilar
HliarluK, L'nd century B.C.,
Indian MiiM»..m
UblUm
Calcutta (Photo by Publications
Division)
'
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
Cave No.
Gautamiputra Vihara,
called
3,
Cave No. 10
The
caitya
vihara.
Nasik and Junnar are more or less of
The Nasik caves are especially important
interesting
the
Nahapana
called the
having
and horses on
halls at
the same type.
for
is
large,
is
six pillars with carvings of elephants, bulls
the capital.
333
Gautamiputra and
inscriptions of
and beautiful
Nahapana,
Sriyajfia Satakarni.
Junnar
There are as many as 130 caves carved in five separate
groups within a radius of four miles from Junnar. Hence
the town can be said to be the largest monastic establish-
ment
western
in
The frequency and
India.
smallness of
the cells indicate that they belong to an early period.
Karle
The
is
of the same general pattern
and splendour, however, it is one
caitya hall at Karle
as that at Bhaja.
In size
of the most magnificent
described,
in
monuments
was excavated by Bhutapala.
Fortunately,
measures
height
of
1
India.
mansion
place, as the most excellent rock
It
in
In fact,
one of the ancient inscriptions found
also
is
it
24' x
46V
45'.
It
and
has
a
among
the
a
is
Jambudvipa.
in
merchant of Vaijayanti.
the
best
vaulted
row
it
at the
of
preserved.
roof
fifteen
rises
to
It
a
monolithic
bellkalaSa
and
bases
side
with
surmounted by kneeling elephants, and
Its two-storeyed facade
horses with men and women riders.
has an enormous sun-window. The caitya hall dates from
pillars
on
each
shaped capitals
the close of the
first
century B.C.
Kanheri
There are more than one hundred caves at Kanheri
From a
which was also a large monastic establishment.
number of inscriptions found here, dating from the second
century A.D. to modern times, a more or less connected
history of the place can be reconstructed.
The beginning
of
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
334
the caves can be attributed to the reign of
Gautamlputra
180 A.D. Many excavations and
sculptures were added from time to time.
The introduction of
the Buddha image in the establishment is shown by a fourth
Satakarni about
Buddha
century inscription recording the dedication of a
image by a certain Buddhaghosa. The £ilahar rulers of
Puri, who were feudatories of the Rasjrakuta
sovereigns,
took a special interest in the Buddhist establishment at
Kanheri and made liberal donations to it as recorded in
copper-plate grants
their
of
scriptions
modern Japanese
Nichiren
sect
show
further
In-
that the
A
occupy the caves.
to
inscription of a Buddhist pilgrim of the
on
engraved
Cave
walls of
the
No.
66
the continued importance of the caves even
testifies
to
modern
times.
Some
931
continued
still
765, 775 and 799.
S.
and
913, 921
S.
Buddhist monks
dated
found
inscriptions
Kanheri incidentally
in
tell
in
us
of the Buddhist viharas situated at Kalyan and near Paithan,
we know nothing from
of which
At Ellora
other sources.
(Verula) can be found the most wonderful caves
mountains
world,
cut
colossal
into
sanctuaries.
in
the
Of
the
thirty-four caves, the twelve to the south are Buddhist while
the remaining are Brahmanical
or
The
Jaina.
Buddhist
caves are the earliest, dating from 450 to 650 A.D.
entrance to the hall
caitya
hall,
which
square
forty-eight
lies
is
through a large open court.
ViSvakarma Cave, measures
called the
A
feet.
flanked by attendants and
throne
in
number
a projecting
of
The
The
image
huge
flying figures
arch
of
the
is
of
Buddha
the
on a lion
There are a
seated
stupa.
Buddha and Bodhisattva images.
Two
of the
monasteries with wide courtyards in front are three-storeyed
and
and
rise
to a
height of 50'.
their execution
show remarkable
Besides these, there are
interest,
These impressive
many
structures
ingenuity.
other places of Buddhist
each with a number of excavations, some of them
as old as any in western India.
contain inscriptions of interest.
A
number
of these
also
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
Other important
One
335
sites
of the
of
sites
these caves
is
Kuda on
the shore
of the Rajapuri creek, forty-five miles south of
Another
is
of Kuda.
Mahad on
At Karhad
the Savitri river,
in the
Satara
28
Bombay.
miles south-east
district,
there
extensive series of sixty caves on the spur of the
The
hill.
pillars,
is
cells
is
an
Agasiva
here are small, the large halls are devoid of
and there
is
complete absence of sculpture.
Two women
another series at Shelarwadi.
There
disciples of
Thera Bhadanta Slha are said to have had the caitya hall
at this place excavated and one of the caves was donated
by the wife of a ploughman. At Kondivte, three miles
from Jogeshwari, there is a group of nineteen caves. In
the Sholapur district at Ter (ancient Tagara) there is a structural caitya hall which was built in the eighth century A.D.
and later transformed into a Brahmanical temple. In 1188
A.D. the Silahar king, Gandaraditya, built a Buddha temple
Kolhapur on the bank of a tank called Gamjasagara.
at
Goa
That Buddhism flourished
and around Goa, farther
proved by the discovery
of the Hire-Gutti (north Kanara district) plates which record
Bhoja king,
an endowment to a Buddhist vihara by the
Buddhist
of
ASankita of Goa. Similarly, the discovery
in
south, in the sixth century A.D.
is
statues of a later date in the village of
Mushir
in the
Goa
Buddhism continued to flourish for a
Buddhist monks in Goa at the time
considerable period.
district
of the
shows
that
Kadamba
king, Jayakesin, are referred
to
in
the
DvyaSraya-kavya of the twelfth century.
Karnatak
Buddhism began to exercise
from the time of ASoka, whose
its
the neighbourhood are found in
sionaries carried the message
of which
many
all
influence in
Karnatak
Siddhapur and in
misHis
province.
the
result
a
as
over the land,
edicts at
Buddhist monasteries were built at Vana-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
336
vasi at the time of the Satavahanas.
Later,
bably owing to the stronger influence
of
however,
pro-
Jainism
and
Brahmanism, the influence of Buddhism declined. A place
named pambal in the Dharwar district seems to have be-
come important
as a Buddhist centre in the
I
lth century
from an inscription of S. 1017 (1095 A.D.),
which a temple of the Buddhist deity. Tara,
A.D., as seen
according to
and a Buddhist vihara were
built at the place
of Laksmidevi, the queen
Vikramaditya
of
district
of eighteen agraharas.
temple
of
Tara
was
at
built
by the sixteen
PambaJ during
<Sre$thins or merchants) of
settis
It
is
the
the reign
VI.
over the
believed that another
same place
by
Setti
Sarigaramaya of Lokkigundi.
C. In
a
If
number of
importance
rock-cut
which
in
stupas.
places
famous
Maharashtra attained great
there
if
were certain places
in
Andhra
for their equally magnificent Buddhist
Buddhism was
time of Asoka.
in
Buddhist times on account of their wonderful
architecture,
were
Southern India
well
not earlier,
established
owing
to
its
in
Andhra
situation
in
the
midway
between Magadha. the home of Buddhism, and Ceylon
which had already become a stronghold of Buddhism and
with which Andhra had seaborne trade through its big river
ports.
As
commercial
ficent
the
Buddhists were largely recruited
classes, their wealth
was
from the
utilized to raise
magni-
stupas.
Such stupas were built at several -places in the region
between the lower valleys of the Krishna, and the Godavari.
A
to
number of Buddhist sites from S'alihundun in
the north
Chinganjam in the south have been discovered, of
which
the following are the
most important since
they
possess
magnificent stupas.
The stupas at Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda
in the
Guntur district and at Bhattiprolu. Jagayyapeta,'
busiwa^a
and Ghantsala in the Krishna district were built
between
Caitva Hall
Cave
Ah
(Courtesy. Department of
Ajanta, c. Kth century
Archaeology, Government of India)
19,
The Buddha. Bronze, Nalanda,
9th century A. P.
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
337
2nd century B.C. and the 3rd century A.D. These
hemispherical
domes and were
characterized by rectangular projections from the base of
the dome at the four cardinal points.
They were finished
with plastic grace, painted white, and embellished at the
base with sculptured white marble panels richly carved in
low relief. The technical skill and artistic excellence of
the
consisted of brick-built
Andhra craftsmen are
the
and
st upas
the
best seen in the construction of
especially
in
the
manufacture of small
caskets of crystal and other jewellery.
The
earliest
Buddhist monument
in
the region
is
the
Bhattiprolu stupa built in the second century B.C., probably
by a Buddhist missionary during the time of a local king
Kubiraka. The claim that it was a mahastupa
named
enshrining the mortal remains of the
Buddha
is
justified
by
the discovery of a bone relic inside a crystal casket together
with flowers
made
of gold and pearls.
A mam v ad
Amaravati, which
is
16 miles west of
Guntur,
is
the
The stOpa at
site in Andhra.
and most famous. It was first
begun as early as the second century B.C. and was enlarged
between 150 and 200 A.D. by the efforts of Nagarjuna. Its
dome measures 162' and has a height of 95'. The width
of the pradaksinapatha is 15', and the railing surrounding
This stupa is larger than the Sanchi stupa which
it 14' high.
most
this
is
important
place
120' wide
Buddhist
the largest
is
and
54' high.
The beautiful railings depict scenes from the Buddha's
The relief medallions, beautifully balanced in comare
among the greatest works of art in India.
position,
The Amaravati stupa could well vie in artistic beauty and
life.
grandeur with the Sanchi and Bharhut stupas
in the
North.
Like the Mathura and Gandhara schools of sculpture, the
Amaravati school enjoyed great influence. Its products
were carried to
marked
effect
Ceylon
on the
and
local
South-East
styles.
Asia
and had a
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
338
Nagarjunakonda
Nothing was known of this great stupa at Nagarjunakonda or the Hill of Nagarjuna before it was discovered
twenty-five years ago.
It is situated on the south bank of
the river Krishna in the Guntur district.
It was also a
mahastupa, enshrining the mortal remains of the Buddha,
and was probably built in the time of Asoka. It was renovated with additions by Santisiri and other ladies of the
local
lksvaku royal family, to
making Buddhism popular
Now
whom
Andhra
in
goes
in
the credit
of
the third century
is in ruins which are greater than those at
Hundreds of remarkable sculptures executed
the Amaravati style have been found.
From the in-
A.D.
it
Amaravati.
in
scriptions
on the Ayaga
konda, the ancient
pillars,
evident that Nagarjuna-
is
it
city of Vijayapuri,
was of great import-
ance as a centre of Buddhism and enjoyed
fame.
Several
monasteries
residence of Buddhist
from
different
were
monks
countries
international
built at this place for the
of different schools
like
Ceylon,
coming
Kashmir, Gandhara,
and China.
The people
of
Andhra traded
in
and outside the coun-
and had close contacts with the Roman world of the
This is proved by the discovery of inscriptions, of
time.
try
sculptures depicting a bearded soldier wearing a tunic,
and
and of various other objects of Roman origin.
Andhra, Guntapalli, 28 miles north of Ellore railway
trousers,
In
station,
and Sankaran, a mile
east of Anakapalla, are im-
portant for their rock-cut architecture.
neighbourhood appear
to
have
Other places
assumed
significance
Buddhist times, as the presence of stupas and other
quities testifies.
The most
notable
among
in the
these are
in
anti-
Goli,
Chezarla, Gummati, Bezwada, Garikapadu, Uraiyur, Kuvain,
Chinve, and Vidyadharpur.
N&gapattant
Nagapattam, near Madras on
the
East
Buddhist settlement in the time of the Colas.
Coast,
An
had a
important
PLACES OF BUDDHIST INTEREST
copper-plate
inscription
of
the
century
11th
that the Cola King, Rajaraja, gave the village of
339
A.D.
states
Anaimanga-
maintenance of a shrine of the Buddha
laip for the
CuJamanivarma.Vihara which the
vijayottung
Varman
had erected
at
in the
Mara-
3ailendra king,
of £ri-vijaya and Kataha of Indonesia,
Nagapa{tam.
com-
In the epilogue of his
mentary on the Netti-pakarana, Dhammapala mentions
place and the
Dharmasoka Vihara
in
it,
this
where he composed
commentary.
this
Srlmulavdsam
Srlmulavasam, on the West Coast, had Buddhist
ments
the great temple
Buddha
at
settle-
bearing the same name.
in the time of a ruler
Tanjore scenes from the
life
of
In
the
are represented in decorative panels.
Kancf
Kanci, with
was
a
its
Rajavihara and
its
hundred monasteries,
famous stronghold of Buddhism
the
in
South.
Five
Buddha images have been discovered near this town.
The famous Pali commentator, Buddhaghosa, has mentioned in his commentary (the Manorathapurani) that he
wrote
at the request of the
it
Venerable Jotipala
who was
him at Kancipura. Yuan Chwang also mentions
Dharmapala from Kafici as being a great master at
staying with
a certain
Nalanda.
In Korea,
an inscription
covered.
1
there
an account of the
called
is
In a preface to
Dhyanabhadra.
it,
life
in
verse has been dis-
written by Li Se in 1378 A.D.,
and
travels of
This account
tells
an Indian monk
us that this
monk
was the son of a king of Magadha and a princess from Kafici
and that when he visited Kafici he heard a sermon given
by a Buddhist preacher on the Karanda-vyOha-sutra. Clearly,
this place was a recognized centre of Buddhism as late as
the 14th century A.D.
1.
Arthur Waley, «New Light on Buddhism
Melange* chinois
tt
in
Mediaeval India', in
bouddhique, Vol. I (1931-32), pp. 355-376.
CHAPTER
XIII
Later Modifications of Buddhism
Approach to Hinduism
Introductory
The fact that the relation between the Buddha and his
contemporary Brahmanas was very cordial has been well
demonstrated by Mrs. Rhys Davids. As she has rightly
pointed out, the Buddha never contradicted the Upanisadic
doctrine of the immanence of the Brahman in each indiviWhat he denied, however, was the existence of the
dual.
material soul which certain passages in the Upanisads seem
It would therefore not be an exaggeration to
to suggest.
say with Mrs. Rhys Davids that what the Buddha preached
was in agreement with the central religious tenets or prinimmanence in the Brahmanism of the day. 1 The
Brahmanas kept the knowledge of the Brahman a jealously
guarded secret and the exclusive property of the privileged
ciples of
Aryans, the
first
The Buddha
three classes of
men, or the Traivarnika.
raised his voice openly against this attitude
He proclaimed that in the domain of
and ultimate knowledge no distinction of class,
2
clan or social status counted, and that it was open to all.
It will therefore not be far from the truth to say that
originally Buddhism was mainly concerned with the reformaof the Brahmanas.
the true
tion or popularization, as Prof.
fourth stage in
the scheme
Max
Miiller says,
of Brahmanic
Brahmanism.
1.
2.
Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol
Digha, I, p. 99.
X, pp.
274-86.
life,
of the
viz.,
true
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
However, we should not forget what the
34I
Buddha's
valuable and positive contribution to Indian thought
In the scheme of his religious order, he laid
greatest
one should always train one's mind
strict accordance with certain ethical standards
In the Upanisads we find little about ethics.
on the
and body in
stress
called
the
in-
was.
ilia.
fact that
we come
Indeed, the ethics that
across
some
in
of
the
overshadowed by overstressed enquiries about
the soul and the Brahman and allied subjects. The Buddha
thought such enquiries were of little value in our endeavour
to bring our day to day sufferings to an end. Subsequently,
passages
is
for the Brahmanical religion, sages like
Gautama, Baudhayana
and Apastamba standardized the ethical
be observed by orthodox recluses.
rules of
conduct to
1
Vedic Ritualism
Vedic ritualism found no favour with the Buddha.
condemned
it
as unmeritorious
and
for
futile,
it
He
entailed the
brutal slaughter of animals, hardship for the labourers
and
lavish waste.
What
sacrifice then
was more eminent and
To
merit than the Vedic sacrifices?
Buddha replied
came first, but
of
greater
question,
this
the
that the giving of alms to virtuous ascetics
greater
still
was the regular giving of alms
More virtuous than this was taking
refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Order. Next in
importance came the adherence with well-disposed mind to
to the four quarters.
the Learner's Sentences (Siksapada).
join the
To renounce
Buddha's Order and gain insight
however, connoted the highest merit of
occasion the
Buddha
sacrifice (yajna) in
1.
B.C.,
into
all.
the world,
the
On
truth
2
,
another
elucidated his conception of a perfect
the
following
terms 3
Gautama's date 500 B.C. (G. BUhlor, S.B.K.
:
To
II),
feel
happy
Baudhayana 400
Apantamba 300 B.C.
2.
p. 176
3.
Kutadanta-sutta, Digha
and Glta, IV,
28,32,33.
Anguttara, III, 337.
I,
144-47;
E. J. Thomas, Life of Buddha,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
34^
before giving, after giving and in the
to achieve perfection
of offering
alms
The
in
the
moment
yajna, Le.,
is
The field
person who receives
becomes perfect when the
from the sins of desire, anger
freed
is
of giving
offering.
and delusion.
wise, performing this yajna, will be born in the happiest
of worlds.
The
reaction against the Vedic rites began early in the
Upanisadic period and reached
school
(1)
they
slaughter of so
(3)
These
of thought.
grounds:
they
The Bhagavadgita
animals,
feelings
also
the
criticized
Sankhya
on three
caused
because they
(2)
of
acme with
were
rites
were impure,
many
fostered
its
the
they were perishable, and
superiority
speaks of the
and
futility
inferiority.
1
of sacrificial
on the ground of their perishability. 2 It may here be
observed that the Vedic sacrifices in northern India were
given up on account of many similar
movements which
rites
affected Vedic ritualism adversely although their occasional
performance occurs even today
in
southern India.
Bhagavadgitd and the Bhakti Movement
The Bhagavadgita and
to Sir
the Bhakti
movement, according
R. G. Bhandarkar, owe their origin to the stream of
thought which began with the Upanisads and culminated
in
Buddhism and Jainism in eastern India and arose
about the same time as the latter." Buddhism and Jainism
soon prevailed in the land on account of their cosmopolitan
tendencies.
The protagonists of the theistk religion there-
the rise of
fore thought
it
among the
The religious
wise to propagate their religion
masses including
the non-Aryans
(Sudras).
systems in those days were, by and large, atheistic, and the
Indian mind tended to indulge in moral discussion and
moral
exaltation
unconnected
Buddhism and other systems
with
clearly
theistic
show.
faith
in
as
Consequently
the ideas represented by the Bhagavadgita were needed to
2.
Sankhya-karika, verse 2.
Chapter IX, verse 21.
3.
Vaispavisin, p. 9.
1.
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
The Upanisads
counteract these tendencies.
full
343
are, of course,
of theistic ideas, but they are so scattered that they had
redemption
to be organized into a system of
in
order to be
brought within the comprehension of the masses.
The Bhagpvadgita was an epoch-making
ment.
proved a landmark
It
thought
religious
in that
it
the Glta
felt
it
Indian
of
to
religious
teachings of the Glta
are
and
the
concerned mainly with the philosophy of action
cult of devotion to
docu-
literary
history
gave new direction
The fundamental
speculation.
the
in
1
Clearly, the author of
Vasudeva-Krsna.
necessary to inculcate
in
people a sense
the
of duty and devotion because the air was already contaminat-
ed with speculations on inaction and atheism.
There were
some philosophers, for instance, Makkhali Gosala, who condemned action as leading to evil. We find in the Upanisads
also some sayings which betray their antipathy to action
(karma)." So the Buddha took up the challenge on behalf
of
the
Sramanas.
non-Vedic
thinkers,
and
stressed
the
value of action in his scheme of Silas, or moral codes, but
on the theistic problem. The Bhagavadon behalf of orthodox theologists,
gita upheld its
saying that its good or bad consequences might be averted
he remained
silent
utility
provided the action were carried out
in a spirit
of devotion
and detachment. 3
The Glta has been declared
Yoga, and
as
its
expounded
times
the Gita.
in
The term
sophy.
it
a
Yogasastra. a treatise on
preacher Yogesvara. the lord of Yoga.
signifies
is
not
stands for a variety of meanings.
mental
abstraction
4
,
balance', on other occasions a mental
everything
1.
2.
3.
4.
is
dedicated
to
God 6
.
Vaifiiavisin, p. 29.
Bphadaranyaka Upanisad, IV, 4,22.
Chapter II, 57; IX, 26,27, etc.
IV, 20,34.
48, VI, 32,33.
6. II,
6. II, 39,
XVIII,
57.
Yoga,
yet a systematized philo-
Yoga
Some-
sometimes mental
resolve
in
whereby
the sense of a
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
344
mental resolve
is
also
common
to
Buddhist
literature.
1
It
and "devotion", the keynote of
found in the Pali Canon. 2 The
the Glta, which is also
central theme of the Glta is that Lord Sri Krsna stands
supreme
the
before Arjuna as the human incarnation of
Godhead and proclaims his readiness to save whosoever
connotes
"concentration",
surrenders heart and soul to him while engaged in worldly
This message of devotion had a far-reaching and
pursuits.
permanent
effect
on Hindu society and
social organization.
provided equal opportunities for everybody, irrespective
It
of caste and sex, to lead a religious
which went a long way
fact
life
and win
salvation, a
cementing the unity of
in
all
within the Hindu fold.
The
present writer
is
inclined to place the age of
Gita in the post-Buddha period as
The
(I)
it
refers to
instructions regarding proper food, timely sleep
timely waking 3 undoubtedly refer to
important Buddhist
born
teachings
personal experiences.
"some wise men say that
be abandoned" is exactly what
lines
to
1
Ariguttora,
example,
for
some
of
The opinion
(2)
says
that
the
favour
in
verse
And
XV,
hard to believe that the
the
to in
wrongful
action
is
Buddha held. The
Buddha confessed
in
the sense that he
act. 5
(3)
The
mentioned
in
wrongful
caturvidham"
could have consisted of the whole
None
Buddha's own
the
corresponds to that of Buddhist
14,
is
it
abandoning
"annarn
food,
fourfold
of
and
most
the
himself to be an advocate of inaction
argued
of the
referred
the
the
Buddhist ideas.
original
of
the
literature.
6
Mahabharata
Bhagavadglta.
was composed in
450 B.C., for the grammarian alludes
Panini's time, 500
Perhaps,
definitely to Bhakti and the Bhagavata religion.
the less,
it
is
possible that the Gita
—
Samyutta, V, 414-20,442-02. Note Apaxtnmba, DharmaaOtra,
where Yoga Htands for some golden means, Akrodha, etc.
Majjhirna, I, 472; Pali Dictionary (PTS).
2.
1.
8,23,
3.
VI, 10-17.
4.
XVIII, 3:
Tyajynm donavad
5.
AAgutt*ra,
I,
0.
Cf.
Pali
:
02, IV, 183.
Cuttilro ahara.
it
y eke karma prdhur
mnnl^a^,
I,
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
the most indisputable
in
evidence in
the post-Buddha period
who was
parivrajaka,
favour of placing Panini
references
his
is
probability
in all
345
Maskari-
to
Makkhali
Gosala.
the reputed religious leader of the Ajivika sect. 1
Varnas, Asramas, and the Buddhist
The
Community
division of the social order of the
varnas has come
down from
according to ancient sages,
The Buddha
criticized
We
occasions.
into four
This order,
based on birth and not rank.
is
on
discourses
his
in
it
Hindus
the Vedic period.
must not conclude from
several
however, that
this,
he wanted to destroy the social order of the day. 2
On
contrary, he believed in a social order which accorded
rank
first
realm of secular
in the
claim for
this
Brahmanical
social
literature,
order
in
affairs to the warrior.
finds
favour
only
the
the
The
once
Gautama's Dharmasutra (VIII,
in
1).
The Buddha's objection to the order upheld by the Brahmanas arose from his deep-rooted antipathy towards the
Brahmanas' claim that they had monopoly over spiritual
betterment and salvation. 5 The Buddha was not the first
to
or
want
to abolish class distinctions in respect of pravrajya
renunciation;
him
before
orders, too, which admitted
there
members
were
other
of
classes to their
all
religious
fold/
Of
the four stages of
life,
the
first
two,
viz..
studentship
and householdership were known from the period of the
Vedas.
The other two asramas, i.e.. forest life and comrenunciation were
plete
probably
introduced during
the
period of the Aranyakas and Upani§ads, although no sharp
line of distinction existed
1.
Of,
century B.C.
3.
last stage
etc., pp. 358-60. K. G. Bhandarkar is
was composed not later than the beginning of the 4th
Radhakrishnan pleads for 500 B.C. (Indian Philosophy, I,
S.
it
Prof, Belvalker expressed in a personal talk to the present writer
that he would be inclined to assign to
2.
The
V. S. Agrawala, Pacini,
of the opinion that
p. 524).
between the two.
it
a date prior to the Buddha.
E. J. Thomas, Life of Buddha, p. 128.
Cf. Dlgha, I, No. 3; Majjhima, No. 90, pp. 128-30.
4. Cf.
Oldenberg, Buddha ,
p. 154.
346
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
called pravrajya
and muni
clearly explained
is
Some proof
Bfhada-
in
Asrama theory can
also be found in the Chandogya Upanisad. 2 The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad makes a distinction between sramana,
sanyasin and tapasa
i.e.,
or forest-dweller. 3
The same
Upanisad defines muni as "one who realizes the truth about
This definition happily supports Apastamba 's
the soul".
designation of that stage as mauna. The muni of the Vedic
period, according to Macdonell and Keith, seems to be "more
ranyaka Upanisad.'
of the
1
of a medicine man".'
is
last,
i.e..
Srinavasa Iyengar, however,
P. T.
of the opinion that the
stage,
first
that of Sanyasin called
age of the hymns.
6
It
is
Brahmacarya, and the
muni, were invented
in the
therefore evident that though the
names of the asramas are not found in the Vedic period,
one can amply demonstrate the life of the asramins. 7
It is highly significant that ancient sages like Baudhayana and Apastamba do not speak highly of the saftyasa
stage, because they considered
it
alien to their creed.
This
obvious from Baudhayana's observation that the asramas
called pravrajya, etc., were introduced by an Asura called
is
who was
Kapila. the son of Prahlada,
with the
gods.
salvation
by
known Vedic
that the
life
good terms
not on
Again, Baudhayana refutes the jnanavada,
H
knowledge, by
sources."
quoting
passages from
well-
Gautama and Apastamba both hold
of the householder
is
superior to
So the authors of the Dharmasutras,
all
other stages. 10
to speak in philoso-
phical terms, were advocates of a synthesis between Jftana
and Karma as
1.
a
means of
salvation.
From
this
it
Ill, 5,1; IV, 4,22.
2. II, 23,1.
5.
IV, 3,22.
IV, 4,22; Etam em viditvft munir bhavati.
Vedic Index of Names and Subjects,
6.
Life in Ancient India,
3.
4.
7.
8.
Max Muller, The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy,
Dharmaimtra, II, 6,30.
9. Ibid., II, 6,33-36.
10.
Gautama,
III, 36;
Apaatamba,
II, 23,24.
p.
23 6_
has been
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
deduced that the two
Vanaprastha and Sanyasa,
stages,
among non-Brahmana
nated
347
origi-
thinkers and were subsequently
incorporated with the Xsramic theory of the Brahmanas.
spite of their predilections
Gautama and
life
conduct
or four stages of
life
Max
elabo-
in
required of hermits.
therefore venture to say with
In
the householder,
of
other sages never hesitated to describe
rate detail the rules of
may
for the
We
1
Miiller that the three
were already well known before the
rise
of Buddhism, 2 though probably not in rigid form.
As
when
already stated,
the
Buddha appeared on
scene he discovered to his dismay that the spiritual and
lectual life of the
number
community was under the sway of
This made him undertake
of Brahmanas.
long mission of throwing open to
renunciation or
lege of
join
his
all
a small
the
communities the
He
pravrajya.
religious order, irrespective of
Vedic
in
thereby
as
studies,
widening
Brahmacarya.
the
According
can take to the
life
prescribed
scope
it
to
for
initia-
Brahmanas,
the
religious
called
life
traditions
one
of renunciation only after being a house-
A
although he
directly,
the
privi-
whether or not they
Brahmanical
to
holder or a forest-dweller.
enter
of
life-
people
invited
underwent preliminary conditions such as upariayana,
tion
the
intel-
bachelor and remain for
life
student of the Vedas cannot
may choose
with
his
to
be a devout
teacher,
Naisthika.'
The Buddha rebelled against all such restrictions and limitations.
For him no one needed to go through such preliminaand any one who had
ries,
was
among
There
is
Dharma
a tradi-
Brahmanas also that an individual can take
4
It is
renunciation when he considers himself fit for it.
tion
to
faith in his ideal of the
entitled to admission into his Order.
1.
the
Gautama,
Baudhayana,
III, 2-26;
II, 6,15-10,70;
Apastamba,
II, 21,
1-23,5.
2.
if
well
Order;
known
Richard Kick Bays that the Vanaprastha stage
into the life of the Buddhist
The Vanaprastha is
see Social Organisation, etc., En«. trans, p. 61.
Six Systems,
known
to
p.
236
;
Br&hmanas and was introduced
to the Ariguttara, III, 219.
3.
Chandogya,
4.
Soe Haradatta's Commentary on Xpastamba, Dhar.
II, 23,1.
II, 21,8.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
348
possible that this tradition
influence.
made no
It
is
to
was introduced under Buddhist
however, that
be noted,
distinction whatsoever
Buddha
the
between the
holy
life
of
Brahmacarya, undertaken by a Vedic student after finishing
and that undertaken by a householder. 1
The Buddha and his mission were concerned primarily
with only one stage of life, pravrajya. There were, of course,
his studies,
upasakas to support
his
not originally belong to
community of monks, but they did
The formation of a lay
the Order.
community need not be a pre-condition for the formation of
The householders in ancient India welcomed every ascetic wanting alms and clothing, hence the
Buddhist monks had no difficulty in meeting their requirements.
In the lay world, there was no sharp distinction
between the Buddha's regular upasaka and the non-upasaka.
The lay disciple, in order to become one, did not have to
alter his status in the social order; all that he was required
to do was to take refuge in the Buddha. Almost all the brahmanas who spoke to the Buddha became his upasakas. This
a body of recluses.
did not
mean
that their social rank
changed thereby or that
they gave up their Brahmanical traditions and customs. 2
In
other words, there was no incongruity in one's becoming an
upasaka and at the same time maintaining one's customary
family duties, religious and
social,
provided
offend the obligatory rules, non-killing, etc.
affairs
not
This state of
could be corroborated by the prevalent customs in
Buddhist countries
all
they did
in the
olden days. In Burma, for example,
the Court rituals of the
Pagan dynasty were deeply tinged
with Brahmanical religious practices and the gods Narayana,
Ganesa and Brahma were held in honour. 3
The Buddhist lay community, as a class, was created
only a hundred years after the passing of the Buddha, probably by the Mahasanghikas.
to be fulfilled
The fundamental
2.
Aritfuttam III, pp. 223-30.
Oldenberp, Buddha, pp. 382-3,102, n.
3.
N. K. Hoy, Buddhism in Burma,
1.
conditions
by a lay disciple were that he had to
1.
p. 148.
(1)
take
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
349
refuge in the three gems of Buddhism,
(2) take five moral
on the upasakas, and (3) listen to
the preaching on the Uposatha days on which eight moral
vows were observed. 1 The lay disciple could enter the Order
whenever he wished.
He was at liberty to return to secular
life as soon as he felt that he was unsuited to monastic life.
vows
that were binding
The Buddha never made
it
members of
obligatory for the
Order to embrace the mendicant's life for ever as we
the Asramic system of the Brahmanas.
Mahayanism and
the
find in
the Bhakti Cult
Buddhism, as appears from the Pali Nikayas, is a system
founded entirely on ethical principles.
It has no room for
theism or a theistic
way
of
life.
never entertained the idea of
Nor
of mankind.
In other words, the
God
did he think
Buddha
as ruling over the destiny
much
of prayer and worship
2
(ayacana, prarthana) as conceived by the Brahmanas.
salvation, according to him, lay not in prayer
but in his
own
right efforts
and wisdom.
Man's
and worship
This aspect of the
Buddha's teaching may be called salvation through works. 3
When, however, we examine Buddhist literature thiee or
four centuries later we find that Buddhism had assumed a
form which had developed features quite alien
concepts.
Mahayana Buddhism turned
the
to
its
original
human Buddha,
^akyamuni, into an eternal and supreme deity presiding over
The histhe world, ready to grant boons to his devotees.
an emanation sent down by the
is only
torical Buddha
Adibuddha to preach the Dharma and save mankind from
People now began to pray and worship him in order
its ills.
to salvation.
that he might guide them
to please him so
Buddhism thus became a Buddha cult in the Saddharmapundarlka, Gandavyuha and other
Mahayana
sutras.
Now
In the
on devotion and fervent prayer.
worthat
taught
the
nowhere
Buddha
the
original Buddhism
salvation depended
1.
N. Dutt, Indian Historical Quarterly, VII, pp. 668
2.
Dlgha,
3.
Mc Govern, Mahayana,
I,
244-45
;
Saipyutta, IV, 312-14.
p. 103.
ff.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
350
What he
ship of his person would be useful in any way.
advised his disciples on the eve of his passing was that they
should act and behave
be more
conduct would
and that such
ethical principles
Dharma and
accord with the
strictly in
worthy of him than ostentatious adoration.
1
It
may
there-
fore be assumed that the evolution of the original atheistic
Buddhism into theistic Mahayanism was a result of the reli-
gious fervour of
its
adherents under the dominating influ-
Hinduism through the centuries. 2 Mahayana
popular and powerful owing to its devotional
ence of
theistic
became
and perhaps to its
Hindu and possibly Persian
tendency
aspect
greatly overshadowing
latter
in
its
its
many
succeeded
it
in
long
Buddhism
as
remained
1
Another important feature to be noticed
that
follow
to
and
Hinayanism, although the
rival,
continued to exist as
India.
ideas,
in
Mahayana
is
adherents, the Bodhisattvas, are enjoined to perform
good deeds and pass the merit earned thereby on to all senorder to awaken their Bodhi hearts.
The
Hindu doctrine of the dedication of action to God as taught
by the Gita supplies an obvious parallelism.
We come
tient beings in
across a similar theory prevalent
Christians which
is
known
among
the
Roman
Catholic
as the doctrine of supererogatory
4
Some people believe that the Buddhist practice of
dedicating merit to others has influenced the Gita's teaching
acts.
God, but how the Buddhist
came into vogue is obscure.
that action should be dedicated to
dedicating
practice
of
There
no mention of
is
likely that
when
was emphasized
merit
this practice in the
in
Mahayana Buddhism,
introduced as a token of the
The
detachment.
spirit
spirit
DTgha,
R. Kimura, Htnayana and Mahayana,
;
Indian Philosophy, I, p. 583.
3. Mc Govern, Mahdydna,
4. Ibid., p. 115.
the practice
was
is
also a natural
43;
8.
TherlgathR, verse 161.
1.
138
It is
of self-abnegation and
of self-surrender
2.
II,
Nikayas.
the idea of service to others (pararthatva)
p. 183.
etc., p.
Radhakrishnan,
1
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
35
corollary of the Vasudeva-bhakti cult which dates back at
400 B.C.
least to
1
Advaitism
Mahayana Buddhism gave rise to two main schools of
viz., the Madhyamika and the Yogacara.
The
philosophy,
Mfidhyama
was
philosophy
a
moderate path
avoiding
Nagarjuna,
by
systematized
The Buddha followed
one of the greatest thinkers of India.
the two
extremes
— indulgence
in sensual
pleasures and the habitual practice of self-morti-
fication.
When
an attempt was made
to interpret
and
dis-
cover the true import of that path, Nagarjuna came forward
own
moderate. The
with
his
interpretation
and called
Madhyamika, or
it
central idea in his philosophy
is
prajna, wis-
dom, or ultimate knowledge derived from an understanding
of the nature of things
Sunyata
him
for
is
in their true perspective, viz.,
synonym
a
So the dictum: "everything
be taken
and
tion
mean
to
"everything"
non-substantial
stands
for
all
things,
So everything for him
external.
tiality
void" (sarvam sunyarn) must
that everything has a dependent origina-
hence
is
is
and
sunyata.
"dependent origination".
for
becomes
dharmadhatu, or
illusory.
the
monistic
is
Here
(nihsvabhava).
dharmas
and
internal
devoid of any substan-
When
this
is
the
realized
cosmic element,
becomes
manifest.
Another
Ajativada,
fundamental
the
principle
non-origination
non-substantial, sunya, also bring
in his
theory.
home
the idea that they are unoriginated
philosophy
Things
to us
is
declared
by implication
and undestroyed. Nagar-
juna takes great pains to expound the non-origination theory
works, such as the Madhyamika-sastra.
in his
exposition
and
logic
belonged to the opposite
to their
To
own
1.
camp were tempted
to adapt
who
them
theories.
example, Gaudapada, a great exponent
was influenced considerably by Nagarjuna 's
quote one
of Advaitism,
His method of
were so convincing that even those
Vaifnavism, p. 13.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
352
method of argument. The external world, for both the
Madhyamikas and Advaitins, is unreal. The arguments
advanced by Nagarjuna were also adopted by Gaudapada in
so far as they supported his propositions.
of the
non-origination
theory by
The formulation
Nagarjuna
is
origination
theory,
was unknown
sads speak
unborn
as
applied to
several times
(aja),
of the
logical
phenomenal
the
Advaitism before Gaudapada.
in
a
The non-
corollary of his doctrine of relativity (sunyata).
world,
The Upani-
Atman and Brahman
as
imperishable (avyaya) and eternal (nitya), but
nowhere do they speak thus of the external world. Nor do
find anybody before Gaudapada in the galaxy of Advai-
we
tins
who
as did
pleaded for the non-origination of things
Gaudapada
in
his Karikas.
in
general
Therefore there
is
no
denying the fact that Gaudapada must have taken the idea
from Nagarjuna and adapted it suitably to provide the
Advaita doctrine with a firm foundation. 1
The second important Mahayana school
Yogacaras,
who were
make any undue
is
that of the
They do not
adherents of mentalism.
claims for the non-origination theory not-
withstanding the fact that they too hold the world to be
Thus both the Madhyamika and
unreal.
the
Yogacara
schools maintain the maya-like nature of the world.
Maya
Advaitins, likewise, adhere to the
to sustain their belief in Advaitism.
the
A
Advaita school, Sarikaracarya, took
illusion theory
and used
it
The
doctrine in order
champion of
weapon of the
great
this
against his rival realists, the Naiyathis
account was called a
crypto Buddhist (pracchannabauddha).
Sankara's stand in
yikas and the Vaisesikas, and on
advocating the unreality of the world, however,
and independent,
for according to the
is
logical
Upanisads there
exist-
ed previously only the Brahman or Atman, and things other
Such a decthan that were unreal and diseased (artam). 2
laration
Atman
1.
2.
makes
is
More
real.
it
obvious that nothing but the
The
question
arises,
details in lrulian Philosophy, I, p. 668.
Bfhadaranyaka Upani$a<l,
III, 5,1,
Brahman or
what was the source
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
of Sankara's doctrine of
who immediately
On
353
Maya?
The Mahayana Buddhists
him are the most likely source.
possible that it was the Sa§titantra,
preceded
the other hand,
is
it
the renowned treatise on the Sarikhya philosophy.
said
the
that
Sastilantra
effect that "the ultimate
Sarikhyan forces,
ly false like
an
be mentioned
is
invisible;
that the
The
traceable.
division
vocal and mental,
of
the
and what is
maya."
Maya
is
of
statement
a
to
is
the
nature of the gunas, the
real
earlier
another matter
is
contains
1
illusory object,
mention whatever of the
There
and
It
visible to us
is fair-
Incidentally,
it
may
Buddhist Nikayas make no
doctrine.
which Buddhist ideas are
in
karma,
action,
A
universal.
above varies with each
into
physical,
further division of each
school
of
thought.
The
Buddhists classify physical and mental acts into three and
The
vocal into four.
three physical acts are killing, steal-
ing and adultery; the four vocal acts are lying (mrsavada),
malicious
speech
harsh
(pisunavaca),
frivolous talk (sambhinnapralapa),
acts
are
covetousness
and wrong view
speech
while
These
acts
unmeritorious actions and their converse
A
actions.
tioned
in
similar tenfold division
the
commented on
Bhasya
in the
on
the
constitute
ten
of action
Nyaya-sutra,
mental
(vyapada)
malevolence
(abhidhya),
(mithyadrsti).
(parusavaca),
three
the
ten
meritorious
is
also
(1,1,17)
menand
Vartika of Udyotakara. The Vartika
I. Qun&n&tji paramamrupat/i, etc., in the Vyasabh&sya on the Yoga-sutra,
VI, 13: TcUhd c& nuidsanam. V&caspati remarks: Atra eva $a${ilantrasy&
(I) prakrti, and (2) illusion or
nutiffih. The terra maya has two meanings
illusory object.
Maya in the former sense is common to the Upanigads
:
and the Gft&, and
in the latter
sense
is
peculiar to the Buddhists
and the
Advaitins.
It is to be added here that Vacaspati attributes this verse to Varsaganya (BhamatT, II, 1,2,3). As J. H. Woods has pointed out (Yogas&tra), the
verse must have been originally from the Sastftentra of Panca&kha.
More*
over, the antiquity of the V&rMaganya school and their texUbook has been
proved by E. H. Johnston and it has been reasonably demonstrated that the
text-book of the V&rsaganya school must have been in existence long before
the poet Asvaghosa, 50 B.C.—50 A.D. (See Buddhacarita, II, Introduction, xlvi, lvL)
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
354
discusses ten meritorious acts as follows:
tragarp), service
three acts are physical;
kindness
(hitarn),
and
(satyam),
benevolence
(svadhyaya)
while mercy (daya), love (sprha),
acts;
(sraddha) are three mental
faith
(pari-
Vedic study
truthfulness
(priyarn),
which four are vocal
and
protection
(paricaranam), and charity (danam), which
acts.
So apparently
the Naiyayikas, although they accepted the tenfold division
and not merely as the
reverse of the bad act as the Buddhists do. The Bhagavadglta which divides the good acts into three under threefold
penance (tapas) says: "'Paying reverence to gods, brShmanas,
of the good act, explain
and
preceptors
forwardness,
life
men
ness,
this
is
The speech which causes no
and
straight-
self-restraint
called mental penance."
1
is
disgust,
and the study of the
Calmness of mind, mild-
beneficial,
the vocal penance.
taciturnity,
cleanliness,
as Brahmacarin, and harmlessness, this
true, agreeable,
is
Vedas,
knowledge;
of
called bodily penance.
which
positively
it
Thus
been influenced by Buddhistic
and
purity of heart, this
is
the Glta seems not to have
ideas.
When we look into Chapter XII of Manu's Book of
Law, we are struck by the close affinity between its ideas
and terminology and those of Buddhism. The Book of
Law, while explaining the ten varieties of the unmeritorious
act, says:
"Coveting the property of others,
evil
thought and
mind: harsh words,
and frivolous talk are four acts
killing, and intercourse with another
vain attachment are the three acts of the
false speech, malicious talk,
of the tongue; stealing,
Again
man's wife are three acts of the body."
the
definition
staff,
is
given
of tri-dandin,
in
true
the
mendicant with the
Buddhist fashion.
has been able to bring under control
(dandas)2 vocal, mental and physical,
,
This fact
is
in verse
all
is
10,
triple
The person who
the three violences
called the tri-dandin.
ample evidence of how Buddhism and Buddhist
Hindu writers. Such cases of the
ideas influenced ancient
1,
GIta,XVII, 14-16; S.B.E., VIII,
2.
The term
p. 119.
'danda' in this particular sense
dhistgand theJainas; See Majjhima
I, p.
372
f.
is
characteristic of the
Bud*
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
355
borrowing of ideas can be multiplied. 1
The Buddha
The
A vatara
as an
idea that the
Supreme
Spirit manifests itself in various
forms developed into the conception of one god who could
be identified with all the other gods. This led to the theory
of
Avatara,
Incarnation,
on
fluence
nated
who
which exercised considerable inAn Avatara is the god incar-
Hinduism.-
later
acts like a
human
being but has the miraculous
powers of the god. Many Avataras are mentioned in the
Mahabharata and the Puranas. In the Harivamsa, for
instance, the
but
is
Buddha
is
not included
among
the Avataras,
considered to be one in the Varahapurana, the Agni-
purana and the
later
Puranas.
In any case the
Buddha must
already have become an Avatara of Visnu before the time of
Gaudapada" (circa 725 A.D.), as can be surmised from the
way Gaudapada paid homage to his favourite god. In his
benedictory verse he uses certain epithets which suggest that
This can be the
the Buddha is the object of his adoration.
only explanation, for Gaudapada was a staunch Advaitin.
