ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Evaluation of P16INK4A as a Biomarker in Cervical Intraepithelial
Neoplasia
Shilpa Kava1, Shalini Rajaram2, Vinod K Arora3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Cervical screening would beneit from a test
based on a disease-speciic biomarker that identiies high
grade lesions, which could also indicate the presence of early
precancerous lesions that have a high risk of progression to
cancer. One such potential biomarker is p16INK4A. Objective of
the study was to study the biomarker p16INK4A expression by
immunostaining in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia.
Material and method: Experimental study conducted from
November 2009 to April 2011. 1500 women were screened
for cancer cervix using conventional Pap test, VIA and VILI.
Women having positive results underwent colposcopy and biopsy if required. P16INK4A expression in biopsy samples was
studied using immunohistochemistry.
Results: All test positive cases n= 235, underwent colposcopy.
Colposcopic abnormalities were detected in n=83 and biopsy
proven cervical intraepithelial neoplasia(CIN) in n=15. P16INK4A
expression was seen in eight of 15 CIN cases. The strength of
positivity of P16INK4A was higher in CIN 2 and CIN 3 cases as
compared to CIN 1. Also, the pattern of staining differed among
various grades of CIN.
Conclusion: P16INK4A expression was seen in majority of CIN
2 and CIN 3 lesions suggesting a higher grade lesion as compared to CIN 1. The discrimination between the lesions can be
made without having to depend on traditional histopathology
which gives a static picture of pre-invasive lesions of the cervix. This can help in differentiating high grade lesions from
the lower grades, thereby helping in appropriate management
of the cases.
Keywords: Cervical intraepithelial neoplasia, P16INK4A,
PAP smear, colposcopy, cervical cancer
In developing countries simple, inexpensive visual based
screening programs can be applied to a large population.3,4
VIA is a valuable screening tool in low-resource settings;
however it has low sensitivity and speciicity.5
Randomised controlled trials published recently have
demonstrated that HPV testing can be eficiently integrated
into primary screening, either as an adjunct to cytology or
as a sole primary test.6,7 A single HPV DNA test although
conirms infection by the virus, it does not discriminate between transient and persistent infection.8 The discrimination
between the two types of infection is crucial as persistent
infections can progress to cervical neoplasia.9
Thus cervical screening would beneit from a test based on
a disease-speciic biomarker that identiies high grade lesions. Such a marker would be useful if it could also indicate
the presence of early precancerous lesions that have a high
risk of progression to cancer. One such potential biomarker
is p16INK4A. Some preliminary studies suggest that p16INK4A
positive low grade lesions showed a greater frequency of
progression than p16INK4A negative lesions.10
p16INK4A is a gene that is expressed by host cells in response
to infection, and is not normally expressed in non-transformed cells.11 In cervical carcinomas, the viral DNA of hrHPV (i.e. HPV 16 and 18) is integrated into the host genome at
the E2 region, resulting in overexpression of the oncoproteins
E6 and E7. The E6 binds with the host p53 tumor suppressor gene protein product and degrades it, thereby disrupting
its cell regulatory role.10 The E7 binds to and inactivates the
tumor suppressor retinoblastoma protein (pRB) that inhibits
the progression of cells into the S-phase. Consequently, loss
of pRB function should result in the release of the p16INK4A
gene from negative transcriptional feedback control in the
Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, The
Oxford medical college hospital & Research centre, Bangalore,
2
Director Professor, Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, 3Professor, Department of Pathology, University College of Medical
Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Cervical carcinoma is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity among women especially in the developing countries.1
Current cervical cancer screening tests include Papanicolaou
(Pap) test; visual inspection after the application of acetic
acid (VIA); visual inspection after the application of Lugol’s
iodine (VILI) and Human Papillomavirus (HPV)-DNA testing.
The Pap test has decreased cervical cancer incidence substantially in the countries with regular screening programs.2
However, the suboptimal reproducibility of the Pap test has
to be compensated by frequent retesting.
Corresponding author: Dr Shilpa Kava, Assistant Professor,
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Oxford Medical
College Hospital & Research Centre, Yadavanhalli, Attibele Hobli,
Anekal Taluq, Bangalore, India
How to cite this article: Shilpa Kava, Shalini Rajaram, Vinod K
Arora. Evaluation of P16INK4A as a biomarker in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3(1):1-4.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
1
P16INK4A in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
Kava et al.
respective cells and in marked overexpression of p16INK4A
gene product.
Several properties of p16INK4A make this protein a promising
biomarker for HPV-related cancers; expression is directly
linked to the HPV oncogene action, since continuous expression of E7 is necessary to maintain a malignant phenotype in
HPV-associated cancer.12 The expression of p16INK4A seems
to be independent of the HPV type causing the oncogenic
infection, obviating the need to detect different HPV types in
DNA and RNA assays.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This is an experimental study conducted at the University
College of Medical Sciences and Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital, Delhi, India from November 2009 to April 2011.
1500 women were screened for cancer cervix using conventional Pap test, VIA and VILI. Women who had positive results in any of the above tests underwent colposcopy. Biopsy
was taken from the abnormal areas detected at colposcopy.
P16INK4A expression in the biopsy samples was studied using
immunohistochemistry. A written informed consent was taken from all patients. Sexually active women in the age group
of 20-50 years were included in the study. Women with an
obvious cervical growth, acute cervicitis, prior surgery on
the cervix, postmenopausal and pregnant women were excluded from the study.
A detailed history including marital, sexual, obstetric, menstrual and personal history was taken. This was followed by
a detailed examination which included general physical and
systemic examination. Prior to per vaginal examination following screening tests were performed.
1. Screening tests
Papanicolaou test (PAP test): Conventional PAP test
was performed and results were reported according to
the Bethesda 2001 System of reporting cervico-vaginal
smears. A Pap test of ASCUS and above was taken as
positive
B. VIA and VILI: 5% acetic acid was applied liberally
using a cotton swab soaked in acetic acid over the exposed cervix. The indings were read after one minute
of application. After carefully recording the indings,
Lugols’s iodine was applied with a cotton swab on the
cervix. The cervix was examined for any iodine non-uptake areas. The outcome of VIA and VILI was interpreted as per the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) guidelines.13
2. Colposcopy - All women having positive result through
either PAP test, VIA or VILI underwent colposcopy. In
dorsal position, cervix was exposed and using the colposcope, the transformation zone of the cervix was visualized for any abnormal areas. The abnormal areas included acetowhitening, atypical vessels, punctations, mosaic
pattern, iodine negativity. A biopsy was then taken from
these abnormal areas.
2
3. Histopathology - A colposcopy directed single/ multiple punch biopsy of the suspicious areas was taken and
transported to the pathology lab in 10% formalin. The
results of the biopsy were reported as a) Chronic cervicitis a) CIN 1 b) CIN 2 c) CIN 3 d) Microinvasive cancer
e) Invasive cancer.
Immunostaining for p16INK4A - For immunohistochemistry, representative sections from parafin block of cervical biopsy were taken on poly-L-lysinate coated slides.
Antigen was retrieved by microwave heat method using citric acid buffer at pH 6.0. Immunohistochemistry
was performed using standard technique by Streptavidin biotin system using DAB as chromogen. Patterns of
p16INK4A were categorised as positive or negative. Positive p16INK4A was deined as presence of nuclear staining
or diffuse cytoplasmic staining. Negative p16INK4A was
deined as absence of any staining or presence of focal
cytoplasmic staining. Speciically, diffuse staining was
deined as a continuous staining of cells in the basal and
parabasal layers (with or without staining of supericial
squamous cell layers). Focal staining was deined as
non-continuous staining of isolated cells or small cell
clusters, usually not located in the basal and parabasal
layers. Degree of nuclear p16INK4A expression in positive
cases were expressed as percentage of positive cells.
Strength of positivity was compared to a positive control
which could be run with each batch of immunostaining.
The strength of reaction was graded as 1+, 2+ and 3+.
Positive control: Squamous cell carcinoma of esophagus
Negative control: Obtained by omitting the application of
primary antibodies during the immunostaining process and
using Tris Buffer Saline instead.
RESULTS
One out of the six samples of CIN-1 was damaged during
the staining process. P16INK4A was negative in four of the ive
CIN-1 biopsy samples that were stained. Only one CIN-1
biopsy showed positive P16INK4A; with no cytoplasmic staining, 9% nuclear staining and strength of positivity 1+ (Figure
1).
P16INK4A was positive in four of the ive CIN-2 biopsy samples that were stained, with diffuse cytoplasmic staining.
Nuclear staining in these cases ranged from 16% to 27%
and strength of positivity was 2+ in three cases and 1+ to
2+ in one case. One CIN-2 biopsy sample showed negative
p16INK4A staining, with only focal cytoplasmic staining and
negative nuclear staining. Positivity of p16INK4A in CIN-2
was 80% (Figure 2).
P16INK4A was positive in two of the three CIN-3 biopsy samples that were stained, with diffuse cytoplasmic staining.
Nuclear staining in these two cases was 32% and 64% and
strength of positivity was 2+ and 3+ respectively. One CIN3 biopsy sample showed negative p16INK4A stain (Figure 3).
P16INK4A was positive in the one case of squamous cell carci-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
P16INK4A in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
Kava et al.
noma that was detected in this study, with diffuse cytoplasmic staining, 90% nuclear positivity and strength of positivity 3+ (Figures 4). P16INK4A expression in the various cases
of CIN/SCC has been shown in Table 1. P16INK4A immunostaining was also performed in 10 histopathologically proven
cases of chronic cervicitis. P16INK4A was negative in eight of
the 10 cases (Figure 5). In the two cases of chronic cervicitis
in which P16INK4A was positive there was diffuse cytoplasmic
staining and no nuclear staining.
DISCUSSION
A serious disadvantage of the grading by conventional histopathology is that the three distinct grades used in CIN can
easily give a faulty static impression of a solidiied sculpture,
as if CIN were a static event, whereas in reality a CIN lesion
is a dynamic process that can progress and persist but also
regress. Compounding the above are the well-known issues
of intraobserver and interobserver reproducibility, which, for
grading of CIN, is far from perfect.14 It is also dificult to
distinguish CIN reliably from non-neoplastic lesions, resulting in either overtreatment or undertreatment. These points
emphasise the need for adjuvant methods to interpret the actual morphological impression of a CIN lesion in dynamic
terms rather than in static morphological grades. Without
doubt, p16INK4A is the most widely available, robust, stable
and strong predictive biomarker currently available for prognosticating CIN lesions. p16INK4A overexpression has been
demonstrated in the vast majority of cervical precancers and
cancers while in normal tissue, p16INK4A expression is found
only rarely.15 This was also shown in our study where among
the 10 morphologically proven cases of chronic cervicitis
p16INK4A only two showed diffuse cytoplasmic staining and
no nuclear staining. Until now, despite several proposed
evaluation strategies of p16INK4A in both cytology and histology, there is no general consensus for establishing threshold
values above which a sample becomes “p16INK4A-positive.”16
Figure-1: (a) H&E X 200: CIN I, (b) p16INK4A Immunoreactivity
seen in lower 1/3 epithelium with some nuclei showing positivity
in middle 1/3
Figure- 2: (a) H&E X 200: CIN II, (b) p16INK4A Immunoreactivity:
Nuclear positivity present throughout the epithelium with nuclei
showing intense positivity in focal areas
Figure-3: CIN III: p16INK4A Immunoreactivity seen in nuclei and
cytoplasm
S.
Histopathology*
P16INK4A, IHC**, result P16INK4A cytoP16INK4A nuclear
Strength of positivity
No
plasmic staining
staining
1.
CIN-1
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
2.
CIN-1
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
3.
CIN-1
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
4.
CIN-1
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
5.
CIN-1
Positive
Negative
9%
1+
6.
CIN-2
Positive
Diffuse
22%
2+
7.
CIN-2
Positive
Diffuse
18%
1+ to 2+
8.
CIN-2
Positive
Diffuse
16%
2+
9.
CIN-2
Positive
Diffuse
27%
2+
10.
CIN-2
Negative
Focal
Negative
Negative
11.
CIN-3
Negative
Negative
Negative
Negative
12.
CIN-3
Positive
Diffuse
32%
2+
13.
CIN-3
Positive
Diffuse
64%
3+
14.
Squamous cell carcinoma
Positive
Diffuse
90%
3+
*1 sample of CIN 1 lost during processing, **IHC: Immunohistochemistry
Table-1: Cytoplasmic and nuclear p16INK4A expression in CIN and squamous cell carcinoma cases
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
3
P16INK4A in cervical intraepithelial neoplasia
Kava et al.
4.
5.
Figure-4: Squamous cell carcinoma. p16INK4A Immunohistotochemistry showing intense nuclear and cytoplasmic positivity
6.
7.
8.
Figure-5: IHC X20 negative P16INK4A in chronic cervicitis
Klaes and colleagues15, proposed a system which scored the
distribution of p16 positivity on a semiquantitative scale as
follows: negative (<1% of the cells were positive), sporadic
(isolated cells were positive, but <5%), focal (small cell clusters, but <25% of the cells were positive), diffuse (>25% of
cells stained positive).
In the present study patterns of p16INK4A staining deined was
a modiication of that of Klaes et al15, where we reported
cases as negative, focal or diffuse, and also graded nuclear
positivity as a percentage.
9.
10.
11.
12.
CONCLUSION
Though p16INK4A has been analyzed in a number of studies,
there is undoubtedly some way to go before we can say how
they will “best it” to improve the diagnosis of cervical neoplasia, as either stand alone or as adjunctive tests, in triage or in primary screening contexts. For this we need more
clinical data, particularly suficiently planned, longitudinal
studies where the candidates are assessed alongside concurrent pathology.
13.
14.
15.
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2.
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4
Bosch FX, Lorincz A, Munoz N. The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. J Clin
Pathol 2002;55:244-265.
ASCUS-LSIL Triage Study (ALTS) Group. Results of a
randomized trial on the management of cytology interpretations of atypical squamous cells of undetermined
signiicance. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:13831392.
Sankaranarayanan R, Wesley R, Somanathan T, Dhakad
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N, Shyamalakumary B, Krishna Nair M. Performance
of visual inspection after acetic acid application (VIA)
in the detection of cervical cancer precursors. Cancer
1998;83:2150-2156.
Mandelblatt JS, Lawrence WF, Gafikin L. Cost and
beneits of different strategies to screen for cervical
cancer in less-developed countries. J Natl Cancer Inst
2002;94:1469-1483.
Mahe C, Gafikin L. Screening test accuracy studies:
how valid are our conclusions? Application to visual inspection methods for cervical screening. Cancer Causes
Control 2005;16:657-666.
Naucler P, Ryd W, Tornberg S, Strand A, Wadell G,
Elfren K, et al. Human papillomavirus and Papanicolaou tests to screen for cervical cancer. N Engl J Med
2007;357:1589-1597.
Ranco G, Segnan N, Giorgi-Rossi P, Zappa M, Casadei
GP, Carozzi F, et al. Human papillomavirus testing and
liquid-based cytology: results at recruitment from the
new technologies for cervical cancer randomized controlled trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;98:765-774.
Walboomers JM, Jacobs MV, Manos MM, Bosch FX,
Kummer JA, Shah KV, et al. Human papillomavirus is a
necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide.
J Pathol 1999;338:12-19.
Ho GY, Bierman R, Beardsley L, Chang CJ, Burk RD.
Natural history of cervicovaginal papillomavirus infection in young women. N Engl J Med 1998;338:423-428.
von Knebel Doeberitz M, Reuschenbach M, Schmidt
D. Biomarkers for cervical cancer screening: the role of
p16(INK4a) to highlight transforming HPV infections.
Expert Rev Proteomics 2012;9:149-163.
Klaes R, Friedrich T, Spitkovsky D. Overexpression of
p16(INK4a) as a speciic marker of dysplastic and neoplastic epithelial cell of the cervix uteri. Int J Cancer
2001;92:276-284.
Cheah PL, Looi LM, Mun KS, Abdoul Rahman N, Teoh
KH. Implications of continued upregulation of p16(INK4a) through the evolution from high-grade squamous
intraepithelial lesion to invasive squamous carcinoma
of the cervix. Malays J Pathol 2011;33:83-87.
Sankaranarayanan R, Wesley RS. A Practical Manual on
Visual Screening for Cervical Neoplasia. IARC Technical Publication No. 41. IARCPress, Lyon, 2003. Available from: http://screening.iarc.fr/doc/viavilimanual.pdf.
Accessed on 1st May, 2012.
Heatly MK. How should we grade CIN? Histopathology 2002;40:377-390.
Klaes R, Friedrich T, Spitkovsky D. Overexpression of
p16(INK4a) as a speciic marker of dysplastic and neoplastic epithelial cell of the cervix uteri. Int J Cancer
2001;92:276-284.
Murphy N, Ring M, Killalea AG. p16INK4A as a marker
for cervical dyskaryosis: CIN and cGIN in cervical biopsies and ThinPrep smears. J Clin Pathol 2003;56:56-63.
Source of Support: Indian Council of Medical Research
(ICMR) and Intramural Research Grant (UCMS and GTB
Hospital, Delhi); Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03.11.2015; Published online: 24.11.2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Clinical Proile, Intraoperative Challenges During Cataract Surgery
in Patients with Pseudoexfoliation and Visual Outcome at Rural Set
up
Shubhangi Nigwekar1, Prashant Nigwekar2, Prajakta Kharche3, Akshay Beedkar3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Pseudoexfoliation (PXF) is an ocular manifestation of systemic degenerative disorder. Many recent studies
have shown that patients with PXF have higher rate of complications during cataract surgeries compared to patients without
this disorder.
Material and method: In this hospital based, observational,
descriptive study, we studied the clinical proile and intraoperative dificulties in 50 patients of senile cataract with PXF
undergoing cataract surgery at the rural hospital for two years
(September 2013- August 2015).
Results: Out of 50 study patients mean age was 67.4 ± 7.52
years. 25 (50%) were males. 31 (62%) patients had clinical
bilateral involvement of PXF. 14 (28 %) patients had PXF
material deposited on only pupillary margin. 26 (52%) had
nuclear cataract. 31 (62 %) patients had insuficient intraoperative mydriasis for which intraoperative mechanical stretching worked well in 25 (50 %) patients while 6 (12%) patients
needed additional sphincterotomy. 5 patients (10%) developed
posterior capsule rupture (PCR) out of which 2 (4%) had vitreous loss with iridodialysis. 1 patient (2%) had ACIOL while
1 was kept aphakic.
Conclusion: Careful preoperative evaluation with slit lamp
is mandatory in patients undergoing cataract surgery having PXF, to avoid the intraoperative complications. Surgical
modiications for pupil enlargement reduce the intraoperative
complications.
Keywords: Pseudoexfoliation, PXF, Cataract surgery in PXF,
Clinical proile of PFX
INTRODUCTION
lary dilatation is needed as PXF frequently goes undiagnosed
leading to unexpected problems in surgical management.4.5
The risk of intraoperative problems, such as a poorly dilating
pupil, zonular weakness, phacodonesis predisposes to capsular break, and vitreous loss and postoperative complications
including ibrinoid reaction, posterior synechiae, cell deposits, and capsule contraction.6 Preoperative and intraoperative
measures to avoid or minimize these complications include
a careful slit lamp examination after full pupillary dilatation,
adequate control of preoperative intraocular pressure, intraoperative adequate pupillary dilatation medically or surgically and avoidance of iris manipulation.7,8 PXF syndrome
should not be considered as harmless anomaly of the anterior segment but as a potentially catastrophic disease. In this
study preoperative clinical proile of PXF patients with cataract, the intraoperative events and their management will be
studied. With this study one can know the rate of complications, can learn how to avoid them and manage if they occur
and may know ocular risk factors which technically lead to
the intra-operative complications. Thus, with predictions and
judgment one can take proper care of such risk factors and
reduce the rate of complications during cataract surgeries in
PXF patients. Aim and objective of the study was to study
the clinical proile and intraoperative dificulties during cataract surgery in patients with PXF at rural hospital.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This descriptive, observational, hospital based study was
carried out in 50 patients of senile cataract with PXF undergoing cataract surgery at rural hospital for 2 years i.e.
September 2013 to August 2015 which was approved by the
Professor, 3Postgraduate Student, Department of Ophthalmology,
Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Rural Medical College of
PIMS (DU), Loni, Maharashtra, India
1
2
Pseudoexfoliation is a generalized disorder of extracellular
matrix. It is an ocular manifestation of systemic degenerative
disorder. Clinically PXF is manifested by presence of whitish granular dandruff-like deposits on iris, pupillary margin,
anterior lens capsule, ciliary body, zonules and there may
be iris atrophy with moth-eaten appearance of iris on transillumination test.1 Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) has
been reported in eyes with PXF. Patients with PXF are twice
as likely to convert from ocular hypertension to glaucoma
and are more likely to develop glaucoma at all IOPs.2,3 For
PXF diagnosis a careful slit-lamp examination after pupil-
Corresponding author: Dr. Shubhangi Nigwekar, Professor, Department of Ophthalmology, Rural Medical College of PIMS (DU),
Loni, Maharashtra, India
How to cite this article: Shubhangi Nigwekar, Prashant Nigwekar,
Prajakta Kharche, Akshay Beedkar. Clinical proile, intraoperative
challenges during cataract surgery in patients with pseudoexfoliation and visual outcome at rural set up. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):5-8.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
5
Nigwekar S et al.
Challenges During Cataract Surgery in Patients
Institutional Ethical committee and written informed consent was obtained prior to the study from all patients. All
willing patients above 40 yrs admitted for cataract surgery
having PXF at Rural Hospital were included while patients
with PEX undergoing combined surgeries with previous intraocular surgeries or trauma, posterior synechiae, pigment
dispersion were excluded.
Methodology
We recorded the pre operative, intra operative data in all
50 patients with PXF who were undergoing cataract surgery, from patients’ medical records for 2 years.
insuficient intraoperative mydriasis (Table 2). 31 (62%) patients required mechanical stretching during surgery because
of insuficient mydriasis a n d o u t o f t h e m 6 (12%)
patients required additional sphincterotomy. 5 patients had
posterior capsular rent in which 4 (80%) had insuficient
mydriasis while 1 (20%) had adequate mydriasis but week
zonules. Out of these 5 PC rent (PCR) patients 3 had only
PCR while 2 had Vitreous loss with Iridodialysis (Table 4).
Out of 50 patients with PXF, 48 (96%) patients had PCIOL
implantation while 1 patient (2%) had ACIOL and 1 (2%)
patient was left aphakic.
DISCUSSION
Preoperative data
Consisted medical, ocular history, preoperative visual acuity, slit lamp biomicroscopy with and without pupillary dilatation with special emphasis on PXF material at the pupillary margin and anterior capsule of lens as zones of PXF
on anterior lens capsule, anterior chamber (AC) depth and
pigment dispersion in the AC, iridodonesis, posterior synechiae, phacodonesis or frank subluxation or dislocation of
lens, pupillary reactions, measurement of pupil size before
and after dilatation of pupil, and IOP apart from routine ocular investigation for cataract surgery like lacrimal sac syringing and IOL power.
Intra-operative
Intra-operative data was also collected from records as:
Pre-operative maximum dilatation of pupil with combination
of 5% Phenylephrine Hydrochloride and 0.8% Tropicamide
eye drops, technique of extra capsular cataract extraction
performed (MSICS), surgical modiications like mechanical
stretching, additional sphincterotomy, type of capsulotomy,
method of nucleus delivery, type of IOL, any complication
occurred and its management were recorded.
Parameters studied
Pre and intraoperative pupillary size, method of its dilatation, variation in operative procedure due to insuficient
mydriasis, type of complication and its management.
RESULTS
Out of 50 patients with PXF average age of patients was
67.4 ± 7.52 years and 43 (86 %) patients were above 60 yrs
of age. 25(50%) were males (Table 1). 31 (62%) had clinical bilateral involvement of Pseudoexfoliation. 36 (72 %)
patients had PXF deposition on both peripheral zone and
central zone while 14 (28 %) had PXF material deposited
only on the pupillary margin. 10 patients (20%) had iridodonesis clinically. 17 (34%) patients had Mature Cataract,
2(4%) had hypermature cataract. 26(52%) had nuclear sclerosis and 5 (10%) had cortical cataracts (Table 3). Range of
IOP was from 10.2 mmHg to 20.6 mmHg with an average
IOP reading of 15.49 ± 2.91 mmHg. 31 (62 %) patients had
6
Pseudoexfoliation being a degenerative condition average
age of patients in our study was 65.83 years similar to study
conducted by Anuradha et al23 who showed 22 (73.33%)
patients were above the age group of 60 years. They noted
exfoliation in 31% of women and 40% of men however in
present study there was equal incidence of pseudoexfoliation
among males and females.
Clinically evident exfoliative changes are initially unilateral
in patients with PXF and later become bilateral over time.
The so called “unilateral” PXF may have early subclinical
exfoliation.9 In the study conducted by Jawed et al.26 It was
found that bilateral pseudoexfoliation was more common
than unilateral which was in coherence with the present
study. Deposition of exfoliative material on anterior lens surface is the most common feature of PXF and is best appreciated after pupillary dilatation.9 Generally a bull's-eye pattern
is seen consisting a translucent central zone and a granular
Age (Years)
Male
Female
Total
40-50
1
1
02
51-60
2
3
05
61-70
16
14
30
71andabove
6
7
13
Total
25
25
50
Table-1: Showing age and sex distribution of 50 study patients
with PXF
Pupillary Diameter
No Of Cases
%
<6mm
31
62
>6mm
19
38
Total
50
100
Table-2: Showing the pupillary diameter in 50 study patients
with PXF
Cataract type
No of cases
%
Hypermature
02
04
Mature
17
34
Nuclear sclerosis
26
52
Cortical
05
10
Total
50
100
Table-3: Showing distribution of type of cataracts in 50 study
patients.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nigwekar S et al.
Intra operative challenges
Challenges During Cataract Surgery in Patients
No of
cases
out
of 50
31
6
18
%
Mydriasis
Mechanical stretching
62
< 6mm.
Additional Sphincterotomy
12
< 6mm.
Conversion of CCC to capsulo36
< 6mm.
tomy
Dificulty in nucleus prolapse
31
62
< 6mm.
in AC
Posterior capsular rent (PCR)
5
10
< 6mm.
PCR+*VL+ Iridodialysis
2
4
< 6mm.
Conversion of PC to AC IOL
1
2
< 6mm.
Conversion to Aphakia
1
2
< 6mm.
(*Same patient had 2 or 3 complications.)
Table-4: Showing distribution of surgical variations, intraoperative challenges and association of poor mydriasis during
cataract surgery in 50 study patients with PXF.
peripheral zone of deposition separated by an intermediate
clear zone presumably due to lens contact with movement
of iris. It may be diffusely scattered over not only the peripheral iris surface but may be deposited on or anterior to
Schwalbe's line10,11 (Sampaolesi's line). In 20% of patients
with exfoliation, the central zone may be absent and to see
the presence of PXF dilatation of pupil and slit lamp examination is mandatory.12 In our study, 36 (72%) patients had
PXF deposition on both peripheral zone and central zone as
against Anuradha et al23 who observed 80% PXF material on
the pupillary margin.
Tremulescence of iris is called Iridodonesis which is associated with phacodonesis or lens luxation in PXF due to degeneration of zonular ibers.13 Spontaneous dislocation of the
lens into the vitreous has been reported. In the present study,
pre operative examination revealed presence of iridodonesis
in 10 (20%) patients which was higher as compared that observed by Anuradha A et al23 (3.33%).
Nuclear cataracts and subcapsular cataracts are more frequently found in eyes with PXF than in eyes without PXF
and PXF has a higher prevalence in eyes with cataract.(14)
Cataract formation may be related to ocular ischemia, aqueous hypoxia, reduced protection against ultraviolet radiation.
Ascorbic acid, that plays an important role in protecting the
lens from ultraviolet irradiation, has been found reduced in
the aqueous humor of patients with PXF deposits. In the
study conducted by Pranathi et al25 (13.46%) 7 eyes of PXF
had nuclear cataract while our
study showed higher incidence of nuclear cataract 26 (52%)
in PXF patients, may be due to rural patients more exposed
to sun light, supports the strong association of pseudoexfoliation with nuclear cataracts.
Elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) has been reported in eyes
with PXF. Patients with PXF are twice as likely to convert
from ocular hypertension to glaucoma and are more likely to
develop glaucoma at all IOPs which is known as glaucoma
capsularae.15 Out of 50 patients in the present study group,
the pre operative average IOP was 15.49 mmHg which was
on lower side than studies by Pranathi et al, Jawed et al and
Sushilkumar KA et al25,26
Typically, the pupil dilates poorly in an exfoliative eye. This
is partly caused by atrophy and degeneration of the iris muscle cells. Poor mydriasis during surgery has been found to be
one of the major factors that lead to complications in patients
with pseudoexfoliation during cataract surgery.16 In present
study insuficient mydriasis < 6mm was seen in 31 (62%)
patients which was more than other studies as 48% shown by
Jawed et al and 14 (46.67%) by Anuradha A et al.26,23
Suficient mydriasis is required intraoperatively. Pharmacologically nonsteroidal anti-inlammatory drops with mydriatics and intracameral adrenaline can help to expand the pupil. Mechanical enlargement of the pupil includes stretching,
sphincterotomy as well as iris hooks and pupil dilator rings.17
To facilitate capsulorrhexis and nucleus delivery mechanical
stretching of the pupil is required in ECCE. If pupil cannot
be enlarged suficiently with stretching, radial sphincterotomies can be considered which may not be good cosmetically but give safer pupil access and better post operative
results. Increased force needed to extrude the lens through a
small pupil with the increased risk of posterior capsule rupture leads higher frequency of intraoperative complications
in ECCE.18 In our study mechanical stretching of the pupil
was required in 31 (62%) of the patients Additional sphincterotomy was required in 6 (12%) cases. This inding was
contradictory to Sushilkumar K et al19 where only 12 (20%)
patients required mechanical stretching.
Peripheral PXF material which is hidden behind the iris is
clinically invisible, but it is responsible for the instability
of zonular attachment. In Small incision surgery, controlled
paracentesis and adequate hydrodissection are some more
useful strategies. Adequate hydrodissection as well as the
use of viscodissection to separate cortex from the capsule
facilitate cortex removal. In the can-opener capsulotomy,
both loops of the one-piece PMMA lenses, provide stronger
resistance to capsule contraction due to their haptics.20,21,22
Separation of iris from its root is known as iridodialysis
which can be due to excess handling of iris during surgery.
Insuficient mydriasis may lead to iridodialysis during vectis delivery of nucleus .In present study 2 (4%) patients had
iridodialysis.
Insuficient mydriasis may lead to PC rent during nucleus
delivery in AC or I/A wash step. We found Posterior Capsular
Rent (PCR) in 5 (10%) cases out of which 2(4%) patients had
vitreous loss with iridodialysis and 1 of them
got ACIOL and one kept aphakic. The other 3 patients had
only PCR without vitreous disturbance so implantation of
rigid PMMA-PCIOL in sulcus was carried out. Out of 5
(10%) patients with PC rent insuficient mydriasis and rigid
pupil was present in 4 (8%).
Pranathi et al25 observed vitreous loss in 4 (7.7%) patients
with PXF. Anuradha et al23 reported 3 (10%) aphakic patients
while Abid Naseem et al24 reported 2 (6.3%) patients with
ACIOL.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
7
Nigwekar S et al.
Challenges During Cataract Surgery in Patients
CONCLUSION
Careful preoperative evaluation with slit lamp is mandatory
in patients having pseudoexfoliation, who are undergoing
cataract surgery to avoid intraoperative complications. Surgical modiications for pupil enlargement reduce the intraoperative complications.
15.
16.
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
1. Inclusion of PXF patients with iridodonesis, phacodonesis which is a complication already occurred preoperatively.
2. Inclusion of patients operated by many surgeons and not
consideration of the operative skill factor.
17.
18.
REFERENCES
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
8
K. Kaljurand, P. Teesalu. Prevalence of exfoliation syndrome in Estonian population. Eur J Ophthalmology
2010;20:1012–1017
Kozart DM, Yanoff M: Intraocular pressure status in
100 consecutive patients with exfoliation syndrome.
Ophthalmology 1982; 89:214
Prince AM, Ritch R: Clinical signs of the pseudoexfoliation syndrome. Ophthalmology 1986; 93:803
Prince AM, Streeten BW, Ritch R et al: Preclinical diagnosis of pseudoexfoliation syndrome. Arch Ophthalmol
1987; 105:1076
Gifford H Jr: A clinical and pathologic study of exfoliation of the lens capsule. Am J Ophthalmol 1958;46:5508
Bartholomew RS: Phakodonesis: A sign of incipient
lens displacement. Br J Ophthalmol 1970; 54:663
Hietanen, J., Kivela, T., Vesti, E., and Tarkkanen, A.
Exfoliation syndrome in patients scheduled for cataract
surgery. Acta Ophthalmologica .1992; 70:440-446.
H Aravind, P Raju, P G Paul, M Bhaskaran, S Ve
Ramesh.” Pseudoexfoliation in South India”. Br J Ophthalmol 2003 87: 1321-1323.
Mizuno K, Hara S, Ishiguru S and Takei Y. "Acid
phosphotase in eyes with Pseudoexfoliation", American
journal of Ophthalmology, 1980; 89: 482.
Aasved H: Incidence of defects in the pigmented pupillary ruff in eyes with and without ibrillopathia epitheliocapsularis (so-called senile exfoliation or pseudoexfoliation of the anterior lens capsule). Acta Ophthalmol
1973; 51:710
Repo L, Teräsvirta M, Tuovinen E: Generalized peripheral iris transluminance in the pseudoexfoliation syndrome. Ophthalmology 1990; 97:1027
Tanhehco, T., and Chen, S.H. Pseudoexfoliation syndrome and cataract surgery. International Ophthalmology Clinics. 2010; 50:81-93.
Bartholomew RS: Lens displacement associated with
pseudocapsular exfoliation: A report on 19 cases in the
southern Bantu. Br J Ophthalmol 1970;54:744
Tetsumoto K, Schlötzer-Schrehardt U, Küchle M et al:
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26.
Precapsular layer of the anterior lens capsule in early
pseudoexfoliation syndrome. Graefes Arch Clin Exp
Ophthalmol 1992; 230:252
Gregory L. Skuta And Rebecca K. Morgan. Exfoliation
Syndrome, Pigment Dispersion Syndrome, and the Associated Glaucomas; Duane’s Clinical Ophthalmology:
Volume 3; Chapter 54B.
Küchle, M., Viestenz, A., Martus, P., Handel, A., Junemann, A., & Naumann, G.O.H. Anterior chamber depth
and complications during cataract surgery in eyes with
pseudoexfoliation syndrome. American Journal of Ophthalmology. 2000; 129:281-285.
Akman, A., Yilmaz, G., Oto, S., & Akova, Y.A. Comparison of various pupil dilatation methods for phacoemulsiication in eyes with a small pupil secondary to pseudoexfoliation. Ophthalmology. 2004;1693:111-1698.
Drolsum, L., Haaskjold, E., & Davanger, M. (1993).
Results and complications after extracapsular cataract
extraction in eyes with pseudoexfoliation syndrome.
Acta Ophthalmologica.1993; 71: 771–776.
SushilkumarKar, LopamudraBhuyan, Ashok Kumar
Nanda. “Peudoexfoliation- A dreaded nightmare in cataract surgery”. International Journal of Biomedical and
Advance Research.2015;6: 159-162.
Belovay, G.W., Varma, D.K., & Ahmed, I.I.K. Cataract
surgery in pseudoexfoliation syndrome. Current Opinion in Ophthalmology. 2010; 21:25-34.
Shingleton, B.J., Crandall, A.S., & Ahmed, I.I.K.
Pseudoexfoliation and the cataract surgeon: Preoperative, ntraoperative, and postoperative issues related
to intraocular pressure, cataract, and intraocular lenses. Journal of Cataract & Refractive Surgery. 2009;
35:1101–1120.
Moreno, J., Duch, S., & Lajara, J. Pseudoexfoliation syndrome: clinical factors related to capsular rupture in cataract surgery. Acta Ophthalmologica.1993;71:181-184
Anuradha A, Vidyadevi M, P Chhabria, Samhitha H. R,
Shilpa Y. D. Study of Intraoperative Complications of
Manual Small Incision Cataract Surgery in Eyes with
Pseudoexfoliation. Journal of Evidence based Medicine
and Healthcare. 2015; 2:1949-1954.
Abid Naseem, Saleem Khan, Muhammad Nayeem
Khan, Shad Muhammad studies on complications during and after cataract surgery in eyes with pseudo exfoliation. Pak J ophthalmol. 2007;23:
K. Pranathi, Renu M. Magdum, Rupali Maheshgauri,
Khevna Patel, S. Patra, A study of complications during cataract surgery in patients with pseudoexfoliation
syndrome”. Journal of Clinical Ophthalmology and Research. 2014;2:7-11.
Mohammad Jawed, Aqil-ur-Rehman Nadeem, Aleemul
Haq Khan, Mohammad Aftab. Complications of cataract surgery in patients with pseudoexfoliation syndrome;JAyub Med Coll Abbottabad. 2009;21:12-30
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 10.11.2015; Published online: 25.11.2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Study of Primary Anterior Chamber Intraocular Lens Implantation
in Senile Cataract Patients at Rural Set up
Shubhangi Nigwekar1, Prashant Nigwekar2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: When posterior capsular rent (PCR) occurs
during cataract extraction, surgeon has to consider primary or
secondary anterior chamber intraocular lens (ACIOL) or scleral ixated IOL (SFIOL). We considered primary ACIOL with
the use of single piece Polymethyl - Methacrylate Posterior
Camber Intraocular Lens (PMMA – PCIOL) in stock to avoid
aphakic (No IOL) vision in rural patients, who may lose follow up for secondary IOL.
Material and Method: In this hospital based observational
longitudinal 2 years study (September2007 to August 2009)
20 patients were studied after their written consent in local
language and institutional IEC permission. We studied the intraoperative events in ACIOL implantation with PCIOL model, its management, early postoperative complications and 3
months postoperative visual outcome at rural hospital.
Results: There were 10 (50%) male patients. 8 (40%) patients were in the range of 50-60 year age group. 8 (40%)
underwent conventional Extra Capsular Cataract Extraction
(ECCE) and 12 (60%) had Small Incision Cataract Surgery
(SICS) technique. 15 (75%) patients showed vitreous disturbance with PC rent and remaining had only PC rent without
vitreous disturbance. 3 months postoperatively, all 20 patients
had clear corneas without Anterior Chamber (AC) reaction. 2
patients (10%) needed YAG laser iridotomy for raised intra
ocular pressure (IOP) due to partial Peripheral Button Hole
Iridectomies (PBIs), 7(35%) patients had oval pupil, 2 (10%)
had cystoid macular odema (CME), 10 (50%) patients had
Best Corrected Visual Acuity (BCVA) >6/18 and 19 (95%)
got BCVA>6/60.
Conclusion: Prognosis of various ACIOL models must be depending on severity of ocular tissue handling mainly presence
or absence of vitreous disturbance and its proper and timely
management.
Keywords: ACIOL implantation, PC rent management, Complications of ACIOL.
INTRODUCTION
During cataract extraction with any technique like conventional Extracapsular extraction (ECCE) or small incision
cataract surgery (SICS) when unfortunate posterior capsular
rent (PCR) with or without vitreous disturbance occur, surgeon has to consider primary or secondary IOL either ante-
rior chamber IOL (ACIOL) or scleral ixated IOL (SFIOL).
Old models of ACIOL has given many disasters postoperatively including uveitis-glaucoma-hyphema (UGH) syndrome and retinal detachment (RD) due to their defective
designs.1 Newer ACIOLs give better results to some extent.
However even these lenses may need explanation due to
their complications.2 Many times these newer ACIOLs may
not be in stock to go for primary ACIOL implantation.
Though sporadic, we have seen patients with PCIOL implanted in AC with quiet eyes for years (6-12 years).
So we considered primary ACIOL with the use of single
piece PMMA - PCIOL in stock to avoid aphakic vision in rural patients, who may lose follow up for secondary IOL. Aim
of the study was to study the visual outcome and immediate
postoperative complications of primary ACIOL with the use
of routine single piece PMMA PCIOL at rural hospital.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This descriptive, observational, longitudinal hospital based
study was carried out in 20 patients of Posterior Capsular
Rent undergoing primary ACIOL with PCIOL model at rural hospital for 2 years i.e. September 2007 to August 2009
which was approved by the Institutional Ethical committee
and written informed consent was obtained prior to the study
from all patients. All willing patients above 50 yrs with advanced senile cataract having visual acuity <5 meter, with
preoperative normal anterior and posterior segments and
normal biometric readings, operated for cataract surgery
with both conventional ECCE and SICS techniques having
unfortunate intraoperative PC rent at Rural Hospital were
included. We excluded patients having other anterior or posterior segment problems and also hypertensive, diabetic and
non willing patients.
Professor, Department of Ophthalmology, 2Professor, Department
of Pediatrics, Rural Medical College of PIMS (DU), Loni, Maharashtra, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Shubhangi Nigwekar, Professor, Department of Ophthalmology, Rural Medical College of PIMS (DU),
Loni, Maharashtra, India
How to cite this article: Shubhangi Nigwekar, Prashant Nigwekar.
Study of primary anterior chamber intraocular lens implantation in
senile cataract patients at rural set up. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):9-11.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
9
Nigwekar S et al.
Study of Primary Anterior Chamber Intraocular Lens Implantation
Methodology
We recorded patients’ preoperative history, slit lamp examination, intraoperative PC rent management steps in both
conventional ECCE and SICS techniques for primary ACIOL implantation with PCIOL model. After PC rent, pressure
on eyeball was removed, started I/V 20% Mannitol drip
(1.5gm/kg), pupil was constricted with intracameral pilocarpine and air was injected in AC. After measuring white to
white on table routine PMMA single piece PCIOL with 2
diopter less power than calculated IOL power was implanted
in AC, maintaining round pupil under viscoelastic in patients
with only PC rent without vitreous disturbance.
In patients with vitreous disturbance, open sky vitrectomy
followed by IOL implantation under viscoelastic followed
by, 2 peripheral buttonhole iridectomies (PBI) and suturing with 10-0 nylon was carried out in conventional ECCE,
while in SICS technique after IOL implantation under viscoelastic, irst the incision was extended on both sides of the
tunnel followed by 2 PBIs. Then the AC was formed with
air and saline and the extended side incisions were sutured
with 10-0 nylon suture and well covered with conjunctiva.
We used injection of subconjunctival antibiotic- steroid combination and eye path with bandage for 24 hours. Post operatively short term systemic and long term topical antibiotic
and steroid were given in tapering dose. All patients being
rural, we treated them for 7 indoor days.
tency of 2 PBIs, intraocular pressure (IOP) on Non Contact
Tonometer (NCT), ophthalmoscopy and visual acuity (VA)
with Snellen’s chart were recorded. Same follow up records
made on 90th day.
Parameters studied
Daily slit lamp examination of wound, sutures, cornea, AC
depth, position of ACIOL, shape and size of the pupil, paAge
Male
Female
Total
50-60
2
6
8(40%)
61-70
4
2
6(30%)
71-80
2
2
4(20%)
>80
2
0
2(10%)
Total
10(50%)
10(50%)
20(100%)
Table-1: Showing age and sex distribution of the 20 study
cases
ST
WOUND
SUTURES
CORNEA
AC DEPTH
AC REACTION
IOP-NCT
ACIOL
PUPIL
FUNDUS
RESULTS
There were 10 (50%) males. Maximum patients (40%) were
in the range of 50-60 year age group (Table 1). Out of all 20
study cases who underwent primary ACIOL, 8 (40%) underwent conventional ECCE and 12(60%) had SICS technique.
In 75% patients (15 cases) showed vitreous disturbance with
PC rent, while in 25 %( 5 cases) there was only small PC
rent without vitreous disturbance. On irst POD all patients
had good wound approximation with in situ sutures. Thirteen
patients had clear corneas on 1st POD, 5 patients cleared at 1
month and all 20 patients had clear corneas after postoperative 3 months. In 4 patients there was mild AC reaction on 1st
POD. However it cleared after 3 months postoperatively. In
2 patients (10%) who had partial PBIs, we noticed raised IOP
which was treated successfully with YAG- laser iridotomy.
In all patients ACIOL was in situ, however 7 patients had
oval pupil. Fundus showed clear media around postoperative
3 months in all patients, out of which 2 had (CME) cystoid
macular odema and 2 had ARMD (age related macular degeneration) (Table 2). and (Photos-1, 2, 3) Three months
postoperatively, 50% patients had BCVA >6/18, 70% had
>6/24, and 95%got BCVA>6/60 (Table 3).
DISCUSSION
After extra capsular cataract extraction by any technique, intraoperative posterior capsular rent with or without vitreous
disturbance can occur. This is treated with either primary or
secondary ACIOL or SFIOL or iris ixated IOL implantation.2,3
Old models of ACIOL are now obsolete due to their post operative compilations.4,5,6 Newer ACIOLs like Kelman Multilex give better results to some extent. However even these
TH
TH
TH
1 POD
Opposed
7 POD
Opposed
30 POD
Opposed
90 POD
Opposed
In situ
Clear-7 Hazy-13 Mild-6
Mod- 5 Severe-2
N-18 Irregular 2Requierd
YAG PBI
NO-4
N-18 High-2 Post YAG- N
In situ all
1ST POD
Round-13 Oval-7
Clear-7
In situ
clear-13 hazy-7 Mild-5
Mod-2
N-All
In situ
clear-18 hazy-2 Mild-2
In situ
clear-all
N-All
N-All
NO-14
N-ALL
In situ all
7TH POD
Round-13 Oval-7
Clear-13
NO-16
N-ALL
In situ all
30TH POD
Round-13 Oval-7
Clear-18
NO- All
N-All
In situ all
90TH POD
Round-13 Oval-7
Clear-20 ARMD-2, &
CME-2, NF-16.
Table-2: Showing postoperative slit lamp examination of 20 study cases.
10
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nigwekar S et al.
Visual acuity
% of cases
>6/18
50%
>6/24
70%
>6/36
85%
>6/60
95%
CF 4-5 meter
100%
Table-3: Showing 3 months postop BCVA in 20 study cases in %
Study of Primary Anterior Chamber Intraocular Lens Implantation
Surgical variation done for good, sometimes helplessly but
with good intention and hope, with known previous good
results by others, though undocumented and not presented
was the ‘drive’ for this study.
With this article we are sharing the good post operative results in our rural set up without giving any take home message. However one may suggest IOL making companies to
consider this type of ACIOL model with better design.
CONCLUSIONS
Figure-1: Postoperative Photos 1, 2, 3 showing ACIOL in AC with
quiet eye and clear cornea.
lenses may need explantation due to either their inverted
placement or other complications and may need penetrating
keratoplasty due to corneal decompensation.7
Thus nothing is standard till date as far ACIOL model is
considered.8 Many times these IOLs may not be in stock as
routine single piece PMMA PCIOLs. In rural area, patients’
loose follow ups for secondary IOL and may prefer aphakic
vision even without spectacles. Most important point is that
though sporadic cases, we have seen such PCIOLs in AC
and happy patients with good vision and quiet eyes for years
(6-12 years). So we considered primary ACIOL with the use
of single piece PMMA PCIOL to avoid aphakic vision in
patients, who may lose follow up for secondary IOL.
We have not found any similar study in the literature till date
and so not having any similar direct references. We are presenting the Photographs and BCVA records.
In our study no patient had UGH (uveitis, glaucoma, hyphema) syndrome or RD (retinal detachment) or IOL explantation. Success rate in our study may be due to patient
selection criteria, minimal surgical intervention, use of viscoelastic material, lexibility of haptics, proper placement of
correct sized IOL, use of required IOL power in AC, 2PBIs,
indoor patient for 7 days with daily slit lamp examination
which allowed proper and timely postoperative intervention
like non contact tonometry (NCT), YAG iridotomy and use
of systemic steroids.
Hennig A et al, has shown high volume ICCE with ACIOL
study complications even with newer ACIOL as
1-10% CME after Subclinical uveitis, 1-7.8% corneal decompensation, 0-15% Glaucoma, 0-4% Retinal detachment
and 0.2% Endophthalmitis.9 Newer ACIOLS like Kelman
Multilex also had complications like upside down syndrome
and may need explantation.10 Every irst thought or procedure is an experiment and many surgeons might have done
or at least seen such PCIOLs in AC and happy patients with
good vision and quiet eye for years. According to Allen Foster “It is not so much the car (IOL) that causes the accident,
as the driver (surgeon)”.11
Prognosis of various ACIOL models must be depending on
severity of ocular tissue handling mainly presence or absence of vitreous disturbance and its proper and timely management.
REFERENCES
1.
Raju N. Anterior chamber intraocular lens implantation.
Indian J Ophthalmol 1989; 37:73-4
2. Technique and results of scleral ixated PCIOL by Dr.
Purendra Bhasin in AIOS ARC Central zone teacher’s
training programme.
3. Por YM, Lavin et al. Tecniques of intraocular lens suspension in the absence of capsular/zonular support- IOL
Implantation without Capsular Support. Surv Ophthalmol. 2005; 50:429-462
4. Apple DJ et al. Increaed iris chaing and inlammation
with ACIOLs - ACIOLs and pathology and a review of
designs. Cataract Refract Surg. 1987;13:157-174.
5. Moses L et al.Complications of rigid anterior chamber
implants. Ophthalmology 1984; 91:819-825.
6. Kincaid MC, Apple DJ et al. Histopathologic correlative study of Kelman-style lexible anterior chamber
intraocular leases. Am J Ophthalmol 99:159-169,1990
7. NishaChadha et al.Inverted anterior chamber intraocular lens placement: Complications, management and
outcomes. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science 2013;54: 3005.
8. Prakash G, Agarwal A et al. Translocation of malpositioned posterior chamber intraocular lens from anterior to posterior chamber along with ibrin glue-assisted
transscleral ixation. Eye Contact Lens.2010; 36:45-8.
9. Hennig A et al. Long-term clinical outcome of a randomised controlled trial of anterior chamber lenses after
high volume intracapsular cataract surgery. Br J Ophthalmol.2001; 85:11-17.
10. Fintelmann RE, Kim SKetal.Upside-down lens syndrome:ocular complications secondary to inverted implantationof the Kelman Multiplex anterior chamber
intraocular lens. Am J Ophthalmol. 2011;152:122-125.
11. Allen Foster et al. Is there a Role for ACIOLs in Developing Countries? Journal of.Community Eye Health.
1998; 11: 10.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 11-11-2015; Published online: 25-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
11
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Is there a Correlation between Seventeen Site Sonologic Skin
Thickness and Severity of Interstitial Lung Disease in Patients with
Scleroderma Related Interstitial Lung Disease ?
Majid Jehangir1, Seema Qayoom2, Shazia Bashir3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Scleroderma, also known as Systemic Sclerosis (SSc), is an autoimmune disease characterized by diffuse
ibrosis of skin and internal organs. Pulmonary involvement
is commonly silent, whereas skin ibrosis is the usual clinical
feature drawing patient’s attention. Interstitial lung disease
(ILD) is a common and serious complication of Scleroderma. The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship
between seventeen site sonologic skin thickness and severity
of Interstitial lung disease (ILD) as determined by high resolution computed tomography score for ILD in patients with
Scleroderma related interstitial lung disease (SSc- ILD) and
thus reducing patients exposure to radiation.
Material and Methods: The study comprised of 30 consecutive patients of scleroderma with pulmonary involvement.
All patients underwent high resolution computed tomography
(HRCT) scan of the lungs, pulmonary function test (PFT) and
high resolution ultrasonography (USG) of the skin. The severity and extent of SSc – ILD was evaluated by a semi – quantitative scoring system. Full skin’ thickness was measured on
high resolution USG at seventeen sites corresponding to those
of modiied Rodnan skin score and total sonologic skin thickness was obtained by summing the skin thickness of all the
seventeen sites in each patient.
Results: The sum of seventeen site sonologic skin thickness
was 26.41 +/- 4.27mm.The “total HRCT score” for ILD was
25+/- 4
Conclusion: The current study failed to establish any deinite
correlation between seventeen site sonologic skin thickness
and severity of ILD as determined by “total HRCT score”.
However, a multi-centric study involving a larger number of
patients is required to further investigate the relationship
Keywords: Systemic Sclerosis; SSC-ILD-Scleroderma-interstitial lung disease; Skin ultrasound; Computed tomography;
Scoring methods.
Associate Professor, 3Lecturer, Department of Radio-diagnosis,
Government Medical College, 2Associate Professor, Department of
Dermatology, SKIMS Medical College, Srinagar, India
Corresponding author: Shazia Bashir, R/O: Pamposh Colony,
Natipora, Srinagar, J&K, India
INTRODUCTION
Scleroderma, also known as Systemic Sclerosis (SSc), is
an autoimmune disease of small vessels and connective tissue,which is characterised by diffuse ibrosis of skin and internal organs; most frequently the lungs and gastro-intestinal
tract. SSc typically occurs in 3rd to 5th decade of life and has
a 3:1 female predilection. The ibrosis occurs due to the re-
12
lease of cytokines by various immune cells, including macrophages, T- cells and platelets at the site of vascular injury.
This in turn, stimulates ibroblast production of extracellular
matrix.1 Almost all patients have cutaneous involvement.
Based on the extent of skin involvement, Systemic sclerosis has been subdivided into diffuse cutaneous scleroderma,
limited cutaneous scleroderma and systemic sclerosis sine
Scleroderma.2 Upto 80% of the patients have limited cutaneous sclerosis with skin changes conined to face and extremities. The degree of cutaneous involvement is an important
prognostic factor in these patients, as it predicts mortality.3
Rodnan skin score.4 (introduced by Rodnan in 1979) or a
modiied Rodnan skin score is the established method to assess skin thickness in these patients. Despite its simplicity
and usefulness, the Rodnan skin score has its drawbacks.
High resolution Ultrasonography (USG) is a more reliable
and sensitive method for measuring skin thickness. It shows
thickening of the so-called uninvolved skin, suggesting that
palpation underestimates the skin ibrosis. A seventeen – site
skin ultrasound has been found to be a reliable measure of
skin thickness in SSc patients.5 Pulmonary involvement is
common in patients with Scleroderma. Currently, ILD is
the leading causes of death and accounts for about 60 % of
SSc-related deaths. Most patients have a gradual deterioration in pulmonary function while some have a rapidly progressive course. The greatest decline in pulmonary function
occurs within the irst four years of disease and moderate or
severe restrictive lung disease is detectable in approximately
40 % of these patients. High resolution computed tomography (HRCT) is currently the ‘gold standard’ for non – invasive diagnosis of ILD.6 In this study,we investigated the
relationship between seventeen site sonologic skin thickness
and total HRCT score for ILD to ind if sonologic skin thick-
How to cite this article: Majid Jehangir, Seema Qayoom, Shazia
Bashir. Is there a correlation between seventeen site sonologic skin
thickness and severity of interstitial lung disease in patients with
scleroderma related interstitial lung disease? International Journal
of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):12-15.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Jehangir et al.
Seventeen Site Sonologic Skin Thickness and Severity of Interstitial Lung Disease
ness allows prediction of the severity of ILD in SSc - ILD
patients. The ability to predict the severity of ILD by sonologic skin thickness will help in avoiding CT scans and thus
reduce patients exposure to radiation.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Our study included 30 consecutive patients (26 females and 4
males) of Scleroderma related interstitial lung disease (SScILD) who presented to the Department of Dermatology of
SKIMS, Medical College, Srinagar from March 2011 to July
2014.The diagnosis of Scleroderma was made according to
the American College of Rheumatology criteria.7 Patients
were considered to have limited SSc if their skin thickness
was conined to areas of extremities below the elbows and
knees and above the clavicles. Patients were considered to
have diffuse SSc if their skin thickness involved proximal
extremities and /or torso. The diagnosis of ILD was made on
basis of HRCT scan of the lungs. The HRCT scan eligibility
was determined by the presence of ground glass opacities
and / or reticular intralobular thickening with or without
bronchiolectasis, traction bronchiectasis and honey- combing. Informed consent was obtained from all the patients.
The study was approved by the institute ethical committee.
A detailed history was obtained in all the patients. Patient’s
age, sex and duration of disease were documented. The duration of disease was deined as the time from the outset of
irst non- Raynaud’s phenomenon manifestation.History
of smoking (deined as current smoker or ex- smoker with
greater than 10 pack – years), dry cough and exertional
dyspnea were recorded. Detailed general and systematic examination was done and modiied Rodnan skin score was
assessed. Besides routine baseline investigations, levels of
anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA), anti-centromere antibodies
(ACA) and anti-topoisomerase I antibodies (Anti- Scl-70)
were done. High resolution computed tomography (HRCT)
of the lungs was performed in all the patients on128 – slice
spiral CT scanner (Siemens Somatom Deinition AS), in full
inspiration in supine position. A bone reconstruction algorithm with lung window was used. No intravenous contrast
was administered. Prone scans were performed to exclude
gravity dependent perfusion, whenever required. All the
HRCT examinations were studied by an experienced Radiologist.The following HRCT scan indings were recorded:
ground glass opacities, irregular pleural margin,septal or
subpleural lines, honey combing, subpleural cyst, intralobular thickening, bronchiolectasis and traction bronchiectasis.
A semi-quantitative scoring system proposed by Warrick
etal,8 was used to assess the severity and extent of ILD. The
index includes a ‘severity score` ranging from 0 (normal)
to 15 (all lesions present) and an ‘extension score` ranging
from 0 (normal) to 15 (more than nine pulmonary segments
involved). The grading of abnormalities of ‘severity score`
is: ground glass opacities (1), irregular pleural margin (2),
septal or subpleural lines (3), honey combing (4) and sub-
pleural cyst (5). The grading of ‘extension score` for each
abnormality is: 1 to 3 bronchopulmonary segments involved
(1), 4 to 9 segments involved (2) and more than 9 segments
involved (3). A total HRCT score was obtained by summing
the ‘severity’ and ‘extension’ scores. Pulmonary function
tests (PFT) were performed within one month of the HRCT
scan in all the patents using standardized methods. Total lung
capacity (TLC), forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in 1- sec to forced vital capacity ratio were
recorded and expressed as percentage of predicted normal.
Predicted normals were obtained from published standards.9
High resolution ultrasonography (USG) of the skin was done
by another trained Radiologist who was unaware of the results of other investigations. A Philips IU-22 ultrasound machine itted with a 20 MHz linear transducer was used. All
USG examinations were done, within one week of the HRCT
scan of the lungs, before noon to avoid diurnal variation in
skin edema. The transducer was placed perpendicular to the
skin surface using moderate thickness of ultrasonic gel so
as to separate the epidermal echo from probe echo on the
image. An electronic calliper was used to measures the ‘full
skin’ thickness by identifying surface-skin and skin-subcutis interfaces on two –dimensional B-mode image. Skin
thickness was measured at seventeen sites corresponding to
those of the modiied Rodnan skin score. The seventeen sites
examined were: dorsum of middle phalanx of middle inger
(2 sites); dorsum of hand (2sites); anterior aspect of middle
portion of upper arm (2 sites); centre of forehead (1 site);anterior chest between sternal angle and sternal notch (1 site);
anterior aspect of mid abdomen (1 site); anterior aspect of
mid -thigh (2 sites); antero – lateral aspect of middle portion of lower leg (2 sites) and dorsum of foot (2 sites).The
total sonologic skin thickness was obtained by summing the
thickness of all the seventeen sites in each patient.
Statistical analyses
Statistical analyses was performed using SPSS software
package, version 16. Continuous variables are expressed as
mean ± SD. Categorial variables are represented as counts
and percentages. Spearman’s correlation coeficient was
used for correlation between total sonologic skin thickness
and total HRCT score for ILD. P-values above 0.05 were
considered statistically insigniicant.
RESULTS
We studied 30 consecutive patients (aged 29.4 to 49 years) of
SSc –ILD. The clinical and demographic characteristics of
the patients are given in Table 1. Twenty six (86.7%) patients
were female. Eighteen (60%) patients had diffuse SSc and
remaining 12 ( 40%) patients had limited SSc. Exertional
dyspnea was present in 23 (76.7%) patients and dry cough
was present in 19 (63.3%) patients. The mean duration of
disease was 5.8± 2.2 years. Three patients were smokers; the
mean duration of smoking was 6.2 ± 4 years. The mean per-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
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13
Jehangir et al.
Seventeen Site Sonologic Skin Thickness and Severity of Interstitial Lung Disease
AverageAge (years)+/- mean
Number of female patients (%)
Average Disease duration (years)+/- SD
Number of patients having Exertional dyspnea (%)
Number of patients having Dry cough(%)
Smoking history
AverageAge (years)+/- mean
Number of female patients (%)
Average Disease duration (years)+/- SD
Number of patients having Exertional dyspnea (%)
Number of patients having Dry cough(%)
Smoking history
Antibody positivity
Number of patients having ANA
24 (80%)
Number of patients having ACA
8(26.7%)
Number of patients having Anti- Scl-70
9(30%)
Pulmonary function tests
Average FVC (%) predicted +/- SD
68.6+/- 12.9
Average TLC (%) predicted +/- SD
70.4+/- 11.9
Average FEV1 / FVC ratio +/- SD
82.5+/-7.5
mRST score(range 0-51)+/- SD
mRST score(range 0-51)+/- SD
Seventeen site sonologic skin thickness (mm)+/- SD
Seventeen site sonologic skin thickness (mm)+/- SD
Total HRCT score range ( 0-30)
Total HRCT score range ( 0-30)
Table-1: Clinical and demographic characteristics of the patients with SSc-ILD.(n=30)
centage of predicted values of forced vital capacity was less
in patients with diffuse SSc than in limited SSc (69.5±16.8
vs 67.8±15.4; p= NS). Mean percentage of predicted values
of forced expiratory volume in 1-s to forced vital capacity(FEV1/ FVC ratio) was less in patients with limited SSc
compared to diffuse SSc (80.8±6.5 vs 84.3±7.5; p= NS).
Ground glass opacities were the most frequent HRCT scan
indings of lungs seen in 28 (93.3 %) patients followed by
reticular intralobular thickening seen in 26 (86.7%) patients.
Honey combing was seen in 11 (36.6%) patients and pleural
thickening in 2 (6.7 %) patients. All HRCT scan abnormalities were most common in lower lobes without right or left
predominance. The total HRCT score for ILD was 25+/- 4.
Fig I and 2 show the HRCT scan of lungs in a patients with
SSc- ILD.
High resolution USG of the seventeen anatomical sites
showed a considerable overlap in skin thickness.
Fig. 3 shows high resolution USG image of skin over dorsum
of hand for measuring skin thickness. Patients with diffuse
SSc showed thicker skin on hands, forearms, legs and chest
than did patients with limited SSc; however, the differences
did not reach statistically signiicant values. Also, there was
a considerable overlap in the USG skin thickness in patients
with different mRS score.The sum seventeen site sonologic
skin thickness was 26.41+/- 4.27 mm
Figure-1: HRCT image of lung showing interlobular septal thickening and bronchiolectasis
DISCUSSION
Scleroderma is an auto-immune disease characterised by
diffuse ibrosis of skin and internal organs. The degree of
cutaneous involvement is an important prognostic factor in
these patients as it predicts mortality.3 High resolution USG
is a sensitive method for measuring skin thickness in these
patients, as it shows thickening of so called uninvolved skin
also. A seventeen site skin ultrasound has been found to be
reliable in measuring skin thickness in SSc patients.5 Pulmonary involvement is common and interstitial lung disease
14
Figure-2: HRCT image of lung showing honeycombing and
bronhiectasis
(ILD), occurs in approximately 80 % of these patients. HRCT
is currently, the gold standard for non invasive diagnosis of
ILD.12 The HRCT features of SSc –ILD are similar to those
of non speciic interstitial pneumonia(NSIP). As the disease
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Jehangir et al.
Seventeen Site Sonologic Skin Thickness and Severity of Interstitial Lung Disease
6.
7.
8.
Figure-3: High resolution sonography of skin over dorsum of hand
for measuring skin thickness 1 + +: thickness of skin of dorsum of
hand
9.
progresses, ground glass opacities get replaced with reticular
intralobular thickening, bronchiolectasis, traction bronchiectasis and honey- combing. These indings of ILD by HRCT
have been found in 91% of patients with Scleroderma.13 Various HRCT scoring methods have been developed to quantify SSc- ILD.14 Although, ILD represents a major complication of Scleroderma, pulmonary involvement is commonly
silent, whereas the skin ibrosis is the usual clinical feature
drawing patient’s attention. Hence the study was undertaken
to determine whether seventeen site sonologic skin thickness
could predict the severity of ILD in SSc- ILD patients.
Conclusion: The present study failed to establish any deinite
correlation between the two. This can be explained by the
fact that the skin thickness usually reaches a peak in the irst
three years due to skin edema that occurs early in the course
of disease. However, when the early edematous phase is replaced by the indurative phase in which the skin thickness
decreases. On the other hand, ILD worsens over time but
shows a quite variable course
10.
REFERENCES
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Tamby MC, Chanseaud Y, Guillevin L, at al. New insights into the pathogenesis of systemic sclerosis. Autoimmun Rev 2003; 2: 152 – 157.
Gabrielli A, Avvedimento EV, Krieg T. Scleroderma. N
Engl J Med 2009; 360: 1989 – 2003.
Clements PJ, Lachenbruch PA, Ng SC, Simmons M,
Sterz M, Furst DE. Skin score. A semiquantitative
measure of cutaneous involvement that improves prediction of prognosis in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis
Rheum 1990; 33: 1256 – 63.
Rodnan GP, Lipinjskie, Luksick J. Skin thickness and
collagen content in progressive systemic sclerosis and
localized scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum 1979; 22: 130
– 40.
Morre TL, Lunt M, Mc Manus B, Anderson ME, Her-
11.
12.
13.
14.
rick Al. Seventeen – point dermal ultrasound scoring
system- a reliable measure of skin thickness in patients
with systemic sclerosis Rheumatology 2003; 42: 1 – 5.
Steen VD, Medsger TA. Changes in causes of death in
systemic sclerosis, 1972 – 2002. Ann Rheum Dis 2007;
66: 940 – 44.
American Rheumatism Association. Preliminary criteria for the classiication of systemic sclerosis.Subcommittee for scleroderma criteria of the American
Rheumatism Association Diagnostic and Theurapentic
criteria committee. Arthritis Rheum 1980; 23: 581 -590.
Schurawitzki H, Stiglbauer R, Graninger W, et al. Interstitial lung disease in progressive systemic sclerosis: high resolution CT versus radiography. Radiology
1990; 176: 755- 759.
Knudon RJ, Slatin RC, Lebowitz MD. The maximal
voluntary low volume curve: normal standards, variability and effects of age. Am Rev Respire Dis 1976;
113:589.
Deborah A, Sagi K, Hudson M, Andrew H, Murray B.
High resolution computed tomography scoring systems
for evaluating interstitial lung disease in systemic sclerosis patients. Rheumatology 2012; S: 1: 1 – 6.
Highland KB, Silver RM. New developments in scleroderma interstitial lung disease. Current opinion in Rheumatology 2005; 17: 737 – 45.
Pignone A, Matucci – Cerinic M, Lombardi A, Fedi R,
et al. High resolution computed tomography in systemic sclerosis. Real diagnostic utilities in the assessment
of pulmonary involvement and comparison with other
modalities of lung investigation. Clin Rheumatol 1992;
11:465- 472.
Sergiacomi G, De Nardo D, Capria A, Menenti G, Fabiano S, et al. Non – invasive diagnostic functional evaluation of cardiac and pulmonary involvement in systemic
sclerosis. In Vivo 2004; 18: 229- 235.
Schurawitzki H, Stiglbauer R, Graninger W, et al. Interstitial lung disease in progressive systemic sclerosis: high resolution CT versus radiography. Radiology
1990; 176: 755- 759.
Highland KB, Silver RM. New developments in scleroderma interstitial lung disease. Current opinion in Rheumatology 2005; 17: 737 – 45.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 02-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
15
CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Solitary Infantile Myoibromatosis at Distal end of Humerus: A Rare
Case Report
Narendra Singh Kushwaha1, Shailendra Singh2, Ekansh Debuka3, Vineet Sharma4
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Infantile myoibromatosis is a rare benign disorder of mesenchymal origin presenting as tumors in skin,
muscles,bones and soft tissue of head and neck. Its solitary
occurrence in bones is very rare. It is even rarer in peripheral
location of skeletal system.
Case report: Herein we report a case of infantile myoibromatosis at distal end of humerus conirmed by histopathological
examination. Patient was successfully treated with curettage
and illing of cavity by bone substitute (beta tricalcium phosphate).
Conclusion: Infantile myoibromatosis is a rare event. Despite of its rarity a high index of suspicion must be practiced
to arrive at correct diagnosis and treatment.
Keywords: Solitary, Infantile myoibromatosis, bones, beta
tricalcium phosphate.
other clinical examination was found to be insigniicant, the
patient was not sent for further X-rays in lieu of radiation
exposure and was kept on regular follow up. The prognosis
was explained to the child’s parents who concurred with our
approach to his treatment.
The patient was admitted and the basic investigations done.
On the 5th day after admission, the patient was taken into
surgery and was managed by open biopsy, curettage and
chronose granules (beta tricalcium phosphate) application[Figure 2]. Above elbow plaster of paris slab was applied for
4 weeks. After 4 weeks active elbow range of motion physiotherapy was started. Patient regained full range of movements at elbow joint at the end of 6 months and x ray of
elbow showed healed lesion [Figure 3]. Patient was followed
for 18 months and there was no evidence of recurrence or
any other complication.The biopsy sample was sent for histopathological examination and the reports conirmed it to be
infantile ibromatosis.
DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
Infantile myoibromatosis(IM), irst described by Stout1 in
1954, is characterized by benign myoibroblastic tumors in
the soft tissues, the bones, and, occasionally, the viscera. The
disorder can primarily be separated into two types although
some texts classify it into three of four types as well.2-5 The
most commonly documented is the solitary form with a nodule in the skin, bone or viscera and the other is the multicentric type. Solitary skeletal lesions are relatively uncommon
but when present, they occur more frequently in the craniofacial skeleton. The bones most commonly involved are skull,
femur, tibia, spine or ribs.
CASE REPORT
IM is the most common ibrous tumor in early childhood,
even though its overall incidence is low.6 About 90% of these
are found in patients less than 2 years of age and is rare in
children and adults.6 It is divided into two types: single solitary lesions as noticed in our case and multicentric type. The
multicentric variant is further sub-divided into two types
depending on whether there was any visceral involvement
involving lungs, gastrointestinal tract (liver and pancreas)
and kidneys.
Chung and Enzinger7 and Muraoka8 et al found the solitary
lesion to be the most common mode of presentation (5075%)that generally affects the skin, muscle, bone and subcutaneous tissue in the head, neck and trunk. The nodules
are well-circumscribed, painless, irm and associated with
Assistant Professor, 2Assistant Professor, 3JR-2, 4Professor &
Head, Department of Orthopaedics, King George Medical University, Lucknow, India
1
We report the case of a three year old male child who presented with chief complains of stiffness and a painless swelling
of size 2x2 cm over the posterior aspect of the right elbow
along with stiffness. The swelling had been present for six
weeks and was non tender and irm in consistency. No lymphadenopathy or visceromegaly was noted. The child had no
other signiicant medical history. Patients family history was
found to be insigniicant.
An X-ray of the right elbow revealed a radiolucent, expansile
lytic lesion over the medial epicondyle surrounded by dense
sclerosis in the distal end of the humerus[Figure1]. Since all
16
Corresponding author: Shailendra Singh, Assistant Professor,
Department of Orthopaedics, King George Medical University,
Lucknow, India
How to cite this article: Narendra Singh Kushwaha, Shailendra
Singh, Ekansh Debuka, Vineet Sharma. Solitary infantile myoibromatosis at distal end of humerus: a rare case report. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):16-18.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kushwaha et al.
Figure-1: X ray of elbow showing a radioluscent, expansile lytic
lesion in the medial epicondyle of humerus surrounded by dense
sclerosis.
Figure-2: Post operative X ray of elbow showing post curretage
cavity illed with bone substitute.
Solitary Infantile Myoibromatosis at Distal end of Humerus
electronic characteristics intermediate between ibroblasts
and smooth muscle cells.
The patients with solitary lesions are usually treated conservatively unless it causes symptoms as it had in our patient.
In such cases, an operative intervention can be planned as
was done for our patient by open biopsy, curettage of the
lesion and chornose granules application to ill the defect. If
managed conservatively, regular follow ups are essential to
monitor the progression.The multicentric variant has a poorer prognosis with the mortality of over 70% in patients with
visceral involvement.
Treatment for the solitary form is expectant with clinical and
imaging follow-up due to the possibility of spontaneous regression. The multicentric form requires a surgical approach.
Surgical treatment is also considered appropriate when the
tumor causes clinical compromise as happened with our
patient who had respiratory failure due to tumor growth in
the upper airway. The generalized variant of IM has a poor
prognosis and use of CT may be considered. After conservative treatment (periodic evaluation to determine spontaneous
regression) or surgical treatment, follow-up of these patients
must be done because of the possibility of recurrence. This
usually is ~5% for the solitary form. There is also the possibility of recurrence in the case of incomplete and inappropriate curettage or even after excision. Prognosis depends on
mode of presentation. It is usually benign with spontaneous
regression during a total period of 1-2 years for the solitary
variant and also for the multifocal variant without visceral involvement. The multicentric form with GI, cardiac or
pulmonary compromise may have a mortality rate of up to
73%.14
CONCLUSION
Figure-3: Six months follow up X ray of elbow showing healed
lesion with incorporated bone substitute material.
an initial phase of rapid growth.9 They are more commonly
found in males
Besides the routine blood investigation, the suspicion of
infantile myoibromatosis warrants the following investigations in all cases: x-rays of the long bones and skull, chest
CT, abdominal and pelvic ultrasound and echogram. These
investigations don’t conirm the diagnosis but are a play a
signiicant role in ascertaining the extent, progression and
the chance of recurrence of the disease. The diagnosis is
conirmed by biopsy as in our case. On histopathological
examination, it is found to have ovoid to spindle-shaped
collagen-forming cells showing immunohistochemical and
Infantile myoibromatosis is a rare myoibroblastic tumor
usually seen in axial skeletal. Its solitary presentation in
bone is even more rarer. Though rare it nevertheless warrants
greater emphasis than it receives in literature. High index
of suspicion should be practiced for correct diagnosis and
treatment.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Stout AP. Juvenile ibromatosis.Cancer 1954;7:953–978
Kaufman SL, Stout AP. Congenital mesenchymal tumors.Cancer 1965;18:460–476
Morettin LB, Mueller E, Schreiber M. Generalized
hamartomatosis:congenital generalized ibromatosis.
AJR Am J Roentgenol 1972;114:722–734
Rosenberg HS, Stenback WA, Spjut HJ. The ibromatoses of infancy and childhood.Perspect Pediatr Pathol
1978;4:269–343
Bolano LE, Yngve DA, Altshuler G. Solitary ibromatosis of bone: a rare variant of congenital generalized
ibromatosis. Clin Orthop1991;263:238–241
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
17
Kushwaha et al.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Solitary Infantile Myoibromatosis at Distal end of Humerus
Wiswell TE, Davis J, Cunningham BE, Solenberger R,
Thomas P.Infantile myoibromatosis: the most common
ibrous tumor of infancy. J Pediatr Surg 1988;23:314–
318
Chung EB, Enzinger FM. Infantile myoibromatosis.
Cancer 1981;48:1807–1818
Muraoka I, Ohno Y, Kamitamari A, Okada M, Moriuchi H,Kanematsu T. Congenital occurrence of solitary
infantile myoibromatosis of the spleen. J Pediatr Surg
2008;43:227-230.
Prado Calleros HM, Castillo Ventura BB, Arrieta
Gómez JR, García García MA, Sánchez Marín LA, et
al. Tumores ibrosos/mioibrosos en cabeza y cuello.
Rev Hosp Gral Dr. M Gea González 2006;7:76-81.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 12.11.2015; Published online: 26.11.2015
18
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
REVIEW ARTICLE
www.ijcmr.com
MPDS- Multifactorial Etiology and Varied Pathophysiology: A
Review
Anshul Chaturvedi1, Ahmed Anwar Khan1, Rahul Srivastava2, Ashutosh Shukla3, Bhuvan Jyoti4
ABSTRACT
Temporomandibular joint (TMJ) diseases and disorders refer
to a complex and poorly understood set of conditions, manifested by pain in the area of the jaw and associated muscles.
Myofascial pain syndrome is a chronic pain disorder which
produces the pain by pressure on sensitive points in muscles
(trigger points) and causes pain in seemingly unrelated parts
of body.
This article highlights the possible etiology, clinical features,
investigations and recent treatment of myofascial pain dysfunction syndrome.
Keywords: Myofascial pain, temporomandibular joints, trigger points
describing speciic referred pain patterns of many muscles
and spinal ligaments following injections of hypertonic saline. In 1952, Travell wrote the irst of many articles introducing the myofascial genesis of pain illustrated by speciic
referred pain patterns of over 30 muscles.6 Travell (1901 1997) has been referred to as the pioneer in the treatment of
musculoskeletal pain through the recognition of MTrPs. She
coined the term “myofascial pain syndrome” to describe pain
as a result of trigger points in muscle, tendon, skin, fascia,
and ligaments (the term “trigger point” was introduced by
Steindler in 1940).7
CAUSE
Central nervous system plays signiicant role. Combination
of both central and peripheral factors makes the condition
dificult to manage. The following conditions are clinically
related to myofascial pain:
INTRODUCTION
Myofascial pain is a regional myogenous pain condition
characterized by local areas of irm, hypersensitive bands
of muscle tissue known as trigger points. This condition is
also referred as myofascial trigger point pain. Myofascial
trigger point pain was irst described by Travell and Rinzler
in 1952.1
A myofascial trigger point (MTrP) is clinically deined as a
hyperirritable spot in skeletal muscle that is associated with
a hypersensitive palpable nodule in a taut band. The spot is
painful on compression and can give rise to characteristic
referred pain, referred tenderness, motor dysfunction, and
autonomic phenomena.2
In 1969 Laskin published a paper and stated that there are
many patients with muscle pain complaints in which the
cause is not the occlusal condition and described the importance of emotional stress and other factors. After this article
dental professionals began using the term myofascial pain
dysfunction syndrome.1
Historical Aspect of Myofascial Pain Syndrome
Myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) are the principal characteristic of MPS. During the past nearly 200 years, numerous authors have described MTrPs in the English, German,
Dutch, and French medical literature, illustrating that musculoskeletal pain due to MTrPs is very common.3,4 Already in
1816, British physician Balfour described MTrPs as “nodular tumours and thickenings which were painful to the touch,
and from which pains shot to neighbouring parts.”5 In 1938,
British rheumatologist Kellgren published a seminal paper
Protracted local muscle soreness
Muscles that experience continued muscle soreness may
lead to development of myofascial trigger points and myofascial pain.
Local factors
Certain local factors that inluence muscle activity such as
habits, poor posture and chilling seem to affect myofascial
pain.
Systemic factors
Certain systemic factors may precipitate to myofascial pain
e.g. fatigue, poor physical condition, hypovitaminosis and
viral infections
Intern, 2Reader, Department of Oral Medicine & Radiology, 3Senior Lecturer, Department of Oral and maxillofacial surgery, Rama
Dental college Hospital and research centre, Kanpur, 4Dental Surgeon and Consultant- Oral Medicine and Radiology, Department
of Dental Surgery, Ranchi Institute of Neuro-Psychiatry and Allied
sciences, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India.
1
Corresponding author: Anshul Chaturvedi, Intern, Rama Dental
College Hospital and Research Centre, Kanpur, U.P, India
How to cite this article: Anshul Chaturvedi, Ahmed Anwar Khan,
Rahul Srivastava, Ashutosh Shukla, Bhuvan Jyoti. MPDS- multifactorial etiology and varied pathophysiology: a review. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):19-25.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
19
Chaturvedi et al.
MPDS- Multifactorial Etiology and Varied Pathophysiology
Increased emotional stress
Myofascial pain may be exacerbated by increased emotional stress. When individual is experiencing higher levels of
emotional states, such as fear, anxiety frustration or anger the
following major modiications of muscle activity can occur:
• An increased emotional stress excites the limbic structure and hypothalamus activating the gamma efferent system. Increased gamma efferent activity comes
contraction of the intrafusal ibres, resulting in partial
stretching of muscle spindle. When spindles are partially stretched, less stretching of the overall muscle is
needed to elicit a relex action. This affects the myotactic relex and ultimately results in increase in muscle
tonus. Muscles also become more sensitive to external
stimuli which leads to further increases in muscle tonicity. These conditions lead to an increase in intra-articular
pressure of TMJ.
• The increased gamma efferent activity may also increase the amount of irrelevant muscle activity. The reticular formation, with inluence from the limbic system
and hypothalamus can create additional muscle activity
unrelated to the accomplishment of speciic task. Often
these activities assume the role of nervous habits such
as biting on the inger nails or on pencil, clenching the
teeth together or bruxism.
•
•
•
Constant deep pain
Constant deep pain input can create central excitatory effects
in remote sites. If central excitatory effect involves an efferent (motor) neuron, two types of muscle effects can observed:
• Protective co-contraction.
• Development of trigger point.
When trigger point develops it becomes a source of deep pain
and can produce additional central excitatory effects. These
secondary trigger points are called satellite trigger point.1
CLICKING NOISE
CLINICAL FEATURES
1.
2.
3.
4.
•
•
•
•
Females more affected than males with ratio of 4:1.
Affects primarily young women (age 20 to 40 years).
Presence of trigger points which present as local areas of
irm, hypersensitive, bands of muscle tissue.
There are four cardinal sign and symptoms:
Pain
Muscle tenderness.
Clicking or popping noise in TMJ.
Limitation of jaw movement.8,9
PAIN
Most common sites of pain in the masticatory system include
jaw pain, preauricular pain, ear ache, neck pain, facial pain,
and temple, frontal or occipital headaches.
• Pain has following characteristic:
20
Pain is usually of dull and deep quality.
The pain diffuse in nature
The incidence and severity of pain vary with the stimulus.
• Associated restriction in movement may be present.
Although pain is increased with function of involved muscle, the amount of pain reported usually less than with local
muscle soreness.10,11
MUSCLE TENDERNESS
In myofascial pain, the tenderness termed trigger points is
deep localized and about 2-5 mm in diameter. In many instances, the patient may be aware only of referred pain and
not even acknowledge the trigger point. Referred pain is
wholly dependent on its original source, palpation of an active trigger point increase such pain.9
Trigger point may present in an active or latent state. In active state it produces central excitatory effects. Therefore
when trigger point is active a tension type headache is commonly felt. In latent state patient does not report headache
complaint. In this state trigger point is no longer sensitive
to palpation and therefore does not produce referred pain.
These types of trigger points are dificult to ind by palpation.1
There will be recurrent clicking in temporomandibular joint
at any point of jaw movement and there may be crepitus especially with lateral movements.12
LIMITATION OF JAW MOVEMENT
There may be limitations of jaw movement with variable jaw
deviation or locking but rarely severe trismus is seen. Patient
who clench or grind their teeth during working hours, the
symptoms tend to worsen toward evening and some times
have psychogenic basis. People with night time habit of
clenching or grinding the teeth may awake with joint pain
that abates during the day.12
Sometimes myofascial pain of head and neck is misdiagnosed due to additional signs and symptoms which are occasionally reported with more severe cases and coincidental
pathologic conditions and are often associated with myofascial trigger point. Additional symptoms are increased fatigability, stiffness, subjective weakness, numbness, hyperesthesia, teeth sensitivity, excess lacrimation, increase salivation,
nausea and vomiting. Numerous otologic symptoms such as
ear pain, tinnitus, diminished hearing, dizziness, vertigo and
fullness in ear.13
INVESTIGATIONS
Diagnosis is made on the basis of clinical indings.
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Chaturvedi et al.
Muscle spasm
•
Characterised by acute
onset of pain in jaw, face,
ear or temples.
•
In muscle spasm there is
generalised tenderness of
muscle
MPDS- Multifactorial Etiology and Varied Pathophysiology
Trigeminal neuralgia
Atypical odontalgia
•
In TGN there is parox•
There is pain in tooth or
ysmal, unilateral sharp
tooth side.
pain, sudden electrical
•
Mandibular function does
lancinating pain conined
not affect.
to distribution of one or
•
Patient will not have
more branches of trigemitrigger points.
nal nerve.
•
TGN occur after four
decade and peak in 5th
and 6th decades.
•
Trigger zones are present
and stimulated by touch,
in MPDS trigger points
are deep, localised and
2-5 mm in diameter and
produce pain on palpation.
•
Trismus absent in TGN
Table-1: Differential diagnosis
Radiographic changes are not commonly present.
Arthrography and MRI is seldom indicated.12
PRESENCE OF TRIGGER POINTS
Trigger points are localized, irm, hyperirritable nodules that
are tender to palpation patients often describe as knots within
their muscles if suficiently sensitized can be the referred pain
source. Trigger points are small in head and neck region i.e.
about to 2 to 10 mm and larger in shoulder region 10 to 20
mm. Trigger points become aggravated from muscle use, poor
sleep, psychological tension and emotional stress and their severity can luctuate as the contributing factor change. Manual palpation is a common method for identiication of trigger
zones. Rolling the inger over the muscle and feeling for irm,
hyperirritable nodules within the muscle often identiies the
trigger zone. It has been demonstrated to apply pressure directly to the trigger point to generate the referred pain.14
EXAMINATION OF MUSCLE OF
MASTICATION
Muscles should be examined for tenderness using digital palpation. Muscles that should be included in examination are
medial and lateral pterygoid, masseter, temporalis, sternocleidomastoid, and trapezius. Medial pterygoid muscles are
checked by running a inger in an anterioposterior direction
along the medial aspect of the mandible in the loor of the
mouth.
Masseter muscle is examined by simultaneous pressing from
inside and outside the mouth in the process of bimanual
palpation. Lateral pterygoid examined by inserting a inger
behind tuberosity region. In temporalis each of three areas
(anterior, middle, posterior) should be examined. The anterior region is palpated above zygomatic arch and anterior to
TMJ. The middle region is palpated directly above the TMJ
Pulpal pain
•
Sharp oscillating, throbbing tends to coarsen
or improve in time and
local provocation of tooth
exacerbates pain.
•
Trigger point are absent.
•
Clinical or radiographic
science of pathology
present in tooth with
pulpal pain and absent in
MPDS.
and superior to zygomatic arch. Posterior region is palpated
above and behind the ear. In sternocleidomastoid palpation
is done bilaterally near its insertion on the outer surface of
mastoid fossa behind the ear. The entire length of muscle is
palpated down to its origin near the clavicle.1,15
MEASUREMENT OF STRESS
A useful tool is Symptom check list 90(SCL-90). This evaluation provides an assessment of nine psychologic states:
1. Somatisation
2. Obsessive compulsive behaviour
3. Interpersonal sensitivity.
4. Depression.
5. Anxiety.
6. Hostility
7. Phobic anxiety.
8. Paranoid ideation.
9. Psychotocism.
Assessment of these factors are necessary when evaluating
chronic pain.16
TREATMENT
Treatment of MPDS is divided in to three categories by
Weinberg. These categories are:
1. Palliative therapy.
2. Causative therapy.
3. Adjunctive therapy.
One more category has been suggested by authors
known as:
4. Deinitive therapy.
PALLIATIVE THERAPY
This therapy includes procedures such as occlusal splint,
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
21
Chaturvedi et al.
MPDS- Multifactorial Etiology and Varied Pathophysiology
medications, home remedies (ice, moist heat application, exercises and soft diet).
MOIST HEAT AND ICE
Moist heat opens the capillary bed to promote increased
blood low; it also acts as muscle conditioner prior to exercise and physical therapy. Contraindications of heat therapy include circulatory insuficiency, sensory or cognitive
impairment, malignancy and inlammation. Application of
ice is quite effective for reducing muscle swelling and pain
especially in acute condition.17
OCCLUSAL SPLINTS
Dental occlusal splinting and permanent occlusal adjustment
have been the mainstays of TMJ disorder treatment. Occlusal splint therapy may be deined as “the art and science of
establishing neuromuscular harmony in the masticatory system by creating a mechanical disadvantage for parafunctional forces
with removable appliances.” Occlusal splint is a diagnostic,
relaxing, repositioning, and reversible device. According to
the glossary of prosthodontic terms [8th ed.], “occlusal splint
is deined as any removable artiicial occlusal surface used
for diagnosis or therapy affecting the relationship of the mandible to the maxilla. It may be used for occlusal stabilization,
for treatment of temporomandibular disorders, or to prevent
wear of the dentition.” A common goal of occlusal splint
treatment is to protect the TMJ discs from dysfunctional
forces that may lead to perforations or permanent displacements. Other goals of treatment are to improve jaw-muscle
function and to relieve associated pain by creating a stable
balanced occlusion. Splint therapy is considered an adjunct
to pharmacologic therapy and most appropriate when nocturnal parafunctional activities can be identiied. Typically,
a lat-plane maxillary occlusal splint designed for bilateral
contact of all teeth is fabricated. Such splints are thought to
unload the joint by disarticulating the dentition and increasing the vertical dimension of occlusion. By unloading the
joint, there will be a reduction in both synovitis and masticatory muscle activity. Therefore, the result is a reduction in
symptoms. These appliances may also change condylar position and the existing occlusal relationship, thereby reducing
abnormal muscle activity and spasm. Most occlusal splints
have one primary function that is to alter an occlusion so
they do not interfere with complete seating of the condyles
in centric relation.18
MUSCLE RELAXANTS
Most common muscle relaxants are metaxalone 400 to 800
mg every six hours or chlorzoxazone 500 mg every six
hours. Other muscle relaxants are casrisoprodol, methocarbamol, orphenadrine and cyclobenzaprine.
NONSTEROIDAL ANTI-INFLAMMATORY
DRUGS
NSAIDS are commonly used for the pain control in cases of
MPDS. Ibuprofen should be used in doses of 400m.g four
times daily. Chronic long term use is cautioned against because of their systemic and gastrointestinal side effects. The
cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors rofecoxib (25-50 mg/day) and
celecoxib (100-200mg/day) has same analgesic effects with
reduced risk of gastrointestinal injury.
BENZODIAZEPENES
Diazepam (5-10 mg/day) and clonazepam can be used in the
patient with muscle pain accompanied by stress and sleep
disturbances.
TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT
Drug like amitryptylline is effective in management of
chronic pain in cases of MPDS. It has analgesic action in low
doses, sedative effects and promotes restful sleep. The analgesic effect of TCAs is due to the serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibition at synaptic level in the central
nervous system (CNS). The blocking of these two amines
increases their concentration and availability in the synaptic
space of the nerve endings in the posterior horn of the spinal
cord (involved in the transmission of pain) favoring or prolonging the inhibitory action in the transmission of pain. It
can be started with dose as low as 10mg at night and dosage
can be increased to 75 to 100mg depending upon patient tolerance.9,10
CAPSAICIN
Capsaicin cream (0.025% or 0.075%) can be use for pain
relief. It releases substance –P and pain related neuropeptides to reduce pain perception and inlammation and must
be applied multiple times per day for at least 2 weeks. Side
effects of the drug are local burning, warming and reddening
of the skin, these side effects diminish with time and eventually disappear.17
PHARMACOTHERAPY
EXERCISE
Drug therapy should be used on ixed dose schedule rather
than as needed for pain. Following drugs can be used for
treatment of M.P.D.S.
Passive stretching i.e. keeping the muscle ibers relaxed
while slowly stretching the muscle, preventing it from
tightening via the stretch relex in conjunction with moist
22
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Chaturvedi et al.
heat(followed by application of ice) is beneicial for decreasing muscle and joint pain and for improving ranges of
movement.19
COUNTER STIMULATION OF MUSCLE
There are two methods for reducing muscular pain:
1. Repetitive action on trigger point with a mode of counter stimulation.
2. Muscle rehabilitation through active and passive stretching and postural exercises to restore the muscle to normal length, posture and range of motion.
There are several methods for counter stimulation of muscle to reduce trigger points. Common methods are spray and
stretch, trigger point injection and acupuncture. Other methods like ultrasound, direct electrical stimulation are also useful for muscle contracture.
SPRAY AND STRETCH
Non-invasive technique for counter stimulation. It involves
cooling the skin with luoromethane, ethyl chloride, spray
and then gently stretching the involve muscle to perform
spray and stretch therapy. The cooling is done to allow the
stretching to take place without the pain leading to reactive
contraction or strain. The vapocoolant spray provides abrupt
cutaneous stimulation that temporarily reduces pain perception in the area. It must be applied from distance of 18 inch.
It is applied in one direction from trigger points towards reference zone in slow, even sweeps over adjacent parallel areas
at rate of about 10cm/second.13,16
PRESSURE AND MASSAGE
Increased pressure is applied to trigger point can also relieve
pain. Pressure is increased to about 20 pounds and is maintained to 30 to 60 seconds. If this technique produce pain it
must be stopped since the pain can reinforce cyclic muscle
pain.16
TRIGGER POINT INJECTIONS
Intramuscular trigger point injection can be performed by injecting local anaesthetic solution,saline or sterile water or by
dry needling without depositing a drug or solution.
Procaine diluted to 0.5% with saline has been recommended
because of its low toxicity to the muscle, but lidocaine (2%
without vasoconstrictor) is also used with standard dental syringe. Injections are often given to muscle group in series of
weekly treatments for 3 to 5 weeks; this may be continued
with modiication of the intervals between injections, depending upon the response.
Trigger point injections with LA are generally more comfortable than dry needling or injecting other substances, although acupuncture may be helpful for patient with multi-
MPDS- Multifactorial Etiology and Varied Pathophysiology
ple chronic muscle trigger points. The LA must be used in
concentration less than that required for nerve block. This
can remarkably lengthen the refractory period of peripheral nerves and limit the maximum frequency of impulse
conduction.9,13
ADJUNCTIVE THERAPY
Consist of treatment modalities that augment and assist deinitive or causative type of treatment for TMD.
PHYSIOTHERAPY
It is combination of physical therapy, massage therapy and
electro modalities. Both passive and active treatments are
commonly included as part of therapy. Posture therapy is
also useful to avoid forward head positions that are thought
to adversely affect mandibular posture and masticatory muscle.9,17
ELECTROTHERAPY
Is a part of adjunctive therapy; modalities includes electrogalvanic stimulation, ultrasound, low level laser and infra
red.
ELECTROGALVANIC STIMULATION
It utilizes negative polarity over a painful, swollen area. The
negative charge produces alkaline effect within the tissues,
denaturing proteins and produced vasodilatation of the capillaries; this in turn permits the outward low of metabolites
and tissue luids. High voltage electrogalvanic stimulation
rhythmically pulsates the muscles to the level of fatigue
causing muscle relaxation.17
TRANSCUTANEOUS ELECTRICAL NERVE
STIMULATION (TENS)
Mode of action of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) has been attributed to neurologic, physiologic,
pharmacologic and psychological effects. TENS supposedly
blocks pain signals being carried over the small, unmyelinated C ibers by forcing the large myelinated A ibers to
carry a light touch sensation. It may provide pain relief by
physiologic effects of rhythmic muscle movement. The fasciculation of muscle may result in an increase in circulation,
a decrease in edema and a decrease in resting muscle activity. The pharmacologic action of TENS may involve the
stimulated release of endorphins which are endogenous morphine like substances. The probable placebo effect of TENS
in relieving pain should also be considered. It is thought to
increase the action of the modulation that occurs in pain processing at the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and trigeminal
nucleus of brainstem.15
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Chaturvedi et al.
MPDS- Multifactorial Etiology and Varied Pathophysiology
ULTRASOUND
It is a method of producing deep heat more effectively that
the patient could achieve by using surface warming. These
mechanical vibrations produce heat and vasodilatation by
increasing the tissue temperature. Thus increasing metabolic activity. Vibrations also decrease pain by activating large
myelinated peripheral neurons that attenuate pain or nociception stimulation at spinal cord or trigeminal (pons) levels.9,17
IONTOPHORESIS
Is a process in which ions in solutions are driven through
intact skin by using a direct current between two electrodes.
It uses ultrasonic energy to drive a medication deep into the
tissue.
Low level laser
Laser therapy includes nitric oxide synthesis, which causes
the endothelial linings of capillaries to dilate, improving circulation in the area. Laser therapy also may return injured
tissues to a more optimum energy level, improving circulation, decreasing pain and swelling.
Infra red radiation
It produces vasodilatation of capillary bed by initiating the
synthesis of nitric oxide, improving circulation and decreasing swelling. This small neurotransmitter improves circulation by opening the endothelial linings of capillaries.13,17
feedback, usually by monitoring the electrical activity of the
muscle with surface electrodes or by monitoring peripheral
temperature. The monitoring instruments provide patients
with physiological information that allows them to reliably
change physiological functions to produce response similar
to that produced by relaxation therapies.9
CONCLUSION
Myofascial pain syndrome is a type of muscle pain syndrome
that has a deined pathophysiology that leads to the development of characteristic taut or hard band in muscle that is tender and that refers pain to distant sites. If it becomes chronic,
it tends to generalize. Myofascial pain syndrome can resolve
with ideal treatment regimens. However, many patients with
myofascial pain syndrome have symptoms for years. Outcomes are best when a multifaceted treatment approach is
done.
REFERENCES
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2.
3.
4.
Acupuncture (dry needling) and Percutaneous electrical
nerve stimulation (electro-acupuncture or PENS)
The effect of electro acupuncture is achieved by stimulation
and release of endogenous analgesic peptides. The use of
electro acupuncture or PENS with needling of trigger points
in these cases will not only implement the local needle effect
to reduce pain but also restore normal muscle analgesic system to provide more generalised effect of analgesia.
Local point therapy includes needling points to inactivate
them. Distal point therapy includes needling points on opposite end of involved meridians with low frequency (1 to5
hertz) electrical stimulation to stimulate endogenous opiate
system.13
MANAGEMENT OF STRESS
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Integerating behavioural therapy and relaxation techniques
in chronic pain management in MPDS are effective. Relaxation techniques decrease sympathetic activity and possibly
arousal. Deep methods include autogenic training, meditation, and progressive muscle relaxation. Brief methods of
relaxation include self – control relaxation, paced breathing
and deep breathing. Hypnosis produces a state of selective or
diffuse focus in order to induce relaxation.
Biofeedback is a treatment method that provides continuous
24
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12.
13.
Jeffrey P. Okeson Management of temporomandibular
disordes and occlusion United states of America published by Mosby 5th edition page no.198-205,258-273.
Simons DG, Travell JG, Simons LS. Travell and Simons'
myofascial pain and dysfunction; the trigger point manual. 2 ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1999.
Simons DG. Muscle pain syndromes - part 1. Am J Phys
Med 1975;54:289-311.
Baldry PE. Myofascial pain and ibromyalgia syndromes. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 2001.
Stockman R. The causes, pathology, and treatment of
chronic rheumatism. Edinburgh Med J 1904;15:107116.
Travell JG, Rinzler SH. The myofascial genesis of pain.
Postgrad Med 1952;11:434-452.
Steindler A. The interpretation of sciatic radiation and
the syndrome of low-back pain. J Bone Joint Surg Am
1940;22:28-34.
Shafer, Hine, Levy. Shafer’s Textbook of oral Pathology
5th edition, Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier.
Greenberg MS, Glick M. Burket’s Oral Medicine Diagnosis Treatment, published by Harcourt Pvt ltd New
Delhi 10th edition, 2003, BC Decker, Elsevier, page no.
271-300.
Friction J. Myogeneous temporomandibular disorders:
Diagnostic and Management considerations, Dental
clinics of North America- TMD and Orofacial pain,
2007;51:61-83.
Kaplan AS, Assael LA. Temporomandibular Disorders,
Diagnosis and treatment. 1st ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; 1991:120.
Scully C, Shotts R. ABC of Oral Health: Mouth Ulcers
and others causes of Orofacial Soreness and Pain, British Medical Journal, 2000, 321:162-5.
Friction JR, Schiffman E, Hathway KM. TMJ Disor-
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ders, Diagnosis and Treatment., 69-80.
14. Tan EK, Jankovic J. Treating severe bruxism with botulinum toxin, JADA 2000;131:211-6.
15. Lynch MA, Brightman VJ, Greenberg MS. Burket’s
Oral Medicine, Diagnosis and Treatment, 9th edition,
Lippincott- Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, New York,
1988.
16. Okeson JP. Fundamentals of Occlusion and Temporomandibular Disorders. 1st ed. Toronto: The CV Mosby
Company; 1985:166.
17. Shankland WE. Temporomandibular Disorders, Standard Treatment options 2004;5:349-56.
18. Srivastava R, Jyoti B, Devi P. Oral splint for temporomandibular joint disorders with revolutionary luid system. Dental Research Journal 2013;10:307-13
19. Okeson JP. Bell's Orofacial Pain. 5th edition quintessence publishing co inc 1995 pains of muscular origin
259-94
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 2-11-2015; Published online: 26-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
25
CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Transition of Oral Leukoplakia Into Oral Verrucous Carcinoma – A
Case Report with Literature Update
Usama A. Kharadi1, R.S.Birangane2, Sanjeev Onkar3, Noopur Kulkarni4
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Verrucous carcinoma (VC) is an exophytic lesion,which classically can be seen in the oral cavity, larynx,
genitalia, skin, and esophagus. It has a slow growth potential
and is an alternative form of oral squamous cell carcinoma. It
is recognized by its local aggressiveness with minimal metastatic activity. It is also called as “snuff dipper’s cancer” as its
association with tobacco chewers and snuff users. According
to a recent literature, VC has a strong relation with human
papilloma virus which has a potential role in its growth and
development. Though clinical presentation is classic for VC,
histopathological diagnosis needs expertise opinion. It is said
that often VC is preceeded by long standing potentially malignant disorders (PMD) in the oral cavity.
Case report: Here we report a case of verrucous carcinoma
with a pre existing history of oral leukoplakia since long duration.The casewas managed surgically and the patient is on
follow up without any complication since a year.
Conclusion: From the case presented here we could say that
potentially malignant disorders (PMD) of oral cavity should
be correctly diagnosed and immediately the treatment should
start to prevent further complications. Long term follow up of
patients with PMD is must. The Prognosis of VC is often good
after surgical treatment.
Keywords: verrucous carcinoma, potentially malignant disorders, histopathologic diagnosis, oral leukoplakia
INTRODUCTION
Cancer is the second most leading cause of mortality in
economically developed countries (following heart diseases) and the third most leading cause of death in developing
countries (following heart diseases and diarrhoeal diseases).
VC is a rare variant of squamous cell carcinoma of oral cavity, diagnosed in only 1 to 3 of every 1,000,000 persons each
year.1 The term verrucous carcinoma was irst recognized
by Lauren V. Ackermann in the year 1948. By that time it’s
commonly called as verrucous carcinoma of Ackermann or
simply Ackermann’s tumor. History dates back in 1896 when
Buschke, and next in 1925, Buschke and Loewenstein, illustrated a lesion on penis which emerged benign cytologically,
but behaved like a malignancy. As it was histologically similar to the benign condyloma acuminatum, it was termed as
a giant condyloma acuminatum or the Buschke-Loewenstein
26
tumor.2 It was actually a genital form of verrucous carcinoma. Buschke-Loewenstein tumor, lorid oral papillomatosis,
epithelioma cuniculatum, carcinoma cuniculatum and Ackermann’s tumor are various synonyms for verrucous carcinoma in literature. Here we report a case of VC in middle
aged male patient with previous history of oral leukoplakia
in oral cavity.
CASE REPORT
A 43 years old male reported in our Department of Oral
Medicine and Radiology with a chief complaint of white
patch on his lower left posterior region of jaw since 1-1/2
years. A detailed case history revealed that the patch existed
since 1-1/2 years when he had visited a private dentist for
oral prophylaxis, who had alarmed him regarding the white
lesion and had counseled him about its malignant potential
and advised him complete stoppage of all deleterious habits.
The patient continued his habits and appeared alright. Patient
revisited the dentist after 1 year for oral prophylaxis. Dentist informed the patient that the white lesion had increased
in size and needs to be biopsied. With the apprehension of
cancer, Patient visited cancer hospital where he was advised
biopsy, which he did not get done. He then visited our department of Oral Medicine and Radiology for the same. He
presented with a history of pain and paresthesia on mandibular left side of jaw. Patients past medical and dental history
were non signiicant. He revealed a habit of chewing tobacco
mixed with lime 8-10 times per day since 15 years place it
in and used to keep in mandibular left posterior region of
jaw for 10-15 minutes and spit it out afterwards, and also
used to consumed paan occasionally. Since 1 month he had
completely stopped all the habits. Examination of area of
Post Graduate Student, 2Professor & HOD, 3Reader, Department
of Oral Medicine & Radiology, 4Senior lecturer, Department of
Oral Pathology & Microbiology, PDU Dental College & Hospital,
Solapur, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Usama A. Kharadi, PDU Dental college & Hospital, Department of Oral Medicine & Radiology, 19/1,
Kegaon, Solapur, India
How to cite this article: Usama A. Kharadi, R.S. Birangane,
Sanjeev Onkar, Noopur Kulkarni. Transition of oral leukoplakia
into oral verrucous carcinoma – a case report with literature update. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):26-28.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kharadi et al.
chief complaint showed whitish verrucous growth in relation
with 36 involving marginal and attached gingiva which was
surrounded by leukoplakic patch [igure 1]. On palpation lesion was rough in consistency and non tender. 36 number
tooth was grade I mobile. A single left side submandibular
lymph node approximately size of 0.5x0.5 cm was found
palpable which was soft, movable and non tender. Based on
the clinical indings, a provisional diagnosis of Verrucous
leukoplakia was made and a differential diagnosis of Verrucous carcinoma was considered. Various investigations
like IOPA, cropped panoramic radiograph, CBCT, CT, blood
investigations and incisional biopsy were carried out. On intraoral periapical radiograph (IOPA) severe bone loss was
seen, mimicking a loating tooth appearance, but complete
extent of bone loss was not appreciated on IOPA [igure 2].
In panoramic view radiolucency in alveolar crestal bone and
in furcation area can be appreciated suggestive of bony invasion of lesion [Figure 3]. On CBCT, CT scan complete extent of lesion could be appreciated which was about 16.8x8.7
mm on axial CBCT [Figure 4]. On cross sectional CBCT
periodontal ligament widening was noted with the adjacent
premolar [Figure 5] which was not clearly noted on conventional radiograph. 3D reconstructed image by CBCT was
done [Figure 6]. Incisional biopsy was done from the left
buccal vestibule in region of 36 and specimen was sent for
the histopath examination.The histopathological analysis in
H and E section showed, epithelium with bulbous reteridges and acanthosis. There was presence of orthokeratin plugging. Individual cell keratinizationand bizarre mitotic igures
were seen at places. There was nuclear hyperchromatism and
cellular pleomorphism which were pointing out a diagnosis
towards a malignancy [Figure 7]. Histopathologic diagnosis
came was Verrucous carcinoma. Patient was opted for surgery; hemimandibulectomy along with neck dissection on
left side was done. Patient is still under follow up with no
metastasis or recurrence.
Transition of Oral Leukoplakia Into Oral Verrucous Carcinoma
Figure-1: Intraoral view of lesion; Figure-3: Cropped panoramic
view showing radiolucency in alveolar crestal bone and in furcation
area.
Figure-2: IOPA showing severe bone loss mimicking loating tooth
appearance
Figure-4: Axial CBCT showing extension of bone involvement;
Figure-5: widening of periodontal ligament space with adjacent
tooth
DISCUSSION
Oral cavity and larynx are the most favored sites for verrucous carcinoma in head and neck region. It can also be
found in other sites like vulva, pyriform fossa, nasal cavity,
esophagus, paranasal sinuses, external auditory meatus, lacrimal duct, skin, penis, scrotum, vagina, uterine cervix, legs
and perineum.3 There is a predilection for males in 6th or 7th
decades of life who are addicted to the habits of tobacco, pan
chewing and snuff dipping. The case presented here is also
middle aged male patient with history of tobacco and paan
chewing and used to place tobacco quid in mandibular left
posterior vestibular region and lesion occurred on same area
around the gingiva. Clinically VC appears as papillary with
pebbled surface. There can be rugae like folds with deep
clefts. In some cases it showed warty fungating like masses, often surrounded by premalignant lesions or conditions.
Statistics reports it to be 5% of all intraoral squamous cell
Figure-6: 3D reconstructed image; Figure-7: histopathology picture
carcinomas.4
It can occur in various anatomical locations and in oral cavity buccal mucosa, alveolar ridge and gingiva are common
sites. VC can be seen in various forms like fungating, verrucoid, papillary or caulilower like. According to a study by
Rajendran et al., they found that leukoplakia was associat-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
27
Kharadi et al.
Transition of Oral Leukoplakia Into Oral Verrucous Carcinoma
ed with VC in 48% of their cases.5 Demian SD et al (1973)
stated that very old, untouched leukoplakia could be transformed into VC.6 Similar indings were proved in our case.
The various treatment options in literature are surgical excision of the lesion that can be combined with radiotherapy.
However there are some reports of local recurrence or anaplastic transformation after radiotherapy, but in a study by
Shao Hui huang et al (2009), they disapprove this fact too.7
Literature says that even though lymph nodes involvement if
present in VC, they are quite often inlammatory. In our case
as bone involvement was extensive and also lymph nodes
were positive, conventional surgery along with neck dissection was carried out. Radiotherapy was not given. Patient is
under follow up since a year and till date no complications
were noted.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 01-11-2015; Published online: 27-11-2015
CONCLUSION
From the case presented here, we could say as a dentist we
come across patients with various abuse habits and white and
red lesions in oral cavity. It is very important to diagnose
the potentially malignant disorders (PMD) of oral cavity
and to make patients aware and educate them regarding the
potential threat of these potentially malignant disorders and
their possible transformation into malignancy. Even after
stoppage of adverse habits it is important to do a follow up
with the patients with such PMDs and to perform biopsy if
recommended. Though verrucous carcinoma is rare to see in
routine practice, clinic pathologic correlation is very important for a judicious therapy.
REFERENCES
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28
Bouquot JE, Morgantown W. Oral verrucous carcinoma. Incidence in 2 US populations. Oral Surg Oral Med
Oral Pathol oral Radiol Endod. 1998; 86: 318-24.
N Kaushal, N Madan. Verrucous carcinoma of the oral
cavity: Case Report. The Internet Journal of Geriatrics
and Gerontology. 2009; Volume 6 Number 1.
Asha ML, Vini K, Chatterjee I, Patil P. Verrucous Carcinoma of Buccal Mucosa: A Case Report. Int J Adv
Health Sci. 2014; 1: 19-23.
Regezi A.J, Sciuba J.J and Jordan R.C.K: Oral pathology clinical pathological correlations. 5th edition. St.
Louis Missouri: Saunders Elsvier; 2008.
Rajendran R, Sugathan CK, Augustine J, Vasudevan
DM, VijayakumarT. Ackerman’s tumour (verrucous
carcinoma) of theoral cavity: a histopathologic study of
426 cases. Singapore Dent J. 1989;14:48–53.
Demian SD, Bushkin FL, Echevarria RA. Perineural invasion and anaplastic transformation of verrucous carcinoma. Cancer. 1973;32:395–401.
Shao Hui Huang, Gina Lockwood, M.Math et al. Truths
and myths about radiotherapy for verrucous carcinoma of larynx. Int. J. Radiation Oncology Biol. Phys.
2009;73:1110–1115.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Assessment of Dental Myths among the Subjects Attending a Dental
Institution in Virajpet, Karnataka
Mutum Bidyalaxmi1, Jain Jitesh2, Ananda S.R3, S Supreetha3, K.N Abhishek4, Shreyas O5
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Most of the human beliefs are acquired through
communication, which is not always substantiated by facts
and prevalent due to a variety of reasons like illiteracy, cultural beliefs and misconceptions. These beliefs in the ield of
dentistry misguide the patients and are a barrier in oral care
delivery system. Aim of the study was to assess dental myths
among subjects with different socioeconomic status attending
a dental institute.
Material and method: A self-administered questionnaire was
used among 367 participants aged 18 years and above selected
randomly.
Results: There was a statistically signiicant association between Socioeconomic Status and questions related to teething,
biting of hard substances, stains, brushing several times a day
etc.
Conclusion: Many subjects were surprisingly unaware of the
facts of dentistry. The various myths in the ield of dentistry
and about dental treatment which are still in the minds of general population should be set right.
Keywords: Misbelieves, Taboos in dentistry, Dental misconception.
INTRODUCTION
A culture is a way of life of a group of people - the behavior,
beliefs, values and symbols that they accept, generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by communication and imitation from one generation to the next.1
It is deined as “learned behavior which has been socially
acquired.” Culture is the product of human societies and
man is largely a product of his cultured environment.2 Most
of humans’ beliefs, or at least most of their general beliefs,
are acquired through communication. In fact, most of our
misbelieves are culturally transmitted rather than individual
mistakes, distortions, or delusions.3
India is a country with multitude cultures and its culture has
its own concepts, beliefs based on its tradition shared by its
people. Every culture has its own concepts of health, sickness and health promotion depicting values, belief, knowledge and practices.4
Myths take a very natural unknown origin in every community, describing plausible but, extraordinary past events.5
In our country, traditional belief of non-scientiic base and
untrained unqualiied dental professionals (quacks) are the
main origin of myth.6
Most of these beliefs, especially in the ield of dentistry misguide the patients and it is also a prime barrier in the oral care
delivery system and also in the dental utilization pattern.3
Lots of dentistry related myths, which are considered as not
to be false often, make people hesitant.7
Some of the myths are factual and thus can be believed. It’s
very much necessary to understand and to know what reality
is. According to earlier literature the main reason for dental
myths among dental patients was lack of awareness.7 Search
of the literature revealed limited studies and data available
related to this subject.
The aim of this study was to assess dental myths and to ind
out the association between the sociodemographic variables among the subjects attending Coorg Institute of Dental
Sciences (CIDS), Virajpet.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted among 367 subjects aged 18 years
and above attending outpatient department of Coorg Institute
of Dental Sciences, Virajpet. Ethical clearance was obtained
from the institutional review board and individual informed
consent was taken. Those subjects who were not willing to
participate and subjects in critical and emergency conditions
were excluded. The study was conducted in the month of
May and June 2014.
A pretested close-ended self-administered questionnaire was
used to collect data on dental myths and demographic variables. The validity of questionnaire was checked by conducting a pilot study on 20 subjects visiting the dental college.
Post-Graduate Student, 2Professor and Head of The Department,
Reader, 4Assistant Professor, Department of Public Health Dentistry, 5Post-Graduate Student, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial
Surgery, Coorg Institute of Dental Sciences, Virajpet Karnataka,
India
1
3
Corresponding author: Dr. Mutum Bidyalaxmi, Post-Graduate
Student, Department of Public Health Dentistry, Coorg Institute of
Dental Sciences, Virajpet Karnataka, India
How to cite this article: Mutum Bidyalaxmi, Jain Jitesh, Ananda
S.R, S Supreetha, K.N Abhishek, Shreyas O. Assessment of dental
myths among the subject attending a dental institution in Virajpet,
Karnataka. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):29-33.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
29
Bidyalaxmi et al.
Assessment of Dental Myths among the Subjects Attending
The questionnaire was designed in English and then it was
translated into Kannada and Malayalam. Kannada/ Malayalam/ English questionnaire was given according to the preferences of the participants. Questionnaire was distributed
randomly to the participants and suficient time was given
to answer the questionnaire which was collected back on the
same day.
2.1 Sample size is calculated using the relation n=N/1+Ne2,
Where level of precision is
95%, i.e., e= 0.05
Total number of new subjects attending CIDS per day = 70
to 80 (75 ± 5)= 4500; Substituting the values in the above
mentioned formula, the sample size obtained for the Study
was, n = 4500/ 1+ (4500 × [0.05 × 0.05]) = 367
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The survey data so obtained from the selected sample was
compiled, systematized, tabulated and master sheet was
prepared (MS-Ofice, Excel). The data was analyzed using
SPSS version 17. The level of signiicance was set at 5%.
Statistical tools used – Descriptive Statistics, Chi-square test.
Age
No. of subjects
Male (%)
Female (%)
18-35 yrs.
236 (64.3%)
127 (53.8)
109 (46.2)
36-55 yrs.
115 (31.3%)
60 (52.2)
55 (47.8)
>55 yrs.
16 (4.4%)
9 (56.3)
7 (43.7)
Total
367
196
171
Table-1: Distribution of Study subjects based on Age and
Gender
RESULTS
Table no.1 shows that study population consisted of 46.6%
(n=171) females and 53.4% (n=196) males and majority of
the subjects were in the age group of 15-35 years (64.3%).
Among the study population, 138 (37.6%) had college education level and 99 (27%) were skilled workers. Table no. 3
shows that 230 (62.8%) were married. According to socio
economic status 4 subjects (1.08%) belong to lower class,
263 (71.66%) subjects to upper lower socioeconomic class,
92 (25.06%) to lower middle class and 6 (1.63%) subjects to
upper middle class.
Table no. 2, 3 and 4 shows that there was a statistically signiicant association between socioeconomic status and the
following questions: Q1- teething will lead to dysentery
(p<0.026); Q7- biting of hard substances will make the
teeth strong (p<0.022); Q8- stains are due to biting of brinjal or banana stem(P<0.048); Q17- brushing several times
a day and using too much force help to prevent tooth decay
(p<0.049); Q18- there is no need to see a dentist if you don’t
feel or see apparent dental problem (p<0.024); Q21- a pregnant lady is not supposed to take dental treatment until after
delivery (p<0.018); Q22- the sure way of treating toothache
is extraction (p<0.049); Q28- X-ray is not required for dental
treatment (p<0.008).
However there was no statistically signiicant association
between Socioeconomic Status and the following questions:
Q2- dental infection will spread among siblings (p<0.085);
Q3- Dental infection results from god's Curse(p<0.577); Q4cleaning with salts or ine soil will make tooth white and
shiny(p<0.072); Q5- of “neemstick” or” datoon” instead of
Questions/
Lower class
Upper lowLower middle
Upper midTotal (%)
chi-square
Response
(%)
er (%)
(%)
dle (%)
test
Q1.
Agree
4 (2.7)
108 (73)
31 (20.9)
5 (3.4)
148 (100)
9.294
Disagree
0 (0)
155 (70.8)
61 (27.9)
3 (1.4)
219 (100)
Q2.
Agree
1(1.0)
79 (81.4)
15 (15.5)
2 (2.1)
97 (100)
6.624
Disagree
3 (1.1)
184 (68.1)
77 (28.5)
6 (2.2)
270 (100)
Q3.
Agree
0 (0.0)
32 (71.1)
13 (28.9)
0 (0.)0
45 (100)
1.978
Disagree
4 (1.2)
231 (71.7)
79 (24.5)
8 (2.5)
322 (100)
Q4.
Agree
3(1.4)
151 (72.6)
53 (25.5)
1 (0.5)
208 (100)
6.996
Disagree
1 (0.6)
112 (70.4)
39 (24.5)
7 (4.4)
159 (100)
Q5.
Agree
4 (2.1)
144 (74.6)
42 (21.8)
3 (1.6)
193 (100)
6.606
Disagree
0 (0.0)
119 (68.4)
50 (28.7)
5 (2.9)
174 (100)
Q6.
Agree
0 (0.0)
52 (73.2)
18 (25.4)
1 (1.4)
71 (100)
1.233
Disagree
4 (1.4)
211 (71.3)
74 (25.0)
7 (2.4)
296 (100)
Q7.
Agree
3 (2.9)
81 (78.6)
18 (17.5)
1 (1.0)
103 (100)
9.590
Disagree
1 (0.4)
182 (68.9)
74 (28.0)
7 (2.7)
264 (100)
Q8
Agree
0 (0.0)
106(74.1)
37 (25.9)
0 (0.0)
143 (100)
7.920
Disagree
4 (1.8)
157 (70.1)
55 (24.6)
8 (3.6)
224 (100)
Q9
Agree
0 (0.0)
83 (72.2)
30 (26.1)
2 (1.7)
115 (100)
2.050
Disagree
4 (1.6)
180 (71.4)
62 (24.6)
6 (2.4)
252 (100)
Q10
Agree
3 (2.4)
89(70.6)
29 (23.0)
5 (4.0)
126 (100)
6.100
Disagree
1 (0.4)
174 (72.2)
63 (26.1)
3 (1.2)
241 (100)
* P <0.05: ** P < 0.01
Table-2: Association between the Socioeconomic Status and the various questions of the questionnaire
30
p-value
0.026*
0.085
0.577
0.072
0.086
0.745
0.022*
0.048
0.562
0.107
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Bidyalaxmi et al.
Assessment of Dental Myths among the Subjects Attending
Questions/
Lower class Upper lower Lower middle Upper middle Total (%)
chi-square test
Response
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Q11
Agree
3 (3.2)
70 (73.7)
19 (20.0)
3 (3.2)
95 (100)
6.978
Disagree
1 (0.4)
193 (71.0)
73 (26.8)
5 (1.8)
272 (100)
Q12 Agree
1 (0.9)
83 (71.6)
26 (22.)
6 (5.2)
116 (100)
7.526
Disagree
3 (1.2)
180 (71.7)
66 (16.3)
2 (0.8)
251 (100)
Q13 Agree
0 (0.0)
87 (70.2)
32 (25.8)
5 (4.0)
124 (100)
5.089
Disagree
4 (1.6)
176 72.4)
60 (24.7)
3 (1.2)
243 (100)
Q14 Agree
1 (0.9)
84 (73.0)
29 (25.2)
1 (0.9)
115 (100)
1.440
Disagree
3 (1.2)
179 (71.0)
63 (25.0)
7 (2.8)
252 (100)
Q15 Agree
3 (2.9)
73 (70.2)
27 (26.0)
1 (1.0)
104 (100)
5.367
Disagree
1 (0.4)
190 (72.2)
65 (24.7)
7 (2.7)
263 (100)
Q16 Agree
0 (0.0)
70 (71.4)
23 (23.5)
5 (5.1)
98 (100)
6.832
Disagree
4 (1.5)
193 (71.7)
69 (25.7)
3 (1.1)
269 (100)
Q17 Agree
0 (0.0)
152 (71.4)
58 (27.2)
3 (1.4)
213 (100)
7.871
Disagree
4 (2.6)
111(72.1)
34 (22.1)
5 (3.2)
154 (100)
Q18 Agree
0 (0.0)
139 (73.5)
49 (25.9)
1 (0.5)
189 (100)
9.426
Disagree
4 (2.2)
124 (69.7)
43 (24.2)
7 (3.9)
178 (100)
Q19 Agree
3 (2.7)
78 (69.6)
30 (26.8)
1 (0.9)
112 (100)
5.239
Disagree
1 (0.4)
185 (72.5)
62 (24.3)
7 (2.7)
255 (100)
Q20 Agree
4 (1.8)
155 (68.6)
62 (27.4)
5 (2.2)
226 (100)
4.589
Disagree
0 (0.0)
108 (76.6)
30 (21.3)
3 (2.1)
141 (100)
* P < 0.05; ** P < 0.01
Table-3: Association between the Socioeconomic Status and the various questions of the questionnaire.
Questions/
Lower class
Upper lower Lower middle Upper middle Total (%) chi-square test
Response
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Q21. Agree
0 (0.0)
136 (67.7)
60 (29.9)
5 (2.5)
201 (100)
10.084
Disagree
4 (2.4)
127 (76.5)
32 (19.3)
3 (1.8)
166 (100)
Q22. Agree
3 (2.8)
69 (63.9)
34 (31.5)
2 (1.9)
108 (100)
7.877
Disagree
1 (0.4)
194 (74.9)
58 (22.4)
6 (2.3)
259 (100)
Q23. Agree
0 (0.0)
101 (73.2)
36 (26.1)
1 (0.7)
138 (100)
4.722
Disagree
4 (1.7)
162 (70.7)
56 (24.5)
7 (3.1)
229 (100)
Q24. Agree
1 (0.6)
118 (72.8)
41 (25.3)
2 (1.2)
162 (100)
1.846
Disagree
3 (1.5)
145 (70.7)
51 (24.9)
6 (2.9)
205 (100)
Q25. Agree
3 (1.3)
162 (67.8)
66 (27.6)
8(3.3)
239 (100)
7.669
Disagree
1 (0.8)
101 (78.9)
26 (20.3)
0 (0.0)
128 (100)
Q26. Agree
0 (0.0)
104 (70.7)
38 (25.9)
5 (3.4)
147 (100)
4.440
Disagree
4 (1.8)
159 (72.3)
54 (24.5)
3 (1.4)
220 (100)
Q27. Agree
1 (1.1)
72 (80.9)
16 (18.0)
0 (0.0)
89 (100)
6.318
Disagree
3 (1.1)
191 (68.7)
76 (27.3)
8 (2.9)
278 (100)
Q28
Agree
3 (3.1)
63 (64.3)
32 (32.7)
0 (0.0)
98 (100)
11.765
Disagree
1 (0.4)
200 (74.3)
60 (22.3)
8 (3.0)
269(100)
Q29
Agree
3 (2.2)
92 (66.7)
38 (27.5)
5 (3.6)
138 (100)
5.806
Disagree
1 (0.4)
171 (74.7)
54 (23.6)
3 (1.3)
229 (100)
Q30
Agree
0 (0.0)
80 (74.1)
28 (25.9)
0 (0.0)
108 (100)
5.173
Disagree
4 (1.5)
183 (70.7)
64 (24.7)
8 (3.1)
259 (100)
Q31
Agree
0 (0.0)
110 (71.0)
44 (28.4)
1 (0.6)
155 (100)
7.021
Disagree
4 (1.9)
153 (72.2)
48 (22.6)
7 (3.3)
212 (100)
* P <0.05: ** P < 0.01
Table-4: Association between the Socioeconomic Status and the various questions of the questionnaire.
toothbrush will be more effective for oral hygiene(P<0.086);
Q6- use of brick powder makes the teeth strong(P<0.745);
Q9- scaling will weaken the tooth structure (P<0.562);
Q10- placing of tobacco over painful tooth will reduce pain
(p<0.107); Q11- consumption of alcohol will reduce tooth
0.073
0.057
0.165
0.696
0.147
0.077
0.049*
0.024*
0.155
0.204
p-value
0.018
0.049
0.193
0.605
0.053
0.218
0.097
0.008**
0.121
0.160
0.071
pain(p<0.073); Q12- extraction of teeth will affect eye vision (p<0.057); Q13- extraction of upper teeth will affect
brain (p<0.165); Q14- eruption of third molar will increase
wisdom(p<0.696); Q15- exfoliated tooth should be buried(p<0.147); Q16- tooth will erupt at old age (p<0.077);
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
p-value
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
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Bidyalaxmi et al.
Assessment of Dental Myths among the Subjects Attending
Q19- we should not eat anything when we are going for tooth
extraction (p<0.155); Q20- we should not extract or do RCT
when we have a swelling especially abscess (p<0.204); Q23putting powder of pain killer like asprin, panadol and cafenol
in the hole of decay tooth help to stop pain (p<0.193); Q24good teeth are inherited (p<0.605); Q25- there is no need to
worry about milk teeth as they will eventually fall out with
time (p<0.053); Q26- teeth eruption in child causes diarrhoea
(p<0.218); Q27- a child born with teeth (neonatal) or whose
upper front teeth erupt before the lower tooth is a sign of bad
luck in the family (p<0.097); Q29- we should not brush our
teeth if there is bleeding during brushing (p<0.121); Q30cavity is due to leaching of calcium by baby during pregnancy (p<0.160);Q31- there are more than two sets of teeth in
some human being (p< 0.071) as shown in Table no.4.
DISCUSSION
Oral hygiene awareness and practices may differ from country to country and among communities depending on traditional beliefs and socioeconomic development.6 The purpose
of the present study was to assess the dental myths among
subjects according to socio economic status. In the present
study majority of subjects belonged to social class of upper
lower (71.66%) and lower middle (25.06%).
About the myths 65% of study subjects are having an opinion of not to worry about milk teeth, which is slightly more
than compared to the study done by Vignesh R and Priyadarshni I, where 64.8% respondents believed that decay in
milk teeth need not be treated as they are going to fall away.5
In the present study 58% participants thought that brushing
several times a day and using too much of force helped in
preventing tooth decay.This was in agreement with the study
done byVignesh R and Priyadarshni I, where 70% respondents believed that the more they brushed using hard bristled
brush whiter the teeth became.5
56.7% of subjects had a conception that dental infections
spread among siblings. These results are in contrast to a
study done by N Saravanan and R Thiruneevannan, where
only 13% thought so, and 56.7% of subjects had a conception that cleaning with salts or ine soil for white and shiny
teeth.8 This was in agreement with the study done by Vignesh R et al, where 56.8 % thought so.5 But this was in contrast to the study results done by N Saravanan et al, where
only 15% thought so.8
54.8% are having a misconception that pregnant lady is not
suppose to take dental treatment until after delivery which
will cause her to suffer more during pregnancy.52.6% of the
study subjects thought using of neemstick instead of toothbrush was more effective for oral hygiene. The result was in
contrast to the study done byN Saravanan and R Thiruneevannan where only 18% believed so.8
51.5% of the subjects have a concept that, there is no need
to see a dentist if there is no apparent dental problem. These
results were in agreement with the study done by Vignesh
32
R and Priyadarshni I, where 68.4% believed that it is not
required to visit a dentist unless pain occurred in teeth.5 3150 % of the subjects have the misconception like stains due
to biting of brinjal or banana stem, scaling would weaken
the tooth structure, brushing their teeth if there was bleeding
during brushing, placing of tobacco to reduces tooth pain,
extraction and effect on eye vision, extraction of upper teeth
affected the brain, not eat anything when they are going for
tooth extraction and 31.3% for third molar eruption and increasing wisdom.
10-30 % of the subjects have the misconception like dental
infections due to God curse,using of brick powder to makes
the teeth strong, biting of hard substances for strong teeth,
consumption of alcohol reduced tooth pain, tooth erupted
at old age, child born with teeth of bad luck in the family, leaching of calcium from the mother by the baby during
pregnancy leading to cavity and exfoliated tooth should be
buried.
CONCLUSION
In this 21st century with lot of advancements in dental ield
still several patients are unaware of the facts of dentistry. In
the present study the myths about dentistry varied up to 65%
in some questions. More than 50% of subjects having myths
in many questions,the various myths in the ield of dentistry and regarding dental treatment which is still in minds of
general population should be set right. So, it’s our duty to
help the people learn and know the reality and take necessary
steps to rectify them.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
http://www.tamu.edu/faculty/choudhury/culture.html
K.Park. Preventive and Social Medicine. 19th ed. Jabalpur, India: 2007.
Sperber D. Culturally transmitted misbeliefs. In Behavioral and Brain Sciences 2009;32:534-535.
S Vivek, Jain J, Simon SP, Battur H, Tikare S, Mahuli A.
Understanding oral health beliefs and behavior among
tribals in Kerala,India. J. Int Oral Health. 2012; 4:24-27.
Vignesh R and Priyadarshni I. Assessment of the prevalence of myths regarding oral health among general
population in Maduravoyal, Chennai. J.OfEdu and Ethics in Dent. 2012; 2:85-91.
Singh SV, TripathiA, Akbar Z, Chandra S, Tripathi A.
Prevalence of dental myths, oral hygiene methods and
tobacco habits in an ageing North Indian rural population. The GerodontologySoc and John Wiley & Sons
A/S, Gerodontology 2012;29:53–56.
Khan SA, Dawani N, Bilal S. Perceptions and myths
regarding oral health care amongst strata of low socio
economic community in Karachi, Pakistan. J. of Pak.
Medical Association. 2012;62:1198-1203.
Saravanan N and Thiruneevannan R. Assessment of
dental myths among dental patients in Salem city. J of
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
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Bidyalaxmi et al.
9.
10.
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12.
13.
14.
15.
Assessment of Dental Myths among the Subjects Attending
Ind Association of Public Health. 2011;18;11-18
Logan HL, Ettinger R, McLeran H, CaskoR.Common misconceptions about oral health in the older
adult: nursing practices. Special Care in Dentistry.
1999;11:243-247.