Once the Buddha had been raised to the status of an
Incarnate Being, his followers gave him all the honours due
They began to worship the
to a Hindu Incarnate God.
image of the Buddha for the same reasons as the Hindus,
namely, to stimulate feeling and meditation. It is now the
generally accepted view that the worship of idols
(500—450
among
the
But such
worship among the Buddhists could not have been as old;
for the Buddha never approved of the idea of installing his
image for worship save in stupas or similar monuments.
Hindus
is
as
old
Even in such a
Buddha exhorts
1.
E.g., the verse
as
late
Panini
work
B.C.).
as the Saddharma-pundarika, the
his disciples only to erect stupas or caityas,
:
k&maj&n&M temulam y
etc., is
cited in the Grt&bhasya
of ^Ankara, VI, 4, and is also found in the Udanavarga, II, 1. There are several other verses that may be traced in the Mahabharata and Buddhist works.
2.
Vaiwtavism, pp.
3.
According to Principal R. D. Karmarkar, his date
2, 41, 42.
is
about 500 A.D.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
356
but that the Buddhists in ancient India must have widely
worshipped the Buddha's idol becomes clear from the
Today,
cent finds of images in different parts of India.
re-
in
Ceylon, Burma, China and other Buddhist countries, people
in the same fashion as the
Hindus do in India, by offering flowers, food, cloth, incense
and prayers. In Ceylon, the last act in the making of an
worship the Buddha's image
image
In
is
the painting of the eyes, a magical rite as in India
Burma, the image
is
endowed with
called pranapratistha, the giving of
similar rite
godship.
Social
is
life
life.
In
observed by which the image
a ceremony
China also, a
in
is
vivified into
1
Reform
From
the time the Buddhist upasakas were recognized
as regular
members of
community, the rigid
amongst them as
the Buddhist
observance of caste rules was slackened
among
This change had a far reaching
the monks.
on the Hindus.
began to devote
Some
liberal thinkers
among them,
to the problem
their attention
effect
in fact,
of social
reform with a view to improving the mutual relations of the
different
to
Some began
communities within the Hindu fold.
the rigidities and the oppressiveness
attack vehemently
of the
A
caste system.
Tamil
(about 1100 A.D.), subjected
it
writer, Kapilar
by name
very severe
criticism.
to
Vemana, a Telugu writer, and Basava, a Kanarese reformer,
both organized movements in opposition to caste observances.
The latter especially formed a Virasaiva sect known as the
Lingayats which completely disregarded the superiority and
the privileged position of the
Brahmanas
in
nuja
in
sect,
realized
religious
The
Rama-
society.
later Vaisnavites, in particular the adherents of the
need for relaxing caste observances
and worship in the temples. 2 They
the
festivals
accepted in their Order people from
all
communities and
Crown of Hinduism, p. 323.
witness thiB fact in the temple of Jagannath at Puri
other Vaisnava temples.
1.
See. J. N. Farquhar,
2.
One can
and
in
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
357
were thus able to spread Vaisnavism among the masses.
Similar ideas were advocated by later religious leaders
among whom
modern reformers
started
Guru Nanak and others
The fire was kept alive until
Kabir,
poet
the
figured most prominently.
an organized crusade for the com-
plete abolition of caste distinctions.
how
laration that religious
people of
life,
It will
now be
Buddha was
sagacious and far-sighted the
saw
as he
it,
evident
in his dec-
must be open to
classes.
all
Vegetarianism
The Buddha
did not feel justified in prescribing a vege-
among the monks. What he did
them to avoid eating meat because animals
tarian diet for his disciples
was
had
to be slaughtered only to feed them.
not
possibly
to advise
have
that
insisted
adhere to a vegetarian
his
Clearly, he could
lay
disciples
should
diet.
was Asoka who proclaimed throughout the length and
breadth of his vast empire the sanctity of animal life and
It
vigorously pursued his sacred mission to induce people to
abstain from
grounds.
killing
animals
wastcfully and
on
religious
This must strongly have influenced the Buddhist
itself which then comprised both lay members
and monks. It is likely that after Asoka some reformed
Hindus and Jainas took up the cause and roused sympathy
community
in
favour of the Asokan mission,
thereby perhaps finally
bringing about the absolute prohibition of meat eating by
the Buddhist
Church
Lankavatara-sutra.
later there
No
itself
as has
Furthermore,
appeared on
the
been recorded
three
scene
to
four
in
the
centuries
King Harsa Vardhana.
sooner did he ascend the throne than he issued a royal
decree to the
flesh.
effect that
Another
factor
no one in his dominion was to eat
which accelerated the adoption of
vegetarianism was a later phase of the Bhakti cult preached
and practised by the great Vaisnava and Saiva saints. They
were devout believers in the doctrine that God was in everything and everything in God so that they feared even to
;
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
<fi%
tread
the
disparaged
also
The Mahayana Buddhist
grass violently.
of slaughtering
habit
cruel
the
saints
innocent
own body, for they
were worth living only in so
far as they fulfilled the wishes of other beings.
Vegetarian
diet has come to stay in India, largely because of the constant
preaching and practice of these saints.
creatures solely in order to feed one's
own
believed that their
To sum
Its
influence
the words
up, in
Buddhism has
left
a permanent
visible
is
lives
absorbed the best of
its
on
all
ethics.
of Dr.
S.
Radhakrishnan 1
,
mark on the culture of India.
sides.
The Hindu faith has
A new respect for life, kind-
ness to animals, a sense of responsibility and an endeavour
have been brought home to the Indian mind
after higher life
with renewed
force.
Thanks
Buddhist influences, the
to
Brahmanical systems have shed those parts of their religion
which were irreconcilable with humanity and reason. 2
Principles of Tantric Buddhism
Introductory
The
later
general
name
aspects of
Buddhism
to vijiiana
is
given to the
/>., to
Mantrayana,
The importance
given by the
in
Vajrayana or Sahajayana.
Yogacara school
Buddhism
of Tantric
India,
and
its
cultivation gradually led
Mantras,
Buddhism.
and diagrams in the form of circles (man^alas)
and triangles began to assume increasing importance for a
yogin. These mantras were supposed to possess great magical
powers and have their counterparts in the parittas in
Pali literature, which were supposed to protect the reciters
to several esoteric
developments
in
dharanis,
1.
2.
Indian Philosophy, J, p. 608 f.
In a later Hindu work, the following are also prohibited
(1) the killing of cows for sacrifices;
(2) the killing of horses;
:
(3) self-torturing austerities
(4)
the use of flesh in the
(5)
and
marrying the widow of a deceased brother.
sacrificial feasts in
the
name
of ancestors;
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
Once
against all evil.
Buddhism,
into
ment
the esoteric element was introduced
was found necessary
it
359
to restrict that ele-
to a small inner group of "initiates",
and in order to
was also necessary to introduce the
of Master and Pupil (Guru and Cela).
maintain continuity
institution
it
In order to preserve
secret nature, they also
its
had to use
a language of symbolism which only the "initiates" could
To
understand.
the
common
altogether different meaning.
people the words carried an
Unfortunately, a language of
double interpretation was used by the writers of this school,
as a sort of
shock-therapy\
The apparent meaning of
4
words gave a
these
"initiates"
they
shock to
carried
The popular mind took
an
these
common
people, but
altogether
words
different
to the
meaning.
at their face value
and
thus a great misunderstanding has arisen about the followers
of the Tantric school and their practices.
Another feature of
believed in a large
this later
number
form of Buddhism is that it
and goddesses by whose
of gods
favours the devotees were expected to attain siddhi or per-
The Buddha is often
company of a large number of
fection.
represented as sitting in the
goddesses.
Allied to this branch of esoteric Buddhism, there
later
is
a
still
phase of Vajrayana which, apart from the original prin-
on which the purer or brighter side was based, became
mixed up with popular cults and assumed, among the lower
classes of society, a darker and objectionable form. Corrupt
practices like the use of five ma-karas, i.e., words beginning
ciples
matsya
4
ma\ such as madya (wine), mamsa (flesh),
mudra (woman) and maithuna (sexual interwere encouraged and practised even by men who
with the letter
(fish),
course),
In Vajrayana
were supposed to be leading a religious life.
Guhya-samaja),
the
called
the
works like the Sri-samaja (also
Sadhana-mala, the Jnana-siddhi, etc., we find that the violation
of those very five rules, which formed the basis of Buddhist
For instance, in the GuhyaDiscipline, is recommended.
theft and intercourse with
falsehood,
murder,
samaja ,
1
1.
p. 120.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
360
women
arc recommended. Can the Buddha ever be imagined
have sanctioned such things?
to
Nevertheless, this cult gained very wide currency in the
Vikramaslla was a centre of Tantric
eastern parts of India.
Assam and
learning
which
Orissa.'
All sane people revolted against these corrupt prac-
gradually
which contributed
tices
of Buddhism.
Among
have
until
all
Bengal,
to
no small measure
to the decline
(General Editor.)
the aspects of
now been
The Tantras
in
spread
Buddhism,
its
the most neglected
against
Tantric teachings
and misunderstood.
which accusations have been hurled
Hindu traand the malpractices which they gave rise to among
the ignorant.
The prejudice, which in this way grew
against everything Tantric, was so strong that even scholars
originated mostly from the decadent forms of late
dition
refused to have anything to
do with
impartial investigation or research
it,
and consequently any
was neglected
for a long
time.
European scholar who had the courage to rehathe Hindu Tantras
of the
Kundalini-Yoga, was Sir John Woodroffe, who published his
famous series of works on Tantric texts and philosophy
under the pseudonym of Arthur Avalon. In his foreword to
the Sncakrasambhara Tantra, he says: 'The ignorant
The
bilitate
first
the Tantras, especially
.
envisage spiritual truths so grossly that they
All evil
superstition.
and ignorance
is
come
so
.
.
to be called
much
by
its
nature on the surface and affords so apt a subject for averse
judgment that it is readily seized upon, and the more so that
it
convenient material for religious polemic.
is
less
I
repeat that
and sense
religion in
1.
Mohan
2.
we must do
credit both to
by endeavouring to understand
highest and truest aspect." 2
of justice
its
8oeB. Bhattiieharya, 8dd}tanoHulla
9
ii,
vii.
any
xxxvi-xxxix and lv; Manindra
Chapter III, pp 134-42.
Boee, Pont-Caitamja Sahajia Cult of Bengal,
P.
Neverthe-
our intelligence
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
Even Avalon, however, was under
the
361
impression that
the Buddhist Tantras were merely an off-shoot of the Hindu
Tantras, and that the texts, upon which his investigations
were based, represented the original principles of the Tantras.
This view was justified as long as the Tibetan Tantric scriptures were comparatively
unknown and unexplored, because
even those few texts which were available in translation were
far from being understood in their spiritual, historical, and
practical significance.
The reason
for this
was the
fact that these scriptures can-
not be understood merely philologically, but only from the
point of view of yogic experience, which cannot be learned
from books.
Moreover, those books, from which informa-
was sought, were written in a peculiar idiom, a language
of symbols and secret conventions, which in Sanskrit was
tion
called Saridhyabhasa
(literally
"twilight language'', because
meaning which underlay its words).
This symbolic language was not only a protection against
intellectual curiosity and misuse of yogic practices by the
ignorant or the uninitiated, but had its origin mainly in the
of the double
fact that the ordinary language
highest experiences
is
not able to express the
is
of the mind.
The
indescribable, which
experienced by the Sadhaka, the true devotee, can only be
hinted at by similes and paradoxes.
We
find a similar attitude in the
Japanese Zen Buddhism, which
Chinese
in fact
Ofan and the
common
have much in
with the mediaeval Buddhist mystics, the so-called Siddhas,
who
flourished in India between the seventh
and the eleventh
and were the main propagators of the Tantric
Their numerous mystic and
poetical works
were almost completely destroyed in the
country of their origin when northern India was overrun by
centuries A.D.
teachings of the Vajrayana.
the
Muslim
invaders.
Fortunately, a great
many
of their
works, as well as the bulk of Tantric literature that had deve-
loped up to that time, have been preserved in Tibet
in faith-
ful translations, together with the living tradition of yogic
and meditative
practice,
which was handed down through
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
362
generations from
Guru
to Cela.
Tantric tradition went "underground" and lingered mainly in the lower strata of society,
where it became mixed up with various popular cults and
finally deteriorated into superstition, which discredited both
In India, however,
the
Hindu Tantras. These latter
upon ancient yoga practices which apparently had
been remoulded under the influence of Tantric Buddhism.
The influence of Tantric Buddhism upon Hinduism was
so profound, that up to the present day the majority of WestBuddhist and the genuine
the
were
built
ern scholars labour under the impression that Tantrism
Hinduistic creation which was taken over later by
is
a
more or
decadent Buddhist schools.
less
Against
tent
this
view speaks the great antiquity and consis-
development of Tantric tendencies
in
Buddhism.
Al-
ready the early Mahasaiighikas had a special collection
mantric formulas
in their
of
Dharani-pitaka; and the Manjusri-
mulakalpa, which according to some authorities goes back to
the
first
century A.D., contains not only mantras and dhara-
mudras as well. Even if
the dating of the Manjusri-mulakalpa is somewhat uncertain,,
it seems probable that the Buddhist Tantric system had crystallized into a definite form by the end of the third century
A.D., as we see from the well-known Guhya-samaja (Tib.
nis,
but numerous maridalas and
dpal-gsang-hdus-pa) Tantra.
To
is
declare Buddhist Tantrism as an off-shoot of S>aivaism
only possible for those
of Tantric literature.
A
who have no
first-hand
knowledge
comparison of the Hindu Tantras
with those of Buddhism (which are mostly preserved in Tibetan
and which therefore
Indologists) not only
for
long
remained unnoticed by
shows an astonishing divergence
methods and aims, in spite of external
the spiritual and historical priority and
similarities, but
of
proves
originality of the
Bud-
dhist Tantras.
Sankaracarya, the great Hindu philosopher of the 9th century A.D., whose works form the foundation of all Saivaite
philosophy,
made
use of the ideas of Nagarjuna and his fol-
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
lowers to such an extent that
363
Hindus suspected
orthodox
him of being a secret devotee of Buddhism. In a similar way
the Hindu Tantras, too, took over the methods and principles
of Buddhist Tantrism and adapted them to their own purposes (much as the Buddhists had adapted the age-old principles and techniques of yoga to their own systems of meditation). This view is not only held by Tibetan tradition and
confirmed
by
a study of
by Indian scholars
verified
but has also been
literature,
its
after a critical investigation of the
Buddhism and their historiand ideological relationship with the Hindu Tantras.
earliest Sanskrit texts of Tantric
cal
Thus Benoytosh Bhattacharya,
in
his
Introduction
Buddhist Esoterism, has come to the conclusion that
possible to declare, without fear of contradiction, that
Buddhists were the
first
to introduce the Tantras into
to
"it is
the
their
and that the Hindus borrowed them from the Budand that it is idle to say that later Bud-
religion,
dhists in later times,
dhism was an outcome of Saivaism". 1
One
of the main propagators of this mistaken idea, which
upon the superficial similarities of Hindu and Buddhist Tantras, was Austin Waddell who is often quoted as
an authority on Tibetan Buddhism. In his estimation Bud-
was
built
dhist Tantrism
is
and demonology.
nothing but Saivaite idolatry, Sakti worship
Its "so-called
"meaningless gibberish,"
"its
mantras and dharanis" are
mysticism a
silly
mummery
of
unmeaning jargon and 'magic circles' ", and its yoga a "parasite whose monster outgrowth crushed and cankered most of
the little life of purely Buddhist stock yet left in the Mahayana"2
"The Madhyamika doctrine was essentially a
3
sophistic nihilism", "the Kala-cakra unworthy of being con.
sidered a philosophy"
As
4
.
was mainly from such 'authorities' that the West received its first knowledge of Tibetan Buddhism, it is no wonit
1.
P. 147.
2.
Buddhism
3. Ibid., p.
of Tibet or
11.
4. Ibid., p. 131.
Lamaiwi,
p. 14.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
364
der that up to the present day numerous prejudices against
Buddhist Tantrism are firmly entrenched in the Western mind
as well as in the minds of those
who have approached
the
subject through Western literature.
To
judge Buddhist
the standpoint of
principles
teachings and symbols from
Tantric
Hindu Tantras,
of £aktism
and
especially
from the
not only inadequate but thoroughly
is
misleading, because both systems start from entirely different
Although both make use of the methods of yoga
and of similar technical and philosophical terms, there is litpremises.
tle justification
Brahmanism
Tantras
for declaring
and
in the light
therefore
Buddhism
in
to
be identical with
interpreting
the
Buddhist
of the Hindu Tantras, or vice versa.
Nobody would accuse
the
Buddha of corrupting
his doc-
by accepting the gods of Hindu mythology as a background for his teachings or by using them as symbols of certrine
tain forces or meditative experiences or as the
higher states of consciousness;
if
exponents of
the Tantras, however, follow
a similar course, they are accused of being corrupters
of
genuine Buddhism.
It
is
impossible
unless
we approach
which
is
learning.
to
it
understand any religious movement
in a spirit
the hall-mark of
We
all
of humility and reverence,
great scholars and pioneers of
therefore have to see the various forms of ex-
pression in their genetic connections and against the spiritual
background from which they developed into their particular
systems before we start comparing them with similar features
in other systems. In fact, the very things
which appear simion the surface are very often just those in which the systems differ most fundamentally. The step that leads upwards
in one connection may well lead downwards in another one.
Therefore, philological derivations and iconographical comlar
parisons, valuable though they
may be
in other respects, are
not adequate here.
We completely agree with Bhattacharya when he says:
"The Buddhist Tantras in outward appearance resemble the
Hindu Tantras to a marked degree but in reality there is very
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
between them, either in subject matter or
similarity
little
philosophical doctrines inculcated
This
principles.
365
in
them, or in religious
be wondered
not to
is
and objects of the Buddhists are widely
of the Hindus."
in
at, since
different
the aims
from
those
1
The main difference is that Buddhist Tantrism is not
The concept of Sakti, of divine power, of the crea-
Saktism.
tive
female aspect of the highest
God
(Siva) or his
emanations
does not play any role in Buddhism, while in the Hindu
Tantras, the concept of power (sakti) forms the focus of
The
terest.
in-
of Tantric Buddhism, however,
idea
central
is
prajna (knowledge, wisdom).
To
the Buddhist, Sakti
is
maya,
power
very
the
that
from which only prajna can liberate us. It
aim of the Buddhist to acquire power,
or to join himself to the powers of the universe, either to become their instrument or to become their master, but, on the
contrary, he tries to free himself from those powers, which
creates illusion,
is,
therefore, not the
for aeons kept
him
of
and
life
dominion.
He
a prisoner of samsara.
ceive those powers, which have kept
death, in
order to
him going
try to negate
destroy them, but to transform them in the
so
they
that
may become
in the
forces
rounds
himself from their
liberate
However, he does not
strives to per-
fire
them or
to
of knowledge,
of enlightenment which,
instead of creating further differentiation, flow in the opposite
direction:
towards union, towards wholeness, towards
completeness.
The
attitude of the
contrary.
Hindu Tantras
"United with the
the Kula-cudamani Tantra.
5>akti
the world
is
created."
hand, does not want the
is
be
Sakti,
quite different,
full
and
not
of power", says
"From the union of
The Buddhist, on
creation
if
Siva and
the other
unfoldment of the
world, but the coming back to the "uncreated, unformed"
from which all creation proceeds, or which
and beyond all creation (if one may put the
state of §0nyata,
is
prior to
inexpressible into
I.
human
language).
Introduction to Buddhist Esoterism, p. 47.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
366
The becoming conscious of
nyid)
is
sunyata (Tib. stong-pa-
this
prajna (Tib. shes-rab), or highest knowledge.
realization of this highest
knowledge
(bodhi; Tib. byang-chhub),
i.e., if
sive, all
in life is
The
enlightenment
prajna (or Sunyata), the pas-
embracing female principle, from
which everything
proceeds and into which everything recedes,
is
united
with
dynamic male principle of active universal love and compassion, which represents the means (upaya; Tib. thabs) for
the realization of prajna and sunyata, then perfect Buddhahood is attained. Intellect without feeling, knowledge
without love, and reason without compassion lead to pure
negation, to rigidity, to spiritual death, to mere vacuity, while
feeling without reason, love without knowledge (blind love),
compassion without understanding, lead to confusion and dissolution; but where both are united, where the great synthesis
of heart and head, feeling and
highest love and
intellect,
deepest knowledge have taken place, completeness is
rethe
established,
and perfect enlightenment
The process
the
of enlightenment
most universal
(upaya)
in
is
attained.
therefore represented by
human and
same time the
symbol imaginable: the union of male and
most obvious, the most
female
is
at the
the ecstacy of love, in which the active element
represented as a male, the passive (prajna) by a
is
female figure, in contrast to the Hindu Tantras, in which the
female aspect
is
represented as Sakti,
and the male aspect as
sciousness or 'being',
in its
own
ISiva,
i.e.,
i.e.,
the active principle,
the pure state of divine con-
the passive principle, or the 'resting
nature'.
In Buddhist symbolism, the Kno\yer (Buddha) becomes
one with his knowledge (prajna), just as man and wife be-
come one
and this becoming one is
mahasukha (Tib. bdemchhog). The Dhyani Buddhas (i.e., the ideal Buddhas
visualized in meditation) and the Dhyani Bodhisattvas, as
embodiments of the active urge of enlightenment which finds
its expression in upaya, the all-embracing love and compassion, are therefore represented in the embrace of their prajfia,
the
in the
highest
embrace of
indescribable
love,
happiness,
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
symbolized by a female deity, the
knowledge.
embodiment
367
of highest
This is not the arbitrary reversal of Hindu symbology, in
which "the poles of the male and the female as symbols of
the divine and its unfoldment have to be exchanged appa-
gender of the concepts which
rently, as otherwise the
were intended
in
embody
to
harmony with them"
a principle which
is
Buddhism would
in
they
not have been
but the consequent application of
1
,
of fundamental importance for the entire
Buddhist Tantric system.
In a similar
sistent
way
application
the
of
Hindu Tantras are an equally con-
the
fundamental
ideas of Hinduism,
even though they have taken over Buddhist methods wherever they suited their purpose.
But the same method, when
applied from two opposite standpoints, must necessarily lead
to opposite results.
ficial
There
is
no need
to resort to such super-
reasons as the necessity to comply with the grammatical
gender of prajfia (feminine) and upaya (masculine).
Such reasoning, however, was only the consequence
of
the wrong presupposition that the Buddhist Tantras were an
Hindu Tantras, and the sooner we can free
ourselves from this prejudice, the clearer it will become that
the concept of Sakti has no place in Buddhism.
Just as the Theravadin would be
shocked if the term
turned
its
into
opposite and were
anatta (Skt. anatman) were
rendered by the Brahmanical term atman or were explained
in such a way as to show that the Theravadin accepted the
atman idea (since Buddhism was only a variation of Brahmanism!), so the Tibetan Buddhist would be shocked by the
misinterpretation of his religious tradition by the Hindu term
£akti, which is never used in his scriptures and which means
imitation of the
exactly the opposite of what he wants to express by the term
prajna or by the female counterparts of
and Bodhisattvas.
One cannot
.
Dhyani Buddhas
arbitrarily transplant the termini of a theistic
system, centred round the idea of a
1
the
God
H. Zimmer, Kunstform und Yoga im indischen
Creator, into a nonKultbild, p. 75.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
368
theistic
system which emphatically and fundamentally denies
God
the notion of a
minology
later
arises the
Tantras
From such
Creator.
a confusion of
nothing but another version of the
is
ter-
mistaken idea that the Adibuddha of the
God
Creator, which would be a complete reversal of the Buddhist
The Adibuddha, however,
is the symbol of
and completeness of the
enlightened mind, or as Guenther puts it more forcefully:
point of view.
the
universality,
"The statement
timelessness
that the universe or
man
is
the
Adibuddha
is
but an inadequate verbalization of an all-comprehensive ex-
The Adibuddha
perience.
is
God who
assuredly not a
dice with the world in order to pass
away
his time.
plays
He
is
not a sort of monotheism either superimposed on an earlier,
allegedly atheistic Buddhism.
zation.
It
Such notions are the errors of
Buddhism has no
professional semanticists.
attempts to delve into the secret depths of our
most being and to make the hidden
Therefore the Adibuddha
ly.
taste for theori-
is
in-
light shine forth brilliant-
best translated as the un-
folding of man's true nature." 1
By
confusing Buddhist Tantrism with the Saktism of the
Hindu Tantras, a basic misconception has been created, which
up to the present day has prevented a clear understanding of
the Vajrayana and
its
symbolism,
in
iconography as well as
in literature, especially that of the Siddhas.
The
latter
used
a particular form of symbology, in which very often the highest
was clothed
in the
form of the lowest, the most sacred
in
the form of the most ordinary, the transcendent in the form
of the most earthly, and deepest knowledge in the form of
the most grotesque paradoxes.
for initiates, but a kind of
It
was not only a language
shock therapy, which has become
necessary on account of the over-intellectualization of
religious
and philosophical
Just as the
Buddha
of a privileged priestly
1.
Ywganaddha,
life
rebelled against the
class, so
the Tantric
narrow dogmatism
did the Siddhas rebel against
View of Life,
Sanskrit Series, Banaras 1952), p. 187.
the
of those times.
H. V. Guenther
howkhamba
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
369
the self-complacency of a sheltered monastic existence that
had
lost
contact with the realities of
as unconventional as their lives,
life.
Their language was
and those who took
their
words literally were either misled into striving after magic
powers and worldly happiness or were
repelled by what
appeared to them to be blasphemy. It is therefore not surprising that after the disappearance of the Buddhist tradition in
India, this literature
fell
into oblivion or degenerated into the
crude erotic cults of popular Tantrism.
Nothing could be more misleading than
to
draw
inferences
about the spiritual attitude of the Buddhist Tantras (or
Hindu
genuine
Tantrism.
The
Tantras)
of
from these degenerated forms of
former cannot
be
fathomed
theoretically,
through comparisons or the study of ancient literature,
i.e.,
but only through practical experience or actual contact with
the
still
and their contemplative
and Mongolia, as well as in
the Shingon and the Tendai.
existing Tantric traditions
methods, as practised in Tibet
certain schools of Japan, like
With regard
Glasenapp remarks:
to the latter two,
female Bodhisattvas figuring
in
"The
the mandates, like Prajiia-
paramita and Cundi, are sexless beings from whom, quite
in
accordance with the ancient tradition, associations of a sexual
In
nature are strictly excluded.
from those known
this
respect
these
schools
from Bengal, Nepal and Tibet,
polarity
of the male and female prinwhich emphasize the
differ
to us
ciples." 1
The
side
fact that Bengal, Nepal,
by side shows
that the
and Tibet are mentioned here
Tantrism of Bengal and Nepal
is
regarded to be of the same nature as that of Tibet, and that
the author, though seeing the necessity of distinguishing be-
tween Tantrism and £aktism, has not yet drawn the
clusion, namely, that
built their
even
those Buddhist
last con-
Tantras which
symbolism upon the polarity of the male and the
female, never represent the female principle as £akti t but
al-
1. H. V. Glasenapp, Die Entstehung de* Vajrayava, Zeitschr. d. deutsch
morgenl&nd. Geseltechaft, Vol. 90, p. 580, Leipzig, 1936.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
370
ways as its contrary
mudra (the spiritual
—
prajiia (wisdom), vidya (knowledge), or
attitude of unification, the realization of
Sunyata). Herewith they reject the basic idea of Saktism
its
and
world-creating eroticism.
Though
cognized
feature of
as far
the polarity of male and female principles
in the
its
Tantras of the Vajrayana and
symbolism,
away from
it
raised
is
is
re-
is
an important
upon a plane which
is
the sphere of mere sexuality as the mathe-
matical juxtaposition of positive and negative signs, which
is
as valid in the realm of irrational values as in that of rational
or concrete concepts.
In Tibet the male and female
sattvas are regarded as
DhyanI Buddhas and Bodhi-
as "sexual beings" as in the
little
above-mentioned schools of Japan; and to the Tibetan even
their aspect of union (Skt. Yuganaddha; Tib. yabyum) is indissolubly associated with the highest spiritual reality in the
process of enlightenment, so that associations with the realm
of physical sexuality are completely ignored.
We
must not forget that the
figural representations of these
symbols are not looked upon as portraying human beings, but
as embodying the experiences and visions of meditation.
such a
state,
however, there
called 'sexual'; there
all
life,
which
is
which rules
is
all
is
In
nothing more that could be
only the super-individual polarity of
mental and physical
activities,
and
transcended only in the ultimate state of integration,
in the realization of sunyata.
mahamudra
This
is
the state which
(Tib. phyag-rgya-chhen-po), the
or "the Great Symbol", which has given
is
called
"Great Attitude"
its
name
to
one of
the most important systems of meditation in Tibet.
In the earlier forms of Indian Buddhist Tantrism,
mudra was
may be
'great*
Maha-
represented as the 'eternal female* principle, as
"The
words
and 'mudra' together form the term 'mahamudra'. She
seen from Advayavajra's
definition
:
not something (nifcSvabhava); she is free from the veils
which cover the cognizable object and so on; she shines forth
like the serene -sky at noon during autumn; she is the support
of all success; she is the identity of samsara and nirvana; her
is
.
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
body
compassion (karuna) which
is
gle object; she
is
not restricted to a
sin-
the uniqueness of Great Bliss (mahasukhai-
l
karupa)."
one of the most controversial passages of Anan-
If in
gavajra's
women
is
371
Prajnopaya-viniscaya-siddhi*
it
mahamudra,
perience the
form of love which
to that higher
or
in ourselves
able to see
is
is
all
it
all
ex-
be under-
can only be applied
not restricted to a single
'female' qualities, whether
as those of the Divine
others
in
order to
in
clear that this cannot
it is
stood in the physical sense, but that
object and which
that
said
is
should be enjoyed by the sadhaka
Mother
(prajna-paramita or transcendental wisdom).
Another passage, which by its very grotesqueness proves
it is meant to
be a paradox and is not to be taken
that
"the sadhaka
literally states that
with his mother, his
who
has sexual intercourse
daughter,
his
sister,
and
his
sister's
daughter, will easily succeed in his striving for the ultimate
goal Uattva-yogar.
To
5
take expressions like *mother\
"sister's
daughter'
literally
as taking literally the well-known
which says
294),
and two
dom
with
all its
Here
sin.
ing' (Pali
or
as senseless
Dhammapada
having
verse (No.
destroyed a king-
Brahmana remains
and mother' stands
asmimana and
:
and
kings,
inhabitants, the
'father
'daughter'
is
having killed father and mother
that, after
Ksattriya
'sister',
connection
this
in
for 'egoism
free
from
and crav-
tanha), the 'two kings' for the erro-
neous views of annihilation or eternal existence (uccheda va
sassata-ditthi),
the 'kingdom
and
twelve spheres of consciousness'
Brahmana
To
incest
monk
for the liberated
is
1
Advayavajra, Caturmudra,
Prajnopaya-vintecaya-siddhi
3.
XLIV,
the
inhabitants'
(bhikkhu).
as ridiculous as accusing the The-
2.
Oriental Series, No.
'the
its
Buddhists actually encouraged
maintain that Tantric
and licentiousness
for
(dvadasayatnani) and
p. 34,
in
quoted in Yuganaddha.
Two Vajrayana Works,
25, quoted in Fu^o.
found in the Guhya-samaja Tantra.
Atiangavajra, Prajftopaya^viniScaya-siddhi, V,
naddha, p. 106.
A
Gaikwatf
p. 22.
similar statement
is
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
372
ravadins of condoning matricide and patricide and similar
heinous crimes. If we only take the trouble to investigate
the living tradition of the Tantras in their genuine, unadulterated forms, as they exist
up
to the present
day
in
thousands
of monasteries and hermitages of Tibet, where the ideals
of
and renunciation are held in the highest esteem,
then only can we realize how ill founded and worthless are
the current theories which try to drag the Tantras into the
sense-control
realm of sensuality.
From
the point of view of the Tibetan Tantric tradition,
the above-mentioned passages can only be meaningful in the
context of yoga terminology.
'All women in the world' signifies all the elements which
make up the female principles of our psycho-physical personality which, as the Buddha says, represents what is called
'the world'.
To these principles correspond, on the opposite
an equal number of male principles. Four of the female
form a special group, representing the vital forces
(prana) of the Great Elements (mahabhuta), Earth, Water,
Fire, Air, and their corresponding psychic centres (cakra)
side,
principles
or planes of consciousness within the
human body.
In each
of them the union of male and female principles must take
place, before the fifth
pressions 'mother',
and highest stage
'sister',
is
reached.
If
the ex-
'daughter', etc., are applied to the
forces of these fundamental qualities of the mahabhutas, the
meaning of the symbolism becomes
clear.
In other words, instead of seeking union with a
outside ourselves,
our
own
we have
to seek
it
family") by the union of our male
in the process of meditation.
This
is
woman
within ourselves ("in
and female nature
clearly stated in TilopS's
famous Six Doctrines (Tib. chos drug bsdus-pahi hzin-bris),
upon which the most important yoga method of the Kargyutpa school is based, a method which was practised by Milarepa, the most saintly and austere of all the great masters of
meditation (whom certainly nobody could accuse of 'sexual
practices').
Though we cannot here go into the details of
this
yoga, a short quotation
may
suffice to
prove our point.
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
"The
vital
force
Skt. skandha) in
of
its
the
Five
373
Aggregates (Tib. phung-po;
real nature, pertaineth to the masculine
aspect of the Buddha-principle manifesting through the
left
The
vital
psychic nerve (Tib. kyang-ma
rtsa; Skt. i^la-nadl).
force of the Five Elements (Tib. hbyung-ba; Skt. dhatu), in
its real
nature, pertaineth to the feminine aspect of the Bud-
dha-principle manifesting through the right psychic-nerve (Tib.
ro-ma
rtsa; Skt. pingala-na^I).
As
the vital force with
these
two aspects of it in union, descendeth into the median nerve
(Tib. dbu-ma rtsa; Skt. susumna) gradually there cometh the
realization ..." and one attains the transcendental boon
the union of the male
of the Great Symbol (mahamudra)
and female principles (as upaya and prajfia) in the highest
state of Buddhahood.
Thus, only if we are able to see the relationship of body
and mind, of physical and spiritual interaction in a universal
perspective, and if in this way we overcome the "I" and
"mine" and the whole structure of egocentric feelings, opinions, and prejudices which produce the illusion of our sepa1
,
rate individuality, then only can
we
rise into the
sphere of
Buddhahood.
In this sense, the Buddhist Tantras are not only the legi-
timate heirs of the Vijnanavadins and Yogacarins, but
the
outcome and ultimate consequence of the central idea
of Buddhism which consists in the Law of Dependent Origination.
Though the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold
Path form the framework of the Buddha's teachings, they are
generalizations which do not constitute anything exclusively
Buddhistic.
The fact of suffering and the certainty that
suffering can be overcome by the extinction of desire based
on egoism was common ground in Indian religious thought
and is taught by other religions as well. The Eightfold
Path, too, reiterates what every Indian devotee believes, and
what may be regarded as common ground of all religiousminded people, irrespective of their particular faith.
But in what Buddhism distinguishes itself from all other
logical
1
W.
V. Evans-Wintz, Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines, p. 200
ff.
25 00 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
374
religions, in
what
uniqueness consists,
its
is
the idea that the
by a God Creator nor by blind
chance, but by the law of spiritual and material inter-relatedness which is neither simple causality nor metaphysical determinism, but the law of Dependent Origination (pratitya-samutworld
neither governed
is
This law
pada).
is
number
more than a
sequences of causes and
effects, in
of rigidly fixed
which form
it
has been
who want to
human life (or
popularized for the convenience of those
applied to the exigencies of individual
it
see
to
—
working of individual karma) it is the idea
that nothing exists in itself or by itself as a separate unit,
establish the
either in time or in space, but
is
dependent on a variety of
conditions and related to everything else in the world, so that
we can
neither
speak of 'existence' nor of 'non-existence',
neither of 'being' nor of 'not-being' with regard to
of
any form
life.
Therefore,
world,
to the
O
said in the Samyutta-nikaya, II, 17: "This
it is
Kaccana,
'it is
not'.
is
'it is' and
wisdom how
addicted to dualism, to the
He who
perceives in truth and
things arise in the world, for
him
there
is
no
'it Is
not' in the
world.
And O Kaccana, he who perceives in truth and wisdom how things in the world pass away, for him there is no
'it is'
It
in the world."
is
anatman
from
is
this
position that the Buddha's doctrine of
to be understood.
Therefore,
asked to sum up the Buddha's teaching
in
when
Asvajit
was
a single sentence, he
Four Noble Truths or the Eightfold
its most fundamental
aspect.
And when again the Wheel of the Law was set in
motion by Nagarjuna, the revitalization of Buddhism was
based upon the pratitya-samutpada in the opening verse of
his Mulamadhyamaka-karika, in which he says:
not mention
did
the
Path, but the pratitya-samutpada in
Anirodham anutpddam anucchedam asdsvatam
anekartham andndrtham anagamam anirgamam
yah pratityasamutpddam prapancopaSamam sivam
desaydmdsa sambuddhas tarn vande vadatdm varam
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
375
Without destruction and without origination, without
being cut
off
and without being
eternal,
Neither being one thing, nor different things, neither
coming nor going,
He who can thus teach the Dependent Origination,
the blissful coming to rest of all illusory
unfold ment,
Before Him, the Enlightened
One,
the
best of all
teachers,
bow down.
I reverently
The term prapanca,
unfoldment or
'illusory
differentia-
synonym for
power
It is this power that leads us deeper and deeper into
(Sakti).
the realm of becoming, of birth and death, of matter and
tion' (or *conceptuall> differentiated reality'),
maya, the
illusion
differentiation, unless
wisdom born
is
a
caused by the blind world-creating
it is
countered or reversed by prajna, or
of profound
insight into the
nature of the
world, through insight into ourselves and the realization of
enlightenment within our
the world
and
outer
fabric, in
is
not different
world
are
own mind, because the nature of
from our own nature. The inner
only
the
which the threads of
all
two
of the same
and events, of all
sides
forces
woven into one.
This idea has never been expressed more forcefully and
completely than in the Buddhist Tantras. The word tantra
forms of consciousness and
itself is
all
objects are
related to the concept of weaving (the dictionary gives
"loom, thread, web, fabric" as synonyms), hinting at the
inter-
wovenness of things and actions, the interdependence of
that exists, the continuity in the interaction of
effect, as
well as in traditional development, which like a
thread weaves
its
individual lives.
way through the fabric of history and of
The term 'tantra' (Tib. rgyud) therefore
can also stand for tradition,
The
title
all
cause and
scriptures,
spiritual continuity or succession.
however, which
in
Buddhism go by the
of Tantra, are invariably of a mystic nature and try to
establish the inner relationship of things
by way of
spiritual
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
376
which yantra, mantra, and mudra, the parallelism of the visible, the audible, and the touchable, unite the
powers of mind (citta), speech (vak), and body (kaya), in
order to realize the final state of completeness and enlightenexercises, in
ment. 1
Thus
in
applying the words of Guru
Gampopa,
it
may
said that the Buddhist Tantras represent "a philosophy
be
com-
embrace the whole of knowledge, a
will produce the power of concentrating the mind upon anything whatsoever, and an art of
living which will enable one to utilize each activity (of body,
speech, and mind) as an aid on the Path of Liberation". 2
prehensive enough
to
system of meditation which
Mantrayana and Sahajayana
From among
many branches
the
yana and Sahajayana are the
of the opinion that they
least
are
late
of Buddhism, Mantraknown. Generally one is
Mantras,
developments.
however, are already found in certain passages of the old
Pali
it
is
Canon, as
for instance, in the Atanatiya-sutta.
difficult to ascertain
phases of Buddhism,
it
Although
the role of mantras in the earlier
may
safely be
assumed
that because
of the antiquity of the mantras the essentials of Mantrayana
for a long time developed along lines parallel with the
intellectual
schools
of
Buddhism and were
more
systematically
4
and called a yana or a career' only later. Mantrayana and Sahajayana deal primarily with the psychologically
codified
effective aspects of spiritual
development.
Their instructions
are of a highly individual character and their contents must
be grasped with the immediacy of experience, which accounts
two aspects of Buddhism present to an
understanding which is accustomed to comprehend things
for the difficulty these
1.
The very
nately for
all
fact
that the
in Hinduism
Buddhism it is
term tantra
sorts of literature, while in
to works representing t&ntric principles,
is
is
used indiscrimi-
exclusively applied
another proot of the priority of
the Buddhist Tantra*.
2. From The Twelve Indispensable Things by Guru Gampopa.
Went*, Tibetan Yoga and Secret. Doctrine*, p. 79.
Cf.
Evans-
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
377
only in terms of their verbally designated relations to
each
other.
What
then
Mantrayana and what
is
are
tenets?
its
A
clear account of the subject can be found in Padma-dkar-po's
From
numerous scholarly works.
his
account
it
is
evident
Mantrayana aims at achieving what the other branches
of Buddhism also claim to deal with, namely, the integration
that
of the
human
being,
enlightenment
or
spiritual
maturity.
However, the methods are vastly different. While the attainment of spiritual maturity depends solely on the efforts of
the individual and is in itself incommunicable, certain preli-
minary
rites
are necessary in order to facilitate the process
The
of integration.
first
step
formation of an attitude
(bodhicitta) as a
means
to
'taking
is
making
refuge
toward
directed
and
the
enlightenment
the individual
for his
fit
Three Jewels, the Buddha, the
Dharma, and the Sangha, but they are no longer concrete per-
Refuge
task'.
is
taken
sons and scriptures but,
in the
it
may
be said, spiritual forces sym-
bolically represented
by the Three Jewels.
fuge
connected
is
intimately
enlightenment for the sake of
with
all
the
This taking of
resolve
sentient beings
to
and
re-
attain
this re-
solve furthers the change of attitude, where the aspirant consciously turns
tual reasoning
him
from an
away from the directness of ordinary intellecand begins to see himself and the world around
intuitive standpoint.
strengthen and to develop this
new
tative process the recitation of
The next
attitude
and
step
is
to
in this medi-
mantras plays an important
means to remove the opposing conditions, the
veiling power of evil'.
The mantra is by definition 'a protection of mind', that is, a formula which prevents the mind
from going astray and therefore a positive help in meditative
concentration. It is a well-known fact that the human mind
is not only influenced by the images within and without but
also by words.
The power of words is all the more effective
when such words or even mere syllables resist any attempt to
be reduced to mere concepts of intellection. Although the
part 'as the
mantras have a definite relation to the energetic processes
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
378
they symbolize, the use of a particular mantra depends
and the
the aspirant's personality
suits
him.
developed
It is this
factor that has been
scientifically
After this comes the offering of
means to perfect the prerequisites of
'as
the
Modern depth psychology has
and knowledge'.
merits
most
on
which
Mantrayana.
in
a mandala
spiritual discipline
rediscovered the intrinsic value of the mandala for the proBuddhism here again goes far beyond
cess of integration.
the findings of
modern psychology and
lem more exhaustively,
isolate
man from
in
it
does not separate and
his context, this context being the
universe and not a mere
preparation
step in the
that
deals with the prob-
socially accepted pattern.
of the
mandala corresponds
whole
Each
to
one
of the six perfections (paramita), liberality, ethics, patience,
strenuousness, meditative
analytical understanding.
This means that the construction
of a mandala has a practical value since
vidual in
his
behaviour
and appreciative
concentration,
(carya).
As
it
in
affects the indi-
the
other
forms
of Mahayana, Mantrayana is strongly opposed to escapism
and posits a positive aim and ideal (bodhi) against a negative
one (nirodha).
All this
is.
as
the last phase, the guru-yoga, as 'the
it
were, preparatory to
means
to
have the
all-
power of reality settled on one's self.
By the
guru-yoga one realizes the indivisible unity of one's self with
the ultimate reality.
The guru-yoga is a most exclusive
discipline and its methods are intricate.
Although, in the
ultimate sense, the guru is reality itself and although reality
in everything and not in a fancied 'absolute' of
is found
sustaining
dubious validity, without the help of a human guru, who
himself has practised this yoga and hence is able to guide
the aspirant
on
his difficult path, the
message of Mantrayana
remains a sealed book.
Closely
related
does sahaja mean?
Mantrayana is Sahajayana. What
The literal meaning is 'to be born
to
but what is it that is born together?
The
answer has been given by Zla-od-gzhon-nu f alias
Dvags-po-lha-rje, the most gifted disciple of the Tibetan
together',
classical
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
and
scholar
saint
Mind
Mi-la-ras-pa.
He
379
explains that
it is
the
dharmakaya and the ultimate in
Appearance or the light of the dharmakaya which are born
together.
Appearance and Mind are therefore indivisibly
born together. What he wants to say is that Reality and
Appearance are not separated from each other by an unbridgeable gulf, but are identical. This identity means
that Reality is one and indivisible and is split up arbitrarily
into a number of opposites only by the analytical methods
and techniques of the intellect. Hence, the identity of
Reality and Appearance can be realized and experienced
only by intuitive processes, and it is absolutely wrong and
ultimate in
or the
misleading to conceive of this identity as a postulationally
proposed hypothesis.
In order to achieve this realization, a
course of meditation has been developed which
direct
experience and
takes
cognizance of
intellectual operations are inseparable
concomitants.
The
from
based on
is
the
their
fact
that
emotional
dichotomizing activity of
the
mind
accompanied and even supported by conflicting
emotions (klesa), which has an obscuring influence (moha,
andhakara). This turbulent state of mind can be remedied
fvikalpa)
by
is
meditative
The
practices.
to be borne in mind,
is
quietude,
which,
as
has
not achieved by repression but by an
understanding of the psychological processes,
the
is
first
glimpse of what forms a
development or the viewpoint from which one can safely,
This viewpoint is technically known as
proceed onwards.
thought*
non-dichotomizing
and
lustre,
'happiness,
solid
(Tib.
bde-gsal-mi-rtog.,
Skt.
basis
for further
spiritual
sukha-prabhasvara-nirvikalpa).
this line is pursued and the deeper the experience
becomes, the clearer the view becomes, since, intellectually
speaking, the concepts which obstruct the view by creating
The more
artificial
opposites have
become
ineffective,
and, in respect
of the emotions, the conflict has been resolved.
It is
from
and not from a futile attempt at rationalizing, that the Mahayanic axiom of the identity of saipsara
and nirvana and of the identity of emotionality and
this experience,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
380
enlightenment assumes significance.
The
very
fact
what
that
system but a
intellectual
practised in order to be
prehend and
to
strict
Sahajayana
known makes
and
that their
is
it
is
no
difficult
com-
to
Moreover, Sahajayana emphasizes
define.
the intuitive approach to Reality,
function of intuition
teaches
that has to be
discipline
and
it
is
a fact that the
not the same as that of the intellect
modes of operation
are completely different.
This accounts for the fact that Sahajayana and Mantrayana
dead systems.
Both Mantrayana and Sahajayana are concerned with
successfully evaded the fate of turning into
Buddhism which culminates
four peaks of 'view based on experience' (Tib.
the practical aspect of
Skt. drsti), 'development of
pa, Skt. bhavana), 'to live
Skt. carya),
bu, Skt.
and
what
this
view
offers' (Tib.
and act accordingly'
in
the
lta-ba,
sgom-
(Tib. spyod-pa,
'the integration of the individual' (Tib. bras-
may be
phala) which
variously called
'enlighten-
*Buddhahood\
and Sahajayana
have had the
greatest
on
is
Tibetan
Buddhism
and
there
sufficient
influence
evidence to show that it is also the basis of Zen Buddhism.
Their influence has been all the more marked, because they
Man is not only an
refer to the whole of human nature.
intellectual being, but also an emotional one, and it is well
known that the emotive meaning of anything whatsoever
is of greater importance for shaping the life of an individual
than the mere intellectual connotation. Thus, while all the
ment\ 'spiritual
Mantrayana
brilliant
maturity', or
systems of
works of the
Buddhist thought,
Madhyamakas,
the systematized
Vijnai\avadins, Vaibhasikas,
and so on, are more or less of academic
only, Mantrayana and Sahajayana have remained a
Sautrantikas,
interest
living force to this day.
Himalayan
The
countries, China,
influenced by the practices
living
and
Buddhism of
Japan
Tibet, the
has been deeply
of Mantrayana and Sahajayana,
and cannot be conceived without them.
Although Mantrayana and Sahajayana are not schools
clinging
to
rigidly
defined
tenets, as do, for instance, the
LATER MODIFICATIONS OF BUDDHISM
Vaibhasikas and Vijfianavadins,
they
are of the
importance for the living force of Buddhism
with
its
ritual,
emotionally
and Sahajayana with
No wonder
lities
moving and
of
therefore
Buddhism,
Naropa, Maitrlpa,
its
as
gSer-gliii-pa,
others, have contributed
to
greatest
—Mantrayana
aesthetically
appealing
profound meditative practices.
that the
such
381
most outstanding persona-
Asahga,
Santideva,
Dvags-po-lha-rje
them.
Tilopa,
and many
CHAPTER XIV
Buddhist Studies
in
Recent Times
Some Eminent Buddhist Scholars
In India and Europe
According
pravartana
to
—the
a
Buddhist
tradition,
the
Turning of the Wheel of
dharmacakra-
Law
—
is
said to
1
Historically, the reference
have taken place three times.
first to the one which took place at Sarnath, the second
the
resurgence of
Mahayana and
is
to
the third to the rise of
Yogacara school of Vijnanavada. To this can be added
awakening, which may be reckoned as co-existent
with the period of intensive research on Buddhism in the
The awakening
East and West in the past hundred years.
about a renaiswas sudden and inspired, and it brought
sance in Buddhist studies. This new wave spread through
the three continents of Europe, Asia and America, touching
almost all branches of the Arts and
Humanities thereby
leading to a revival of cultural life in Asian countries and
making the world Buddha-samjni, or Buddha-conscious.
One has only to look into the stupendous eight volumes
of Bibliographie Bouddhique or into History of Indian
Literature, Vol. II, by Winternitz to realize the enormous amount of work done in the field of Buddhist
studies.
The names of E. Burnouf, Fausboll, Prinsep,
Kern,
Csoma de Koros, Oldenberg, Poussin, L6vi,
Stcherbatsky and the illustrious couple, Mr. and Mrs. Rhys
Davids, stand out in glory in the West and one remembers
the
a fourth
with reverence
1.
such
veterans in the East
as
S.
See T. R. V. Murti, The Central Philosophy of Buddhism.
C. Das,
Louis de la Vallee Poussin
Emile Senart
(1869-1939)
(1847-1928)
llt'rm.um
OlrirntnTi;
(t851-l!)?0)
T.
W. Rhys Davids
(1843-1922)
Mrs. C. A. F. Rhys Davi
(1858-1942)
BUDDHIST STUDIES
S.
C
other scholars in
RECENT TIMES
Bunyiu
Vidyabhusan,
TX Kosambi and
IN
Nanjio,
.383
Takakusu,
J.
M. Barua. There are also innumerable
our times who have kept the torch burning
B.
and deserve our grateful homage.
Until a century ago the word Pali or even such words
as Hlnayana and Mahayana were little known outside
The discovery of Pali literaCeylon, Burma and Japan.
ture, with which Asoka is closely associated, is an interesting
story.
In the
first
quarter of the last century, archaeologists
like James Prinsep and others were engaged in deciphering
Asokan edicts. It was the occurrence of the word Piyadassl
in the Mahavamsa, a Pali Chronicle of Ceylon, that helped
them to identify King Piyadassl of the edicts with King
Asoka. No wonder that a Pali book from Ceylon should
king who was so
have brought to light the name of a
instrumental
greatly
carrying the
in
Buddha's message of
The credit
Tumour who realized
for this discovery
enlightenment to the island.
goes to George
hidden treasures
Pali
in
literature
value of the
the
and published a
critical
and translation of the Mahavamsa in 1837.
These developments were received with great interest by
Western Indologists and an eminent scholar, Prof. Vincent
Fausboll of Copenhagen, came forward with an edition
edition
and a Latin
translation
Scholars
E.
like
of the
Burnouf,
B.
Dhammapada
Clough and
in
1855.
Lewis had
J.
already published works on the Pali language based on the
few
texts
studies
that were available.
were
opened.
New
These can
branches
roughly
in
Buddhist
be summarized
as follows:
(1)
Sanskrit studies through the collection of Buddhist
Sanskrit manuscripts from Nepal (1821
—
41),
their distribution in various libraries of India
Europe by
(2)
Tibetan
B. H.
studies
Tibetan-English
Koros;
and
and
Hodgson;
through
Dictionary
the
(1834)
publication
of
by Csoma de
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
384
through the
studies
(3) Pali
of
publication
R.
(1875) and
Childers' Pali-English Dictionary
C
the
foundation of the Pali Text Society (1881); and
(4)
Chinese studies through the publication of Bunyiu
Nanjio's
Catalogue
Chinese
the
of
Tripifaka
(1883).
Hodgson's
distinct service in procuring
Nepalese manus-
and the subsequent discoveries of Tibetan and Pali
Eugene Burnouf to write the first history of
Buddhism. His famous work, Introduction a VHistorie du
Bouddhisme Indien, published in 1844, contained an excellent
cripts
literature helped
survey of Buddhist literature and threw light on the relations
between the Pali and Sanskrit
He
traditions.
translated long
passages of the Divyavadana, the Karancla-vyuha, the Vajrasucl
and wrote the
first
notes on the Prajna-paramitas,
Lankavatara-sutra and other extant literature.
the
His second
work, Lotus de la bonne Loi, was a French translation of the
Saddharma-pundarika, which appeared
While Burnouf
Fausboll
made
concentrated
on
in 1852.
Sanskrit
Buddhism,
progress with his edition of the Pali texts.
His edition of the
Dhammapada
with a
Latin translation
and thought.
major work, the Sutta-
(1855) heralded the studies in Buddhist religion
His
English
nipata,
translation of another
was published
Series in
1881,
critical edition
while
in the
the
Sacred Books
Pali
of
the
East
Text Society published his
of the same text in 1885.
was the edition of the
This monumental work, which was his first love,
His greatest work, however,
Jatakas.
will for ever
mind and
the
remain a standing monument of his astonishing
This was a substantial contribution to
industry.
studies
of
popular
Buddhism
and
Indian
folklore.
Fausboll published this standard edition in six volumes
between 1877 and 1897, thus contributing very largely to the
study of cultural material in Buddhist literature.
Even before the Pali Text Society was begun, many
eminent scholars had devoted themselves to editing Pali
texts.
The credit for editing the entire Vinaya-pHaka, for
BUDDHIST STUDIES
instance, goes to
Indologists
in
IN
RECENT TIMES
Hermann Oldenberg,
the
a giant
He was
century.
last
385
among
the
a great Vedic
scholar and has set the standard for the critical editions and
interpretations of the Rgveda.
His learned introduction to
the Vinaya-pitaka brought the Discipline of the
Buddhist
Order to the forefront and a new field was opened for
Buddhist ecclesiastical studies.
The Vinaya-pitaka was
published during the period from 1879 to 1883
and his
English translations of the Patimokkha, the Mahavagga and
Rhys Davids, appearof the Sacred Books
His other celebrated work, The
of the East (1881—85).
Buddha, was translated into English by Hoey in the year
This was the first text-book in Europe based wholly
1882.
the Cullavagga, in collaboration with
Volumes XIII, XVII, and
ed
in
on
first-hand Pali sources.
XX
His other major works were the
editions of the Thera-Then-gatha
vamsa (Text and English
(P.T.S.,
translation,
1883)
the Dlpa-
and Literatur
1897),
des alien lndien.
Apart from these
solid
ture helped
ture
him
to
the
Upanisad (IV,
akin to the
I),
between Pali
literalitera-
His original suggestion that the intro-
Samannaphala-sutta
Yajnavalkya-Janaka
many
has
His erudition in Vedic
to establish the relation
and the Vedas.
duction
Oldenberg
works,
learned articles to his credit.
dialogue
an imitation of the
is
Brhadaranyaka
the
in
or his contention that the Pali Jatakas are
AHhyana hymns
of the
Rgveda
is
an
illustration
in point.
Another great scholar of this period was Prof. H. Kern
Kern's first work was an edition of the Jatakaof Leyden.
Sanskrit
a
1891),
mala of Aryasura (Vol. I.. H.O.S..
counterpart
of
the
Saddharma-pundarlka
Pali
Jatakas.
(Bihi
His
edition
of
the
its
and
threw abundant light
Buddhica,
1908)
translation (S.B.E., Vol. XXI, 1884)
on the Mahayana, and made the study of the religious
In 1896 his famous
aspects of Mahayana Buddhism easier.
in Grundriss der
published
was
Buddhism
Manual of Indian
the
or
Altertumskunde,
Indo-Arischen Philologie und
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
386
Encyclopaedia
first
for
Indo-Aryan Research.
It
gave for the
time a complete, systematic and concise survey of the
long history of Buddhism.
valuable book
to this day,
remains a
it
His
monumental work, Histoire du Bouddhisme dans
two volumes (1901—1903), gives a detailed account
It
life of the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha.
other
Vlnde
Even
of reference for students of Buddhism.
in
of the
Buddhist Councils
also contains a valuable history of the
and later developments of various schools and sects.
These works, however, were essentially of a preliminary
character. The historic importance of the newly discovered
recognized by many younger
literature was soon
Pali
Oriental scholars, the foremost of
In 1864 he entered
Davids.
the
them being
Ceylon
Prof.
Rhys
Service,
Civil
where he showed a keen interest in his Buddhist surroundand learnt Pali with Y. Unnase and the Ven.
Sumangala of the Vidyodaya College, Colombo. He reings
turned to England in 1872 and associated himself with the
works
of
Childers,
Fausboll and Oldenberg. Childcrs'
on Nibbana had aroused much controversy and Rhys
Davids gave his mature judgment on this topic in his book,
Buddhism (1878). In 1879 he published his English tranarticles
slation of the
Nidanakatha (Buddhist Birth Stories) with a
on the
transmigration of folklore.
introduction
critical
With Oldenberg he translated
into English the
the Vinaya-pitaka referred to above.
This was his
volumes of
first contri-
bution to the Sacred Books of the East Series (1881
—
85).
In
Rhys Davids was invited to give the
America.
Here he announced the
Hibbert
Lectures
in
In stately language
birth of the famous Pali Text Society.
1881
he described
studies
Prof.
his
new outlook towards
and declared, "The
Sacred
the field of Buddhist
Books
of
the
e^rly
Buddhists have preserved to us the sole record of the only
religious
movement
in
the world's history which bears any
close resemblance to Christianity;
and
to say that the publication of this
unique literature
no
less
it
is
not too
much
will
be
important for the study of history and especially of
BUDDHIST STUDIES
than
history
religious
the
IN
RECENT TIMES
387
publication of the
Vedas has
new project was welcomed both
in the East and the West, and many distinguished scholars
came forward to help him in the noble cause. The rest of
already
been."
This
his life is indeed the life of the
Pali
Text Society. His
sympathetic outlook for the East and his missionary zeal
for Buddhist studies made him a champion in this sphere;
and, until he died in 1922,
he
served
the Society for a
period of forty-one years with love and devotion and helped
almost
to publish
whole of the
the
canonical texts,
Pali
a large number of Pali commentaries, about a dozen transla-
and some twenty issues of a journal containing learned
articles on Buddhism, and on the Pali language and literaDuring this period of manifold activities, Prof. Rhys
ture.
Davids himself edited a number of texts like the Dighanikaya (1889, 1903, 1910), the Abhidhammattha-sarigaha
<1884), the Dathavamsa (1884) and a manual of Yogavacara
tions
(1896).
He
also brought out his English translations of the
Milinda-panha (S.B.E.
in
1889, 1910
1890—94) and of
and 1921
(S.B.B.).
His
the Dlgha-nikaya
critical introductions
to the individual suttas of the Dlgha-nikaya
notes on them are indispensable
Even today
of similar
this
work remains a model
texts.
and the learned
for the study of this
text.
for the translation
His other works of general
interest are
many; but two, namely, Buddhism (1896) and Buddhist
India (1903)
won
great
popularity
through their novelty
and original research.
However, the most important of his works, his PaliEnglish
with
Dictionary,
in
collaboration
compiled
Dr. William Stede, is a monumental work worthy of a great
scholar.
With the increase of new publications by the Pali
Text Society, the old dictionary by Childers was found inadequate and, in 1902, Prof. Rhys Davids conceived the idea of
The First
World War, however, interrupted his scheme. Therefore,
it was not until 1916 that he set to work on this dictionary
compiling a dictionary on an international basis.
with the assistance of Dr. William Stede under the auspices
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
388
of the Pali Text Society.
of the
first
He
lived to see the publication
three parts of this magnificent work.
His emi-
completed the work in 1925.
of
Prof.
the
services
Rhys
Davids to the cause of
Indeed,
nent
Dr.
colleague,
Pali studies
words of
Prof.
were
Stede,
and
singular
Max
his wife, the
original.
He
was, in the
Muller of Buddhism.
Rhys Davids was perhaps excelled only by his
A. F. Rhys Davids, who brought her mighty
wife, Mrs. C.
contributions to
as
Pali studies
husband's work.
As
a
crowning glory to her
a life-long companion and a co-worker
of her husband, she took active part in the publications of
the Pali Text Society and, after the death of the founder,
conducted the
of the Society admirably in spite of
affairs
Even
adverse circumstances.
translated into English the
Sisters),
as early as
Theri-gatha
which, for lyrical beauty,
is
she
1909,
(Psalms
of
next only to Sir
had
the
Edwin
This book was soon follow-
Arnold's Light of Asia (1885).
ed by an English translation of the Thera-gatha (Psalms
of
fine
the
Brethren,
English
Samyutta-nikaya.
The
Abhidhamma-pitaka
1917
In
1913).
translation
of
credit
she
gave
Sagathavagga
the
bringing
for
English
the
Dhammasangani
Psychological Ethics,
(Compendium
1923),
of Philosophy,
(Points of Controversy,
the
the
abstruse
In addition,
difficult texts,
Vibhanga (1904), the Patthana (1921),
She
(1912) and the Visuddhimagga (1920).
the
the
into
of
the
to light also goes to her.
she gave readable editions of otherwise
another
such as
Yamaka
also translated
(Buddhist
Manual of
Abhidhammattha-sahgaha
1910)
and the Katha-vatthu
two in collaboration
1915), the last
with Z. Aung.
Apart from these editions and translations, Mrs. Rhys
Davids wrote a number of original books dealing with the
Buddhist thought. The impact of the
of
early
history
and
researches in Mahayana Buddhism on the one hand,
Anatmavada of the
Rhys Davids
teachings of the Buddha, and she
the repulsion caused by the dogmatic
Southern Buddhists on
the other, inspired Mrs.
to look for the original
BUDDHIST STUDIES
brought
out
RECENT TIMES
IN
389
her
thought-provoking Sakya or Buddhist
She was a lady of astonishing energy and
wrote a number of articles. These have been collected in
Wayfarers Words in three volumes which were published
posthumously in 1942. Whatever she wrote, she wrote with
Origins in 1931.
conviction and every word of her writing bears the stamp
of her unique personality.
The
Pali Text Society brought into prominence
many
West like V. Trenckner, R.
Chalmers, K. E. Neumann, L6on Feer, F. L. Woodward,
R. Morris and E. Hardy. To these we can add the magnificent works of American scholars.
Buddhism in Translations by Warren and Buddhist Legends by E. W. Burlingame
scholars
illustrious
of
the
(Harvard Oriental Series) contributed
considerably
to
the
popularization of Buddhist studies.
The labours of Western scholars could not but bring
about an awakening among the scholars of India. This led to
the foundation of the Buddhist Text Society in Calcutta in
The
1892.
President of this Society expressed the feeling of
the whole country,
ing, "It certainly
when he observed at the first general meetmuch to our honour that
does not redound
Buddhist literature should be more explored in the West
than
in
be
the
to
us."
the
East;
means
The
btrt
I
wiping
of
large
trust
number
that
this
off
of
this
Society
standing
valuable
will
reproach
manuscripts
were
scattered in various libraries in Nepal and outside
catalogued by Rajendra Lai Mitra and Hara Prasad Shastri.
They
also
brought
out
Nepalese
Buddhist
Literature in
year, the great Indian explorer, Sarat
1882.
In the same
Chandra Das, returned from his travels into the interior of
an immense amount of
Tibet, where he had collected
material from the ancient libraries of the Sakya and Sam-ye
monasteries of Lhasa. The thrilling accounts of his journey
have been published in The Journal of the Buddhist Text
Society,
He gave a series of lectures on the Indian pandits
which he brought to light the works of SantaKamalaftla, Dipankara Srijfiana or AtiSa. These
in Tibet, in
rak$ita,
—
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
390
were
lectures
Land
Ksemendra
prabhasa
in
His editions
of
Pandits
Indian
published in his
later
of Snow.
in
the
the Avadana-kalpalata of
1888 (Bibl. Indica Series) and the Suvarna-
in
1898 were substantial contributions to the study
He
of Buddhist Sanskrit literature.
also prepared a Tibetan-
English dictionary.
Sarat Chandra
and was,
studies,
Das was indeed a pioneer in Tibetan
Csoma de Koros of India. The
thus, the
Buddhist Text Society, which he served for
lished
many unknown
(1894)
and the
It is
first
such as the
texts
many
years, pub-
Bodhicaryavatara
few chapters of the Visuddhimagga
(1893).
notable that the Society had embarked upon a novel and
ingenious scheme of publishing a Sanskrit version of the Pali
the Svayambhu-purana
Visuddhimagga.
It also published
and a translation of the Asta-sahasrika-prajna-paramita by
Hara Prasad Shastri. Harimohan Vidyabhusan's translation
of some portions of Candraklrti's Madhyamika-vrtti was also
published.
Moreover, the Society arranged for the teaching
of Buddhists from abroad in the Sanskrit College of Calcutta
and thus opened a new department of Buddhist
studies in
India.
Another eminent Indian in this field was Satish Chandra
Vidyabhusan, a pupil and colleague of S.
Das. Dr.
C
Vidyabhusan was a great
Indian logic.
Sanskritist
1893 his services
In
ernment of Bengal
to the
and had specialized in
were lent by the Gov-
Buddhist
Text
whose auspices he edited a number of
He came
texts.
him
in
the
(1879-1900).
into contact with S.
preparation
He was
the
of
a
first
C.
Society,
under
Buddhist Sanskrit
Das and
Tibetan-English
assisted
dictionary
Indian to obtain an M.A.
degree in Pali at Calcutta University (1901).
went
High
In 1910 he
Ceylon and studied for six months with the Ven.
Priest Sumangala, the Principal of the Vidyodaya
to
College,
Colombo. On his return he was appointed Principal
Government Sanskrit College at Calcutta,
he carried on intensive research in Indian
of the famous
where
particularly
Buddhist—logic and philosophy.
1
BUDDHIST STUDIES
His
works
earlier
RECENT TIMES
IN
include
39
editions of the
Avadana-
kalpalata (in co-operation with S. C. Das), parts
Kaccayana's
Larikavatara-sutra,
Grammar
Pali
of
with
the
an
English translation (1907), the Buddha-stotra-sangraha (1908)
and the Nyayabindu
ing with the
His greatest contributions were
(1917).
He wrote
in the field of logic.
several learned articles deal-
works of Dinnaga and Nagarjuna.
Madhyamika aphorisms, about 150
of the
His editions
on various
monumental History
aspects of Buddhist philosophy, and the
essays
of Indian Logic (1922) are an eloquent tribute to a worthy
son of India.
It will
revolutionized
not be an exaggeration to say that he
research
Buddhism
in
by
laying
proper
emphasis on Mahayana logic and philosophy.
Dr. Vidyabhusan's Western contemporaries in this field
Max
were
Max
MUller, Bendall, Minayeff,
Max
Sylvain Levi.
Wallesser
and
MUller, the father of Indian studies in
the West, contributed greatly to the progress of studies in
Buddhism.
His
of
translations
and
Sukhavati-vyuha
the
Dhammapada,
the
Vajracchedika-prajfia-paramita
the
made more valuable
his great
of the Pali Pitaka.
In 1889,
work of
edition of the Bodhicaryavatara.
editing the translations
Minayeff brought out his
P.
I.
This was followed by the
edition (1002) and translation (1922) of the Siksa-samuccaya
by C.
'Bfendall.
These two works helped considerably in
works of Santideva.
the popularization of the excellent
Max
Wallesser
discovered
important editions reference
many Tibetan
may be made
commentary of Buddhapalita
on
the
works.
here
Of
to
his
the
Madhyamika-karika
(BibL Bud., XVI), the Aparimitayurjnana-sutra (1916), and
the M4norathapuranI (Part
German
translation
appeared
in
1914.
of
I,
Pali
extracts
He was
Text Society, 1924).
from
the
His
Astasahasrika
many valuable
may be mentioned:
the author of
in German, of which the following
Die Buddhistische Philosophie (1904), Die Streitlosigkeit
des SUbhuti (1917), Die Sekten des alt en Buddhismus (1927)
and Sffrache and Heimat des Pali Kanons (1926).
books
The
greatest Indologist of this period,
however,
was
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
392
who
Sylvain Levi
rendered unique service to studies in
He was
Sanskrit Buddhism.
endowed
a profound
with
knowledge of the Chinese, Tibetan and Kuchean languages,
which enabled him to give the first critical editions of a
number of Mahayana texts. In 1892 he published, for the
time, the
first
first
chapter of the Buddhacarita and in the
same year discovered
Milinda-panha.
two
Chinese
of
translations
the
1905 he came to Nepal, explored
In
libraries
anew and wrote
wrote a
critical
famous Le Nepal,
his
its
In 1907 he
study of the Divyavadana and,
191
in
1,
Kuchean
In 1912 he wrote an important work
language.
on the
Dhammapada recensions. During the same period he
published the Satapancasatika-stotra and in 1912 discovered
published fragments of Buddhist texts
a
legend
language.
the
first
of
the
In
1918
Karuna-pundarika
he
the
in
Tokharian
the
in
brought out with Th. Stcherbatsky
Kosasthana of Yasomitra's Sphutartha and
in the
following year he discovered the Nairatmya-pariprccha.
also discovered the
He
Mahakarma-vibhanga, a Sanskrit version
of the Cula-kamma-vibhanga-sutta of the Majjhima-nikaya,
and published
1929
—
he
31
it
with
Hobogirin,
Chinese versions
its
published
with
and
an
Prof.
J.
in
encyclopaedic
During
1932.
Takakusu
three fasci-
dictionary
of
Chinese Buddhist terms, which unfortunately remained
complete on account of the Second World War.
in-
cules
of
Sylvain
Levi's
greatest
discovery
was
the
Sanskrit
Vijnanavada school of Buddhism while that of
the Mahayana-sutralarikara was a milestone in Mahayana
texts of the
studies.
His edition of this text with a French translation
and an exposition of Vijnanavada appeared in 1907. His
other major discovery was the twin texts, the VirpSatika and
the Trimsatika with their commentaries, which he published
in
1925.
In
1934
he
Madhyanta-vibhaga-tika,
edited
a
with
systematic
S.
Yamaguchi
exposition
of
the
the
Yogacara-Vijnaptivada as contained in Vasubandhu's Bhasya
on the Madhya-nta-vibhaga-sutra of Maitreya.
illuminated a dark
These works
period in Buddhist history and
many
—
BUDDHIST STUDIES
RECENT TIMES
393
and others became
the final phase
which
was
Yogacara
the study of
eminent scholars
interested in
IN
—
like Poussin, Stcherbatsky
of Buddhist philosophy in India.
Another great luminary of
de
this
period was Prof. Louis
Vallee Poussin', a pupil of Sylvain Levi and H. Kern.
la
After completing his studies in linguistics at Louvain, he
began
his studies in Oriental subjects at the
pupil of S. Levi in
1891,
and
Sorbonne as a
went
in the following years
Leyden to study the Gatha dialect with Prof. H. Kern.
Here he studied Tibetan and Chinese, which opened for him
In 1893 he became a Professor
a vast field of research.
at the University of Ghent, where he worked for about
35 years and carried on his studies in Buddhism, partiin
In
1921
cularly
Sarvastivada Buddhism.
he organized the Societe beige d'Etudes orientales. Under the
title
Bouddhisme: Notes et Bibliographic, he published
learned reviews of new books on Oriental subjects.
He
also directed the editing of Melanges chinois et bouddhiques, to which he contributed several valuable articles on
the Abhidharma. He contributed about thirty articles on different Buddhist topics to the Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Together with Ph. Colinet he edited and published
Ethics,
Le Museon in which appeared some of his valuable editions
to
Bodhicaryavatara,
the
like
the
Bodhisattvabhumi,
the
Madhyamakavatara, and the Vimsika-karika-prakarana of
Vasubandhu. His other notable editions are the Pancakrama
(1896),
the
Bodhicaryavatara-panjika
Prasannapada of Candraklrti (1903
niddesa (1916—1917).
(1901—1905),
1913) and the
the
Maha-
His greatest works, however, are his translations into
French of the Abhidharma-kosa of Vasubandhu (1923
and
the
He was
Vijfiaptimatratasiddhi
tion
Yuan Chwang
31)
(1930).
a pioneer in the study of the Sarvastivada school of
was known about the teachings of
school until Poussin published his epoch-making translaof the Abhidharma-kosa with Vasubandhu's bhasya in
Buddhism.
this
of
1.
Very
little
See Indian Historical Quarterly, 1940, Vol.
XVI, No.
2.
250° YEARS OF BUDDHISM
394
seven
parts.
He
very
successfully
reconstructed,
on the
and Tibetan material, almost the whole of
The
the text of the karikas of the Abhidharma-koSa.
valuable and exhaustive notes with which the work is provided show that in this great scholar there was a unique
combination of the linguist, the philosopher and the criticPoussin opened the vast stores of thought that lay buried
in a sealed chamber and filled a huge gap between the studies
of early Pali works and the late Sunyavada doctrines.
The
publication of this work revolutionized Buddhist studies and
gave rise to many controversial topics which engaged the
basis of Chinese
some eminent contemporaries like Mrs. Rhys
Davids, Jean Przyluski and Th. Stcherbatsky. His thoughtprovoking Nirvana (1925) propounded a novel view and
attention
of
brought severe criticism from Th. Stcherbatsky, an eminent
Orientalist of Russia.
Th. Stcherbatsky, like Poussin,
had
worked
years in the field of Sarvastivada and Mahayana.
many
He was a
for
had in 1917 edited the
bhasya with the assistance of
close associate of Sylvain L£vi and
Tibetan text of the Kosa and
its
E. Obermiller, the editor of the Abhisamayalankara-prajfia-
paramita-upadesa-iastra (1929) and the Uttara-tantra
(1931).
In 1920 he published Soul Theory of the Buddhists, an English
translation of Chapter
published a
learned
IX
treatise,
of the Kosa.
In 1923 he
Central Conception of Bud-
dhism and the Meaning of the Word Dharma. In this masterly work he established the fact that the theory of skandha
was an element of ancient Buddhism and the pivot of the
whole doctrine. In criticism of Poussin's Nirvana, he brought
out his famous work, The Central Conception of Buddhist
Nirvana, which was perhaps the last word on this most debated topic.
His profound study of the KoSa, the Madhyamika-
karika and the later works on Buddhist logic are clearly
reflected in this
work, which gave for the
first
time a complete
and constructive survey of the entire Buddhist philosophy.
These preliminary treatises were followed by his monumental
work, Buddhist Logic, in two volumes in 1932. It was the
—
BUDDHIST STUDIES
of
first
IN
RECENT TIMES
395
kind, exclusively based on the original works of
its
such master minds as Dinnaga, Dharmakirti and Dharmottara.
In the preface to his
"There
observes:
philosophy
is
to be
first
volume of Buddhist Logic he
a widely spread prejudice that positive
is
found only
in
Europe.
It is
also a pre-
judice that Aristotle's treatment was final, that having had in
no predecessor, he also had no need of a continuapublication of these two volumes not only removed
this prejudice against Indian logic, but also crowned the
vast and extensive Buddhist studies of the whole century.
Since the Pali Text Society had been publishing the Pali
texts, it was not considered necessary to publish them in India,
too.
However, readers in India did not feel quite at home
with the Roman characters in which these editions were pubThere was need of a scholar with insight and inspiralished.
this field
M
The
tor.
who could make
tion
the Pali treasures accessible to
This prime need was largely
masses.
Dharmananda Kosambi, who,
left his
and
hearth and
built
up a
home
in
fulfilled
by the
the
late
true to the Indian tradition,
search of
Truth and a Teacher
tradition of Buddhist studies in his mother-
land.
His passionate zeal for knowledge and the teachings of
the
Buddha took him
tant parts
of India.
Ceylon (1902)
and
Burma and disFor a while he became a Sramanera in
learnt Pali with the Rev. Sumangala
several times to Ceylon,
of Vidyodaya College.
He
Calcutta University
many
He was
spent
meditating like a true yogin.
years
first
in
where he served for a while
but his desire to teach
Buddhism among
Burma
discovered by
his
own
in
1906,
people
brought him to Maharashtra, where a chance meeting with
Woods
of Harvard University took him to
Visuddhimagga, a work which was left
incomplete by the famous Warren, the author of Buddhism in
This work he completed very successfully in
Translations.
Prof.
J.
America
H.
to edit the
1932, although the volume
was not published
until 1950, long
after the publication of his Devanagari edition of the work.
For some years (1912
1918) he
was Professor of
Pali at
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
396
Fergusson College
in
Poona, where certain eminent scholars
of our day had the privilege of studying with him.
It
is
through these scholars that the Pali language found a place
and colleges of the Deccan, and many Pali
texts were published in Devanagari editions.
Dharmananda Kosambi was a sincere nationalist. For
the schools
in
some years he served the National University of Gujarat
started by Mahatma Gandhi, where he wrote several works
on Buddhism in Marathi and Gujarati. Some of these are
Buddhacarita.
Buddha
Buddha-lild-sdra-sahgraha,
Dharma
dni Sangha, Samadhi-mdrga, Jdtaka-kathd, Buddha-Sahghaparicaya, Hindi Sanskrti dni
Ahimsd and Bodhicarydvatdra.
Together with a Marathi translation of the Suttanipata and
several other works, these were all written with a view to
popularizing Pali studies and enlightening the masses about
Buddha. He also made valuable contributions in the
His Navanita-tlkd on the Abhidhamfield of Abhidharma.
mattha-sangaha and Dipikd on the Visuddhimagga are of
great help to students of Abhidharma. But the greatest contribution of this great scholar of Pali and lover of Buddhism
the
is
Visuddhimagga U940) which
the Devanagari edition of the
was
his life
work.
Another scholar, the
who
died
also be mentioned.
He
late Prof. C.
very young at the age of 30,
may
V. Rajvade,
was a worthy pupil of Dharmananda Kosambi.
He edited,
for the first time, in Devanagari characters the first fifty
suttas of the Majjhima-nikaya,
and the Hatthavanagallaviharavamsa, a small Pali text of the 13th century A.D. His
Marathi translation of the Digha-nikaya, particularly of the
first
volume, shows
his scholarship
and
Professor Kosambi's contemporary,
who continued
another Indian
studies started
by Dr.
S.
the
critical
B.
Buddhist
C. Vidyabhusan.
acumen.
M. Barua, was
philosophical
Dr. Barua 's
first
work, The History of Pre-Buddhist Indian Philosophy, was
an epoch-making publication. Through this work he placed
early
Buddhism
in its real perspective
dency of studying Buddhism in
and countered the
ten-
isolation, independently of
Hajcndralal Mltra
(18'24-1891)
Anagarlka Dharmapala
(1864-1933)
Hara Prasad Shastri
<1853-1!M)
Dhai mananda
Kosambi
(18< 1-1947)
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
397
His second work, Ajhikas, brought
pre-Buddhist thought.
movement, now extinct
in its motherland. His Prakrit Dhammapada was the fruit of
great literary industry.
Dr. Barua also wrote many valuable
works on Buddhist inscriptions and history. His Old Brahnfi
Inscriptions in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves, Bharhut Inscriptions, Asoka and his Inscriptions and Ceylon Lectures considerably advanced the study of the history of
Buddhism.
to light a powerful ancient religious
The
brilliant contributions of these
eminent scholars bear
testimony to the growing popularity of Buddhist literature
and thought. They also point to the vitality of a culture
which could command the wholehearted service of so many
scholars of the East and the West.
In China
The Rev. T'ai-Hsu
is
recognized as the greatest Buddhist
leader of the early 20th century in China.
1888 A.D. in the Chung-te
district
of
He was born
Che-kiang
in
Province
which has remained Buddhist since Buddhism was introduced
into China in the first century A.D.
He was trained at the
the well-known monk,
Monastery of Seven Pagodas where
he studied the Tripitaka and practised meditation. He was
by the teachings
deeply influenced
of T'ien-tai and the
Tien T'ung Shan monastery under
Pa-chi,
and then
in the
Avatamsaka school.
He was keenly interested in giving scientific training to
Buddhist monks in China and wanted to reform the Buddhist
Sangha of that country. He was a contemporary of celebrated scholars like Kang Yu-wei, Liang Chi-chao, Sun Yat-sen,
Carsun Chang and others. Among the institutions he founded are the Buddhist Congress of China (1911), the Buddhist
Institute of
Wuchang 0912),
a preaching hall in a monastery
of the Lu-shan Hills (1924), the Buddhist International Institute
and a Sino-Tibetan Buddhist College (1930) on Mount
Young Men's Buddhist
Chin-yun, near Chungking, and the
Association of China (1945).
After his country's victory in
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
398
the Second World War, he went to Nanking and became the
Chairman of the Buddhist Reformation Committee and
applied himself to the reformation of the Chinese Sangha.
Being of a scholarly bent, he worked zealously
cause of the education of Buddhists.
Early in
in
the
at the
life
age of twenty-one, he opened a centre of Buddhist education
with the help of his teacher, Pa-chi, and undertook research
in
Buddhism
in collaboration with the celebrated lay disciple
of the Buddha,
Yang Wen-hui.
tor of the Buddhist
to 1916,
literature
He
later
became the Direc-
Research Vihara at Nanking.
he was engaged
in a
From 1912
comparative study of Buddhist
and philosophy on the one hand and Western
philosophy and experimental science on the other.
logic,
He was
deeply interested in the Vijflana-matra (mere consciousness)
philosophy which had also attracted the young non-Buddhist
generation of China.
He
wrote books like Evolution Rightly
Explained, The Absolute Meaning of Philosophy, and
New
Conception about Education, which inspired the modern
Chinese youth. His views were propagated through a magazine called Bodhi. which has
now changed
Chao Ying (Ocean Tide Voice).
The Rev. T'ai-Hsu travelled
its
extensively
name
to
Hai
in Indo-China,
Formosa, Japan, Europe and America which helped him to
widen his vision. He called an International Buddhist Conference in 1924 at the Great Grove Monastery in the Lushan hills, and took part in several conferences like the East
Asiatic Buddhist Conference in Japan (1925) and in
1938
formed a Buddhist goodwill mission which toured India,
Burma, Ceylon and Thailand. He sent his disciples to India
and Ceylon to study Buddhism from the original sources in
Sanskrit and Pali.
His insistence was more on the understanding of the Buddhist books than on their memorization.
He also became the President of the Buddhist Institute of
South Fu-kien. In 1947, after a most active career which was
an inspiration to the younger generation, the Rev. T'ai-Hsu
passed away in Shanghai at the age of fifty-nine while he was
staying at the Monastery of
Jodo Buddha
in that city.
He
BUDDHIST STUDIES
RECENT TIMES
IN
399
remembered not only as a scholar but as an
organizer and leader of the movement for Buddhist revival in
will long be
China.
In Japan
The name
(1718—1804)
of Jiun Sonja
nected with the initiation of Sanskrit
lines in
Japan.
His importance
lies in
intimately con-
is
studies
on
traditional
the fact that he studied
Sanskrit by himself in the pre-Meiji period without being subjected to the influence of contemporary Western scholars or
Indian pandits.
Jiun Sonja was a
was known
for
monk
of the Shingon
This study was called Shittan
order to read the dharanls.
Gaku
('shittan' is the transliteration of
completion) or
doctrine
is
This sect
sect.
tradition of learning Sanskrit characters in
its
siddham which means
the complete characters by which the highest
described.
Naturally he learned this 'shittan* in
his youth, but not being satisfied with this,
he studied the
Sanskrit language by himself and wrote several articles on
Sanskrit grammar.
At
the
same
time, he read the Sanskrit
manuscripts of the Horyuji and other monasteries, and com-
pared thein with their Chinese versions.
lished Sanskrit editions of three sutras,
Afterwards he pub-
namely the Sukhavatl-
vyuha, the Bhadracari-nama-aryasamantabhadra-pranidh£na,
and the Prajna-paramita-hrdaya.
Moreover, he attempted to
restore the Sanskrit text of the Prajfianaya from its Chinese
version. This was a remarkable attempt and probably the first
of
its
kind in the world.
articles
Jiun Sonja called his collection of
on Sanskrit study 'Bongaku-shinryo' (A Guide
Sanskrit Study).
were published
Some important
in 1953 at
Osaka
parts
to
of
to
this collection
commemorate
the 150th
anniversary of his death.
The
credit of pioneering
Sanskrit research
on modern
Japan goes to Bunyiu Nanjio (1849-1927). He was
sent abroad by the order of Higashi-hongan-ji, the head of
the monastery of the Shin sect, to study under Max MUller
During his stay in England, he produced in 1883
at Oxford.
lines in
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
400
the well-known Catalogue of the Buddhist
also published in collaboration
He
Tripitaka.
Max
with Prof.
Miiller such
and the Sukhavati-vyuha.
On his return to Japan in 1884, he began lecturing on
Sanskrit studies at the Otani and Tokyo Universities.
This
was the beginning of Sanskrit and Indological studies at many
of Japan's national and private universities.
During and after his term as a professor and later as Presutras as the Vajracchedika
sident of Otani University, he edited
Saddharma-pun-
the
darika in collaboration with Dr. H. Kern of Holland and published the Lankavatara-sutra
Junjiro
Tokyo
— 1945)
Takakusu (1866
He
University.
Miiller.
and the Suvarnaprabhasa-sutr&.
On
return
his
succeeded B. Nanjio at
also studied at
to
Max
Oxford under
Japan, he became professor of
Sanskrit literature and Indian philosophy at
Tokyo
University.
He wrote many articles in English and other languages
which made him famous abroad. He published the followThe Amitayurdhyana-sutra
ing important works:
XLIX,
A
(Engl,
tr.),
Record of the Buddhist Religion as
practised in India and the Malay Archipelago (671
695 A.D.)
by I-tsing (Engl, tr), 1896, The Life of Vasuhandhu by
S.B.E.,
1894;
Paramartha (Engl,
tr.),
—
P.T.S. edition, 1904; the Samanta-pasa-
dika (P.T.S. edition in collaboration with
M.
Nagai),
1924—38;
and The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy (Lectures at
He was also the chief
Hawaii University, U.S.A.), 1947.
Taisho edition of
editor of Taisho-shin-shu-Daizokyo (the
the Tripitaka).
He was both a great teacher and a great
the many Indologists who worked under
Tokyo
who
University were: Dr. H. Ui
specialized in Indian
and
philosophy;
scholar.
his
Prof. E.
the
Among
guidance at
late
Kanakura
Prof. T.
Miyamoto and Prof. S. Hanayama who worked on Buddhism; Dr. M. Nagai who was primarily interested
Kimura, Dr.
S.
in Pali literature
and
Sanskrit literature.
lege in
Prof. N. Tsuji
Takakusu
who
studied Vedic
also founded a
Women's
and
Col-
Tokyo, where the study of Buddhism occupied a pro-
minent place.
BUDDHIST STUDIES
Unrai Wogihara
[1877 (?)
IN
RECENT TIMES
— 1947]
learned
401
Sanskrit in
Germany under Dr. Leumann. He edited the Mahayana
texts and among his notable works are the Mahavyutpatti,
(Sanskrit-Chinese
edition,
1915),
the
Bodhisattva-bhumi
Abhidharmakosa-vyakhya (1932), the
Abhisamayalankaraloka (1932—35) and the Saddharmapundarika (1934). As professor at Taisho University he began
compiling a Sanskrit-Japanese dictionary in collaboration with
(1930), the Sphutartha
K. Tsuchida and other members of the University
this
his
but
staff,
work was interrupted by the Second World War and
subsequent death.
He gave an
impetus to the study of Sanskrit by publishing
a Sanskrit grammar
in Japanese.
Chizen Akanuma (1884—1937) was sent to England and
Ceylon by Higashi-honagan-ji to study early Buddhism. In
Ceylon, under the guidance of Sfanissara Thera, he perfected
He thus became a pioneer
his knowledge of Pali Buddhism.
As professor in Pali
in the field of Pali Buddhism in Japan.
Buddhism
at
Otani University, he published a number
of
books on Buddhist literature, among which the most well
known are The Comparative Catalogue of Chinese Agamas
and Pali Nikdyas, 1929, and The Dictionary of Proper Names
:
of Indian Buddhism, 1931.
He was
responsible for a
num-
ber of Japanese translations from the Pali Nikayas and from
the
Abhidhamma.
After his death, his disciples at Otani
University collected his lectures and published them in three
volumes.
Progress of Buddhist Studies:
Research
Publications and
In Europe and America
The beginnings
of Pali Buddhist studies in Europe
may
be traced as far back as 1826 when E. Burnouf and Christian
Lassen published their essay upon Pali
tion in
Roman
Church Mission
in
French.