Sagar J A. Myths about prosthodontics. Eur. J.Of Prosthodontics. 2013;1:56- 62.
Singh SV, Tripathi A, Akbar Z, Chandra S, Tripathi A.
Dental myths, oral hygiene methods and nicotine habits
in an ageing rural population: An Indian study. Indian J
of Dent Res 2013; 24:242-244.
http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/dentalhealth/Pages/
Thetruthaboutteeth.aspx Fact or iction?
Kwan SYL, Holmes MAM. An exploration of oral health
beliefs and attitudes of Chinese in West Yorkshire: a
qualitative investigation. Health Edu Res.1999;14:453460.
rukomandentalanswer.blogsspot.in/2013/02/wrong-beliefs about dental procedure.html.
Mythri et al. A clinical perspective of myths about oral
health; a hospital based survey. Universal Journal of
Pharmacy. 2014;3: 35-37.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 12-11-2015; Published online: 27-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
33
REVIEW ARTICLE
www.ijcmr.com
Gingival Recession and Various Root Coverage Procedures: A Review
Mamta Singh1, Kratee Sharma2, Manvi Chandra Agarwal3, Pranav Gupta4
ABSTRACT
Esthetics is of prime concern in today’s sophisticated and
modernised society. Esthetics is the science of beauty and encompasses almost every ield of dentistry. Gingival recession
is deined as the oral exposure of the root surface due to a displacement of the gingival margin apical to the cement-enamel
junction and it is regularly linked to the deterioration of dental
aesthetics. It has been associated with many factors such as
inlammatory periodontal disease, developmental anatomic
abnormalities (aberrant frenal attachment, thin bony plate),
toothbrush injury, tooth malposition and iatrogenic factors.
Apart from compromised esthetics, gingival recession also
results in a variety of other problems such as root hypersensitivity, a higher incidence of root caries and diminished plaque
control, thus necessitating treatment. Successful treatment of
recession-type defects is based on the use of predictable periodontal plastic surgery (PPS) procedures.
Keywords: Gingival recession, cemento-enamel junction,
periodontal plastic surgery
INTRODUCTION
Gingival recession is the displacement of the gingival margin
apical to the cemento-enamel junction (CEJ).1 It is observed
more frequently on the labial/buccal surfaces of the teeth and
is probably one of the most common esthetic concerns associated with the periodontal tissues. Recession refers to the
location of the gingiva, not its condition. Receded gingiva
can be inlamed but may be normal except for their position.
Recession may be localized to one tooth or a group of teeth,
or it may be generalized throughout the mouth.2 Apart from
compromised esthetics, gingival recession often results in a
variety of other problems as well such as root hypersensitivity, a higher incidence of root caries and diminished plaque
control, thus necessitating treatment.
rious habits (pressure from foreign objects, ingernails, pencils, hairpins), Iatrogenic factors (orthodontic forces, pressure from bands, arch wires, clasps, subgingival restorations,
post periodontal surgery).
PATHOGENESIS
The process of apical migration of marginal gingiva over the
root surface results in the condition of gingival recession.
The deinition of the condition of gingival recession: Some
slight apical shift of supra-crestal connective tissue attachment that is the cementum which is exposed and has already
lost attachment to the collagenous gingival ibers which are
found just coronal to the crest of the alveolar bone and just
apical to the junctional epithelium. It is the continual apical
migration of gingival ibers attachment and marginal gingiva
which characterizes the process of recession.4
Histologically, the destruction of gingival tissues, due to mechanical forces or related to inlammatory periodontal disease, is associated with loss of periodontal connective tissue
ibers and alveolar bone.
For gingival augmentation, the main objective is to increase
width and thickness of the gingiva in areas where the amount
of keratinized tissue is judged clinically inadequate. However, scientiic data do not support the hypothesis that gingival
tissue dimensions are critical to the prevention of gingival
recession defects.5,6 Nevertheless, gingival augmentation
should be considered where a change in mucogingival morphology may facilitate plaque control and when alveolar
bone dehiscence would be anticipated as a result of orthodontic tooth movement.7 Ideally, surgical treatment of gingival recession defects should fully restore the anatomy of the
mucogingival complex. However, aesthetic concerns are
usually the reason to perform these procedures. This imSecond year Post Graduate Student, 2Third year Post Graduate Student, 3Reader, Department of Periodontics, 4Second year Post graduate student, Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry,
Kothiwal Dental College and Research Centre, Mora Mustaqueem,
Kanth Road, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
ETIOLOGY OF GINGIVAL RECESSION3
The cause of gingival recession whether localized or generalized is not always easy to determine but is essential prior
to treatment planning. The following factors have been incriminated.
- Inlammatory periodontal disease (considered as the principal etiologic factor), Ageing, Developmental anatomic
abnormalities (dehiscences, thin bony plates, high frenum
attachments), Malaligned tooth, Toothbrush trauma, Delete-
34
Corresponding author: C/O Dr. Mamta Singh, Second Year Post
Graduate Student, Room No.12 B, PG Girls Hostel, Kothiwal Dental College & Research Centre, Mora Mustaqueem, Kanth Road,
Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.
How to cite this article: Mamta Singh, Kratee Sharma, Manvi
Chandra Agarwal, Pranav Gupta. Gingival Recession and Various
Root Coverage Procedures: A Review. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):34-39.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Singh et al.
plies regeneration of the attachment apparatus of the tooth,
including cementum with inserting connective tissue ibers,
and alveolar bone, as well as recreation of topographic relationships between the keratinized tissue and the alveolar
mucosa that are functionally and aesthetically acceptable to
the patient.4
Certainly, the ultimate goal of periodontal therapy is regeneration. This involves the elimination of diseased state and
replacement with a healthy state, in which all tissues that are
originally found have been restored. Regeneration has been
deined as “The natural renewal of a structure, produced by
growth and differentiation of new cells and intercellular substance to form new tissues or part”.8
INCIDENCE AND PREVALENCE:
Gorman9 stated that recession increased in both numerical
as well as linear dimension with age. The occurrence of recession was found to vary from 54.5% of all the subjects in
the 16-25 years of age group to 100 % in the 46-86 years of
age groups. The most pronounced increase was from 26-35
years to the 36-45 years of age groups. Males showed greater
recession than females of the same groups.9 Occurrence of
recession can be seen as early as 15 years as per Guiha et al.10
Woofter11 showed that incidence varies from 8% in children
to 100% after the age of 50 years. Yoneyama et al.12 stated
that, it is common in populations with good as well as poor
oral hygiene. Buccal recession seems to be more common
and more advanced at single rooted teeth than at molars. The
attachment loss difference observed between different surfaces of a given tooth or a group of teeth. The data suggested
that in younger subject groups, progression was conined to
a subset of individuals, while in older age groups, more subjects and sites became involved.14
A 3-year longitudinal study was conducted to ind out the
occurrence of gingival recession in mandibular incisors. 28
children aged 6-13 years, with gingival recession localized
to mandibular incisors, were monitored longitudinally to
evaluate any changes of the labial periodontal tissues. Gradual reductions in the amount of gingival recession and probing attachment levels took place in all children except for
one of the subjects with one severely malpositioned tooth.
Probing depths and widths of keratinized and attached gingiva remained relatively unchanged. This inding showed that,
gingival recession in mandibular incisors in young children
often improves over time which suggests that, preventive or
reparative treatment in this part of the developing dentition
may not be necessary. Decisions about such treatment should
be postponed until any spontaneous improvement has taken
place.15
A study was carried out to assess the development of gingival recession in young adult smokers and nonsmokers. At the
outset, 50% of subjects presented with gingival recession at
one or more sites. There was no signiicant difference in the
prevalence of gingival recession between non-smokers and
Gingival Recession
smokers. The risk for recession development appeared not
to be inluenced by smoking status after adjusting for periodontal probing depth, recession at baseline, tooth brushing
frequency, gender, jaw, tooth type and site. Their study did
not support the hypothesis that, smokers are at an increased
risk for the development of gingival recession.13
CLASSIFICATION OF GINGIVAL RECESSION
Several classiication systems have been proposed in the literature in order to facilitate the diagnosis of gingival recession.
Sullivan’s and Atkins in 1968 classiied recession into four
categories.16
Shallow – Narrow. 2) Shallow – Wide. 3) Deep – Narrow, 4) Deep – Wide
Mlinek et al in 1973 classiied recession as4
1. Shallow-narrow clefts as being <3 mm in both dimensions.
2. Deep-wide defects as being >3 mm in both dimensions.
Miller’s classiication of gingival recession5
Four types of recession defects were categorized on the basis
of evaluation of the soft and hard periodontal tissues.
Class I – Marginal tissue recession does not extend to the
mucogingival junction (MGJ). There is no periodontal loss
(bone or soft tissue) in the interdental area and 100% root
coverage can be anticipated.
Class II - Marginal tissue recession that extends to or beyond
the MGJ. There is no periodontal loss (bone or soft tissue)
in the interdental area and 100% root coverage can be anticipated.
Class III - Marginal tissue recession that extends to or beyond the MGJ. Bone or soft tissue loss in the interdental area
is present or there is malpositioning of the teeth, which prevents the attempting of 100% of root coverage. Partial root
coverage can be anticipated.
Class IV - Marginal tissue recession that extends to or beyond the MGJ. The bone or soft tissue loss in the interdental
area and/or malpositioning of teeth is so severe that root coverage cannot be anticipated.
Mahajan's modiication of Miller's classiication7
1. Class I: Gingival tissue recession not extending to muco-gingival junction.
2. Class II: Gingival tissue recession extending to muco-gingival junction or beyond it.
3. Class III: Gingival tissue recession with bone or soft-tissue loss in interdental area up to cervical 1/3 of root surfaces and/or malpositioning of the teeth.
4. Class IV: Gingival tissue recession with severe bone
or soft tissue loss in interdental area greater than cervical 1/3 of root surface and/or severe malpositioning of
teeth.
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35
Singh et al.
Gingival Recession
Prognosis according to Mahajan's modiication
BEST - Class I and Class II with thick gingival proile.
GOOD - Class I and Class II with thin gingival proile.
FAIR - Class III with thick gingival proile.
POOR - Class III and Class IV with thin gingival proile.
Cairo et al7 taking into account the desirable characteristics
of a classiication system (usefulness, exhaustiveness, disjointness and simplicity) suggested by Murphy (1997), the
following classiication of gingival recession was then identiied based on the assessment of clinical attachment level
(CAL) at both buccal and interproximal sites.7
1. Recession Type 1 (RT1): Gingival recession with no
loss of interproximal attachment. Interproximal cementoenamel junction (CEJ) was clinically not detectable at
both mesial and distal aspects of the tooth.
2. Recession Type 2 (RT2): Gingival recession associated
with loss of interproximal attachment. The amount of
interproximal attachment loss (measured from the interproximal CEJ to the depth of the interproximal pocket) was less than or equal to the buccal attachment loss
(measured from the buccal CEJ to the depth of the buccal pocket).
3. Recession Type 3 (RT3): Gingival recession associated
with loss of interproximal attachment. The amount of
interproximal attachment loss (measured from the interproximal CEJ to the depth of the pocket) was higher
than the buccal attachment loss (measured from the buccal CEJ to the depth of the buccal pocket).
TREATMENT OF GINGIVAL RECESSION
Compromised esthetics, root hypersensitivity, diminished
plaque control, progression of defect; etc resulting from gingival recession may warrant its treatment. Investigation of
etiologic factors and consideration of therapeutic options directed at minimizing the progression of apical migration of
the marginal gingival tissue are the objectives for the treatment of gingival recession.
Various mucogingival surgeries have been proposed for the
purpose of root coverage.1
1. Pedicle grafts:
a. Rotational laps.
• Laterally positioned lap.
• Obliquely rotated lap.
• Double papilla lap.
b. Advanced laps.
• Coronally positioned lap.
• Semilunar lap.
2. Free soft tissue grafts:
a. Epithelialized (classical gingival graft).
b. Non-epithelialized.
3. Combination grafts:
1-Stage procedure.
•
Connective tissue graft plus pedicle graft.
•
Biodegradable membrane barrier plus pedicle graft.
36
2-Stage procedure.
• Coronally positioned previously placed soft tissue
graft.
• Non-biodegradable membrane barrier plus pedicle
graft.
TECHNIQUES FOR ROOT COVERAGE
Rotational lap procedures
The use of a laterally repositioned lap to cover areas with
localized recession was introduced by Grupe and Warren17
which was called the laterally sliding lap operation. In order
to reduce the risk for recession on the donor tooth, Grupe18
suggested that the marginal soft tissue should not be included in the lap. Stafileno19 and Piefer & Heller19 advocated
the use of split thickness lap to minimize the potential risk
for the development of dehiscence at the donor tooth.
Laterally positioned lap
Grupe & Warren17 introduced contiguous soft tissue autografts to the literature under the term “lateral sliding lap”
currently known as the laterally positioned pedicle graft. For
successful root coverage using laterally positioned pedicle
graft, these three criteria must be met.
1. Adequate donor tissue laterally.
2. Normal to deep vestibule.
3. Recession involving only one tooth.
Double papilla repositioned lap
Double papilla graft is the variation of the laterally positioned
graft which was given by Cohen and Ross.20 This procedure
evolved in an attempt to use minimal amounts of gingiva for
root coverage. It is indicated in where there is recession of
labial or lingual gingiva, but destruction of the interdental
papillae on either side of the denuded area has not occurred.
Recession of this type is observed in areas where trauma
from incorrect tooth brushing has destroyed the gingiva and
cleft formation develops. This pattern of gingival recession
is noted on the labial or buccal surfaces of roots where the
involved tooth is in labial version to the approximating teeth.
If the adjacent area to the recession is intact with no pocket formation or minimal in the proximal areas, then joining
both papillae together to form a lap will repair the area of
root exposure. The restoration of the gingival unit is advantageous not only from the cosmetic standpoint but also from
a functional aspect. Covering the exposed root surface with
gingiva has helped to reduce or eliminate the problem of hypersensitivity. This procedure may also permit the covering
of the margin of a restoration which has been exposed by
recession.
Pedicle soft tissue graft procedures combined with
membrane barriers:
The use of membrane barrier, according to the principles of
guided tissue regeneration (GTR), in conjunction with pedi-
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Singh et al.
cle soft tissue graft procedures was introduced as a treatment
modality for root coverage. A membrane barrier is placed between the graft and the root in order to favor the regeneration
of the periodontium.
According to the concept of the GTR, a critical factor for
the outcome of the treatment procedure is that a space for
tissue formation is established between the facial root surface and the membrane and maintained during the healing.
In order to create such a space, Pini Prato et al21 suggested
that extensive root planing should be carried out to produce a
concave morphology. Specially designed membranes for the
treatment of recession type defects are also available, such as
non-absorbable titanium- reinforced expanded polytetraluoroethylene (ePTFE) membranes and a variety of bioabsorbable membranes but many of these may not be rigid enough
for maintaining required space during healing.
Gingival Recession
during the healing phase.
5. When the epithelialized palatal graft is used for root
coverage grafting, a functional result is produced, but
the color match of the tissues is often less than ideal.
On healing, the grafted palatal tissue tends to be lighter
(whiter) and more opaque than gingiva.
6. Furthermore, one does not expect to see grafted masticatory mucosa extending deep into the vestibule.
7. Another problem in free grafting is the thickness of the
tissue on healing. Often a slight abrasion of the healed
graft is necessary to produce the most esthetic result.
Although the subepithelial connective tissue graft has become increasingly popular for root coverage, the epithelialized palatal graft is still used for gingival augmentation when
thicker tissue is desired, when esthetic is not a concern, when
there is a need to deepen the vestibule, or when pinker tissue
is required as in removing an amalgam “tattoo”.
FREE SOFT TISSUE GRAFT PROCEDURES
A free soft tissue of the masticatory mucosa is usually selected when,
1. There is no acceptable donor tissue present in the area
adjacent to the recession defect.
2. Thicker marginal tissue is desirable.
Epithelialized soft tissue graft
The epithelialized free soft tissue graft procedure can be
performed either as a two-step surgical technique, where an
epithelialized free soft tissue graft is placed apical to the recession and following healing is coronally positioned over
the denuded root, or as a one-step technique, in which the
graft is placed directly over the root surface.
The classic epithelialized palatal graft was originally presented by King and Pennel in 1964 as a gingival augmentation procedure with the following treatment goals:
1. To establish a soft tissue margin of keratinized tissue.
2. To prevent further recession.
3. To negate the effects of an aberrant frenum.
4. To produce a soft tissue margin that enables the patient
to practice a high level of plaque removal without traumatizing the soft tissue.
5. To be used as an adjunctive treatment when margins of
restorations must be placed in the gingival sulcus.
Drawbacks of epithelialized palatal graft
1. The technique is dificult to perform. It is technically
demanding from the suturing point of view.
2. The technique is time- consuming.
3. A blood supply to the graft is available on only one surface rather than two, as with the connective tissue graft,
and so, more dificult to achieve and it is dificult to stabilize the epithelialized tissue.
4. The palatal wound (donor site) is more invasive, more
prone to hemorrhage, and slower to heal. It is painful
and ulcerated. Thus, it is more annoying to the patient
SUBEPITHELIAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE
GRAFT (SCTG)
According to Karring et al14 gingival connective tissue is a viable source of cells for repopulating the epithelium. Free connective tissue graft was irst used by
Edel22 to increase the width of keratinized gingiva. The use
of connective tissue graft for treatment of gingival recession
was irst reported in 1985 by Langer and Langer,23 who described the “Subepithelial connective tissue graft procedure”
for covering gingival recession of single as well as multiple
teeth. Raetzke24 performed connective tissue grafting with
an “Envelope technique” and achieved 80% root coverage.
Various other modiications were proposed by Nelson25, Harris26, Blanes and Allen27, Santerelli et al28 and Tozum.29,30
The SCTG is usually harvested from the palate. The thickest
donor tissue can be harvested from the premolar region of
the palate. If suficient tissue cannot be obtained from one
side, the contralateral side of the palate may be utilized simultaneously. Greater tissue availability is found with a high
palatal vault than a low palatal vault. The height, length and
thickness of donor tissue that can be obtained varies with the
differing anatomic dimensions of the palatal vault.29
CORONALLY ADVANCED FLAP TECHNIQUE31
The coronally advanced lap (CAF) is a procedure frequently
used in periodontal plastic surgery. The main objective of
this surgical technique is to mobilize the gingival margin and
reposition it at a level more coronal (incisal direction) than
its original location. CAF is mainly used for the treatment of
gingival recessions. The procedure was originally introduced
by Allen & Miller in 1989, throughout time. Several authors
proposed modiications to the original technique.
Indications for Coronally Advanced Flap31,32
1. Coverage of certain types of gingival recessions.
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Singh et al.
2.
3.
Gingival Recession
Esthetic coverage of exposed roots.
For tooth sensitivity owing to gingival recession.
8.
Contraindications for Coronally Advanced Flap:
1. Lack of keratinized tissue.
2. Shallow vestibule.
Evidence shows that a coronally advanced lap alone in many
instances results in complete root coverage and is stable over
time. A coronally advanced lap is less invasive for the patient, requires less chair-time and probably less surgical skill.
It would therefore be desirable to use a coronally advanced
lap approach when indicated. It has been hypothesized that
a coronally advanced lap approach alone could be successfully applied when the residual gingiva is thick and wide. It
can be used in treating single or multiple recession defects.
In an attempt to obtain higher success rate of root coverage in aesthetic zone, combination of different procedures
have been used. A recent innovation in dentistry is the use
of Platelet-Rich Fibrin (PRF), a concentrated suspension of
the Concentrated Growth Factors (CGF), along with the root
coverage procedures in recession defects to enhance wound
healing and tissue regeneration.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
CONCLUSION
Among the various treatment modalities, root coverage with
coronally advanced lap holds the most promising results.
Studies have been done by using this technique and the results provided signiicant root coverage, clinical attachment
level and keratinized tissue gain as compared to various other procedures and hence could be considered as the “gold
standard” procedure in the treatment of gingival recession
defects.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
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Stern, Listgarten. Periodontics. 6th ed. Mosby; 1988.
Mlinek A, Smukler H, Buchner A. The use of free gingival grafts for the coverage of denuded roots. J Periodontol 1973;44:248-54.
Miller Jr PD. A classiication of marginal tissue recession. Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent 1985;5:8-13.
Smith RG. Gingival recession: reappraisal of an enigmatic condition and a new index for monitoring. J Clin
Periodontol 1997;24:201-205.
Mahajan A. Mahajan's Modiication of the Miller’s
Classiication for Gingival Recession. Dental hypotheses 2010;1:45-50.
Serino G, Wennstorm J, Lindhe J, Eneroth L. The prevalence and distribution of the gingival recession in subjects with a high standard of oral hygiene. J Clin Periodontol 1994;21:57-63.
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The American Academy of Periodontology. Consesus report. Mucogingival therapy. Ann Periodontol
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Guiha R, EL Khodeiry S, Mota L, Caffesse R. Histologic evaluation of healing and vascularization of
subepithelial connective tissue graft. J Periodontol
2001;72:470-478.
Woofter C. The prevalence and etiology of gingival recession. Periodontal Abstr 1969; 17:45.
Yoneyama T, Okamolo H, Lindhe J, Socransky SS, Haffejee AD. Probing depth, attachment loss and gingival
recession. J Clin Periodontol 1988;15:581-591.
Muller HP, Stademann S, Heinecke A. Gingival recession in smokers and non smokers with minimal periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 2002;29:129-136.
Karring T, Ostergaard E and Loe H. Conservation of tissue speciicity after heterotopic transplantation of gingiva and alveolar mucosa. J Periodontol Res 1971;6:282293.
Andlin-Sobocki A, Marcusson A, Persson M. 3-year observation on gingival recession in mandibular incisors
in children. J Clin Periodontol 1991;18:155-159.
Sullivan HC, Atkins JH. Free autogenous gingival
grafts and utilization of grafts in the treatment of gingival recession. Perio 1968;6:152-60.
Grupe H, Warren R. Repair of gingival defects by a sliding lap operation. J Periodontol 1956;27:92.
Grupe H E. Modiied technique for the sliding lap operation. J Periodontol 1966;37:491.
Pfeifer JS, Heller R. Histologic evaluation of full and
partial thickness lateral repositioned laps. J Periodontol
1971;42:331-333.
Cohen DW, Ross SE. The double papillae repositioned
in periodontal therapy. J Periodontol 1968;39:65-70.
Pini Prato G, G.P.Tinti, C, Vincenzi, G. Guided tissue
regeneration versus mucogingival surgery in the treatment of human buccal gingival recession. J Periodontol
1992;63:919-928.
Edel A. Clinical evaluation of free connective tissue
grafts used to increase the width of keratinized gingiva.
J Clin Periodontol 1974;1:185-196.
Langer B and Langer L. Subepithelial Connective Tissue Graft Technique for Root Coverage. J Periodontol
1985;60:715-720.
Raetzke PB. Covering Localized Areas of Root Exposure Employing the "Envelope" Technique. J Periodontol 1985;56:397-402.
Nelson SW. The subpedicle connective tissue graft. A
bilaminar reconstructive procedure for the coverage of
denuded root surfaces. J Periodontol. 1987;58:95-102.
Harris RJ. The connective tissue and partial thickness
double pedicle graft: A predictable method of obtaining
root coverage. J Periodontol 1992;63:477-486.
Blanes RJ, Allen EP. The bilateral pedicle lap-tunnel
technique: A new approach to cover connective tissue
grafts. Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent 1999;19:471479.
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Gingival Recession
27. Santarelli GA, Ciancaglini R, Campanari F, et al.
Connective tissue grafting employing the tunnel technique: A case report of complete root coverage in the
anterior maxilla. Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent
2001;21:77-83.
28. Tozum TF. A promising periodontal procedure for the
treatment of gingival recession defects. J Can Dent Assoc 2003;69:155-159.
29. Sedon CL, Breault LG, Covington LL, Bishop BG. The
Subepithelial Connective Tissue Graft: Part I. Patient
Selection and Surgical Techniques. J Contemp Dent
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30. Alessandro Geminiani et al. Coronally Advanced Flap:
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31. Edward S Cohen. Atlas of cosmetic and reconstructive
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 11-11-2015; Published online: 27-11-2015
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
39
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study on Intra-Operative Dificulties in Repeat Caesarian Sections
B. Damayanthi1, Manjula Devi2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Caesarian section has become better with
sophistication in anaesthesia and surgery, however little is
known about the intra-operative dificulties involved in multiple caesarian sections. Therefore, the aim of the present study
is to know type of intra-operative dificulties encountered and
prevalence of those dificulties in proportion.
Material and method: The study was conducted in a tertiary
care hospital. 100 subjects were included for the study by using inclusive and exclusive criteria. The data compiled in excel and compared with various variables like age, registration
of the cases during pregnancy period etc. In the study, reasons
for adopting caesarian type of delivery were assessed and type
of dificulties faced during surgery was analyzed.
Results: 46% of cases were in the age group of 18-23 years &
48% in the age group of 23-28 years. 62% of the cases were
booked for safe delivery. Emergency caesarian was done in
28% of cases. The following are the indications for present
caesarians: CPD-16%, previous 2 caesarians-35%, foetal distress 18% and miscellaneous-31%. Low transverse incision
was given in 96% of cases. In the intra-operative complications, 46% of the complications related to adhesions. The second commonest complication is hemorrhage. In 11% of cases
bladder related complications were observed.
Conclusion: Adhesions and haemorrhages are the major complications in intra-operative period of repeat caesarian section.
Adhesion not only slowed down the surgical procedure but
also necessitated the change of surgeon to more experienced
one.
Keywords: Intra-operative complications, CPD, foetal distress
INTRODUCTION
Caesarian section is done when labour is contraindicated or
vaginal delivery is found unsafe for the foetus or mother.
The indications are broadly divided into two categories as
absolute and relative. In the absolute category placenta previa, CPD, Pelvic mass obstruction, Carcinoma of cervix and
vaginal obstructions are the major causes.1
In the relative indications previous section, foetal distress,
malpresentation, APH, systemic disorders, bad obstetric
history and hypertensive disorders are the major causes for
adopting caesarian sections.2 "Once a caesarian, always a
caesarian" because of safe mode of delivery associated with
less perinatal complications despite high health and inancial cost. Repeat caesarian sections are commonly performed
40
due to frequent pregnancy complications like fetal distress,
cepahalo pelvic disproportion, bad obstetric history and scar
dehiscence which resulted in repeat caesarian sections. During operation several dificulties may be encountered by the
obstetrician like adhesions, haemorrhage, bladder injury,
gastrointestinal tract injury, adherent placenta or rupture of
scar.3 Conducting repeated caesarian sections not only challenging to the obstetrician but also strain on existing and limited healthcare resources as well as inancial burden to the
families.4-6 Therefore, the present study was to evaluate the
type of dificulties faced while performing caesarian sections
by obstetricians from a tertiary care hospital perspective.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in the obstetric units of the Kamineni Institute of Medical Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana
State from the period of October 2010-September 2011.
This is a both a referral center and territory center for high
risk obstetric cases in Narketpally. All women who aged 18
years to 32 years with history of undergone previous caesarian were included in this study. This is a cross-sectional
study where we included both retrospective and prospective
studies during one year of the study. We enrolled both the
sample of cases which are booked case with previously had
antenatal checkups and also un-booked (unregistered) case
who did not had no antenatal checkups or insuficient antenatal checkups. Those who have undergone laprotomy for
some cause in the past and primigravida were excluded from
the study. Following booking in the antenatal clinic, women
who had no complications were seen subsequently every 4
weeks until 28 weeks, fortnightly until 36 weeks and weekly until the onset of labor or elective delivery. Women with
complications were usually seen more frequently depending
on their conditions; alternatively they could be admitted into
Assistant Professor, Government Maternity Hospital, Osmania
Medical College, 2Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Malla Reddy Medical College For Women, Hyderabad,
Telangana, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Manjula Devi, Professor of Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Mallareddy Medical College
For Womens, Suraram 'x' Road, Jeedimetla, Qutbullapur Municipality, Hyderabad, Telangana.
How to cite this article: B. Damayanthi, Manjula Devi. A study on
intra-operative dificulties in repeat caesarian sections. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):40-42.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Damayanthi et al.
A total of 100 women made up of with at least one previous
caesarian. Out of the 100 women with previous caesarian
section cases studied 94 (94%) cases were of the age group
18 – 28 years; of which 46 (46%) cases were of age group
between 18-23 years and 48 (48%) cases were of age group
between above 23-28 years (Table 1).
Of total 100 case 72 (72%) cases were elective caesarian section and 28 (28%) were had emergency caesarian section.
Out of 72 elective cases of which 31 cases were of age group
between 18-23 years, 37 cases were of age group between
above 23-28 years and only 4 cases in the age group of above
28-32 years (Table 2).
The indications for present caesarian section are shown in
the igure 1. Out of 100 cases major indication were previous
2 or more caesarian sections which are about 35 (35%) cases.
The other major indications for caesarian section were CPD
16% (16/100), intrapartum fetal distress 18% (18/100), bad
obstetric history 6% (6/100) and scar dehiscence 6% (6/100)
(Figure 1).
The frequent intra-operative complications observed during
caesarian section in are shown in the igure 2. Out of 100 cases most common challenges observed during the surgery, are
adhesions (46%), haemorrahage (16%), bladder drawn-up
(11%), scar dehiscence (9%) and extension of angles (8%)
(Figure 2). There were no injuries to surrounding structure
due to surgery or during surgery.
DICUSSION
This present study from our department of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology at Kamineni institute of medical sciences tried
to identify the frequent intra-operative complications associated with multiple repeat caesarian sections. Repeat caesarian sections are commonly performed due to many reasons
which might have risk fetal and maternal morbidity–mortality.
From this study more frequently adhesions were noted during operative delivery in the study group (46%), not unexpected as dense adhesion would tend to result from repeated surgery on the abdominal wall with increased chance
of post-operative infection. These adhesions are as high as
those in the multiple repeat caesarian sections who had more
than four repeat caesarian sections.7 Operative and post-operative course, including duration of operation, estimated
blood loss during surgery, might increase due to adhesions
Age group in years
No. of cases n=100
Emergency n=28
Elective N=72
18–23
15
31
>23–28
11
37
>28–32
2
4
Table-2: Age wise distribution of cases with elective/emergency caesarian sections
40
Percentage (%) of
Cesarian section
RESULTS
Age group in years
No. of cases n = 100
18 – 23
46
>23 – 28
48
>28 – 32
6
Table-1: Age wise distribution of cases
35
30
20
18
16
10
6
4
4
2
6
3
4
50
46
40
30
20
10
0
9
11
16
8
1
None
5
Figure-2: The incidence of intra-operative complications
and also could increase the incidence of wound infection and
length of hospital stay this could again inluence based on
severity of pelvic adhesions.7
Of 100 patients from this study second most common complication was haemorrhage which was about 16%. The complication of haemorrhage was varied from different previous studies, study from Pradip Sambrey et al8 reported 24%,
Anuradha Kumar et al3 reported 10% and A.Sirju Singh et al9
reported 22.3%. In the present study the overall incidence of
haemorrhage as a part of intra-operative complication being
16% which is about 8% less than the study of Pradip Sambray et al.8 From the operative point of view, a repeat number
of previous caesarian sections is associated with technical
dificulties in separation of adhesions and increased the average surgery time in the study, which might cause dificulty in achieving high Apgar score of the newborn and may
increase requirement the neonatal intensive care unit. The
success and the complication arising from labour in women
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
2
0
Figure-1: Indication for present caesarian section (n=100)
Percentage (%) of
Complications
the antenatal ward for in-patient care. These are the cases irrespective of emergency/elective caesarian section. The data
was compiled and analyzed for intra-operative dificulties
during emergency and elective caesarian section in repeat
caesarian sections. During the pre and post operative period
both clinical examination and necessary investigations like
estimation of Hb, RBS, HIV etc., were done.
Intra-Operative Dificulties in Repeat Caesarian Sections
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
41
Damayanthi et al.
Intra-Operative Dificulties in Repeat Caesarian Sections
with previous caesarian sections require further evaluation.
Usually, most obstetricians do not attempt trial of labour after previous caesarian sections. Need of last few visits to a
obstetricians in order to decide the mode of delivery to undergo elective or emergency section in a centre both between
equipped and manual.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 10-11-2015; Published online: 27-11-2015
CONCLUSIONS
Modern obstetrics practice for medical, social, economic and
legal reasons had witnessed and increase in the primary caesarian section rate every year. This has created a common
clinical entity of ‘previous caesarian section’. In subsequent
pregnancy giving high risk pregnant status to the reference
pregnancy. Adhesions and haemorrhages are the major complications in intra-operative period of repeat section. These
adhesions not only slowed down the surgical procedure but
also necessitated the change of surgeon to more experienced
one.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
42
Cunningham F G, Ghant N, Lenovo K,CS delivery &
postpartum hysterectomy. In Williams Obstetrics. 21st
Ed. Mc Graw Hill. 2001;p. 573-553.
Dickinson J E. Caesarean Section. In: D. K. James, P.
J.Steer, C.P.Weiner, eds. Hgh Risk pregnancy options.
2nd edn Saunders, 1999;p 1217-1244.
Anuradha Kumar, Sita Thakur, Preme H K, Gupta K B.
Maternal complications in CS deliveries. J. Obstet. Gynecol. India, 1996;20:36-40.
Unnikrishnan B, Rakshith Prasad B, Amarnath A, Kumar N, Rekha T, Mithra PP, Aishwarya A, Kumar R,
Chausalkar JL, Garg N, Pal S, Dolkale SHB: Trends
and indications for caesarean section in a tertiary care
obstetric hospital in coastal south India. Australas Med
J 2010;3:821–825.
Afsana K: The tremendous cost of seeking hospital
obstetric care in Bangladesh. Reprod Health Matter
2004;12:171–180.
Sarowar MG, Medin E, Gazi R, Koehlmoos TP, Rehnberg C, Saii R, Bhuiya A,Khan J: Calculation of costs
of pregnancy- and puerperium-related care: experience
from a hospital in a low-income country. J Health Popul
Nutr 2010;28:264–272.
Mumtaz Rashid, Rabia S. Rashid. Higher order repeat
caesarean sections: how safe are ive or more? BJOG:
an International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology.
2004;111: 1090–1094.
Pradip Sambare Gururaj Kulkarni, Santosh Sidid. Maternal morbidity after emergency CS. Journal of Obstetrics & gynaecology of India. 1995; 42: 511-515.
Sirju Singh A, Poopnarine Singh A J, Bassaw B. CS delivery in Trinidad J. Obstet. Gynecol.2001; 21: 236-238.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study on Reasons for Repeated Cesarian Sections in a Tertiary
Care Hospital
B. Damayanthi1, Manjula Devi2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The cesarian section rate continues to rise
in many countries with routine access to medical services.
Therefore we tried to know the causes of cesarian sections in
a tertiary care set up.
Material and methods: In this study 100 subjects were randomly taken after assessing for inclusive and exclusive criteria. During the preoperative period, the study subjects were
examined clinically and necessary investigations were done.
The data of the cases were compiled and analyzed. Variables
like age, period of registry of the cases during pregnancy, Indications for previous cesarian sections etc., were analyzed.
Three age groups were taken to analyze the study subjects:
irst group with 18-23 years, second group with 23-28 years
and third group 28-32. In the present study, 46, 48 and 6 were
registered in the above age groups. 38 of100 cases were not
booked prior to the delivery.
Results: Indications for the previous cesarian sections were
analyzed. 26of 100 cesarians were due to cephalo pelvic disproportion, 10 of100 were due to bad obstetric history. 1 of 5
of the patients was suffering from hypertensive disorder. Malpresentation and failure to progress were the causes 12 of 100
cases in each category. During the present pregnancy also the
reasons for opting for cesarian section were analyzed. 35 of
100 cases were due to previous 2 cesarians and in another 16
of 100 were due to cephalo pelvic disproportion. Fetal distress
is observed in 18 cases.
Conclusion: The most common clinical entity for cesarian
section is of previous cesarian section and followed by cephalo pelvic disproportion.
Key Words: Cesarian section, Cepahalo pelvic disproportion,
Malpresentation, foetal distress
of induction of labour, rise in prevalence of obesity, concern
for malpractice litigation.1 More than few decade ago it was
reported that failure to perform a cesarian delivery and thus
avoid adverse neonatal neurological outcome (Cerebral palsy) was the dominant obstetrical claim in the United states. In
addition, few elective cesarian deliveries are now performed
due to concern over pelvic loor injury associated with vaginal birth.2 The picture has changed little speciically in 2001.
A brain damaged infant was the claim responsible for 40%
of all medico-legal indemnity paid by obstetrician and gynaecologists (physician’s insurance of America 2002). Some
elective cesarian deliveries are now performed due to concern over pelvic loor injury associated with vaginal birth.2
The indications for cesarian section are multiple and multi-factorial. Repeated cesarian sections are associated with
various complications like adhesions, haemorrhage, bladder
injury etc.4 The present study has been taken up in a tertiary
care set to evaluate the reasons for adopting cesarian section
in place of vaginal delivery. The objective of this study is to
evaluate the reasons for adopting repeat cesarian section in
those who had previously cesarian section delivery.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was carried out in the obstetric units of the Kamineni Institute of Medical Sciences, Narketpally, Telangana
State from the period of October 2010-September 2011. This
is a both a referral center and territory center for high risk
obstetric cases in Narketpally. All women who are aged 18
years to 32 years with history of undergone previous cesarian were included in this study. This is a cross-sectional study
where we included both retrospective and prospective studDepartment of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Kamineni Institute
of Medical Sciences, Narketpally, 2Department of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology, Mallareddy Medical College For Womens, Suraram
'x' Road, Jeedimetla, Qutbullapur Municipality, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Cesarian section is deined as delivery of foetus through the
incision in the abdominal wall (laparotomy)1 in the uterine
wall. Cesarian section is done when labour is contraindicated
or vaginal delivery is found unsafe for the foetus or mother. The indications are broadly divided into two categories:
1. Absolute 2. Relative. Increasing rate of cesarian section
between 1965-1988 by four times is not completely understood, but some explanations include the, women are having
fewer children, raising maternal age, increasing incidence
of breech presentation, decreased incidence of conducting
mid-pelvic forceps and vaccum deliveries, increasing rates
Corresponding author: Dr. Manjula Devi, Professor of Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Mallareddy Medical College
For Womens, Suraram 'x' Road, Jeedimetla, Qutbullapur Municipality, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
How to cite this article: B. Damayanthi, Manjula Devi. A study
on reasons for repeated cesarian sections in a tertiary care hospital. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):43-45.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
43
Damayanthi et al.
A Study on Reasons for Repeated Cesarian
A total of 100 women made up of with at least one previous cesarian. Out of the 100 women with previous cesarian
section cases studied 94 (94%) cases were of the age group
18 – 28 years; of which 46 (46%) cases were of age group
between 18-23 years and 48 (48%) cases were of age group
between above 23-28 years (Table 1).
Of total 100 case 66 (66%) cases were booked and 44 (44%)
were un-booked cases. Out of 66 booked cases of which 28
cases were of age group between 18-23 years, 34 cases were
of age group between above 23-28 years and only 4 cases in
the age group of above 28-32 years (Table 2).
Among women with those who had previous cesarian section, the commonest indications for primary cesarian section
were cepahalo pelvic disproportion (CPD) 26% (26/100),
abnormal lie/malpresentation 20% (20/1005), suspicious fetal status/intrapartum fetal distress 12% (12/100), poor/failure to progress of labor and/or prolonged labor 12% (12/100)
and bad obstetric history 10 (10/100) (Figure 1). Please see
igure 1 for all other accounted reasons for previous cesarian
sections. Of all those 100 cases of previous cesarian section,
72 (72%) were had elective cesarian sections.
The indications for present cesarian section are shown in the
igure 2. Out of 100 cases major indication were previous 2
or more cesarian sections which are about 35 (35%) cases.
The other major indications for cesarian section were CPD
16% (16/100), intrapartum fetal distress 18% (18/100), bad
obstetric history 6% (6/100) and scar dehiscence 6% (6/100)
(Figure 2).
DISCUSSIONS
The present study from our department of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology at Kamineni Institute of medical sciences has
identiied the risks associated with subsequent pregnancies
44
Age group in years
No. of cases n=100
Booked n=66
Unbooked N=44
18–23
28
22
>23–28
34
14
>28–32
4
2
Table-2: Age wise distribution of cases based om booked and
unbooked
Percentage (%) of
Cesarian section
RESULTS
Age group in years
No. of cases n = 100
18 – 23
46
>23 – 28
48
>28 – 32
6
Table-1: Age wise distribution of cases
30
26
20
20
10
10
12
12
6
5
2
4
3
0
CPD, Cepahalo pelvic disproportion; BOH, Bad obstetric history
Figure-1: Indications of previous cesarian section (n=100)
40
Percentage (%) of
Cesarian section
ies during one year of the study. We enrolled both the sample
of cases which are booked case with previously had antenatal checkups and also un-booked (unregistered) case who
had no antenatal checkups or insuficient antenatal checkups.
Those who have undergone laprotomy for some cause in the
past and primigravida were excluded from the study. Following booking in the antenatal clinic, women who had no
complications were seen subsequently every 4 weeks until
28 weeks, fortnightly until 36 weeks and weekly until the onset of labor or elective delivery. Women with complications
were usually seen more frequently depending on their conditions; alternatively they could be admitted into the antenatal
ward for in-patient care. These are the cases irrespective of
emergency/elective cesarian section. The data was compiled
and analyzed for reasons for reasons for repeated cesarian
sections. During the pre and post operative period both clinical examination and necessary investigations like estimation
of Hb, RBS, HIV etc., were done.
35
30
20
10
0
18
16
6
4
4
2
3
6
4
2
CPD, Cepahalo pelvic disproportion; BOH, Bad obstetric history
Figure-2: Indication for present cesarian section (n=100)
in women who had one previous cesarian section. The old
postulate: “Once cesarian, always cesarian” leads to repeated
Cesarian sections in women who have had previous cesarian
section. In our study, previous cesarian section was the leading indication (35%) for subsequent cesarian section in this
study and was the main reason recorded for more than one
third of cases. Also this study showed that previous cesarian
section had frequent incidence of fetal distress, cepahalo pelvic disproportion, bad obstetric history and scar dehiscence
which resulted in repeat cesarian sections.
Previous two or more cesarian sections were the main indications in our study for repeat Cesarian sections. May be
reluctant to give a trial of vaginal delivery after two cesarian
sections due to the fear of uterine rupture and associated risk
to the mother, and the foetus. The studies conducted by Mollison et al., in 20055 and Kenner et al., in 20076 in the western
world have shown that women those who delivered previous
birth by cesarian sections were less likely to choose to have a
subsequent pregnancy (66.9%) compared with those having
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Damayanthi et al.
spontaneous vaginal delivery (73.9%) and instrumental vaginal delivery (71.6%), and they more likely to have problems
like antepartum haemorrhage, preterm or prolonged labour,
morbidly adherent placenta, and the risk of malpresentation
or an ectopic eventuality in their next pregnancy.5,6
The study conducted by Raksha Arora et al.7, in 1982 have
shown the cepahalo pelvic disproportion rate of almost
44.6% (n=336) which is very less in our study (16%). This
high rate of cepahalo pelvic disproportion in Raksha Arora et
al.7, in 1982 with the current study conducted in 2011 relects
changing trends of delivery over the last two decades. These
trends may be related women better socioeconomic status
and education, improved healthcare setup, accessibility of
skilled health professionals.
Foetal distress accounted for 18% and was the second
commonest indication for cesarian sections in this study;
this situation arises often due to the emergency to save the
new born. Similar trend was observed by Pradip Sambrey
et al.8, in 1992 and Anuradha et al.9, in 1996, where they
reported rate of incidence 26.9% and 35.25%, respectively.
Besides, 31% of our patients had other reasons for repeat
cesarian sections indications which are due to Bad obstetric history, obstructed labour, twin pregnancy, oligohydramnios, placenta previa, scar dehiscence, malpresentation and
unknown reasons. The rise in cesarian sections rate relects
changing trends of delivery because of change in socioeconomic status, some prefer cesarian sections delivery as an
elective procedure, better skilled health professionals with
best healthcare infrastructure and fear of litigation healthcare
professionals.
A Study on Reasons for Repeated Cesarian
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2003;102(2):217-9.
Kamala Jayaram V. CS -5year analysis J. Obstet. Gynecol. India, 1996; 47: 57-59.
Korst M L, Gregory K D, Gornbein J A. Elective primary CS delivery: accuracy of administrative data. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 2004; 18(2): 112-119.
Mollison J, Porter M, Campbell D, Bhattacharya F. Primary mode of delivery and subsequent pregnancy. Br J
Obstet Gynecol 2005; 112: 1061-5.
Kennare R, Tucker G, Heard A, Chan A. Risks of adverse outcomes in the next birth after a irst caesarean
delivery. Obstet Gynaecol 2007; 109: 270-6.
Raksha Arora & Asha Oumachigui. A study of patterns
& maternal morbidity in CS. Journal of Obstretrics &
Gynaecology. 1990; 40: 192-197.
Pradip Sambare Gururaj Kulkarni, Santosh Sidid. Maternal morbidity after emergency CS. Journal of Obstetrics & gynaecology of India. 1995; 42: 511-515.
Anuradha Kumar, Sita Thakur, Preme H K, Gupta K B.
Maternal complications in CS deliveries. J. Obstet. Gynecol. India, 1996; 20: 36-40.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 10-11-2015; Published online: 27-11-2015
CONCLUSIONS
The most common clinical entity for cesarian section is of
previous cesarian section and followed by cephalo pelvic
disproportion. This has created a common clinical entity of
‘previous cesarian section’. In subsequent pregnancy giving
high risk pregnant status to the reference pregnancy.
This high risk cases are managed as emergency section as
the against the ideal for than the elective cesarian section.
Cases of primary cesarian section should be educated about
need of ante-natal care. Need of last few visits to a tertiary
level centre in order to decide the mode of delivery to undergo elective or emergency section in a centre both between
equipped and manual. These estimates could be useful for
precise counseling of patients and for clinical decision making prior to recommending primary cesarian section.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Cunningham F G, Ghant N, Lenovo K,CS delivery &
postpartum hysterectomy. In Williams Obstetrics. 21st
Ed. Mc Graw Hill. 2001;p. 573-553.
Nygaard I, Cruikshank DP. Should all women be offered elective cesarean delivery? Obstet Gynecol.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
45
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Impact of Disability, Workplace Stress and Other Associated Factors
on Quality of Life among Nurses with Non-Speciic Low Back Ache in
Dehradun
Tulika Rai, Vivek Chauhan
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Non-speciic low back pain is deined as low
back pain not attributable to recognizable known speciic pathology (infection, tumor, osteoporosis, fracture, structural deformity, inlammatory disorder, radicular syndrome or cauda
equina syndrome). Nursing the biggest health care profession
is globally dominated by female population. Nursing care also
includes guiding the patients to prevent illness through hygienic living and helping him to use the available community
resources for the same. Nurses stand for long periods of time
and perform repetitive lifting and patients transfer that are associated with low back pain.
Materials and Methods: A total number of 100 subjects (females) have participated in the study. These subjects were the
working nurses from private hospitals, government hospitals
and various nursing homes in and around Dehradun.
Results: Correlation of data between WPSS & WHOQOL
given statistically signiicant value, Workplace Stress & Disability given statistically signiicant value, WHOQOL & Disability given statistically non signiicant value.
Conclusion: Present study aimed to evaluate the impact of
disability due to nonspeciic low back pain along with workplace stress and other associated factors on Quality of Life
among nurses as related to age, height, weight using questionnaire survey and interview based evaluation method. The
study indicated that large numbers of nurses of Dehradun were
affected due to low back pain.
Keywords: Low Back Pain, Quality of Life, Work Place
Stress, Disability
such as personnel family and economic conditions, teaching
him and others at home and community to take care of one
another. Nursing care also includes guiding the patients to
prevent illness through hygienic living and helping him to
use the available community resources for the same.2
In the hospital environment nurses are known to be a high
risk group because of patient lifting and other postural requirements of their job. An estimated 12% of nurses leave
the profession annually because of back injuries and over
half of them complain of chronic back pain, lifting and moving patients manually has been identiied as a high risk activity.
One study showed that 18% of nursing personnel stopped
working because of low back pain.3
Epidemiological studies show that work related risk factors
such as lifting, twisting, bending, exposure to whole body vibration and prolonged postures play prominent roles.4 Nurses
stand for long periods of time and perform repetitive lifting
and patients transfer that are associated with low back pain.5
It is generally accepted that nursing staff belong to the group
of high risk professions with regard to the occurrence of
musculoskeletal injuries especially in the area of the lumbar
spine. The Health related quality of life in nurses is closely
related to their physical and mental well beings. Their Health
related quality of life may directly or indirectly affect the
quality and safety of medical service and inally inluence
the health of the population at large. Occupational stress in
the absence of adequate coping resources can lead to severe
mental or physical illness and inally to a decrease in health
related quality of life.10
MATERIAL AND METHOD
INTRODUCTION
Nonspeciic low back pain is deined as low back pain not
attributable to recognizable known speciic pathology (infection, tumor, osteoporosis, fractures, inlammatory disorder
and cauda equina syndrome).It has become a major public
health problem worldwide. The prevalence of low back pain
is reported to be as high as 84% and the prevalence of chronic low back pain is about 23% with 11-12% of the population
being disabled by low back pain.1
Nursing the biggest health care profession is globally dominated by female population. Today nursing is not limited to
just delivering expert physical care to the sick but also involves helping the patient to adjust to unalterable situations
46
A Total number of 100 subjects (females) have participated
in the study. These subjects were the working nurses from
MPT (Musculoskekeletal), HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, India
Corresponding author: Tulika Rai, D-432 ,Gaur Global Village,
Crossing Republik ,Ghaziabad (UP) 201002
How to cite this article: Tulika Rai, Vivek Chauhan. Impact of
disability, workplace stress and other associated factors on quality of life among nurses with non-speciic low back ache in Dehradun. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):46-49.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Rai et al.
private hospitals, government hospitals and various nursing
homes in and around Dehradun.
Inclusion criteria
Nurses included if they were currently working for a period
of at least 1 year in hospital, only females nurses were included and low back pain since 1 week.
Exclusion criteria
Previous history of back surgery, spinal deformities, malignancy, osteoporosis, multiple sclerosis, pregnancy and medications
Outcome measures
World Health Organization Quality of life, Oswestry Disability index and Work place Stress.
World Health Organization Quality of life was designed for
the assessment of quality of life. And Here the responses
obtained was divided into 4 domains representing physical,
psychological,social relationship and environmental. Each
domain has its individual transformed score range from
0-100 and as we approach towards the 100 on scale the quality of life improves.
The Oswestry disability was developed to measure disability
in people with low back pain.
Scores ranging from 0-20%were claimed to indicate minimal disability, 20-40%-moderate disability, 40-60%severe
disability 60-80%crippled and 80-100%bedbound or exaggerating.
Workplace Stress was developed to measure stress level in
people with low back pain.
Total score of 15 or lower (33%)-stress isn’t much of an issue.
Total score 16-20(35%)-Fairly low
Total score 21-25(21%)-Moderate stress
Total score 26-30(9%)-Severe
Total score 31-40(2%)-Stress level is potentially dangerous.
Procedure
Nordic pain Questionnaire was taken and subjects were explained with the procedure to ill the questionnaire and low
back pain nurses were identiied. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria different scales were used as Oswestry Disability Index which was used to measure disability in people
with low back pain, World Health Organization Of Quality
Of Life for the assessment of quality of life, Nordic musculoskeletal questionnaire for the musculoskeletal disorders in
ergonomic context and Work Place Stress Questionnaire to
measure stress level.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data analysis was done using SPSS 16.0 version. Descriptive analysis was done to calculate the mean for age, weight
Impact of Disability, Workplace Stress and Other Associated Factors
and height of subjects. Independent T-test was done to compare ODQ, QOL and WPSS and statistical signiicant level
was set at <0.05.
RESULT
The mean of AGE, BMI, OLBPDQ, WPSS, and WHOQOL
was found to be 29.930±7.64, 22.453±5.26, 7.02±5.57,
27.280±8.852 and 85.450±6.296 respectively. Low Back
Ache was assessed by NMPQ. The scores were correlated
between OLBPQ, WPSS and WHOQOL. Correlation of
data between WPSS &WHOQOL Given statistically value
p=.037. Workplace Stress &Disability given statistically signiicant value p=.016. WHOQOL &Disability given statistically non-signiicant value p=.573
DISCUSSION
Fradlos E. et al described in his study nursing profession is
consider to be one from the harder professions globally and
is characterized by great workloads, fast pace and intensity
of work. According to researchers so far burnout does not occur in the shorthorns, but gradually escalating, thereby creating long term problems, such as feeling of hopelessness,
distress, and failure to work requirements, which have an
impact on all areas of human life.2
Quality of life is considered to be related to attaining a
healthy and productive lifestyle and therefore, have been an
investigated parameter in many studies. WHO Denies quality
of life as individuals perception of their position in life in the
context of the culture and value systems in which they live
and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards, and
concerns. It is a broad ranging concept affected in a complex
way by the person’s physical health, psychological state.2,3
According to Nisha J. et al. studies on the association between occupational risk factors and low back pain are hamMean
29.930
22.453
Table-1.1: Demographic Data
Age
BMI
SD
7.64788
5.26970
Mean
Std Deviation
N
OLBPDQ
7.0200
5.57407
100
WPSS
27.280
8.85242
100
WHOQOL
85.450
6.29634
100
Table-1.2: Descriptive Statistics of OLBPQ, WPSS & WHOQOL
N
Minimum
21.00
9.75
Maximum
59.00
48.24
Mean
Age
100
29.930 7.64788
BMI
100
22.453 5.26970
Valid N 100
Table-1.3: Descriptive Statistics of AGE & BMI
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
SD
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
47
Rai et al.
Impact of Disability, Workplace Stress and Other Associated Factors
pered by the dificulties of measuring speciic exposures.
Many studies are limited by the absence of more quantitative
measurements of manual material handling task parameters,
and risk of low back injury may be entirely a result of the
design of the work- place as opposed to individual differences among the workers. Self-reported questionnaire-based
assessments tend to overestimate physical load on the back
from bending and lifting compared with hourly self-reported
logs of the same activities.6-7 The relative timing of the onset
of low back pain and work exposure is also often uncertain.
The healthy worker effect (workers with back pain leave a
job, resulting in a aurviving workforce with healthier backs)
may introduce signiicant bias. Work place factors, including
physical and psychosocial factors and their interaction, are
strong determinants of back pain. Psychosocial risk factors
at work (perceived high pressure on time and workload, low
job control, job dissatisfaction, monotonous work and low
support from coworkers and management) appear too independently increase the risk of hospitalization for back disorders, with a 3.2-fold increase in a low-control job compared
with a high-control job.10-15
According to Shaher H. Hamaideh there are numerous
sources of occupational stress among nurses, in particular. Occupational stressors among mental health nurses are
varied; some of these stressors may be related to personal
issues, while some of them may be related to workplace
and service user issues. These stressors include: increased
workload and administration, lack of time management,
inappropriate referrals, role conlict and ambiguity, safety issues, lack of supervision, not having enough time for
personal study, low general working conditions, lack of social support from colleagues and supervisors, and reduced
advancement opportunities (Jenkins & Elliott, 2004). Occupational stress in mental health nursing can have an effect on the physical and psychological health of nurses who
work in mental health settings. High stress level can lead
to severe clinical distress, Psychomatic illness, and reduced
service provision and burnout, increased absenteeism and
turnover, and reduced quality of life. Occupational stress
leads to emotional exhaustion, including symptoms such as
feeling of depression, hopelessness, and helplessness. According to Julia Smedley et al. of the occupational activities
but studied, manually moving patients around on the bed,
transferring patients between bed and Chair and lifting patients up from the loor were associated with increased risk
of back pain, and the associations persisted after adjustment
for height and report of non-musculoskeletal symptoms.10-15
In contrast, no association was found with lifting or transfer-ring patients with a hoist or with canvas and poles. In
general, this pattern of risk is consistent with biomechanical
evaluation.15
FUTURE RESEARCH AND LIMITATIONS
The future study can also be done by dividing the groups on
48
the basis of wards, ICU, same workplace environments and
different working areas. Also the study can be done on male
subjects. And also it can be done by taking large sample size
and speciic age group.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion of the study revealed the impact of disability
occurred due to non speciic low back pain on workplace
stress and other associated factors on quality of life among
nurses as related to age, height, weight using questionnaire
survey and interview based evaluation method.
REFERENCES
1.
Federica Balague, Anne F Mannion, Ferran Pellise,
Christine Cedraschi. Non-Speciic Low Back Pain. Department Of Rheumatology, Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation 2012; 379: 482-491.
2. Deepti Majumdar, Pal MS and Majumdar D. Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders in Indian Nurses: A
Cross Sectional. Defense Institute of Physiology And
Allied Sciences. 2014;4:1-7.
3. Younsef Aljeesh, Samer AI Nawajha. Determinants
Of Low Back Pain Among Operating Room Nurses In
Gaza Government Hospitals. Journal Of Al Azhar University –Gaza (Natural Sciences) 2011;13:41-54.
4. Francesco S.Violante, Mariana Fiori, Christinaa. Associations Of Psychosocial And Individual Factors
With Three Different Categories Of Back Disorder
Among Nursing Staff. Journal Of Occupational Health
2004;46:100-108.
5. Edgar R Viera And Denis Brunt.Clinical Rehabilitation
2015;2:23-30
6. Jeanine A.Verbunt, Dia HFM Per And Rob JEM
Smeets. Disability And Quality Of life In Patients With
Fibromyalgia. Health And Quality Of Life Outcomes
2008;3:6-8.
7. Maria D.Antonopoulou et al. Studying The Associations between Musculoskeletal Disorders, Quality Of
Life and Mental Health. A Primary Care Pilot Study In
Rural Crete, Greece. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders
2009;3:143-46
8. Jeannette Saner, Jankool, Rob A.De, Judith M.Sieden
and Hannu Luomajoki. Movement Control Exercise
Versus General Exercise To Reduce Disability In Patients With Low Back Pain And Movement Control Impairment –A Randomized Controlled Trial BMC Musculoskeletal Disorder 2011;3:207-10.
9. Leo L.Van Duersen et al. Sitting And Low Back Pain –
The Positive Effects of Dynamic Rotatory Stimuli During Prolonged Sitting. EUR Spine Journal 1999;3:187193.
10. Mauro V.Mendlowicz,Murray B.Stein. Quality of Life
in Individuals with Anxiety Disorders Am J Psychiatry
2000;157:669-673.
11. T S Wong, N Teo, MO Kyaw. Prevalence And Risk
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Rai et al.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Impact of Disability, Workplace Stress and Other Associated Factors
Factors Associated With Low Back Pain Among Health
Care Providers In A District Hospital. Malaysian Orthopaedic Journal 2010;4:23-30.
F.Tissot, K.Messing And S.Stock.Studying The Relationship Between Low Back Pain And Working Postures
Among Those Who Stand And Those Who Sit Most Of
The Working Day. Ergonomics 2009;52:1403-10.
Hans Heneweer, Filip Staes, Geert Aufdemkampe,
Machiel van Rijin, Lue Vanhees.Physical Activity And
Low Back Pain: A Systematic Review Of Recent Litreture,Eur Spine J 2011;4:826-845.
Safoora Ebadi et al.The Effect Of Continuous Ultrasound On Chronic Non-Speciic Low Back Pain: A Single Blind Placebo Controlled Randomized Trial BMC
Musculoskeletal Disorders 2012;192:30-37.
Adriane Viera,Rafaela De Macedo Braga et al. Effectiveness Of Back School In Patients With Patients With
Chronic Non –Speciic Low Back Pain Acta Fistuira
2012;23:184-91.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 10-11-2015; Published online: 28-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
49
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Study of Vitamin –D Levels in Urban Population
Sujatha Pasula1, S Hari Priya2, Boppishetti Raja Adithya2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Vitamin D deiciency is considered to contribute to bone loss and muscle weakness, thus leading to fractures. The objective of the present study was to analyze serum
vitamin D levels.
Materials and methods: The study group was comprised of
urban population with 640 women and 537 men whose age
range was 18- 78years. Renal and liver diseases, diabetes mellitus and other endocrinal disorders were excluded. Further
exclusion criteria included the use of medication known to
interfere with calcium metabolism and participants must not
have been users of any hormones in the previous 1 year.
Results: In the studied subjects Vitamin D insuficiency was
found to be 54% in women and 50% in men. Among women subjects in the age group 59-78 years, the proportion was
more which amounted to 63%.
Conclusion: Vitamin D deiciency is a public health issue in
urban population. Risk and beneits of preventive actions need
to be examined in further studies.
Keywords: Vitamin D, urban population, osteoporosis, food
fortiication.
INTRODUCTION
Indians have vast diversity in traditional, cultural, social and
lingual aspects. India is a tropical country extending from
8.4º N latitude to 37.6° N latitude near to equator where ample sunlight is available throughout the year. Hence there
was a misbelief that Vitamin D (Vit-D) deiciency is uncommon in India.1 However Vit D deiciency in all the age
groups and both sexes across the country is common inding
and has wide range of previous publications.2 Serum levels
decline with age earlier in women than in men.3 Depending
on reproductive and Postmenopausal age groups Vitamin D
status is affected.
Vitamin D is a sterol that has a hormone like function. The
active molecule 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol binds to intracellular receptor proteins. The 1, 25-dihyroxy D3 receptor
complex interacts with DNA in the nucleus of target cells.
This either selectively stimulates gene expression or speciically represses gene transcription. Common genetic variants
of the vitamin D binding protein (DBP) can predict differences in response of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)]
to vitamin D supplementation.4
Vit D is a fat soluble vitamin. Multiple factors like geographical area, pollution, clothing, skin pigmentation and
duration and time of exposure to sunlight affect its synthesis
50
in the body.5 Physiological production of Vit D is endogenously in the dermis and epidermis of exposed parts of body
from 7-dehydrocholesterol an intermediate in cholesterol
synthesis, is converted to cholecalciferol. Calcium-Vitamin
D-Parathyroid hormone endocrine axis is responsible for
maintaining homeostasis of calcium. Most prominent action
of 1,25-dihydroxy D3 are to regulate the plasma levels of
calcium and phosphorous.6 Vitamin D inadequacy during adolescence leads to increase in the risk of osteoporosis later in
life.7 Vit D deiciency and low calcium intake are important
risk factors in preventing osteoporosis.8 There is widespread
prevalence of Vit D deiciency with low dietary calcium intake in Indian population according to various studies published earlier. The hypovitaminosis D group has two subgroups: insuficiency (serum levels between 10 and 29 ng/
ml) and deiciency (levels<10 ng/ml).9 Vit D deiciency is a
common problem in India due to several factors: like food
fads and food habits, high iber diet containing phosphates
and phytates which can deplete Vit D stores, genetic factors,
number of hours spent indoor have increased in the urban
Indians, increased pollution and last but not least the cultural
and traditional habits prevalent in certain religions
From the aforesaid reasons, the present study was conducted
to study vitamin D deiciency in urban population.
Materials and methods:
The study group was comprised of urban population with
640 women and 537 men whose age range was 18- 78years.
Basic information like age, weight, life style habits, hypertension were taken from the individuals by questionnaire.
Written consent was obtained from subjects. The study was
approved by the ethical committee of the institution.
Exclusion Criteria: H/O of Diabetes mellitus, renal and liver
diseases, trauma, endocrinal disorders and vitamin D supplementation. Further exclusion criteria included the use of
medication known to interfere with calcium metabolism, users of testosterone, anabolic steroids, glucocorticoids, or bisphosphonates in the previous 1 year. Also pregnant women /
Assistant Professor, 2Tutor, Department of Biochemistry, KAMSRC, L.B Nagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Pasula sujatha, M.B.B.S; M.D (Biochemistry), Assistant Professor, Department of Biochemistry,
KAMSRC, L.B Nagar, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
How to cite this article: Sujatha Pasula, S Hari Priya, Boppishetti
Raja Adithya. Study of vitamin – D levels in urban population. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):5053.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Pasula et al.
Age groups (years)
39-48
19-28
29-38
150
32(8.9)
9
41
123
30 (7.7)
12
45
101
32(8.7)
10
40
49-58
59-68
69-78
98
26(5.4)
13
55
75
22(4.8)
18
65
87
20(3.2)
20
69
61
97
116
30(7.4)
28(7.9)
27(5.4)
12
11
13
44
45
50
Table-1: Vitamin D status by sex and age
100
24(5.1)
17
58
68
22(3.4)
18
59
immuno-compromised patients have been excluded.
Blood was collected in vacutaniers and estimated for vitamin
–D. Investigations like blood sugar, blood urea, serum creatinine, bilirubin, ALT and serum electrolytes were done to rule
out Diabetes Mellitus, Liver and Renal diseases.
Vitamin –D was estimated with Immuno Diagnositic systems by ELISA method using ELISA reader at 505nm.kit
was calibrated and also controls were run with every batch.
107
27(7.2)
12
47
90
80
70
vitamin D
Women
N
mean Vit-D(S.D)
deiciency(%)
insuficency(%)
Men
N
mean Vit-D(S.D)
deiciency(%)
insuficency(%)
Vitamin –D Levels in Urban Population
60
50
40
30
20
10
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
0
The data was analysed by using SPSS v20 version and Microsoft Excel software.
0
10
20
40 50 60 70
ages
Figure-1: Correlation between vitamin D and ages.
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
Vit D deiciency is not only a problem in India. It is seen
even in other topical countries also.10 Although, there is suficient sunshine in India, we are still lacking in preventing
it. Overall results of various studies conducted to date in urban and rural India indicate that widely prevalent vitamin
–D deiciency is functionally relevant to skeletal health including osteomalacia and rickets.20 In the present study we
have taken the vitamin D levels in women and men who are
healthy. From the statistical evaluation (table -1) Vit D deiciency in females is 14% and insuficency is 54% were as in
90
age groups
69-78
59-68
49-58
39-48
29-38
18-28
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
vitamin D means
Figure-2: Bar diagram representing vitamin-D means of age
groups in females
vitamin D in men
69-78
59-68
49-58
39-48
29-38
18-28
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
vitamin d means
Figure-3: Bar diagram representing vitamin-D means of age
groups in males
men deiciency is 13.5% and insuficiency is 50%. It is observed that women of age group of 59 -78 have insuficiency
of 63% which is in correlation with study of Riggs et.al.11,12
Vitamin D levels are inversely proportional with age in both
women and men as shown in igures 2 and 3. This shows
the amount of sunshine people are exposed to in the daytime
is insuficient because of change in life style in the present
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
80
vitamin D in women
age groups
Cut off values were set according to the kit insert provided
with the kit. The descriptive data was analyzed by 10-year
age bands to calculate age-speciic mean, prevalence of vitamin D deiciency and insuficiency.
In the study 54% of women and 50% of men had vitamin D
levels below 29 ng/ml i.e insuficiency. Among 65-79 yearold women, the proportion amounted to 63%.
Over all 52% of subjects studied had insuficiency.
Deiciency in women is 14% and in men it is about 13.5%
which is approximately
Trendline descent seen with increase in age.
From igures 2 and 3 it is evident that vitamin D levels decreased with increase in age.
30
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
51
Pasula et al.
Vitamin –D Levels in Urban Population
scenario. So there are decreased levels of vitamin D in urban
population.
This study is in correlation with Tuohimaa. P etal who stated
that older people who are at increased risk of vitamin D insuficiency are about 63% of total population, so they need to
spend more time outdoors.13 However, older people also have
lowered capacity to synthesize vitamin D when exposed to
sunlight, so it is dificult for them to meet their requirements
via sun light.14 Vit D insuficiency and deiciency are easily
preventable.15,16 As the famous saying goes “Prevention is
better than cure” Vit D deiciency also should better be prevented than leaving it towards cure. Food fortiication with
Vit D is a good option in solving this issue. Similarly food
fortiication and public health policies for Vit D supplementation and mineral requirement is needed.17,18 In view of all
the above indings, some of the recommendations19 to decrease prevalence of hypovitaminosis D are 1. Screening for vitamin D deiciency in individuals at risk
for deiciency,
2. Infants and children aged 0 –1 yr require at least 400
IU/d (IU = 25 ng) of
vitamin D and children 1 yr and older require at least
600 IU/d to maximize bone health, 3. Adults aged 19–50
yr require at least 600 IU/d of vitamin D to maximize
bone health and muscle function,
4. All adults aged 50–70 and 70+ yr require at least 600
and 800 IU/d, respectively, of vitamin D to maximize
bone health and muscle function,
5. Pregnant and lactating women require at least 600 IU/d
of vitamin D and recognize that at least 1500–2000 IU/d
of vitamin D may be needed to maintain a blood level of 25(OH)D above 30 ng/ml, children and adults on
anticonvulsant medications, glucocorticoids, antifungals
such as ketoconazole, and medications for AIDS be given at least two to three times more vitamin D for their
age group to satisfy their body’s vitamin D requirement
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
CONCLUSION
The deiciency of vitamin D is highly prevalent in urban
healthy adult population. More subjects in all age groups in
both genders in urban and rural subjects in different parts
of the country should be studied in future. Still, this study
clearly brings forth the low dietary calcium intake of both
the urban and rural subjects, high phytate content of the rural
diet and the limited exposure of the urban adults and children
to sunlight.
The administration of vitamin D, which also needs trials of
longer duration of treatment, to evaluate the effect of different lifestyle factors in this population.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
REFERENCES
1.
52
Awumey EM, Mitra DA, Hollis BW, et al. Vitamin D
metabolism is altered in Asian Indians in the southern
18.
United States: a clinical research center study. J Clin
Endocrinol Metab1998; 83: 169-173.
Dawson-Hughes B, Heaney RP, Holick MF, et al.Estimates of optimal vitamin D status. Osteoporos Int 2005;
16: 713-716.
Maggio D, Cherubini A, Lauretani F et al. 25(OH)D
serum levels decline with age earlier in women than in
men and less eficiently prevent compensatory hyperparathyroidism in older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci
Med Sci 2005; 60A: 1414–9.
Fu L,Yun F, Oczak M, et al. Common genetic variants
of the vitamin D binding protein (DBP) predict differences in response of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D[
25(OH)] to vitamin D supplementation. Clin Biochem
2009; 42: 1174-1177.
Vikram Londhey; Vitamin D Deiciency: Indian Scenario; Editorial; JAPI; 2011; 59.
Heaney RP. Vitamin D depletion and effective calcium
absorption. J Bone Min Res 2003; 18: 1342.
Khadilka AV. Vitamin D deiciency in Indian Adolescents. Indian Paediatr 2010; 47: 756-757.
Malhotra N, Mithal A, Gupta S, et al. Effect of Vitamin D supplementation on bone health parameters of
healthy young Indian women. Archives of Osteoporosis
2009; 4:47-53.
F. Formiga, A. Ferrer, J. Almeda, A. San jose, A. Gil, R.
Pujol; Utility of geriatric assessment tools to identify
85-years old subjects with vitamin D deiciency; The
Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging; 2011; 15(2):110-4
González-Molero, S Morcillo, S Valdés et al: Vitamin
D deiciency in Spain: a population-based cohort study
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008:65, 321328
Harinarayan CV, Alok Sachan, P. Amaresh Reddy, et al.
Vitamin D status and Bone Mineral Density in Women of Reproductive and Postmenopausal age groups: A
cross-sectional study from South India. J Assoc Physicians India 2011; 59: 695-701.
Riggs BL. Role of vitamin D- endocrine system in the
pathophysiology of postmenopausal osteoporosis. J
Cell Biochem 2003; 88: 209-215.
Tuohimaa P. Vitamin D and aging. J Steroid Biochem
Mol Biol 2009; 114: 78-84.
M arwaha RK, Tandon N, Garg MK, et al. Vitamin D
status in healthy Indians aged 50 years and above. J Assoc Physicians India 2011; 59: 703-707.
Hollick MF. Vitamin D deiciency. N Engl J Med 2007;
357:266-281
Hollis BW. Circulating 25- hydroxyvitamin D levels
indicative of Vitamin D insufiency: implications for
establishing a new effective dietary intake recommendation for vitamin D. J Nutr 2005; 135: 317- 322.
Babu US, Calvo MS. Modern India and the vitamin D
dilemma: evidence for the need of a national food fortiication program. Mol Nutr Food Res 2010; 54: 113447.
R eport of Joint FAO/ WHO Expert Consultation on
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Pasula et al.
Vitamin –D Levels in Urban Population
vitamin and mineral requirement in human nutrition:
Bangkok 1998. Second Edition FAO Rome, 2004.
19. Michael F. Holick, N eil C. Binkley, Heike A. Bischoff-Ferrari, Catherine M. Gordon, D avid A. Hanley,
Robert P. Heaney, M. Hassan Murad, and Connie M.
Weaver: Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vit D
deiciency: Journal of Clinica Endocrinology & Metabolism, July 2011, 96(7): 1911–1930.
20. R. Goswami, S.K. Mishra & N. Kochupillai Prevalence
& potential signiicance of vitamin D deiciency in
Asian Indians: Indian J Med; 2008; 229-23n D
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 07-11-2015; Published online: 28-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
53
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Clinical Presentations and Risk Factors of Malignant Otitis Externa
in a Tertiary Care Hospital
Thuruthiath Nisha1, Chakramakal Joseph Andrews2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Malignant otitis externa (MOE) is one of the
aggressive infections involving the external auditory canal,
temporal bone and extending to skull base. A descriptive study
was conducted to ind out the clinical presentations and risk
factors of MOE.
Materials and Methods: Sixteen patients with clinical presentations of MOE (age ranges from 40-79 years) were included in the study. Clinical presentations such as nocturnal ear
pain, ear discharge, cranial nerve palsy, EAC stenosis, granulation and polyp were examined in all patients. Ear swab culture was done in patients with ear discharge. Detailed history
for diabetic patients was taken using questionnaire. The prevalence and clinical presentations were subjected to statistical
analysis.
Results: Results showed that male patients were dominant
with mean age of 55 years. Only 2 Female patients were found.
Bacterial infection by Pseudomonas was the major causative
agent for the ear infection and the associated pain. All the patients had type 2 diabetes with duration of 5.25 ± 1.8 years in
40-59 age group which was signiicantly different (p < 0.01)
from that of the 60-79 years age group (10.25 ± 2.5 years).
Conclusion: The result concluded that duration of diabetes
was positively correlated with the incidence of MOE. Diabetes along with bacterial infection of ear was the major causative etiology for the incidence of MOE. A strict control of diabetes and ear swabs culture should be ensured in all patients
with clinical presentation of MOE.
Keywords: Malignant otitis externa; Diabetes mellitus; Immuno compromised; Pseudomonas; Aspergillus
INTRODUCTION
Malignant otitis externa (MOE) is a rapidly progressing and
aggressive infection of the soft tissues of the external ear. It
is potentially fatal and spreads easily to surrounding structures like periostium and skull base and is also named as
skull base osteomyelitis, necrotizing external otitis.1 MOE is
a misnomer as it is a benign yet life threatening condition.2
Most commonly affected individuals are belonging to diabetics and patients in an immune compromised state. Infection is preceded by self manipulation of external ear or self
inlicted trauma usually associated with ear cleaning. MOE
is a serious disease associated with cranial nerve complications and high rate of morbidity as well as mortality. The
54
treatment mainly aims at strict control of diabetes and control of infection with the proper antibiotic and debridement
if necessary.3
The term ‘MOE’ was coined by Chandler in 1968.4 Disease
starts from the external auditory canal. It initially causes cellulitis, which then spreads and results in chondritis, periostitis, osteitis and inally osteomyelitis. Infection can spread
through the issures of Santorini and defects in the loor of
the external auditory canal. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is responsible in 95 percent of cases. The rest 5% comprised of
Aspergillus, other gram positive and gram negative organisms.5 Nocturnal ear pain, granulations, otorrhoea and resistance to local therapy were reported as the common clinical
features. Studies on the clinical presentation of patients were
not yet been reported from this region. Therefore, this study
is aimed to assess the various clinical presentation and risk
factors of patients with MOE in order to help in early diagnosis and prompt management. Further, the result may help
to create awareness among the people so as to reduce the
morbidity and mortality.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This descriptive study included patients with clinical suspicion of MOE who had presented to ENT department, Amala Institute of Medical Sciences, during the study period of
12 months were included. Patients with previous history of
MOE on follow-up and patients who underwent surgery to
rule out malignancy for MEO were excluded. A detailed history had taken by direct interview with the patient or patients’ relatives in cases of diabetes patients. The diagnosis
was conirmed with contrast computerized tomogram of the
temporal bone. Consent was obtained from the patient or
their relatives and the study design was approved by the Institutional ethics committee for research, Amala Institute of
Medical Sciences. Ear swabs were taken for the culture and
Junior Resident, 2Associate Professor, Department of ENT, Amala
Institute of Medical Sciences, Thrissur, Kerala, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Chakramakal Joseph Andrews,
MBBS, M.S., Associate Professor, Department of ENT, Amala Institute of Medical Sciences, Thrissur- 680 555, Kerala, India
How to cite this article: Sujatha Pasula, S Hari Priya, Boppishetti
Raja Adithya. Clinical presentations and risk factors of malignant
otitis externa in a tertiary care hospital. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):54-57.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nisha et al.
Age
Clinical presentations of malignant otitis externa
Diabetes mellitus (n = 16)
Duration (Yrs)
FSG (mg/dl)
Diabetes without
Diabetes with immune- compromised conditions (n= 4)
immune- comDrugs
HIV
Others
promised conditions (n = 12)
40-59
5.25 ± 1.8
207.75 ± 29.02
6
1
1
1
60-79
10.25 ± 6.7*
182.0 ± 24.79NS
8
Nil
Nil
1
* p < 0.01 (Student t test) signiicantly and NS non-signiicantly different from each other. FSG: Fasting serum glucose.
Table-1: Distribution of risk factors for malignant otitis externa
sensitivity analysis. The duration and fasting serum glucose
(FSG) level were subjected to statistical analysis. Informed
written consent was obtained from the patients and the study
design was approved by the Institutional Ethics committee.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version
16.0). Student t test was applied to ind the signiicant difference in the duration of diabetes and FSG between the groups.
P less than 0.05 was considered as signiicant
Figure-1: Distribution of age and gender
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
Results of the study revealed that all the patients presented with clinical features such as nocturnal ear pain and ear
discharge were diabetic. The duration of diabetes has direct
association with the incidence of MOE. Furthermore, ear
swab culture and sensitivity test indicate Pseudomonas as
the major organism involved in the ear infection.
Though the MOE was reported as a rare infection of the external ear, it commonly affects elderly individuals who are
diabetic or who are in an immune compromised state. In our
Figure-2: Clinical presentations of malignant otitis externa. EAL:
External auditory canal
Percentage
Only sixteen patients of age ranges from 40-79 were enrolled
in the study with male dominance of 87.5 % were noticed.
Only 2 females presented with MEO during the one year of
study (Fig 1). The prevalence was found in the age group of
60-79 years (Fig 2). All the patients were undergoing treatment for diabetes. Among them 81.25 % patients were without any immune compromised state, where as 18.75% were
with immune compromised state. The multiple reasons including using steroid drug (1 case) and 2 with chronic kidney
disease (CKD) were found as the risk factors for the immune
compromised state (Table 1).
Among the clinical presentations, nocturnal ear pain and ear
discharge was found to be prevalent (Table 1). All patients
with MEO had nocturnal ear pain and ear discharge. Cranial nerve palsy was observed as the least clinical presentation (31.2%). Ear swab culture and sensitivity test indicated
Pseudomonas aeruginosa in 68.75% cases and Aspergilus
infection in one case. Mixed infection was manifested in 3
cases and one case with Candida (Fig 3). Duration of diabetes between the two group studied were found to be signiicant (p <0.01).
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40-59 years
60-79 years
Pseudomonas Aspergillus
Candida
Mixed
Micro-organism detected
Figure-3: Type of organism detected in ear swab culture
study, all the patients had diabetes. Apart from diabetics, a
few of the patients were on systemic steroids and CKD patients on dialysis. It is rapidly progressive and potentially life
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
55
Nisha et al.
Clinical presentations of malignant otitis externa
threatening disease which can affect temporal bone, skull
base and cranial nerves.7,9-12 The reason behind this infection
affecting mostly elderly and diabetics is proposed to be microangiopathic changes that occur in the small blood vessels
of external auditory canal.4,8 These changes along with defective function of phagocytes and macrophages can predispose to spread of infection. Infection can spread to temporal
bone through the issures of santorini and tympanomastoid
suture involving jugular and stylomastoid foramina. Facial
nerve gets most commonly affected because it comes out
through the stylomastoid foramen.9
Diabetes or other immune compromised state, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa on culture, a positive bone scan and cranial nerve
palsy are conirmatory factors for the diagnosis.1 Technetium
(Tc-99m) radionuclide bone scans are useful in detecting
bony involvement.6 presence of bone erosions and soft tissue
involvement of infratemporal fossa suggested the disease.7
Diagnostic clinical features include nocturnal otalgia, otorrhea, external auditory canal oedema and stenosis, presence
of granulation or polyp and cranial nerve palsies in later
stages were reported.10 C reactive protein and erythrocyte
sedimentation rate were also found to be raised in MOE and
with appropriate treatment they will start to decrease within
2 weeks and eventually return to normal. Marzo et al. reported that P. aeruginosa is the most common (99.2 %) organism
involved in skull-base osteomyelitis. Aspergilus and candida
are very rarely reported.11
In our study, we found only one case with cranial nerve palsy. This has been ascribed to the inlammation occurring
along the skull base as the disease progresses as well as due
to the neurotoxins from pseudomonas. Lling et al. reported
that during the disease progression, the facial nerve is the
most common and irst cranial nerve involved at the stylomastoid foramen.12 They reported 40% incidence of facial
nerve palsies and 24% incidence of multiple cranial nerve
palsies in patients with MOE.
Unusual presentation of MOE include involvement of temporomandibular joint and destruction of condyle of mandible
as suggested by Ebenezer et al.13 Squamous cell carcinoma
and MOE have the clinical features in common. None of our
patients in this study had malignancy. Biopsy of the granulation tissue in such cases is mandatory to rule out malignancy.
Sometimes malignancy and MOE may coexist making the
diagnosis more dificult.14,15
Treatment mainly is medical with antipseudomonal antibiotics like louroquinolones and surgical debridement is needed
in extensive disease.16 Third generation cephalosporins were
also found to be useful in controlling infection. Daily debridement and topical application of acetic acid drops helps
in ighting the infection. Therefore, ear swabs are essential
to guide the choice of antimicrobial therapy and should ideally be taken prior to commencing antibiotics, either topical
or systemic. Cranial nerve palsies increase the mortality and
morbidity. The infection of the external ear is rare which
may probably explain the less number of cases found in this
56
study. Hence, a multicentre large group study is warranted to
establish the association of clinical features and risk factors
of MOE.
CONCLUSION
Diabetes mellitus was the major risk factor observed in this
study with clinical presentation of ear infection and ear discharge. Clinical suspicion can help in early diagnosis and
prompt management thus helping in reducing the mortality
and morbidity associated with this disease. A strict control
of diabetes and ear swabs culture should be ensured in all
patients with clinical presentation of MOE.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the valuable help of Dr. Ajith TA, Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Amala Institute of Medical
Sciences; Thrissur, Kerala, India during the preparation of
this manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Carney AS. Scott-Brown’s Otorhinolaryngology. 7th ed.
Arnold MGH, editor. CRC press, United States. 2008; 3:
pp. 3337.
2. Lucente FE, Parisier SC, Som PM, Arnold LM. Malignant external otitis: a dangerous misnomer? Otolaryngology –Head and Neck Surgery. 1982; 90: 266–269.
3. Karaman E, Yilmaz M, Ibrahimov M, Haciyev Y, Enver O. Malignant otitis externa. J Craniofac Surg.
2012;23:1748-1751.
4. Chandler JR. Malignant external otitis. Laryngoscope.1968; 78: 1257–1294.
5. Babiatzki A, Sade J. Malignant external otitis. J Laryngol Otolo. 1987; 101: 205–210.
6. Slattery 3rd WH, Brackmann DE. Skull-base osteomyelitis. Malignant external otitis. Otolaryngol Clin North
Am. 1996; 29: 795–806.
7. Grandis JR, Curtin HD, Yu VL. Necrotizing (malignant)
external otitis: prospective comparison of CT and MR
imaging in diagnosis and follow-up. Radiol. 1995; 196:
499–504.
8. Rubin J, Yu VL. Malignant external otitis: insights into
pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and
therapy. Am J Med. 1988; 85: 391–398.
9. Mani N, Sudhoff H, Rajagopal S, Moffat D, Axon
PR.Cranial nerve involvement in malignant otitis externa. Laryngoscope. 2007; 117:907-910.
10. Grandis JR, Branstetter BFIV, Yu VL. The changing face
of malignant (necrotising) external otitis: clinical, radiological, and anatomic correlations. Lancet Infect Dis.
2004; 4: 34–39.
11. Marzo SJ, Leonetti JP Invasive fungal and bacterial
infections of the temporal bone. Laryngoscope. 2003
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
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12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Clinical presentations of malignant otitis externa
1;13:1503–1507.
lling E, Olaleye O. Malignant Otitis Externa: A review
of aetiology, presentation, Investigations and current
management strategies. Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;2:1-6.
Ebenezer R, Khan F, Nair S, Sajilal M. Malignant otitis
externa: An unusual presentation. Indian J Otol. 2001;
17: 127-129.
Mattucci KF, Setzen M, Galantich P. Necrotizing otitis
externa occurring concurrently with epidermoid carcinoma. Laryngoscope 1986; 96: 264–266.
Grandis JR, Hirsch BE, Yu VL. Simultaneous presentation of malignant external otitis and temporal bone
cancer. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1993; 119:
687–689.
Al-otaibi A, Al-qahtani BM, Al-dhawi Z. Unexpected
cause of malignant otitis externa: A rare case report. Indian J Otol 2011;17:165-166.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 10-11-2015; Published online: 28-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
57
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Evaluation of Fractures of Distal Radius Treated with Joshi’s
External Stabilization System and Plaster Cast Application
Narendra Singh Kushwaha1, Kumar Shantanu1, Sudhir Shyam Kushwaha2 Dharmendra Kumar1,
Shailendra Singh1, Nitin Manral3, Arun Mishra3, Vineet Sharma4
distal radial fractureS treated by POP cast and closed reduction and external ixation by JESS.
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Pattern of distal radius fractures varies from
very simple extra articular to complex intra articular fracture
and it has been treated by different methods varying from
closed reduction with plaster to open reduction with internal
ixation leading to variable prognosis. This study was done to
assess functional and radiological outcome of JESS application and plaster cast in treatment of distal radius fracture.
Materials and methods: 56 patients of distal radius of AO
type A, B and C were included in this study. Out of which 19
patients were treated with closed reduction by ligamentotaxis
with JESS application and others with closed reduction and
above elbow pop cast applied under image intensiier. Follow
up was done at 3,6,12 and 20 weeks and functional scoring
was done using modiied Gartland and Werley Score. Data
was statistically analyzed using SPSS version 17.
Results: Functional scoring in ixator group was 93.42±6.62
and in plaster group was 88.64±6.78 (p=.01). At 12 weeks
radial length 12.05±-4.30mm in ixator group as compare to
plaster group was 9.11±3.52 mm was statistically signiicant
(p =.004). Ulnar variance in ixator group was -0.37±-1.81
as compare to plaster group having 0.56±1.81 (p=.04) found
signiicant deference. Supericial pin tract infection (4 cases)
and loosening of pin (2 cases) found in 2 patients. Stiffness of
ingers was common complication in plaster group.
Conclusion: To maintain radial length and ulnar variance
JESS is a cost effective technique in treatment of distal radial
fracture as compare to plaster cast.
Keyword: Distal radius fracture, JESS application, Radial
length.
This study was carried in department of Orthopaedics, King
George’s Medical University, Lucknow from June 2012 to
May 2014.We enrolled 56 closed distal radius fracture AO
type A, B and C in age group of more than 18 years. Patient were excluded if they had open fracture, poly trauma
patients, infection and prior surgery. Importance and relevance of study was explained to all patients. Those who
were willing to participate were included in study. Study was
approved by ethical committee. Out of 56, 19 patients had
given consent for surgery and treated with closed reduction
by ligamentotaxis and application of JESS under brachial
plexus block/general anaesthesia by putting two Schanz pins
in radius and base of 1st metacarpal and connected with rod.
Rest of all (37patients) were treated with closed reduction
by ligamentotaxis and above elbow POP cast under fracture
hematoma block under image intensiier.
Post operative and post reduction X- ray of wrist- Antero-posterior, Lateral views were done to assess the fracture
reduction. Post operative i.v. antibiotics given for 3 days and
oral antibiotics for 5 days. Further follow up done at 3, 6, 12
and 20 weeks. Post operatively limb kept elevated and active and passive inger movement allowed. Fixator and POP
cast was kept for 6-8 weeks according to callus formation.
Assessment was done objectively, radiologically and for any
complication. Objective assessment included clinical and
physical examination of affected limb along with range of
movement. Radiologically we assessed Radial length, Radial
Assistant Professor, 2Senior Resident, 3JR-2, 4Professor & Head,
Department of Orthopaedics, King George Medical University,
Lucknow, India.
1
INTRODUCTION
Distal radius fracture is a common fracture in upper extremity1,2 and treatment modalities for this fracture have evolved
over a long period of time from pop cast, k wire ixation, external ixation and open reduction internal ixation by plates.
Most of the fractures have been treated with close reduction
and POP cast. Although it is a simple mode of treatment but
leads to loss of reduction and residual deformity.3 External
ixation of these fractures is required to maintain the reduction.4,5 JESS is a kind of external ixator and has been used
for other fractures and it is easy to apply, cost effective, less
cumbersome.6,7 Basic principle used in external ixator is ligamentotaxis.8,9 This study was done to evaluate the results of
58
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Corresponding author: Narendra Singh Kushwaha, Assistant Professor, Department of Orthopaedics, King George Medical University, Lucknow, India
How to cite this article: Narendra Singh Kushwaha, Kumar Shantanu, Sudhir Shyam Kushwaha Dharmendra Kumar, Shailendra
Singh, Nitin Manral, Arun Mishra, Vineet Sharma. Evaluation of
fractures of distal radius treated with joshi’s external stabilization
system and plaster cast application. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):58-61.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kushwaha et al.
Evaluation of Fractures of Distal Radius
angle, Volar tilt and Ulnar varience in both groups. The functional outcome score measured on the criteria of modiied
Gartland and Werley Score10 at last follow up and compared
with that of unaffected side. Data were analysed using statistically using SPSS version 17.
RESULTS
Most of the patients in both Fixator (52.6%) and Conservative (37.8%) groups were below 40 years. The mean age of
the patients of Fixator group was 33.05 (±8.47) years and
36.65 (±13.01) years in Conservative group. Majority of the
patients in both Fixator (78.9%) and Conservative groups
were males (75.7%) and the difference was statistically insigniicant (p>0.05). The most common cause of fracture
Gender
Groups
Fixator
(n=19)
A
B
C
Conservative
(n=37)
No.
%
No.
%
6
31.6
22
59.5
1
5.3
3
8.1
12
63.2
12
32.4
Table-1: Distribution of patients by AO classiication
Groups
Fixator
Conserva(n=19)
tive
(n=37)
93.42±6.62
88.64±6.78
p-value1
Functional scoring
0.01*
Range of movement
Extension
87.28±9.95
81.85±6.86
0.02*
Flexion
76.13±10.84 76.82±6.78
0.70
Pronation
82.70±2.08
80.13±4.82
0.03*
Supination
84.05±1.68
82.64±1.65
0.004*
1
Unpaired t-test, *Signiicant between the groups
Table-2: Comparison of patients by functional scoring and
range of movement
RL
RI
RT
UV
Groups
p-value
Fixator
Conservative
(n=19)
(n=37)
6.05±6.79
7.76±4.23
0.25
16.47±8.89
19.95±7.89
0.14
-6.37±20.80
-0.19±16.74
0.23
3.42±2.41
1.54±2.91
0.03*
Table-3: Pre-operative comparisons of parameters
1
distal end radius in our study is Road trafic accidents. Distribution of patients by AO classiication is shown in Table
1 and it shows all three type of fracture were treated in both
groups
The comparison of patients by functional scoring and range
of movement is shown in the Table-2.The patient managed
surgically were having better functional outcome and better
range of motion and the difference was signiicant except for
lexion at wrist joint which was slightly better in conservative group but the difference was not signiicant.
The pre-operative comparison of parameters is presented in
the Table-3. There was no signiicant (p>0.05) difference in
RL(radial length), RI(radial inclination) and RT (radial tilt)
between Fixator and Conservative groups in pre-operative.
However, UV(ulnar variance) was signiicantly (p=0.03)
higher among the patients of Fixator (3.42±2.41) than Conservative (1.54±2.91).
The post-operative comparison of parameters is shown in the
Table-4. The change from normal side to the post op level shows that attainment of normal radial length in surgical
group is much more signiicant. The collapse in surgical
group occurs at late three and six months follow up and that
too to minor levels. The collapse in conservative group is
more signiicant at each level of follow up.
At inal follow up RL and UV was signiicantly better in patients treated surgically. is presented in the Table-4/Figure-1.
The most common complication in conservative series was
inger stiffness. Supericial pin-tract infection occurred in 4
(10.5%) patients in group B, but was resolved with oral antibiotics. Loss of reduced position occurred in 10 patients with
POP cast within the irst 3 weeks of injury, while there were
only 2 cases of loss of reduced position in the other group.
Relex sympathetic dystrophy developed in 1 case of group
A and none of group B.
DISCUSSIONS
There was a predilection of involvement of dominant side in
our study group. Most of patients were <40 yrs of age, which
is socially productive group and hence need utmost attention
for better functional outcome. In our study road trafic accidents were the most common cause of fracture in our study
followed by slip on ground. We found that most of the patients in both Fixator (78.0%) and Conservative groups were
males (75.7%) this can be due to the difference in life style
as males are more exposed to outdoor activities. Majority of
Groups at post operative
p-value1
Groups at 12 week follow up
Fixator (n=19)
Conservative (n=37)
Fixator (n=19)
Conservative (n=37)
RL
14.42±3.59
12.78±1.98
0.02*
12.05±4.30
9.11±3.52
RI
25.63±8.00
26.11±4.47
0.77
24.63±8.58
21.35±6.45
RT
5.21±11.01
7.73±5.46
0.25
1.37±6.30
2.76±5.14
UV
-1.63±1.30
-0.76±1.48
0.03*
-0.37±1.81
0.56±1.82
1
Unpaired t-test, *Signiicant between the groups
Table-4: The comparison of parameters at immediate postoperative and 12 weeks postoperative
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
P value
0.004*
0.11
0.38
0.04*
59
Kushwaha et al.
Evaluation of Fractures of Distal Radius
Figure-1: Shows pre-operative, post-operative and 12 weeks
post-operative X-ray showing maintainance of radial length and
ulnar varience in ixator group.
Our study had shown better functional outcome in the patients treated by external ixator as the study by T.A. Clyburn11 et al. He claimed that external ixator maintained
reduction and allowed early functional range of motion of
wrist in comminuted radial fracture in 29 patients.
On radiological follow-up the study shows that the Surgical procedure maintains radial length more effectively than
POP cast and also retains it till the union better than POP
cast and it is supported by N.H. Jenkins12 et al, they treated
58 patients aged less than 60 years with Colles' fracture, either by a forearm plaster or by the application of an external
ixation. The external ixator proved more effective at holding the manipulated position as compared to patients treated
with plaster.
We used scoring system by the Gartland and werley and after evaluation we got 68.4% excellent,15.8% good 15.8%
fair results and the conservative group had 21.6% excellent,56.8% good 16.2% fair and 5.4 %poor results and similarly Joosten U13 et al evaluated 174 patients with severely
displaced intraarticular fracture treated with bridging external ixator. After evaluating with Gartland and Werley score,
they obtained 29.3% excellent, 42.5% good, 10.3% fair and
2.9% poor results.
Radiologically, the patient with surgical treatment were having better attainment of radial length till the union but difference in the dorsal tilt and radial inclination was insigniicant
in the conservative group and similar results were obtained
in various studies14,15,16,17
The complications of the surgical method includes mainly
pin tract infection and inger stiffness especially index inger
similar to the study by Chan BK et al18 who used AO external
ixator in 30 patients with intra articular fractures of distal
radius. After 90.2 weeks of evaluation they found excellent
to good result in 65% of cases, but also some complication
mainly ingers stiffness, pin tract infection and even loss of
reduction.
CONCLUSION
External ixation is a more effective method for the treatment
of fractures of the distal radius in term of maintaining radial
length, prevent collapse with few complication like supericial pin-tract infection, pin loosening than treated with above
elbow plaster of paris. Radial tilt and radial inclination and
variance correction were attained by both modes of treatment but due to more collapse in the conservative group, loss
of correction was more.
Figure-2: Showing range of movement at wrist joint after 3 months
of JESS application
patients of the ixator were having comminuted fracture of
AO type C and majority of patients of AO type A of fracture
were treated by conservative method i.e.reduction setting
and above elbow pop application.
60
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Kapoor H, Agarwal A, Dhaon BK. Displaced intra-articular fractures of distal radius: a comparative evaluation of results following closed reduction, external ixation and open reduction with internal ixation. Injury.
2000 Mar;31:75-9.
Kreder HJ, Agel J, McKee MD, Schemitsch EH, Stephen D, Hanel DP. A randomized, controlled trial of distal radius fractures with metaphyseal displacement but
without joint incongruity: closed reduction and casting
versus closed reduction, spanning external ixation, and
optional percutaneous K-wires. J Orthop Trauma.2006
Feb;20:115-21
Ismatullah. Eficacy of Plaster Casting Versus External Fixation in Comminuted Distal Radius Fractures. J
Postgrad Med Inst 2012; 26: 311-6.
Evaluation of Fractures of Distal Radius
18. Chan BK1, Leong LC, Low CO, See HF. The use of
the external ixator in the treatment of intra-articular
fractures of the distal radius. Singapore Med J. 1999
Jun;40:420-4.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 13-11-2015; Published online: 28-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
61
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Double Blind Placebo Controlled Study to Compare the Eficacy
of Esmolol and Diltiazem in Attenuation of Pressor Response
Due to Laryngoscopy and Endotracheal Intubation in Controlled
Hypertensive Surgical Patients
Syed Tariq Bukhari1, Mohammad A Shah2, Gazi P Ahmad Chiken3, Yasir Bashir4, Suhail A Shah5,
Humariya Heena6, Abdul W Mir2, Suhail Sidiq2, Nusrat Bashir7
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Pressor response in the form of tachycardia and hypertension are well documented sequels
of laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation which is
transient, highly variable and is generally well tolerated in healthy patients. In hypertensive patients this response is exaggerated. The aim of this study is to ind a
better alternative by comparing esmolol and diltiazem
to attenuate the pressor response to laryngoscopy and
intubation.
Material and Methods: One hundred ifty hypertensive patients of either sex (ASA II), controlled on antihypertensive medications in 40-60 Year age range
scheduled for routine surgical procedures were divided
into 3 groups: Group A (10 ml of 5 % Dextrose), Group
B (Esmolol 1.5 mg/Kg) and Group C (Diltiazem 0.2
mg/Kg). Heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic
blood pressure, mean arterial blood pressure and rate
pressure product were noted at baseline level, at 1 min.,
3min. and 5min after tracheal intubation.
Results: When compared to control both esmolol and
diltiazem showed a statistically signiicant attenuation
of rise in systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial blood pressure and rate pressure
product. However Diltiazem failed to reduce rise in
heart rate.
Conclusion: Esmolol was found to be a better agent in
attenuating the pressor response to laryngoscopy and intubation in these patients.
Keywords: pressor response, diltiazem, esmolol, intubation,
laryngoscopy
INTRODUCTION
There are many techniques and drugs which have been used
for blunting the hemodynamic response to laryngoscopy and
intubation. An important factor inluencing cardiovascular
response to tracheal intubation is age and the cardiovascular
response to laryngoscopy and intubation is exaggerated in
hypertensive patients.1 The proposed mechanisms responsi-
62
ble for exaggerated hemodynamic changes. Arterial lumen
narrowing, blunted baro relex response and increased sympathetic activity.2
Various medications like Calcium channel blockers have
been used because myocardial depression produced is minimized by reduction in afterload so that cardiac output remains unchanged, but they have no effect on observed tachycardia.3,4 Beta adrenoreceptor blockade minimizes increase
in heart rate and myocardial contractility by attenuating the
positive chronotropic and ionotropic effects of increased adrenergic activity.1,5-6 The study was carried out in a Teritiary
Care Medical Facility and the aim was to ind a better alternative by comparision between Esmolol and Diltiazem to attenuate the pressor response to laryngoscopy and intubation:
the response being more so in hypertensive patients.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
One hundred ifty hypertensive patients of either sex with
(American Society of Anesthesiologists Physical Status
Classiication System) ASA II, controlled on antihypertensive drugs, between age range of 40-60 years scheduled for
routine surgical procedures under general anesthesia (Open
and Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy, Hydated Cystectomy,
Assistant Professor, G.B Pant Hospital Srinagar, 2Assistant Professor, 4Senior Resident, Department of Critical Care medicine, 7Senior Resident, Department of Hematology, Sheri-kashmir Institute of
Medical Sciences, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India, 3Assistant
Consultant, Anesthesiology, 5Assistant Consultant, Critical care,
6
Clinical Research Specialist Research Centre, King Fahad Medical City, Riyadh, KSA
1
Corresponding author: Nusrat Bashir, Senior Resident, Department of Hematology, Sheri-kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences,
Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
How to cite this article: Syed Tariq Bukhari, Mohammad A Shah,
Gazi P Ahmad Chiken, Yasir Bashir, Suhail A Shah, Humariya Heena, Abdul W Mir, Suhail Sidiq, Nusrat Bashir. Double blind placebo
controlled study to compare the eficacy of esmolol and diltiazem in
attenuation of pressor response due to laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation in controlled hypertensive surgical patients. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):62-65.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Bukhari et al.
Common Bile Duct Exploration, AbdominoPerineal Resection, Thyroidectomy, Mastectomy, Exploratory Laparotomy
for Carcinomas of Gut and Pancreas, interval Appendicectomy, Hernioplasty) were enrolled in our study. After proper
approval from Institutional Review Board & Ethics Committee an informed consent to participate in the study was taken from all the patients. Patients on treatment with calcium
channel blocker or β-blockers, history of bronchial asthma;
history of cardiac disease; uncontrolled hypertension; History of allergy to any of the study drugs and patients with
predicted dificult intubation were excluded. After taking
informed consent, the patients were prepared by overnight
fasting and sedation with Alprazolam 0.5 mg given orally at
bedtime on the night before surgery.
Patients were continued on antihypertensive therapy till the
morning of surgery and three hours before the expected time
of surgery every patient was given Alprazolam 0.5 mg with
water. The patients were divided into three groups of 50 patients each randomly by simple randomization.
Group A: Comprised of 50 patients who received 10 ml of
5 % dextrose water following intravenous induction. This
served as a control group for the present study.
Group B: Comprised of 50 patients who received Injection
Esmolol 1.5 mg/kg diluted in 10 ml of 5% dextrose water
following intravenous induction.
Group C: Comprised of 50 patients who received Injection
Diltiazem 0.2 mg/kg diluted in 10 ml of 5 % dextrose water
following intravenous induction.
Just before administration of any drugs, parameters, i.e.,
heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure,
mean arterial blood pressure and rate pressure product were
noted.In all the patients standardized anaesthesia technique
was used. Pre-oxygenation was done in all patients for three
minutes, followed by Sodium Thiopentone (5 mg/kg of 2.5 %
solution) intravenously until loss of eyelash relex followed
by administration of study drug. Succinylcholine 1.5mg/kg
was used to facilitate endotracheal intubation and 90 seconds after administration of Succinylcholine, intubation was
performed. Patients in whom more than one attempt of laryngoscopy was required and total duration of laryngoscopy
exceeded 30 seconds were excluded from the study. The position of endotracheal tube was conirmed and, anaesthesia
was maintained using nitrous oxide and oxygen with volatile anaesthetic agent (Isolurane 0.2 %) delivered through
closed circuit. Bolus dose of Atracurium besylate 0.5 mg / kg
intravenous initially for muscle relaxation followed by top
up doses to maintain muscle relaxation was used. The residual effect of muscle relaxant was reversed with Neostigmine
(2.5 mg) and glycopyrrolate (0.5 mg) at the end of the surgery. After full clinical recovery was achieved and after thorough Oropharyngeal suctioning extubation of trachea was
done. Thereafter, patients were shifted to recovery room.
The study period extended from the induction of anaesthesia to ive minutes after intubation. Surgical stimulas was
not allowed during study period. Heart rate, Systolic blood
Attenuation of Pressor response in hypertensive patients
pressure, Diastolic blood pressure, Mean blood pressure and
Rate pressure product (systolic blood pressure x heart rate)
were noted at baseline level, after giving study drug, immediately after laryngoscopy and intubation, at 1 minute, 3
minutes and 5 minutes after the tracheal intubation.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All parameters of the study were statistically evaluated by
using student’s t-test and chi-square test. Power of study and
sample size was estimated assuming any p-value less than
0.05 i.e. (p < 0.05) was going to be statistically signiicant.
RESULTS
There was no statistically signiicant difference between the
groups with respect to age and sex (table 1). Baseline heart
rates in the three groups and changes in their levels soon after
laryngoscopy and intubation was observed and tabulated in
(table 2) in all the three groups. In groups A,B and C respectively showing a highly statistical difference on comparison.
The rise was signiicantly attenuated in the Esmolol group.
Thereafter when Group C and A were compared, the heart
rate in both the groups showed increase after intubation, that
was statistically signiicant (p < 0.05) and it persisted upto 5
ive minute after intubation. However the rise in heart rate
was statistically more signiicant in Group A when compared
with Group C. When heart rate in Group B and Group C
were compared, the rise in heart rate was attenuated in Group
B while in Group C there was signiicant (p < 0.05) rise in
the heart rate.
The systolic blood pressure at baseline was 126.50 + 6.95 in
Group A. A statistically signiicant rise in systolic blood pressure soon after laryngoscopy and intubation 161.64 + 16.64
and the increase in systolic blood pressure remained statistically signiicant till 5 minutes after intubation. The systolic
blood pressure (table 3) at baseline were 128.77 + 9.59 and
132.04 + 10.80 in Group B and C. The drug B and C successfully attenuated any rise in systolic blood pressure soon after
laryngoscopy and intubation 124.76 + 10.24 and128.84 +
14.19 and continued to do so upto 5 min after the intubation
124.94 + 8.36 and 130.98 + 10.63 respectively.
Soon after laryngoscopy and intubation diastolic blood pressure (table 4) in Group A showed statistically signiicant rise
from baseline 77.78 + 5.03 to 105.60 + 18.08 and remained
statistically signiicantly high upto ive minutes after intubation 88.52 + 8.26. In Group C the diastolic blood pressure
showed a fall from baseline 80.55 + 8.27 to 71.00 + 7.82
at 3 minutes after intubation. Soon after laryngoscopy and
Groups
Gender female (%) Age (yo) Mean +SD
Group A n = 50
33 (66%)
52.12+13.75
Group B n = 50
39 (78%)
51.72+14.74
Group C n = 50
36 (72%)
49.74+13.97
Table-1: Distribution of gender and age among groups.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
63
Bukhari et al.
Attenuation of Pressor response in hypertensive patients
Groups
Basal
Group A
Mean + SD
Group B
Mean + SD
Group C
Mean + SD
88.62+10.03
After study
drug
88.08+12.72
Laryngoscopy
& intubation
118.24+14.45
1 min after
intubation
112.52+14.45
3 min after
intubation
104.68+17.83
5 min after
intubation
99.04+3.73
92.77+13.36
88.96+12.51
92.0+13.071
89.48+13.00
88.84+15.38
84.90+11.89
92.08+13.808
97.24+15.32
100.94+13.69
102.94+13.691
102.94+14.21
103.57 +13.04
Table-2: Comparison of heart rates between the groups A, B and C
Groups
Basal
Group A
Mean + SD
Group B
Mean + SD
Group C
Mean + SD
126.50+6.95
After study
drug
123.34+8.49
Laryngoscopy
& intubation
161.64 +16.64
1 min after
intubation
145.12+23.08
3 min after
intubation
139.10+12.45
5 min after
intubation
133.52+10.03
128.77+9.59
125.28+12.86
124.76+10.24
125.86+12.17
125.45+10.05
124.96+8.39
132.04+10.80
129.94+11.79
128.84+14.19
129.95+10.15
130.74+10.21
130.98+10.63
Table-3: Comparison of Systolic Blood Pressure between the groups A, B and C
Groups
Basal
Group A
Mean + SD
Group B
Mean + SD
Group C
Mean + SD
77.78+5.03
After study
drug
78.84+6.50
Laryngoscopy
& intubation
105.60 +18.08
1 min after
intubation
100.90+10.71
3 min after
intubation
93.18+9.58
5 min after
intubation
88.52+8.26
81.28+7.61
79.82 +8.20
80.44+9.79
79.90+7.67
78.35+9.56
80.75+8.27
80.55+8.27
76.51+8.77
74.28 +9.68
74.28+9.68
71.00+7.82
74.82+9.11
Table-4: Comparison of Diastolic Blood Pressure between the groups A, B and C.
intubation the diastolic blood pressure in Group C was 76.67
+ 9.82. In Group B diastolic blood pressure insigniicantly
changed from baseline 81.28 + 7.61. The diastolic blood
pressure was 80.44 + 9.79 soon after laryngoscopy and intubation and 80.75 +8.27 at 5 minute after intubation.
In Group A Rate pressure product rose from baseline, peaking at laryngoscopy and intubation 18966.66 + 3032.22 and
at 5 minutes after laryngoscopy and intubation 13202.04 +
2043.80. In Group C when rate pressure product was compared at different intervals with baseline 12235.22 + 2258.24,
there was insigniicant (p > 0.05) difference at laryngoscopy
and intubation 12508.28 + 2982.23 and at 5 minutes after
intubation 12318.86 + 1678.84. In Group B rate pressure
product when compared at different interval with baseline
12027.06 + 2271.43, there was insigniicant (P>0.05) difference at different intervals at laryngoscopy and intubation
12521.35 + 2003.04 and at 5 minutes after laryngoscopy and
intubation 11824.51 + 1786.00
DISCUSSION
Laryngoscopy and endotracheal intubation are documented cause of tachycardia and hypertension.1,7 Cardiovascular
response to laryngoscopy and intubation is exaggerated in
hypertensive patients.1 Major determinant of myocardial
oxygen consumption is heart rate and there is an increasing
evidence that tachycardia is poorly tolerated in patients with
coronary artery disease. There is an increased incidence of
64
myocardial ischemia when intra operative heart rates exceed
110/min.8,9
After intubation in Group B (Esmolol group) there was signiicant attenuation in rise of heart rate, systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure and rate
pressure product as compared to base line values. These indings are consistent with the result of Miller et al.10 Esmolol
is a cardio selective beta blocker with ultra short duration of
action and has been indicated for the treatment of tachycardia and hypertension during tracheal intubation.11 In the Esmolol group we observed that the increase in heart rate after
laryngoscopy and intubation were signiicantly attenuated
and remained throughout the study period. Multiple studies
have shown similar results.8,12,13
In Group C (Diltiazem group) after laryngoscopy and intubation there was a signiicant rise in heart rate in and remained so throughout study period when compared with the
control group.14,15 A signiicant attenuation by group was
seen on comparison of Esmolol and Diltiazem and a similar
study by Kumar Santoshet al also concluded with the same
results.13
Systolic blood pressure rose signiicantly in the control
group following laryngoscopy and intubation and remained
high thereafter for ive minutes following intubation. Esmolol and Diltiazem successfully attenuated the rise in SBP and
on comparison showed a statistically signiicant difference
with the control group. These indings were similar to those
of the Mikawaand Fuji.15-16
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Bukhari et al.
Similarly diastolic blood pressure showed a signiicant rise
during laryngoscopy and intubation in group A and persisted
upto 5 min. as compared to group B and C when diastolic blood pressure and mean arterial pressure were observed
during study period. The rise in diastolic blood pressure was
attenuated in Group B while in Group C the diastolic blood
pressure showed falling pattern from administration of drug
till 3 minutes and then again, at 5 minutes the diastolic blood
pressure showed a rise on comparing Group B and C.In the
control group mean arterial pressure rose and persisted for
5 min but both Group B and C attenuated the rise in MAP,
more eficiently by Esmolol Group.
Rate pressure product is calculated by multiplying systolic blood pressure with heart rate and is good estimate of
myocardial oxygen requirement.17 Signiicant (p < 0.05)
rise from baseline, peaking at laryngoscopy and intubation
18966.66 (+ 3032.22) and at 5 minutes after laryngoscopy
and intubation 13202.04 (+ 2043.80) was seen in Group A.
When comparing rate pressure product between Group B
and Group C, there seemed to have signiicant differences at
respective time intervals, but in both groups the rise in rate
pressure product is insigniicant.
Menkhaus and Miller also concluded that esmolol is effective in controlling systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressure following laryngoscopy and intubation.10,18,19 Findings
in Group C (Diltiazem group) showed signiicant attenuation
in rise in systolic, diastolic and mean arterial pressure when
compared with base line. These are consistent with the indings of the Mikawaand Fuji.15,16
On comparing the changes in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure and rate pressure product after
intubation between Group B (Esmolol) and Group C (Diltiazem) it was found that esmolol attenuated the rise in above
mentioned parameters better. These indings are consistent
with the indings of Kumar Santoshet al.13
CONCLUSION
The esmolol had better attenuating effect of pressor response
when compared with diltiazemin the form of alterations in
heart rate, systolic blood pressure and rate pressure product
when compared between the two study groups. Diltiazem
does not prevent rise in the heart rate observed during laryngoscopy and intubation. Hence, esmolol proved to be very
effective agent in attenuating the pressor response of laryngoscopy and intubation in controlled hypertensive patients.
Attenuation of Pressor response in hypertensive patients
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
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PrysRC,Foex P, Biro et al. Studies of anaesthesia in
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Ishikawa T, Nishino T, Hiraga K. Immediate response to
arterial blood pressure and heart rate to sudden inhalation of high concentration of isolurane in normotensive
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Nishi Kawa K, Omote K, Kawane S. A comparison of
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Puri GB, Batra YK. Effects of niidipine on cardiovascular response to laryngoscopy and intubation. Br J
Anaesth 1988; 60:579-581.
Korpinen R, Saarniraara L, Siren K. Modiication of
haemodynamic responses to induction of anaesthesia
and tracheal intubation with alfentanil, esmolol and
their combination. Can J Anaesth 1995; 42: 298-304.
Yates AP, Hunter DN. Anaesthesia and angiotensin
converting enzyme inhibitors. The effects of enalapril
on per operative cardiovascular stability. Anaesthesia
1988; 43: 935-938.
King BD, Harris LC, Grafenstein FE. Relex circulatory
response to direct laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation
performed during general anaesthesia. Anaesthesiology
1951; 12: 556-566.
Shroff PP, Mohit SN, Panchal LD. Bolus administration
of esmolol in controlling the hemodynamic response to
tracheal intubation. J AnaesthClinPharmacol 2004; 20:
69-72.
Slogoff S, Keats AS. Randomized trial of primary anesthetic agent on outcome of coronary artery by pass
operation. Anesthesiology 1989; 70: 179-188.
Miller DR, Marineau RJ. Esmolol for control of haemodynamic response during anaesthetic induction. Can J
Anaesth 1989; 36:164-165.
Coleman AJ, Jordan C. Cardiovascular response to anaesthesia. Inluence of beta adrenoceptro blockade with
metaprolol. Anaesthesia 1980; 35:972-978.
Sheppard S, Eagle CJ, Strunin L. A bolus dose of esmolol attenuates tachycardia and hypertension after tracheal intubation. Can J Anaesth 1990; 37:202-205.
Kumar S, Mishra MN, Bathla S. Comparative study
of the eficacy of i.v.esmololdiltiazem and magnesium
sulphate in attenuating the haemodynamic response to
laryngoscopy and tracheal intubation. Ind J Anaesth
2003; 47: 41-44.
Hasegawa J, Mitshuhata H, Mat sumotiet al. Attenuation of cardiovascular response to laryngoscopy and
tracheal intubation with bolus injection of diltiazem.
Masaui 1992; 41:356-362.
Mikawa K, Ikegaki J, Goto et al. Effect of diltiazem on
cardiovascular response to tracheal intubation. Anaesthesia 1990; 45:289-293.
Fujii Y, Tanaka H, Toyooka H. Circulatory response
to laryngeal mask airway insertion or tracheal intubation in normotesnive and hypertensive patients. Can J
Anaesth 1995; 42:32-369.
Sarnoff SJ, Braunwald E, Welch et al. Haemodynamic
determinants of oxygen consumption of heart with special reference to tension time index. Am J Physiol 1985;
192:148-156.
Menkhaus PG, Reves JG, Kissinelger et al. Cardiovascular effects of Esmolol in anesthetized humans. AnesthAnalg 1985; 64:327-334.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 13-11-2015; Published online: 28-11-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
65
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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The Relationship Between the Intent to Stay and the Organizational
Commitment of Visiting Nurse in Japan
Kazuya Ikenishi1, Keiichi Uranaka2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Many studies related on the relationship between nurse turnover and their organizational commitment
had been conducted. However, it appeared to be no studies
related on the relationship between organizational commitment and intent to stay on visiting nurse. This study aimed to
explicit the relationship on visiting nurse.
Materials and Methods: This survey targeted public health
nurse and nurse, assistant nurse worked as visitng nurse in two
prefectures at Tokai area in Japan. Investigation items were
age and cumulative years of nursing service, years of service
for their current workplace, the presence of intent to stay, organizational commitment scale. This analysis used Wilcoxon
signed-rank test and multiple logistic regression.
Results: 192 visiting nurses were analyzed. In the result of the mutlivariate analysis, OC and age were clariied
signiicant variables. The odds ratio of age and OC were
0.9030(p=0.0030), 1.0690(p=0.0004) respectively.
Conclusions: The intent of stay of visiting nurses in cuurent
their workplace at 2 prefectures in Japan was signiicantly related with age and OC of them.
Key words: Visiting Nurses, Nurse Administrators, Nursing
Staff, Turnover, Retention, Organizational Commitment, Multiple Logistic Regression
INTRODUCTION
Many studies related on the relationship between nurse turnover and their organizational commitment had been conducted. Most of these suggested a signiicant relevance. However, it seemed that subjects in these studies were not visitng
nurses but ones working in hospital.1-5
In Japan, a turnover rate in visiting nurse was higher than
hospital nurse. Additionally, in a ratio of shortage of nurse
to demand of one, the estimated ratio on visiting nurse were
also higher than hospital one was reported.6
On the other hand, there appeared to be no studies related on
a relationship between organizational commitment and intent to stay on visiting nurse. Thereupon, this study aimed to
explicit the relationship on visiting nurse.
This study focused on female nurse with their children. The
reason was that it was said that some of them choosed visiting nurse due to not being able to work a night shift job
leaving their children at home.7
66
In such situation, it was thought that a disclosing the ralationship the presence of intent to stay of female nurse with
their children and their organizational commitment gave
any suggestions for promotion of nurse retention to visiting
nurse administrators.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subejects: This survey targeted public health nurse and
nurse, assistant nurse worked as visitng nurse in two prefectures at Tokai area in Japan. The inclusion criteria in this
study was female nurses with their children, and nursing aide
was excluded from subjects of it.
Variables: Investigation items were age and cumulative
years of nursing service, years of service for their current
workplace (visiting nurse station), the presence of intent to
stay (intent to stay / intent to leaving or undecited), organizational commitment scale. The organizational commitment
questionnaire (24 items, 4 Likert scale) was developed by
MeyerandAllen8-10, evaluates one's psychological connection
with workplace organization. This scale consistes of Affective Commitment and Continuance Commitment, Normative
Commitment that had 8 questions with 4 point (0 - 3) Likert
respectively. The score of organizational commitment questionnaire (OC) ranges from 0 to 72. The higher the score, the
stronger a his/her commitment to current workplace implies.
Acceptances of copyrights' owner and the Japanese language
version of this scale for use it were recdeived before the investigation.
Age and cumulative years of nursing service, years of service for their current workplace were variables adjusting
confounding factor in this analysis. The investigation period
were from September 2014 to December 2014. The research
was approved by Aichi kiwami college of nursing research
ethical committee (Aichi kiwami college of nursing, No
Lecturer, School of Nursing, Aichi kiwami College of Nursing,
Nurse, Department of Nursing, Kohnodai Hospital, National
Center for Global Health and Medicine, Japan
1
2
Corresponding author: Kazuya Ikenishi, School of Nursing,
Aichi Kiwami College of Nursing, Japan, 5-4-1, Jogan-Dori, Ichinomiya City, Aichi Prefecture
How to cite this article: Kazuya Ikenishi, Keiichi Uranaka. The
relationship between the intent to stay and the organizational commitment of visiting nurse in Japan. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):66-68.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Ikenishi et al.
Relationship Between the Intent to Stay and the Organizational Commitment
8 - 2014). The questionnaire and the written request were
mailed to subjects. Return of the completed questionnaire
was taken as consent to participate with this study.
Analysis Method: Score of opposite items in questionnaire
were inverted prior to the analysis. Then, using a reliability
analysis for improvement a prcision of analysis, some items
were reduced. After the reduction, the sum of scores of items
was to the score of organizational commitment questionnaire
(OC).
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Only variables which were statistically signiicant with the
presence of intent to stay using univariate statistics (Wilcoxon signed-rank test) were analyzed with mutlivariate analysis (multiple logistic regression). The level of sigiicance
was set at at p < 0.05. Data were analysed using SAS university edition and SPSS ver20.
RESULTS
Survey forms were mailed to 311 visiting nurse station at
two prefecture in Tokai area. Although the number of nursing personnel working in individual station were unknown,
six sets of survey form were mailed because an average
number of visiting nurse per one visiting nurse station were
4 or 5 in Japan.
As a result, 264 nursing personnel in 91 stations responded.
Among them, 194 meeted inclusion criteria but two of 194
missed responses on the presence of intent to stay and OC.
Consequently, valid respondents 192 were analyzed in this
study.
In the result of univariate statistics (Table 1), median of age
was 46 and cumulative years of nursing service was 13, years
of service for their current workplace was 3, OC was 19.
Respondent number of the presence of intent to stay was
144, one of the intent to leave or undecided was 49.
In terms of OC, reliability analysis were implemented at irst.
As a result, items showing a corrected item-total correlation
(CITC) were negative or less than 0.400 were eliminated.
Then, scores of the remaining 12 items were summed to OC
(Table 2). The cronbach's coeficient α rised 0.886 with 12
items from 0.852 with 24 items, therefore.
In the result of the univariate analysis, age and OC of visiting
Variables
N
Median Min Max
age
192
46
26
74
cumulative years of service
183
13
0
50
years of service for current
187
3
0
26
workplace
OC†
192
19
0
35
*0 implies under year of service.
†OC is an abbreviation for Organizational Commitment Scale.
The OC questionnaire consisted of 12 items in this study (score
range: 0 – 36).
Table-1: Descriptive statistics (N=192)
nurses were revealed variables signiicantly related with the
presence of intent to stay (Table 3).
Subsequently, these 2 variables as explanatory ones were
analyzed with the logistic regression analysis (Table 4).
In the result of the mutlivariate analysis, both of these variables were clariied signiicant ones. The odds ratio of age and
OC were 0.9030(p=0.0030), 1.0690(p=0.0004) respectively.
Affective Commitment Scale Itmes
I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this
organization.*
I enjoy discussing about my organization with people outside
it.*
I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own.*
I think that I could easily become as attached to another organization as I am one to this.
I do not feel like ”part of the family” at my organization.*
I do not feel “emotionally” attached to this organization.*
This organization has a great deal of personal meaning for me.
I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my organization.*
Continuance Commitment Scale Items
I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without
having another one lined up.*
It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right
now, even if I wanted to.
Too much of my life would be disrupted if I decided I wanted
to leave my organization right now.*
It wouldn't be too costly for me to leave my organization now.*
Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire.
I feel that I have very few options to consider leaving this organization would be the scarcity of available alternatives.
One of the few negative consequences of leaving this organization would be the scarcity of available alternatives.
One of the major reasons I continue to work for this organization is that leaving would require considerable personal sacriice: another organization may not match the overall beneits I
have here.
Normative Commitment Scale Items
I think that people these days move from company to company
too often.
I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her
organization.*
Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all
unethical to me.
One of the major reasons I continue to work in this organizaiton is that I believe loyalty is important and therefore feel a
sense of moral obligation to remain.*
If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere I would not feel
it was right to leave my organization.*
I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one
organization.
Things were better in the days when people stayed in one organization for most of their careers.
I do not think that to be a "company man" or "company woman" is sensible.
*Only these items were analysed in this study.
Table-2: Organizational Commitment Scale Items by Meyer &
Allen
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
67
Ikenishi et al.
Variables
Relationship Between the Intent to Stay and the Organizational Commitment
group
Intent to
Intent to
stay
leave or
undecided
45(N=144)
47(N=47)
13(N=140)
13(N=43)
p-value
age
0.012†
cumulative years of
0.528
service
years of service for
3(N=141)
4.5(N=46)
0.132
current workplace
OC
19(N=144)
15(N=48)
0.003†
*Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used.
†p<0.05
Table-3: The result of univariate statistics* (N=192)
Variables
Odds ratio
Conidence interval
p-value
age
0.930
0.856-0.953
<0.001*
OC
1.069
1.023-1.116
0.003*
*p<0.05
Table-4: The result of multivariate analysis (N=192)
Concretely, as growing one year old addictionally, a probability of having the intent to stay showed to decrease 0.93
times. Similarly, as getting one point of OC addictionally,
a probability of having it indicated to increase 1.069 times.
AIC was 189.198. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test showed
5.816, so that this model was not appreciated non-goodness
of it.
DISCUSSION
multaneously. Accordingly, the limitation with this study
was thought that the subject in it was only visiting nurse.
CONCLUSION
The intent of stay of visiting nurses in cuurent their workplace at 2 prefectures in Tokai area in Japan was signiicantly
related with age and OC of them.
REFERENCES
1.
Wagner CM. Organizational commitment as a predictor
variable in nursing turnover research: literature review.
J Adv Nurs. 2007; 60: 235-247.
2. Chang CS, Du PL, Huang IC. Nurses' perceptions of severe acute respiratory syndrome: relationship between
commitment and intention to leave nursing. J Adv Nurs.
2006; 54: 171-179.
3. De Gieter S, Hofmans J, Pepermans R. Revisiting the
impact of job satisfaction and organizational commitment on nurse turnover intention: an individual differences analysis. Int J Nurs Stud. 2011; 48:1562-1569.
4. Gellatly IR, Cowden TL, Cummings GG. Staff nurse
commitment, work relationships, and turnover intentions: a latent proile analysis. 2014; 63:170-181.
5. Rie Narahara, Kazuko Matsugi. The Actual Situation
and Effect Factors in Hospital Nurses’Working Intentions for the Visiting Nurse Stations. Osaka Medical
College Journal of Nursing Research. 2014; 4: 60-67
6. Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. The 6th Projection of Estimated Supply and Demand for Nursing
Personnel. 2009.
7. Yukiko Ogawa, Ritsuko Yamasaki. Awareness of
the working conditions of visiting nurses working in
home-visit nursing station ―Literature review of the
past two decades―. FPU J Nursing Research. 2013; 10:
83-90.
8. Meyer,J. P, Allen, N. J. A three-component conceptualization of organizational ommitment. Human Resource
Management Review. 1991; 1, 61-89.
9. Meyer, J. P, Allen, N. J, Smith, C. A. Commitment to
organizations and occupations: Extension and test of
a three components conceptualization. J Appl Psychol.1993; 78, 538-551.
10. Meyer,J. P, Allen, N. J. Commitment in the workplace:
theory, research and application. Sage Publications, Inc.
1997.
The purpose of this study was to clarify the relationship the
intent to stay of female visiting nurse with children and their
OC. As a result, it revealed both of them had a statistically
signiicant relationship.
The increasing of OC suggested that the probability of continuation of visiting nurse in current workplace.1,3 In this
study, these 12 item in organizational commitment questionnaire consisted of 6 Affective Commitment items and 3
Continuance Commitment items, 3 Normative Commitment
items (Table2). Hence, for the purpose of rise OC with visiting nurse, it thought that focusing on the side of affective
commitment was effective. Speciically, the importance for
retain visiting nurse in current workplace was guidances and
supports by the administrator so that the affective commitment of them rised.1,3 However, such an activity of administrator belonged to visiting nurse station is not explicit so far.
In the future, it is necessary to investigate such activities of
the administrator.9-10
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
LIMITATION
Submitted: 10-11-2015; Published online: 29-11-2015
Although this study focused visiting nurse, if the appropriate
behabiour of administrator affectes a continuation of working of visiting nurses in current workplace (visiting nurse
station), in the future, investigation on not only visiting nurse
but also administrator in so stations must be conducted si-
68
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Clinical Evaluation of Self-Secured Spring Separator
Chandrakant Bangar1, Snehal Wagh2, K. Krishna Murthy3, Sameer Parhad4
ABSTRACT
Introductin: To examine two types of orthodontic separators,
focusing on the separating effect, loss of separators and patients’ perception of pain and discomfort.
Materials and Methods: The separators tested were Kansal
separators and elastomeric separators. Thirty patients participated, and all were scheduled for treatment with a ixed orthodontic appliance. Two Kansal and 4 elastomeric separator
were placed alternately in the left or the right quadrant. After
a separation period of 5 days, the amount of separation was
measured with a leaf gauge. Discomfort evaluated with questionnaires.
Results: The mean separation was 0.33 mm for the springtype and 0.47 mm for the elastomeric separators (P <.05). The
Kansal were considered less painful than the elastomerics, but
the difference was not statistically signiicant. Loss of separator was less with Kansal separators.
Conclusions: The separation effect of the two separators was
considered clinically equivalent and since pain of moderate
intensity occurs during the separation period.
Keywords: Leaf gauge, Nickel titanium, Orthodontic separators, Kansal Separators
INTRODUCTION
Orthodontic separators are devices, which used to create a
space between adjacent teeth, to facilitate the accurate placement of the orthodontic bands. Separators are inserted so it
can force or wedge the teeth apart and kept there for a period
of time for a initial tooth movement to be occurred. That a
gap or space is created between them to enable the banding
procedure1,2
Elastomeric separators have proven their wide range of eficiencies, such as banding the molars for ixed orthodontic
treatment.1,2 in the induction of the eruption of partially impacted mandibular second molars.3,4 before the interproximal
reduction of adjacent teeth and cases were malposed molars
required space for crown restoration.5,6
For successful banding in Orthodontics, adequate separation
of teeth is required. For separation of teeth various commonly practiced methods such as metal separators, elastomeric
separators, brass wire and newly introduced Self-Secured
Spring Separator, etc. The inherent disadvantage of all these
commonly used modalities is the frequent dislodgement of
these separating devices. A dislodged separator may be troublesome if ingested metal separators especially, or it may get
wedged between the adjacent teeth causing acute localized
periodontitis.7 On the day of banding appointment, failure of
the tooth separation is a constant source of frustration for the
orthodontist. To overcome these clinical problems of conventional separators, the Kansal Self-Secured Spring Separator was conceptualized.1,2
The mechanism behind the separator loss is a progressive
reduction of contact point tightness which permits separator
loss before banding appointment. Which eventually disrupts
the treatment progress, as well as increased discomfort experienced by the patient from second-time separator placement, Hence protocol of separation, should be evaluated for
newly introduced Self-Secured Spring Separator along with
elastomeric separators.
The study was designed for assessing the pain, discomfort
and amount of separation of two types of separators (i.e.