The
edi-
characters with an English translation (Cotta
Press, Ceylon,
I837> by George
Tumour
of
.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
402
first thirty-eight chapters of the well-known Chronicle of
Ceylon called the Mahavarpsa marked the first important
attempt by a European scholar to introduce Buddhist litera-
the
ture into the West.
some time Burmese and Simhalese
notice of European scholars
After
Buddhism was brought
to the
by the publication, based on manuscripts in the vernacular
languages, of the works of two Christian missionaries. These
were the The Life or Legend of Gaudama, The Buddha of
l he Burmese
(1st edition, Rangoon, 1858) from the pen of
Bishop P. Brigandet and the series of works by R. Spence
Hardy of the Wesleyan Mission in Ceylon, namely. Eastern
Monachism (1850), A Manual of Buddhism (1st edition, I860)
and Legends and Theories of the Buddhist compared with
History and Science (1866).
An important advance was
marked by the publication of the well-known Dictionary of
the Pali Language (London, 1875) by a
Ceylon civilian.
Robert Caesar Childers.
brought out
Europe, V. FausboII
In Continental
his great edition
(1877 — 97)
of the Jatakas
seven volumes
in
and another Danish scholar, V. Trenckner, published his edition of the Milinda-panha (London, 1880) while
H. Oldenberg published his edition and translation of the
DFpavamsa (London,
1878), as well as his great edition of
the Vinaya-pitaka in five volumes (London, 1879 -83).
great step forward was taken in
whom
Davids, to
Pali
A
T. W. Rhys
Europe owe more
when
1881
Buddhist studies
in
than to any other single scholar, started the Pali Text Society
with a board of five
The
members
with
object of this renowned Society was to
to students "the rich stores of the earliest
now
lying unedited
and
manuscripts throughout
practically
this
public libraries of Europe".
date
whole of
the
works of the
mentaries
1.
1
.
Owing
Pali
To
the
Pali
The
make
available
Buddhist literature
unused
country
canonical
as Chairman.
himself
in
the original
(England)
and
the
Society has published to
and
all
the
important
non-canonical literature including com-
works of the
to limited wpaoe, only a
commentaries are mentioned
hen-*
first
category belong the
few of the popular canonical texts and
—
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
403
W. Rhys Davids and J. Estlin
1889—1911), the Majjhima-nikaya, edited
by V. Trenckner, R. Chalmers and Mrs. Rhys Davids (4 vols.,
Dlgha-nikaya, edited by T.
Carpenter
1888
vols.,
(3 vols.,
— 1925),
1884
the Samyutta-nikaya, edited by
— 1904), the
Ariguttara-nikaya, edited
lion Feer (6
by R. Morris,
E. Hardy and Mabel Hunt (6 vols., 1885—1910), the
Khuddaka-patha, edited by Helmer Smith and Mabel Hunt
(1915), the Suttanipata, edited by Dines Anderson and
Helmer Smith (1913), and the Thera-gatha and the Thengatha, edited by H. Oldenberg and R. Pischel (1883).
In
the
same
Society
class
are
works published by
Dhammasangani, edited
canonical
of
included
the
the
by
by Mrs. Rhys
Davids (1904), and the Katha-vatthu, edited by Arnold C.
E.
Miiller
Taylor
(1885),
the
Vibhariga,
(2 vols., 1894, 1897).
edited
The commentaries on
the
Canon
published by the Society include Buddhaghosa's commentary
on the Dfgha-nikaya, edited by T. W. Rhys Davids, J. Estlin
Carpenter and W. Stede (3 vols., 1886-1932), the commenby J. H. Woods.
taries on the Majjhima-nikaya, edited
D. Kosambi and I. B. Horner (5 vols., 1922 38), those on the
Samyutta-nikaya, edited by F. L. Woodward (3 vols., 1929
37), those on the Ariguttara-nikaya, edited by Max Walleser
and Hermann Kopp (4 vols., 1924 — 40), the commentaries on
the Khuddaka-patha, edited by Helmer Smith (1915), those on
the Suttanipata, edited by Helmer Smith (3 vols., 1916—18),
those on the Dhammasangani, edited by E. Miiller (1885),
Dhammapala's commentary on the Udana, edited by F. L.
Woodward (1926), those on the Vimana-vatthu, edited by
on the Peta-vatthu, edited by E. Hardy
(1894), those on the Then-gatha, edited by E. Miiller (1882),
those on the Thera-gatha, still incomplete, edited by F. L.
Woodward (2 vols., 1940,1952), and lastly, the commentary
E.
Hardy
(1901), those
on the Dhammapada, edited by H. C. Norman (5 vols.. 1906 —
15).
Other non-canonical works published by the Society
include Buddhaghosa's Visuddhimagga, edited by Mrs. Rhys
Davids (2 vols., 1920—21), the Mahavamsa (1908) and the
Culavamsa (2 vols., 1925—27), edited by Wilhelm Geiger.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
404
The
translations of Pali canonical
and
works by European scholars went hand
in
non-canonical
hand with
their
The Vinaya-pitaka was
W. Rhys Davids and H. Olden-
publication of the original texts.
translated into English
by T.
berg (S.B.E., Vols. 13, 17, 20, 1881—85), while extracts from
the same work were rendered into Russian by Minayeff (1870)
and into German by Karl Seidenstiicker (1924—25). A new
translation of the Vinaya-pitaka
I.
was published recently by
B. Horner (5 vols., S.B.B., 1940—52).
The Digha-nikaya
was rendered into English in Dialogues of the Buddha (3 vols.,
1899—1921), by T. W. Rhys Davids and Mrs. Rhys Davids
and into German (4 vols.. 1907—28) by K. E. Neumann,
while extracts were published with a French
translation
(1876) by M. P. Grimblot and German translations by K. E.
Neumann in 1911 and by R. Otto Franke in 1913. The
was translated into German by K. E.
Majjhima-nikaya
Neumann (3 vols., 1896—1902), into Italian by K. E.
Neumann and G. de Lorenzo
(1907) and into English, FurBuddha, by Lord Chalmers (2 vols.,
1926—27). The Saipyutta-nikaya was translated into English. The Book of Kindred Sayings (P.T.S., 5 vols., 1917—30),
by Mrs. Rhys Davids and F. L. Woodward, and into German (2 vols., 1925-30), by Wilhelm Geiger. The Angut20),
tara-nikaya was rendered into German (5 vols., 1907
by Bhikkhu Nanatiloka (Anton Gueth), and into English,
The Book of Gradual Sayings, by F. L. Woodward and
The Dhammapada
E. M. Hare (P.T.S., 5 vols., 1932-36).
and the Suttanipata were translated into English by Max
ther Dialogues of the
—
Muller and V. Fausboll respectively (S.B.E., 10 vols., 1881).
The Dhammapada was further rendered into German by
A. Weber (1860), by Leopold von
Schroeder
(1892),
by
Neumann (1893), by Dahlke (1919), by Walter Markgraf
into Italian by P. E.
(1912), by R. Otto Franke (1923),
Pavolini (1908), into Polish by
(1925), into
St.
Fr.
Michalski-lwienski
French by Fernando Hue (1878) and by R. and
M. de Maratray
Dhammapada and
(1931).
The
English translations of the
the Itivuttaka
(1935),
by F. L. Wood-
—
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
405
ward and of the Vimana-vatthu and the Peta-vatthu (1942),
by Jean Kennedy and H. S. Gehman have appeared under
the title Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon. The Suttanipata was translated into German by K. E. Neumann (1905)
and by Karl Seidenstiicker (1931), into English by Lord
Chalmers, along with the Pali text (Harvard Oriental Series,
No. 37, 1932), and by E. M. Hare under the title Woven
Cadences of Early Buddhists (1945). K. E. Neumann translated the Thera-gatha and the TherT-gatha
into
German
(1899) while Mrs. Rhys Davids translated the same into
English
in
Psalms of the Early Buddhists, Psalms
the
of
Sisters,
The
1909, 1913).
Canon
Pali
and
first
Psalms
Cambodian
after the
an accompanying translation
zat,
and L. Renou
in 1949.
Brethren
the
of
fasciculus of a
new
version
(P.T.S.,
edition
of
the
was published with
in
French by
J.
A
number of
scholars under the
Bloch,
J. Fillio-
editorship of E. B. Cowell translated the Jatakas into English
— 1913) and the same work was
seven volumes (1908
into German by Julius Dutoit
A few chapters — VI) of the Visuddhimagga of
Buddhaghosa were rendered into German by Bhikkhu
Nanatiloka (1931 —
William Geiger
by Mabel
in
seven volumes (1895
trans-
lated
in
11).
(I
assisted
36).
Bode
translated the
Mahavamsa
into English (P.T.S.,
1912)
and the Culavamsa was translated into German by Wilhelm
Geiger and re-translated from the German into English by
Mrs. C. Mabel Rickmers (P.T.S., 2 vols., 1929—30). The
Milinda-panha was translated into English (S.B.E., Vols. 35,
36, 1890—94), by T. W. Rhys Davids, into German by
F. Otto Schroeder in 1907 and Bhikkhu Nanatiloka in 1924
and into French by L. Finot in 1923. Copious extracts from
Pali canonical and non-canonical literature were translated
by H. C. Warren in his work, Buddhism in Translations
(H.O.S., 1896),
and those from the Dhammapada commentary
were translated similarly by E. W. Burlingame in his work
called Buddhist
Legends (H.O.S., 3
vols., 1921).
The
Pali Text
by T. W. Rhys
Dictionary,
Davids and William Stede (1921—25), has been followed by
Society's
Pali-English
edited
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
406
Critical Pali Dictionary
by
Anderson
Dines
and
Helmer
Smith, of which only one volume in nine parts (Copenhagen,
1927
—28) has been published so
We may
far.
also mention
the publication of Pali Tipitaka Concordance. Vol.
pared by scholars like
Woodward and
1,
pre-
and edited by
E. M. Hare.
This was brought out by the Pali Text Society
in 1952
55 and has proved very useful to Buddhist scholars.
others,
—
The foundations of
Sanskrit and
the study of Buddhist literature in
mixed Sanskrit were laid by B. H. Hodgson,
Nepal (1821
43), who utilized his long
—
British Resident in
stay in that country to
make a
very valuable collection of
Buddhist Sanskrit manuscripts which he afterwards divided
between the
libraries of Calcutta,
London and
Paris.
He
also
wrote papers in Asiatic Researches, Vol. 16 (1828), and Trans-
Royal Asiatic Society of London, Vol. 3 (1828),
collection.
About the same
time a Hungarian scholar, Alexander Csoma de Koros, made
a daring journey (1818—23) from his native Transylvania to
India and having learnt Tibetan from the monks of Ladakh
wrote his Tibetan grammar and his Tibetan dictionary (1834)
and published his famous 'Analysis of the Kanjur' (Asiatic
actions of the
on
topics connected with his
The
Buddhism based upon
Researches, Vol. 20, 18361.
of Sanskrit
Paris
was made
in
Buddhism
also published in French the
known work
of
Hodgson
the
French by E. Burnouf
to the History of Indian
He
comprehensive survey
first
(1st
first
Mahayana Buddhism
collection at
in Introduction
edition, Paris, 1844).
translation of the well-
called the
Saddharma-
pundarlka (1852). Simultaneously the study of Chinese Bud-
dhism was inaugurated by such works as the French translation of the Mongol version of KaSyapa Matanga's Sutra of 42
Sections by Gabet and Hue (J. A., 1848) and the French translation of the Chinese version of a lost Sanskrit collection of
Again
the Avadanas, by Stanislas Julien (3 vols., 1859).
while A. Weber introduced the great poet Asvaghosa to the
West by publishing the text and the translation of the Vajrasucl (1859), A. Schiefner opened up a rich mine of historical
tradition
by
his translation into
German of Taranatha's
his-
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
407
Buddhism (1869). Wassiljew, in his great work in
Buddhism, has given copious extracts from
Avatamsakas, the Ratnakutas and the DharanTs of
tory of
German on
the
the Chinese Buddhist
Canon
as well as the Chinese versions
of the biographies of the great poets and philosophers
We may
Mahayana Buddhism.
of
mention here Ober-
also
miller\s English translation of Bu-ston's history of
Buddhism
1931—32). Texts from the Chinese
Buddhist Canon were translated in a series of works (1871
in
Tibetan (Vols.
I
and
II,
—
by Samuel Beal, who also published (S.B.E., XIX, 1883)
78)
a translation of the Chinese version of Asvaghosa's
carita.
Other important landmarks of
French translation of the Lalitavistara from
sion (2 vols., 1884, 1892), by P. E.
into
tion
the
in
the
Tibetan ver-
its
Foucaux, and the
transla-
French of Koros' 'Analysis of the Kanjur' with
numerous additions by Leon Feer
made
Buddha-
period were
this
(1881).
the publication of the class of
Prajna-paramitas by
selected texts by
Max
the
A
beginning was
Mahayana works
editions
and
called
translations
of
Muller (S.B.E., Vol. 49, Oxford, 1881,
1884).
In the period that followed great
advances were made
in
the study of every branch of the Sanskrit Buddhist literature
in the original as well as in the
versions.
As
Tibetan, Chinese and other
regards the Sanskrit Canon, a great edition of
Mahavastu was published with a valuable survey of its
contents and important comments by E. Senart (3 vols.,
1882 — 97) while S. Lefmann brought out his edition of the
the
Lalitavistara (2 vols.,
1902
1908),
thereby
superseding the
earlier edition in the Bibliotheca lndica Series.
The Tibetan
version of the Udana-varga of Dharmatrata was translated
into English by
H. Beckh (191
1).
W. W.
Among
Rockhill
the
(1883)
Mahayana
and
edited by
sutras of the Ratna-
kuta class the Kasyapa-parivarta was edited from the original
its parallel Tibetan and Chinese versions by
Baron A. von Stael-Holstein (1926) while another text called
the Bhadramaya-kara-vyakarana, based upon Chinese and
Sanskrit with
Tibetan versions, was edited and translated into English by
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
408
K. Rcgamoy
in 1938. Recently J. J.
Jones published an English
—
Mahavastu in two volumes (1949 52). As
regards the poet Asvaghosa and his school, the Buddhacarita
was edited by E. B. Cowell (Oxford, 1893) and was translated
into English by the same scholar (S.B.E., 49, 1894). It was
translated into German by Th. Schultze, after Beal's translation of the Chinese version (1895), by Hans Ludwig (1912),
by Carl Cappeller (1922), and by Richard Schmidt (1923),
while the Tibetan text with its German translation was published by Friedrich Weller (2 vols., 1926, 1928).
It was
translation of the
translated into Italian by
edition as well as
a
published by E. H.
Formichi
Carlo
translation
Johnston
brought out an edition (1928)
of
darananda.
The work
called
of Kumaralata,
was
is
new
Buddhacarita was
the
(1936).
The same
and
English translation
(1932) of ASvaghosa 's second great
attributed to Asvaghosa, but
A
(1912).
the
an
epic
called the S>aun-
Sutralankara,
really the
scholar
which
is
Kalpana-manditika
translated into French after the Chinese
version of Kumarajlva by Ed.
Huber
(1908), while the Tibetan
work attributed to the same poet, namely,
was published with the reconstructed
text
Sanskrit
by Baron a von Stael-Holstein (1913).
The Jatakamala of the poet Aryasura was edited by H. Kern
(H.O.S., 1891) and translated into English by J. S. Speyer
(1893 94). In the branch of Avadana literature the Divyavadana (from which long extracts had been translated before
by Bumouf in his Introduction) was edited by E. B. Cowell
and R. A. Neil (1886), while the Avadana-Sataka was edited
by J. S. Speyer (Bibl. Bud.. 2 vols., 1906. 1909) and translated
into French by Lfon Feer (1891). In the field of what may
properly be called Mahayana canonical literature, the two
works bearing the title Sukhavati-vyOha were edited by Max
Miiller and B. Nanjio (Oxford, 1883) and translated by the
version of a second
the Gapdf-stotragatha
—
The Saddharama-pundarika
was edited by H. Kern and B. Nanjio (Bibl Bud., 1912) and
was translated into English by Kern (S.B.E., Vol. 21, 1884).
new edition of the Saddharma-pundarika, based upon the
former (S.B.E., Vol. 49, 1894).
A
.
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
409
Nepalcse manuscripts and the Chinese version, has been
planned by W. Baruch and a preparatory study of the same
was published
in
German
in
sottama-sutra was edited by
Sanskrit with the help of
J.
its
The Suvarnaprabha-
1938.
Nobel (1937)
in the original
Tibetan. Chinese and Uigur
The Tibetan version of this work was translated
German by the same scholar (1944). The Dasabhumika-
versions.
into
was edited
sutra
in the original Sanskrit
along with
its
Tibetan
version and a French translation by Louis de la Vallee Poussin
—
(1907
11),
while a valuable glossary of this work after
its
Mongolian and Chinese versions was published by J. Rahder (1928-29).
As regards the poets and philosophers of Mahayana Buddhism, the Madhyamika-karikas of Nagarjuna, the founder
of the Madhyamika school, were translated after the Tibetan
version by Max Walleser (1911) and the Sanskrit text was
edited with its commentary by Candrakirti by Vallee Poussin
(1903
13), while extracts from this work and its commentary
Sanskrit, Tibetan,
1
—
were translated into English by Th. Stcherbatsky (1927) and
The commentary
into German by St. Schayer (1929—31).
Nagarjuna
of
on
Pancavimsa-prajiia-paramita,
Mahaprajfiaparamita-sSstra, has been described
p. 377) as
first
a
the
called
(J. A.,
19S0,
a kind of encyclopaedia of Buddhist India in the
The
centuries of the Christian era.
first
two volumes of
projected complete French translation of this great work,
after the Chinese version, along with the translator's copious
notes,
The
German from
have been published (1944, 1949) by E. Lamotte.
Yuktisastika of Nagarjuna was translated into
the Chinese version by Philip
complete translation
(in
Italian)
Schaffer
of the
(1923—1924).
A
ChatufoSataka of
Aryadeva was brought out (1925) by G. Tucci from the
Tibetan version. The Sanskrit text of the Abhisamayalahkara-prajfiaparamita of
Maitreyanatha,
the
founder of
Tibetan ver-
the Yogacara school, was edited along with its
sion and an English translation and explanatory notes by
1.
The
Sanskrit text has also been edited
beige d* Etudes orien tales)
by Dr. J. Rahder
(Societe
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
410
The commenwork
was published by G. Tucci (G.O.S., 1932). The Sanskrit text
of the Abhisamayalarikara with a Sanskrit-Tibetan index was
The Madhyantapublished recently 1954) by E. Conze.
Th. Stcherbatsky and E. Obermiller (1929).
tary Abhisamayalankara-aloka of Haribhadra on this
<
vibhaga-sutra of Maitreyanatha with the sub-commentary of
Sthiramati was edited in part by V. Bhattacharya and G.
Tucci
The
(1932).
Asariga by
its
Mahayana-sutralankara,
editor, but
was edited with a French
the Tibetan and
to
probably written by Maitreyanatha,
translation
by
S.
Levi (2
The Mahayana-sarigraha of Asaiiga was
1911).
and
attributed
vols.,
1907,
edited after
Chinese versions along with a translation
editor's note in
French
The Abhidharma-kosa
general manual for
(2 vols., 1938-39),
Vasubandhu
of
HInayana Buddhism.
by E. Lamotte.
has
been called a
A
complete anno-
tated translation in French of this great work, based
upon the
Tibetan and the Chinese versions, was published (1923-24)
by
Vallee
Poussin.
Bhavaviveka's
commentary
on
the
Madhyamika-sGtra. entitled the Prajna-pradTpa was published
Max Walleser (1914) and Buddhacommentary on the same work called the Mulamadhyamaka-vrtti was edited by the same scholar (1913-14).
The texts of Nagarjuna's Vigrahavyavartanl and Aryadeva's
in its
Tibetan version by
palita's
Sata-sastra were edited after the Chinese version
(G.O.S.,
of the
was
1929).
foremost
by G. Tucci
The Alambana-parTksa of Dinnaga ("One
figures
in
the
history
of
Indian
logic")
edited after the Tibetan text along with a translation in
German by
E. Frauwallner (1930), while his
Nyaya-mukha
was translated into English from its Chinese and Tibetan verHis Nyaya-pravesa was reconssions by G. Tucci (1930).
tructed from Haribhadra 's commentary and the Chinese and
Tibetan versions by N. D. Mironov (1931). To Th. Stcherbatsky belongs the credit of editing the Nyaya-bindu of Dhar-
commentary (Bibl. Bud., 1918),
and with the sub-commentary of Mallavadin (1909) as well
as that of publishing its translation into Russian 41903) and
into English, Buddhist Logic, Vols. 1 and 2 (1930). The Tibemaklrti with Dharmottora's
BUDDHIST STUDIES
tan version of the same
IN
RECENT TIMES
411
work with Vinltadeva's commentary
—
was published by L. de la Valine Poussin (Bibl. Ind., 1908
1913). Among other works by the same author, the Santanantara-siddhi with Viriitadeva\s commentary was edited by Th.
Stcherbatsky {Bibl. Bud., 1916) and translated with explanatory notes by the same scholar
(1922).
His Sambandhapariksa (Tibetan and Sanskrit texts) with the commentary of
Sankaranandana and his Ksanabhariga-siddhi were translated
into
German by
Madhyamakavatara
tan version
E.
Frauwallner (1934,
of Candrakfrti
by Vallee Poussin
was edited
1935).
The
after the Tibe-
1912) after having
(Bibl. Bud.,
been translated with the author's commentary into French
by the same scholar
( 1
907
Santideva's Siksa-samuccaya
11).
Among
still
later
was edited by C. Bendall
works,
(Bibl.
Bud., 1902) and was translated into English by C. Bendall
and W.H.D. Rouse (Indian Texts Series, 1922). The Bodhicaryavatara by the same author was edited with the commen-
—
by Vallee Poussin (Bibl. Ind., 1901
It was translated into French by Vallee Poussin (1907)
14).
and by L. Finot (1920), into German by Richard Schmidt
The Mongolian version
(1923) and into Italian by G. Tucci.
tary of Prajfiakaramati
of this
work was published
(Bibl.
texts of the Prajiia-paramita class of
Max
Bud.)
in
Walleser (1914) and G. Tucci (1923).
has been
made
1921.
Selected
works were published by
Equal progress
in the publication of catalogues, dictionaries
and bibliographies. An encyclopaedic dictionary of Buddhism after the Chinese and Japanese sources called Hobogirin was started in 1929 under the direction of S. Levi and
J. Takakusu and the chief editorship of Paul Demieville. Three
Mention
fasciculi of this work were published up to 1937.
after
of
the
Tanjur
of
Index
connection
this
in
made
be
may
the catalogue of P. Cordier, published by M. Lalou (Paris,
1933), Catalogue of the Sanskrit and Prakrit Manuscripts in
the library of the India Office (London) with a supplement
W. Thomas (Oxford, 1935)
and Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms by W. E. Soothill
and L. Hodous (London, 1937). Above all, reference should
of Buddhist manuscripts by F.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
412
be
made
Sanskrit
to the
comprehensive work called Buddhist Hybrid
Grammar,
Dictionary,
on
the subject.
on
Buddhist
A
and Reader
which
Prof. Franklin Edgerton,
may
reference
bibliography
{Deutsche Bibliographic
is
the
Hans
Buddhimus,
des
1953) by
systematic study
made
also be
—that
(3 vols.,
first
to the
Ludwig
of
1916),
books
Held
that
of
Arthur C. March (Buddhist Bibliography, 1935-36), and lastly.
Bibliographic Bouddhique 0928
50) published in French.
—
Meanwhile the
greatly enlarged by
field
of Buddhist
the discoveries of
Asia
the lost civilization of Central
Sanskrit studies was
numerous records of
by a series of inter-
national expeditions, beginning with the
Aurel
ment of
journey of Sir
first
(1900—1901), financed largely by the Govern-
Stein
These discoveries have made possible the
India.
recovery of considerable fragments of the Sanskrit Buddhist
and
canonical
non canonical
literature
in
original
their
Sanskrit or in the different languages of Eastern Turkestan.
As
records from Central Asia,
Sanskrit Buddhist
for the
Buddhist
selected
texts
were edited
by
1910) and by Vallee Poussin U.R.A.S.,
S.
1911,
Levi
(J.
1912,
In Manuscript Remains of Buddhist Literature (edited
Rudolf Hoernle, Vol. I, Oxford, 1916), Hoernle,
Pargiter and F. W. Thomas published with parallel
the text and translation of the fragments, found in
A.,
1913).
by A. F.
Liiders,
versions
Eastern
less than twenty-six Buddhist texts from
Canon, of which no less than twenty-one belong
to the Vinaya and the SOtrapitaka of both the HFnayana and
the Mahayana, while two are strotras of the celebrated poet
Turkestan, of no
the Sanskrit
Matrceta.
In a series of
publications
in
German
called
Smaller Sanskrit Texts, H. Liiders published the fragments
of three Sanskrit Buddhist dramas," including the Sariputra-
prakarana of Asvaghosa (191
manditika
of
KumSralata
1),
as well as those of Kalpana-
(1926),
while
E.
Waldschmidt
edited the fragments of the Bhiksunl-pratimoksa of the Sarvastivadin school (1926)
and the
Buddhist sutras from
(1932).
the
first
volume of fragments of the
Central
Other fragments of
this
Asian
Sanskrit
Canon, with
Canon
parallel texts
BUDDHIST STUDIES
RECENT TIMES
IN
413
and Chinese, were published by H. Hoffmann
Fragments of the Sanskrit Udana-varga
of Dharmatrata were published by R. Pischel (S.B.A.,
1908), S. L£vi and Valine Poussin U.A., 1910—12; J.R.A.S.,
1911
12).
E. Waldschmidt published other fragments of
in Pali, Tibetan
(BibL Bud., 1939).
—
the Sanskrit
Canon with
the parallel Tibetan
and Chinese
versions, namely, the Mahaparinirvana-sutra (3 vols., 1950
and the Mahavadana-sGtra (Part
51)
poet Mitrceta was published with
versions and the Tibetan
The
Sanskrit
of 150 verses, of the
its
Tibetan and Chinese
commentary by D. B. Shackleton
Bailey (Cambridge, 1951).
in the
1953).
1,
hymn
text of the Sata-pancaSatika, a
—
As
regards the records preserved
newly discovered Indo-European language of Central
Asia, S. L6vi published with a French translation a series
of texts in the Tokharian A' or more properly the 'Kuchean*
dialect (Paris,
1933), while E. Sieg
another series of texts in the
and W. Siegling edited
Tokharian
sister dialect called
Among
B' or more properly Kara-shahrian (1921).
dhist records
the Bud-
preserved in the newly discovered Soghdian
and Khotanese,
less
properly called Saka or North-Aryan,
branches of the old Iranian language, fragments were pub-
by E. Leumann in his German works called NorthLanguage and Literature (1912), Maitreyasamiti
(1919) and Buddhist Literature, North- Aryan and German
Another work in German called The North- Aryan
(1920).
(Saka) Didactic Poem of Buddhism was published with a
translation, based on E. Leumann's work, by Manu Leumann
(1933 34). Fragments of Buddhist manuscripts in Soghdian
from the Turfan collection were published by W. Lentz
lished
Aryan
—
(1934) out
The
in
in
of the
transcript
the
British
literary
and
Museum were
two volumes, of which
with
texts,
Buddhist
E.
remains of F.
translation
texts.
Benveniste
In
the
his
published
of
W. K.
Soghdian
by
volume
published
first
French
Muller.
manuscripts
H.
Reichelt
(1928) deals
work on Soghdian
twenty-three
texts,
mostly
Buddhist, with translations and notes (1940).
In the work,
Manuscript Remains, mentioned above,
Konow
Sten
pub-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
414
two complete Khotanese manuscripts with an English
and parallel Sanskrit and Tibetan versions. An
lished
translation
Dharmapada was published by
of the Khotanese
edition
H. W. Bailey (1945) and a volume of Khotanese Buddhist
texts
F.
was edited by the same scholar
Uigurian, an old
in
W. K.
Buddhist texts
(1951).
Turkish language, were published by
Miiller in various
German
The
journals (1908—31).
Uigur text of the Suvarnaprabhasa-sutra was published by
W. Radloff (BibL Bud,. 1913—15) and translated into German
by the same scholar (1930). A series of texts was published
(1930—31) by W. Bang and A. von Gabain in the series
called Uigurish Studies
and Uigurica.
In the East
India.
1.
-Among
the factors which were largely respon-
of the Indian intelligentsia
sible for directing the attention
towards the study of India's past, and particularly the study of
Buddha 's life and that of the Buddhist religion, were the
works of early Indologists like Sir William Jones (1746 94)
and H. T. Colebrook who arrived in Calcutta in 1782.
the
—
1847, Christian Lassen
Later, in
work on Indian
German
published in
The
antiquities.
his
public interest received
further stimulus through the discovery of sites connected with
the history of
Buddhism
and
Prinsep (1799—1843) and Cunningham.
archaeologists like
Works
in northern
Buddha Gaya
like
India by explorers
(1874), Sanskrit Buddhist
Litera-
Nepal (1882) and Lalitavistara (1887) by Rajendralal
Mitra, the accounts of the travels of Sarat Chandra Das in
Tibet and the publication by him erf some Buddhist works
ture of
also aroused considerable interest in Buddhist studies.
The Buddhist Text
work
in the field of
account
Bengal
of
is
the
given
was founded
Society
Buddhist studies started
pioneer
elsewhere
work
in
done
this
in
chapter.
in
in
this
1892 and
Bengal.
sphere
Besides
An
in
Sarat
Chandra Das and Satish Chandra Vidyabhushan, Mahamahopadhyaya Hara Prasad Shastri was also a stalwart in this field
His Bauddha Gdna O Doha (1716) made
of scholarship.
BUDDHIST STUDIES
Bengali scholars realize
the
IN
RECENT TIMES
need for
415
Buddhist studies.
Advayavajra-sahgraha, a work he published
Gaikwad
in the
Oriental Series (No. 60, 1927), contains twenty small works of
Advayavajra, a teacher of the Adikarmapradipa school of
the
He
century.
llth
Memoirs
edited
also
Catuhsatika
the
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol.
in
His works
III.
are especially valued for their learned introductions.
The work
by these pioneers
started
Mahamahopadhyaya
Vidhushekhar
Santiniketan and of Calcutta University.
for
studies
his
in
Pali Prakasa, a
Pali,
in
being
is
He
is
Shastri
well
Bengali,
be
of
known
He wrote
Sanskrit and Tibetan.
grammar
Pali
notes in Bengali and a
Bengal
among whom may
continued by several living scholars
mentioned
in
Pdtimokkha with
few chapters of the Milinda-panha
which were published in Bengali script with a Bengali translation.
To him also goes the credit for having edited the
Mahayana-vimsika of Nagarjuna. Aryadeva's Catuhsatika,
which he
into
retranslated
Sanskrit
from Tibetan (Visva-
Bharati, 1931), the Tibetan text of the Nyaya-pravesa (G.O.S.
No.
39,
1927),
the
Bhota-prakasa
excellent introductory
book
<Cal.
Univ.,
1939),
an
for a student of Sanskrit wishing
to learn Tibetan and the Agama-sastra of
Gaudapada
(Cal.
Univ., 1943), which according to him shows definite Buddhist
Furthermore, his Basic Conception of Buddhism
influence.
(1934)
is
text
a
very
lucid
Even
at his
exposition
of the
fundamentals of
working on the Sanskrit
of the Yogacarabhumi-sastra and it is expected that it
Buddhism.
age he
is
will soon see the light of day.
Dr. B. C. Law, a veteran and versatile scholar in the
various branches of Indology ~~ Buddhism, Jainism, History,
Geography and the Sociology of Ancient India has to his
His History of Pali
credit more than fifty-five volumes.
Literature in two volumes (1933) and his work on Buddhaghosa are well known
to students of Pali literature.
edited in Pali the Thupavarpsa (P.T.S., 1935), the
(text
and English
translation,
(revised edition, in the
He
has
Dathavamsa
1925) and the Cariya-pitaka
Bhandarkar Oriental
Series, Vol. IV),
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
4l6
the last
two
the Nagari script.
in
He
has also translated
His independent books, Study of Mahdvastu,
in Buddhist Literature, Concept of Buddhism, India
these texts.
Women
as described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism,
keen
insight.
vaipsa, the
He
show
has translated into English the Buddha-
Commentary on
the Katha-vatthu (Debates
He
mentary, 1940) and the Sasanavarpsa (1952).
Com-
has written
memoirs on Sravasti, Rajagrha, Kausambi and Pancalas as
well as monographs on the Magadhas of Ancient India,
Asvaghosa and on the Chronicles of Ceylon. His two books.
Tribes in Ancient India (B.O.S., No. 4) and Mountains and
Rivers of India are very useful to students of Ancient India.
His collection of essays in Indological Studies (Parts 1
3,
—
1950
—54),
and
his
Historical
Geography of Ancient India
are also a mine of information for students of Indology.
striking characteristic of all his
work
is
A
that he carefully sup-
plies references to substantiate his statements.
The late Prof. Barua, a worthy colleague of Dr. B. C.
Law, was the head of the Pali Department at Calcutta
University for a number of years and we have already given
some account of his works elsewhere. Dr. Nalinaksha Dutt
was his successor. His Aspects of Mahaydna Buddhism and
its Relation to Hxnaydna (1930) gives to students of Buddhism
a clear idea of the evolution of Buddhism from the simple
teachings of the Buddha contained in the early texts of the
orthodox school to the highly abstruse philosophical tenets
of the
Mahayana
school.
He
has edited
Prajnaparamita (1934) and what
that he discovered
Gilgit
and brought
is
The important
Pancaviip£ati
is
the fact
to light a large collection of
Manuscripts, which he has
volumes.
the
most creditable
now
published in eight
texts contained in these
voulmes
are the Samadhiraja-sutra and the Vinaya-vastu (unfortunately
incomplete) of the Mula-sarvastivada school.
is
a remarkable discovery as
it
The
of the Vinaya corresponding to the Pali Vinaya.
A
compara-
two Vinayas reveals clearly the chronologibetween the two, namely, that the Sanskrit text
tive study of these
cal relation
latter text
brings to light a Sanskrit text
BUDDHIST STUDIES
is
indicative of a later
RECENT TIMES
IN
417
and more developed form of
From
monastic institution of the Buddhists.
the
the linguistic
point of view also, these texts reveal that they must have
been based upon some Pali-Prakrit original as the idioms
used
them are those of
in
of several Buddhist
Sanskritization
of
Pali-Prakrit texts.
works,
Sanskrit
the
Pali-Prakrit
As
in the case
they
reveal incorrect
words.
Care has been
taken by Dr. Dutt to supply corresponding Tibetan readings
at places
where the Sanskrit original
also given indexes but one
be found readable even by laymen.
will
also published the
first
three chapters
abhidharma-kosa-vyakhya.
text, the
not clear.
is
He
has
rather disappointed at their
His Early Monastic Buddhism in two volumes
meagreness.
(1941—45)
is
He
of
He
has
the Sphutartha-
has edited another Buddhist
Saddharma-pundarika, for
the Bibliotheca Indica
Series (1952), with N. D. Mironov's readings
from the Central
Asian Manuscripts.
The
University of Calcutta has produced several Buddhist
scholars.
N.
Dr.
P.
Chakravarty,
the
former
Director-
General of Archaeology, has to his credit UUdanavarga
Prof. Satkari Mookerjee has given
1930).
The Buddhist Philosophy of Universal Flux (Calcutta,
1936). The late Dr. P. C. Bagchi has given us Studies in the
Tantras (Cal. Univ., 1939) and two works on Sanskrit
Lexicography (Deux Lexiques Sanskrit-Chinois, 1929, 1937).
His main work, Le Canon Bouddhique en Chine (1927, 1938),
Sanskrit (Paris,
us
is
highly useful inasmuch as
the books
added
his
in the
to our
it
gives us information about
Chinese Tripijaka.
Dr. U. N. Ghoshal has
knowledge of Buddhism
in
Greater India by
Ancient Indian Culture in Afghanistan (1928) and by his
highly
informative
article,
Research (1917—42)",
in
"Progress
the
of
Progress
Greater
Indian
of Indie Studies
Nagendranath Vasu has written Modern
(Poona, 1942).
Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa (Cal. Univ., 1911). Dr.
Anukul Chandra Banerjee has made a study of the different
sects of Buddhism and given the Sanskrit text of the
Praiimoksa of the Mula-sarvastivada school fr*m a Gilgit
8
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
41
manuscript (Indian Historical
Chatterjee
tells
us
how
Quarterly,
and Buddhism, penetrated into Cambodia
tural Influence in
Cambodia
same subject
treats the
Suvarriadvipa (1938).
characters Inscriptions
Dr. B. R.
1953).
Indian culture, both as Brahmanism
in
in his Indian Cul-
Prof. R.
(1928).
his books,
Majumdar
C.
Champa
(1937)
and
He has recently published in Nagarl
of Kambuja (1953) which throws light
on the condition of Buddhism in that country.
Dr. NiharRanjan Ray has written Sanskrit Buddhism (1936) and
Theravdda Buddhism (1946) which deal with Buddhism in
Burma. R. C. Mitra of Santiniketan gives us the history of
the decay of Buddhism in his Decline of Buddhism in India
while Prof.
Gokuldas De has written a book,
(1955;
Democracy in Early Buddhist Sangha (1955).
Manindra
Mohan Bose has given us an account of the later forms of
Buddhism in Bengal in his Post-Chaitanya Sahajiya Cult of
Bengal (1930). S. Yamakami's book, System of Buddhistic
Thought
(1912), traces the
growth of thought
in
Buddhist
philosophy of both the Hinayana and the Mahayana schools.
In order to popularize the study of Pali books generally,
some
texts
translated
were printed
into
the
may be mentioned
in
Bengali script
Bengali
the
language.
and several were
Among
the former
Thera-gatha, the Theri-gatha,
the
Mahavagga, the Buddhavamsa, the Digha, Vol. I, the Pacittiya, and the Udana
published by the Buddhist Mission in Rangoon. Among
the Bengali translations are those of the Jatakas by Ishan
Chandra Ghosh, of the Dhammapada by Charu Chandra
Ghosh, of the Thera and Theri-gatha by Bejoy Chandra
Majumdar, of the Suttanipata by Bhikku Shala Bhadra
and of the Udana and the Majjhima. This shows that even
common people are interested in reading Pali books in
Majjhima, the Mula-pannasaka,
translation,
Among
eastern
if
the
not in the original.
the important centres
India are Santiniketan in
and Nalanda
in Bihar.
Under
of
Buddhist
studies
in
West Bengal and Patna
the direction of Prof. Vidhu-
shekhar Shastri in the early years and of the late Dr. P. C.
BUDDHIST STUDIES
Bagchi since 1945, research
Chinese
was
studies
IN
RECENT TIMES
419
and SanskritCheenabhavan and
in Sanskrit-Tibetan
conducted
at
Vidyabhavan, two well-known research institutions. Several
valuable
papers and
books have appeared in the VisvaBharati Series and the Visva-Bharati Studies since 1932; in
the Visva-Bharati Annals since 1947;
Studies since
In Vol.
1945.
V
and
in the
Sino-Indian
of Visva-Bharati Annals a
Venkatramanan has appeared in the
form of an English translation of the Sammitiy >nikaya-sastra.
In the volumes of Sino-Indian Studies Dr. Bacliow (now at
Ceylon University) has given us comparative studies of the
scholarly study by Shri K.
Mahaparinibbana-sutta and of the Pratimoksa-sutra 1
Aiyyaswamy
Shastri has retranslated
Prof.
.
Sanskrit
into
several
Tibetan and Chinese translations of original Sanskrit texts
that
Some
have disappeared.
this type are the
(1942),
the
of the important works
Alambana-parik§a and
Salistamba-sutra
(1950),
its
Vrtti
of
by Dinnaga
Karalalaratna
the
of
Bhavaviveka (1949) and the Dvadasamukha-sastra (1955) of
Nagarjuna.
ydna (1950)
Shantibhikshu
Prof.
Mahd-
Shastri has written
Hindi and has given his
in
own
Sanskrit render-
ing of the Chinese translations of Vasubandhu's Bodhicittotpada-sutra-sastra
(1953) and the
of Ghosaka's Abhiddharmamrta
two chapters of the Jnana-prasthana, to
(1949),
first
Kumar Mukhopadhyaya
be followed by the
rest.
has given us the
Tri-svabhava-nirdes'a
bandhu,
Shri Sujit
Sardula-karnavadana
the
(1939)
(1955)
and
Vasu-
of
a
Bengali
translation of Santideva's Bodhicaryavatara (1947).
Prof. Pralhad
nagari edition
Pradhana of Orissa has given us a Deva-
from an incomplete manuscript of the Abhi-
dharma-samuccaya (1950).
It
is
understood
also prepared a Devanagari edition of the
bhasya from a manuscript
now
at
Patna
that
he
has
Abhidharmakosa-
in the collection
of
This is expected to be published
Rahul Sankrityayan.
soon by the Kashiprasada Jayaswal Research Institute of
Patna.
Another manuscript from the same collection, the
1.
This has
now appeared
as a separate volume, published (1955)
Sino-Indian Society, Santiniketan.
by the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
420
Abhidharma-pradipa,
Prof.
Padmanabh
published
being edited
is
Jaini of Banaras.
for
that
by
1953 that Institute
In
Pramana-vartika-bhasya
the
Institute
or
VSrtika-
the
by Rahul Sankrityayana, and the Dharmot„tara-pradipa of Durveka, edited by Prof. Malvania. Other
edited
alaiikara,
Vinaya
texts
of
the
Lokottaravada school
—the
Bhiksu-
prakirnaka and the Bhiksuni-praklrnaka—have been traced to
same
the
collection
and
it
is
understood that Dr. A.
Altekar, Honorary Director of that Institute,
to*
have them published
Sanskrit
Tantric
text,
in
D.
taking steps
Another Buddhist
the near futuie.
the
is
Ratnagotra-vibhaga,
been
has
edited by Dr. Johnston and published in Patna.
The Government of Bihar has started a Pali Institute
Nalanda under the direction of the Rev. Jagadish Kashyap
and the Government of India has entrusted to it the work
of publishing the Pali Tripitaka.
The first work undertaken by the Institute is the Mahavagga of the Vinaya.
at
In Uttar Pradesh, the workers of the
at Sarnath
texts
in
Devanagari script and Hindi translations of
the
Pali books.
Mahabodhi Sabha
have given us several Buddhist texts— both Pali
The
great explorer, Rahul Sankrityayana, with
the help of his colleagues,
Anand Kausalyayana and
Jaga-
dish Kashyap, has given us in Devanagari characters eleven
books of the Khuddaka-nikaya, with the exception of Jataka,
Niddesa, Patisambhida and Apadana.
Rahul Sankrityayana
has also given us a Hindi translation of the Digha-nikaya,
the
Majjhima-nikaya and the Vinaya (the Patimokkha, the
Mahavagga and
ten in
a
life
of the Buddha, along with Hindi translations of several
Pali suttas.
The Rev. Ananda Kausalyayan has given
Hindi translation of 500
have
In addition he has writ-
the Cullavagga).
Hindi a book entitled Buddhacarya, which includes
already
follow shortly.
into Hindi the
been
Jatakas
published.
in
The
six
rest
volumes
us a
which
are expected
The Rev. Jagadish Kashyap has
Milinda-panha (1937) and the Udana
to
translated
(1938)
and
given us an excellent edition of the Moggallana-Vyakarana
along with
its
Hindi translation (1940).
Bhikshu Dharma-
1
BUDDHIST STUDIES
ratna
is
IN
RECENT TIMES
credited with a Hindi translation
edition of the
42
and a Devanagari
The first 150 Jatakas
by Bhikkhu Dhammarakkhita and brought
Suttanipata
have been edited
(1951).
out by the Bharatiya Jnana-pltha
in
Devanagari characters
The Samyutta-nikaya has been translated
J. Kashyap and
Dharmarakshita. The latter has also translated the Dhammapada with illustrative stories. The Theri-gatha in Hindi by
(Banaras, 1944).
two volumes by Bhikshus
into Hindi in
Upadhyaya,
the
Pali
Jatakavali
by
Batuknath Sharma and the Mahaparinirvana-sutra, text and
Hindi translation, by Bhikshu Kittima (Sarnath, 1941) are
Bharat
Singh
other important publications.
Rahul Sankrityayana/has made an effort to restore the Abhidharma-kosakarika (1931) with the help of Yasomitra's commentary,
Sphutartha-abhidharma-kosa-vyakhya, and with the help of
In the field of Sanskrit Buddhist books,
the notes in Louis de la Vallee Poussin's translation of the
He
Abhidharma-kosa-karika with a bhasya.
Vadanyaya
has also given
Pramanaand the Vartikalankara (Patna, 1953), besides
On the same subpublishing Buddha-darsana in Hindi.
ject there exists a very fine book in Hindi, Baud d ha Darsanathe Sanskrit texts of the
(1936), the
vartika
mlmamsd, by
with
Pandit
a
Hindi
(Chaukhamba
Upadhyaya
by Dr. Chandradhar Sharma
Acarya Narendradeva, another scholar
translation
The
(Banaras).
Baldeva
1954) and Saugata Siddhantasara-sahgraha
Banaras,
Series,
late
of Uttar Pradesh, prepared a Hindi translation of
La
Vallee
Poussin's French translation of the Abhidharmakos'a-bhasya.
Only the
first
chapter of this book has been printed so
Lucknow
his book, Yuganaddha (Chaukhamba
move certain misconceptions about
Dr. Herbert V. Guenther of
what appear
practices.
to
Like
far.
University has tried in
Series,
1952),
to
re-
the exact import of
an uninitiated reader to be corrupt Tantric
Anagarika
Govtnda,
symbolic nature of various statements
Anagarika Govinda, who has adopted
he
in
points
out
the
the Tantric texts.
this
country for his
mother-land, has 'shown us the psychological nature of the
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
422
Buddhist philosophy of
Abhidhamma
in his
Patna Univer-
Lectures for 1927 (The Psychological Attitude of Early
sity
Buddhist
Philosophy).
In
Some Aspects
his
of StQpa
Symbolism
(Kitabistan, Allahabad), he has revealed certain
secrets
the
in
of Buddhist stupas and given
construction
their symbolic
interpretation.
R. V. Murti,
Prof. T.
of Banaras Hindu University, has given
Madhyamika system
in
his Central
a
study
now
of
the
Philosophy of Buddhism
(1955).
Dr. Chou Hsiang Kuang, Head of the Chinese Department of Allahabad University, recently gave us A History
of Chinese Buddhism (1955), which tells the story of IndoChinese relations since the introduction of Buddhism in
It throws light on the state of Buddhism in different
China.
parts of China and its rise and fall through the centuries.
The
but
life
it
is
Dr.
of
Yuan Chwang
is
a useful appendix to the book,
disappointing that no index has been given.
Raghu
Vira, of the International
Academy
of Indian
Culture, Nagpur, recently undertook tours of exploration in
China, Mongolia and Central Asia and
been successful
Chinese
reported to have
securing copies of a translation of the
in
Tripitaka into
languages and
is
the
Mongolian
and Manchurian
securing several Mongolian paintings and
in
statues.
Bombay, Poona and Baroda
Buddhist studies
account of the
the
pioneer of
western
centres,
in
life
western
are the active centres of
India.
of the late Prof.
Buddhist
studies,
Elsewhere
is
given an
Dharmananda Kosambi,
especially
in
Pali,
in
His pupils have been working at all these
India.
and with the sympathy and encouragement given
Sayajirao Maharaja, the
books were published in the Gaikwad Oriental Series under the direction of B. Bhattacharya.
There have also been published some texts of Buddhist
logic and philosophy like the Nyayapravesa (1930), edited by
A. B. Dhruv, Pr&Dinnaga Buddhist Works on Logic (1930)
to
Buddhist studies by the late
ruler of Baroda, several
from the Chinese by Prof. Tucci, the Tattva-saiigraha (1926)
BUDDHIST STUDIES IN RECENT TIMES
423
of Santaraksita, edited by Pandit
Embar Krishnamacharya,
with
in
translation (1937,
its
Some
Dr. Ganganath Jha.
1939)
volumes
separate
by
Tantric works, too, such as the
Advayavajra-sangraha (1927), edited by Mahamahopadhyaya
Hara Prasad
Two
Shastri.
VajrayHna Works
(1929),
Sri-
(1931), and the Sadhana-mala (1925,
by B. Bhattacharya have been brought out in
guhyasamaja-tantra
1928), edited
the
same
B. Bhattacharya also published a
series.
Buddhist Esoterism (1932).
titled
given
Manual
us
edited
Pali for
of
Pali
C.
V.
book
Joshi
He
students.
en-
has
has also
Saddhammappakasini
Pali Text Society the
the
for
Prof.
commentary on the Patisambhida-magga,
Jataka stories into Marathi and written
a life of the Buddha for children. In addition, he has edited
the Marathi translation of the Digha-nikaya, Vols. II and
(1933—47),
the
several
translated
by the
III,
The
Pali
late Prof. C.
books
V. Rajwade.
Bombay
University of
Devanagan
in the
has
undertaken to
publish
script for the use of Univer-
under the general editorship of Prof. N. K.
Bhagvat of St. Xavier's College. Of the ten books so far
brought out, the Milinda-paiiha, edited by
Prof. R. D.
sity
students,
Vadekar of Poona,
is
generally considered to be the best.
The remaining works, the Nidanakatha (of the Jatakas), the
Mahavamsa, the Dlgha (Vols. I and II), the Majjhima,
the Thera-gatha, the Theri-gatha and the Mahavagga in two
been edited by Prof. Bhagvat himself.
He
has also brought out editions of the Khuddakapatha,
the
volumes have
Dhammapada
the Paritta,
all
(published by the
Buddha
Society,
Bombay),
a few selections from the Jatakas (Jataka-katba-
sandoha), and the BuddhaghosuppattL
Prof. P. V. Bapat, successor to the late Prof.
Kosambi
at
Dharmanand
Fergusson College, gave as early as 1924 a
tical edition
of the
Suttanip&ta in
cri-
Devanagari characters,
with parallel passages culled from Otto Franke's work on the
same
subject.
The book
also contains extracts
mentary, an introduction and
1939, Prof. Bapat
published
several
from the com-
indexes.
Later, in
Vimuttimagga and Visuddhi-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
424
magga: A Comparative Study. In collaboration with Prof.
R. D. Vadekar, his colleague at Fergusson College, Prof.
Bapat brought out critical editions in Devanagari of the
Dhamma-sarigani (1940) and the Atthasalini (1942) in the
Bhandarkar Oriental Series (paras 2 and 3), accompanied by
introductions and indexes. As a result of research at Cheenabhavan at Santiniketan, Bengal, he translated into English
the Chinese version of the
Arthapada-sutra (1945, 1950),
corresponding to the Pali Afthakavagga of the Suttanipata,
which was also included
opposite pages.
Devanagari characters on
in
published the results of his comparative study of the
commentary on the Vinaya,
its
the
the article, 'Shan-Chien-pi-p'o-sha\ he
In
entitled
Pali
Samanta-pasadika and
Chinese version translated by Sanghabhadra towards the
end of the 5th century A.D. (University of Ceylon Review,
A second edition of his Suttanipata has appeared
with a Marathi translation by Prof. Dharmanand Kosambi
revised by him in the Dharmanand Swarada Sahitya (No. 4.
April 1949).
1955).
The most important
of his scholarly articles such as
"Tadi, Tayi, Tayin" in D. R. Bhandarkar
Volume
(I,
pp.
249—258,
Law Memorial Volume
pratisthita" in
1940).
"Nekkhamma"
260—66,
Mookerjee
(No. 2, pp.
Radha Kumud
"Paliatthika" and "Saranlya" in
Commemoration
Vak
in B.
C.
1946), "Saptanga-
Volume
(1945),
1952)
are of
(1951,
Another article by him in "SiddhaMemorial
Volume, 1950)
deals with the close relation between the Pali and Vedic languages. An article by him on Middha and Middhavadins
lexicographical interest.
bharati"
(Siddheshvar
Varma
in F. W. Thomas Commemoration Volume (1939).
Another major work, which is soon to be published, is an
appeared
made
English translation,
J.
in collaboration
with the late Prof.
H. Woods of Harvard University, of the famous encycloVisuddhimagga by the Pali scholiast,
paedic work of the
Buddhaghosa.
Prof. R. D.
tioned, has to
Vadekar, whose name has already been menhis
credit
mokkha (Bhandarkar
a
Devanagari edition of the
Pati-
Oriental Series, 1939) and the Milinda-
BUDDHIST STUDIES
(Bombay
pafiha
IN
RECENT TIMES
425
University Devanagari Pali Texts Series).
Dr. V. V. Gokhale, also of Fergusson College, has specialized in
Mahayana
studies in Tibetan
and Chinese.
He
published his thesis on the Pratitya-samutpada of Ullangha
(Bonn, 1930), translated into Chinese by Dharmagupta and
Amoghavajra. The original Sanskrit Karikas, an incomplete
commentary by an unknown author (1940), of Nagarjuna's
Pratitya-samu tpada-hrdaya, were discovered by him at Lhasa
These have now been edit(1950) and are in his possession.
ed and are being published in German in the Kirfel Comme-
He has tried
Madhyamaka text, the
moration Volume at Bonn.
original Sanskrit a
to restore into the
Aksara-Sataka of
Aryadeva, with the help of the Tibetan and Chinese versions.
He
has also given us a
karika (Journal of the
full text
of
the
Bombay Branch
Abhidharma-kosa-
of the Royal Asiatic
on an actual manuscript of the Sanskrit
Brahmi inscription carved in stone
Tun-huang (Sino-Indian Studies, Vol. I, Part I,
Society, 1946), based
He
text.
tells
discovered in
19
pp.
—
23).
He
of
the
Branch
(Vol.
us about a
published, in the Journal of the
Asiatic
Society
Royal
from the
1947), fragment*
23,
samuccaya of Asanga.
The
of
Bombay
Bombay
Abhidharma-
Subasita-ratnakosa
of
Vidya-
more than 1,700 verses, dating
th century A.D. is being edited jointly by
from about the
him and Prof. D. D. Kosambi and will soon be published in
kara, a Buddhist anthology of
1
1
the Harvard Oriental Series with the co-operation of Prof.
Ingalls of
Harvard University.
Vaidya has tried to restore the Sanskrit text
of the Catuh&taka, Chapters VIII— XVI, from its Tibetan
Prof. P. L.
translation.
He
and spread of
has written a book in Marathi on the origin
(Bauddha Dharmacd Abhyitdaya
He is now engaged in publishing
representative passages on Buddhism from the Pali and Sanskrit texts and it is expected that his work will soon be
published under the title Bauddhagamartha Sangraha.
Scholars from South India have also been working in the
ftqi
Buddhism
Prasara, Poona, 1927).
field
of Buddhist studies.
The
first
chapter
of Dinnaga's
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
426
Pramana-samuccaya has been given
H. R. R. Aiyangar of Mysore.
Andhra Country
in
Sanskrit
(1930)
by
In his Early History of the
Gopala Chari has given a good deal
of information about Buddhist sects in the Deccan and
Andhra. Dr. K. R. Subrahmaniam has written a memoir,
Buddhist Remains in Andhra (1932), while Dr. T. N. Ramchandran has contributed a fine memoir on Nagarjunakonda
Dr. Krishnaswamy Aiyangar, Mahamahopadhyaya
(1938).
Swaminath Aiyar and Prof. N. Aiyyaswamy have shown from
the Tamil poem, Manimekhalai, how Buddhism dominated
the people of Tamilnad at one time.
T. Ganapati Shastri's
discovery of the Manjusri-mulakalpa and its publication in
the Trivandrum Series reveal that Tantrism existed in South
India also.
Dr. P. C. Alexander of Shri Narayan College,
Quilon, has traced the history of Buddhism in south-western
India right down to modern times in his book, Buddhism in
Kerala (Annamalainagar, 1949), in which he proves that
Buddhism flourished in that region up to the ninth century
A.D. Unfortunately, the universities in South India do not
(1941)
appear to have taken too kindly to Pali or Buddhist-Sanskrit
studies.
Ceylon 1 ,— Owing
2.
Dutch and
to
the
domination of the Portu-
Ceylon by
Buddhism
fell
to such a low ebb
the Portuguese in 1505,
that Kittisiri Rajasingh (1746—1779 A.D.), the ruler of the
Kandyan Province, had to send emissaries to Siam to find
guese,
British since the invasion of
Buddhist Elders for the re-establishment of the higher ordination in Ceylon.
Other groups went with a similar pur-
pose to Burma, at the beginning of the 19th century and
thus were established in Ceylon three fraternities
—Siamese,
Burmese (Upper Burma), and Ramaflfta (Lower Burma). The
British captured the island in 1815 and the evils of foreign
rule were in no way mitigated.
The education of the young
was left to Christian missionaries. None the less, two prominent schools of Buddhism were established by the Vener1.
The author
is
langoda, Ceyion 5 for
indebted to the Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta of
of the information in this account.
much
Amba-
BUDDHIST STUDIES
able
Piyaratanatissa
IN
RECENT TIMES
Dodanduwa.
of
A
427
controversy took
place between the Christians and the Buddhists in which the
latter
were triumphant.
Colonel Olcott read an account
of this controversy in the newspapers and
in
1880.
He
himself
came
to
Ceylon
became a Buddhist and encouraged
local Buddhists to establish
own
their
He
schools.
exercised
generation
and
founded the Theosophical Society of Colombo which
now
considerable
influence
over
the
younger
controls over 350 Buddhist educational institutions including
some
first-grade colleges.
Two
religious schools of the old
system of education for monks were established
—the Vidyo-
daya Oriental College, Colombo (1872), and the VidyalankSra
College at Kelaniya (1873) near Colombo. There are now
more than 200 institutions connected with these colleges
which are still engaged in educational work. The venerable
saw the necessity of having Pali literature printed for
the people and books were thus published both in Pali and
Sanskrit. The publication of the Mahavamsa and its translation into Simhalese were undertaken by the Venerable
H. Sumangala, the Principal of the Vidyodaya College, and
elders
The Abhidhanappadipika, a Pali
Namamala were edited by the Venerable
Pandit Batuwantudawe.
lexicon,
and the
At the request of Sir Robert Chalmers, then
Governor of Ceylon, the commentary on the Majjhimanikaya was edited by the Venerable Dhammarama, the
second Principal of the Vidyalahkara College. The Venerable Seelakkhandha of Sailabimbarama, Dodanduwa, wrote
Saddharma-makaranda. (Kolhapur, 1914), a life of the
Buddha in Sanskrit and commentaries on the Bhakti-sataka
(Darjeeling, 1896), written by Pandita Ramacandra Bharati
(middle of the 13th century A.D.) who had become a
Buddhist, and on the Aniruddha-Sataka. He also edited the
Trikandasesa-kosa, the Daivajna-kamadhenu and the VrttaratSubhuti.
nakara-panjika which were published in India in Devanagari
script.
Under the
influence of Colonel H. S.
enthusiast, called
Olcott, a
David Hewavitarane, who
later
young
came
to
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
428
be known as Anagarika Dharmapala,
for a revival of
Buddhism.
He
felt
the urge to strive
lectured to rural audiences
Ceylon and later came to India. It was his religious
fervour and missionary zeal that led to the founding of the
Maha Bodhi Society in 1891.
in
Simon Hewavitarane, the youngest brother of Anagarika
Dharmapala, left a large legacy which was to be used for the
printing and publishing of Pali books.
So far 49 volumes of
commentaries on the canonical texts of the Pali Tripitaka
have been published.
Among the published texts are the
Cariya-pitaka (1950). the Parajika. the
first
volume of the
Vinaya-pitaka (1950), the Dhammasangani (1952), and the
Jataka Pali(gatha, 1954).
Stray volumes of the Tipitaka and commentaries
were
and the beginning of
the 20th century, but most of these books and commentaries, including those in the Simon Hewavitarane Series, are
now out of print. The Abhidhammattha-vibhavani (1933)
and the Atthasalinl-mula TfkS (1938), published in the Vidyodaya Tika Publication Series, may also be mentioned. In the
Manatunga Series, too, there appeared three volumes of the
One very interesting tika on the
Digha-nikaya (1929).
Samanta-pasadika, the Vimati-vinodani by Coliya Kassapa,
was edited and indexed by Dr. H. Gabriel de Silva (1935). It
had been preceded by the Sarattha-dipani (1914), another
tika on the Samanta-oasadika. which, however, remained
also published at the end of the 19th
incomplete.
It is
now planned
to publish afresh the Texts
and
their
Simhalese translations under the direction of Prof. G.
Malalsekera,
who
is
well
known
Ceylon (London, 1928) and for
P.
for his Pali Literature of
his Dictionary of Pali
Proper
two volumes (1937-38). A complete edition of
the Cullavagga and portions of the Digha and the Samyuttanikayas have already been published with Simhalese transla-
Names
tions.
in great
in
As
the Simhalese translations of the Pali Texts arc
demand, Dr. A.
P.
de Soyza, a zealous Buddhist, has
published translations of the Digha, the Majjhima and the
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
429
Samyutta while a translation of the Aiiguttara-nikaya is in
With the foundation of the University of Ceylon,
progress.
particularly since Ceylon achieved independence,
have begun to enter the
lars
has contributed a fine
field.
Jaya
A.
N.
new schoVikrama
commentary on the Suttanipata
critical
(University of Ceylon Review,
1948—50).
Prof.
O. H. de
Wijesekera has correlated Pali studies with studies
Vedic
literature
his
in earlier
papers on Yaksa, Gandharva and
some from
former pupil, Charles Godage
of Ceylon Review, Vol. I, No. 2, November
Vol. Ill, April 1945), deserve to be read.
In
Indra, as well as
(University
1943,
and
and
his
1946, Dr. Adikaran published his Early History of
Buddhism
Ceylon which is based on original sources in the Pali
Atthakathas
Old style scholars among the monks have also given us
in
some
fine books.
The Rev. Widurapola
kassapa-carita (1934)
Piyatissa wrote
Campu
and Mahanekkhamma
Maha(1935),
and wrote comand the Samyutta-nikaya.
the
Simon Hewavitarane
edited the Jataka-atthakatha in ten volumes,
mentaries on the Netti-pakarana
The commentaries
published in
Series are also written
by learned Elders.
In order to popularize the study of Pali
children,
grammar.
a
was necessary
it
Pali
course,
Sanskrit Readers in India.
on
among
school-
simplify the teaching of Pali
In 1912 the Rev. Suriyagoda
graduated
who was
to
the
Sumangala compiled
model
The Rev. A.
of Bhandarkar's
P.
Buddhadatta,
Agga-Mahapandita
by the
Burmese Government in 1954, published New Pali Course,
Parts I (1937) and II (1939), Higher Pali Course, Aids to
Pali Conversation and Concise Pali-English Dictionary (1949).
The Rev. A. P. Buddhadatta has become famous for his
of the Apadana
edition of the Visuddhimagga (1914) and
for the
for
his
editions,
(1930) in Simhalese characters and
Pali Text Society, of the Namarupa-pariccheda (1914), the
Abhidhammavatara (1915), the Sammoha-vinodani commenVinaya-uttara-vinicchaya
tary on the Vibhanga (1923),
the
(1928), the Saddhamma-pijjotika (3 vols.) and the commentary
given
the
title
of
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
430
He
on the Niddesa.
in the Sirphalese
lish-Pali
has written numerous scholarly books
language and recently brought out an Eng-
dictionary
A
(1955).
similar
by the Rev. Nidurupolapiyatissa
edited
the
in
work was prepared
1949.
He
also recently
Visuddhimagga-ganthi, a small commentary
in
Simhalese characters explaining intricate points in that work.
was with
manuscript in Burmese
Burmese monastery near
Ambalangoda. Dr. Vajira-nana Maha Thera wrote a book
entitled Buddhism Outlined in 1951.
The Rev. Narada is an
enthusiastic religious missionary and has visited India, the
It
his help that a
copy of
this
characters was obtained from a
South-East Asian countries, Europe, Australia, East Africa,
and Nepal. He
has
written
pamphlets,
several
important of which are Buddhism
in
a Nutshell,
the
Rebirth, and Buddhist Conception of Consciousness.
Buddha along with
most
and
Kamma
He
has
and
translation of Chapter I of the Abhidhammattha-sahgaha.
Several editions of the Dhammapada have appeared and one
prepared by B. Siri Sivali (1954) is presented very attractively,
the text being given in the Simhalese and Roman scripts on
pages on the left and the translations in Simhalese and
English on the right.
also written a
life
of the
the text
The Rev. Nyanatiloka, a German Buddhist monk of the
Dodanduwa Island, gave us a very useful book in his Guide
Through the Abhidhamma-pitaka (1938). He has also prepared a German translation of the Visuddhimagga which has
The Government of Ceylon
so far been printed only in part.
has awakened to the fact that
dhist studies.
texts
and
it,
too,
must encourage Bud-
Accordingly, the task of publishing the Pali
their
Simhalese translations has been entrusted to
the Vidyalarikara authorities.
It
has also been decided to
bring out a Buddhist encyclopaedia and arrangements are
being
made
for
its
preparation under the general editorship
of Prof. G. P. Malalsekera,
of the
who
has been elected President
World Federation of Buddhists.
Incidentally,
it
may
be observed that, under the guidance
of Prof. G. P. Malalsekera of the University of Ceylon, Ceylon
1
BUDDHIST STUDIES
has taken the lead
IN
RECENT TIMES
in trying to bring all
43
Buddhist countries
together and to set
which met
It
in
up the World Fellowship of the Buddhists,
Ceylon (1950), Japan (1952) and Burma (1954).
proposes to meet for the fourth time at Kapilavastu, the
Buddha in Nepal.
Burma was ruled by its own king right
up to 1886, Buddhism continued to flourish in that country.
The country has been known for a long time for its scholarly
Its
studies in the Tripitaka, especially the Abhidhamma.
birthplace of the
3.
BurmaK
numerous
— As
monasteries
contain
rich
collections
of
Pali
Mandalay has always been its educational
and its monasteries possess many rare
centre
and religious
manuscripts. Burma can boast of two or three printing
presses like the Hanthawady Press, the P. G. Mundyne
Press and
Swe Press where Pali
Pitaka
the Zabu Meet
and
books, the At{hakathas
sub-commentaries on the Abhidhamma are printed. In Burma, there are, even among laymen, not a few studying the Abhidhamma. At the beginning
of this century, the more notable among the learned monks
of Burma was Ledi Sayadaw who had specialized in the
Abhidhamma. He wrote on the Yamaka and selections from
it, as well as his article, 'Philosophy of Relations', was pubOnly
lished by the Pali Text Society in 1914 and in 1916.
One of
recently, two other great scholars passed away.
them, Abhidhaja Maha Rattha-Guru Nyaungyan Sayadaw
(1874—1955), was elected Sarighanayak, or the presiding
Mahathera.
He has 10 his credit some 150 manuals on
Buddhism among which are Mahdsamaya-sutta, Brahmanimantana-sutta,
Silakkhandha-tjka and
Hemavata-sutta,
Namakkara-tika. Another notable scholar was the Venerable
Mingun Sayadaw (1868—1955) of Thaton who wrote
manuscripts.
Milinda-atthakatha (1949), Petakopadesa-atthakatha, Kathinaviniccaya and Nibbana-kathd.
by
great disfavour
as the
1.
the
Government of Burma
The author
is
of the University of
He was
upon with
well
for having expressed in his
com-
indebted to Devapranad
Rangoon
looked
as
ecclesiastical
authorities
Guha
for certain detaifc in
of the Pali
this account.
Department
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
432
mcntary on the Milinda independent views regarding
possibility of giving
women
of the Buddhist Monks.
the
a higher ordination by the Order
Charles Duroiselle
made a name
on various archaeological
finds in Burma
and also wrote a small book entitled
Practical Grammar,
Z. Aung's Compendium of Philosophy
for himself through his writings
(1910),
masterly treatise,
a
is
an annotated translation of
Abhidhamma manual, the AbbidhammatthaAung also wrote an account of Abhidhamma literaBurma (1912). Later, he translated the KathS-
small
the
sangaha.
ture
in
vatthu into English in Points of Controversy (1915).
C.
Rhys Davids was
his collaborator in the first
the works mentioned above.
English translation
of the
Prof.
Atthasalini
in
the late Ledi Pandit U.
who
us the
his Expositor (2
1920—21), and of the Visuddhimagga
Purity (3 vols., 1922—31).
We may also
U. Lin
third of
Maung Tin gave
vols.,
names of
and
Mrs.
Path of
mention the
in his
Maung Gyi and
the late
wrote on subjects relating to the Abhidhamma.
Nor must we forget the Rev. Pannaloka Mahathera who has
written on Abhidhamma subjects in Bengali.
Since Burma became independent, the Burmese Government has taken swift measures to bring about the revival of
Buddhism and Buddhist studies. A Buddha Sasana Council
has been established and under its auspices, or perhaps
inspiration, several centres of Buddhist studies have been
opened. It has also been decided to edit afresh the whole
of the Buddhist Tripitaka.
Co-operation has been sought
from learned Buddhist monks
Thailand, Cambodia and Laos.
in
India, Pakistan, Ceylon,
With the material supplied
by these countries, the basic text, as recorded in 729 stone
slabs at the Kuthodaw temple in Mandalay, was compared
and a
final text established.
The Sangayana
(recital)
of such
a text has already passed through certain stages and the
be completed on the 2,500th anniversary of
Lord Buddha's parinirvana at the full moon of VaiSakha
in 1956.
It is understood that the whole Pali text in Burmese
characters is already in print and the Burmese translation of
final stage will
the
BUDDHIST STUDIES
the whole of the Tripitaka
is
IN
RECENT TIMES
433
nearing completion.
Thailand.— Buddhism is the State religion of Thailand
The
it never fell on evil days as it did in Ceylon.
State has a separate administration for religious affairs and
the Government spends large sums of money for the religious
4.
and here
well-being of Buddhists,
There are two great
Buddhist
and
the
Sanskrit
monks and
laity alike.
institutes of higher learning for the
monks—the Maha Makut Raja Vidyalaya Academy
Maha Culalankarn Raja Vidyalaya Academy.
is
University
now
taught in
and
at
Bangkok both
Academy
the
for
at
Culalankarn
Buddhist
Monks.
Thailand has always been in the forefront of Buddhist studies
and it is a matter of gratification that as many as forty-five
volumes of the Pali Tripitaka,
at least thirty
volumes of the
Atthakathas, and ten volumes of the Pakaranas have been
published in Siamese
books
may
that they
A
special feature of Siamese
contain indexes, however meagre they
be.
It
at
is
script.
may be
noted that the Vajiranana Manuscript Library
Bangkok has
a
rich
collection
of manuscripts, some of
which are extremely rare. There is a new commentary on
Sankhapattha-jotani which begins
the Visuddhimagga, the
with the words Svasti Buddhaya (Hail to the Buddha!). In
Thailand also is preserved a rare book, the Sangitivamsa,
which mentions as many as nine councils. 1
Pancikd^ndma-atthayojand,
work on the Abhia
dhammattha-vibhavani (which itself is a tika on the
Abhidhammattha-sahgaha),
is
another rare printed book in
two volumes which have an index. Another book, Manga*
lattha-dipani (1951—53), gives a detailed exposition of the
gathas of the famous Maftgala-sutta and is highly spoken of
in Thailand.
Other important new books are Jinakdlamalini 2 and Samantapasadika-attha-yojana. The very exist1.
See Chapter IV,
2.
It is understood that this
p. 51.
Buddhadatta of Ceylon, and
characters.
will
book has been edited by the Re<r. A. P.
be published in both Simhalese and Roman
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
434
ence of these books
indicative of the importance of the
is
study of Pali texts, commentaries and sub-commentaries in
Thailand.
The
now
Council
Sixth
being
held
in
Rangoon has
induced some Burmese scholars to go to Thailand to preach
Abhidhamma.
Cambodia 1 Although
small
a
very
country,
Cambodia has always been a stronghold of Theravada Buddhism.
Under the patronage of His Majesty Norodam
Sihanouk Varman (Narottama Simha-hanu Varman) who
the
5.
.
—
recently abdicated in favour of his father in order to be free
kingdom, and under
Eminence Samadach Brah Maha
Chuon-nath, Chief of the Mahanikaya,
to bring about all-round reform in his
the vigorous guidance of His
Sumedhadhipati
Cambodia has made
rapid progress in organizing the educa-
tion of the Religious
among
Faith
the
Order and
This
laity.
2,800 monasteries with 82,000
in the
little
propagation of the
country has as
monks and
many
as
novices.
Government opened in Phnom-penh, the
capital of Cambodia, a Pali High School, where young
monks were instructed and given diplomas after four years'
training.
The instruction was not confined to religious
1914
In
the
subjects but also included subjects useful
This school has
world.
1933,
the
authorities
schools where the
these schools have
Vinaya, where
University
all
now developed
began
to
in
the temporal
into a college.
establish
elementary
In
Pali
monks took a three years' course. Out of
now developed the schools of Dhammamonks are trained. This year a Buddhist
named
after
Preah Sihanu-Raja has also been
started.
To
in
programme of religious instruction
Phnom-penh a Royal Library was opened in 1925 and a
supplement
The author
this
Brah Gru Sanghasattha of
Phnom-penh for the material on which this account is
based. Thanks are also due to His Eminence Samdach Choun-nath, Chief of
the Mahanikaya in Cambodia through whose courtesy the material wan
made available.
1.
is
grateful to the Venerable
the Buddhist College at
BUDDHIST STUDIES
Buddhist Institute
in
A
1930.
RECENT TIMES
IN
later, the
little
435
Government
appointed a Tripitaka Board consisting of eminent scholars,
who were
asked to prepare for publication Pali texts and
Cambodian
their
institutions
The literary output of these
Out of the 110 volumes
translations.
highly creditable.
is
contemplated
in
the bilingual series, 46 have already been
A
copy of all the texts of the Pali Canon
written by hand was sent to the Sixth Council (Chatflia
Among the other
Saftgayana) now in session at Rangoon.
ten
volumes published in Pali (1938 54), are the Abhipublished.
—
dhamma-matika
patimokkha
(1950),
on
No
(1952).
religious
fewer
than
volumes,
187
have been published
subjects,
Cambodian language by
Bhikkhu(1946) and the
the
(1938),
Visuddhimagga
the
Mahgalattha-dlpani
mostly
Chappakarana Abhidhamma
the
Abhidhamma ttha-saftgaha
the
(1950),
(1953),
the various
libraries
and
in the
institu-
tions already mentioned.
Cambodia
Clearly,
in the
has
made
tremendous
progress
popularization of Pali studies and in the education of
the monks.
— Laos
is mostly
mountainous and comparaAlthough the country belongs to the
Theravada school and the Pali Tripitaka forms its sacred
6.
tively
Laos.
backward.
literature,
that
word
there
it
has few Pali scholars.
exist
Laos many
in
commentaries
or
Luang-prabang, the capital,
there
is
texts
Nissayas
appears,
It
of
which are word-tothe
in a small
It
Pali
texts.
temple on the
a library of manuscripts in which
Nissaya of the Visuddhimagga.
however,
we
In
hill,
find a Laotian
begins with the words
Namo tassa (Bhagavato) atthu instead of the usual formula
Arhato Samma-sambuddhassa
of Namo tassa Bhagavato
(Bow
to the Blessed, the Deserving
and Fully Enlightened
Buddha).
In this country, the Jatakas enjoy great popularity
separate collections of ten and of
The order
fifty
and
Jatakas are available.
of the ten Jatakas, however, differs from that in
Fausboirs edition.
There
is
also a collection of fifty Jatakas
:
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
436
which
is
as Siam,
current in other countries in South-East Asia, such
What
Cambodia and Burma.
independent Laotian version, however,
stories
which are not found
of the Jatakas
in
the
is
is
that
any other
in
peculiar to the
it
contains 27
collection.
of the ten and
collection
1
Lists
fifty
are
given below
The Ten J&takas
Temiyakumara
Janakakumara
Suvannasyama
1.
2.
3.
4.
Nimiraja
5.
Mahosadha
6.
Bhuridatta
7.
8.
Candakumara
Naradabrahma
9.
Vidhurapandita
Vessantara
10.
The
Fifty Jatakas
Samuddaghosakumara
Suddhamukumara or
20.
Panfiabalakumara
21.
Sutarajakumara
22.
3.
J>udhanakumara
23.
Dadhivahana
Mahisakumara
Chaddanta
4.
Sirasakumara
24.
Cam peyyanaga raja
5.
Subhamittaraja
25.
Bahalagavi
6.
Suvannasankha
Candaghataka
Suvannamiga
26.
Kapila
27.
Narajivakumara
28.
Siddhisarakumara
1.
2.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Suvannakuruftga
29.
Kusaraja
Setamusiko
30.
Jetthakumara
Duttharajakumara
11.
Tulakapandita
31.
32. Vattakaraja
12.
Maghamanava
13.
AritthakumSra
33.
14.
Ratanapajjota
34.
15.
Sonandakumara
35.
Mahabalaraja
16.
BaranasI
36.
Brahmaghosaraja
17.
Dhammadhajapandita
37. Sadiraja
18.
Dukkammakumara
38. Siridharasetthi
19.
Sabbasiddhikumara
39.
1«
See Henri Deydier, introduction a
1952, p. 29.
Narada
Mahasutasoma
Matuposaka or Ajitaraja
la
Cowviiamnce du Laos, Saigon,
BUDDHIST STUDIES
40. Vimalaraja
41.
RECENT TIMES
IN
MahSpadumakumara
46.
Arindumaraja
437
47. Surasenaraja
42. Viriyapandita
48. Siricundamaniraja
43. Adittaraja
49. Kapiraja
44. Suruparaja
50.
45.
Kukkura
Suvannabrahmadattaraja
In
the collection
of ten
Jambupattisutta. which
portrayed
Jatakas, the
There
Vessantara are popular.
is
also a
sutta
the
called
and
to this country
peculiar
is
Temiya and the
is
on
King Jambuhim in great
the wall paintings of the Library building
in
Val Pha Ouak, the
hill
in
Luang-prabang.
patti,
wishing to dazzle the Buddha, visited
state,
but saw the latter sitting on his throne, beautiful as
a god and dressed in the shining apparel of a King of Kings
This
(Rajadhiraja).
Buddha
depicted
represents
the
as the equal of a Cakravarti
in
a
conception
monarch.
wall painting in this temple, the
of
the
In a scene
Buddha is
must
represented as pointing to Jambupatti the torments he
suffer
7.
if
he does not follow the principles of the Vinaya.
Viet-Nam
(including
Viet-Minh) 1 .— Buddhism
was
in Viet-Nam towards the end of the
2nd century A.D. when it was under the sway of the Chinese
Emperor. Buddhism in this country went through many
probably introduced
vicissitudes
with
changes
in
the
political
situation.
The
Mahayana school which
from China and even the religious books used by
its monks and nuns in the monastic establishments are in
With the coming of French rule and
the Chinese language.
Roman
script in the schools, the younger
of
introduction
the
generations ceased to read books in Chinese script, which
country of Viet-Nam belongs to the
it
inherited
used to be easy for them as the Viet-Namese language differs
from Chinese only
in pronunciation.
1. The material for this account was kindly supplied by Mr. Mai Tho
Truen, President of the Association of Buddhist Studies, South Viet-Nam,
Saigon, through the courtesy of Monsieur Louis Mallret, Director, Ecole
Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, Saigon.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
438
In the
first
third of the twentieth century, there arose
new movement
for the revival of
a
Buddhism and Associa-
were started at Saigon (1931),
and Hanoi (1932). The new movement favoured
the use of the Viet-Namese language in Roman script for
their religious books instead of Chinese.
An awakening
took place among the monks and the laity and there was a
movement to spread knowledge among the masses. However, the Second World War (1940—45) interrupted all
these efforts.
With the return of peace, renewed efforts at
reorganization were made in 1948 at Hanoi in northern
Viet-Nam with the inspiring initiation and guidance of Their
Eminences, the Reverends
To-Lien
and Tri-Hai. They
started an orphanage, a private college (at Quan-su Temple
in Hanoi), and a printing press to enable them to carry on
the movement and popularize it among the masses.
A
number of religious books in Viet-Namese or in a bilingual
tions of Buddhist Studies
Hue
(1932)
series (Chinese letters with their
in
Roman
Viet-Namese pronunciation
characters) were published.
books of daily prayers or books held
We
find several such
in great
reverence by
the people, such as the Ksitigarbha-sutra (Nanjio, 1003) or
the SQraAgama-sutra (Nanjio, 399).
Journals like Giac-Ngo
were published and became popular. Hanoi being the cultural centre of Viet-Nam, the movement spread from there
towards Hue (in central Viet-Nam) where Buddhist Associations were also reorganized.
A former empress has started
a new school for young nuns where vigorous training is
given
and such
Saigon, too, a
activities
new
as
gardening
are
included.
In
organization for Buddhist studies was
established in 1950 to replace an old one.
In literature, also, We often find echoes of ideas borrowed
from Buddhism —karma, rebirth, suffering in the world,
the law of causation and impermanence. The intelligentsia
no longer content with the materialism of the West and
by the five rules of morality (Pafica-^Ila)
which are the very foundation of Buddhism. The common
people find solace in the worship of Amitabha. There is
is
is
greatly influenced
BUDDHIST STUDIES IN RECENT TIMES
439
who are followers of the Pure Land
The ideals of purity and compassion, the dominant
notes of Mahayana Buddhism, and the vegetarianism of the
monks impress the people. Though Mahayana Budalso a section of people
sect.
dhism
is
is
dominant
the
form
earlier
A
new
temple
certain
people
orthodox
of
of
country,
the
in
among
rtoticeable
this
of
late
for
Buddhism
Theravada
a desire
a return
to
(Theravada).
school,
the
Jeta-
vana Vihara, has been established in Saigon by the VeneVamsarakkhita and the Venerable NSgathera. Recently some relics were taken to this temple by the Rev.
rable
Naradatthera of Ceylon for worship.
sarakkhita
Thera
published
(1953)
The Venerable Vama
small
manual
of
prayers and a manual of guidance for householders in Pali
with
transcription and interpretation in Viet-Namese.
China 1
During the reign of the Manchu Kings of
Ching Dynasty (1644—1911), Buddhism experienced
its
8.
the
.
—
vicissitudes of fortune according to the favours or
frowns of
During the reign of Emperor Chien-Lung
(1735—1796), a new Dragon edition of the Chinese TripiIn the same period Mongolian
taka was brought out.
the ruling kings.
translations of
Manchurian
270 volumes of the Tibetan Tanjur and a
of the
Chinese Tripitaka were
translation
Ching period
Buddhism declined in China. Towards the end of Manchu
rule, China was fast coming under the influence of the West
and Buddhist studies experienced a revival in China. The
work of Christian missionaries also had a stimulating effect
printed, although
in
the second half of the
on the minds of the rising generation, thus giving a fillip to
research and study in general.
in
for China
In 1875 A.D., Liu Chih-tien, Minister
Great Britain, persuaded a promising young scholar, Yang
Wen-hui, to go with him to England. There Yang came
in contact with the Rev. Bunyiu Nanjio of Japan, who with
his help prepared the
1.
tions,
This account
and History
is
famous Catalogue of the Chinese
Tripi-
based on Chou Hsiang Kuang's Indo-Chinese Rela-
of Chinese
Buddhism
(1955).
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
440
Yang
from Japan many valuable books
China. In 1907, he established a
Buddhist Institute called Jetavana Vihara at Nanking,
where he gathered round him some thirty young men who
took up Buddhist studies as their course of higher education.
His contemporaries, K'ang Yu-wei and Tan Szutung,
young intellectuals who advocated reform in Confucianism,
were also affected by Buddhism. After the National Revotaka.
obtained
which had been
lost in
lution of 1911, the Buc'lhists of China formed the AllChina Buddhist Association with headquarters at Nanking
and,
in
the
fourth
secured protection
of
Home
Affairs,
year
for
who
of
their
the
Chinese Republic, they
monasteries from the Ministry
issued a proclamation to that effect.
Monasteries and temples were reconstructed and efforts
were made to popularize Buddhism by organizing lectures
and printing and circulating Buddhist books. The Buddhist
Upasaka Grove and the Buddhist Association of Pure Land
A monastic normal school
Dharmalaksana school were established at Nanking.
Other institutions established were the
Kuan Tsung Preaching Hall of Ningpo, the Avatamsaka
College of Ch'ang Chow, the Buddhist Institute of Wuchang, the Sino-Tibet Buddhist College founded by His
in
Shanghai were established.
and a
university of the
Holiness the Rev. T'ai-Hsu, the Ching-ling Buddhist Aca-
demy, now
at Shanghai,
and the Cheen
Institute of Inner
Learning at Nanking.
Some
journals such as Haicchao Ying (The
Ocean Tide
Voice), Pure Land Vocation and Inner Learning Journal
were founded. The two Boards set up at Peking and
Tien-tsin for the purpose of engraving the canons published
Epitome of the Chinese Tripitaka.
The Kalavinka Vihara
of Shanghai published several small volumes of the BudTripitaka.
The Commercial Press of Shangai has
done the photographic printing of the supplementary books
of the Japanese Tripitaka and of the Dharanis in the Tripitaka of the Chinese, Tibetan, Mongolian and Manchurian
languages. The Rev. Tai-Hsu (1888 -1947), who was a
dhist
BUDDHIST STUDIES
IN
RECENT TIMES
great living force in the revival of
studies,
gave a
44I
Buddhism and Buddhist
scientific turn to the religious training of a
He sent some of his disciples to Ceylon
and India to study Pali and Sanskrit. He himself founded
a Bodhi Society in Shanghai, became the Chairman of the
Buddhist Reformation Committee and began reforming
Chinese Buddhism and organizing the Chinese Sarigha.
The Rev. Fa Fang, one of his prominent disciples, stayed at
the Vidyalarikara monastery near Colombo, Ceylon, and at
Cheenabhavan in Santiniketan, India, and studied Pali.
He also wrote a book on Vijnanavada in Chinese. The Rev.
Buddhist monk.
Pai Hui,
Fa Fang's
Upasaka
disciple, studied Sanskrit at Santiniketan.
Ou-yang Ching-wu
an eminent Buddhist scholar
(1871
who
Among
Yang Wen-hui.
the guidance of
commentary on
the
— 1943),
studied
a layman, was
Buddhism under
his
works are a
Lanka vatara-sutra and. prefaces
to the
Mahaprajiiaparamita, the Mahaparinirvana-sutra, the Yogacarabhumi-sastra and the Abhidharma-kosa-s'astra.
His ex-
planatory discourses to the disciples of the Cheen Institute
of Inner Learning which he had founded himself were also
published.
conducted
The
his
scientific spirit in
Buddhist
studies
which the Rev. T'ai-Hsu
has
been
maintained
in
modern China by his disciples, Lu-chen, T'ang Yong-Tung
and Chen Ming-hsu. The Buddhist movement is now being
led by young graduates who in one way or another are connected with institutions started by the Rev. T'ai-Hsu and
Upasaka Ou-Yang Ching-wu.
The Chinese Buddhist Association
to be active.
Buddhists
from
in
It
of Peking seems
still
recently held (May, 1953) a conference of
the Quang-chi temple, where Buddhists
different provinces, including Tibet,
came
South-West China,
and Yunan, and from Thailand.
Japan.— As a Buddhist country, Japan has encouraged
it was only in the
18th century that these attained wide popularity. Tominaga
Chuki's (1715—45) study on Mahayana Buddhism and the
9.
Buddhist studies throughout the ages, but
Venerable Jiun's
(1718
— 1807)
Sanskrit studies are
among
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
442
important works of this period that show a
the
critical
approach.
The
pioneers of
modern research were
and K. Kasahara, both of
1927)
Max
under Prof.
B. Nanjio (1848
whom
MUller in England.
—
Sanskrit
studied
B. Nanjio introduced
Japan the new method of study which he had learnt in
Unfortunately, however, Kasahara died on his return to Japan.
The examples of these two scholars were a
to
England.
source of great inspiration to later Buddhist scholars.
An
made
attempt has been
here to give a brief general
survey of the progress of Buddhist studies in Japan with speIndian Buddhism.
cial reference to
With the adaptation of the European educational system
after the Meiji Restoration (1868 A.D.), several universities,
and research
colleges
institutes
came
being, some of
Komazawa, Taisho,
into
which, for example, the Otani, Ryukoku,
Koyasan, and Rissho, were devoted mainly
ment of Buddhist studies.
to the advance-
Nanjio introduced Sanskrit classes at Otani University and
this
marked
Today, the
the beginning of
universities at
research
societies in Japan.
Tokyo, Kyoto, Tohoku, Kyushu,
Nagoya, Hokkaido and Osaka also hold Sanskrit seminars.
A
number of research
Buddhist
sects.
institutes are attached to particular
There are also several
institutes
which spe-
including Buddhism.
most important are Toyobunka-Kenkyujo
(The Oriental Cultural Research Institute), attached to the
cialize in Oriental studies in general,
Among
these the
University of Tokyo, Jinbunkagaku-Kenkyuje (The Research
Institute of Sciences
versity of
stitute) in
stitute in
and Humanities), attached
to the Uni-
Kyoto, Toyo-bunko (The Oriental Research
Tokyo and
Yokohama.
the
Okurayama
In-
Cultural Research In-
Indogaku-Bukkyogakukai (The Japanese Association
of
Indian and Buddhist Studies), which holds an Oriental conference every year
founded
and
issues
a journal twice annually, was
in 1951.
The work
of the Pali Text Society in
London
greatly
BUDDHIST STUDIES
RECENT TIMES
IN
influenced the outlook of Japanese scholars.