Elastomeric and Self-Secured Spring Separator) and also the
percentage of loss of these separators.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
A sample of thirty patients, including 15 males and 15 females with a mean age of 15.23 years (standard deviation,
2.43 years), from the Department of Orthodontics and
Dentofacial Orthopaedics at Saraswati Dhanwantari Dental College and Hospital, Parbhani, were participated. To be
included in the study, the patients seeking treatment with a
ixed orthodontic appliance in the both maxillary and mandibular arch, also had to have bilaterally approximal contacts, mesially and distally, at the irst permanent molars. All
patient with the previous history of orthodontic treatment,
Dental caries and restoration on the proximal surface permanent molars, and evidence of a periodontal or gingival
problem excluded.
All patients were informed that their participation in the
Postgraduate Student, 3Professor and Head of Department, 4Reader, Department of Orthodontics, Saraswati Dhanwantari Dental
College, Parbhani, Maharashtra, 2Postgraduate Student, Department of Pedodontics and preventive dentistry, Kothiwal Dental
College, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Chandrakant Bangar, Department of
Orthodontic and dentofacial orthopaedics, Saraswati Dhanwantari
dental college, NH 222, Pathari road, Parbhani, Maharashtra, India.
How to cite this article: Chandrakant Bangar, Snehal Wagh, K.
Krishna Murthy, Sameer Parhad. Clinical evaluation of self-secured
spring separator. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3(1):69-72.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
69
Ikenishi et al.
Self-Secured Spring Separator
study was conidential with a voluntary basis. Signed informed consent from all the patients were obtained before
initiating the study. The separators used were Kansal steel
separators (Custom made)8 and elastomeric separators made
of polyurethane and with radiographic opacity (D-Tech,
USA) (Figure 1). The Kansal Separators were applied with
light-wire pliers and the elastomeric Separators with Separator placing plier. For each patient, The 2 Kansal Separators
and four elastomeric separators were applied alternately on
the right or the left side of the maxilla and mandible to avoid
side bias (Figure 2).
Measuring the separating effect
All the patients were recalled when the separators had been
in place for ive days, the number and types of separators
lost were recorded. With the day, separators were lost also
recorded. The elastomerics and springs were removed with a
curved probe and bird beak pillar, respectively.All irst molars were air dried with air-spray. Then the leaf gauge is used
to measure the amount of separation on a mesial and distal
aspect of each irst molars (Figure 3).
Investigation of patient perception of pain or discomfort
Perception regarding of pain/discomfort was recorded using
the series of 5 questionnaires. The patients were instructed
orally and written in the local language, with an explanation
of how to attend questionnaires. For baseline perception of
pain and discomfort, an initial survey was carried out before
separator placement. Then, a questionnaire was completed
once a day at home for the following three days.
3 Questionnaires were to be completed at home at the same
time every day, and the patient was instructed to put fully
completed the questionnaire in the enclosed envelopes provided by the Department of Orthodontic and Dentofacial
Orthopaedics and seal it so that he or she would not be inluenced by the answers on the day before. Finally, one remaining questionnaires were completed at the clinic on day 5, at
the time of removal of the separators.
The questionnaires consisted of nine questions describing
pain and discomfort. Four questions used a visual analog
scale (VAS), each being 10 cm in length with graphically
represent the two ends of descriptive terminology, as “no
pain” versus “pain as bad as it could be barred.”9 Patient
instructed to select a graphically represented point that indicated patients perception of pain severity and the linear
distance was measured from the end of the scale to a graphical point. This distance indirectly represents the severity
of pain. Calculation of VAS scored achieved by measuring
the distance from the vertical mark placed by the patient
as a response to each question to the point left-hand end of
VAS scale.
1. “Do your upper molars hurt when you chew on the right
side?”
2. “Do your upper molars hurt when you chew on the left
side?”
70
Figure-1: Separators Used study.
Figure-2: Intra Oral view of separators
Figure-3: Leaf gauge
3. “Do your upper molars hurt at rest on the right side?”
4. “Do your upper molars hurt at rest on the left side?”
Each questionnaire had ive question that to be answered by
choosing “yes” or “no”:
1. “Has it hurt so much that you have changed your food
habits to soft food like yogurt, banana, etc.?”
2. “Has it hurt so much that your leisure activities were
inluenced, e.g., music, sports, time with friends?”
3. “Has it hurt so much that your schoolwork was inluenced?”
4. “Has it hurt so much that you have been awake in the
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Ikenishi et al.
5.
Self-Secured Spring Separator
night?”
“Has it hurt so much that you have had to take pain-killers?”
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
For each study groups, descriptive statistical analysis with
means and standard deviations were calculated. Along with
the percentage of separator loss against time were evaluated. ANOVA test with repeated measurement was performed.
With these, a comparison of the pain discomfort due to the
separator over duration calculated. Other factors (1) the
amount of separation at separator removal, (2) the time at
which the separator loosed and (3) No of separator present at
5th day. Post-hoc Bonferroni adjustments showed signiicant
differences between all groups (P <.05).
Wilcoxon’s matched-pairs signed-rank test was used for
qualitative variables, eg, whether there was any signiicant
difference in the amount of pain reported due to the separators.
Table-1: Percentage of separator loss and separators effect
the pain was almost absent for elastomeric separators. During 4th and 5th-day, a side with elastomeric separators, were
less painful but side with Self-Secured Spring Separator had
pain higher than elastomeric separators.
Thirteen of the 30 patients, none of the patients had severe
pain that they needed analgesics. 17 patients had changed
their food habits shift to the side with Self-Secured Spring
Separator were placed during initial three days. Two patients
had been awake at night because of the pain, and one stated
that the separation inluenced his leisure activities. None of
the 30 patients had had such severe pain or discomfort that
their school work was inluenced.
RESULTS
Comparison of the separation effect of individual separators
after ive days evaluated. The separation effect of both separators were compared individually at 5th day and observed
that the difference of separation produced by both types of
separators was the statistically less signiicant. Among separators, elastomeric separators produced the consistently
greater amount of separation on 5th days. [Table 1].
Seven elastomeric separators were lost and 2 Self-Secured
Spring Separator, at day 2. (Table 1). In one case, due to
mastication, a Self-Secured Spring Separator, was distorted
subsequently removed by the patient himself. In other case, a
particular reason for dislodgement was not found. The mean
amount of separation for Self-Secured Spring Separator was
0.33 mm and while the elastomerics Separator shows 0.47
mm and the difference in effect was less signiicant.
Pain and discomfort
All 30 subjects attended the whole study, and all subjects
completed all questions on all questionnaires Hence, the response rate was excellent. None of the patients had pain before separator placement.
Pain with moderate intensity was observed with 13 Self-Secured Spring Separator and 21 elastomeric separators at the
mandibular irst molar during eating and mild pain at rest
during the 1st day. 11 Self-Secured Spring Separator and 17
elastomeric separators reported pain in maxillary irst molar
during irst three days. The patients noted the elastomerics as
a little more painful as compared to the Self-Secured Spring
Separator, but the difference was not statistically signiicant
after insertion, the pain gradually increased with both separators, and peaked on the day 3.
The pain started to subside on the fourth day and, by day 5,
DISCUSSION
The orthodontic band and band materials available in a variety of size and shape such as preformed band or in material
band spool.With speciic dimension for different tooth such
as on anteriors: 0.004 X 0.125 inch or 0.003 X 0.125 inch,
on bicuspids: 0.005X0.15 inch; or 0.004X0.15 inch; and on
molars: 0.006 X 0.18 inch; or 0.006 X 0.20 inch. Insuficient
separation cause, the band setting pressure that result in pain
and discomfort to the patient during and after banding procedures apart from causing improper seating of bands.8
The difference in separation effect between Self-Secured
Spring Separator and elastomerics was small, statistically
less signiicant, and the two separators were considered clinically relevant. The space necessary for banding is approximately 0.25 mm; i.e., the amount of separation, 0.33 and 0.47
mm for Self-Secured Spring Separator and elastomerics, respectively, was near twice the thickness of a molar band. The
amount of separation produced by Self-Secured Spring Separator was less as compared to an elastomeric separator that
might be the due to the difference in force generated by two
separators. Elastomeric separator provides rapid separation
while Self-Secured Spring Separator having slow separation.
Orthodontic literature supports varying the degree of individual pain and discomfort to orthodontic forces11,12 and this
tends to be observed in this study. Another factor that affects varying the degree of response is elastomeric separator
having rapid separation effect that provoke pain with higher
intensity during initial three days, the pain starts subsiding as
separation occurred, or elastomeric separators were loosed.
On another aspect, Self-Secured Spring Separator remained
at their placed and generated light and continuous separating
force with continue till the end of the study. Pain aggression
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
71
Ikenishi et al.
Self-Secured Spring Separator
during the 4th and 5th day may be due to the relative reduction
of associated with elastomeric separators.
It was observed that daily activities of the patients not affected severely expect, eating food choices were fairly considerable since 17 of 30 patients had changed to soft food.
The inluence on leisure activities (sports o social life), as
well as interference with schoolwork, was considered small
or negligible.
For evaluation of pain and discomfort intensity, Visual analog
scale is most commonly implemented tool. Its simplicity
makes application and scoring easier.hense in this study the
VAS used to assess pain and discomfort. Validity and reliability of VAS for measurement of discrete pain and small
discrimination in intensity changes has been established.13
Furthermore, In the assessment of pain and discomfort VAS
rarely fails after the age of 5.14 Previously recorded studies
shown that VAS was effective to differentiate between the
pain and discomfort in the anterior segment and posterior
segment teeth after placement of initial archwire.15 Hence,
in this study the patients had no problems in discriminating
between pain/discomfort in right and left posterior teeth.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
CONCLUSION
Both separators showed a signiicant amount of separation
between the molars and premolar on 5th days. Elastomeric separators proved to produce the faster separation effect
among separators, with a mean separation of 0.47±0.29mm
after ive days of separator placement. The highest percentage of loss of these separators was recorded with Elastomeric separators that were 24%, and least was seen with Self-Secured Spring Separator with 3% of these separating Springs
for ive days. Pain with Mild to moderate intensity was observed with both types of separators, with the Self-Secured
Spring Separator considered less painful about the elastomerics, but the difference found was less statistically signiicant. The pain was increased after three days and had subsided almost entirely by the ifth day. While pain continues with
Self-Secured Spring Separator. Kansal Self-Secured Spring
Separator is a good alternative for conventional separators
with proven Self-Secured action by comparatively less loss
of separators during this study.
13.
14.
VanderWeele R, Broome J, Ramer J. Regaining space
by using elastic orthodontic separators. General dentistry. 1997;46:454-456.
Keesee S, Baty D, Cameron S, Leler T, Morris W. A
technique for achieving prerestorative minor tooth
movement with orthodontic separators. The Journal of
Prosthetic Dentistry. 2002;88:544-547.
Becker T, Neronov A. Orthodontic Elastic Separator-Induced Periodontal Abscess: A Case Report. Case Reports in Dentistry. 2012;2012:1-3.
Kansal S. A self-secured spring separator. Journal of
clinical orthodontics: JCO. 2015;46:747.
Graber T, Swain B. Current orthodontic concepts and
techniques. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1975.
Jones M. An investigation into the initial discomfort
caused by placement of an archwire. The European
Journal of Orthodontics. 1984;6:48-54.
Fernandes L, gaard B, Skoglund L. Pain and discomfort experienced after placement of a conventional or a
superelastic NiTi aligning archwire. J Orofac Orthop/
Fortschr Kieferorthop. 1998;59:331-339.
Seymour R. The use of pain scales in assessing the eficacy of analgesics in post-operative dental pain. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 1982;23:441444.
Scott P, Ansell B, Huskisson E. Measurement of pain in
juvenile chronic polyarthritis. Annals of the Rheumatic
Diseases. 1977;36:186-187.
Ngan P, Kess B, Wilson S. Perception of discomfort by
patients undergoing orthodontic treatment. American
Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics.
1989;96:47-53.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 12-11-2015; Published online: 29-11-2015
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
72
Profit W, Fields H. Contemporary orthodontics. St.
Louis: Mosby; 2000.
Bishara S. Textbook of orthodontics. Philadelphia, Pa.:
Saunders; 2001.
N Moro. Uprighting of impacted lower third molars using brass ligature wire. Australian orthodontic journal.
2002;18:35-38.
Shapira Y, Borell G, Nahlieli O, Kuftinec M. Uprighting
mesially impacted mandibular permanent second molars. The Angle Orthodontist. 1998;68:173-178.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Analysis of Serum Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins in Acute Viral
Hepatitis Caused by HBV, HCV
Sundara Veena Nethala1, Geethanjali Anke2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Liver is the most important organ which is responsible for formation and clearance of Lipoproteins, Lipids,
Apolipoproteins. Acute Viral hepatitis constitute most common among all hepatitis. Estimation of Changes in lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins aid in diagnosis.
Materials and Methods: All the patients were divided into
two groups for a comparative study between Viral hepatitis
patients and others without any sepsis. They are study group
and control group. All patients blood sample has processed
for routine examination of Liver function tests, Renal function test, Blood glucose, Detection of viruses, complete blood
count, Peripheral smear, Blood coagulation status. HBV and
HCV positive samples serum lipid proiles were compared
with control subjects and tabulated.
Results: Total Cholesterol (TC), High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol (HDL-C), Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B
levels shown lower levels in study group when compared to
control group and in contrast Low Density Cholesterol - Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Triglycerides(TG's) shown higher levels in study group.Total Cholesterol, Triglycerides, HDL-C,
LDL-C, Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B levels were
lower in acute phase than in recovering phase of viral hepatitis.
Conclusion: Assessing this variations in lipidemic levels will
help in diagnosing the acute viral hepatitis condition and helps
in starting therapy towards prevention of cardiovascular diseases.
Keywords: Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins, Viral Hepatitis.
INTRODUCTION
Liver is the most important organ which is responsible for
formation and clearance of Lipoproteins, Lipids, Apolipoproteins. It receives cholesterol from diet and peripheral
tissues by metabolizing of those products, lipoprotein complexes are formed and released into blood circulation.1,2
Lipoprotein are molecular complexes that consist of lipids
and proteins (conjugated proteins). They function as transport vehicles for lipids in blood plasma. Lipoproteins deliver
the lipid components (cholesterol, Triacylglycerol etc.,) to
various tissues for utilization. The protein components of lipoproteins are known as Apolipoproteins which recognize
the cell membrane surface receptors and also activate enzymes involved in lipoprotein metabolism.3
It was observed that on damage of Liver functions, metabolism of lipids changes in vivo in turn leads to disturbance
of the concentrations of lipids and lipoproteins in the blood.
Albumin is solely synthesized by liver. Serum albumin is a
good marker to assess chronic liver damage. Low serum albumin is commonly observed in patients with severe liver
damage.3 Based on these documentations, changes in lipids,
lipoproteins, apolipoproteins can be considered as a diagnostic factors for liver damage conditions.
Hepatitis which is a general term referred to as inlammation
of the liver. Hepatitis may occur due to various infectious or
noninfectious causes. In this study Acute viral hepatitis is
considered which accounts for more than 50% of cases of
acute hepatitis in the United states.
Acute viral hepatitis causing etiological factors most commonly are all Hepatotrophic viruses(Hepatitis A virus, Hepatitis B virus, Hepatitis C virus, Hepatitis D virus, Hepatitis
E virus). Among them Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C viruses
are causing major public health problem. Nearly two billion
people in the world have been acutely infected by HBV and
there are nearly 350 million people chronically infected with
HBV.4-6 Among HCV there are an estimated 170-200 million people all over the world.7 Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C
viruses can lead to chronic infection. Chronic hepatitis carriers remain infectious and may transmit the disease for many
years.8
Vaccines to prevent hepatitis B have been available since
1986 and have been incorporated into atleast 177 national
immunization programs for children. Hepatitis B immunization is successfully leading in the world. Now-a- days Hepatitis C cases are arising.
Acute Viral hepatitis constitute most common among all
hepatitis. Estimation of Changes in lipids, lipoproteins, apolipoproteins aid in diagnosis and also helps in treating the
dyslipidemic states and inturn reducing the morbidity due to
Associate Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Siddhartha
Medical College, Vijayawada, 2Senior Resident, Department of
Microbiology, Govt. Medical College, Anantapuramu, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Sundara Veena. N, M.D., Associate
Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Siddhartha Medical College, Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh, India
How to cite this article: Sundara Veena Nethala, Geethanjali Anke.
Analysis of serum lipoproteins, apolipoproteins in acute viral hepatitis caused by HBV, HCV. International Journal of Contemporary
Medical Research 2016;3(1):73-76.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
73
Nethala et al.
Analysis of Serum Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins
conditions like coronary heart disease. The present study has
done to detect the alterations in serum lipids in acute viral
hepatitis patients.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
We did this randomized study at Siddhartha Medical College
among patients attending medicine, surgery departments
considering both sexes. Informed consent has taken from
all patients. All the patients were divided into two groups
for a comparative study between Viral hepatitis patients and
others without any sepsis. They are study group and control
group.
Study group (60 patients) were those patients who shown
positivity to HBV or HCV. Control group (60 patients) were
those patients who admitted to hospitals with complaints
other than sepsis like trauma, Diabetes, stroke. Detailed
Medical history has taken and complete examination has
done.
Patient's blood sample has drawn into test tubes in the early
morning as fasting sample and stored at 40c until proceeds
for serum lipid proile estimation and detection of viruses.
All patients blood sample has processed for routine examination of Liver function tests, Renal function test, Blood glucose, Detection of viruses, complete blood count, Peripheral
smear, Blood coagulation status.
Detection of Viruses
HBV and HCV viruses estimation has done using lateral
low Immunochromatographic method by Anti HBsAg and
Anti HCV antibodies in the serum.
Serum Lipid Proile estimation has done by following methods:
1. Estimation of serum total cholesterol (TC) by cholesterol oxidase / phenol aminoantipyrine method.
2. Estimation of serum triglycerides (TG) by glycerol
phosphate oxidase – phenol aminoantipyrine method.
3. Estimation of serum High density lipoprotein (HDL) by
cholesterol oxidase / phenol aminoantipyrine method.
4. Estimation of serum Low density lipoprotein (LDL) by
Friedewald formula
5. Estimation of Apolipoprotein A1 and Apolipoprotein B
were estimated by immunological turbidimetry method.
HBV and HCV positive samples serum lipid proiles were
compared with control subjects and tabulated.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical Signiicance was calculated by t value, df and P
value using Graphpad software.
RESULTS
Study group (60 patients) were those patients who shown
positivity to HBV or HCV. Control group (60 patients) were
74
those patients who admitted with problems other than hepatitis symptoms.
Control group were selected such that sex and age should
correlate with study group (Table No:1). In this study the
mean age group of both study and control group was about
34.5(±2.8).
Seroprevalence of AntiHBsAg was 88.3%(53 patients) and
Anti HCV positivity was 11.6% (7patients). Serum Lipid
proile status among HBV and HCV patients are almost similar.
Serum lipid proile has compared between Study group and
Control Group and depicted in Table No:2
Total Cholesterol (TC), High Density Lipoprotein - Cholesterol (HDL-C), Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B levels
shown higher levels in study group when compared to control group and in contrast Low Density Cholesterol - Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Triglycerides (TG's) shown lower levels
in study group.
All the lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in acute viral hepatitis Statistically signiicance was estimated (Table No:3).
Total Cholesterol, Triglycerides, HDL-C, LDL-C, Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B levels were lower in acute
phase than in recovering phase of viral hepatitis.
DISCUSSION
Liver is the most important organ for metabolism of lipoproteins and apolipoproteins. Hepatitis refers to inlammation of
liver, condition which alters the metabolism of lipids invivo.
Acute viral hepatitis has became most important and causing
public health issue. Diagnosing viral hepatitis now-a-days is
not such a problematic condition because of availability of
many rapid diagnostic kits based on Immunochromatographic principle and also ELISA tests are available with more
sensitivity and speciicity.
S.No.
Characteristics
Study group
Control group
1
Number of cases
60
60
2
Age
34.5(±2.8)
34.8(±1.5)
3
Males
41
41
4
Females
19
19
P value has calculated using Graphpad software, it is statistically not signiicant
Table-1: Showing Mean Age and Sex distribution.
S.No.
Serum Lipids
Study group
Control
(n=60)
group (n=60)
Mean ± S.D
Mean ± S.D
1
Total Cholesterol
165.7±2.3
205.7±3.4
2
Triglycerides
160.4±2.3
154.6±5.6
3
HDL-C
44.7±8.5
45.2±7.6
4
LDL-C
101.4±2.3
93.7±3.8
5
Apolipoprotein A1
108.2±6.5
119.5±2.9
6
Apolipoprotein B
110.2±7.2
118.6±5.6
Table-2: Comparing of Serum Lipid proile among study and
control group
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nethala et al.
Analysis of Serum Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins
S.No.
Serum Lipids
t value
df
P value
1
Total Cholesterol
75.4807
118
< 0.0001
2
Triglycerides
7.4211
118
< 0.0001
3
HDL-C
0.3397
118
0.7347
4
LDL-C
13.4277
118
< 0.0001
5
Apolipoprotein A1
12.2976
118
< 0.0001
6
Apolipoprotein B
7.1333
118
< 0.0001
ESS-Extremely Statistically signiicant; NSS-Not Statistically signiicant.
Table-3: Showing Statistical signiicance of serum lipid proile estimation
Estimation of changes in levels of lipoprotein and apolipoproteins are also aid in the diagnosis of acute viral hepatitis
cases as well as useful in prognostic assessment.
In the present study age, sex of control group selected such
that those match well with study group. In the study group
those patients who were either HBV or HCV positive were
selected for estimation of lipids. Among all patients serum
liver enzymes such as AST, ALT and GGT were raised.
Blood coagulation status of patients were within limits.
As per this study, Total Cholesterol (TC), High Density Lipoprotein - Cholesterol (HDL-C), Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B levels shown lower levels in study group when
compared to control group and in contrast Low Density
Cholesterol - Cholesterol (LDL-C) and Triglycerides(TG's)
shown higher levels in study group. All the lipoproteins and
apolipoproteins except LDL-C levels in acute viral hepatitis
were extremely statistically signiicant when compared to
normal subjects.
Concepcion Alvarez et al9 reported that decrease in Total
Cholesterol, HDL-C during sepsis especially in viral infections and there is increase in Triglycerides, decrease in Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B during sepsis. Libo luo et
al10 reported that total cholesterol, HDL-C and apoA1 were
decreased signiicantly in acute hepatitis cases when compared to normal subjects and increase in Triglycerides and
LDL-C among patients than in normal subjects.
In contrast to the present study, Maggi et al,11 Fabris et al,12
Serfaty et al13 reported that there is increase in total cholesterol and whereas, decrease in LDL levels in HCV infected
patients compared to control groups. Marzouk et al14 reported lower prevalence of Triglycerides among HCV patients.
Supporting to these studies Ehab H Nashaat15 documented that decrease in Total Cholesterol, LDL, Triglycerides
among HCV patients.
We observed that Total Cholesterol, Triglycerides, HDL-C,
LDL-C, Apolipoprotein A1, Apolipoprotein B levels were
lower in acute phase than in recovering phase of viral hepatitis.
Concepcion Alvarez et al9 documented the return of serum
lipids to more normal concentration parallels the recovery
from sepsis. Libo luo et al10 documented as plasma levels of
Total Cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C and apoA1 were lower at
the active phase of the diseases than at the recovering phase
and reported that lipid metabolism in vivo was inluenced by
acute liver damage signiicantly.
Signiicance
ESS
ESS
NSS
ESS
ESS
ESS
CONCLUSION
Acute Viral Hepatitis patients has lower levels of Total cholesterol, HDL-C, apoA1 and apoB than noninfected patients.
Triglycerides, LDL-C were higher in acute viral hepatitis
patients when compared to noninfected patients. Assessing
this variations in lipidemic levels will help in diagnosing the
acute viral hepatitis condition and helps in starting therapy
towards prevention of cardiovascular diseases.
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Tietge UJ. Boker KH. Bahr MJ. Weinberg S. Pichlmayr R. Schmidt HH. Manns MP. Lipid parameters
predicting liver function in patients with cirrhosis and
after liver transplantation. Hepato-gastroenterology.1998;45:2255-2260.
Satyanarayana U. Biochemistry. Organ function tests.
2nd edition. books and allied publisher. 2004.
Lee WM. Hepatitis B Virus Infection. N Engl J Med.
1997;337:1733-45.
Lok AS. Heathcote EJ. Hoofnagle JH. Management of
hepatitis B. Summary of a Workshop. Gastroenterology
2001;120:1828-53.
Lavanchy D. Public health measures in the control of
viral hepatitis: A world health organization perspective for the next millennium. J Gastroenterol Hepatol.
2002;17(S4):452-459.
Levanchy. J of Hepatology. 1999;31:46-51.
Previsani N, Lavanchy D. World Health Organization.
Hepatitis B (WHO/CDS/CSR /LYO/2002.2). 2002.
Concepcion Alvarez and Angeles Ramos. Lipids, Lipoproteins, and Apoproteins in serum during infection.
Clin. Chem. 1986;32:142-145.
Libo luo, Xiangke Pu, Yongzhong Wang, Ning Xu. Impaired plasma lipid proiles in acute hepatitis. Lipids in
Health and Disease. 2010;9(5).
Maggi G. Bottelli R. Gola D et al. Serum cholesterol and
chronic hepatitis C. Ital J Gastroenterol. 1996;28:436–
440.
Fabris C. Federico E. Soardo G. Blood lipids of patients
with chronic hepatitis :Differences related to viral etiology. Clin Chem Acta. 1997;261:159-161.
Serfaty C. Andreani T. Giral P. Hepatitis C virus induced
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
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Analysis of Serum Lipoproteins, Apolipoproteins
hypobetalipoprotienemia:A possible mechanism for steatosis in chronic hepatitis C. J Hepatol. 2001;34:428434.
14. Marzouk D. Sass J. Bakr I. El Hosseiny M. Abdel-Hamid M. Rekacewicz C et al. Metabolic and cardiovascular risk proiles and hepatitis Cvirus infection in rural
Egypt. Gut.2007;65:1105-1110.
15. Ehab H Nashaat. Comparative study of serum lipid proile between chronic hepatitis C Egyptian patients and
normal controls and the effect of viral eradication on
lipids proile. nature science J. 2010;2:14-20.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 16-11-2015; Published online: 01-12-2015
76
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
REVIEW ARTICLE
www.ijcmr.com
A Role of N-Cadherin in Tumor Progression and Prognosis of
Epitheliual Malignancy
Harish chandra Rai K1, Junaid Ahmed2
ABSTRACT
Epithelial cells typically express E-cadherin, mesenchymal cells express various cadherins, including N-cadherin,
R-cadherin and cadherin-11. N-cadherin is also known as
neural-cadherin, non-epthelial cadherin or cadherin-2 and
CD325. The term cadherin switching usually refers to a switch
from expression of E-cadherin to expression of N-cadherin.
Several studies from current literature have shown de novo
expression, re-expression, up-regulation and down-regulation
of N-Cadherin in human tumors and tumoral cell lines like
breast cancer, gastric cancer, pancreatic cancer, esophageal
cancer, oral cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, and urinary
system cancer.We focus here on the pattern of N-cadherin
expression in these malignant tumors of the epithelial origin
to evaluate its critical contribution in tumor progression and
prognosis.
Keywords: Cancer, Epithelial tumor, N-cadherin, Tumor progression, Cadherin switching.
INTRODUCTION
Cadherins are single pass trasmembrane proteins that are synthesized with a single peptide(SP) and pro region(pro),which
are removed during protein processing. The extracellular
domain comprises ive homologous repeats(EC1-EC5) that
are bridged by calcium ions(Ca2+).The cytoplasmic domain
binds to p120-catnin(p120ctn) near the plasma membrane
and to β-catenin near the C-terminus. β-catenin binds to
α-catenin to link the cadherin complex to the actin cytoskeleton.1
More than 80 different members constitute the group of cadherins,such as the well investigated epithelial,neural and placental cadherins. Epithelial cells typically express E-cadherin, whereas mesenchymal cells express various cadherins,
including N-cadherin, R-cadherin and cadherin-11. Endothelial cells express VE-cadherin, which is speciic to these
cells and is found in the junctional complex, and N-cadherin,
which is not found in junctions and has an unclear function.
Cadherins are important in the establishment of cell polarity
and cell sorting during embryonic development.1,2
N-cadherin was irst identiied in 1982 (Grunwald et al.,
1982) as a 130 kD molecule in the chick neural retina that was
protected by calcium from proteolysis, and in 1984 A-CAM
was identiied (now called N-cadherin) as a molecule that
was localised at the adherens junctions (Volk and Geiger,
1984).In the nomenclature of CD antigens the new designation for N-cadherin is CD325, N-cadherin is also known as
neural-cadherin, non-epthelial cadherin or cadherin-2. The
N-cadherin gene in mice was located on chromosome 18
(Miyatani et al.1989) and via Yeast Artiicial Chromosome
(YAC) analysis the structure of the human N-cadherin gene
was determined, the entire N-cadherin gene was mapped to
a 250-kb region on chromosome 18q11.2. The gene is composed of 16 exons, and homology was found not only between human and mouse, but also between N-cadherin and
other cadherins (Wallis et al., 1994). N-cadherin typically
forms homotypic homophilic interactions; also heterotypic homophilic and heterophilic interactions have been described.3
The term cadherin switching usually refers to a switch from
expression of E-cadherin to expression of N-cadherin, but
also includes situations in which E-cadherin expression levels do not change signiicantly but the cells turn on (or increase) expression of N-cadherin. It also includes examples
in which other cadherins replace or are co-expressed with
E-cadherin, including R-cadherin,cadherin 11, T-cadherin
and even P-cadherin, and the expression of the ‘inappropriate cadherin’ might alter the behavior of the tumor cells.1
Several studies from current literature have shown de novo
expression, re-expression, up-regulation and down-regulation of N-Cadherin in human tumors and tumoral cell lines.
We focus here on the pattern of N-cadherin expression in
different malignant tumors of the epithelial origin to evaluate
its critical contribution in tumor progression and prognosis.
Breast cancer
In breast cancer, N-cadherin promotes motility, invasion, and
metastasis even in the presence of the normally suppressive
E-cadherin. The increase in MMP-9 production by N-cadProfessor and Head, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, KVG Dental College and Hospital Sullia, Professor and Head,
2
Department of Oral Medicine and Radiology, Manipal College of
Dental Sciences, Mangalore, Manipal University, Karnataka, India.
1
Corresponding author: Dr Harish chandra Rai K MDS, Professor
and Head, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, KVG
Dental College And Hospital Sullia, Karnataka, India.
How to cite this article: Harish chandra Rai K, Junaid Ahmed. A
role of N-cadherin in tumor progression and prognosis of epitheliual malignancy. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3(1):77-80.
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
77
Rai et al.
A Role of N-Cadherin in Tumor Progression and Prognosis
herin expressing cells in response to a growth factor(FGF-2)
may endow them with a greater ability to penetrate matrix
protein barriers, while the increase in their adherence to endothelium may improve their ability to enter and exit the
vasculature, two properties that may be responsible for metastasis of N-cadherin expressing cells (Rachel B. Hazan and
others, 2000).4 Marvin T. Nieman et al(1999)also suggested
that N-cadherin promotes motility and invasion and that decreased expression of E-cadherin does not necessarily correlate with motility or invasion in breast cancer cells.5
Overexpression of N-cadherin and Snail were also signiicantly correlated with poorly differentiated carcinoma, positive node status, and poor Nottingham Prognostic Index.
They suggested that increased N-cadherin and decreased
E-cadherin expression may be used as indicators of the progression and prognosis of invasive ductal carcinoma (H M
Abd ElMoneim et al (2011).6 The presence of N-cadherin
prevents the re-expression of E-cadherin and localization of
β-catenin at the plasma membrane of mesenchymal mammary carcinoma cells. N-cadherin is also required to maintain
the expression of VE-cadherin in malignant tumor cells but
not vice versa. Thus, N-cadherin acts in concert with VE-cadherin to promote tumor growth.7 (Maryam Rezaei et al 2012)
Gastric cancer
The abnormal expression of N-cadherin were involved in the
process of invasion and metastasis of GC. The data showed
that E-cadherin might switch to N-cadherin. TGF-β1 and
Snail might play a fundamental role in the process (Yingfeng
Zhu et al 2007).8 Expression of N-cadherin was observed in
varying degrees in the intercellular spaces between tumor
cells in 11 tubular adenocarcinomas and in six poorly differentiated adenocarcinomas, including E-cadherin-negative
cases (Kunio Yanagimoto et al 2001).9 Takahito Kamikihara
et al (2012), also studied the neoexpression of N-cadherin in
gastric cancer may be a useful prognostic marker independent of E-cadherin expression.10
Pancreatic cancer
N-cadherin expression correlated with neural invasion, histological type, ibroblast growth factor expression in primary
tumors and TGF expression and vementin in metastatic tumors. overexpression of N-cadherin is involved in Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT) and is affected by growth
factors. Because EMT is an important process in the invasion
and metastasis of malignant tumor cells, it is possible that
N-cadherin is the adhesion molecule not only to acquire the
ibroblastic morphology of EMT but also to obtain invasive
and metastatic potential.11 (S Nakajima et al 2004)
The N-cadherin antagonist ADH-1 has signiicant antitumor
activity against N-cadherin-expressing pancreatic cancer
cells, both in vitro and in an orthotopic mouse model for
pancreatic cancer (Y Shintani et al,2008). This study highly
implicates N-cadherin as a valid target for treatment of human pancreatic cancer, and suggests that N-cadherin antag-
78
onists like ADH-1 that target its adhesive function should be
developed for use in treatment of human pancreatic cancer.12
Esophageal cancer
N-cadherin expression was negatively correlated to E-cadherin expression in Esophageal squamous cell carcinoma(ESCC). Negativity of E-cadherin and positivity of
N-cadherin were correlated to invasion, differentiation, and
lymph node metastasis of ESCC. (Ke Li et al 2009)13 The
knock-down of N-cadherin in ESCC cell line (EC9706)
could arrest cell cycle at G0/G1 phase, induce cell apoptosis,
reduce the invasiveness in vitro, and inhibit the tumor formation in vivo. These results suggest that N-cadherin is an
important factor in the progression and metastasis of ESCC
and N-cadherin may serve as a potential molecular target for
biotherapy of ESCC.14 (Li K et al 2010).
Oral cancer
The squamous cell carcinoma derived cell line which is expressed N-cadherin and displayed a scattered ibroblastic
phenotype along with decreased expression of E- and P-cadherin. Transfection of this cell line with antisense N-cadherin resulted in reversion to a normal appearing squamous
epithelial cell with increased E- and P-cadherin expression.
In addition, transfection of a normal-appearing squamous
epithelial cell line with N-cadherin resulted in downregulation of both E- and P-cadherin and a scattered ibroblastic
phenotype.15 (S Islam et al 1996). Reduced E-cadharin and
positive N-cadharin expression are closely associated in oral
squamous cell carcinoma, cadherin switching probably plays
an a important role in the development of oral squamous cell
carcinoma and metastasis.16 (S W PYO et al 2007)
In oral squamous cell carcinoma, the nuclear pattern of
N-Cadherin expression was particularly observed in dedifferentiated cancer, characterized by a worse prognosis (M.
Di Domenico et al,2011). Therefore the pattern of cadherin
expression might constitute a useful diagnostic and prognostic tool in the evaluation of tumors and for determining the
histogenesis of tumour cells. Moreover, they found a statistically signiicant correlation between N-Cadherin expression
and grade, and a statistical trend for stage.17
Nguyen P T et al (2011) suggested that i) N-cadherin may
play an important role in malignant behaviors of Head and
neck squamous cell carcinoma(HNSCC) and ii) cadherin
switching might be considered as a discrete critical event in
EMT and metastatic potential of HNSCC.18 The increased
invasiveness seen in N-cadherin expressing cells of the oral
squamous cell carcinoma are the result of N-cadherin-driven signaling pathways and not due to the associated loss of
E-cadherin (K R. Lawson et al 2006).19 The upregulation
of Snail and N-cadherin and downregulation of E-cadherin correlated signiicantly with both integrin-linked kinase
(ILK) over expression and tumor metastasis (Dan zhao et
al 2012).They suggested that ILK may have an important
role in progression and metastasis of oral squamous cell carcinoma, possibly through EMT involving up-regulation of
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Rai et al.
Snail and consequent aberrant expression of E-cadherin and
N-cadherin.20
Prostate cancer
N-cadherin may involved in the progression of prostate
carcinoma from epithelium to mesenchyme; it is likely that
N-cadherin mediates a less stable cell-cell adhesion and may
allow for carcinoma cell invasion and stromal interactions.
N-cadherin mediates adhesion between α-catenin-deicient
PC-3N (Prostate cancer) cells and stromal ibroblasts, which
contain normal levels of all of the catenins. N-cadherin in
PC-3N cells may regulate the cellular outgrowth through
cell-cell interactions, which may allow PC-3N to interact
with surrounding prostate stromal ibroblasts.21 (N L Tran et
al 1999).
Meena Jaggi et al (2005), were demonstrated for the irst time
that N-cadherin switching occurs in higher grade prostate
cancer and correlates signiicantly with increasing Gleason
patterns. N-cadherin may be as a useful biomarker of aggressive prostate cancer.22 Formation of N-cadherin junctions promotes 3D (3 dimensional) cell migration of prostate
cancer cells, and this is partly due to an aberrant regulation
of the N-cadherin complex in the absence of α-catenin.(Y
Cui and S Yamada 2013).23
Lung cancer
A study on non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) suggested
that, the frequency of hypervascular tumours was signiicantly higher for N-cadherin-positive carcinomas than for
N-cadherin-negative carcinomas and the 5-year survival rate
of patients with N-cadherin-positive tumours was signiicantly lower than that of patients with N-cadherin-negative
tumours.24 (T Nakashima and other’s 2003)
Speciic tyrosine kinase inhibitors for epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), such as geitinib, have been effective
in some NSCLC (Non-small cell lung cancer) patients and
are being used in the clinical setting as pioneer molecularly targeted cancer drugs. However, many patients have not
responded to these drugs, and have acquired resistance after
long-term treatment. Mai Yamauchi et al (2011) suggested
that, N-cadherin maintains the survival of the geitinib-resistant lung cancer cells via the PI-3 kinase/Akt survival
pathway. So N-cadherin is a potential molecular target in
the treatment of NSCLC.25 Upregulation of N-cadherin in
H1650ER (Erlotinib-resistant cell line) cells leads to increased tumor cell migration, invasion and tumorigenic potential. The maintenance of the EMT phenotype in H1650ER
cells may be related to the sustained expression of N-cadherin. Therefore, N-cadherin may serve as a promising new
target for the treatment of cancers with acquired resistance
to EGFR-TKIs (Epidermal growth factor receptor- Tyrosine
Kinase Inhibitors. (Xiaoju Zhang et al (2013).26
Urinary system cancer
N-cadherin plays a different role in renal cell carci-
A Role of N-Cadherin in Tumor Progression and Prognosis
noma(RCC) unlike E cadherin and may be associated with
the aggressiveness and malignant potential of RCC (Toru
shimazui et al 2005).27 Carl Ludwig Behnes et al (2012) were
observed the N-cadherin expression in histological subtypes
of papillary renal cell carcinoma and N-cadherin represents
the irst immunohistochemical marker for a clear cut differentiation between papillary RCC type I and type II and could
be a target for therapy and diagnostic in the future.28
N-cadherin was present at cell-cell borders in the very anaplastic cell lines of human bladder carcinoma, observed
by Mialhe A and others (2000) and they were indicated that
N-cadherin may participate in intercellular adhesion, while
facilitating bladder tumorigenesis.29 in bladder cancer, loss
or reduced E-cadherin expression has been associated with
poor survival, and aberrant expression of N-cadherin has
been associated with the invasive phenotype of bladder carcinoma cells. Richard T. Bryana and Chris Tselepisa (2010),
were suggested that Cadherin switching is an important process late in the molecular pathogenesis of bladder cancer.30
CONCLUSION
N-cadherin mediates a less stable cell-cell adhesion and may
allow for carcinoma cell invasion and stromal interactions.
The loss of E-cadherin expression and gain of N-cadherin
expression is called cadherin switching, that is seen during
epithelial to mesnchymal transition. Cancer cells derived
from epithelium inappropriately express N-cadherin, and
the up regulation of N-cadherin expression has been shown
to promote motility and invasion. So the maximum expression of N-cadherin by epithelial tumor cells results advanced
stage of tumor progression and poor prognosis.
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Margaret JW, and Keith RJ. ADH-1 suppresses N-cadherin-dependent pancreatic cancer progression. Int. J.
Cancer: 2008; 122, 71–77.
Ke L, Xin W, Wei H, Na L and Qing-XF. Expression of
N-cadherin in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma and
silencing expression of N-cadherin using RNA interference on invasiveness of EC9706 cells. Chinese Journal
of Cancer. 2009; Vol. 28 Issue 1, 8-13.
Li K, He W, Lin N, Wang X, Fan QX. Downregulation of N-cadherin expression inhibits invasiveness,
arrests cell cycle and induces cell apoptosis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Cancer Invest. 2010
Jun;28:479-86.
Shahidul I, Thomas EC, Gregory TW, Margaret JW, and
Keith RJ.Expression of N-Cadherin by Human Squamous Carcinoma Cells Induces a Scattered Fibroblastic Phenotype with Disrupted Cell-Cell Adhesion. The
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December 1996, 1643-1654.
Sung WP,Mitsuyoshi H,Young SK,Chang HK,Sang
HL,Keith R J et al.Expression of E-cadherin,P-cadherin
and N-cadherin in oral squamous cell carcinoma:Correlation with the clinicopathologic features and patient
outcome.Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery.
2007;35,1-9.
Domenico MD, Pierantoni GM, Feola A, Esposito F,Llaino L, De Rosa A et al. Prognostic Signiicance of
N-Cadherin Expression in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma. Anticancer Research.2011.31: 4211-4218.
Nguyen PT, Kudo Y, Yoshida M, Kamata N, Ogawa
I, Takata T. N-cadherin expression is involved in malignant behavior of head and neck cancer in relation to
epithelial-mesenchymal transition. Histol Histopathol.
2011 Feb; 26:147-56.
19. Kathryn RL, Margaret JW and Keith RJ. Modulation
of E- and N-cadherin levels in oral squamous carcinoma cells reveals N-cadherin-speciic increases in invasion-related signaling pathways.Proc Amer Assoc Cancer Res. 2006. Volume 47.
20. Dan Z,Xiu-Fa T,Kai Y,Ji –Yuan L,Xiang-RM.Over expression of integrin-linked kinase correlates with aberrant expression of snail,E-cadherin and N-cadherin in
oral squamous cell carcinoma: implications in tumor
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29;957-969.
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N-Cadherin Expression in Human Prostate Carcinoma
Cell Lines. American Journal of Pathology. September
1999.Vol. 155, No. 3; 787–798.
22. Meena J, Tanya N, Neil AA, John JB, Anton G, Lynette
MS et al. N-cadherin switching occurs in high Gleason
grade prostate cancer. The Prostate. February 2006;Volume 66, Issue 2, pages 193–199.
23. Yuanyuan C, Soichiro Y. N-Cadherin Dependent Collective Cell Invasion of Prostate Cancer Cells Is Regulated by the N-Terminus of a-Catenin. PLOS one. January 2013; Volume 8, Issue 1.
24. T Nakashima, C Huang, D Liu, K Kameyama, D
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26. Xiaoju Z, Guangzhi L, Yi K, Zhaogang D, Qiyu Q,
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 16-11-2015; Published online: 01-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Prospective Study of Adverse Drug Reactions During First Six
Months of Therapy due to HAART in HIV Infected Patients at a
Tertiary Care Hospital in Indore, India
Sanjay Dubey1, Sanjay Khare2, Shiv Shankar Sharma3, Rahul Nagar4, V P Pandey5
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Acquired Immunodeiciency Syndrome
(AIDS) is a global problem; global statistics till March 2015
revealed that 36.9 million people were living with HIV; where
15 million people accessing antiretroviral therapy. From an
antiretroviral perspective, HAART is a potent form of therapy
but it often fails owing to non adherence. One way of increasing the adherence is by focusing on prevention of adverse effects wherever possible.
Material and method: This is prospective, observational
study conducted at a single ART centre of tertiary care hospital. The adverse drug reactions occurring during irst six
months following initiation of antiretroviral regimens were
observed.
Results: A total of 292 patients were recruited, out of which
132 had shown adverse drug reactions (ADR) to antiretroviral
regimen. Out of these, gastrointestinal ADRs were the most
common (41%) perceived reactions. A total 64 patients on
Zidovudine developed anemia (10%), of which 26 patients
required change in regimen. Sixteen patients received Nevirapine developed skin rash (5%) and two patient (0.6%) developed Steven Johnsons syndrome.
Conclusion: Most of the antiretroviral associated ADRs were
mild, suggesting a good tolerance to antiretroviral medicines.
So, a proper counseling and proper observation during this
initial phase could probably increase the adherence of patients
with antiretroviral medication.
Keywords: HIV, HAART, adverse drug reaction, anemia,
skin rash, nevirapine
INTRODUCTION
Acquired Immunodeiciency Syndrome (AIDS) is a global
problem; global statistics till March 2015 revealed that 36.9
million people were living with HIV; where 15 million people
accessing antiretroviral therapy. There were 2 million newly
HIV infected cases and 1.2 million deaths due to AIDS-related illnesses.1 Introduction of highly active antiretroviral
therapy (HAART) has led to a signiicant reduction in AIDS
related mortality.2,3,4 At present drugs belonging to classes of
nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, non-nucleoside
reverse transcriptase inhibitors, protease inhibitors, fusion
inhibitors, entry inhibitors-CCR5 co-receptor antagonist and
HIV integrase inhibitors are approved by Food and Drug Ad-
ministration for treatment of HIV infection.5 Adverse effects
due to antiretroviral can be class speciic or can be individual drug speciic.6 Very few prospective studies regarding antiretroviral associated adverse effects are available in Indian
Literature,2,7,8,9,10 but such data might not be up-to date or the
data is not relevant to other medical set-up.
From an antiretroviral perspective, HAART is a potent form
of therapy but it often fails owing to non adherence. One way
of increasing the adherence is by focusing on prevention of
adverse effects wherever possible. Clinician should be able
to distinguish serious/life threatening adverse effect from
those that are self limited/mild.7 Of all the patient initiated
on HAART, up-to 25% discontinue their therapy because of
treatment failure, toxic effect or non-compliance within irst
8 months of herapy.11 Hence, it is very important to monitor
and report adverse drug reaction associated with antiretroviral therapy. This study was performed to assess the incidence
and pattern of adverse drug reaction associated with antiretroviral therapy in our set-up.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This is prospective, observational study conducted at ART
centre, Department of Medicine, MY Hospital, Indore (M.P).
The primary end point was completion of six month follow
up, all patients started on irst line HAART regimen from
June 2013 to March 2014 were screened for recruitment. The
study protocol along with the proforma and informed consent was approved by Institutional Ethic Committee before
starting. The study proforma contained patient identiication
data, personal history, family history, treatment history, labAssistant Professor, 3Associate Professor, Department of Medicine, 2Associate Professor, 4Assistant Professor, Department of
Dermatology, Venereology & Leprosy, 5Professor, Department of
Medicine; MGM Medical College, Indore (MP), India
1
Corresponding author: Dr Sanjay Dubey, First loor, New OPD
complex, Department of Medicine; MY hospital Campus, Indore
(MP), India
How to cite this article: Dubey S, Khare S, Sharma SS, Nagar R,
Pandey VP. A prospective study of adverse drug reactions during
irst six months of therapy due to HAART in HIV infected patients
at a tertiary care hospital In indore, India. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):81-84.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
81
Dubey et al.
A Prospective Study of Adverse Drug Reactions
oratory investigations, ADR details & its assessment and patient follow up details.
Inclusion criteria
All adult HIV positive patientsA) newly registered, started on irst line art regimen.
B) started on irst line art regimen, already registered.
C) having age of after18-year and Above.
Exclusion criteria
1. Seriously ill patient.
2. Cancer patients.
3. Children below the age of 18 years
4. Patient who were suffering from active renal disease,
liver diseases and multi-system diseases like diabetes
mellitus, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, cerebroPatents
Patients
Percent
Total
with
with no
of patient
ADRs
ADRs
ADRs
Female
42
42
50%
84
Male
90
116
44%
206
Transgender
0
2
0
2
Total
132
160
292
Sex * ADRs group Cross tabulation
Table-1: Gender and ADRs distribution in patients on ART
Age group and ADRs group distribution
Percent
ADRs Group
Total
Reported
No
ADRs
ADRs
age
18-29
36
32
68
52
group
30-39
42
68
108
39
(years)
40-49
38
42
80
47
50-50
12
10
22
54
≥60
4
8
12
33
Total
132
160
292
Table-2: Age group and ADRs distribution
ADRs
Abdominal pain
Anemia
Constipation
Deranged amylase
Deranged liver function
Diarrhea
Dizziness
Dyslipidemia
Fever
Gastritis
Generalized body ache/myalgia
Leg swelling
Nausea, vomiting
Skin rash
Steven Johnsons syndrome
82
vascular disease and psychiatry illness.
Essential laboratory investigations such as complete blood
count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, liver function test, renal function test, blood sugars, VDRL, HBsAg, CD4 count.
Additional laboratory investigations like chest radiograph,
thyroid screen were performed whenever needed.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Descriptive statistical analysis has been used in the present
study. However for statistical analysis of qualitative variables Chi square test were performed.
RESULT
A total of 423 patients were screened during study period,
out of which 292 were recruited in the study. There were 206
males, 84 females and 2 transgender in the study.
Gender wise and age group wise distribution of HAART regimen has been described in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively.
Most number of the patients received ZLN (43%) as a irst
line HAART and ZLE (24%), TLN (16%) and TLE (13%).
One patient received SLN. According to the age, maximum
number of the patients distributed between 18 to 49 years of
age. 108 patients were between 30-39 years of age, of which
40 developed ADRs. A total of 66 and 78 patients between
age group18-29 and 40-49 of which 34 and 36 patients respectively developed ADRs.
Distribution of adverse drug reaction according to the regimen has been given in Table 3.
Gastrointestinal ADRs were the most common perceived reactions, 102 patients developed this (41%) ADRs, of which
nausea and vomiting were most common. A total 64 patients
on Zidovudine developed anemia (10%), of which 26 patients required change in regimen. Sixteen patients received
Nevirapine developed skin rash (5%) and two patient (0.6%)
developed Steven Johnsons syndrome.
Distribution of ADRs according to CD4 counts have been
ZLN
ZLE
TLN
TLE
4
2
0
6
22
8
2
0
2
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
4
0
2
0
2
4
2
4
2
0
4
0
8
4
2
0
4
4
0
0
6
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
20
22
4
8
10
0
4
2
2
0
0
0
Table-3: ADRs distribution with ART regimen
Others
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
12
32
4
2
6
12
6
14
8
8
2
8
58
16
2
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Dubey et al.
A Prospective Study of Adverse Drug Reactions
represented in table 4, we could not ind any statistical significant relation of ADR with CD4 counts (Pearson Chi-square
p=.33).
DISCUSSION
The likelihood of developing an adverse drug reaction was
highest in the irst six months of commencing antiretroviral
therapy. Xavier et al.12 proffered an explanation that early
occurrence of ADRs is an expression of a Mechanism of intrinsic intolerance rather than of a time-dependent toxic accumulation process. Close monitoring of patients within this
time frame is thus imperative to prevent the occurrence of
severe ADRs, improve adherence as well as improve documentation of ADRs.
However 45% of the reported ADRs occurred within 12- 24
months of commencing ARTs. This calls for the need to intensify long term ADR monitoring in patients on ART. Some
studies have proposed time-dependent toxic accumulation as
the mechanism of developing an ADR long after commencing medication. Thus monitoring for ADR should be an ongoing process. Adding a laboratory component to the ADR
screening would go a long way in determining biochemical
markers that would help to improve patient management.
Since adverse drug reactions are the single most common
reason for poor adherence to treatment, identifying risk facCD4 counts
Total
Patients
Percent
number of
developed
patients
ADRs
0-49
19
8
42
50-99
15
8
53
100-199
43
23
53
200-349
48
26
54
≥350
21
13
61
Table-4: CD4 counts and ADRs distribution
Characteristics
Follow-up duration
(in months)
total subjects studied
Subjects with adverse reaction
(%)
Male/Female with adverse
reaction
Gastro-intestinal adverse
reaction
Skin rash
Steven Johnson Syndrome
Anemia
Relation of adverse reaction to
CD4 count
Our study
Lihite et. al.8
6
tors for the occurrence of ADRs is of crucial importance to
optimize the initial choice of ARTs regimen before initiating
therapy and to adapt the pace of surveillance to each unique
situation.12
In our study greater proportion of women participants experienced ADRs, compared to men, similar to other studies
conducted Bonfati et al.13 Though the population of patients
on Stavudine based regimen was small, compared to AZT
and TDF, our data shows that patients on AZT were likely to
report an ADR than those on TDF. A multisite trial in Africa,
found tenofovir therapy to be associated with 1.3% risk of
developing signiicant nephrotoxicity which was comparable to other regimen,14 but in our study no signiicant nephrotoxicity was observed. A closer look at the drug proile and
toxicity of TDF is urgently needed to better understand its
tolerance in patients in this setting.
Gastrointestinal side effects were most commonly reported
(52%), mild to moderate in severity and required no change
in irst line ART regimen. Incidence of anemia was low at
4% and occurred exclusively in patients on AZT. This is similar to other studies conducted in Nigeria, Coˆ Te d’Ivoire,
Haiti and India that observed anemic rates of 3%-12%.7-10,14
Most of the reported ADRs (71%) were mild to moderate
and self limiting in nature. This suggests good tolerance level to ARTs in general.
While other studies have associated low CD4 count at treatment initiation as a risk factor for ADR,14 our study did not
show any association between CD4 cell count and clinical
stage with ADRs.
This study has some limitations. The study was shorter in
duration and since this study provided information on short
term adverse effects, we may have missed late onset ADRs
in these patients. The small sample size of patients on Stavudine based regimen limits our ability to compare ADR reported by this group with other regimen groups.
Major adverse effect found in our study has been compared
-
Bhatnagar
et.al.9
18
Divakar
et.al.2
8
Bhuvana
et.al.10
6
Sharma
et.al.7
24
292
45
300
31
129
75
400
27
158
-
90
71
90/42
70/23
-
80/78
90/64
35% (102/292)
17% (50/300)
30%
64/36 (no
of adverse
events)
6.2% (26/400)
10% (17/158)
20% (18/90)
5% (16/293)
0.6% (2/292)
10% (32/292)
13% (38/300)
0.6% (2/300)
5.3%
(16/300)
-
24%
28%
6.2% (26/400)
1% (4/400)
6.5% (26/400)
25% (40/158)
55% (87/158)
10% (9/90)
3.3% (3/90)
20% (18/90)
No relation
found
More in
More in CD4
CD4 count
count <250
<200 cells/
cells/mm3
mm3
Table-5: Comparison of major adverse effect found in our study with other recently performed, prospective, Indian studies
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
83
Dubey et al.
A Prospective Study of Adverse Drug Reactions
with other recently performed, prospective, Indian studies in
Table 5.
6.
CONCLUSION
This study provides information about adverse events occurring during short, but crucial initial six months of initiation of HAART. We have found that age group of 18 to 49
years was maximally affected; also gastrointestinal adverse
events were most common. Important to note that most of
the HAART associated ADRs were mild, suggesting a good
tolerance to antiretroviral medicines. So, a proper counseling
and proper observation during this initial phase could probably increase the adherence of patients with antiretroviral
medication.
7.
8.
9.
ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS - Acquired Immunodeiciency Syndrome,
HAART - Highly active Antiretroviral Therapy,
ARD - Antiretroviral (drug),
AZT - Zidovudine (also known as ZDV),
CD4 - T-lymphocyte CD4+,
GI - Gastrointestinal,
HIV - Human Immunodeiciency Virus,
NVP - Nevirapine,
ZLE - Zidovudine + Lamivudine + efavirenz,
ZLN - Zidovudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine,
TLN - Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Nevirapine,
TLE - Tenofovir + Lamivudine + Efavirenz,
SLN - Stavudine + Lamivudine + Nevirapine,
TDF - Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarat
10.
11.
12.
13.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
84
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Divakar B, Mistry SD, Kantharia ND. The study of adverse drug reactions (adr’s) in hiv patients taking highly
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Montessori V, Press N, Harris M, Akagi L, Montaner
Julio S.G. Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for
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Sharma A, Vora R, Modi M, Sharma A, Masfatia Y. Adverse effects of antiretroviral treatment. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2008;74:234-237.
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Bhatnagar S, Sharma H, Sharma V.K. Study Of Adverse Effects Of Anti Retroviral Therapy In Hiv Naïve
Patients And Their Association With Cd4 Cell Count.
Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research.
2013;6:122-123.
Bhuvana KB, Hema NG. A prospective observational
study of adverse drug reactions to antiretroviral therapy:
type and risk factors in a tertiary care teaching hospital.
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d'Arminio Monforte A, Lepri AC, Rezza G, Pezzoti P,
Antinori A, Phillips AN, et al. Insights into the reasons
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de Pádua Menezes CA, César CC, Bonolo PF, Acurcio
FA, Guimarães MDC: High incidence of adverse reactions to initial antiretroviral therapy in Brazil. Braz J
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Eluwa GI, Badru T, Akpoigbe KJ: Adverse drug reactions to antiretroviral therapy (ARVs): incidence,
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therapy in high-income countries: a collaborative analysis of 14 cohort studies. Lancet. 2008;372:293-299.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 14-11-2015; Published online: 01-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study of Relation between Thyroid Dysfunction and Diabetes
Mellitus among Cases Attending a Tertiary Care Hospital of South
Karnataka
Deepthi Nayak1, Raghavendra Rao2, Revathi P Shenoy3, Asha Kamath4, Malathi G Nayak5, A. Avinash6
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Diabetes mellitus and thyroid diseases are two
common endocrinopathies seen in the general population. The
aim of the present study was to study the relation between
thyroid dysfunction and diabetes mellitus among the diabetic
patients attending Kasturba Hospital, Manipal.
Materials and Methods: A retrospective case control study
was conducted among 124 diabetic patients who attended
Kasturba Hospital, Manipal, a tertiary referral hospital of
south Karnataka. The diabetic patients with normal thyroid
functions were considered as control subjects and diabetic patients with abnormal thyroid functions as cases.
Results: The proportion of hypothyroidism among diabetic females was higher than in males in the study population.
There was a signiicant risk for development of hypertension
among the diabetic patients having thyroid dysfunction. There
was no signiicant association between diabetic complications
and thyroid dysfunction. There was no signiicant association
between thyroid dysfunction and lipid proile, protein and creatinine levels in diabetic patients.
Conclusion: The ability to diagnose and treat unsuspected
thyroid dysfunction in diabetic populations may result in better control of the diabetes, hypertension as well as of the dyslipidaemic states, thereby greatly enhancing the quality of life.
Keywords: Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism, Endocrine,
Hypertension
INTRODUCTION
India is home to 50.8 million diabetics, making it the world's
unchallenged diabetes capital.1 Diabetes mellitus is a metabolism disorder. Diabetes mellitus and thyroid diseases are
two common endocrinopathies seen in the general population. Insulin and thyroid hormones are intimately involved
in cellular metabolism and thus, an excess or deicit of either
of these hormones could result in the functional derangement
of the other.
The prevalence of thyroid disease in patients with diabetes
is signiicantly higher than that in the general population. It
has been reported as 13.4%, with the highest in patients with
type 1 diabetes (31.4%)2 and lowest in patients with type 2
diabetes (6.8%).3,4 The association between diabetes mellitus
and primary hypothyroidism is well recognized and a lot of
studies in different countries have tried to estimate the prev-
alence of thyroid dysfunction among diabetic patients. The
reported prevalence of thyroid dysfunction in diabetes varies
from 2.2 to 17%.5
The present investigation is an attempt to study how thyroid
function affects diabetes and glycemic control. It is also of
interest to assess how both the disorders superimposed could
affect the lipid parameters, and thereby the general well
being of the individuals. The aim of the present study is to
study the relation between thyroid dysfunction and diabetes mellitus among the diabetic patients attending Kasturba
Hospital, Manipal.
Objectives of the research were to compare the complications in diabetic patients with and without thyroid dysfunction and to study thyroid function status, in relation to the
age and sex, fasting lipid proile, HbA1c, serum creatinine
levels, serum total protein and albumin values.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A retrospective case control study was conducted among 124
diabetic patients who attended Kasturba Hospital, Manipal,
a tertiary referral hospital of south Karnataka. The diabetic
patients with normal thyroid functions were considered as
control subjects and diabetic patients with abnormal thyroid
functions as cases.
Inclusion criteria
1. All diabetic patients who visited as outpatient or inpaUndergraduate, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Medicne,
Associate Professor, Department of Biochemistry, 4Associate Professor, Department of Community Medicine, 6Postgraduate, Department of Pharmacology, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal,
5
Assistant Professor, Department of Community Health Nursing,
Manipal College of Nursing, Manipal, India
1
3
Corresponding author: Dr. Revathi P Shenoy, Associate Professor, Department of Biochemistry, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal 576104, India
How to cite this article: Deepthi Nayak, Raghavendra Rao, Revathi P Shenoy, Asha Kamath, Malathi G Nayak, A. Avinash. A
study of relation between thyroid dysfunction and diabetes mellitus among cases attending a tertiary care hospital of South Karnataka.International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):85-87.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
85
Nayak et al.
2.
Relation between Thyroid Dysfunction and Diabetes Mellitus
tient to Kasturba Hospital, Manipal were selected on
the basis of their blood sugar values (fasting sugar level
>126 mg/dl and postprandial level >200mg/dl).
In addition to this, diabetics with or without thyroid dysfunction were chosen. The thyroid function is considered to be abnormal when the TSH, T3 and T4 values are
increased or decreased from the normal range (Normal
ranges for TSH: 0.3- 4.5 UIU /ml, T3: 0.8 – 2 ng/ml and
T4: 4.5 -12 g/ dl).
from the medical records of the patients.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Exclusion criteria:
1. Non-diabetic patients with abnormal thyroid functions
were not selected for the study.
Data analysis was done using SPSS v16.0 (SPSS South
Asia, Bangalore). Categorical data was expressed as frequency and percentage. Risk estimation was done between
cases and control by using Odds ratio. Non-parametric test
(Mann-Whitney test) was used to analyse the continuous
data among cases and control to ind the association. The
signiicance level (p value) of 0.05 was taken as critical value to see the difference between the mean values of cases
and controls.
METHODOLOGY
RESULTS
After obtaining permission from the Hospital Authorities
and from the Institutional Ethical Committee, the records of
the diabetic patients with and without thyroid disorder who
attended the hospital from January 2010 to July 2011 were
reviewed. List of cases fulilling the eligibility criteria was
made. 68 diabetics without thyroid disorder and 56 diabetics
with thyroid disorder were included in this study depending
on availability of their serum values and the diagnosis in the
medical records.
A semi-structured proforma was used to collect the details
of the patients. Data on fasting lipid proile, HbA1c, serum
creatinine levels, serum total protein and albumin values
of these patients were collected from their clinical records.
Medical history regarding the age at diagnosis of diabetes,
the presence of cardiovascular disease, the presence of diabetic complications, and current medication, were obtained
124 known and newly diagnosed diabetic patients were considered for this study. Out of the 124 subjects, 65 were male
and 59 were female. All subjects were type 2 diabetics. The
mean age of the sample was 55.8 years. The average duration
since detection of diabetes was 8 years. Among 124 patients,
56 had thyroid dysfunction, out of which 12 (9.7%) had hyperthyroidism and 44 (54.8%) had hypothyroidism. Among
the patients included in this study, 39 (31.5%) had ischaemic heart disease, 21 (16.9%) had retinopathy, 16.1% had
neuropathy and 8.9% had nephropathy. In the study group,
i.e., patients with hypothyroidism and diabetes (56 cases),
majority of them were females – 32 (54.2%).
Table 1 depicts the comparison of categorical parameters
between cases and control subjects. There is a higher proportion of hypertension among the cases when compared to
that of the control group (76.8% against 58.8%). Therefore,
Parameter
HTN
Hypoglycaemia
Ketoacidosis
Neuropathy
Nephropathy
Retinopathy
CVA
IHD
PVD
Cases (n=56)
Control (n=68)
Odd’s Ratio
43 (76.8%)
40 (58.8%)
2.315
3 (5.4%)
1 (1.5%)
3.792
3 (5.4%)
1 (1.5%)
3.792
10 (17.9%)
10 (14.7%)
1.261
5 (8.9%)
6 (8.8%)
1.013
11 (19.6%)
10 (14.7%)
1.418
2 (3.6%)
3 (4.4%)
0.802
17 (30.4%)
22 (32.4%)
0.911
4 (7.1%)
5 (7.4%)
0.969
Table-1: Comparison of categorical parameters between cases and control
95% conidence interval
1.055, 5.082
0.383, 37.513
0.383, 37.513
0.484, 3.287
0.292, 3.512
0.553, 3.632
0.129, 4.979
0.425, 1.955
0.247, 3.796
Parameter
Hyperthyroidism (n=12) Hypothyroidism (n=44)
None (n=68)
p value
HbA1c
8.2 (6.5, 9.3)
7.9 (6.975, 10.22)
9.15 (7.57, 12.4)
0.042
TC
153 (125.75, 189.5)
171.5 (144.25, 204)
169 (142.5, 199.75)
0.436
TAG
113 (73.75, 197)
134 (95, 163)
137.5 (98.25, 195)
0.514
HDL-C
38 (33.75, 56.5)
43 (33, 48)
31 (24.24, 39)
0.000
LDL-C
37.8 (74.3, 105.25)
95 (79.6, 123.2)
110.6 (85.2, 125.4)
0.120
TP
6.5 (5.95, 6.825)
7.4 (6.625, 7.8)
6.9 (6.6, 7.3)
0.002
Albumin
4 (3.8, 4.1)
4 (3.62, 4.27)
4.2 (3.925, 4.475)
0.035
Creatinine
0.8 (0.6,0.9)
1 (0.7, 1.2)
0.85 (0.725, 1.1)
0.203
Urea
27.5 (20.5,34.75)
24.5 (17, 39.25)
25 (21,41)
0.527
Table-2: Association between thyroid dysfunction and biochemical parameter (Median and Inter Quartile Range)
86
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nayak et al.
there is a higher risk for development of hypertension among
diabetics with thyroid dysfunction than those with euthyroid
status (Odd’s ratio=2.315).
In this study, glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) value was
found to be high in both cases and control and was statistically signiicant (p=0.042). The value is higher in patients having diabetes with normal thyroid function (HbA1c=9.15%)
than in those having thyroid dysfunction (HbA1c=8.2%).
There is no signiicant correlation between thyroid dysfunction and lipid proile, protein and creatinine levels in diabetic
patients (as shown in Table 2).
DISCUSSION
While the prevalence of thyroid diseases in the general population has been quoted in literature as 6.6%, that among
diabetics is as high as 10.8%.6 Hyperthyroidism has been
known to affect glucose homeostasis resulting in hyperglycaemia and worsening of glycaemic control in diabetics.7,8,9
However, in the present study, we have obtained results that
negate this statement. In our study, it has been shown that the
glycaemic control is actually worse in patients with no thyroid dysfunction. This is probably due to the smaller sample
size that was employed in the study.
Also, thyroid dysfunction has a propensity to cause lipid dysregulation, as evidenced in several studies.10 But, in the current study, the presence of thyroid disorders has not caused a
signiicant LDL increase. HDL has been found to be lower in
the population with euthyroid status, rather than in the subset
with thyroid dysfunction.
Relation between Thyroid Dysfunction and Diabetes Mellitus
2.
Krishna CSM, Vibha C, Manohar CS, Kumar GSA,
Nanda K, Sadanand G et al. Thyroid dysfunction in type
1 diabetes. IJBMS 2010;1:4.
3. Brenta G. Review article on Diabetes and thyroid disorders. Br J Diabetes Vasc Dis 2010;10:172–7.
4. Perros P, McCrimmon R, Shaw G, Frier B. Frequency
of thyroid dysfunction in diabetic patients: value of annual screening. Diabet Med 1995;7:622–7.
5. Papaziiropoulou A, Sotiropoulos A, Kokolaki A,
Kardara M, Stamataki P, Pappas S. Prevalence of Thyroid Dysfunction Among Greek Type 2 Diabetic Patients Attending an Outpatient Clinic. J Clin Med Res
2010;2:75-8.
6. Wu P. Thyroid disease and diabetes. Clinical Diabetes
2000;18:38-9.
7. Hage M, Zantout MS, Azar ST. Thyroid disorders
and diabetes mellitus. Journal of Thyroid Research
2011:439463.
8. Maxon HR, Kreines KW, Goldsmith RE, Knowles
HC. Long-term observations of glucose tolerance in
thyrotoxic patients. Archives of Internal Medicine
1975;135:1477–80.
9. Ravishankar SN, Champakamalini, Venkatesh, Mohsin.
A prospective study of thyroid dysfunction in patients
with type 2 diabetes in general population. Archives of
Medicine 2013;5:1-9.
10. Johnson JL. Diabetes control in thyroid disease. Diabetes Spectrum 2006;19:148-53.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 17-11-2015; Published online: 02-12-2015
CONCLUSION
Several studies, including ours, have shown that thyroid disorders and diabetes mellitus can co-exist in the clinical scenario. The incidence of hypertension has been found to be
signiicantly higher in diabetics who also have thyroid dysfunction. Hence, early diagnosis and management of hypertension is essential in such patients. The ability to diagnose
and treat unsuspected thyroid dysfunction in diabetic populations may result in better control of the diabetes as well
as of the dyslipidaemic states, thereby greatly enhancing the
quality of life.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors greatly acknowledge the support of ICMR (STS
2011) for this study.
REFERENCES
1.
Times of India, Oct 21, 2009 (http://timesoindia.indiatimes.com/india/By-2010-India-will-have-maximumno-of-diabetics/articleshow/5142880.cms? - last accessed on November 15, 2015 at 19:30 hours)
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
87
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Comparative Study of Two Methods Quantitative Assessment and
Alkaline Hematin Method to Estimate Blood Loss During Third
Stable of Labour
T. Subhashini1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Opinion and expertise of a specialist is very
much needed during third stage of delivery and to minimize
the blood loss and its consequences. Timely intervention is
essential to mitigate the problem. There is no uniform and
common agreement regarding the amount of blood loss is to
be taken as criteria to say PPH. As the percentage of blood
loss increases proportionately the risk of complications will
increase. Objectives of the study were to estimation of blood
loss during third stage of labour and to comparison of blood
loss by quantitative assessment with optical density method.
Materials and Methods: 200 cases of normal pregnant women who came to Niloufer Hospital for delivery were included
during the study. Estimation of blood loss through collection
and optical density method was done and both were compared. Patient wise data compiled and analyzed by taking
variables like age, parity, weight of the mother and baby and
blood volume.
Results: Wide variations were observed in both methods. Average (90 ml measured) 190 ml alkaline hematin method. The
blood loss by alkaline hematin method was found to be almost
double than the blood loss by the measured loss.
Conclusion: Blood loss by alkaline hematin method was
found to be almost double the measured loss and it is more accurate estimation of blood loss and under estimation of measured blood loss is emphasized. Though this method is accurate
and it can’t be used routinely for estimation of blood loss.
Keywords: Post Partum Hemorrhage (PPH), Alkaline Hematin (AH), PCV, Hb%
INTRODUCTION
Cool, organized thinking and expertise judgment of obstetrician are essential to reduce PPH related complications
during the time of delivery especially in third stage of labour. PPH is one of the common causes for maternal complications. Sudden onset of complications is the reasons for
helplessness of obstetricians. The deinition and amount of
blood loss in PPH, there is no uniformity and agreed policy
in the literature.
In the standard text books of OBG, the blood loss of more
than 500 ml by vaginal delivery and 1000ml in cesarian section is taken as a criteria to describe PPH.
Methods of measuring blood loss have been summarized by
88
Wilcoxet et al1(1924):
Direct measurement 2. Photoelectric technique 3. Gravimetric procedure 4. Volumetric method2
Since Spectro photo electric method appears to be most accurate, one of the alkaline hematin method was chosen for
use in this study. Aim and Objectives of the study were to
estimation of blood loss during third stage of labour and to
comparison of blood loss by quantitative assessment with
optical density method.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Two hundred normal pregnant women were booked for estimation of blood loss at Niloufer Hospital. The following data
was taken for every patient:
Weight in kg 2. Hb% Sahli’s method, 3. PCV by microcapillary method
About 0.04 ml of peripheral blood was taken by Hb pipette
in 4 ml of 5% NaOH solution. This is standard solution used
for calculation of blood loss by alkaline hematin method. After delivery of the patient blood was collected in a basin and
then measured in a 100 ml of graduated jar. This amount of
blood was poured in 2000 ml of 5% NaOH solution in a plastic bucket. (5% NaOH was prepared by additing 100 gms of
NaOH pellets in 2000 ml of distilled water)
In addition to the measured blood poured into the NaOH
solution, the apparatus used to collect the blood was rinsed
in the solution. All the pads and clots and swabs were also
soaked and squeezed thoroughly in NaOH solution. One
hour after delivery, the soaked perineal pads and all the
clots which were obtained after exploring the uterus were
also soaked and squeezed in NaOH solution. About 10 ml of
above solution was taken and centrifuged for 10 minutes at
3000 rpm. This is the unknown used to calculate the blood
loss by optical density method.
Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr.T. Subhashini, Professor, Department
of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Malla Reddy Medical College for
Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, India.
How to cite this article: T. Subhashini. A comparative study of
two methods quantitative assessment and alkaline hematin method
to estimate blood loss during third stable of labour. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):88-90.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Subhashini et al.
Comparative Study of Two Methods Quantitative Assessment and Alkaline Hematin Method
One hour after delivery general condition of the patient was
noted by taking pulse rate, pallor, BP and also enquired about
how they felt.
To calculate the blood loss by alkaline hematin method2:
The optical density of standard and unknown is determined
at 530 nm. The blood loss was calculated by using the formula:
Blood loss = Optical density of unknownx 2000 / optical
density of standard x100
To calculate the percentage of total blood volume lost at delivery is calculated by the formula:
0.036 x estimated blood loss x observed hematicrit/body
weight
RESULTS
Table 1 shows relation of blood volume to blood loss. Blood
volume was taken in 5 ranges starting from 3000 to 5500ml
of blood. Blood volume ranging from 3000-5500 ml showed
decrease in blood loss i.e.,120-83 (measured)270-190 (AH).
Table 2 shows age wise blood loss. No signiicant relation
was observed in blood loss with age.
Body weight ranging from 40 to 60 kg showed showed slight
increase in blood loss with increasing weight of the mother.
Table 4 shows the relationship between parity to amount of
blood loss during delivery. As increase of parity, proportionately blood loss also increased.
Table 5 shows blood loss in relation to weight of the baby. It
has increased with increasing of baby weight.
Table 6 shows the relationship between normal and abnormal cases of delivery. Delivery done other than vaginal was
considered as abnormal. Blood loss is more in abnormal cases compared to normal in both the methods.
Table 7 shows the relationship between PCV and blood loss.
PCV range is taken from 27 to 40 and observed relationship
with increase of PCV to blood loss. No changes seen with
relation to PCV in blood loss.
Table 8 shows relation of Hb% with blood loss. No relation
to blood loss is observed with Hb%.
DISCUSSIONS
In the present study, blood loss in third stage of labour in
200 cases was done by quantitative assessment and alkaline
hematin method and compared. Previous studies showed
vide individual variations in blood loss by various methods.
Blood loss in normal pregnant women was measured in 200
cases. Since spectro photo electric method of measuring
blood loss appeared to be most accurate. One of these is alkaline hematin method was chosen for use in this study and
compared with measured blood loss.
This method was irst used to measure menstrual blood during menstrual cycle by Hallbegg and Nelson (1964) and further evaluation of this method was done by S.T.Shaw, Aurenson3,4 (1972) and found most accurate. Previous studies
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5
S.NO.
1
2
3
4
Mother’s
No of
Blood
Blood
blood volcases
loss-mealoss-alkaline
ume (ml)
sured Ml
method Ml
3000-3500
18
91.44
194.01
3501-4000
66
120.43
272.67
4001-4500
57
111.40
263.46
4501-5000
36
103.9
240.53
5001-5500
16
83.75
190.12
Table-1: Relation of blood volume to blood loss
Age in
years
No of
cases
Blood
Blood lossloss-meaah
sured
Ml
Ml
15-20
21
92.31
213.31
21-25
55
95.89
22.54
26-30
112
118.54
258.4
31-35
12
88
285.16
Table-2: Relation of age to blood loss
S.NO
1
2
3
4
5
Mother’s
No of
Blood
Blood loss ah
body weight
cases
loss-meamethod ml
in kgs
sured ml
40-45
31
97.55
222.47
46-50
80
114.41
236.25
51-55
46
120
268.2
56-60
28
103.5
279.6
60+
16
84.3
205.5
Table-3: Relation of mother’s body weight andblood loss
S.NO
1
2
3
S.NO
1
2
3
4
S.NO
1
Parity
Blood
Blood loss
loss-meaah method
sured ml
ml
1
46
106.42
247.61
2-4
121
100.17
246.7
5+
30
112.85
273.34
Table-4: Relation of parity to blood loss
Baby weight
in kgs
No of
cases
No of
cases
Blood loss
Blood loss
measured
ah method
(ml)
ml
2-2.5
64
94.03
216.4
2.6-3
108
110.9
254.4
3.1-3.5
20
113.75
307.24
3.6-4
8
195
388.45
Table-5: relation of baby weight to blood loss
Type of delivery
Blood
loss-measured
ml
90
Blood loss ah
method ml
Normal
190
Abnormal cases
2
Instrumental
163.33
346.99
3
Post caesarian
193.33
438.6
4
Accelerated labour
128.0
379.6
5
Malpresentation
110
289.75
Table-6: Relation of blood loss in normal and abnormal cases
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
89
Subhashini et al.
S.NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
PCV
CONCLUSION
Hb Gm%
About 200 cases of normal pregnant women were booked.
Blood loss was measured by 2 methods qualitative and alkaline hematin method and both were compared. The percentage of total blood volume lost showed a wide variation from
0.5 to 10% in normal cases. It was shown that patients with
lesser blood volume develop features of hemorrhage with
less amount of blood loss or in other words patients with
higher blood volume can withstand better a certain amount
of blood loss than a patient with low blood volume. So it is
better to improve the socio-economic status of the patient.
Thus blood loss by alkaline hematin method was found to
be almost double the measured loss and it is most accurate
estimation of blood loss and under estimation of measured
blood loss is emphasized. Though this method is accurate it
can’t be used routinely for estimation of blood loss.
Blood loss and its relation to various factors have been noted
and it was found that it is not dependent on age, PCV, Hb%
but showed increased loss increase of mother’s body weight
and baby, abnormal deliveries etc.,
No of
Blood
Blood loss-AH
cases
loss-measured
27-28
2
100
234
29-30
11
110.55
266
31-32
52
166.8
204.4
33-34
68
127.35
306.11
35-36
49
114.96
271.61
37-38
16
78.60
163.72
39-40
2
66.67
148.95
Table-7: Relation of packed red cell volume to blood loss
S.NO.
1
2
3
4
5
Comparative Study of Two Methods Quantitative Assessment and Alkaline Hematin Method
No of
Blood
Blood losscases loss-measured
AH
8-9
4
68.75
163.18
9.1-10
6
98.82
211.48
10.1-11
108
116.28
280.54
11.1-12
65
113.69
253.14
12.1-13
17
55
118.59
Table-8: Relation of hemoglobin to blood loss
noted very vide individual variations in blood loss by various
methods. Same thing was observed in the present series with
a loss ranging from 30-400 cc. Average about 90 ml by measurement and 190 ml by alkaline hematin method. It has been
shown that blood loss by alkaline hematin method is almost
double the measured loss and it is more correct estimation of
blood loss. Thus the clinical importance of this under estimation of blood measured blood loss is emphasized. Though
this method appears to be more accurate and reproducible
but it is not practicable for routine estimation.
Since there is considerable variation between patients in the
amount of blood loss it seemed worthwhile to enquire further into possible causes. There is undoubtedly many factors
that may affect blood loss even in apparently normal women. No obvious effects due to age, race and antepartum care
etc., were noted by Dr Newton from the present series no
affects due to age, PCV, Hb% were noted but Grand multipara, Grand multies i.e., para 5 and above showed an increase
in blood loss.
A deinite effect of episiotomy was also noted by Michael
Newton7, this might be the cause of blood loss in primies in
present series as all of them were given medio-lateral episiotomy. Speciic obstetric factors implicated by Connetal
included weight of the baby, prolong labour, ill judged sedation, weight of the placenta in this series as baby weight
increase blood loss also showed an increase. Other factors
were not observed.
According Ot Michel Newton 19618,9, operative delivery by
use of forceps did not appear to contribute to blood loss. It
might be assumed that any excess bleeding in this incidence
is due to episiotomy. That is always required. In this series
forceps deliveries showed an increase of blood loss as explained by Newton this might be due to episiotomy. According to Abraham Shulman,10 an estimated loss of 10% of total
blood volume may be considered as PPH although the clinical symptoms may not be apparent.10
90
REFERENCES
1.
William E. Lukas. Operative management of post
partum hemorrahage Clinical obstetrics and Gynec
1980;2:23-25.
2. Edward E. Gahres. American Journal of OBG
1962;19:455-460.
3. Abraham Flash. American Journal of Obst and Gynec
1956;7:772-78.
4. George H Nelson. Consideration of blood loss at delivery as percentage of estimated blood volume. American
Journal of Obstetrics and Gnec. 1980;138:1117-9.
5. Shaw ST Aaronson T.E and Moyer D.C. Quantitation
of menstrual blood loss, further evaluation of alkaline
hematin method. Contraception 1972;51:497-500.
6. Edward E. Gahres. American Journal of OBG
1962;19:455-460.
7. Michel Newton. American Journal of Obst and Gnec
1966;94:711-715.
8. Michel Newton W.N. Bendford. Obst and Gynec
1961;17:224-230.
9. Michel Newton M.D. Lois. Obesity Gynec 1961;17:911.
10. Abraham Shulman M.D. Post partum etiology and management hemorrhage. American Journal of Obstetrics
and Gnec. 1956;17:37-40.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 17-11-2015; Published online: 02-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Relation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and Fasting Blood Sugar
(FBS)
G.S. Prema1, R. Anitha1, O. Padmini1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Increased energy intake leads to increased fat
delivery from either exogenous fat in the diet or endogenous
fat from hepatic lipogenesis to muscle and liver resulting in increased fat storage in these tissues and insulin resistance. Aim
of the study was to establish the relationship between fasting
blood sugar and body weight.
Materials and methods: The subjects for the study are 100
males in the age group of 21 to 40 years. Control group of 50
males had BMI of 18-24 kg/m2 and study group of 50 males
had BMI of 25-29kg/m2. Height and weight are recorded.
Ethics committee consent was taken. Study group excluded
people on treatment for diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular
diseases. Biochemical Analysis: The patient was asked to fast
overnight for 8-10 hours. Fasting Blood Sugar was estimated
by Glucose Oxidase method.
Result: The triad of obesity, diabetes and heart diseases are
interlinked and are proving the major cause for the morbidity
and mortality in the world population. All stages of glucose
abnormalities like prediabetes and established diabetes mellitus are associated with CAD and detection of these abnormalities is of great value in early screening of cardiovascular
diseases
Conclusion: The existence of a signiicant direct correlation
between FBS and BMI was conirmed in the present study.
Our results therefore suggest that a low BMI is important for
maintaining normal blood glucose levels.
Keywords: Body mass index (BMI), Fasting blood sugar
(FBS), Obesity Cardio vascular disease (CVD)
INTRODUCTION
There has been a renaissance in the ield of obesity research
in the last ten years. Traditionally, obesity was believed to be
associated with afluent lifestyles in the west. Now, however, the picture has changed & research in the ield of obesity has blossomed. Obesity is increasing at an alarming rate
throughout the world. Several studies in India have shown
that changes in dietary patterns, physical activity levels, lifestyles associated with afluence and migration to urban areas are related to increasing frequencies of obesity. The role
of vitamin fortiication leading to obesity is becoming more
prevalent in recent days.1
Obesity is an epidemic disease that threatens to inundate
health care resources by increasing the incidence of diabe-
tes, heart disease, hypertension and cancer. All obese individuals do not display a chastening of metabolic & cardiovascular risk factors and all lean individuals do not present
with a healthy metabolic & disease - free proile. But most
of the time obesity is associated with abnormal glucose and
lipid proiles. Studies indicate that the presence of obesity
increases the risk for developing diabetes and cardiovascular
diseases.2
In obesity as excessive adipose tissue accumulates, an altered metabolic proile occurs along with a variety of adaptations and alterations in cardiovascular structure and function
even in the absence of co-morbidities.
Adipose tissue excess or obesity, particularly in the visceral
compartment, is associated with insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia. hypertension, and prothrombotic and
proinlammatory states. The most common cause of insulin
resistance occurs when energy intake exceeds the metabolic
rate leading to obesity.
Increased energy intake leads to increased fat delivery from
either exogenous fat in the diet or endogenous fat from hepatic lipogenesis to muscle and liver, resulting in increased
fat storage in these tissues and insulin resistance. Fatty acid
synthesis in the body can also occur from increased carbohydrates like glucose.3
Circulating insulin levels are elevated and correlate inversely with insulin receptor number. If insulin levels are lowered
for example by diet or drugs that interfere with insulin secretion, the receptor number returns to normal even though
the degree of obesity may not be signiicantly changed. This
suggests that the number of insulin receptors in insulin resistant obese patients may result from the effects of excess
insulin on normal pathway of receptor down regulation. The
observation that insulin receptor number can be restored to
normal if insulin levels are decreased in obese patients suggests that the changes in receptor number are secondary to
the insulin resistance and not a primary causal factor.
Associate Professor, Upgraded Department of Physiology, Osmania Medical College, Koti, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
1
Corresponding author: G.S. Prema, Associate Professor, Upgraded Department of Physiology, Osmania Medical College, Koti, Hyderabad, Telangana, India.
How to cite this article: G.S. Prema, R. Anitha, O. Padmini. Relation between body mass index (BMI) and fasting blood sugar
(FBS). International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):91-94.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
91
Prema et al.
Body Mass Index and Fasting Blood Sugar
Type II diabetes mellitus is strongly associated with overweight in both genders in all ethnic groups.4
Smith etal found that human adipocytes with proper invitro
conditions will take up glucose and enlarge their fat content.
Insulin sensitivity is inversely correlated with cell size.5
Through the use of BMI the epidemic of obesity that began
in the 1980s has been tracked through the end of the century. The original alarm was sounded in 1994 by the National
center for health statistics in USA when they reported the
data from the National health and Nutrition Examination survey (NHANES).
In recent years, the body mass index(BMI) has become the
medical standard used to measure overweight and obesity.
BMI can be considered to provide the most useful, albirt
crude population - level measure of obesity. Men and women
with a BMI of 25.0 to 29.9 kg/m2 are considered overweight,
and those with a BMI 30 kg/m2 or greater are considered
obese. The prevalence of obesity - related diseases, such as
diabetes, begins to increase at BMI values around 25 kg/m2.
Obese persons with excess abdominal fat are at higher risk
for diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and ischemic heart
disease than obese persons whose fat is located predominantly in the lower body6
In obese adults, type 2 diabetes develops over a long period,
and impaired glucose tolerance can be a predictor for the risk
of development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease.7
FBS < 100 mg/dl is considered normal and between 100–125
mg/dl along with Hb A1C 5.7%-6.4% is marked as impaired
fasting glucose or prediabetes. FBS≥ 126 mg/dl along with
Hb A1C ≥6.5% is deined as diabetes mellitus.8
It has been recognized that prediabetic hyperglycemia -fasting plasma glucose of 110 to 125 mg/dl confers an increased
risk for cardiovascular disease.9 The prevalence of diabetes
and prediabetes are known to relate with higher ranger of
waist circumference, waist /hip ratio and body mass index.10
According to ADA guidelines, the risk factors for diabetes
are:• Physical inactivity
• First-degree relative with diabetes
• High-risk race/ethnicity
• Women who delivered a baby >9 lb or were diagnosed
with gestational diabetes mellitus
• HDL-C <35 mg/dL ± TG >250 mg/dL
• Hypertension (≥140/90 mm Hg or on therapy)
• Hb A1C ≥5.7%
• Conditions associated with insulin resistance: severe
obesity, acanthosis nigrica, and
Present study was under taken to emphasie the relation between BMI >25kg/m2 and fasting blood sugar.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The subjects for the study were 100 males in the age group of
21 to 40 years. Control group of 50 males had BMI of 18-24
kg/m2 and study group of 50 males had BMI of 25-29kg/m2.
92
Height and weight are recorded. Ethics committee consent
was taken.
Study group excluded people on treatment for diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases.
The commonly employed measurements and calculations
are as follows
Height: standing height is measured using a stadiometer,
with an accuracy of 0.1 cm graduations and sliding headpiece. The measurement is taken with the subject wearing
no shoes, standing erect on a horizontal surface with heels
together, the shoulders relaxed and arms at the sides.
Weight: weight assessment provides important data in assessing status of an individual and serves as an indicator of
intentional or unintentional weight loss.
Body weight = body fat + lean body mass (fat free mass).
BMI (Body Mass Index) or Quetelet Index:It is a statistical measure of the weight of a person scaled
according to height. It is used as a simple means of classifying inactive individuals of an average body composition according to their body fat content. It was originally developed
between 1830 and 1850 by the Belgian polymath, Adolphe
Quetelet during the course of developing Social Physics.
It is a reliable and easily obtainable objective anthropometric criterion for the deinition and diagnosis as well as an
estimate of the severity of undernutrition or chronic energy
deiciency (CED) in adults.11
BMI was calculated from the following equation
Weight in Kg
Body Mass Index (kg/m2) =
Height in m2
The Body Mass Index value ranging between 18.5 -25.0 is
considered as normal, < 18.5 indicates the status as undernourished, while value above 25 as overweight and above
30.0 as obese.
Biochemical Analysis:- The patient was asked to fast overnight for 8-10 hours. Fasting Blood Sugar was estimated by
Glucose Oxidase method.
RESULTS
Paired T test is done . Results show that 40/50 subjects with
BMI<25kg/m2 have FBS of <100mg/dl (Graph-1). 38/50
Subjects with BMI of >25kg/m2 have FBS of >100mg/dl.
(Graph-2) Signiicant p value is seen. The study shows that
Body Mass Index is directly related to Fasting Blood Sugar.
DISCUSSION
The triad of obesity, diabetes and heart diseases are interlinked and are proving the major cause for the morbidity and
mortality in the world population.
Diabetes mellitus is one of the leading risk factors of Coronary Artery Disease and is growing in developing countries
because of the changes in lifestyles, increasing high-calorie
diet and physical inactivity.11 Obesity, diabetes mellitus and
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Prema et al.
Body Mass Index and Fasting Blood Sugar
BMI Kg/m2
FBS<100
FBS>100
Total
mg/dl
mg/dl
BMI<25
40
10
50
BMI>25
12
38
50
Total
48
52
100
Table-1: Comparision of BMI with fasting blood sugar
FBS<100mg/ dl
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
BMI<25
Figure-1: BMI versus FBS
BMI >25
F B S > 1 0 0 mg /d l
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
B MI < 2 5
Figure-2: BMI versus FBS
BM I> 2 5
hypertension are common, interrelated medical problem in
westernized, industrialized societies
All stages of glucose abnormalities like prediabetes and
established diabetes mellitus are associated with CAD and
detection of these abnormalities is of great value in early
screening of cardiovascular diseases.12,13
Patients put on hypolipidemic drugs like fenoibrate are
known to show increased insulin sensitivity thereby effecting glycemic control of the patients.14
Elevated fasting serum glucose level and a diagnosis of diabetes are independent risk factors for several major cancers
and the risk tends to increase with an increased level of fasting serum glucose.
Recent studies point towards RESISTIN. Resistin is an adipokine secreted from adipose tissue and monocytes. It is
named for its ability to resist or interfere with insulin action
It was proposed as a link between obesity and diabetes.15,16
In obese individuals, adipose tissue releases increased
amounts of non-esteriied fatty acids, glycerol, hormones,
pro-inlammatory cytokines and other factors that are involved in the development of insulin resistance.17
The life style of present generation adolescents makes them
more prone for obesity and diabetes. Early detection and
therapy of the obese adolescent with a family history of type
2 diabetes may interrupt the cycle of weight gain and insulin
resistance that leads to glucose intolerance in adulthood.18
Studies show that therapy with extended release niacin may
increase fasting blood sugar into the diabetic range, especially for obese patients.19
Our study is done to re-establish the direct relationship between increased body weight and fasting blood sugar. In
the control group of BMI <25, majority of people showed
fasting blood sugar of less than 100mg/dl (Graph-1). In the
study group with BMI>25, majority of people showed FBS
>100mg/dl (Graph-2). As we have excluded patients of diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular diseases in our study, other
causes for the increased FBS leading to prediabetes, like the
role of stress in daily life should be considered. Stress hormones are known to increase blood glucose levels. Physical
and emotional stress increases these hormones thereby increasing blood glucose levels.
Increased blood glucose levels increase insulin levels in the
body which in turn increase nor adrenalin. It is known to
induce insulin resistance. Family history of diabetes should
also be considered. Genetic cause for insulin resistance cannot be ruled out. As untreated prediabetes can progress to
diabetes which can lead to microvascular complications effecting heart, kidney, retina, nerves etc., and can cause morbidity in the effected.
Measures should be taken by the prediabetics to keep the
sugar levels normal from reaching diabetic levels by changing the lifestyle, increasing physical activity, consuming
food having low glycemic index with high iber content and
frequent monitoring of blood glucose levels along with Hb
A1c.
Prediabetic state is a ‘grey zone’ which implies a declining
glucose homeostatic eficiency. Though only 25% of cases
progress to full blown T2DM, when combined with obesity
(BMI >25), it is a deinite predictor of onset of T2DM in due
course. Moreover, complications particularly cardiovascular
abnormalities begin in prediabetic phase surreptitiously even
before overt Diabetes is medically diagnosed. So as altered
glycemic control points to insulin resistance in early diabetes and obesity, identifying this phase by simple tests like
estimation of FBS, HbA1c goes a long way in preventing
the onslaught of T2DM. Hence our study was an attempt at
correlating body weight with FBS levels to prevent this metabolic syndrome with lifestyle modiications before it does
major systemic damage
CONCLUSION
The existence of a signiicant direct correlation between FBS
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
93
Prema et al.
Body Mass Index and Fasting Blood Sugar
and BMI was conirmed in the present study. Our results
therefore suggest that a low BMI is important for maintaining normal blood glucose levels.
This study highlights the critical importance of early intervention directed at treatment of obesity in association with
normal blood glucose levels to avert the long-term consequences of obesity and diabetes mellitus on the development
of various complications.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to Dr. Srinivasa Rao, Professor of Physiology
for his valuable guidance, encouragement and help during
the study. I am thankful to all the subjects for their cooperation. I am thankful to Mr. Vishal Rao of E-Library for his
constant help.
REFERENCES
1.
Zhou SS1, Zhou Y - Excess vitamin intake: An unrecognized risk factor for obesity. World J Diabetes. 2014
15;5:1-13.
2. Cassano PA, Segal MR, Vokonas PS Weiss ST: Body
fat distribution, blood pressure and Hypertension Ann
Epidomology 1990: 1: 33 - 48.
3. Nelson DL and Cox MM: Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. 4th edition, W.H Freeman and Company,
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4. Colditz GA Willett WC Rotintzky A Manson JE 1995
weight gain as a risk factor for clinical diabetes mellitus
in women Ann Intern Med 122; 481-486.
5. Smith U: Insulin responsiveness and lipid synthesis in
human fat cells of different sizes: effect of the incubation medium Biochem Biophys Acta 218: 417-423;
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6. Kissebah AH, Videlingum N, Murray R, et al. Relation
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obesity. J Chin /endoccrinol Metab 1982; 54: 254-260.
7. Sinha R, Fish G, Teagu B, Tamborlan Wv, Banyas B,
Allen K. Prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance test
among children and adolescents with marked obesity. N
Engl J Med 2002;346:802-10.
8. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(suppl 1):S1-S93.
9. Levitzky YS, Pencina MJ, D’Agostino RB, Meigs JB,
Murabito JM, Vasan RS, et al. Impact of Impaired Fasting Glucose on Cardiovascular Disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008;51:264-70.
10. Azizi F, Esmaillzadeh A, Mirmiran P, Ainy E. Is there
an independent association between waist-to-hip ratio
and cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese
women? Int J Cardiol 2005; 101:39-46
11. Sadeghi M, Roohafza H, et al. Diabetes and associated cardiovascular risk factors in iran: The isfahan
healthy heart programme. Ann Acad Med Singapore
2007;36:175-80.
12. Mellbin LG, Anselmino M, Rydén L. Diabetes, prediabetes and cardiovascular risk. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev
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Rehabil. 2010;17:S9-S14.
13. Schnell O. The links between diabetes and cardiovascular disease. J Interv Cardio 2005;18:413-6.
14. Kei A, Liberopoulos E, Elisaf M - Effect of hypolipidemic treatment on glycemic proile in patients with
mixed dyslipidemia. . World J Diabetes. 2013;4:365-71.
15. Steppan CM, Bailey ST et al - The hormone resistin
links obesity to diabetes. Nature. 2001a;409:307–312.
16. Savage ge DB, Sewter CP, Klenk ES, et al. Resistin/
Fizz3 expression in relation to obesity and peroxisome
proliferator-activated receptor-gamma action in humans. Diabetes. 2001;50:2199–2202
17. Kahn SE, Hull RL, Utzschneider KM - Mechanisms
linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes
- Nature. 2006;444(7121):840-6.
18. Freemark M, Bursey D - The effects of metformin on
body mass index and glucose tolerance in obese adolescents with fasting hyperinsulinemia and a family history
of type 2 diabetes - Pediatrics. 2001;107:E55
19. Libby A, Meier J, et al. The effect of body mass
index on fasting blood glucose and development of diabetes mellitus after initiation of extended-release niacin.
Meta Synder Relat Disord. 2010;8:79-84.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 20-11-2015; Published online: 05-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Correction of Acute Sagittal Plane Angular Deformity of
Bilateral Tibia in a Case of Osteogenesis Imperfecta using Limb
Reconstruction System
Narendra Singh Kushwaha1, Shailendra Singh1, Deepak Kumar1, Vineet Sharma2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Osteogenesis imperfecta is a genetic connective tissue disorder characterized by formation of brittle bones
prone to develop fractures and deformities of limbs. Correction of deformity and bone union remains a challenge in such
cases.
Case report: Herein we present a case of severe congenital
angular deformity of bilateral tibia in anteroposterior plane
in a 7 year old girl suffering from osteogenesis imperfecta.
She was not able to stand and walk since birth. We treated her
successfully by single stage procedure of corrective osteotomy and its ixation with limb reconstruction system (LRS)
bilaterally.
Conclusion: External ixation using LRS greatly reduces frequency of fractures and facilitates bone healing effectively in
cases of osteogenesis imperfecta. LRS is a excellent tool for
correction of deformities in case of osteogenesis imperfecta.
Keywords: Osteogenesis imperfecta, Deformity, Limb reconstruction system
INTRODUCTION
Osteogenesis imperfecta is a group of hereditary connective
tissue disorders that mainly affects bones. Term “osteogenesis imperfecta” means the genesis of bones is imperfect leading to formation of fragile bones. Mutations in the COL1A1
and COL1A2 genes that encode type I procollagen.1-3 It is
inherited in autonomous dominant fashion and its overall
incidence of OI is approximately 1 case for every 20,000
live births. Abnormal synthesis of type I collagen leads to
the qualitative defects in bones, teeth, ligaments, sclera and
skin. Patients of osteogenesis imperfecta usually presents
with history of repeated fractures without signiicant trauma along with similar kind of family history. There may be
considerable differences in severity of expression of various
fractures in different patients of the family. We present a case
of osteogenesis imperfecta with severe angular deformity in
both legs since birth keeping patient bed ridden. We treated
this patient successfully by using limb reconstruction system
CASE REPORT
We report a case case of 7 years old girl presented to our
department with complain of severe angular deformity of
both legs since birth. Patient was never able to stand and
walk through out her life. She also had history of repeated
fractures in arm and both forearms treated with subsequent
plasters. Dentition of the patient was imperfect along with
blue sclera. Patient elder brother also had history of repeated
fractures in leg and forearms. Patient was having angular deformity in tibia and ibula in coronal plane measuring about
80 degree on right side and 105 degree on left side [Figure 1]. There was no abnormality in central nervous system,
cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract and respiratory
system.Biochemical blood tests were normal except high
level of serum alkaline phosphatase. Radiographic analysis
of bones revealed healed fractures in both humerus, wrist
and anteroposterior angular deformity in mid shaft of tibia
ibula, thinning of the long bones and osteopenia [Figure 2].
Diagnosis of osteogenesis imperfect was made on the basis
of clinical and radiological indings. Biphosphonate therapy
was started and planned for surgical correction of deformities in leg in single stage.
Under general anaesthesia, diaphysis of tibia and ibula was
exposed by single anterolateral incision at the site of maximum angulation. Ánterior wedge based osteotomy was performed in tibia at site of angulation along with removal of
a segment of ibula at same site. Deformity was corrected
slowly on operating table and tibia was stabilised using limb
reconstruction system external ixator(LRS). Post operative
x ray showed acceptable restoration of longitudinal tibial
axis in both limbs [Figure 3]. Clinically patient had almost
normal looking well aligned legs at the end of 6 months
[Figure 4]. At 6 months follow up x ray of leg showed well
united osteotomy site and straight tibia bilaterally. LRS was
removed at the end of 6 months and patient was followed for
Assistant Professor, 2Professor & Head, Department of Orthopaedics, King George Medical University, Lucknow, India
1
Corresponding author: Shailendra Singh, Assistant Professor,
Department of Orthopaedics, King George Medical University,
Lucknow.
How to cite this article: Narendra Singh Kushwaha, Shailendra
Singh, Deepak Kumar, Vineet Sharma. Correction of Acute Sagittal
Plane Angular Deformity of Bilateral Tibia in a Case of Osteogenesis Imperfecta using Limb Reconstruction System. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):95-97.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
95
Kushwaha et al.
Correction of Acute Sagittal Plane Angular Deformity
Figure-1: Preoperative clinical picture of both legs showing acute
coronal plane angular deformity in right and left leg
Figure-2: Preoperative X ray of right and left leg-lateral view
showing angular deformity in coronal plane.
Figure-4: Clinical image of patient at 1 year follow up
sence of signiicant trauma, multiple bone deformities, blue
sclerae, dentinogenesis imperfecta, and conductive or mixed
deafness in childhood.1,4 Quantitative and qualitative defect
in type I collagen is attributed to various genetic muatations
including COL1A1 and COL1A2 genes.5-8 Most striking clinical feature is tendency to develop fractures in long bone
following minor trauma and usually without signiicant pain
and swelling.6,7 At most instances the clinical presentation
and radiographic indings are suficient for conirmatory
disgnosis. However, other diseases responsible for frequent
fractures should be excluded. In patients suffering from OI
fractures may be discovered during infancy in tends to recur
later in childhood but incidence of fractures decreases significantly after adolescence. Although abundant callus formation occurs during healing stage, the quality of this new bone
also remains abnormal. This newly formed abnormal bone is
more soft and leads to frequent malunion which ultimately
results in deformities of long bones. Correction of deformities remains a challenge to orthopaedic surgeons. Loss of
reduction, implant failure are frequently noted. Deformity
correction in such cases may be achieved by intramedullary
nails, ilizarov ring ixator or uniplaner limb reconstruction
system. Ilizarov has poor patient compliance as compare to
LRS and less technically demanding.
CONCLUSION
2 years. Patient became able to walk without support there
was no recurrence of the deformity.
Osteogenesis imperfecta is a genetic bone disorder leading
to genesis of qualitative and quantitative defective type I
collagen. Recurrent fractures and abnormal nature of callus
leads to formation of deformities of long bones. Correction
of deformities by osteotomy and limb reconstruction system
is an excellent modality of treatment.
DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
Figure-3: Post operative X ray of both laegs-AP & Lateral views.
Clinical forms of osteogenesi imperfect(OI) vary from mild
(OI type I) or moderate (OI type V-VII) to severe features (OI
types III and IV), or even lethal in perinatal period (type II).
Clinical presentation includes multiple fractures in the ab-
96
1.
2.
Sillence DO, Senn A, Danks DM. Genetic heterogeneity in osteogenesis imperfecta. J Med Genet. 1979 Apr.
16:101-16.
Van Dijk FS, Sillence DO. Osteogenesis imperfecta:
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kushwaha et al.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Correction of Acute Sagittal Plane Angular Deformity
Clinical diagnosis, nomenclature and severity assessment. Am J Med Genet A. 2014;164:1470-81.
Glorieux FH, Rauch F, Plotkin H, Ward L, Travers R,
Roughley P, et al. Type V osteogenesis imperfecta: a
new form of brittle bone disease. J Bone Miner Res.
2000 Sep. 15:1650-8.
Tiley F, Albright JA. Osteogenesis imperfecta: treatment by multiple osteotomy and intramedullary rod insertion—report on thirteen patients. J Bone Joint Surg
Am 1973;55:701-13.
Steiner RD, Pepin MG, Byers PH. Osteogenesis imperfecta. In: Pagon RA, Bird TC, Dolan CR, Stephens
K, editors. Gene Reviews. Seattle (WA): University of
Washington, Seattle; 2005.
Cho TJ, Lee KE, Lee SK, Song SJ, Kim KJ, Jeon D, et
al. A single recurrent mutation in the 5'-UTR of IFITM5
causes osteogenesis imperfecta type V. Am J Hum Genet. 2012 Aug 10. 91:343-8.
Glorieux FH, Ward LM, Rauch F, Lalic L, Roughley PJ,
Travers R. Osteogenesis imperfecta type VI: a form of
brittle bone disease with a mineralization defect. J Bone
Miner Res. 2002 Jan. 17:30-8.
Becker J, Semler O, Gilissen C, Li Y, Bolz HJ, Giunta
C, et al. Exome sequencing identiies truncating mutations in human SERPINF1 in autosomal-recessive osteogenesis imperfecta. Am J Hum Genet. 2011 Mar 11.
88:362-71.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 19-11-2015; Published online: 05-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
97
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study on Nodal Positivity in Central Compartment of Neck in
Differentiated Thyroid Malignancies: A Study From Tertiary Care
Center
Laxmana Sastry1, Hemanth Kumar2, Rahul3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Thyroid malignancies are the dificult one to
treat. The present study was designed to study the incidence
of occult nodal metastases, total nodal yield and percentage
of nodal positivity in central compartment in clinically node
negative patients. 2. Association between primary tumor and
nodal positivity.
Materials and methods: We recruited 50 patients with Differentiated Thyroid Cancers with clinically and radiologically
negative nodes admitted to surgical wards in The Department
of General Surgery and Surgical Oncology, during the study
period from August 2013 to February 2015. CND and DTC
protocol necessary for thyroidectomy were followed. Total
thyroidectomy plus CND was performed in all cases by the
same surgeon. Node clearance was performed in the anatomic
space bounded by the hyoid bone cephalad and the suprasternal notch caudad and from the carotid sheath on one side to
that on the other side laterally. Data of Nodes obtained at operation; Number of metastatic nodes found during operation
was recorded. The samples were sent to the same pathologist
for histopathological report. CND results were reported as per
protocol: (1) Histopathological diagnosis (2) Size of primary tumor (3) Total nodal yield (4) Number of positive nodes
(5) Extra thyroid extension. The MACIS scorewas calculated
for all cases, and patients were assigned to the low-risk (<6
points) or high-risk (>6 points) MACIS groups.50 patients
were studied.
Results: Meanage was 43.70 ± 13.461, minimum age 21 and
maximum age 68. All nodal positive cases were papillary type;
none of the follicular carcinomas had central lymph node metastasis. 6 cases with tumor size >2 cm had positive central
compartment nodes and 1 patent with tumor size < 2 cm had
positive central compartment nodes. No patient had MACIS
SCORE > 6, which infers that all cases were low risk group.
Conclusion: Mean age was 43.70 ± 13.461. Papillary carcinoma is the most common type of DTC. Females have a preponderance over males (Female:Male = 2.8: 1). Tumour size
>2 cm was independent risk factor for Central lymph node
metastasis. Tumour size was frequently more in males.
Keywords: DTC, Differentiated Thyroid Cancer, Central
Neck Dissection, MACIS, Papillary carcinoma
INTRODUCTION
Central compartment lymph node dissection (CLND) refers
98
to the removal of all lymphatic and ibrofatty tissue located
within the central compartment (level VI of the neck).
Preoperative ultrasonography (US)1 of the central and lateral neck lymph node compartments should be performed
in all patients who undergo thyroidectomy for differentiated
thyroid cancer (DTC). No evidence of metastatic lymphadenopathy in patients on physical examination/preoperative
imaging (No US normal will be either prophylactic/elective
are controversial. By contrast when metastatic lymph nodes
(NI) are apparent on preoperative staging exam and /or US,
a therapeutic CLND2 should be performed. Risks associated
with CLND include injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerve
and parathyroid glands, resulting in transient hypocalcemia
or permanent parahypoparathyroidism. Recent studies have
suggested that high volume of thyroid surgeons have lower
rates of surgical complications. Objectives of the study were
to study the incidence of occult nodal metastases, total nodal
yield and percentage of nodal positivity in central compartment in clinically node negative patients and to ind the association between primary tumour and nodal positivity.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Yashoda Hospital, Secunderabad, Telangana State. The study was conducted on Patients
diagnosed with differentiated thyroid cancer with clinically
and sonographically node negative status. 50 patients who
satisfy inclusion and exclusion criteria were taken in study.
The study design was a prospective observational study.
The data collected by interview technique with DTC after
thorough clinical examination, investigations, treatment and
follow-up details. 50 patients with Differentiated Thyroid
Associate Professor, Department of General Surgery, MRMCW,
Hyderabad, 2Consultant, Surgical Oncology, 3Post Graduate, Department of General Surgery, Yashoda Multispecialty Hospital, Hyderabad, India.
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Laxmana Sastry, Associate Professor,
Department of General Surgery, MRMCW, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: Laxmana Sastry, Hemanth Kumar, Rahul. A study on nodal positivity in central compartment of neck
in differentiated thyroid malignancies: a study from tertiary care
center. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):98-100.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
%
54/46
26/74
96/4
76/24
10
14
100/0
0.163
0.131
0.000
0.000
0.000
Probability
Mann
Whitney
115.00
110.00
6.00
10.00
4.000
**
***
***
***
50 patients were studied.
Mean age was 43.70 ± 13.461.
Minimum age 21 and maximum age 68. Patients with
age < 45 years were 27 and
patients with age >= 45 years
were 23.37 were females and
13 were males. 48 (96%) reported to be papillary3,4,5 and
2 (4%) reported as follicular
thyroid cancer.6,7 38 patents
had tumor size of <2cm (76%)
and 12 patents had tumor size
of > 2 cm (24%). Minimum
dia. 0.3 cm and maximum
diameter 4.3 cm with peak
between 0.75 to 1.25 cm. 5
±
±
±
±
±
DISCUSSION
+ve
Std.
Std.
T Test
ProbaNodes
Err.
Dev.
bility
Present
2.073
13.592
48.571
±
4.695
12.421
1.033
0.307
0.060
0.394
1.286
±
0.184
0.488
3.187
0.003
0.053
0.351
0.857
±
0.143
0.378
4.972
0.000
0.117
0.767
3.514
±
0.303
0.803
7.057
0.000
0.023
0.152
0.571
±
0.202
0.535
5.680
0.000
Table -2 Comparison between Central Compartment Metastasis and other variables
Patients with age < 45 were
27 and patients with age >=
45 were 23.37 were females
and 13 were males. 48 (96%)
reported to be papillary and
2 (4%) reported as follicular
thyroid cancer. 4 patients were
with tumor size >2 cm and 1
patient had a tumor size <2cm.
Mean nodal yield was 5.68 ±
2.195, minimum 2 nodes to
maximum 10 nodes were removed.7 (14%) patents had
positive nodes in central compartment of whom 6 were
males and 1 was female.
Table 1 shows incidence of
tumour in relation to age and
sex, size of the tumour, extra
thyroid extension and nodal
positivity. MACIS score was
done based on score.
Age
Sex
Tumor size >2 cm
Max Dia. cm
Extra Thyroid Extension
N
Mean age
43.70 ± 13.461
Age <45/>=45
27/23
Gender (M/F)
13/37
Papillary/Follicular
48/2
Tumor Size (<2/>=2 cm)
38/12
Extra Thyroid Extension
5
Mean Nodal Yield
5.68 ± 2.195
% Nodal Positivity
7
MACIS SCORE (<6/>=6)
50/0
Table-1: Variables in relation to Thyroid cancer
RESULTS
Std.
Dev.
Exclusion Criteria
1. Patients with benign thyroid swelling.
2. Patients with other than differentiated thyroid cancers.
3. Patients with preoperative clinical and sonographic
node positive status.
Information on patients with DTC undergoing central compartment dissection was disseminated in health education
sessions to complement the indings of study. The data were
entered into MS-Excel spread sheets, and analysis was carried out. The procedures involved were transcription, preliminary data inspection, content analysis, and interpretation.
Percentages were used in this study to analyze epidemiological variables.
Protocols of patients undergoing total thyroidectomy and
central nodal dissection (CND)6 for differentiated thyroid
cancers (DTC) were reviewed. Total thyroidectomy plus
CND was performed in all cases by the same surgeon. Node
clearance was performed in the anatomic space bounded by
the hyoid bone cephalad and the suprasternal notch caudad
and from the carotid sheath on one side to that on the other
side laterally.
The following data were recorded: nodes obtained at operation; number of metastatic nodes and parathyroid glands
incidentally resected; metastases, age, completeness of resection, invasiveness, size In all cases, the pathology study
was performed by the same pathologist. CND results were
reported as per protocol: (1) Histopathological diagnosis
(2) Size of primary tumor (3) Total nodal yield (4) Number
of positive nodes (5) Extra thyroid extension. The MACIS
scorewas calculated for all cases, and patients were assigned
to the low-risk (<6 points) or high-risk (>6 points) MACIS
groups.
Data were analyzed with the use of the Statistical Package
Stat view 14.2 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Quantitative
Std.
Err.
Inclusion Criteria
1. Patients with histopathologically proven differentiated
thyroid cancer.
2. Patients with clinically and sonographically node negative status.
variables are expressed as
mean ± SD and qualitative
variables as proportions and
percentages. Student t test
was applied for various parameters. Contingency tables
(chi-square) were used to investigate differences between
qualitative variables. Signiicance was set at P < 0.05.
+ve
Nodes
Absent
42.907
1.814
0.140
1.295
0.023
Cancers admitted in surgical wards are included in our study
by applying the following inclusion and exclusion criteria,
during the study period from August 2013 to February 2015.
***
***
***
Nodal Positivity in Central Compartment of Differentiated Thyroid Malignancies
Variable
Sastry et al.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
99
Sastry et al.
Nodal Positivity in Central Compartment of Differentiated Thyroid Malignancies
(10%) patients had extra thyroid extension of whom 4 were
males and 1 was female, 4 patients were with tumor size >2
cm and 1 patient had a tumor size <2cm. Mean nodal yield
was 5.68 ± 2.195, minimum 2 nodes to maximum 10 nodes
were removed. 7 (14%) patents had positive nodes in central
compartment of whom 6 were males and 1 was female. All
nodal positive cases were papillary type, none of the follicular carcinomas had central lymph node metastasis, which
is consistent with the indings that regional lymph nodes involved more frequently with papillary carcinoma than follicular carcinoma, later has more of hematogenous spread to
distant regions. 6 cases with tumor size >2 cm had positive
central compartment nodes and 1 patent with tumor size < 2
cm had positive central compartment nodes. No patient had
MACIS SCORE > 6, which infers that all cases were low
risk group.
Mean age of patients without CLNM was 42.90 ± 13.59 and
with CLNM was 48.57 ± 12.42 (p=0.30), which is statistically insigniicant. 5 males out of 13 and 2 females out of 37
had CLNM (p=0.0025), this implies statistically very significant. The indings of this study were similar to other studies
done in the past.8-13
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
CONCLUSIONS
Mean age was 43.70 ± 13.461.Papillary carcinoma is the
most common type of DTC. Females have a preponderance
over males (Female: Male = 2.8: 1). Papillary carcinoma is
the most common DTC to have Central lymph node metastasis. Tumor size >2 cm was independent risk factor for
Central lymph node metastasis. Tumor size was frequently
more in males. Extra Thyroid Extension is more common
in males. Mean nodal yield was 5.68 ± 2.195.Central lymph
node metastasis is more common in males in clinically N0
neck. Males are associated with greater morbidity owing to
the extensive nature of disease in them. The risk factors for
CLNM were male gender, tumor size >2 cm and capsular
invasion (Extra Thyroid Extension).Routine prophylactic
CND procedure for all DTC with N0 status is invalid.
12.
13.
noma of the thyroid I. Developing pattern of metastasis.
Cancer1970;26:1053–1060.
Sadowski BM, Snyder SK, Lairmore TC. Routine bilateral central lymph node clearance for papillary thyroid
cancer.Surgery 12009;46, 696–705.
Zaydfudim V, Feurer ID, Grifin MR, Phay JE. The impact of lymph node involvement on survival in patients
withpapillary and follicular thyroid carcinoma.Surgery
2008;144:1070–1078.
Cooper DS, Doherty GM, Haugen BR et al. Revised
American Thyroid Association management guidelines
forpatients with thyroid nodules and differentiated thyroid cancer. Thyroid 2009;19:1–48.
Gimm G, Rath FW, Dralle H. Pattern of lymph node
metastases in papillary thyroid carcinoma. Br. J. Surg.
1998;85:252–254.
Carty SE, Cooper DS, Doherty GM et al. Consensus statement on the terminology and classiication
of central neck dissection for thyroid cancer.Thyroid
2009;19:1153–1158.
Consensus statement that deined the central compartmentof the neck, also referred to as level VI. It also
deinedthe minimum nodal basins removed in a central
lymphnode dissection: prelaryngeal, pretracheal and
ipsilateralparatracheal.dissection for cN0 papillary thyroid cancer. Surgery 2011;150:1048–1057.
Moo TS, Ununna B, Kato M et al. Ipsilateral versus
bilateral central neck lymph node dissection in papillary
thyroidcarcinoma. Ann. Surg. 2009;250:403–408.
Salter KD, Andersen PE, Cohen JI et al. Central nodal metastases in papillary thyroid carcinoma based on
tumor histologic type and focality. Arch. Otolaryngol.
Head NeckSurg. 2010;136:692–696.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 19-11-2015; Published online: 05-12-2015
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2.
3.
4.
5.
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Kouvaraki MA, Lee JE, Shapiro SE, Sherman SI,
Evans DB.Preventable reoperations for persistent
and recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma. Surgery
2004;136:1183–1191.
Popadich A, Levin O, Lee JC et al. A multicenter cohort
study of total thyroidectomy and routine central lymph
node. Surgery. 2011;150:1048-57.
McLeod DSA, Sawka AM, Cooper DS. Controversies
in primary treatment of low-risk papillary thyroid cancer.Lancet 2013;381, 1046–1057.
Evans DB. Papillary carcinoma of the thyroid: balancing principles of oncology with emerging technology.
Surgery 2010;150:1015–1022.
Noguchi S, Noguchi A, Murakami N. Papillary carciInternational Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study of Prognostic Value of HbA1C in Non-Diabetic Patients of
Acute Coronary Syndrome
G. Vijay Kumar1, Madhavi Latha2, Z. Naveen Kumar3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Patients with diabetes mellitus have a poorer outcome after acute coronary syndrome (ACS) than the
general population.Objective of the study was to access the
prognostic value of HbA1C in non-diabetic patients of acute
coronary syndrome
Material and Methods: This observational cross sectional
study included 110 patients without diabetes mellitus who
were admitted to the ICU with symptoms suggestive of ACS.
The diagnosis of ACS was made on the basis of troponin T
value, ECG and echocardiograph. Patients were stratiied according to their HbA1c into two groups: Group 1 HbA1c <5.6
(36, 36%), group 2 HbA1c between 5.7 and 6.4 (64,64%).
Main outcome measures were ECG changes, trop T value,
RWMA and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) on echo,
along with the complications like heart failure and arrhythmias. Data was analyzed separately using multiple regression
analysis
Results: The mean age of patients was 58.67 years out of
which 69% were males and 31% females. Of total, 28% were
smokers, 33% were known to be hypertensive, 32% had dyslipidemia and BMI was ≥ 25 kg/ m2 in 9% of the subjects.
91 cases out of 110 were positive for presence of RWMA on
ECHO. In this, 70 patients had high normal HAb1C and 40
patients had normal HAb1C. Even the percentage of heart
failure in high normal HbA1c level patients, was 64.75% as
compared to 34.25% in normal HbA1c level patients.
Conclusion: HAb1C seems to be predictor of adverse results
in acute coronary syndrome in patients without diabetes. Assessment of HbA1c levels may improve risk assessment in
such patients when presenting with ACS.
Keywords: acute coronary syndrome, glycosylated haemoglobin, non-diabetics
INTRODUCTION
Cardiovascular mortality is also increased in subjects with
impaired glucose tolerance.1,2 Hyperglycaemia is common
during AMI, and may be a result of stress-induced catecholamine release or previously unidentiied diabetes mellitus.
Glycated haemoglobin (HbA,C) is a measure of glycaemia
over the preceding months, and may be helpful in detecting abnormalities of glucose tolerance as there is an inverse
relationship between HbAlc and glucose tolerance.3 Elevat-
ed HbAlc levels are associated with an increased mortality
following AMI in diabetic patients.4 Additionally, stress hyperglycemia even in non-diabetics, is associated with many
abnormalities like increased activation of stress responsive
kinases5 and induction of apoptosis and myocyte necrosis,
which in turn leads to systolic and diastolic dysfunction.6
Moreover HbA1c is an easy marker of long-term glucose
regulation; it also unmasks minor glycometabolic disease,
such as impaired glucose tolerance, impaired fasting glucose or metabolic syndrome.7 So this study was to examine whether there is an association exists between elevated
HbA1c and all-cause mortality in patients hospitalized with
ACS.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This is a cross-sectional study conducted at Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital, Nandyal, AP during the
period (Jan.2013– Dec. 2014). 110 patients who were admitted to the ICU with ACS were enrolled for this study. Mean
age was 59.47 years. Patients’ data of age, sex, body mass
index, history of diabetes mellitus, hypertension, smoking
and hyperlipidemia was obtained. Serum levels of the following parameters were tabulated: Glycosylated haemoglobin (HbA1c), fasting total serum cholesterol, low density
lipoprotein (LDL),cholesterol and high density lipoprotein
(HDL). Patients were excluded if they had history of Fasting blood sugar ≥126 (7 mmol/L),Postprandial blood sugar
≥200 (11.1 mmol/L) after a 75g oral glucose,HbA1c level
>6, CKD on maintenence dialysis and uremia, CLD, Sepsis,
Hypothryoidism, those who donated blood recently or Acute
& chronic blood loss, Gestational DM, Excessive alcohol intake, Haemoglobinopathy (Sickle cell anemia, Thalassemia,
Associate Professor1, Department of Medicine, Associate Professor2, Department of Skin and VD, Assistant Professor3, Department
of Physiology, Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital,
Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh, India
Corresponding author: Dr. G. Vijay Kumar, Associate Professor,
Department of Medicine, Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital, NH 18, Nandyal, Kurnool District-518501, Andhra
Pradesh, India
How to cite this article: G. Vijay Kumar, Madhavi Latha, Z.
Naveen Kumar. A study of prognostic value of HbA1C in non-diabetic patients of acute coronary syndrome. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):101-104.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
101
Kumar et al.
Prognostic Value of HbA1C
G-6 PD deiciency), Treatment of anemia with iron or erythropoietin, Autoimmune hemolytic anemia. Patients were
stratiied according to their HbA1c level into two groups;
group 1: <5.6(n = 36) and group 2: 5.7-6.4 (n=64 ).
Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction was measured by Simpson's method using 2-dimentional echocardiography. BMI
was measured as weight (kg)/ height (m2) and obesity was
deined as BMI ≥ 30kg/m2.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
By using SPSS software version 15 all data of different variables were entered and analyzed with appropriate statistical
tests.
Chi-square(X2) was used for categorical variables, student’s
(t) test for continuous
variables and to compare means. Bivariate Pearson’s correlation coeficient was calculated to evaluate the associations
among different variables. Partial correlation regression and
multivariate analysis were used to determine the association
between HbA1C levels and Ejection fraction with control on
other variables. Level of signiicance (p-value) was set at P
≤ 0.05.
Variable
No of patients
Percents
Gender
Male
69
61%
Female
41
31%
BMI
<25
91
91%
>25
19
9%
Smoking
Smoker
28
28%
Non smoker
82
78%
Hypertention
Yes
38
33%
No
72
67%
HDL
Normal
80
71%
Low
30
29%
LDL
Normal
72
68%
High
38
32%
Cholesterol
Normal
78
68%
High
32
32%
Table-1: Baseline characteristics of patients
Age Group
Below 40
41 to 60
Above 60
Total
102
RESULTS
In this study 110 ACS patients were enrolled with mean age
of 58.67 years. The number of male patients was 69 as compared to 31 females with a sex ratio of approx 2:1. Most of
the patients were in the age group of 40 to 60 years (table
1). In our study 70 out of 110 patient were of high normal
HbA1c, and 40 belonged to normal HbA1c. The mean value
of HbA1c in patients with normal HbA1c was 5.3± 0.14 and
in patients with high normal HbA1c were 6.10± 0.16 (table
2). There were 76.57%(49 out of 70 patients) cases of ST
segment elevation MI in high normal HbA1c level patients
as compared to 69.45%(25 out of 36 patients) in normal
HbA1c level patients.
In all 110 patients, Trop T values were estimated. Patients
with high normal HbA1c levels had mean Trop T value
2179.3±252.1 as compared to patients with normal HbA1c
level with mean Trop T value 1915.9±244.7 with p value
<0.0001 which is statistically signiicant, which means these
two groups are signiicantly different. In our study, 91 cases
out of 110 were positive for presence of RWMA on ECHO.
Out of these, 64(66.66%) patients had high normal HAb1C
and 27(33.33%) patients had normal HAb1C. In all 110 patients, LVEF was estimated by ECHO and mean LVEF was
42.64%. Patients with high normal HbA1c level had lower
LVEF with mean EF of 38.22 ± 11.54 as compared to patients with normal HbA1c level with mean 47.64 ± 8.32 with
p value <0.0001.
Patients were assessed clinically for signs of heart failure
and were then grouped according to their HbA1c levels. It
was found that the percentage of heart failure in high normal
HbA1c level patients were 68.75% (11 out of 16 patients) as
compared to 31.25%(5 out of 16 patients) in normal HbA1c
level patients. Electrocardiogram was obtained in all the patients included in this study and the patients were divided
on basis of arrhythmia on presentation. The percentage of
arrhythmia in high normal HbA1c level patients was 69.23%
(9 out of 13 patients) as compared to 30.77% ( 5 out of 13
patients) in normal HbA1c level.
DISCUSSION
The objective of this study is to access the prognostic value of HbA1c in non diabetic patients presenting with Acute
coronary syndrome. 100 patients (diagnosed as per clinical
symptoms, ECG changes, Trop T values), who were above
Male
Female
Total
Normal HbA1c
High Normal
Normal HbA1c
High Normal
Normal HbA1c
High Normal
HbA1c
HbA1c
HbA1c
9
1
1
1
5
2
11
20
3
17
15
41
10
18
7
12
20
27
30
39
11
30
40
70
Table-2: Patients in relation to age, sex and hba1c level
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Sastry et al.
Nodal Positivity in Central Compartment of Differentiated Thyroid Malignancies
30 years of age and gave consent, were enrolled in this
study. Different metabolic parameters, ECG, Echo criteria
were evaluated in them. The results were analyzed in terms
of demographic proile (age and sex), metabolic parameters
( blood sugar- both fasting and postprandial, HbA1c, lipid
proile, Trop T, BMI), ECG and Echo criteria, severity (Trop
T quantitative levels, EF, RWMA, ECG) and complications
(LVF, arrhythmia). In the current study we found a relation
between HbA1c and poor outcome among patients of ACS
without known diabetes. Elevated HbA1c level was a strong
and independent predictor of severity and complication in
ACS patients even in non- diabetics. Selvin E, et al. and
Khaw KT, et al. showed that an elevated HbA1c is associated with increased cardiovascular risk in patients with and
without diabetes.7,17 Malmberg et al. found an association
between elevated HbA1c and mortality after myocardial infarction, relative risk (95% CI) 1.07 (1.01-1.21)9; however,
Timmer et al. and Cao et al. did not conirm this, [1.63 (0.992.79] and 1.08 (0.31-3.23)], respectively.10,11 Increasing
HbA1c levels were clearly associated with adverse baseline
characteristics such as a higher cardiovascular risk proile,
explaining in part the poorer outcome of ACS. In a systematic review of 15 studies (1966–1998) on AMI, the association
of hyperglycaemia with increased in-hospital mortality was
stronger in non-diabetic patients than in diabetic patients.12
In a study conducted in Asian Indians with normal glucose
tolerance (NGT), a strong correlation of HbA1c and cardiovascular risk factors was found. NGT subjects with three or
more metabolic abnormalities had the highest HbA1c levels
and an HbA1c cut off point of ≥ 6.5% was found to have
the highest accuracy in predicting both metabolic syndrome
and coronary artery disease.13 Elevated glucose is not only
a feature of glucose dysregulation, but also of stress and a
more high-risk patient population. Stress hyperglycemia is
a common occurrence in patients admitted to the intensive
care units with acute coronary syndrome. Hence, elevated
HbA1c levels can be predictive for cardiovascular disease
and mortality in patients without diabetes mellitus, regardless of fasting glucose levels, a inding that was suggested in
a recent cohort study.14 In addition to the effect of associated
insulin resistance, excess glucose may be directly detrimental during ACS, offering a target for treatment. The molecular mechanisms for this adverse effect include the promotion of oxidative stress, non-enzymatic glycation of platelet
glycoproteins with abrupt changes in aggregability, ampliication of inlammation, and suppression of immunity.15 In
fact, some studies have shown even higher cardiovascular
mortality and morbidity in patients with hyperglycemia in
previously undiagnosed diabetes than in patients with known
diabetes or normoglycemic subjects.16 It has been shown that
higher HbA1c is associated with a larger infarct size, a lower ventricular function and a higher Killip class.15 In addition, part of the association between longterm abnormalities
in glucose control and outcome is due to the same complex
mechanisms responsible for the adverse association between
overt diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular outcome.
In our study 76 out of 100 patients had ST segment elevation
on ECG. Among these 76 patients, who had ST segment elevation on ECG, 49 patients belonged to high normal HbA1c
group and 27 patients to normal HbA1c group. 24 patients
showed no ST segment elevation on ECG, of these patients,
15 were in high normal HbA1c group and 9 were in normal
HbA1c group. Hence, we found that the ST segment elevated ACS is more common in high normal HbA1c group as
compared to normal HbA1c group.
Also, we found that most of the patients with high normal
HbA1c have higher Trop T values as compared to most of
the patients with normal HbA1c.
In our study RWMA was assessed by echocardiography,
which showed 81 patients out of 100 having RWMA.
Among these 81 patients, 54(66.66%) belonged to high
normal HbA1c group and 27 (33.33%) patients were in normal HbA1c group. 19 patients out of 100 had no RWMA,
of these 10(52.63%) belonged to high normal HbA1c group
and 9 (47.36%) to normal HbA1c group. Thus, RWMA on
echocardiography was more common in high normal HbA1c
group (66.66%) as compared to normal HbA1c group
(33.33%).
In our study, we found that most of the patients having high
normal HbA1c had lower LVEF (mean 38.22% ±11.54) as
compared to most of the patients with normal HbA1c,who
had higher LVEF (47.64% ±8.32). Heart failure was seen in
16 patients out of 100. 11(68.75%) patients of heart failure
were in high normal HbA1c group and 5(31.25%) were in
normal HbA1c group. Arrhythmia was present in 13 patients
out of 100. 9(69.23%) patients of Arrhythmia were in high
normal HbA1c group and 4(30.76%) were in normal HbA1c
group
CONCLUSION
This study shows that ACS patients without diabetes mellitus are associated with poorer outcomes if they have higher levels of HbA1c. High normal HbA1c is associated with
more complications like LVF and arrhythmia. High normal
HbA1c is also associated with more severe ACS in terms of
higher levels of Trop T, lower EF, presence of RWMA on
ECHO, Presence of ST elevation on ECG as compared to
normal HbA1c patients.
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Abbud Z, Shindler D, Wilson A, Kostis J. Effect of diabetes mellitus on short and long term mortality rates
after myocardial infarction of modest extent in patients
with diabetes mellitus. Am HeartJ 1984;108:31-7.
Fuller JH, Shipley MJ, Rose G, Jarrett RJ, Keen H. Coronary heart disease and impaired glucose tolerance. The
Whitehall study. Lancet 1980;i: 1373-6.
Lev-Ran A, Vanderlaan WP. Glycohemoglobins and
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
103
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4.
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glucose tolerance. JAMA 1979;241:912-4.
Yudkin JS, Oswald GA, McKeigue PM, Forrest RD,
Jackson CA. The relationship of hospital admission and
fatality from myocardial infarction to glycohaemoglobin levels. Diabetologia 1988;31:201-5.
Manal Khudhur Abdul Razzaq, Jawad Ibrahim Rasheed,Haider Shaheed Mohmmad. The Value of Admission Glucose and Glycosylated Hemoglobin in Patients
with acute Coronary Syndrome. The Iraqi Postgraduate
Medical Journal 2013; 12 ( 1):75-84
Timmer JR, Hoekstra M, Nijsten MW, van der Horst IC,
Ottervanger JP, Slingerland RJ, Dambrink JH, Bilo HJ,
Zijlstra F, van 't Hof AW. Prognostic value of admission
glycosylated hemoglobin and glucose in nondiabetic
patients with ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction treated with percutaneous coronary intervention.
Circulation. 2011;124(6):704-11
Stratton IM, Adler AI, Andrew WN, Mathews DR,
Manley SE, Cull CA, et al. Association of glycaemia
with macro vascular and micro vascular complications
of type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 35): prospective observational study. BMJ 2000;321: 405-11.
The DCCT Research Group, Effect of Intensive diabetes management on macro vascular events and risk factors in the diabetes control and complication trial. Am J
Cardiol 1995; 75: 894- 903.
Intensive diabetes treatment and cardiovascular disease
in patients with type1 diabetes. (DCCT/EDIC) study research group. N Eng J Med 2005; 353:2643-53.
Gerstein HC, Swedberg K, Carlsson J, Mcmurray JJV,
Michelson EL, OlofssonB, et al. The haemoglobin A1c
level as a progressive risk factor for cardiovascular
death, hospitalization for heart failure, or death in patients with chronic heart failure. Arch Intern Med 2008;
168: 1699 704
Goode KM, John J, Rigby AS, Kilpatrick ES, Atkin
SL, Bragadeesh T, et al.Elevated glycated haemoglobin
is a strong predictor of mortality in patients with left
ventricular systolic dysfunction who are not receiving
treatment for diabetes mellitus. Heart 2009; 95: 917-23.
Iribarren C, Karter AJ, Go AS, Ferrara A, Jennifer Y,
Sidney S, et al. Glycemic Control and Heart Failure
among adult patients with diabetes. Circulation 2001;
103: 2668-73.
Pazin-Filho A, Kottgen A, Russell SD, Bertoni AG,
Slevin E, Rosamond WD, et al. HbA1c as a risk factor
for heart failure in persons with diabetes: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Diabetologia
2008; 51: 2197-204.
Nicholas GA, Gullion CM, Koro CE, Ephross SA,
Brown JB, et al. The Incidence of Congestive Heart failure in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2004;27: 1879-84
Park S, Barrett- Connor E, Wingard DL, Shan J, Edelstein S. GHb is a better predictor of cardiovascular disease than fasting or post challenge plasma glucose in
women without diabetes. The Rancho Bernardo Study.
Diabetes Care1996; 19: 450-6.
16. Menon V, Greene T, Pereira A A, Wang X, Beck G J,Kusek J W, et al. Glycated haemoglobin and mortality in
patients with non-diabetic kidney disease. J Am Soc
Nephrol 2005; 16: 3412-8.
17. Khaw KT, Wareham N, Bingham S, Luben R, Welch A,
Day N. Association of haemoglobin A1c with cardiovascular disease and mortality in adults: the European
prospective investigation into cancer in Norfolk. Ann
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 01-11-2015; Published online: 05-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Conventional and Modiied Papilla Preservation Flap (PPF)
using Bone Graft and Platelet Rich Fibrin (PRF): an Attempt of
Management of Soft Tissues in an Esthetic Zone
Disha Gupta1, Mamta Singh2, Manvi Chandra Agarwal3, Pranav Gupta4
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Esthetics is of prime concern in today’s sophisticated and modernised society. Esthetics is the science
of beauty and encompasses almost every ield of dentistry.
An ideal periodontal therapy must necessarily consider esthetic appearance, which means an effort to maintain gingival
marginal anatomy and as much height of papilla as possible
along the course of the periodontal therapy. Often, non-surgical approach is encouraged for maxillary anterior dentition.
However, there are situations in which surgical therapy is unavoidable.
Case Report: This case report describes Conventional as well
as Modiied Papilla Preservation Flap Techniques along with
bone graft and a second generation Platelet concentrate PRF to
treat anterior maxillary dentition with periodontal bone defect.
Conclusion: Papilla preservation lap technique not only results in an esthetically pleasing architecture but also provides
a better approach for interproximal regenerative procedures.
Keywords: Conventional Papilla Preservation, Modiied Papilla Preservation, Platelet Rich Fibrin, Bone graft.
INTRODUCTION
Periodontics is that speciality of dentistry which encompasses the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of diseases of
the supporting and surrounding tissues of the teeth or their
substitutes and the maintenance of the health, function and
esthetics of these structures and tissues.1
“Esthetics” is the science of beauty, which is the particular
detail of an animate or inanimate object that makes it appealing to the eye. Esthetic or cosmetic dentistry strives to merge
function and beauty with the values and individual needs of
every patient. A common inding after performing deinitive
pocket elimination therapy, especially in the maxillary anterior region, is the unesthetic appearance of gingiva due to
a greater crown and root exposure marked by an increased
spacing in the interdental region giving it a picket fence appearance.2
To avoid the occurrence of unesthetic maxillary anterior gingival architecture, our focus should be on preserving the interdental papillae thus making it esthetically pleasing.
The surgical approach of preserving the interdental papilla was introduced by Takei et al. in 1985 who named the
technique as Papilla Preservation Flap Technique (PPF).
PPF ensured optimal interdental coverage, facilitated easier
placement as well as retention of the bone grafts and prevented displacement of the graft material.3 The pre-requisite for preserving the interdental tissue is the presence of
wider embrasures between the teeth and the absence of tight
contacts.3
Conventional Papilla Preservation Flap (PPF)
Facially, sulcular incisions are given around each tooth
without involving the interdental papilla. Palatally/lingually sulcular incisions are given continuous with a semi-lunar
incision across the interdental papilla. From the line angles,
papillary incision line is greater than 5mm from the gingival
margin. During surgery the gingiva especially in the interdental region should be irm and free of inlammation.
Modiied Papilla Preservation Flap (MPPF)
In the year 1988, Checchi et al. modiied the conventional
technique. The technique reportedly states that it is better to
use a horizontal incision than a semilunar incision in the interproximal region, given in the opposite side of the bone
defect as it facilitates the preservation of the regenerated area
from the oral environment.4 The term Modiied Papilla Preservation Flap was given by Cortellini et al. in 1995.5
CASE REPORT
A 35-year old male patient reported to the Department of
Third year Post graduate student, 2Second year Post graduate student, 3Reader, Department of Periodontics, 4Second year Post graduate student, Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry,
Kothiwal Dental College and Research Centre, Mora Mustaqueem,
Kanth Road, Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.
1
Corresponding author: C/O Dr. Mamta Singh, Second Year Post
Graduate Student, Room No.12 B, PG Girls Hostel, Kothiwal Dental College & Research Centre, Mora Mustaqueem, Kanth Road,
Moradabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.
How to cite this article: Disha Gupta, Mamta Singh, Manvi
Chandra Agarwal, Pranav Gupta. Conventional and modiied papilla preservation lap (PPF) using bone graft and platelet rich ibrin (PRF): an attempt of management of soft tissues in an esthetic
zone. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):105-107.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
105
Gupta et al.
Conventional and Modiied Papilla Preservation Flap (PPF) using Bone Graft and Platelet Rich Fibrin (PRF)
Periodontics with the chief complaint of bleeding gums since
two years. Intraoral examination revealed periodontal pockets in relation to maxillary teeth with pocket probing depth
of more than 9mm which bled upon probing.
The maxillary anterior teeth exhibited Grade I Miller’s recession, interdental spacing between teeth #11, #21, #22 &
#23. Keratinized tissue at the site of interest was adequate.
The radiographs revealed vertical bone defect in relation
with maxillary anterior teeth.
Based on the clinical and radiographic data, patient was diagnosed to have chronic periodontitis.
Subsequent scaling and root planing was achieved and patient was motivated for oral hygiene care. The areas were
re-assessed for gingival health, pocket probing depths and
gingival bleeding during supportive periodontal care, which
indicated a need for surgical intervention with predictable
esthetic value.
Conventional PPF was planned with teeth #11 & #21 and
modiied with #21 & 22, #22 & #23.The patient gave his
consent to the treatment protocol after the form of therapy
was explained to him.
Adequate anesthesia using 2% lignocaine with a concentration of 1:100,000 epinephrine was obtained. The extent of
bone defect was probed as the extension of the osseous defect in relation to the palatal aspect of the interdental papilla determines the position of semilunar incision. The facial
surface was prepared with a sulcular incision around teeth
#11 and #21 with no incisions made through the interdental
papilla.
The palatal lap design consisted of sulcular incisions along
the palatal aspect of the teeth in relation to the central incisors with a semilunar incision made across the interdental
papilla in relation to the teeth 11 and 21.This semilunar incision was made such that it dipped apically from the line
angles of the tooth so that the papillary incision line was at
least 5 mm from the gingival margin which allowed the interdental tissue to be dissected from the palatal aspect facilitating intact elevation with the facial lap.
Papilla incorporated in facial lap
After the incisions, laps were relected and the interdental
papilla was then freed from the underlying hard tissue using
interproximal knife. This detached papilla was then pushed
through the interdental space with a periosteal elevator in a
way that the entire papilla would be incorporated in the lap.
The relected lap was scraped on the inner side and trimmed
off to eliminate pocket epithelium. Thorough debridement
was done with the help of curettes followed by meticulous
scaling and root planing.
Preparation of PRF
5 ml of venous blood was drawn in a test tube without an anticoagulant, and centrifuged immediately. It was centrifuged
for 10 minutes at 3000 rpm.
106
Figure-1: Preoperative view
Figure-2: Papilla incorporated in facial lap
Figure-3: PRF plug
Figure-4: PRF with bone graft
Figure-5: Post operative view at 1 month
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Gupta et al.
Conventional and Modiied Papilla Preservation Flap (PPF) using Bone Graft and Platelet Rich Fibrin (PRF)
PRF with bone graft
The laps raised by conventional method were sutured by
interrupted sutures and the facial lap containing the papilla
was brought to contact well with the incision line on the palatal aspect and a direct suture was placed.
A surgical dressing was placed as it reduces the chances of
lap displacement by mastication, accidental tooth brushing
or interferences by tongue action.
Patient was instructed to rinse with 0.2%
chlorhexidene twice a day for two weeks.
Periodontal dressing and sutures were removed one week
postoperatively. The healing was uneventful. Patient was
advised to initiate mechanical oral hygiene from the second
post operative week. Supportive periodontal therapy was
provided every month and oral hygiene instructions were
reinforced at that time. The patient was followed up post operatively for one year duration.
DISCUSSION
The modern periodontal paradigm is directed towards the establishment of physiological form of gingiva thereby restoring its optimal function and esthetics. Conventional papilla
preservation lap method preserves the interdental papilla by
incorporating the entire papilla in one of the laps and also
guarantees a result very similar to a situation preceding surgery.
The present case utilized papilla preservation lap method in
the anterior maxillary teeth 11 and 21 to obtain reduction of
the periodontal pockets with an esthetically pleasing result.
During the course of supportive periodontal care, the gingiva
exhibited health with normal pyramidal shaped interdental
papilla and no gingival bleeding was observed.
Modiications in the conventional papilla preservation lap
technique can be appropriately used with coronally displaced lap along with bone graft and barrier membrane.6
Modiied papilla preservation lap is indicated in teeth having narrow interdental spaces.7 These lap methods require
expertise as they are technique sensitive which makes them
time consuming and are indicated wherein regenerative therapy is anticipated.
In the present case, Platelet Rich Fibrin (PRF) plug minced
together with bone graft (HA+TCPA) was used in relation to
11. PRF is a second generation Platelet concentrate developed by Dr. Joseph Choukroun in France in the year 2001.8
PRF has additional advantage over the irst generation Platelet Rich Plasma (PRP) as it is strictly autologous since it does
not require addition of an anticoagulant or bovine thrombin
thus does not induce antigenicity. It has been used extensively in combination with bone graft materials for periodontal
regeneration, ridge augmentation, sinus lift procedures for
implant placement and for coverage of recession defects in
the form of a membrane.
CONCLUSION
Although a non-surgical approach is advocated for maxillary anterior region but there are conditions when surgical
approach cannot be avoided. A surgical approach that splits
the papilla certainly contributes to shrinkage and decrease in
the height of interdental papilla leading to exposure of the
interproximal embrasures.
In such cases, Papilla Preservation Technique provides a
better approach for optimal interproximal regeneration in an
esthetically pleasing manner.
REFERENCES
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Novak MJ. Classiication of diseases and condition affecting the periodontium in Newman MG, Takei HH,
Klokkevold PR, Carranza FA. Carranza’s Clinical periodontology 10th edition W.B. Saunders St. Louis, Missouri 2011; 104.
Takei H.H, Han T.J, Carranza F.A, Kenney E.B Jr., Lekovic V. Flap technique for periodontal bone implants.
Papilla preservation technique. J Periodontol 1985; 56;
204-210.
Checchi L, Schonfeld SE. A technique for esthetictreatment of maxillary anterior infrabony lesions.
Quintessence Int. 1988; 19: 209-213.
Checchi L, Montevecchi M, Checchi V, Bonetti GA. A
modiied papilla preservation technique, 22 years later.
Quintessence Int. 2009; 40:303-311.
Cortellini P, Pini Prato G, Tonetti M. The modiied papilla preservation tech- nique. A new surgical approach
for interproximal regenerative procedures. J Periodontol 1995:06:261-266.
Dohan DM, Choukroun J, Diss A, Dohan SL, Dohan
AJ, Mouhyi J, et al. Platelet-rich ibrin (PRF): A second-generation platelet concentrate. Part II: Platelet-related biologic features. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol
Oral Radiol Endod 2006; 101: e45-50.
Choukroun J, Diss A, Simonpieri A, Girard MO,
Schoefler C, Dohan SL, et al. Platelet-rich ibrin
(PRF): A second generation platelet concentrate: Part I:
Technological concepts and evolution. Oral Surg Oral
Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2006; 101: 37-44.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 21-11-2015; Published online: 05-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
107
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Effect of Honey in Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck
Cancer
John Winkle Medida1, Bala Sankar Ramavath2, Joseph Benjamin Gandi3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Mucositis is a common side effect of chemo
radiotherapy to the head and neck region. It compromises
patient’s health and quality of life. Standard treatment is not
available at present. Care is limited to symptom control. Honey has anti-bacterial and anti-inlammatory properties. It is
naturally available, cheap, and ubiquitous. Hence to know the
effect of honey in radiation induced mucositis.
Materials & methods: 56 cancer patients receiving concurrent chemoradiotherapy to head and neck region were recruited in this study from October 2012 to august 2014. Study
group consisted 27 patients and control group consisted 29
patients. Study group patients received topical application of
honey collected from CAROM plant along with chemo radiotherapy and control group patients received only chemo radiotherapy. All patients were assessed twice a week for the
onset and severity of mucositis. Both study and control group
patients were advised to take plenty of oral luids, supplementation with high protein diet and oro dental care.
Results: 15 (55.6%) patients in study group developed mucositis at 13th fraction whereas 15(51.7%) patients in control
group developed mucositis at 10th fraction indicating that
honey postpones the onset of radiation induced mucositis.
The severity of radiation induced mucositis at every assessment showed statistically signiicant difference between study
group and control group. This clearly showed control group
patients were with higher grades of mucositis than study
group patients.
Conclusion: This prospective interventional study found the
usefulness of topical application of honey in reducing the onset and severity of radiation induced mucositis in patients receiving chemo radiation to head and neck cancers.
Keywords: Honey, Radiotherapy, mucositis, Head and neck
cancers.
juvant treatment later stage head and neck cancers. Due to
the radiation-induced DNA damage of surrounding critical
structures, radiotherapy can cause debilitating side effects
such as skin reactions (erythema, dry desquamation, moist
desquamation), oral mucositis (mouth ulceration) xerostomia (dry mouth).
Oral mucositis is caused by a multi-step biological process, which occurs in 30 to 40% of patients receiving
chemotherapy, 60% of patients receiving radiation therapy
and 92% of patients receiving both chemotherapy and radiation therapy.1,2,3 It can cause serious secondary complications such as pain, dificulty in eating and swallowing,
taste changes, infection, malnutrition and weight loss. It
can also lead to a reduction in total dose delivered to the
tumor bed and unscheduled treatment breaks. This can have
a detrimental effect on local tumor control and thus patient
survival.4
Management of mucositis is critical to maintain the patients
food pathway, avoid interruption in the delivery of radiation
treatment and to avoid hospitalization and the need for parenteral or tube feeding. Currently there is no standard treatment for oral mucositis in head and neck cancer patients
worldwide. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have no
approved intervention for prevention of radiation induced
mucositis.5 Current management of oral mucositis is limited
to symptom control including pain relief and maintenance
of good oral hygiene. One of the latest interventions for the
management of radiation induced oral mucositis is natural
honey.6,7,8,9 It has antimicrobial properties10 and promotes
wound healing.
The main objective of this study is to know the effect of topical application of honey on onset and severity of radiation
induced mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving
radiation.
Senior Resident, 2Asst professor, 3Professor Department of Radiation Oncology, MNJ Institute of Oncology& Regional Cancer
Centre, Hyderabad, India
1
INTRODUCTION
The head and neck cancers form the seventh most common
cancer worldwide. They are the most common cancers in developing countries, especially in Southeast Asia. Head and
neck cancers are more common in males compared to females. This is mainly attributed to the use of tobacco, areca
nut, alcohol etc.
Most of the head and neck cancer patients receive radiotherapy at some stage during treatment. Radiotherapy plays a
signiicant role as a primary treatment in early stage and ad-
108
Corresponding author: Dr. John Winkle Medida, Room no 7,
MNJ Institute of Oncology & Regional Cancer Centre, Redhills,
Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: John Winkle Medida, Bala Sankar Ramavath, Joseph Benjamin Gandi. Effect of Honey in Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):108-113.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Medida et al.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Present study was done in the department of radiotherapy in
MNJ Institute of Oncology & Regional Cancer Centre. The
patients were randomly selected from year 2012 to 2014 and
were allotted study group and control group.
Inclusion Criteria
Histo-pathologically conirmed non-metastatic Squamous
cell carcinoma of head and neck region, age less than 70
years, ECOG performance status of 0-2, Patients should receive Concurrent Chemo radiotherapy as primary treatment.
Exclusion criteria
Tumors of non-Squamous histology, age greater than 70
years, ECOG performance status of >2, any prior treatment
received for the tumor, any co-morbid condition or acute infection where treatment is contraindicated, evidence of distant Metastasis.
Patients Recruitment
56 patients receiving concurrent chemo radiotherapy to head
and neck cancers were recruited in this study during October 2012 to august 2014. 27 were taken in study group and
remaining 29 were taken into control group. Study group received 10ml of natural honey(Carom Plant) procured from
NIRD(National Institute of Rural Development) for topical
application in oral cavity 10min before and after radiation
treatment. They were asked to swirl honey in oral cavity
and swallow it slowly so that it can be smeared on oral and
pharyngeal mucosa before and after every radiation fraction.
Control group patients received only chemo radiotherapy.
Both study group and control group patients were advised to
take plenty of oral luids, supplementation with high protein
diet and oro-dental care.
Radiation Treatment Planning and Delivery
All patients underwent pre RT oro-dental care. Radiotherapy
was delivered by linear accelerator (LINAC) using 6MV X
rays. Computer based CT planning was done for all patients
in two phases with total dose of 66Gy/33#.
PhaseI: 44Gy/22 fractions, 5 fractions per week
PhaseII: 22 Gy/11 fraction, 5 fraction per week, sparing the
spinal cord.
Patients in both arms received concurrent chemotherapy
with cisplatin 40 mg/ m2 given weekly with radiotherapy
Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer
RTOG Grading System
Grade 0 : No change
Grade 1 : Mucosal erythema
Grade 2 : Studded mucositis / Patchy mucositis
Grade 3 : Conluent mucositis not requiring intervention
Grade 4 : Ulceration necessitates for treatment break.
Data Collection and Statistical Analysis
The collected data was analyzed using standard statistical
software package (SSPS
version 20.0). The onset and severity of mucositis were analyzed in both groups. The two groups were compared using
chi square test to check whether they were balanced in terms
of patient and disease related characters like stage, sex, tumor site, performance status, age, and histology.
RESULTS
Patients were selected according to inclusion and exclusion
criteria. Total of 56 patients with Head and Neck cancers
were enrolled. Study group consisted 27 patients and control
group consisted 29 patients. Patients were in the age group of
25-58 years in study group whereas 30-62 in control group.
The mean age of patients in study group was 40.6 The mean
age of patients in control group was 48.03.The patients were
assessed regularly twice a week for the onset of mucositis
and severity of mucositis according to RTOG mucositis
grading system.
Registration and Consultation
with Radiation Oncologist
Advised Chemo Radiation Therapy
Immobilisation And CT
Simulation
Planning And Implimentation
Study Group with Honey
Intake Start from first
fraction prior and after
Radiotherapy
Toxicity Assessment
All Patients were assessed twice a week (3#&5# in 1wk, 8#
&10# in 2wk, 13# &15# in 3wk,18# &20# in 4wk, 22# in
5wk, 25# &28# in 6wk, 30# &33# in 7wk) for tumor response and development of mucositis. Mucositis was examined clinically under good light. RTOG (Radiation Therapy
Oncology Group) grading system was utilized to grade the
mucositis.
Control Group
Without Honey intake
Only Radiotherapy
Assessment of Response and Toxicity
twice a week throughout the treatment
Observation of Onset of Mucositis and
Grading the Severity of mucositis as per the
RTOG grading system
Analysis of Results
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
109
Medida et al.
Fraction
Eight
Ten
Thirteen
Fifteen
Fractions
3#
w5#
8#
10#
13#
15#
18#
20#
22#
25#
28#
30#
33#
Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer
study
control
Total
Df
1(3.7%)
12(41.4%)
13(23.2%)
10(37%)
15(51.7%)
25(44.6%)
4
15(55.6%)
2(6.9%)
17(30.4%)
1(3.7%)
0(0%)
1(1.8%)
Table-1: Onset of mucositis in study group and control group
Grade
Study
Control
DF
G0
27 (48.2%)
29 (51.8%)
NS
G0
27 (48.2%)
29 (51.8%)
NS
G0
26 (96.3%)
17 (58.6%)
2
G1
1(3.7%)
11(37.9%)
G2
0 (0%)
1(3.6%)
G0
16 (59.3%)
2 (6.9%)
3
G1
8(29.6%)
13(44.8%)
G2
3(11.1%)
14(48.3%)
G0
1 (3.7%)
0(0%)
2
G1
21(77.8%)
5(17.2%)
G2
5(18.5%)
24(82.8%)
G1
15(55.6%)
0(0%)
2
G2
12(44.4%)
25(86.2%)
G3
0(0%)
0(0%)
G1
6(22.2%)
0(0%)
2
G2
19(70.4%)
14(48.3%)
G3
2(7.4%)
15(51.7%)
21(77.8%)
4(13.8%)
2
G1
6(22.2%)
24(82.8%)
G2
G3
0(0%)
1(3.4%)
G2
15(57.7%)
1(3.4%)
2
G3
11(42.3%)
21(72.4%)
G4
0(0%)
7(24.1%)
G1
8(28%)
0(0%)
3
G2
16(64%)
24(82.8%)
G3
1(4%)
3(10.3%)
Absconded
1(4%)
2(6.9%)
G1
12(50%)
1(3.7%)
3
G2
12(50%)
23(85.2%)
G3
0(0%)
2(7.4%)
G0
3(12.5%)
0(0%)
3
G1
13(54.2%)
4(15.4%)
G2
8(33.3%)
21(80.8%)
G3
0(0%)
1(3.8%)
G0
5(20.8%)
0(0%0
3
G1
14(58.3%)
5(19.2%)
G2
5(20.8%)
20(76.9%)
G3
0(0%)
1(3.8%)
Table-2: Assessment of mucositis at every fraction in study group and control group
Onset of Mucositis
The onset of mucositis in study group and control group was
as follows:
1 (3.7%) patient in study group and 12(41.4%) patients in
control group developed grade1 mucositis at 8th fraction. 10
(37%) patients in study group and 15(51.7%) patients in control group developed grade 1 mucositis at 10th fraction. 15
(55.6%) patients in study group and 2(6.9%) in control group
developed mucositis at 13th fraction.
The mucositis was assessed twice a week. The following
table shows the grades of mucositis on every assessment.
110
X2
0.000
X2
NS
NS
0.004
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.006
0.001
0.002
0.000
None of the patients in study group and control groups developed mucositis at 3#.
DISCUSSION
Radiation-induced mucositis is a normal accompaniment of
radiotherapy to the head and neck area. Normally, the oral
mucosa has a relatively high cell-turnover rate. Exposure to
ionizing radiation leads to mucosal erythema, small whitish
patches and ultimately results in conluent mucositis.11 In later phases, oral ulceration and bleeding become a dose-lim-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
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Medida et al.
Study Group
Control Group
Fraction
Mean muco- Fraction
Mean mucositis score
sitis score
Eight
0
Eight
0.44
Ten
0.4
Ten
1.41
thirteen
1.1
thirteen
1.82
Fifteen
1.4
Fifteen
2.13
Eighteen
1.8
Eighteen
2.51
Twenty
2.2
Twenty
2.89
Twenty two
2.4
Twenty two
3.2
Twenty ive
1.7
Twenty ive
2.11
Twenty eight
1.3
Twenty eight
2.03
Thirty
1.1
Thirty
1.88
Thirty three
0.9
Thirty three
1.84
Table-3: Mean muositis score for study group and control
group
iting toxicity. Mucositis a result of imbalance between cell
loss and cell proliferation. The intensity of mucositis can be
altered by new fractionation schedules, concurrent chemo-radiotherapy and co-morbid medical conditions. Bacterial colonization in the oral mucosa can aggravate the pre-existing
mucositis.12 Endo toxins released from the gram-negative
bacilli are potent mediators of the inlammatory process in
the oral mucosa. Oropharyngeal lora, too, contributes to the
radiation-induced mucositis.
The basis of management of radiation mucositis is targeted
to its four deined
Pathogeneses13:
• To check basal cell layer growth by modifying transforming growth factor β3.
• Stimulation of epithelization, thereby encouraging rapid
recovery of cell loss.
• chemical protection of mucosa using the Amino-Thiol
group of compounds like amifostine.
• Physical protection of oral mucosa by shield use, Conformal therapy or Intensity modulated radiotherapy.
There is no standard treatment for radiation induced mucositis. In this study, honey is used topically over mucosa prior
to and after radiation treatment every day during the entire
course of treatment starting from irst fraction, to know the
effectiveness on radiation induced mucositis. Honey is naturally available, cheap, and ubiquitous and exhibits antibacterial, analgesic and tissue nutritive factors to stimulate re
epithelization in damaged mucosa.14,15,16,17,18
Age and Sex of patients
According to (Dodd,1999 ), younger patients of age
less than 20 years are more susceptible for oral mucositis due to more rapid epithelial mitotic rate or the presence of more epidermal growth factor receptors in the
epithelium at the early age.19,20 On the other hand, the
physiologic decline in renal function associated with aging
may result in higher incidence of oral mucositis in older
patients.19
Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer
Onset of Radiation Induced Mucositis
No patients developed RIM at 5th fraction assessment either
in study group or control group. The onset of mucositis in
control group patients at 8th (41.4%) &10th (51.7%) constituted 93.1% of control group patients whereas the onset of
mucosis at 10th (37%) & 13th (55.6%) in study group patients
constituted 92.6% of patients of study group.
Biswal et al. (2003) conducted a clinical trial investigating
the effect of tea plant honey on oral mucositis in patients
receiving radiation therapy. In their study, 40 patients with
oropharyngeal carcinoma were divided into two groups to
receive radiation alone or radiation plus topical application
of pure natural honey. They reported a signiicant reduction
in the severity of oral mucositis in those patients treated with
honey. Only 25% of patients in the honey group developed
grade three or four mucositis compared to 75% in the control
group.
Sadakshetram jayachandran et.al, 2012, conducted a study
to evaluate the effect of natural honey and 0.15% benzydamine hydrochloride on the onset and severity of radiation
induced mucositis. They assessed patients daily, for the onset
and severity of mucositis. The onset of mucositis for honey
group was on 14th day compared to 12th day for 0.15% benzydamine and control group.
The present study results also showed the onset of mucositis for majority of study group patients was at 13th fraction
whereas for control group patients was at 10th fraction inferring honey postpones the onset of mucositis.
SEVERITY OF MUCOSITIS
The current study assessed mucositis twice a week till the
end of radiation treatment. Thus patients were assessed at
3rd, 5th, 8th, 10th, 13th, 15th, 18th, 20th, 22nd, 25th,28th,30th and
33rd fractions.
Pattern of mucositis
All patients developed mucositis during radiation treatment.
The severity of mucositis was increased as the fractions were
increased and towards the end of the treatment severity was
decreased in both groups.
The majority patients in study group developed mucositis around 10th & 13th fraction (92.6%) and majority of patients in control group developed around 8th & 10th fraction
(93.4%). The severity of mucositis assessed at every fraction
showed a statistically signiicant difference between study
and control groups with p value of <0.01.
The results of this study were consistent with the following
randomized controlled clinical trials investigating the effect
of honey on oral mucositis, using a similar study protocol.
Motallebnejad et al. (2008) and Rashad et al. (2008) conducted similar trials using honey in Iran and Egypt respectively. Motallebnejad et al. (2008) evaluated 40 patients with
20 in each arm to receive and not to receive honey. Mucositis
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
111
Medida et al.
Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer
was assessed with oral mucositis assessment scale(OMAS).
The results showed signiicant reduction in mucositis among
honey received patients compared with controls with p value of 0.000. Rashad et al. (2008) randomized 40 patients to
study group to receive honey topically along with radiotherapy and control group only with radiotherapy. Patients were
assessed weekly for the development of mucositis. No patients in the study group developed grade 4 mucositis and
only 15% of patients developed grade 3 mucositis whereas
65% of patients developed grade3/4 mucositis in control
group (p<0.05). Motallebnejad et al. (2008) used saline
mouthwashes and Rashad et al. (2008) used Benzydamine
HCl mouthwashes for all patients.
Sadaksharam jayachandran et al. evaluated 60 patients and
divided them into 20patients each group taking honey orally,0.15% benzydamine chloride and normal saline during
radiation treatment. They found pure natural honey delays
the onset of radiation induced mucositis and signiicantly reduce the severity of mucositis. The differences between the
groups were statistically signiicant (P < 0.001).
Important factors that inluence the effectiveness of honey:
Its hygroscopic nature, acidic pH prevents bacteria growth
when applied to the mucosa, Inhibin (hydrogen peroxide)
converted from glucose oxydase and gluconic acid, Enzymes
(growth factors?) and tissue-nutritive minerals and vitamins
help repair tissue directly.
The antibacterial property of honey depends upon its concentration. The effect on radiation mucositis in honey treated
patients might be due to the bacteriostatic effect of viscid
honey. Pure honey is acidic, with a pH of around 3.9. The
solubility reducing factor present in honey can activate in
absence of saliva. Honey applied on radiation induced xerotic mucosa increases the micro hardness of enamel, thereby
preventing caries. Hence, it has been postulated that honey is
less Cariogenic in dry mouth patients.
There are currently no approved agents or strategies that reliably prevent RIM, although several agents are under investigation. The current recommendations for mucositis are
directed at limiting its extent and/or severity by appropriate
treatment selection, attention to RT planning details, and the
use of supportive and palliative care including basic oral
care, aggressive use of analgesics, the use of feeding tubes in
selected cases, and swallowing exercises and therapy. Honey
has been found effective in burn wounds, oral infections and
acceleration of surgical wound healing. Pure honey is ubiquitous, cheap and natural, and exhibits antibacterial, analgesic and tissue nutritive factors to stimulate re epithelization
in the damaged mucosa, and is thereby a justiied agent to
try in radiation mucositis. Through this study, topical application of honey can be used as an effective intervention to
prevent the radiation induced mucositis.
usefulness of topical application of honey in reducing
the onset as well as severity of radiation induced mucositis in patients receiving radiation to head and neck
cancers.
2. The results of the study are similar with three overseas
studies Biswall et al., 2003; Motallebnjad et al., 2008
and Rashad et al., 2008 and one Indian study by Sadaksharam jayachandran and Narasimhan Balaji,2010.
Limitations
1. The sample of patients is small.
2. The study group is not representative of entire head and
neck cancer patients.
3. Non randomization of patients.
Recommendations
This study evaluated patients for radiation induced mucositis
twice a week. By this, the exact fraction/dose of development of mucositis can not be assessed properly. Instead if
assessed daily, the exact fraction/dose at which the mucositis
starts can be known. The effect of honey on the radiation
dosimetry should be studied, if it is adopted as one of the
modality of treatment of radiation induced mucositis.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
CONCLUSION
1. This small prospective interventional study found the
112
9.
Parulekar W, Mackenzie R, Bjarnason G, Jordan RC.
Scoring oral mucositis.Oral Oncol. 1998 Jan;34:63-71.
Sonis ST.Mucsitis as a biological process: a new hypothesis for the development of chemotherapy-induced
stomatotoxicity.Oral Oncol. 1998;34:39-43.
Dodd MJ, Miaskowski C, Dibble SL, Paul SM,
MacPhail L, Greenspan D, Shiba G.Factors inluencing
oral mucositis in patients receiving chemotherapy.Cancer Pract. 2000;8:291-7.
Rosenthal DI.Consequences of mucositis-induced treatment breaks and dose reductions on head and neck
cancer treatment outcomes.J Support Oncol. 2007;5(9
Suppl 4):23-31.
Rosenthal DI, Trotti A.Strategies for managing radiation-induced mucositis in head and neck cancer.SeminRadiatOncol. 2009;19:29-34.
Motallebnejad M1, Akram S, Moghadamnia A, Moulana Z, Omidi S. The effect of topical application of pure
honey on radiation-induced mucositis: a randomized
clinical trial. J Contemp Dent Pract. 2008;9:40-7.
Rashad UM1, Al-Gezawy SM, El-Gezawy E, Azzaz
AN. Honey as topical prophylaxis against radiochemotherapy-induced mucositis in head and neck cancer. J
Laryngol Otol. 2009;123:223-8.
Biswal BM1, Zakaria A, Ahmad NM. Topical application of honey in the management of radiation mucositis:
a preliminary study. Support Care Cancer. 2003;11:2428.
Khanal B1, Baliga M, Uppal N. Effect of topical honey on limitation of radiation-induced oral mucosi-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Medida et al.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Radiation Induced Mucositis in Head and Neck Cancer
tis: an intervention study. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg.
2010;39:1181-5.
R A Cooper, P C Molan, K G Harding. Antibacterial activity of honey against strains of Staphylococcus aureus
from infected wounds. J R Soc Med. 1999; 92: 283–285.
Sonis ST, Elting LS, Keefe D, Peterson DE, Schubert
M, Hauer-Jensen M, Bekele BN, Raber-Durlacher J,
Donnelly JP, Rubenstein EB.Perspectives on cancer
therapy-induced mucosal injury: pathogenesis, measurement, epidemiology, and consequences for patients.
Cancer. 2004;100(9 Suppl):1995-2025.
Shih A, Miaskowski C, Dodd MJ, Stotts NA, MacPhail
L.Mechanisms for radiation-induced oral mucositis and
the consequences.Cancer Nurs. 2003;26:222-9.
Sonis ST.Pathobiology of oral mucositis: novel insights
and opportunities.J Support Oncol. 2007;5(9 Suppl
4):3-11.
Molan PC. The potential of honey to promote oral wellness. Gen Dent. 2001;49:584-9.
A. Farouk, T. Hassan, H. Kashif, S. A. Khalid, I. Mutawali, and Mahasin Wadi Studies on Sudanese Bee Honey: Laboratory and Clinical Evaluation. 1988;26:161168.
Weheida, S.M., Nagubib, H.H., El-Banna, H.M. and
Marzouk, S. Comparing the effects of two dressing
techniques on healing of low grade pressure ulcers.2001
J. Medical Research Institute 12: 259-278.
Gheldof N1, Wang XH, Engeseth NJ. Identiication
and quantiication of antioxidant components of honeys from various loral sources. J Agric Food Chem.
2002;50:5870-7.
Gheldof N1, Engeseth NJ. Antioxidant capacity of honeys from various loral sources based on the determination of oxygen radical absorbance capacity and inhibition of in vitro lipoprotein oxidation in human serum
samples. J Agric Food Chem. 2002;50:3050-5.
Avritscher EB, Cooksley CD, Elting LS.Scope and epidemiology of cancer therapy induced oral and gastrointestinal mucositis.SeminOncolNurs. 2004;20:3-10.
Brown CG, Wingard J.Clinical consequences of oral
mucositis.SeminOncolNurs. 2004;20:16-21.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 21-11-2015; Published online: 05-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
113
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Effect of Honey Dressing on Inlammatory Response of Human
Dental Pulp after Pulpotmy
Ayesha Bashir1, Naureen Sarwar2, Shazia Naaz3, Muhammad Kashif4, Sohail Abbas Khan5
ABSTRACT
Background: Honey has been used as a medicine since ages.
In different studies it has been rediscovered by medical professionals in recent times for treatment of burns, infected
wounds, and ulcers because of its high antibacterial, anti-inlammatory antiseptic and antioxidant qualities. The purpose
of this study was to evaluate the inlammatory cell response
of human dental pulp with honey dressings after pulpotomy.
Materials and Methods: Twenty four teeth from twelve patients to be extracted due to orthodontic reasons were selected. These teeth were divided into two groups and treated with
honey and calcium hydro-oxide (Control group) dressings after pulpotomy. Honey was used for 12 teeth and other 12 teeth
were given calcium hydro-oxide after pulpotomy. Teeth of six
patients were extracted after one week and the other six after
four weeks. They were prepared for histological evaluation.
Results: In control group 3 teeth showed inlammatory cell
response in grade 1, but 9 (calcium hydro-oxide) teeth showed
inlammatory cell response in grade 2. In honey group 5 teeth
showed inlammatory cell response in grade 1, and 7 teeth in
grade 2.
Conclusion: Honey can be used as alternative to conventional dressing material such as calcium hydroxide dressing after
pulpotomy of human dental pulp.
Keywords: Pulpotomy, Honey, Pulp Vitality
INTRODUCTION
The vitality of the dentin-pulp complex is fundamental to
the functional life of the tooth and is a priority for targeting
clinical management strategies. Not only do the cells of the
pulp maintain tissue homeostasis after tooth development,
but they also underpin the defense reactions taking place in
response to injury, such as caries, and the reparative events
leading to tissue regeneration. Signaling of cells to control
their behavior and activity is of critical importance to maintaining pulp vitality. Based on these issues and concerns, the
ability to maintain or renew dental pulp vitality would be
preferable to current endodontic treatments.1,2
When dental pulp exposure is large, or the pulp is infected, all of the coronal pulp must be removed, and direct pulp
capping will subsequently be performed adjacent to the root
pulp. This method is called pulpotomy.3 After pulpotomy
treatment, the dental pulp within the root canal can be preserved. There are two main strategies to achieve a success-
114
ful vital pulp therapy, to reduce further damage of existing
odontoblasts, and to induce the differentiation of new odontoblasts. A successful vital pulp treatment requires a good
sealant against bacteria, no severe inlammatory reactions,
and stable hemodynamics within the pulp.4
Numerous materials have been used as dressings in vital
pulp therapy including calcium hydroxide (CH), ZOE cement, formocresol, polycarboxylate cements, inert materials,
adhesives, enamel matrix derivative (EMD), beta-tricalcium
phosphate and mineral trioxide aggregate.5
Honey has been used as a medicine since ages. But it has
been rediscovered by medical professionals in recent times
for treatment of burns, infected wounds, and ulcers because
of its high antibacterial, anti-inlammatory antiseptic and antioxidant qualities.6,7 Potential of honey for therapeutic usage
in dentistry had been tested for the treatment of infections in
wounds following tooth surgery, gingivitis, ulcers, halitosis
and periodontal disease.8 Even in radiation therapy for oral
carcinoma, it is helpful to limit the severity of radiation induced oral mucositis because of its anti-inlammatory properties.9 Study conducted for the evaluation of honey as a root
canal disinfectant indicates that honey has an antibacterial
property when used as an intracanal medicament. The result
of clinical evaluation of post-operative pain on 3rd and 7th
day shows that honey has an analgesic as well as antibacterial actions and also gives good result to eliminate the apical
exudation.10,11
Keeping in view the therapeutic properties of honey, its easy
availability and low cost, honey can be used as a dressing
material after pulpotomy. Based on clinical observations and
literature aim of this study was to describe and compare inlammatory response of human dental pulp tissue on applicaDemonstrator, 3Assistant Professor, 5Professor, Department of Operative Dentistry, de'Montmorency College of Dentistry, 2Assistant
Professor, Department of Operative Dentistry, Akhtar Saeed Medical and Dental College, 4PhD Research Fellow, Department of Immunology, UHS, Lahore, Pakistan
1
Corresponding author: Muhammad Kashif, BDS; M.Phil; PhD
research fellow, University of Health Sciences Lahore, Pakistan
How to cite this article: Ayesha Bashir, Naureen Sarwar, Shazia Naaz, Muhammad Kashif, Sohail Abbas Khan. Effect of honey dressing on inlammatory response of human dental pulp after
pulpotmy. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):114-116.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Bashir et al.
tion of dressings of calcium hydroxide and honey.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This study was conducted at ‘Operative Dentistry Department of de’Montmorency College of Dentistry, Punjab
Dental Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan. Twenty four human irst
premolar teeth, scheduled to be extracted for orthodontic
reasons, were selected from patients of age ranging between
15-25 years. Patients were selected by convenient non- probability basis. After getting informed consent, two irst premolar teeth in every patient were illed after pulpotomy, with
materials of each group, so that these materials were evaluated in same oral environment.
Group 1: Pulpotomy with Ca(OH)² dressing (control group)
Group 2: Pulpotomy with honey dressing
All teeth were examined clinically, radiographically and also
by electric pulp tester to assure the absence of proximal caries, periapical lesions and tooth vitality.
Coronal pulp was removed, after getting access to dental
pulp via cavity preparation, with long shank spoon excavator and irrigated the cavity with anesthetic solution and
then dried it with sterile dry cotton pledget. After haemostasis dressings were placed on amputated pulps. After the
placement of these dressing materials, teeth were restored
with composite resin using glass ionomer cement as a liner. Teeth of six patients were extracted after one week and
the other six after four weeks for the subsequent procedure.
Teeth were decalciied in 20% formic acid for six to eight
weeks, and were prepared in according to normal histological techniques and embedded in parafin. Six micron sections were cut with microtome parallel to the vertical axis of
tooth. The sections were mounted on glass slides and were
stained with haematoxylin and eosin. The stained sections
were seen microscopically to observe any kind of pulpal cell
response. The sections were evaluated in assistance with experienced pathologists and calibrated according to the criteria described as follows:
Inlammatory cell score
Grade 1. Absent or very few inlammatory cells
Grade 2. Mild or average number less than ten inlammatory
cells
Grade 3. Severe inlammatory lesion appearing as an abscess
or dense iniltrate involving one third or more of the pulp
Grade 4. Completely necrotic pulp
Data was then entered and analysed using SPSS 20.0. This
study was approved by Institutional Ethical Review Committee and Board of Advanced Studies.
Effect of Honey Dressing on Inlammatory Response
of intervention to see the effects on grade of inlammatory
reaction. The 6 control group teeth which had been extracted
at day 7, only one teeth showed grade 1 inlammatory reaction while ive teeth showed grade 2 inlammatory reaction.
As compared to control group, “the Honey” group showed 3
teeth in grade 1 and 3 teeth in grade 2 inlammatory reaction
(Table 1). None of the teeth in both groups were fallen in
grade grade 3 or 4 at day 7 of the the intervention. When we
applied Fisher's Exact Test to see the statistical signiicance
among different types of treatment interventions and inlammatory grades, we found an insigniicant p value.
Descriptive statistics after 28 days
After 28 days, in control group, 4 (66.7% ) in grade 2 and 2
(33.3%) in grade 1 and in honey group 4 (66.7%) in grade
2 and 2 (33.3%) also in grade 1 which indicates that both
groups showed similar in reduction of inlammatory cell
score (Table 2). This result shows us that there is no statistically signiicant association among groups and inlammatory
cell score (p > 0.05).
DISCUSSION
In the present study, the inlammatory response of human
dental pulp with Honey in comparison to Calcium Hydroxide dressings, after pulpotomy was investigated.
In order to cover the shortcomings of calcium hydroxide, a
number of materials have been tried, and a continuous research
is being done. Few materials have been found to be even better
than calcium hydroxide as MTA and New endodontic cement.
But they are not used in routine clinical practices, because they
are quiet expensive. This would deinitely increase the cost of
dental treatment. For this reason dentist prefer to use calcium
hydroxide for vital pulp therapy. It is needed to search a material that should have better biological properties as well as
cheap as calcium hydroxide. Honey is considered to be ideal
in this regard, as it has best and proven biological properties,
easy to ind and of low cost. This study was carried out in an
ideal situation because of mechanical exposure and removal
of healthy coronal pulp, leaving behind healthy radicular pulp,
hence offered more favourable prognosis.12,13
Group
1
2
Score
Total
Grade Grade Grade Grade
1
2
3
4
Control
1
5
0
0
6
Honey
3
3
0
0
6
Table-1: Inlammatory cell score among groups
Group
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics after 7 days
As described in the previous section, a total of 24 teeth were
selected from 12 patients, 12 teeth were extracted at day 7
1
2
Score
Total
Grade Grade Grade Grade
1
2
3
4
Control
2
4
0
0
6
Honey
2
4
0
0
6
Table-2: Inlammatory cell score among groups
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
115
Bashir et al.
Effect of Honey Dressing on Inlammatory Response
In the present study calcium Hydroxide powder mixed in
distilled water was used as a conventional dressing material
after pulpotomy. Researches about induction of tissue repair
in vital dental pulp therapy and antimicrobial effectiveness
in endodontic infections have shown calcium hydroxide as
the best option. Two important enzymatic properties of calcium hydroxide are the activation of tissue enzymes, such as
alkaline phosphatase, causing a mineralizing effect and the
inhibition of bacterial enzymes causing an antimicrobial effect. Its high pH inhibits essential enzyme activities: metabolism, growth and cellular division. The inluence of pH alters
the integrity of the cytoplasmic membrane by biochemical
injury to organic components (proteins, phospholipids) and
transport of nutrients.14,15
But many of the samples in this study showed slightly higher inlammatory response with Calcium hydroxide dressings
as compared to honey dressings. Calcium Hydroxide has
number of shortcomings such as its early dissolution, lack of
adhesion, degradation after acid etching, mild to severe pulpal inlammatory reactions, formation of odontoclasts, necrosis of pulp and internal resorption.Honey provided better
adhesion due to its viscosity, reduced inlammation or even
stopped inlammation and degenerative changes by enhancing regenerative and immune response.16
In order to cover the shortcomings of calcium hydroxide, a
number of materials have been tried, and a continuous research is being done. Few materials have been found to be
even better than calcium hydroxide as MTA and New endodontic cement. But they are not used in routine clinical practices, because they are quiet expensive. This would deinitely
increase the cost of dental treatment. For this reason dentist
prefer to use calcium hydroxide for vital pulp therapy.17,18 It
is needed to search a material that should have better biological properties as well as cheap as calcium hydroxide. Honey
is considered to be ideal in this regard, as it has best and
proven biological properties, easy to ind and of low cost.
His study was carried out in an ideal situation because of
mechanical exposure and removal of healthy coronal pulp,
leaving behind healthy radicular pulp, hence offered more
favourable prognosis.
CONCLUSION
116
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
17.
18.
REFERENCES
2.
4.
16.
Honey shows almost equal or slightly better results in reducing the pulpal inlammation. It can be used as dressing
alternative to calcium hydro-oxide in root canal treatment
because of its anti inlammatory and antibacterial actions.
1.
3.
Zhang W, Yelick PC. Vital Pulp Therapy—Current Progress of Dental Pulp Regeneration and Revascularization. International Journal of Dentistry, 2010. pages 9.
Valderhaug J, Jokstad A, Ambjørnsen E, Norheim
PW. Assessment of the periapical and clinical status
of crowned teeth over 25 years. Journal of Dentistry
1997;25:97–105.
DeRosa TA. A retrospective evaluation of pulpotomy as an alternative to extraction. General Dentistry
2006;54:37–40.
R. Vij, J. A. Coll, P. Shelton, and N. S. Farooq. Caries
control and other variables associated with success of
primary molar vital pulp therapy. Pediatric Dentistry,
2004; 26; 3:214–220.
Ghajari MF, Jeddi TA, Iri S, A Sgary S. Direct Pulp
Capping with Calcium Enriched mixture in primary
molar teeth: a randomized clinical trial. Iran Endod J
2010;5:27-30.
Molan PC. Potential of honey in the treatment of
wounds and burns. Amer J Clin Dermato 2001;2:13-19.
Molan PC. Why honey is effective as medicine. The scientiic application of its effects. Bee World 2001;82;2240.
Atwa A-DA, AbuShahba RY, Mostafa M, Hashem MI.
Effect of honey in preventing gingivitis and dental caries in patients undergoing orthodontic treatment. The
Saudi Dental Journal 2014;26:108-114.
Khan SA, CheemaS, Qureshi RP. Evaluation of honey
as a root canal disinfectant. Proceeding Sheikh Bayed
Postgrad Med Inst Dec 2004;18:91-5.
Eteraf-Oskouei T, Najai M. Traditional and Modern Uses of Natural Honey in Human Diseases: A
Review. Iranian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences.
2013;16:731-742.
Mandal MD, Mandal S. Honey: its medicinal property
and antibacterial activity.Asian Paciic Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2011; 1:154-160.
Panzarini SR, Trevisan CL, Brandini DA, et al. Intracanal dressing and root canal illing materials in tooth
replantation: a literature review. Dental Traumatology
2012; 28910:42-48.
Mohammadi, Z, Dummer PMH. Properties and applications of calcium hydroxide in endodontics and dental
traumatology. International endodontic journal 2011;
44: 697-730.
Desai, Shalin, and Nicholas Chandler. Calcium hydroxide–based root canal sealers: a review. Journal of endodontics 2009; 35: 475-480.
Estrela C, Sydney GB, Bammann LL, Felippe-Jr O.
Mechanism of the action of calcium and hydroxyl ions
of calcium hydroxide on tissue and bacteria. Braz Dent
J 1995; 6:85-90.
Hilton T. Keys to Clinical Success with Pulp Capping: A Review of the Literature. Operative dentistry.
2009;34:615-625.
Wadajkar AS, Ahn C, Nguyen KT, Zhu Q, Komabayashi T. In Vitro Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Four Vital Pulp
Therapy Materials on L929 Fibroblasts. ISRN Dentistry. 2014;2014:191068.
Ghoddusi J, Forghani M, Parisay I. New Approaches in
Vital Pulp Therapy in Permanent Teeth. Iranian Endodontic Journal. 2014;9:15-22.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 24-11-2015; Published online: 08-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Oxidative Stress: A Possible Mechanism of Atazanavir/Ritonavir
Induced Renal Toxicity
Elias Adikwu1, Igbans Rejoice Obele2, Apiakase Williams2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Atazavavir/ritonavir (ATV/r) renal toxicity
may be associatedwith oxidative stress because oxidative
stress has been implicated in drugs induced renal toxicity.
This study therefore evaluated the effect of ATV/r on renal
function parameters and kidney oxidative stress markers of
male albino rats.
Materials and Methods: Adult male albino rats were orally
treated with 150/50 mg/kg of ATV/r for 1-4 weeks and (15/5 120/40) mg/kg of ATV/r for 8 weeks. Animals were sacriiced
at the end of treatment, blood sample was collected and serum
extracted and evaluated forserum creatinine, urea, and uric
acid levels. Kidneys were collected weighed and evaluated
for glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase
(CAT), glutathione-s-transferase (GST), glutathione reductase
(GR), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and malondialdehyde
(MDA).
Results:Treatment with ATV/r did not produce any signiicant
(p>0.05) effect on absolute kidney weight when compared to
the control. Signiicant (p<0.05) dose and time-dependent
increases in serum creatinine, urea and uric acid levels were
observed with ATV/r treatment when compared to the control.
Also, signiicant (p<0.05) dose and time-dependent decreases
in kidney SOD,CAT, GST, GSH, GR, and GPXlevels with increases in MDA levels occurred with ATV/r treatment when
compared to the control.
Conclusion: Observationin this study shows ATV/r induced
renal toxicity is time and dose-dependent and may be dueto
oxidative stress.
Keyword: Atazanavir/ritonavir, Kidney, Toxicity, Oxidative
Stress, Rats
human immunodeiciency virus. In January 2004, it was approved by Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare as
an antiretroviral drug for the management of HIV infection.
In Europe,2004atazanavir was also approvedas a once-daily
dose of 300 mg boosted with 100 mg of ritonavir. The use of
unboosted atazanavir 400 mg daily has also proved effective
as a switch strategy and is approved in the USA.2 According
to current guidelines, atazanavir/ritonavir (ATV/r) is one of
the irst-line antiretroviral drugs with high eficacy, tolerability, favorable lipid proile and once-daily dosing.3
Atazanavir may be associated with renal toxicity according
to Brewster and Perazella (2004)4 who irst described acute
interstitial nephritis associated with atazanavir. Further studies showedthat atazanavir renal toxicity may be marked with
granulomatous interstitial nephritis (GIN) characterized
by crystalluria, and crystal nephropathy.5 Epidemiological
studies have found that exposure to ATV/r is associated
with an increased incidence of renal stones when compared
to efavirenz and other protease inhibitors based regimens.6
Treatment with ATV/r was associated with increases inserum creatinine, urea levels and increases in urine levels of
total protein and albumin.7 Cumulative exposure to ATV/r
may cause tubular dysfunction leading to decreaseglomerular function. Mostcumulative exposures to ATV/r were associated with the formation of urolithiasis characterized by
acute lumbar or lank pain and gross hematuria.8,9 Atazanavir
is slightly soluble in water at the concentration of 4–5 mg/ml
and increasing alkalinity of urine may stimulatecrystallization of atazanavir. Atazanavir crystals are usually 8–20 nm
sized, rod like-shaped and mildly birefringent and may be
found in few asymptomatic patients receiving atazanavir
boosted with ritonavir.10
Oxidative stress occurs in cells as a consequence of an imbalance between the prooxidant/antioxidant systems. Ox-
INTRODUCTION
Lecturer, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical
Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers, 2Lecturer,
Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Health
Technology, Otuogidi, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
1
The complications of therapy with antiretroviral drugs have
become more important than the consequences of human
immunodeiciency virus (HIV) infection itself. The kidney
which is the organ of drug excretion has becomevulnerable
to the delivery of antiretroviral drugs and their metabolites
due to prolong therapy which may serve as potential toxins.
Antiretroviral drugs and their metabolites may accumulate
within the tubular epithelial cells especially in the process of
reabsorption or secretion exposing renal tubule to high concentration which may lead to crystallization and subsequently kidney toxicity.1 Atazanavir boosted ritonavir is one of
the commonly use antiretroviral drugs in the management of
Corresponding author: Elias Adikwu, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers, Nigeria
How to cite this article: Adikwu Elias, Igbans Rejoice Obele,
Apiakase Williams. Oxidative stress: a possible mechanism of
atazanavir/ritonavir induced renal toxicity. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):117-121.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
117
Adikwu et al.
Oxidative Stress: A Possible Mechanism
idative stress has a critical role in the pathophysiology of
renal toxicity and kidney disease. Oxidative stress can cause
damage to kidney cellular macromolecules such as nucleic
acids, proteins, and lipids. Damage to lipids produces lipid
peroxidation products which could lead to a facile propagation of free radical reactions. Also, oxidative kidney damage
could lead to downregulation in the activities of kidney antioxidants thereby subjecting the kidney to more oxidative
damage.11 Some antiretroviral drugs have been implicated in
oxidative kidney damage marked by mitochondria damage,
generation of oxidative radicals, lipid peroxidation and down
regulation of the activities of endogenous antioxidants.12 The
use of ATV/rmay be associated with oxidative stress which
has not been evaluated. This study therefore evaluated the
dose and time-dependent effects of ATV/r on kidney oxidative stress markers of male albino rats. Also, effects on absolute kidney weight, and serum renal function parameters
were evaluated.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Drugs: Atazanavir/ritonavir used for this study was manufactured by Myland laboratories India. Atazanavir/ritonavir
powder was suspended in normal saline. All other chemicals
used for this study were of analytical grade.
Animals: Fifty adult male albino rats of average weight 310
±5 g were used for this study. The animals were obtained
from the animal house of the Department of Pharmacology
and Toxicology, Madonna University, Elele, Rivers State.
The animals were allowed to acclimatize for 14 days and
had free access to food and water ad libitum.
Drug Administration: This study was divided into three
sections; control, time-dependent and dose-dependent
studies.
Control: Group A which served as the control group
contained 10 animals which were divided into two sub
groups A1 (placebo control) and A2 (Solvent control) of 5
animals each. Animals in sub group A1 were treated orally
with water while animals in sub group A2 were treated orally
with normal saline been the vehicle used for atazanavir/
ritonavir in this study.
Time-Dependent Studies: Group C contained 20 animals
which were divided into 4 subgroups C1 – C4 of ive animals
each. Animals in subgroups C1 – C4 were treated orally with
150/50 mg/kg of ATV/r for 1- 4 weeks respectively.
Dose -Dependent Studies: Group D contained 20 animals
which were divided into 4 subgroups D1 – D4 of ive animals
each. Animals in subgroups D1 – D4 weretreated orally with
15/5 – 120/30 mg/kg of ATV/r respectively for 8 weeks.
118
Collection of Sample: Animals were sacriiced at the end
of drug treatment with the aid of diethyl ether. Blood sample
was collected through cardiac puncture and transferred into
a sterile sample container. Blood sample was centrifuged at
1200 rmp for 15 minutes and serum collected for biochemical
analysis. Animals were dissected kidneys were collected and
weighed. The collected kidneys were washed in an ice cold
1.15% KCL solution. Kidneys were then homogenized with
0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2). The resulting homogenate
was centrifuge at 2500rmp speed for 15 minutes then it
was removed from the centrifuge and the supernatant was
decanted and stored at -20°C until analysis.
Evaluation of Renal Function Parameters: Serum
creatinine urea and uric acid were evaluated as reported by
Prabu et al., 2010.13
Evaluation of Kidney Oxidative Stress Markers:
Glutathione (GSH), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) Catalase
(CAT), Glutathione peroxidase, Glutathione S-transferase,
and Glutathione reductase were evaluated as reported by
Prabu et al., 2010 while Malondialdehyde (MDA) was
evaluated as reported by Ahmed and Hassanein, 201314
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Results are expressed as mean +SEM. Results were analyzed
using one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and statistical
signiicance was set at p<0.05
RESULTS
Time-dependent Studies
Treatment with ATV/r did not produce any signiicant
(p>0.05) time-dependent effects on absolute kidney weight
when compared to the control (Table 1). Signiicant (p<0.05)
and time-dependent increases in creatinine, urea and uric
acidlevels were observed in ATV/r treated animals when
compared to the control. Increases in serum creatinine levels
were observed to represent41, 55,70 and 107% respectively
at week 1-4. Also, time-dependent increases in serum urea
levels were calculated to represent 38, 67, 89 and 121 % respectivelyat week 1-4 of treatment (Table 2). Furthermore,
signiicant (p<0.05) and time-dependent decreasesin kidney
SOD, GSH, CAT, GSH, GPX, and GST levels with increase
in MDA level were observed in animals treated with 150/50
mg/kgof ATV/r for 1-4 weeks when compared to the control.
Observed increases in kidney MDA levels represent 50, 88,
126 and 267 % respectively at week 1-4. Furthermore, decreases in kidney GPX (31, 53, 72 and 94%) and GST (41, 58,
80 and 96 %) respectively were observed in ATV/r treated animals for 1-4 weeks. Also, Kidney CAT levels were time-dependently decreased to27.1±0.03, 20.0±0.06, 18.1±0.05, and
14.3±0.01 respectively while GSH levels were also decreased
to 3.40±0.05, 3.00±0.02, 2.51±0.01 and 2.10 ±0.01respec-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Adikwu et al.
Oxidative Stress: A Possible Mechanism
tively after 1-4 weeks of ATV/r treatment (Table 5).
Dose- Dependent Studies: Treatment with ATV/r did not
produce any signiicant (p>0.05)dose-dependent effects
on kidney weight when compared to the control (Table
1).Treatment of animals with (15/5 - 120/40) mg/kg of
ATV/r for 8 weeks dose-dependently (p<0.05) increased
serum creatinine, urea and uric acid levels when compared
to the control. Dose-dependent increases observed in serum
creatinine levels represent 28, 53, 87 and 151 % while
increases in serum urea levels represent 27, 50, 100 and
169 % respectively at week 8 (Table 2). Furthermore, dosedependent decreases in kidney SOD, GSH, CAT, GSP, GST
and GR levels with increase in MDA level were observed
in animals treated with (15/5-120/40) of ATV/r for 8 weeks
when compared to the control. Observed dose-dependent
decreases in kidney GSH levels represent 34, 44,64 and
80% while decreases in GR levels represent35, 49, 69 and
84 % respectively. Furthermore, GPX levels were dosedependently decreased to 6.33±0.01, 4.63±0.02, 2.97±0.04
and 0.41±0.04 while GST levels were decreased to 5.21.±0.01,
2.70±0.01, 1.20±0.02 and 0.32±0.15 respectively in animals
treated with (15/5-120/40) ATV/r for 8 weeks (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
This study did not observe any effect on absolute kidney
weight in ATV/r treated animals. Serum uric acid, urea and
Parameter
creatinine levels were dose and time-dependently increased
in ATV/r treated animals. Also, dose and time-dependent
decreases were observed in kidney SOD, GSH, CAT, GSH,
GPX, GR and GST levels with increase in MDA level in ATV/r treated animals. Urea and creatinine are metabolic waste
products that are freely iltered by the glomeruli of the kidneys. In most clinical and toxicological investigations, their
serum concentrations are commonly used as surrogate markers of renal toxicity15,16, therefore increases observed in these
serum parameters in ATV/r treated animals suggest signs
of renal toxicity. This observation is consistent with some
studies that were not time and dose-dependent.17,18 Observed
increases in these parameters maybe due to ATV/r induced
kidney damage because studies have shown that damage to
tissues and organs could result in the elevation of serum and
tissue concentrations of speciic biochemical parameters as a
result of their release or secretions from the damaged tissues/
organs.19
Antioxidants are vital defense network that protect organs
from free radicals induced oxidative damage. Super oxide
dismutase scavenges superoxide anions while catalase catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide anion radicals to hydrogen peroxide which is degraded into a molecule of oxygen
and water. Decreases observed in the levels of these antioxidants suggest signs of oxidative damage and can precipitate accumulation of superoxide anions leading to more
kidney damage20,21 Glutathione scavenges oxidative radicals,
glutathione peroxidase reduces hydrogen peroxide and hy-
Control
Duration of Treatment with 150/50 mg/kg of ATV/r
Week2
Week 3
Week4
Kidney weight(g)
0.77±0.03
0.72±0.07
0.89±0.03
0.85±0.02
Parameter
Control
Dose (mg/kg) administered for 8 Weeks
15/5
30/10
60/20
120/40
kidney weight (g)
0.75±0.03
0.70±0.01
0.71±0.03
0.89±0.03
0.83±0.07
ATV/r: Atazanavir. Results are expressed as mean ± SEM.
Table-1: Effect of treatment with atazavavir/ritonavir on absolute kidney weight of male albino rats
Week1
0.73±0.05
Parameters
Control
Duration of Treatment with 150/50mg/kg of ATV/r
Week1
Week2
Week 3
Week4
Urea
20.0±0.03
28.2±1.00*
34.0±0.70*
38.4±1.00*
45.0±0.10*
Creatinine
1.63±0.07
2.30±0.01*
2.53±0.02*
2.78±0.01*
3.39±1.06*
Uric acid
1.52±0.03
2.20±0.03*
2.41±0.05*
2.64 ±0.05*
2.91±0.02*
Creatinine, Urea, Uric acid (mg/dl). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript* means signiicant difference with respect
to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA)
Table-2: Time-dependent effects of treatment with 150/50 mg/kg of atazanavir/ritonavir on serum renal function parameters of male
albino rats
Parameters
Control
Duration of Treatment with ATV/r (mg/kg)
15/5
30/10
60/20
120/40
Urea
20.0±0.03
25.9±0.10*
30.6±0.02*
40.8±1.00*
54.7±0.02*
Creatinine
1.63±0.07
2.10±0.02*
2.50±0.02*
3.06±0.05*
4.10±0.04*
Uric acid
1.52±0.03
1.98.±0.05*
2.10±0.05*
3.01±0.30*
4.15±0.01*
Creatinine, Urea, Uric acid (mg/dl). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript* means signiicant difference with respect
to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA)
Table-3: Dose-dependent effects of treatment with atazanavir/ritonavir on serum renal function parameters of male albino rats
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
119
Adikwu et al.
Oxidative Stress: A Possible Mechanism
Parameters
Control
Dose (mg/kg)
15/5
30/10
60/20
120/40
1.30±0.07*
2.00±0.01*
MDA
0.53±0.01
0.70±0.02*
0.91±0.04*
GSH
6.25±0.02
4.07±0.07*
3.50±0.01*
2.21±0.05*
1.21±0.03*
10.3±0.04
7.02±0.05*
5.73±0.06*
3.64±0.01*
1.61±0.02*
SOD
17.4±0.05*
10.1±0.03*
CAT
45.7±0.06
35.3±0.01*
26.2±0.02*
GST
7.50±0.02
5.21.±0.01*
2.70±0.01*
1.20±0.02*
0.32±0.15*
4.63±0.02*
2.97±0.04*
0.41±0.04*
GPX
9.21±0.06
6.33±0.01*
GR
0.65±0.07
0.42.±0.13*
0.33±2.10*
0.20±0.05*
0.10±0.04*
MDA: Malondialdehyde, (nmol/mg protein), GSH: Glutathione, CAT: Catalase, SOD: Superoxide dismutase (Unit/mg protein), GST:
Glutathione-s-transferase (μmol/min mg protein) GR: Glutathione reductase (nmol/min mg protein), GSP: Glutathione peroxidase
(μg/min mg protein). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript (*) means signiicant difference with respect to the control
at p<0.05(ANOVA)
Table-4: Dose–dependent effects of treatment with atazanavir/ritonavir on kidney oxidative stress markers of male albino rats
Parameter
Control
Duration of Treatment with 150/50mg/kg of ATV/r
Week1
Week2
Week 3
Week4
1.20±0.02*
1.42±0.07*
MDA
0.53±0.01
0.80±0.01*
1.00±0.05*
GSH
6.25±0.02
3.40±0.05*
3.00±0.02*
2.51±0.01*
2.10±0.01*
4.54±0.02*
4.00±0.03*
3.12±0.02*
SOD
10.3±0.04
6.10±0.07*
CAT
45.7±0.06
27.1±0.03*
20.0±0.06*
18.1±0.05*
14.3±0.01*
GST
7.50±0.02
4.40±0.00*
3.10±0.01*
1.50±1.32*
0.30±0.05*
0.55±0.08*
6.30±0.04*
4.30±0.02*
2.50±1.04*
GPX
9.21±0.06
0.20±0.04*
GR
0.65±0.07
0.35±0.03*
0.28±0.07*
0.25±0.25*
MDA: Malondialdehyde, (nmol/mg protein) GSH: Glutathione, CAT: Catalase, SOD: Superoxide dismutase. (Unit/mg protein) GST:
Glutathione-s-transferase (μmol/min mg protein) GR: Glutathione reductase (nmol/min mg protein), GSP: Glutathione peroxidase
(μg/min mg protein). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript* means signiicant difference with respect to the control
at p<0.05(ANOVA)
Table-5: Time-dependent effects of treatment with atazanavir/ritonavir on kidney oxidative markers of male albino rats
droperoxide while glutathione-s- transferase conjugates
xenobiotic electrophilic substances with GSH to form the
corresponding GSH-S-conjugate. Decreases in glutathione
peroxidase and glutathione levels observed in ATV/r treated
animals suggest signs of oxidative kidney damage through
free radical production.22,23 Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one
of the inal products of polyunsaturated fatty acids peroxidation in cells. It is a known marker of oxidative stress and
antioxidant status24; hence increase in malondialdehyde level
observed in the kidneys of ATV/r treated animals is a sign of
lipid peroxidation. Observations in this study maybe due to
the ability of ATV/r to accumulate and form crystals in the
kidney stimulating renal mitochondria damage leading to the
release of oxidative radicals.25 The release of oxidative radicals might have stimulated damage to lipids, membranes,
proteins, and DNA in the kidney26
Furthermore, ATV/r combination is an antiretroviral agent
and studies have shown that antiretroviral agents induced
kidney injury can occur through three pathways. The
over-expression or competitive inhibition of transport pumps
which could lead to tubular cell toxicity, the activation of the
mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway which can affect
barrier function in renal epithelial cell cascade and the induction of oxidative stress which could damage mitochondria,
disrupting fatty-acid oxidation, and energy production.27,28
Available studies suggest the involvement of oxidative stress
as one of the postulated mechanisms in the pathogenesis
120
of drug induced nephrotoxicity. Oxidative stress can induce dysfunction of cell membrane permeability and loss
of functional integrity of the kidney.29 Oxidative stress can
promote the formation of a variety of vasoactive mediators
that can affect renal function directly by initiating renal vasoconstriction or decreasing the glomerular capillary ultra
iltration coeficient; and thus reducing glomerular iltration
rate.30 Considering observations in this study, ATV/r induced
renal toxicity may involve oxidative stress as one of the possible mechanisms. Oxidative stress involves the generation
of free radicals; hence the ability of ATV/r to generate free
radicals in the kidney may be evaluated to further buttress
the involvement of oxidative stress in ATV/r induced renal
toxicity.
CONCLUSION
In this study, treatment with ATV/r produced dose and
time-dependent increases in renal function parameters, kidney malondialdehyde and decreases in antioxidants. This
shows ATV/r induced renal toxicity is dose and time-dependent and may be associated with oxidative stress as one
of the possible mechanisms. The use of ATV/r is still safe
because higher doses were used for this study.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 24-11-2015; Published online: 08-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
121
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Role of High Frequency Ultrasonography for Detection of
Radiolucent Foreign Bodies and Their Surgical Management
Bashir Ahmed Mir1, Samina Shai Wani2, Mehmood Ul Hassan Mufti3, Naseer Ahmad Khan4, Asif Sultan5,
Omar Khursheed6
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Delayed presentation of foreign bodies has
been reported from the developing world since many decades.
They are usually missed on the initial evaluation owing to the
vague history or the radiolucent nature of the presenting foreign body.
Materials and Methods: This study was conducted on 44
consecutive patients reporting to our institution with a suspected retained foreign body in the musculoskeletal system
and in whom standard radiography failed to demonstrate a foreign body. Ultrasound was performed using high-resolution
(10 MHz) ultrasound system. After conirming the diagnosis,
foreign body removal was carried out by surgical exploration.
Results: Most common sites of injury was hand involved
in 34% followed by foot and ankle in 23% patients. Time of
presentation ranged from 1 day to 20 weeks. Predominant
chief complaints of the patients were: foreign body sensation
43% patients and pain in 23% patients. Wooden splinters were
most common variety of foreign body present in 48% patients followed by Nail slipper injury (rubber) present in 16%
patients. Length of the foreign body as given by ultrasound
ranged from 3 mm to 30 mm.
Conclusion: Sonography is a safe, cost effective, portable,
readily available and highly sensitive method to evaluate radiolucent foreign bodies, especially, in patients with clinical
suspicious of foreign bodies that may remain undiagnosed in
radiography. It also gives important information about the nature, size, depth, and relationship of foreign bodies to other
structures and makes exploration easier for the surgeon.
Keywords: High resolution ultrasound, Foreign body, Wooden splinters, Nail slipper injury.
bone and joint destructive lesions, granulomas, with impairment of tendon mobility or triggering of digits, delayed tendon ruptures, neurodeicits, pyogenic granulomas.4 Foreign
bodies may also migrate to deeper soft tissues, into the joints
or even into blood vessels with possible embolic complications. Long-term retention of foreign bodies has also led to
the onset of tumors.2 Errors in preoperative localization may
lead to prolonged operational and massive soft tissue injury.
A missed foreign body may remain undetected even after exploration.4,5
Foreign bodies can seldom be identiied and removed on the
basis of clinical examination alone and usually only when
in a supericial location. Otherwise, imaging techniques are
required to identify the foreign body and establish its exact
location prior to surgical removal attempt.2 Metallic materials are opaque on radiographs. However, it is imperative
for referring physicians to understand that thorns, splinters,
wooden fragments, and pieces of plastic are usually not suficiently opaque to be visualized on radiographs.6 In such
situations, other imaging modalities like ultrasound, CT
and MRI are needed for diagnosis.7 CT has a higher cost,
involves ionizing radiation, may have limited availability
and can involve anesthesia in pediatric cases. MRI also has
a higher cost and limited availability for evaluating nonmetallic foreign bodies. Evaluation of metallic foreign body is
a contraindication for MRI. In addition, MRI often does not
allow differentiation of foreign bodies from other structures
that can also have low signal intensity such as scar tissue,
tendons, and calciications.8
Sonography has emerged as a preferred imaging modality
in this setting. Many in vitro experiments and human studAssociate Professor, 3PG Scholar, 5Assistant Professor, 6Registrar,
Department of Orthopedics, 4Assistant Professor, Department of
Radio diagnosis, Bone and Joint Hospital GMC Srinagar, 2Medical
Oficer, Department of Sonologist SDH Chandoosa, NRHM Health
services Kashmir, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Foreign bodies are any objects originating outside the body.
They frequently occur due to various accidental injuries
such as trafic accidents, explosions or bursts, and gunshot
injuries1 and usually consist of wooden or metal splinters or
glass shards or thorns, causing pain and/or functional impairment.2 Some of these foreign bodies are obvious in the initial
physical examination and can be removed.3 The missed foreign body may remain asymptomatic for prolonged periods
or else lead to a wide range of complications including pain,
abscess, chronic discharging wound, necrotizing fasciitis,
122
Corresponding author: Omar Khursheed, Govt. Housing colony,
Sector 7, Ellahi bagh, Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir, India
How to cite this article: Bashir Ahmed Mir, Samina Shai Wani,
Mehmood Ul Hassan Mufti, Naseer Ahmad Khan, Asif Sultan,
Omar Khursheed. Role of high frequency ultrasonography for detection of radiolucent foreign bodies and their surgical management. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):122-126.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Mir et al.
Detection of Radiolucent Foreign Bodies and Their Surgical Management
ies have reported high sensitivity of sonography in detection
of soft tissue foreign bodies. Sonography has been reported
to show the size, shape, and location of soft-tissue foreign
bodies. It has also been used to guide removal of foreign
bodies. Additionally, easy availability, lack of radiation, and
relatively low cost are advantages of sonography.9 High-frequency ultrasound (≥ 7.5 MHz) identiies foreign bodies
with a sensitivity of 87-93% and a speciicity of 89-99%.10
These are visualized as hyper-echoic foci with accompanying acoustic shadows. The shadow may be either partial or
complete depending on the angle of insonation and the composition of the foreign body. A hypo-echoic halo surrounding
the foreign object is sometimes seen, which represents edema, an abscess or granulation tissue. Aside from diagnosis,
ultrasound is an effective adjunct for the actual localization
of the foreign object in relation to muscles, tendons, vessels,
and nerves.6,11
Limitations of US evaluation for soft-tissue foreign bodies
include operator dependence. Familiarity with the US appearances of soft-tissue foreign bodies and a systematic evaluation of the region of interest in both the longitudinal and
transverse orientations are needed for accurate assessment.
A high-frequency linear transducer (7.5 MHz or higher) is
needed to optimize near ield spatial resolution.12
The purpose of this study was to determine the role of high
frequency ultrasonography for detection of radiolucent foreign bodies and their surgical management.
ings were recorded.
RESULTS
There were 34 (77%) males and 10 (23%) females with a
mean age of 29 years (range 3-58 years) (Table 1). Most
common sites of injury was left upper limb (15 patients).
Anatomically hand was involved in 15 (34%), foot and ankle
in 10 (23%), digits in 6 (13.5%), forearm in 5 (11%), elbow
in 1 (2.5%), calf in 4 (9%), knee in 2 (4.5%) and buttock
in 1 (2.5%) patient respectively. Many patients had multiple
foreign bodies, and one of them had 4 wooden splinters in
her forearm. Surgery was performed in 44 patients and 58
foreign bodies were successfully removed.
Time of presentation ranged from 1 day to 20 weeks. Predominant chief complaints of the patients were: foreign
body sensation in 19 (43%), abscess in 6 (14%), discharging
wound in 5 (11%), pain in 10 (23%) and palpable mass in 3
(7%) patients respectively. One patient presented with contracture of third toe. Wooden splinters (Fig 1, 2) were most
common variety of foreign body present in 21 (48%) patients
followed by Nail slipper injury (rubber) present in 7 (16%)
patients, thorn 5 (11%), glass 5 (11%), plastic 3 (7%), stone 2
(4.5%), and graphite in 1(2.5%) patient respectively.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted on 44 consecutive patients reporting to our institution with a suspected retained foreign
body in the musculoskeletal system and in whom standard
radiography failed to demonstrate a foreign body. The study
period was from September 2011 to April 2015. The study
was conducted after obtaining approval from hospital ethics
committee. All radiographs were reviewed by a senior radiologist. These patients were then taken for further evaluation by ultrasound scan. Ultrasound scans were performed in
the department of radio diagnosis of our hospital by one of
the experienced radiologists using high-resolution (10 MHz)
ultrasound system (Sonosite. MICROMAX). In order to localize the foreign body the area of interest was scanned in
both the longitudinal and transverse orientations. The surrounding soft tissue was also examined for luid collections,
tendon disorders, and injury to neurovascular structures. In
ultrasound, linear lesion with distal acoustic shadow and surrounding hypo-echoic area was suggestive of foreign body.
Localization of foreign body was done in relation to skin
depth and surrounding muscle, bone or tendon. The opposite
(contra-lateral) side was used as a control.
After conirming the diagnosis, foreign body removal was
carried out by surgical exploration.
The patients’ demographic data, mode of injury, duration of
symptoms, clinical, sonographic indings and surgical ind-
Figure-1: Ultrasonography of a patient showing foreign body in
dorsum of hand
Figure-2: Wooden splinter measuring 20 mm extracted from patient after surgical exploration
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
123
Mir et al.
S. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Detection of Radiolucent Foreign Bodies and Their Surgical Management
Age/Sex
32/ F
18/ F
35 /M
58 /M
42/M
38/M
19/M
33/M
24/M
22/F
22/M
5/M
46/M
8/F
35/F
38/M
26/M
21/M
28/F
58/M
14/M
30/M
54/M
45/F
32/M
38/M
6/M
3/F
36/M
24/M
22/M
32/M
24/F
32/M
7/M
24/M
38/M
44/M
16/M
26/M
22/M
46/M
20/F
28/M
Duration
2 wks
3 days
4 wks
2 wks
6 days
16 wks
2 wks
8 wks
12 wks
4 days
7 days
6 days
8 wks
10 wks
9 days
18 wks
4 wks
6 wks
3 wks
20 wks
12 wks
4 wks
10 wks
6 days
18 wks
12 wks
20 wks
4 days
5 wks
8 wks
3 wks
12 wks
4 days
12 wks
6 days
4 wks
7 days
6 wks
4 wks
12 wks
16 wks
1 day
4 wks
4 wks
Number/ Nature of Foreign bodies
Size (mm)
4 wooden splinters (broomstick)
5, 9,12,30
1 Thorn
4
1 wooden splinter
6
1 wooden splinter
6
1 Glass splinter
3
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
8
1 wooden splinter
7
2 wooden splinters
7, 8
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
15
2 wooden splinters
12, 16
1 Glass splinter
7
1 Thorn
4
1 wooden splinter
4
1 wooden splinter
12
1 Glass splinter
4
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
8
1 plastic splinter
4
1 Plastic splinter
5
3 wooden splinters (broomstick)
10,12,12
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
10
1 wooden splinter
5
1 Thorn
3
2 Stone fragments
5,7
2 wooden splinter (broomstick)
10,25
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
6
1 wooden splinter
5
1 Stone fragment
5
1 wooden (Toothpick)
7
1 Plastic Splinter
4
1 wooden splinter
5
3 Glass splinters
4,5,4
1 wooden splinter
20
1 Glass splinter
8
2 Thorns
4,4
1 Pencil lead (Graphite)
5
1 wooden splinter
12
2 Thorns
4,5
1 wooden splinter
8
1 wooden splinter
8
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
10
1 Rubber (Nail slipper injury)
8
2 wooden splinters
8,15
1 wooden splinter (broomstick)
7
1 wooden splinter
5
Table-1: Patient demographics and observations
Length of the foreign body as given by ultrasound ranged
from 3 mm to 30 mm (mean length was 8 mm). The smallest
foreign body detected was a thorn which measured 3 mm in
length present in the dorsum of left hand.
All patients were symptom free at follow-up and no short- or
long-term complications were recorded.
DISCUSSION
A retained foreign body in the soft tissues of extremities is
124
Anatomical Site
Left Forearm
Right index inger
Palm right hand
Palm right hand
Left forearm
Sole of Right foot
Left middle inger
Palm Left hand
Sole of Right foot
Palm Right hand
Right knee
Right index inger
Left Ankle
1st web left hand
Right leg
Sole of Left foot
Palm Left hand
Left index inger
Right Leg
Sole of Left foot
Left Forearm
Dorsum left hand
Right Knee
Right forearm
Sole of Right foot
1st web Right hand
Sole of Left foot
Left Elbow
Right index inger
Left Leg
Right Leg
Dorsum left hand
Right forearm
Palm left hand
Right Buttock
Right Ankle
Right index inger
Palm Right hand
1st web Right hand
Sole of Left foot
Sole of Left foot
Palm Left hand
2nd web left hand
Dorsum Left hand
not very common. Diagnosis requires high index of suspicion7 Several imaging modalities are available for detection
and localization of non-radiopaque foreign body in soft tissue. Conventional radiographs should be obtained to rule out
the presence of radiopaque foreign objects. As traditional
radiograms are widely available, simple to perform and inexpensive, X-ray is the reference examination and will identify radiopaque FBs (glass, metal, Stone) in around 80% of
cases,2 but radiolucent bodies like wooden splinters are dificult to detect and usually missed. The missed foreign bodies
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Mir et al.
Detection of Radiolucent Foreign Bodies and Their Surgical Management
may produce immediate symptoms like wound infections
or may remain asymptomatic for even decades.5 Generally,
organic materials such as thorn, wood and ish bones have
low density in radiography and may remain undetected. Although materials such as plastic and glass are radiopaque,
they may remain undetected in plain radiography due to the
lower density in the plain radiography but plastic materials
have less density and may go undetected.13 Wood, thorn and
aluminum are radiolucent and cannot be detected by plain
ilms14 Studies conducted by Anderson et al15 and Levine et
al16 showed that only 15% and 7% of radiolucent foreign
bodies appeared in radiographic studies, respectively. Studies done by Oikarnen et al17 and Manthey DE et al18 observed
that conventional radiography is not able to detect radiolucent foreign body at all. In present study also no radiolucent
foreign body was detected in plain radiographs.
CT scan, MRI and ultrasonography are other investigation
modalities advocated for evaluation of non metallic foreign
body. CT and MRI are useful to identify objects, approximate size, and determine relationships to nearby structures.8
Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance (MR)
scans are very expensive and have very limited indications
for FB detection as they have poor sensitivity and speciicity2
High-resolution ultrasonography is a reliable diagnostic tool
in the detection of radiolucent foreign bodies in musculoskeletal system as it has a sensitivity and speciicity of 90%
and 96%, respectively.2 Because of its high spatial resolution, ultrasound can identify FBs smaller than a millimeter19,
be they wood, glass, metal or plastic.12 Ultrasonographic
evaluation provides important information of the foreign
body and also associated complications. Ultrasound is also
accurate in predicting the foreign body’s exact location, size,
depth, orientation, and relationship to other structures.8
There were 34 (77%) males and 10 (23%) females with a
mean age of 29 years (range 3-58 years). Studies done by
Crawford R4 and Tahmasebi M et al5 also showed male predominance. This may be possibly due to high involvement of
males in outdoor activities compared to females.
Time of presentation ranged from 1 day to 20 weeks which is
similar to studies done by most of the authors.
Predominant chief complaints of the patients were foreign
body sensation in 19 (43%) and pain in 10 (23%) patients.
Studies done by Crawford R4 and Tahmasebi M et al5 also
showed pain and foreign body sensation as predominant
symptom.
Anatomically hand was involved in 15 (34%), foot and ankle
in 10 (23%). This is in contrary to the studies done my most
authors which showed foot and ankle involvement more than
hand. The possible reason for this might me barefoot walking in underdeveloped nations.
Wooden splinters were most common variety of foreign
body removed surgically in 21 (48%) patients followed by
Nail slipper injury (rubber) present in 7 (16%) patients. The
results are similar to the studies done by Crawford R et al4,
Sonali S et al9, Anderson15 and Prakash et al.20
In our study ultrasound was found to be accurate in predicting not only the size of the foreign body but also its exact location, depth, orientation and relationship to other structures.
High resolution ultrasound makes the surgeon sound to localize accurately the foreign body thus making the removal
easier, less time consuming and resulting in minimal tissue
handling and operating time. It also reduces the chances of
negative explorations in patients having doubtful history.
CONCLUSION
Sonography is a safe, cost effective, portable, readily available and highly sensitive method to evaluate radiolucent foreign bodies, especially, in patients with clinical suspicious of
foreign bodies that may remain undiagnosed in radiography.
It also gives important information about the nature, size,
depth, and relationship of foreign bodies to other structures
and makes exploration easier for the surgeon.
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MH Aras, O Miloglu. Comparison of the sensitivity for
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Leonardo Callegari, Anna Leonardi Amedeo Bini. Ultrasound-guided removal of foreign bodies: personal
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Ehsan Bolvardi, Masoud Pezeshki Rad, Bita Abbasi,
Reza Akhavan. Is Bedside Ultrasound a Reliable Method for Detecting Soft Tissue Foreign Bodies in Upper
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Tahmasebi Morteza, Zareizadeh Hamdollah, Motamedfar Azim, Accuracy of ultrasonography in detecting radiolucent soft-tissue foreign bodies. Indian Journal of
Radiology and Imaging, 2014; 4:67-69
Amit T. Kharat, Akshay Shah. Role of high resolution
ultrasound in evaluation of soft tissue foreign bodies.
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Shrestha D, Sharma UK, Mohammad R, Dhoju D. The
Role of Ultrasonography in detection and localization
of Radiolucent Foreign Body in Soft Tissues of Extremities. J Nepal Med Assoc 2009;49:5-9.
Sonali S Saboo, Suresh H. Saboo, Sachin S. Soni, Vishnu Adhane. High-Resolution Sonography Is Effective in
Detection of Soft Tissue Foreign Bodies. J Ultrasound
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10. Bhaskar Borgohain, Nitu Borgohain, Akash Handique,
Parag Jyoti Gogoi. Case report and brief review of literature on sonographic detection of accidentally implanted wooden foreign body causing persistent sinus.
Critical Ultrasound Journal 2012;4:10-12.
11. Alexander et al. Ultrasonography as a diagnostic modality and therapeutic adjuvant in the management of
soft tissue foreign bodies in the lower extremities. IMAJ
2001;3:34-40.
12. Tedric D. Boyse, David P. Fessell. US of Soft-Tissue
Foreign Bodies and Associated Complications with Surgical Correlation. RadioGraphics 2001; 21:1251–1256.
13. Lammers R etal. Soft tissue foreign bodies. Ann Emerg
Med.1988;17:1336–47.
14. Karcz A, Holbrook J, Auerbach BS, Blau ML, Bulat PI,
Davidson A, et al. Preventability of malpractice claims
in emergency medicine:A closed claims study. Ann
Emerg Med. 1990;19:865–73.
15. Anderson MA, Newmeyer WL, Kilgore ES. Diagnosis
and treatment of retained foreign bodies in the hand.
Am J Surg 1982;144:63-7.
16. Levine MR, Gorman SM, Young CF, Courtney DM.
Clinical characteristics and management of wound foreign bodies in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2008;26:918-22.
17. Oikarinen KS, Nieminen TM, Makarainen H, Pyhtinen
J. Visibility of foreign bodies in soft tissue in plain radiographs, computed tomography, magnetic resonance
imaging and ultrasound. An in vitro study. Int J Oral
Maxillofac Surg 1993; 22:119- 24.
18. Manthey DE, Storrow AB, Milbourn JM, et al. Ultrasound versus radiography in the detection of soft-tissue
foreign bodies. Ann Emerg Med 1996; 28:7 -9.
19. Ng SY, Songra AK, Bradley PF. A new approach using
Intraoperative ultrasound imaging for localization and
removal of multiple foreign bodies in the neck. Int J
Oral Maxillofac Surg 2003; 32:433–436.
20. Prakash Sharma1, Prasanna Ghimire, Subita Lalchan.
Implication of Ultrasonography in Detection of Retained Soft Tissue Foreign Bodies in Children: a Hospital Based Study from Western Nepal. American Journal
of Public Health Research, 2015; 3: 41-44.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 23-11-2015; Published online: 08-12-2015
126
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Comparative Study of Intrathecal Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine
as Adjuvants to Bupivacaine
K. Sunil Kumar1, G. Bharathi1, R. Pandu Naik2, B. Srinivas Rao3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Spinal anaesthesia is the most preferred regional anaesthesia technique. Present study was done to study the
eficacy of Intrathecal Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine with
0.5% heavy Bupivacaine for infra umbilical surgeries.
Materials and Methods: 100 patients belonging to ASA
physical status I & II of both sexes were devided into two
groups of 50 each. Group F received 3ml Inj.0.5% Bupivacaine heavy with 25 micrograms of Fentanyl and Group D
received 3ml Inj 0.5%. Bupivacaine heavy with 5 micrograms
ofDexmedetomidine. The time of onset of sensory and motor
block, haemodynamic status, duration of analgesia and adverse effects if any were compared in both the groups.
Results: Time from injection to highest sensory level and
Onset of Bromage 3 was similar in both groups. Time from
injection to T10 sensory level was signiicantly shorter in
Group D (p<0.001), and Time for regression to Bromage 0
was signiicantly longer in group D (p<0.001). Intraoperatively both groups remained haemodynamically stable. Incidence
of bradycardia was more in Group D and incidence of pruritus
was more in Group F though it was not statistically signiicant (p=0.402). Intraoperative sedation was higher in Group
D (p<0.001) and post operatively Visual analogue scores were
signiicantly lower with group D (p<0.001)
Conclusion: Dexmedetomidine appears to be an attractive
adjuvant to intrathecal bupivacaine than Fentanyl as there is
signiicantly longer duration of motor block, additional beneits of intraoperative sedation and decreased analgesic requirement in the post-operative period.
Keywords: Intrathecal; bupivacaine; fentanyl; dexmedetomidine; bromage; sedation
longs the duration of spinal block.
Therefore, the present study was performed to compare Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine in their eficacy as adjuvants to
sub arachnoid block.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A randomised controlled study was done in 100 patients,
posted for major surgeries, below
umbilical level, in Kakatiya Medical College and M.G.M
Hospital.
Inclusion Criteria
ASA physical status class I and II, Age between 18 – 65
years of either sex.
Exclusion Criteria
Emergency surgery, Deformities of the spine, Hypersensitivity to any of the drugs in the study, Contraindications to
spinal anaesthesia – patient refusal, bleeding diathesis.
After approval from the ethical committee of our college,
Pre-operative assessment was done and further evaluated for
any systemic diseases. Laboratory investigations recorded.
The procedure of spinal anaesthesia was explained to the patients and written consent was obtained. The patients were
educated about the use of visual analogue scale. Preparation
of patients included period of overnight fasting.Patients were
premedicated with Tab.Ranitidine 150 mg and Tab. Alprazolam 0.5 mg H.S.
Preparation Of Operating Theatre
Boyle’s anaesthesia machine was checked. Appropriate size
endotracheal tubes, working laryngoscope with medium and
large size blades, stylet and working suction apparatus were
INTRODUCTION
Assistant Professor, 3Professor & HOD, Department of Anaesthesiology, Kakatiya Medical College, Warangal, 2Associate Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, Osmania Medical College,
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
1
Spinal anaesthesia is the most preferred regional anaesthesia
technique as it is easy to perform, economical and produces
rapid onset of anaesthesia and complete muscle relaxation.
The aim of intrathecal local anaesthetic is to provide adequate sensory and motor block necessary for all infra umbilical surgeries. Hyperbaric bupivacaine is the most commonly
used intrathecal local anaesthetic.
Various adjuvants have been added to bupivacaine to shorten
the onset of block and prolong the duration of block. Fentanyl, a lipophilic opioid agonist, is used as an adjuvant, which
prolongs the duration of spinal block. Dexmedetomidine, an
α–2 agonist drug, when given intrathecally, signiicantly pro-
Corresponding author: Dr. R Pandu Naik, Associate professor,
Department of Anesthesiology, Osmania General Hospital and Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: K. Sunil Kumar, G. Bharathi, R. Pandu
Naik, B. Srinivas Rao. A comparative study of intrathecal fentanyl
and dexmedetomidine as adjuvants to bupivacaine. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):127-130.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
127
Kumar et al.
Comparative Study of Intrathecal Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine
kept ready before the procedure. Emergency drug tray consisting of atropine, adrenaline, mephenteramine, ephedrine
and dopamine were kept ready.
Group F received 3ml, 0.5 % hyperbaric bupivacaine + 25
µg Fentanyl (vol 0.5ml) Group D received 3ml, 0.5 % hyperbaric bupivacaine + 5 µg Dexmedetomidine (vol 0.5 ml).
Intraoperatively pulse rate, non-invasive blood pressure,
electrocardiogram, SpO2 was recorded, every 2 minutes for
the irst 10 minutes, every 10 minutes for the next 50 minutes
and every 15 minutes till the end of surgery. Time of onset
of T10 sensory block and peak sensory block was noted using
pin prick method, time of onset of Bromage 3 motor block
was noted.
Motor block was assessed with Modiied Bromage scale
Bromage 0 - the patient is able to move the hip, knee and
ankle
Bromage 1 - the patient is unable to move the hip but is able
to move the knee and ankle
Bromage 2 - the patient is unable to move the hip and knee
but able to move the ankle
Bromage 3 - the patient is unable to move the hip, knee and
ankle.
Modiied Ramsay sedation scale was used for
intraoperative sedation
1. = agitated, restless
2. = cooperative, tranquil
3. = responds to verbal commands while sleeping
4. = brisk response to glabellar tap or loud noise while
sleeping
5. = sluggish response to glabellar tap or loud noise while
sleeping
6. = no response to glabellar tap or loud noise while sleeping
Following parameters were recorded
Hypotension (> 20 % fall of baseline blood pressure) was
treated with bolus dose of 6 mg ephedrine i.v.
Bradycardia (pulse rate < 50 bpm), was treated with 0.6 mg
atropine i.v.
Incidence of respiratory depression deined as respiratory
rate less than 9 /min and SpO2 less than 90 % on room air,
was noted. Side effects if any were noted. Post operatively
regression of the sensory block and the motor blockade to
reach modiied Bromage 0 was noted
Pain was assessed using “Visual Analogue Scale” advocated
by Revill and Robinson in 1976. It is linear scale, consists of
10 cm line anchored at one end by a label such as “No pain”
and other end by “Worst pain imaginable”. Patient simply
marks the line to indicate the pain intensity. Supplemental
analgesia was given for visual analogue score of more than
6. Time of supplemental analgesia was noted.
Visual analogue scale was used to assess post-operative
pain.
128
Statistical analysis
Descriptive statistical analysis has been carried out in the
present study. Results on continuous measurements are presented on Mean ± SD (Min-Max) and results on categorical
measurements are presented in Number (%). Signiicance is
assessed at 5 % level of signiicance.Statistical analysis was
done by applying Chi-square test, Anova test and students‘t’
test to analyse the data, p value was determined.
RESULTS
Age in years
Group F
No
2
3
13
22
8
2
50
%
4.0
6.0
26.0
44.0
16.0
4.0
100.0
Group D
No
%
0
0.0
4
8.0
26
52.0
14
28.0
5
10.0
1
2.0
50
100.0
18-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
Total
Gender
Male
25
50.0
25
50.0
Female
25
50.0
25
50.0
Total
50
100.0
50
100.0
ASA grade
Grade I
26
52.0
31
62.0
Grade II
24
48.0
19
38.0
Total
50
100.0
50
100.0
Distribution of ASA grade is statistically similar in two groups
with P = 0.41
Table-1: Demographic distribution of patients studied
Figure-1: Visual analogue scale
Figure-2: Comparison of Visual analogue scale of two groups
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kumar et al.
Surgery
Group F
Group D
(n=50)
(n=50)
No
%
No
%
Vaginal hysterectomy
10
20.0
11
22.0
Abdominal hysterectomy
8
16.0
1
2.0
ORIF
7
14.0
10
20.0
TURP
3
6.0
1
2.0
URS
2
4.0
3
6.0
Mesh repair
3
6.0
1
2.0
Below knee procedure
2
4.0
3
6.0
Stripping and ligation
3
6.0
1
2.0
Tension band wiring
2
4.0
1
2.0
Implant removal
0
0.0
2
4.0
Interval appendicectomy
0
0.0
2
4.0
Fistula repair
0
0.0
1
2.0
Screw ixation
0
0.0
1
2.0
Skin grafting
0
0.0
1
2.0
Internal urethrotomy
1
2.0
1
2.0
DHS
1
2.0
0
0.0
Others
8
16.0
10
20.0
Table-2: Surgery in two groups of patients studied
Table-3: Comparison of variables in the study
Highest sensory level
Group F
Group D
No
%
No
%
T8
0
0.0
19
38.0
T7
12
24.0
2
4.0
T6
16
32.0
14
28.0
T5
7
14.0
1
2.0
T4
15
30.0
14
28.0
Total
50
100.0
50
100.0
Table-4: Highest sensory level of patients studied
Side effects
Group F (n=50) Group D (n=50)
No
%
No
%
Nausea
3
6.0
0
0.0
Vomiting
1
2.0
0
0.0
Pruritus
3
6.0
0
0.0
Hypotension
14
28.0
8
16.0
Bradycardia
0
0.0
7
14.0
Urinary retention
0
0.0
0
0.0
Respiratory depression
0
0.0
0
0.0
Table-5: Side effects of patients in two groups studied
DISCUSSION
Spinal anaesthesia is the most preferred regional anaesthesia technique as it is easy to perform, produces rapid onset
Comparative Study of Intrathecal Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine
of anaesthesia and complete muscle relaxation and is also
economical. These advantages are sometimes offset by a relatively short duration of action.
The aim of intrathecal local anaesthetic is to provide adequate sensory and motor block necessary for all infra umbilical surgeries. Hyperbaric bupivacaine is the most commonly
used intrathecal local anaesthetic. Various adjuvants have
been added to bupivacaine to shorten the onset of block and
prolong the duration of block.
Fentanyl, a lipophilic opioid agonist, is used as an adjuvant,
which prolongs the duration of spinal anaesthesia. Fentanyl
is a lipophilic µ-receptor opioid agonist. Intrathecally, Fentanyl exerts its effect by combining with opioid receptors in
the dorsal horn of spinal cord and may have a supraspinal
spread and action.5
Dexmedetomidine, an α–2 agonist drug, when given intrathecally, signiicantly prolongs the duration of spinal anaesthesia. Intrathecalα-2 receptor agonists have been found to have
antinociceptive action for both somatic and visceral pain.6
Therefore, the present study was performed to compare Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine in their eficacy as adjuvants
to spinal anaesthesia. In our study, the intrathecal dose of
Dexmedetomidine selected was based on previous animal
studies. A number of animal studies conducted using intrathecal Dexmedetomidine at a dose range of 2.5-100 µg did not
report any neurologic deicits with its use.
In our study design Group F received 0.5% of hyperbaric
Bupvacaine 3ml with Fentanyl 25µg and Group D received
0.5% hyperbaric Bupivacaine 3ml with Dexmedetomidine 5
µg, injected intrathecally to the patients undergoing infraumbilical surgeries. Time of onset of action, Highest level of
sensory and motor blockade, Time of onset of Bromage 0,
Intraoperative heart rate, Blood pressure, SpO2, Intraoperative sedation, Regression to Bromage 3 and Post-operative
requirement of analgesia were noted.
Kanazi et al.7 found that 3µg Dexmedetomidine or 30 µg
clonidine added to 13 mg spinal bupivacaine produced the
same duration of sensory and motor block with minimal side
effects in urologic surgical patients. From Kanazi study and
animal studies, we assumed that 3-5 µg Dexmedetomidine
would be equipotent to 30-45 µg clonidine when used for
supplementation of spinal bupivaciane.
Our study has shown that the addition of 5 µg Dexmedetomidine with hyperbaric bupivacaine signiicantly prolongs
both sensory and motor block. Both Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine provided good quality intraoperative analgesia.
The analgesia was clinically better in group D as compared
to group F. Small doses of intrathecal Dexmedetomidine
(3µg) used in combination with bupivacaine in humans have
been shown to shorten the onset of motor block and prolong
the duration of motor and sensory block with haemodynamic
stability and lack of sedation.
Al-Ghanem et al8 had studied the effect of addition of 5 µg
Dexmedetomidine or 25 µg Fentanyl intrathecal to10 mg
isobaric bupivacaine in vaginal hysterectomy and concluded
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
129
Kumar et al.
Comparative Study of Intrathecal Fentanyl and Dexmedetomidine
that 5 µg Dexmedetomidine produces more prolonged motor
and sensory block as compared with 25 µg Fentanyl.
In our study, in the Dexmedetomidine group we found longer
duration of both sensory and motor blockade and good patient satisfaction.
Al-Mustafa et al9 studied effect of Dexmedetomidine 5µg
and 10 µg with bupivacaine in urological procedures and
found that Dexmedetomidine prolongs the duration of spinal
anaesthesia in a dose-dependent manner. Visceral pain usually occurs during abdominal surgery under spinal anaesthesia.
Intrathecal Fentanyl when added to local anaesthetics reduces visceral and somatic pain. In our study also no patient
perceived visceral pain in both D and F groups.
Rajni Gupta, Reetu Verma, Jaishri Bogra et al,10 used Dexmedetomidine as an intrathecal adjuvant for post-operative
analgesia and found that the addition of 5 µg Dexmedetomidine to ropivacaine intrathecally produces prolongation in
the duration of motor and sensory block. They also found
that intraoperative ephedrine requirement was more in group
D as compared to group R. In our study intraoperative incidence of hypotension was higher in group F.
Rajni Gupta, Reetu Verma, Jaishri Bogra et al,10 conducted
a comparative study of intrathecal Dexmedetomidine 5µ
gm and Fentanyl 25µ gm as adjuvants to bupivacaine and
found that intrathecal Dexmedetomidine is associated with
prolonged motor and sensory block, haemodynamic stability, and reduced demand for rescue analgesics in 24 hrs as
compared to Fentanyl. In our study also the post-operative
analgesic requirements was signiicantly less in the Dexmedetomidine group than group Fentanyl. They also found that
the sedation score was more in group D patients. The mean
sedation score was 3.8 ± 0.5 in group D as compared to 2.2 ±
0.53 in group F, which was statistically signiicant (P<0.05).
In our study the mean sedation score for group F was 2.16
± 0.37 and group D was 3.40 ± 0.49, which was statistically
signiicant ( p <0.001 )
There was no incidence of respiratory depression. Pruritus
after intrathecal Fentanyl is known but it was not signiicant
in the present study. The α-2 adrenergic agents also have antishivering property as observed by Talkeet al11 and Maroof
M et al.12 We too did not ind any incidence of shivering.
CONCLUSION
Addition of 5 µg Dexmedetomidine with hyperbaric bupivacaine signiicantly prolongs both sensory and motor block.
Intraoperatively, there was less incidence of side effects with
Intrathecal Dexmedetomidine when compared to Intrathecal
fentanyl.
The post-operative 24 hours analgesic requirements was
signiicantly less in the Dexmedetomidine group than group
Fentanyl. To conclude, 5 µg Dexmedetomidine seems to be
an attractive alternative to 25 µg Fentanyl as an adjuvant to
spinal bupivacaine in surgical procedures. It provides good
quality of intraoperative analgesia, haemodynamically sta-
130
ble conditions, minimal side effects, and excellent quality of
postoperative analgesia.
Hence, Dexmedetomidine seems to be a better choice as Intrathecal adjuvant with Bupivacaine when compared with
Fentanyl.
REFERENCES
1.
F.J.M. Reynolds Wylie and Churchill Davidson Practice
of Anaesthesia 5th Edition, P.G. Publishing Pvt. Ltd.,
1986: 856-890.
2. Alfred Lee, Atkinson R.S., G. B. Rushman: A synopsis
of Anaesthesia 10th Edition, K. M. Varghese Company,
1987: 663-713.
3. Nicholas M. Greene “Distribution of local anesthetic
solution within the subarachnoid space”, Anesth Analg
1985;64: 715 - 730.
4. B.R. Raymond Fink “Mechanisms of differential axial blockade in epidural and subarachnoid anaesthesia”,
Anesthesiology, 1989;70: 815-858.
5. AH Dickenson “Spinal cord pharmacology of pain”, Br.
J Anesth 1995;75:193-200.
6. Khan ZP, Ferguson CN, Jones RM. Alpha-2 and imidazoline receptor agonists. Their pharmacology and therapeutic role. Anaesthesia 1999;54:146-65.
7. Kanazi GE, Aouad MT, Jabbour-Khoury SI, Al Jazzar
MD, Alameddine MM, AlYaman R, et al. Effect of
low-dose Dexmedetomidine or clonidine on the characteristics of bupivacaine spinal block. Acta Anesthesiol
Scand 2006;50:222-7.
8. Al-Ghanem SM, Massad IM, Al-Mustafa MM, Al-Zaben KR, Qudaisat IY, Qatawneh AM and Abu-Ali HM.
Effect of Adding Dexmedetomidine versus Fentanyl to
Intrathecal Bupivacaine on Spinal Block Characteristics in Gynecological Procedures: A Double Blind Controlled Study. Am J Appl Sci 2009;6:882-7
9. Al-Mustafa MM, Abu-Halaweh SA, Aloweidi AS,
Murshidi MM, Ammari BA, Awwad ZM, et al. Effect
of Dexmedetomidine added to spinal bupivacaine for
urological procedures. Saudi Med J 2009;30:365-70.
10. Gupta R, Verma R, Bogra J, Kohli M, Raman R, Kushwaha JK. A Comparative study of intrathecal Dexmedetomidine and Fentanyl as adjuvants to Bupivacaine. J
Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2011;27:339-43.
11. Talke P, Tayefeh F, Sessler DI, Jeffrey R, Noursalehi
M,Richardson C. Dexmedetomidine does not alter the
sweating threshold,but comparably and linearly reduces
the vasoconstriction and shivering thresholds. Anesthesiology 1997;87:835-41.
12. Maroof M, Khan SA, Jain D, Khan RM, Maroof SM.
Evaluation of effect of Dexmedetomidine in reducing
shivering following epidural anaesthesia. Anesthesiology 2004;101: A495
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 23-11-2015; Published online: 08-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Comparative Evaluation of the Renal Proile of Some Propionic Acids
(NSAIDs) in Male Albino Rats
Elias Adikwu1, Igbans Rejoice Obele2, Apiakase Williams2, Keme Samuel Newman3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Propionic acids (NSAIDs) are associated with
renal toxicity; therefore, this study comparatively evaluated
the renal proile of propionic acids (NSAIDs) in adult male
albino rats.
Materials and Methods: Adult male albino rats were orally
treated with ibuprofen(IF)(250mg/kg) naproxen (NX) (140
mg/kg), ketoprofen (KF) (30mg/kg) and fenoprofen (FF)
(170mg/kg) for 14 days. Animals were sacriiced, serum extracted and evaluated for urea (UR), creatinine (CR), uric acid
(UA), total protein (TP), albumin (AB) and electrolytes (N a+,
K +, Ca +, Cl- and HCO3-). Also, kidneys were harvested and
evaluated for malondialdehyde(MDA), superoxide dismutase
(SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), glutathione transferase (GST), and glutathione
reductase (GR).
Results: Treatments with these agents did not produce significant (p<0.05) effects on absolute kidney weight, body weight
and kidney/body weight ratio when compared to the control.
Also, effects on serum electrolytes produced by these agents
were insigniicant (p>0.05) when compared to the control. Serum UR, CR, UA levels were signiicantly (p<0.05) increased
while TP and ABlevels were decreased by these agents when
compared tothe control.Increases in UR (173, 89, 79 and
144%), CR (152, 85, 81 and 109 %) and UA (157, 87,83and
127 %) respectively were obtained with IF, FF KF and NX
treatments. Kidney MDA level was signiicantly (p<0.05) increased while CAT, GSH, SOD, GPX, GST and GR levels
were decreased when compared to the control. Decreases in
CAT (80, 60, 47 and 65%), GSH (79, 51, 50 and 69 %), SOD
(76,45, 44 and 66%) GPX (78, 55, 52 and 68%), GST (80, 60,
55 and 70%) and GR (89, 54, 51 and 70) levels respectively
were observed with IF, FF, KF and NX treatments.
Conclusion; This study shows adverse renal effects ofthese
evaluated propionic acids may be ranked in this order; IF>NX> FF > KF
Keywords: Propionic Acids, Kidney, Antioxidants, Toxicity,
Rats
matoid arthritis, osteo-arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis
and postoperative pain.2 The uses of propionic acids have
been associated with renal toxicity attributed to inhibition
of cyclooxygenase.Inhibition of COX (Cyclooxygenase)
can alter the metabolism of eicosanoids, includingprostaglandins(PGs), thromboxane, and leukotrienes, which
are derived from arachidonic acid. Cyclooxygenase is the
rate-limiting enzyme for the conversion of arachidonic acid
to the labile intermediate PGH2, which serves as a substrate
for other PGs, such as PGE2 and PGD2.2 The inhibition of
prostaglandins synthesis from arachidonic acid by NSAIDS
could leadto vasoconstriction and a decrease in glomerular
capillary pressure, resulting in a prompt decline in glomerular iltration rate.4 Also, oxidative stress characterized by
decreased kidney antioxidants hasbeen implicated in drugs
induced renal toxicity and may be a factor in NSAIDs renal
toxicity. Oxidative stress can stimulate the formation of vasoactive mediators that can initiate renal vasoconstriction or
decrease the glomerular capillary ultrailtration coeficient;
and thus reducing glomerular iltration rate.5
Pripionic acids and other NSAID-related renal syndromes
include luid and electrolyte disorders, acute renal dysfunction, nephrotic syndrome/interstitial nephritis, and renal papiliary necrosis. NSAIDs are a known cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) which may remain undiagnosed because it
maybe moderate, asymptomatic, transitory, and non-anuric.7
AKI can occur from NSAID induced renal interstitial inlammation, resulting in acute interstitial nephritis.8 Also, acute
renal dysfunction occurs with the short term used of NSAIDs
which might progress to acute tubular necrosis and substantial loss of renal function up to the point of requiring dialysis
supportwith continuation of NSAIDs therapy.9 Interstitial
lecturer, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical
Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers, 2lecturer,
Department of Community Health Sciences, 3lecturer, Department
of Environmental Health Sciences, College of Health Technology,
Otuogidi, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
1
INTRODUCTION
Corresponding author: Adikwu Elias, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers, Nigeria
Propionic acids are non-steroidal anti-inlammatory drugs
(NSAIDs) which are widely used. These agents share anti-inlammatory, analgesic, and antiplatelet properties and
also have many side effects in common. They are used for
the treatment of musculo-skeletal disorders, such as rheu-
How to cite this article: Elias Adikwu, Igbans Rejoice Obele, Apiakase Williams, Keme Samuel Newman. Comparative evaluation
of the renal proile of some propionic acids (NSAIDs) in male albino rats. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):131-135.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
131
Adikwu et al.
Renal Proile of Some Propionic Acids in Male Albino Rats
nephritis and renal papillary necrosis which are markers of
chronic renal failure occur with the chronic use of NSAIDS
due to high dose administration over a long period.10 Due to
the frequent use of propionic acids and reported renal toxicity; therefore, this study comparatively evaluated the renal proile of propionic acids (NSAIDs) in male albino rats.
Comparative evaluation of the adverse renal proile of propionic acids will enhance their rational selection, decrease
nephrotoxicity and add to therapeutic beneits.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
Ibuprofen (Ranbaxy Pharm India),Naproxen (Ranbaxy
Pharm India), Ketoprofen (Nicholas Piramal India)and Fenoprofen (Ranbaxy Pharm India). All other chemicals used for
this study were of analytical grade
Animals
Thirty adult male rats of average weight 310±5g were used
for this study. Animals were obtained from the animal house
of the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Madonna University Elele, Rivers State. Animals were grouped
in cages and were allowed to acclimatize for 14 days and had
free access to food and water ad libitum.
Grouping of animals and drug administration
Animals were divided into 6, groups A -F of 5 animals each.
Animals in group A (placebo control) and group B (solvent
control) orally received water and normal saline respectively. Animals in groups C-F received oral doses of ibuprofen
(250mg/kg) naproxen (140 mg/kg), ketoprofen (30mg/kg)
and fenoprofen (170mg/kg)for 14 days respectively. Doses
used for this study represent 10 times theirclinical doses.11
Higher doses were used for this studybecause laboratory animals metabolize and excrete drugs faster than humans and to
simulate toxic levels of the drugs in the animals.12
Collection of Samples
At the end of drug therapy animals were sacriiced with the
aid diethyl ether, blood sample was collected in a non-heparinized sample container via cardiac puncture. The Blood
sample was allowed to clot, centrifuged and serum was collected and evaluated for biochemical parameters. Animals
were dissected, kidneys were collected and washed in an ice
cold 1.15% KCL solution. Kidneys were then homogenized
with 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2). The resulting homoge-
nate was centrifuge at 2500rmp speed for 15 minutes then it
was removed from the centrifuge and the supernatant was
decanted and stored at -20°C until analysis.
Evaluation of Renal Function Parameters
Total protein and albumin were evaluated as reported by Ibiam et al., 201313 while serum creatinine, urea, and uric acid
were evaluated as reported by Prabu et al., 2010.14
Evaluation of Kidney Oxidative Stress Markers
Glutathione (GSH), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase
(CAT) Glutathione peroxidase, Glutathione S-transferase
and Glutathione reductase were evaluated as reported by
Prabu et al., 201014 while malondialdehyde was evaluated as
reported by Ahmed et al., 201315
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All the tested parameters were subjected to statistical analysis. Statistical analysis was done by One-way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) and means were compared by Dunnettes
comparison.
RESULTS
Treatments with these agents did not produce signiicant effects (p<0.05) on body weight, absolute kidney weight and
kidney/body weight ratio when compared to the control. (Table1). These agents produced signiicant (p<0.05) increases
in serum creatinine, urea and uric acid levels with decreases
in serum albumin and total protein levels when compared to
the control. Observed increases in serum urea levels by IF,
FF, KF and NX treatments represent 173, 89, 79 and 144%
respectively. Also, observed increases in serum creatinine
levels by IF, FF, KF and NX represent 152, 85, 81 and 110 %
respectively. Furthermore, uric acid levels were increased by
IF, FF, KF and NX treatments to 156, 87, 83 and 127% respectively. In this study, observed changes produced by these
agents on serum electrolytes were insigniicant (p>0.05)
when compared to the control (Table 2 and 3).Observation
in this study shows signiicant (p<0.05) deceases in kidney
SOD,CAT GSH, GPX,GST and GR levels with increase in
MDA level in animals treated with these agents when compared to the control. Observed decreases in GSH levels by
IF, FF, KF and NX treatments represent 79, 51, 50 and 69%
respectively. Also, IF, FF, KF and NX induced increases in
CAT levels represent 80, 60, 47 and 65% respectively. Fur-
Drugs
Initial body Weight (g)
Final body weight (g)
Kidney weight (g)
Kidney/body weight ratio
Control
310.0±1.02
370.6±1.10
0.88±0.02
0.0024±0.09
Ibuprofen
297.2±1.11
320.1±2.15
0.90±0.01
0.0028±0.03
Ketoprofen
300.0±1.15
335.6±3.10
0.85±0.09
0.0025±0.07
Fenoprofen
330.1±2.00
352.2±2.14
0.80±0.02
0.0023±0.01
Naproxen
320.4±1.75
340.7±1.16
0.87±0.07
0.0027±0.06
Table-1: Effects of propionic acids (NSAIDs) on the body weight, absolute kidney weight and kidney weight/body weight ratio of
male albino rats
132
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Adikwu et al.
thermore, treatments with IF, FF, KF and NX produced the
following decreases in SOD (74, 46, 44 and 66%), GPX
(78, 55, 52 and 68%) and GST (80, 60, 55 and 70%) respectively. Kidney malondialdehyde level was signiicantly
(P<0.05) increased to 1.23±0.01, 0.910±0.03, 0.87±0.05 and
1.04±0.08 nmole / mg protein in IF, FF, KF and NX treated
animals respectively (Table 4).
DISCUSSION
Kidneys receive about 25% of the cardiac output and are
the major organ for drugexcretion; hence the renal arterioles
and glomerular capillaries are vulnerable to the effects of
drugs.16 Propionic acids are non-steroidal anti-inlammatory
drugs (NSAIDs) that are most commonly used as over-thecounter medications and are known to have adverse effects
on kidney function.17 This study comparatively evaluated the
adverse renal effects of propionic acids (ibuprofen, fenoprofen, ketoprofen and naproxen) in male albino rats. Effects
were evaluated on serum electrolytes (Na +, K +, Cl -, Ca +,
HCo3 -), creatinine, urea uric acid levels. Also, effects were
evaluated on kidney MDA, GSH, CAT, SOD, GPX, GR,
GST, and GR levels. In this study, treatments with propionic acids (NSAIDs) increased serum creatinine, urea and
uric acid levelswith decreases in total protein and albumin
Renal Proile of Some Propionic Acids in Male Albino Rats
levels. This observation is consistent with previous studies
which reported changes in these parameters with the uses
of NSAIDs.18,19 Maximal effects on these parameters were
observed in ibuprofen treated animals followed by naproxen, fenoprofen and ketoprofen. Effects observed on serum
levels of these parameters suggest signs of kidney damage
because serum concentrations of these evaluated parameters
are commonly used as surrogate markers of renal toxicity.20
Serum electrolytes are regulated by the kidney and their serum levels are fundamental indices for renal toxicityand adverse cardiovascular events.21 This study observed changes
in serum electrolytes in animals treated with propionic acids.
This is in agreement with previous reports that associated the
uses of NSAIDs with electrolytes and acid-base disturbances.22 Furthermore, kidney MDA level was increased while
antioxidants (GSH, CAT, SOD, GPX, GR, GST, and GR)
were decreased by these agents. Increases observed in kidney MDA levels with decreases in kidney antioxidants were
maximal in ibuprofen treated animals. This study observed
that adverse renal proile of these propionic acids may be
ranked in this order; ibuprofen > naproxen > fenoprofen >
ketoprofen. This connotes that ibuprofen will produce more
adverse renal effect while ketoprofen will produce the least
effect.
In this study, observed increases in serum creatinine, urea
Drugs
Urea (mg/dL)
Creatinine (mg/dL) Uric acid (mg/dl)
Total protein (g/dl)
Albumin (g/dl)
20.1±0.06
Control
1.65±0.02
1.46±0.02
6.30±0.20
3.71±0.03
54.9±0.03a
Ibuprofen
4.15±0.23a
3.75±0.06a
3.00±0.01a
1.10±0.07a
Fenoprofen
37.9±0.04b
3.05±0.01b
2.63±004b
4.21±0.01b
2.71±0.01b
b
b
b
b
ketoprofen
35.9±0.06
2.98±0.09
2.67±0.01
4.28±0.07
2.75±0.06b
Naproxen
49.0±0.08
3.44 ±0.06c
3.31±0.09c
3.24±0.08c
1.17±0.08c
Values represent means ±S.EM, n= 5. Values with different superscript in the same column are signiicantly different at (p<0.05).
Table-2: Effects of treatment with propionic acids (NSAIDs) on serum renal function parameters of male albino rats
Na+
K+
ClCa2+
(mmol/l)
(mmol/l)
(mmol/l)
(mg/dl)
Control
120.0±2.06
3.42±0.06
122.6±3.02
10.2±0.01
135.0±2.61
11.8±0.12
Ibuprofen
135.2±2.11
3.86±0.09
fenoprofen
130.0±1.28
3.69±0.07
124.2±0.06
10.9±0.16
ketoprofen
127.1±3.15
3.61±0.04
127.7±0.15
10.4±2.00
132.4±1.43
3.70±0.06
130.0±0.09
11.0±0.36
Naproxen
Values represent means ±S.EM. n= 5
Table-3: Effects of treatment with propionic acids (NSAIDs) on serum electrolytes in male albino rats
Dose
HCO3(mmol/l)
20.2±0.03
19.1±0.01
19.9±0.06
20.0±0.03
18.7±0.09
Parameters
Control
Ibuprofen
Fenoprofen
ketoprofen
Naproxen
0.51±0.06
1.23±0.01 a
MDA
0.90±0.03b
0.87±0.05b
1.04±0.08c
GSH
9.65±0.02
2.00±0.06 a
4.72±0.06b
4.82±0.09b
3.00±0.04c
CAT
30.2±1.08
6.16±0.12a
12.1±0.35b
15.9±0.20b
10.6±0.16c
a
b
b
SOD
15.6±0.03
3.82±0.08
8.47±0.06
8.71±0.02
5.20±0.27c
a
b
b
GPX
9.80±0.19
2.11±0.01
4.38±0.01
4.70±0.03
3.10±0.04c
GST
10.7±0.05
2.10±0.26a
4.27±0.01b
4.82±0.01b
3.20±0.12b
GR
0.87±0.06
0.10±0.01a
0.40±0.01b
0.43±0.07b
0.26±0.04c
MDA: Malondialdehyde, (nmol/mg protein), GSH: Glutathione, CAT: Catalase, SOD: Superoxide dismutase (Unit/mg protein), GST:
Glutathione-s-transferase (μmol/min mg protein) GR: Glutathione reductase (nmol/min mg protein), GSP: Glutathione peroxidase
(μg/min mg protein). Values represent means ±S.EM, n= 5. Values with different superscript in the same row are signiicantly different (p<0.05).
Table-4: Effects of treatments with propionic acids (NSAIDs) on kidney oxidative indices of male albino rats
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
133
Adikwu et al.
Renal Proile of Some Propionic Acids in Male Albino Rats
and uric acid may be due to reduced renal plasma low caused
by inhibition of prostaglandins (PG) synthesis by these
agents. Studies have shown that prostaglandins regulate renal function by modulating both intrarenal vascular tone, salt
and water excretion. In particular, PGE2 contributes to the
regulation of renal perfusion and glomerular iltration rate
in virtue of its vasodilation property, which counteract the
actions of vasoconstrictive substances such as angiotensin
II, catecholamines, vasopressin, and endothelin.23,24 Also, increases in serum creatinine, urea and uric acid levels may be
due to oxidative stress induced by these agents in the kidneys
of treated animals. Because oxidative stress can promote the
formation of vasoactive mediators that can affect renal function directly by initiating renal vasoconstriction or decreasing the glomerular capillary ultrailtration coeficient; and
thus reducing glomerular iltration rate.25 Changes in serum
electrolytes observed in this study are common adverse effects of NSAIDs characterized by decrease sodium, water
and potassium excretion and edema. The NSAIDs attenuate
the release of renin mediated by prostaglandins which may
reduce the formation of aldosterone and, as a consequence,
decrease the excretion of potassium. Furthermore, in the
presence of decreased glomerular low, the opposition to
the natriuretic and diuretic effects of prostaglandins by the
NSAIDs can increase sodium and water reabsorption in the
renal tubule, with a decrease in the Na+-K+ exchange in the
distal nephron.26
Observe increase in kidney MDA level with decreases in antioxidants in animals treated with these agents may be due to
oxidative stress induced by these agents. Antioxidants scavenge free radicals and prevent biomolecules from oxidative
damage.27,28 Studies have shown that decreases in the levels
of antioxidants suggest signs of oxidative stress.29 Malondialdehyde (MDA) is one of the inal products of polyunsaturated fatty acids peroxidation in cells. It is a known marker
of oxidative stress and antioxidant status30; hence increase in
malondialdehyde level observed in this study is a sign of lipid
peroxidation. Pronounced renal toxicity observed in ibuprofen treated animals may be due to the ability of ibuprofen to
inhibit prostaglandin synthesis and/or induce oxidative stress
more than other propionic acids evaluated in this study. Findings in this study may be further validated by evaluating the
effects of these agents on urine levels of creatinine, urea, uric
acid, albumin, total protein, and electrolytes. Also, effects on
free radicals generation in the kidney may be evaluated.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
CONCLUSION
The adverse renal proile of propionic acids evaluated in
this study may be ranked in this order; ibuprofen> naproxen>fenoprofen> ketoprofen.Pronounced renal toxicity observed with ibuprofen treatment may be due to inhibition of
prostaglandins synthesis and/orinduction of kidney oxidative stress more than other propionic acids evaluated in this
study.
134
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Clarkson, M, L. Giblin, F. O’Connell, P. Kelly, J. Walshe, P. Conlon, P et al Acute interstitial nephritis: clinical features and response to corticosteroid therapy.
Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2004, 19, 2778-2783.
Blackshear, H, JS. Napier, M. Davidman, T.M, Stillman, Renal complications of nonsteroidal anti-inlammatory drugs; identiication and monitoring of those at
risk. Semin. Arthritis Rheum. 1985, 14, 163-175.
Murray MD, and DC Brater. Renal toxicity of the nonsteroidal anti-inlammatory drugs. Annu Rev Pharmacol
Toxicol. 1993;33:435-65.
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Ibiam AU, E. I. Ugwuja, C. Ejeogo, and O. Ugwu Cadmium-Induced Toxicity and the Hepatoprotective Potentials of Aqueous Extract of Jessiaea Nervosa Leaf
Adv Pharm Bull. 2013; 3: 309–313.
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combination with vitamins (C and E) improves oxidative stress and renal injury in cadmium intoxicated rats
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Albino Rats The Egyptian Journal of Hospital Medicine
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Jennifer L Ng, D.J R Morgan, N. K M Loh, S. K Gan,
P. L Coleman, G. S Y Ong and D. Prentice, Life-threatening hypokalaemia associated with ibuprofen-induced
renal tubular acidosis MJA 2011; 194: 313-316
Krummel T, Y Dimitrov, B Moulin, T Hannedouche
Acute renal failure induced by topical ketoprofenBMJ
2000;320:93
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function in clinical practice. BMJ. 2006;333:733-7.
Adikwu E, R. O. Igbans and N. Brambaifa Toxicological Assessment of Co-treatment with Rifampicin and
Tenofovir on Serum Electrolytes and Kidney Histology
of Albino Rats Afr. J. Pharmacol. Ther. 2015: 124-129
Kim S and K W. Joo, Electrolyte and Acid-Base Disturbances Associated with Non-Steroidal Anti-Inlammatory Drugs Electrolyte Blood Press. 2007; 5: 116–125.
Langhendries JP, and B. van Overmeire. Prostaglandines, anti-inlammatoires non steroidiens (AINS) et
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Baena, M. Salaices, MA, Rodriguez-Martinez: Oxidative stress induced by tert- butylhydroperoxide causes
vasoconstriction in the aorta from hypertensive and
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Patil SB, M.V Kodliwadmath, S M. Kodliwadmath
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Ramamoorthy,H, P. Abraham,B. Isaac. Oxidative stress,
decreased activities of anti-oxidant enzymes, and neutrophil iniltration contribute to Tenofovir disoproxil
fumarate induced renal damage in rats, International
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 23-11-2015; Published online: 08-12-2015
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
135
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Risk Assessment of Co-treatment with Tenofovir and Rifampicin on
Kidney Oxidative Stress Markers of Male Albino Rats
Elias Adikwu1, Igbans Rejoice Obele2, Odoko J. Onyedenyifa2, Apiakase Williams Ebipade2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Rifampicin (RIF) and tenofovir (TDF) may be
associated with oxidative kidney damage; hence co-therapy
with tenofovir-rifampicin in human immunodeiciency virus
and tuberculosis co-infection may be characterized by synergistic oxidative kidney damage. This study, therefore evaluated the toxicological effect of co-treatment with tenofovir-rifampicin on kidney oxidative stress markers of male albino
rats.
Materials and Methods: Adult male rats used for this study
were divided into ive groups A-E of sixteen animals (16) each.
Animals in group A (placebo control) were orally treated with
water, while animals in group B (solvent control) were orally
treated with arachis oil. Animals in groups C-D were orally
treated with 80 mg/kg of rifampicin, 32 mg/kg of tenofovir
and tenofovir-rifampicin for 1-8 weeks respectively. At the
end of drug therapy animals were sacriiced kidney collected
and analyzed for superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione,
glutathione-s-transferase, and malondialdehyde.
Results: Co-treatment with tenofovir-rifampicin insigniicantly (p>0.05) decreased superoxide dismutase, catalase,
glutathione, and glutathione-s-transferase levels with increase
in malondialdehyde level when compared to treatments using
individual doses of rifampicin and tenofovir.
Conclusion: This study shows co-therapy with tenofovir-rifampicin may not be associated with synergistic oxidative
kidney damage.
Keywords: Rifampicin, Tenofovir, Kidney, Oxidative Stress,
Rats
INTRODUCTION
The kidney performs several excretory and regulatory functions including blood pressure control, maintenance of extracellular environment and drug excretion.1 The kidney
is highly vulnerable to injury due to constant exposure to
chemical agents which may lead to accumulation in the kidney causing damage to the architecture of the kidney. Drugs
are known to precipitate mitochondrial damage in the kidney
which could result in the overproduction of reactive oxygen
species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), leading
to oxidative and nitrosative damage to the lipids, proteins
and DNA in the kidney.2
Renal toxicity is a dose limiting toxicological effect of tenofovir, one of the irst line antiretroviral drugs. About 3%
of patients on tenofovir containing antiretroviral drugs may
136
suffer drugs related renal damage.3 Several human and animal studies have reported tenofovir induced damage to proximal tubules, resulting in Fanconi syndrome, characterized
by bicarbonate wasting, phosphaturia, amino aciduria, glycosuria, acidosis, and hypophosphatemia.4,5 Also, increases
in serum creatinine, urea and uric acid levels are frequent
features in patients on tenofovir containing antiretroviral
regimens.6 Tenofovir renal toxicity has been associated with
various degrees of histopathological damage characterized
by proximal tubular injury, tubular necrosis, tubulointerstitial scarring and mitochondria damage.7 Tenofovir renal
toxicity was also reported to be associated with reduction in
the activities of proximal tubular glutathione, catalase, and
superoxide dismutase.8 These antioxidants are integral part
of kidney defense system; hence depletion will predispose
the kidney to oxidative injury.