443
Following
its
example, the gigantic task of translating the Pali Canon into
Japanese was undertaken and completed
the supervision of
in 65 volumes under
Takakusu, a former professor of Tokyo
J.
and M. Nagai, also a
University,
retired professor of
Tokyo
Japanese scholars have shown remarkable zeal
University.
and a special capacity for the comparative study of Pali texts
and Tibetan and Chinese translations of Buddhist canons,
which has gone a long way in correctly interpreting
early Buddhism and its development.
C. Akanuma, a Professor of Otani University, was one of the most outstanding
His Dictionary of Pali Proper
scholars of Pali Buddhism.
Names (Nagoya, 1931) and Comparative Catalogue of the
Pali Canon and its Chinese Versions have been hailed as
works of great learning. The Samanta-pasadika was edited
by
J.
Takakusu and M. Nagai, while Ethics
of
Buddhism was
Komazawa University.
The Four Buddhist Agamas in Chinese is also a
by
published
Anesaki's
S.
Tachibana
of
famous work.
The_study of Pali Buddhism has now developed into that
of the
these
Agama,
the
branches
is
Abhidhamma and
under the
the Vinaya.
a competent
working on the
University, on the Jataka,
Agama, R.
Kyushu
Higata, of
of
supervision
Funahashi, of Otani University,
scholar.
Each of
is
Komazawa University, and G. Sasaki, of Otani
on the Abhidhamma and U. Nagai on the
K. Mizunu, of
University,
Vinaya.
The study of Sanskrit was introduced in Japan with
Nanjio published a Sansresearch on Mahayana Buddhism.
krit text of the
Vajracchedika
and
in 1881,
that of the Sukha-
vati-vyuha in collaboration with Prof.
Max
Amongst
Saddharma-pundarika-
his other publications are the
sutra (BibL Bud., Vol.
sOtra
(Kyoto,
10,
and
1923)
Muller
in
1883.
1909-1912), the Lankavatara-
the
Suvarana-prabhisa
(Kyoto,
1931).
A
number
Wogihara,
a
of
Sanskrit
former
texts
professor
were
of
edited
Taisho
by
U.
University.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
444
Among
these,
bhumi (Tokyo,
most
the
important
are
the
Bodhisattva-
Abhidharma-kosa-vyakhya (Tokyo,
1932), the Abhisamayalankaraloka (Tokyo, 1932—35) and
the Saddharma-pundarilca (Tokyo,
1934).
Wogihara also
1930), the
published the Mahavyutpatti, in a Sanskrit-Chinese edition,
Other Sanskrit
1915.
in
texts
edited by Japanese scholars
Sumagadhavadana by G. Tokiwai (1897), the
Bhadracarl by K. Watanabe (1912), the Madhyantavibhagatika by S. Yamaguchi (Otani, 1934), the Ganda-vyuha by
include the
D. T. Suzuki and H. lzumi (1934—36), the Dasabhumls'vara
by R.
Kondo
and the Mahavyutpatti, Sanskrit-Tibetan-
(1936),
Chinese edition, by R. Sakaki, a former professor at Kyoto
University (1916).
Their knowledge of the Chinese Canon and their faculty
of criticism in regard to the text has enabled Japanese scholars to
produce a number of philological and philosophical
works on Mahayana and Abhidharma Buddhism.
connection, mention
may be made
In
this
of the works of T. Kimura,
H. Ui, D. T. Suzuki and other well-known scholars. Kimura's
introductory works on
Mahayana Buddhism
are
early
still
Buddhism,
read with
Abhidharma and
interest.
Studies in
which work includes the study
of Buddhist philosophy, forms the most important work of
Indian Philosophy
H. Ui.
Recently
(6 vols.),
this
author published the Vijnapti-matrata-
commentary on the Trimby Sthiramati and the Vijnapti-matratavimsatika, a comparative study of Sanskrit texts and four Chinese translations.
siddhi; a comparative study of the
sika
D. T. Suzuki
is
the distinguished author of
Lankavatdra-siitra (1930), of an English
Studies
in
the
translation of the
Lanka vatara-sutra, and an index to it, besides other works
G. Honda, at one time a professor at Kyoto University, was
an authority on the Saddharmapundarika-sutra. S. Yamaguchi's philological studies and S. Miyamoto's philosophical
studies
on the Madhyamika school are important works on
the subject.
Studies in the Tibetan Tripitaka were introduced in Japan
through the
efforts of several
monks, namely, E. Kawaguchi,
BUDDHIST STUDIES
Tada and
E. Teramoto, T.
IN
RECENT TIMES
who
Aoki,
B.
visited Tibet
works
in this field
vols.,
(2
include
Tohoku
A Catalogue
University,
to
The important
acquire a knowledge of Tibetan Buddhism.
taka
445
of the Tibetan Tripi-
1934).
Kanjur (Otani University, 1930—32) and
A
A
Catalogue
of
Catalogue
of
the Tohoku University Collection of
Tibetan
Works on
Buddhism (1954).
The comparative study of Sanskrit. Tibetan and Chinese
versions of various texts has made great progress in the last
twenty years.
The texts which are based upon their
Tibetan
by
versions
G.
are
the
Mahayanasangraha-sastra, edited
former
a
Sasaki,
professor
of
Otani
University,
Teramoto
Arya-srimala-sutra, by K. Tsukinowa
and the Sandhinirmocana-sutra by
Sthiramati's Trimsikavijnapti-bhasya, edited by E.
(Otani University), the
(Ryukoku
University),
K. Nishio (Otani University).
The
study of Tibetan Buddhism
is being pursued by such
Yamaguchi, G. Nagao (Kyoto), H. Hatano
(Tohoku), S. Yoshimura (Ryukoku) and several others.
Studies on the Chinese Tripitaka and Chinese Buddhism
are also receiving serious
attention.
The most important
experts as
work
S.
in this field is
Among
1918—25).
the most famous
is
The Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo
A Catalogue
of the Chinese Translation of
the Buddhist Tripitaka by B. Nanjio, 1883.
Table du Taisho-
Jssaikyo, attached to the Hobogirin (Tokyo, 1931),
The
useful.
(85 vols.,
the catalogues of the Chinese Tripitaka,
is
also
bibliographical study on the Chinese version
is
Buss ho Kaisetsu Daijit en (The Dictionary of
the Buddhist Bibliography) by G. Ono (12 vols., 1933—35).
crystallized
in
Based upon Taisho Issaikkyo were published two kinds of
vols., Tokyo,
Japanese translations, Kokuyaku Issaikyo (150
1928
— 35) and Kokuyaku Daizokyo
in
28 volumes.
Buddhist dictionaries of various kinds
Bukkuo
Oda
were
compiled,
and
Tokyo, 1931—36).
A unique work in this field is Daizokyo Sakuin (an index of
the Canon) in 3 volumes by K. Kawakami, 1927—28.
including
Bukkyo
Daijiten by T.
(1
Daijiten by S. Mochizuki (6 vols.,
vol.,
1917),
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
446
S.
Murakami, a former professor of Tokyo University,
Tokyo University, S. Mochizuki, at one
E. Ma-e-de also of
time professor of Taisho University, B. Shiio, a former profes-
and B. Matsumoto, a former proKyoto University, are among those who published
on Buddhism based on the Chinese versions of the
sor of Taisho University,
fessor of
studies
texts.
The study
Buddhism proper has
of Chinese
popular in Japan.
been
also
D. Tokiwa, K. Sakaino, and K. Tabuki
Several important
field.
are distinguished scholars in this
works were written on Zen Buddhism by H. Ui, D. T. Suzuki,
and K. Nukariya, a former professor of Komazawa University.
Recently a study of Central Asian Buddhism was
undertaken by R. Hatani, a retired professor of Kyoto Uni-
same
Ishihama of the
versity, J.
other scholars.
A
University
and several
research expedition was sent to Central
Asia under K. Otani, and
this
has brought to light important
archaeological material on the subject.
we may
Lastly,
nese Buddhism
refer to
some important works on Japa-
itself.
Studies on Japanese
remarkable progress
Buddhism
in
in their critical
times
recent
approach.
Of
show
two
the
aspects of the study of Japanese Buddhism, one consists only
in historical research while the other
relates
to
Buddhist
thought.
A
very well-known work of historical research
Z. Tsuji's
A
History of Japanese Buddhism, in 10 volumes.
In the field of Buddhist thought,
S.
is
Shimaji, a former profes-
Tokyo University, was a pioneer, while S. Hanayama,
of Tokyo University, has published important works on
sor of
also
the subject.
The
philosophies of Shinran,
Dogen and
other founders
of Buddhist sects are also held in great esteem by the non-
Buddhist philosophers of Japan and other countries.
CHAPTER XV
Buddhism
in
the
Modern World
A. Cultural and Political Implications
In order to determine the cultural
and
political
impli-
Buddhism in the modern world we must first
Buddhism itself, and ascertain the general nature of
cations of
define
its
relation
cultural
culture and
to
in
the
politics.
A
same
and of
its
its
political status
twenty-five
and influence
period will be helpful in understanding the
implications of
Buddhism
today, not only in the
East but also in the West, besides grasping
tical
glimpse of the
achievements of Buddhism during
centuries of history,
cultural
to
implications for Asia and the world
its
current poli-
at large.
The Nature of Buddhism
Buddhism, or more accurately, the Dharma, may best be
The
simply as the means to enlightenment.
Buddha himself compares it to a raft. Just as a raft, after
being fashioned out of grass, sticks, branches and leaves,
serves to cross over great stretches of water and is then
abandoned, so the Dharma, by means of which we ferry
over the waters of birth and death to the other shore, nirvana, is not something to be taken with us but something
to be left behind. 1
In short, it is not an end in itself, but
only a means to an end. In modern parlance, its function
defined
is
purely instrumental and therefore
This of course does not mean that
When we have
1.
it
value only relative*
can be dispensed with.
its
arrived safely on the other shore, the raft
Majjhima-nik&ya
I,
134,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
448
may
we remain on
indeed be abandoned; but so long as
or are
this shore,
still
paddling across the stream,
is
it
in-
dispensable.
Dharma is emphasized in
One to his foster-mother
Mahapajapati Gautami, who had asked him to
The pragmatic nature of
the
the words addressed by the Blessed
and aunt,
give her a precept, hearing which she might dwell "alone,
The Buddha
ardent and resolved".
solitary,
whatsoever
thus:
Gotamid,
These doctrines conduce
sions:
to
thou
teachings,
detachment,
not
"Of
dispassion, not to pas-
to
bondage:
to
replies,
canst assure thyself
decrease
to
of
(worldly) gains, not to increase of them: to frugality, not to
covetousness:
content,
to
and not discontent:
to
solitude,
not company: to energy, not sluggishness: to delight in good,
of such teachings thou mayest with cer-
not delight in
evil':
tainty affirm,
Gotamid, This
Vinaya.
reason
This
that
is
Master's
the
is
with Asoka, "Whatever the Blessed
said", but also
"Whatever
is
Dharma.
1
It
This
is
is
for
the
this
were not only able to say,
Mahayanists
the
the
Message'."
well
One
said
is
has said
the
is
well
word of the
Buddha". 2
The means
practices.
to
enlightenment comprise three groups of
Ananda, questioned about the Master's teaching
some time after the mahaparinirvana, tells his interrogator,
young brahmana, that the Blessed One taught &la,
samadhi, panna, and gives an explanation of each of these
a
terms
in
turn. 5
According to the Mahaparinibbaoa-sutta,
these three groups had, in fact,
formed the substance of the
farewell discourse delivered by the
Buddha
at the various
places through which he passed in the course of his last
journey.
precepts
1.
2.
by
4
Sila,
or ethics, traditionally consists of the five
upon
incumbent
all
Buddhists, both
monks and
Vinaya, II, 10.
Adhyasayasamcuo!ana-8utra, &ksa-Samuccaya of Santideva; translated
Cecil Bendall
and W. H. D. Rouse, London, 1922,
3.
Digha-nikaya,
4.
Digha-nikaya, II,
I,
10.
3.
p. 17.
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
449
laymen, as well as the 227 or 250 binding upon Hmayana
and Mahayana monks respectively, and various special precepts observed by the Bodhisattvas.
In samadhi, or meditation, are included mindfulness and self-possession (sati%
sarnpajanna), contentment (santutthita), the overcoming of
the five hindrances
(paficanivarana), the attainment of the
four
(or eight) stages of superconsciousness (jhana) by
means of one or more of the forty classical supports of concentration (kammatthana), and the development of various
psychic
powers
Paiina
(iddhi).
rendered as wisdom, includes
that
is
to
say, teachings
production
all
characteristics
of
(trilaksana)
generally
the doctrines of Buddhism,
relating
(pratitya-samutpada)
Prajfia),
(Skt.
to
the
conditioned
co-
phenomena, the three
of
mundane
existence, the four
noble truths (aryasatya), universal emptiness (sarvadharmanairatmya), the three kinds of reality (svabhava), mind only
and the three bodies of the Buddha (trikaya).
Through each of these three stages in turn must the disWhile some of the
ciple pass in order to attain nirvana.
practices enumerated under sfia and samadhi are found in
other traditions, the doctrines which constitute the conceptual formulations of prajfia are peculiar to Buddhism.
(citta-matrata),
Buddhism and Culture
which is derived from a Latin word meancan be looked at from three principal points
Culture,
ing
'tilling',
of view.
First of
intellectual
and
and
discipline.
the act of developing the moral,
all, it is
aesthetic nature of
Secondly,
it
is
man
that
through education
familiarity
with
and
humanities and
and refined state or temper of
mind, which such education and discipline tend to induce.
Thirdly, it is those activities and objects which are the effect
taste
in
the
fine
broad aspects of
arts,
science, that enlightened
in the artist,
and the cause
in the rasika, or savourer of a
of art, of the enlightenment and refinement referred to.
Thus, culture comprises the act of cultivation, or education
work
(literally
a 'bringing
out'), the
thing cultivated, in this case
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
45°
a mental state, and the fruits of such cultivation; in short,
works
of
and
science
connected with culture in
of
Buddhism
art.
all
three senses.
nature of the connection between the two?
Is
is
the
merely a
it
and accidental relation having nothing
historical
obviously
is
But what
to
do with
the essential nature of either Buddhisip or of culture, or
does
some deep and hidden affinity? Budis the means to enlightenment, and
consisting of $ila, samadhi and prajna.
spring from
it
dhism, as
we have
as such threefold,
seen,
In order to have an inner, as distinct from a merely outer,
connection with Buddhism, culture must be able to func-
means
tion as a
In other words,
to enlightenment.
be possible for us to subsume
it
it
under the category of
Can
or of meditation, or of wisdom.
this
must
ethics,
be done?
According to the Theravada tradition, it can. Speaking
bhavana, or mental culture, Dr. C. L. A. de Silva, a
distinguished exponent of this school, writes, "The volitions
of
arising in the processes of thought during the time of learn-
Dhamma
ing the
and so on,
bhavana." 1
or
culture
Vinaya
any arts, sciences
under the heading of mental
(the doctrine) or
too, are included
Though
the
connotation
of
bhavana is on the whole more active than that of samadhi,
the two terms are in the present context more or less
synonymous. Culture may be subsumed under samadhi,
the second of the stages of the path to nirvana, because,
more
and specialized methods pertaining to
and sciences also contribute to the purification, refinement and elevation of conThis fact has been recognized, in practice,
sciousness.
even if not in theory, by all schools of Buddhism. But
like the
direct
the practice of meditation, the arts
the
since
fine
arts,
by reason of
their greater
emotional
appeal, are able to heighten consciousness to a far greater
extent
than the sciences,
it
is
with painting, music and
poetry, rather than with mathematics
Buddhism
is
most intimately
This connection
1.
is
and chemistry,
that
related.
twofold.
Art
may be
either sacred
The Four Ewentud Doctrine* of Buddhism, Colombo (1048),
p. 155.
1
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
or profane.
In the
first
case, art
is
45
deliberately used, in
conjunction with other methods, as a means of rising to a
The Buddha image springs
known example of this type of art.
higher plane of consciousness.
to the
By
mind
as the best
fixing his iqind
that
and
is
on such an image, instead of on something
not a work of
art,
the devotee
refine his consciousness not only
is
enabled to purify
by the act of concentra-
by the aesthetic appeal of the image.
Buddhist art, in which painting, sculpture, music and poetry,
are all integrated into the spiritual tradition, and utilized,
not merely as media of religious propaganda, but as objects
of concentration and meditation, is one of the most effective
means of heightening the consciousness ever devised by man.
Profane art, or art which has no formal connection with the
Dharma, though capable of producing an effect of the same
kind is rarely able to produce it to the same degree. Not
being reinforced and stabilized by the methodical practice of
concentration, and having, as sometimes happens, no fiim
tion itself but also
foundation
the
in
consciousness
it
is
moral
life,
whatever
able to produce
is
of
heightening
of
momentary dura-
tion only.
For this reason art, though it may greatly assist
and powerfully reinforce the practice of meditation, the
second stage of the Path, can never be a substitute for it.
Much less can art be a substitute for religion. The Dharma
as a means to enlightenment comprises, as we have already
seen, not only sila and samadhi, ethics and meditation, but
prajna or wisdom.
Even if it could be shown that art alone
is
capable of inducing the dhyanas, or states of supercon-
sciousness, that
it
was capable of producing prajna would
remain undemonstrated. Between samadhi and prajfta there
is this difference, that the former, however high it may soar,
mundane, whereas the latter is transcendental. Hence
Dharma, since it is not only ethics and meditation but
is still
the
also
cends
wisdom, does not merely include culture but transit.
However, Buddhism
is
traditionally associated not only
with the sacred but also with the profane variety of
art.
By
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
452
we mean
this
that besides
purposes
tive
power
it
making
direct use of art for medita-
and
and therefore not only
also recognizes the purifying
of "a thing of beauty",
refining
tolerates
but also encourages the independent cultivation of the arts.
Thus we have not only the images of Buddhas, and
Bodhisattvas but statues of yakjas, yaksinis and apsaras, who.
belonging to the mythology of Buddhism, have
though
nothing to do with
epic
poem on
the
its
doctrine.
Asvaghosa composes an
of the Buddha; but
life
Wang Wei
sings of
Broadly speaking, the
streams.
mists, and
Mahayana, the liberal and progressive wing of Buddhism,
was concerned more with the integration into the doctrine,
as a supplementary means to enlightenment, of as many arts
and sciences as possible. Thus, its art is on the whole sacred
art.
The Hlnayana, which was somewhat conservative,
pursued the cultivation of the arts and sciences parallel to
Hence, its works of
the study and practice of the doctrine.
To these generalizations there
art are on the whole profane.
The Mahayana has proare, of course, many exceptions.
duced a great deal of profane art, while the Hinayana has
mountains,
produced a great deal of sacred
Buddhism and
The
art.
Politics
relation
between Buddhism and
politics
is
not quite
so simple as that between Buddhism and culture.
For, being
concerned with the individual rather than with the group,
culture
to
is
related to
Buddhism
Buddhism
as personal religion, but not
as institutional religion.
Moreover, Buddhism
comprises, from the institutional point of view, two groups,
one large and one small, the first being the community of
lay believers, both male and female, the second the noble
Order of monks. These two groups need not have the same
kind of relation to politics.
I*i order to understand clearly
the relation between Buddhism, both personal and institutional, on the one hand, and poljtics in the various senses of the
term, on the other, it would be necessary to investigate the
relations
between
(a)
the
Buddhist doctrine and political
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
453
Buddhism and the State, (c) the laity and the
government, (d) the Sahgha and the government, (e) the
individual monk and the government, (f) the layman and
practical politics, and (g) the monk and practical politics,
(a) As far as our knowledge goes, the Buddha confined
his attention strictly to questions of religious discipline, and
refrained from making any pronouncement upon the relative
theories, (b)
merits of rival political theories and systems.
lifetime, as
is
well
ment prevailed
known
in north-eastern India,
the republican; but the
either.
His
to historians,
statement
Buddha
that
so
During his
two types of governthe monarchical and
did not praise or
long
as
condemn
Vajjians,
the
a
would "assemble repeatedly and in large numbers, just so long their prosperity might
be looked for and not their decay" 1 cannot be regarded as
favouring republicanism, any more than if he had said that
King AjataSatru could, if he was clever enough, break the
confederacy of republican
tribes,
,
confederacy, his statement could have been interpreted as
approving autocracy.
He merely
stated
the
case without passing any ethical judgement.
facts
of the
On
one point,
however, the Buddha, and after him the entire Buddhist
tradition, was quite explicit: the government must uphold
Being the means to enlightenthe moral and spiritual law.
ment, Buddhism naturally demands that the State should
recognize the fact that the true goal of
life
is
not to eat,
drink and reproduce the species, but to attain nirvana, and
that, therefore,
it
has the duty of providing for
its
a political and social organization within which both
citizens
monks
and the laity can live in accordance with the Dharma. Between Buddhism, on the one hand, and any political theory
which recognizes, either implicitly or explicitly, the supremacy
of the moral and spiritual law and makes provision for its
individual and collective application, on the other, there can
be no disagreement. From the Buddha's social egalitarianism, as well as from his deliberate decentralization of authority in the Sahgha, it may be inferred that a form of govern
1.
Digha-nikaya
II, 73.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
454
ment,
theory democratic, in effect aristocratic (for an
in
electorate would naturally elect the best man),
would be most in accordance with his Teaching. Buddhism
has no objection to either a socialistic or to a capitalist state
provided it makes provision not only for the material but
also for the moral and spiritual well-being of its subjects.
(b) The nature of the relation between Buddhism and the
State will vary in accordance with two factors, one being, of
intelligent
course, the nature of the State
the other the relative
itself,
strength of the Buddhist population.
In
predominantly
a
non-Buddhist State, Buddhism would expect to enjoy the same
That
rights as other religious minorities.
demand complete freedom
is
to say,
it
would
and propagate its
Whether persecuted or tolerated, however, Buddhist
would always remain loyal to the State to which they
tenets.
citizens
to
practise
belonged.
In a predominantly Buddhist State, Buddhism
would naturally expect official recognition as the State religion.
Under democracy, the State is the people, and the
government is only the agency through which the will of
the people
carried out.
is
If
the citizens support Buddhism
in
it
only logical that they
do so in their collective
Buddhism being divided not into
capacity
should
recognition as the State religion
In Ceylon,
is
sects
Also,
too.
but schools,
attended by no
its
difficulty.
Cambodia and Laos only the
Mahayana lands, suqh as China and
Burma, Siam,
Theravada
exists.
Japan, the
laity
In
generally respect and support all schools,
and the State would do the same.
tolerant,
individual capacity
their
is
in fact,
Buddhist schools are
not only of each other, but also of non-
Buddhist traditions.
(c)
Not much need be
the individual
Buddhist
said about the relation between
citizen
and
the government,
because Buddhism has no means of enforcing
among
adherents uniformity
affairs
of secular
not only
inculcate
life.
It
is
true that
of
action in the
Buddhism
does
certain principles but also indicates the
application;
the
details
of
the
main
its
lines of their
application
are
left
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
455
worked out by the individual Buddhist, each for
himself.
Buddhism exhorts, it does not command. It tells
to be
example, that to take
us, for
leaves us free to determine
life
morally wrong; but
is
for
it
whether the
ourselves
acceptance of this teaching obliges us to be a vegetarian
or a conscientious objector.
Buddhist, however, should
A
take an active interest in whatever concerns the material,
moral and
short,
spiritual
political life in
The
(d)
the
same
well-being of his fellow-citizens.
be his endeavour to
should
it
In
social
and
accordance with the Dharma.
relation of the
as
his
live
of the
that
individual bhik§u:
it
is
Government
individual
to the
Sangha
is
Buddhist to the
lay
the Sahgha-dayaka, the patron and
supporter of the Sangha.
Just as
individual devotee to build temples
it
the duty of the
is
and monasteries, publish
books and periodicals, so it is the duty of the
government of a Buddhist State to finance similar underreligious
takings which, either because of the greatness of the cost
involved or the complexity of the organization required to
carry them out, are beyond the capacity of private citizens.
In the same way, the relation of the Sangha to the govern-
ment corresponds
the layman.
to the relation
Just as the
monk,
between the bhik§u and
in his capacity of "guide,
philosopher and friend", indicates to the lay devotee the
path of righteousness, so it is the right and duty of the
Sangha, in the person of its seniormost members, to advise
the government not only on the propagation of the Dharma
but also on
the nation.
tion to
and
its
application to the social and political
The
Sangha must also be able to
freely criticize deviations
draw
life
of
atten-
from the Dharma on
the part of the government, the people, and the political
leaders.
Objection should not be levelled against such a
connection between the Sangha and the government on the
ground that "monks should not meddle in politics". Unless
the
lose
Dharma
its
is
applied in the national
hold over domestic
preservation of the
life.
life,
it
will gradually
Being concerned with the
Dharma, the Sangha
is
inevitably con-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
456
cerned with
application also, whether to politics or any
its
other sphere of
And
life.
in
any case, there would be no
question of the Sangha's becoming involved in the rough
and tumble of
practical
Needless to say,
politics.
it
is
unthinkable that the advice of the Sahgha should ever tend
promotion of anything but peace and prosperity, both
to the
at
home and
to
an emperor, to a President or to a Party Chairman, the
abroad.
For whether
it
spoke to a king or
Sahgha would have but one message:
"Never in this world
does hatred cease by hatred: it ceases only by love. This
is
the
Law
Eternal." 1
(e)
The
individual
monk
should have no relation with
the government as government except through the Sahgha,
or with the consent of the Sahgha.
Unless there happens
to be a separate portfolio for religious affairs, or a special
is in Siam,
government, and
provision for ecclesiastical councillors, as there
he should
any
accept
flot
office
in the
even in such cases as these he should not accept any
A monk
muneration.
any form of national service;
tion.
In a Buddhist State these
Monks
automatically.
re-
be required to undertake
neither is he liable to conscrip-
cannot
rights
would be recognized
suspected of committing
against the civil and criminal
law
offences
should, in a Buddhist
by an ecclesiastical tribunal. If
found guilty they should be disrobed and handed over to
the civil court for further trial and punishment.
be
State, first of all
Since the Buddhist layman
(f)
government, he
and
politics,
is
that
tried
here,
is
is
connected with the
obviously obliged to take part in practical
can usefully be said in this connection
he should act in accordance with the
all that
too,
Dharma.
On
(g) The monk, however, is under no such obligation.
the contrary, by virtue of the rules which, at the time
of his ordination, he undertakes faithfully to observe, he
is
obliged to refrain from participation in practical politics.
"One path
1.
leads to worldly gains, quite another path leads
Dhammapada,
5.
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
to
nibbaga.
Let
not
bhikkhu,
the
Buddha, yearn for honour, but
develop dispassion."
the
1
the
457
follower
of
the
him, on the contrary,
let
In order to conform to this advice,
monk
should not join, or support, or even vote for, any
political organization.
Neither
should
he participate in
meetings or any other public functions
quasi-political
who
feel, as
times,
that
nature.
some
their
on them than
able course
is
in
duties as citizens have a stronger claim
monk,
their obligations as
elections cannot be
won
the only honour-
Enlightenment and
leave the Safigha.
to
The Cultural and
of a political or
For those members of the Sahgha
Burma and Ceylon have felt in recent
together.
Political Heritage of
Since the heritage of
Buddhism
Buddhism
constitutes, in
one way
or another, the theme of practically everything that
cussed in these pages,
that
all
need be done
and basic
indicate such broad trends
is
here
disis
to
principles as relate to
(a) culture, civilization and education, and
(b) war and
peace.
Since culture generally, and in particular the fine arts,
can be subsumed under the heading of samadhi, or meditation, they
may
be included within the means to enlighten-
It is not an ornament
part of Buddhism.
Where
on its apparel but one of the limbs of its body.
world
in
the
Whither
Buddhism is, there is culture.
Buddhism goes, thither goes culture too. This is, indeed,
one of the most obvious lessons of the spread of Buddhism
throughout Asia, and it is repeated here only because its
world in general, and for
significance for the modern
ment.
Culture
modern India
is
in
particular,
is
not
always
sufficiently
Burma, Siam, Cambodia, Laos,
Ceylon,
Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and Ladakh
Mongolia,
Japan, Tibet,
received with Buddhism not only their religion but practiappreciated.
whole of
the
much
the introduction of
1.
Dhammapada,
75.
How
civilization and culture.
Buddhism meant to the people of
their
cally
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
45 8
Japan, for example, has been clearly stated by Dr. D. T.
Speaking of the eagerness with which they took
Suzuki.
up the study of the Dharma in the Nara period, he remarks,
"Buddhism was to them a new philosophy, a new culture,
and an inexhaustible mine of artistic impulses." 1 Again,
speaking of the reasons which led the government of that
monks
period to build temples and monasteries, maintain
and nuns, and
gigantic bronze
erect a
image of Buddha
Vairocana, he reminds one of the fact that "In those days
the Buddhist temples were schools, hospitals, dispensaries,
orphanages,
refuges
schoolmasters,
old
for
nurses,
and
age;
the
engineers,
doctors,
monks were
keepers of free
lodges, cultivators of land, explorers of the wilderness, etc.
When
tion
the
community was
in a primitive stage of evolu-
still
Buddhists were leaders in every sense, and the
the
government naturally encouraged
monks were also poets, painters,
Suzuki's
metallurgists.
rider,
is
true not only of
2
The
sculptors, carvers
and
together with our
own
their
statement,
Japan but of
that have been mentioned.
Is
it
all
activities."
the other countries
not more than a coinci-
dence that Milarepa, the greatest poet of Tibet, should also
have been
at
the
that Siri Rahula,
same time her most famous yogin, and
who
occupies
responding position, should
in Singhalese literature
a cor-
have been the Sarigharaja of
China alone, of all the nations of Asia, had deveand culture of her own prior to the
advent of Buddhism; but even China is indebted to BudCeylon?
loped a
civilization
dhism,
not for her culture, at least for
if
Buddhism was,
in fact, a spring
its finest
flowering.
wind blowing from one end
and causing to bloom
of the garden of Asia to the other
not only the lotus of India,
but the rose of Persia, the
temple flower of Ceylon, the zebina of Tibet, the chrysanthemum of China and the cherry of Japan. Asian culture
is.
as a whole, Buddhist culture.
1.
Therefore, as Suzuki says
"Japanese Buddhism", Essays in Zen Buddhism (Third Series), Rider,
London, 1953,
p. 340.
2. Ibid., p.
349.
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
459
at the conclusion of the article already quoted, "If the East
is
one, and there
is
something that differentiates
it
from the
West, the differentiation must be sought in the thought that
is
in
embodied
no other
in
Buddhism. For
in Buddhist thought and
and Japan, representing the
Each nationality has its own
it is
that India, China,
East, could be united as one.
characteristic
modes of adapting
the thought to
mental needs, but when the East as a unity
its
is
confront the West, Buddhism supplies the bond." 1
environ-
made to
The full
in
emerge later. Here it
emphasize the fact that if the history of
Asia has any lesson for the world today, it is
that, in their
long trek from the burning mark of the Gange-
significance of this declaration will
would
suffice
Buddhism
tic
to
valley to the gem-encrusted rocks of
Ceylon
in the South,
the wind-swept uplands of Central Asia in the North,
Japan
and
Buddhism,
the sun-confronting
islands of
culture, civilization
and education were inseparable friends
in the East,
and companions.
Hardly
less striking is the
of Buddhism with peace.
extremely
rare
but
of
almost invariable association
The
merely
exceptions were
local
not only
importance.
King
Aniruddha of Burma made war upon the neighbouring
kingdom of Thaton in order to seize a copy of the Tipitaka
which the king of Thaton refused to have copied. This
was, of course, not the most Buddhistic way of obtaining
The monks of mediaeval Japan,
the precious documents.
who lived in huge fortress monasteries, raised and fought in
their own armies, and for seven hundred years, until the
destruction of their strongholds, Hieizan and Negoro, by the
Nobunaga and Hideyoshi in the sixteenth century, were a
Even the most industrious
menace to the secular arm. 2
out from the two thousand
to
dig
unable
research has been
hundred years of Buddhist
five
1.
" Japanese Buddhism/*
history, during
Essays in Zen
Rider, London, 1953, p. 348.
2. Oonze, Buddhism ; Its Essence
Buddhism
and Development,
which time
(Third Seriea),
Bruno
Cassirer
(Oxford), 1951, p. 65; Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Routledge, 1954, pp. 55,
404.
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
4&>
it
spread over more than a quarter of the land surface of
the globe, as
many
as ten incidents of this kind.
Not a
page of Buddhist history has ever been lurid with
the light of inquisitorial fires, or darkened with the smoke
of heretic or heathen cities ablaze, or red with the blood of
single
the
victims of religious hatred. Like the BodhiManjusn, Buddhism wields only one sword, the
Sword of Wisdom, and recognizes only one enemy— Ignorguiltless
sattva
This
ance.
is
and
the testimony of history,
is
not to be
gainsaid.
But even admitting the close association of Buddhism
may
be questioned whether Buddhism
and peace the effect. Perhaps their
association was fortuitous.
Buddhism has a bloodless and
with peace in Asia
was
it
really the cause
Christianity a bloody record,
much because
it
might be argued, not so
of any difference between their teachings but
among
because one was propagated
the warlike tribes of
Western Europe and the other among the peaceable nations
The contention
of Asia.
introduction of Buddhism,
The
in Asia.
is
unfounded.
Tibet, before the
was the greatest military power
Burma, Siam, and Cambodia
early history of
shows that the people of those countries were originally of
an extremely warlike, even aggressive, disposition. The
Mongol hordes at one time overran not only the whole of
Central Asia, but also India, China, Persia and Afghanistan,
and thundered even
at the gates of
Europe.
China exhibited
at various periods of her history considerable military acti-
from being subdued
With the posafter nearly fifteen centuries of Buddhism.
sible exceptions of India and China, the nations of Asia
were originally no less pugnacious and predatory than those
of Europe. Their subsequent peacefulness was due very
largely to the influence of the pacific teachings of Budvity.
dhism.
The
martial spirit of Japan
is
far
But one can hardly expect to be able to pacify
them a God
turbulent and warlike nations by preaching to
of Battles.
ciation
It
may
therefore be concluded that the asso-
between Buddhism and peace
is
not fortuitous but
1
BUDDHISM
will
THE MODERN WORLD
Buddhism has been
inevitable.
and
IN
in
the past,
46
at present,
is
continue to be in the future, a factor contributing
to the establishment of universal peace.
Buddhism and Culture Today
After four or five hundred years of comparative stagnais witnessing a resurgence of Buddhism in many parts of Asia. In Japan this resurgence
began as long ago as 1868, when the disestablishment of
Buddhism at the commencement of the Meiji Era and the
mild form of persecution which for some years overtook the
A few years
religion and its adherents acted as a stimulus.
where the
head
Ceylon,
in
later Buddhism again raised its
activities of Meggetuwatte Gunananda, H. Sumahgala and
tion, the present century
Col. H.
S.
Olcott precipitated a landslide in the direction
Buddhist revival
of the national religion.
in India
began
an organized movement in 1891, when Anagarika
Dharmapala founded the Maha Bodhi Society. In China,
the Buddhist awakening began with the work of His Emi-
as
nence Tai-Hsu, while the resurgence of the
Burma
is
associated with the
Ledi Sayadaw.
Now,
name
Dharma
in
of another great scholar-
subsumed under
samadhi as part of the means to enlightenment, as has been
seen already, the most important of the cultural implications
saint,
culture being
of Buddhism today is, naturally, the fact that its resurgence
and revival in Asia is sowing the seeds of an efflorescence
of culture.
Shoots are springing up in many places, and
Brief mention
even a few scattered blossoms can be seen.
must therefore be made of the stimulus which Buddhism
has given to culture in certain Buddhist countries of Asia
and
in India, the original
Since from the East
home
of the Buddha's teachings.
Buddhism has now spread
some note must be taken of
its
to the West,
implications for
cultural
that part of the world also
Of
all
the Buddhist countries of Asia,
and Burma, perhaps, that Buddhism
phantly resurgent.
The
is
it
is
in
now most
Ceylon
trium-
achievements of Ceylon, consider-
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
462
ing that
it is
Buddhist
a tiny island with a
inhabitants,
have
little
indeed
more than
been
five million
remarkable.
It
gave birth to two great international Buddhist organizations,
the Maha Bodhi Society and the World Fellowship of Bud-
With the possible exception of Japan, Ceylon, out
more dharmadutas, or messengers of the Dharma, than any other Buddhist land.
Her contributions to culture have been no less
significant and far-reaching.
Scholars like Coomaraswamy,
Malalasekera and Buddhadatta, painters like ManjuSri Thera
and George Keyt, and writers and poets like Siri Nissanka,
Dhanapala and Tambimuttu are known and respected far
beyond the confines of their native land. Within the country itself, the indigenous arts and crafts, customs and traditions are being revived.
Link by link the chains of various
alien and anti-Buddhist cultures, in which the Simhalese
people had for centuries been fettered, are being snapped.
With the attainment of self-government within the Commonwealth of Nations, Simhalese has begun to rival English in
importance, and though modern Simhalese literature has not
yet produced any figure of more than local significance
dhists.
of her scanty resources, has sent abroad far
there
is
every possibility of
its
doing so before long.
Similar
Burma; her political independence
a
sudden
and striking resurgence of
led
only
to
has
not
Buddhism but also to a revival of Burmese Buddhist culture.
No international figure has, however, yet emerged, nor any
religious or cultural achievements of more than national
interest and value.
If in Siam, Cambodia and Laos the
trends can be observed in
resurgence of Buddhism and the revival of Buddhist culture
are less noticeable,
to
foreign
arts,
crafts,
extent
lethargy
it
influence,
that
did,
is
largely because, being less subject
neither
Buddhism nor
its
associated
customs and institutions ever declined to the
A
benumbing
however, creep over these lands, and even
they
did
elsewhere.
certain
though they may not have needed a revival, in the sense of
bringing back to life something that was dead, they did need
a more vigorous circulation of the blood. That such a
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
463
quickening of the pulse did eventually take place in the
present century is demonstrated by the publication, in fortyvolumes, of the entire Pali Canon in Siamese script.
magnificent edition, known as the Royal Siamese
Tipitaka, is still the only complete and uniform edition of
five
This
Theravada Canon
the
to
have been printed
In
Asia.
in
Japan, which has been subject to the influence of modern
industrial civilization to a far greater extent than any other
Asian country, the resurgence of Buddhism has led not so
much to a revival of Buddhist culture, which, here too, was
never dead, as to an attempt to preserve and consolidate
amidst
the
essentially
modern life. Though
on the whole, it is so
of Japanese Buddhism
alien
and
cises
on
environment
it
of
that attempt seems to be succeeding
great a drain
on the
that there can be
for fresh cultural achievements.
D. T. Suzuki,
hostile
who through
European and
Yet
spiritual vitality
energy to spare
little
it
his writings
is
a Japanese, Dr.
and
lectures exer-
American thought and
culture a
deeper and wider influence than any other Buddhist.
In
China, Tibet, Nepal and other parts of the Buddhist world,
have temporarily assumed paramount importance,
so that little can be said on the present cultural implications
However, the recent
of Buddhism in those countries.
politics
action of the People's Republic of China in presenting to
Burma two
grains of the Buddha's relic bones, one set of
the Chinese Tripijaka, two suits of robes used by the
and Tibetan monks, one alms bowl and one cane
Han
staff,
is,
1
perhaps not without significance.
The revival of Buddhism which has been going on in
India for the last sixty years, but particularly during the
past decade,
is
one of the strangest and most
in the history of religions.
Nowhere
striking events
else in the
world does
one find a parallel case of a religion being revived centuries
after its disappearance, not
by the command of a despot
not as the result of foreign conquest, but simply because
is
the will of the people.
1.
Yet
this
is
what
See Sang&yana Bulletin, Rangoon, April 1955, p.
2.
is
it
happening
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
464
Less than a century ^go Buddhism was
India today.
in
land of its birth
if remembered at all, it
was as an objectionable but fortunately extinct heterodoxy
which had for a brief space troubled the placid waters of
unheard of
in the
:
Today
Brahmanism.
is
it
a
Over the
House
household word.
chair of the President of the Republic of India, in the
of the People, the message dharmacakra
Wheel of the Dharma'
turn the
to the
assembled representatives.
national flag as
the
same
it
historic
pravarttanaya, 'to
flashes forth in electric light
At
the very centre of the
over ten thousand public buildings,
floats
symbol reminds the nation not only of the
Buddha but also of
Conquest by Righteousness of A/oka.
sublime doctrine of the
vijaya or
the dharmaSimilarly,
the lion-capital of Asbka, representing the fearless proclamation in the
Dharma
adopted as the
It
is
to the four quarters of space, has been
official
seal of the Republic.
hardly necessary to
insist that the revival
of Bud-
dhism is inseparably linked with a renaissance of culture.
Such a renaissance has, of course, been going on in India
for some time, and the revival of Buddhism, despite its
importance, is by no means the only contributing factor.
Indeed, from another point of view, the revival of Buddhism
is
itself
part of the great
movement
for the regeneration of
economic and political life of the
been
agitating
the whole sub-continent for
that
has
nation
more than a hundred years. Nevertheless, it would be a
the
religious,
cultural,
mistake to think that the revival of Buddhism in India
is,
for this reason, linked with the renaissance of culture only
to the extent that
it
contributes to the renaissance of Indian,
in the sense of non-Buddhist, culture.
the
renaissance of a
culture
It is
specifically
Buddhist. This Buddhist culture, as far as
in India are
concerned,
is
also linked with
and
its
distinctively
manifestations
an integral part of Indian
culture.
India has recognized the importance of studies in Pali,
Sanskrit, Tibetan
Buddhism and
1.
See Chapter
and Chinese for a
full
understanding of
the subject has been discussed
XI V.
elsewhere. 1
BUDDHISM
IN
THE MODERN WORLD
These naturally have had
their
effect
modern Indian languages, who
on Buddhist from the original
independent
write
Rabindranath
books
Tagore's
that
on writers
either
or
reflect
magnificent
free
in
were
inspired
Buddhist
invocations
the
works
translated
Buddha, his drama, Natir Puja (The Dancing
and his narrative poem. Abhisar, are
of the
465
to
thought.
to
the
Girl's Worship),
examples
Other writers
fine
handling of Buddhist themes.
whose work has been deeply influenced by Buddhism include Yashpal, one of the greatest masters of the modern
Hindi short story and novel, Gurubaksh Singh, whose Asia
da ChSnana, a prose translation of Sir Edwin Arnold's The
Light of Asia, is regarded as a classic in modern Punjabi
literature, and Kumaran Assan, one of the three greatest
Malayalam poets of the twentieth century. But like hundreds of less well-known poets, dramatists and novelists,
they are all Hindus who have been deeply moved by the
sublimity of the Buddhist ideal and the beauty of its cultural
Only two or three Indian Buddhists have
manifestations.
succeeded in* carving niches for themselves in the temple
Dharmananda Kosambi's numerous
fame.
of literary
—
1
—
have
on Buddhist subjects described elsewhere
secured him a name in Marathi literature, while the writings
of Rahul Sankrityayan and Anand Kausalyayari are outwritings
standing contributors to Hindi belles-lettres.
Hardly less stimulating has been the effect of Buddhist
Inspired by the frescoes of
revival on the visual arts.
Ajanta, then newly discovered, and guided by the great art
critic, E. B. Havell, the Bengal school of painting developed
a style which, for the first time in centuries, handled Indian
Both Abanindrain a traditionally Indian manner.
nath Tagore, and Nandalal Bose, the two great masters of
this school, exhibited a marked fondness for subjects drawn
not only from the life of the Buddha but also from Buddhist
themes
history
and legend.
Contemporary Indian
cases, only superficially
1.
Seepages 395-390.
Indian.
The
best
art
is,
known
in
many
painters,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
466
one or two of
whom
enjoy international fame, derive their
technique, style and inspiration almost exclusively from the
European and American models. Those who remain
faithful to the indigenous tradition and whose work is ins-
latest
pired by an awareness of spiritual values, regardless of their
very high standard of achievement, seem unable to obtain
anything like the recognition and appreciation they merit.
Among
these neglected artists are
deep Buddhist influence.
There
many whose work
is,
however, no professedly
Once again
Buddhist painter of outstanding eminence.
and
subtly
undergoing
revival
renaissance has a long
One swallow does
not
India,
in
the
times
strikingly
felt,
penetrates
latest
Buddhist
way to go before it reaches
make a summer, and the
manifestations of Buddhist resurgence and
at
the
Buddhism, deeply and
beyond the formal boundaries of Buddhism.
Though the Dharma is resurgent in Ceylon and Burma,
influence of
far
reflects
beautiful,
in
its
revival,
comparison
peak.
cultural
though
with
the
do not yet amount to much more
Even more so is this the case
Europe and America. Though Buddhism seems to have
efflorescence of past ages
than two leaves and a bud.
in
struck firm roots in Western
soil,
the roots have not had
time to go very deep, and the cultural flowering which has
so far taken place, perhaps prematurely, though beautiful,
inconspicuous.