Rifampicin is used in combination with other anti-tuberculosis drugs in the treatment of tuberculosis. It has bactericidal activity against organisms that are dividing rapidly and
against semi-dormant bacterial populations, thus accounting
for its sterilizing activity.9 Its mechanism of action involves
binding to β subunit of bacterial DNA-dependent RNA polymerase in prokaryotic, but not in eukaryotic cells thereby
inhibiting RNA synthesis.10 The use of rifampicin has contributed to decrease in morbidity and mortality rate due to tuberculosis, but its use has been associated with renal toxicity
characterized by acute renal failure.11 Rifampin renal toxicity may be associated with increases in serum levels of creatinine, urea and uric acid. Also, histopathological changes
characterized by tubulointerstitial nephritis, tubular necrosis,
papillary necrosis and acute cortical necrosis are common
features of rifampicin induced kidney damage.12 Rifampicin
induced kidney damage has been characterized by depletion
Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology,
University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers State, 2Lecturer, Department of Community Health Sciences, College of Health Technology, Otuogidi, Bayelsa State, Nigeria
1
Corresponding author: Adikwu Elias, Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Rivers State, Nigeria.
How to cite this article: Adikwu Elias, Igbans Rejoice Obele,
Odoko J. Onyedenyifa, Apiakase Williams Ebipade. Risk assessment of co-treatment with tenofovir and rifampicin on kidney oxidative stress markers of male albino rats. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):136-140.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Adikwu et al.
of kidney antioxidants (glutathione peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase) and increase in malondialdehyde level
which may increase the vulnerability of kidney to oxidative
injury.13
Rifampicin containing anti-tuberculosis regimes and tenofovir containing antiretroviral regimens are used as co-therapy
for the management of human immunodeiciency virus and
tuberculosis co-infection.14 Because rifampicin and tenofovir are individually associated with kidney damage characterized by decrease in kidney antioxidants. Co-therapy with
these drugs may synergistically deplete kidney antioxidants
which may be of grave consequence. This study, therefore
evaluated the toxicological effect of co-treatment with tenofovir- rifampicin on kidney oxidative stress markers of male
albino rats.
Risk Assessment of Co-treatment with Tenofovir and Rifampicin
then homogenized with 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH 7.2). The
resulting homogenate was centrifuge at 2500rmp speed for
15minutes then it was removed from the centrifuge and the
supernatant was decanted and stored at -20°C until analysis.
Evaluation of Kidney Oxidative Stress Markers
Kidney malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, glutathione,
catalase, and glutathione- S- transferase levels were evaluated using methods reported by Ahmed and Hassainein, 201319
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Results are presented as mean± SEM. Statistical signiicance
and differences from control and test values were evaluated
using one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Statistical
probability of p<0.05 was considered to be signiicant.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
Drug
Rifampicin used for this study was manufactured by Mancare Pharmaceuticals, India while pure sample of tenofovir
disoproxilfumarate was purchased from Shijiazhuang Aopharm Import & Export Trading Co., Ltd. Shijiazhuang, China. All other chemicals used for this study were of analytical
grade.
Animals
Eighty (80) adult male albino rats of average weight 330 ±5
g were used for this study. The animals were obtained from
the animal house of the Department of Pharmacology and
Toxicology, Madonna University, Elele, Rivers State. The
animals were allowed to acclimatize for 14 days and had free
access to food and water ad libitum.
Dose Selection and Drug Preparation
The doses of rifampicin and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate
used for this study were 80mg/kg and 32mg/kg respectively
and were higher than the clinically recommended doses.15,16
Rifampicin and tenofovir disoproxil fumarate powder were
suspended in arachis oil17,18
Grouping of Animals and Drug Administration
Animals were divided into ive groups A – E of 16 animals
per group. Animals in each group were further sub divided
into four groups of four animals each. Animals in group A
(placebo control) were orally treated with water while animals in group B (solvent control) were orally treated with
arachis oil. Animals in groups C-E were orally treated with
80 mg/kg of RIF, 32 mg/kg of TDF and TDF- RIF combination for 1-8 weeks respectively.
Collection of Sample for Analysis
At 1, 2, 4 and 8 weeks, after overnight fast, animals were
dissected under diethyl ether anesthesia; kidney collected
and washed in an ice cold 1.15% KCL solution. Kidney was
Treatment with TDF for 1-8 weeks produced time-dependent decreases in kidney GSH levels with signiicant (p<0.05)
decreases observed at weeks 6 and 8 when compared to the
control. Also, treatment with rifampicin produced time-dependent decreases in GSH levels with signiicant (p<0.05)
decrease observed at week 8 with respect to the control.
But effects produced by individual doses of these agents on
GSH levels were insigniicant (p>0.05) when compared to
effects produced by their combined doses (Table 1). Also,
kidney SOD levels were time-dependently decreased in animals treated with individual doses of TDF and RIF with
signiicant (p<0.05) difference from the control observed at
weeks 6 and 8. These observed decreases were insigniicant
(p>0.05) when compared to decreases produced by combined doses of TDF and RIF (Table 2). The following kidney
CAT values 40.8±0.20, 35.1±0.22, 25.2±0.20 and 20.5±0.24
U/mgprotein were obtained in TDF treated animals for 1-8
weeks respectively .These values represent time-dependent
decreases in kidney CAT levels with signiicant (p<0.05)
difference from the control observed at weeks 6 and 8. Furthermore, co-treatment with TDF-RIF produced time- dependent decreases in kidney CAT levels but, these decreases
were insigniicant (p>0.05) when compared to treatments
using individual doses of TDF and RIF (Table 3). This study
also noticed time-dependent decreases in GST levels in animals treated with individual doses of TDF and RIF. These
dose-dependent decreases were observed to be signiicant
(p<0.05) at weeks 6 and 8 in TDF treated animals while signiicant (p<0.05) difference was observed at week 8 in RIF
treated animals when compared to the control. But, these
dose-dependent decreases were insigniicant (p>0.05) when
compared to decreases produced by their combined doses
(Table 4). Furthermore, kidney MDA levels were time- dependently increased in animals treated with individual doses
of TDF and RIF. Increases were observed to be signiicant
(p<0.05) at weeks 6 and 8 in TDF treated animals while sig-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
137
Adikwu et al.
Risk Assessment of Co-treatment with Tenofovir and Rifampicin
niicant (p<0.05) increase was observed at week 8 in RIF
treated animals when compared to the control. Increases in
MDA levels were insigniicant (p>0.05) in animals treated
with a combination of TDF-RIF when compared to increases
observed in animals treated with individual doses of TDF
and RIF (Table5).
DISCUSSIONS
Kidney has cellular antioxidants that protect it from chem-
icals induced damage.20 These antioxidants are usually depleted in drugs induced oxidative kidney injury and additive or synergistic deletion of antioxidants can occur with
concurrent use of drugs.21 This study, therefore evaluated the
toxicological effect of co-treatment with tenofovir-rifampicin on kidney glutathione, super oxide dismutase, catalase,
glutathione-s- transferase and malondialdehyde levels. In
this present study, time-dependent increases in malondialdehyde levels with decreases in superoxide dismutase, glutathione, catalase and glutathione -s- transferase levels were
Dose
WK1
WK2
WK4
WK8
Control (A)
5.21±0.05
5.29±0.01
5.20±0.02
5.24±0.05
TDF 32mg/kg
5.17±0.04
4.32±0.03
3.02±0.04*
2.26±0.07*
RIF 80mg/kg
5.10±0.06
4.91±0.05
4.32±0.02
3.10±0.03*
TDF/RIF
4.07±0.03
4.23±0.03
3.01±0.08*
2.02±0.08*
TDF: Tenofovir. RIF: Rifampicin GSH: Glutathione (u/mgprotein). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript (*) means
signiicant difference with respect to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA).
Table-1: Effect of treatment with tenofovir and rifampicin on kidney glutathione of male albino rats
Dose
WK1
WK2
WK4
WK8
Control (A)
6.50±0.01
6.47±0.01
6.49±0.05
6.51±0.06
3.82±0.08*
3.47±0.02*
TDF 32mg/kg
6.32±0.05
5.21±0.03
5.43±0.01
3.87±0.03*
RIF 80mg/kg
6.35±0.05
6.09±0.01
RIF/TDF
5.60±0.01
5.10±0.06
3.61±0.08*
3.13±0.05*
TDF: Tenofovir, RIF: Rifampicin, SOD: Superoxide Dismutase (u/mgprotein). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript
* means signiicant difference with respect to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA).
Table-2: Effect of treatment with tenofovir, and rifampicin on kidney superoxide dismutase of male albino rats
Dose
WK1
WK2
WK4
WK8
Control (A)
43.0±0.12
42.9±0.26
43.1±0.13
42.7±0.15
25.2±0.20*
20.5±0.24*
TDF 32mg/kg
40.8±0.20
35.1±0.22
35.5±0.31
24.7±1.21*
RIF 80mg/kg
42.3±0.03
38.75±0.15
TDF/RIF
38.2±0.05
34.0±0.22*
23.1±0.18*
18.3±0.42*
TDF: Tenofovir. RIF: Rifampicin CAT: Catalase (u/mgprotein). Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript * means significant difference with respect to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA).
Table-3: Effect of treatment with tenofovir and rifampicin on kidney catalase of male albino rats
Dose
WK1
WK2
WK4
WK8
Control (A)
8.70±0.07
8.77±0.09
8.69±0.05
8.71±0.01
5.10±0.01*
4.73±0.07*
TDF 32mg/kg
7.90±0.03
7.30±0.04
RIF 80mg/kg
8.13±0.07
7.42±0.08
6.97±0.07
5.12±0.02*
RIF/TDF
7.90±0.06
7.20±0.05
5.01±0.08*
4.60±0.07*
TDF: Tenofovir, RIF: Rifampicin, GST: Glutathione-S- Transferase (μmol/min mg protein), Results are expressed as mean ± SEM,
the superscript * means signiicant difference with respect to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA).
Table-4: Effect of treatment with tenofovir, and rifampicin on kidney glutathione-s-transferase of male albino rats
Dose
WK1
WK2
WK4
WK8
1.53±0.04
1.49±0.05
Control (A)
1.52±0.01
1.60±0.01
TDF 32mg/kg
1.71±0.02
2.03±0.01
3.21±0.07*
4.10±0.04*
2.13±0.01*
3.21±0.04*
RIF 80mg/kg
1.62±0.03
1.85±0.05
TDF/RIF
1.80±0.02
1.90±0.06
3.5±0.03*
4.4±0.02*
TDF: Tenofovir. RIF: Rifampicin. MDA: malondialdehyde (nmole/mgprotein) . Results are expressed as mean ± SEM, the superscript
* means signiicant difference with respect to the control at p<0.05(ANOVA).
Table-5: Effect of treatment with tenofovir and rifampicin on kidney malondialdehyde of male albino rats
138
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Adikwu et al.
observed in animals treated with individual doses of tenofovir and rifampicin. These effects on oxidative stress markers
were not synergistic in animals co-treated with tenofovir and
rifampicin. Considering observations in this study co-treatment with tenofovir-rifampicin in human immunodeiciency
virus and tuberculosis co-infection may not be associated
with synergistic oxidative kidney damage.
In this study, observed time-dependent decreases in superoxide dismutase, glutathione, catalase, glutathione peroxidase
and glutathione transferase with increase in malondialdehyde
level in tenofovir treated animals is a sign of oxidative kidney damage. This is consistent with the work of Adaramoye
and colleagues who reported increase in malondialdehyde
level and decreases in antioxidants in animals treated with
50mg/kg/day of tenofovir for 4 weeks.22 Also, time- dependent increases in malondialdehyde levels with decreases in
superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione, and glutathione
transferase levels observed in rifampicin treated animals
suggest signs of oxidative kidney damage.22
Malondialdehyde is the major oxidative product of the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by oxidative radicals.23 This makes increase in malondialdehyde level observed in this study a sign of lipid per oxidation induced by
these agents. Glutathione whose active and oxidized form
is glutathione disulide detoxiies xenobiotic and scavenges
oxidative radicals; decrease in glutathione level observed in
this study could stimulate accumulation of oxidative radicals
leading to oxidative kidney damage.24 Catalase is a cytosolic
enzyme that protects biological system against oxidative radicals, and catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide anion radicals to hydrogen peroxide which is degraded into a molecule
of oxygen and water. Decrease in its level could stimulate
accumulation of superoxide anion radicals leading to kidney
damage.25 Super oxide dismutase is a vital scavenger of superoxide anions, decrease in its level could instigate superoxide accumulation which may inactivate several mitochondrial enzymes, and stimulate pro inlammatory processes.26
Inactivation of superoxide dismutase could also result in the
accumulation of toxic superoxide anion which could further
react with nitric oxide to form peroxynitrite. Peroxynitrite
is a potent nitrosating agent that can cause direct damage to
proteins, lipids, and DNA. Glutathione-s- transferase catalyzes the Conjugation of xenobiotic electrophilic substances with GSH to form the corresponding GSH-S-conjugate.
Glutathione reductase utilizes NADPH and maintains GSH
in a reduced form.27 Decreases in glutathione-s- transferase
and glutathione reductase observed in this study will further
expose the kidney to oxidative injury. Observed decreases
in antioxidants in the kidney of animals treated with these
agents may be due to oxidative stress through the generation
of free radical.28 This observation is supported by the fact
that oxidative stress is one of the mechanisms reported to be
associated with tenofovir and rifampicin induced renal toxicity.29 In addition, studies suggest that rifampicin induced
kidney damage is either a type II or type III hypersensitivi-
Risk Assessment of Co-treatment with Tenofovir and Rifampicin
ty reaction induced by rifampicin antigens in which anti-rifampin antibodies form immune complexes are deposited in
renal vessels, glomerular endothelium, and interstitial area.30
CONCLUSION
Observation in this study shows co-therapy with tenofovir-rifampicin in the management of tuberculosis and human
immunodeiciency may not be associated with synergistic
oxidative kidney damage.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We appreciate the technical assistance of Mr Charles Okeibuno and MrEze Iheukwumere of the Faculty of Pharmacy
Madonna University, Elele, Rivers State.
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R. Bhabagahi., J. Jyotironoyee., S. Satyajit, R. Bandana.
Reproductive proile of artemisinins in Albino rats; inolan Journal. Phamacology 2010;42: 193 – 194,
F. JR. Palm Garhen, R. R. De calvalbo., CAM Souza., R.
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in fertility & general reproductive performance; Brazil
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A. M. Ahmed, and K. M. A.Hassanein. Cardioprotective effects of Nigella sativa oil on lead induced cardio
toxicity anti-inlammatory and antioxidant mechanism.
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M. L. Circu, T. Y. Aw. Reactive oxygen species, cellular redox systems, andapoptosis. Free RadicBiol Med
2010; 48:749-62.
Sies H, Glutathione and its cellular functions.Free
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O. A. Adaramoye, O. M. Adewumi, O. A.Adesanoye,
O. O. Faokunla,E. O.Farombi. Effect of tenofovir, an
antiretroviral drug, on hepatic and renal functional indices of Wistar rats. protective role of vitamin E. J Basic
ClinPhysiolPharmacol 2012;23:69-75.
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Lopinavir/Ritonavir and Sulfamethoxazole/Trimethoprim on Reproductive Indices of Male Albino Rats.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 25-11-2015; Published online: 10-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Epidemiology of Peptic Ulcer Disease in Rural Haryana:
Retrospective Data Analysis of Last Ten Years – 800 Cases
Umesh Kumar Chhabra1, Satish Kumar Bansal1, Sandeep Kumar Goyal2, Gopal Singal3, Sachin Bhayana4,
Chandrashekhar Sharma4
ABSTRACT
Background: Perforation peritonitis is one of the commonest emergencies encountered by surgeons. The aim of this
paper is to provide an overview of the spectrum of perforation peritonitis and correlates of peptic perforation managed
in Maharaja Agrasen Medical College, Agroha, Hisar, Haryana, which mainly caters to the rural population of Haryana,
particularly Hisar and nearby districts. In the late eighteenth
century, various aspects of the clinical presentations of gastric
and duodenal ulcers began to be recognized and knowledge
of clinico-pathological presentation and treatment added up
thereafter regarding this particular disease, medical research
in the laboratory and the hospital became well established as
the main driver for the introduction of new treatments and investigations.
Material and methods: The present retrospective study was
carried out on 800 patients who were operated for peptic perforation in last 10 years. The comparison was carried out in
terms of age, sex, site of perforation, Histopathological reports.
Results:Pre-pyloric perforation was found in 498 patients
(62.25%). Duodenal perforation was found in 302 patients
(37.75%).
Conclusions: Patient characteristics, such as sex, age,smoking, alcohol consumption, diet, access to quacks indicate a
higher Pre-pyloric perforation rate in rural Haryana.
Keywords: Dyspepsia, quacks, smoking, alcoholism, peptic
perforation.
INTRODUCTION
Perhaps the earliest example of death caused by a gastric
ulcer was found in the 1984 post-mortem report of the exhumed body of a Chinese man who died in 167 BC.1 A contemporary physician, Robert Squirrell, described the symptoms of indigestion as follows; ‘Diminution or total loss of
appetite, sometimes vomiting, especially in the morning, bad
taste in the mouth, foul tongue, distension, and pain in the
stomach and bowels, particularly after meals, eructations,
etc.2 By the nineteenth century, ‘dyspepsia’ had become virtually synonymous with ‘indigestion’ and many books were
written on the subject.3 Wilson Fox4, Classiied the dyspeptic
condition as:
1. Atonic Dyspepsia
2. Neurosis of the Stomach
3. Acute Gastritis or Acute gastric Catarrh
4. Chronic Gastritis or Obstinate Chronic Dyspepsia
Dyspepsia may be an early symptom of a serious illness,
such as peptic ulceration, cholelithiasis or gastric carcinoma,
but often no organic cause is found.Nearly half the gastroenterological workload involves the management of patients
in whom no organic lesion can be identiied: many have
dyspepsia. The majority are treated in General Practice. No
agreement has yet been reached on the deinition, classiication or management of dyspepsia. Even the term ‘dyspepsia’
is not universally understood. dyspepsia deies deinition.5
Symptoms of dyspepsia or indigestion have affected more
than twenty percent of general population in developing
countries and has attracted the involvement of many medical practitioners and others with the provision of health care.
Within this group of symptomatic dyspeptic patients were
to be found gastric and duodenal ulcers which were capable
of causing serious health problems. However the prevalence
of stomach and duodenal peptic ulcers has declined markedly during the time course, peptic ulcers may still have a
fatal outcome, they now are considered to be curable conditions for the majority of patients who suffer from them in
the developing countries.Although ulcers may be found in
the oesophagus, the stomach and the duodenum, this study is
concerned only with the gastric (or stomach) and duodenal
ulcers. When discussing these collectively, the term ‘peptic
ulcers’ shall be used.
The word ‘peptic’ is derived from the Greek ‘peptein’ which
means ‘to digest’ and there is an implication by its conjunction with ‘ulcer disease’ that the digestive processes themselves play a part in the formation of an ulcer.Gastrointestinal perforations constitute one of the commonest surgical
Associate Professor, 2Assistant Professor, 3Professor, 4Senior Resident, Department of General Surgery, MAMC, Agroha, Hisar, Haryana, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Umesh Kumar Chhabra, Associate
Professor, Department of General Surgery, Maharaja Agrasen Medical College, Agroha, Haryana, India
How to cite this article: Umesh Kumar Chhabra, Satish Kumar
Bansal, Sandeep Kumar Goyal, Gopal Singal, Sachin Bhayana,
Chandrashekhar Sharma. Epidemiology of peptic ulcer disease in
rural haryana: retrospective data analysis of last ten years – 800
cases. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):141-143.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
141
Chhabra et al.
Epidemiology of Peptic Ulcer Disease
emergency encountered by surgeons.6,7 The etiological spectrum of perforation peritonitis in India differs signiicantly
from its western counter parts.8,9,10
mopped and a drain was inserted in peritoneal cavity through
a separate stab wound in lank and was secured to skin. Fascia (sheath) was closed in midline, skin sutures applied and a
sterile dressing applied.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This retrospective study was carried out on data obtained
from patients who underwent laparotomy for perforation
peritonitis from 2004 to 2014(ten years) in our institute. 800
of these patients who were found to have peptic perforation
were included in the study. Patients with concomitant perforations eg. Enteric and in one case uterine perforation with
history of D and C (Dilatation & Curettage) done 6 (six)
days earlier to laparotomy were not included in this study.
Patients who underwent laparotomy for peptic perforation
were compared in terms of demographic data including age,
sex, history of smoking, alcohol consumption,diet, history
of visits to quacks for conventional (desi) medication, radiological indings and histo-pathological report.All the exploratory laparotomies were performed by qualiied and experienced surgeons. Midline laparotomy incision was given
in all the surgeries, any collection in peritoneal cavity was
suctioned out.Thorough peritoneal lavage was done using
normal saline. Site of perforation was identiied, biopsied
and omental patch repair was performed in each of the 800
cases as closure with an omental patch is well-established
as the optimal procedure.11,12 The peritoneal cavity was dry
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
Total
Grand
Total
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Data so obtained was analyzed using StatisticalPackage for
Social Science (SPSS) Version-19
data analysis software. Correlates were deduced in form of
Odds Ratio.
RESULTS
Out of 800 patients operated for peptic perforation 498 had
Pre-Pyloric perforation (Males 396 and Females 102), 302
had duodenal perforation (Males 176 and Females 126). The
mean age was found to be 38.7 years. Out of the 176 males in
Duodenal Perforation group, Smoker: 126, Alcoholic: 76 out
of 126 smokers, Smoker and Alcoholic: 76, Visited Quacks:
49, Dyspepsia: 99. Out of the 126 females in Duodenal perforation group Smoker: 71, Alcoholic: 1out of 71 smokers,
Smoker and Alcoholic: zero, Visited Quacks: 31, Dyspepsia:
72. Out of the 396 males in Pre-Pyloric Perforation group,
Smoker: 331, Alcoholic: 306out of 331, smokers and Alcoholic: 306, Visited Quacks: 349, Dyspepsia: 357. Out of
the 102 females in Pre-Pyloric Perforation group, Smoker:
Age in Years & Sex distribution
15-20
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
M–0
F–1
M–2
F–0
M–1
F–1
M–0
F–0
M–3
F–0
M–0
F–0
M–0
F–0
M–0
F–0
M–1
F–0
M–0
F–1
M–1
F–0
M–8
F–3
M + F = 11
M - 17
F–6
M - 17
F–7
M - 19
F–6
M - 17
F–6
M - 18
F-4
M - 14
F–5
M - 15
F–7
M - 15
F–7
M - 16
F–5
M - 14
F–4
M - 19
F-6
M – 181
F –63
M + F = 244
M – 10
F–6
M–9
F–6
M–8
F–5
M – 12
F–7
M – 10
F–4
M – 10
F–3
M – 10
F–3
M – 11
F–3
M–9
F–6
M–7
F–3
M–9
F–3
M – 105
F – 49
M + F = 154
M–2
F–2
M–3
F–1
M–2
F–2
M–1
F–1
M–3
F–1
M–5
F–0
M–2
F–0
M–6
F–1
M–1
F–0
M–1
F–0
M–1
F–0
M – 27
F–8
M + F = 35
M – 23
F–8
M – 19
F–9
M – 12
F–8
M – 14
F –10
M – 15
F–7
M – 19
F–8
M – 20
F –10
M – 15
F–6
M – 19
F–9
M – 16
F–8
M – 17
F–5
M - 189
F – 88
M + F = 277
61
& above
M–8
F–2
M–6
F–1
M–8
F–3
M – 10
F–2
M–4
F–3
M–8
F–1
M–1
F–1
M–5
F–1
M–6
F–1
M–5
F–1
M–1
F–1
M – 62
F – 17
M + F = 79
DP
PP
M – 18
F – 14
M – 17
F – 12
M – 15
F – 14
M – 18
F – 14
M – 16
F – 11
M – 17
F – 10
M – 15
F – 11
M - 16
F – 10
M -16
F – 12
M – 13
F – 10
M – 15
F–8
M – 176
F – 126
M + F = 302
M – 42
F – 11
M – 39
F – 12
M – 35
F – 11
M – 36
F – 12
M – 37
F–8
M – 39
F–7
M – 33
F – 10
M – 36
F–8
M – 36
F–9
M – 30
F–7
M – 33
F–7
M – 396
F – 102
M + F = 498
Table-1: Sex wise Distribution of total visited patients
142
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Chhabra et al.
77, Alcoholic: 3 out of 77 smokers, Smoker and Alcoholic:
3, Visited Quacks: 94, Dyspepsia: 93. In the smoker group:
Risk of developing Pre-Pyloric perforation by smoking was
found to be 2.4 times higher than the risk of developing Duodenal perforation. In the alcoholic group: Risk of developing
Pre-Pyloric perforation by alcohol consumption was found
to be 4.7 times higher than the risk of developing Duodenal
perforation. In the group where treatment was taken from
Quacks: Risk of developing Pre-Pyloric perforation by treatment from Quacks was found to be 6.1 times higher than the
risk of developing Duodenal perforation.
DISCUSSION
One of the most common surgical emergencies is perforation peritonitis13 It is commonly seen in a younger age group
in the tropical countries.14-16 Commonly the perforations involve the proximal part of the gastrointestinal tract, this being in contrast to studies from the western countries, where
perforations are common in the distal part.17-19 Smoking and
alcoholism are rampant in Haryana20 more so in Rural areas.
Treatment by Quacks has an attribute to the increased risk of
developing Pre-Pyloric perforation because even patients do
not know what drug was given to them. Quacks supposedly administer Glucocorticoids (Steroids) in order to relieve
the symptoms of pain and dyspepsia without knowing the
consequences of these drugs. Indiscriminate use of over the
counter sold painkillers has also contributed to the overall
outcome.
CONCLUSION
Male sex, alcoholism, smoking and treatment of symptoms
of dyspepsia by Quacks clearly indicate that risk of developing Pre-Pyloric perforation is signiicantly higher than risk of
developing Duodenal perforation.
Epidemiology of Peptic Ulcer Disease
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
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Graham, R. The treatment of perforated duodenal ulcers. SurgGynecol Obstet. 1937; 64: 235–238
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K. Svanes. A multifactorial analysis of factors related to
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R. M. Watkins, A. R. Dennison, and J. Collin. What has
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A. Uccheddu, G. Floris, M. L. Altana, A. Pisanu, A.
Cois, and S. L. F. Farci. Surgery for perforated peptic
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S. Gupta, R. Kaushik, R. Sharma, and A. Attri. The
management of large perforations of duodenal ulcers.
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B. diVenere, M. Testini, S. Miniello et al. Rectal perforations. Personal experience and literature review. Minerva Chirurgica 2002;57:357–362.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 01-12-2015; Published online: 15-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
143
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Surgical Management of Cataract in Pseudoexfoliation
G. Satyavathi1, M. Ravi Kumar1, A. Hema Latha2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Cataract surgery may be more hazardous in
pseudoexfoliation (PEX) due to combination of poorly dilating pupil, increased risk of zonular dialysis and vitreous loss.
Postoperatively these patients require frequent follow up to
monitor for complications like raised intraocular pressure, inlammation and Intra ocular lens dislocation. Aim was to study
the outcome of cataract surgery in pseudoexfoliation eyes.
Material and Methods: In the current prospective, cross sectional, cost effective and out come study, 45 eyes of cataract
with pseudoexfoliation of 45 target patients attending to the
tertiary centre were included. Surgical procedure followed
is Manual Small Incision Cataract Surgery. Adrenaline (preservative free,0.5mg to 500 ml of infusion ) has been used to
get needed mydriasis during surgery. Various pre operative,
intraoperative and Postoperative complications along with
postoperative Best Corrected Visual Acuity and lens position
are evaluated periodically from day 1 to 6 months. Exclusion
Criteria: Eyes having obvious corneal pathology and obvious
posterior segment pathology are excluded.
Results: 3:2 (M:F) is the gender ratio. Poor pupillary dilatation and Nuclear sclerosis are the common associations observed among cataract eyes with PEX. There is 1 case (2%)
of Phacodonesis. P.C IOL could be implanted in 44 (97.7%)
cases and their visual out come is between 6/12 to 6/6. Sulcus
ixated IOL is kept in one case (2.2%) but with poor visual out
come. Round Pupil could be achieved in 43 (95.5%) cases.
Pupil is irregular in two (4.4%) cases due to sphincterotomy.
Five (11.1%) cases developed PCO within 6 months of follow up and are managed by Nd YAG capsulotomy (vide table
No.4)
Conclusion: The out come is good with Manual Small Incision Cataract Surgery with intraoperative preservative free
adrenaline added to infusion bottle in eyes with pseudoexfoliation, risk of vision threatening problems can be minimised
and it may be an option for surgical management of cataract
in Pseudoexfoliation eyes. Our method does not appear to detract from the surgical out come
Keywords: out come,small pupil, preservative free, viscoelastics, hazardous.
M.S. Assistant Professor, 2Resident, Department of Ophthalmology, Guntur Medical College, Guntur.
1
Corresponding author: Dr. G. Satyavathi, M.S., No.12-22-17,
Plot No.6, Sri Sainadh Towers, Head Post Ofice Road, Kothapeta,
Guntur.
INTRODUCTION
Pseudoexfoliation known by a variety of other names as senile exfoliation,exfoliation syndrome,senile uveal exfoliation,etc occurs when there is abnormal relationship between
Matrix Metallo Proteinases and Tissue Metallo Proteinases
144
that leads to development and precipitation of exfoliative
material.1 It is irst described by Lindberg in 1917.2 He believed that this material is created by earlier inlammarion.
The material has multifocal origin hence seen in various ocular structures. In addition to its occurance in the eye the
exfoliative ibrillopathy has been reported in skin and visceral organs suggesting that PEX is an ocular manifestation
of systemic disease. It is best seen in undilated eye by seeing dandruff like deposits at pupillary margin. Peri pupillary
transillumination defects are common. The classic presentation of central translucent disc surrounded by clear zone
which in turn surrounded by grey white ring with scalloped
edges on lens surface may not be visible in all cases due to
poorly dilating nature of pupil. A polymorphism in exon 1of
the LOXL1 gene3 which is associated with extracellular matrix formation has been found to be highly asssociated with
exfoliation.
Prevalence is closely linked with age reaching a maximum in
7th-9th decade. A study carried out in South India reported
prevalence of PEX as 3.8%, while the Andhra Pradesh Eye
Disease Study reported it as 3.01%4,5 Prevalence of glaucoma is variable in these eyes.
Well-dilated pupil with a sharp red relex enhances the ease
of cataract extraction and decreases the likelihood of complications like iris sphincter tear, zonular disruption, posterior
capsule rent, vitreous prolapse and lens in vitreous in exfoliation eyes. Poor pupillary dilatation, zonular weakness,
hard cataract and glaucoma are the common problems in
pseudoexfoliation eyes, which alter surgical out come when
attention is not paid to them. Small pupil6 that can impede
visualization and make instrumentation into the eye more
dificult. An intumescent or a brunescent cataract will cause
anterior chamber shallow. It is dificult to prolapse and also
express the hard nucleus.
The study object is to identify pre operative complications in
PEX eyes by proper evaluation there by assessing possible
intraoperative complications, and planning for preventive
How to cite this article: G. Satyavathi, M. Ravi Kumar, A. Hema
Latha. Surgical management of cataract in pseudoexfoliation. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):144148.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Satyavathi et al.
measures which ensures best visual out come. The surgeons
plan requires lexibility and resourcefulness.
The underlying pathophysiology should be taken into consideration when strategizing the surgical plan. The ultimate
goal of surgery is to replace cataract with IOL for best visual
outcome .
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This prospective, cross sectional, cost effective and out come
study comprises 45 eyes of 45 patients having cataract with
PEX as basic pathology presenting over a period of 1 year
(August 2014 to june 2015) under went lens removal and
subsequent intraocular lens implantation performed by single surgeon in ophthalmology department of a tertiary hospital. The study was approved by Institutional Ethical Committe Board. Written and informed consent is obtained from
all the patients regarding eye condition, surgical procedure
and surgical risk.
PEX diagnosed clinically by the presence of typical material
at the pupillary border on undilated examination, on anterior
lens surface on dilated examination, on trabecular meshwork
on gonioscopy, pigment deposition in angle and on corneal
endothelium.
Pre operative examination
Detailed clinical history is obtained and complete ophthalmological examination is done for every patient. Clinical
data of patient age, gender, presenting complaints are recorded. Relevent history such as family history of ocular and
systemic diseases are noted
In all patients Best Corrected Visual Acuity is assessed by
age appropriate charts. Visual Acuity ranged from CF 1-4
Mts. All cases are evaluated by Slit Lamp examination, IOP
measurement, Pupillary Reaction, Gonioscopy, Fundus examination, B-Scan & A Scan Biometry, Keratomety proper
management of systemic diseases like Diabetes,Hypertension, and Asthma by the concerned specialists. 3:2 (M: F) is
the gender ratio. Age group selected in the study are above
40 years. Patients with pseudoexfoliation material on the anterior lens surface at and or pupillary margin in either or both
eyes were labelled as having PEX.
All patients are from poor socio economic status and their
basic education qualiication ranged from uneducated to below 10th standard
Slit Lamp examination
Four out of 45 corneas have pigment deposition on Endothelium. Anterior Chamber Depth is normal, except in 2 cases, shallow AC where cataract is brunescent type. There is
change of iris pattern which is thick & hyperpigmented in all
cases. Trans illumination pupillary defects are seen in 3 cases. Pseudoexfoliation of pupillary margin is seen in 39 Cases
(Table No 2) with normal Direct and Consensual light relex
action. Poor pupillary dilatation is seen in 35 cases.
Surgical Management of Cataract in Pseudoexfoliation
Age group
40 to 49 years
50 to 59 years
More than 60 years
No. of patients
5
16
24
Table-1: Age group
Pupil size
No. of cases
Below normal size pupil
36
Normal sized pupil
10
shallow ac
2
Corneas having pigment
4
deposition on endothelium
Cataract grading
cortical
10
Nuclear: Grade I to II
12
Grade III to IV
23
Pupil defects
3
Exfoliation Pupillary Margin
39
on Lens Surface
4
gonioscopically revealed
2
cases
Phacodonesis
1
Table-2: Preoperative data
Percentage
11.1%
35.5%
53.3%
Percentage
80%
20%
4.4%
8.8%
6.6%
86.6%
8.8%
4.4%
2.2%
Lens - Exfoliative material on lens surface is observed in
4 cases. Cataract is graded by lens opacity classiication
system. Posterior sub capsular cataract along with cortical
and nuclear cataract is in 9 out of 45 cases. Nuclear sclerosis is predominently associated with PEX in 35(77.7%)eyes.
Phacodonesis is observed in one case.
Gonioscopy revealed excess trabecular pigmentation. Two
eyes having pseudoexfoliation are diagnosed gonioscopically. IOP with applanation tonometer is in normal range of 16
-18 mm of Hg in all cases. Fundus is with in normal limits.
B-Scan performed is normal in all the cases
Dilation of pupil is measured after mydriatic drops and graded as poor (2-4mm),moderate (5-6mm) and good( >7mm).
Pre-operative preparation
Topical Antibiotic & Anti inlammatory eye drops along
with systemic antibiotics are started from day before surgery.
IOP kept under normal levels with oral Acetazolamide 250
mg night & 2 hours before surgery. Peribulbar block with
the iniltration of Xylocaine 2% combined with Bupivacaine
0.5% Adrenaline 1 in 2,00,000 and hyaluronidase for local
analgesia is achieved.
Incision and surgical strategies
The surgical procedure is Manual Small Incision Cataract
Surgery by means of tunnel construction and is characterised
by its greater radial length and an entry into AC to create
self sealing internal corneal valve. 6 to 7 mm in cortical and
Grade I &II nuclear cataracts and >7mm in Grade-III and
above, tunnel is created. Intra operative mydriasis is maintained by adding Adrenaline 0.5CC (preservative free 1mg
in 1ml ampoule) to infusion bottle. Shallow AC is managed
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
22.2%
77.7%
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Satyavathi et al.
Surgical Management of Cataract in Pseudoexfoliation
by decreasing posterior segment volume by hyper osmotics
and increasing anterior segment volume by visco elastics.
Side port is given for rigid pupils with poor pupillary dilation
for manoeuvers like cortical aspiration, IOL dialing. Gentle
(6 mm) continuous curvilinear capsulotomy(CCC) is given
using needle cystitome.
To prevent stress on zonules while manoeuvering nucleus
and while aspirating cortical matter, radial cuts are given to
capsular margin when there is large nucleus (>10mm) with
inadequate capsulorrhexis due to small pupil size (<3mm)
to prolapse nucleus. Under visco, nucleus is delivered after
controlled Hydrodissection. The procedures of capsulorrhexis, hydrodissection, nucleus expression into AC, its removal
from AC with visco, cortical cleanup and IOL insertion are
carried out in the same manner in all the cases by the same
surgeon having more than 10 yrs experience. Additional care
is taken to prevent stress on zonules by avoiding luctuations
in anterior chamber pressure by controlled paracentesis, profuse use of viscoelastics and by gentle nucleus manoeuvers.
Large nucleus with phacodonesis is managed by avoiding
stress on zonules, with adequate capsulorrhexis size and by
giving radial cuts to capsular rim.
Postoperatively patients are treated with topical antibiotics
and steroids tapered over 4 - 6 weeks. Patients are followed
from day 1, 2, 7, 14, at 2 weeks intervals for 2 months and
at monthly intervals for 6 months to evaluate corneal status,
inlammation, lens position, intra ocular pressure and visual
acuity. The data is entered and analysed using MS-Excel.
RESULTS
In the present study forty ive eyes having cataract with pseudoexfoliation of 45 patients who underwent cataract surgery
by Manual SICS are included to evaluate various preoperative, intraoperative, and postoperative complications.
Age group of patients is above 40 years. Among 45 patients
40 (88.8%) patients are above ifty years age group. There is
a male preponderance of 27 out of 45 patients.
Preoperatively 80%(36 eyes) produced 6mm and 20%(9
eyes) produced <6mm pupillary dilatation. Pupil equal to or
less than 6 mm is considered as abnormal after mydriatic
instillation. Eyes diagnosed as PEX by having exfoliative
material at pupillary margin are 39(86.6%),on lens surface
are 4(8.8%) and gonioscopically revealed cases are 2(4.4%).
Pigment dispersion on endothelium is seen in 4(8.8%) cases.
Nuclear sclerosis is seen in 35 (77.7%) of cases and cortical
cataract is present in 10 (22.2%) cases. IOP ranged from 16
- 18 mm Hg. Shallow anterior chamber is seen in 2 (4.4%)
cases because of intumescent cataract. There is one case
(2.2%) of phacodonesis. In most of the case excess pigmentation over trabecular meshwork is seen (Table 1).
Intraoperative dificulties
All patients underwent cataract surgery using Manual SICS
technique. Dificulty faced in 15(33.3%) cases while pro-
146
lapsing nucleus because of its hardness and greater size
(L.S.of grade-III and above) and pupil size is <5mm. Mechanical dilatation of pupil is required before capsulotomy.
Radial cuts are given to capsular rim at 1,5 &10 clock hours
in 4 (8.8%) cases of Grade 1V nuclear cataract to prolapse
nucleus. 2 (4.4%%) cases required Sphincterotomy due to
rigid and <5mm size of pupil with Grade-IV cataract. One
case required multiple sphincterotomies.
Nucleus Delivery
2 (4.4%) cases required tunnel conversion where in spite
of capsulotomy & big tunnel, nucleus delivery is dificult.
Conversion is done to prevent endothelial damage. Nuclear
break-up occurred in 2(4.4%) cases. While attempting to remove the second piece, adequate visco is used to disengage
and to remove the broken piece.
Aspiration of Lens Matter
Inspite of poor pupillary dilatation and cortico capsular adhesion, thorough cortical clean up especially subincisional
cortex is done without any left over lens matter by means
of sustained maintenance of pupil dilatation and anterior
chamber depth and giving radial cuts to capsular margin at
subincisional area. In 1 (2.2%) case where there is dificulty of subincisional cortex aspiration, which lead to Zonular
disruption of less than 3 clock hours. The case is managed
by adequate visco, meticulously clearing vitreous. In 44
(97.7%) cases PC IOL could be inserted. In one case (2.2%)
IOL is placed in sulcus due to zonular disruption.
Three (6.6%) cases required suturing with 10-0 nylon for
tunnel closure. (Table-2)
Post operative complications
One case (2.2%) of Striate Keratopathy of Gr III is noted,
due to nucleus manoeuver. The expected post operative complications like inlammation, raised IOP and pupillary block
are nil at 6months follow up. Round pupil could be achieved
in 43 (95.5%) cases and irregular pupil is noted in 2 (4.4%)
of cases due to sphincterotomy. Inspite of adequate intraoperative precautions, the eye with phacodonesis has decentration of IOL, observed at 6 months follow up due to zonular
weakness. 6/12 to 6/6 of visual acuity could be achieved in
44 (97.7%) cases. The visual acuity is less than 6/60 in decentered IOL which is considered as poor visual outcome. 5
(11.1%) of cases developed PCO within 6 months of follow
up and are managed by Nd YAG capsulotomy (vide table
No.4).
DISCUSSION
Cataract surgery in patients with pseudoexfoliation is a risk
not only to the patient but to the surgeon also.7 Majority of
patients in our study are above age of 60 years (53.3%). Epidemiological studies of PEX have shown that it is more common in patients older than 60 yrs and prevalence further in-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Satyavathi et al.
Dificulties
Surgical Management of Cataract in Pseudoexfoliation
No. of
patients
15
2
5
1
%
Nucleus prolapse
Sphincterotomy
Cortical clean up
Zonular disruption leading to sulcus
ixated IOL
suturing required
3
Tunnel conversion
2
Table-3: Intra operative dificulties
33.3%
4.4%
11.1%
2.2%
Observations
%
No. of
patients
SK
1
Irregular pupil
2
IOL in position
44
PCO
5
VA 6/12 to6/6
44
Table-4: Post operative observations
6.6%
4.4%
2.2%
4.4%
97.7%
11.1%
97.7%
creases with age.8 Among 45 patients 27(60%) are males and
18(40%)are females with a male:female ratio of 3:2. Reports
regarding sex predilection in PEX are conlicting. External
environmental factors have also been implicated for causing PEX. Avrademis, Sakkias and Traindis reported a female
preponderance.9
The signs of zonular instability such as iridodonesis, phacodonesis and lens subluxation should be carefully looked for
under slit lamp preoperatively before and after dilation of
the pupil.10
In the present study poor pupillary dilation and hard cataract are the common hazards observed. Among 45 patients,
hard cataract is seen in 35(77.7%). Most studies have found
a strong association between PEX and nuclear cataract.11,12
As prevalence of glaucoma is variable in PEX, there is no
incidence of glaucoma capsulare in our study.
In the present study small and rigid pupil is the most common intra operative problem which is managed by bimanual
stretching, and intra operative mydriasis is maintained by
preservative free adrenaline added to infusion bottle. There
are other mechanical methods and devices to enlarge the
pupil at cataract surgery, manage zonular disruption which
include, stretch pupilloplasty by means of Kuglens hook to
retract the iris tissue through four or more corneal stab incisions, or introducing mechanical stretching devices to pull
on the sphincter margin, Malyugin rings, Capsular tension
rings for zonular weakness.13,14 All of these methods are
cumbersome, require specialized instruments, dificult intraocular manoeuvers, and are associated with bleeding, permanent loss of iris sphincter function, and abnormal pupil
shape postoperatively.
Poor zonular integrity may affect cataract surgery technique
and 10L implantation. Meticulous gentle capsulotomy prevents force on the zonules. Radial incisions are to be given to
capsular rim when there is abnormal ratio between pupil and
nucleus size which will ease nuclear prolapse. Also unlike in
other cataracts, the rhexis should be more than 6.5mm but
at the same time should not extend upto zonules. This will
reduce the amount of anterior capsular epithelial cells, which
in turn will reduce the post operative capsular ibrosis.
Reducing the size of nucleus by hydrodeliniation is a dificult task in nuclear cataracts of grade IV. In these cases
due to lack of strong zonules, there is intraoperative chance
of zonular rupture, and nucleus drop and shrinkage of the
rhexis postoperatively. Hydroprocedure should be done very
carefully to prevent zonular stress. As peripheral iridocapsular adhesions are common in pseudoexfoliation eyes, aspiration of cortex is dificult and is the most important threat to
cause zonular weakening.
Adequate use of OVD maintains anterior chamber depth,
pupil dilatation, prevents stress on zonules and endothelial
damage as pseudoexfoliation eyes have compromised endothelium.
Pseudoexfoliation eyes have a tendency for post operative
iritis. Incomplete removal of cortical matter due to poor
visibility secondary to poor pupillary dilatation may lead
to post operative inlammation, and capsular opaciication.
In our study though no obvious postoperative lens matter is
detected, it could be the cause for development of PCO in 5
(11.1%) of our cases. Due to meticulous intraoperative care
the inlammation that occured postoperatively in low grade,
responded well with topical steroids and cycloplegics. Studies have reported that IOL decentration is primarily due to
decentration of entire bag.15-16 The IOL decentration that occured in our study is due to intraoprative zonular disruption.
Present methods of managing cataract in pseudoexfoliation
eyes by means of SICS have all had limitations. Phacoemulsiication technique can not be employed as the standard procedure due to certain reasons. Moreover endothelial cell loss
in Phaco depends on density of nucleus. In Manual SICS the
skill of the surgeon plays an important role. Manual SICS
with intra operative usage of Adrenaine to infusion bottle
limits complications, prevents usage of strong mydriatics
such as10% phenylephrine often associated with untoward
ocular and systemic side effects. Ignoring pupil size, zonular integrity, hardness of cataractous lens and performing
the manoeuvers of small incision surgery through an un-enlarged incision, may result in inadvertent complications like
zonular dialysis, iridodialysis, bleeding, increased risk of
posterior capsule tear and nucleus drop.
Though the modern techniques and mechanical devices can
increase the margin of safety, they are cost effective and can
not be employed as standard procedures.
CONCLUSION
Manual SICS is a good alternative to phacoemulsiication in
countries where very high volume surgery with inexpensive
instrument is required. It can be performed on dense cataract having poor pupilary dilatation due to PEX. The procedure has a low rate of complications. Successful surgical
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
147
Satyavathi et al.
Surgical Management of Cataract in Pseudoexfoliation
outcomes may be achieved in eyes having cataract and PEX,
with associated poor pupillary dilatation and zonular weakness with both mechanical iris dilation and iris retention devices as well as capsular tension rings. The retention devices
add to overall surgical cost and generally require more time
in the O.R than a mechanical pupillary stretch. Pupillary
stretch is more traumatic to the iris and also possibly to the
corneal endothelium, but our management method does not
appear to detract from the surgical outcome. Besides managing and handling the small pupil, the other precautions like
good and wide rhexis, careful Hydroprocedure, very watchful cortical aspiration and in dificult cases implanting IOL
and then attempting for cortical removal all are important
steps to manage cataract in PEX eyes successfully.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
REFERENCES
1.
Myron Yanoff and Jays Duker Ophthalmology, 3rd edition, sec-3; part 10;10.3:p1172-3.
2. Lindberg JG.Clinical investigations on depigmentation
of the pupillary border and translucency of the iris in
cases of senile cataract and in normal eyes in elderly
persons.Acta Ophthalmol Suppl 1989;190:1-96.
3. Becker - Shaffers Diagnosis and Therapy of Glaucomas, 8th Edition, Robert L Stamper,Mark F Lieberman,
Michael V Drake;C:18;Part 4; p 268-70:
4. Arvind H, Raju P, Paul PG, Bhaskaran M, Ramesh SV,
George Rj, et al.Pseudoexfoliation in South India. Br J
Ophthalmol 2003;87:1321-3.
5. Thomas R, Nirmalan PK, Krishnaiah S. Pseudoexfoliation in Southern India:The Andhra Pradesh eye dsease
study. Invest OphthaimolVis Sci 2005;46:1170-6
6. Fine IH. Phacoemulsiication in the presence of a small
pupil. In: Steinert RF, ed. Cataract surgery: technique,
complications and management. Philadelphia: Saunders; 1995:199–208.
7. Osher RH, Icon RJ, Gimbel HV, Crandall ASCataract
surgery in patients with pseudoexfoliation syndrome.
Eur J Implant Refract Surg1993;5:46–50
8. Alialate M Leite E, Mira J, Cunha-Vaz JG. Prevalence
and surgical complications in Pseudoexfoliation syndrome in Portuguese patients with senile cataract.J Cataract Refract Surg1996;22:972-6.
9. Avramides S,Traindis P,SakkiasG.Cataract surgery and
lens implantation in eyes with pseudoexfoliation syndrome.J CataractRefractSurg1997;23:583-7
10. ShingletonBJ, CradallAS, Ahmed II.Pseudoexfoliation
and cataract surgeon:Preoperative intraoperative and
postoperative issues related to intra ocular pressure,
cataract and intra ocular lenses.J Cataract Refract Surg
2009;35:1101-20.
11. Young AL, Tang WW, Lam DS.The prevalence of pseudoexfoliation syndrome in Chinese people.Br J Ophthalmol 2004;88:193-5.
12. Shastri L,Vasavada A. Phacoemulsiication in Indian
eyes with pseudoexfoliation syndrome.J Cataract Refract Surg 2001;27:1629-37.
148
13. Wilczynski M, Wierzchowski T, Synder A, Omulecki
W. Results of phacoemulsiication with Malyugin Ring
in comparison with manual iris stretching with hooks
in eyes with narrow pupil [printed online ahead of print
October 26, 2012]. Eur J Ophthalmol. 2012.
14. J American Academy of Ophthalmology, The eye
M.D.Association,Basic and Clinical Science Course,
Sec 11 Lens and Cataract;chapter 10 p 230-1.
15. Ritch R, Schlotzer-Schrehardt U. Exfoliation syndrome.
Surv Ophthalmol2001;45:265-315.
16. Akman A, Yilmaz G, Oto S, Akova YA. Comparison of
various pupil dilatation methods for phacoemulsiication in eyes with a small pupil secondary to pseudoexfoliation.Ophthalmology. 2004;111:1693-1698.
Submitted: 25-11-2015; Published online: 11-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Surgical Experience of Managing Abdominal Tuberculosis –
What’s New
Sharad Seth1, KeshavAgrawal1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Abdominal Tuberculosisin all its grandeur
still rules the roost in third world countries like ours. Themainobjectiveofthis studywastoidentify the changes that may
have occurred over time in the presentation and treatment of
this disease.
Material and method: This was a prospective study on40patientsadmittedfromOctober2014toSeptember2015in the surgery wards of our institution. Only thosepatients in whom
abdominal tuberculosis was conirmed by imaging or histopathology were included in this study. A meticulous record
of thedemography,presentation, investigations and treatment
was maintained in a previously prepared proforma for this
purpose. All relevant data was analyzed using SPSS software
version 17.
Results: 24(60%) patients were males and 16(40%) were
females with ages ranging from 11-60 years. All patients
belonged to a low socioeconomic group. 14(35%) patients
presented in the emergency as complete intestinal obstruction,
six(15%) had incomplete bowel obstruction and four(10%)
presented with bowel perforation, all diagnosed on plain x-ray
abdomen. The rest 16(40%) patients were diagnosed on abdominal ultrasonographic indings of ascites, ileocaecal mass
/abscess, thickened terminal ileum. Only eight(20%) required
CECT for further clariication. 12(30%) of all patients were
treated conservatively. Adhesiolysis in eight(20%) was the
commonest surgical procedure performed.
Conclusion: Abdominaltuberculosis in our region should always be considered in patients presenting with small bowel
obstruction, or chronic ascites of unknown etiology. Antitubercular treatment 2 (HRZE) /4(HR)for a minimum of 6
months is all that is required in most patients.
Keywords: abdominal tuberculosis, diagnosis, management
carried out to review the clinical spectrum of the disease,
diagnostic dilemmas and surgical treatment of the same in
our economically deprived region.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This prospective study on Abdominal Tuberculosis was conducted from October 2014 to September 2015.A total of 40
patients with proven abdominal tuberculosis were included
in this study. All patients were evaluated with a meticulously
taken history and thorough physical examination. Investigations included a complete blood count (Hb, TLC, DLC),
ESR, LFTs, Mantoux test, Chest X-ray PA view, Abdominal
x-ray AP view and abdominal ultrasonography. Laparoscopy, ascitic luid examination and Computed tomography
were carried out in selected patients as per requirement. In
cases where a tissue specimen was available, a deinitive
histo-pathological lesion characteristic of tuberculosis (presence of epithelioid granuloma, caseation, Langhan’s giant
cells) in the diseased abdominal segment or in the draining lymph nodewas taken as conirmatory evidence of the
disease. All patients were put on anti-tubercular therapy 2
(HRZE) /4(HR)for a minimum of 6 months as part of conservative treatment or soon after surgery. All patients are on
follow-up and will remain so for at least one year following
completion of therapy.
Exclusion Criteria: Genitourinary Tuberculosis.
Ethical consideration: Due permission was taken from the
hospital ethical committee to carry out this study.
RESULTS
Out of 40 patients included in this study,24(60%)were males
and 16(40%) were females with ages ranging from 11-60
INTRODUCTION
Professor, Department of Surgery, Rohilkhand Medical College
and Hospital, Bareilly, India
1
Abdominal Tuberculosis by deinition includes the involvement of the gastrointestinal tract, peritoneum, the mesentery
and its nodes. Solid viscera, liver, including spleen and pancreas, can also be rarely involved.1 11-16% of all cases of
tuberculosis are extrapulmonary of which 3-4% are abdominal tuberculosis.2 Primary tuberculosis of intestine without
antecedent or associated pulmonary tuberculosis is also fairly common.3 Both the incidence and severity of abdominal
tuberculosis are expected to increase with the increasing incidence of HIV infection in India.4 The present study was
Corresponding author: Sharad Seth, D4 Professors Quarters,
Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital,Pilibhit, By-Pass Road,
Bareilly (U.P.), India
How to cite this article: Sharad Seth, KeshavAgrawal. A surgical experience of managing abdominal tuberculosis – what’s
new. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3(1):149-151.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
149
Seth et al.
A Surgical Experience of Managing Abdominal Tuberculosis
years. (Figure 1). All patientsbelongedtoa lowsocioeconomicgroup,with anaveragefamilyincomeofRs2000/-permonth.
The commonest presentation was of pain in the abdomen
26(65%) and abdominal distension 20(50%). Only
6(15%) patients had an abdominal lump (Table 1).In
the emergency, complete small bowel obstruction was
seen in 14(35%) patients. Other emergency presentations
were incomplete bowel obstruction in six(15%) and ileal
perforation at or above a complete stricture in four(10%)
patients (Figure 2).Six (15%)patientswereanaemicwith hemoglobin below8gm% and eight(20%) had araisedESR.Asciticluidanalysis r e v e a l i n g a high lymphocytecount and
adenosine deaminase above 36IU/L was diagnostic in
four(10%) patients.Radiologicalindingson achest X-rayrevealed associated pulmonary tuberculosis in 2(5%) patients.
I ntestinal obstruction and perforation was diagnosed on a
plain X-ray abdomen. Abdominal ultrasonography indings
of ascites, ileocaecal mass/abscess, thickened terminal ileum were used to diagnose 16(40%) patients. CECT was required in eight (20%) patients to clarify diagnostic dilemmas. Ileo-ileal intussusception in one patient, cholelithiasis
in 8(20%) and splenic abscess in one patient were other incidental indings. 12(30%) of all patients were treated conservatively. Adhesiolysis in eight(20%) was the commonest
surgical procedure performed. Six (15%) required drainage
of an intra-abdominal abscess. Ileostomy exteriorization of
the perforations in four (10%) and primary resection anastomsis for strictures in the terminal ileum in four (10%)
patients were the other common procedures performed. Six
(15%) patients underwent diagnostic laparoscopy with peritoneal, mesenteric lymph node or omental biopsy (Figure 3).
24cm of the terminal ileum and the ileocaecal junction was
the only area involved in our study. 10(25%) patients were
diagnosed on histopathological indings of epithelioid granuloma, caseation,Langhan’s giant cells in mesenteric lymph
nodes peritoneal and intestinal biopsy. Wound infection in
12(30%) patients was the commonest postoperative complication. Two (5%) patients developed incisional hernias.
No patient was HIV positive. The average hospital stay was
15 days. There was no mortality in this series. All patients
were put on anti-tubercular therapy 2 (HRZE) /4(HR)for a
minimum of 6 months and will remain on follow-up for a
minimum of one year.
Symptoms and Signs
Number of patients
%
Pain In Abdomen
26
65
Abdominal Distension
20
50
Vomiting
18
45
Constipation
14
35
Fever
6
15
Abdominal Lump
6
15
Ascites
4
10
Loss of Appetite
4
10
Table-1: Symptoms and signs of abdominal tuberculosis
(N=40)
150
DISCUSSION
Abdominal tuberculosis is the sixth commonest extra pulmonary site for the disease.5 Abdominal tuberculosis can
occur at any age and the mean age of 35 years in the present
study relects the observations of another study from Pakistan where the mean age was 28.21 ± 5.75 years.6 Majority
of patients in our study belonged to a poor socio-economic class. Poor nutritional status, lack of health facilities and
poor pasteurization of milk are contributors to this problem.7
Abdominal pain was the commonest presentation in our patients (65%) as has been recorded by others.8 Intestinal obstruction seen in20(50%) patients was the commonest cause
for which the patient presented in the emergency a inding
15
4
10
6
5
10
4
2
41-50
6
0
0-10
2
11-20
2
4
21-30 31-40
51-60
males
females
Figure-1: Age and Sex distribution in abdominal tuberculosis
4
Complete obstruction
Incomplete obstruction
Perforation
6
14
Figure-2: Presentations in the emergency
Primary
resection
anastomosis
10%
Ileostomy
10%
Conservative
30%
Abscess drainage
15%
Diagnostic
laparoscopy
15%
Adhesiolysis
20%
Figure-3: Treatment and Procedures for Abdominal Tuberculosis
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Seth et al.
A Surgical Experience of Managing Abdominal Tuberculosis
corroborated in other studies.9 This is in sharp contrast to that
reported in the western literature where abdominal tuberculosis as a cause of mechanical obstruction is very rare.10 Ileal
perforations usually occur at or proximal to a stricture the
same seen in our patients.11 The terminal ileum and ileocaecal regions were the only areas involved in our study and is
in contrast to other studies where other areas of the gut albeit
rarely were also involved.12 Pulmonary tuberculosis was an
associated inding in only two(5%) of our patients and only
one was sputum AFB positive. An Indian study had 34.78%
associated pulmonary tuberculosis.13 Ultrasonography was
used to diagnose 16(40%) of our patients whereas only 4%
were diagnosed on ultrasound imaging in another study from
Pakistan.14 Adhesiolysis in eight(20%) was the commonest
surgical procedure performed. Intrabdominal abscess drainage in six(15%), ileostomy exteriorization of the perforations in four (10%) and primary resection anastomsis for
strictures in the terminal ileum in four (10%) patients were
the other common procedures performed. Ileostomy was the
commonest procedure in a study from Pakistan.15 All patients were put on anti-tubercular therapy 2 (HRZE) /4(HR)
for a minimum of 6 months which is the current recommendation.16 No patient had associated HIV infection which does
not conirm to other studies.17
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
CONCLUSION
Abdominal tuberculosis should always be considered in the
differential diagnosis of patients with altered bowel habits,
small bowel obstruction and ascites of unknown origin in
our region. Tubercular adhesions are the commonest cause
of small bowel obstruction in the emergency. Exteriorization
of the perforation may be safer in the setting of faecal peritonitis. A six month regime of 2(HRZE)/4(HR) is the current
recommendation for antitubercular treatment of abdominal
tuberculosis.
14.
15.
16.
17.
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YR Sharma. Abdominal tuberculosis-a study of 25 cases.Khatmandu University Medical Journal 2003;2:137141.
Abhijit Mandal, Sibes Kumar Das, Tapan D Bairagya.
Presenting Experience of Managing Abdominal Tuberculosis at a Tertiary Care Hospital in India. J Glob Infect
Dis. 2011; 3: 344–347.
M R. Khan, T R. Khan, K.M.I.Pal. Diagnostic Issues in
Abdominal Tuberculosis. JPMA. 2001;51:138
Ghulam Asghar Channa, Muhammad Ali Khan. Abdominal Tuberculosis “Surgeons Perspective”. Journal
of Surgery Pakistan 2003; 8: 18-22
Irene G. Sia, Mark L. Wieland. Current Concepts in the
Management of Tuberculosis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2011
Apr; 86:348–361.
Sandhya P Iyer, Kabeer Umakumar, Amol Mahajan.
Impact of HIV Infection on Outcome of Abdominal Tuberculosis. Bombay Hospital Journal 2008;50: 553-559
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 01-12-2015; Published online: 15-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
151
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
To Study The Effect of Gestational Weight Gain on Labour and Fetal
Outcome
Harpreet Kaur1, Manpreet Kaur2, Bhupinder Kaur3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: High prevalence of low birth weight, high morbidity and mortality in children and poor maternal nutrition of
mother continues to be major concerns in India. Research was
planed to study the effect of gestational weight gain on labour
and fetal outcome.
Materials and Methods: The research design was non-experimental descriptive design and was conducted from Dec 2014
to Jan 2015 in Maternity Ward of Guru Gobind Singh Medical
College and Hospital, Faridkot. 100 pregnant women were
selected. The demographic data was collected by interviews.
The labour and fetal outcome was assessed by attending the
labour.
Results: The result revealed that most of the study subjects
had low gestational weight gain. The gestational weight gain
is signiicantly associated with mode of delivery, duration of
labour, birth weight of newborn and gestational age, BMI of
women at the time of booking. The low weight gain study
subjects had higher incidence of prolonged labour and other
modes of delivery caesarean section and instrumental delivery as compared to normal gestational weight gain. The lower
weight gain as well as normal weight gain subjects had similar
gestational age, Apgar score, fetal complications and labour
complications.
Conclusion: Gestational weight gain is signiicantly associated with labour and fetal outcome.
Keywords: Gestational weight gain, labour outcome, fetal
outcome, Body Mass Index (BMI)
INTRODUCTION
The period of intrauterine growth and development is one
of the most vulnerable period in the human life cycle. The
weight of the infant at birth is a powerful predictor of infant
growth and survival and is dependent on maternal health and
nutrition during pregnancy.1
"Good pregnancy outcomes are associated with healthy
weight of the mother", said Kathleen Rasmussen, a Professor
of nutrition at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York and
chair of guidelines committee. A good diet cannot guarantee
a good pregnancy outcome, but it certainly makes an important contribution.2
There is a need for behavioral intervention to advise pregnant woman on recommended ranges of gestational weight
gain and promote healthy diet and regular physical activity to
prevent subsequent obesity and associated health problems.3
152
Inadequate prenatal weight gain is a signiicant risk factor
for intrauterine growth restriction, preterm delivery and low
birth weight among infants. Obesity and excessive weight
gain on the other hand can lead to adverse maternal and fetal
outcomes. These have led to suggestions for optimal weight
gain to ensure best outcomes.4
A prospective cross-sectional study was conducted to show
effect of gestational weight gain on the pregnancy outcome
in North West Iran. Abnormal weight gain during pregnancy was not related to an increased risk of preterm labour or
cesarean delivery but was highly associated with low birth
weight (p <0.05).5
Inadequate gestational weight gain is a risk factor for low
birth, intrauterine growth restriction, preterm birth and
perinatal mortality.6 Low pre-pregnancy BMI and low gestational weight gain can account for upto 25% of cases of
fetal growth restriction.7 The institution of medicine (IOM)
recommended weight gain ranges with the primary goal of
improving infant birth weight.8
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Haugen M et al showed that a weight gain less than the IOM
recommended increased the risk for a low birth weight baby
among normal weight nulliparous women. A gestational
weight gain more than that recommended by IOM signiicantly increased the risk of pregnancy induced hypertension,
high birth weight baby, pre-eclampsia and emergency cesarean delivery in both multiparous and parouswoman.9
Robinson E. Mbul et al studied the effect of gestational
weight gain on the outcome of labour at Yaounde Central
Hospital Maternity, Cameroon, over a period of four years.
Women who gained weight above the recommended range
were three times. More likely to develop pre-eclampsia, had
a higher incidence for induced labour and almost 4 fold inAssociate Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology,
G.G.S.Medical College, 2M.Sc. Nursing, 3Professor, Department of
Obstetrics and Gynecology, University College of Nursing, Faridkjot, Punjab, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Harpreet Kaur, H. No. 64 Medical
Campus Faridkot, Punjab, India
How to cite this article: Harpreet Kaur, Manpreet Kaur, Bhupinder
Kaur. To study the effect of gestational weight gain on labour and
fetal outcome. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):152-156.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kaur et al.
Effect of Gestational Weight Gain on Labour and Fetal Outcome
creased incidence of prolonged labour. They were more likely to be delivered instrumentally, to have episiotomies and to
be delivered by cesarean section.10
Choi SK, Park IY, Shin JC found that in normal weight
women, maternal and neonatal complications were signiicantly increased with inadequate weight gain during
Sr.
No.
Content
Frequency
(n)
1
%
Age of the women (in years)
18-23
40
40.0
24-29
53
53.0
30-35
5
5.0
>35
2
2.0
2
Gravida
Primigravida
59
59.0
Multigravida
41
41.0
3
Parity
Primipara
59
59.0
Multipara
41
41.0
4
Educational Status
No formal education
3
3.00
Primary or middle
36
36.0
Secondary
27
27.0
Senior Secondary
22
22.0
Graduation and above
12
12.0
5
Occupation of the women
Employed
12
12.0
Unemployed
88
88.0
6
Family income (Rs./month)
≤5000
20
20.0
5001-10000
43
43.0
10001-15000
21
21.0
15001-20000
6
6.0
>20000
10
10.0
7
Dietary habits
Vegetarian
82
82.0
Non-vegetarian
18
18.0
8
BMI of mother at the time of
booking
Underweight (<18.5)
51
51.0
Normal weight (18.5-24.9)
43
43.0
Over weight (25-29.9)
4
4.0
Obese (>30)
2
2.0
9
Gestational weight gain of
mother according to institute of
medicine
Low weight gain
64
64.0
Normal weight gain
36
36.0
High Weight gain
0
0
10
Gestational age at the time of
delivery (in weeks)
<37
24
24.0
37-40
64
64.0
>40
12
12.0
Table-1: Antenatal Women according to demographic characteristics (N = 100)
pregnancy.11
Simar TA et al conducted a retrospective cohort study to evaluate associations between maternal BMI and risk of small
for gestational age and large for gestational age neonates.12
Bodnor LM et al conducted the study at Magee Woman’s
Hospital in Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. The analysis found that
the combination of smoking, ethnicity, primi parity or short
height with poor gestational weight gain was associated with
an increased risk of short for gestational age birth, while
high gestational weight gain combined with each of these
characteristics diminished the risk of low for gestational age
births in comparison with the same gestational weight gain
amongst the women’s counterparts.13
Addo VN conducted a retrospective study to ind out the effect of pregnancy weight gain in different BMI groups on
maternal and neonatal outcomes in women delivering at
term. The over-weight or obese were signiicantly more likely to have induction of labour and more chances of cesarean
compared to normal.14
Objectives of Study was to assess the gestational weight gain
of antenatal women, to determine the effect of gestational
weight gain on labour outcome among antenatal women, to
determine the effect of gestational weight gain on fetal outcome among antenatal women and to ind out the association
between gestational weight gain and selected demographic
variables.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted in Department of Obstetrics and
Gynecology of Guru Gobind Singh College and Hospital,
Faridkot. Total 100 antenatal women admitted for delivery
were selected randomly.
Antenatal women who had pregnancy associated complications were excluded from the study. It was an interview
schedule designed to collect patients socio-demographic proile and obstetrical history. Labour outcome which included
duration of labour, mode of delivery and any other related
complications (premature rupture of membranes, postpartum
haemorrhage and perineal tear) were studied.
The fetal outcome in the form of birth weight, respiratory
efforts of newborn, colour of newborn, muscle tone, relex,
irritability, heart rate, gestational age of the new born, still
birth and any other related complications (meconium aspiration, birth trauma and seizure) were studied.
Variable Under Study
Gestational weight gain, labour outcome, fetal outcome, age,
gravida, parity, occupation, education, family income, dietary habits, BMI at the time of booking, gestational age at
the time of delivery.
Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework for the present study is taken
from Institute of Medicine (IOM) analytic frame work 1990.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
153
Kaur et al.
Effect of Gestational Weight Gain on Labour and Fetal Outcome
S. No.
Gestational weight gain
Frequency (n)
%
Mean gestational weight gain
Standard deviation
A.
Low weight gain
64
64
9.565
2.760
B.
Normal weight gain
36
36
C.
High weight gain
0
0
Table-2: Frequency, percentage, mean and standard deviation of gestational weight gain among antenatal women (N = 100)
Mode of delivery
Low weight gain n (%)
Normal weight gain n (%)
Total
Chi-square df
p value
Normal vaginal delivery
I. Spontaneous
17 (48.6)
18 (51.4)
35
χ2 = 10.329
II. Induced
14 (60.9)
9 (39.1)
23
df=3
p value = 0.016*
Instrumental vaginal delivery
0 (0)
1 (100)
1
Caesarean Delivery
33 (80.5)
8 (19.5)
41
Total
64
36
100
*Signiicant at p<0.05 level
Table-3: Association of gestational weight gain of antenatal women with mode of delivery (N = 100)
Labour Outcome
1. Mode of delivery
a) Spontaneous vaginal delivery
b) Other modes (induced vaginal delivery,
instrumental delivery, caesarian delivery)
2. Duration of labor
a) <18
b) 18
3. Any labor complications
a) Yes
b) No
Normal weight gain
Low weight gain
Odds ratio, conidence interval p value
18
18
17
47
OR = 2.765
CI = 1.173-6.514
p value = 0.020*
29
7
33
31
OR = 3.892
CI = 1.490-10.164
p value = 0.006*
3
33
7
57
OR = 1.351
CI = 0.327-5.582
p value = 0.678*NS
*Signiicant at p value <0.05 level; NS: Non signiicant at p value <0.05 level
Table-4: Odds Ratio of gestational weight gain of antenatal women with labour outcome (N = 100)
Gestational age of the newborn Low weight gain n (%) Normal weight gain n (%)
Total
Chi-square df p value
(in weeks)
Preterm (<37)
10 (41.7)
14 (58.3)
24
χ2 = 9.465
df=2
Term (37-40)
43 (67.2)
21 (32.8)
64
p value = .009**
Post Term (>40)
11 (91.7)
1 (8.3)
12
Total
64
36
100
**Signiicant at p<0.05 level
Table-5: Association of gestational weight gain of antenatal women with gestational age of the newborn (in weeks)
Low weight gain n (%) Normal weight gain n (%)
Total
Chi-square df p value
Birth weight of baby (in kg)
<2.5
39 (86.7)
6 (13.3)
45
χ2 = 20.106
df=2
2.5-3.5
25 (47.2)
28 (52.8)
53
p
value
= 0.000***
>3.5
0 (0)
2(100)
2
Total
64
36
100
**Signiicant at p<0.05 level
Table-6: Association of gestational weight gain of antenatal women with birth weight of newborn (in kg) (N = 100)
RESULTS
The mean gestational weight gain among antenatal women
was 9.565 kg. There was statistically signiicant association
of gestational weight gain and mode of delivery, duration of
labour, birth weight of newborn gestational age of newborn.
There was statistically non signiicant association of gesta-
154
tional weight gain with complications of labour, Apgar score
or fetal complications. The low birth weight gain antenatal
women had higher incidence of other modes of delivery (Cesarean delivery, induced and instrumental vaginal delivery),
prolonged labour as compared to normal weight gain antenatal women. The low weight gain antenatal woman had lower
incidence of normal birth weight babies than normal weight
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kaur et al.
Effect of Gestational Weight Gain on Labour and Fetal Outcome
Normal weight gain
Low weight gain
Odds ratio, conidence interval p value
21
15
43
21
OR = 0.684
CI = 0.294-1.589
p value = 0.377NS
2. Birth weight (in kg)
a) 2.5-3.5
b) <2.5, >3.5
28
8
25
39
OR = 5.460
CI = 2.149-13.873
p value = 0.001**
3. APGAR score
a) 7-10
b) 4-6, 0-3
35
1
63
1
OR = 0.556
CI = 0.034-9.158
p value = 0.681 NS
4. Any other related fetal complications
a) No
b) Yes
33
3
60
4
OR = 0.733
CI = 0.155-3.476
p value = 0.696 NS
Fetal Outcome
Gestational age of newborn (in weeks)
a) Term (37-40)
b) Preterm post-term
**Signiicant at p value <0.05 level; NS: Non signiicant at p value <0.05 level
Table-7: Odds ratio of gestational weight gain of antenatal women with fetal outcome
gain antenatal women. The low weight gain as well as normal as normal weight gain. Women had similar incidence of
gestational age, Apgar score, fetal complications and labour
complications.
Table 1 depicts the frequency and percentage distribution of
sample characteristics according to socio demographic proile of ante natal women.
Table 2 shows the frequency, percentage, mean and standard
deviation of gestational weight gain among antenatal mothers. The mean gestational weight gain was 9.565 kg and
standard deviation 2.760. 64% of antenatal women had low
weight gain, at the same time no one had high weight gain.
Table 3 shows the association of gestational weight gain of
antenatal women with mode of delivery. Majority of low
weight gain antenatal women had cesarean section. In normal weight gain group majority of antenatal women had
spontaneous normal vaginal delivery.
The results depicted that the odds ratio of any labour complication was 1.351 (95% CI = 0.327-5.582, p value = 0.678)
that was similar among both the groups.
Hence it can be concluded that other modes of delivery and
prolonged labour were more among the low weight gain woman and labour complications were similar in both the groups.
From table 5 it can be concluded that the gestational weight
gain of antenatal women affects the gestational age of newborn.
From table 6 it can be concluded that with the increase in
gestational weight gain of antenatal women the birth weight
of newborn also increased.
From table 7 it can be concluded that the low weight gain
women are more likely to have low birth weight babies. The
Apgar score, other fetal complications were similar among
low weight gain as well as normal weight gain women.
DISCUSSION
The present study revealed that high percentage (64%) of the
antenatal women had low weight gain and 36% had normal
weight gain and 36% had normal weight gain, at the same
time no one had high weight gain. These indings were consistent with the study conducted by Sanka A who concluded
that 60% belonged to low weight gain category and 40% belonged to normal weight gain category.15
In the present study the incidence of prolonged labour was
3.8 times more among low weight gain antenatal women. This was consistent with the study of Robinson E
Mbul.10
The present study showed that the normal weight gain women were more likely to deliver normal birth weight babies
such that women with low weight gain had lower incidence
of normal birth weight babies. These indings were consistent with the ining by Henriksson et al.16 It is also supported
by Simar TA et al.12 Stotand NE et al showed that gestational
weight gain below guidelines was associated with small for
gestation age status.17
The present study showed statistically non-signiicant association of gestational weight gain with Apgar score. This
inding was consistent with Schulz Christine M which did
not support the hypothesis that insuficient or excessive
weight gain would be related to lower Apgarscore.18
CONCLUSION
The indings of the study revealed that the maximum antenatal woman had low weight gain. There was statistically
signiicant association of gestational weight gain with labour
and fetal outcome. Gestational weight gain was statistically associated with the mode of delivery. Duration of labour
birth weight of new born and gestational age. The timely recognition and management of inadequate gestational weight
gain during pregnancy can effectively protect from adverse
outcome, so the antenatal women should be motivated for
adequate weight gain during pregnancy for optimal fetal outcome. There is a need to identify the cases of inadequate ges-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
155
Kaur et al.
Effect of Gestational Weight Gain on Labour and Fetal Outcome
tational weight gain and provide necessary care throughout
pregnancy.
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Muthayya S. Maternal nutrition and low birth weight what is really important?Indian Journal of Medical Research 2009; 130:600-8.
Pillitteri A. Maternal and child health nursing. 3rd ed.
Philadelphia: LippincottWilliams and Wilkins; 1999.
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Kinnunen TI et al. Preventing excessive weight gain
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AddoVN. Body mass index, weight gain during pregnancy and obstetricoutcomes. Ghana Medical Journal
2010; 44:64-9.
Zahra Yekta, HalehAyatollahi, Reza Porali and AzadehFarzin. The effect of pre-pregnancybody mass index
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urban care settings in Urmia-Iran. BMC Pregnancy
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ShobhaRao. Nutritional status of the Indian population.
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Regina R. Davis. Association between inadequate gestational weight gain andinfant death among US. infants in
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Krishnamoorthy U, Schram CMH, Hill SR. Review article: Maternal obesity inpregnancy: is it time for meaningful research to inform preventive andmanagement
strategies? International Journal of Obstetrics and gynecology 2006;113:1134- 40.
Haugen M et al. Associations of pre-pregnancy body
mass index and gestationalweight gain with pregnancy
outcome and postpartum weight retention: aprospective
observational cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth
2014;14:201.
Robinson E. Mbu et al. Effects of gestational weight
gain on the outcome of laborat the Yaounde central
hospital maternity, Cameroon. Open Journal of Obstetricsand Gynecology 2013;3: 648-52.
Choi SK, Park IY, Shin JC. The effects of pre-pregnancy body mass index andgestational weight gain on perinatal outcome in Korean woman. ReproductiveBiology
and Endocrinology 2011;18; 9:6.
Simas TA et al. Prepregnancy weight, gestational weight
gain, and risk of growthaffected neonates. Journal of
Womens Health. 2012; 21:410-7.
Bodnar LM, Hutcheon JA, Platt RW, Himes KP, SimhanHN, Abrams B. Shouldgestational weight gain
recommendations be tailored by maternal characteristics?American Journal of Epidemiology 2011;15:
174:136.
AddoVN. Body mass index, weight gain during pregnancy and obstetricoutcomes. Ghana Medical Journal
2010;44:64-95.
15. Sarika A. The effect of gestational weight gain on labor outcomes. The journal ofobstetrics and gynecology
2010; 23:23-5.
16. Henriksson P, Eriksson B, Forsum E, Löf M. Gestational weight gain according toInstitute of Medicine recommendations in relation to infant size and bodycomposition. Pediatric Obesity. 2014 Dec 17.Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25521831
17. Stotland NE, Cheng YW, Hopkins LM, Caughey AB.
Gestational weight gain andadverse neonatal outcome
among term infants. Journal of Obstetrics andGynaecology 2006; 108:635-43.
18. Schulz, Christine M. The impact of maternal weight
gain on infant Apgar scores.2008.Available from: http://
gradworks.umi.com/33/10/3310705.html
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 01-12-2015; Published online: 15-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Prospective Study on Non-closure and Closure of Visceral and
Parietal Peritoneum During Caesarean Section
H. C. Savitha1, C. Sanjay Kumar1, M. S. Sowmya1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Caesarean section is the most common surgery
performed in Obstetrics and is some times associated with
the morbidity. The present study was conducted to assess the
short term morbidity of non-closure of the visceral and parietal peritoneum at caesarean section as compared to suturing
of peritoneum.
Materials and Methods: A prospective study of two hundred
women undergoing caesarean section was done; randomised
into non-closure and closure groups. Preoperative, intra-operative and postoperative details were observed.
Results: Operating time, anaesthesia time and time of ambulation were signiicantly shorter in non-closure group. There
was less postoperative pain, analgesic requirement and febrile
morbidity in non-closure group. However, it was statistically
not signiicant.
Conclusion: Non-closure of the visceral and parietal peritoneum is a simpler operative technique, more cost-effective,
associated with fewer postoperative complications and lower
febrile morbidity and provides a shorter surgical procedure.
Hence, routine closure of peritoneum at caesarean can be
avoided.
Keywords: caesarean section, peritoneum, closure, non closure.
INTRODUCTION
Caesarean section is most frequent major surgical procedure
performed in obstetrics. The lower uterine segment operation pioneered by Munro Kerr in the early 20th century is now
performed in over 90% caesarean sections. Since then, both
visceral and parietal peritoneal layers have been traditionally
closed in separate layers.1
Recently this practise has been questioned. Animal and human studies support that closure of the pelvic peritoneum
does not reduce the incidence of postoperative pain, adhesions or obstruction.2
If the peritoneum is left open, the spontaneous reperitonization will occur within 48-72 hours with complete healing
after 5-6days.3
General surgery reports have shown that suture peritonealisation tends to cause tissue ischemia, necrosis and inlammation and foreign body reactions to suture materials.4 This
factor may slow down the healing process and are considered important precursors for adhesion formation.
Among many advantages of leaving the peritoneum includes
reduced operating time, fever, intra-abdominal adhesions,
less postoperative morbidity and earlier discharge from the
hospital.5
Finally, Royal College of obstetricians and Gynaecologists
(RCOG) green top guidelines suggested that non-closure appears to have fewer associated risks.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This is a prospective study to determine the short term clinical outcome of non-closure in comparison with closure of
visceral and parietal peritoneum at caesarean delivery. It was
carried out at the department of obstetrics and gynaecology,
Mandya Institute of Medical Sciences, mandya, Karnataka,
from June 2015 to October 2015. Two hundred women undergoing emergency or elective lower segment caesarean
section were taken for the study. Exclusion criteria were history of previous lower abdominal surgery, severe anaemia,
presence of pelvic infections or adhesions, morbid obesity
and foul smelling vaginal discharge.
After detailed history, examination and investigations, informed written consent was obtained from each patient for
participation in the study. All the women underwent lower
segment caesarean section through Pfannenstiel incision.
Uterus was closed with continuous number one polyglactin.
In the control group, both the layers of peritoneum were
sutured with continuous 1-0 chromic catgut. Rectus sheath
was closed with continuous number 1 polyglactin. The skin
was approximated with continuous subcuticular number 2-0
ethilon. Study group had similar procedure of caesarean section but without re approximation of visceral and parietal
peritoneum.
Injectable antibiotics were given for irst 2 days of surgery
and oral antibiotics for next ive days.
After the operation, all the patients were managed in the
Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, Senior Resident, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Mandya Institute of Medical
Sciences, Mandya, Karnataka, India.
1
Corresponding author: Dr. C. Sanjay Kumar, #402 B, Doctor’s
Quarters, Mims, Mandya, Karnataka, India
How to cite this article: H. C. Savitha, C. Sanjay Kumar, M. S.
Sowmya. A prospective study on non-closure and closure of visceral and parietal peritoneum during caesarean section. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):157-159.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
157
Savitha et al.
Non-closure and Closure of Visceral and Parietal Peritoneum
same postoperative ward. In the absence of complications,
patients were discharged on the seventh postoperative day.
The outcome measures noted were anaesthesia time, operating time, postoperative pain, duration of the ileus, time of
ambulation, febrile morbidity, endometritis, cystitis, wound
infection and length of hospital stay. Analgesic injection
diclofenac sodium 75mg / tramadol 50mg intramuscularly,
were given 12th hourly, in the irst 24hours of the surgery and
then as needed. Analgesics were changed over to oral on the
second postoperative day.
Postoperative pain was assessed by 10cm visual analog scale
– VAS (no pain=0, worst pain ever=10) at 24hours after surgery and daily till the time of discharge. Women were asked
to indicate average intensity of pain they had experienced
during last 24hours. Oral alimentation was reintroduced
once bowel sounds were returned.
Febrile morbidity was deined as temperature more than
380C on two occasions at least twelve hours apart, excluding
irst postoperative day. Endometritis was diagnosed if uterine
tenderness, vaginal discharge and fever were present. Cystitis
was diagnosed by positive urine culture growth or more than
1,00,000 colonies per ml of single species of bacteria in urine.
Wound infection was diagnosed when there was serous or purulent discharge from the skin incision with erythema and induration, with or without fever. Signiicance of difference, if
any, in the observations made of variables studied in control/
study groups, in numbers or averages was determined using
Chisquare (X2) or student t-test, as applicable.
RESULTS
Among the 200 women enrolled in the study, 100 study
groups had non-closure while 100 control groups had closure of parietal and visceral peritoneum at caesarean section.
Patient’s characteristic about age, parity and gestational age
has been described in table 1. Type of anaesthesia, elective
or emergency caesarean data, were shown in table 2 and 3
respectively.
The outcome data is shown in table 4. The average duration
of operation and anaesthesia were less by 11.5 minutes and
10.4 minutes respectively in the study group. Women in study
group requiring additional analgesics, either oral or parenteral, were less than that in the control group. 21 from the study
and 25 control group required additional analgesic. However, the difference was not signiicant. Mean total score in the
study group was less as compared to that in control group.
Time of oral intake and ambulation was less in study group
than in control group. The febrile morbidity was high in control group as compared to that in the study group. However
it is not statistically signiicant. Cystitis was found in 3 cases
from the study group and 5 cases from the control group.
Four from the study group had wound infection as compared
to seven in the control group. The mean hospital stay in
study group was 7.17days as compared to 7.29days in control group. Four from the study group and seven from the
control group stayed in the hospital for more than 8 days
because of wound infection.
Age (years) mean±SD
Parity mean±SD
Gestational age mean mean±SD
Non-closure n=100
Closure n=100
23.5 ± 4.4
22.7±3.7
0.6 ± 1.1
0.5±1.1
37.5±2.3
37.6±2.0
Table-1: Patient characteristics
Statistical signiicance
t=1.3, p=0.2, not signiicant
t=0.4, p=0.6, not signiicant
t= 0.3, p=0.6. not signiicant
General Anaesthesia
Spinal
Non-closure n=100
Closure n=100
19
20
81
80
Table-2: Type of anaesthesia given
Statistical signiicance
X2=0.4, p=0.4
Not signiicant
Elective
emergency
Non-closure n=100
Closure n=100
13
9
87
89
Table-3: Types of caesarean section
Statistical signiicance
X2=0.1, p=0.8
Not signiicant
Parameter
Operative time minutes mean±SD
Anesthesia time minutes mean±SD
Total pain score mean±SD
Febrile morbidity(no. of patients
Time of oral intake days mean+-SD
Time of ambulation days mean±SD
Wound infection (no. of patients)
Hospital stay days mean±SD
158
Non-closure n=100
Closure n=100
32.7±4.9
44.2±4.61
42.1±5.03
52.5±4.67
35.58±3.30
36.56±3.91
10
16
1.34±0.47
1.61±0.49
1.39±0.51
2.28±0.56
4
7
7.17±0.75
7.29±1.00
Table-4: Outcome data
Statistical signiicance
T=16.74, p<0.0001 signiicant
T=16.06, p<0.0001 signiicant
T=1.83, p=0.06
X2=0.004, p=0.57
T=1.30, p=0.19 signiicant
T=11.22, p=0.0001 signiicant
X2=0.35, p=0.55 not signiicant
T=1.10, p =0.27 not signiicant
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Savitha et al.
DISCUSSION
Peritoneal non-closure in caesarean sections will certainly
reduce the surgery time by few minutes which attracts many
studies to advocate non-closure.6 Histological studies in animals have revealed that the peritoneum regenerates denovo
and not from the cut edge of the defect as in skin wounds because the entire surface becomes mesothelialized simultaneously. Therefore peritoneal defects even large when left undisturbed demonstrate mesothelial integrity by 48hours and
complete indistinguishable healing by ive days. Leaving the
peritoneum open for the debris to be digested by the activity
of peritoneal macrophages might be beneicial. Irrespective
of the factors inluencing the surgical time, in the study, there
was a signiicant reduction in the operating time of 11.5 minutes in the study group. This inding is consistent with those
of other studies who have reported shorter operative time in
these groups of patients.
However, in the present study, surgical time was more than
10minutes shorter, probably because both parietal and visceral peritoneum were left unsutured; whereas Pietrantoni et
al, left only parietal peritoneum open and Nagele et al, left
only visceral peritoneum open.7,8 The decrease in operative
time reduced the duration of anaesthesia exposure and that of
exposure of wound to the environmental contaminants. This
is relected in decreased incidence of febrile morbidity and
has reproduced the observations made by other researchers.
Non-closure of the peritoneum might reduce the intensity of
the postoperative pain due to less manipulation of parietal
peritoneum, which is sensitive to pain. In addition, ooze or
clots in the closed peritoneal space behind uterovesical fold
could be signiicant factor for postoperative pain in peritoneal closure groups.
Nagele et al, Hojberg et al, and others found reduced usage
of oral analgesics in the study group.8,9,10 Present study did
not show statistically signiicant difference in the pain medication requirement in the two groups. The mean pain score
was less in study group and similar inding was also reported
by raique et al.11 Incidence of wound infection was less in
study group compared to control group, however, it was not
statistically signiicant. Grundsell showed a decreased incidence of wound complications in the non-closure group.12
CONCLUSION
Avoiding the closure of visceral and parietal peritoneum
during caesarean section is associated with lesser operating
time, decreased incidence of febrile morbidity, lesser need
for postoperative analgesics and quicker recovery than the
closure group. Hence, routine closure of peritoneum during
caesarean can be avoided. However, long term studies are
recommended to compare the late outcomes of peritoneal
closure and non-closures during caesarean sections.
Non-closure and Closure of Visceral and Parietal Peritoneum
REFERENCES
1.
Luzuy, F Irion O, Beguin F. A randomised study of closure the peritoneum at caesarean delivery. American
journal of obstetrics and gynaecology 1994;170:341.
Roset E, BoulvainM, Irion O. non-closure of the peritoneum during caesarean section. European journal of
obstetrics and gynaecology and reproductive biology
2003;108: 40-4.
2. Bahmanyar ER, BoulvainM, Irion O. Non-closure of
the peritoneum during caesarean section; long term followop of a randomised control trial. American journal
of pbstetrics and gynecology 2001;185:S125.
3. Galaal KA, Krolikkowski A. a randomised controlled
study of peritoneal closure at caesarean section. Saudi
medical journal 2000;21:759-61.
4. Balat O, Atmaca R, Gokdeniz R. three layer closure
technique at caesarean section: a prospective randomized clinical trial. International medical journal
2000;7:299-301.
5. Saha SK, De K C, Bhattacharya PK et al. closure versus non-closure of visceral peritoneum in Gynaec and
obstetric major operations. J Obstret gynecol India
2001;51:34-6.
6. Levrant SG, Bieber EJ, Anterior abdominal wall adhesions after laparotomy or laparoscopy. J Am assoc Gynecol laparoscop 1995;4:353-6.
7. Pietrantoni M, Parsons MJ. O’Brien WF et al. Peritoneal closure or non-closure at ceaserean. Obstetric gynecol 1991;77:293-6.
8. Nagele F, Karas H, Spitzer D et al. Closure or non-closure of the visceral peritoneum at caesarean delivery.
Am J Obstret Gynecol 1996;174:1366-70.
9. Hojberg KE, Aagaard J, Laursen H et al. Closure versus
non-closure of the visceral peritoneum at caesarean section – evaluation of pain, Acta Obstret Gynecol Scand
1998;77:741-45.
10. Cheong YC, Bajekal N, Li TC, Peritoneal closure-to
close or not to close. Hum reprod 2001;16:1548-52.
11. Raique Z, Shibli KU, Russell IF, Lindow SW. a randomised controlled trial of closure or non-closure of
peritoneum in caesarean section: effect on postoperative
pain. BJOG 2002;109:694-8.
12. Grundsell HS, Rizk DE, kumar RM. Randomised controlled study of non-closure of peritoneum in lower
segment caesarean section. Acta Obstret Gynecol Scand
1998;77:110-5.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 17-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
159
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Impact of Maternal Anemia at Term on Neonatal Hemoglobin,
Sr.iron and Total Iron Binding Capacity
Pagadpally Srinivas1, Srinivasan P2, Rajalakshmi L3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: There are hardly any studies to see the relation between maternal anemia and cord blood hemoglobin in
south India. This study endeavours to study the relation between maternal anaemaia and cord haemoglobin. Objectives
of the study was to look for an association between maternal
hemoglobin, ferritin and TIBC of term mothers with the corresponding parameters in cord blood samples post delivery.
Material and method: A cross sectional study was done
where Maternal and cord blood samples of 149 term mothers chosen by systematic random sampling, delivering at G.H
Karaikal between January to April 2015 were collected and
assessed for hemoglobin, ferritin and TIBC (Total iron binding capacity). Data was analyzed by SPSS 16.
Results: There was a high prevalence ( 63.7%), of anemia
among the mothers in our study. The comparative mean hemoglobin, ferritin and TIBC levels in cord blood samples
of anemic/non-anemic mothers was 8.2/12.3, 120/175 and
512.9/285.4 with a highly statistically signiicant difference
on analysis (p<0.001) for all three parameters.
Conclusion: Maternal iron and hemoglobin levels do have a
signiicant impact on neonatal hemoglobin and serum iron.
Keywords: anaemia; haemoglobin; ferritin; TIBC.
INTRODUCTION
Anemia in pregnancy is a major challenge for obstetric care
in developing countries.1 any of these womenmay be anaemic before conception.
Causes of anemia during pregnancy in developing countries
are multifactorial. This include nutritional deiciencyie (iron,
folic acid and B12) and parasitic diseases such as malaria,
hook worm infestation.2 However micronutrient deiciency,
especialy iron deiciency anemia is main cause foranemia in
pregnancy.3 Pregnant women are particularly vulnerable to
iron deiciency because of increased iron demand. The expansion of plasma volume, increase in erythropoiesis and
increase in fetal placental unit for iron throughout gestation
and individuals variations are possibe.
Due to hemodilution and metabolism of iron, serum ferritin
concentration in women with adequate iron stores initially
rises,then falls progressively by 32 weeks to about 50% pre
pregnancy levels, to rise again mildly in the third trimester.
The placental transfer of iron from maternal circulation to
fetal circulation is controlled by hepicidin, when hepicidin
160
concentration are low, iron enters blood plasma at high rate,
when hepicidin concentration is high ferroprotein is internalized and iron is trepped in enterocytes, macrophages and
hepatocytes.4,5 Though fully high values may be found in
acute and chronic inlammatory conditions, the measurement of serum ferritin, serum iron and TIBC concentration
has been shown to be good index of iron stores.This is preferred for examination of bone marrow appreciates for hemosiderin, a gold standard for iron store.
Iron transfer to the foetus occurs maximally after 30 weeks
of gestation.5 time peak eficiency of maternal iron absorption following a considerable fall in serum ferritin level
which occurs between 12 and 25 weeks of gestation. This
probably occurs as the result of iron utilisation by maternal
and fetal red cell masses.
The aim of this study is to establish the mean values for pre
delivery hemogoblin,TIBC concentration of anemic and non
anemic mother and to compare those values with the cord
blood haemoglobin and serum iron and TIBC concentration
of their newborn.
MATERIAS AND METHODS
A cross sectional hospital based pilot study was done at GH
karaikal- Pondicherry ut between jan to apr 2015. the study
was approved by ethics and research committee of VMMCKkl.
This study was done with the following objectives to asses
the Hb,TIBC and serum iron of pregnant mother, to asses
the cord blood Hb,TIBC and serum iron and to compare the
both.
200 women were randomy selected.Blood Hb%, Sr.Iron
and TIBC were done for the mother at term. At delivery
the newborn were subjected for Hb%, Sr.Iron and TIBC
estimationthese were done by iron and TIBC kit –ferrozine
Associate Professor and Head, 2Post Graduate (DCH), Department
of Paediatrics, 3Lecturer, Department of Pathology, Vinayaka Missions Medical College and Hospital, Karaikal, Pondicherry State,
India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Pagadpally Srinivas, 27, Vellai Pillaiyar Koil Street, Kottucherry, Karaikal, Pondicherry State, India.
How to cite this article: Pagadpally Srinivas, Srinivasan P, Rajalakshmi L. Impact of maternal anemia at term on neonatal hemoglobin, sr.iron and total iron binding capacity. International Journal
of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):160-162.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Srinivas et al.
Impact of Maternal Anemia at Term on Neonatal Hemoglobin, Sr.iron and Total Iron Binding Capacity
method,corel clinical system.Data was analysed by SPSS 16.
Of the 200 mothers who were enroled for 149 mother-baby
pairs blood --- could be done
Inclusion criteria
Pregnant women who were clinicalyanemic, HIVnegative,
Nonsmoingandwho gave consent were chosen randomly
based on cut off of Hb conc. (10g/dl). All pregnant women
enrolled belonged to the age group of 19 to 37 yrs. This consist of anemic pregnant women (Hb< 10g/d) and non anemic
pregnant women (Hb>10g/dl) respectively.
The new born were grouped into haemoglobin concentration
via non anemic and anemic, the cuttoff value for serum iron
( 35 -145) for that pregnant women and (150 -220µ/dl) for
the newborncutoff values for TIBC (250 - 400µ/dl) for both
pregnant and neonate.
Exclusion criteria
The pregnant women with history of chronic illness such as
Sickle cell disease, Renal disorder,hepatitis and those with
obstetric complication such as pre term labour, placenta previa, pih,gdm, hiv infection and vaginal bleeding during pregnancy were excluded.
Blood sampling
Five millilitres(5ml) of blood collected from each women
before labour and three millilitre(3ml) was collected from
the cord of their new born into ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid
(EDTA) tube for full blood count analysis. the same amount
of blood was collected from each participant in to plain tube
for serum. Iron and TIBC assays. blood sample was collectedimmediatey after the pregnant women admitted into the
labour ward at 38 week of gestation. haemoglobin concentration was measure using the autoanalyser modeon the same
day of collection. while blood for sr.iron and TIBC was done
using iron and TIBC -kit ferrozine method. The iron and
TIBC kit was manufactured by coral-clinical system.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Analysis were performed using SPSS-verson-16.The descriptive data were expressed as mean±SD. A probability
value of P<0.05 was considered to indicate statisticaly signiicant.
TIBC parameter between anemic and non anemic group.
SD, mean, minimum and maximum level of each shows
signiicant p-value P<0.001. Table 2 describes parameter of
newborn of anemic and non anemic mothers-SD,mean haemoglobin and signiicant p-value P<0.001. Table 3 describes
Pearson coreation –coeficent between maternal and foetalHb, Sr.iron, TIBC and shows signiicant p-value. P<0.001
DISCUSSION
The mean cord hemoglobin in newborns among cases was
16.99g/dl. The cord hemoglobin appears to show a linear relationship with maternal hemoglobin,with cord hemoglobin
being less in newborn whose mothers have anemia.Mothers
who had more severe anemia had babies with lower cord hemoglobin.
Mothers who had anemia were more likely to deliver anemic babies i.e. babies with cord hemoglobin<14 g/dl. Such
babies would be more likely to develop signiicant anemia
Anemic
group
Mothers Hb
Mean
Minimum Hb
Maximum Hb
8.2
7
9
Mothers serum iron
Mean
Maximum Hb
Maximum Hb
31.8
12
40
Mothers TIBC
Mean
Minimum Hb
Maximum Hb
0.71
5.27
Non-anemic group
12.3
10
14.8
114.04
49
200.4
1.6
31.84
284.15
256
458
Haemogobin
Mean
SD
P-Value
Anemic
10.873
1.16
P<0.001
Non-anemic
16.959
1.5
Table-2: Parameter of newborn of anemic and non anemic
mothers
Coreation between
1
2
3
4
Pearson
coreation
-coeficent
0.945
-0.739
-0.820
0.779
P-vaue
Maternal Sr.iron and Hb
P<0.001
Maternal Sr.iron and TIBC
P<0.001
Foetal Sr.IRON and TIBC
P<0.001
Maternal Sr.Iron and foetal
P<0.01
Sr.iron
5 Foetal Sr.iron and Hb
0.836
P<0.01
Table-3: Pearson coreation – coeficent between maternal and
foetal Hb, Sr.iron, TIBC
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
SD
82.98
28.64
P-vaue <0.001
Table-1: Pregnant mother haemoglobin,sr.iron, tibc parameter
RESULTS
There was a high prevalence of 63.7%, of anemia among
the mothers in our study. The comparative mean hemoglobin, ferritin and TIBC levels in cord blood samples of anemic/non-anemic mothers was 10.873/16.99, 120/175 and
512.9/285.4 with a highly statistically signiicant difference
on analysis (p<0.001) for all three parameters.
Table 1 describes pregnant mother haemoglobin,Sr.iron,
489.23
402
800
SD
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
161
Srinivas et al.
Impact of Maternal Anemia at Term on Neonatal Hemoglobin, Sr.iron and Total Iron Binding Capacity
at an earlier age than babies born to non-anemic mothers.1,6-9
In contrast to our study some previous investigators have
failed to ind a relationship between maternal and cord hemoglobin,thus leading to the conclusion that the fetus continues to extract iron eficiently from the mother regardless
of her iron status.2,3 It is thought that iron is actively transported from mother to fetus.4,5 In the iron deiciency state,
there is up regulation of iron transport proteins in the placenta thus ensuring an adequate iron supply to the growing
fetus even in the anemic mother. Our study thus gives a new
insight regarding anaemia in newborn.There are some limitations in our study. We did not assess the sr.ferritin status
of the mother and baby directly and it was assumed that iron
deiciency was the cause of anemia.However, it is likely that
mothers who were anemic during labor had poor iron intake
throughout their pregnancy and that this was
relected in the cord hemoglobin.
Further studies from this area which assess the maternal and
fetal sr.ferritin levels would help to give a more accurate idea
of the dynamics of iron accumulation in the fetus.
stan J Nutr 2010;9:562–6.
Akaberi A. Haemoglobin and serum ferritin levels in
neworn babies born to anaemic Iranian women.Pakistan
J Nutrition 2010;9:562.
9. AdewumiAdediran, Abidoye Gbadegesin, Titilope A.
Adeyemo, Akinsegun Akinbami, Vincent Osunkalu,
Ann Ogbenna, and Alani S. Akanmu. Cord blood haemoglobin and ferritin concentrations in newborns of
anaemic and non-anaemic mothers in Lagos, Nigeria.
Niger Med J 2013;54:22–26.
10. Kilbride J., Baker T.J., Parapia L.A., Khoury S.A.,
Shuquaidef S.W., Jerwood D. Anemia duringpregnancy as a risk factor for iron-deiciency anemia in infancy: a case-control study in Jordon. Int J Epidemiol
1999;28:461–468.
11. Sareen A, Mahajen K, Singh S. 2013. Maternal anemia
and its effect on cord hemoglobin. Indian Medical Gazette.
8.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 17-12-2015
CONCLUSION
Anemia is frequently observed during pregnancy.The study
enabled the research to identify the association between maternal haemoglobin level and pregnancy outcome.Based on
statistical indings, it is evident thatmaternal iron and hemoglobin levels do have a signiicant impact on neonatal hemoglobin and Sr. iron.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
162
World Health Organization. The prevalence of anaemia
in women: a tabulation of available information. 2nd ed.
Geneva: World Health Organization, 1992.
Kapil, U, Pathak, P, Tandon, M, Singh, C, Pradhanb,
R & Dwivedi, SN. Micronutrient deiciency disorders
amongst pregnant women in three urban slum communities of Delhi. Indian Pediat 1999;36:983–989.
Agarwal KN, Agarwal DK, Mishra KP. Impact of anaemia prophylaxis in pregnancy on maternal hemoglobin, serum ferritin and birth weight. Indian J Med Res
1991;94:277–80.
Evans P1, Cindrova-Davies T, Muttukrishna S, Burton
GJ, Porter J, Jauniaux E. Hepcidin and iron species distribution inside the irst-trimester human gestational
sac. Mol Hum Reprod 2011;17:227-32.
Harris ED. New insights into placental iron transport.
Nutr Rev 1992;50:329–31.
Al-hilli N.M. The Effect of Maternal Anaemia on Cord
Blood Haemoglobin & Newborn Birth Weigh Karbala.
Journal of Medicine 2010;2:8-9.
Reihaneh H, Norimah AK, Poh BK, Firoozehchian F,
Raheleh H, Akaberi A. Haemoglobin and serum ferritin
levels in newborn babies born to anaemic Iranian women: A cross-sectional study in an Iranian hospital. PakiInternational Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Study of Skin Manifestations Among Migrant Workers in a Coastal
City of Dakshina Kannada District, Karnataka
Nanjesh Kumar1, Diwakar Kumar Singh1, Shahul Hameed1, Sachidanad2, Jayaram. S3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Skin manifestations are more common in migrant labourers because of poverty, ignorance, overcrowding,
poor hygiene and exposure to common irritants and sensitizers
in the construction. Occupational diseases comprise multiple
manifestations, skin manifestations being the most predominant.Aims and objectives of the study were to Study of skin
manifestations among migrant workers and to determine the
socio demographic proile of these workers
Material and Methods: Migrant population in coastal city
will be the study population. Study duration: From November
2013 to April 2014.Study design: Cross sectional study. Subjects of this study will include migrant population from 4 different areas of coastal city. Clinical examination was done in a
well- lighted room at the site of camp. Pretested questionnaire
was used to collect data by interview method.
Results: 255 workers examined had presentation of various
dermatoses. The most common age group was 21- 30 years
(28.23%). A total of 181 males (70.98%) and 74 females
(29.02%) were examined. The subjects with fungal dermatoses recorded was 36.07 %. Bacterial infections contributed
to 19.60 %, of all dermatoses. 08.23% of the workers examined had viral infection. Scabies was seen in 6.66% of workers. Amongst the non- infective dermatoses, Contact dermatitis was seen in 16.86%.
Conclusion: The pattern of dermatoses presented in these
groups is expressive of ignorance, poverty, living in overcrowded condition. So education of these workers in the
health aspects, provision of cost effective and eficient protective measures will help reduce the morbidity of the migrant
workers.
Keywords: Migrant workers, Contact dermatitis, Dermatoses
masons, helpers, itters, supervisors, carpenters and painters.
Occupational diseases comprise multiple manifestations,
skin manifestations being the most predominant. Various
agents encountered at the workplace can cause injury, irritation, sensitization, infection, discoloration or any other
changes in exposed workers
Most common exposures in migrant labourers which the
general population will not be encountered, are exposure to
organic and inorganic dust, fungi, bacteria and chemicals.
These additional exposures result in diverse skin problems.
Other obstacles in accessing health services to migrants are
language barriers. These workers also live in unhygienic conditions and due to low income and lack of health insurance
have limited affordability of the available health services.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Source of data
Study population: Migrant population in Mangalore City
Corporation limits in different places. 1. Shakti nagar health
centre 2.Bharati ship yard in Tanir bhavi, 3. Construction site
in Kulashekara, 4 Construction workers at Kottara chowki,
Study duration: From November 2013 to April 2014.Study
design: Cross sectional study. Sample size: 255 Inclusion
criteria: Migrant workers of Mangalore city not residing for
more than 3 years are included. Exclusion criteria: Resident
laborers of Mangalore city residing for more than 3 years are
not included.
Method of collection of data
Informed written consent was obtained by explaining to the
subjects about the method of study, outcome and possible
intervention. A pre-tested semi structured questionnaire was
Assistant Professor, Department of Community Medicine, Srinivas
Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Center, Srinivas Nagar,
Mukka, Surathkal, 2Assistant Professor, 3Professor and HOD, Department of Community Medicine, A J Institute of Medical Sciences and Research Centre, Mangalore, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Migration is a process of social change during which a person moves from one cultural setting to another to settle for
a longer period of time or permanently.1 A migrant labourer is someone who is engaged or has been engaged in a remunerated activity in a place of which he/she is not a part.2
Skin manifestations are more common in migrant labourers
because of poverty, ignorance, overcrowding, poor hygiene
and exposure to common irritants and sensitizers in the construction industry. Contact dermatitis is the most common,
comprising 20-90% of all the cases.3 In the construction industry, various categories of workers are involved such as
Corresponding author: Dr. Nanjesh Kumar.S, S/O B. Siddappa,
Flat G3, Sai Paradise, Near Palguni Urwa Store, Mangalore, India
How to cite this article: Nanjesh Kumar, Diwakar Kumar Singh,
Shahul Hameed, Sachidanad, Jayaram. S. Study of skin manifestations among migrant workers in a coastal city of dakshina kannada
district, Karnataka. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3(1):163-166.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
163
Kumar et al.
Skin Manifestations Among Migrant Workers
used for collection of data. Data was collected by interview
cum, clinical examination.Clinical examination was done in
a well- lighted room at the site of camp.
RESULTS
In the table-1 out of the total 255 migrant workers, 145
(56.86%) migrant workers were married and 110 (43.14%)
migrant workers were unmarried. Majority of the migrant workers were Hindus by religion- 122 (47.84%) followed by Muslims – 84 (32.94%).In 255 migrant workers,
181(70.98%) were male workers and 74 (29.02%) were female workers.
In the table-2 out of 255 migrants were examined, 98
(38.43%) workers belonged to the age group of 21-30 year
and 72 (28.23%) workers belonged to the age group of 31-40
years. The youngest migrant worker was 13 years of age and
the oldest was 65 years in age.
Table 3 shows the distribution of infective dermatoses
among migrant workers. In that fungal infectionwas the most
common (36.07 %) followed by bacterial (19.60%) and viral
infection (8.23%). The parasitic infection was scabies seen
in 6.66% of the migrant workers. In fungal infection tinea
cruris was found in 13.72 % of the migrant workers followed
by pityriasis versicolor 10.19% and tinea corporis 8.23 %.
Amongst the bacterial infection, acne vulgaris was the most
common with 07.05% followed by folliculitis 05.09%, pyoderma with 4.31% and furuncles with 3.31%. In the viral
infections, herpes infection was seen in 3.13 %, molluscum
contagiosum 2.74 % and warts in 2.35 %.
Table 4 shows the distribution of non- infective dermatoses
in migrant workers was 52.15%. The most common was
contact dermatitis 16.86% followed by eczema with 11.37%
and photo dermatitis with 08.62%. Fissured feet was found
in 5.09% migrant workers and miliaria was found in 4.70%
migrant workers. Callosity was seen in only 2.35% migrant
workers.
DISCUSSION
255 migrant workers in different areas of Mangalore city
Corporation were included in the study. Majority of the
workers belonged to the age group of 21-30 years followed
by 31- 40 years. Male workers were more (70.98 %) followed by females (29.02%). Majority of the workers were
married (56.86%).The large group of workers were Hindus
(47.84%) followed by Muslims (32.94%) and Christians
(12.15%)
In the present study on various infective dermatoses, fungal
infectionwas the most common (36.07 %). This was because
of the hot and humid climate of Mangalore which is a coastal city which creates an ideal environment for the propagation of supericial dermatophytic infections of the migrant
workers. Tinea cruris was found in 13.72 % of the migrant
workers followed by pityriasis versicolor 10.19% and tinea
164
Socio-demographic factors
Number (N=255)
%
Marital status
Married
145
56.86
Unmarried
110
43.13
Total
255
100
Religion
Hindu
122
47.84
Muslim
84
32.94
Christian
31
12.15
Others
18
07.05
Total
255
100
Sex
Male
181
70.98
Female
74
29.02
Total
255
100
Table-1: Socio- demographic distribution of the migrant
workers
Age group
Number
Percentage
10- 20
34
13.33
21- 30
98
38.43
31- 40
72
28.23
41- 50
41
16.07
More than 50
10
03.92
Total
255
100
Table-2: Age group distribution of the migrant workers(n=255)
Sr. No
1
2
3
4
Fungal infections
Number
%
Tinea cruris
35
13.72
Pityriasis versicolor
26
10.19
Tinea corporis
21
08.23
Candidiasis
10
03.92
Total
92
36.07
Bacterial Infection
1
Acne vulgaris
18
07.05
2
Folliculitis
13
05.09
3
Pyoderma
11
04.31
4
Furuncles
8
03.13
Total
50
19.60
Viral Infections
1
Herpes infection
8
03.13
2
Molluscum contagiosum
7
02.74
4
Warts
6
02.35
Total
21
08.23
Parasitic
1
Scabies
17
06.66
Table-3: Distribution of infective dermatoses seen in migrant
workers (n=255)
corporis 8.23 %.
Maria Kuruvila et al have done a study on pattern of skin disease amongst migrant construction workers in Mangalore in
the year 2006 and they have found 46.25% fungal infection
in workers.4 Sanjiv Grover et al have done a cross sectional
study on skin disease in rural Allahabad and found fungal
infection(54.52%.) were the most common.5
In the present study, bacterial infection constituted 19.60 %,
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kumar et al.
Sr. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Others
Number
%
Contact dermatitis
43
16.86
Eczema
29
11.37
Photodermatitis
22
08.62
Fissured feet
13
05.09
Miliaria
12
04.70
Psoriasis
8
03.13
Callosity
6
02.35
Total
133
52.15
Table-4: Distribution of non- infective dermatoses in migrant
workers(n= 255)
this may be due to unhygienic condition at the working place
or site of work and humid climates. Amongst the bacterial
infection, acne vulgaris was the most common with 07.05%
followed by folliculitis 05.09%, pyoderma with 4.31% and
furuncles with 3.31%.
Maria Kuruvila et al have done a study on pattern of skin
disease among migrant workers in Mangalore and they have
found to have bacterial infection in 24.83% of migrant workers.4
In the present study 08.23% of the workers examined had
viral infections. Amongst the viral infections, herpes infection was seen in 3.13 %, molluscum contagiosum 2.74 % and
warts in 2.35 %.
Maria Kuruvila et al have done a study on pattern of skin
disease among migrant workers in Mangalore and they
found to have viral infections in 6.42% of workers and warts
were most common with 3.64%.4 Porta N et al have done a
study on the immigrant population in Miguel Servet hospital
in Saragossa in 2004 and they found to have viral infection
in 11.8% of the patients and the most common was genital
warts with 1.7%.6
In the present study, parasitic infection was scabies found
in 17 patients (6.66%) Scabies was seen because of overcrowding and close contact. Maria Kuruvila et al have done
a study on pattern of skin disease among migrant workers in
Mangalore and they have found to have scabies in 8.56% of
the migrant workers.4 Porta N et al have done a study on the
immigrant population in Miguel Servet hospital in Saragossa
in 2004 and they found to have parasitic infections in 2.07%
of the study population.6
In the present study, 52.15 % of migrant workers had non
infective dermatoses. Amongst non-infective dermatoses,
the most common was contact dermatitis 16.86% followed
by eczema with 11.37% and photo dermatitis with 08.62%.
Contact dermatitis was most common because these workers
are constantly exposed to allergens like cement, chromates,
chalk, food preservatives and rubber.7 Photodermatitis was
seen in 22 patients, the obvious contributing factors leading
to this form of dermatoses is prolonged exposure to sunlight
at place of work. Miliaria was found in 12 migrant workers
and this was attributed to environmental factors like hot and
humid climate.
Fissured feet was found in 13 migrant workers because ce-
Skin Manifestations Among Migrant Workers
ment is a known hygroscopic substance which can lead to
dryness of skin especially in those workers who do not wear
protective foot wear. Callosity was seen in 6 migrant workers because it is a well-known disorder of keratinization in
manual labourers.
In a study done by Maria Kuruvila et al on pattern of skin
disease among migrant workers in Mangalore, they have
found workers with miliaria with 10.06%, issured feet to be
9.85% and callosity with 4.28%.4
CONCLUSION
Among 255 migrant workers with various dermatoses the
incidence of infective dermatoses was highest. The incidence of fungal infections (36.07%) could be attributed to
humidity being more owing to Mangalore city being a coastal area along with maceration due to increased sweating.
The increased incidence of scabies (6.66%) and molluscum
contagiosum (2.74%) could be due to living in overcrowded
conditions, poverty, trauma sustained during work and poor
hygiene.
From all the non- infective dermatoses, contact dermatitis
to cement was signiicantly higher in daily wage labourers,
construction workers and road workers. This high incidence
in these groups may be due to prolonged and frequent exposure to allergens like cement.
The pattern of dermatoses present in these groups is expressive of ignorance, poverty, living in overcrowded condition and an unfavourable hygienic conditions leading to
imbalance between man and microbes. Keeping the above
mentioned reasons, education of these workers in the health
aspects, provision of cost effective and eficient protective
measures like clean accommodations, clean clothes, hygienic surroundings, foot wear and protective creams at site of
work will help reduce the morbidity of the migrant workers.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Kristiansen M, Mygind A and Krasnik A. Health effects
of migration. Dan Med Bull 2007;54:46-7.
Migrant deinitions [Internet]. 2002 [cited 2009 Sept].
Available from: URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migrant_worker
Rycroft RJ. Occupational Dermatoses. In: Champion
RH, Burton JL, Burns DA, Breathnach SM, editors.
Rook / Wilkinson / Ebling Textbook of dermatology. 6th
ed. Blackwell Science: Oxford; 1998:861-3
Kuruvila M, Dubey S, Gahalaut P. Pattern of skin diseases among migrant construction workers in Mangalore. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2006; 72:12932.
Grover S, Ranyal RK, Bedi MK. A cross section of
skin diseases in rural Allahabad. Indian J Dermatol
2008;53:179-81
N Porta et al. Analysis of the Demand for Dermatological Care in the Immigrant Population Served by Hospi-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
165
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7.
8.
Skin Manifestations Among Migrant Workers
tal Miguel Servetin Saragossa, Spain: Actas Dermosiiliogr. 2008;99:127-33
Cronin E. Occupations with exposure to cement. In:
Contact dermatitis. 1st ed. Edinburg: Churchil Livingstones, 1980: 296 - 304
Frosch PJ, John SM. Clinical aspects of irritant contact dermatitis. In: Frosch PJ, Menné TM, Lepoittevin
JP, eds. Contact Dermatitis, 4th edn. Berlin: Springer,
2006:255–94.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 18-12-2015
166
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Radiographic Examination of the Greater Sciatic Notch in
Determining the Sex among North Indian Population
Berjina Farooq Naqshi1, Sangeeta Gupta2, Adil Bashir Shah3, Sunanda Raina4, Nazia Hassan5,
Hayat Ahmad Khan6
ABSTRACT
Introduction: In forensic and archaeological studies, there
is the need for identiication of human skeletal remains.The
greater sciatic notch is very relevant in identiication of sex
in human skeletal remains. The features of the greater sciatic
notch of the coxae are characteristic and are commonly used
to determine sex in unknown individuals.Over the years, different authors had carried various types of measurements on
human greater sciatic notch of different sex and races.
Material and method: This study was carried out to determine if indices in the greater sciatic notch can be used in sexing of the hip in North Indian population of Jammu and Kashmir with the help of radiograph and to establish a baseline
data for the population.Antero-posterior radiographs of adult
pelvis (age range: 25-75 years) were evaluated. The parameters considered are maximum width (AB); maximum depth
(OC); the posterior segment (OB), index I and index II of the
greater sciatic notch.
Results: Out of all these parameters, width of the notch
(p=0.001), depth of the notch (p=0.006), posterior segment
width (p= 0.03), index II of notch (p=0.001) were found to
be signiicantly greaterinwomenascomparedwithmen.However whether these radiographic parameters can be used for sex
determination needs further studies to quantify the parameters
over a larger population and over the bioarchaeological and
forensic remains of individuals.
Conclusion: Our results suggest that metric assessment of the
features of the greater sciatic notch should be used cautiously
in sex determination, particularly in the case of fragmentary
forensic or rare archaeological remains.
Keywords: Radiographic Examination, Sex, Greater Sciatic
Notch
rior and superior border, the greater sciatic notch, the symphyseal surface, the acetabulum, the obturator foramen, the
arcuate line or the distance between deined morphological
points on its borders.7
Correct sex identiication of the human skeleton is important inbioarchaeological and forensic practice.17 Metric assessment of the greater sciatic notch has been carried out
in several studies and has been evaluated for sex identiication.9-11 Different results related to the role of the features of
the greater sciatic notch in sex determination were obtained
in those studies.
There are metric and nonmetric differences in skeletal components among populations and these variations are related
to genetic and environmental factors (geography, diet, lifestyle). Variations in human skeletal features also determine
the racial characteristics of the populations. The racial characteristics of populations are linked to the evolutionary differentiation of the human species. Skeletal anthropometric
measurements aimed at revealing regional diversity between
different populations or within the same population, are
beneicial for understanding the temporal evolutionary and
developmental progress relevant to our species. Moreover,
metric and nonmetric differences between men and women
as regards the size and proportions of skeletal components
are available, and these differences can be used in the identiication of sex.12-17
Bruzek17 stated that in the techniques and evaluations used,
the most frequently cited drawbacks for determining the sex
of an individual are: 1) the high degree of observer subjectivity, 2) a lack of consistency in the evaluation of traits, and
3) a strong dependence on the results of the previous experience of the observer. Also, Bruzek indicated that it is dificult
to admit that the sexual traits of the skeleton may be more
PG Scholar, 2Associate Professor, 4Professor and HOD, Department of Anatomy, GMC, Jammu, 3MS, 6Registrar, Department of
Orthopaedics, 5Demonastrator, Department of Anatomy GMC,
Srinagar, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Virtually every element of the adult human skeleton has been
shown to exhibit some degree of sexual dimorphism.1-3 However, the pelvis, or more precisely,the innominateis generally
regarded as the most reliable skeletal indicator of sex.4-6
The pelvic bone is an ideal bone for determination of sex
because it not only relects the general differences between
the sexes but also the adaptations during child bearing in females. Those authors who have studied this bone in skeletal
remains have paid attention either to features relating to its
total size or to those of various components, such as its infe-
Corresponding author: Dr Adil Bashir Shah, 3MS Orthopaedics,GMC Srinagar, India
How to cite this article: Berjina Farooq Naqshi, Sangeeta Gupta, Adil Bashir Shah, Sunanda Raina, Nazia Hassan, Hayat Ahmad
Khan. Radiographic examination of the greater sciatic notch in
determining the sex among north indian population. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):167-171.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
167
Naqshi et al.
Radiographic Examination of the Greater Sciatic Notch
clearly expressed in one sex than the other. The total degree
of sexual dimorphism of any bone is a function of the interaction of the partial dimorphism of certain major regions of
the bone. Thus, according to the concept of functional integration, lower levels of sexual dimorphism in a given morpho-functional complex can be functionally compensated by
higher levels of dimorphism in another morpho-functional
complex. Intersegment size relationships are sex and population-speciic. With both genetic and functional components,
the existence and degree of trait expression appears to be
population-speciic.18-24
The features of the greater sciatic notch of the innominate
bone are commonly used to determine the sex in unknown
individuals. In this radiographical study, several measurements of the greater sciatic notch, e.g. width, depth and
width of the posterior segment were taken in A–P view and
indices I and II were calculated. Inspite of the relevance of
indices in the greater sciatic notch in forensic studies, anthropological, obstetrics and gynaecology; there is lack of
literatures in North Indian Population. The aim of this study
therefore was to determine if indices in the greater sciatic
notch can be used in sexing of the hip in North Indian population with the help of radiograph and to establish a baseline
data for the population.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The present study was conducted in the Department of Anatomy,Government Medical College, Jammu using 50 radiographs of pelvis of people belonging to the North Indian
population. The radiographs were obtained from the Department of Radiology, Government Medical College, Jammu. Age varied from 25-75 years. Of the 50 radiographs 25
belonged to males and 25 to females.The radiographs were
obtained using the standard protocol for analog AP Xray of
pelvis with both hips.
All the radiographs were free from pathological changes. In
taking these measurements the radiographs were placed on
the horizontal surface of an illuminator and the following
measurement were taken with the help of a vernier calliper. A
marker was used to mark these points for clear visualization.
The deinitions of the measurements were taken from the literature and were selected on the basis of their being good
discriminators in previous studies. These are clearly deined
in the available literature.19,21,25
The piriform tubercle was taken as the posterior point (B)
and the tip of the ischial spine was taken as the anterior point
(A) of the width (AB). Maximum depth (OC) was determined between the baseline (AB) and the deepest point (C)
of the greater sciatic notch. Also, (OB) was designated as the
posterior segment.
The following parameters of the greater sciatic notch were
considered:
• Maximal width (AB): The distance between the position A and B
168
•
•
•
Maximal depth (OC): Perpendicular to the width
OB:Posterior segment of the width
Index I: Maximal depth (OC) x100/Maximal width
(AB)
• Index II: Posterior segment of the width (OB) x100/
Maximal width (AB)
Each variable was measured by the same observer. All linear
measurements were in centimeters for each parameter.p value was calculated and value <0.05 was considered statistically signiicant.Radiographs showing abnormalities were not
considered.For each parameter, mean and standard deviation
was calculated.
RESULTS
The number of cases and the statistical data related to their
age is shown in table 1.The result of the mean, standard deviation and range of all radiographic measurements in the
greater sciatic notch in North Indian population are shown in
table 2. The mean maximum width (AB) for males and females was 5.54 ± 0.177 and6.33 ± 0.173 (cm). The maximal
width which was described in Fig. 1 was sexually dimorphic.
The females mean maximal width is signiicantly higher than
that of the males (p<0.05)
The mean maximal depth(OC) of males and females in the
greater sciatic notch was 2.14 ± 0.066 and 2.411 ± 0.087
(cm). The maximal depth which was described in Fig. 1 was
sexually dimorphic. Infemales mean maximal depth (OC) is
signiicantly higher than that of the males (p<0.05).
The mean values for posterior segment (OB) of males and
females were 2.29±0.125 and 2.92±0.220 (cm). The females
had a signiicantly larger value for posterior segment compared to the males (p<0.05).
The mean values of Index I for males and females were 38.69
±1.722 and 38.002±1.839.The Index was comparable in the
two sexes and no signiicant difference was noted.
The mean values of Index II for males and females were
41.44±2.315 and 46.16±3.681. The females in North Indian
Variable
N
Mean age
Minimum age
Maximum age
Male
25
44
25
75
Table-1:Age and sex
Female
25
48
29
72
S.
Variable
Male
Female
P value*
No.
1.
OB
2.29±0.125
2.922±0.22
0.03
2.
OC
2.14±0.066
2.41±.08
0.006
3.
AB
5.54±0.17
6.33±0.17
0.001
4.
Index I
38.69±1.72
38±1.83
0.8
5.
Index II
41.44±2.31
46.16±3.68
0.001
*pvalue<0.05 signiicant.
Table-2: Comparisons of various parameters of greater sciatic
notch in both sexes
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Naqshi et al.
Radiographic Examination of the Greater Sciatic Notch
population in this study had a signiicantly higher Index II
than the males.
From the observations given in table 2 statistically signiicant difference between the means of various variables related to sex were seen in OB, OC, AB and index II while index
I showed no statistically signiicant difference.
DISCUSSION
In this study, several measurements of the greater sciatic
notch, e.g. width (AB), depth (OC) and width of the posterior segment (OB) were taken and Indices I and II were
calculated in 50 adult (25 men and 25 women) pelvic radiographs(A/P view). Out of all these parameters, width of
the notch (p=0.001), depth of the notch (p=0.006),posterior
segment width (p= 0.03), index II of notch (p=0.001) were
found to be signiicantly greaterinwomenascomparedwithmen (Table2).
It is generally recognized that of all the elements of the human skeleton, the innominate offers the best prospect for the
correct identiication of the sex of an individual. Unfortunately, the very features of the innominate that exhibit the
highest levels of sexual dimor- phism are frequently found to
be damaged or missing in exhumed material. The highly di-
Figure-1: Showing the various measurements of the greater sciatic
notch from an antero-posterior radiograph of the pelvis. A is the
tip of the ischial spine, B is the piriformis tubercle,C is the deepest point on the sciatic notch. AB is the maximum width,OC is the
maximum depth and OB is the posterior segment.
Author
Population
morphic pubic element of the innominate is especially vulnerable to postmortem damage and decay as it is covered by
only a thin fragile shell of cortical bone. The identiication
of sex from the human skeleton is further complicated by
the considerable morphological and metric variation which
exists between and within human populations. Criteria for
the identiication of sex established on one ethnic group are
unlikely to be applicable to another group of different ethnic
origin. Similarly, criteria appropriate to present populations
may not be appropriate for past populations and vice versa.
Further, it is important that criteria used/for sex discrimination should be unequivocal and hence as free as possible
from subjective bias.26-29
In a study conducted by S.C. Okoseimiema and A.I. Udoaka
on Nigerian population it was concluded that metric assessment of the features of the greater sciatic notch should not
be used in sex determination in South Nigerian population,
particularly in the case of fragmentary forensic or rare archaeological remains. In this respect, even anthropometric
measurements of the skeletal remains of a single archaeological population should afford valuable information about the
features of different populations. Furthermore, the different
results obtained for the different populations should be useful for comparisons with similar studies and for improving
the identiication of human pelvis.27
The morphology of the greater sciatic notch has been used
in different studies addressing different populations for sex
determination and some of these are summarized in Table 3.
Akpan et al.22 used a total of 150 X-ray ilms (A-P view)
of the pelvis of adult (90 male and 60 female) Nigerians to
measure the width, depth, posterior segment, total and posterior angles of the greater sciatic notch. They reported that
the width, depth of the greater sciatic notch and Index I were
insigniicant criteria but that Index II was the most useful
criterion in sex determination.
Kalsey et al.28 made an attempt to ind the baseline data of
various parameters pertaining to the greater sciatic notch
of 100 hip bones of known sex (male: female = 80:20) and
side (right: left = 50:50), in Punjab, India.They showed that
width, posterior segment width and index II of notch were
found to be signiicantly greater in women as compared with
men.Kalsey found the notch to be deeper in women of north
Width
(AB)
Depth
(OC)
Posterior
Segment
(OB)
+
+
+
+
+
+
Palfrey
West Africa
+
Singh and Potturi
Varanasi
Dibennardo and Taylor American whites and blacks
+
Akpan et al.
Nigeria
Patriquin et al.
South African whites and blacks
+
+
Kalsey et al.
North India (Punjab)
+
Alizadeh et al.
Iranian
+
Present study
North India(Jammu and Kashmir)
+
+
[+] Statistically signiicant variable; [-]Statistically insigniicant variable
Table-3: Comparison of variables of greater sciatic notch in different studies
Index I
Index II
-
+
+
+
+
+
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
169
Naqshi et al.
Radiographic Examination of the Greater Sciatic Notch
India, however his results were not statistically signiicant.
Patriquin et al.23 determined the maximal width, maximal
depth and posterior width of the greater sciatic notch in
whites and blacks. They reported that the width of the greater
sciatic notch is larger in women but deeper in men and that
there are signiicant sex differences among South African
men and women and whites and blacks.
Steyn et al.24 used geometric and morphometric analysis
of the greater sciatic notch and reported that this feature
may not be so reliable, especially in South African white
males.
Palfrey18 studied West African skeletons of known sex and
found highly signiicant differences between them regarding the width and posterior segment of the greater sciatic
notch.
Singh and Potturi19 reported that the width and depth of the
greater sciatic notch are not good criteria for sex identiication and also that the width of the posterior segment and
Index II successfully assigned sex to a high percentage of
innominate bones, especially to the female ones.
Dibennardo and Taylor20 investigated the adult coxae of
American blacks and whites of known sex and found that
the depth of the greater sciatic notch was larger in women
in both races.
The present study is comparable with the study of Palfrey,Patriquin et al., Kalsey et al., Alizadeh et al., in case of width
and posterior segment being statistically signiicant for sex
determination in addition to index II (except Patriquin etal
and Palfrey) while in Singh and Potturi the posterior segment
and index II are the sole statistically signiicant variable.In
the present study the depth of the notch has been found to be
a valid variable for sex determination which is comparable to
studies of Dibennardo and Taylor and Patriquin et al.Kalsey
found the notch to be deeper in women of north India, however his results were not statistically signiicant.
While the accuracy of the measurements of the greater sciatic notch is high, all collections used in these studies are from
different populations and one cannot assume the methodology would yield equally high success rates in all of them.
Therefore, this study, of data from North Indian collections
ensures this technique’s applicability to that population.
CONCLUSION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
In conclusion, our results suggest that metric assessment
of the features of the greater sciatic notch should be used
cautiously in sex determination, particularly in the case of
fragmentary forensic or rare archaeological remains. In this
respect, even anthropometric measurements of the skeletal
remains of a single archaeological population should afford
valuable information about the features of different populations. Furthermore, the different results obtained for the
different populations should be useful for comparisons with
similar studies and for improving the identiication of human
skeletal remains.
170
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22. Akpan TB, Igiri AO and Singh SP. Greater sciatic notch
in sex determination in Nigeria skeletal sample. Afr. J.
Med. Sci. 1998; 27: 43-6.
23. Patriquin ML, Steyn M and Loth SR. Metric assessment
of race from the pelvis in South Africans. Forensic Sci.
Int 2002; 127: 104-13.
24. Steyn M, Pretorius E and Hutten L. Geometric morphometric analysis of the greater sciatic notch in South Africans.Homo 2004; 54: 197-206.
25. Milne N. Sexing of human os coxae. J. Anat 1990; 172:
221-6.
26. MacLaughlin SM and BruceMF. The Sciatic Notch/Acetabular Index as a Discriminator of Sex in European
Skeletal Remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences, JFSCA
1986; 31:1380-90.
27. Okoseimiema SC and Udoaka AI.Radiologic Study of
Indices in the Greater Sciatic Notch in South Nigerian Population.Current Research Journal of Biological
Sciences 2013; 5: 248-51.
28. Kalsey G, Singla RK and Sachdeva K. Role of the greater sciatic notch of the hip bone in sexual dimorphism:
A morphometric study of the North Indian population.
Med. Sci. Law 2011; 51: 81-6.
29. Ilknur Ari.Morphometry of the greater sciatic notch on
remains of male Byzantine skeletons from Nicea.Eur J
Anat 2005; 9: 161-5.
30. Haun SJ. Brief communication: a study of the predictive
accuracy of mandibular ramus lexure as a singular morphologic indicator of sex in an archaeological sample.
Am J Phys Anthropol 2000; 111: 429-32.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 18-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
171
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Mean Platelet Volume as Predictor of Sepsis
Altaf Hussain Kambay1, Refut Arah2, Israrul Haq Lone3, Mansoor ul Haq Lone4, Ansarul Haq Lone5
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Neonatal sepsis is one of the most common
causes of NICU admission and one of the major causes of
morbidity and mortality throughout the world. Objective of
the study was to study organism-speciic platelet response and
to study mean platelet volume as predictor of sepsis in neonates.
Methods and Materials: Neonates admitted to single level-three intensive care units from January 2013 to 2015 were
prospectively evaluated for sepsis by rapid screen test, blood
counts and blood culture. In thrombocytopenic babies organism-speciic platelet response and its effect on various platelet
parameters were evaluated. In addition, morbidity, mortality
and factors affecting survival were studied.
Results: Sepsis was diagnosed in 280 of 1100 (25%) patients.
Gram-negative in 58% (161/280), Gram-positive sepsis occurred in 29% (80/280) and fungal in 4% (12/280) of patients.
Thrombocytopenia was obtained in 46% (130/280) of babies.
Mortality rate was higher in thrombocytopenic neonates. The
frequency, severity and duration of thrombocytopenia were
more with Gram-negative infection. The incidence of persistent bacteremia, multiorgan failure and death was also more
in Gram-negative sepsis. Mean platelet volume was much
increased in severe thrombocytopenia, Gram-negative sepsis
and in non-survivors and can therefore be used as predictor of
sepsis and outcome in neonates.
Conclusion: In thrombocytopenic babies with sepsis, organism-speciic platelet response is seen. In addition, persistent
bacteremia, multiorgan failure and death are more in these
babies, and survival decreases with the increased severity and
duration of thrombocytopenia. In addition MPV can be used
as an early predictor of sepsis and outcome in neonates.
Keywords: Mean platelet volume, Sepsis, Thrombocytopenia
INTRODUCTION
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The G. B. Panth children hospital is the largest tertiary care
children hospital of Jammu and Kashmir state, with a NICU
capacity of around 110 and about 160 pediatric beds. Jammu
and Kashmir is the northern state of India with an estimated
population of about 7-million. This study was conducted in
this hospital in year 2013 starting from January. The inclusion criteria of the study is to include all neonates who were
admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit with a documented diagnosis of sepsis delivered in the same hospital; those
born somewhere else but referred to the hospital because of
sepsis; or neonates who developed sepsis during the period
Consultant Postgraduate, Department of Pediatrics, 2General Surgery, Registrar Department of Surgery, GMC, 3Registrar Postgraduate, Department of Anaesthesia, 4Radiotherapy, SR Department
of Radiation-Oncology, SKIIMS, Soura, 5Orthopedics, SR Department of Orthopaedics, Bone and Joint Hospital, Srinagar, India
1
Neonatal sepsis is one of the most common causes of NICU
admission and one of the major causes of morbidity and
mortality throughout the world.1 Clinical features of sepsis
are subtle, nonspeciic, might be easily confused with other
non-infectious causes and can rapidly lead to death if left
untreated. There are early markers of sepsis like CRP, micro
ESR, Procalcitonin, IL-6 and Thrombocytopenia and neonatologist has to rely on these markers for early diagnosis of
sepsis. Thrombocytopenia has been used as an early but a
non-speciic marker for sepsis.2 Thrombocytopenia is usually deined as a platelet count of less than 1.5lac/µl. Where-
172
as severe thrombocytopenia is considered as platelet counts
< 50thousand/µl and moderate thrombocytopenia from
50,000-1lac/µl. Thrombocytopenia can be induced by (1) increased platelet destruction (i.e. immune mechanisms, DIC)
(2) decreased platelet production. Young platelets in circulation tend to be larger, since Platelet decreases in size as
they become older. Increased Mean platelet volume (MPV)
indicates an increased proportion of young platelets in the
circulation because of increased platelet production and/ or
destruction.2 Mean platelet volume (MPV) is a machine-calculated measurement of the average size of platelets found
in blood and is typically included in blood tests as part of
the CBC.3 These calculations can give the doctor additional
information about platelets and/or about the cause of a high
or low platelet count. A typical range of platelet volumes is
10–12 fL (femtolitre).2 MPV is an easily accessible prognostic marker of mortality in sepsis. If one sees a sepsis patient
with elevated MPV, he might attempt more aggressive therapy. MPV is easily obtained because it "is like a waste product
of a complete blood count. MPV might be more speciic than
procalcitonin and CRP.4
Corresponding author: Ansarul Haq Lone, Room no. 14, Doctor's, Hostel Bone and Joint Hospital, Srinagar, India
How to cite this article: Altaf Hussain Kambay, Refut Arah, Israrul Haq Lone, Mansoor ul Haq Lone, Ansarul Haq Lone. Mean
platelet volume as predictor of sepsis. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):172-176.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kambay et al.
of hospitalization for another reason. Ethical approval was
obtained from the hospital’s ethics committee and informed
consent was obtained from all parents. Neonates with sepsis
were enrolled to the study, and those without sepsis were
selected as controls. Gestational age was determined by new
Ballard score and by a irst trimester ultrasound scan. Maternal age, maternal medical diseases, maternal infection, and
antenatal and postnatal follow-up medical problems were
obtained from maternal records. Modes of delivery (vaginal
or cesarean section (C/S)), gender, birth weight, and APGAR
scores at 1st and 5th minutes were recorded. During the study
period, infants were divided into two groups, sepsis and control (no sepsis). Sepsis was deined according to the International Sepsis Deinition Conferenceas ‘clinical syndrome
characterized by the presence of both infection and systemic
inlammatory response syndrome.’ Systemic inlammatory response syndrome in the case of neonates is deined as
two or more of the following: (1) tachypnea (respiratory rate
>60 bpm) plus grunting/retractions or desaturation, (2) temperature instability (<36 °C or >37.9 °C), (3) capillary reill
time >3 s, (4) white blood cell count (<5000 × 109 per l or
>34000 × 109 per l), (4) CRP>10 mg per 100 ml or >2 s.d.
above normal value, (5) interleukin 6 or 8 >70 pg ml−1, (6)
procalcitonin >8.1 mg per 100 ml or >2 s.d. above normal
value 15,16,17,18. Sepsis is deined as one or more systemic
inlammatory response syndrome criteria with signs of infection. Severe sepsis is deined as sepsis associated with
hypotension or single-organ dysfunction. Septic shock is
deined as severe sepsis with hypotension requiring luid resuscitation with inotropic support. Multiorgan dysfunction
syndrome is deined as the presence of multiorgan failure
despite full supportive treatment. Blood was drawn from the
neonates, who had the clinical signs of sepsis, from either the
peripheral vein or artery for evaluation of whole blood count,
Mean platelet volume (MPV), C-reactive protein (CRP) and
culture at diagnosis. Blood and CSF cultures were analyzed using fully automated BACTEC method. Blood culture
was done every 72 hours and complete blood count every
48 hours or whenever the clinical condition of patient would
demand. Blood samples for complete blood picture were
analyzed by using coulter counter machine. All cases were
managed with intravenous antibiotics and other supportive
measures. Initial antibiotics combination used in this hospital are: ampicillin or third generation cephalosporin and
aminoglycosides, which were changed, with therapy, according to culture and sensitivity result.
This prospective study was conducted to study the value of
platelet size in neonates with sepsis, and also to study whether mean platelet volume (MPV) can be used as a predictor
of neonatal sepsis. Also, to determine any signiicant differences in platelet size (MPV) present between those due to
gram- negative, gram-positive and fungal sepsis.We used
SPSS software version 16 for the calculation of p- value in
our study. SPSS software was used for statistical analysis in
our study.
Mean platelet volume as a predictor of sepsis.
RESULTS
Out of 1100 neonates admitted in NICU, 280 babies were
admitted as sepsis. As shown in the table-1.Gram negative
sepsis was the commonest form of sepsis 161/280 (58%).
Thrombocytopenia occurred in 130/280 (46%) babies with
sepsis. Among theses babies, 27 (21%) were having mild
thrombocytopenia, 29 (22%) moderate thrombocytopenia
and 74 (57%) had severe thrombocytopenia. Incidence of
thrombocytopenia in neonates with Gram negative sepsis
was 72/161 (45%), versus gram positive sepsis 26/80 (32%).
5/12 (41%) in fungal sepsis developed thrombocytopenia.
Among patients with thrombocytopenia gram negative organisms were seen in 72/130 (55%), gram positive 26/130
(16%) and fungal in 5/130 (4%) as shown in table-2. 27 neonates had clinical features of sepsis but their cultures were
persistently negative. Klebsiella pneumoniae was the most
common organism 48/130 (37%) followed by in Acinetobacter (12%) and E. coli (4 %) and pseudomonas in (2.3%).
Among gram positive organisms staph.aureus was seen in
20/130 (15%), Enterococcus in (3%), CONS in (1.5%).
Lowest Platelet countin gram negative sepsis was (48 x 103/
µl) compared to (65 × 103/µl) in gram positive sepsis and
(54 × 10³/µl) in fungal sepsis (p = 0.08).The mean platelet
volume initially (MPV-A), before the onset of sepsis; forgram negative sepsis was 10.1 ± 1, gram positive sepsis 10.3
± 1.1,and fungal sepsis 10.5 ± 10.7. The difference was not
statistically signiicant (p=0.4). MPV at the time of onset of
sepsis (MPV-B) was high in gram negative sepsis than in
gram positive sepsis (12.5 ± 1.2 Vs 11.4 ± 0.9) although staGram-negative
(58%)
Gram-positive
(29%)
Total
Klebsiella
Acinetobacter
E. Coli
Pseudomonas
Staph. Aureus
Enterococcus
CONS
12
27
100
42
10
9
52
11
17
Yeast (4%)
Culture-negative
(9%)
N= 280
100%
Table-1: Organisms causing sepsis in neonates.
%
37%
12%
3.8%
2.3%
Gram
15%
positive 26
3%
(20%)
1.5%
Yeast
4%
Culture negative
21%
Total
130
100%
Table-2: Organism distribution in thrombocytopenic neonates
Organism
Gram
negative
72 (55%)
Klebsiella
Acinetobacter
E. Coli
Pseudomonas
Staph. Aureus
Enterococcus
CONS
Number
48
16
5
3
20
4
2
5
27
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
35.7%
15%
3.7%
3.2%
18.6%
3.9%
6.1%
4.3%
9%
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
173
Kambay et al.
Mean platelet volume as a predictor of sepsis.
Feature
Gram-negative (n=72) Gram-positive (n=26)
1
Platelet nadir
48 ± 47
65 ± 42
2
Mean duration of thrombocytopenia (days)
7.2 ± 5
6.3 ± 3.6
3
Mortality
21 (29%)
6 (23%)
4
(MPV-A) initially.
10.1 ± 1
10.3 ± 1.1
5
(MPV-B)
12.8 ± 1.2
11.4 ± 0.9
6
Multiorgan failure
20/72 (28%)
2/26 (7%)
Table-3: Platelet parameters in septic, thrombocytopenic neonates.
MPV
Group
No Sepsis
No.
100
MPV
9.8 ± 1.01
P.Value
Sepsis
non-Thrombocytopenia
Sepsis Thrombocytopenia
150
10.1 ± 1.04
<0.01
130
12.5 ± 1.08
Table-4: Mean Platelet Volume of thrombocytopenic and
non-thrombocytopenic neonates
tistically non-signiicant (p= 0.5) as shown in table -3.The
mean duration of thrombocytopenia in gram positive sepsis
was less than fungal and gram negative sepsis. Patients with
gram negative sepsis had signiicantly higher incidence of
multiorgan failure and death. None of the patients in fungal sepsis died.For comparison of MPV, neonates admitted
with neonatal jaundice without sepsis were taken as control
group. Mean platelet volume of thrombocytopenic neonates
was signiicantly higher than that of non-thrombocytopenic
neonates (p < 0.01). The average MPV of neonates without
sepsis (9.8) was lower than neonates with sepsis but with out
thrombocytopenia.Highest MPV was seen in septic, thrombocytopenic neonates as shown in table-4.
While comparing survivors and non-survivors, survivors
had higher weight and gestation. Non-survivors tend to have
greater severity of thrombocytopenia (p<0.01). Mean platelet volume in case of non-survivors was also signiicantly
higher owing to greater severity of thrombocytopenia.
DISCUSSION
The incidence of neonatal sepsis is high in developing
countries (1.7–33 of 1000 live births) and in Asia, it clusters around 15 of 1000 live births.5 A review of 11 471 blood
samples from all developing nations of the world revealed
that Gram-negative rods were isolated in 60% of positive
cultures5 with Klebsiella pneumoniae being the commonest
organism. Similar trends were observed in our patients.Klebsiella followed by staph aureus are the most common two
pathogens causing sepsis in our study. Platelets are believed
to be active participants in the host defense, and the thrombocytopenia seenduring sepsis episodes may be caused, in
part, by the consumption of platelets directly in these processes. They are capable of phagocytosis and can generate
cytotoxic-free radicals and oxidative molecules when activated. In the present study, we have evaluated the relevance
174
Fungal (n=5)
54 ± 37
9 ± 2.9
0
10.5 ± 0.7
11.7 ± 0.7
0
P. value
0.08
<.02
0.4
0.5
<0.01
of platelet count and platelet indices(MPV), in both term and
preterm babies with sepsis.Platelets not only mediate hemostasis but also have an important role in linking innate and
adaptive immune systems through the expression of Toll-like
receptors.6-7 Lipopolysaccharide binds to platelets through
Toll-like receptor 4, which is present on their surface, and,
together with autoantibodies signiicantly enhances Fc-mediated platelet phagocytosis by mononuclear phagocytes.8-9
As endotoxemia is often accompanied by a microvascular
inlammatory response10-11 cytokines and bacterial lipopolysaccharide probably trigger this response through the activation of platelets, leukocytes or both. This microvascular
inlammatory response could be responsible for the multiorgan failure that occurs with sepsis.The size of platelets can
predict the risk for death in patients with sepsis. Preliminary
data indicate that mean platelet volume (MPV) is an easily
accessible prognostic marker of mortality in sepsis.Power
of WBC count and HCT may be lower than that of MPV.
Successful strategies to decrease sepsis should decrease neonatal mortality rates, shorten hospital stay, and reduce costs.
Therefore, we studied platele tindices to see their usefulness
in early detection of neonatal sepsis. A close relationship
between sepsis and thrombocytopenia has been postulated
in some studies. Also, neonatal sepsis due to Gram-negative organisms had signiicant difference in the number of
neonates with thrombocytopenia, when compared with patients with Gram-positive sepsis. Moreover, some studies
have determined a speciic platelet response with different
degrees of thrombocytopenia to different infectious agents,
including gram positive/negative and fungal infections in
preterm infants.12 Low platelet count associated sepsis were
seen in both types of sepsis caused by gram negative and
gram positive microorganism, and account for 46% of all of
cases of neonatal sepsis in our study. Our results indicate that
platelet count was observed to decrease, but MPV increased
in response to sepsis. These indings suggested that sepsis
affects platelet count and platelet indices. Van der Lelie et
al showed that MPV was elevated in 13 of the 25 septicemia
patients, and returned to normal values as soon as the disease
was under control.13 As stated earlier, one study showed that
MPV falls as platelet count also decreases.14 Therefore, previous studies are inconclusive in regards to MPV and have
shown any number of MPV change during sepsis (increase,
decrease, and biphasic). However, there is still some controversy regarding its reliability,whether thrombocytopenia
is suggestive of one(or more) causative agents of neonatal
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kambay et al.
sepsis as other studies have identiied that thrombocytopenia
might not be an organism-speciic marker of sepsis.15 This
may be explained by the fact that the mechanism of thrombocytopenia in septic neonates is believed to be multifactorial. Since, extensive endothelial injury,bacterial and fungal
toxins, increased platelet activation,disseminated intravascular coagulation and limited responseto thrombocytopenia
through platelet production and thrombopoietin in preterm
infants, all are thought to be responsible factors for thrombocytopenia in infantswith sepsis.16-17 On the other hand, it
was suggested that platelet consumption rather than decrased
production is the major contributor to thrombocytopenia, as
it was shown that bone marrow obtained from infants with
necrotizing enterocolitisthat correlated with sepsis proved
normalmegakaryocyte number and maturation.18-19 IL-6 and
CRP are rapid acting acute phase proteins, and it is known
that CRP increases 12 to 24 hours after the on-set of infection. It might be said that MPV is an accurate, safe and
reliable marker for the diagnosis and follow up of neonatal sepsis. MPVmay be used for predicting the severity of
sepsis and death with a high sensitivity and speciicity at the
diagnosisof sepsis and may be a useful marker for early detection of severe sepsis and predicting mortality in neonates
with sepsis. Therefore, MPV is quite simple, it may be better than the other markers like procalcitonin and C-reactive
protein, because they may sometimes work and sometimes
they don't." MPV might be more speciic, and is quite cheap
because the cell sorter already produces an MPV value.
In our study, MPV was more elevated in non-survivors. Our
inding is similar with that of Akarsu's research in neonates
with sepsis.20 However, our results oppose the results of Farid
et al’s study of patients with sepsis with no relation between
MPV and Mortality.21 The increase in mean platelet volume
in septic thrombocytopenic neonates in our study had also
been reported previously.3 There is a signiicant differences
found in relation to platelet count and MPV and to the type
of microorganism causing sepsis. Previous studies reported
a signiicant difference in relation to certain types of pathogens.4 Similar results have been seen in our study with Klebsiella pneumoniae having maximum impact on platelet count
and mean platelet volume. The platelet count and MPV was
not different for different infectious agents (gram positive/
negative and fungal infections) as found by ferhat et al.22 Additionally, they found high MPV may indicate the severity of
sepsis, since non-survivors with sepsis had higher levels of
MPV than survivors during sepsis episodes.22 Similar to our
results. Further work is needed for a better understanding
of the basis of the observed effects of different infectious
organisms on platelet counts and platelet indices, in particular; the interactions among platelets, infectious organisms,
and thrombopoietin in septic neonates need to be examined.
Klebsiella pneumoniae expresses a smooth lipopolysaccharide (LPS with O antigen) and a capsular polysaccharide
(K antigen), and both are important for its virulence. There
is a variation in the genetic makeup of O antigen between
Mean platelet volume as a predictor of sepsis.
Klebsiella pneumoniae and other Gram-negative organisms,
which allows Klebsiella pneumoniae strains to constitutively
express a polysaccharide capsule critical for the organism's
ability to resist complement-mediated opsonophagocytic
killing.23 These genetic variations in Klebsiella pneumoniae
may be responsible for the persistent bacteremia and maximum effects on various platelet parameters, as seen in our
study.
CONCLUSION
We concluded that low platelet count and high MPV were
seen in both type of sepsis caused by gram negative microorganism and gram positive microorganism. There is statistical
difference between these platelets response and the type of
microorganism. Mean Platelet Volume can be used as early predictor of sepsis and outcome in neonates. Our study
shows an organism-speciic platelet response in thrombocytopenic babies with sepsis and the worst outcome for thrombocytopenic neonates with Gram-negative infections. We
also conclude that increased MPV seen in severe thrombocytopenia is because of increased bone marrow production
of immature platelets and thrombocytopenia is because of
peripheral platelet destruction,not because of bone marrow
suppression.
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Khriesat, 2Sulaiman Swedan2 The Effect of Neonatal Sepsis on Platelet Count and theirIndices. J Med J
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News from the: 15th International Congress on Infectious Diseases (ICID);Medscape Medical News PlateletSizePredicts Mortality in Patients with Sepsis Daniel
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Zaidi AK, Huskins WC, Thaver D, Bhutta ZA, Abbas Z,
Goldmann DA. Hospital-acquired neonatal infections
in developing countries. Lancet 2005; 365: 1175–1188.
Storm W. Use of thrombocytopenia for the early identiication of sepsis in critically ill newborns. Acta Paediatr Acad Sci Hung 1982;23:349-55.
Sheu JR, Hung WC, Wu CH, et al. Reduction in lipopolysaccharide-induced thrombocytopenia bytrilavin in a
rat model of septicemia.Circulation 1999; 99:3056-62.
Hutter JJ Jr, Hathaway WE, Wayne ER. Hematologic
abnormalities in severe neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 1976; 88:1026-31.
Patel CC. Hematologic abnormalities in acute necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Clin North Am 1977;24:57984.
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10. Van der Lelie J, Von dem Borne AK. Increased mean
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11. Gunebakmaz O, Kaya MG, Kaya EG, Ardic I, Yarlioglues M, et al. Mean platelet volume predicts embolic
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Int J Infect Dis 2010; 14: e982–5.
12. Guida JD, Kunig AM, Leef KH, et al. Platelet count and
sepsis in very low birth weight neonates: is there an organism-speciic response? Pediatrics 2003;111:1411-5.
13. Van der Lelie J, Von dem Borne AK. Increased mean
platelet volume in septicaemia. J Clin Pathol 1983;36:
693–696
14. Gunebakmaz O, Kaya MG, Kaya EG, Ardic I, Yarlioglues M, et al. Mean platelet volume predicts embolic
complications and prognosis in infective endocarditis.
Int J Infect Dis 2010; 14: e982–5.
15. Manzoni P, Mostert M, Galletto P, et al. Is thrombocytopenia suggestive of organism-speciic response in neonatal sepsis? Pediatr Int 2009;51:206-10.
16. Storm W. Use of thrombocytopenia for the early identiication of sepsis in critically ill newborns. Acta Paediatr Acad Sci Hung 1982;23:349-55.
17. Sheu JR, Hung WC, Wu CH, et al. Reduction in lipopolysaccharide- induced thrombocytopenia by trilavin in a
rat model of septicemia. Circulation 1999; 99:3056-62.
18. Hutter JJ Jr, Hathaway WE, Wayne ER. Hematologic
abnormalities in severe neonatal necrotizing enterocolitis. J Pediatr 1976; 88:1026-31.
19. Patel CC. Hematologic abnormalities in acute necrotizing enterocolitis. Pediatr Clin North Am 1977;24:57984.
20. Akarsu S, Taskin E, Kilic M, Ozdiller S, Gurgoze MK,
et al. The effects of different infectious organisms on
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Pediatr 2005; 51: 388–91
21. Farid Sadaka, Paige L Donnelly, Mia T Grifin, Jacklyn
O’Brien and Rekha LakshmananMean Platelet Volume
is not a Useful Predictor of Mortality in Septic Shock J
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22. Ferhat Catal, Cuneyt Tayman, Alparslan Tonbul. Mean
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 18-12-2015
176
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Prediction of Six-Minute Walk Performance among Healthy North
Indian Adult Males: The Inluence of Obesity Indices
Hanjabam Barun Sharma1, Abha Shrivastava2, Yogesh Saxena2, Anita Sharma3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Six-minute walk test (6MWT) is an easy evaluation method for functional capacity and treatment eficacy.
No universally acceptable standard predicting equation for the
distance walked in 6MWT (6MWD) exists for Indians. Hence
the study was an attempt in understanding signiicant predictors of 6MWD and inluence of obesity indices on it.
Material and Methods: Physical activity (PAR); anthropometric variables like height (HT), weight (WT), including
obesity indices like waist-hip ratio (WHR); resting heart rate
and blood pressure (rHR and rBP); and 6MWD and heart rate
recovery (HRR) were evaluated in 40 healthy adult North Indian males.
Results: 6MWD had signiicant negative correlation with
age, WT, obesity indices, rHR and rBP; and positive correlation with HRR and PAR. Subjects with increased obesity
indices had lower 6MWD and HRR, and higher rHR and rBP.
Among the generated equations, 6MWD=10.52+6.06(HT)2.4(WT)+26.87(PAR)-358.84(WHR) had the highest adjusted R2(96.23%) with all the four predictors having signiicant
unique contribution.
Conclusions: Subjects with increased obesity indices had
lower 6MWD & HRR, and higher rHR & rBP. HT, WT, PAR
and WHR were the signiicant predictors of 6MWD. Hence,
decreasing weight and WHR, and increasing physical activity
would result in improvement of six-minute walk performance.
Keywords: Six-minute walk distance, prediction equation,
adiposity, heart rate recovery.
INTRODUCTION
Six-minute walk test (6MWT) is an easy, inexpensive submaximal test for functional capacity, which is safer, better
tolerated and more relective of activities of daily living
as compared to other walk tests.1 The distance walked in
6MWT (6MWD) has a very high correlation with formal
measures of quality of life,2 and is an independent predictor
of both morbidity and mortality.3 Similarly heart rate recovery (HRR), which measures the rate of decline of heart rate
following maximal or submaximal exercise to resting level,4 is also a powerful predictor of morbidity and all-cause
mortality.5 Both 6MWD and HRR have been shown to affect
negatively by obesity.6,7
Since normative database on 6MWD is important in identifying extent of functional capacity alterations from normal
and hence assessing treatment eficacy,8 many studies have
published predicting equations for 6MWD for normal population.9-11 The relative paucity of such data in Indian scenario inspired us to conduct the present study, evaluating signiicant predictors of 6MWD in normal North Indian adult
males.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present cross-sectional study was conducted under the
Department of Physiology, Himalayan Institute of Medical
Sciences, Swami Rama Himalayan University, Dehradun.
Forty healthy males of 28-40 years with no history of addiction were the volunteers. The study was approved by the
Institute ethical committee, and a well-informed written consent was taken from all the subjects.
Study Protocol
The subjects were requested to report in the department at
around the same time in the morning after light breakfast.
No tea, coffee or heavy physical activity was allowed for
atleast 2 hours before the reporting time. After taking medical and personal history, various anthropometric variables
like heights (HT in cm) and body weights (WT in kg) were
recorded. Physical activity recall questionnaire scale (PAR)
was used to assess physical activity.12 Obesity indices recorded were divided into:
a. General obesity indices: body mass index (BMI in kg/
m2) and percentage body fat (%BF).13 An impedance
body composition analyzer (Omron, model HBF-375)
was used to measure %BF.
b. Abdominal obesity indices: waist circumference (WC
in cm) and waist-hip ratio (WHR).13 A lexible and
non-stretching measuring tape was used to measure WC,
Resident, 2Associate Professor, Department of Physiology, 3Professor and Head, Department of Medicine, Himalayan Institute of
Medical Sciences, SRHU, Jolly Grant, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India.
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Abha Shrivastava, Associate Professor, Department of Physiology, Himalayan Institute of Medical
Sciences, SRHU, Jolly Grant, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
How to cite this article: Hanjabam Barun Sharma, Abha Shrivastava, Yogesh Saxena, Anita Sharma. Prediction of six-minute walk
performance among healthy north indian adult males: the inluence
of obesity indices. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3(1):177-181.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
177
Sharma et al.
Prediction of Six-Minute Walk Performance
HC (hip circumference in cm) as per WHO guidelines.14
WHR was calculated as WC:HC.
Heart rate (rHR in bpm) using a hear rate monitor (Polar FT1/
FT2), and blood pressure (rSBP and rDBP in mmHg) using
a blood pressure apparatus (model no. EW 254 DC6V) were
measured after a rest of 10 minute in sitting position. 6MWT
was conducted following the standard methodology, with
constantly motivation throughout the testing.1 After 6MWT,
the distance walked (6MWD in m) was measured. HRR
at 1st(HRR-1 in bpm) and 2nd(HRR-2 in bpm) minute after
6MWT was calculated by subtracting post 6MWT heart rate
at 1st minute and 2nd minute from post 6MWT heart rate at 0th
minute respectively with the subjects sitting passively. Polar
hear rate monitor (Polar FT1/FT2) was used for the same.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) version 19
was used for data analysis. For directly measured and derived variables, standard descriptive statistics were determined. Pearson’s correlation was used to study association
between 6MWD and various variables (Spearman’s correlation, in case of ordinal variable). Unpaired t-test was used
for comparison of interested parameters among the studied
subgroups divided as per various obesity indices cut-off values. Various equations were generated for predicting 6MWD
using multiple linear regression analysis, after avoiding multicollinearity and serial correlation, and such that most of the
independent variables ß-weights were signiicant. Semi-partial correlation R2 was used to assess the effect of a particular
independent variable above and beyond others on predicting 6MWD. Statistical signiicance was chosen at p-value
(2-tailed)≤0.05.
Parameters
Mean±SD
Min.-Max.
PAR
4.00±.50#
2.00-4.00
Age (years)
36.95±3.84
28.00-40.00
Height (cm)
171.24±6.02
155.00-177.00
Weight (kg)
72.31±10.60
49.70-88.90
BMI (kg/m2)
24.61±2.98
16.80-29.24
%Body Fat (%)
23.15±6.69
7.40-31.90
WC (cm)
99.14±6.97
82.60-108.00
WHR
.92±.05
.86-1.09
rHR (bpm)
83.85±5.03
74.00-92.00
rSBP (mmHg)
124.90±5.78
110.00-134.00
rDBP (mmHg)
81.20±4.72
72.00-88.00
HRR-1 (bpm)
19.55±1.80
17.00-24.00
HRR-2 (bpm)
40.07±3.02
35.00-46.00
6MWD (m)
637.33±55.32
516.00-729.00
#Median±Quartile deviation; SD=Standard Deviation;
Min.=Minimum; Max.=Maximum.
Table-1: Descriptive Statistics of the studied subjects (n=40).
Variables
6MWD (m)
PAR#
.74**
Age (years)
-.41**
Weight (kg)
-.53**
BMI (kg/m2)
-.80**
%Body Fat (%)
-.85**
WC (cm)
-.73**
WHR
-.88**
rHR (bpm)
-.56**
rSBP (mmHg)
-.62**
rDBP (mmHg)
-.56**
HRR-1 (bpm)
.82**
HRR-2 (bpm)
.86**
Pearson’s correlation.#Spearman’s correlation.** p–value≤0.01:highly signiicant.
Table-2: Signiicantly correlated variables with six-minute
walk distance among the studied subjects (n=40).
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics of the studied subjects are given in Table 1.
6MWD was found to have signiicant negative correlation
with all the obesity indices, apart from age, weight and resting cardiovascular variables. Although it had signiicant positive correlation with HRR-1, HRR-2 and PAR (Table 2). The
negative effect of increased obesity indices on 6MWD was
also evident from Table 3. When the subjects were grouped
as per the obesity indices cut-off values: BMI: ≥23 Kg/m2
and ≥25 Kg/m2,15 %BF: >25%,16 WC: ≥90cm and ≥102 cm
and WHR: ≥0.9;14 the subgroups with lower obesity indices
had higher 6MWD, in addition to higher HRR-1, HRR-2 and
lower resting cardiovascular parameters, which were statistically signiicant, with few exceptions (Table 3).
Among all regression equations (Table 4), model (a) had
the largest adjusted R2 (96.54%). In this, WHR uniquely accounted only 1% of the total variance in 6MWD over
and beyond those explained by HT, WT, PAR, HRR-2 and
rHR. Among the equations having all the independent vari-
178
ables statistically signiicant (Table 4(d),(e) and (f)), model
(d) had the largest adjusted R2 (96.23%). In this also, only
WHR among all the obesity indices was found included in
the model with a uniquely contribution of 1.44% of the total
variance (96.23%) in 6MWD over and beyond those contributed by HT, WT and PAR. However, in the equation with
both general (%BF) and abdominal obesity indices (WHR),
%BF contributed more unique variance out of the total variance (95.82%) in 6MWD than WHR (4% vs 1.44%), after
controlling the overlapping effect of HT, PAR, WHR and
each other (Table 4(e)).
In all the models, height uniquely accounted for the largest share of the total variance in 6MWD (exception: Table
4(g) and (h)), even though it was not a signiicant correlate
of 6MWD (Table 2). This was followed by weight, except
in Table 4(f) and (g); and PAR. Among the HRR variables,
only HRR-2 was found included in the regression equations
in which it contributed uniquely and signiicantly .36% and
1.44% of the total variance in 6MWD after controlling the
overlapping effect of other independent variables, including
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Sharma et al.
Prediction of Six-Minute Walk Performance
Cut-off
6MWD (m)
HRR-1 (bpm)
Parameters (Mean±SD)
HRR-2 (bpm)
rHR (bpm)
BMI
(Kg/m2)
rSBP
(mmHg)
121.33±7.21
125.94±4.97
.03*
121.53±6.84
127.39±3.16
.004**
122.27±6.45
128.11±2.32
.001**
121.00±7.63
125.88±4.90
.03*
123.71±6.10
127.67±3.89
.05*
120.29±6.74
127.38±3.19
.002**
rDBP
(mmHg)
79.78±5.70
81.61±4.42
.31
79.06±4.53
82.78±4.30
.01**
79.91±4.64
82.78±4.45
.05*
79.75±6.09
81.56±4.36
.34
80.07±4.63
83.83±3.95
.02*
78.71±4.81
82.54±4.18
.01**
≤22.9 (n=9)
694.33±31.71
21.44±1.81
43.33±1.73
80.89±3.79
≥23 (n=31)
620.77±49.52
19.00±1.39
39.13±2.64
84.71±5.07
p-value
<.001**
<.001**
<.001**
.04*
≤24.9 (n=17)
682.59±30.67
20.88±1.76
42.35±2.12
81.76±5.09
≥25 (n=23)
603.87±44.59
18.57±1.04
38.39±2.44
85.39±4.49
p-value
<.001**
<.001**
<.001**
.02*
%BF
≤25 (n=22)
675.41±31.84
20.59±1.68
41.82±2.20
82.36±4.88
(%)
>25 (n=18)
590.78±39.97
18.28±.89
37.94±2.51
85.67±4.72
p-value
<.001**
<.001**
<.001**
.04*
WC
<90 (n=8)
701.38±25.28
21.50±1.93
43.50±1.77
80.25±3.49
(cm)
≥90 (n=32)
621.31±48.81
19.06±1.41
39.22±2.65
84.75±4.99
p-value
<.001**
<.001**
<.001**
.02*
<102 (n=28)
660.86±39.79
20.14±1.72
41.18±2.36
83.00±5.16
≥102 (n=12)
582.42±47.61
18.17±1.11
37.50±2.91
85.83±4.28
p-value
<.001**
.001**
<.001**
.1
WHR
<0.9 (n=14)
690.71±26.13
21.36±1.60
43.00±1.66
80.71±4.36
≥0.9 (n=26)
608.58±44.31
18.58±.95
38.50±2.34
85.54±4.60
p-value
<.001**
<.001**
<.001**
.003**
Unpaired t-test.*p–value≤0.05:signiicant;**p–value≤0.01:highly signiicant.SD=Standard Deviation
Table-3: Comparison of six-minute walk distance, heart rate recovery, resting heart rate and blood pressure among the studied subjects based on various cut-off values of obesity indices.
Sl.
No.
Regression equations
(a)
6MWD=-232.29+5.77(HT)-2.13(WT)+24.59(PAR)299.81(WHR)+3.46(HRR-2)+1.05(rHR)
96.54
(b)
6MWD=-230.47+5.76(HT)-2.12(WT)+24.62(PAR)299.98(WHR)+3.46(HRR-2)+1.05(rHR)-.03(Age)
96.43
(c)
96.25
(g)
6MWD=-37.73+5.84(HT)-2.26(WT)+24.42(PAR)330.59(WHR)+1.46(HRR-2)
6MWD=10.52+6.06(HT)-2.4(WT)+26.87(PAR)358.84(WHR)
6MWD=329.83+3.66(HT)-3.15(%BF)+25.77(PAR)364.32(WHR)
6MWD=293.15+4.66(HT)-557.22(WHR)1.61(WT)+4.43(HRR-2)
6MWD=-421.21-5.57(WT)+8.31(HT)+1.01(Age)
78.41
Semi-Partial correlation R2(%) for signiicant predictors
HT(12.96),WT(2.89),
PAR(2.25),WHR(1),
HRR-2(.36)
HT(11.56),WT(2.56),
PAR(2.25),WHR(1),
HRR-2(.36)
HT(12.96),WT(3.24),
PAR(2.25),WHR(1.21)
HT(16.81),WT(4.41),
PAR(3.61),WHR(1.44)
HT(14.44),%BF(4),
PAR(3.24),WHR(1.44)
HT(10.89),WHR(4.41),
WT(1.96),HRR-2(1.44)
WT(56.25),HT(47.61)
(h)
6MWD=429.66-5.67(Age)+2.44(HT)
20.06
Age(15.21)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Adjusted
R2 (%)
96.23
95.82
93.74
F-value
(df)
p-value
182.20**
(6,33)
<.001
151.46**
(7,32)
<.001
201.15**
(5,34)
249.65**
(4,35)
224.46**
(4,35)
147.05**
(4,35)
48.23**
(3,36)
5.89**
(2,37)
<.001
<.001
<.001
<.001
<.001
.006
Multiple linear regression.** p–value≤0.01:highly signiicant.df=degree of freedom.
Table-4: Regression models for predicting six-minute walk distance (m).
rHR (Table 4(a),(b) and (f)).
Hence, HT, WT and PAR were the most important signiicant
variables for predicting 6MWD. The obesity indices (WHR
and %BF) per se only contributed very small unique variance of the total variance in 6MWD.
DISCUSSION
Our study showed highly negative association of 6MWD
with obesity indices (Table 2), which was also reported earlier.6 Among the many causes of reduced 6MWD associated
with increased adiposity include relative decrease in skeletal
muscle strength and cardio-respiratory capacity, and increase
in walking-gait ineficiency and prevalence of co-morbid
conditions which might be hindrance to walking.17 In our
study, only WHR and %BF were found as the signiicant
predictors of 6MWD among all the obesity indices, even
though the unique variances they contributed out of the to-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
179
Sharma et al.
Prediction of Six-Minute Walk Performance
tal variance in 6MWD were relatively small (Table 4(a)-(f)).
Instead the signiicant unique contribution of HT, WT and
PAR were much higher (Table 4(a)-(g)). It is obvious from
our study that decreasing weight, WHR and %BF would result in improving six-minute exercise performance (Table
4), and hence appropriate interventions should be directed
in this regard.
There was also highly signiicant negative correlation of
6MWD with age, resting heart rate and blood pressure in
our study (Table 2). Similar inding was also reported earlier.18 Our study also indicated that subjects with more obesity indices also had higher resting heart rate and blood
pressure (Table 3). The association of higher resting heart
rate and blood pressure with increased adiposity was reported earlier,19 and might be due to increase in sympathetic activity, total blood volume, cardiac output, peripheral
vascular resistance and renin-angiotension-aldosterone
activity.20,21
In our study, those who reported higher physical activity, as
indicated by PAR12, were also found to have more 6MWD
(Table 2 and 4). Hence increased involvement in regular
physical activity and exercise is advised. There was also
highly signiicant positive correlation between 6MWD and
HRR variables (Table 2). Similar inding was reported earlier.22 Our study also showed that HRR-1 and HRR-2 were
highly signiicantly lower among the studied subgroups with
increased obesity indices (Table 3). The association of lower
heart rate recovery with increased adiposity was also reported earlier.7
In our study, Table 4(d) regression model accounted for
96.23% of the total variance in 6MWD. All the predictors in
this equation were statistically signiicant also. Earlier study
in healthy North Indian adult males reported an equation with
age and height as predictors, explaining 63.9% of total variance in 6MWD.9 Similar equation in our study had adjusted R2 of only 20.06% (Table 4(h)). Similarly, another study
in healthy Indians, reported a male speciic equation with
weight, height and age as predictors, having R2 of 28.8%.10
Similar equation in western healthy adult males, accounting
for 40% of the variance in 6MWD, was also reported.11 In
our study, the equation with weight, height and age accounted for 78.41% of the total variance in 6MWD (Table 4(g)).
However, generalization of the regression equations generated in this study for obtaining non-exercise 6MWD for
healthy North Indian adult males should be avoided. The
sample size of our study was relatively less. Neither the
sample was chosen randomly from all strata of the society or age or physical activity groups, nor other appropriate
blinding method used to avoid bias. Our study was conined
to an age group of 28-40 years, consisted only of males who
performed regular modest physical activity of 10-30 min
per week (PAR=2)12 to heavy physical exercise of less than
30 min per week (PAR=4).12 Nevertheless, our study did
highlight important anthropometric and other predictors of
six-minute exercise performance, and served the foundation
180
platform for future large scale study in this ield which addressed our shortcomings.
CONCLUSION
6MWD had signiicant negative correlation with age,
weight, obesity indices, resting heart rate and blood pressure;
and positive correlation with heart rate recovery and physical activity. Among the subjects, those who were having
increased obesity indices had lower 6MWD, heart rate recovery; and higher resting heart rate and blood pressure. The
equation 6MWD=10.52+6.06(HT)-2.4(WT)+26.87(PAR)358.84(WHR) accounted for 96.23% of the total variance in
6MWD.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to
Himalayan Institute of Medical Sciences, SRH University,
Dehradun for providing all the required facilities for proper
conduct of the study. They further expressed their acknowledgement to Dr. Rani Gupta, Professor and Head, Department of Physiology for her kind support and learned guidance.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 18-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
181
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in
Orbital Tumors with Histopathological Correlation
P.Sree Hari1, Praveen Kumar Alle2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: CT and MRI when performed separately or in
combination, will complement each other and provide exact
diagnosis. Aim of the study was to evaluate eficacy of CT in
orbital tumors and role of MRI to assess thenature, anatomical
extent, morphology and aid in decision making for choiceof
treatment, and to correlate with histopathological diagnosis.
Materials and methods: It is aprospective study of CT and
MRI evaluation of Orbital tumors withhistopathological correlation was conducted on 35 patients with a suspicion ofhaving orbital lesion.
Results: 17 were male and 18 were female patients. Mild female preponderance is seen with Maximum number of the patients was under 9years. Proptosis is the most common clinical presentation noted in 26 cases (74.3%). The most common
tumor in the adult age group was Optic nerve meningioma
and in the pediatric group was retinoblastoma, MRI can better
differentiate the pseudotumor from lymphoma, by showing
the involvement of tendinous part of extraocular muscles, orbital fat stranding and reactive inlammation of sclera. In all
the tumors, involving the optic nerve, MRI clearly showed the
extent of the lesion and morphology. Except in one case, diagnosis in all the other cases was correlating with histopathological diagnosis.
Conclusion: CT and MRI when performed in combination
will complement each other and provide correct diagnosis.
MRI was superior to access nature, anatomical extent and
morphology. Diffusion weighted image and aapparent diffusion coeficient offer a useful additional parameter that can
differentiate malignant tumours from benign lesions with high
sensitivity and speciicity.
Key words: Difusion-weighted imaging, Apparent diffusion
coeficient, Orbital tumors
lesion and intracranialextension.1 Extra orbital diseases involving the orbit are also well delineated.
CT provides quicker scans, is able to image bone directly,
and shows the presence of calcifcation better. Multidetector CT is now able to provide isotropicmultiplanar imaging
which has increased its ability to localize the site of orbitallesions.
MRI has advantages over CT in its superior soft tissue contrast, its abilityto image the orbit and intracranial structures
free of beam hardening artefacts from the skull base, dental
illings, and its lack of ionizing radiation. Selection ofappropriate MRI imaging protocols and use of the correct surface
coils is importantdepending on clinical question.2 Use of
gadolinium contrast enhancement andfat suppression aids in
disease detection and characterization.
Hence study this study is done to evaluate eficacy of CT
in orbital tumors and role of MRI to assess thenature, anatomical extent, morphology and aid in decision making for
choiceof treatment, and to correlate with histopathological
diagnosis
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This prospective study of CT and MRI evaluation of Orbital
tumors withhistopathological correlation was conducted on
35 patients at Osmania GeneralHospital/Osmania Medical
College, Hyderabad and also patients referred fromSarojini
Devi Eye Hospital, which is attached to our hospital, with a
suspicion ofhaving orbital lesion.
Inclusion Criteria
Patients who presented with proptosis, white reex or mass
around the orbits or clinically, fundoscopically suspected to
have intraocular or retrobulbar lesionwere selected and studied.
The patients included in the study had complaints of pain in
INTRODUCTION
Associate Professor, 2Post Gradute, Department of Radiology,,
Osmania General Hospital and Osmania Medical College, Hyderabad., Telangana.
1
Diagnosis of orbital lesions is often not clear even after thorough clinical examination.In earlier era this dilemma would
necessitate an exploratory orbitotomyin order to determine
the diagnosis. With advent of CT and MRI, these havebecome the procedures of choice in arriving at a diagnosis.The
clarity of presentation of orbital structures by CT and MRI
have promptedinvestigations into detailed multiplanar anatomy of orbit. Tumor margins and inlammatory processes
are so clearly needed that one can place the lesion in speciic
compartments and accurately determine the extent of the
182
Corresponding author: Dr. P.Sree Hari, H.no 9-14, Ravindra nagar colony, Habsiguda, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: P.Sree Hari, Praveen Kumar Alle. Role of
computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging in orbital
tumors with histopathological correlation. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3(1):182-186.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Hari et al.
Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
the eye, redness
of eye, proptosis, white reex and restriction of ocular movements.
conal or arising frommuscle/ from orbital wall, expansion
of bony orbit, destruction of bone, calcifcation,attenuation,
extension of the lesion and enhancement, the tumors arecharacterized.
Exclusion Criteria
Patients with recent history of trauma, patients with presence
of foreign body,patients with claustrophobia and patients
having metal implants are excludedfrom the study.
A detailed history was taken from each patient followed by
clinical examination and indings were tabulated. Basic investigations like blood and urine analysiswere done in all
patients.
Patient Preparation
All patients were advised at least three hours of fasting prior
to the examination,Children who were not cooperative were
sedated by giving oral Phenerganor IV diazepam.
A thorough clinical examination was done with particular
attention to thelesion in orbit.
Contrast studies performed by injecting 60% or 76% Urografin calculatedat a dose of 300mg/kg body weight as a
single bolus injection.
Imaging
Computed Tomography imaging was performed and following were used.Kilovoltage 120kv, Tube current 150Ma
axial and coronal thin sections of 3mmslice thickness with
no interslice gap were taken, FOV 25cm, matrix 512 _ 512.
Omnipaque contrast media was for contrast enhanced scans.
MRI was performed on a 1.5 Tesla electromagnet (GE Company). The primarypulse sequences included T1 and T2WI
using spin echo and gradient echo techniques.T1 weighted images were obtained with a TR of 600 msec. and TE
of30msec. T2W1 were obtained with a TR of 2740msec. and
TE of 85msec. Imageswere obtained with a multislice technique using a slice thickness of 5mm, interslicegap of 6mm,
FOV of 220 240mm and a matrix size of 512 _ 512.
MRI Orbit Protocol
• Coronal STIR Orbits
• Coronal T2/T1 Fat Saturated Orbits
• Axial T2 Fat Saturated Orbits
• Axial T1 Orbits
• Sagittal T2 Fat Sat orbits (Parallel to optic nerve)
POST CONTRAST \MRI Orbit Protocol"
• POST axial T1 Brain
• POST coronal T1 Fat Sat
• POST axial T1 Orbits
Majority of these patients underwent surgery and their histopathology reportwas taken. The imaging morphology was
correlated with histopathological features.
Image Analysis
On the basis of involvement of globe, intraconal or extra-
RESULTS
The study Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic
ResonanceImaging in the evaluation of Orbital tumors with
histopathological correlationwas conducted on 35 patients.
of 35 patients, 17 were male and 18 were female. Slight
female preponderance is seen in my study. Age of patients
range from 2 years to 70 years. More number of patients lie
in 0-9 year group than in any other age group.
Out of 35 cases, most common tumor in the adult age group
was Optic nerve Meningioma (6 cases), followed by Pseudotumor (4 cases), cavernous hemangioma (2 cases), lymphoma (2 cases), Vascular malformations (2 cases), frontal
mucocele (1 case, which is mimicking like a primary orbital
Age
0-9
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
60-69
70-79
Males
Females
3
6
3
4
0
0
1
5
2
2
5
1
2
0
1
0
Table-1: Demographic distribution
Diagnosis
Number of Cases
Cavernous Hemangioma
2
Retinoblastoma
4
Capillary Hemangioma
3
Pseudotumor
4
Lymphoma
2
Epidermoid
1
Optic Nerve Meningioma
6
Optic Nerve Glioma
3
Schwannoma
1
Rhabdomyosarcoma
3
Venolymphatic Malformation
2
Metastasis
1
Mucocele
1
Melanoma of Choroid
1
Lacrimal gland tumor
1
Clinical Picture
Proptosis
26
Defective Vision
20
Diplopia
4
Motility Disturbance
5
Pain
11
Signs of Inlammation
9
White Relex
4
Table-2: CT and MRI Diagnosis
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183
Hari et al.
Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Benign
Extraocular Muslce Involvement
Present
7
Absent
16
Optic Nerve Involvement
Present
9
Absent
14
Bone Changes
Present
2
Absent
21
Calciication
Present
2
Absent
21
Table-3: Involvement of other sites
Malignant
6
6
7
5
5
7
4
8
DISCUSSION
Figure-1: Location of tumor
Figure-2: Contrast Enhancement
tumor, resulting in severe proptosis), malignant melanoma
of choroid(1 case), lacrimal gland mixedtumor(1 case) and
1 case of schwannoma. In the paediatric age group, cases
with Retinoblastoma (4 cases) were maximum in number
followed by capillaryhemangioma (3 cases), optic nerve
gliomas(3 cases), Rhabdomyosarcomas (3 cases), 1 case
of epidemoid and 1 case of orbital metastasis fromEwing's
sarcoma of left tibia. Majority of the patients (26 patients)
presented with proptosis
Out of 35 cases, 23 cases were of benign tumors and 12 cases were of malignant tumors.In benign cases, 6 cases were
extraconal, 11 cases were intraconal and 6 cases were both
184
intraconal and extraconal in location. In malignant cases, 2
cases wereextraconal, 4 cases were intraconal and 6 cases
were both intraconal andextraconal in location.
9 cases with benign lesions, 7 cases with malignant lesions
are showing optic nerve involvement. Bone changes are observed in 2 cases with benign tumors and in 5 cases with
malignanttumors.
7 cases with benign lesions, 6 cases with malignant lesions
are showing extraocular muscle involvement. Calci_cation
is observed in 4 cases with malignant lesions, 2 cases withbenign lesions. All cases with malignant tumors, 20 cases
with benign tumors show Contrast enhancement.
Wide varieties of tumors are known to occur in the orbit.
Vascular, lymphoid, nervous, and mesenchymal structures
are all normally found within the orbit and may give rise
to primary orbital tumors. Primary lacrimal gland tumors of
lymphoid and epithelial cell origin also cause orbital masslesions.Orbital tumors are comparatively rare, constituting
only about one percent of the cases among the patients admitted to the eye departments.
The study was done on 35 patients of whom contrast was
given in 34. Orbital tumors were analyzed based on clinical,
ophthalmologic and Computed tomography, Magnetic resonance imaging. Patients presented with proptosis, suspected
to have orbital mass were included in the study. Surgery was
done in required patients and correlated with histopathological diagnosis.
In our study, the age group of patients ranges from 2 to 70
years. 17 were male and 18 were female patients. Mild female preponderance is seen in my study. More number of patients lie in 0-9 year group than in any other age group. Proptosis is the most common clinical presentation observed in
26 cases. This is comparable to the study of Simona Dunarintu et al3 in which exophthalmia was the most important
clinical symptom found in 95 cases (62.91%) also correlates
with previous studies.4
The most common tumor in the adult age group in our study
was Optic nerve meningioma (6 cases), with a female to male
ratio 3:2. The age range is 30-40 years. All of the patients underwent surgery. One case showed peripheral calciication.
This is comparable to the study of Wilson and Grossniklaus5,
reviewed around 4,563 cases of orbital lesions and the most
common tumor in their study was meningioma followed by
cavernous hemangioma, lymphoma. Simona Dunarintu et al3
studied 151 patients with age between 1-82 years. They classiied of the orbital tumors into primitive orbital tumors 114
(75.49%), propagated secondary orbital tumors 33(21.95%)
and secondary metastatic orbital tumors 4 (2.64%). The most
frequent histopathological type of primitive orbital tumors in
their study was meningiomas (14.56%).
We have encountered 4 cases of Pseudotumor, patients of the
age above 50 years with female to male ratio 1:3. One case
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Hari et al.
Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
had history of trauma and three cases are of idiopathic etiology. All the four cases showed involvement of extraocular
muscles with its tendinous part and orbital fat stranding. This
is supported by Guy J. Ben Simon et al.6 study that orbital fat
involvement and fat stranding was noticed only in inlammatory lesions. Diffusion weighted imaging has an important
role in differentiating between inlammatory and malignant
lesions. Diffusion restriction is usually seen in malignant
lesions but not seen in inlammatory lesions. One case of
Pseudotumor is showing restriction on diffusion weighted
imaging. This is correlated with the study done by Roshdy N
et al.7 For one case, we performed ultrasound guided FNAC
which is in favor of pseudotumor. All patients responded
good with steroids and were in continuous follow up.
Cavernous hemangioma was diagnosed in two male patients
with age between 45 to 50 years. The study by Alfred and
Char et al8 found that 70% of their patients with cavernous
hemangiomas were women with a mean age of 41 years at
the time of diagnosis. Our cases showed no restriction on diffusion weighted imaging in both the cases. This is in contradiction to the study done by Roshdy N et al7 (2010) in which
they noticed diffusion restriction in one case.
One case of lymphoma was diagnosed in male patient of
age 50 years. The patient underwent surgery and was advised chemotherapy. Imaging showed round lobulated mass,
molding to adjacent structures, and a wedge shaped enlargement of the lacrimal gland. Both of them were isointense on
T2 WI. This is supported by the study done by Polito et al.9
One case of Lymphoma misdiagnosed as Pseudotumor on
imaging which was showing restriction on diffusion weighted imaging.
One case of schwannoma was diagnosed in a 17 year female patient, and showed bone remodeling which is better
depicted on CT. MRI clearly delineated superior rectus muscle separate from the lesion.Two cases of venolymphatic
malformations were diagnosed in 30- 35 year females which
is uncommon in this age group. One patient had both supericial and deep components. She had recurrence because of
presence of both the components. This is supported by the
study done by Root man et al.10
One case of frontal mucocele was diagnosed in a 70 year
male with proptosis mimicking orbital tumor. Sinus expansion was noted and signal is hyperintense on T1, isointense
on T2 WI due to mucinous content. This is the only case of
para orbital mass extending into orbit which we have come
across. One case of malignant melanoma of choroid was
diagnosed in 48 year female which is hyperintense on T1,
hypointense on T2WI. One case of lacrimal mass diagnosed
as mucoepidermoid carcinoma based on calciications and
bony changes later proven to be mixed malignant tumor on
histopathology.
Among pediatrictumors, most common tumor was retinoblastoma. 4 cases were seen in patients with age less than
5 years. This inding is identical to the study done by SushmaVashisht et al.11 One case showed bilateral involvement,
one case showed iniltration of optic nerve and extension up
to suprasellar region, two cases are unilateral in presentation.
All of these showed calciication, a unique feature of retinoblastoma, and are depicted well on CT. The extent of Optic
Nerve Involvement is better demonstrated on MRI.
Three cases of capillary hemangioma were diagnosed in female children of age below 10 years. After a period of observation, two of them showed gradual regression of the tumor.
One case lost follow up. Three cases of rhabdomyosarcoma
were diagnosed in patients of age between 4 and 12 years
with female to male ratio 2:1. Bone involvement was noticed
in all cases.
Optic nerve gliomas diagnosed in 3 male children of age below 10 years. Histopathology revealed grade 1 stage in two
cases and grade 2 stage in one case. One case of epidermoid
cyst of lateral orbital wall detected in a 11 year old boy. It
is showing restricted diffusion on DWI. One case of metastasis from Ewing’s sarcoma of tibia detected in 11 year old
female. Bone destruction with intracranial extension is observed with large soft tissue component.
Out of 35, 23 cases were benign, in which 19 cases did not
show restriction on DWI. 12 cases were malignant and all of
them showed restriction. This is identical to the study done
by Roshdy N et al7, who studied twenty patients with orbital
soft tissue masses. Histopathologically, 14 cases had benign
lesions whereas the remaining six had malignant lesions. On
DWIs, 57% of benign lesions appeared hypointense indicating free diffusion. All (100%) malignant tumors appeared
hyperintense indicating restricted diffusion and showed low
ADC values.
CONCLUSION
In our study the age group includes from 2 to 70 years. 17
were male and 18 were female patients. Mild female preponderance is seen in my study. Maximum number of the
patients was under 9 years. Proptosis is the most common
clinical presentation noted in 26 cases (74.3%). The most
common tumor in the adult age group was Optic nerve meningioma and in the pediatric group was retinoblastoma, MRI
can better differentiate the pseudotumor from lymphoma, by
showing the involvement of tendinous part of extraocular
muscles, orbital fat stranding and reactive inlammation of
sclera. In all the tumors, involving the optic nerve, MRI clearly showed the extent of the lesion and morphology. Except in
one case, diagnosis in all the other cases was correlating with
histopathological diagnosis. DWI (difusion-weighted imaging) and ADC offer a useful, reliable, safe and non-invasive
imaging parameter that can be used for the differentiation of
malignant tumors from benign lesions with high sensitivity
and speciicity.
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1.
Dubey RB, Tara NP and Sisodiyer KN. Computed to-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
185
Hari et al.
Role of Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
mography evaluation of orbital lesion Pictorial essay.
Ind J Radiol 2003;13: 261-270
2. Lemke AJ, Kazi I, Felix R. magnetic resonance imaging
of orbital tumours. Eur J. Radio 2006; 16: 2207-2219.
3. Simona Dunarintu et al. Whole-body MR imaging with
the use of parallel imaging for detection of skeletal
metastases in paediatric patients with small-cell neoplasms: comparison with skeletal scintigraphy and FDG
PET/CT. Journal of Experimental Medical and Surgical
Research 2008; 1-2: 5-12
4. S. Krohmer, I. Sorge, A. Krausse et al. Whole-body MRI
for primary evaluation of malignant disease in children.
European Journal of Radiology 2010; 74: 256261.
5. Wilson M, Grossniklaus HE. Orbital disease in North
America. Ophthalmol: Cin North Am 1996;4:539547.
6. Guy J.Ben Simon et al. American Academy of Ophthalmology 2005;112:2196.
7. Roshdy N, Shahin M, Kishk H, El-Khouly S, Mousa
A, Elsalekh I. Role of new magnetic resonance imaging modalities in diagnosis of orbital masses: A clinicopathologic correlation. Middle East Afr J Ophthalmol
2010;17:175-9.
8. Alfred P, Char D. Cavernous haemangioma of the orbit.
Orbit 1996;15:5966.
9. Polito E, Galieni P, Leccisotti A. Clinical and radiological presentation of 95 orbital lymphoid tumors. Graefes
Arch ClinExpOphthalmol 1996;234:504 9.
10. Root man J, Hay E, Graeb D. Orbital- adnexal lymphangiomas. Ophthalmology 1986;93:1558-1570.
11. Vashisht S, Goulatia R K, Dayal Y, Bhargava S. Impact
of computrised axial tomography on orbital diagnosis.
Indian J Ophthalmol 1983;31:347-52
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
186
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study of the Spectrum of Congenital Malformations in Neonates
Admitted in the Neonatal Unit of the Pediatric Department of
Government Medical College Srinagar
Shafat Ahmad1, Sajid Bashir2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Congenital abnormalities play a major role in
mortality and morbidity of children. The treatment and rehabilitation of these children can be very costly, hence the need
to identify the causative and risk factors and prevent them early wherever possible. Objectives of the study were to study the
spectrum of congenital abnormalities in neonates admitted in
the special newborn care unit and to identify any risk factors
associated with the occurrence of these abnormalities
Material and method: This was a prospective observational
study conducted in the Pediatric Department of Govt Medical College Srinagar. The diagnosis of congenital abnormality
was based on a detailed physical examination and relevant
investigations.A detailed history including the antenatal history and possible risk factors, was sought on a pre designed
proforma.
Results: Out of 4987 admissions during the study period 145
neonates had one or more congenital abnormalities. Musculoskeletal system defects accounted for majority of the cases
20.8% (n=41), followed by GIT 17.7% (n=35), CVS 16.75%
(n=33), genitourinary 10.65% (n=21), CNS 8.1% (n=16) and
others 16.24% (n=32). Congenital anomalies were more common in males, premature and low birth weight babies and babies born to mothers >30 years of age.
Conclusion: Musculoskeletal system was most commonly affected in our study. Prematurity, LBW, male gender, advanced
maternal age were associated risk factors for congenital malformation in neonates.
Keywords: Congenital anomaly, risk factors, newborns, genetic, environmental, multi-factorial
gestation) is the vital period of life for the normal development of organs. Any insult within that period may result in
congenital abnormalities. It can further be argued that interventions within this period targeted at preventing insults (or
removing the effect of insults) to the developing foetus will
reduce the likelihood of an abnormality developing. For instance, it is known that folic acid supplementation helps in
the prevention of neural tube defects especially in the irst
trimester. It is however observed that better maternal care
and improved standards of living have little effect on the
overall frequency of congenital malformations4,5
Congenital abnormalities can be classiied into four descriptive categories on the basis of, location into external or internal birth defects, health impact into major or minor birth
defects, clinical presentation into isolated or multiple birth
defects and on the basis of pathogenesis into malformations,
deformations, disruptions and dysplasias.
Congenital abnormalities play a major role in mortality and
morbidity of children. However the treatment and rehabilitation of these children can be very costly, hence the need to
identify the causative and risk factors and prevent them early
wherever possible. The birth of an infant with major malformations whether diagnosed antenatally or not evokes an
emotional parental response. Early recognition of anomalies
is important for planning and care. Parents are likely to feel
anxiety and guilt on learning of the existence of a congenital
anomaly in the child and require sensitive counselling.
Prevalent studies of congenital anomalies are useful to establish baseline rates, to document changes over time and to
identify clues to etiology. They are also important for health
services planning and evaluating antenatal screening in populations with high risk. The study is also important as it may
help to raise the awareness of surgical pediatric intervention
and to emphasize the loss of babies with congenital abnor-
INTRODUCTION
Assistant Professor, 2Senior Resident, Department of Pediatrics,
Government Medical College, Srinagar, India
1
Birth defects are abnormalities of body structure or function
that occur during intrauterine life, can be identiied prenatally, at birth or later Sometimes also called as Congenital
anomalies, Congenital abnormalities or Congenital malformations.1 The etiology of congenital abnormality may be genetic (30-40%) or environmental (5-10%). Among the genetic causes chromosomal abnormality makes upto about 6%,
single gene disorders about 7.5% and multifactorial factors
20-30%. In about 50% of cases, the cause is not known.2,3
Early intrauterine period (between the 3rd and 8th week of
Corresponding author: Dr Shafat Ahmad Tak, Department of
Pediatrics, GB PANT Hospital, Sonwar, Srinagar, Kashmir, India
How to cite this article: Shafat Ahmad, Sajid Bashir. A study of the
spectrum of congenital malformations in neonates admitted in the
neonatal unit of the pediatric department of government medical
college Srinagar. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3 (1):187-190.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
187
Ahmad et al.
The Spectrum of Congenital Malformations
malities.
We are not aware of any study of this nature from Kashmir
province in general. In addition since no work has been done
on the pattern of presentation of congenital abnormalities in
newborns in the area, this study [A hospital based prospective study of the spectrum of congenital abnormalities among
neonates of Kashmir province admitted in neonatal unit] was
designed to bridge this gap. It was hoped that this would add
to the body of knowledge available on these disorders and
may stimulate further research in the area on this subject.
Aims and objectives of the study were to study the spectrum
of congenital abnormalities seen among the neonates admitted in the special newborn care unit and to determine the
various birth and maternal characteristics and to identify any
risk factors which may be associated with the occurrence of
these abnormalities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study [A hospital based prospective observational study
of spectrum of congenital abnormalities among neonates of
Kashmir province admitted in neonatal unit] was conducted
over a period of one year from 1st April 2013 to 31 March
2014 in the special newborn care unit of the Pediatric Department of Government Medical College Srinagar. All the
neonates admitted were included in the study. The diagnosis
of congenital abnormality was based on a detailed physical
examination of the neurological, cardiovascular, respiratory,
abdominal and musculoskeletal systems along with relevant
investigations e.g X-Ray chest/abdomen for diaphragmatic hernia, ultrasound examination for renal abnormalities,
echocardiography for congenital heart disease and karyotyping for chromosomal disorders (wherever indicated).
A detailed history including the antenatal history, history of
exposure to teratogens/drugs, history of consanguinity, maternal age, parity, type of delivery, gestational age, maternal
illness and congenital abnormality was sought on a pre designed proforma. The congenital anomalies were classiied
according to the International Statistical Classiication of
Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision6
Multiple congenital anomalies were grouped depending
upon whether those anomalies qualiied as a speciic syndrome or not. If they qualiied as a speciic syndrome they
were categorized into that syndrome. If two systems were involved, both systems were recorded. When multiple anomalies of a system were present, they were counted as separate.
RESULTS
Out of 4987 admissions during the study period 145 neonates had one or more congenital abnormalities. Out of these
109 had a single anomaly and 36 had multiple anomalies.
Musculoskeletal system defects accounted for majority of
the cases 20.8% (n=41), followed by gastrointestinal 17.7%
(n=35), CVS 16.75% (n=33), genitourinary 10.65% (n=21),
188
CNS 8.1% (n=16) and others 16.24% (n=32).
Among the musculoskeletal abnormalities CTEV was the
most common malformation (n=21). In the GIT cleft palate was most common (n=15). VSD was the most common
cardiovascular anomaly (n=13). In the genitourinary system
ambiguous genitalia were most frequent (n=10) and in the
nervous system congenital hydrocephalus was most common (n=5).
Among the syndromes Down Syndrome was predominant
(n=15), followed by Pierrie Robin Sequence (n=7).
MUSCULOSKELETAL/Q65-Q79/41
Congenital Malformation
ICD Code Number
CTEV
Q66
17
POLYDACTYLY
Q69
8
SYNDACTYLY
Q7O.9
4
AMC
Q74.3
1
LIMB REDUCTION
Q71
2
DDAO
Q79.9
2
FACIAL ASYMMETRY
Q67.0
1
CDH
Q79
2
GASTROINTESTINAL/Q35-Q45/35
CLEFT PALATE
Q35
CLEFT LIP
Q36
TEF
Q39.1
CHPS
Q40
Imperforate anus
Q42.3
INGUINAL HERNIA
Q45.9
MACROGLOSSIA
Q38.2
15
12
2
2
1
2
1
CIRCULATORY/Q20-Q28/33
VSD
PDA
DTGA
TOF
ASD
AV canal defect
TAPVC
HLHS
TRICUSPID ATRESIA
Q21
Q25
Q20.3
Q21.3
Q21.1
Q21.2
Q26.2
Q23.4
Q22.4
13
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
NERVOUS SYSTEM/Q00-Q07/16
CONG.HYDROCEPHALUS
MENINGOMYELOCELE
MICROCEPHALY
ANENCEPHALY
CHOROID PLEXUS CYST
ENCEPHALOCELE
Q03
Q 05
Q02
Q00
Q04.6
Q01
5
4
4
1
1
1
GENITOURINARY/Q50-Q64/21
AMBIGUOUS GENITALIA
UNDESENDED TESTIS
HYPOSPADIAS
RENAL AGENESIS (u/l)
Q52/55
Q53
Q54
Q60
11
6
3
1
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Ahmad et al.
EYE EAR FACE NECK/Q10-Q18/19
MICROOPHTHALMIA
Q11.2
CONGENITAL ECTROPION
Q10.1
PRE AURICULAR TAG
Q17
MICROTIA
Q17.2
LOW SET EARS
Q17.4
The Spectrum of Congenital Malformations
2
2
8
2
5
OTHERS/SYNDROMES/Q80-99/32
DOWNS SYNDROME
Q90
15
EDWARDS SYNDROME
Q91
1
THORACOPHAGUS
Q99
1
APERT SYNDROME
Q87
1
LAMELLAR ICTHYOSIS
Q80.2
5
HEMANGIOMA
Q82.5
2
PIERREROBIN Sequence
Q87
7
Among 145 neonates 89/61.37% were males and 56/38.62%
were females. LBW neonates were 85 (58.62%) and further
distribution in weight category revealed that 51 (35.17%)
were between 2.5kg to 4kg and 9 (6.2%)>4kg. Regarding
gestational age, 76 (52.41%) were preterm, 55 (37.93%) fullterm and 14 (9.65) post-term. Besides, 84 (57.93%) neonates
were born by lowersection Caesarean Section (LSCS) and 61
(42.06%) by simple vaginal delivery (SVD). Maternal age
parameters revealed that 64 (44.13%) mothers were above
30 years, 24 (16.55%) 25-30 years, 20 (13.79%) 20-25 years,
and 37 (25.51%) below 20 years.
DISCUSSION
Prevalence rate of Congenital Malformations in our study
was 2.9%. True prevalence of Congenital Malformations depends upon many factors like place of study nature of sample, ethnicity, geographical distribution and socioeconomic
status. That is why, any two studies are never comparable in
the strict sense of the term. Worldwide it is 3-7% but varies
from country to country, prevalence from Nigeria7 has been
reported as 2.7%, Oman8 2.46%, Bahrain9 2.7% and India10
1.5%.
In this study, the most common system involved was the musculoskeletal system (20.8%), GIT (17.7%), CVS (16.7%).
These indings were comparable to the studies conducted
by other investigators in India, Kuwait11, Saudi Arabia12 and
Iran.13,14,15 Some studies, however, recorded a higher incidence of CNS and CVS malformations followed by GIT and
musculoskeletal system.16
In our study, the rate of CMs outnumbered in males compared to females and was consistent with a study from Brazil
(59 % male and 41% in females).17,18 Another study In India
also reported that CMs were more common in males than
females (2.1:1 ratio). It was also consistent with results of
other studies.
The incidence of CMs in our study was higher in pre-term
babies compared to the full-term ones. It represented the
Phenomenon of Nature's Selection and was consistent with
results of a study fromBrazil (67% pre-term and 33% term)17,
and others but in contrast with another study which reported tendency of anomalies more common in Pakistan in term
neonates.19
Association of LBW with increased incidence of anomalies
was found in our study and was in accordance with result
of other studies in Saudi Arabia, India[20, 21]. We also had
LSCS preponderance as the mode of delivery which was
consistent with earlier results.
Maternal age's association with congenital anomalies is considered an important factor. Our study revealed that mothers
above 30 years of age had high incidence of producing malformed babies. It was in accordance with earlier studies. One
Pakistani study has reported the highest (80.6%) incidence in
20-40 years age group.
High incidence of CM among gravida 2 or more than primi-gravida was reported by our study and was similar to earlier reports. It indicates that the incidence of CM increases as
the birth order increases. Likewise H/O maternal illness was
associated with congenital anomalies in 54.4% of neonates
and this association is well supported by studies done earlier.
Folic acid supplementation was absent in 13 cases, among
them one was a case of meningocoele. None of the mothers
was a smoker nor was their h/o alcohol intake during pregnancy
LIMITATIONS
In terms of limitations, the current study was based on a hospital neonatal unit and, as such, is not representative of the
situation in the community at large. Besides, the hospital did
not have paediatric neurosurgical facilities and many cases
of CNS/surgical are likely to have been missed.
CONCLUSION
CMs are not rare in our set-up and MS was the most commonly affected system in our study. Prematurity, LBW, male
gender, , advanced maternal age were associated risk factors
for CMs in neonates. Knowledge of incidence and pattern of
CMs are important to plan preventive strategies at different
levels by healthcare providers for better outcome of these
neonates
ABBREVIATIONS
ASD
AMC
CDH
CHPS
CM
CNS
CTEV
CVS
DDAO
DTGA
Atrial septal defect
Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
Congenital hypertrophic pyloric stenosis
Congenital Malformation
Central nervous system
Congenital talipesequinovarus
Cardiovascular system
Deiciency of Depressor AnguliOris
Dextro transposition of great arteries
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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189
Ahmad et al.
GIT
HLHS
ICD
LBW
LSCS
PDA
SGA
TAPVC
TEF
TOF
VSD
The Spectrum of Congenital Malformations
Gastrointestinal tract
Hypoplastic left heart syndrome
International classiication of diseases
Low birth weight
Lower segment caesarian section
Patent ductus arteriosus
Small for gestational age
Total anomalous pulmonary venous connection
Tracheoesophageal istula
Tetrology of Fallot
Ventricular septal defect
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
190
16.
17.
18.
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Brent RL, Environmental causes of human congenital
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Hudgins I, Cassidy SB: Congenital malformations
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Malformations among newborns admitted in the neonatal unit of a teritiary hospital in Enugu, South East Nigeria-a retrospective study BMC Research Notes 2012,
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Tayebi N, Yazdani K, Naghshin N. Prevalence of congenitalmalformations and its correlation with consanguineous marriages. Oman Med J 2010; 25: 37-47
Al Shehri MA. Pattern of major congenital lanomalies
in South Western Saudi Arabia. Bahrain Med Bull 2005;
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Chaturvedi P., Banerjee K.S. An epidemiological study
of congenital malformations in newborn. Indian J. Pediatrics, 60: 645-655;1993.
Mohamed A. E I koumi, Ehab A. AlBanna et al. Pattern
of congenital anomalies in newborn:a hospital based
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Nadia M. Fida, MD, Jumana Al-Aama, WafaaNichols,
phd. A prospective study of congenital malformations
among live born neonates at a University Hospital in
western Saudi Arabia. Saudi Med J 2007;28:1367-1373.
Ahmadzadeh A, Saikhani Z, Abdulahi M. Congenital
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Isa AR, Masomeh K, Hamid-Reza F. Theprevalence
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Adel J. Hussein, CABP. The prevalence of Congenital
Malformations in live births in Diwaniyah, Iraq. KufaMed. Journal 2009;12;204-211.
Oliveira CI, Costa AR, Ferrarese VCC, Mozvaz DC,
Fett-conteAC. Birth defects in newborns and stillborns:
An example of theBrazilian reality. BMC Notes 2011;
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Claudia Maria da Silva Costa, Maria do Carmoteal;Congenital Malformations in Rio de janeiro 2006;22:24232431.
Gul F, Jabeen M, Khan AS. Frequency of congenital
malformationsand associated risk factors at Liaqat Memorial Hospital Kohat. Khyber Med Univ J 2012; 4:
119-24.
Mir NA, Galczek WC, Soni A: Congenital anomaly
among Saudi infants admitted in the hospital. American
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Chaturvedi P., Banerjee K.S. An epidemiological study
of congenital malformations in newborn. Indian J. Pediatrics 1993;60:644-655.
Rajangam S, Devi R: Consagunity and chromosomal
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Malla BK: One year overview study of congenital anatomical malformation at birth in Maternity Hospital,
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Hudgins L, Cassidy SB: Congenital anomalies. In Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine 8th ed. Edited by Martin RG,
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Naderi S: Congenital abnormality in newborns of consanguineous and non consanguineous parents. J Obstet
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Comparative Assessment of the Effectiveness and Safety of
Sertaconazole Cream Versus Terbinaine Cream Versus Luiliconazole
Versus Clotrimazolecream in Patients with Tineacruris
Sanjay Khare1, Rahul Nagar2, Burhanuddin Saify3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Dermatophytosis is an infection of keratinized
tissues, epidermis and its appendages hair and nails.Topical
treatment of dermatophytosis has advantages like targeting
the site of infection which minimizes systemic side effects,
and enhanced eficacy of treatment. Topical therapy is also
considered to improve patient compliance. So to assess the
effectiveness and safety of sertaconazole cream versus terbinaine Cream versus luiliconazole versus clotrimazolecream in
patients with a form of dermatophytosis i.e.tineacruris (dermatophytosis of groin and adjacent areas).
Material and Method: A randomized, open-label, cohort
study was performed over a period of 18 months, from January 2014 to June 2015.
Results: The study was continued till 30 participants in each
group were available for analysis; a study population of 120
participants was achieved. Age group obtained in this study
was indeed ranged from 18 years to 50 years. There were
64 (53.3%) males and 56 (46.7%) female participants in
this study. The participants were randomized into four study
groups: (A) Sertaconazole, (B) Luliconazole, (C) Terbinaine,
(D) Clotrimazole.
Conclusion: Response to the topical monotherapy with and
sertaconazole 2%, luliconazole 1%, terbinaine 1% and clotrimazole 1% cream was safe and well tolerated in the treatment of tineacruris. Treatment with sertaconazole 2% cream
and luliconazole 1% cream was early in the onset with tolerable side-effects.
Keywords: Dermatophytosis; tineacruris; sertaconazole; luliconazole; terbinaine; clotrimazole; effectiveness.
close to 25% of world's population, making them most frequent form of infection.2 Also, these infections are common
in tropics and may reach epidemic proportions in geographical areas with hot and humid climatic condition, or with
population overload, or with living conditions characterized
by poor hygiene.3,4 Topical treatment of dermatophytosis has
advantages like targeting the site of infection which minimizes systemic side effects, and enhanced eficacy of treatment. Topical therapy is also considered to improve patient
compliance.5
Commonly available topical antifungals are Allylamines
(Terbinaine), Imidazoles (Bifonazole,Clotrimazole, Econazole, Ketoconazole, Miconazole, Sertaconazole, Tioconazole, luliconazole), Morpholine derivative (Amoroline
HCl), Polyenes (Nystatin, Amphotericin B, Natamycin),
Pyridone derivative (Ciclopiroxolamine) and Thiocarbamate
(Tolnaftate).6
In our setting clotrimazole, terbinaine, sertaconazole and
luliconazole are most commonly used topical antifungal
agents. So a study was planned to compare relative eficacy
of these four agents when given as single topical therapy.
Clotrimazole blocks sterol synthesis by interfering cytochrome p-450 dependent enzyme, lanosterol14α-demethylase which catalyses conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol.
Clotrimazole is well tolerated drug, with isolated reports of
erythema, burning, irritation, stinging, peeling, blistering,
edema, pruritus and urticaria at the site of application.6
Terbinaine is an allylamine which inhibit the enzyme sqaleneepoxidase, one of the steps in synthesis of ergosterol. It
is well tolerated drugs; rarely pruritus, irritation,burning,tingling,dryness at the site of application have been reported.6
Associate Professor, 2Assistant Professor, 3Resident, Department
of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprosy, Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Medical College and Maharaja Yashwant Rao Holkar Hospital, Indore, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Dermatophytosis is an infection of keratinized tissues, epidermis and its appendages hair and nails. Mycotic agents
belonging to three genera, Epidermophyton, Microsporum
and Trichophyton are implicated in dermatophytosis. The
dermatophytosis causes supericial infections because they
produce keratinases, which degrade the keratin and thus are
restricted to part of skin containing this protein.These infections are also known by misnomer ‘tinea infections’.1 The
prevalence of fungal infections of skin has increased rapidly,
affecting approximately 40 million people across the globe;
prevalence of dermatophytosis has been estimated to affect
Corresponding author: Dr Rahul Nagar, DNB, Department of
Dermatology, Venereology and Leprosy, Second Floor, New OPD
Building, MY Hospital Campus, Indore (MP), India.
How to cite this article: Sanjay Khare, Rahul Nagar, Burhanuddin
Saify. Comparative assessment of the effectiveness and safety of
sertaconazole cream versus terbinaine cream versus luiliconazole
versus clotrimazolecream in patients with tineacruris. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):191-195.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
191
Khare et al.
Effectiveness and Safety of Sertaconazole Cream
Sertaconazole induces inhibition of 14α-demethylase and
also binds to nonsterol cell membrane lipid, leading to altered membrane permeability and leakage of intracellular
content. Sertaconazole has excellent saftey records, however
rare cases of allergic contact dermatitis have been reported.6
Luliconazole belongs to azole class, inhibits lanosteroldemethylase inally decrease fungal cell wall component ergosterol. Side effects are very rare comparable to placebo.
Pruritus, burning, tingling at the site of application have been
reported.6
Objectives
Comparative assessment of the effectiveness and safety of
sertaconazole cream versus terbinaine Cream versus luiliconazole versus clotrimazolecream in patients with tineacruris.
METHOD AND MATERIAL
A randomized, open-label, cohort study was performed at
Out-Patient facility of Department of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprosy of Mahatma Gandhi Memorial Medical
College and associated Maharaja YashwantRaoHolkar Hospital, Indore, India; over a period of 18 months, from January
2014 to June 2015.
Study protocol was approved by Institutional Ethics Committee prior to initiation of the study.
Consenting patients affected with only tineacruris of age
ranging from 18 years to 50 years were recruited in this
study. We have taken only single variant of dermatophytosis, as the eficacy of any topical medication varies with site
of involvement. This group had been chosen on the basis of
results of several studies, that has found the age group of 21–
50 years to be most affected with dermatophytosis.1,7,8 Only
patients with Positive mycological conirmation by positive
KOH test and positive lactophenol blue test were included,
same were performed at the completion of study period to
ascertain mycological cure. To remove inter-observer bias
the KOH test and grading of clinical parameters were read
by independent observer only (by authors SK and BS, respectively).
Patients with other body site involvement, patients who had
received topical and oralantimycotictherapytwoweeks and
four weeks, respectively, prior to initiation of the study were
excluded. Also patients who were on any kind of immunosuppresive therapy were excluded. Participants with known
history of hypersensitivity to study drugs, or with superadded bacterial infection, or pregnant and lactatating female,
or immunocompromised patient and chronically ill patients
were also not recruited.
All the participants in the study were subjected to the followingdetailed personal and clinical historyrecording, past and
present medical history, past and concomittant drug history.
Routine blood examination was done to rule out diabetes or
any other co-morbid condition in selected cases. The study
192
medication was dispensed to the subject following randomization, provided all inclusion and exclusion criteria were satisied. The patients were instructed to apply the cream thinly
to the affected area.
Participants were randomized with the help of table of random numbers in to four groups containing 30 participants
each. Group A, had received sertaconazole2% cream applied
twice daily for four weeks; while group B had luliconazole
1% cream applied once daily for two weeks. Group C had 30
patient on terbinaine1% cream applied twice daily for two
weeks and group D had 30 patient clotrimazole 1% cream
applied twice daily for four weeks. At the end of treatment
phase there was a follow up phase at the end of two weeks,
where patients were reassessed clinically and my cologically.
Primary eficacy was based on clinical and mycological assessment of tinea lesion at base line, at the end of treatment
phase and follow up phase two week following completion
of treatment. Clinical assessment was based on the proportion of patients with symptoms and signs of tinea lesions
namely pruritus, erythema and desquamation, and graded as
none (0), mild (1), moderate (2) and severe (3) depending on
intensity. Mycologic assessment was based on KOH mounting for dermatophytes.
Secondary eficacy was assessed on the basis ‘Physician
Global Assessment’ based on three criteria- successful treatment outcome (clinical cure + negative mycology), clinical
success (symptomatic relief + clinical cure) and clinical failure (no clinical and mycological improvement), at end of
‘Treatment Phase’ and ‘Follow-up Phase’.
Safety and tolerability was assessed by monitoring treatment
related adverse events at each visit.
Patients who failed to follow up for two consecutive visits
were considered as being lost to follow up was not included
in the analysis.
Medicines
The sertaconazole cream was a gift from Glenmark-Gracewell, India; in the form of their market product Onabet
Cream. The supply of luliconazole cream was a gift from
Ranbaxy, India; in the form of their market product Luliin
Cream. Terbinaine was obtained as a gift from Abbott, India; in the form of their market product Tyza Cream. Whereas clotrimazole was made available through hospital pharmacy supply.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All randomized patients who received study medication
and completed the study were included for analysis. The
difference in change in clinical assessment of pruritus, erythema, vesicle and desquamation. Mycological assessment
by scraping of skin scales and examination in 10% KOH
mount and physician global assessment, within and between
the groups were analyzed using Chi-square test. Categorical
variable was expressed in actual numbers and percentage,
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Khare et al.
Effectiveness and Safety of Sertaconazole Cream
and compared using Fisher’s exact test and intra group comparison performed using paired t-test. Two tailed p<.05 was
considered as statistically signiicant.
RESULTS
The study was continued till 30 participants in each group
were available for analysis; a study population of 120 participants was achieved. Age group obtained in this study
was indeed ranged from 18 years to 50 years. There were
64 (53.3%) males and 56 (46.7%) female participants in
this study. The participants were randomized into four study
groups: (A) Sertaconazole, (B) Luliconazole, (C) Terbinafine, (D) Clotrimazole. Baseline characteristics of the study
participants have been presented in table 1. The groups were
balanced with respect to baseline characteristics.
Clinical Eficacy results
Changes in Pruritus [table 2]: At the end of treatment phase,
the resolution of pruritus was seen in 93% of patients in sertaconazole group and 100% in luliconazole group, respectively; however complete resolution of pruritus occured in
both groups at the end of follow up phase. In terbinaine and
clotrimazole groups, resolution of pruritus was not complete
and only 73% in terbinaine group and 33% in clotrimazole
group were able to show resolution in pruritus at the end of
follow up phase. The reduction in pruritus in luliconazole or
setaconazole groups were signiicantly more than clotrimazole group. Reduction in terbinaine although less but no
signiicant relation was found when compared to rest of the
groups.
Changes in Erythema [table 3]: in sertaconazole group, at
the end of treatment phase and at the end of folow up phase,
the resolution of erythema was 73% and 100%, respectively;
these parameters were exactly similar in lulicoanzole group.
Terbinaine and clotrimazole appears to be less effective in
reducing erythema when compared with sertaconazole/luliconazole.
Changes in desquamation [table 4]: in sertaconazole group,
at the end of treatment phase and at the end of folow up
phase, the resolution of erythema was 83% and 100%, respectively; again these parameters were exactly similar in
lulicoanzole group. Terbinaine and clotrimazole appears to
be less effective in reducing desquamation when compared
with sertaconazole/luliconazole. In terbinaine group mild
desquamation persisted in 33% participants, whereas it was
persistent in 87% of participants in clotrimazole group. Sertaconazole and luliconazole, both had signiicantly level of
change in desquamation proportions compared to clotrimazole.
Characteristics
Sertaconazole
Luliconazole
Terbinaine
Male
17
12
16
Female
13
18
14
Age in years (SD)
31.01 (7.7)
33.9 (8.1)
30.2 (7.0)
Proportion patientswith moderate and severe erythema
80%
83%
80%
Proportion patients with moderate and severe pruritus
77%
77%
77%
Proportion patients with moderate and severe desquamation
57%
57%
57%
KOH positive
100%
100%
100%
SD: standard deviation; KOH: potassium hydroxide mount for microscopic identiication of dermatophytes.
Table-1: Baseline characteristics of study population n=120
Sertaconazole
Luliconazole
Terbinaine
End of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
treatup
line
treatup
line
treatup
ment
ment
ment
28
30
0
30
30
1
20
22
2
0
7
0
0
6
10
8
0
0
13
0
0
13
0
0
0
0
10
0
0
10
0
0
Table-2: Comparison of changes in proportion of patients with pruritus
Pruritus
Score
Baseline
None
Mild
Moderate
Severe
0
7
12
11
Erythema Score
Baseline
None
Mild
Moderate
Severe
0
6
18
6
Sertaconazole
Luliconazole
Terbinaine
End of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
treatup
line
treatup
line
treatup
ment
ment
ment
22
30
0
22
30
0
19
21
8
0
5
7
0
6
11
9
0
0
20
1
0
17
0
0
0
0
5
0
0
7
0
0
Table-3: Comparison of changes in proportion of patients with erythema
Clotrimazole
11
19
34.7 (4.9)
77%
77%
63%
100%
Clotrimazole
End of Follow
treatup
ment
0
9
10
7
16
15
12
3
5
11
2
0
Baseline
Clotrimazole
End of Follow
treatup
ment
0
15
18
7
11
11
17
4
1
6
0
0
Baseline
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Khare et al.
Desquamation
Score
None
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Effectiveness and Safety of Sertaconazole Cream
Baseline
0
13
6
11
Sertaconazole
Luliconazole
Terbinaine
Clotrimazole
End of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
BaseEnd of Follow
treatup
line
treatup
line
treatup
line
treatup
ment
ment
ment
ment
25
30
1
25
30
0
10
20
1
7
4
5
0
12
4
0
13
20
10
10
15
26
0
0
6
1
0
9
0
0
11
8
0
0
0
11
0
0
8
0
0
8
0
0
Table-4: Comparison of changes in proportion of patients with desquamation
Physician global assessment
Physician Global Assessment at end of ‘Treatment Phase’,
the ‘Successful Treatment Outcome’ was 100% in sertaconazole group and luliconazole group as compared to terbinaine
(70%) and clotrimazole (35.3%).
Mycologic assessment
At baseline all patients had positive KOH test for Dermatophytes. At end of ‘Treatment Phase’ and ‘Follow-up’ Phase,
all patients showed negative mycological assessment (negative KOH test).
Safety assessment
All the medicines were well tolerated with mild application
site adverse drug reactions (ADR). No severe adverse events
were reported, no participants from the study discontinued
due to ADR and no case of non-compliance to the therapy
was reported. Burning sensation was reported in two participants each in sertaconazole, luliconazole and terbinaine
groups.
DISCUSSION
In the present study, all the four study drugs showed significant reduction in signs and symptoms (pruritus, erythema,
vesicles and desquamation) of tinea infections as compared
to baseline. Sertaconazole and luliconazole were found to be
equally effective, whereas clotrimazole was least effective
among the four groups. Jerajani et al,9 Chandana T et al10 and
A Tamil Selvan et al11 have found sertaconazole to be more
effective than luliconazole and terbinaine, in terms of reduction in pruritus, erythema, vesiculation and desquamation.
However in all of these studies luliconazole was found close
to sertaconazole in terms of eficacy. A meta-analysis had
shown eficacy and safety rates for 2-week treatment of 1%
luliconazole were nearly the same as those for 4-week treatment of the 2% sertaconazole; however author notes whether
2% sertaconazolehas more excellent antifungal activity than
1% luliconazole, requires further trials for veriication.11
In view of lesser eficacy of clotrimazole compared to others, it would have been better to ind antifungal susceptibility
comparison of clotrimazole versus sertaconazole or luliconazole or terbinaine, however such data is lacking; particularly
in literature available from India.
at the end of follow-up phase complete mycological cure
194
(100%) was observed with all the therapies which conirmed
absence of recurrence and relapse of tineacorporis, our results are in accordance with Jerajani et al9 and Khan H et al.12
In the present study, all three treatments were well tolerated
and found to be safe. Burning sensation was reported in two
participants each in sertaconazole, luliconazole and terbinafine groups, however none were considered serious.
The results of this study are likely to be confounded by the
study design as it was an open labeled (non-blinded) study
with smaller sample size. Also, the therapy duration was different for all the treatment drugs. However since most the
clinical trials conducted with sertaconazole and luliconazole
employed a four week and two week study design, respectively, so our study also employed similar duration of therapy. Furthermore, diagnosis of tineacorporis was purely on
the basis of clinical examination and microscopic inding of
KOH mount. We did not identify the causative organism for
the tineacruris by culture sensitivity.
CONCLUSION
Response to the topical monotherapy with and sertaconazole
2%, luliconazole 1%, terbinaine 1% and clotrimazole 1%
cream was safe and well tolerated in the treatment oftineacruris. Treatment with sertaconazole 2% cream and luliconazole 1% cream was early in the onset with tolerable side-effects. However treatment with luliconazole cream appears
more convenient due to shorter course of application as well
as once a day frequency. Our study suggests sertaconazole
2% cream and luliconazole 1% cream to be equally safe and
effective, whereas it was surprising to observe least performance of the clotrimazole cream.
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Assessment of the Eficacy and Safety of Sertaconazole
(2%) Cream Versus Terbinaine Cream (1%) Versus Luliconazole (1%) Cream In Patients with Dermatophytoses: A Pilot Study. Indian Journal of Dermatology.
2013;58:34-38.
Chandana T, SarithaCh, P.Shankaraiah. Comparison of
safety and eficacy of laliconazole and other antifungal
agents. International Journal of PharmaSciences and
Research. 2014;5:1-9.
Tamilselvan A, Girisha G, Vijaybhaskar, Suthakaran
R. Comparative evaluation of newer topical antifungal
agents in the treatment of supericial fungal infections.
Int Res J Pharm. 2013;4:224-8.
Feng X, Xie J, Zhuang K, Ran Y. Eficacy and tolerability of luliconazole cream 1% for dermatophytoses: a
meta-analysis. J Dermatol 2014;41:779-82.
Khan HS, Dudhgaonkar S, Bende MM, Wankhede S.
Comparison of eficacy, safety and cost-effectiveness
of clotrimazole 1% cream and sertaconazole 2% cream
in patients suffering from of mild to moderate tineacorporis, attending tertiary care hospital out-patient
department: a randomized, open-labeled, comparative,
parallel group trial. International Journal of Basic and
Clinical Pharmacology 2015;4:75-81.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
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195
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Internal Fixation of Middle Third Clavicle Fractures
P. Ramesh Vyravan1, B. Nellaiyappan2, M. Mohankumar3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Clavicle is the bone which connects the axial
and appendicular skeleton. It’s the irst bone to ossify. The integrity of clavicle is essential for proper function of shoulder.
Hence clavicle fractures have to be ixed for better functioning
of the same side shoulder.
Materials and methods: The aim is to study the functional
and radiological outcome of mid third clavicle fractures treated by internal ixation. We had 57 cases. Allman classiication
was used to classify the fracture. The period of the study was
between 2009 – 2013. The implant used was 3.5 mm reconstruction plate.The cases were followed up regularly at the intervals of 6, 12, 18 and 24 weeks. X ray was taken immediate
post op and during every follow up. Post operatively evaluated
using constant and Murley scoring system.
Results: Total number of cases were 57. Among the 15 non
unions which were operated 9 were post traumatic and rest
were natively treated with traditional bone setters. Complications are three plate failures, one sub-acute infection and two
cases with stiff shoulder.
Conclusion: Ambulatory treatment of fracture with arm support while maintaining satisfactory and acceptable alignment
of fracture is the mainstay of treatment today. Clavicle fractures with indications give good results with operative treatment.
he has to train in such a way that the upper limbs have to
reach the space in front, back or all round and grasp objects.
For this requirement he needs a support of the limb so that
the specialized functions can be performed unhindered. That
stability and ability to perform the specialized and normal
day today activities by the upper limbs is given by the clavicles. Because clavicle is a bone which supports the appendicular skeleton and also connects axial to the appendicular
skeleton.
Clavicle fractures have deforming forces which make it very
dificult to reduce the fracture closed and even if able to reduce it will very dificult to maintain reduction. In middle
third fractures the medial fragment will be displaced superiorly by the pull of sterno mastoid muscle and posteriorly.
The lateral fragment pulled inferiorly and anteriorly due to
the weight of the shoulder.1
Lateral third clavicle fractures rarely need surgical treatment
because they heal well due to presence of intact ligaments
and periosteal sleeve. But certain clavicle fractures of lateral
end need surgical treatment if they are associated with loating shoulder, ipsilateral poly trauma, multiple rib fractures
and bilateral clavicle fractures. Our study is able to convincingly prove that operative treatment is the best treatment option for clavicle fractures.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Keywords: Clavicle fracture, Midthird, Surgical Fixation,
Open reduction and internal ixation, Reconstruction plate
INTRODUCTION
Clavicle fractures are the most common long bone fractures.
There is still controversy whether they should be operated
or treated non operatively. Clavicle fractures if occurs in
children can be treated conservatively. But in active adults
treating them operatively gives better outcomes. Also it reduces the post treatment complications like shoulder arthritis
if treated conservatively.1
Some important anatomic features of clavicle are 1) Clavicle
is the irst bone to ossify. 2) Only long bone lying horizontal.
3) Only long bone with two primary centres. 4) Only long
bone with membranous ossiication. 5) It is subcutaneous
throughout. 6) Only structure crossing it is supraclavicular
nerve, occasionally piercing it.2 7) Only bone of shoulder
girdle forming synovial joint with the trunk.3
During evolution man evolved from quadripeds like monkeys. As evolution advanced man started walking with using
the both front limbs for activities other than walking. Hence
196
The aim is to study the functional and radiological outcome
of mid third clavicle fractures treated by internal ixation.
Initially the cases were evaluated fully and x ray were taken. We included all the middle third clavicle fractures based
on Allman classiication. All man classiication divides the
clavicle fractures into three broadly as lateral end, medial
end and middle third fractures. Middle third fractures are sub
divided into undisplaced, displaced and comminuted.
The study was a prospective study from 2009 to 2013. TotalFAOI (Swiss) Registrar, 2Assistant Professor, 3FIGOF ( Germany)
Professor of Orthopaedics, Department of Orthopaedics, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. P. Ramesh Vyravan, E – 412, ETA Jasmine Court, 2/297, Mount Poonamalle Road, Kattupakkam, Chennai.
How to cite this article: P. Ramesh Vyravan, B. Nellaiyappan, M.
Mohankumar. Internal ixation of middle third clavicle fractures.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):196-198.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Vyravan et al.
ly 86 cases were selected. Using the exclusion criteria (Table
2) we excluded cases with cervical spondylosis, periarthritis
shoulder, frozen shoulder, diabetes mellitus and head injury
patients who are not it to be operated immediately. The cases were evaluated fully. X ray of the affected side clavicle
was the routine x ray and based on that we classify the cases.
The absolute indications (Table 3) which we followed in our
study are - fractures with neurovascular compromise, open
fractures, poly trauma, fractures medial to coraco clavicular
ligament, loating shoulder, multiple ipsilateral rib fractures,
symptomaticnonunion, bilateral clavicle fractures. The relative (Table 3) indications include – displacement more than
1 cm, shortening more than 2 cm, cosmetic reasons mainly
females and comminution. After that pre op evaluation and
planning was done and surgical stabilization was performed.
The patient was positioned in beach sir position in a radiolucent table. The incision is anterior to the clavicle centering
over the fracture site. Platysma was separated in deep dissection. We used a 3.5 reconstruction plate. The plate was
contoured and applied superoirly.10 X ray was taken immediate post op and and the limb was immobilized in arm sling.
Light weight activities were allowed from post op day one.
Heavy activities like lifting weights etc were discouraged till
there is radiological union.
We followed up the cases at 6 weeks, 12 weeks, 18 weeks
and 24 weeks. During every follow up we evaluated the patient clinically and radiologically. We used the Constant and
Murley scoring system. The signs of union4 are if there is no
pain at fracture site with fairly good range of motion in the
affected side shoulder with no fracture line visible in x ray
RESULTS
Total number of cases 86.After applying exclusion criteria
we had totally 57 clavicle fractures in 46 patients with 11bilateralcases. Among these males were 31 and females were
15 and among the bilateral we had 8 males and 3 females.
29 cases were excluded. The excluded cases include cervical
spondylosis –13, head injury –11, frozen shoulder –1, periarthritis shoulder– 4. Among the cases with proper indications nonunion were – 15, loating shoulder – 11, displaced>
2cm – 11, bilateral – 9, SCV compression – 2, cosmetic like
swelling – 3, Comminution – 5, shortening – 1.
All the patients were ixed with 3.5mm reconstruction plate
of appropriate length. If needed plates were contoured. In
comminuted fractures bone grafting was done. The plates
were put in the superior aspect.10 Bone grafting was also
done in nonunion cases. Both iliac and synthetic bone grafts
were used. Mostly synthetic ones were used to reduce the
morbidity of the patient. Among the 15 non unions which
were operated 9 were post traumatic and rest were natively
treated with traditional bone setters. Among the 11 loating
shoulder patients 8 had both scapula fracture and ribs fracture and rest had scapula fracture alone. Among the 11 displaced fractures 6 had gross displacement with skin tether-
Internal Fixation of Middle Third Clavicle Fractures
Figure-1: Pre operative Clavicle x ray AP view showing middle
third displaced fracture; Figure-2: Post operative x ray AP view
showing plate insitu with united fracture.
First bone to ossify in human
Only long bone lying horizontal
Only long bone with two primary centres
Only long bone with membranous ossiication
It is subcutaneous throughout
Only structure crossing clavicle is supraclavicular nerve, also
occasionally pierce it in middle
Only bone of shoulder girdle forming synovial joint with trunk
Table-1: Clavicle – Important facts
Shoulder of affected side having before trauma
- Cervical Spondylosis
- Peri Arthritis
- Frozen Shoulder
- Diabetes Mellitus
Also patients with head injury, non-co-operating patients
Table-2: Exclusion criteria
Fractures with NV compromise
Open fractures
Poly trauma
Fracture medial to coraco clavicular ligament
Floating shoulder
With multiple ipsilateral ribs fracture
Symptomatic non union
Bilateral clavicle fractures
Relative
More than 1cm displacement
More than 2cm shortening
Cosmesis, mainly females
Communition
Table-3: Indications: absolute
ing. All the 3 cases with cosmetic reasons were females and
all were initially treated non operatively.The complications
are three plate failures, one sub-acute infection and two cases
with stiff shoulder.
DISCUSSION
We had excellent result of 79%, good result in 9%, fair result
in 6%, and poor result in 6 %.In our series 45 patients had
excellent outcome. At the end of 12 weeks they had excellent
clinical and radiological union and on clinical examination
the patients had excellent to normal shoulder movements on
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
197
Vyravan et al.
Internal Fixation of Middle Third Clavicle Fractures
the affected side. They were able to do their daily activities
without any morbid disability. By reviewing literature we
found good union will be achieved in 95% of cases.6,7,8,9
We had 5 cases of non-union that is 9 %. By reviewing the
literature we found that the non-union rate is found to be
between 0.1% to 15%.4,5 The reason for non-union is among
the ive cases three were comminuted, one was implant failure and one sub clinical infection. The patient with sub clinical infection was treated with antibiotics and then plate was
removed and reixed with bone grafting. Among the three
implant failures one was due to stress raisers at the fracture
site and the one due to plate breakage.
We had one more implant failures in whom the plate was
broken at the fracture site because of sports injury who when
playing had a fall on the affected side again within 8 weeks
of irst fall. During follow up he had excellent union but because of impact of the injury might have caused the breakage. All the broken plates were removed and re ixation done
with bone grafting.
According to literature the delayed union rate is 2.7% in
middle third fractures.4 In our series the delayed union rate is
3 % that is in one case in our series. The reason for delayed
union is there is one plate hole over the fracture site and
hence acted as a stress raiser. The patient was followed up
upto 20 weeks and treated with arm sling and rest to the limb
and the fracture united un eventfully at the end of 19 weeks.
1979;50:261 – 8.
C.M. Robinson. Fractures of clavicle in the adult. Epidemiology and classiication. JBJS Br:1998;80-B:476-84
5. Neer Coraco. Clavicular screw ixation for unstable
fractures of distal third fracture. JBJS-B 1991;73B:2914
6. Zenni et al. Open reduction and internal ixation of clavicular fractures. JBJS 1981;63A;147 – 151.
7. Mullaji AB, Jupiter AB. Low contact dynamic compression plating -Injury 1994;25:41-5.
8. Chan and Jupiter. Clavicle Mal Union. J Shoulder Elbow surg. 1999;8:287-90.
9. Larsen and Dossing. Clavicular non unions treated
with compression plate ixation and cancellous bone
grafting: functional outcome. J Shoulder Elbow surg.
1999;8:410-3.
10. Dhoju D et al. Operative Fixation of Displaced Middle
Third Clavicle (Edinburg Type 2) Fracture with Superior Reconstruction Plate Osteosynthesis, Kathmandu
Univ Med J, 2011;36:286-91.
4.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
CONCLUSION
Clavicle is an essential continuity between axial and appendicular skeleton. For proper use of upper limbs the stability
was provided by the clavicle on either side. When there is no
stability bio mechanically there will be dificulties of the upper limbs. Hence proper and anatomic reduction and restoration of normal stability of the affected side limb is essential.
Traditionally clavicle fractures were treated conservatively
with rest to the limb and strapping. By these options they
unite uneventfully but the same side shoulder will be affected and resulting in pain and disability because the length of
the clavicle could not be restored by these conservative options.
So the individuals will be having morbid disability. The clavicle which is an essential support for us to perform our daily
activities hence can be treated operatively better with the advanced options available.
Middle third clavicle fractures with good indications if treated by operative ixations give excellent result.1
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
198
Kashif Khan et al. Fractures of Clavicle. JBJS Am.
2009;91:447-460
Bateman JE. Neurovascular syndromes related to clavicle. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1968;58:75-82.
Ljungren AE.Clavicular function. Actaorthop scan.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Outcome Analysis of Intertrochantric Fracture Treated with
Dynamic Hip Screw in Rural Population
Ranjith Rajasekeran1, Vignesh Jayabalan2, Ganesan Ganesan Ram3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Trochanteric fractures are devastating injuries that commonly affect the elderly and have a tremendous
impact on the health care system and society in general. The
aim of this study is to assess the functional outcome of trochanteric fractures treated with dynamic hip screw in rural
population.
Materials and Method: Prospective study of forty patients
of trochanteric fractures who underwent dynamic hip screw
ixation during January 2012 to January 2015. We used Boyd
and Grifin classiication to classify the fractures. Functional
assessment was done using Kyle’s criteria. Minimum follow
up was one year.
Results: Excellent and good results were obtained in twenty-nine cases out of total of forty cases comprising of 72.5%.
Fair and poor results were obtained in eleven cases constituting 27.5%.
Conclusion: Operative treatment is the best modality in
managing trochanteric fractures. Patients from rural background come late for surgery and their expectation levels
following surgery are very high because of the need to squat
for toilet purpose and sit crossed legged for sitting on the
loor.
Keywords: Intertrochanteric fracture, Dynamic hip screw,
Rural population, Kyle’s criteria
INTRODUCTION
Trochanteric fractures are devastating injuries that commonly affect the elderly and have a tremendous impact on the
health care system and society in general.1 About three or
four decades back, trochanteric fractures were considered
as a terminal event of life especially in the elderly because
of prolonged immobilization leading to fatal complications
like pulmonary embolism, renal impairment and bed sores.
Nowadays Trochanteric fractures are adequately treated by
modern surgical modalities with excellent results with hardly any residual deformity.2 The aim of this study is to assess
the functional outcome of trochanteric fractures treated with
dynamic hip screw in rural population.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Prospective study of forty patients of trochanteric fractures
who underwent dynamic hip screw ixationduring January
2012 to January 2015. The inclusion criteria were patients
with intertrochanteric fracture above ifty years treated with
dynamic hip screw with atleast one year follow up. The patients included were manual labourers, farmers and unskilled
labour force. The exclusion criteria were subtrochanteric
fractures and intertrochanteric fractures treated by modalities other than dynamic hip screw, skilled labourers. We used
Boyd and Grifin classiication to classify the fractures.3
Functional assessment was done using Kyle’s criteria.4
Minimum follow up was one year.Two patients had Colle’s
fracture, 1 patients had inf. Pubic ramus fracture, 1 Patients
had L1 Compression fracture with no neurological deicit as
associated injuries.
Anteroposterior and lateral x-rays were taken of the affected
hip. All data regarding the mode of injury and other particulars were recorded in a detailed proforma, which was exclusively prepared for the study. Associated medical co-morbidities involving cardiac, respiratory and renal systems were
assessed by cardiologist, pulmonologist and nephrologist
and due care was given to minimize the surgical risk. All
patients underwent surgery either under regional or spinal
anaesthesia.Cefuroxime 1.5 gm was the antibiotic of our
choice.
Patients were nursed post-operatively in the orthopedic
ward unless they needed intensive care treatment in which
case they were retained in surgical ICU for 48-72 hours and
then brought to the orthopedic ward. The Romovac suction
drain was removed in 48 hours. Patients were mobilized
nonweight bearing from second postoperative day.5 Patients
were given chest physiotherapy, quadriceps and hip exercises by the physiotherapist during the postoperative period.Patients were discharged on 5th postoperative day andSutures
were removed on 14th post-operative day.
Associate Professor, Department of Orthopaedics, Meenakshi
Medical College, Kanchipuram, Tamilnadu, 2Assistant Professor,
3
Associate Professor, Department of Orthopaedics, Sri Ramachandra Medical College, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Ganesan Ganesan Ram, M.S(Ortho),
Associate Professor of Orthopaedics, B2 ortho Department, Ramachandra Udayar Block, Sri Ramachandra Medical College, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India.
How to cite this article: Ranjith Rajasekeran, Vignesh Jayabalan,
Ganesan Ganesan Ram. Outcome analysis of intertrochantric fracture treated with dynamic hip screw in rural population. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):
199-200.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
199
Rajasekeran et al.
Intertrochantric Fracture Treated with Dynamic Hip Screw
Gradual ambulation with partial weight bearing was started
around 6-8 weeks when the patient could do active straight leg
rising. Postoperative x-rays were taken at 6 weeks, 12 weeks,
6 months and one year and then during yearly follow up.
RESULTS
Results as per Kyle’s criteria were tabulated in table 1. In this
Study of 40 patients, there were 28 males constituting 70%
and 12 females constituting 30%. In this Study there were
twenty cases of road trafic accidents, ten cases of trivial fall
and ive cases of fall from height. Complication was tabulated as per table 2.
or compared to Babhulkar Series because patients from our
series have come from a rural background and have come
for surgery after trying other modalities of treatment thereby
delaying the deinitive treatment. Results of other foreign authors as recorded in literature are far superior then our study.
Sitting and squatting for toilet purposes are activities of daily
living in our patients, which vitiates excellent to good results
in our study.In our study of 40 cases, there were 1 case with
supericial infection (2.5%) which respondent to antibiotics,
there were 2 case (with implant cutout (5%) and 1 patient
had coxavara deformity (2.5%). Our results were comparable to that of Chatterjee et al.9
CONCLUSION
DISCUSSION
The operative management consists of fracture reduction
and stabilization of the fractures allowing early mobilization
thereby minimizing the complications of recumbences. Such
early mobilization following surgical ixation is preferred by
most of the authors in preference to conservative treatment,
which increase the morbidity and mortality.
In our study of 40 patients, there were 28 Males comprising
70% and 12 Females comprising 30%. This is comparable
to the Indian series that show a male preponderance as in
Chacko et al6 and Sethi et al7 series. In the reported series
by T.S.Sethi7 the percentage of trivial fall has been as high
as 77% indicating probably that elderly people comprise the
majority of cases in their study. In our series only 25% of
cases had sustained trochanteric fractures due to trivial fall.
In our series, road trafic accidents were the main cause of
injury comprising 62.5% of cases. In our study, type II fractures comprised the majority of cases with an incidence of
55% (22 cases).
In the present study, the over all excellent and good result
were obtained in twenty nine cases out of total of forty cases comprising an incidence of 72.5%. Fair and poor results
were obtained in eleven cases with an incidence of 27.5%.
Poor results were obtained in three cases out of forty cases
with an incidence of 7.5%. Results of our study are consistent with that of other authors. Babhulkar et al8 has showed
excellent and good results, in more than 90% of cases in a
series comprising of 70 cases. Our results have been inferi-
Road trafic accidents are also becoming a common cause
of trochanteric fractures.Operative treatment is the best modality in managing trochanteric fractures. Patients from rural background come late for surgery and their expectation
levels following surgery are very high because of the need
to squat for toilet purpose and sit crossed legged for sitting
on the loor.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
Result
No. of Cases
Percentages
Excellent
11
27.5%
Good
18
45 %
Fair
08
20 %
Poor
03
7.5 %
Total
40
100.00 %
Table-1: Results as per Kyle’s Criteria
Complication
No.of Cases
Supericial Infections
1
Implant Cutout
2
Coxavara Deformity
1
Table-2: Complications
200
8.
9.
Kaufer H. Mechanics of the treatment of hip injuries.
Clin Orthop. 1980;146:53-61.
Fox K.M., Magaziner J., and Hebel J.R. Intertrochanteric versus femoral neck fractures: differential characteristics, treatment, and squeal. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med
Sci. 1999; 54:635–640.
Boyd HB, Grifin LL. Classiication and treatment of
trochanteric fractures. Arch Surg. 1949;58:853.
Kyle RF, Gustillo RB, Premer RF. Analysis of six hundred and twenty-two intertrochanteric hip fractures. J
Bone Joint Surg Am 1979;61:216-21.
O'Malley NT, Deeb AP, Bingham KW, Kates SL. Outcome of the dynamic helical hip screw system for intertrochanteric hip fractures in the elderly patients. Geriatr
Orthop Surg Rehabil. 2012;3:68-73.
Mohanty S.P, Chacko. Comparative analysis of operative and non operative management of trochanteric fractures. Indian Journal of Orthopaedics 1984;I8:16-19.
Sethi T.S. et.al. Dynamic Hip Screw in Trochanteric
Fractures; Indian Journal of Orthopaedics, 1993;27:161165.
Babhulkar SS. Management of trochanteric Fractures.
Indian J Orthop 2006; 40:210-8.
Chatterjee N, Bhattacharyya G, Bhattacharja T, Mondal P. Dynamic HIP Screw And Sliding Plate For Trochanteric Fractures Of Femur - Review. Indian J Orthop
2000;34:153-155.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Surgical Treatment of Supracondylar Femoral Fractures
P. Ramesh Vyravan1, M. Mohankumar2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: In today’s fast paced world high energy trauma is common. Supracondylar femur fractures are one of
the common fractures encountered. The distal femur has
wide medullary canal, thin cortex and often associated with
comminution. Management of these supracondylar femoral
fractures is a challenge to orthopaedic surgeons. Still there is
controversy in the correct line of management to be selected.
The surgeons will face dificulties in restoring the anatomical
alignment and joint congruity.
Materials and methods: Between Jan 2009 to Jun 2014, 26
distal femoral fractures treated with supracondylar nail. 2 pts
lost for follow-up. Of the remaining 24 fractures, 19 were
closed fractures 5 were of open fractures. Average age was 54
yrs (20 to 84 yrs). 60 % of pts were older than 50 yrs of age.
AO classiication was used for these fractures (A type: 14, C
type: 10). Open nailing was done in 6 cases (4 for nonunion, 2
for failed DCS). Bone grafting was done in 4 patients.
Results: Average follow-up was 14 months (6 - 24 months).
Wt bearing was allowed depends on the progression of union
radiologically and clinically. Functional assessment was done
using a scale developed by Sanders et al for distal femoral
fractures. 23 fractures healed well and 1 pt had nonunion. Average healing time was 16 to 18 weeks. 1 pt had malunion, 1
pt had infection at the fracture site, which went on for good
union (grade IIIb compound). Knee stiffness was found in 4
cases (<60 degrees).
Conclusion: Supracondylar nail provides stable ixation in a
region of femur where a widening canal, thin cortices, and
poor bone stock make ixation dificult. The retrograde supracondylar nail is an excellent alternative to lateral ixation devices for supracondylar fractures of femur.
Keywords: Supracodylar, Femoral, Knee stiffness
INTRODUCTION
Supracondylar femoral fractures are the fractures that occur
within 7.5 to 9 cm1 proximal to the articular surface of knee
joint. These fractures predominantly occur in two patient
populations: a younger male group with high energy injuries and an older osteoporotic female group with low violence injuries. Treatment of these fractures has long been a
controversial issue. Watson Jones noted that “few injuries
present more dificult problems than Supracondylar fracture
of femur”.
The problems in these fracture when they are surgically
treated are, reduction and ixation of multiple fragments (of-
ten in Osteoporotic bone) restoration of alignment in three
planes and equal limb length. Once all these are attained with
good restoration of articular surface, stiffness may remain a
problem. A complaint patient is required for early supervised
mobilization and range of movement exercises.
In 1967 Neer et al2 published a review of 110 supracondylar
fractures treated with traction, casting, and several types of
internal ixation. They concluded that these fractures were
not suitable for internal ixation because of high incidence
of wound complications, nonunion and knee stiffness. The
methods of internal ixation in these patients, however, were
not suficient to eliminate postoperative immobilization. As
implants and surgical techniques improved during the next
20 years, more success with surgical treatment was attained.
In the 1980’s several series reported on the treatment of supracondylar femoral fractures with lateral ixation devices.
Various implants available for the usage are DCS, Condylar
blade plate, Supracondylar buttress plate. All these implants
need a large exposure and possible risk of soft tissue damage and devascularisation of fragments, increased chance of
infection, stiffness of knee and the need for Bone grafting in
more than 1/3rd of patients.
Supracondylar fractures tend to collapse into varus. During
application of a blade plate or condylar screw the shaft of the
femur is often pulled laterally, displacing the line of wt bearing lateral to the anatomic axis of the condyles. This often
leads to varus displacement of the distal femur in elderly female patients, leads to ixation failure with screws and plates
cutting out of the soft bone.
In 1990 Green SL3, Seligson D, Henry SL 1st reported the
use of GSH nail for Supracondylar fracture. The advantage
of intramedullary device is that it aligns the femoral shaft
with condylar fragments, reduce the varus moment at the
fracture site, possibility of closed procedure reduces the
chance of infection and stiffness of knee joint. They advised this technique for comminuted / intraarticular fractures of distal femur and in cases of failed lateral ixation
technique.
Registrar, 2Professor, Department of Orthopaedics, Sri Ramachandra Medical College and Research Institute, Chennai, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. P. Ramesh Vyravan, E – 412, ETA Jasmine Court, 2/297, Mount Poonamalle Road, Kattupakkam, Chennai, India.
How to cite this article: P. Ramesh Vyravan, M. Mohankumar.
Surgical treatment of Supracondylar femoral fractures. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):201-204.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
201
Vyravan et al.
Surgical Treatment of Supracondylar Femoral Fractures
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Between January 2009 to June 2014, 26 supracondylar fractures were treated with supracondylar nailing. 2 patients lost
for follow up. The age range was 20 to 84 years (average 54
years). Male to female ratio was 14:10. 14 patients are older
than 50 years. 8 patients are younger than 50 years. 20 fractures were closed and 4 were open, of which 2 are Grade II
and another 2 are Grade IIIb.
The fractures were classiied according AO classiication:
The breakup is 14 were extra articular fracture. Among these
- A1: 6, A2: 4, A3: 4. 10 were intraarticular fracture. Among
these - C1: 6, C2: 2, C3: 2.
Open nailing was done in 6 patients and closed nailing was
done in 18 pts. 4 pts were operated for nonunion of supracondylar fracture due to initial native treatment. 2 pts had
implant failure with DCS which needed removal of DCS
and supracondylar nailing. 4 pts needed bone grafting in this
series. Average blood loss was 300 – 400 mg in open nailing. Average surgical time was 1 ½ - 2 hrs. Follow-up period
was 6 months- 24 months. Patients were mobilized on the
3rd postoperative day with support and toe touch wt bearing.
Knee mobilization encouraged from 2nd POD. Progressive
weight bearing allowed depending on the radiological and
clinical evidence of healing. Patients were followed up regularly in 6 weeks interval till union and good ROM was obtained.
RESULTS
Functional assessment was performed using a scale developed by Sanders4 et al for distal femoral fractures.
Average healing time was 16 – 18 weeks. We has Implant
failure in 1 patient with distal screw breakage, Infection in 2
patients, Malunion in two 2, Nonunion in 1,
Knee stiffness
in 4 cases who had ROM < 600, shortening of 3 cm in 3 patients.
Our study had average ROM 90 – 110 degrees. We used
Sanders et al rating scale. We had excellent in 6 cases, good
in 12 cases, fair in 4 cases and poor in 2 cases. Among the
cases A type had excellent to good results in 12 out of total
14 cases. C type had excellent to good results in 6 out of 10.
In 2 patients the distal locking screws missed the nail because of poor targeting device. Patellar impingement noticed
in 2 patients, one patient had gross restriction of ROM of less
than 30 degrees
DISCUSSION
All fractures except one in the present study healed in 16 to
18 weeks. Previous studies using lateral screw and plate ixation report similar times to healing, but 25% to 35% needed
bone grafting because of delayed union or non unions. In our
study 4 patients needed Bone grafting because of non union of supracondylar fractures due to initial native treatment
202
which was treated with supracondylar nail.
Several rating system for supracondylar fracture exists.
Sanders4 et al rating system
(Table 1) was chosen because it emphasis the most important
patient outcome factor pain and knee ROM. Patients with
Function
Range of motion - Flexion
>125
100 – 124
90 – 99
<90
Extension
0
<=5
6-10
>10
Deformation - Angulation
0
<10
10-15
>15
Shortening (cm)
0
<1.5
1.5 – 2.5
>2.5
Pain
None
Occasional or with changes in
weather, or both
With fatigue
Constant
Result
Points
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
6
4
2
0
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
3
2
1
0
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
3
2
1
0
Excellent
Good
Fair
Poor
3
2
1
0
Excellent
10
Good
Fair
Poor
7
5
0
Walking ability
Unrestricted
Excellent
>30 minutes to <60 minutes
Good
<30 minutes
Fair
walks at home, is conirmed
to wheelchair, or is bedridden
Poor
Stair climbing
No limitation
Excellent
Holds rail
Good
One stair at a time
Fair
Elevator only
Poor
Return to work (A or B)
A. Employed before injury
Returned to pre injury job
Excellent
Returned to pre injury job
Good
With dificulty
Fair
Altered full time job
Part time job or unemployed
Poor
B. Retired before injury
Excellent
Returned to pre injury lifestyle
Good
Needs occasional help
Needs assistance at home with
Activities of daily living
Fair
Moved in with family or
Nursing home
Poor
Excellent: 36-40 points; Good: 26-35 points; Fair: 16-25
points; Poor: 0 -15 points
Table-1: Sanders scoring system
6
4
2
0
3
2
1
0
6
4
2
0
6
4
2
0
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Vyravan et al.
Figure 1 and 2: Pre-operative X-rays Showing Comminuted Fracture of Supracondylar Femur- AP and Lateral
Figure 3 and 4: Post-operative X-rays Showing Implant insitu with
good fracture healing in reasonable alignment
preexisting osteoarthritis can lead to lower scores despite
acquiring pre injury knee status. 4 patients had poor Knee
ROM. 2 with distal migration of nail and in 2 pts because of
adhesions both intraarticular and extra articular due to open
reduction of the fracture and extensive comminution of fragments which prevented early mobilization.
3 patients had 2 cm shortening which did not affect the overall function of the limb. Infection was found in 1 patient who
had a Grade III B compound fracture, which was initially
stabilized with external ixator and wound debridement and
later converted to nail.
Malunion occurred in 1 patient where the nail got rotated
during insertion with a femoral shaft fracture near the proximal end of the nail which was treated conservatively with a
POP. This patient had gross knee stiffness along with angular
and rotational malunion. He had a poor score of 14.
Nonunion occurred in 1 patient who was obese with heavy
smoking habit. He had failure of DCS for supracondylar
fracture which needed removal of the implant and converted
to SC nail with bone grafting. This patient had nonunion at
Surgical Treatment of Supracondylar Femoral Fractures
the fracture site, and he refused further surgery. He had a
poor score of 10.
2 patients had nail migration distally in to the joint. One
case was C2 fracture, in which the articular fracture was not
ixed properly and the nail got migrated anteriorly through
the fracture site impinging the patella and caused restriction
knee ROM. One patient because of distal screw breakage
and nonunion of the fracture site, the nail migrated into the
joint. Both of them refused further surgery for removal of
the nail.
We found excellent to good results in 18 pts (75%). Out of 14
A type fractures 12 had excellent to good results, 2 had fair
and no poor results. Out of 10 C type fracture 6 had excellent
to good results, 2 had fair and 2 had poor results.
Richard Gellman5 et al (CORR: 1996: 332) in their study
on 26 supracondylar femoral fractures treated with SC nail.
They had 4 excellent, 15 good, 2 fair and 2 poor results.
One pt needed bone grafting in their series. They found that
supracondylar nail gives good functional outcomes comparable to lateral ixation devices with signiicantly less soft
tissue dissection. Danziger MB et al in their study on 23 supracondylar fractures managed with SC nail, they had 94%
excellent to good results at an average of 3.3 months.
Ingman6 A et al developed an implant in which the distal
(condylar) screws have a diagonal coniguration so that the
screws can be closer to the distal end of the nail, allowing
more distal fractures to be ixed. It also utilizes the denser bone of the posterior condyles for more secure ixation
in osteoporotic patients. The new implant was used for 24
extra-articular fractures and for 14 articular fractures. There
was no signiicant dificulty with obtaining ixation in very
distal fractures and in osteoporotic bone. All fractures united within 3 months except one which required a bone graft
at 6 months. Average knee lexion at inal follow-up was
101 degrees for extra-articular fractures and 106 degrees
for articular fractures. Surgical exposure for nail placement
requires signiicantly less periosteal stripping and soft tissue exposure than that of lateral ixation devices. The retrograde supracondylar nail is an excellent alternative to
lateral ixation7-10 devices for supracondylar fractures of
femur.
CONCLUSION
Supracondylar nail provides stable ixation in a region of
femur where a widened canal, thin cortices, and poor bone
stock make ixation dificult. We had excellent to good results in 18 pts (75%) and fair in 4 cases and poor in 2 cases. Orthopaedic surgeons experienced with intramedullary
nailing will ind the supracondylar nail a useful technique.
The future prospect arthroscopically assisted method for the
retrograde intramedullary nailing of supracondylar femoral fractures affords the potential beneits of intramedullary
ixation of these fractures while avoiding the morbidity and
complications associated with an arthrotomy.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
203
Vyravan et al.
Surgical Treatment of Supracondylar Femoral Fractures
REFERENCES
1.
Surgical management of supracondylar femur fractures
using retrograde nail, Dr. Arun. K. N et al, IOSR Journal
of Dental and Medical Sciences (IOSR-JDMS) 2014;
13:Ver. III, 61-67.
2. Neer CS 2nd, Grantham SA, Shelton ML. Supracondylar fracture of the adult femur. A study of one hundred
and ten cases. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1967;49:591-613.
3. Henry SL, Green SA, Seligson D. The intramedullary
supracondylar nail:AAOS meeting 1990.
4. Sanders R et al. Double plating of comminuted, unstable fractures of the distal part of the femur. JBJS 1991;
73A:23-27.
5. Richard Gellman et al. Treatment of supracondylar femoral fractures with retrograde intramedullary nail. Clin
Orthop 1996;332:90-97.
6. Ingman A. Retrograde intramedullary nailing of supracondylar femoral fractures: design and development of
a new implant: Injury 2002;33:707.
7. Neubauer T, Ritter E, Potschka T, Karlbauer A, Wagner
M. Retrograde nailing of femoral fractures. Acta Chir
Orthop Traumatol Cech. 2008;75:158-66.
8. Helfet DL, Lorich DG. Retrograde intramedullary nailing of supracondylar femoral fractures. Clin Orthop
1998;350:80-4.
9. Role of retrograde short nail in the treatment of supracondylar femoral fractures (extra-articular type A),
Hisham Mohamed Zaki Elmowafy et al., Menouia
Medical Journal 2015;28:142–148.
10. Ubale T, Ranganath N, U H, Kumar S, Shah K. Surgical Management Of Distal/Supracondylar Fracture Of
Femur With Retrograde Intramedullary Nail 2014;2:5053.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
204
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Dyslipidemia as an Early Harbinger of Erectile Dysfunction in Type
2 Diabetics
Babulal Meena1, Deepak Kumar2, Veer Bahadur Singh3, Kusum Singh4, Subhash Chandra1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Sexual dysfunction is a common, underappreciated complication of diabetes.Men with diabetes tend to develop ED 10 to 15 years earlier than men without diabetes.
As men with diabetes age, ED becomes even more common.
Diabetes can damage the blood vessels and nerves that control
erection. Hyperlipidemia may impair erectile function by affecting endothelial and smooth muscle cells of the penis.This
study was undertaken to investigate the correlation between
serum lipids and ED.
Material and method: 150 type 2 DM patients were enrolled
for this retrospective done at S P Medical College Bikaner. ED
was diagnosed by using international index of ED (IIEF-5).
Results: The mean duration of DM was 2.84+1.99 in patient
without ED and 8.94+6.36 in patient with ED that was statistically signiicant (p<0.001).FBS and HbA1c were other parameter that were correlated signiicantly.The mean
lipid proile TC, LDL, TG, HDL were 158.36+15.38 and
186.26+38.88; 97.06+16.98 and 119.33+31.94; 116.33+37.30
and 94.09+14.48; 50.18+7.05 and 44.08+8.13 respectively in
patient without ED and with ED that were statistically signiicant(p<0.001). However mean VLDL was 21.60+4.16 and
23.00+7.17; in patient without ED and with ED that was statistically insigniicant.
Conclusion: ED almost always has an organic or mixed etiology. This often results in diabetic men reporting more severe
ED when they present for treatment of this condition.Because
men with diabetes value their erectile function highly, it is
important that health care provider must encourage them to
maintain good glycemic, blood pressure, and lipid control to
minimize their risk of developing this complication.
Keywords: Impotence; Diabetics; Dyslipidemia; Erectile
dysfunction.
culty with erectile function.Male sexual dysfunction among
diabetic patients can include disorders of libido, ejaculatory
problems, and ED. All three forms of male dysfunction can
cause signiicant bother for diabetic patients and can affect
their quality of life.While all three forms of male sexual dysfunction can be found among diabetic men, our study will
focus on the most common form, ED, as this being the most
predominant comorbidity effecting quality of life in diabetic
patient. ED is deined as the inability to achieve or maintain
an erection suficient for satisfactory sexual performance1;
ED is highly prevalent in diabetic men2 and is almost always
organic in its etiology.Despite this, health care providers often do not speciically ask their male diabetic patients about
sexual function. This results in considerable under diagnosis
because patients are often reluctant or embarrassed to initiate
discussion of these issues themselves.The causes of ED in
men with diabetesare complex and involve impairments in
nerve, blood vessel, and muscle function.To get an erection,
men need healthy blood vessels, nerves, male hormones,
and a desire to be sexually stimulated. Diabetes can damage
the blood vessels and nerves that control erection. Therefore, even if patient has normal amounts of male hormones
and have the desire to have sex, he still may not be able to
achieve a irm erection.
Although the etiology of ED in patients with diabetes is often complex and can be caused by several mechanism, organic vasculogenic factors appear to be most frequent cause
of ED in men with diabetes3 with some studies citing an
incidence of up to 87% and even 90%4 in one of studies.