As
in
India,
it
relates chiefly
is
to literature
Here too we must distinguish between
artists whose work exhibits traces
of Buddhist influence and the creations of those who, being
and the
visual arts.
non-Buddhist writers and
professed
Buddhists,
derive
their
main
inspiration
from
Buddhism.
From
the
historical
point
striking feature of the Buddhist
of view,
perhaps the most
movement
in the West is its
For reasons largely academic, about
a century ago oriental religion and culture in- general, and
absolute spontaneity.
Buddhism
in
particular, started attracting the attention
Western scholars.
came
Sanskrit, Pali, Chinese,
subjects of study at the universities.
and Tibetan
This led
of
be-
first
to
W THE
BUDDHISM
MODERN WORLD
467
the publication and then to the translation of a
Buddhist
number of
— 1849) was
Though Csoma de Koros (1784
texts.
undoubtedly the inaugurator of Buddhist studies in the West,
it is
to the great French scholar, Eugene Burnouf, that
them upon a scientific basis
number of distinguished savants
for having placed
the credit
belongs.
Thereafter
a
devoted themselves to the study of Buddhism.
among them were Max Muller, who besides
well-known series, The Sacred Books of the
Prominent
two
which
editing the
East
(in
a number of Buddhist works were included) and The Sacred
Books of the Buddhists, himself edited and translated some
important Buddhist scriptures, and T. W. Rhys Davids,
who in addition to publishing texts, translations and what
are still standard works on Buddhism, founded the Pali
Text Society, which since its inception has published considerably more than one hundred volumes of texts and
Hard on
translations, as well as the famous dictionary.
Sir Edwin
the heels of the scholars came the popularizers.
Arnold's The Light of Asia (1879), easily the most widely
known English book on Buddhism, and the stories and
other writings of Paul Carus are the literary landmarks of
this
the
Buddhism
century
to attract the attention not merely of philologists
historians
and
At the turn of
period.
begun
a
men and women
but of
way of
Schopenhauer,
nineteenth
life
as
century,
more
early
had
as
looking for a religion
satisfying
the
had
and
than
second
Christianity.
decade
of
the
declared himself a Buddhist, and
more than
half a century been popularizing a version of Buddhism all
over Europe.
But though of far-reaching influence, his was
an isolated case, and it was only towards the end of the
century that Buddhism began to strike root in the West.
Buddhist groups sprang up in a number of European capitals
and in many parts of the United States. The Theosophical
his
Die Welt
ah
Wille unci Vorstellung had for
Society, especially during the lifetime of
helped in the dissemination of Buddhism.
Dharma may be
its
founders, also
At present the
said to be firmly established in
England,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
468
Germany, France, and the United States. Though the
number of adherents is still small, their sphere of influence
Since the end of World War II, not
is steadily expanding.
a year has gone by without the publication of important
books on Buddhism in at least one European language, and
there is an increasing tendency for such books to be the
work of practising Buddhists. References to Buddhism (not
always intelligent) are becoming more and more frequent in
modern literature and in the daily press. Rainer Maria
Rilke, the greatest
German poet
on the Buddha
beautiful sonnet
since Heine, has written a
1
,
and John Masefield, the
present Poet Laureate of England, a
poem.
T.
S. Eliot's
The Waste Land
creditable
narrative
(1922) contains a strik-
Sermon 2 while the
imagery of a short passage in Edith SitwelFs "The Coat of
Fire" is derived from The Tibetan Book of the Dead?
ing
reference
W.
B. Yeats'
to
the
Buddha's
Fire
Hermits upon Mount Meru or Everest
Caverned
probably
are
in night
Buddhist
under the drifted snow 4
hermits.
Many
of
the
poems
rendered from the Chinese by Arthur Waley are Buddhist
theme or sentiment, and two or three of these have been
included in anthologies of modern verse as English poems
in their own right. The voluminous writings of Aldous
Huxley, Bertrand Russell and Carl Gustav Jung, all of whom
enjoy world-wide reputation, carry important and, on the
whole, appreciative references to Buddhism. Jung's interest
in Buddhism is, in fact, well known, while Russell has gone
so far as to declare that if he were compelled to choose
between the religions of the world he would choose Buddhism.
None of the poets and writers so far mentioned are
Buddhists, however, and a Buddhist has yet to make a name
in
1.
Neue
2.
Line 308.
Qedichte, I, 1907.
3. Selected
Poems (Penguin Books, 1952),
4. Collected
Poemsy
p. 12, lines 23-25.
Macmillan, 1950, p. 333.
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
for himself in
modern European and American
Buddhism seems
to have
had no influence
Western painting and sculpture, the
West has already produced Buddhist
the
Nicholas
fame
with
Stravinsky's
Roerich,
decor
his
literature.
While
upon modern
Buddhist movement in
In the field of the visual arts the converse
brilliance.
469
who
true.
at all
of outstanding
artists
achieved
Diaghiliefs
for
is
international
version
ballet
of
Le Sacre du Printemps, subsequently produced,
mainly under the inspiration of Tibetan Buddhism, of which
he had direct knowledge, series after series of canvases
marked by powerful composition,
brilliant
colouring
and
profound symbolism, and all not only bathed in "the light
that never was on sea or land" but pervaded by a mighty
rushing wind of inspiration which would have been demoniacal had it not been so divine.
Earl H. Brewster, though
in
his
later
his best
years he lost touch with Buddhism, produced
work under
Only his own retiring
and paintings of the
more widely known. Like Roerich,
its
influence.
disposition prevented his sculptures
Buddha
Lama
from
being
A. Govinda,
who
is
not only an
artist
but a writer,
and mystic of no ordinary calibre, derives
main inspiration from Tibetan Buddhism. He is, in
fact, a member of a Tibetan religious order, and his art is
perhaps even more deeply and purely Buddhist than that
of either Roerich or Brewster. Not without significance is
scholar, thinker
his
the fact that
in India.
all
three artists eventually
made
their
home
Roerich and Brewster spent their
last years here,
shadow of
the Himalayas.
while Govinda
still
works
in
the
All three, again, have shown that in its westward no less
than in its eastward movement Buddhist art can retain the
spiritual elevation, the sheer sublimity, which has ever been
and characteristic feature. The influence of
Buddhism on Western music has been negligible. Mention
should, however, be made of Berg's "Music for Wesak."
its
most
striking
Buddhism and
Politics
Today
Though mere numbers have
little
cultural significance,
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
47°
they
do count
politically, so that
implications
cultural
of
political, unlike the
the
Buddhism
the
in
modem
world,
are necessarily confined to Asia in which continent alone
it
counts
its
adherents by the million.
From what
has been said above
clear that in the present,
But
implies peace.
political equilibrium
peace
it
should already be
than in the past, Buddhism
less
not
is
a*
condition of unstable
but rather a state of mind purified from
antagonism and thoroughly permeated by that
universal love which the Buddhists call
feelings of
all
this
no
impersonal and
Buddhism
maitri.
from
works
outwards.
within
hierarchy enjoys no international
diplomatic
Its
and
status,
chooses to act not by means of behind-the-scenes political
open practice and propagation of the
Buddha.
On the political plane,
wire-pulling but by the
pacific teachings of the
Buddhism does not take
is
the
Love,
sides.
most powerful force
in the sense of maitri,
in the world;
but
it
is
a neutral
Whether one's love be directed towards concrete
force.
persons and things, or whether
conceptions and ideals,
if it
it
be directed towards abstract
causes one to feel hatred towards
some other object, of a different kind, it is of a limited extent, and therefore not true love but only a species of attachment.
Similarly,
universal
if
peace, which
not peace at
it is
all.
is
a form of love,
The conclusion of
is
not
a private
peace between two or more nations, to the exclusion of the
remainder,
is
in
Should such a 'peace*
reality impossible.
any way threaten the security of any other state even its
observance would be on no higher a moral plane than the
in
honesty that
is
popularly supposed to exist
among
thieves.
India having accepted Asbka's great ideal of dharmavijaya
or Conquest by Righteousness,
very
Buddhist
should form
dynamic
maitri,
or
the ultimate spiritual
neutrality in
world
was
it
inevitable that this
love and goodwill towards
basis
affairs.
It
of
is
her
policy
all,
of
the raison d'etre
of the fact that, while working unremittingly for world peace,
Government of India consistently refuses to align itself
Such an attitude has naturally drawn
with any power bloc.
the
BUDDHISM
THE MODERN WORLD
IN
her closer to the Buddhist
countries
47I
of South-East
Asia,
whose respective policies are naturally
inspired by one and
But by its very nature, such a relationship
does not and cannot imply hostility or even indifference towards any .other country or group of countries. In fact,
it is not one political group among other groups, with its
own exclusive preferences and limited loyalties, but rather a
the
same
ideal.
slowly expanding centre radiating to the world the imper-
and neutral power of maitri. It is in this
view the Government of India's
light
that one must
attempts to renew her ancient ties with the countries of Asia.
It is because Buddhism alone can provide the necessary basis
sonal, universal
for these attempts that
through Asia for the
and
whole world, are so enormous and so
its
political implications for Asia,
important.
The Future
Prophesying
is
hazardous game; but it may
we had the power of dipping
human eye can see", we should
a proverbially
be confidently asserted that
into the future "as far as
if
behold there Buddhism softly pacing through the centuries
hand in hand with culture and peace. So far as the
immediate future is concerned, there is little doubt that the
tempo of Buddhist resurgence and revival throughout Asia,
as well as that of
its
propagation
all
over the non-Buddhist
world, will be accelerated with the passing of every remain-
The cultural
more and more
ing decade of the present century.
tions of
Buddhism
will
bloom
manifestaprofusely
while the grey-green olive of peace, lovingly tended by the
ever-stronger-growing hands of the
Dharma,
will
put forth
their black, shining fruits for the healing of the nations in
ever greater abundance.
plications of
working
Buddhism
themselves
If
in
out
the cultural
and
modern
world
the
political
succeed
imin
along the present lines of their
development, our two leaves and a bud
a whole forest of flowers.
will
soon grow into
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
472
Buddhism: The Maha Bodhi Society
B. Revival of
A
third of the
modern
world
small achievement for Buddhism.
creates an impression in the
had not had
mind
This
Buddhist!
is
The reading
that
if
is
no
of history
this great religion
to struggle against unfavourable political condi-
conquest of the world by Buddhism would have
tions, the
However, the Buddhist world today is by
Tibet, China with Manchuria and Mongolia, Korea, Japan, Indo-China, Siam (Thailand), Burma and
Ceylon are Buddhist. Although Malaya and Indonesia cannot be claimed as Buddhist lands, the Buddhist population
in these countries is not negligible.
Excluding the Muslim
lands in the Middle East and Russia, the whole of Asia is
been complete.
no means
small.
thus practically Buddhist.
Although Buddhism originated
much
ever,
in
evidence
mean
India, today
in
is
no Buddhism
is
not
This does not, how-
in that sub-continent.
thai there
it
in India at all.
In the
eastern parts of the country, in East Bengal and in parts of
Assam, Buddhism
and is practised. It also exists,
although this is not generally known, in parts of Rajputana,
in the hill district of Nainital and in the Darjeeling district
of
West Bengal.
considerable, and
still
exists
The number
Sikkim
and
region are completely Buddhist.
tion of
Nepal
is
Buddhist.
political existence, culturally
of
Buddhists
Bhutan
in the
in
Orissa
is
Himalayan
Further, half the popula-
Although Nepal has a separate
k belongs
to the orbit of Indian
thought.
The Buddhist population
of Rajputana, Nainital,
Ajmer
and Orissa is, after a long period, gradually becoming
aware of its religious identity and Buddhism in these places
is coming into its own.
About the year 1885, Sir Edwin Arnold, author of the
famous The Light of Asia, wrote a number, of articles in
The Telegraph, a London periodical of which he was the
editor, and drew attention to the neglected state of the temple
These articles caught
at Bodh Gaya and its surroundings.
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
473
Dharmapala, who was deeply
Dharmapala came of an aristocratic
family of Ceylon, but he abandoned all the good things of
the world that were his, and became 'anagftrika' (homeless).
He dedicated his life to the restoration of the Maha Bodhi
the eye of the
Venerable
moved by them.
temple as well as to the revival of the Noble
the land of
its
In pursuance of his resolve, Dharmapala,
in the
prime of
Dhamma
in
birth.
life, set
forth for India
who was
and paid
then
his first visit
to Bodh Gaya in January 1891.
His heart broke at what he
saw of the temple and the condition of the images in it. He
returned to Ceylon in May 1891 and founded the Maha
Bodhi Society in Colombo. The maintenance of a staff of
bhikkhus at Bodh Gaya representing the Buddhist countries
of Asia, and the publication of Buddhist literature in English
and Indian languages were two of the objects of this newlyfounded society.
The Maha Bodhi Society sent its first mission to Bodh
Gaya on June 10th, 1891. The mission consisted of four
monks who, on their arrival, found shelter in the Burmese
Rest House so called, because it was built by the Burmese
King, Mindon Min. Bodh Gaya was then within the
province of Bengal whose people greeted the appearance of
—
A
the bhikkhus with enthusiasm.
in
those days wrote on the occasion
unlooked for return of Buddhism
leading daily of Bengal
"Why
:
in the
colony at Bodh Gaya bring back with
Hindus will recover
the world?"
their place
among
should not
this
form of a Buddhist
it
the
hope
that the
the great nations of
1
The holding at Bodh Gaya of an International Buddhist
Conference was the second achievement of the Society. Although the conference was organized on a small scale, China,
Japan, Ceylon and the Chittagong Hill Tracts were also
The object of this Conference, which was
represented.
held in October 1891, was to draw the attention of the Buddhist world to the state of affairs at
1.
Indian Mirror, November 3, 1891.
Bodh Gaya,
as
it
was
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
474
realized that the
started
by
movement
for the restoration of the temple
Maha Bodhi
the
Society
could
not
succeed
without the support and co-operation of Buddhists throughout the world.
The
1892,
next activity of the Society was to launch, in
organ, The
its
World,
was
which
propagation of the
Maha Bodhi and
to
be
Dharma
used
as
May
the United Buddhist
an instrument for the
not only in India but
in all
countries of the world where English was understood.
the
The
was published from Calcutta, was edited by
It was actively supported by
the Venerable Dharmapala.
of
a considerable section of the
and enjoyed the sympathy
journal, which
Indian intelligentsia.
All this time the Venerable
Dharmapala saw nothing but
encouragement and he continued his work towards the fulfilment of his mission with urfabated energy. But he came
up against two unexpected hurdles.
The Mahant of Bodh
Gaya, who was in possession of the temple, saw danger and
wanted the Buddhist monks to leave. The incidents that
followed
are
powers that
be,
of the voices of
and
Col.
H.
Maha Bodhi
The
known to need recounting.
too, came to the aid of the Mahant in spite
disapproval from men like Sir Edwin Arnold
too
S.
well
Olcott.
Society and
However,
nothing
they continued
daunted
their
the
work with
redoubled energy.
The Venerable Dharmapala undertook
to
America
at the invitation of Dr.
a second voyage
Paul Carus, the author
famous Gospel of Buddha. On this occasion he
stayed in America for a year in the course of which he
delivered many lectures on Buddhism and the work of the
Maha Bodhi Society, and founded the American Maha
Bodhi Society.
Convinced by his speeches, several Americans were converted to Buddhism.
The humanitarian aspect of the work of the Maha Bodhi
Society
was evidenced in 1897 when severe famine
broke out in Bengal. The Society immediately opened a
relief fund and sent an appeal to all the Buddhist countries
of the
BUDDHISM
sum was
about
six
475
a substan-
collected for the purpose of feeding
more than
ing
THE MODERN WORLD
The response was prompt and
of Asia for help.
tial
IN
thousand men,
a
women and
and
cloth-
children for
months.
The year 1900 must be regarded
as an eventful one for
Bodhi Society, for in that year three branches of
the Society were opened at Madras, Kusinagara and Anuradhapura (in Ceylon). In 1902 the Venerable Dharmapala visited
the
Maha
America once more and was able to secure substantial
financial aid for the Maha Bodhi Society, chiefly from Mrs.
Mary
He
E. Foster of Honolulu.
also succeeded in gather-
him a number of distinguished people who were
desirous of working for the cause of Buddhism.
ing round
The Maha Bodhi
1915
with
Sir
Within the next
Society
became
live years, the
distinguished position
it
its
In recognition of the
relics of the
Buddha, which were to be enshrined
These relics were discovered at Bhattiprolu
the
Madras
of
in
had won, the Society was presented
1920 with a casket containing the
district
body
president.
first
Dharmarajika Caitya Vihara
of the Society was built in Calcutta.
in
a registered
Ashutosh Mookerjce as
in
in
by archaeological explorers
bones of
the .Vihara.
the Krishna
in
1891 and
presented to the Maha
till such time as they were
Bodhi Society, in the Madras Museum. The Dharmarajika
Caitya Vihara was formally opened on November 20, 1920,
by the Governor of Bengal, Lord Ronaldshay. On the
kept,
morning
of
that
day,
the President
of
the
Society, Sir
Ashutosh Mookerjee, received at Government House from
the sacred
Lord Ronaldshay (now Marquis of Zetland)
which were brought to the new shrine
relics
in a picturesque
procession.
A
The
new chapter opened with
interminable
Maha
litigation
the
dawn of freedom in India.
Mahant in which the
with the
Bodhi Society was involved had produced no
result.
Government of Bihar came forward with legislamanagement of the temple and had the Buddha
Gaya Temple Act. 1949, passed. Under this Act, a Com-
Now,
the
tion for the
476
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
Buddha Gaya Temple Management Com-
mittee called the
mittee, consisting of four Buddhists
been
The Committee
constituted.
management and
one of
in
entrusted
control of the temple.
years of hard struggle, the
succeeded
and four Hindus, has
is
the
Thus, after sixty
Maha Bodhi
main objectives
its
with
Society has partly
—the
restoration of
the temple to the Buddhists.
Bodh Gaya
again began to attract the attention of the
whole world, and groups of pilgrims came to visit it all the
As if by charm, Bodh Gaya, erstwhile an in-
year round.
significant
was transformed overnight.
now
It
and bids fair to be the centre of the Buddhist
village,
hums with
life
world once more.
Meanwhile, however, the Mulagandhakuti Vihara had
been
built at Sarnath.
came
When
India, Sarnath,
to
Buddhism, had been reduced
jungle which
the
which
is
Venerable
famous
Dharmapala
in the history of
to a tiny village
surrounded by
was the grazing ground of wild
pigs.
Venerable Dharmapala took upon himself the task of
and towards
The
restor-
end conceived the idea of erecting
a vihara.
A suitable site was selected for the purpose and
With the
the building was finally completed in 1931.
ing
it,
subsequent
this
establishment
the VihSra Library, the
Maha Bodhi
of the Maha Bodhi Vidyalaya,
Maha Bodhi Free Dispensary, the
and the Teachers' Training
once again pulsating with life.
Primary School
College, Sarnath
is
of the expanding activities of the Maha
was
soon felt throughout India, and the
Bodhi Society
formation of the Buddha Society of Bombay in 1922 was a
This society owned a library and
result of this influence.
The impact
a
hall
held.
in
In
which fortnightly discourses on Buddhism were
1953
this
vihara was handed over to the
Bodhi Society for proper management.
help of Seth Birla, the late Prof.
a small
vihara built at Parel.
With the
Maha
financial
Dharmananda Kosambi had
This was called Bahujana
Vihara, and was intended to satisfy the spiritual needs of
the workers and labourers
who
live in the
surrounding areas.
BUDDHISM IN THE MODERN WORLD
This vihSra has also passed into the
477
hands of the
Maha
Bodhi Society for management.
The
New
Society at present has branches at Gaya, Sarnath.
Delhi,
Ajmer.
Lucknow, Bombay, Madras, Nautanwa and
is a Buddha Society at Nagpur which func-
There
tion^ independently.
to have branches of
Many parts of the country are anxious
the Maha Bodhi Society, but the lack of
funds at the disposal of the Society stands in the
way
of
the fulfilment of this desire.
With the home-coming in 1949 of the relics of Sariputta
and Moggallana, the two chief disciples of the Buddha, the
interest of the people of India in Buddhism and their
innate love of the Buddha was revealed in a surprising
The vast sub-continent welcomed the relics as if
manner.
the dearest sons of the country had come back after long
Finally, these relics were taken to SanchL
years of absence.
the place of their discovery, and re-enshrined in the newly
built vihara at a fitting ceremony which was attended by
thousands of men and women from all over the world,
headed by the Prime Ministers of India and Burma. The
scene was unforgettable and the occasion historic.
The celebration of the Maha Bodhi Society's Golden
Jubilee at Sanchi synchronized with the enshrinement of the
relics,
as did the International Buddhist Conference which
was held
there.
noteworthy that while ten years ago the festival of
Buddha Paurnima was celebrated only in one or two Buddhist temples maintained by the Maha Bodhi Society, now
it is observed all over the country, including places which
It
is
strongholds
are
of
orthodoxy.
This
is
indicative of the
work done by the Maha Bodhi Society over a
The seed sown by the Venerable
by the self-sacrificing workers of
nurtured
Dharmapala, and
successful
period of sixty years.
Maha Bodhi
the
that
it
will
Now
Society, has sprouted
and
all
the signs are
have a glorious growth.
come into her own, numerous and
missions come to visit this country from
that India has
frequent cultural
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
478
in East Asia, thereby re-establishing the
once existed between India and those coun-
Buddhist countries
close link
that
The political effect of this is far-reaching.
The Maha Bodhi Society has taken up in
tries.
the
task
right earnest
of publishing translations of the Buddhist scrip*
tures into Indian languages
which has brought the teachings
Buddha within the reach of everybody. This work
is making progress and the result is highly encouraging.
The publication of translations of the Tripitaka has
created in the public mind a genuine interest in Buddhism.
The regular weekly lectures on Buddhism delivered at the
of the
Maha Bodhi
Hall are always well attended.
Ashutosh /Mookerjee, as
Sir
back as the year 1908,
far
introduced the study of Pali at Calcutta University from the
Matriculation stage right up to the
tion.
M.A. degree examina-
This has led to the revival of a language which for
ages had lain forgotten in the land of
its
The
birth.
post
graduate department of Pali at Calcutta University has done
and
is
doing pioneer research work, thereby bringing to
light the treasures of Pali literature.
cutta
University
has
been
The example
of Cal-
followed by other universities
of the country, particularly those at Patna, Banaras, Luck-
now, Nagpur, Bombay, Poona and Baroda.
come
into the field
is
The
latest to
the Nalanda Pali Institute of Rajgir
(Rajagrha).
Although the
fined to India,
its
Maha Bodhi
influence
is
Society's
felt
work
over a
is
mainly con-
much wider
area,
and south-eastern parts of Asia,
and to Europe, America, Australia and Africa, where
thousands of people are becoming interested in this great
religion.
Buddhist viharas now exist in England, Germany,
Australia and the United States of America.
The message of Buddhism and the principle on which
and extends
to the eastern
it rests have assumed new significance in the world of today,
and the peace of which U.N.O. speaks is but an indication
that the whole world is gradually veering round to the
beliefs embodied in the religion of the Buddha.
CHAPTER XVI
In Retrospect
The
story of
Buddhism
outlined
in
that has
bound India and
in
India and abroad has been
the foregoing chapters in order to
show the
link
the other countries of the East for
numberless centuries.
The importance
in
its
of Buddhism as a religion
lies
concept of kindness, humanity and equality.
primarily
Buddhism
was no adventitious phenomenon. It arose out of the background of Vedic sacrificed and the philosophical speculations
current before and up to the Buddha's own times.
The
story of his life and teachings according to the older Pali
texts places more reliance on his humanity than on his
divinity.
His teachings can be described briefly as:
(1)
the abstention from evil;
(2)
the accumulation of whatever
is
good and noble;
and
(3)
His belief
the purification of the mind.
in
inasmuch as
Karma
it
is
greater
action (karma) than to lineage
The account
sociological
of special
attributed
significance
importance to
personal
(jati).
given of the Buddhist Councils of Rajagrha,
and Pataliputra follows the orthodox tradition. A
French scholar. Andre Bareau, has, however, made out a
case for two Councils at Pa{aliputra, the first of which brought
about a schism in the community of the Buddhist monks.
At this first Council, the Mah5sanghikas separated from the
Sthaviravffdins and at the second the SarvSstivadins broke
away from the main body of the Sthaviravadins. They now
Vaisali
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
480
name of the Vibhajyavadins and were patronized by
Emperor Arfoka.
In the reign of Asoka the Great, Buddhism, although
divided into as many as eighteen different sects and schools,
took the
the great
became, under royal patronage, not only an
all
India
reli-
gion, but a world religion.
A
chapter has also been devoted to the expansion of
Buddhism
to the
northern countries, such as Afghanistan,
Chinese Turkestan (Central Asia), China, Tibet, Mongolia,
Nepal, Korea and Japan, as well as to the southern countries
Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Viet-Nam (Campa),
Malaya and Indonesia.
The principal sects and schools of Buddhism in India
and abroad have also been described and the gradual evolution of the simple teachings of the Theravada school into
the complexities of the Madhyamika and Yogacara schools
in India and their further development in China and Japan
of Ceylon,
have been clearly traced.
A general
idea of the Tripitaka literature in Pali, Sanskrit,
Tibetan and Chinese has been given and important books in
and Buddhist Sanskrit have been surveyed in detail.
Another interesting topic bears upon the Buddhist system
It has been shown that it transcended the
of education.
narrow limits of the family school of Brahmanical times and
expanded into the larger monastic school which threw its
doors open to all
Buddhists and non-Buddhists, Indians and
Pali
—
foreigners.
An
attempt has also been
of the great Buddhists
who
made
to
tell
some
India and
the reader of
followed Asoka in
abroad.
The
I-tsing,
great Chinese travellers, Fa-hien,
Yuan Chwang and
have given us a picture of Buddhism
their day.
A
in the India
of
separate chapter has been devoted to them in
token of India's grateful recognition.
It
is
owes to Buddhism
Buddhism became a source
sculpture and painting not only
universally admitted that India
the beginnings of her plastic arts.
of inspiration for architecture,
1
IN
48
Buddhism went.
in India but wherever
A
RETROSPECT
remarkable change came over Buddhism
From
of time.
its
earlier
form of
in the course
ethical religion,
Buddhism
changed into the Mahayana doctrine which deified the Buddha
and devotion to the person of the Buddha became the domi-
A
nant feature of the religion.
follower of the
longer cared for the deliverance of his
own
self,
Buddha no
but preferred,
out of compassion (karuna) for his comrades, to defer his
own
was even prepared
deliverance; he
again
if
to be born again
and
he could thereby help his fellowmen to achieve their
Thus the change from the selfish 'turning away
from the world' (nivrtti) to the beneficent activity of help
and service to others (pravrtti) was largely responsible for
deliverance.
In philosophy also Buddhism turned
gaining public support.
from the pluralistic to the monistic conception of the universe.
This brought Buddhism nearer to the doctrine of Advaitism
advocated by the Vedantins.
The
doctrine
of
Maya and
(conventional
samvrtti-satya
the
truth)
two types of truths
and paramartha-satya
(absolute truth) were also accepted by the Vedantins.
Sacrifices involving the slaughter of animals came to be
condemned and were replaced by offerings of corn and grain.
The Mahabharata, the great Hindu epic, takes for granted the importance of personal conduct and refers to the
Noble Eightfold Path.
The Buddhist gods came to be
respected and the Buddha himself came to be recognized
1
as an Avatara, a reincarnation of Vi§nu. 2
The
cultural
and
political
implications of
Buddhism
in
It has
the modern world have been discussed at length.
been shown that with the spread of the Buddha's religion to
the Asian countries, Buddhist culture also was introduced
to them.
These countries profited from these new ideas not
only in religion but also
is
in culture
"that coupled whole which
arts,
morals, law, custom
1.
in,
2.
Bhagavata,
2,7,73.
I, 3,24,
which, in
its
widest sense,
includes knowledge, belief,
and any other
capabilities
and
2500 YEARS OF BUDDHISM
482
by
habits acquired
man
member
as
of society *\
Buddhism has been a great force for peace in the world
The Buddha's policy of peace, self-sacrifice, kindness and
charity
an
finds
Mahabharata
echo
following
the
in
lines
from
the
:
Akrodhena jayet krodham asadhum sadhuna jayet
jayet kadaryam danena jayet satyena canrtam}
(One should conquer anger by cool-headedness,
evil by good, miserliness by charity and falsehood
by truth.)
moulded the lives of numerous saints in mediaeval
India and the great minds of modern India, too, have been
This
spirit
The influence that the
Mahatma Gandhi is self-
guided by the Buddha's teachings.
life
of the
Master exercised on
He
evident.
in his private
turned the principle of satyagraha into action
and public
life
and some of the present Indian
leaders are the direct heirs of their Master, the Father of the
Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of
Indian Nation.
has declared times without
India,
in
the
peaceful
abroad.
method of
settling
his
disputes at
firm
faith
home and
This accounts for the fact that India has refrained
from joining any power
the
Panca-sila,
The declared
bloc.
of the Government of India
conduct,
number
is
itself
based on the
a
Buddhist
foreign policy
five
rules of
term,
which
allows for the possibility of peaceful co-existence between
peoples of different ideologies.
1.
Udyoga-parva (B. O.R.I. Edition),
30,58.
GLOSSARY
Some common
Pali
San
\
names and terms and
krit
Pah
Sanskrit
Abhidhamma
Abhidharma
Adara Kalama
Amrta
Avadana
Alara Kalama
Amata
Apadana
.
AtthadassT
ArthadarsI
Bhiksu
Bhikkhu
Bhikkhun!
Cetiya
their
equivalents
BhiksunT
Caitya
.
Dhamma
Dharma
Dhammacakkapavattana
Dhatugabbha
Dh a rmaca k r apravar tana
Dhatugarbha
GayasTsa
Ga>aslrsa
Jfvaka
Komarabhacca
Kaccayana
Jivaka Kumarabhrtya
Kassapa
Kusinara
Mahakassapa
Makkhali Gosala
Katyayana
Karyapa
Kusinagara
Mahakasyapa
Maskarin Gosala
.
Mahendra
Mahinda
Mahaparinibbana
Moggallana
.
Moggaliputta
Metta
.
Nibbana
Nigantha Nataputta
Nanda Vaccha
Pakarana
Pakudha Kaccayana
Mahaparinirvana
Maudgalyayana
Maudgaliputra
Maitrf
Nirvana
Nirgrantha Jnatrputra
Nanda Vacya
Prakarana
Kakuda Katyayana
GLOSSARY.
484
Sanskrit
Pali
Patimokkha-sutta
Parinibbana
Pratimoksa-sutra
Pataliputta
Pa^aliputra
.
Parinirvaija
Piyadassf
Priyadarsf
Rajagaha
Rajagrha
Saddhairma
Sanghamitra
Saddhamma
Sanghamitta
.
.
Sajiputta
Sariputra
Subhadda
Subhadra
Savatthi
Sravasti
Sutta
.
Sutra
Thera
.
Sthavira
Tipitaka
Tripitaka
Tissa Moggaliputta
Tisya Maudgaliputra
Thupa
Upekkha
Stupa
Upeksji
Vaisakha
.
Vesakha
Vesalf
.
Vibhajjavada
Visakha
Vaisali
Vibhajyavada
Visakha
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER
1.
2.
Mahavamsa
Mahavamsa
IV
(P.T.S.)
by W. Geiger, London, 1912)
by H. Oldenberg, Edinburgh, 1879)
(Tr.
3.
DTpavarpsa (Tr.
4.
5.
Sasanavamsa (Mabel Bode, London, 1897)
On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 2 vols.
London, 1904-5)
6.
Cullavagga (S.B.E., Tr. by Horner)
7.
Buddhistic Studies (B. C. Law, Calcutta, 1931)
8.
Life of Buddha
9.
Fa-hie ns Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms
1886)
10.
Dlghanikaya (P.T.S., London, 1890-1911)
11.
(T.
Watters,
(W. W. RockhiJI, London, 1884).
(J.
Legge, Oxford,
Samanta-pasadika (P.T.S. Text, Buddhaghosa's Commentary
on the Vinaya Pi{aka, J. Takakusu and Nagai, Vols. I-V,
London, 1924-1938)
,
Ceylon (G.
12. Pali Literature in
13. Pali Literature in
P. Malalasekera,
London, 1928)
Burma (M. H. Bode, London,
1909)
14.
Manual of Indian Buddhism (H. Kern,
15.
Sangayana Souvenir (Buddhasasana Council, Rangoon)
16.
SangTtivamsa (Bhadante Vanaratana Somdej Phravanar}
17.
History of Buddhist Thought (E.
J.
Strassburg, 1896)
Thomas, London, 1933)
CHAPTER V
by W. Geiger, London, 1912)
1.
Mahavamsa
2.
Theravada Buddhism
(Tr.
in
Burma (Nihar Ranjan Ray, Calcutta
University, 1946)
3.
Hindu Colonies
in the
tar East (R.
C.
Majumdar,
1944)
4.
Suvarnadvlpa (R. C. Majumdar, Calcutta, 1927)
5.
Champa
(R. C. Majumdar, Punjab, 1927)
Calcutta,
.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
486
6.
Kambujadesa (R. C. Majumdat, Madras University, i944)
7.
Inscriptions of
Calcutta, 1953)
8.
Indian Cultural Influence
cutta University, 1926)
9.
Indian Colony of Siam (Phsinindrd
10.
Kambuja
Majumdar,
(R. C.
Cambodia
in
Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol.
Asiatic Society,
(B. R. Chatterji, Cal-
Nath Bose, Punjab, 1927)
(Sir Charles Eliot, London,
Ill
1954)
11.
History of
Early Buddhist Schools,
Vol.
(R. Kimura*
Ill
Oriental)
12.
History of India, Part
Sastri, Madras, 1950)
1
:
Ancient India (K. A. Nilakanta
CHAPTER
1.
Ancient
Indian
Education.
VIII
2nd
Edition
(R.
K.
Mookerji,
London, 1947)
2.
Indian Logic
cutta, 1907)
3.
China— A
:
Mediaeval School
(S.
C. Vidya Bhushan, Cal-
Short Cultural History (C. P. Fitzgerald, London,
1942)
4.
Tabakat-i-Nasiri (Tr. by H. G. Raverty, London, 1881)
5.
Indian Pandits in
Calcutta, 1893)
6.
Some
the
Land of Snow
(Sarat
Chandra Das,
Aspects of Earliest Social History oj India (S. C. Sarkar,
London, 1928)
CHAPTtR
1
IX
The History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol.
Vidyabhavan, 2nd Edition, 1953)
2. Political
History of Ancient India
(H.
II
(Bharatiya
Raychaudhuri,
6th
Edition, Calcutta, 1953)
3.
On Yuan Chwang's
Travels in India. Vol.
1
(T. Watters,
London,
1904-5)
4.
History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol.
Vidyabhavan, Bombay, 1954)
5.
Early History of Buddhism in Ceylon (E.
1946)
6.
History of Indian Literature, Vol.
University, 1933)
II
Ill
(Bharatiya
W. Adikaram, Ceylon,
(M. Winternitz, Calcutta
BIBLIOGRAPHY
487
CHAPTER X
1.
Fa-hiens Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms
(J.
Legge, Oxford,
1886)
2.
3.
The Travels of Fa-hien (H. A. Giles, Cambridge, 1923)
Si- Yu-Ki
Buddhist Records of the Western World (Popular
Edition, two volumes in one, Samuel Beal, London, 1906)
:
of Hiuen Tsiang by the Shaman Kwui Li (Samuel Beal,
London, 1914)
On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India, 2 vols. (T. Watters,
London, 1904-05)
A Record of the Buddhist Religion as practised in India and the
Malay Archipelago (A. D. 671-95) by I-tsing (Tr. by J. Taka-
4. Life
5.
6.
kusu, Oxford, 1896)
7.
la grande dynastic Vang sur
Religieux Eminents qui alUrent chercher la lot dans les pays
d* Occident, par I-tsing (Edouard Chavannes, Paris, 1894)
Memoire compose a Vepoque de
les
8.
In
the
Footsteps of the Buddha (Rene Grousset,
London,
1932)
CHAPTER
1.
2.
XI
Annual Report, Archaeological Survey of
1912-13 (Calcutta, 1910 and 1916)
India,
History of Indian and Indonesian Art (A. K.
1906-07 and
Coomaraswamy,
London, 1927)
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Beginning of Buddhist Art and other Essays on Indian
and Central Asian Archaeology translated by L. A. Thomas
and F. W. Thomas (A. Foucher, Paris, 1917)
V Art Greco- Bouddhique du Gandhara, 2 vols. (A. Foucher,
Paris, 1905 and 18)
Buddhist Art
1921)
in
India (Tr. by Burgess, A. Griinwedel, London,
Antiquities of Indian Tibet, Archaeological Survey of India,
Imperial Series, Vols. XXXVIII and L (A. H. Francke,
New
Calcutta, 1914 and 1926)
7.
Nouvelles recherches archeologiques a Beg ram, Mi moires de
franqaise en Afghanistan, tome
P. Hamelin,
XI, Parts I and II (J. Hackin and J. Carl,
J. Auboyer, V. Elisseeff, O. Kurz and Ph. Stern, Paris, 1954)
la delegation archeologique
8.
Borobundur, 2 vols. (N,
J.
Krom,
the Hague, 1927)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
488
The Art and Architecture of India, Penguin
London, 1953)
9.
Series (B,
Rowland,
10.
Sculpture in Siam (A. Salmony, London, 1924)
11.
in India and Ceylon, 2nd Edition revised
by K. de B. Codrington (V. A. Smith, Oxford, 1930)
12.
Sand-buried Ruins of Khotan (Sir Aurel Stein, Oxford, 1907)
History of Fine Art
13.
Serindia, 4 vols. (Sir Aurel Stein, Oxford, 1921)
14.
'La Sculpture de Mathura',
Vogel, Paris, 1930)
15.
Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon and Java
1936)
Ars Asiatica, Vol.
(J.
XV
(J.
Ph.
Ph. Vogel, Oxford,
16.
Towards Angkor (H. G. Q. Wales, London, 1937)
17.
The Art of Indian Asia, Bollingen Series
XXXIX,
2 vols.
(H. Zimmer, U.S.A., 1955)
CHAPTER
1.
'New
Light
on Buddhism
chinois et houddhiques. Vol.
in
1
CHAPTER
1.
XII
Mediaeval India'
:
Melanges
(Arthur Waley, 1931-32)
XIII
Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism
(L.
A.
Waddell, London,
1895)
2.
3.
Kunstform und Yoga im indischen Kultbild (H. Zimmer, 1926)
Yuganaddha, the Tdntric View of Life (H. V. Guenther,
Chaukhamba
4.
Sanskrit Series, Banaras, 1952)
Die Entstehung des Vajraydna, Z.D.M.G. (H. V. Glasenapp,
Vol. 90, Leipzig, 1936)
5.
6.
Two Vajrayana Works (Gaek wad's
XLIV, ed. by B. Bhattacharya, Baroda,
Oriental
1929)
Series,
No.
Tibetan Yoga and Secret Doctrines (W. V. Evans-Wentz,
London, 1935)
CHAPTER XV
1.
2.
3.
The Four Essential
Doctrines of Buddhism (Colombo,
1948)
Zen Buddhism (Third Series, Rider, London, 1953)
Buddhism Its Essence and Development (Bruno Cassirer,
Essays
in
:
Oxford, 1951)
4.
Hinduism and Buddhism
5.
A
(Sir
Charles Eliot, Routledge,
History of Indian Philosophy , Vol,
bridge University Press, 1932)
I
(S.
N. Das Gupta,
1954)
Cam-
INDEX*
Abhayagiri, 218, 261
Abhidhamma-kosa,
AmrapalT,
49, 105, 107, 187,
223, 224
Abhidhamma-pitaka,
39, 139, 140, 142,
210, 211, 217
Abhidhammattha-sangaha,
Abhidharmamrta, 49
Abhidharma-vibhasa, 48
4, 28, 270
Arpsuvarman, King, 74, 83
Ananda, 3, 27, 28, 35, 37, 38,
Anahgavajra, 371
210
103,
Anathapindika, 26, 149, 152, 173, 316
Anatmavada, 209
Anatta (Anatman), 367
Abhidharma-vibhasa-sastras, 200
Anekanta,
Abhiniskramana-sutra, 144, 145
Ahga, Ahga-Magadha, 155
Abhisamayalankara, 230
Adhikarana-samatha, 165, 168, 170
Adibuddha, 349, 368
Ahguttara-nikaya, 140, 152,
Advayavajra, 370, 371
Antigonos (Antakini), 59
Agamas,
Angkor
14, 16
Vat, 92, 305
156,
215
Aniruddha, King, 459
Antigonos Gonatos, 196
141
Agastya, 300
Antiochos
Agganna-suttanta,
156
Agnidcsa (Kara-shahr), 66
17,
18,
Antiochus (Antiyoka)
Anuradhapura, 210, 214,
1
1,
27,
282^
Anuruddhacarya, 103
Aparajitadhvaja Buddha, 146
37'
36,
261,
300, 301
297, 304, 332
14,
11,
59, 196
Ajanta, 64, 277, 285, 288, 294, 296,
Ajatasatru,
39, 40<
300
97, 174, 185,
Aparimitayusa-sutra, 128
44, 45, 97, 279, 296, 297, 319
Ajiuivada, 351
Apastamba, 341, 346, 347
Alambana-parlk§a\ 225
AranyaJ^as, 345
Aryadeva, 120, 221, 222, 272, 425
Alayavijnana, 123
AmaravatT, 111, 113, 116, 118,
Aryasura, 141
146,
149, 272, 277, 282, 283, 284, 287>
Arya Vairocana, 66
290, 291, 292, 293, 296, 300, 302,
Asahga, 79, 105, 122, 142, 222, 223,
231, 268, 270, 271, 381
336, 337, 338
Asoka,
Amatamahanibbana, 149
Ambattha-suttanta, 153
21,
87, 110,
56-60, 71,
182,
199,
266, 277,281, 287, 289,309,
Amita Buddha (Amitayur Buddha),
310,
312, 315, 318, 319,321, 322, 323,
127
Amitabha Buddha,
324, 325, 327, 329, 330,
69, 71, 128, 132,
Amitayurdhyana-sutra, 133
Assalayana-sutta, 3
Amoghavajra, 425
Assalayana-suttanta, 196
will
be observed,
335- 336,
383
133, 134, 251
*As
73, 83, 85,
201, 204, 260>
this index
is
terms associated with Buddhism, and
confined to the better
is
not exhaustive.
known names and
INDEX
490
Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita,
1
41
AsVaghosa, 141, 144, 199, 200, 211,
219, 220, 221, 353,406, 408
Asvajit, 25, 26, 374
see
Dipahkara Srljnana
Atthakatha, 218
AtthasalinT, 212,
Bimbisara, King of Magadha, 25, 27,
Biruni. Al, 201
Atanatiya-suttanta, 156
:
Bihar, 285, 286, 287, 310, 320
Bindusara, 56
149
Atinatiya-sutta, 376
Atisa, 78, 95
Bhiksu-vinaya, 110
Bkah hgyur, 142
Bodh Gaya, 23, 57,
64, 83, 211. 212,
229, 230, 236, 271, 275, 283, 287,
217, 218
309, 310, 323, 472,473, 475
Bodhibhadra, Bhiksu, 228, 229
Avadana-kalpalata, 195
Avadhutipada, 229, 231
Avalokita-sutras, 148
Bodhicaiyavatara, 231
Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, 162,203
Bodhidharma, 244-246
Bodhinath, 298
Bodhiprabha (Byang Chub Od), 233
Bodhiruci, 242, 249, 250
Avatarpsaka-sutra, 8
Ayuthia (Ayodhya), 52
Bodhisattva,
Bactria, 265, 266, 267, 276
235
Bahubuddha-sutra, 149
Bakhtyar
Khilji, 7
:
see also Bukhtyar
Balaputra, 285, 304
Balkh, 266, 267
Bamiyan, 266, 267, 294, 295, 296, 297
Bana, 202, 224, 269, 291
151,
155,
161,
23,
24,
106, 118, 202,
299, 350
Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, 232
Borobudur, 95, 282, 283, 298, 299,
300, 302, 305, 306, 309
Bdksei Chamkrong, 301
Bariaras,
:
230,
260,
Brahmajala (suttanta), 153, 155
Brahmana Drona, 279
Brahmana-vagga, 152
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad,
12,
346,
'352
270, 281, 312, 313
Basileus Soteros, 195
Bsanvyas, 76
Bsod-nams-rgya-mtso, 31
Baudhayana, 341, 346
Bdc-gsal-mi-rtog, 379
Bde-mchhog, 366
Buddha, 21, 23, 24,85, 199
Buddhabuaftkura, 150
Bedavrtti, 187
Buddhacarita, 141, 144, 145, 219, 220,
Basava, 356
Bstan-hgyur, 142, 195
353
Bedsa," 331, 332
Bhagavaia,
Buddhadatta, 139, 206, 207, 210, 211
Buddhadeva, 104, 149, 216
Bhagavadgita, 218, 269, 342, 344, 354
Buddha, Gautama, 185, 308, 309
Buddhaghosa, 38, 44, 139, 197, 206,
Begram
267, 291
3, 202, 344
Bhagavata Purana, 2
207, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215.
Bhaisajya Buddhas, 299
216, 217, 218, 339
Bhallika, 24, 151, 278
Bharhut,
277,
281,
284,
298,
302,
303, 310, 337
Buddhaghosuppatti, 210, 211
Buddha Kakusandha, 279
Bhartrhari, 187
Buddhamitta, 149, 216
Bhasa, 219
Buddhapalita, 120, 122, 222
Bhaskara Vat man, 273
Bhikku-patimokkha, 164,
168, 169,
170
BhikkhunT-vibhahga, 140, 163, 168
Bhiksunl-pratimoksa-sutra, 164
Buddhavamsa, 140
Buddhavatamsaka, 142
Buddhavatamsaka-sutra, 128
Buddhist Tantrism, 360-376
Bukhtyar Khilji, 177
INDEX
Burma,
53,
60.
54,
137,
86,
Chezarla, 338
143,
Chiengmai, 52
206, 230, 282, 283, 285, 286, 287,
356, 383
288, 294, 348,
457,
:
491
Chien-Lung, Emperor, 439
431,454,
460, 461, 462, 466, 472, 480
Chi-k'ai,
130
Chi-kwan, 130
China, 60, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70,
Bushido, 135
Bu-ston, 80, 111, 407
Byang-chhub,,366
71,
74,75,93, 108, 122, 124, 125,
127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133,
Caitanya,
3
135,142, 143, 184, 185, 206,
23fi,
Caitasika Dharmas, 115
240,241, 242,243,244,246,
252>
Caitya, 118, 355
255, 261, 262, 272, 274, 276, 282,
297, 298, 338, 356, 380, 397, 398,
Cakkavatti-sihanada suttanta, 156
CakravartF Mandhata, 291
422, 437, 439, 440, 441, 454, 458,
Caliya-parvata, 216
459, 460, 463, 472, 473, 480
Cambodia,
138,
53, 60,
214,
276,
QTing-choii, 262
288, 303, 434, 457, 460, 462, 480
Chinve, 338
Campa, 92, 93, 272, 276
Canda-kinnara Jataka, 152, 302
Chi-tsang, 129
Chos drug bsdus-pahi
Capata, 88
hzin-bris, 372
Chun-lun (Madhyamika-sastra), 129
Cariya-pitaka, 140, 141, 217
Ch'u-Wen-tai, 263
Celebes, 299
Cokkuka (Kashgar), 66
Cen-kwan, 246
Cen-ti, 242
Coja, Rajendra,
Ceti-Vamsa, 155
Constantine, 71
Cetiyagiri,
Ceylon,
59,
210,
322
85,
211,
First, 35-41, 318,
104, 136, 143, 206,
213,
214,
218,
255.
Third, 44-47, 479
Fourth, 47-50
288, 298, 299, 300, 322, 336, 337,
Culavamsa, 139
338, 356, 383, 386, 390, 395, 398,
Cullavagga,
402, 416, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430,
40,
43,
98,
432, 433, 441, 454,457, 458, 459,
Cunda, 28
Cyrenia, 59
Chabbaggiya, 97, 168
Ch'an (Dhyana), 125
Chandi Mendut, 294, 304
Chandogya Upanisad, 346
171,
Dajladavamsa, 279
Dalai Lama, Fifth, 81, 82
Dalai Lama, Seventh, 82
64
Dal-gsang-hdus-pa, 362
Chandraklrti, 120, 224
Chang-an, 240, 247, 256, 262, 263,274
Chattha Sangayana, 54
Dan
Dan
Chaukhandi, 313
Dasabhumlsvara, 141
Dandan
Uiliq,
296
(Jap. Zen), 125
(Tibet),
236
Ch'eng-shih-tsung, 241
Dasuttara (suttanta), 156
Che'n-Hing-hsu, 441
Dbu-ma-rtsa, 373
Chen-ti, 129
Dengyo-Daishi, 131
Chen-tu, 246
Chet Singh, Raja, 313
170,
173, 174, 175
461, 462, 466, 472, 473, 474, 480
11,
319,479
Second, 41-44,479
256, 261, 272, 276, 282, 283, 287,
Chandragupta
287
Councils, Buddhist, 271, 386
47, 48, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54,
60,
J,
Confucius, 67
1
Devadatta, 21, 27, 28, 97, 161, 170,
174, 293, 308, 318
INDEX
492
Dcvaguru Bodhiprabha, 234
Devanamapiya Tissa, 50, 85
Devapala-deva, 285
Stupa, 313, 314
Dhammacakkappavattana-sutta, 156
Dhammapada,
3
Ekayana, 128, 132
208
Elder Rohana, 208
Elder Nagasena, 209
Elder Assagutta,
Dge-lugs-pa, 81
Dhamckh
Ekanath,
Ekavyavaharika, 112
140, 156-159, 216, 371>
Fa-Fang, 441
383, 384
Dhammapadatthakatha, 216, 218
Dbammarakkhita, Yona Dhammarakkhita, 196
Fa-hien,
110,
125,
183, 184, 185,
188,
66,
64,
127, 128,
181,
201, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260,
Dhammaruci-nikaya, 136
261, 262, 269,
Dhammasangani, 140,
Dhammavijaya, 56
319, 320, 480
213, 217
274, 279, 312, 318,
Fa-sing-tsung, 128
Dharmavijaya, 464, 470
Dhammayuttika-nikaya, 138
Dhanakataka, 110
Fo-shwo-cie-tsie-cin
DharanT-pitaka, 363
Fo-shwo-o-mi-to-cin
Dhaimabodhi (Ta-ma-phu-thi), 244
DharmakTrti, 122, 225, 226, 395
Dharmalak$ana, 243, 246
Dharmapala, Acarya, 230
Dharmaraja, 282
Dharmarak$ita, 62, 246
Dharmasoka, 218, 339
Dharmottara, 395
Dhatupafha, 187
Dhyanabhadra, 8, 339
DhyanT Bodhisattvas,
DhyanT Buddhas, 299,
DTgha-nikaya,
153.
1,
94,
93,
Fondukistan, 295
Fo-shwo-pao-yu-cin
Ratna-
(the
megha-sutra), 249, 250
Gau^a, King
of,
202
Gandaraditya, 335
Gandavyuha, 141, 349
Gandhara, 64, 222, 233
258, 264,
338
265, 268,
Gandhavamsa, 211
Gandistotra-gatha, 220
366, 367, 370
Gathas, 144
12, 14, 58, 140, 152,
154, 387, 396, 403 404, 423.
428
Dinnaga, 122, 212, 224, 225, 395, 425
DTpankaia Srljnana, 78
DTpahkara Buddha, 38, 43, 44, 139,
191, 192,
194, 226-231, 233-235, 325, 389
Gautama Buddha,
21,
22,
23,
24,
280, 312, 320, 340
GautamT MahapajapatT,
3,
22
GautamTputra Satakarni, 334
GautamTputra Vihara, 333
Gavampati, 171
Gaya, 155, 162, 212, 260, 280, 286.
301, 308, 313
DTpavamsa, 279, 385
Gaya£r§a
Divakaramitra, 224
Ghantsala, 336
Divyavadana, 384
Dogcn, 72, 134, 252
Ghosaka, 419
Ghositarama Vihara, 322
Hill,
25
Dpal-hkhor-btsan, 78
Gilgit,
DutthagamanT, 86
Dvadasayatnani, 371.
Girnar, 328
GTtabhasya, 355
Dvags-po-Iha-rje, 378, 381
Goli, 338
Dvara-nikaya, 137
GomatT, Vihara, 256
Gosala Makkali, 345
Dvyasraya-kavya, 335
Sukha-
(the
vatyamrta-vyuha), 241
366, 367
147, 149, 150, 161, 162,
Sandhi-
(the
nirmocana-sutra), 243
12,
141,
143, .164,
170
INDEX
493
Hosso (Dharmalaksana), 131
Houci-Kouo, 132
Govindacandra, King, 312
Grdhrakuta, 319
Hphags-pa, 81
Grhavarma, 203
Greco-Buddhism, 267
Hsing-tsung, 129
gSer-glih-pa, 381
Hung-men, 68
Guhya-samSja Tantra, 371
Gunamati, 329
Huns, 266, 267, 268, 269
Huviska, 113
Gunarata, 242
Hwa-yen-cin-shi-tsz'-can-yun-cien-lei-
Guna Varman, 94
Gun- Than- Pa, Upasaka, 234
Gun Than, 234
Hwa-yen-sutra, 128
Hwa-yen-tsung, 129
Guru Gampopa, 376
Hwa-yen-yi-shan-ciao-i-fan-tshi-can,
cic,
Gurugunadharmakara, 234, 238
128
128
Guru-yoga, 378
Gusiwada, 336
Hwui-Li, 186, 189
Gyan-Tse, 299
Iddamalgoda Basnayaka Nilame,
51
Igen, 134
Hadda, 295
lksvaku, 338
Han, 261
India, 8, 21, 143
Han
Indo-China, 272, 276, 278
dynasty, 242
Haradatta, 347
Indonesia, 93, 94, 95, 276, 287
Hanti, 296, 298
Harivamsa, 355
Harivarman, 117
Ippen, 72, 134
Iran, 272,
Harsacarita, 224
Iroha-uta, 251
Haisa
Vardhana, 64,
Indus, 258, 268,273
75,
182-
108,
195,202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 257,
269, 273, 325, 357
Hatthaka, 168
#brom-ston, 79
Hbyung-ba, 373
:
see Sarnath
265
lsvarasena, 225
Itivuttaka, 140, 217
I-tsing,93,
186, 187,
Hetu-bindu, 226
Hetucakra-damaru, 225
Hetuvidya, 186, 187
HieJ,
Isipatan
Issiq-kul,
276
94,
112,
120,
190, 220, 222,
Jagaddala,
177,
65,
192
Jagarabhivamsa, 53
Hien-sheu-ta-shi, 128
Jagara Mahathera, 137
Higashi-hongan-ji, 399, 401
Jainas, 270, 354, 357
Hikkaduvc
Siri
Jaina shrines, 319
Sumahgala, 51
HTnayanist,
185,
225,255,
274-276
Mount, 131
Hlhayana,
183,
79, 94, 109,
143, 160,161, 162, 190, 201,219,
225, 264, 266, 267, 272, 287,
326,
350,383,410,416, 418,449,452
Jajali,
2
Jalandhara, 200, 269, 273
Jaliya (suttanta),
1
53
Jambhalas, 299
Hing- si-fang, fei-chi-ngo, 127
JambudvTpa, 208, 333
Hire-Gutti, 335
Japan, 60, 122, 126, 128, 131, 132,
Hkhor-lde (Jnanaprabha), 78
133, 134, 135, 142, 251, 255, 263,
Hobogirin, 142,392
283, 369, 370, 380, 441, 454, 457,
Honen, 133
458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 472,
Horyuji, 70, 255, 298
473, 480
INDEX
494
155,279
Japanese Zen Buddhism, 134,135,245
Kaliriga, 56,
Jataka, 110, 139, 140, 141, 144,
Kalikala-sarvajna, 230
179,
216, 277, 281, 288, 304, 332, 384,
Kalyana
436, 437
KamalasTla, 76, 122, 222, 226, 389
Sri,
227
Jataka-mala, 141, 187
Kamalagul>a, 112
Jatakatthakatha, 104, 216, 217
Kambuja:
Java,
Kampilya, 330
Kanada, 218
93,
261,
276, 282, 283, 285,
287, 288, 294, 299
Jaya Indravarman, King, 93
Jayakamadeva, King, 236
see
Kanakasri, 229, 235
Kanauj,60, 64, 75, 166, 203, 236,
257, 260, 269, 273, 312, 317
Jayakesin, 335
225,272
Jayasena, 272
Kahci,
Jayavarman
Kang Yu-wei,
Jayasila,
VII, King, 91
232:
Cambodia
also see
Appendix to
Chapter EX
26
397, 440
Kanhapa, 231
Kaiiiska, 38, 47, 49, 50, 60, 63, 105,
Jeta, Prince,
195, 199, 200, 201, 202, 219, 222,
Jetavana, 26, 136, 152, 173, 216, 317
258, 268, 294
Jimuta Vahana, 202
Kanjur, 142
Jinagupta, 265
Knnkhavitaranf, 215
Jitari,
Acarya,
Appendix
227, 228: also see
Chapter IX
Jiun Sonja, 399
to
Jfvaka, 173
Kao-chang (Turfan),
66, 263
Kapila, 218, 346
Kapilavastu, 21, 26, 28, 82, 149, 151,
155,
170, 216, 260, 270, 279, 431
Jnanagupta, 159
Kapisa, 267, 268, 273
Jnanaprabha, 232, 233, 235, 237, 238
Jnanasri Mitra, 230
Karanda-vyuha, 384
Jiiana-siddhi, 359
Karma,
Jodo, 131, 132, 133, 136
Kashgar, 200, 240, 257, 274
Kashmir, 200, 201, 222, 223,
Jodo-shin, 131, 133, 251
Jojitsu (Satyasiddhi-sastra), 131
Kara-Yhahr, 239, 256, 264
170, 200, 374
232>
238, 239, 240, 268, 269, 287
Ju-ju~shin-ron, 251
Kasia,315
Jyotipala, 215, 339
Kasikavrtti, 187
Jyotipalamanava, 147
Kasi-Kosala, 155
Kassapa, Coliya, 428
Kabir, 357
Kassapa,
Kabul, 196, 267
Kaccayana, 139, 314
Kassapa-slhanada-suttanta, 154
and 11,
Kajahgala- 205, 208
Kadaphises
1
18, 20, 151,
280
Kas>apa Buddha, 147
199,
Kakkata Jataka, 302
Kakusandha, 151
202
Kasyapiyas, 108, 109, 247
Kasyapa Matanga, 124
Kasyapa, 323
Kasyapa of Uruvela, 25
Kalandaka, 166
Katha-vatthu, 99, 114, 119, 140, 217
Kalacakra, 239, 363
Kathavatthu-pakarana, 47
Kalasan, 95
Katyayana, 39: also see Kaccayana
Kau Hwei-wen, 126
Kalasi (Kalasigamo), 197
Kalasoka, 44
Kalhana, 201
Kalidasa, 219,296
KausambI, 42, 60, 64, 216, 260, 270,
280, 321, 322
Keddah, 89
INDEX
Kegon (Avatamsaka),
495
Kurkihar, 285, 286
131, 134
Ken-mitsunikyo-ron, 251
Kuru-Pancala, 155
Kevatta
Kusha (Abhidharma-kosa),
(sutta),
154
Khandhakas,
163,
140,
170-175
28, 230,
6,
474
274
Kiitadanta-sutta,
Khri-sron-lde-btsan, 75, 76, 77,
238
Kutadanta-suttanta, 153
Khuddaka-nikaya, 140, 152, 153,
217
216,
65, 66, 73, 240, 256, 257,
Khuddaka-patha,
140, 216,
217
Kuthodaw
1
temple, 432
Kwei-ki, 127
Kwanjin, 132
Kiai-hien, 127
Kyang-ma-rtsa, 373
Kittima Bhiksu, 421
Kyanzittha, 88
Kittisiri
Rajasingh, 426
Kin-kang-chi (Vajramati),
Kyo-gyo-shinsho, 251
1
27
Kin-she-pi-ye-pu (KasyapTyas), 247
Ladakh, 73,78,457
Kisa Samkicca,
Lakkhana-suttanta, 156
4, 17
Kiyozumi, 136
Kizii,
31
:
Kusinara,
Kharosthf, 195, 199
Khotan,
1
Kusinagara, 154, 155,270, 279,308,
315
see also Kusinara
Khai-Yuen-lu, 247
296
Lalitavistara, 141, 144, 145,
151, 159,
305
Koliyas, 279
Lama
Konagamana, 151, 280
Kondanna Buddha, 150
Lamaism, 191, 363
Lanka see Ceylon
Kongobuji, 251
Unkavatara-sutra, 123, 141, 357, 384
Konkanapura, 280
Kosala,21,60, 64, 308, 316
Laos, 432, 435, 454, 457, 462
Koya-san, 132
Lde-Chug-gon, 232
Kroraina (Loulan), 66
Krsigrama, 148
Lhasa, 74, 78, 81, 82, 191, 239, 425
Ksantivadin, 288
Liang Chi-chao, 397
Ksemendra, 195
Ksitigarbha, 236
Liang Wu-ti, 244
Lieu Hing-si, 126
Ksitigarbha-sutra, 438
Lii
Kuan
Liu Chih-tien, 439
Yin, 261
Taranatha, 188
:
Lao-tseu, 67
Li Se, 339
Kuang, 240
Kubiraka, 337
Lohicca (suttanta), 153
Kuci, 239, 240
Lokkigundi, 336
Kukai (Kobo Daishi), 132
Kukkutarama, 99
Kukkutika(Gokulika), 112
Kula-cudamani Tantra, 365
KumaradevT, 312, 317
Lo-yan, 246
Kumarajiva, 125-129, 159, 221, 239,
241,248
Kumara Kassapa, 155
Luh-'rh-shi-'rh-min-liao-lun
Kumaralabdha (Kumaralata), 221
Kundalavana Vihara, 200
Kundalini Yoga, 360
Kun-pien-fan-pieh-lun (the Madhyantavibhaga-sastra) 244
Lo-yang, 124,262,274
Luang Prabang, 435
Lu-chen, 441
LumbinI, 21, 82, 83, 270, 308, 309, 321
vinaya
-
sastra),
dvavimsati
-
(the
prasannartha-
244
Maccha-Surasena, 155
Madhyamika,
120, 121,
122, 124>
127,129, 131, 220,221, 222, 241,
363,390, 391, 394, 409,480
INDEX
496
Magadha,
112, 113,
21, 55, 60, 64,
230, 242, 260, 271, 275, 285,308,
318
Mahabharata, 2,
481, 482
Mahabhasya, 187
3,
269, 344, 355»
(yinist, ylnism),
63,
7,
69,93,95,96,105,109,112, 116,
117,118,119,120,126, 130, 132,
136, 141, 143, 159, 160,
190, 219,
221,223,224,239,242, 243, 247,
249, 272, 273, 350, 358, 363,
Mahabodhivanpsa, 144
Mahadeva, 9, 115, 116, 117
Mahagovinda (suttanta), 155
Mahakassapa, 35, 36, 37, 38,
52, 63, 78,
MahaySna
39, 47,
110, 148, 175, 319
Mahakosala, 272
Mahali (suttanta), 153
378,
382,383,392,394,401, 406, 407,
408,410,412,416,418, 425, 443,
444,448,449,452,454,481
Mahendra, 56, 59, 85, 86, 322
Mahinda,45, 47, 50, 213
Mahirakula (Mihirakula), 269
MahTsasaka, 38, 104, 105, 108, 113,
120, 217, 247
Mahamaudgalyayana, 146
see also
MoggallSna, Mahamaudgalyayana
Mahanidana (suttanta), 154
Maitri Gupta, 228
Mahaniddesa, 23
Mahanikaya, 138
Majjhima, 41,215, 354
Majjhima-nikaya, 140, 152, 164, 196,
Maha-paccarT, 215
Mahapadana-sutta, 144
207
Malaya, 89, 94, 230, 275, 287, 472,
:
Mahapadana
480
(suttantas), 154
Mahaparinibbana-sutta,
Maitreyanatha, 223
6, 40, 98, 144,
Mandhatu
Jataka, 302
Maftgala Buddha, 147
154, 173, 224, 448
Mahaparinibbana-suttanta, 154,
155
MahapajapatlGautamT,
3, 448
MahaprajapatT GautairJ, 22, 39, 175
Mahaprajna-paramita, 241
Mahaprajna-paramita-sastra, 129, 409
Mahaprajnaparamita-sutra, 248
Mahaprajfia-paramita-sutra-s'astra,
Manikyala, 282
ManjusrT, 161,328
MaffjusrTmulakalpa, 142, 362
ManorathapuranT, 215, 339
Manu, 354
Mara, 23, 24, 148
Maravijayottungavarman, 304, 339
Marlci, 299
130
Mathura,
MahasamTSahgharaja, 90
Mahasanghika(s), 99, 100, 104, 106,
107,109,110,111,112, 113, 114,
115,117, 118,119, 144,
145,146,
60,
63, 64,
99,
302
Matikatthakatha, 215
26, 28, 149
175,218,247, 348,362, 479
Maudgalyayana, 25,
Mahasatipafthjin^-suttanta, 155
Meghamanava, 147 /
Mahasthavira Revata, 212, 213
Meghavarna,
Mahasudassana-suttanta,
Menander,* King, 32, 61,
1
Mahasupina Jataka, 306
Mahavagga, 43, 140, 163,
55
170,
171,
143,
38,
39,
144, 145-149,
MahavTra, 320
see
111,
151,
196,
269
Menander
198, 199, 207, 208,
195,
209
Mithyadrsti, 353
144, 211, 214, 383
Mahavastu,
:
Milinda-panha, 139,
38, 44, 45, 50, 51, 139,
195,
Mettiya-Bhummajaka, 97
Milinda
Mahavaipulya-sutra, 160
Mahavamsa,
KTrti Sri, 211
197, 198, 199, 207, 208,
174, 385
178, 230,
259, 269, 284, 285, 289, 291, 292,
114,
141,
MhahRis',237,238
155,
159
Moggaliputta, 323
Moggaliputta Tissa, 45, 62
196,
197,
7
INDEX
497
Nepal,
Moggaliana, 139, 477
Mongolia, 143, 369, 457, 472, 480
383, 457, 463, 472, 480
Maitrlpa (Avadhutipa), 231
Ne Than,
Mou-tseu, 67
Netti,
191, 238, 239
218
Netti-pakarana, 139
Mowgli, 272
Mula-sarvastivada(vadins),
141,
124, 143, 234, 236,
7, 21, 84,
237, 281, 282, 285, 298, 299, 369,
Moksagupta, 265
83,
87,
Nichiren, 72/ 131, 135, 252
Nidanakatha,
145, 170, 416
151, 152,
Mundaka, 9
144,
148, 149,
145,
386
Niddesa, 110, 140
Nadapada (or Narottamapada), 229
Naga Gopala, 267
Nagananda, 202
15,
16,
156
144, 164, 215
Nikayas, 44, 141,
216,
349, 350
Naga Mucalinda,
302, 303
Niranjana, 171
Nagarjuna, 49, 80, 120, 121, 126, 129,
130, 141, 212, 220, 221, 222,
337, 351, 352, 362, 374, 419,
Nagarjunakonda, 111,
272»
425
113, 116, 118»
146, 277, 284, 291, 293,300, 302,
314, 336,
Nigantha Nataputta,
Nirvana, 142, 270, 370, 379
Nissaggiya pacittiya, 165, 167, 168
Nyaya-bhasya, 226
Nyaya-dvara-tarka-s'astra, 187
225
Nyaya-pravesa,
Nyaya-sutra, 353
338
Nagasena, 196, 197, 198, 206, 207,
208, 209
Nyaya-vartika, 225
Nyaya-vartika-tatparya-tlka, 226
Nagasena, Mahathcra, 207
Nagathera, 439
Obaku,
Naiyayikas, 352, 354
Nalagiri, 308
Odivisa, 225
Nalanda, 64, 65, 76, 95,
188,
189, 190,
134
131,
OdantapurT, 65, 177, 191, 192
177,
186,
192, 227, 228, 229,
231, 246, 251, 271, 272, 275, 285,
286, 287, 299, 304, 322, 325, 326.
329, 339, 418
:
see also Orissa
O-phi-ta-mo-ku-sho-shih-lun
244
O-phi-ta-mo-shun-can-li-lun
(the
Abhidharma-nyayanusara-sastra),
Nanda, 220
248
Nalanda, University
of,
75, 79, 95,
Orissa,
1,
127, 205, 272, 278, 360
182, 185, 190, 193, 194, 204, 205
Nalanda Mahavihara, 225, 325
Nan-ngo, 126
Pa-chj, 397, 398
Nanda Vaccha,
Padmasambhava,
17
Nanissara Thera, 401
76, 226,
482
Nanking, 127, 226, 242, 244, 440
Panca-sila, 438,
Panini, 187, 344, 355
Nara, 255, 298
Pramlna-vartika, 226
MahSthera, 432
Naradatthera, 439
Paftfraloka,
Naropa, 79, 228, 229, 381
PapancasudanI, 215
9,
11
299
Pancappakaranattha katha, 2 1
Nanodaya, 212
NasadTya-sukta,
(the
Abhidharma-kosVvyakhy3-sastra)»
ParamatthadrpanT, 217
Nayapala, King, 237, 253
Paramatthajotika, 217
Nei-phan-chin (Mahanirvana-sQtra),
Paramatthamaiu usa, 217-218
Piramitas, 33, 150, 151, 162
130
Nenbutsu, 133, 136
Parileyyaka, 216
INDEX
498
Pataliputra, 44, 46, 54,
103,
59, 99,
56,
110, 112, 146, 184, 196,208,
Rakhhita, Mahathera, 51
Ral-pa-chen, 77
Ramagrama, 270, 279
Ramanuja, 356
Ramapala, 192
Ramapurva, 283, 294, 321
242, 260, 271, 321
Patanjali, 187, 212
Patthana-atthakatha, 218
PatidesanTya, 165
Patimokkha, 215
Ran-byun-rdo-rje, 80
Patisambhida, 110, 140
Peta-vatthu, 217
Rastrakuta, 330, 334
Ratana-sutta, 148
Phyag-rgya-chhen-po, 370
Ratnabhadra
Pingala-nadT, 373
232, 238
279
Ratnakara,
Pippalivana,
Ratnakarasanti,
karaiantipada,
Piyadassl, 383
Porbandar, 328
Ratnaprabha, 233
Posadhasthapana, 170
Prabhakara Vardhana, Maharajadhi-
RatnavalT, 202
raja,
203
Pracchannabauddha, 352
Prajria, 101, 102, 115, 117,
130, 351,
Revata, 43
:
see also Mahasthavira
Revata Sahajati, 43
Revata, Mahasthavira, 212, 213
Rgveda, 9, 11, 385
Rinsai, 131, 134, 135
365,449,450,451
Prajna-paramita(s),
236
Ratnakuta, 142
90
89,
Ratna-
230, 231, 235,
Ratnakfrti, 230, 235
Piyaratanatissa, 427
Pong Tuk,
(Rin-Chhen-Zang-Po).
142,
289,
397,
Ritsu (Vinaya), 131
Rupasiddhi, 139
407, 411
Prajna-paramita-hrdaya, 399
Pramana-samuccaya, 225
Pramana-sastra-nyayapravesa, 225
Pramana-viniscaya, 226
Prascnajit, 26, 316
Pratimoksa, 108
see also Patimok-
:
§addanta Jataka, 288
Saddharma-pundariKa, 132, 136, 141 ;
159-162, 349, 355, 384
Saddharma-pundarika-sutra, 224, 252
Sadvargiya, 97
Saga), Sagala, Sakala
kha
Pratitya-samutpada, 114,
121,
162,
(Sialkot),
61,
197, 269
317
374, 425, 449
Praritya-samutpada-hrdaya, 425
Pratltya-samutpada-tathata, 104
Saheth-Maheth,
Pratyeka-buddhas, 281
Puggalapannatti, 140, 217
Sakaymo Bodo (Sakyamuni Buddha),
Pulakesin
II,
Sailendra(s), 95,
202
f
Sakyamnni,
228, 349
272
Purana Kassapa, 17
22, 26, 83, 148, 149, 152
Rajagrha, 25, 27, 35, 36, 37, 54, 55>
Rahula,
98,
104,
149,
152,
173,
216, 229, 260, 271, 279,
478
:
see also
Sra-
vasti
287
74, 82, 136, 146, 147, 154,
Samannaphala-sutta, 12, 14, 16, 18
Samannaphala-suttanta, 153
175,
189,
Samanta-pasadika, 38, 43, 44, 215, 443Sambhogakaya, 119
308
318,
Sambhuta SanavasT,
32,
42
Samjna, 12
Rajaraja I, 287, 304
RajataranginI, 49, 201
Sammohavinodani, 217, 218
Rajyasri, 108, 203, 205
Samudra Gupta, Maharaja, 211
Sampasadanlya-suttanta, 156
INDEX
499
Samyak-Sambuddhas, 160
Shi-Va-Chho, 227
Samyutta-nikaya, 106, 140, 152, 374
Sho-bo-gen-zo, 252
Sanchi, 64, 277, 281, 284, 321, 322,
Shoguns, Shogunate, 73, 135
Shotoku, 70, 255
323, 324, 337, 477
Sanghamitta (Sanghamitra),
45,
47,
Siam,
137,143,206,288, 302, 303,
454, 457, 460, 462, 472
59, 85
Sanjaya Belatthiputta, 18
Siddha Damrupa, 231
Siddha Smrtyakara, 231
Sanjna, 102
Siddhapur,*3 35
Sanjaya, 14, 19, 20, 25
Siddhartha, 21, 170, 236, 280, 292,
Sankara, 352, 353, 362
Sarikasya, Sankisa,
tha), 60,
306
Samkassa (Kapi-
166, 260, 269, 291,
303,
Siddhas, 228, 229, 230, 231,368
Siddhasar, 328
308, 317, 318
Siddhi, 271
Sans-rgyas-rgya-mtso, 82
Santaraksita
,
(Acarya),
75,
76,
83,
Sigalovada-sutta, 58
Sigiriya, 301
122, 222, 226, 227, 238, 389
Santibhadra, 231
Sikkim, 80, 457, 472
Santideva, 120, 222, 231
Silabhadra, 146, 186,
194, 255,
271,
325
Santiparva, 2
,
Santisiri,
Siladitya, 203
338
Saptaparni, Sattaparnl, 36, 175,
318'
Sllahar, 334
Silamanju, 83
319
Saratthappakasim, 215
Simha-Vaktra, 225
Sariputra, Sariputta, 25, 26, 28, 149'
Singalovada-suttanta, 156
Singasari, 307
323, 476
Sariputraprakarana, 219, 220
Si-pu-luh,
Sarnath, 25, 57, 64, 83, 230, 260, 283
Siri
285,301,312,313,314,382,476
109, 116, 119, 141,
63, 93, 105-
200, 219,
Sitlanavasal, 301
Si-yu-ki, 193
Sarvabhibhii Buddha, 147
Sarvastivada(vadinsy48,
126
Nissanka, 462
223,
Sona, 87, 215, 286, 287
Sonadanda-suttanta, 153
Sonakojivisa, 172
240,241,393,394
Sasanavarpsa, 137
Song-yun, 66
Sa-skya, 80
Sonuttara, 208
Sa-skya-pa, 81
Soreyya, 43, 166
Satavahana(s), 63, 220, 336
Sovira, 155
Saundarananda, 141, 200, 219
Spu-ch'uan, 262
Sekhiya, 163, 168
170
Sha-ki, 260
Spwang, 78
Spyod-pa, 380
Shan-tao (Jap. Zcndo), 128, 133
Sragdhara, 220
Shao-lin-ssu, 125
Sravasti, Savatthi,
Shc-lun-tsung, 242, 243
f
15, 149,
216, 230, 260, 270, 308,
Shen-si, 124
Srigarbha, 227
Shcs-rab, 366
j£ri-Vijaya, the
kingdom
152, 167,
316, 317
of,
94, 275,
276
Shingon, 131, 132, 251, 369
Shinkot, 195, 198
Shinran, 72, 133, 134, 252
Sriyajna Satakarni, 333
Sbintoism, 70
Ssu-lun-tsung, .127
/
Sron-btsan-sgam-po, 73, 74, 75, 78, 83
5
INDEX
500
SthanesWa, 269
"Tang T'ai-tsung, 262, 441
Sthiramati, 122, 123, 224, 329
Tan-Ian (Jap. Donlan), 127
Subahu, 171
Subhadda, 35, 36, 40, 97
Suddhodana, 21, 26, 27,
Tan Szutung, 440
Tannisho, 251
149,
151,
260, 290, 295
etc.).
Suhrllekha, 222, 253
Sui,'
Tantra (Tantras, Tantric, Tantrism,
127, 131, 132, 142, 251,268,
326, 358, 359, 360, 363, 364, 371,
372, 375, 376
262
Taoism, 245
Sujata, 4, 23
Sukha-prabhasvara-nirvikalpa, 379
Taoist,
SukhavatT-vyuha, 443
Ta-pan-jo-po-Io-mi-to-chin
Su manga la vilasinT, 215
185
Sumatikirti, 235
Ta-pao-tsi-cin
Sumatra, 94, 230, 231, 263, 275, 285,
287, 288
Sumsumara-giri, 216
Sunyata, 126, 222, 235, 365, 366, 370
Suprajna (Legs-Pahi-Shes-Rab), 232
Surascna, 209
Surahgama-sutra, 438
Suryasoma, 240
Susumna, 373
Sutta-pitaka, 38, 48,
sutra),
Maharatnakuta-
(the
250
Tapussa, 24, 151, 278
Tara, 336
Taranatha, 81, 190, 285
Tardu Shad, 266
Tarka-sastra, 224
Ta-shan-chan-yeh-lun
Karma.
(the
siddhaprakarana-sastra), 248
Ta-shan-cie-ye-shan-tin-cin (the sutra
140,
142,
152-
156
of the Mahayana),
250
ja-shan-cin-kan-ci-cu-phu-sa-siu-hhin
Suttanipata, 13,
140,141, 144, 216*
219, 384
fan-cin
mani
Sutta-vibhahga, 163
-
sutra),
Suvarna-bhumi, 59, 87
Suvarna-deva, 264
(the
Mahayanasajra-cuda-
bodhisattva
-
carya
Tathagata, 213, 215, 308
Tathagata guhyaka, 141
Suvarna-puspa, 264
SQyagada, 12, 18
Svayambhunatha, 282
Tathagataraksita, 235
Tathata, 119*
Tattva-yoga, 371
Syadvada, 16
Tendai, 131, 369
TA-ci-TU-LUN(Mahaprajnaparamita-
Thabs, 366
Tevijja (suttanta),
sutra-sastra), 130, 241
Tai-Hsu, Rev., 397-399, 440, 441,
461
273,
154,
155
Thailand, 51, 52, 53, 10, 86, 89, 90,
92, 138, 206, 287,288, 294, 302,303,
398, 426, 432,
Tai-tsung, Emperor, 74, 263, 274
433, 434, 436, 441,
454, 457, 460, 462, 472, 480
284,
293, 314, 321
Talaja, 328, 329
Than, 127
Thanton (Sudharnmavatl),
Ta-mo-liu-ci, 249
459
Thera Bhadanta Sfha, 335
Tamralipti, 64, 230, 256, 272, 275
Tang (dynasty), 246, 247, 249, 250»
Thera Buddhamitta, 215
Thera Buddha Siri, 21
255, 264, 274, 276
varga-
Ta-Shan-pu (Mahayana), 247
Ta-shung-pu (Mahasanghika), 247
Suvarna-dvTpa, 95, 230, 285, 304
258, 268,
-
250
Suvarna-prabhasa, 141
Taksasila, 63,
(Mah3-
prajnaparamita-sQtra), 130, 245, 248
Thera Dathanaga, 215
87,
88,
INDEX
Thcra
Thera
Thcra
Thera
Thcra
5 0I
Dhammapala, 217
Udyana (Uddiyana),
Moggaliputta, 45
Udyantapun, 76
Udyotakara, 225, 353
Siggava, 45
Unadi-sutras, 187
47
Thera-gatha, 140, 217
Hieravada, 136, 212, 217, 367, 371
TherT-gatha, 4,
237
Thuparama,
Odanta-
puri
Sanghapala, 213
Tissa, 46,
64, 258, 268
also see
:
Upali (Yen-po-li; U-P-Li), 26, 35, 38.
217, 350
140,
Unrai Wogihara, 401
Upadcsa-sastras, 200
40, 126, 149, 174, 175
Tho-lin,
Upananda, 97
50, 282, 301
Tibet, 7, 60, 124, 132, 142, 143, 226>
Upanisads,
11,
12,
353
232, 235, 237, 238, 276, 361, 369,
Upatissa, 218
370, 372, 380, 441, 457, 460, 463,
Upaya, 366, 367, 373
Uposatha (Posadha), 171, 172
Uppalavanna, 4
472, 480
Tibetan
:
Lamaism,
scriptures,
361,
129,
Tantric
Tripitaka,
195,
Uruvela, 151
Uttara, 43, 86, 87, 287
Yoga, 373
Tien-Shan, 265
Uttaradhyayana-slitra, 16
Tien-t'ai, 126, 128. 130, 131, 132, 397
Vacaspati, 353
Tien-t'ai-tsung, 130
T'icn-ts'in,
440
127,
Vacaspati Misra, 226
Tikanipata, 16
Vadanyaya, 226
Tilopa, 228, 372, 381
Vada-Vidhi, 224
Ti-Iun-tsung
(the
Dasabhumika
School), 250
Vaibhara, 318, 319
Vaipulya-sutra, 141
Tissa Moggaliputta, 45
Vairocanaraksita, 235
Tocharian, Tocharish, 263, 264
VaifelT, 6, 41,*43, 54, 60, 98, 112, 146,
To-Lien, 438
148, 166, 174, 175,216, 260, 270.
Tri-dandin, 354
279, 308, 320, 321
Tri-Hai,* 438
Tripitaka, 47, 50, 53, 88,
Vaisesikas, 352, 380, 381
108, 139,
140, 142, 213, 221, 249, 459,
480
Vajira-nana, Mahathera, 430
Vajji-Malla, 155
Tshin-i, 242
Vajjiputtaka, 174, 175
Ts'ing-yuen, 126
Vajracchedika, 443
Tson-kha-pa, 79, 80, 81
Tu Hwei-yang, 126
Vajrapani, 293
Vajracchedika-prajna-paramita, 224
Tun-huang, 68, 256, 274, 297
Vajrasana, 211, 231, 236
Turfan, 220, 263, 264, 2#$, 266, 296,
Vajrasana Mahavihara, 229
Tusita, 149
Vajrasanipada, 229
Udabhan?a (Udakakhanda), 268
Vajrasn (Dorje Dpal), 238
VajrasucT, 3, 384
Vajrayana, 358, 359, 361, 368, 370
Udana, 140, 217
Udanavarga, 353
ValabhT, 177, 185, 190, 272, 329, 330
UdayT, 167
Valahassa Jataka, 302
Uddaka Ramaputta (Udraka Rama-
VaHk*rama, 175
Vabriiki, 219
putra), 23, 156
Vaipsarakkhita, 439
Udumbarika-sThanada-sutta, 16
Udumbarika-sThanada-suttanta,
1
56
Vanaprastha,
10,
347
INDEX
502
Vinaya, 38, 126, 131, 137, 139, 142,
Varahapurana, 355
Varaprabha Bodhisattva, 161
Vinaya-dhara, 111
Vinaya-pitaka,
123, 141, 212, 222,223, 224, 225
140,
178,
180, 210,
Vinaya-vibhasa, 48
Vinaya-vibhasa-sastras, 200
Vinaya-vinicchya, 210
Vasudhamma, 218
104,
141.
139,
384, 385, 386
122,
268, 270, 271, 392
114, 199,
111,
144, 162-175,
142,
Vasubandhu, 49, 83, 105, 107,
Vasumitra, 98,
180, 187, 200,
144, 173,175, 179,
215
Varsaganya, 353
Varsakara, 297
Va&ska, 202
Vassakara, 6
Vassavasa, 171, 172
Vinitadcva, 107, 111, 114
105,
107,
109
200
Vipassl, 144, 154
VTrasaiva, 356
Vatsa, 321
Vi&kha,
Vatsiputriya, 107, 225
Vi§nu-sukta, 11
Vatsyayana, 225
Visuddhimagga, 139, 213, 214, 216,
Vattagamani, 50, 86
Vedana, 211
Vedas,
1,
4, 26,
149, 152
217,218
186, 208, 271, 354
Vemana, 356
Wang
Wei, 452
Wan-shu-sh'-li-pao-tsan-tho-lo-ni-cin
Manjusri-ratnagarbha-dharanl
Veranja, 165, 216
(the
Vethadipa, 279
sutra),
250
Wan-shu-sh'-li-phu-man-hwui
Vetulyavadins, 136
Wei-shi-lun, 127
Vibhasa-s'astras, 200, 222
Wei-shi-'rh-shi-lun
Wei-shi-san-shi-lun
Vidya-
(the Vidyamatra-
slddhi-tridasa-sastra), 248
Vidisa, 56, 322
Vidudabha, 28
Vidyadharas, 306
shi-lun),
«the
matrasiddhi-sastra), 248
Vidarbha, 221
Videha, 155
Vidyamatrasiddhi-sastta
(the
Samantamukha-parivarta), 250
Vibhanga, 140, 217
Vibhahgavagga, 152
Wei-shi-siang-kiau, 127
(Chen-wei-
243
Wcn-CrTeng. 74
Wu-cho, 127
Wu-lian-sheu-ju-lai-hwui
(the
Ami-
Viet-Nam, 93, 136, 437, 438,480
Vijayapala, 230
Vijayasambhava, 66
Vijitavl, Emperor, 150
Yabyum, 370
Vijnana, 242, 358
Yajhasri Gautamfiputra, 220, 222
tayusa-vyiiha), 250
Wu
Tso-thien, 249
Vijnanavada, 127, 243, 246, 382
Yaksas, 284
Vijnanavadins, 373, 380, 381
Yaksis, 284
Vijnaptimatrata-siddhi, 123, 224
Yamapata, 305
Yama-sukta, 11
Yang Wen-hui, 398
Vikrarnapurl, 65
Vikramaftla, 7, 65, 78, 95, 177, 182>
188,190,191,194, 227, 229, 230>
231,233, 234, 235, 360
Yarkand 200, 240, 274
Yaia, 42, 151
Vimana-vatthu, 140, 217
Vimsika, 224
Yasodhara, 22, 26, 148, 149, 151
Yasomati, 202
Vimuttirnagga, 218
Yasomitra, 49, 187, 224, 421
INDEX
503
90,110,112,113,120,125,127,181
Yas'ovarman, King, 91, 189
Yen Ts'ung, 247
184,
Yer-Va, 239
Yin-lun (Hctusastra), 247
200, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208,
(the
Nyayadvaratarka-sastra), 249
(the
Hetu-
vidya-nyayapravesVsastra), 249
Yi Tien Lu, 69
Yiu-po-li-hwui
189, 190, 194, 195,
188,
221, 242, 243, 246, 247, 248, 250,
Yin-min-can-li-man-Iun-pan,
Yin-min-nin-can-U-lun
186,
(the Vinayaviniscaya-
Upali-pariprccha), 250
255, 257,
262-74,
258,
275,
280,
294, 310, 312, 313, 315, 316, 319,
320,
321, 325, 327,
329, 339, 422,
480
Yuan
Yuan
Hiao, 69
T'so, 69
Yueh-chi, 200
Yiu-shan-ni, 242
Yuganaddha, 370
Yogacara, 79, 116, 271, 352, 382
Yogacara-bhumi-sastra, 223
Yoga-mi-kiau, 127
Yun Kang,
68, 297
Yuzunenbutsu, 131,
132
:
see
also
Nenbutsu
Yoga-sastra, 264
Yonakas
(Skt.
Yavana), 196, 197
Yuan Chwang,
Zen Buddhism,
134,
380
Yonas, 196
36, 37, 48, 49, 66, 75,
Zla-od-gzhon-nu, 378
135,
252, 361,
2500 Years of Buddhism (by Prof. P. Y. Bapat)
Sixth century B.C. was remarkable for the spiritual
unrest and intellectual ferment in many countries. In China
we had Lao Tzu and Confucius, in Greece Parmenides and
Empedocles, in Iran Zarathustra, in India Mahavira and the
Buddha. In that period many remarkable teachers worked
upon their inheritance and developed new points of
view.
The Purnima or full-moon day of the month of Vaisakha
is connected with three important events in the life of the
Buddha— birth, enlightenment and parinirvana. It is the
most sacred day in the Buddhist calendar. According to the
Theravada Buddhism, the Buddha's parinirvana occurred in
544 B.C.1 Though the different schools of Buddhism have
their independent systems of chronology, they have agreed
to consider the full-moon day of May 1956 to be the 2,500th
anniversary of the mahaparinirvana of Gautama the Buddha.
This book gives a short account of the story of Buddhism in
the last 2,500 years....Read more