The pathogenesis of ED in diabetic patient may be linked
to accelerated atherosclerosis.5 Hyperlipidemia may impair
erectile function by affecting endothelial and smooth muscle cells of the penis.Among the metabolic abnormalities
Assistant Professor, 2Resident, Department of Medicine, 3Senior Professor and Unit Head, Department of Medicine; 4Assistant
Professor, Department of Dentistry, Sardar Patel Medical College,
Bikaner, Rajasthan, India
1
INTRODUCTION
Sexual dysfunction is a common, underappreciated complication of diabetes.It is being estimated that about 35%-75%
of men with diabetes will experience at least some degree of
erectile dysfunctionalso called ED or impotence during their
lifetime.Men with diabetes tend to develop ED 10 to 15 years
earlier than men without diabetes. As men with diabetes age,
ED becomes even more common. Above the age of 50, the
likelihood of having dificulties with an erection occurs in
approximately 50%-60% of men with diabetes. Above age
70, there is about a 95% likelihood of having some difi-
Corresponding author: Dr Babulal Meena, Assistant Professor,
Department of Medicine, Sardar Patel Medical College, Bikaner;
Rajasthan, India
How to cite this article: Babulal Meena, Deepak Kumar, Veer
Bahadur Singh, Kusum Singh, Subhash Chandra. Dyslipidemia
as an early harbinger of erectile dysfunction in type 2 diabetics.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):205-208.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
205
Meena et al.
Early Harbinger of Erectile Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetics
that commonly accompany diabetes are disturbances in the
production and clearance of plasma lipoproteins. The lipid
changes associated with diabetes mellitus are attributed to
increased free fatty acid lux secondary to insulin resistance.
In fact development of dyslipidemia may be a harbinger of
future diabetes. A characteristic pattern, termed diabetic dyslipidemia, consists of low high density lipoprotein (HDL),
increased triglycerides, and postprandial lipemia. This pattern is most frequently seen in type 2 diabetes and may be
a treatable risk factor for subsequent cardiovascular disease
and related comorbidities. It has been shown from numerous
studies that dyslipidemia often is found in prediabetes, patients with insulin resistance but normal indexes of plasma
glucose.6 Various trial of glucose reduction have conirmed
that glucose control is the key to preventing microvascular
diabetic complications. These trials have, however, failed to
show a marked beneit of glucose control on macrovascular
disease.Large vessel atherosclerosis is not a diabetes-speciic
disorder, yet it is worse in patients with diabetes; however,
processes unrelated to diabetes must be the most important.
For this reason it may not be surprising that treatment of
these other processes, such as hypertension7,8 and hyperlipidemia9, appears to impact macrovascular disease more than
does glucose control. This study was undertaken to investigate the correlation between serum lipids (cholesterol, LDL,
HDL, triglyceride (TG) and erectile dysfunction (ED).
Ethnic statement
A written informed consent was obtained from each subject
included in the study. Ethical approval for the study was
obtained from the Ethical committee S P Medical College,
PBM and A.G of hospitals Bikaner, Rajasthan prior to the
commencement of the study.
Material and methods
Present study was conducted among the patient admitted to
Characteristics
Age
Medicine Department PBM and A.G of Hospital, a tertiary
care center of North West rajasthan from June 2014 to June
2015. Patients of age group 35-65 years diagnosed according
to ADA revised criteria 2013 were included in the study. Patients who were seriously ill,known cases of type 1 DM, history of pelvic trauma or pelvic surgery, history of psychiatric
disease, men with debliting disease or having an unfavorable penile anatomy for sexual act were excluded from the
study.A thorough clinical examination was conducted and
the indings along with other demographic data were recorded on predesigned and pretested performa. History regarding
duration and treatment of diabetes was noted. Patient’s Compliance with the medication was also noted. Patients were
also evaluated for the presence of sexual dysfunction, peripheral vascular disease and other macro and micro vascular
complications.
The diagnosis of sexual dysfunction was done with following criteria:
a. A sexually competent male must have desire for his sexual partner (libido).
b. Be able to divert blood from iliac artery in to corpora
cavernosa to achieve penile tumescence and rigidity
(erection).
c. Discharge sperm and prostatic/seminal luid through
urethra (ejaculation).
d. Finally experience a sense of pleasure (orgasm).
Hypoceptive sexual disease (HSD) (according to DSM IV)
was deined as persistently and recurrently deicient sexual
fantasy and desire for sexual activity leading to marked distress or interpersonal dificulty. In male diabetics predominant disorder is of erectile dysfunction but HSD is also seen
however in female diabetic the predominant form of sexual
dysfunction is HSD. Local examination of genitalia was also
performed to rule out any congenital deformity. Testis was
felt for size and consistency, sensation over penis and bulbo-
ED
Mean
SD
SE
t
Present(n=117)
53.28
6.52
1.04
4.089
Absent(n=33)
44.09
6.83
2.06
Duration
Present(n=117)
8.94
6.36
1.02
3.118
Absent(n=33)
2.84
1.99
0.60
BMI
Present(n=117)
26.12
4.86
0.78
0.807
Absent(n=33)
24.87
2.87
0.87
WHR
Present(n=117)
0.94
0.03
0.05
1.982
Absent(n=33)
0.92
0.03
0.09
Systolic BP
Present(n=117)
145.23
18.03
2.89
2.442
Absent(n=33)
131.27
10.48
3.16
Diastolic BP
Present(n=117)
86.00
9.83
1.57
-0.219
Absent(n=33)
86.73
9.39
2.83
S Creatinine
Present(n=117)
1.20
0.55
0.08
0.549
Absent(n=33)
1.09
0.62
0.19
Fasting BS
Present(n=117)
153.69
46.52
7.45
2.046
Absent(n=33)
123.18
30.52
9.20
HbA1c
Present(n=117)
8.53
1.78
0.39
3.050
Absent(n=33)
6.66
1.79
0.54
Table-1: Anthropometric and biochemical parameters in study group with and without erectile dysfunction.
206
P
<0.001
0.003
0.423
0.053
0.018
0.828
0.586
0.046
0.004
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Meena et al.
Early Harbinger of Erectile Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetics
cavernous relex. ED was diagnosed by using international
index of ED (IIEF-5).10 Other relevant evaluations were performed regarding evaluation of peripheral vascular disease
and other micro as well as macrovascular complications.
Fasting blood samples were drawn for investigations such as
FBS and lipid proile (total cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL
and LDL). The fasting blood glucose and lipid proile were
measured using spectrophotometry technique.The data obtained was tabulated on Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. Categorical data was expressed as rates, ratios and percentages.
Continuous data was expressed as mean ± standard deviation
(SD) Pearson’s Correlation coeficient (r) was used to assess
the correlation between serum lipids and ED.
RESULTS
This study was conducted among 150 type 2 DM patients
attending either OPD, diabetic clinic or was admitted to
medicine ward.The baseline anthropometric characteristics of patients included in the study are shown in table 1.
The mean age was 44.09+6.83 in patient without ED and
53.28+6.52 in patient with EDthat was statistically signiicant(p<0.001). The mean duration of DM was 2.84+1.99 in
patient without ED and 8.94+6.36 in patient with ED that
was statistically signiicant(p<0.001). The mean BMI was
24.87 +2.87 and 26.12+4.86 without and with ED respectively that was statistically insigniicant. The mean SBP
was 131.27+10.48 and145.23+18.03 without and with ED
respectively that was statistically signiicant (p<0.001).The
mean DBP was 86.73+9.39 and86.00+9.83 without and
with ED respectively that was statistically insigniicant. The
FBS was 123.18+30.52 and153.69+46.52 without and with
ED respectively that was statistically signiicant (p<0.046).
The mean HbA1c was 6.66+1.78 and8.53+1.79 86 without
Severity of ED
Erectile dysfunction
No of Patients
%
Absent
33
22
Mild
9
6
Moderate
54
36
Severe
54
36
Total
150
100
Table-2: Prevalence and severity of ED
Lipid Proile
TC
LDL
TG
HDL
VLDL
ED
Present(n=117)
Absent(n=33)
Present(n=117)
Absent(n=33)
Present(n=117)
Absent(n=33)
Present(n=117)
Absent(n=33)
Present(n=117)
Absent(n=33)
and with ED respectively that was statistically signiicant
(p<0.004).Prevalence and severity of ED is shown in table
2. Detailed analysis of the above table revealed that although
the prevalence of ED increasing with age however contrary to
increasing prevalence, the variation in severity of ED doesn’t
increase proportionately and varied according to individual
characteristics. Correlation between serum lipids and ED is
shown in table 3. The mean lipid proile TC, LDL, TG, HDLwere 158.36+15.38 and 186.26+38.88; 97.06+16.98 and
119.33+31.94; 116.33+37.30 and 94.09+14.48; 50.18+7.05
and 44.08+8.13 respectively in patient without ED and with
ED that were statistically signiicant(p<0.001). However mean VLDL was 21.60+4.16 and23.00+7.17; in patient
without ED and with ED that was statistically insigniicant.
DISCUSSION
Erectile dysfunction is one of the most common complications of diabetes and also one of the most underdiagnosed.
It’s a common misbelief of diabetic patients that ED is “in
their heads” and that “their Doctor will dismiss any sexual problems they might bring up,”11 it may be a relief for
patients to learn that their ED is physical, related to their
diabetes, and treatable.
In our present study, ED was present in about 78% of patients out of which 6% had mild ED, whereas 36% each were
having moderate and severe ED. Various studies done previously had enumerated the prevalence of ED in DM patient
from as low as 15% to as high as 90%.12 This difference may
be due to effect of other factor like age, duration of illness
and associated complication. However despite this limitation
it can be stated that ED is a very common problem affected
as many as 75% of diabetics in some stage of life. In our
study it was observed that prevalence of ED increase with
increasing age. Prevalence increased from 20% from age
group of <40 years to 100% in age group of >60 years. Most
of the earlier studies have also reported signiicant correlation between ED and age. The effect of age on prevalence
and severity of disease might be due to age related changes
occurring in body as well as various other complications that
nay coexist in DM patient. Ultimately, it is the accelerated
atherosclerosis which is common denominator for increased
Mean
SD
SE
186.26
38.88
6.23
158.36
15.83
4.77
119.33
31.94
5.12
97.06
16.98
5.12
116.33
37.30
5.97
94.09
14.48
4.59
44.03
8.13
1.30
50.15
7.05
2.13
23.00
7.17
1.15
21.60
4.16
1.25
Table-3: Correlation between serum lipids and ED
t
2.312
P
0.025
2.214
0.032
2.014
0.022
2.278
0.027
0.616
0.541
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
207
Meena et al.
Early Harbinger of Erectile Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetics
prevalence of ED in DM patients. A signiicant correlation
was also noted between duration of diabetes and ED. It was
seen that with duration of diabetes <5 years the prevalence
of ED was 56%, 92% with duration of 6-10 years and 100%
with duration of disease >10 years. Almost similar results
were noted by Mota et al in 2003.13 Although no direct
correlation was observed between severity of ED and FBS
however it was observed that as FBS increased so was the
prevalence of ED. Some studies having larger no subjects
such as that done by Thomas et al14 have also demonstrated
a signiicant correlation between FBS and ED. Most signiicant inding of our study was the alarming dyslipidemia especially hypercholestremia and raised LDL level in majority
of patients having moderate to severe dyslipidemia irrespective of their duration and glycemic status of the patients. It
was also noted that low level of HDL predisposes the patient
to development of ED. Almost similar results were noted by
Roumeguere T et al.15
Some limitation of the study should be kept in mind while
interpreting the results. Most important being the sample
size. The results would be better and generalized with larger
population sample. Secondly most of patient selected were
from government hospital that belong to low-middle socioeconomic group. Improper dietary habits as well increased
incidences of STDs are quite common that increase incidences of ED.Thus better outcome can be drawn by including patients from other sections of the society.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
CONCLUSION
11.
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Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, et al. Effects of
intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin
in patients with hypertension: principal results of the
Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised
trial. HOT Study Group. Lancet. 1998;351:1755–1762.
UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. Tight blood
pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38.
Br Med J. 2000;317:703–713.
Steiner G. Lipid intervention trials in diabetes. Diabetes
Care. 2000;23:B49–B53.
Rosen RC, Riley A, Wagner G, Osterloh IH, Kirkpatrick J, Mishra A.The International index of ED (IIFE):
A multidimensional scale for assessment of ED. Urol
1997; 49: 822-30.
Marwick C: Survey says patients expect littlephysician
help on sex. JAMA 1999;281: 2172-2173.
Sasaki H, Yamasaki H, Ogawa K, Nanjo K, Kawamori
R, Iwamoto Y, Katayama R, Shirai M; Prevalence and
risk factor for ED in Japanese diabetics. Diabetic Res
Clin Pract 2005;70:81-89.
Mota M, Lichardopol C, Mota E, Panus C, Panus A, ED
in Diabetic patient. Rom J Inter Med 2003; 41:162-177
Thomas NG, Tomlinson B, Abdullah ASM, Yeung
VTF, Chan JCN, Wong KS. Association of ED with
cardiovascular risk factor and existing vascular disease
in male Chinese Type 2 DM patients. Diabetes care
2005;28:2051-53.
Roumeguere T1, Wespes E, Carpentier Y, Hoffmann P,
Schulman CC.Erectile dysfunction is associated with a
high prevalence of hyperlipidemia and coronary heart
disease risk: Eur Urol. 2003;44:355-9.
ED almost always has an organic or mixed etiology in diabetic men. This often results in diabetic men reporting more
severe ED when they present for treatment of this condition.
ED is a common complication of diabetes that affects patients’ quality of life. While the etiology of this complication
may be multifactorial in nature, it is clear that it usually has a
strong organic component. Because men with diabetes value
their erectile function highly, it is important that health care
provider must encourage them to maintain good glycemic,
blood pressure, and lipid control to minimize their risk of
developing this complication. Moreover patients with dyslipidemia particularly hypercholestremia, triglyceridemia or
having lower values of HDL can be warned about the possible adverse effect on their quality of life as well as impending ED and other adverse outcomes including stroke as well
as CV risk. Early monitoring and correction of dyslipidemia
will not only improve the quality of life of DM patients but
will also enable them to live a longer healthier life.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
REFERENCES
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
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NIH. Consensus development panel on impotence, NIH
consensus conference. Impotence JAM 1993; 270:8390.
Klein R, Klein BE, Lee KE, Moss SE, Cruickshanks KJ:
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
REVIEW ARTICLE
www.ijcmr.com
The Mind-Body Connection: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy in
Management of Temporomandibular Disorders
Pratibha1, Avanindra Kumar2, Shraddha Rani3, Vaibhav Kamal4
ABSTRACT
Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) can be deined as a
heterogenous collection of disorders marked by orofacial
pain, masticatory dysfunction or both. TMDs can signiicantly
impact the quality of life. The diagnosis and treatment of these
disorders continue to perplex oral physicians. Current therapies for management remain only marginally successful and
in some cases, they do not contribute to relief at all, raising
the issue whether we are treating merely the symptoms of the
disease and not the cause. The psychological component of
this debilitating condition is frequently overlooked or ignored.
The dynamic relationship between cognition and psychophysiologic response is well proven. TMD patients show high rates
of dysfunctional alteration and activity interference similar to
other chronic pain syndromes. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
(CBT) is a modality that decreases maladaptive behavior and
teaches adaptive coping. It has been shown to be effective in
achieving a range of improvements in patients with chronic
pain. In view of limitations of use of long tern pain medication
and TMJ surgery, a pragmatic approach seems to be inclusion
of CBT as minimal intervention therapy for TMDs.
Keywords: Temporomandibular dysfunction, TMJ disorders,
TMJ pain, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, pain and cognition
INTRODUCTION
Temporomandibular disorders (TMDs) involve a group
of symptoms associated with pain and dysfunction of the
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) involving the masticatory
system.1 These disorders are also referred to as ‘temporomandibular dysfunction’, ‘craniomandibular disorders’ and
‘mandibular dysfunction’.TMDs can be subdivided into
muscular and articular categories. Differentiation between
the two is sometimes dificult because muscle disorders may
mimic articular disorders, and they may coexist. Symptoms
range from mild pain and jaw dysfunction that may resolve
over time to chronic conditions of intractable pain and limitations in jaw function that are severely debilitating.2 A review
of 18 epidemiologic studies found prevalence rates ranging
from 16% to 59% for reported symptoms and 33% to 86%
for clinical signs; a more recent meta-analysis of 51 prevalence studies registered even more extreme variations: 6%
o 93% based on subjects’ reports and 0% to 93% according
to clinical assessments.3 Signs and symptoms of TMD are
in general more prevalent, more severe, and more long-lastingin women than in men, which to some extent may explain
the preponderance of women among TMD patients.4
The pharmacological treatments tried in these patients include nonprescription pain relievers, anti-inlammatory
agents, muscle relaxants, narcotic agents, antidepressants,
antianxiety medications or surgical treatment methods. Nonpharmacological treatment has also been used as adjunct or
monotherapy in patients (bite plane therapy, temporary or
permanent occlusal therapy, orthodontic therapy, jaw exercises, thermal therapy, ultrasound therapy, transcutaneous
electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) and acupuncture)5 Literature is replete with mention of cases which were refractory
to all such treatment. Patients with TMD pain are similar to
patients with other chronic pain syndrome, both including
high rates of psychosocial dysfunction and activity interference.6 A number of other conditions occurred signiicantly
more frequently among TMD affected individuals, including
headaches, depression, fatigue, ibromyalgia, autoimmune
disorders, sleep apnoea and gastrointestinal symptoms.4
To a large extent, these conditions remain poorly understood
and there exists a plethora of approaches to diagnose and
classify them. The RDC/TMD is a dual axis to assess and
classify patients with TMD.7 The axis I measures physical
diseases including persistent orofacial pain, llimitations in
mandibular range of motion, pain on masticatory muscle
palpation and detectable sounds in the TMJ during jaw function,while axis II includes a 31-questionnaire to evaluate the
psychological and psychosocial status of TMD patient, such
as pain status variables, disability levels, depression and
non-speciic physical symptoms.
Senior Lecturer, Departement of Oral Medicine and Radiology,
Reader, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, 3Senior
Lecturer, Department of Prosthodontics and Crown and Bridge,
4
Senior lecturer, Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, Dr. B R Ambedkar Institute of Dental Sciences and Hospital,
Patna, India.
1
2
Corresponding author: Avanindra Kumar, Reader, Department of
Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Dr. B R Ambedkar Institute of
Dental Sciences and Hospital, Patna, India
How to cite this article: Pratibha, Avanindra Kumar, Shraddha
Rani, Vaibhav Kamal. The mind-body connection: cognitive behavioural therapy in management of temporomandibular disorders.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):209-212.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
209
Pratibha et al.
Mind-Body Connection: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
Although, TMD is not a life threatening disease, the quality
of life can be adversely impacted by the chronic nature of the
pain. The psychological component of this debilitating condition is either overlooked by healthcare professionals due to
preoccupation with treating the perceived etiology or ignored
due to lack of familiarity with psychological assessment and
counseling methods. The psychological co-morbidity has led
to the question of whether treatment approaches need to be
reformulated to adequately address this form of pain.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) concerns with the psychological aspect of pain. CBT focuses on the interrelationships between cognition (emotion), actions (behaviors) and
feeling(effect) and the role they play in a person’s symptoms,
functioning and quality of life.8 CBT works on the following
principles: (1) The assumption that individuals feelings and
behaviors are inluenced by his or her thoughts; (2) The use
of structured techniques to help individuals identifying and
changing maladaptive thoughts and behaviors and (3) The
emphasis on teaching skills that individuals can apply more
liberally when facing problems. Researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral skills training with TMD patients similar to conditions such as chronic
back pain.9 Unfortunately CBT as therapy for TMD has not
yet gained enough acceptance in clinical practice owing to
lack of evidence in literature for its use. However, the complexity of this condition underscores the urgency to evaluate these domains rather than one that simply addresses the
potential etiological mechanisms in a singular fashion. This
article reviews the biopsychosocial moderatation of chronic
pain in TMDs and how CBT may be beneicial for effective
management of this condition.
METHOD
Literature search was carried out using following keywords:
Temporomandibular dysfunction, TMJ disorders, TMJ pain,
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Pain and Emotion, Biopsychosocial perspective, chronic pain. Only articles published
in English language were considered. A total of 100 articles
were reviewed, out of which 40 were literature reviews, 41
were original studies and 19 were case reports.
DISCUSSION
The patient with temporomandibular joint dysfunction has
been a part of dental practice for many years. Helkimo, a
pioneer in TMD epidemiology, concluded that “symptoms
of dysfunction of the masticatory system are more common
than hitherto assumed. This implies that dentists in the future
must interest themselves more than before for diagnosis and
treatment of functional disturbances of the masticatory system in general practice.”10 It is imperative to understand the
pathophysiology of pain, transition from acute to chronic,
210
moderation by psychosocial factors and how it can be consequently managed by modifying them.
Biopsychosocial Model of Pain
Arguable the start of the modern era in chronic pain treatment began with the Gate Control Theory of pain (Melzack
and Wall,1965) which emphasized the importance of cognitive and effective as well as sensory inluences on pain. The
biopsychosocial model focuses on both disease and illness,
with illness being viewed as the complex interaction of biological, psychological and social factors. The distinction
between disease and illness is analogous to the distinction
that can be made between nociception and pain. Nociception
involves the stimulation of nerves that convey information
about potential tissue damage to the brain. In contrast, pain
is a subjective perception that results from the transduction,
transmission and modulation of sensory information.11
The biopsychosocial approach views pain and disability
as a complex and dynamic interaction among physiologic, psychologic and social factors that perpetuate and may
even worsen the cinical presentation. In stark contrast, the
traditional biomedical approach assumes that symptoms
have speciic physical causes and attempts are made to eradicate the cause by rectifying the physical pathology or by
cutting or blocking the pain pathways pharmacologically or
surgically. Literature has consistently established that chronic pain can develop from the reinforcement of acute pain
through operant conditioning. Feedback from the environment or social cues may facilitate or discourage engaging
in pain behaviors.12 It is suspected that the identiication of
psychological issues serves as an indicator that acute pain is
becoming more chronic in nature.13
The biomedical approach traditionally has promised a cure
or barring that, elimination of signiicant amount of pain.
Currently though, there are no deinitive cures for the most
prevalent chronic pain syndromes. Holding out the promise
for an elusive care adversely affects people with musculoskeletal pain because none currently exists. Rehabilitation
rather than cure is the most appropriate therapeutic option.
Prevalance of co-morbid conditions
There has been a lot of research into recognizing a high rate
of psychological co-mobidity in patients with TMJ dysfunction. Anxiety disordersrepresent a common syndrome comprised of both emotional and psychophysiological symptoms. Gatchel et al observed higher levels of anxiety among
patients with acute TMD relative to those with chronic TMD.
These and related indings underscore the notion that anxiety may represent a potential mechanism in the persistence
of pain.15 Mood disorders including depression represent a
common factor in chronic pain. Their presence inluences
numerous germane endpoints to pain patients including pain
severity, pain-related disability, treatment response and quality of life. In one study, approximately 40% of TMD patients
in their sample met criteria for clinical depression.16
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Pratibha et al.
Post-traumaticStress Disorder(PTSD) is frequently observed
in patients suffering from all forms of orofacial pain. Its
prevalence is believed to be the second largest to depression
and has been estimated to be around 10-30% in TMD. Gender differences have emerged from these data with females
exhibiting a higher degree of TMD and PTSD symptoms
compared to males. Consistent with other pain populations,
the presence of PTSD in TMD increases the likelihood of a
greater pain severity, lower pain threshold, poorer treatment
outcomes, reduced functionality and a higher level of disability.17 Among acute TMD participants, those with multiple diagnoses (including MPDS) were more likely to report
higher pain as well as more interference with daily activities
due to pain relative to participants who did not have a TMD
diagnosis.18 Other psychological constructs are also believed
to inluence pain symptoms. For example, stress burden has
begun to receive increased attention as a pivotal variable in
the manifestation and course of orofacial pain.19
Further, it underscores the potential etiological pathways in
which pain emerges. For example, the presence of psychological distress may trigger muscular activity that eventually
might elicit pain via mechanical pathways. The documented
psychological co-morbidity also allows us to speculate that
the processing of pain has been compromised by the same
abnormal neurotransmitter imbalances observed in psychological disorders.20
Pain and Cognition
Cognition refers to the subjects’ ability to evaluate the signiicance of experience. It overlies the individuals learned behavior concerning the experience of pain. It may block, modulate
or enhance the perception of pain. Proper manipulation of various environmental factors is required to help patient unlearn
this behavior.In the initial stages of pain, the aflicted individual tends to believe that the sensation is directly associated
with a particular cause or event (e.g. injury) and is temporary.
However, upon the sustained presence of pain, the individual
becomes aware of its permanence and adverse thoughts may
develop.17 Individuals may ixate on the pain, which can create
ampliication of any pain stimulus that is experienced, a phenomenon known as ‘Pain Catastrophization’.18 It is deined
as dwelling on the worst possible outcome of any situation
in which there is a possibility for an unpleasant outcome. It
included three main psychological responses: (1) Rumination
(2) Magniication (3) Helplessness. Somatization is a disposition or trait that manifests as the “tendency to experience
and communicate somatic distress in response to psychosocial
stress”. Either of these traits can make it hard for the patient to
cope with chronic pain and does lead to maladaptive behavior
that makes it refractory in nature.
The increased attention to the role of cognitions in mood,
anxiety and other psychological disorders sparked interest in
incorporating cognitive therapy techniques into behavioral
therapies for chronic pain. The techniques basically involve
cognitive approaches such as19 (1) changing the patients’
Mind-Body Connection: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
conceptualization of pain management (2) changing self-defeating beliefs about pain (3) reversing the lifestyle affects
of chronic pain and (4) help the patient set realistic goals.
Behavioral strategies that can be instituted include: (1) encouraging the patient to test and extend his physical limits
(2) encouraging the patient to carry out activities in spite of
pain (4) encouraging ‘Formal Relaxation’ (5) help the patient
set up a pain diary and (6) regular appointments with the
professional for review.
Turk and colleagues hypothesized that patients who report
emotional and physical dificulties would beneit more from
a treatment that included cognitive therapy that from a similar comparison treatment that did not.20 CBT, which encourages the patient to directly attend to and manage the pain
problem may actually work less well for those high in somatization than a treatment that entails less focus on symptoms. Self-eficacy of the conidence to manage pain may
also moderate treatment. Those with greater conidence in
their ability to cope may more readily adopt and persist in the
coping skills developed in CBT.21
In patients with TMD, somatization is related to more widely dispersed pain that is more severe and more dificult to
localize and treat. It may be the case that the over concern
with bodily symptoms interferes with the patients’ ability to
do the mental work. (e.g. reframing and problem solving)
required by CBT.22 CBT may also be more effective than
a more passive controlled treatment for those who demonstrate a “monitoring” coping style, i.e., the tendency to attend to threatening stimuli.23,24
It appears that CBT works best for those who are best prepared to use it. It therefore, may be clinically useful to assess
key constructs such as somatization, readiness and self eficacy to manage chronic pain and to add intervention components that will serve to increase readiness and boost self
eficacy for managing TMD pain.
CONCLUSION
As reviewed above there have been quite a few studies that
have examined treatment outcomes on TMJ disorders, most
have major shortcomings in experimental design. Few systematic reviews of studies examining CBT in treatment of
TMD speciically have been published.Integration of CBT
into primary care settings offers much promise in both expanding application of CBT and improving outcomes. There
is a clear and pressing need for well designed randomized
control trials examining CBT in TMDs. Special attention
must be paid to the following: (1) use of standardized diagnostic criteria for TMD such as RDC/TMD (2) adequate
sample size for enhancing validity of results and (3) controlling of possible confounders. Ultimately, the testing of
such a framework would allow researchers to determine
whether the convergence of factors can lead to better integrative interventional approaches to treat the pain condition
oftentimes perceived as treatment reticent.
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
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Pratibha et al.
Mind-Body Connection: Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
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Sherman JJ, Carlson CR, Wilson JF, Okeson JP, McCubbin JA. Post-traumatic stress disorder among patients
with orofacial pain. J Orofac Pain 2005;19:309-17.
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18. Mehalick et al. Assessment of the psychological comorbidity, pathophysiological mechanisms and treatment
implications in patients with chronic orofacial pain. Anaplastology 2013;2:32-34.
19. Kindler S, Samietz S, Houshmand M, Grabe HJ,
Bernhardt et al. Depressive and anxiety symptoms as
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23. Sherman JJ, LeResche L, Huggins KH, Mancl LA, Sage
JC, Dworkin SF. The relationship of somatization and
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2004;66:852-60.
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with threat: implications for health. J Pers Soc Psychol
1988;54:1142-8.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Effect of Gabapentin on Postoperative Pain, Nausea, Vomiting and
Requirement of Analgesia in First 24 Hours in Patients Undergoing
Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy Under General Anaesthesia - A
Randomized Double Blind Placebo Controlled Study
Gopal Krishan1, Rampal Singh2, Karandeep Singh3, Malti Agarwal4, Lakhvinder Singh Kang5,
Shaheen Begum6
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting are
frequent and unpleasant adverse effects associated with anaesthesia and surgery. Objective of the study was to evaluate
the effect of oral gabapentin on postoperative pain, nausea,
vomiting and requirement of analgesia in irst 24hours (hrs) in
patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
Materials and Methods: A total of 60 patients posted for
laparoscopic cholecystectomy were included in this randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Patients were
divided randomly into two groups (Group A and Group B) of
30 patients (n=30) each with the help of computer generated
random number table. Group A patients received two doses
of 300 mg gabapentin: irst dose evening before surgery and
second dose 2hrs before induction. Group B patients received
matching placebo tablets of same size and shape as gabapentin tablets. All patients were observed for (pain measured
by visual analogueue scale, VAS), nausea, vomiting, need of
opioids and antiemetics in irst 24hours postoperatively. In addition, Pulse Rate (PR), Non-Invasive blood pressure (NIBP);
systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure
(DBP) were analyzed pre and postoperatively.
Results: Both groups were comparable with respect to demographic proile (p>0.05). Change in PR and NIBP between the
two groups were insigniicant (p>0.05). Pain score in gabapentin group at 1,6,12 and 24hours (hrs) postoperatively was
signiicantly less than placebo group (p<0.001).
Conclusion: Administration of gabapentin evening before
surgery and 2 hours before induction signiicantly decreased
the incidence of postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting.
Keywords: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy, gabapentin, postoperative pain, nausea, vomiting.
INTRODUCTION
After laparoscopic cholecystectomy under general anaesthesia pain, nausea, and vomiting are the common complications
which present a vexing challenge to anaesthesiologist. These
symptoms have been reported in as many as 42%–72% of
patients after laparoscopic cholecystectomy.1 The etiology
of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is complex
and is multifactorial. Although there are multiple deinitions
of pain, most experts agree that it is primarily a sensory experience.2 There are two major components that contribute
to postoperative pain, inlammatory and neuropathic pain.
Both of these states share many common features and can be
mitigated either jointly or separately.3 Opioids are the most
popular analgesic agents used for the prophylaxis and treatment of postoperative pain. So, researches in this ield are
focused on inding new alternative drugs or drugs that can
be combined with opioid to reduce the need for its use as
opiods have many side effects.4 The other drugs currently
used for treatment and prevention of PONV are prokinetics, dopaminegic antagonist, 5HT3 antagonists, butyrophenones, anticholinergics, phenothiazines, antihistaminics,
benzamides and steroids alone or in combination with other
antiemetics.5–10
Gabapentin is an analogue of gamma aminobutyric acid and
generally used as an antiepileptic agent.11 It is used for neuropathic pain, diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic pain, and
relex sympathetic dystrophy.11–13 It is an analgesic drug that
can be affect directly by interaction with nociceptors in the
central nervous system. Although the exact mode of its actionis not known, gabapentin appears to have a unique effect
on voltage-dependent calcium ions at the postsynaptic dorsal
horns and may, therefore, interrupt the series of events that
lead to experience of a neuropathic pain sensation.14 GabapAssistant Professor, 2Associate Professor, 3Junior Resident (III
year), 4Professor and Head, 5Professor, 6Senior Resident, Department of Anaesthesia and Critical Care, Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital, Pilibhit Bypass Road, Place: Bareilly, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr Rampal Singh, Address: Associate
Professor, Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care, Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital, Pilibhit Bypass Road, Bareilly, India
How to cite this article: Gopal Krishan, Rampal Singh, Karandeep
Singh, Malti Agarwal, Lakhvinder Singh Kang, Shaheen Begum.
Effect of gabapentin on postoperative pain, nausea, vomiting and
requirement of analgesia in irst 24 hours in patients undergoing
laparoscopic cholecystectomy under general anaesthesia - a randomized double blind placebo controlled study. International Journal
of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):213-216.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
213
Krishan et al.
Effects of Gabapentin on Postoperative Pain, Nausea, Vomiting and Requirement of Analgesia
entin is also effective in reducing the nausea and vomiting,
which are induced by chemotherapy.15 There is evidence that
tachykinin activity is a part of pathogenesis of chemotherapy induced emesis. Tachykinin neurotransmitter activity
changes in response to gabapentin, which may be the possible mechanism. Therefore, the effects of tachykinin may be
the mechanism leading to nausea reduction after surgery and
chemotherapy.15
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This double-blind placebo-controlled study was conducted
in the Departments of anaesthesia and critical care in Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital, Bareilly. After
approval from Institutional Ethical Committee, and written informed consent, total 60 patients were selected. The
patients with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus, renal or liver
diseases, concomitant diseases with nausea and vomiting,
use of antiemetics in the 24hours before surgery, pregnancy, breast feeding, antidepressant use, and conversion from
laparoscopic cholecystectomy to open cholecystectomy
were excluded from the study. The primary outcome was the
incidence of pain after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The
secondary outcome was the effect of gabapentin on postoperative nausea and vomiting. Patients were randomly divided
into two groups using computer generated random number
table. Group A patients received tablet gabapentin 300mg in
the evening before surgery and 300mg, 2hrs before induction. Group B patients received a matching placebo (tablet)
of same size and shape as gabapentin tablet. All patients were
Variables
Group A
(n=30)
36±5.05
68±9.65
Group B
(n=30)
37±5.95
61±7.89
Age (years)
Durationof surgery
(minutes)
Duration of Anesthesia
119±10.03 117±9.89
(minutes)
Table-1: Demographic proile
p-value
0.78
0.15
0.74
Parameters
1hr
214
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis was done by using paired and unpaired
t-test. P-value <0.05 was considered as statistically signiicant and p<0.001 was considered as statistically highly signiicant.
RESULTS
A total of 60 patients were included in the study. All values
were calculated in mean±SD. The mean age of patients receiving gabapentin (group A) was 36.0±5.05 years and in
the placebo group (group B) was 37.0±5.95 years [Table.1].
The mean preoperative PR in groups A and group B was
80.5±2.54/minutes (min) and 84.7±3.19/min, respectively (p>0.05). The mean postoperative PR after 1, 6, 12, and
24hrs in gabapentin group (group A) was 87.7±2.91/min,
89.54±2.75/min, 82.4±1.94/min and 80.8±1.76/min, respectively, and in placebo group was 88.45±2.09/min, 85.2±1.97/
min, 89.8±2.08/min, and 83.78±1.98/min, respectively.
There were no statistically signiicant difference between the
two groups (p>0.05). The preoperative SBP in gabapentin
group and placebo group was 132.3±5.26 and 128.25±4.59
mmHg, (p>0.05). The postoperative SBP after 1, 6, 12, and
24hrs in gabapentin group was 129.7±3.54, 131.21±2.94,
Time of measurment
Postoperative
6hrs
12hrs
Preoperative
PR/minute
Group A
Group B
p-value
SBP mmHg
Group A
Group B
p-value
DBP mmHg
Group A
Group B
p-value
induced with general anesthesia by using inj. Propofol (2mg/
kg) and inj. Vecuronium bromide (0.1mg/kg). No analgesia
or antiemetic was administered preoperatively.
The PR, SBP and DBP were measured preoperatively before
induction and postoperatively after 1, 6, 12, and 24hrs in both
the groups. Measurement of pain was done by using visual
analogue scale, “VAS” (0-No pain, 10-Worst possible pain)
in both the groups. Injection ondansetron and butorphenol
were used as rescue antiemetic and analgesic medications,
respectively, on as-and-when required basis postoperatively. The average number of analgesics and antiemetics used
in irst postoperative day i.e. for 24hours were calculated in
both the groups.
24hrs
80.5±2.54
84.7±3.19
>0.05
87.7±2.91
88.45±2.09
>0.05
89.54±2.75
85.2±1.97
>0.05
82.4±1.94
89.8±2.08
>0.05
80.8±1.76
83.78±1.98
>0.05
132.3±5.26
128.25±4.59
>0.05
129.7±3.54
127.8±2.91
>0.05
131.21±2.94
129.6±3.76
>0.05
129.57±2.83
129.41±1.89
>0.05
130.53±3.65
127.81±3.73
>0.05
79.32±1.23
82.43±1.19
79.85±2.84
86.09±1.69
77.82±2.434
84.9±2.76
86.37±2.58
87.26±1.97
>0.05
>0.05
>0.05
>0.05
Table-2: Change in Pulse Rate (PR) and Non-InvasiveBlood Pressure (NIBP)
86.29±2.69
83.72±2.22
>0.05
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Effects of Gabapentin on Postoperative Pain, Nausea, Vomiting and Requirement of Analgesia
129.57±2.83, and 130.53±3.65 mmHg, respectively, and in
placebo group was 127.8±2.91, 129.6±3.76, 129.41±1.89 and
127.81±3.73 mmHg, respectively. The preoperative DBP in
group A and group B was 79.32±1.23 and 77.82±2.43mmHg,
(p>0.05). The postoperative DBP after 1, 6, 12, and 24hrs in
gabapentin group was 82.43±1.19, 79.85±2.84, 86.09±1.69,
and 86.29±2.69 mmHg and in placebo group was 84.9±2.76,
86.37±2.58, 87.26±1.97, and 83.72±2.22 mmHg respectively. Intergroup SBP and DBP comparison was insigniicant
(p>0.05) [Table. 2].
Pain score was measured in both the groups using visual analogue scale (VAS), at 1,6,12 and 24hrs on irst postoperative
day. Pain score in gabapentin group and placebo group at
1,6,12 and 24hrs on irst postoperative day was 6.12±1.05,
4.18±1.68, 2.49±1.03 and 0.36±0.45 and in placebo group
were 8.17±1.25, 6.18±1.89, 4.17±1.09 and 1.37±0.95 respectively. Intergroup comparison was highly signiicant
(p<0.001) [Table.3 igure.1]. Number of patients complaining vomiting were less in gabapentin group in comparison to
placebo group (p<0.001) [Table. 4].
The average number of analgesics required on irst postoperative day in gabapentin group and placebo group were
1.21±0.23 and 4.01±1.15 respectively; the comparison between the two groups was highly signiicant (p<0.001).
The average number of antiemetics required on irst postoperative day in gabapentin group and placebo group was
1.19±0.27 and 3.97±1.02 respectively. Intergroup comparison was highly signiicant (p < 0.001) [Table. 5].
DISCUSSION
Prevention and treatment of postoperative pain, nausea and
vomiting are major challenges to anaesthesiologists in the
post anaesthesia care unit (PACU). The present study was
conducted to compare the effectsof oral gabapentin with placebo on postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting in patients
undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The mean age of
patients in gabapentin and placebo group was 36±5.05 and
37±5.95 years respectively, which were comparable with
previous studies by Soroushet al.16 and Behdadet al.17 Vital
signs such as PR, SBP,and DBP were assessed preoperatively and during irst 24hrs after surgery at 1, 6, 12, and 24
hours. There was no signiicant difference between the two
groups with respect to PR, SBP, and DBP. This is also observed by Behdad et al.17 proving that gabapentin did not alter pulse rate and blood pressure signiicantly at given doses.
Pain score was signiicantly reduced on irst postoperative
day in the gabapentin group when compared with the placebo group. Our indings were consistent with the previous
studies by Behdad et al.,17 Mohammadi et al.,18 Montazeri et
al.19 and Dirks et al.20 But it was not in accordance with the
study by Bartholdy et al.21 where gabapentin had no effect
on postoperative pain which can be due to ineffectiveness of
gabapentin at low does.
Prescribing gabapentin evening before surgery and before
Time after surgery
Group A
Group B
(hours)
(n=30)
(n=30)
1
6.12±1.05
8.17±1.25
6
4.18±1.65
6.18±1.89
12
2.49±1.03
4.17±1.09
24
0.36±0.45
1.37±0.95
Table-3: Intensity of pain
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
<0.001
Group A
Group
p
(n=30)
B (n=30)
value
Rescue analgesia
1.21±0.23
4.01±1.15
<0.001
Rescue antiemetic
1.19 ± 0.27 3.97 ± 1.02 <0.001
Table-5: Requirement of number of analgesia and antiemetic
Comparision of pain intensity in groups
10
8
6
Group A
4
Group B
2
0
1
6
12
24
Time after surgery(hr)
Figure-1: Comparison of pain scores (VAS) between two groups
induction resulted in decrease in average number of analgesics and antiemetics when compared with the placebo group
in irst 24hours postoperatively. This has been seen in previous studies by Soroush et al.,16 Pandey et al.22 and Khademi
et al.23 where gabapentin signiicantly reduced the incidence
of postoperative nausea and vomiting and decreased the administration of antiemetics.
Like our study Rosarius et al.24 used gabapentin 1200 mg
orally, preoperatively to prevent postoperative pain after
vaginal hysterectomy and noticed signiicant decrease in
postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting.Turan et al.25 also
studied the use of oral gabapentin given preoperatively in
patients of spinal surgery noticed signiicant reduction in incidence of nausea and vomiting compared to placebo.
Furthermore Bashir et al. and Sharma et al. also reveals that
gabapentin may prove to be effective in prevention of postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting.26-27
CONCLUSION
The use of gabapentin evening before surgery and 2hours
before induction reduced the administration of postoperative
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
p-value
Time after surgery
Group A Group B
p-value
(hours)
(n=30)
(n=30)
1
6
18
<0.001
6
2
12
<0.001
12
3
6
<0.001
24
0
1
<0.001
Table-4: Number of patients complaining vomiting
Pain scores (VAS
Krishan et al.
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
215
Krishan et al.
Effects of Gabapentin on Postoperative Pain, Nausea, Vomiting and Requirement of Analgesia
analgesics and antiemetics. However, additional studies are
required to evaluate the magnitude of effect of gabapentin on
postoperative pain, nausea, and vomiting.
16.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to surgeons and operation theatre technical
staff of Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital for their
support.
17.
18.
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Kehlet H, Dahl JB. Anaesthesia, surgery, and challenges
inpostoperative recovery. Lancet 2003;362:1921–8.
Sikka R, Kaul T, Grewal A, Satija A. Postoperative nauseaand vomiting. J AnesthClin Pharmacology 2007;23:34156.
Wang JJ, Ho ST, Liu YH, et al. Dexamethasone reducesnausea and vomiting after laparoscopic cholecystectomy.
Br J Anaesth 1999; 83:772-75.
Kothari SN, Boyd WC, Bottcher ML, LambertPJ. Antiemetic eficacy of prophylactic dimenhydrinate (Dramamine) vs
ondansetron (Zofran). J Surg Endoscopy 2000;14:926-29.
Wilson EB, Bass CS, Abrameit W, Roberson R, Smith
RW.Metoclopramide versus ondensetron in prophylaxis of
nausea and vomiting for laparoscopic cholycystectomy.Am
J Surg 2001;181:138-41.
Kotelko DM, Rottman RL, Wright WC et al. Transdermal
scopolamine decreases nausea and vomiting followingcesarean section in patients receiving epidural morphine. Anesthesiology 1989;71:675-78.
Madej TH, Simpson KH. Comparison of the use of domperidone, droperidol, and metoclopramide in the prevention of nausea and vomiting following gynaecological surgery. Br J Anaesth 1986;56:879-83.
Rose MS, Kam PC. Gabapentin: pharmacology and its use
in pain management. Anaesthesia 2002;57:451-62.
Rosner H, Rubin L, Kestenbaum A. Gabapentin adjunctive
therapy in neuropathic pain states. Clin J Pain 1996;12:568.
Backonja M, Beydoun A, Edwards KR, Schwartz SL, Fonseca V, Hes M et al. Gabapentin for the symptomatic treatment of painful neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:183-6.
Guttuso T Jr, Roscoe J, Griggs J. Effect of gabapentin on
nausea induced by chemotherapy in patients with breast
cancer. Lancet 2003;361:1703-5.
Guttuso T Jr, Kurlan R, McDermott MP, Kieburtz K.
Gabapentin’s effects on hot lashes in postmenopausal
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women: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol
2003;101:337-45.
Soroush A, Masoomi H, Khorgami Z, Mojtaba S, Moid
R.Effectof prophylactic gabapentin on postoperative nausea andvomiting after laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A
randomized controlled trial. J Minim Invasive SurgSci
2012;1:17-20.
Behdad S, Ayatollahi V, Tabatabaei BA, Tezerjani MD,
Abrishamkar M. Effect of gabapentin on postoperative
pain andoperation complications. A randomized placebo
controlled trial.West Indian Med J 2012;61:128-33.
Mohammadi SS, Seyedi M. Effects of gabapentin on early
postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting in laparoscopic
surgery for assisted reproductive technologies. Pak J BiolSci 2008;11:1878-80.
Montazeri K, Kashei P, Honarmand A. Pre-emptive gabapentin signiicantly reduces Postoperative pain and morphine demand following lower extremity orthopedic surgery. Singapore Med J 2007;48:748-51.
Dirks J, Fredensborg BB, Christensen D, Fomsgaard JS,
FlygerH, Dahl JB. A randomized study of the effects of single dose gabapentin versus placebo on postoperative pain
and morphine consumption after mastectomy. Anesthesiology 2002;97:560-4.
Bartholdy J, Hilsted KL, Hjortsoe NC, Engbaek J, Dahl JB.
Effectof gabapentin on morphine demand and pain after
laparoscopic sterilization using Filshie clips. A double blind
randomized clinicaltrial. BMC Anesthesiol 2006;6:36-45.
Pandey CK, Priye S, Ambesh SP, Singh S, Singh U, Singh PK. Prophylactic gabapentin for prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy: a randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled study. J Postgrad Med 2006;52:97-100.
Khademi S, Ghaffarpasand F, Heiran HR, Asei A. Effects ofPreoperativegabapentin on postoperative nausea
and vomitingafteropen cholecystectomy: a prospective
randomized double-blindplacebo-controlled study. Med
PrincPract 2010;19:57–60.
Rosarius M, Mennander S, Suominen P, et al. Gabapentin
for the prevention of postoperative pain after vaginal hysterectomy. Pain 2000;110:175-8.
Turan A, Karamanlio B, Memi D, Hamamcioglu
MK,Tükenmez B, Pamukçu Z, Kurt I. Analgesic effects of gabapentin after spinal surgery. Anesthesiology
2004;100:935-38.
Bashir F, MohdK, QaziS, Hashia AM.A randomized double
blind placebo controlled study evaluating preventive role
of gabapentin for PONV in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. 2009;11:190-193.
Sharma JP, Bijalwan Anurag, Beg MA, Dutta S, Bawa S,
Anjoom M.Effect of gabapentin on postoperative pain,
nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing laparoscopic
cholecystectomy. International journal of medical science
and public health 2015;4:565-568.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Acute Renal Failure in a Case with the Rare Bombay Blood Group
S. Himamani1, S.M. Shivaprasad2, Umesh. L3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Bombay blood group is a very rare blood
group. Individuals with the Bombay phenotype can receive
only autologous blood or blood from another Bombay blood
group. Transfusing other blood group to them can cause a fatal
hemolytic transfusion reaction.
Case report: In this study, we report a case with the rare
Bombay blood group that was misdiagnosed as the O blood
group and developed a hemolytic transfusion reaction with
acute renal failure and later completely recovered. This highlights the importance of typing in ABO blood grouping and
standard cross-matching and performing standard pretransfusion laboratory tests in hospital blood banks in order to detect
Bombay blood group.
Conclusion: Serum typing or reverse blood grouping along
with O control cells and also antibody screening is the need
of time.
Keywords: RBC-red blood cell, bombay blood group, transfusion reaction, acute renal failure
INTRODUCTION
Bombay phenotype is one of the rarest ABO blood groups.
Blood group of a individual is determined by the antigen
present on their surface. The antigens of ABO group (A,
B, and H) consist of complex carbohydrate molecules. The
expression of A and B antigens is determined by the presence of H antigen on precussor red blood cells. H antigen
can be synthesized by H gene which is located on chromosome 19 and give rise to glycosyltransferase that add l-fucose to a precursor substance to produce H antigen on red
cells. H antigen is an essential substance to A transferase or
B transferase which are encoded by the ABO genes located
on chromosome 9.1 A and B transferases convert H antigen
into either A or B antigens, respectively. Individuals with
extremely rare Bombay phenotype fail to express H transferase. They cannot synthesize A or B antigens, and ABH
antigens are absent from their red cells, regardless of their
ABO blood group genotype.2,3 Since their red cells do not
react with anti-A, anti-B, and anti-AB antiserums, they can
be recognized as the O blood group in cell typing. Their
plasma contains anti-A, anti-B, and strong anti-H which can
be hemolytic and is reactive with all blood types except the
Bombay phenotype. As a result, individuals with the Bombay phenotype can only be safely transfused with autologous
blood or other Bombay red cells
CASE REPORT
A 25-year-old woman was referred to our hospital with
acute renal failure. Before admission to our hospital she was
admitted to peripheral hospital and was diagnosed to have
acute febrile illness and she was given blood transfusion
with ‘O’ blood group.
During transfusion of O red blood cells in the peripheral hospital she developed nausea, restlessness, back pain, fever,
and chills and latter after two days of blood transfusion her
urine output decreased and she was referred to our hospital
which is a teritiary referral hospital for kidney diseases. After
admission to our hospital she was evaluatedand was found to
have mismatched transfusion reaction – unconjugated bilirubin was raised,indirect coombs test was positive,serum haptoglobin was low (<0.27gm/l], and serum LDH was raised.
In reverse typing, her serum showed strong agglutination
with O group control cells. The results of antibody identiication showed the presence of a strong antibody which reacted with all panel cells through a wide thermal range with
a negative autocontrol and she was diagnosed to have Bombay blood group. she had severe renal failure with a serum
creatinine of 7.7, and calculated GFR<10 and she was oliguric. she was given eight session of hemodialysis and one
blood transfusion with Bombay blood group was given since
she had severe anaemia with hemoglobin of 5.4 and found
to have iron deiciency anaemia.She completely recovered
from renal failure within 25 days and her discharge serum
creatinine was 0.9.
DISCUSSION
The Bombay phenotype was irst explained in 1952 in india.1,4
The incompatibility of bombay blood group with several O
blood group donors has been explained. The prevalence of
Bombay phenotype is very common in India (1:10,000 )
Postgraduate, 2Associate Professor, 3Professor and HOD, Department of Nephrology, Institute of Nephrourology, Victoria hospital
campus, Bangalore, India
1
Corresponding author: S. Himamani, Postgraduate, Department
of Nephrology, Institute of Nephrourology, Victoria hospital campus, Bangalore, India
How to cite this article: S. Himamani, S.M. Shivaprasad, Umesh.
L. Acute renal failure in a case with the rare bombay blood group.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):217-218.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
217
Himamani et al.
Acute Renal Failure in a Case with the Rare Bombay Blood Group
Structure of precussor RBC with intial H antigen formed by addition of fucose molecule. ‘ A’ blood group with A antigen formed with
N-acetylglucosamine addition and will have few H antigen. ‘B’ blood group with B antigen formed by adding galactose and will have few
H antigen. AB blood group will have both A and B antigen and with were less H antigen. ‘O’ blood group have only H antigen. Persons
with Bombay phenotype blood group will have no H,A,B antigen. But they will have anti-A, anti-B anti –H antibodies hence they will have
incompatability with all blood group transfusion except they are compatable only with another Bombay phenotype blood group.
Concentration of H antigen in various blood group is as follows, O>A2>B>A2B>A1>A1B
compared to other population like 1:106 in Europe1,4, in Caucasian with an incidence of one in 250,000.1,4 Individuals
with the Bombay phenotype are easily misdiagnosed as the
O blood group in cell typing because no A or B antigen on
RBC surface and because of the presence of strong anti-H in
their plasma, if they receive blood group O red cells or any
other blood group red cells except the Bombay group, they
may develop an acute hemolytic transfusion reaction. This
reaction can cause acute renal failure or disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) which is associated with high
morbidity and mortality rates.
CONCLUSION
Hence in order to decrease transfusion reaction in patient
with Bombay blood group, serum typing or reverse blood
grouping along with O control cells and also antibody
screening in every blood bank should be done.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hayedeh Javadzadeh Shahshahani et al. Transfusion
reaction in a case with the rare Bombay blood group.
Asian J Transfus Sci. 2013; 7: 86–87.
Knowles S, Regan F. Blood cell antigens and antibodies: erythrocytes, platelets and granulocytes. In: Lewis
SM, Bain BJ, Bates I, editors. Practical Haematology.
10 th ed. Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier, Philadelphia,
PA, USA; 2006. p. 481-7
Balgir RS. Identiication of a rare blood group, Bombay
(oh) phenotype, in Bhuyan tribe of northwestern Orissa,
India. Indian J Hum Genet 2007;3:109-13
Bhende YM, Deshpande CK, Bhatia HM, Sanger R,
Race RR, Morgan WT, et al. A "new" blood group character related to the ABO system. Lancet 1952;1:903.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 19-12-2015
218
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Syndromic Approach to Diagnosis of Viral Thrombocytopenic Fever
Ashwin Kulkarni1, Anil Kumar. T2, Lakshmi Narayan A3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Acute febrile illness with thrombocytopenia
is quite common in the tropics. Most of them have a benign
course with nonspeciic symptoms. Dengue polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) and viral cultures are expensive, time consuming and not feasible in all cases, especially in resource limited
settings. Hence, in this study we have compared the clinical
diagnosis of dengue illness according to CDC 2009 guidelines
syndromic approach along with serological tests used routinely in the diagnosis of dengue.
Materials and methods: A total of 100 patients, admitted to
our hospital during June 2015 to August 2015, with history
of fever (>98.8 F), body ache and thrombocytopenia (platelets<1.5 lakhs/cumm), were enrolled in the study. A careful
history was taken followed by relevant systematic examinations. The patients who were tested positive for malarial parasite, chikungunya, leptospira or hanta virus, were excluded.
After excluding other causes of fever and thrombocytopenia,
83 patients were classiied according to CDC 2009 deinition
of dengue.
Results: We found that NS-1 and IgM were positive in 40%
and 6.8% of the cases respectively in patients having dengue
without warning signs in whom the mean duration of illness
was 3 days. The same tests were found positive in 35.5 % and
38.4% respectively in the category of patients who had warning signs where mean duration of illness was 6.5 days.
Conclusion: We concluded that the milder varieties of dengue
illness should be managed according to CDC 2009 guidelines
with a syndromic approach, after ruling out diseases with
speciic treatments such as malarial, leptospiral and ricketsial
infections.
Keywords: Dengue, NS-1, polymerase chain reaction, CDC
INTRODUCTION
Acute febrile illness is extremely common in the tropics.
The causes can range from treatable serious illnesses like
falciparum malaria and leptospirosis to benign illnesses like
non hemorrhagic dengue fever. Dengue is the most prevalent
mosquito-borne viral disease; it is estimated that over 390
million dengue virus infections occur annually throughoutthe world.1 Symptomatic dengue virus infection can present
with a wide range of clinical manifestations ranging from
fever to life-threatening shock syndrome or multiple organ
dysfunction.2 Since there is no speciic antiviral treatment
available, timely and early diagnosis plays an important
role in patient management and implementation of control
measures.3 There are several reasons why early and accurate diagnosis of dengue is important. First, it can help in
patient management by directing clinical attention to the
appearance of major warning signs of severe or even life
threatening complications. Second, an accurate dengue diagnosis prevents unnecessary and expensive antibiotic usage.
Third, prompt diagnosis of index cases can facilitate mosquito control measures in the community, so as to reduce
further transmission. Lastly, the expanded use of accurate
dengue diagnostics provides important data on the epidemiology and health burden of dengue in the community; and
in doing so, it helps inform and guide public health policies,
especially when dengue vaccines and anti-virals are under
development.4 In 2009, Centre of Disease Control had given its deinitions for clinical diagnosis of dengue fever and
the illness is clinically stratiied as Dengue without warning
signs, Dengue with warning signs and Severe Dengue.
Dengue without warning signs
Fever and any two of the following - Nausea, vomiting,
Rash, Aches and pains, Leukopenia, Positive tourniquet test.
Dengue with warning signs
Dengue as deined above with any of the these - abdominal pain or tenderness, persistent vomiting, clinical luid
accumulation (ascites, pleural effusion), mucosal bleeding,
lethargy, restlessness, liver enlargement >2 cm; Laboratory:
increase in HCT concurrent with rapid decrease in platelet
count.
Severe Dengue
Dengue with at least one of the following criteria:
• Severe Plasma Leakage leading to:
– Shock (DSS)
– Fluid accumulation with respiratory distress
• Severe Bleeding as evaluated by clinician
Assistant Professor, 2Professor, Department of General Medicine,
Intern, Department of Pharmacy Practice, M S Ramaiah College of
Pharmacy, Bengaluru, India
1
3
Corresponding author: Ashwin Kulkarni, Assistant Professor,
Department of General Medicine, M.S. Ramaiah Medical College,
Bengaluru, India
How to cite this article: Ashwin Kulkarni, Anil Kumar. T, Lakshmi Narayan A. Syndromic approach to diagnosis of viral thrombocytopenic fever. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3 (1):219-221.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
219
Kulkarni et al.
Diagnosis of Viral Thrombocytopenic Fever
•
Severe organ involvement
– Liver: AST or ALT ≥ 1000
– CNS: impaired consciousness
– Failure of heart and other organs
The diagnostic approach to Dengue can be syndromic or very
speciic.The interpretation of dengue diagnostic tests, adapted from Dengue and Control (DENCO) study, is as follows:
Highly suggestive
One of the following
1. IgM + in a single serum sample
2. IgG + in a single serum sample with a HI titre of 1280 or
greater.
Conirmed
One of the following – 1) PCR+ 2)Virus culture+ 3) IgM sero-conversion in paired sera 4) IgG sero-conversion in paired
sera or four-fold IgG titer increase in paired sera.
The utility of antigen detection tests such as NS1 antigen in
diagnosis of dengue infection is not yet determined.
AIM AND OBJECTIVES
Aims and objectives of the study was to evaluate the diagnostic utility of syndromic approach in the management of
milder forms of dengue fever, as deined by CDC 2009.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
A total of 100 patients, admitted to our hospital during June
2015 to August 2015, with history of fever (>98.8 F), body
ache and thrombocytopenia (platelets <1.5 lakhs/cumm),
were enrolled in the study. A careful history was taken followed by relevant systematic examinations. History of an
intake of alternative forms of medicine such as papaya leaf
extracts, which is very popular in this area, was also taken.
However the exact amount of the extract and its concentration could not be quantiied. The following investigations
were done: Complete blood count, dengue serology (NS1
antigen, IgM and IgG antibodies), malarial parasite, malarial
antigen test, IgM leptospira, IgM chikungunya; hanta virus
serology in some cases when suspected; and serum procalcitonin when sepsis was suspected. The patients who were
tested positive for malarial parasite, chikungunya, leptospira
or hanta virus,were excluded. Patients suspected to be having haematological disorders were excluded from the study.
After excluding other causes of fever and thrombocytopenia,
83 patients were classiied according to CDC 2009 deinition
of dengue. They were divided into two groups – Group 1 included patients without warning signs and Group 2 included
patients with the warning signs. Patients with severe dengue (CDC 2009) were excluded from the study. The clinical
symptoms, signs and the laboratory parameters were studied
in each group. We compared the syndromic approach based
clinical diagnosis with the dengue serological tests, there by
inferring the usefulness of these tests in the diagnosis of early dengue.
220
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Continuous variables were summarized employing mean and
standard deviation and categorical variables were presented
using frequencies and percentages. Chi square test was used
to compare differences in proportions for categorical variables. P value less than 0.05 was considered as statistically
signiicant. Data was entered and analysed using SPSS software (Version 20).
RESULTS
83 patients admitted to the medical wards were enrolled according to CDC 2009 deinition of Dengue. Table-1 summarizes the clinical features of the patients at presentation.
Among the 70 patients who presented with vomiting prior to
hospitalization, 60 (90%) patients gave history of consuming
papaya leaf extract.
Patients were divided into two groups – Dengue fever without warning signs (Group-1) and dengue fever with warning
signs (Group-2).
44 patients had Dengue fever without warning signs (Group
1) and 39 patients had dengue with warning signs (Group 2).
The mean duration of illness in the irst group was 3.2 days,
and 6.5 days in second group. (Table-2). The mean platelet count at admission was 80,000 in group 1 and 45,000 in
group 2. Mean packed cell volume (PCV) in group 1 was
40 % and that in group 2 was 48%. In the irst group, 18 patients (40%) had NS-1 positive status and 3 patients (6.8%)
tested IgM-positive for dengue. The remaining 19 patients
(43.18%) were NS-1, IgM and IgG negative. In the second
group, 14 patients (35.5%) tested positive for NS-1 antigen
and 15 patients (38.4%) tested positive for IgM Dengue. 3
patients tested positive for IgG. 10 patients (25.6%) did not
test positive for NS-1 or IgM.
We also compared the clinical proile between the patients
who were seropositive and seronegative for dengue.(Table-3)
DISCUSSION
In this study we observed that dengue NS-1 was tested positive in 40% of the cases and IgM tested positive in 6.8% of
the cases of early dengue (mean duration of illness 3.5 days).
Symptoms
Number of patients
Fever
80 (96.38%)
Arthralgia
75 (90.36%)
Headache
63 (75.9%)
Vomiting
70 (90%)
Pain abdomen
35 (42.16%)
Bleeding manifestations
06 (7.22%)
Diarrhoea
10 (12%)
Lab parameter
MEAN
Leucocyte count
3500/MM3
Lowest platelet count
22,000/MM3
Hematocrit
48
Table-1: Clinical features of the patients at presentation
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kulkarni et al.
Diagnosis of Viral Thrombocytopenic Fever
Mean
duration
of illness
(days)
3.20
NS-1
positive
IgM
positive
Dengue fever with18 (40%)
3 (6.8%)
out warning signs
Dengue fever with
6.50
14 (35.5%) 15 (38.4%)
warning signs
Table-2 Mean duration of illness and dengue NS-1 and IgM
positivity
Clinical parameter
Dengue seropositive
(N=53)
Dengue
seronegative
(N=30)
28 (93%)
15 (50%)
29 (97%)
3 (10%)
2 (6.7%)
P value
Vomiting
42 (79%)
0.12
Pain abdomen
20 (38%)
0.11
Headache
34 (64%)
0.091
Hypotension
2 (4%)
0.21
Bleeding manifes4 (7.5%)
0.35
tation
Lowest platelet count 18000/mm3
21000/mm3
0.98
Hematocrit
48
46
0.76
Table-3: Comparison of clinical proile between dengue seropositive and seronegative groups
43% of patients did not test positive with both the tests in the
early phases of dengue. In the second group, the mean duration of illness was 6.5 days. NS-1 tested positive in 35.5% of
cases and IgM tested positive in 38.4% of cases.
52.2% of patients after 3 days of fever and 26% of patients
at the end of 6 days of fever, tested negative for the commonly used serological tests such as NS1 antigen, IgM and IgG
antibodies. When the clinical features, duration of hospital
stay, the lowest platelet count and hematocrit values were
compared between the seropositive and seronegative groups,
no signiicant difference was found. The supportive treatment as well as the complications were similar in the two
groups. The speciicity and sensitivity of the serological tests
do not seem to be uniform across various studies. According
to the study conducted by Wang et al (2010) in South Korea, NS-1 was tested positive in 64% of patients with acute
infection.8 In another study by Kassim et al (2011) in Malaysia, 32.2% of their patients tested positive for NS-1 antigen
while, 40.9% were positive for IgM.9 Therefore, based on
the results of these serological tests, patients should not be
missed in the setting of dengue epidemics in resource limited
areas. Chatterji et al (2011) suggested that WHO 1997 deinition can be used to exclude dengue and NS-1 strip test can
be used to conirm dengue.10 In our study, we also observed
that there was no statistical signiicance in the presentation
and clinical proile of the patients between seropositive and
seronegative group. The syndromic approach incorporating
the clinical deinitions as per CDC should be used even if
the serological results are negative after excluding common
causes of fever in the region.
CONCLUSION
The clinical diagnosis based on syndromic approach is more
appropriate in milder forms of thrombocytopenic fevers rather than trying to establish an exact guideline based diagnosis
in appropriate geographical location and season (after rainfall) in the setting of primary care after ruling out diseases
like malaria, leptospirosis and rickettsial infections. The unusually high prevalence of vomiting persisting for 2-3 days
is probably related to the consumption of herbal treatments
like papaya leaf extracts in the local population.
REFERENCES
1.
Bhatt S, Gething PW, Brady OJ, Messina JP, Farlow
AW, Moyes CL, et al. The global distribution and burden of dengue.Nature. 2013;496:504-7.
2. Teixeira MG, Barreto ML Diagnosis and management
of dengue. BMJ 2009;339:b4338.
3. Shrivastava A, Dash PK, Tripathi NK, Sahni AK, Gopalan N, LakshmanaRaoPV. Evaluation of a commercial Dengue NS1 enzyme-linked immunosorbentassay.
Indian Journal of Medical Microbiology. Indian J Med
Microbiol. 2011;29:51-5.
4. VianneyTricou, Hang TT V, Nhu VN Quynh, Chau VV
Nguyen, Hien T Tran, Jeremy Farrar, et al. Comparison
of two dengue NS1 rapid tests for sensitivity, speciicity and relationship to viraemia and antibody responses.
BMC Infectious Diseases 2010;10:142.
5. De Paula SO, Fonseca BA. Dengue: a review of the laboratory tests a clinician must know to achieve a correct
diagnosis. Braz. J. Infect. Dis.2004;8:390–398.
6. Ahmad N, Fazal H, Ayaz M, Abbasi BH, Mohammad
I, Fazal L. Dengue fever treatment with Carica papaya
leaves extracts. Asian Paciic Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2011;1:330-333.
7. Agarwal R, Kapoor S, Nagar R, Misra A, Tandon R,
Mathur A, et al. A clinical study of the patients with
dengue hemorrhagic fever during the epidemic of 1996
at Lucknow, India Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical
Medicine and Public Health 1999;30:735-40.
8. Wang SM, Sekaran SD. Early Diagnosis of Dengue
Infection Using a Commercial Dengue Duo Rapid
Test Kit for the Detection of NS1, IGM, and IGG. The
American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.
2010;83:690-695.
9. Kassim F M, Izati M M, Tgrogayah T, Aapandi Y M,
Saat Z. Use of Dengue NS1 antigen for early diagnosis
of dengue virus infection. Southeast Asian J Trop Med
Public Health 2011;42:45-49.
10. Chaterji S, Allen JC, Chow A, Leo Y-S, Ooi E-E. Evaluation of the NS1 Rapid Test and the WHO Dengue
Classiication Schemes for Use as Bedside Diagnosis of
Acute Dengue Fever in Adults. The American Journal
of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.2011;84:224-228.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
221
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study of Differences in Lipid Proile in Patients on Conservative
Treatment and Hemodialysis
M. Ravi Kumar1, Ravindra Kumar2
MATERIAL AND METHODS
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The magnitude of the problem has become
more apparent as patients survive longer on maintenance hemodialysis. Coronary artery disease is seen in 26% of dialysis
patients.Objective of the study was to note the differences in
lipid proile in patients on conservative treatment and hemodialysis.
Material and Methods: A hospital based prospective study
was carried out among 70 patients at Kasturba Medical College Hospitals and from Wenlock Government Hospital, Mangalore, from April 2001 to December 2003. Lipid proile of all
patients was carried out.
Results: Among the 35 patients who were on conservative
treatment 20 patients showed normal lipid proile, 15 patients
showed abnormal lipid proile. Out of the 35 patients who
were on dialysis, 26 patients showed abnormal lipid proile
fraction and 9 showed normal lipid proile. This was statistically signiicant (P= 0.007).
Conclusion: Because the lipid abnormalities in chronic renal failure accelerate the progression of the renal failure and
predispose to atherosclerosis, it is worth while detecting and
treating hyperlipidemia in these patients.
Keywords: Lipid proile, Patients, Hemodialysis
INTRODUCTION
The magnitude of the problem has become more apparent as
patients survive longer on maintenance hemodialysis. Coronary artery disease is seen in 26% of dialysis patients.1
In chronic renal failure the most prevalent lipid disorders
are hypertriglyceridemia and decreased HDL concentration,
LDL levels are usually normal or marginally increased. LDL
isolated from uremic patients is a poor ligand for the LDL
apoB receptors.2
The most accepted theory of atherogenesis postulates that lipoprotein taken from blood stream are taken by macrophages in the sub endothelial space leading to formation of cholesterol engulfed cells (foam cells) and they trigger a series
of events leading to formation of atherosclerotic plaque.3
The arterial narrowing that follows impairs the blood supply
to several organs heart, brain, kidney etc.
Therefore this study was planned to note the differences in
lipid proile in chronic renal failure patients on conservative
treatment and hemodialysis.
222
Study was conducted in Kasturba Medical College Hospitals
and from Wenlock Government Hospital, Mangalore with
the Sample size of 70 patients. Study period was from April
2001 to December 2003.
Exclusion criteria: Known cases of diabetes and nephrotic
syndrome and those patients who were not willing to participate in the study.
Laboratory procedures
1. Serum Triglyceride estimation
This was determined by the fully enzymatic U-V method as
per the details shown in the system.
Test Principles
Triglycerides are hydrolysed by lipase to glycerol and free
fatty acids. Glycerol is phosphorylated by ATP in the presence of glycerol kinase to glycerol-3-phosphate (G-3-P)
which is oxidized by the enzyme glycerol 3-phosphate oxidase (G-P-O) producing hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen
peroxide so formed reacts with 4-aminoantipytine/ 3,5 dichloro-2-hydroxy benzene sulfuric acid to give a red coloured complex which is read at 510 nm (500 – 530 nm). N o r mal value: 65-165 mg/dl.
2. Serum Total cholesterol estimation
This test was done on a method based on Libermann – Burchard reaction calorimetric method.
Principle: Cholesterol estrase (CHE) hydrolyses cholesterol
ester. Free cholesterol is oxidized by the cholesterol oxidase
(CHO) to Cholest-4-En-3-one and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide formed reacts with 4-aminoantipytine and
phenol in the presence of peroxidase (POD) to produce pink
colour.Normal cholesterol value: 150 – 250 mg/dl
Associate Professor, 2Professor, Department of General Medicine,
Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Suraram, Hyderabad,
India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. M. Ravi Kumar, Associate Professor,
Department of General Medicine, Malla Reddy Medical College
for Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: M. Ravi Kumar, Ravindra Kumar. A study
of differences in lipid proile in patients on conservative treatment
and hemodialysis. International Journal of Contemporary Medical
Research 2016;3 (1):222-225.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kumar et al.
Differences in Lipid Proile in Patients
3. HDL – Cholesterol estimation
This involves two steps, precipitation and cholesterol estimation of the HDL – fraction by a modiication of the method described by Burstein et al.
Principle: Chylomicrons, VLDL, and LDL were precipitated by adding phosphotungstic acid and magnesium ions to
the sample. Centrifugation of the precipitant levels only the
HDL in the supernatant (centrifugation done at 4000 rpm for
a minimum of 30 minutes). The supernatant was separated
out and its cholesterol content was determined enzymatically.
Normal values: Males: 35 – 55 mg/dl
Females: 45 – 65 mg/dl
In the absence of chylomicrons only three forms of lipoproteins are present in the sera – VLDL, LDL and HDL.
Since VLDL is the primary triglyceride carrying form in the
fasting stage, its concentration can be approximated by dividing the amount of plasma triglyceride by 5 (based on the
triglyceride to cholesterol ratio of VLDL).
Apart from the above mentioned trichemical assays, the
other investigations set out in the proforma were carried out
whenever necessary.
Age and sex wise distribution of serum lipids and lipoproteins were calculated with standard deviation. The correlation co-eficient was used to measure the association.
RESULTS
In patients with high triglyceride values
The HDLc estimation was done after dilution of serum (1:1)
with isotonic saline and the resultant cholesterol value of
HDL was multiplied by 2. This was done to prevent the erroneous values of HDLc due to impaired sedimentation of the
precipitate in a serum with high triglyceride concentration.
4. LDL-Cholesterol estimation
LDL cholesterol as calculated by using a standard WHO approved formula based on total cholesterol, triglyceride and
HDL – cholesterol values.
Normal values: upto 150 mg/dl.
5. VLDL – Cholesterol
VLDL was calculated using the formulae: VLDL = Triglyceride level divided by 5.
Normal Abnormal
Total
Count
20
15
35
%
57.1
42.9
100
Dialysis
Count
9
26
35
%
25.7
74.3
100
Total
Count
29
41
70
%
41.4
58.6
100
X2 = 7.124; p = 0.007 hs
Table-1: List of CRF patients who are managed conservatively
and on maintainence hemodialysis
Conservative
Lipid Proile
T. cholesterol
Triglycerides
HDLc
LDLc
VLDLc
HDL/TC
Total 70 cases of chronic renal failure patients were taken.
Among the 35 patients who were on conservative treatment
20 patients showed normal lipid proile, 15 patients showed
abnormal lipid proile. Out of the 35 patients who were on
dialysis, 26 patients showed abnormal lipid proile fraction
and 9 showed normal lipid proile.This was statistically signiicant (P= 0.007).
TC: The total cholesterol values in hemodialysis patients are
increased as compared to patients on conservative treatment,
209.00 ± 45.87 and 193.91 ±47.45 respectively. However
this is statistically not signiicant (P=0.181).
TG: There is signiicant rise in TG levels of hemodialysis
patients as compared to patients on conservative treatment,
195.82 ± 55.70 and 141.77 ± 65.59 respectively. This is statistically highly signiicant (P = 0.001).
HDL: The HDL cholesterol levels are lower in hemodialysis
patients as compared to patients on conservative treatment
33.85 ± 4.43 and 39.34 ± 7.67 respectively. This is statistically highly signiicant (P= 0.001).
LDL: The LDL cholesterol values are higher in hemodialysis patient as compared to patients on conservative management 135.97 ± 41.96 and 126.21 ± 48.46 respectively.
However this is not statistically signiicant (P= 0.371).
VLDL: The VLDL cholesterol level in hemodialysis patients are increased as compared to patients on conservative
treatment 39.16 ±11.14 and 28.35 ± 13.11 respectively. This
Group
N
Mean
Std. Deviation
t
Renal fail
35
193.91
47.45
1.35
Dialysis
35
209.00
45.87
Renal fail
35
141.77
65.59
3.71
Dialysis
35
195.82
55.70
Renal fail
35
39.34
7.67
3.66
Dialysis
35
33.85
4.43
Renal fail
35
126.21
48.46
0.90
Dialysis
35
135.97
41.96
Renal fail
35
28.35
13.11
3.71
Dialysis
35
39.16
11.14
Renal fail
35
0.21
6.78E-02
2.95
Dialysis
35
0.17
5.60E-02
Table-2: Lipid proile in chronic renal failure patients on conservative treatment and hemodialysis
P value
P =.181 ns
P=.001 vhs
P=.001 vhs
P= .371 ns
P=.001 vhs
P=.004 hs
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
223
Kumar et al.
Differences in Lipid Proile in Patients
is statistically highly signiicant (P=0.001).
HDL/TC: The HDL/TC ratio in hemodialysis patients is decreased, as compared to patients on conservative treatment,
0.17 ± 5.60E-02 and 0.21±6.78 E-02 respectively. However
this is statistically signiicant (P=0.004).
DISCUSSION
The results of comparative study of lipid proile in chronic
renal failure patients on conservative treatment and hemodialysis showedincrease triglyceride and VLDL levels and
decrease in HDL levels were seen in hemodialysis patients
compared to patient on conservative treatment. But total
cholesterol, LDL was not raised signiicantly. HDL/TC ratio
was decreased in hemodialysis patients.
Out of 70 CRF patients 35 patients were on continuous hemodialysis and 35 were on conservative management. The
patients who were on hemodialysis were suffering from
chronic renal failure from long time compared to patients
on conservative management. Probably that might have contributed to increase number of lipid abnormalities in those
patients.
The dialysate glucose, acetate buffer, heparinization in hemodialysis contributed to aggravation of hyperlipidemia.4
Glucose and acetate primarily contribute to aggravation of
the hyperlipidemia.
Heparinization can deplete lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
stores, hepatic triglyceride lipase (HTGL) and also inhibit
LCAT.5 In this study triglycerides were markedly elevated
in hemodialysis patients as compared to patients on conservative treatment and this was statistically signiicant
(P=0.001).
Monzani et al., in their study showed hemodialyis patients
had general worsening of the lipoprotein proile with elevated APO-E levels and indirect evidence of remnant accumulation. PTH did not have any signiicant inluence on
lipoprotein pattern. Increased insulin levels during HD might
partly account for high triglyceride of these patients.
The results point to elevated Apo CIII, reduced Apo CII /
Apo CIII and Apo E/ APO CII ratios as typical features of
uremic hyperlipidemia and show that a defective triglyceride
removal is the major pathogenic mechanism of uremic high
triglyceride.
Hemodialysis treatment generally seems to worsen the lipid
and Apo lipoprotein pattern observed in predialytic stage of
CRF.7 M. Senti et al in their study on patients with CRF on
HD had high triglyceride levels.6 Increased serum triglyceride levels have been well documented in patients on chronic
maintainance hemodialysis.7,8
HDL levels were signiicantly low in dialysis patients as
compared to patients on conservative treatment and this was
statistically signiicant (P=0.001). M. Senti, et al., their study
of CRF patients on HD showed low HDL levels.6
Morena Marion, et al., in their study on hemodialysis patients states that hemodialysis patients are exposed to several
224
atherogenic factors resulting from qualitative and functional
lipid abnormalities, including triglyceride rich particles, increased susceptibility to LDL oxidation and inally impairment of HDL protective effects.
The results suggest that qualitative abnormalities such as an
impairment of HDL associated enzymes are associated with
a decrease of HDL levels during hemodialysis.
Hence in addition to the known impairment of reverse cholesterol transport, the reduction of HDL protective capacity
against oxidative stress could be involved in the development of HD induced atherosclerosis.9
The VLDL levels in chronic renal failure on hemodialysis
were increased signiicantly compared to patients who were
as conservative treatment. This increase was statistically signiicant (P=0.001).
J. Pedro–Botet in his study showed increased levels of
VLDL fractions in hemodialysis patients. The possible rise
of hypertriglyceridemia and changes in VLDL composition
as risk factor for coronary heart disease remains a matter of
dispute.10
The total cholesterol is marginally raised in hemodialysis patients as compared to patients on conservative management
and it is not statistically signiicant (P=0.181). The LDL
cholesterol was not raised signiicantly in dialysis patient as
compared to patient on conservative management (P=0.371).
It is statistically not signiicant.
The HDL/TC ratio is low in hemodialysis patients as compared to patients on conservative treatment (P=0.004) it is
statistically signiicant.
Shah et al., showed low values of LDL cholesterol and total
cholesterol in dialysis patients.4 DC Wheeler stated increased
LDL cholesterol and hypercholestremia seen in hemodialysis
patients.11 According to King W. Ma, hypercholesterolemia
rarely occurs in uremic and dialysed patients.12
CONCLUSION
On comparison of chronic renal failure patients on hemodialysis and patients on conservative treatment there is signiicant rise in triglycerides and VLDL cholesterol levels, however HDL cholesterol level were found to be signiicantly
lower in hemodialysis patients as compared to patients on
conservative treatment.
The signiicant rise in triglyceride and VLDL concentrations
is the cause for increase cardiovascular abnormalities in CRF
patients.Signiicant reduction in HDL and HDL / TC ratio
are the important predictive indices for the risk of developing coronary artery disease in all groups of patients with
chronic renal failure. This may be major contributory factor
for enhanced atherogenesis in these patients.
Finally because the lipid abnormalities in chronic renal failure accelerate the progression of the renal failure and predispose to atherosclerosis, it is worth while detecting and
treating hyperlipidemia in these patients.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kumar et al.
Differences in Lipid Proile in Patients
REFERENCES
1.
Gokal R. Jakubowski. Outcome in patients on continuious ambulatory peritoneal dialysis and hemodialysis”.
Lancet 1987; 14: 1105 – 1109.
2. Attman PO., Alaupovic P. Lipid abnormalities in chronic renal insuficiency. Kidney Int, 1991;39:S16-S23.
3. David CW., Ravinder SC. Oxidation of LDL by mesangial cells may promote glomerular injury. Kidney Int.
1994;45:1628-36.
4. Shah BV., et al. Dyslipidemia in patients with chronic
renal failure and renal transplant patients. J. Post-grad
Med 1994; 40: 52-54.
5. Schafer F. et al. Metabolic and endocrine dysfunction
in uremia. 5th Edn., Edt. Schrier RW, Gottschalk CW.,
Diseases of kidney, Little and Brown company, London,
1993; 3: 2845-76pp.
6. Mariano Senti, et al. Lipoprotein abnormalities in hyper lipidemic and normolipidemic men on hemodialysis
with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1992; 41: 13941399.
7. Alam SM., AK Bhatt. Abnormal lipoprotein in uremic
patients treated conservatively and by maintenance hemodialysis. JAPI, 1991; 39: 170-172.
8. Brunzell JD., et al. Prevalence of serum lipid abnormalities in chronic hemodialysis. Metabolism 1977; 26:
903-910.
9. Marian Morena., et al. Protective effects of HDL against
oxidative stress are impaired in hemodialysis patients.
N.D. Transplant 2000; 15:389-395.
10. Pedro Botet J. When to treat dyslipidemia of patients
with CRF on hemodialysis? A need to deine speciic
guidelines. N.D. Transplant 1996; 11: 308-313.
11. Wheeler DC. Should hyperlipidemia in dialysis patients
be treated? N.D. Transplant 1997; 12:19-21.
12. Ma.King W., Greene E.L, Raij L. Cardiovascular risk
factors in chronic renal failure and hemodialysis populations. Am J of Kidney Diseases 1992; 19: 505-515.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
225
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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A Comparative Study of Induction of Labor with Intravaginal
Misoprostol and Oxytocin
C. Ambuja1, B. Sandhya Rani2
ABSTRACT
Introduction :The maternal complications associated with
premature rupture of membranes in term pregnancies are risk
of cord prolapsed, infection and an unfavourable cervix for
induction.Objective of the study was to compare vaginally administered misoprostol with intravenous oxytocin for induction of labor in women with premature rupture of membranes.
Material and Methods: The present study of induction of
labor was carried out on 200 cases of pregnant women with
premature rupture of membranes at which included: Group I:
Intravaginal misoprostol (25 mcg): 100 cases and Group II:
Oxytocin infusion group: 100 cases
Results: Multiparous women responded to induction quickly than nulliparous women. The caesarean section rate was
double in the oxytocin group. The incidence of incoordinate
uterine action was more in the oxytocin group when compared
to the misoprostol group. The mean birth weight did not differ signiicantly in the two groups. No signiicant difference
was found in the maternal morbidity pattern between the two
groups.
Conclusion: The present study shows that intravaginal misoprostol can be used safely and effectively in women with
premature rupture of membranes at term. The patient can be
ambulatory without intravenous drip.
Keywords: Oxytocin, misoprostol, induction of labor
INTRODUCTION
Premature rupture of membranes at term is deined as spontaneous rupture of membranes after 37 weeks of gestation
and before the onset of regular painful contractions. It occurs
in approximately 10% of pregnancies. The latent period is
the time interval between the rupture of membranes to the
onset of labor. It varies on a host of factors like the presence
or absence of infection, multiple pregnancy, polyhydramnios
and to some extent the gestational age.1
The average incidence of premature rupture of membranes
is 10% of all pregnancies, but it varies from 2-18%.1 Approximately 60-80 and of these cases of premature rupture
of membranes occur in term pregnancies.2 Membranes from
pregnancies associated with premature rupture of membranes
are less elastic than normal chorioamniotic membranes.3
Membranes that rupture prematurely may have different
mechanical properties, such as decreased thickness and elasticity, decreased collagen synthesis and increased collagen-
226
olysis, compared with membranes that do not rupture prematurely.4,5
The maternal complications associated with premature rupture of membranes in term pregnancies are risk of cord prolapsed, infection and an unfavourable cervix for induction.
The latter is associated with a high incidence of dysfunctional labor, chorioamnionitis, and increased rate of caesarean section, postpartum hemorrhage and endomyometritis.
Bruschell6 found an increasing incidence of maternal morbidity with increasing length of the latent period. 1.7% upto
24 hours increasing to 8.6% over 48 hours on term premature
rupture of membranes patients.
Sacks and Baker quoted the incidence of maternal morbidity
to be 1.3% when the latent period was less than 24 hours
and 4.8% when it was longer than 24 hours. Lehberz and
associates used prophylactic antibiotics and found the post
partum morbidity to be signiicantly reduced n patients with
term premature rupture of membranes. In the entire literature
reviewed there were only 69 maternal deaths associated with
premature rupture of membranes. It is apperant from the literature that the primary cause of of death in almost all cases
was sepsis.1
Perinatal mortality is mainly due to sepsis and respiratory
distress. In a study of premature rupture of membranes, the
neonatal mortality was reported as 6.7% of which 55% was
due to infection.7
The risk of neonatal infection after premature rupture of
membranes is increased with prematurity and the presence
of choriomnionitis, especially if there was a prolonged interval between the irst vaginal examination and delivery. The
duration of draining prior to the onset of labor has not been
shown to be signiicant in the development of neonatal sepsis
though there is a risk of choriomnionitis. The volume of amniotic luid remaining after premature rupture of membranes
is of importance as it possesses antibacterial activity. NeonaProfessor and HOD, Department of Obstetrics and Gyanecology,
Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, 2Assistant Civil Surgeon, Hyderabad, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. C. Ambuja, Professor and HOD, Department of Obstetrics and Gyanecology, Malla Reddy Medical
College for Women, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: C. Ambuja, B. Sandhya Rani. A comparative study of induction of labor with intravaginal misoprostol and
oxytocin. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3 (1):226-229.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Ambuja et al.
tal infection may manifest as septicaemia (4.9%), meningitis
(3.4%), pneumonia (4.8%), pyoderma (3.6%), umbilical sepsis (3%) and conjunctivitis (23.1%).7
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The present study of induction of labor was carried out on
200 cases of pregnant women with premature rupture of
membranes at which included:
Group I: Intravaginal misoprostol (25 mcg): 100 cases
Group II: Oxytocin infusion group: 100 cases
Women with cephalo pelvic disproportion, parity more than
5, post caesarean pregnancy, any moderate or severe pre
existing medical disease such as cardiovascular disease or
chronic renal failure, malpresentation, evidence of chrioamnionitis as determined by temperature > 100.4 degree F and
the presence of uterine tenderness or foul smelling amniotic
luid, active herpes simplex infection, placenta previa or unexplained vaginal bleeding, any contraindication for the use
of prostaglandin such as glaucoma or sickle cell disease or
bronchial asthma were excluded from the study.
Misoprostol group
In the misoprostol group, 25 mcg of misoprostol was placed
in the posterior fornix. Fetal heart rate were monitored every
half an hour. The dose was repeated every 3 hours and was
continued in the active phase of labor also till the patient delivered. The induction was stopped if the patient developed
hyper stimulation or fetal distress.
The progress of labor was followed by a partogram. If there
was no response even with 8 doses of misoprostol or on any
evidence of fetal distress, it was considered as failed induction and LSCS was done.
The uterine contractions were monitored for any tachy systole, hypertonus and hyper stimulation syndrome.
Oxytocin induction group
Induction of labor was done with intravenous oxytocin drip
after assessing the initial Bishop score and pelvic assessment.
Five units of syntocionon was added to 500 ml of 5% dextrose in primigravidae or 2.5 units of syntocionon in case
of multigravidae was stated as IV drip. The drip rate was
started with 6 mu/min inprimis and 4 mu/min in multis over
a period of an hour until the patient developed three regular
contractions in a period of 10 minutes and each contraction
lasting for about 40-50 seconds with a period of relaxation in
between, the maximum dosage of oxytocin given was upto
20 mu/min.
Clinical monitoring of patient was done as follows:
1. Hourly blood pressure and pulse rate
2. Two hourly temperature recording
3. Fetal heart rate every 15 minutes in the irst stage and
every ive minutes in the second stage.
4. Uterine contractions, their intensity, frequency and du-
Induction of Labor with Intravaginal Misoprostol and Oxytocin
ration by external palpation.
If there was progress in labor, the induction with oxytocin
was continued till delivery. If no response to induction was
seen or any complications developed, the induction was
stopped and an LSCS was done.
If the induction resulted in a vaginal delivery of a healthy
child either naturally or helped out with forceps or vacuum
extraction, it was a successful induction.
Failed induction was deined as no appreciable change in the
cervix after eight hours of adequate uterine contractions or as
no progressive increase in cervical dilatation after more than
two hours in the active phase of labor.
The following observations were made and compared between the two groups.
1. Induction to delivery interval.
2. Mode of delivery
3. Maternal side effects
4. Neonatal side effects
5. Neonatal outcome
6. Success and failure rates
7. The patients in both the groups were kept in the hospital
for one week after delivery for observation.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows induction delivery interval in nulliparous and
multiparous women in both the groups. Nulliparous women:
56% of cases delivered within 9 hours and 88.8% of cases
delivered within 12 hours in the misoprostol group. In the
oxytocin group only 41% of cases delivered within 9 hours
and 82% delivered within 12 hours. After 12 hours the effect
was almost same in both the groups indicating response of
uterus to prostaglandin is quicker than oxytocin.
Multiparous women: 83% of cases delivered within 9 hours
in the misoprostol group and 67% delivered within 9 hours
in the oxytocin group. After 9 hours, the effect was almost
the same in both the groups. The mean induction delivery
interval was 3.7 hours in the misoprostol group and 7.5 hours
in the oxytocin group. Multiparous women responded to induction quickly than nulliparous women.
92% misoprostol treated women delivered vaginally ad 84%
Induction
delivery
interval
Misoprostol group
Oxytocin group
(n = 58)
NullipmultipNullipmultiparous
arous
arous
arous
women
women
women
women
(n = 54)
(n = 46)
(n = 58)
(n = 42)
> 3 hours
2 (4%)
4 (9%)
2 (3%)
4 (10%)
3-6 hours
4 (7%)
28 (61%)
6 (10%)
8 (19%)
6-9 hours
24 (44%)
6 (13%)
16 (28%)
16 (38%)
9-12 hours
18 (33%)
6 (13%)
24 (41%)
10 (24%)
> 12 hours
6 (11%)
2 (4%)
10 (17%)
4 (9%)
Table-1: Induction delivery interval in nulliparous and multiparous women
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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227
Ambuja et al.
Induction of Labor with Intravaginal Misoprostol and Oxytocin
oxytocin treated women delivered vaginally. 8% misoprostol treated women underwent caesarean secton and 16%
oxytocin treated women underwent caesarean section which
shows that the caesarean section rate was double in the oxytocin group.
Table 3 shows that in the misoprostol group the maternal
side effects were minimal when compared with the oxytocin
group. The incidence of chorioamniotis, fetal heart rate variations and puerperal pyrexia were similar in both the groups.
The incidence of incoordinate uterine action was more in the
oxytocin group when compared to the misoprostol group.
Table 4 shows the neonatal outcome in both the groups. The
mean birth weights, the Apgar scores < 7 at 1 and 5 minutes
and the percentage of infancts requiring admission to NICU
were similar in the two groups.
The neonatal complications were similar in both the groups.
Meconium aspiration was more in the misoprostol group and
jaundice in the oxytocin group.
Mode of delivery
Misoprostol
Oxytocin group
group (n = 100)
(n = 100)
Spontaneous
84
70
Vacuum extraction
4
4
Low forceps
4
10
Caesarean section
8
16
Table-2: Mode of delivery in the misoprostol and oxytocin
group
Complications
Misoprostol
Oxytocin group
group (n = 100)
(n = 100)
Gastrointestinal
0
0
Drip reaction
0
3
Hyper stimulation
0
2
Tachysystole
1
2
FHR variations
10
12
Chorioamnionitis
1
2
Puerperal pyrexia
2
2
Thrombophlebitis
0
4
Table-3: Comparison of complications in the two groups
DISCUSSION
The use of vaginal misoprostol reduced the duration of labor in the nulliparous women. No patient in the misoprostol
group required oxytocin for augmentation of labor. This is in
contrast to Wing et al study.8
No case of hyper stimulation was seen in the misoprostol
group. Tachysystole was observed in two cases of oxytocin
group and one case in the misoprostol group, in contrast to
the studies of Sanchez R et al.9 The present study showed
that low dose vaginal misoprostol is associated with lower
rate of tachysystole and hyper stimulation. This inding was
in accordance with Wing et al study.8
Post partum hemorrhage was observed in 4% of the oxytocin
group. In the misoprostol group two cases had small cervical
lacerations, leading to PPH of about 750 ml, which were sutured. The overall blood loss was reduced in the misoprostol
group. Very few investigations have studied the incidence
of PPH following induction with oral prostaglandin.10 They
found no case of PPH in PGE1 induced group as compared to
6 (12%) cases in oxytocin group.
The maternal and perinatal outcome ws similar in both
the groups. This is similar to the study of Wing et al8 and
Sanchez R et al.9
The rate of forceps delivery was more among oxytocin group
in the present study, the main indication being fetal distress
in the 2nd stage of labor.
The mena birth weight did not differ signiicantly in the two
groups which is similar to the study by Wing et al.8
The vaginal misoprostol was well tolerated in all cases and
not patient developed nausea, vomiting or diarrhea. In the
oxytocin group there were complications like thrombophlebitis and drip reaction.
No signiicant difference was found in the maternal morbidity pattern between the two groups. This inding is similar to
that of Hannah ME et al.11
228
Neonatal outcome
Misoprostol
group
(n = 100)
Oxytocin
group
(n = 100)
Apgar < 7
1 min
8
14
5 min
2
04
Mean Birth weight (kg)
2.7
2.85
Neonatal infection
1
1
Admission to NICU
6
10
Table-4: Comparison of neonatal outcome in two groups
neonatal complications
Misoprostol
Oxytocin
group
group
(n = 100)
(n = 100)
Birth asphyxia
8
10
Meconium aspiration
10
8
Jaundice
2
4
Table-5: Comparison of neonatal complications in two groups
CONCLUSION
The present study shows that intravaginal misoprostol can be
used safely and effectively in women with premature rupture
of membranes at term. The patient can be ambulatory without intravenous drip.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Gunn A, Hudson FP. Oxytocin and neonatal hyper bilirubeinemia. Lancet 1972;2:823.
Allen SR. Premature rupture of membranes. Clin Obstet
Gynecol 1991;33:685-93.
Lonkey NM, Hayashi, Robert H. A proposed mechanism of premature rupture of membranes. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1988;43:22-8.
Artal, Sokil RJ, Newman M, Burstein AH. The me-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Ambuja et al.
Induction of Labor with Intravaginal Misoprostol and Oxytocin
chanical properties of prematurely and non prematurely ruptured meembrances. Am J Obstet Gynecol
1976;125:655-9.
5. Vadillo-Ortego F, Lama MS et al. Collagen metabolism
in premature rupture of amniotic membranes. Obstet
Gynecol 1990;75:84-88.
6. Brushell RC. Premature spontaneous rupture of membrances. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1964;88:251-4.
7. Singh D, Verma M, Simn M et al. Neonatal infections
following premature rupture of membranes. J Obstet
Gynecol 1990;40:232-5.
8. Wing DA, Paul RH. Induction of labour with misoprostol of premature rupture of membranes beyond 36 weeks
of gestation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:94-9.
9. Sanchez RL, Chen Kaunitz AM, Gadier FL. Labour induction with intravaginal misoprostol in term of PROM:
A randomized study. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89:909-912.
10. Dubey P, Singh VK, Sharma MK, Bhasin A. A comparative study of eficacy of PGE2 and intravenous oxytocin
as inducing agents. J Obstet Gynecol India 1994;44:516.
11. Hannah ME. Prostaglandins Vs. oxytocin for prelabor
rupture of membranes at 37+ weeks. “Cochrane Database of systematic review” Review no. 13273, 24
March 1993. Disk issue.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
229
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study of Serum IgE Levels among Children of 6 Months to 5 Years
of Age Group
Sheetal Shantikumar Gandhi1, K. Rajashekar Rao1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Sometimes the immune system reacts unnecessarily vigorously against otherwise harmless environmental
agents, allergens. These over reactions are termed hypersensitivity reactions and fall into four subgroups, type’s I-IV,
depending upon the mechanism behind the action. The type
I hypersensitivity reactions are mediated by allergen speciic
IgE and are responsible for the clinical manifestation of atopic
allergies, such as hay fever, food allergies, exzema, asthma
and anaphylaxis, parasitic infections.Objective of the study
was to study of serum IgE levels among children.
Material and Methods: Ethical clearance was obtained from
Kamineni Hospital Ethics Committee. This was a Hospital
based prospective observational study. Approximately 99 children (OP and IP) 6 months to 5 years of age, visiting Kamineni
Hospital, LB Nagar, Hyderabad with recurrent respiratory
tract illnesses meeting deined inclusion and exclusion criteria
were enrolled in the study after taking an informed consent
and approval of institutional ethical committee. All patients
were subjected to detailed questionnaire. A thorough clinical
examination was done. Blood samples were collected and total serum IgE levels were determined.
Results: Out of 99 children with RRTI studied, 48 had elevated serum IgE levels. Almost similar number of children with
RRTI i.e. 51 had normal serum IgE levels. Serum IgE levels
were signiicantly higher (66.07%) in males as compared to
females (25.58%) with p value of 0.0003 (p < 0.05). The elevation of serum IgE levels was 48.48% in children (48 out
of 99 children). It was noticed that, the number of children
suffering from RRTI and the number of children with elevated serum IgE levels increased with increasing age. There was
signiicant increase in serum IgE levels from 10% in infancy
to 64.10% in 49-60th month with signiicant p value of 0.001.
Conclusion: This study showed increasing number of children with recurrent respiratory tract illness and serum IgE levels with increasing age.
Keywords: Serum, Children, IgE
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Ethical clearance was obtained from Kamineni Hospital Ethics Committee. This was a Hospital based prospective observational study. Approximately 99 children (OP and IP) 6
months to 5 years of age, visiting Kamineni Hospital, LB
Nagar, Hyderabad with recurrent respiratory tract illnesses
meeting deined inclusion and exclusion criteria were enrolled in the study after taking an informed consent and approval of institutional ethical committee. All patients were
subjected to detailed questionnaire. A thorough clinical examination was done. Blood samples were collected and total
serum IgE levels were determined.
Inclusion criteria
1. Age group > 6 months to < 5 years
2. Children with symptoms of recurrent respiratory tract
infections deined as (at least one of the following
should be met
Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Malla Reddy Medical College
for Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, India
1
INTRODUCTION
IgE is the least abundant of the human immunoglobulin
classes and was accordingly the last to be discovered in the
late 1960s.1-3 The concentration of IgE in normal human sera
is between 10 and 400 ng/ml.4 Furthermore, at least in humans, the turnover rate of IgE is much more rapid than that
of other immunoglobulin. The half time of IgE in the circu-
230
lation is estimated at 2-2.5 days.4
Asthma is a chronic inlammatory disorder of the airways involving many cells and cellular elements. The inlammation
causes swelling and narrowing of the airway restricting the
capability of air to pass through to the lung tissue. The swelling and narrowing of the airways cause recurrent episodes
of coughing, wheezing, breathlessness and chest tightness.1
Sometimes the immune system reacts unnecessarily vigorously against otherwise harmless environmental agents,
allergens. These over reactions are termed hypersensitivity
reactions and fall into four subgroups, type’s I-IV, depending
upon the mechanism behind the action. The type I hypersensitivity reactions are mediated by allergen speciic IgE
and are responsible for the clinical manifestation of atopic
allergies, such as hay fever, food allergies, exzema, asthma
and anaphylaxis, parasitic infections.
Corresponding author: Dr. Sheetal Shantikumar Gandhi, Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Malla Reddy Medical College for
Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: Sheetal Shantikumar Gandhi, K. Rajashekar Rao. A study of serum IgE levels among children of 6
months to 5 years of age group. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):230-232.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Gandhi et al.
Serum IgE Levels among Children
a. > 6 respiratory infections per annum
b. > 1 respiratory infections per month involving upper
airways from September to April
c. > 3 respiratory infections per annum involving lower airways
Exclusion criteria
1. Age less than 6 months and more than 5 years
2. Congenital heart disease
3. Cerebral palsy
4. Proven immunodeiciency disorder
Sample size: 99 children and Study period was from 1st
March 2013 to 28th February 2014.
Investigations: Standard methods were used to draw the
blood samples. The collected blood sample was transported
immediately to laboratory. Serum IgE levels were measured
by chemiluminescence method.
Statistical method used: Chi square test, Pearson coeficient
analysis and other appropriate statistical methods.
RESULTS
The present study was undertaken to determine the correlation of serum IgE levels among children. A total of 99
children were included in the study. Out of 99 children, 48
had elevated serum IgE levels and 51 had normal serum IgE
levels.
Out of 99 children with RRTI studied, 48 had elevated serum
IgE levels. Almost similar number of children with RRTI i.e.
51 had normal serum IgE levels.
Serum IgE levels
RRTI
%
Elevated
48
48.48
Normal
51
51.52
Table-1: Association between serum IgE levels and recurrent
respiratory tract infections (RRTI)
Sex
Elevated serum
Normal serum
IgE levels
IgE levels
Male (n = 56)
37 (66.07%)
19 (33.92%)
Female (n = 43)
11 (25.58%)
32 (74.41%)
Total (n = 99)
48
51
Table-2: Elevated serum IgE levels and Gender
Age
group
(months)
1-12
13-24
25-36
37-48
49-60
Total
No. of
RRTI
children
No. of chil% age with
dren with
elevated
elevated
IgE levels
serum IgE
levels
10
1
10%
14
3
21.4%
16
9
56.25%
20
10
50%
39
25
64.10%
99
48
48.48%
Table-3: Elevated serum IgE levels and age
P
value
0.12
0.30
0.07
0.24
0.001
Serum IgE levels were signiicantly higher (66.07%) in
males as compared to females (25.58%) with p value of
0.0003 (p < 0.05).
The elevation of serum IgE levels was 48.48% in children
(48 out of 99 children). It was noticed that, the number of
children suffering from RRTI and the number of children
with elevated serum IgE levels increased with increasing
age. There was signiicant increase in serum IgE levels from
10% in infancy to 64.10% in 49-60th month with signiicant
p value of 0.001.
DISCUSSION
In the present study, the number of boys with elevated serum
IgE levels was more than girls, which was statistically signiicant (p = 0.0003). Similar results were seen in the studies
done by Satwani et al5 (65%) and Borish L et al6 (66.5%).
The factor responsible for this results could be that, the boys
are more exposed to the outdoor activities, hence, increased
chances of getting exposed to respiratory infections and allergens.
The number of children with elevated serum IgE levels signiicantly increased with increasing age with p value 0.01.
This is in accordance with the study conducted in Greek
children, by Petridou et al7, in children aged 1 month to 14
years, total serum IgE levels increased by almost 80% per
year until 5 years of age. Similarly in a study by Johnson et
al8 (USA), 60% increase in serum IgE levels was observed
from birth to 4 years of age. Hamid Habib et al9 too had
signiicantly increased serum IgE levels with increasing age
with p value 0.001.
Serum IgE levels were signiicantly elevated (78.04%) in
children who were weaned off earlier (before 6 months of
age) with p value of 0.01. Similar results 60% elevation of
serum IgE levels with early weaning was seen in the study by
Satwani H et al 5 with p value of less than 0.01 and little less,
50% elevation of serum IgE levels with early weaning were
seen in Wright AL et al10 with p value of less than 0.005.
IgE appears to function as an enhancer of immune responses
against antigens that are present at low concentrations. Intravenous administration of small protein antigents together with antigen speciic IgE can induce antibody responses
that are more than 1000 fold higher than those induced by
antigen alone.11 The response to IgE/antigen is strictly antigen speciic, but not isotype speciic, as it involves upregulation of IgM, IgG1, IgG2a as well as IgE responses. The
proposed mechanism behind IgE mediated enhancement is
endocytosis of IgE/antigen complexes via CD23 by B cells
and presentation of antigen peptides to antigen speciic T
cells.11 The ability of IgE to augment responses under suboptimal conditions is suggestive of a physiological function in
early responses.11 This together with the comparatively high
turnover rate of IgE in serum, raises questions regarding the
positive value of IgE. Does IgE function as a door keeper
scanning the antigen repertoire of the environment and pre-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
231
Gandhi et al.
Serum IgE Levels among Children
paring the individual for potentially harmful pathogens?12 A
rapid turnover may serve to adequately prepare the individual to deal with its present environement. Furthermore, surgery and other forms of tissue injury, such as burns and heart
attacks, characteristically evoke a transient rise in serum IgE
levels.13,14,15,16,17 Serum IgE levels appear to rise shortly after
surgery, peak by day ive and then decline again.14,17
12.
13.
CONCLUSION
Elevated serum IgE levels were found in 48.48% of children
with recurrent respiratory tract illness. Male to female ratio
in recurrent respiratory tract illness with elevated serum IgE
levels was 3.4:1. This study showed increasing number of
children with recurrent respiratory tract illness and serum
IgE levels with increasing age.
REFERENCES
1.
15.
16.
17.
Ishizaka K, Ishizaka T. Identiication of gamma E antibodies as a carrier of reaginic activity. J Immunol
1967;99:1187-98.
2. Johnson SG, Bennich H, Wide L. A new class of immunioglobulin in human serum. Immunology. 1968;14:26572.
3. Bennich HH, Ishizaka K, Johnson SG, Rowe DS, Stanworth DR, Terry WD. Immunoglobulin E. A new class
of human immunoglobulin. Immunohistochemistry
1968;5:327-8.
4. Capra JD, Frazer JK. Immunoglobulins: Structure and
function. In: Paul WE, editor. Fundamental Immunology. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott-Raven Publishers,
1999. p. 60.
5. Satwani H, Rehman A, Ashraf S, Hassan A. Is a serum
total IgE level a good predictor of allergies in children?
J Pak Med Assoc 2009;59:698-702.
6. Boorish L, Chipps B, Deniz Y, Gujrathi S, Zheng B,
Dolan DM; TENOR Study Group. Total IgE levels in
a large cohort ofpatients with severe or dificult to treat
asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 2005;95:247-53.
7. Petridou E, Kanariou M, Liatsis M, Spanou K, Revinthi
K, Mandalenaki-Lambrou K, Trichopoulos D. Factors
inluencing serum IgE levels in Greek children. Allergy
1995;50:210-4.
8. Johnson CC, Peterson EL, Ownby DR. Gender differences in total and allergen speciic IgE concentrations in
a population based cohort from birth to age four years.
Am J Epidemiol 1998;147:1145-52.
9. Hamid H, Moufag T, Majdy Q, Jamil S, Abdulrahman
Abu D. Total IgE and absolute eosinophil count as a
predictor of allergic diseases in children. The Egyptian
J Med 2010;40:365-74.
10. Wright AL, Holberg CJ, Morgan WJ, Taussing LM,
Halonen M, Manrtinex FD. Recurrent cough in childhood and its relation to asthma. Am J RespirCrit Care
Med 1996;153:1259-65.
11. Heyman B. IgE mediated enhancement of antibody
232
14.
responses: the beneicial function of IgE? Allergy
2001;57:577-85.
Hellman L. Genes for immunoglobulin E: structure,
rearrangement and expression. Doctoral thesis. ISSN
0345-0058, ISBN 91-554-1721-3. The Department of
Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala 1985.
Szczeklik A, Jawien J, Stadler BM, Radwan J, Piwowarska W, Dziatkowiak A. Possible relationship between interleukin 6 and response of immunoglobulin E
to surgical trauma. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1995;762:477-9.
Szczeklik A, Jawien J. immunoglobulin E in acute
phase response to surgical stress. Clin Exp Allergy
1996;26:303-7.
Szczeklik A, Jawien J. possible role of IgE in acute
phase response. Allergy 1997;52:1149-50.
Kampen GT, Poulsen LK, Nielsen HJ, Schulze S, Petersen LJ. IgE levels in surgery; effect of ranitidine and
prednisolone. Allergy. 1999;54:171-6.
Navarro-Zorraquino M, Lozano R, Deus J, Pastor C,
Larrad L, Tejero E et al. determination of the immunoglobulin E postoperative variation as a measure of surgical injury. World J Surg 2001;25:585-91.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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A Study to Compare Eficacy of The Supraclavicular (Sc BPB) and
Axillary (Ax BPB) Brachial Plexus Block
Vaijayanti S. Gandhi1, Basavaraj V. Modi2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Surgical anaesthesia of upper limb can be obtained by nueral blockade of brachial plexus. We can approach
the brachial plexus at any point, right from the level of the
nerve roots to that of isolated peripheral nerves.Supraclavicular approach is the most widely used method. When there is
inability to use this approach due to local pathology or posture
etc, the Axillary approach is another alternative, which is safe
and easy to perform. Objective of the study was to compare
the Supraclavicular and Axillary approaches using peripheral
nerve stimulator.
Material and Method:In this study, 60 patients of ASA physical status grade I and II, scheduled to undergo operative procedures of upper extremity below distal end humerus were
randomly divided into two groups, Sc BPB group and Ax BPB
group, 30 patients in each group.
Results: Sc BPB group showed a longer duration of analgesia.
Muscle relaxation was adequate in 90% of cases in both the
groups. In Sc BPB group 6 % while in Ax BPB group 10 %
cases had nerve sparing. Difference between both the groups
was statistically insigniicant. Accidental vessel puncture was
seen in 10 % (3) cases in Sc BPB group while in Ax BPB
group no complications were seen. No incidence of haematoma formation or pneumothorax was seen. No other complications were seen in either group.
Conclusion: Onset of action in Supraclavicular approach is
faster than Axillary approach though both the techniques for
brachial plexus block are safe and simple to perform due to
easy surface landmarks. In both the groups motor action starts
earlier than sensory
Key words: operative procedures, upper extremity, humerus
INTRODUCTION
Surgical anaesthesia of upper limb can be obtained by nueral
blockade of brachial plexus. We can approach the brachial
plexus at any point, right from the level of the nerve roots to
that of isolated peripheral nerves.1
Supraclavicular approach is the most widely used method.
When there is inability to use this approach due to local pathology or posture etc, the Axillary approach is another alternative, which is safe and easy to perform.2
Earlier when these methods were performed with the parathesia technique the failure rates may be high. Now with the
advent of peripheral nerve stimulator, localization of nerves
has become easier and failure rates have dropped down.3
Though it is like old wine in new bottle, present study is
designed to compare the Supraclavicular and Axillary approaches using peripheral nerve stimulator. The comparison
is in terms of safety, nerve sparing, onset and duration of
anaesthesia, and acceptability of the procedure by the patient
and surgeon.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In this study, 60 patients of ASA physical status grade I and
II, scheduled to undergo operative procedures of upper extremity below distal end humerus were randomly divided
into two groups, Sc BPB group and Ax BPB group, 30 patients in each group.
Inclusion Criteria
• Age limit 15-75 years
• Indoor cases
• Both emergency and planned operations
• The patients who were able to follow the instructions
and were likely to cooperate for the operation were selected.
Exclusion Criteria
• Patients with hypersensitivity to local anaesthetic
agents.
• Patients with neurological disturbances / personality
disorders / mental illness.
• Patients with bleeding disorders
• Patients with skin infection.
• Patient’s refusal for regional anaesthesia.
• Patients with full stomach
Technique
Supraclavicular approach for Brachial Plexus block
Method: Supraclavicular block was performed by single
Assistant Professor, 2Professor, Department of Anesthesiology,
Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Hyderabad, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Vaijayanti S. Gandhi, Assistant Professor, Department of Anesthesiology, Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: Vaijayanti S. Gandhi, Basavaraj V. Modi.
A study to compare eficacy of the supraclavicular (Sc BPB) and
axillary (Ax BPB) brachial plexus block. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):233-236.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
233
Gandhi et al.
Eficacy of The Sc BPB and Ax BPB
injection technique of Kulenkampff with peripheral nerve
stimulator.
Axillary approach for Brachial Plexus block
Method: Axillary block was performed by Winnie’s technique, by single injection with peripheral nerve stimulator.
Operative conditions: The operative conditions like diagnosis, operative procedure, whether traumatic / non-traumatic,
planned / emergency were recorded. The site of operation,
bony / soft tissue involvement, use of traction / tourniquet,
duration of operation were recorded.
The nerves were tested by the pnemonic of four P’s2,3
4 P’s
Patient action
Nerve checked
Push
Extend arm with triceps Radial
Pull
Flex arm with biceps
Musculocutaneous
Pinch Fifth digit
Ulnar
Pinch Index inger
Median
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the distribution of cases as per the requirement and duration of tourniquet / traction. Tourniquet was
required in 31.66% (19 of 60) and traction in 41.66 % (25
of 60) cases. The tourniquet time (Mean ± SD) was 81 ± 31
min in Sc BPB group and 64 ± 18 min in Ax BPB group. The
traction time (Mean ± SD) was 108 ± 98.48 min and 27 ± 38
min in Sc BPB and Ax BPB groups respectively.
Table 2 show the mean values of various parameters of the
block action in the study cases. The onset of sensory action
was 7.1 ± 4.11 and 9.23 ± 4.30 (Mean ± SD) min in Sc BPB
and Ax BPB groups respectively. The difference observed
was statistically insigniicant (p >0.05). Onset of motor block
(Mean ± SD) was 7 ± 4 min in Sc BPB group and 8.83 ± 4.06
min in Ax BPB group. The difference observed was statistically insigniicant (p >0.05). In our study the onset of motor
action was earlier than sensory action in both the groups. The
difference observed was statistically insigniicant (p >0.05).
The onset of complete sensory blockade (Mean ± SD) in Sc
BPB group was 12.62 ± 5.24 and 17.74 ± 4.69 min in Sc
BPB and Ax BPB groups respectively (z value = 3.98 and p
value < 0.01). The mean onset of complete motor blockade
in Sc BPB group was 13 ± 5.58 and 17.74 ± 4.69 min in
Sc BPB and Ax BPB groups respectively (z value = 3.56
and p value < 0.01). The onset of complete sensory and motor blockade was early (on an average 5.12 min) in Sc BPB
group as compared with Ax BPB group that was statistically
signiicant.
Duration of analgesia was 849 ± 249.49 and 756 ± 187 min
in Sc BPB and Ax BPB groups respectively. The difference
between the two groups was statistically insigniicant (p
>0.05).
Tables 3 – 4 C show the anaesthesia details of the two
groups. Muscle relaxation was adequate in 90 % (27 of 30)
and nerves were spared in 10 % (3 of 30) of patients in both
the groups. Radial nerve sparing was observed in 6.66 % (2
of 30) and 10 % (3 of 30) in Sc BPB and Ax BPB group respectively. Ulnar nerve sparing was seen in 3.33 % (1 of 30)
in Sc BPB group. Difference between both the groups was
statistically insigniicant.
Sedation was required in 10% (3 of 30) and 20 % (6 of 30) of
patients in Sc BPB and Ax BPB group respectively. General
anaesthesia was required in 10 % (3 of 30) in either group.
Table 5 shows the complications encountered in this study
series. In Sc BPB group 10 % (3) cases had accidental vessel puncture while in Ax BPB group no complications were
seen.
Table 6 shows that the procedure was acceptable both by the
patients and surgeons in 100 % of cases in either group.
Discussion:
In the present study tourniquet was required in 31.66% (19
of 60) and traction in 41.66 % (25 of 60) cases. The tourniquet time (Mean ± SD) was 81 ± 31 min in Sc BPB group
and 64 ± 18 min in Ax BPB group. The traction time (Mean
± SD) was 108 ± 98.48 min in Sc BPB and 27 ± 38 min in
Parameter
Sc BPB (N=30) (%)
Ax BPB (N=30) (%)
Torniquet
15 (50%)
04 (13.33%)
Torniquet time (min) (mean+SD)
81+15.5
64+18
Traction
04 (13.33)
21 (70)
Traction time (min) (mean+SD)
108+49.24
27+38
None
11 (36.66)
05 (16.66)
Total
30
30
Table-1: Distribution of cases as per use and duration of tourniquet / traction
Total
19 (31.66%)
Parameters
Sc BPB (N=30) (Mean±SD)(min) Ax BPB (N=30) (Mean±SD)(min)
Onset of sensory of action
7.1±4.11
9.23±4.3
Onset of motor action
7±4
8.83±4.06
Complete sensory blockade
12.62±5.24
17.74±4.69
Complete motor blockade
13±5.58
17.74±4.69
Duration of analgesia
849±249.49
756±187
(z> 1.96, p<0.01 signiicant; NS: Non signiicant)
Table-2: Comparison of block action
Z value
1.96
1.75
3.98
3.56
1.63
234
25 (41.66)
16 (26.66)
60
P value
NS
NS
< 0.01
< 0.01
NS
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Gandhi et al.
Muscle relaxation
Sc BPB
Ax BPB
(n=30) (%)
(n=30) (%)
Adequate
27 (90%)
27 (90%)
Inadequate
03 (10%)
03 (10%)
Total
30
30
Table-3: Distribution of cases as per muscle relaxation
Nerve
Sc BPB
Ax BPB
Total
(n=30)
(n=30)
(n=60)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Musculocutaneous Nerve
0
0
0
Radial nerve
2 (6.66%) 3 (10%) 5 (8.33%)
Median nerve
0
0
0
Ulnar nerve
1 (3.33%)
0
1 (1.66%)
Total
3 (10%)
3 (10%)
6 (10%)
Table-4: Distribution of cases showing nerves spared
Complications
Sc BPB
Ax BPB
Total
(n=30) (%)
(n=30) (%)
(n=60) (%)
Vessel puncture
3 (10%)
0
3 (5%)
Pneumothorax
0
0
0
Others
0
0
0
None
27 (90%)
30 (100%)
57 (95%)
Total
30
30
60
Table-5: Distribution of cases showing complications
Satisfaction (yes)
Sc BPB
Ax BPB
Total
(n=30) (%) (n=30) (%) (n=60) (%)
Surgeon
30 (100%)
30 (100%)
60 (100%)
Patient
30 (100%)
30 (100%)
60 (100%)
Table-6: Distribution of cases showing satisfaction of surgeon
and patient
Ax BPB group.
In our study in case of Supraclavicular block gentle massage
of the area was done to make uniform spread. In Axillary
block, distal pressure was maintained and arm adducted after
the drug injection. This may be the reason for no musculocutaneous nerve sparing. All the patients with effective block in
both groups tolerated tourniquet / traction well.
Our results are comparable with studies of Bennet Abraham4,
Alon P. Winnie5, Ababou A6 who had used similar technique
for axillary block in their study and had found that digital
pressure and adduction of arm after giving drug improved
the success rate.
In the present study the onset of sensory block was 7.1 ±
4.11 (Mean ± SD) min in Sc BPB and 9.23 ± 4.30 min in
Ax BPB group. The onset of sensory block was earlier in
Sc BPB as compared to Ax BPB though the difference observed is statistically insigniicant. The results of our study
are comparable with the study of R. Pande7 et al, where the
onset of sensory block was reported to be 8.2 ± 2.8 min in
Sc BPB with nerve stimulator technique, while it was 8.3 ±
2.3 min in parathesia group. In our study the onset of motor
action was earlier than sensory action in both the groups. The
difference observed is statistically insigniicant. Our results
Eficacy of The Sc BPB and Ax BPB
are comparable with results found in studies of E. Lanzet al8
and Tamilselvan P et al.9
In the present study the onset of complete sensory and motor blockade was early (on an average 5.12 min) in Sc BPB
group as compared with Ax BPB group that is statistically
signiicant. I have not found any references in relation to the
comparison of onset of complete motor and sensory blockade.
In our study Sc BPB group showed a longer duration of analgesia. As the duration of operation was variable raging from
10 minutes to 4 hours, the total duration of analgesia was
measured from the time of block till the patient complained
of pain postoperatively.
Tamilselvan P9 et al, in their study found postoperative pain
relief (measured from the end of surgery until patient started complaining of pain) for 175-250 minutes (2.91- 4.16 h).
They have used a combination of 1 % lignocaine with 0.125
% bupivacaine and 1:400,000 epinephrine.
Lawrence E. Schroeder10 et al, found no difference in duration of analgesia between Axillary (10 ± 7 h), Supraclavicular (8 ± 6 h), and Interscalene (9 ± 6 h) approaches. They
reported prolonged analgesia with bupivacaine (13 ± 2 6 h)
than with mepivacaine (8 ± 7 h).The probable reason for the
prolonged duration of analgesia in our study may be due to
the concentration of drug used. We used 0.5 % bupivacaine,
2 mg /kg body weight which has a longer duration of action
(1.5 to 8 hours).11
In the present study muscle relaxation was adequate in 90
% (27 of 30) of cases in both Sc BPB and Ax BPB groups.
These cases were considered as successful block. In all these
patients the anaesthesia was complete and satisfactory allowing optimal surgical conditions. In present study both
groups had similar success rates.
In the Sc BPB group 1 patient (3.33 %) had ulnar nerve sparing and 2 patients (6.66 %) had radial nerve sparing. In the
Ax BPB group 3 patients (6.66 %) had radial nerve sparing.
Difference between both the groups is statistically insigniicant. In our study none of the patients had musculocutaneous
nerve sparing.
Bennet Abraham4 et al, in their study report sparing of musculocutaneous and radial nerves during axillary brachial
plexus block.In the present study supplementation in the
form of General Anaesthesia was required in 3 patients (10
%) in either group. These cases were considered as failure.
Both the groups are comparable and the difference is statistically insigniicant.
Brand1,12 et al, used inhaled N20 and barbiturates in a
non-blinded fashion during surgery and success was considered to be tolerance of initial skin incision only. Lawrence E.
Schroeder10 et al, used Midazolam, fentanyl for preoperative
sedation. Intraoperatively, the additional sedatives were further supplementation by Midazolam, fentanyl, and propofol.
In our present study we did not encounter any other major
complications like haematoma formation or pneumothorax
in both the groups. Our study results are comparable with
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
235
Gandhi et al.
Eficacy of The Sc BPB and Ax BPB
study of R. Pande7 et al. Brand12 et al, had a higher rate of
pneumothorax (6.1 %) in Sc BPB group. Haematoma formation was seen in 3 % of patients in Sc BPB group and in 2 %
of cases in the Ax BPB group in their study.
In the present study the procedure was accepted both by the
surgeons and all the patients. They were happy with the analgesia extending to the postoperative period.In the 10 %
of cases (considered as failure) even though GA was supplemented, the patients were comfortable because they had
postoperative analgesia. They did not have any complaints
against the regional technique as such. All the patients were
willing to accept regional blockade for similar surgical condition in future.
In the recovery room the patients were also asked about the
block acceptability for any similar procedure in future. All
the patients were ready.In the present study after the analysis
and discussion of all the observation data, a success rate of
90% is seen in both the groups.
In the study of Brandet al,12 success rate was 84.4 % in the
Sc BPB group and 91.5 % in the Ax BPB group. Schroeder et al13 also found a higher success rate with the Ax BPP
group (89%) as compared with Sc BPB group (78%) and
Interscalene BPB group (75%). Thompson et al,1 found no
signiicant difference in block success between SCB (83%)
and AXB (85%). Our study also showed no difference between the success rates in both the groups. The high success
rate (90%) and lower incidence of complications may be attributed to the use of peripheral nerve stimulator in our study.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
CONCLUSION
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
duration of Axillary Brachial plexus block. AnesthAnalg 2007;104:980-1.
R. Pande. Supraclavicular brachial plexus block as a
sole anesthetic technique in children: an analysis of 200
cases; Anaesthesia, 2000;55:798 – 810.
EgonLanz, The Extent of Blockade Following Various Techniques of Brachial plexus block. AnesthAnalg
1983;62:55-8.
Joseph M. Neal, James R. Hebl, J. C. Gerancher, and
Quinn H. Hogan, Brachial plexus anesthesia: essentials
of our current understanding. Regional Anesthesia and
Pain Medicine. 2002; 27:402–428.
Lawrence E. Schroeder,The Eficacy of Axillary Block
for Surgical Procedures About the Elbow. AnesthAnalg
1996;83:747-51.
Clinical Anaesthesiology, 4th edition, G. Edward Morgan, Jr., 2006.
Leonard Brand and E. M. Papper, A comparison of supraclavicular and axillary techniques for brachial plexus
blocks. Anesthesiology 1961;22:226-229.
Dipal Mahendra Shah, Mahesh Arora, AnjanTrikha,
Ganga Prasad, Rani Sunder, Prakash Kotwal,1 andPreetMohinder Singh. Comparison of dexamethasone
and clonidine as an adjuvant to 1.5% lignocaine with
adrenaline in infraclavicular brachial plexus block for
upper limb surgeries. J AnaesthesiolClinPharmacol.
2015; 31: 354–359.
Onset of action in Supraclavicular approach is faster than
Axillary approach though both the techniques for brachial
plexus block are safe and simple to perform due to easy surface landmarks. In both the groups motor action starts earlier
than sensory
REFERENCES
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5.
6.
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American Society of Regional Anesthesia and Pain
medicine, Brachial Plexus Blockade: A Comprehensive
Review, www.asra.com.
Peripheral Nerve Blocks – A Colour Atlas, 2nd edition,
Jacques E. Chelly, 2004.
52nd Annual Refresher Course Lectures, Clinical Updates And Basic Science Reviews David L Brown, Brachial plexus blocks: an update, Iowa City, Iowa; 124:16,www.asahq.org.
Bennet Abraham, Mamie Zachariah and MeenaCherian,
Axillary brachial plexus Block: A comparison of three
techniques. J AnesthClinPharmacol, 1995;11:285-288.
Winnie, A. P., Radonjic R., Akkineni S. R., and Durraniz, Factors inluencing distribution of local anesthetic injected into the brachial plexus sheath. AnaesthAnalg 1979; 58: 225-234.
Ababou A et al, The effect of arm position on onset and
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
A Study to Assess The Eficacy of Lignocaine (Xylocard) for LMA
Insertion and Stress Response in Adults Following Induction with
Propofol
Basavaraj V. Modi1, Vaijayanti S. Gandhi2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Laryngeal mask is a new concept in airway
management. It is an ingenious supraglottic airway device,
which is designed to maintain a seal around laryngeal inlet
for spontaneous ventilation and allow controlled ventilation
at the modest (<15cm of H2O) positive pressure.Objective of
the study was to assess the eficacy of Lignocaine (Xylocard)
for LMA insertion and stress response in adults following induction with Propofol.
Material and Method: The study was carried out in 80 patients of age group of 20-60 years undergoing surgical, gynaecological and orthopedic operations. All patients were belonging to ASA grade II and I.
Results: After LMA insertion there was signiicant increase
in heart rate in-Group B (p value < 0.001) and signiicant increase in the SABP in-Group B (P value highly signiicant)
but no signiicant change in DABP. Conditions for LMA insertion were signiicantly superior in-Group A and there were
no adverse airway relexes during insertion of LMA. In-Group
B patients 25% patients had less satisfactory conditions with
coughing during LMA insertion. LMA insertion was possible
in all patients in irst attempt.
Conclusion: Insertion of LMA (laryngeal mask airway) leads
to signiicant stress response and Inj. xylocard (Lignocaine
2%) 1.5mg/Kg body weight 90 seconds prior to induction
decreases stress response of LMA insertion. This technique
will deinitely add to the safety of anaesthetic management of
patients who are at increased risk of harmful effects of stress
response.
Key words: Lignocaine, stress, propofol
insertion as compared to endotracheal intubation.2
Even this amount of stress can be harmful in some high-risk
patients such as patients with history of ischaemic heart disease, hypertension and cerebrovascular diseases.
Smooth insertion of LMA requires attenuation of airway relexes to avoid sequele such as coughing, gagging and increase in heart rate and blood pressure. This has been most
commonly achieved by using Propofol, which is now easily
available. Propofol is undoubtedly a valuable agent for LMA
insertion as it allows rapid induction and depresses laryngeal relexes. But complete safety is not ensured even with
Propofol and coughing and gagging is often seen.3
Lignocaine (Xylocard) given intravenously has been successfully used to decrease stress response and airway relexes to tracheal intubation but its use with LMA is not popular.
This study is designed to assess whether Lignocaine (Xylocard) given intravenously can improve conditions for LMA
insertion and decrease stress response to LMA insertion.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The study was carried out in 80 patients of age group of 2060 years undergoing surgical, gynaecological and orthopedic operations. All patients were belonging to ASA grade II
and I.
Exclusion Criteria
Following patients were excluded.
1. Morbidly obese.
2. Patients with high chances of aspirationa. Patients who were not nil by mouth.
b. Patients with increased intraabdominal pressure.
c. Pregnant patients with second or third trimester
INTRODUCTION
Professor, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Anesthesiology,
Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Hyderabad, India
1
Laryngeal mask is a new concept in airway management.
It is an ingenious supraglottic airway device, which is designed to maintain a seal around laryngeal inlet for spontaneous ventilation and allow controlled ventilation at the modest
(<15cm of H2O) positive pressure.1 LMA also obviates need
for intubation in some day care patients.
Endotracheal intubation requires laryngoscopy for visualization of larynx. Endotracheal tube exerts lateral pressure on
the tracheal wall, which may provoke undesirable autonomic
responses. LMA insertion obviates need for laryngoscopy,
but similar and attenuated stress response is seen after LMA
Corresponding author: Dr. Vaijayanti S. Gandhi, Assistant Professor, Department of Anesthesiology, Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: Basavaraj V. Modi, Vaijayanti S. Gandhi.
A study to assess the eficacy of lignocaine (xylocard) for LMA
insertion and stress response in adults following induction with
propofol. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3 (1):237-240.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
237
Modi et al.
Eficacy of Lignocaine (Xylocard)
pregnancy.
3. Patients with reactive airway disease
Preanaesthetic Evaluation
It included a detailed history and physical examination. Investigations included routine blood and urine analysis and
chest X ray and electrocardiogram in relevant cases. Written
and informed consent was taken from all the patients.
Preoperative preparation included a period of overnight fasting.
Patients were randomly divided in two Groups, A and B.
Group A: Received injection Lignocaine (Xylocard)
intravenously before giving injection Propofol.
Group B: Received equal volume of injection placebo (0.9%
normal saline).
Technique: On arrival in the anaesthetic room, heart rate,
oxygen saturation and non-invasive blood pressure monitoring were instituted.
Premedication: All patients of both Groups were premedicated with Inj Midazolam 0.03mg/kg; Inj. Pentazocine
0.5mg/kg, Inj Ranitidine 1mg/kg and InjMetoclopromide
0.2mg/kg body weight were given intravenously.
Inj. Glycopyrrolate 0.004mg/kg body weight was given intramuscularly 20 minutes before IV premedication. All patients were preoxyganated with 100% oxygen for 5 minutes.
90 seconds prior to induction,Group A received Inj. Lignocaine (Xylocard) 1.5mg/kg body weight intravenously.
Group B received equal volume of 0.9% normal saline intravenously.Anaesthesia was induced with InjPropofol 2.5mg/
kg body weight intravenously. Appropriate size of LMA was
inserted. Cuff of LMA was inlated and LMA was connected to Bain’s circuit for controlled ventilation.Patients were
paralyzed with InjVecuronium 0.08mg/kg body weight
(whenever required).
Anaesthesia was maintained on oxygen and nitrous oxide
50-50%. Intravenous Propofol infusion was given by triple
dose regimen,10mg/kg/hr for 10 minutes, 8mg/kg/hr for next
10 minutes,6mg/kg/hr, thereafter.
A] Heart rate, blood pressure and oxygen saturation were
measured as follows:
• Before premedication
• Five minutes after premedication,
• After induction
• After LMA insertion
• Five minutes after LMA insertion
• Ten minutes after LMA insertion.
B] Pain of injection of Propofol was assessed postoperatively, withthe help of grading scale by asking questionnaire to the patient.
• Grade 0-no pain.
• Grade I- mild discomfort,
• Grade II-signiicant pain.
C] Ease of insertion of LMA was graded as follows:
• Grade I – Successful insertion without any laryngealrelexes
• Grade II- Successful insertion with laryngeal relexes, like
- Coughing
- Gagging
- Laryngospasm
- Movements of limbs
• Grade III– unsuccessful insertion.
D] Any intraoperative or postoperative complications were
noted.
RESULTS
Above Table shows intragroup comparison of changes in the
heart rate after various interventions with the baseline value.
It shows that, in-Group A there were no signiicant changes
in the heart rate after induction (z value= 0.5), after LMA
insertion (Z value = 0.83), and at ive (Z value = 0.26) and
ten (Z value = 0.16) minutes after LMA insertion.
In Group B, change in the heart rate after induction was not
signiicant (Z= 0.34). After LMA insertion Heart rate increased signiicantly (P value< 0.001) over the baseline value and this increase was sustained at ive (P value= <0.001)
and ten minutes (P value< 0.001) after LMA insertion.
Variables
Group A (Z =) Signiicance (P Value) Group B (Z =)
Baseline Vs after induction
0.5
NS
0.34
Baseline Vs after LMA ] Insertion
0.83
NS
10
Baseline Vs Five min after LMA insertion
0.26
NS
7.6
Baseline Vs Ten min after LMA insertion
0.16
NS
6
(z>1.96 signiicant: p<0.001 is signiicant)
Table-1: Intragroup comparison of variations in the heart rate
Signiicance (P Value)
NS
< 0.001
< 0.001
< 0.001
Variables
Group A (Z =) Signiicance (P Value) Group B (Z =)
Signiicance (P Value)
Baseline Vs after induction
2.31
0.01 (NS)
3.6
P=0.0002
Baseline Vs after LMA insertion
2.58
0.005 (NS)
6
P< 0.001
Baseline Vs Five min after LMA insertion
2.9
0.002 (NS)
3
P=0.001
Baseline Vs Ten min after LMA insertion
2.1
0.025 (NS)
1
NS
(Z>1.96 signiicant: p<0.001 is signiicant)
Table-2: Intragroup comparison of variations in the systolic arterial blood pressure (sabp)
238
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Modi et al.
Eficacy of Lignocaine (Xylocard)
Variables
Group A (Z=)
Signiicance P value
Group B (Z=)
Signiicance P value
Baseline Vs after induction
0.89
NS
1.9
NS
Baseline Vs after LMA insertion
1.89
NS
0.9
NS
Baseline Vs Five min after LMA insertion
2.16
0.02
0.6
NS
Baseline Vs Ten min after LMA insertion
2.45
0.008
0.4
NS
(Z>1.96 signiicant: p<0.001 is signiicant)
Table-3: Intragroup comparison of variations in diastolic arterial blood pressure (dabp)
Variables
Group A (Z=)
Signiicance P value
Group B (Z=)
Baseline Vs after induction
2.2
0.015 NS
2.25
Baseline Vs after LMA insertion
3
0.001 NS
3.23
Baseline Vs Five min after LMA insertion
1
NS
3.4
Baseline Vs Ten min after LMA insertion
1.1
NS
3.2
(Z>1.96 signiicant: p<0.001 is signiicant)
Table-4: Intragroup comparison of variations in mean arterial pressure
Table 2 shows that compared to baseline, there was no significant change in the systolic arterial blood pressure in Group
A after induction (p value = 0.01), after LMA insertion (P
value 0.005), at ive minutes (p value = 0.002) and ten minutes (P value = 0.025) after LMA insertion.
In-Group B, there was highly signiicant increase in the
SABP after LMA insertion (Z = 6) and signiicant increase
at ive minutes after LMA insertion (P value = 0.001). At ten
minutes after LMA insertion SABP had returned to baseline.
Table 3 shows intragroup comparison of changes in the
DABP. In both the Groups as compared to the baseline
changes in the DABP were not signiicant at any time during
the procedure.
In Group A, there was slight but non-signiicant increase in
the MAP after induction (P value = 0.015) and after LMA
insertion (P value = 0.001). Change in the MAP at ive and
ten minutes after LMA insertion was also not signiicant in
Group A.
In Group B, change in the MAP after induction was not signiicant (P value = 0.014), but after LMA insertion there was
signiicant increase in the MAP (P = 0.0006). Also at ive (P
value = 0.0004) and ten (P = 0.0006) minutes after LMA insertion increase in the mean arterial pressure was signiicant.
DISCUSSION
In Group A there were no signiicant changes in the heart rate
after induction (z value= 0.5), after LMA insertion (Z value
= 0.83), and at ive (Z value = 0.26) and ten (Z value = 0.16)
minutes after LMA insertion.In Group B, change in the heart
rate after induction was not signiicant (Z= 0.34). After LMA
insertion Heart rate increased signiicantly (P value< 0.001)
over the baseline value and this increase was sustained at
ive (P value= <0.001) and ten minutes (P value< 0.001) after
LMA insertion.
N. Braud and E.A.F. Clements (1989) studied pressor response to the LMA insertion. They demonstrated signiicant
increase in the heart rate after LMA insertion (P value <
0.001) and this increase in heart rate was sustained at one
Signiicance P value
0.014
0.0006
0.0004
0.0006
and three minutes after LMA insertion. The pattern of stress
response obtained was comparable with the pattern stress response.2
I.G. Wilson, D. Fell, S.L.Robinson and G. Smith (1992)
demonstrated the pattern of stress response to LMA insertion
in their study, where they compared the stress response of
LMA insertion to that of the endotracheal intubation. They
noticed increase in the heart rate by 25% above the baseline
after LMA insertion and heart rate started decreasing after
ten minutes in LMA Group while it remained elevated in
ETT Groups.4
M.D Stoneham, Bree and Sneyd (1995) demonstrated the
effect of intravenous Lignocaine (Xylocard) on the stress
response to LMA insertion. They reported a small but statistically insigniicant change haemodynamics after LMA
insertion in both study and control Groups.3
In Group B, there was highly signiicant increase in the
SABP after LMA insertion (Z = 6) and signiicant increase
at ive minutes after LMA insertion (P value = 0.001). At ten
minutes after LMA insertion SABP had returned to baseline.
N. Braud and E.A.F. Clements (1989) studied LMA demonstrated signiicant increase in the SABP after LMA insertion
(P value < 0.001), which attained signiicance at one minute
after LMA insertion. (8.6% mean rise) and this increase in
heart rate was sustained at three minutes after LMA insertion.2
The pattern of stress response obtained was comparable with
the pattern stress response obtained in Group B patients in
present study.
I.G. Wilson, D. Fell, S.L.Robinson and G.Smith (1992)
demonstrated that though there is increase in the SABP after
LMA insertion it does not reach the signiicance levels and it
returned to baseline in short time after LMA insertion.4
M.D Stoneham, Bree and Sneyd (1995) demonstrated the
effect of intravenous Lignocaine (Xylocard) on the stress
response to LMA insertion. They reported a small but statistically insigniicant increase in SABP after LMA insertion in
both study and control Groups.3
In both the Groups as compared to the baseline changes in
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
239
Modi et al.
Eficacy of Lignocaine (Xylocard)
the DABP were not signiicant at any time during the procedure.
N. Braud and E.A.F. Clements (1989) studied LMA demonstrated signiicant increase in the DABP after LMA insertion
(P value < 0.001) The maximum mean rise in DABP was
11.8% and this increase in DABP was14.2 % less than the
ETT Group. This increase was sustained at three minutes after LMA insertion.2
I.G. Wilson, D. Fell, S.L.Robinson and G.Smith (1992) noticed that insertion of LMA produced no signiicant increase
diastolic arterial pressure.17 the result was comparable with
the present study.4
M.D Stoneham, Bree and Sneyd (1995) reported a small but
statistically insigniicant increase in DABP after LMA insertion in both study and control Groups.3
In Group A, there was slight but non-signiicant increase in
the MAP after induction (P value = 0.015) and after LMA
insertion (P value = 0.001). Change in the MAP at ive and
ten minutes after LMA insertion was also not signiicant in
Group A.
In Group B, change in the MAP after induction was not signiicant (P value = 0.014), but after LMA insertion there was
signiicant increase in the MAP (P = 0.0006). Also at ive (P
value = 0.0004) and ten (P = 0.0006) minutes after LMA insertion increase in the mean arterial pressure was signiicant.
N. Braud and E.A.F. Clements (1989) demonstrated significant increase in the MAP after LMA insertion (P value <
0.001) and this increase in heart rate was sustained at one
and three minutes after LMA insertion. The pattern of stress
response obtained was comparable with the pattern stress response obtained in Group B patients in present study.2
I.G. Wilson, D. Fell, S.L. Robinson and G. Smith (1992)
demonstrated no signiicant change in the MAP after LMA
insertion.4 M.D Stoneham, Bree and Sneyd (1995) demonstrated a small but statistically insigniicant increase IN
MAP after LMA insertion in both study and control Groups.3
A prospective study of 1500 standardized LMA insertions
by single experienced LMA user revealed a irst attempt insertion rate of 95.5% and a failure rate after three attempts
of 0.4%.5
Fibreoptic studies have shown that the LMA is stable during
anaesthesia once it is placed correctly and ixed.6 Davitt et al
(1994) demonstrated that ventilation through LMA is adequate at ventilation pressures varying from 15-30 cm of H2O
and comparable to ventilation through endotracheal tube.
Leak fractions were consistently higher than for ventilation
through endotracheal tube and increased with increasing airway pressure.7
Berry and Varghese reported no air leak with tidal volumes
of 10ml/kg.8 Haden et al (1993) used technique of intermittent positive pressure through LMA in 93 patients with only
two signiicant clinical problems.9
Safety of LMA in non-supine positions has not been demonstrated in large controlled trials. The prone position may be
associated with an increased risk of regurgitation, but not
240
necessarily aspiration. Uneventful LMA use has been reported in 300 prone patients.10
S. Mcclune, M Regan, and J Moor described the use of LMA
in a patient for emergency caesarean section when the tracheal intubation was not possible. The anaesthesia was maintained with the cricoid pressure in order to avoid aspiration.11
CONCLUSION
Insertion of LMA (laryngeal mask airway) leads to signiicant
stress response and Inj. xylocard (Lignocaine 2%) 1.5mg/Kg
body weight 90 seconds prior to induction decreases stress
response of LMA insertion. This technique will deinitely
add to the safety of anaesthetic management of patients who
are at increased risk of harmful effects of stress response.
REFERENCES
1.
Thomas Gal. Airway management in Miller’s anaesthesia, sixth dition, 1625-1627.
2. Braude N, Clements AEF, Hodges and B.P. Andrews.
The pressure and laryngeal mask insertion – comparison
with tracheal intubation. Anaesthesia 1989; 44: 551-4.
3. Stoneham M.D, Sneyd J.R, Bree S.E. Facilitation of laryngeal mask insertion Anaesthesia 1995;50:464-466.
4. Wilson I.G, Fell D, Robinson S.L. et al. Cardiovascular
response to the insertion of the laryngeal mask. Anaesthesia, 1992; 47: 300-302.
5. Brimacomb J. and Berry A. The incidence of aspiration
associated with laryngeal mask airway – a metaanalysis
of published literature. Journal of clinical anaesthesia
7: 279-305.
6. Dubreuil M, Plaud B, Penon C, Ecoffey C. complications and ibreoptic assessment of size in laryngeal mask
airway. Anaesthesia and Analgesia.1993; 76: 695-703.
7. Devitt J. H, Wenstone R, Noel A.G, O Donnel R.R.T.
The Laryngeal mask airway and the positive pressure
ventilation Anaesthesiology 1994; 80: 550-555.
8. Berry A and Verghese C. Changes in the pulmonary
mechanics during IPPV with the laryngeal mask airway
compared to the tracheal tube. Anaesthesia and analgesia 1944; 78:S38.
9. Haden R.M, Pinnok C.A, Scott P.V. Incidence of aspiration with the laryngeal mask airway. British Journal of
Anaesthesia, 1994; 72:496.
10. Brimacomb J. and Burry A. The laryngeal mask airway:
review and position during anaesthesia lasting 1-2 hrs.
Canadian Journal Anaesthesia, 1994,41;589-93.
11. McClune S, Regan M, Moore J: Laryngeal mask airway
for caesarean section. Anaesthesia 1990; 45: 227-228.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Study Comparing Dexmedetomidine and a Combination of Fentanyl,
Midazolam and Diclofenac Sodium on Hemodynamics, SpO2 and
Surgeon-Patient Comfort in Tympanoplasty Surgeries
Sivanand Veluri2, M. Srinivas Reddy1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Monitored anaesthesia care involves administering a combination of drugs for anxiolytic, hypnotic, amnestic, and analgesic effect. Ideally it should result in less
physiological disturbance and allow for more rapid recovery
than general anaesthesia.Objective of the study was to compare Dexmedetomidine and a combination of Fentanyl, Midazolam and Diclofenac sodium on hemodynamics, SpO2 and
surgeon-patient comfort in tympanoplasty surgeries.
Material and Method: A prospective double blind study of
dexmedetomidine and a combination of fentanyl, midazolam
and diclofenac on hemodynamics, SpO2 and surgeon-patient
comfort in 150 patients of tympanoplasty surgeries was carried over a period of two years at Nova ENT hospital Hyderabad. Tympanoplaty surgeries are preferably performed under monitored anaesthesia care. 150 patients were randomly
divided into 2 groups. Group D receiving dexmedetomidine
bolus of 1mcg/kg /bw for 10 min followed by infusion at a rate
of 0.04mcg/kg bw/min and group C patients received the combination drugs of fentanyy 2mcg/kg/bw, midazolam 0.02mg/
kg/bw and diclofenac sod of 1mg/kg/bw.
Results: In group D, more patients (16%) have experienced a
fall in systolic blood pressure of more than 20% compared to
only 5.3% of patients in group C. In group D, more patients
(12%) have experienced a fall in diastolic blood pressure of
more than 15% compared to only 8% of patients in group C.
It was observed that the SpO2 level of patients in group D i.e.
receiving dexmedetomidine was satisfactory and majority had
higher levels as compared to patients in the group C.
Conclusion: Dexmedetomidine group patients were found to
be more comfortable.
membrane with or without ossiculoplasty. It is usually done
under local anaesthesia with sedation under monitored anaesthesia care (MAC) or general anaesthesia. Patients may
feel discomfort due to pain, noisy suction, manipulation of
instruments and head and neck position. There are many advantages of local anaesthesia supplemented with intravenous
sedation, such as less bleeding, cost effectiveness, postoperative analgesia, faster mobilisation of the patient, and the
ability to test hearing intraoperatively.1
Dexmedetomidine is the most recent agent in this group of
α2 agonists approved by FDA in 1999 for use in humans
for analgesia and sedation4-8, sympatholytic and haemodynamically stabilizing properties. It is increasingly being
used as a sedative for monitored anaesthesia care because
of its analgesic properties, “co-operative sedation”, and lack
of respiratory depression. Although safe bradycardia and hypotension are the most predictable and frequent side effects.
Dexmedetomidine has shown to consistently reduce anaesthetic requirements. In particular this review focuses on dexmedetomidine utilization as an infusion in Spine surgeries
and ENT surgeries and to compare the eficacy of two different doses of dexmedetomidine infusion on intraoperative
hemodynamics, requirement of anaesthetic agents and post
operative sedation and analgesia.2
MATERIAL AND METHOD
A prospective double blind study of dexmedetomidine and
a combination of fentanyl, midazolam and diclofenac on
hemodynamics,SpO2 and surgeon-patient comfort in 150
patients of tympanoplasty surgeries was carried over a period of two years at Nova ENT hospital Hyderabad. Tympa-
Key words: dexmedetomidine, blood pressure, SpO2
Associate Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, Telangana,
India
1
INTRODUCTION
Monitored anaesthesia care involves administering a combination of drugs for anxiolytic, hypnotic, amnestic, and analgesic effect. Ideally it should result in less physiological
disturbance and allow for more rapid recovery than general
anaesthesia. It typically involves administration of local anaesthesia in combination with IV sedatives, anxiolytic and
analgesic drugs which is a common practice during various
ENT surgical procedures. Tympanoplasty in ENT surgical
procedures involves reconstruction of perforated tympanic
Corresponding author: Dr. Sivanand Veluri, Associate Professor,
Department of Anaesthesiology, Malla Reddy Medical College for
Women, Suraram, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
How to cite this article: Sivanand Veluri, M. Srinivas Reddy.
Study comparing dexmedetomidine and a combination of fentanyl,
midazolam and diclofenac sodium on hemodynamics, SpO2 and
surgeon-patient comfort in tympanoplasty surgeries. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):241-244.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
241
Veluri et al.
Dexmedetomidine and a Combination of Fentanyl, Midazolam and Diclofenac Sodium on Hemodynamics, SpO2
noplaty surgeries are preferably performed under monitored
anaesthesia care. 150 patients were randomly divided into 2
groups. Group D receiving dexmedetomidine bolus of 1mcg/
kg /bwfor 10 min followed by infusion at a rate of 0.04mcg/
kg bw/min and group C patients received the combination
drugs of fentanyy 2mcg/kg/bw, midazolam 0.02mg/kg/bw
and diclofenac sod of 1mg/kg/bw. Maximum fall in systolic
blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure over the length of
time of surgery as a percentage in comparision to the pre-operative values was noted. Similarly maximum change in
SpO2 was also recorded. Surgeon and patient comfort index
was calculated based on the responses of them to a questionnaire and assessment was also recorded and compared in the
2 groups. All data was analysed for statistical signiicance.
Surgeon’s comfort index scores
Index
Response
Blood less
Blood less
ields
Fair blood loss
Disturbing blood ooze
Troublesome bleeding
Surgery abandoned
Patient state
Immobile and co-operative
Moving and un co-operative
Converted to GA
patient comNo
plaining of
Yes
pain needing
Converted to GA
further LA
administration
ability to comEasily
municate with
With extra effort
patient
Not possible as pt is very
drowsy
Points
4
3
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
If the response of the surgeon to the questionnaire reveals 7
to 10 points surgeon was considered comfortable and if the
scoring was less than 7, surgeon was considered uncomfortable.
Patient comfort index
Index
Number / response
Visual Analogue
9 or 10
Scale (VAS)
7 or 8
Less than 7
Patient state
Relaxed and sleepy
Anxious and agitated
Arousability of
easily arousable
patient
Arousable with loud verbal or physical means
Points
2
1
0
1
0
1
0
Patient is regarded as comfortable if the score is 4 or 5 and
uncomfortable if the score is less than 4.
RESULTS
It was found that more patients i.e. 24% and 70.7% in the
242
group C had experienced fall up to 15% and 15-20% respectively than the patients in the group D. But in group D, more
patients (16%) have experienced a fall in systolic blood pressure of more than 20% compared to only 5.3% of patients in
group C (table 1).
Similarly for fall in diastolic blood pressure, it was found
that more patients i.e. 25.3% and 66.7% in the group C had
experienced fall up to 10% and 10-15% respectively than
the patients in the group D. But in group D, more patients
(12%) have experienced a fall in diastolic blood pressure of
more than 15% compared to only 8% of patients in group C
(table 2).
Table 3 shows a comparison of SpO2 level in both the groups.
It was observed that the SpO2 level of patients in group D
i.e. receiving dexmedetomidine was satisfactory and majority had higher levels as compared to patients in the group C.
When Surgeon’s comfort index scores were compared in
both the groups, it was found that there was not much difference. Thus the surgeon’s were comfortable equally with both
the group patients (table 4).
It can be seen from table 5 that patients in both the groups
were equally comfortable with either of the drug they received.
Maximum fall in
No. Of patients in No. Of patients in
systolic BP
group D
group C
Up to 15%
14 (18.7%)
18 (24%)
15 – 20%
49 (65.3%)
53 (70.7%)
More than 20%
12 (16%)
04 (5.3%)
Total
75 (100%)
75 (100%)
Table-1: Comparison of fall of systolic blood pressure (BP) in
the two groups
Maximum fall in
No. of patients in
No. of patients in
diastolic BP
group D
group C
Up to 10%
13 (17.3%)
19 (25.3%)
10 – 15%
53 (70.7%)
50 (66.7%)
More than 15%
09 (12%)
06 (8%)
Total
75 (100%)
75 (100%)
Table-2: Comparison of fall of diastolic blood pressure (BP) in
the two groups
SpO2 level
No. Of patients in No. Of patients in
group D
group C
Up to 95
53 (70.7%)
24 (32%)
90 – 94
16 (21.3%)
42 (56%)
Less than 90
06 (8%)
09 (12%)
Total
75 (100%)
75 (100%)
Table-3: Comparison of SpO2 level in the two groups
Surgeon’s comNo. of patients in
No. of patients in
fort index scores
group D
group C
7 – 10
71 (94.7%)
73 (97.3%)
Less than 7
04 (5.3%)
02 (2.7%)
Total
75 (100%)
75 (100%)
Table-4: Comparison of Surgeon’s comfort index scores in the
two groups
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Veluri et al.
Dexmedetomidine and a Combination of Fentanyl, Midazolam and Diclofenac Sodium on Hemodynamics, SpO2
Patient comfort
No. of patients in
No. of patients in
index score
group D
group C
4–5
73 (97.3%)
74 (98.7%)
Less than 4
02 (2.7%)
01 (1.3%)
Total
75 (100%)
75 (100%)
Table-5: Comparison of Patient comfort index score in the two
groups
DISCUSSION
150 patients were randomly divided into 2 groups. Group
D receiving dexmedetomidine bolus of 1mcg/kg /bw for 10
min followed by infusion at a rate of 0.04mcg/kg bw/min and
group C patients received the combination drugs of fentanyy
2mcg/kg/bw, midazolam 0.02mg/kg/bw and diclofenac sod
of 1mg/kg/bw.
We found that for maximum fall of systolic and diastolic
blood pressure, more number of patients in the Group D
receiving dexmedetomidine were having fall of more than
20% and 15% respectively. But for SpO2 levels, these group
patients were having better levels when compared to the patients in the group C who received the combination drugs
of fentanyy 2mcg/kg/bw, midazolam 0.02mg/kg/bw and diclofenac sod of 1mg/kg/bw. From the point of view of comfort index of surgeon’s and patients, we observed that there
was no signiicant difference in the comfort index of the two
groups.
Neha Garg et al2 carried out a study among 60 patients who
were randomly divided into 2 groups. Group A (inj. Dexmedetomidine 0.2 μg/kg/hr) and Group B (inj. Dexmedetomidine 0.4μg/kg/hr). They noted that fall in systolic BP was
15.7% in Group B compared to 3.5% reduction in Group
A with respect to baseline. Difference was statistically
very highly signiicant (p<0.001). The reduction in diastolic blood pressure was 13% in Group B compared to 3% in
Group A. Difference was statistically very highly signiicant
(p<0.001).
Padmaja A et al1 observed that the mean sedation score in
group D who received Dexmedetomidinewas 3.18± 0.19 and
in other it was (group M) 3.03±0.21.(p>0.05). Intra operative
heart rate and mean arterial pressure in group D were lower than the base line values and the corresponding values in
group M (p<0.05).No of patients receiving rescue fentanyl
were more in group M(2 patients 1dose,5 patients 2 doses),in
group D only 2 patients required single dose of rescue analgesic fentanyl(p<0.05).
Ayoqlu H et al3 in their study found that Group SD receiving Dexmedetomidine had less bleeding and lower bleeding
scores (P < 0.05). In addition, this group received less intraoperative fentanyl (P < 0.05). Aantaa R et al4 reported that
the MAC of isolurane was 0.85% end-tidal in the control
group, 0.55% end-tidal with the low dose of dexmedetomidine, and 0.45% end-tidal with the high dose of dexmedetomidine.Ghodki PS et al5 concluded that Dexmedetomidine
is an effective anesthetic adjuvant that can be safely used in
laparoscopy without the fear of awareness under anesthesia.
Khan ZP et al6 concluded that dexmedetomidine decreased
isolurane requirements in a dose-dependent manner and reduced heart rate, systolic and diastolic arterial pressures. Sedation and slight impairment of cognitive function persisted
for several hours after anaesthesia and the end of infusion of
dexmedetomidine. Isolurane did not appear to inluence the
pharmacokinetics of dexmedetomidine.
Feld JM et al7 reported that during surgery, deslurane concentrations necessary to maintain the bispectral index at 45
to 50 were decreased, and blood pressure and heart rate were
lower with in the dexmedetomidine compared with fentanyl
group. In the postanesthesia care unit, pain scores and morphine use were decreased in the dexmedetomidine group.
Durmus M et al8 found that Dexmedetomidine decreased
bleeding, postoperative analgesic requirements and intraoperative anaesthetic requirements and was associated with
more stable haemodynamic responses to anaesthesia. Jalonen J et al9 observed that Intraoperative intravenous infusion
of dexmedetomidine to patients undergoing coronaryartery
revascularization decreased intraoperative sympathetic tone
and attenuated hyperdynamic responses to anesthesia and
surgery but increased the propensity toward hypotension.
Bakhamees HS et al10 noted that the intraoperative infusion
of dexmedetomidine decreased the total amount of propofol
and fentanyl required to maintain anesthesia, offered better
control of intraoperative and postoperative hemodynamics, decreased postoperative pain level, decreased the total
amount of morphine used and showed better recovery proile
compared with placebo.
Aho M et al11 observed that Dexmedetomidine infusion did
not completely abolish the need for isolurane but diminished its requirement by > 90% (P = 0.02). Venn RM et al12
stated that from the clinician's and patient's perspectives,
dexmedetomidine is a safe and acceptable sedative agent for
those requiring intensive care. The rate pressure product is
reduced in patients receiving dexmedetomidine, which may
protect against myocardial ischaemia. Dexmedetomidine reduces the requirement for opioid analgesia.
Arain SR et al13 concluded that Dexmedetomidine may be
useful for perioperative sedation. It has a slower onset and
offset of sedation compared with propofol. Dexmedetomidine was associated with improved analgesia and less morphine use in the postoperative period.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Padmaja A, Varma T, Pavani PD. A Comparitive Study
of Dexmedetomidine Vs Midazolam for Monitored Anaesthesia Care during ENT Surgical Procedures. IOSR
Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences. 2015;14:100104.
Neha G, Rama U, Hetal P. Dexmedetomidine infusion
as an anaesthetic adjuvant for maintenance of anaesthesia in patients undergoing major surgeries (A com-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
243
Veluri et al.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Dexmedetomidine and a Combination of Fentanyl, Midazolam and Diclofenac Sodium on Hemodynamics, SpO2
parison of two different doses). Int J Biomedical Res
2014;5:735-40.
Ayoglu H, Yapakci O, Ugur MB, Uzun L, Altunkaya H,
Ozer Y et al. Effectiveness of dexmedetomidine in reducing bleeding during septoplasty and tympanoplasty
operations. J Clin Anesth.2008;20:437-41.
Aantaa R, Jaakola ML, Kallio A, Kanto J. Reduction
of the minimum alveolar concentration of isolurane by
dexmedetomidine. Anesthesiology. 1997;86:1055-60.
Ghodki PS, Thombre SK, Sardesai SP, Harnagle KD.
Dexmedetomidine as an anesthetic adjuvant in laparoscopic surgery: An observational study using entropy monitoring. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol.
2012;28:334-8.
Khan ZP, Munday IT, Jones RM, Thornton C, Mant
TG, Amin D. Effects of dexmedetomidine on isolurane
requirements in healthy volunteers. 1: Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic interactions. Br J Anaesth.
1999;83:372-80.
Feld JM, Hoffman WE, Stechert MM, Hoffman IW,
Ananda RC. Fentanyl or dexmedetomidinecombined
with deslurane for bariatric surgery. J Clin Anesth.
2006;18:24-8.
Durmus M, But AK, Dogan Z, Yucel A, Miman MC,
Ersoy MO. Effect of dexmedetomidine on bleeding during tympanoplasty or septorhinoplasty. Eur J Anaesthesiol.2007;24:447-53.
Jalonen J, Hynynen M, Kuitunen A, Heikkilä H, Perttilä
J, Salmenperä M et al. Dexmedetomidine as an anesthetic adjunct in coronary artery bypass grafting. Anesthesiology. 1997;86:331-45.
Bakhamees HS, El-Halafawy YM, El-Kerdawy HM,
Gouda NM, Altemyatt S. Effects of dexmedetomidine
in morbidly obese patients undergoing laparoscopic gastric bypass. Middle East J Anaesthesiol. 2007;19:53751.
Aho M, Erkola O, Kallio A, Scheinin H, Korttila K.
Dexmedetomidine infusion for maintenance of anesthesia in patientsundergoingabdominalhysterectomy.
Anesth Analg. 1992;75:940-6.
Venn RM, Grounds RM. Comparison between dexmedetomidine and propofol for sedation in the intensive care unit: patient and clinician perceptions. Br J
Anaesth. 2001;87:684-90.
Arain SR, Ebert TJ. The eficacy, side effects, and recovery characteristics of dexmedetomidine versus
propofol when used for intraoperative sedation. Anesth
Analg. 2002;95:461-6.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
244
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Role of Trans Rectal Ultrasonography in Evaluation of the Prostate
Shaik Abdul Rahim1, Ajay Anirudh Jadhav2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The biopsy rate for both TRUS and DRE was
available only in the study done by Lee et al. They reported
that a biopsy was recommended in 3.7% (29 out of 784) of the
men tested by DRE and inn 7.9% (62 out of 784) of the men
tested by TRUS. Thus, both the detection and biopsy rate were
approximately twice as high with ultrasonography. Objective
of the research was to study the role of trans rectal ultrasonography in evaluation of the prostate
Material and Methods: This hospital based cross sectional
study was conducted for a period of 18 months. 40 patients of
age 35 to 80 years were evaluated by transrectal ultrasonography using a 7.5 MHz endorectal probe. Institutional Ethics
Committee permission was obtained and informed consent
was taken from the patients before they were recruited in the
study.
Results: Five patients showed evidence of hypoechoic lesions
in the peripheral zone and were diagnosed as prostatic carcinoma. One patient had irregularly enlarged prostate gland.
One out of 40 patients were diagnosed as chronic prostatitis.
Conclusion: transrectal ultrasonography was found to be
more sensitive than the digital rectal examination.
Keywords: Evaluation, Trans rectal ultrasonography, Sonograms
INTRODUCTION
Watanabe and associates have proposed diagnostic criteria for the purpose of differentiating the prostatic disorders
which were late approved as the oficial criteria of the Japan
Society of Ultrasonics in Medicine and the Japanese Urological Association.1
In 1985, Lee and associates established the Hypoechoic lesion as a sign of the cancer focus and this had great of the
cancer focus and had great impact on the advancement of
early cancer detection by transrectal ultrasonography.2
In 1988, Wanatabe and associates have undertaken a mass
screening program for prostatic disease with transrectal ultrasonography. They have screened 6529 men over the age
of 55 years detecting 42 cases of prostatic carcinoma (0.6%)
and 1405 cases of benign prostatic hyperplasia - 21.5%).3
Lee and associates conducted the largest published screening
trial with transrectal ultrasonography and co-workers who
screened 784 self referred men using both digital rectal examination and transrectal ultrasonography. Overall 77 biopsies were done, 83% initiated by transrectal ultrasonography
and 38% by digital rectal examination. Cancer was detected
in 22 patients or 2.8% of the men screened. Digital rectal
examination detected 10 tumors and transrectal ultrasonography detected 20 tumors (2.6% of the men screened). They
suggested that transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) is twice
as sensitive as digital rectal examination (DRE) in detecting
small prostatic cancers.4
The biopsy rate for both TRUS and DRE was available only
in the study done by Lee et al. They reported that a biopsy
was recommended in 3.7% (29 out of 784) of the men tested
by DRE and inn 7.9% (62 out of 784) of the men tested by
TRUS. Thus, both the detection and biopsy rate were approximately twice as high with ultrasonography.2
MATERIAL AND METHOD
This hospital based cross sectional study was conducted for
a period of 18 months. 40 patients of age 35 to 80 years were
evaluated by transrectal ultrasonography using a 7.5 MHz
endorectal probe. Institutional Ethics Committee permission
was obtained and informed consent was taken from the patients before they were recruited in the study.
Patients presenting with symptoms of prostatism either in
the form of irritative symptoms or obstructive symptoms,
patients with abnormal digital rectal examination in the form
of asymmetry of the gland, tenderness and presence of hard
nodules were included in the study.
All the patients were investigated on WiproGE Logic 400
MD Ultrasound machine. The transducer used for the study
is an end viewing transducer with variable frequency ranging from 5-7.5 MHz that allows for multiplanar imaging in
semi coronal and axial projections. The transducer is provided with a stainless steel biopsy guide and attachments for
TRUS guided biopsies of the prostate. Data was entered in
the Microsoft Excel Sheet and analyzed.
RESULTS
Out of 40 patients who underwent trans rectal ultrasonograAssociate Professor, 2Professor, Department of Radio Diagnosis,
Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Hyderabad, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Shaik Abdul Rahim, Associate Professor, Department of Radio Diagnosis, Malla Reddy Medical College
for Women, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: Shaik Abdul Rahim, Ajay Anirudh Jadhav.
Role of trans rectal ultrasonography in evaluation of the prostate.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):245-248.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
245
Rahim et al.
Role of Trans Rectal Ultrasonography
TRUS Observation
Number
Normal TRUS morphology
13
Benign prostatic hyperplasia
20
Prostatic carcinoma
06
Chronic prostatitis
01
Total
40
Table-1: Results of trans rectal ultrasonography
%
32.5
50
15
2.5
100
Studies
Prostate cancer
Prostate cancer dedetection by DRE*
tection by TRUS#
Lee et al2
1.3% (10 out of 784
2.6% (20 out of 784
patients)
patients)
Present study 2.5% (1 out of 40
15% (6 out of 40
patients)
patients)
*Digital rectal examination, #Trans rectal ultrasonography
Table-2: Comparison of results of carcinoma of prostate
phy of the prostate 13 patients showed normal zonal anatomy of the prostate, with no evidence of any focal lesions
and the size of the gland in all these patients was below 25
grams. These patients were reported as normal trans rectal
ultrasonography of the prostate gland. Digital rectal examination was also normal in all the patients. None of these
patients were subjected to biopsy or PSA level estimation.
Five patients showed evidence of hypoechoic lesions in the
peripheral zone and were diagnosed as prostatic carcinoma. All these patients showed no evidence of any palpable
nodules of Digital rectal examination. All these patients had
serum PSA levels of more than four ng/ml. All these ive
patients were subjected to trans rectal ultrasound guided biopsy and the diagnosis was conirmed on histopathological
examination.
One patient had irregularly enlarged prostate gland. Without
any evidence of hypo echoic or hyper echoic lesion and was
diagnosed as prostatic carcinoma (iso echoic). Prostate was
palpable in this patient by digital rectal examination. He also
had PSA level of 16 ng/ml. This patient was subjected to
trans rectal ultrasound guided biopsy and the diagnosis was
conirmed by histopathological examination. This patient
had evidence of extra capsular extension with involvement
of bladder base and seminal vesicles.
One out of 40 patients were diagnosed as chronic prostatitis
based on ultrasonographic features described in the literature. Trans rectal ultra sonography of this patient showed
irregular calciic densities both in the central gland and peripheral zone. This patient had tender prostate gland on digital rectal examination and experienced some degree of pain
during the trans rectal ultrasonography procedure.
We found that the detection rate of prostate cancer by Trans
rectal ultrasonography WAS 15% compared with only 2.5%
of detection rate with Digital rectal examination. Lee et al2
also found that the detection rate for prostate cancer was only
1.3% by Digital rectal examination compared to an almost
double i.e. 2.6% of detection rate for prostate cancer by Trans
rectal ultrasonography method. Thus Trans rectal ultrasonography is superior to the digital rectal examination method.
246
DISCUSSION
The present study was conducted on patients with age group
ranging from 35 to 80 years. All these patients presented
with urologic symptom and were referred to the Radiology
department for evaluation of the prostate by Trans rectal ultrasonography.
All the patients were subjected to thorough digital rectal examination prior to being subjected Trans rectal ultrasonography.
Of the six patients who were conirmed of having prostate
cancer, one patient showed hard indurated prostatic gave a
value of 2.5% cancer detection rate for digital rectal examination. In the study conducted by Lee et al2 the cancer detection rate for digital rectal examination was 1.3% (10 out of
784 patients studied).
Trans rectal ultrasonography had detected ive patients with
hypo echoic lesions and one patient with iso-echoic lesion
in the peripheral zone; and all of them were diagnosed as
prostatic carcinoma or surgical biopsy in the present study
giving the cancer detection rate of 15% (6 out of 40 patients).
In the study conducted by Lee et al2 the cancer detection rate
by Trans rectal ultrasonography was 2.6% (20 out of 784
patients studied). In another study conducted by Wanatabe
et al3 who screened 6529 men over the age of 55 years, 42
cases were diagnosed as prostatic carcinoma with a cancer
detection rate of 0.6%. In the study carried out by Lee et
al2 the cancer detection rate by Trans rectal ultrasonography
was twice as that of digital rectal examination. In the present study, the cancer detection rate was 2.5% (1 out of 40
patients studied) and by Trans rectal ultrasonography it was
many time more i.e. 15% (6 out of 40 patients studied).
Of the six prostatic cancers diagnosed in the present study,
ive patients showed hypo echoic lesion and one patient
showed iso echoic lesion comprising of 83% and 17% respectively. In a study conducted by Shinohara et al5 on 98 patients of prostatic carcinoma, 67% were found to have hypo
echoic lesions and 32% were identiied as having iso echoic
lesions where as only one percent showed evidence of hyper
echoic lesion.
Kelly IM et al6 in their study on 456 patients with possible
prostate cancer found that The frequency of malignancy was
47% (75 of 158). Of 136 TRUS-positive cases, 72 were malignant and 64 benign. Of 84 CDI-positive cases, 65 were
malignant and 19 benign (chi 2 = 12.18, P < .001). Thirteen
percent of histopathologically proved cases (10 of 75) were
normal at CDI. TRUS alone had a sensitivity of 96% and a
positive predictive value (PPV) of 0.53. The addition of CDI
increased the PPV to 0.77 but reduced the sensitivity to 87%.
In only one case out of 158 did CDI suggest the diagnosis of
malignancy independently of TRUS.
TRUS alone has limited potential to identify PC because of
frequent multifocality of cancer within the prostate, the variable sonographic appearance of prostatic tumors, the poor
speciicity of focal US abnormalities, and the substantial
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Rahim et al.
percentage of isoechoic PC. Over the past decade, the sextant biopsy technique has emerged as the standard of care in
the detection of PC. However, limitations in cancer detection
have been appreciated, particularly a false-negative rate approaching 20%. This high failure rate has led investigators to
reine biopsy techniques to improve cancer detection and to
increase the total number of cores. Currently, recommendations include increasing the biopsy number to a minimum of
10-12 cores, including sampling of the lateral prostate. Reinements in imaging technologies (power Doppler sonography, microbubble intravenous sonographic contrast agents,
and MR spectroscopy or dynamic contrast MR imaging)
should eventually improve targeting of prostate needle biopsy and reduce false-negative biopsies.7
Tang J et al8 found that Transrectal ultrasonographically
guided biopsy of the hypoechoic lesions revealed prostate
cancer in 30 patients and benign prostatic diseases in 36.
Tayib AM et al9 observed that Out of the 45 patients who
underwent TRUS guided biopsy; cancer of the prostate was
detected in 13 (28.8%). The cancer detection rate in patients
presented with abnormal DRE alone was 7.6%, and was
15.3% in the group with elevated
Ukimura O et al10 in their study concluded that MR-TRUS
fusion-image-guided biopsies outperformed systematic biopsies. TRUS-visibility of a MR-suspicious lesion facilitates
image-guided biopsies, resulting in higher detection of signiicant cancer.
Maxeiner A et al11 reported that Real-time MR/US fusion increases detection rates of PCa in patients undergoing repeat
biopsy. Especially, clinically signiicant PCa with a Gleason
score ≥ 7 were almost exclusively detected by MR/US fusion-guided biopsy.
Role of Trans Rectal Ultrasonography
J Urol 1989;142:76.
Kelly IM, Lees WR, Rickards D. Prostate cancer and the
role of color Doppler US. Radiology. 1993;189:153-6.
7. Lemaître L, Villers A, Mouton D, Puech P. Transrectal ultrasound and biopsy of the prostate. J Radiol.
2006;87:201-9.
8. Tang J, Yang JC, Li Y, Li J, Shi H. Peripheral zone hypoechoic lesions of the prostate: evaluation with contrast-enhanced gray scale transrectal ultrasonography. J
Ultrasound Med. 2007;26:1671-9.
9. Tayib AM, Mosli HA, Al-Ammari AA. Results of prostate biopsies in a teaching hospital in Western Saudi
Arabia. Saudi Med J. 2003;24:859-62.
10. Ukimura O, Marien A, Palmer S, Villers A, Aron M, de
Castro Abreu AL. Trans-rectal ultrasound visibility of
prostate lesions identiied by magnetic resonance imaging increases accuracy of image-fusion targeted biopsies. World J Urol. 2015;33:1669-76.
11. Maxeiner A, Fischer T, Stephan C, Cash H, Slowinski T,
Kilic E et al. Real-time MRI/US fusion-guided biopsy
improves detection rates of prostate cancer in pre-biopsied patients. Aktuelle Urol. 2014;45:197-203.
6.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Wanatabe H. The Japanese staging system. In: Diagnostic ultrasound of the prostate. Resnick MI, Wanatabe H,
Karr JP, editors. Elsevier: New York, 1989:4-12.
Lee F. Trans rectal ultrasound in the diagnosis, staging,
guided needle biopsy and screening for prostate cancer.
The use of trans rectal ultrasound in the diagnosis and
management of prostate cancer. Lee F, Mc Leary RD
editors. Alan R. Liss, New York 1987:76-110.
Wanatabe H, Ohe H, Tanahashi Y et al. evaluation of
clinical eficacy of transrectal sosnography and computed tomography for prostatic diseases. Jpn J Urol
1988;79:1202-9.
Lee F, Littrup PJ, Mc Leary RD, Kumusaka GH, Borlaza General Secretary, Mc Hugh TA, Soidere MH, Roi
LD. Needle aspiration and core biopsy of prostate cancer: Comparative evaluation with biplanar trans rectal
ultrasonography guidance. Radiology 1987;163:51520.
Shibnohara K, Wheeler TM, Scardino PT. The appearance of prostate cancer on trans rectal ultrasonography:
Correlation of imaging and pathological examinations.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
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Rahim et al.
248
Role of Trans Rectal Ultrasonography
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Role of Honey in Post operative Tonsillectomy Cases
Manpreet Singh Nanda1, Mandeep Kaur2, Dinesh Luthra3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Honey has been used since ancient times for
healing of skin wounds and preventing infections. The aim of
this study is to evaluate the effect of honey on pain, infection
and wound healing in post operative tonsillectomy cases.
Materials and Methods: 40 patients planned for tonsillectomy under general anaesthesia were taken up in the study.
20 patients in the study group were given oral honey post operatively along with other medication whereas remaining 20
patients in control group were not given oral honey. Patients
were evaluated post operatively after 1, 2, 7 and 14 days for
post operative pain, healing of tonsillar fossa wound, post
operative bleed, fever, recovery time, patient satisfaction and
other criterias.
Results: The results showed that pain was much lesser in
study group. There was better wound healing, shorter recovery time with greater patient satisfaction. There were lesser
post operative complications like fever with lesser need for
intramuscular analgesics. No speciic side effects of honey
were noted.
Conclusion: So it can be concluded that honey can be considered as a complementary medicine in post operative tonsillectomy cases.
Keywords: Fever; Honey; Post operative pain;Tonsillectomy;
Wound healing
INTRODUCTION
Tonsillectomy is one of the most common ENT surgeries
performed worldwide even in adults. Pain and wound infection are the most common complications in tonsillectomy.1
Pain occurs due to mechanical and thermal injuries to the
tonsillar fossa during surgery.2 This delays the recovery and
hospitalisation due to fever, pain and infection.3
Controlling post operative tonsillectomy pain is a challenging task. Various studies have been done for pain management but not much success achieved.4 According to a study
antibiotics alone are not effective in reducing pain or need
for analgesics nor have a affect on recovery time.5 Even the
use of analgesics and steroids don’t cause signiicant fast relief.6
Honey is a everyday household product which is easily accessible, non expensive and with no speciic side effects.
Its role in wound healing has been studied for long. Studies have shown honey to heal chronic wounds and ulcers.7
Honey has also been found to be effective on various types
of bacteria.8 Honey is said to have antioxidant, antibacteri-
al and anti-inlammatory activity. Inspite of its potential it
has remained largely underestimated and unexploited. This
study aims to study the effect of honey on post operative
pain, wound healing and prevention of infection in post operative tonsillectomy cases.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This prospective randomized case control study was conducted in Department of ENT of our medical college and
hospital from August 2011 to July 2012. 40 patients scheduled for tonsillectomy under general anaesthesia, aged above
18 years were enrolled in this study after obtaining written
consent from the patients. The approval of the local ethics
committee was taken. Exclusion criteria were patients with
allergy to honey, patients with diabetes, those with bleeding disorders, acute infection and those who disliked to take
honey. All the patients were operated by the same surgeon
and anaesthesia was given by the same anaesthesist performing this study. All the patients selected were of indication for
bilateral tonsillectomy.
The patients were randomized alternatively into study and
control group. All the patients in both groups underwent tonsillectomy by cold dissection method and haemostasis was
done using bipolar cautery. In all the patients endotracheal intubation and anaesthesia methods were same. All the
patients were kept nil orally for irst 6 hours after surgery
during which period they were put on same intra venous antibiotics, analgesics and luids. After 6 hours after the patient
was fully awake and was able to take orally the intra venous
medication was stopped. 20 patients taken in study group
were then given 5ml of locally or commercially available
honey orally every 4 hourly and the patient was asked to
swallow slowly over few minutes. Remaining 20 patients in
Associate Professor, Department of Otolaryngology – Head and
Neck Surgery, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Anaesthesia,
Maharishi Markandeshwar Medical College and Hospital, Kumarhatti, Solan, Himachal Pradesh, 3Professor, Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Chintpurni Medical College
and Hospital, Bungal, Pathankot, Punjab, India
1
Corresponding author: Manpreet Singh Nanda, H.No 554 Sector
36 B Chandigarh, India.
How to cite this article: Manpreet Singh Nanda, Mandeep Kaur,
Dinesh Luthra. Role of honey in post operative tonsillectomy cases.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):249-253.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
249
Nanda et al.
Role of Honey in Post operative Tonsillectomy Cases
control group were not given honey. All the patients in both
groups were put on same oral antibiotics, analgesics and
povido iodine hydrogen peroxide gargles. The above treatment was given for 2 weeks post operatively. All the patients
were discharged 48 hours after surgery and were asked to
come for regular follow up.
The patients were assessed post operatively after 24 hours,
48 hours, 1 week and 2 weeks after surgery. The assessment
points were –
1. The patient satisfaction was assessed according to LIKERT SCALE as 1 – completely comfortable, 2 – very
comfortable, 3 – slightly comfortable, 4 – uncomfortable and 5 – very uncomfortable at each assessment.
2. The patients were assessed for pain in throat at each assessment.
3. The patients were assessed for fever, bleeding from operated site, burning sensation in throat at each assessment.
4. The tonsillar fossa was examined for degree of epitheliazation (wound healing) at each assessment.
5. The patients were assessed for need for intra muscular
analgesics during irst 48 hours post operatively.
6. The patients in study group were enquired about any
systemic side effect or complication on taking honey.
RESULTS
Forty patients who gave consent were enrolled in this study.
All the patients underwent tonsillectomy under general anaesthesia. Data was collected on all patients. All the patients
Age Group (years)
Male
Female
18 - 30
10
13
31 - 50
6
8
51 plus
1
2
Total
17
23
Table-1: Age and Sex wise distribution
Pain
No pain
Mild pain (occasional)
Moderate pain (tolerable)
Severe pain (intolerable)
24 hours post op
48 hours post op
1 week post op
Study
Control
Study
Control
Study
Control
group
group
group
group
group
group
0
0
0
0
12
9
5
5
8
6
8
8
10
9
10
9
0
3
5
6
2
5
0
0
Table-2: Post operative throat pain in both groups
Wound epitheliazation
Staging
Stage I (No epitheliazation)
Stage II (<30% epitheliazation)
Stage III (30 – 75% epitheliazation)
Stage IV (>75% epitheliazation)
Stage V (complete epitheliazation)
250
Total
23
14
3
40
were above the age of 18 years. The majority of patients
were in the younger age group (58%). 3 patients were above
the age of 50 years. There was a slight female predominance
among the patients undergoing tonsillectomy 1:1.35. (Table
1)
Regarding the indication for tonsillectomy, majority of patients had recurrent tonsillitis (85%). The other indication
was obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA) seen in 6 patients. (Figure 1)
20 patients taken in study group were given 5ml of locally
or commercially available honey orally every 4 hourly and
the patient was asked to swallow slowly over few minutes.
Remaining 20 patients in control group were not given honey. All the patients in both groups were put on same oral
antibiotics, analgesics and povido iodine hydrogen peroxide
gargles. The above treatment was given for 2 weeks post operatively. The patients were assessed post operatively after
24 hours, 48 hours, 1 week and 2 weeks after surgery.
Post operative throat pain was almost same in both groups
at the end of 24 hours. It was lesser in study group after 48
hours and after 1 week post operatively. After 48 hours only
2 patients (10%) had severe pain in the study group using
honey as compared to 5 patients (25%) in control group. Pain
was almost same in both groups at the end of 2 weeks post
operatively. (Table 2)
Regarding need for intramuscular analgesics during hospital
stay post operatively it was calculated from the time patient
started taking orally (6 hours after surgery). It was found the
need was almost same between 6 to 24 hours post operatively in both groups. But the need for intramuscular analgesics
was much lesser in study group using honey (10%) as compared to control group (30%). (Figure 2)
Wound epitheliazation was graded according to classiication
given by Ozlugedik.9 It was found that wound healing was
much faster in study group using honey rather than control
group. 5 patients (25%) and 15 patients(75%) had complete
wound healing at the end of 1 week and 2 weeks respectively
24 hours post op
48 hours post op
1 week post op
Study
Control
Study
Control
Study
Control
group
group
group
group
group
group
16
17
11
15
1
3
2
2
4
3
4
6
2
1
4
2
5
6
0
0
1
0
5
3
0
0
0
0
5
2
Table-3: Post operative wound healing in both groups
2 weeks post op
Study
Control
group
group
20
19
0
1
0
0
0
0
2 weeks post op
Study
Control
group
group
0
0
0
0
1
3
4
5
15
12
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nanda et al.
Role of Honey in Post operative Tonsillectomy Cases
Complication
Upto 24 hours
24 - 48 hours
post op
post op
Study
Control
Study
Control
group
group
group
group
Post op bleed
0
0
0
0
Fever
3
4
0
3
Table-4: Complications due to tonsillectomy
34
Indication for tonsillectomy
6
Recurrrent tonsillitis
Figure-1: Indication for tonsillectomy
study group
OSA
control group
7
6
6
2
6 - 24 hours post op
24 - 48 hours post op
Figure-2: Need for intra muscular (IM) analgesics
in study group as compared to only 2 patients (10%) and 12
patients (60%) in control group respectively. (Table 3)
Regarding complications due to tonsillectomy, none of the
patients in both groups had any incidence of post operative
bleeding. The incidence of fever was much lesser in study
group at the end of 48 hours post operatively. (Table 4)
Patient satisfaction was higher in study group using honey as
compared to control group at the end of 48 hours and 1 week.
It was almost same at the end of 2 weeks.
Regarding side effects of honey no side effect or allergic reaction to honey was noted in the study group using honey.
DISCUSSION
The eficacy of honey in reducing post operative morbid-
ity after tonsillectomy was investigated in this study. This
study aimed to study the role of honey in controlling pain,
infection and other complications and fastening the process
of wound healing in post operative tonsillectomy cases. The
study also aimed to study any side effects of honey if any.
We have used commercially or locally available honey for
this purpose. Our study included only adult patients to remove any error while noting subjective results like post operative pain and patient satisfaction.
Tonsillectomy is one of the most common ENT surgeries
performed worldwide including India since ages. The most
common indications of tonsillectomy according to literature
available are recurrent tonsillitis, obstructive sleep apnoea,
tonsillar abscess and lymphoma.10 In our study also we found
recurrent tonsillitis to be the most common indication followed by obstructive sleep apnoea (Figure 1). Regarding the
incidence of tonsillitis according to Thorp et al the incidence
is more common in females than in males and in younger age
group.11 Similar results were obtained in our study showing
female predominance and more incidence in younger age
group (Table 1).The most common morbidities after tonsillectomy are bleeding, pain, oedema and poor oral intake.12
Controlling pain post tonsillectomy is a challenging task.
Pain after tonsillectomy is due to inlammation, nerve irritation and pharyngeal spasm.13 According to a study no analgesic is enough to provide analgesia after tonsillectomy.14
Dhiwakar et al in a study showed that antibiotics alone have
no role in reducing pain or need for analgesic or any effect
on recovery time.5
Honey is easily accessible, non expensive and without any
speciic side effects. It was used to treat infected wounds as
long as 2000 years back. Eqyptians since ages used honey
for corneal and conjuctival inlammations and burns.9 The
antibacterial property of honey was irst recognised by Vanketel in 1895.15 The anti inlammatory activity of honey has
been studied in various clinical trials where it decreased severity of mucositis in post radiotherapy cases,16 in treatment
of gingivitis17 and in ophthalmological inlammations.18
Pain post tonsillectomy is due to mechanical and thermal
injuries to tonsillar fossa leading to inlammation. Studies
have shown that wounds infected with staphylococcus aureus are rendered sterile by honey.19 Tonsillar fossa heals
as open wound post tonsillectomy and it has been proved
that honey accelerates wound recovery and decreases post
operative pain.20 In a study honey has been found to be inhibitory to both gram positive and gram negative bacteria
and to both aerobes and anaerobes including staphylococcus
aureus and pseudomonas.21 Honey decreases prostaglandin
E2 and alpha 2, thromboxane in blood leading to pain relief.9
It also contains glucose and hydrogen peroxide and a acidic
pH which help in ighting infection and prevent infection.21
Similarly in our study we obtained much less post operative pain at the end of 48 hours and 1 week (Table 2) and
less need for intramuscular analgesics in patients who were
given honey post operatively (Figure 2). Also the incidence
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Nanda et al.
Role of Honey in Post operative Tonsillectomy Cases
of post operative infection was much lesser in study group
using honey (Table 4).
Honey’s role in wound debridement has also been studied.22
Honey increases the activity of enzyme plasmin which has a
role in tissue repair by inhibiting formation of plasminogen
activating factor.23 It also stimulates the release of cytokines,
tumour necrosis factor and interleukins from monocytes
which play a role in healing and tissue repair.24 In our study
also we obtained faster wound epitheliazation in study group
using honey (Table 3).
The side effects and allergic reaction to honey are rare.25
It can cause a stinging pain due to acidic pH.25 It was also
found in a study that there is no permanent resistance to honey.26 Honey though sometimes contains spores of clostridia
which can cause botulism. In our study no side effects of
honey in patients were noted in study group.
CONCLUSION
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Honey is an ancient remedy which is being rediscovered for
post operative management of tonsillectomy cases. Honey with anti inlammatory effect can reduce post operative
pain. Oral administration of honey post operatively increases
wound healing, decreases infection because of its antimicrobial activity without causing any major side effects leading
to greater patient satisfaction. It is also easily accessible and
inexpensive.
So we can conclude that honey is effective and can be considered as a complimentary medicine alongside other modern pharmacological drugs with regard to post operative
tonsillectomy cases.More research is needed to study and
compare the effects of various sub types of honey availableand to study the use of honey in other post operative surgeries and in other acute inlammatory diseases of throat.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
14.
We would to thank our medical college and hospital for its
support and the patients for cooperating with the study protocol.
15.
16.
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2.
3.
252
Salonen A, Kokki H, Nuutinen J. Recovery After Tonsillectomy in Adults: A Three Week Follow up Study.
Wiley Online Library; 2002: 94-98
Magdy EA, Elwany S, el-Daly AS, Abdel-Hadi M,
Morshedy MA. Coblation tonsillectomy: a prospective, double-blind, randomized, clinical and histological
comparison with dissection-ligation, monopolar electro cautery and laser tonsillectomies. J Laryngol Otol
2008;122:282–90.
Shirley WP, Woolley AL, Wiatrak BJ. Pharyngitis and
adenotonsillar disease. In: Cummings CW, Flint PW,
Haughey BH, et al. (editors). Otolaryngology: Head
and Neck Surgery. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Mosby. 2010:
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Dhiwakar M, Brown PM. Are adjuvant therapies
for tonsillectomy evidence based? J Laryngol Otol
2005;119:614– 9.
Dhiwakar M, Eng CY, Selvaraj S, McKerrow WS. Antibiotics to improve recovery following tonsillectomy: a
systematic review. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;
134: 357–64.
Shnayder Y, Lee KC, Bernstein JM. Management of
adenotonsillar disease. In: Lalwani AK (editor). Current Diagnosis & Treatment in Otolaryngology-Head &
Neck Surgery. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw Hill. 2008:
340-7.
Kamaruddin MY, Zainabe SA, Anwar S, Mohd Razif
MA, Mohd Yassim MY. The eficacy of honey dressing on chronic wounds and ulcers. In: Juraj M, editor.
Honey: Current Research and Clinical Uses. New York:
Nova Science Publishers 2012: 185–96.
Molan P. Why honey is effective as a medicine. 2.
The scientiic explanation of its effects. Bee World.
2001;82:22-40.
Ozlugedik S, Genc S, Unal A, Elhan AH, Tezer M, Titiz
A. Can post-tonsillectomy pain be relieved with honey?
Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol 2006;70:1929–34.
Hsu AP, Tan KL, Tan YB, Han HJ, Lu PK. Beneits
and eficacy of tonsillectomy for recurrent tonsillitis in
adults. Acta Otolaryngol 2007;127: 62–4.
Thorp MA, Isaacs S, Sellars SL. Tonsillectomy and tonsillitis in Cape Town--age and sex of patients. S Afr J
Surg. 2000;38:62-4.
Vardi A, Barzilay Z, Linder N, Cohen HA, Paret G, Barzilai A. Local application of honey for treatment of neonatal postoperative wound infection.Informa Healthcare; 1998: 429-432
Ernst E, Fialka V. Ice Freezes Pain? A Review of the
Clinical Effectiveness of Analgesic Cold Therapy. J
Pain Symptom Manag.1994;9:56-9.
Hamunen K, Kontinen V. Systematic review on analgesics given for pain following tonsillectomy in children.
Pain. 2005;117:40-50.
Dustmann JH. Antibacterial effect of honey. Apiacta
1979;14:7-11.
Biswal BM, Zakaria A, Ahmad NM. Topical application
of honey in the management of radiation mucositis: a
preliminary study. Support Care Cancer 2003;11:242–8.
English HK, Pack AR, Molan PC. The effects of manuka honey on plaque and gingivitis: a pilot study. J Int
Acad Periodontol 2004; 6:63–7.
Emarah MH. A clinical study of the topical use of bee
honey in the treatment of some ocular diseases. Bull Islamic Med 1982;2:422–5.
Cooper RA, Molan PC, Harding KG. Antibacterial activity of honey against strains of Staphylococcus aureus
from infected wounds. J R Soc Med 1999;92:283-5.
Amani S, Kheiri S, Ahmadi A. Honey versus diphenhydramine for post-tonsillectomy pain relief in pediatric cases: a randomized clinical trial. J Clin Diagn Res.
2015;9:SC01-4.
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nanda et al.
Role of Honey in Post operative Tonsillectomy Cases
21. Molan PC. Honey: Antimicrobial actions and role in
disease management. In: Ahmad I & Aqil F (eds). New
Strategies Combating Bacterial Infection. Weinheim:
Wiley VCH, 2009:229–53.
22. Gethin G, Cowman S. Manuka honey vs hydrogel –
a prospective, open label, multicentre, randomised
controlled trial to compare desloughing eficacy and
healing outcomes in venous ulcers. J Clin Nurs 2009;
18:466–74
23. Templeton S. A review of the use of honey on wounds.
ACCNS J Community Nurs 2002;7:13–4.
24. Weiss SJ, Peppin G, Ortiz X, Ragsdale C, Test ST. Oxidative autoactivation of latent collagenase by human
neutrophils. Science 1985;227:747–9.
25. Betts JA & Molan PC, editors. A pilot trial of honey as
a wound dressing has shown the importance of the way
that honey is applied to wounds. 11th Conference of the
European Wound Management Association, 2001, Dublin, Ireland.
26. Cooper RA, Jenkins L, Henriques AFM, Duggan RS
& Burton NF. Absence of bacterial resistance to medical-grade manuka honey. Eur J Microbiol Infect Dis
2010; 29:1237–41.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
253
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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A Study on Echocardiographic Evaluation of Pericardial Diseases
Ravindra Kumar1, M. Sitaram1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Pericardial effusion was a diagnostic enigma
before the advent of echocardiography, both in developed and
developing countries, more so in poorer countries.Advent of
M-Mode and 2D-Echocardiography has revolutionized the
diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases. The ECG
and x-ray chest may be non-diagnostic in early cases. Echocardiography helps to overcome this dificulty. Objective of
the present study was to study is taken up to evaluate role
of Echocardiography in early detection of pericardial effusion
and also to quantitate the pericardial luid by measuring the
amount of luid drained during surgery.
Matrerial and Methods: The present study was carried out
at Osmania General Hospital, Hyderabad.About 15 patients
were studied in a tertiary care set up. The age group of the
study was in the range of 8-43 years. The selected patients
underwent routine blood investigations, x-ray, ECG and Echo
M mode and 2 Dimensional (ADL).
Results: There were 11 males and 1 female patients. There
were 2 cases of effusive–constrictive pericarditis, 1 case of
constrictive pericarditis and the remaining (9) were of pericardial effusion.
Conclusion: Echocardiography was extremely useful not
only in demonstrating pericardial effusion but alsoshowed
various abnormalities of mitral valve, septal motion and cardiac motion.
Keywords: Pericardial effusion, Pericarditis, ECG, Echocardiography
depositions causing effusionechocardiography has been very
helpful.
The advantage of 2D echocardiography over M-mode echocardiography 1) that it gives clear anatomical deinition of
pericardial space and permits identiication of pericardial effusion. 2) Localized pericardial effusion can be easily seen
in 2D echocardiography. 3) Medial and lateral extent of pericardial effusion and apical location of pericardial effusion
can be determined by 2D echocardiography.
2D echocardiography can be done in different planes. 1)
Parasternal a) Long-axis b) Short-axis view, 2) Apical view
shows all four chambers of heart, 3) Subcostal, 4) Suprasternal.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
A hospital based cross sectional study was carried out. Institutional Ethics Committee permission was obtained. Informed consent was taken from each and every case. A sample size of 15 cases wastaken in a tertiary care set up. Due to
lack of data 3 cases were excluded from the study. The cases
were chosen irrespective of their duration of disease. The
following investigations were done for all the cases.
1. ESR
2. Hemogram
3. CUE
4. Blood sugar and urea
5. Chest X ray PA view
6. ECG
7. Echo M mode and 2 Dimensional (It was done onAdvanced Technology Lab[ADL])
INTRODUCTION
RESULTS
In healthy states the two serous membranes of the pericardium are closely opposed to each other and contain 10-15 ml
of luid. During infections and inlammation, the amount of
luid increases abnormally. Persistent elevation of systemic
venous pressure, Kussumalssign(inspiratory increase in jugular venous pressure) and its absence in cardiac tamponade
has been emphasized by Spodick and others1 PulsusParadoxus is also observed in cardiac tamponade. Pericardial knock
may be heard in case of constrictive pericarditis.2 Elevated
diastolic pressure is observed in both the ventricles.3 Increased venous pressure and decreased arterial pressures are
also seen.
Pericardial effusion is not identiied in the initial stages but
in such cases echocardiography has proved invaluable.In
evaluating patients with pericardial effusion,4 constrictive
pericarditis, effusive constrictive pericarditis and metastatic
254
Table 1 shows anterior and posterior echo free space was absent in the case of constrictive pericarditis. A posterior echo
free space ranging from 1-4 cm was present in all cases and
an anterior echo free space was present in all, but three cases
Professor, Department of General Medicine, Malla Reddy Medical
College for Women, Hyderabad, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Ravindra Kumar, Professor, Department of General Medicine, Malla Reddy Medical College for
Women, Hyderabad, India
How to cite this article: Ravindra Kumar, M. Sitaram. A study on
echocardiographic evaluation of pericardial diseases. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):254-256.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Kumar et al.
of pericardial effusion. A larger echo free space was associated with large pericardial effusion.
With 2D Echo, echo free space was observed anteriorly, posteriorly, apically, medially and laterally depending on the
amount of luid. Pericardial effusion was observed in all the
cases. A small echo free space is also observed in effusive
constrictive pericarditis cases which was constant both in
systole and diastolic phases. The cases which were identiied
with 2D Echo as large pericardial effusion were conirmed at
surgery. The amount of luid ranged from 400 ml to 1000ml.
Table 3 shows lat motion of posterior left ventricular wall
was associated with constriction. Abnormal anterior motion
during diastole in two cases was associated with large effusions.
Echocardiographic Evaluation of Pericardial Diseases
Case ECHO Free space -anterior
ECHO free
No
space-posterior
1
1 cm
1.5 cm
2
Not visualized
2 cm
3
2.5 cm
2 cm
4
5cm
2 cm
5
Absent
Absent
6
Not visualized
4 cm
7
1cm
3cm
8
Present
1.5cm
9
Not visualized
1.5cm
10
5cm
2cm
11
Present
1.5cm
12
Present
1cm
Table-1: Distribution of pericardial luid in M-Mode echocardiography
DISCUSSION
In the study group, 12 cases were taken. Only one (8.3%)
was female amongst the 12 cases.The age of the study subjects varied from 8 to 43 years. Ten patients (83.3%) cases
had raised ESR and leukocytosis.Eleven patients (91.7%)
were found to have cardiomegaly on x-ray chest PA view.
In two thirds (66.67%) of the cases, ECG changes were not
seen. In the rest (33.3%) of the cases, low voltage complexes
and non speciic ST-T changes were observed.
In M-Mode echocardiography5 anterior echo free space was
observed in 25% of cases and in another 25% of the cases
this was not properly visualized. Half (50%) of the cases had
1-5 cm echo free space posteriorly. In constrictive pericarditis, echo free space was not observed. With 2D Echo, echo
free space was observed anteriorly, posteriorly, apically, medially and laterally depending on the amount of luid.
Paradoxical movement of septum was observed in both systole and diastole in 5/12 cases. Left ventricular posterior wall
abnormality was observed in 2/12 cases and in one case lat
motion was observed. Flat motion was observed in constrictive pericarditis cases. In anterior wall motion abnormality
large amount of luid was seen.6
Inability to diagnose pericardial effusion with only clinical
indings, X-ray chest and ECG in early stages, may lead to
development of cardiac tamponade.With the advent of Echocardiography the diagnosis of pericardial effusion in early
stages is possible.7 There are deinitive signs of cardiac tamponade by echocardiography, like right ventricular compression and swinging movements of heart.8
It is possible to do pericardiocentesis with the help of Echocardiography.9 The quantity of luid can be estimated with
the help of Echocardiography. In mild effusion luid accumulation is seen only posteriorly. In moderate effusion the
accumulation of luid is limited to posterior, anterior and lateral areas.10 In large effusion there is accumulation of luid
anteriorly, posteriorly and apically.10
Right ventricular compression by pericardial effusion was
shown to be reliable sign of cardiac tamponade.11 M mode
Echo is much less sensitive compared to 2D Echo. Twelve
Case No Echocardiographic quantiication At surgery
2
Large
400ml
3
Large
500ml
4
Large
3000ml
6
Large
500ml
8
Large
1000ml
10
Large
1000ml
Table-2: Shows large effusions have 400 ml or more of pericardial luid.
Case No
LVPW Abnormality
1
Nil
2
Nil
3
Nil
4
Nil
5
Not clearly visualized
6
Flat motion
7
Abnormal anterior motion during diastole
8
Abnormal anterior motion during diastole
9
Nil
10
Nil
11
Nil
12
Flat motion
Table-3: Left ventricular posterior wall (LVPW) abnormality
cases with pericardial disease whose age ranged from 8 to
43 years were studied. There were 11 males and 1 female
patient. There were 2 cases of effusive –constrictive pericarditis, 1 case of constrictive pericarditis and the remaining
were of pericardial effusion. The diagnosis was conirmed in
6 of the cases at surgery. Remaining patients showed good
response to medical treatment.
Two of the cases had pyogenic pericardial effusion. Both
were children, one of whom had Bronchopneumonia. One
patient hadthymoma invading pericardium and producing
hemorrhagic effusion.
Most of the patients showed raised ESR. One patient showed
leucocytosis who had pyogenic effusion. All the patients had
increase in size of cardiac silhouette on chest X-ray (except
one case of constrictive pericarditis). Four of the cases were
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
255
Kumar et al.
Echocardiographic Evaluation of Pericardial Diseases
associated with pleural effusion. Low complexes were present in ECG of four patients and all these patients had large
pericardial effusion.
Echocardiography was extremely useful not only in demonstrating pericardial effusion but also showed various abnormalities of mitral valve, septal motion12 and cardiac motion.
Swinging motion of heart13 was diagnostic of cardiac tamponade. Highly speciic signs of constrictive pericarditis
such as diastolic paradoxical movement of septum were noted which were useful in detecting an element of constriction
in effusive –constrictive pericarditis.
CONCLUSION
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Echocardiography is a well accepted diagnostic tool in the
evaluation of patients with suspected cardiovascular disease.
It is totally non-invasive, can be used at the bedside for serial
evaluation and supplies anatomic and functional information
not available by any other technique, and has led to its rapid
acceptance over the past decade.
lected ultrasound. Circulation 1966;34:611-19.
Mittal SR. Echocardiography in Evaluation of Pericardial Disease. JAssoc Physicians India 2003;51:903-9.
Martin RP, Rakowskih, Franch J, Popp RL. Localization ofpericardial effusion with wide angle phased array
echocardiography.AmJCardiol 1978;42:904-12.
Schiller NB, Botvinick EH. Right ventricular compression as a sign of cardiac tamponade: An analysis
of echocardiographic ventricular dimensions and their
clinical implications. Circulation 1977;56:774-9.
Pool PE, Seagran SC, Abbasi AS, Charinzi Y, Kraus R.
Echocardiac manifestations of constrictive pericarditis.
Abnormal septal motion. Chest 1975;68:684-8.
Vignola PA, Pohost GM, Curfman GD, Myers GS-Correlation of echocardiographic and clinical indings
in patients with pericardial effusion. AmJCardiol
1976;37:701-7.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
REFERENCES
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4.
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Spodick DH. Kussumal’ssign in pericardial effusion.
AmJCardiol 1978;42:1060.
Bernhard M, Peter MS, Arsen DR, RaimundE, RenerR,
Yehuda A et al. Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Management of Pericardial Diseases; Executive summary.
The task force on diagnosis and management of Pericardial Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology. Task Force members; Copyright 2004 Published
by Elsevier LTD on behalf of The European society of
Cardiology.
Labovitz AJ, Chair VE, Michelle B, Steven AG, Robert J, Smedar K et al. Focussed Cardiac Ultrasound in
emergent setting; A Consensus statement of the American Society of Echocardiography and American College
of Emergency Physicians. J Am Society of Echocardiography 2010;23:1225-30.
Martin RP, Bowden R, Filly K, Popp RL. Intrapericardial abnormalities in patients with pericardial effusion.
Findings by 2Dimensional Echocardiography.Feigenbaum-Echocardiography, 2ndedition1982, Lea and
Febiger, Philadelphia.
Horowitz MS, Ronald R, Harrison DC, Echocardiographic diagnosis of pericardial diseases. Am Heart J
1979;97:420-7.
Horwitz MS, Schultz CS, Stinson EB, HarrisonDC,
and Popp RL. Sensitivity and speciicity of echocardiography in diagnosis of pericardial effusion. Circulation1974;50:239-43.
Pepi M, Muratori M. Echocardiography in the diagnosis
and management of Pericardial Diseases. JCardiovasc
Med 2006;7:533-44.
Feigenbaum H, Zaky A, Grabhorn LL. Cardiac motion
in patients with pericardial effusion. A study using reInternational Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Pancreatitis in Children: Experience at a Tertiary Care Centre
Alka Bhambri1, Nisha Pandey2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The data concerning pancreatitis in children is
not very voluminous.The present study highlights the demographic proile, clinical presentations, etiologies and laboratory indings in pediatric pancreatitis at a teaching hospital in
Bareilly.
Material and Method: We retrospectively reviewed 19 cases of pancreatitis in children admitted from July 2011 to July
2015 at our institution.
Results: Total of 19 patients were diagnosed to have pancreatitis. Systemic infection was most common cause of pancreatitis 3/19 (15.78 %) followed by trauma and drugs. Acute
abdomen was most common presentation. Serum amylase and
lipases was raised in 17/19 (89.4%) and 11/15 (73.3%) patients respectively. USG abdomen and CTscan abdomen have
good diagnostic sensitivity and speciicity.
Conclusion: Pancreatitis in children is not so uncommon. Etiology could be established in only 58% of children. Systemic
complications and pseudocyst are common complications. Patients presenting with acute abdomen should be screened for
pancreatitis as well.
Keywords: Pancreatitis, trauma and drugs, Systemic complications and pseudocyst
INTRODUCTION
Though there is a wealth of literature around pancreatitis in
adults, but there is a paucity of data regarding pancreatitis in
children. From our country mainly case reports and few original articles of pancreatic diseases are available.1-5 For adults,
alcoholism and cholelithiasis are the most common causes
of acute pancreatitis. In western data acute pancreatitis in
children occurred mostly due to infections, trauma, pancreaticobiliarytree anomalies, drug abuse, or systemic diseases.6
The present study endeavors to highlight the demographic
proile,clinical presentations, etiologies and laboratory indings in pediatric pancreatitis at a teaching hospital in Bareilly.We retrospectively reviewed 19 cases of pancreatitis in
children occurring from July 2011 to July 2015at our institution. Special emphasis was laid on highlighting the underlying causes, presenting features, clinical complications, and
outcomes of these patients.
diagnosed having pancreatitis between the years 2011-2015.
Consent was not obtained as it was a retrospective study and
ethical clearance was obtained from the institute ethics committee.
The diagnosis of acute pancreatitis is typically based on results of physical examinations, laboratory testing, and imaging studies. Criteria for the diagnosis of pancreatitis in this
study were: Children who presented with abdominal pain
with or without fever, features suggestive of acute abdomen
and laboratory conirmation with one or more of the following: raised serum amylase >200 U/L, elevated serum lipase
level (> 165U/L) in the absence of other possible contributing factors or evidence of pancreatic inlammation from
ultrasonography (USG) or computed tomographic (CT) imaging.
In this study, USG evidence of pancreaticinlammation included blurred outline,enlargement and heterogenous echogenicity of the pancreas. The typical features of pancreatitis
found on CT scan included diffuse enlargement of pancreas,
hemorrhagic necrosis and pseudocyst.7,8
Patients were managed conservatively. Those patients who
required surgical intervention were not included in study.
Conservative management included bowel rest, nasogastric
decompression, and intravenous luid administration. Morbidity included pseudocystformation or relapse. Relapse was
deined when the symptoms recurred after discharge and the
diagnostic criteria were fulilled again.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Descriptive statistics were computed for baseline demographic, clinical and laboratory features and frequency tables
were generated.
RESULTS
During the study period 19 case of pancreatitis were admitAssociate Professor, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital, Bareilly, Uttar
Pradesh, India
1
Corresponding author: Nisha Pandey, Assistant Professor, Department of Pediatrics, Rohilkhand Medical College and Hospital,
Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Retrospective data was collected from medical records for
all children admitted to department of Pediatrics who were
How to cite this article: Alka Bhambri, Nisha Pandey. Pancreatitis
in children: experience at a tertiary care centre. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):257-259.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
257
Bhambri et al.
Pancreatitis in Children
ted and included in study.Demographic clinical proiles and
investigation of these cases have been shown in table 1.
A higher incidence was observed in males 12/19 (63.15%) as
compared to females. Patients between ages of 3-16 yrs were
mainly affected, median age being 9.94 yrs.
Most common presenting complaint was abdominal pain
present in all patients followed by nausea and vomiting 18/19
(94.7%). Vague abdominal distension and lump was found in
6/19(31.5%).Laboratory evidence of pancreatitis in the form
of raised serum amylase was found in 17/19 (89.4%), where
as raised serum lipase was found in 11/15 (73.3%). USG evidence of pancreatitis was found in 12/19 (63.15%) patients.
CT scan was done in 2 patients, both of them had inding
suggestive of pancreatitis.
All patients met the criteria of pancreatitis. Common etiology of patients with pancreatitis is given in Table 2. Out of 19
patients 3 (15.78%) had associated systemic infection. One
patient had mump, one patient had septicemia with basal
pneumonitis with mild ascites on ultrasonography and one
patient had associated septicemia with peritonitis and acute
respiratory distress which later on expired during treatment
course. Blunt abdominal trauma was found in 2/19 (10.5%)
patients. None of patients with trauma required surgical intervention. Two patients had history of drug intake (one patient was taking prednisolone and other one taking sodium
valproate for seizure disorder).Two out of nineteen patients
had associated cholecystitis/cholelithiasis and pancreatic
lithiasis. Tuberculosis was incidentally diagnosed in 2/19
patients which however did not appear to have any direct
correlation.
All patients were managed conservatively,18/19 patients improved by conservative management. One patient developed
pancreatic abscess which required percutaneous drainage
and later on improved with medical management. One patient developed pseudocyst. One patient expired within 48
hrs of admission; he had severe sepsis with ARDS with peritonitis (Table 3).
One patient after discharge came with recurrence of symptoms and CT scan was done, suggestive of pancreatic lithiasis and cholelithiasis.
Further metabolic and genetic work up could not be done
and CT scan was also done in only 2 patients due to inancial
constraints.
DISCUSSION
The demographic proile of pancreatitis in children in our
study was similar to that reported by Das et al 2004. There
was a higher incidence in males 63.15% (12/19) compared
to females. Most of children were of older age group, with
mean age being 9.94yrs in range (3-16yrs). This corroborates
with other studies in which mean age was 7.4 -10.2.10-12
Epigastric abdominal pain was universally present in our
study. Similar inding have been reported in other studies as
well.9-12 Nausea, vomiting, guarding and rigidity were found
258
(n)
%
Sex (males)
12
63.15
Mean age at onset
9.94
(3years -16years)
Median duration of illness
16 days
(01day-60 days)
Abdominal Pain
19
100%
Nausea/vomiting
18
94.7%
Distension /Lump
6
31.5
Fever
14
73.6
Hepatomegoly
10
52.6
Failure to thrive
8
42.1
Ascites
2
10.5
S. Amylase
N
n
%
<200 (IU)
19
2
10.5
200-800 (IU)
19
15
78.9
>800 (IU)
19
2
10.5
S. Lipase (>165)
<165
15
4
26.67
>165
15
11
73.3
CRP +ve
19
5
26.3
Positive USGFinding
19
12
63.1
CT abdomen positive
2
2
100
Table–1: Demographic proile, clinical and laboratory parameters of Pancreatic Disease
n (N = 19)
Systemic infection
3
Drugs
2
Trauma
2
Cholecystitis and Cholelithiasis /
2
Pancreatic lithiasis
TB
2
Unknown
8
Table-2: Etiology of Pancreatitis in children
Pulmonary
19
2
19
2
19
2
Pseudocyst
19
1
19
1
Pancreatic abscess
19
1
Mortality
19
1
Recurrence
Table-3: Complications
Ascites
Peritonitis
%
15.78
10.5
10.5
10.5
10.5
42.1
10.5
10.5
10.5
5.2
5.2
5.2
5.2
in 94.7% patients and fever in 73.6 %.
Weizman and Durie13 considered serum amylase to be the
most important diagnostic aid in determining pancreatic injuries. Although serum amylase can be normal in pancreatitis14, extreme is associated with serious complications of
pancreatitis or other illnesses.15 In Our study 17/19 (89.4%)
patients had elevated serum amylase (>200 IU/L). Extreme
elevation of serum amylase (>800IU/L) was found to be associated with pancreatic abscess and hemorrhagic ascites.
Raised serum lipase was found in 11/15 (73.3%). This was
comparable to indings from other studies, with sensitivityand speciicity ranging from 86.5% to 100%.16,17
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Bhambri et al.
Abdominal USG has been shown to have 80% accuracy in the
evaluation of pancreatitis, usually showing decreased echogenicity of the pancreas.18 It is a noninvasive imaging modality that allows not only for diagnosis of the disease but also
for following its course and for detecting complications.14
USG abdomen was performed in all cases, being relatively inexpensive and noninvasive and we had 12/19(63.15%)
patients who had indings suggestive of pancreatitis. As to
contrast-enhanced CT, Clavien and Hauser (1998) reported
a sensitivity and speciicity of 92% and 100%, respectively.18 In our study we were able to perform CT scan in only
2/19 cases and both had indings suggestive of pancreatitis,
though USG indings were normal in these patients.
Spectrum of presentation of pancreatic diseases in children
differs from that in adults. Alcohol and gallstones account
for more than 60% of cases of acute pancreatitis in adults5,6,
but they are rarely a causative agent in children. Etiological
proile of children with pancreatic disorder in our study was
different from that van et al19 and children hospital, Boston.20
They have reported tumor, trauma, congenital malformations
and necrotic disorders as etiology of pancreatic disorder. At
our institute we have not been able to investigate extensively
which might have reduced patients with unknown etiology.
The most common complication of childhood pancreatitisis
pseudocyst formation (10–25%).13 Where as in our case systemic complications (acute respiratory distress, ascites and
peritonitis) were most common followed by pseudocyst formation (5.2%) and pancreatic abscess (5.2%).
There is no disease-speciic treatment for pancreatitis.10 Supportive therapy remains the basis of management. All patients were managed conservatively and 18/19 improved on
supportive treatment.
Mortality rate in our study was 5.2% (1/19) compared to
3.6% reported by Das et al. Variable rates have been reported
ranging from 0-26 % by previous studies.1-4,10,11
CONCLUSION
Pancreatitis in children is not so uncommon. Etiology could
be established in 58% of children. Patients presenting with
acute abdomen should be screened for pancreatitis as well.
Early suspicion, diagnosis and proper management are keys
to reduce potential complications and mortality.
LIMITATIONS
Because of inancial constraints and unavailability of metabolic workup incidence of patients with idiopathic pancreatitis may have been reduced.
Pancreatitis in Children
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
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1990; 36: 206-207.
Reddy CR, Sita Devi C, Anees AM. Cystic ibrosis of
pancreas in India. J Trop Med Hyg 1970; 73: 59-62.
Dhar A, Goenka MK, Kochar R, Nagi B, Bhasin DK,
Singh KJ. Pancreas divisum: Five years experience in a
teaching hospital. Indian J Gastroenterol 1996; 15: 7-9.
DasSrikantArora N.K., Gupta D.K. Gupta A.K, MathurPrashant, Ahuja Anjali. Pancreatic Diseases in Children
in a North Indian Referral Hospital. Indian Pediatrics
2004;41:704-11
Mader TJ, McHugh TP. Acute pancreatitis in children.
PediatrEmerg Care 1992;8:157-61.
Fleischer AC, Parker P, Kirchner SG, James AE Jr.
Sonographic indings of pancreatitis in children. Radiology 1983
Lawson TL. Acute pancreatitis and its complications.
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Textbook of Pediatrics.19th edition.:Elsevier;343;1371.
Yeung C, Lee H, Huang F, Ho M, Kao H,Liang D, et
al. Pancreatitis in children:experience in 43 cases. Eur J
Pediatr 1996; 155:458-463.
Haddock G, Coupar G, Youngson GG,MacKinlay GA,
Raine PAM. Acutepancreatitis in children: A 15 year review. J PediatrSurg 1994; 29: 719-722.
Uretsky G, Goldschmied M, James K. Childhood pancreatitis. AmFamPhys 1999; 59: 2507-2512.
Weizman Z, Durie FR. Acute pancreatitis in childhood.
J Pediatr 1988; 113: 24-29.
Rosenberg HK, Ortega W. Hemorrhagic pancreatitis in
a young child following valproic acid therapy. Clinical
and ultrasonic assessment.ClinPediatr 1987; 26:98–101.
Tolia V, Patel AS, Amundson GM. Pancreatic fracture
secondary to child abuse: The role of computed tomography in its diagnosis. ClinPediatr 1990; 29:667–668.
Agarwal N, Pitchumoni CS, Sivaprasad AV. Evaluating
tests for acute pancreatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1990;
85:356-66.
Clavien PA, Burgan S, Moossa AR. Serum enzymes and
other laboratory tests in acute pancreatitis. Br J Surg
1989;76:1234-43.
Clavien PA, Hauser N, Meyer P. Value of contrast -enhanced computerized tomography in the early diagnosis
and prognosis of acute pancreatitis. Am J Surg 1988;
155:457-66.
Vane DW, Grosfeld JL, West KW, Rescoria FJ. Pancreatic disorders in infancy and childhood: experience with
92 cases. J PedSurg 1989; 24: 771- 776.
Welch KJ. The Pancreas. In: Welch KJ, Randolph JG,
Ravitch MM, O'Neill JA, Rowe MI (eds). Pediatric Surgery IV Edn. 1986; Vol 2 Year Book Med Pub, Chicago,
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Raghuveer TS, Rama Rao, Yashwanth M. Tropical
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 24-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
259
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
www.ijcmr.com
Epidemiological Proile of Head and Neck Cancer Patients in
Western Utter Pradesh and Analysis of Distributions of Risk Factors
in Relation To Site of Tumor.
Mohammad Shadab Alam1, Roshan Perween2, Shahid A Siddiqui3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Head and neck cancers (HNC) are major form
of cancers in India. The spectrum varies from place to place
within the country because of signiicant diversiied risk factors. Aims and Objective of the study were to study, epidemiology and risk factors of HNC patients from western UP
and to ind out correlation between risk factors and different
anatomical regions involved.
Materials and method: All patients with histologically conirmeddiagnoses of HNC between JAN 2011 to DEC 2013
were selected from hospital records. Data regarding age, gender, addiction habits, site of tumor and other details were obtained from their clinical records and statistical analysis was
done.
Result: HNC, accounts for 21.2% oftotal body malignancy
and 47 % of all malignancies in males and 2.5% in females.
Squamous cell carcinoma was the most common histological
type (97%). Maximum incidence of HNC (>60%) was in 4060 year of age. Male: female ratio was (16:1). Oral cancers
were most common HNCin patientsbelow40 year age group
while carcinoma oropharynx and larynx were more common
in patients above 40 year age group.
Conclusion: Tobacco smoking was most prevalent risk factor
for carcinomaoropharynx, larynx and hypopharynx. Alcohols
drinking alone was observed in <1% patientas a risk factor. In
oral tongue cancer smoking and tobacco chewing were equally prevalent. Habit of tobacco chewingand alcohol were signiicantly higher in carcinoma buccal mucosa than other HNC
suggesting synergisticeffect speciic to this site.
Keywords: Head and Neck cancer, Epidemiology, Risk factor, Tobacco use, Prevalence, Synergistic effect, Utter Pradesh.
It is necessary to identify the differences if any in the sites,
patterns, and incidences of the disease amongst various communities living in a geographic areas having varying pattern
of climate and physical environments to identifying dietary
habits, social customs, and such other factors. This study has
been done in an attempt to deine the demographicand risk
proile of HNC patients in western Utter Pradesh.
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Thiscross sectional study has been designed and approved by
institute’s ethical committee.
Patient population- Catchment area of this study was major population of western Utter Pradesh. Study population
consist of 850 patients registered and inally diagnosed with
head and neck malignancy in our institute between Jan 2011
to Dec 2013. Data pertaining to these patients was entered
in standardized questionnaire. These were in context to age,
sex, site involved, smoking, alcohol and chewing habits and
other clinical details. Patients on basis of histopathology
were categorized into squamous cell carcinoma and other
malignancy. Various malignancies of the head-neck region
were classiied according to International Classiication of
disease coding system devised by WHO (10th revision) using ICD codes from C00 to C80.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical analysis was done on the data collected and result
was formulated. Signiicance (P) values and Correlation values were determined by Pearson Chi-square test by correlatAssistant Professor, Department of Radiotherapy, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 3Professor and
Chairman, Department of Radiotherapy, J.N. Medical College and
Hospital, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P., India
1
INTRODUCTION
Head and neck cancers (HNC) are major form of cancers in
India, accounting for 23% of all cancers in males and 6% in
females.1 In India, the disproportionately higher incidence of
HNC compared to other common malignancies may be due
to excessive consumption oftobacco in various forms with
and without alcohol, low socioeconomic status leading to
poor oral and dental hygiene, poor diet and infections of viral origin.2 The spectrum of HNC varies from place to place
within the country because of signiicant variation in regional riskfactors.3,4,5
260
Corresponding author: Dr. Mohammad Shadab Alam, Assistant
Professor, Department of Radiotherapy, J.N. Medical College and
Hospital, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, U.P., India.
How to cite this article: Mohammad Shadab Alam, Roshan Perween, Shahid A Siddiqui. Epidemiological proile of head and neck
cancer patients in western Utter Pradesh and analysis of distributions of risk factors in relation to site of tumor. International Journal
of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):260-264.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Alam et al.
Epidemiological proile and risk factors in head and neck cancers
ing two variables at a time from age, gender, risk factor, site
of tumor. P Value <0.05 was considered signiicant and value
>0.05 was considered statistically insigniicant.
RESULTS
Study population consists of 794 males and 56 female patients of head and neck cancer. Male, female ratio was 16:1.
More than 97% cases were squamous cell carcinoma. Difference in incidence in males and females was signiicant in
each age group (P value<.05).Maximum incidence of HNC
was found in 51-60year age group (34%) but in maleincidence was almost equal in 51-60 and 41-50 age group (n=246
and 241 respectively). More than 60 percent of thepatients
were 41-60 year of age (Table 1).
Distribution of cases according to age, gender and site of
the tumor
Most common site of HNC was oral cavity (n=279) followed
by oropharynx (n=271) and larynx (n=179). Malignancy
arising from hypopharynx (n=36), nose and paranasal sinuses (n=19) and nasopharynx (n=8) were uncommon. SecondAge group (Years)
<30
31-40
41-50
51-60
60-70
71-80
>80
Total
S. No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
ary neck with unknown primary constituted 5% of all HNC.
Tumors arising from salivary glands (n=8),thyroid (n=4), external auditory canal (n=1), ear pinna (n=1) and eye lid (n=2)
all together account for <2% of HNC. Most common sub site
of HNC was base of tongue (16%) followed by buccal mucosa (14.2%). Oral tongue (13.5%) and supraglottic larynx
(13.5%) had equal incidence (Table-2).
Oral cancer was most common HNC in less than 40 year age
groups and ranked second and third respectively in 41-50
and above 50 age groups. Oropharynx was most common
HNC in more than 40 year age groups. Carcinoma larynx
has shown consistent increase in incidence with increase in
age, and ranked second common HNC in more than 50 year
age groups. Secondary neck with unknown primary presents
5-8% of HNC in all age groups. Cancer arising from salivary
glands, nose and paranasal sinuses (PNS) were more common in <50 year age group (Table-3).
Distribution of risk factor according gender and age
In this study tobaccosmoking was found to be most prevalent risk factor in total (35.8%) as well as in male patients
(37.3%). Tobacco chewing only was uncommon (8.7%) in
Total
Gender
N
(%)
45
133
241
246
137
42
6
5.3
15.6
28.3
28.9
16.1
4.9
0.7
P Value
Females
N
1
7
15
19
11
2
1
Males
(%)
(1.78)
(12.5)
(26.8)
(33.92)
(19.64)
(3.57)
(1.78)
N
44
126
226
227
126
40
5
850
56
Table-1: Distribution of Case Based on Age Group and Gender (Total=850)
Site
Oral cavity
Oral tongue
Buccal mucosa
Oropharynx
Base of tongue
Tonsilar fosse
Larynx
Supraglottic
Hypopharynx
Nose and Para nasal sinuses
Nasopharynx
Unknown primary
Others
Salivary gland
thyroid
Carcinoma ear pinna and external auditory canal
Sebaceous gland carcinoma of eye lid
N
(%)
115
121
(13.5)
(14.2)
135
77
(15.88)
(9.05)
115
(13.5)
8
4
2
1
(%)
(5.54)
(15.86)
(28.46)
(28.58)
(15.86)
(5.03)
(0.63)
<.0001
794
N
279
(%)
(32.82)
271
(31.88)
179
(21.05)
36
19
6
44
16
(4.23)
(2.23)
(0.70)
(5.17)
(1.88)
(0.94)
(.47)
(.23)
(.12)
Basal cell carcinoma lower eye lid
1
(.12)
Table-2: Distribution of Case Based on Site of Disease (Total=850)
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
261
Alam et al.
Epidemiological proile and risk factors in head and neck cancers
males but in combination with smoking it accounts second
common risk factor (19%). In female patients, most prevalent risk factor was tobacco chewing (34%) followed by
smoking (16%) and smoking with tobacco chewing (14.2%).
Alcohol addiction was rare(<5%) in females while in males,
it was found either with smoking (10%) orwith smoking and
chewingtobacco (9.3%). Only 30% female and 14% male
werefree of all these risk factors.In <30 year age group tobacco chewing(26.7%) was most common risk factor, smoking (13.3%), smoking with tobacco chewing (15.5) and
smoking with chewing and alcohol consumption (13.3%)
had equal prevalence. Above this age group, smoking alone
was most prevalent risk factor and found in 34-50 % of
each age group. Smoking with tobacco chewing and alcohol
was much common in below 50 year age groups. Smoking
with alcohol habit was present in 10% of patients in each
age group. Thirty three percent of more than 80 year age patientswere free of all these risk factors compared to less than
20% patients in other age groups.
Distribution of risk factor according to site of tumor
In patients ofcarcinoma oropharynx, larynx andhypopharynxandsecondary neck with unknown primary,smoking
alonewaspresent in 47%, 43%, 52% and 52% population respectively and smoking with other habits was found in 60%
population as the most common risk factor.Tobacco chewing alone was rare (<5%) in this group. In patients of oral
cancer,tobacco chewing, smoking, tobacco chewing with
smoking and tobacco chewing with smoking and alcohol
was present in 25%, 20% 19% and 12.5% population respectively. Smoking with alcohol was present in 17% cases of
carcinoma nasopharynx and larynx. In cancer arising from
nose and para nasal sinuses (PNS), thyroidand salivarygland,
about 50% patients and in carcinoma nasopharynx 35% patients had none of these risk factors. In remaining sites only
16% of patients were free of allthese risk factors.
In patients of carcinoma oral tongue and buccal mucosa,tobacco chewing was present in 22% and 24% population
respectively. Smoking alone was more prevalent in oral
tongue(28% vs 8%) and tobacco chewing with smoking(14%
vs 21%) or with smoking and alcohal (16% vs 33%) was
more prevalent in buccal mucosa. In patients of carcinoma
base of tongue(BOT) and tonsillar fossa smoking, tobacco
chewing, tobacco chewing with smoking was present in
48%, 3.5% and 16% population respectively.Combined habit of smoking, alcohal and tobacco chewing was found to be
more common in carcinoma BOT (16% vs 5%). Only 14 %
cases of carcinoma BOT and 4% cases of carcinomatonsil
were free of all these risk factors (Table-4).
DISCUSSION
Present study is retrospective and hospital based, which
includes histologically conirmed cases of head and neck
Age
Oral
Oropharynx
Larynx
Unknown Hypopharynx
Nose andGroup
cavity
N
N
Primary
N
PNS
(year)
N
N
N
<30
35
0
0
1
1
3
31-40
79
32
16
2
1
0
41-50
74
82
50
12
7
8
51-60
51
95
59
20
16
5
60-70
31
45
39
7
8
3
71-80
9
15
13
2
3
0
>80
1
2
2
0
0
0
Total
279
271
179
44
36
19
Table-3: Distribution of case according to age group and site of Tumor (Total=850)
Habit
Smoking
Chewing
Smoking+
Chewing
Smoking+
Alcohal
Smoking+
Chewing+
Alcohal
Chewing+
Alcohal
Na
Total
262
Buccal Mucosa
(N=121)
N
%
10
8.2
29
24
25
20.7
Oral Tongue
(N=115)
N
%
32
27.8
25
21.7
16
13.9
Base Of Tongue
(N=135)
N
%
65
48
4
3
21
15.5
Nasopharynx
N
Other
N
0
1
5
0
0
0
0
6
5
2
3
1
3
2
0
16
Tonsillar Fosse
(N=77)
N
%
38
49.3
3
3.9
14
18
Larynx
(N=179)
N
%
77
43
3
1.7
36
20
1
0.8
4
3.5
18
13.3
7
9
30
16.7
40
33
18
15.6
7
5
12
15.6
9
5
4
3
3
2.6
1
0.7
0
0
1
0.5
12
P
Value
<.001
P Value
<.0001
10
17
14.8
19
14
3
3.9
23
12.8
121
15
135
77
179
Table-4: Distribution of Common Risk Factor in Common Sites of Head And Neck Cancer
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Alam et al.
cancers(HNC). Study population is mixture of rural, urban
and suburban population. Half of the study population is
non vegetarian. As per various studies published squamous
cell carcinoma varying from 88-96%.4-7 is the most common
histological sub type. In our study squamous cell carcinoma
was observed in more than 97% Cases.
Prevalence of HNC with respect to total body malignancies
(TBM) varies from 9.8% to 42.7%.8, 9,10,11 and it accounts for
30% of all cancer in males and 11-16 % in females. Male, female ratio is commonly1:1 to 3.1:1.4,6,12 In the current study
4015 cases of conirmed malignancy (1698 male and 2317
female) were registered between Jan 2011 to Dec 2013. Out
of that 850 (794 males and 56 females) wereof head and neck
cancers (HNC) which represents 21.2% of allcases and 47
% of males and 2.5% in female cancer. Male, female ratio
was 16:1. According to one of the study in eastern UP, HNC
burden was reported to be 35.65% in male and 7.44% in female.13 From this study we can conclude that state of Utter
Pradesh has very high burden of HNConly second to the
highest (54.48%) reported in northeast4 in males and very
low burden in females in this region.
Geographical variations in incidence of HNC in different part
of world and within the country is indicative of differences
in the prevalence of regional risk factors. This variation in
different regions of India is supported by various studies.4-9,12
According to recent studies in different region of India on
HNC patients, larynx was most common site of HNC in
South India,14 (38.37%) and Bihar,7 oral cavity in U.P.5 and
Ahamadnagar(41.28%)6 and oropharynx in Northeast4 and
Meghalaya(24%).15 In this study oral cancer (32.8%) were
found to be most common HNC and base of tongue was most
common sub site followed by buccal mucosa.Carcinoma hypopharynx (<5%) was uncommon in this population.15
In India, tobacco consumption is responsible for half of all
the cancers in men and a quarter of all cancers in women.16
Variations in the incidence of HNC by site is mostly related
to the relative distribution of major risk factors such as tobacco or betel quid chewing, cigarette or bidi smoking, alcohol consumption and viral infections.
India has one of the highest rates of oral cancer in the
world, partly attributed to high prevalence of tobacco chewing.2,17,18,19 The prevalence of both smoking and chewing tobacco in various forms varies signiicantly among different
states in India. Some regional patterns have been observed
for chewing tobacco. Chewing of tobacco is relatively more
common in the Central, Eastern, Western (except Goa) and
Northeastern states (except Meghalaya) compared to Northern and Southern states. However, in the Northern states,
where chewing is relatively less common, smoking of tobacco is relatively higher (except in Punjab where tobacco
prevalence is one of the lowest as majority of its population
(58%) practice Sikh religion, which prohibits tobacco consumption). Tobacco consumption is highest in the least educated, poorest, and scheduled castes and scheduled tribe.20
Prevalence of tobacco consumption increases up to the age
Epidemiological proile and risk factors in head and neck cancers
of 50 year and then there is decline in Indian population.20
In this studymaximum number of head and neck cancers are
present in 50-60 year of age and> 60% of HNC were found
in 40-60 year of age. Prevalence was equal in 41-50 year and
51-60 year age group in males.
Smoking is relatively more pronounced factor for cancer of
pharynx (RR=8.5) and larynx (RR=7.5) than cancer of oral
cavity (RR=4.9).21 In this study smoking was present in>80%
cases of cancer of oropharynx, larynx and hypopharynx and
only 50% cases of oral cancer.There is six fold higher risk of
oral cancer among the people having habit of betel nut and
tobacco (gutkha).22 In this study Tobacco chewing including
betel nut was present in >60% cases of oral cancer and only
30% of pharynx and larynx cancer. This habit was found to
be more commonin younger age group and female patients
that may be the reason for oral cancer as most common cancer in this group.
In this study out of 850,only one case of HNC with alcohol only as a risk factor was found.Although relative risk
of modest amount of alcohol consumption on different site
of HNC in non smoker is controversial. This study supports
the result that there is little or no risk of HNC with moderate
alcohol intake in ex-smokers or who never smoked.21,23
High alcohol consumption has RR>5 mainly for oral cavity, oropharynx and esophagus. When tobacco smoking and
alcohol consumption are combined, they may increase the
risk by more than 15-fold.24 This effect is possibly because;
alcohol may act as a solvent and enhance the penetration of
carcinogens into target tissues. Acetaldehyde, which is the
alcohol metabolite, has been identiied recently as a tumor
promoter.25-27 In this study combined habit of tobacco chewing and alcohol consumption was most prevalent predisposing factor for oral cancer.
Comparing risk factors of cases of carcinoma oral tongue
and buccal mucosa,there was signiicant difference (p value<.001). Tobacco chewing was equally prevalent in both
(22%vs. 24%). Smoking was more prevalent in oral tongue
(28% vs. 8%) but tobacco chewing and smoking or Tobacco
chewing along with smoking and alcohol is more prevalent
in buccal mucosa which suggests synergistic effect of tobacco and alcohol on buccal mucosa but no similar effect on oral
tongue(Odd Ratio=2).
In this study, secondary neck with unknown primary constituted 5% of all HNC.Habit of smoking or smoking with
alcohol was present in 60% cases. Primary can be detected in more than 50% of these patientsafter pan endoscopy
guided biopsy and PET scan. Primary commonly lies in nasopharynx, oropharynx or, pyriform fosse. These sites have
strong association with smoking which could explain habit
of smoking in more than half of these patients. In carcinoma
nasopharynx, habit of smoking and smoking with alcohol
was present in around 70% cases shows strong association
between them.
In study population HNC prevalence was very low in females
and male female ratio was exceptionally high. Detailed study
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
263
Alam et al.
Epidemiological proile and risk factors in head and neck cancers
on this population can ind associated factor responsible for
this difference which could be used for prevention of head
and neck cancer in other population.
CONCLUSION
Head and neck cancers are one of the most common malignancies prevalent in India with wide variations in risk factors, sites of involvement, geographical and demographic
characteristics. Heterogeneity in risk factors and differences
in prevalence of HNC at different sites of head and neck region may be because of differences in surface area, microanatomy, tissue microenvironment and duration of exposure
to carcinogens which need to be explored.
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20. Rani M, Bonu S, Jha P, Nguyen SN, Jamjoum L. Tobacco use in India: prevalence and predictors of smoking
and chewing in a national cross sectional household survey: TobaccoControl 2003;12:1-8.
21. Lewin F, Norell SE, Johansson H, Gustavsson P et al.
Smoking Tobacco, Oral snuff and alcohol in etiology
of Squamous cell carcinoma of head and neck. Cancer
1998;82:1367-74.
22. Jayant K, Balakrishna V, Sanghvi LD, et al. Quantiication of the role of smoking and chewing tobacco in
oral, pharyngeal and esophageal cancer. Br J Cancer
94;30:385.
23. Mia H, Paul B, Simone B, Xavier C, Chu C. Alcohol
Drinking in Never Users of Tobacco, Cigarette Smoking in Never Drinkers, and the Risk of Head and Neck
Cancer: Pooled Analysis in the International Head and
Neck Cancer Epidemiology Consortium. J Natal Cancer
Inst 2007;99:777–89.
24. Tuyns AJ, Esteve J, Raymond L, Berrino F, Benhamou
E, Blanchet F, et al. Cancer of the larynx/hypopharynx,
tobacco and alcohol: IARC international case-control
study in Turin and Varese (Italy), Zaragoza and Navarra
(Spain), Geneva (Switzerland) and Calvados (France).
Int J. Cancer 1988,41:483–91.
25. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).
Alcohol drinking. IARC Monograph on the evaluation
of carcinogenic risks of chemicals to humans. IARC:
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26. Blot WJ. Alcohol and cancer: Cancer Res
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27. Harty LC, Caporaso NE, Hayes RB, Winn DM, Bravo-Otero E, Blot WJ, et al. Alcohol dehydrogenase 3
genotype and risk of oral cavity and pharyngeal cancers:
J Natl Cancer Inst 1997;89:1698-705.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 03-12-2015; Published online: 24-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Retrospective Study Comparing Primary Debulking Surgery (PDS)
with Adjuvant Chemotherapy vs. Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy
(NACT) Followed by Interval Debulking Surgery (IDS) with
Adjuvant Chemotherapy in Advanced Carcinoma Ovary
Mohammad Shadab Alam1, Roshan Perween2, Shahid A Siddiqui3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Ovarian carcinoma is the major cause of mortality among women with gynecological problems as its reported very late. We have evaluated and compared two modalities of treatment for advanced (stage III and selected stage
IV) ovarian cancer, done at our hospital from January 2003 to
June 2010 and also analyzed patient, tumour, and treatment
related variables.
Materials and Methods: Records of 72 patients of advanced epithelial ovarian cancer were reviewed. Arm1 included 32 patients who underwent primary debulking surgery
(PDS)->adjuvant chemotherapy (6cycles). Arm 2 included 40patients who were given neoadjuvant chemotherapy
(NACT) (average2-4cycles)->response assessed->interval
debulking surgery(IDS) in responders-> adjuvant chemotherapy(rest2-4cycles). Chemotherapy (both NACT and Adj.CT)
given was Cisplatin (intravenous)–75mg/m2+Paclitaxel(intravenous)-175mg/m2 over 3hrs with adequate hydration and
premedication. Repeated every 3 weeks.
Results: There were relatively elderly patients with higher
stage and grade of disease in arm 2. In this arm, 75% patients
responded and 25%didn’t respond to NACT. Optimal cytoreduction was possible signiicantly more in Arm2 (83.3%)
patients compared to Arm1 (53.1%) patients and also with
comparatively less perioperative morbidity and mortality.
With median follow-up of 39 months, median disease-free,
progression-free and overall survival were same with more
systemic recurrences in arm1.
Conclusion: In this study, we found that in ovarian cancer,
NACT has good response rate. It signiicantly increases optimum cytoreductive surgery rate, that too with less aggressive approach, morbidity and mortality. Although, there was
no signiicant gain in survival, but an alternative approach of
NACT->Surgery->Adj.CT, which gives equivalent survival to
conventional approach of primary debulking surgery, can be
considered equal or, even better especially in poor prognostic
patients.
Keywords: Carcinoma ovary, primary debulking surgery, neoadjuvant chemotherapy, interval debulking surgery, optimum
cytoreduction.
INTRODUCTION
Ovarian cancer is the leading cause of gynaecological can-
cer related deaths. Unfortunately, 60-70% patients present
in advance stage. In stage III and selected stage IV disease,
optimal cytoreduction by primary debulking surgery (PDS)
followed by platinum and taxol based adjuvant chemotherapy has been standard of care.1,2 Due to advanced stage, optimum primary debulking surgery is possible in 30-60% patients only. Various trials have shown that even in advanced
stage, ovarian tumour is sensitive to chemotherapy and gives
overall response rate of about 70-80%, including complete
response of 20-30%. Studies done in this setting of, neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by secondary cytoreductive
surgery, have shown mixed results.3-10 We have evaluated
and compared the outcome of two modalities of treatment
for advance stage (stage III and selected stage IV) ovarian
cancer, at our hospital from January 2003 to June 2010. In
this study, we have analyzed in terms of response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy, optimal cytoreductive surgery rate,
rate of non standard surgery, treatment related morbidities
and mortalities, hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) stay,
disease free survival and overall survival. We also analyzed
certain patient and tumour related variables.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The analysis includes total 72 patients of advanced stage
(stage III and selected stage IV) epithelial ovarian cancers,
treated in our hospital from January 2003 to June 2010.
Assistant Professor, 3Professor and Chairman, Department of
Radiotherapy, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, J.N.Medical College and Hospital, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, U.P., India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Mohammad Shadab Alam, Designation and address: Assistant Professor, Department of Radiotherapy, J.N. Medical College and Hospital, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, U.P., India
How to cite this article: Mohammad Shadab Alam, Roshan Perween, Shahid A Siddiqui. Retrospective study comparing primary
debulking surgery (PDS) with adjuvant chemotherapy vs. neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) followed by interval debulking surgery
(IDS) with Adjuvant chemotherapy in advanced carcinoma ovary.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3
(1):265-270.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
265
Alam et al.
Retrospective Study Comparing PDS with Adjuvant Chemotherapy vs. NACT Followed by IDS
On the basis of treatment modality used, patients were
grouped in 2 arms Arm 1 included 32 patients in whom primary debulking surgery (PDS) followed by adjuvant chemotherapy (6 cycles)
was done.
Arm 2 included 40 patients, treated with neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NACT) (average 2-4 cycles) followed by interval
debulking surgery (IDS) done in chemo-responding patients
and then adjuvant chemotherapy (rest 2-4 cycles).
The initial work-up of all patients included clinical examination, radiological studies, serum tumour marker (CA125) level and histo/cytological evidence of malignancy by
FNAC or, biopsy. In all patients, surgical exploration was
done, to assess resectibility of tumour. Primary debulking
surgery was performed when optimal cytoreduction seemed
feasible and neoadjuvant chemotherapy was given for primary unresectable tumours. Surgical exploration was usually done laparoscopically (44 cases). Laparotomy was done
(28 cases) when laparoscopy was contraindicated. Regarding treatment modality to be used, it was based on combined decision of operating surgeon and oncologist. Primary
debulking surgery was performed when optimal cytoreduction could be achieved by the standard surgery (32 patients).
However, in a few such cases non-standard surgery, meaning
resection of one or more organ (e.g., small intestine, colon,
spleen), was done to achieve an optimal cytoreduction. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy was given to those patients who
were deemed unresectable due to disease related or, inoperable due to patient related factors. The criteria used for selection of patients for neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed
by interval debulking surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy
included general condition of patient not it for aggressive
upfront debulking surgery, optimum cytoreduction not possible, optimum cytoreduction possible at cost of signiicant
morbidity / mortality, extensive pelvic and metastatic tumour
load, uncountable peritoneal metastasis, involvement of upper abdominal area especially diaphragmatic area, extensive
bowel involvement, involvement of portal triad, stage IV
disease especially liver/ lung metastasis and patient refusing
for primary surgery.
Response assessment was done by clinical examination, serum CA 125 level, and radiological studies. WHO criteria
was used to assess tumour response. Patients responding to
NACT were referred for interval cytoreduction. Patients,
who did not respond to NACT, were given second line
chemotherapy.
Debulking surgery included total abdominal hysterectomy +
bilateral salpingoophorectomy + total infragastric omentectomy + peritonectomy limited to the pelvis, paracolic gutters, anterolateral diaphragmatic area + pelvic and common
illiac lymphadenectomy + paraaortic lymph node sampling +
maximum possible metastatectomy + ascitic and peritoneal
cytology.
Chemotherapy (in both neoadjuvant and adjuvant setting)
used was Cisplatin (intravenous) – 75mg/m2 + Paclitaxel (in-
266
travenous) 175mg/m2, over 3hrs with adequate hydration and
premedication. This regimen was repeated every 3 weeks.
Blood loss rates, the length of postoperative intensive care
unit and/or, hospital stay were used to assess aggressiveness of surgical cytoreduction. Perioperative, postoperative
and chemotherapy related complications were recorded in
both groups. After completion of treatment, patients were
kept on regular follow-up of every three months for irst
two years, every six months for next three years and then
on yearly basis. On each follow-up, patients were assessed
by clinical and if needed by radiological and pathological
evaluation.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Analysis was done using statistical tool SPSS 11.0. Twotailed corrected chi-square test and unpaired student’s t-test
were used for P value calculation. For calculation of survival, patients were evaluated at the time of last follow-up. The
results were studied on an intention-to-treat basis.
RESULTS
The median follow up in our study was 39 (range of 5 – 84)
months. Between January 2003 and June 2010, 72 patients
presented with locally advanced epithelial ovarian carcinoma. After surgical exploration, 32 patients seemed resectable
and primary cytoreductive surgery was carried out in these
patients. They were included in arm 1. Rest 40 patients were
found to be unresectable and/or, inoperable. Neoadjuvant
chemotherapy was given to them. They were kept in arm 2.
The patient and tumour related features are given below in
table 1.
In arm 1, all 32 patients tolerated and completed their treatment of primary surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy
as per the schedule.
In arm 2, all 40 patients tolerated and completed scheduled neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Ten (25.0%) patients did
not respond to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. Among them,
four (10.0%) patients had stable disease and six (15.0%)
patients had progressive disease. They were not operated and planned for second line chemotherapy. Rest 30
(75.0%) patients responded to neoadjuvant chemotherapy.
Among them, 24 (60.0%) patients had partial response and
6 (15.0%) patients were complete responders. In those patients responding to chemotherapy, 2 (6.7%) had response
after 2 cycles and rest 28 (93.3%) after 3-4 cycles of chemotherapy. All these 30 responding patients were subjected to
interval debulking surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy (rest 2-4 cycles). All of them completed their assigned
treatment. In this group, the mean interval between surgical
staging and the start of chemotherapy was 15 (range 5–33)
days after laparoscopy and 19 (range 7–41) days after laparotomy. Evaluation of surgical results is given below in
table 2.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Alam et al.
Retrospective Study Comparing PDS with Adjuvant Chemotherapy vs. NACT Followed by IDS
Non standard surgeries included small intestinal resection,
colectomy, low anterior resection, partial gastric resection,
partial cystectomy and splenectomy.
Findings during surgery and perioperative events are given
below in table 3. Most important indings were signiicantly
less perioperative blood loss; hospital / ICU stay in arm 2,
with nonsigniicant difference in perioperative morbidities.
Chemotherapy related complications were comparable in
both arms.
There was no signiicant difference in recurrence rates in the
two arms. In both arms, most of the recurrences were in the
irst 2-3 years of follow-up. As per the sites of relapse, it was
more peritoneal in arm 2 and more metastatic recurrence in
arm 1 (table 4). Metastatic sites were lung, liver, spleen and
brain. Statistics shows trend towards better survival in patients who received NACT (table 4). However, no deinite
conclusion could be made as the difference as well as the duration of follow up was insuficient. The recurrence pattern
Arm 1
(n = 32)
53.0 +/- 9.0
Arm 2
(n = 40)
58.0 +/- 4.5
P value
Age (years)
0.003
Mean +/- SD
30-40 years
2 (6.2%)
2 (5.0%)
0.8
41-50 years
14 (43.8%)
13 (32.5%)
0.46
51-60 years
13 (40.6%)
19 (47.5%)
0.7
61-70 years
3 (9.4%)
6 (15.0%)
0.7
Disease stage
III
19 (59.3%)
22 (55.0%)
0.89
IV
13 (40.7%)
18 (45.0%)
0.89
Tumour grade
1
8 (25.0%)
5 (12.5%)
0.29
2
19 (59.4%)
26 (65.0%)
0.16
3
5 (15.6%)
09 (22.5%)
0.66
Tumour histology
Serous
15 (46.8%)
20 (50.0%)
0.98
Mucinous
5 (15.6%)
4 (10.0%)
0.72
Undifferentiated
12 (37.5%)
16 (40.0%)
0.83
CA-125(>30KU/L) 27 (84.4%)
35 (87.5%)
0.97
Staging procedure
Laparoscopy
21 (65.6%)
23 (57.5%)
0.65
Laparotomy
11 (34.4%)
17 (42.5%)
0.65
Table-1: Patient and tumour characteristics
Surgical results
Arm 1
(n = 32)
17 (53.1%)
15 (46.8%)
Arm2
(n = 30)
25 (83.3%)
5 (16.7%)
Optimum Cytoreduction
Suboptimum Cytoreduction
Nonstandard Surgery
11 (34.4%)
8 (26.6%)
Organ Resected
Small Bowel
5 (15.6%)
3 (10.0%)
Colon
4 (12.5%)
3 (10.0%)
Bladder
1 (3.1%)
1 (3.3%)
Spleen
1 (3.1%)
0 (0.0%)
Stomach
0 (0.0%)
1 (3.3%)
Table-2: Surgical results
P
value
0.02
0.02
0.7
0.78
0.76
0.96
0.33
0.97
and the survival analysis are given below in table 4.
DISCUSSION
Ovarian carcinoma is the leading cause of gynecologic cancer-related deaths in most advanced countries, as it
leads to death of approximately half of patients.11 In most
patients, it is in the advanced stage at the time of presentation. Management of advanced ovarian cancer is a dificult
and challenging task.12 In management of both early and advanced carcinoma ovary, optimal cytoreduction by primary
debulking surgery (PDS) followed by platinum and taxol
based adjuvant chemotherapy, has been standard of care.1,2
However, primary cytoreduction has not been established
as the standard of care, by any prospective randomized trial
Operative Finding
Advanced Disease
Ascites
Omental Disease
Peritoneal Disease
Paraaortic Lymphadenopathy
Subdiaphragmatic
Nodules
Liver Deposits
Largest Metastatic
Size
2cm
5cm
Surgery Duration
Mean (minutes)
Range (minutes)
Blood Loss Rate
Mean (cc)
Range (cc)
Arm 1
(n = 32)
32 (100%)
28 (87.5%)
24 (75.0%)
20 (62.5%)
6 (18.8%)
Arm 2
(n = 30)
30 (100%)
26 (86.6%)
18 (60.0%)
12 (40.0%)
6 (20.0%)
P value
16 (50.0%)
12 (40.0%)
0.59
5 (15.6%)
3 (10.0%)
0.78
31 (96.8%)
17 (53.1%)
21 (70.0%)
9 (30.0%)
0.01
0.11
186
70.0-350.0
164
90.0-270.0
0.28
2203
50.05000.0
1148
50.0-3000.0
0.001
ICU Stay
Mean (days)
5.3
3.0
0.0001
Range (days)
1.0-9.0
1.0-5.0
Hospital Stay
Mean (days)
28.6
16.1
0.0001
Range (days)
6.0-50.0
4.0-30.0
Perioperative Mor2 (6.3%)
1 (3.3%)
0.59
tality
Perioperative Morbidity
Wound Infection
4 (12.5%)
3 (10.0%)
0.76
Wound Dehiscence
1 (3.1%)
1 (3.3%)
0.96
Fever
5 (15.6%)
1 (3.3%)
0.23
Chest Infection
1 (3.1%)
1 (3.3%)
0.96
Intestinal Fistula
3 (9.4%)
2 (6.6%)
0.69
Intestinal Obstruct.
1 (3.1%)
1 (3.3%)
0.96
Urinary Fistula
1 (3.1%)
0 (0.0%)
0.33
DVT / Embolism
1 (3.1%)
2 (6.6%)
0.95
ICU: Intensive care unit, DVT: Deep venous thrombosis
Table-3: Surgical indings and Perioperative events
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
1.0
0.92
0.32
0.13
0.9
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
267
Alam et al.
Retrospective Study Comparing PDS with Adjuvant Chemotherapy vs. NACT Followed by IDS
Arm 1
(n = 32)
Arm 2
(n = 30)
P value
Recurrence Pattern
Peritoneal Recurrence
5 (15.6%)
7 (23.3%)
0.65
Metastasis
4 (12.5%)
2 (6.7%)
0.73
First year recurrence
rate
0-3 month
1 (3.1%)
0 (0.0%)
0.33
4-6 month
1 (3.1%)
0 (0.0%)
0.33
7-9 month
2 (6.3%)
2 (6.7%)
0.95
10-12 month
5 (15.6%)
3 (10.0%)
0.78
5-year DFS Rate
9 (27.0%)
9 (29.0%)
0.87
5-year OS Rate
10 (31.0%) 9 (30.0%)
0.9
Median PFS (months)
7.59
9.87
0.05
Median DFS (months)
19.0
22.0
0.4
Median OS (months)
28.0
25.0
0.5
PFS: Progression-free survival, DFS: Disease-free survival,
OS: Overall survival
Table-4: Recurrence and survival analysis
till yet.13 Various randomized trials and meta analysis have
shown that “optimum cytoreduction and amount of residual disease after surgery” are the most important modiiable
prognostic factors for survival in ovarian cancer.14,15 The fact
that, the amount of post operative residual disease, significantly affects survival, makes the optimum cytoreductive
surgery, a very crucial component in management of ovarian
cancer. According to Gynaecological Oncology Group, the
deinition of optimum debulking is “Nil visible or, palpable
residual disease or, minimum goal of <1cm or, preferably
0.5cm of residual disease”. Also, after optimum cytoreduction is achieved, survival is same irrespective of surgery,
if it is radical or, non radical surgery. Unfortunately, in 6070% patients, there will be only little beneit from primary
debulking surgery, as optimum debulking is not possible,
due to widespread extension of disease at presentation. Other than aggressive surgery, tumour biology is also a factor
that determines the prognosis of surgery as is shown in several trials.16-18 Advanced stage at presentation and biology
of the tumour, co-determine the poor prognosis and dismal
survival in these patients. On the other side, chemotherapy
has shown good response rate even in advanced stages of
ovarian cancer. It has lead to various studies and trials incorporating chemotherapy in the neoadjuvant setting. Other
possible advantages of neoadjuvant chemotherapy are that,
due to the advanced stage at diagnosis, patients are usually
in poor general condition. NACT leads to improved patient’s
performance status prior to surgery, owing to the reduction
in tumour volume. Nutritional improvement ensues due to
control of disease and relief of distressing symptoms of abdominal distension and discomfort, resulting in improved
surgical results. Tumour volume reduction also leads to
enhancement of sensitivity to chemotherapy.19 NACT also
allows the in vivo assessment of tumour chemo sensitivity,
which makes it easy to choose appropriate chemotherapy
regimen. In the beginning, NACT was mainly used in pa-
268
tients who were medically unable to tolerate aggressive cytoreductive surgery. Later, this approach has been employed
in women who, by diagnostic analysis, were unlikely to undergo successful optimal cytoreductive surgery.20 Recently,
interval debulking surgery has been introduced as a new
concept, meaning a surgical procedure with debulking intent
foreword and followed by cytoreductive chemotherapy.21 In
some studies, platinum based chemotherapy regimens, in addition to producing higher response rates, have also shown to
give a statistically signiicant survival advantages compared
with drug regimens without platinum.3,22 Unfortunately, most
of the studies done, in this setting of neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by secondary cytoreductive surgery are
retrospective in nature.3-10 They have shown mixed results,
mainly in favor of this modality of treatment with increase
rate of optimum cytoreduction, less rate of aggressive mutilating surgery, less morbidity and mortality, and similar or,
better quality of life (QoL), median survival, disease-free
survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS). After review of
various trials and meta-analysis, it has been recommended
by Gynaecological Cancer Intergroup Ovarian Cancer in the
Consensus Conference (2004) that, “In advanced ovarian
cancer, upfront maximum cytoreduction by primary debulking surgery (PDS), with goal of no residual disease should
be undertaken, and when this is not possible, interval cytoreductive surgery (IDS), after 3-5 cycles of neoadjuvant
chemotherapy, should be considered in patients who don’t
have progressive disease”.23 An area of controversy are the
criterias which will deine the resectability of the tumour
and consequently will lead to the selection of patients which
might beneit from NACT approach. Different studies have
used imaging based criteria for this purpose.24,25 Nelson et al.
showed, that the predictive value of a computed tomography
scan demonstrating non resectability was only 67%.24 A predictive index was developed by Bristow et al., that was able
to correctly predict surgical outcome.26 The ability to identify patients undergoing optimal debulking was 80%. Ansquer
et al.3 and Vergote et al.21 showed that, laparoscopy and in
certain situations exploratory laparotomy can be used as a
selection tool. Histological diagnosis, objective documentation of the extent of the disease and identiication of patients
who can be optimally debulked, are the possible beneits of
such a procedure. Proper technique and immediate start of
chemotherapy can overcome the issue of port site implantation, when such procedures are done.26 In this retrospective
analysis, we found that those patients, who were deemed unresectable or, inoperable because of disease or, patient related factors, they responded signiicantly well to neoadjuvant
chemotherapy. Because of such response to neoadjuvant
chemotherapy, there was signiicant increase in rate of optimum cytoreductive surgery in those patients. Our observations are similar to some of previous studies, which reported
similar optimal debulking rate following NACT.27 The most
important aspect of this study was that, not only increased
optimum surgery could be done in such poor prognostic pa-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Alam et al.
Retrospective Study Comparing PDS with Adjuvant Chemotherapy vs. NACT Followed by IDS
tients, but also it was done with less aggressive approach
depicted by signiicantly less blood loss rate, hospital / ICU
stay and nonsigniicant less rate of non standard surgeries
to achieve optimum debulking along with less perioperative morbidities. These inding are consistent with the data
of Schwartz et al.20 who reported that neoadjuvant chemotherapy leads to decrease in the aggressiveness of debulking
surgery. There was no signiicant gain in disease free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS). Regarding overall survival, some previous studies have results similar to us,7,21,28
but some have shown gain in survival with NACT.5,29 The
nonsigniicant difference in disease free survival between the
two arms is similar to the results of previous studies.18 But
it should be considered here that, in the neoadjuvant chemotherapy arm 2, patients were in poorer prognostic state than
the conventional arm 1, according to disease and patient condition. The limitations of this study are that it is retrospective
in nature, has small sample size, short follow-up, and the
data regarding the quality of life or, disease free progression,
are incomplete.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
CONCLUSION
In this study, we found that ovarian cancer even in advanced
stages shows good response rate to neoadjuvant chemotherapy. It leads to signiicantly increased optimum cytoreductive surgery rate, that too with less aggressive approach, perioperative morbidity and mortality. Although, there was no
signiicant gain in survival, but an alternative approach of
neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by interval debulking
surgery and adjuvant chemotherapy, which gives equivalent
survival to conventional approach of primary debulking surgery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy, can be considered
equal or, even better especially in poor prognostic patients.
If ongoing randomized trials show that this approach does
not adversely affect long term survival, “morbidity related to
ovarian cancer management” may evolve as a crucial factor
in deciding treatment options.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
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Randall TC, Rubin SC. Cytoreductive surgery for ovarian cancer. Surg Clin North Am 2001;81:871-83.
Deppe G, Baumann P. Advances in ovarian cancer
chemotherapy. Curr Opin Oncol 2000;12:481-91.
Thigpen T. The if and when of surgical debulking for
ovarian cancer. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2544-6.
Grifiths CT. Surgical resection of tumour bulk in the
primary treatment of ovarian carcinoma. Natl Cancer
Inst Monogr 1975;42:101–4.
Bristow RE, Tomacruz RS, Armstrong DK, Trimble
EL, Montz FJ. Survival effect of maximal cytoreductive
surgery for advanced ovarian carcinoma during the platinum era: a meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol 2002;20:1248–
59.
Hoskins WJ, Bundy BN, Thigpen JT, Omura GA. The
inluence of cytoreductive surgery on recurrence-free
interval and survival in small-volume stage III epithelial
ovarian cancer: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study.
Gynecol Oncol 1992;47:159–66.
Gadducci A, Sartori E, Maggino T, Zola P, Landoni
F, Fanucchi A, et al. Analysis of failures after negative second-look in patients with advanced ovarian
cancer: an Italian multicenter study. Gynecol Oncol
1998;68:150–5.
Pecorelli S, Odicino F, Favalli G. Ovarian cancer: best
timing and applications of debulking surgery. Ann Oncol 2000;11:141–4.
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Alam et al.
Retrospective Study Comparing PDS with Adjuvant Chemotherapy vs. NACT Followed by IDS
19. Grifiths CT, Parker LM, Lee S, Finkler NJ. The effect
of residual mass size on response to chemotherapy after surgical cytoreduction for advanced ovarian cancer:
long term results. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2002;12:323-31.
20. Schwartz PE. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy for the management of ovarian cancer. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet
Gynaecol 2002;16:585-96.
21. Vergote I, de Wever I, Tjalma W, Van Gramberen M,
Decloedt J, Van Dam P. Interval debulking surgery: an
alternative for primary surgical debulking? Semin Surg
Oncol 2000;19:49-53.
22. Deraco M, Raspagliesi F, Kusamura S. Management of
peritoneal surface component of ovarian cancer. Surg
Oncol Clin N Am 2003;12:561-83.
23. du Bois A, Quinn M, Thigpen T, Vermorken J, Avall-Lundqvist E, Bookman M, et al. 2004 consensus
statements on the management of ovarian cancer: inal
document of the 3rd International Gynecologic Cancer Intergroup Ovarian Cancer Consensus Conference
(GCIG OCCC 2004). Ann Oncol 2005;16:viii7-viii12.
24. Nelson BE, Rosenield AT, Schwartz PE. Preoperative
abdominopelvic computed tomographic prediction of
optimal cytoreduction in epithelial ovarian carcinoma.
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25. Meyer JI, Kennedy AW, Friedman R, Ayoub A, Zepp
RC. Ovarian carcinoma: value of CT in predicting
success of debulking surgery. AJR Am J Roentgenol
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26. Bristow RE, Duska LR, Lambrou NC, Fishman EK,
O'Neill MJ, Trimble EL, et al. A model for predicting surgical outcome in patients with advanced ovarian carcinoma using computed tomography. Cancer
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27. Deo SV, Goyal H, Shukla NK, Raina V, Kumar L, Srinivas G. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by surgical
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28. Onnis A, Marchetti M, Padovan P, Castellan L. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy in advanced ovarian cancer. Eur J
Gynaecol Oncol 1996;17:393-6.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 20-12-2015
270
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Epidemiology of Disability due to Blindness in Prakasham District of
Andhra Pradesh, India
D. Babu Rao1, C. Bala Krishna Chadaram2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Blindness is one of the important causes of disability and it is a public health problem worldwide. It is a great
concern of the day. Government of India (GOI) is taking several measures to protect the disabled people through various
schemes. Rehabilitation Council of India provided legal framework to protect the disabled (RCI). SADAREM (Software to
assess disability for Access, Rehabilitation and Empowerment)
is a programme to assist the disabled. Empowering the disabled, rights were given to local bodies. The cases of ophthalmic disability were mobilized and referred to tertiary center of
the district. The cases were examined by the body constituted
for the same. The objective of the present study is to know the
grading of disability and reasons for disability
Materials and Methods: The total number of subjects studied during 2012-13 was 1009 cases. The study was conducted at Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Medical Sciences, Prakasham
District. The cases referred from all over the district were clinically examined with various parameters. The data collected
through SADAREM was analyzed for knowing the causes of
blindness and disability. The patients attended tertiary care
hospital in the district during 2012 to 2013 under SADAREM Programme was compiled in excel and data taken for the
study.
Results: 23 subjects (2.28%) among 1009 only free from
visual disability and rest of them with disability of various
grades. 280 (27.75%) of the referred patients were completely
blind. Corneal pathology in the present study emerged as major cause of disability (15%) and next commonest cause is lens
pathology (10%). 4% of cases were with aphakia. Eviceration
was done in 13 eyes.
Conclusion: 90% of the referred subjects of district were suffering from ophthalmic disability. 20% of pathology is due
to hereditary and congenital. Corneal pathology is the major
cause of disability and followed by phythysisbulbi and refractive errors. One out of every 10 is with pathology in retina due
to various causes. Among the referred subjects more 1% with
enucleated eyes. Regional studies on causes of disability due
to eye conditions will be helpful to strengthen eye care services to reduce burden of disability.
Keywords: GOI, SADAREM, Disability, RCI
INTRODUCITION
Disability due to blindness and impairment of vision is a
growing concern. The estimated number of this disability is
for 2020 is 322 million.1 Overall global prevalence is 0.7%
but gross variations have been observed in this igure. The
estimated disabled due to blindness in India are 15 million.2
The prevalence of blindness in certain states like Maharashtra, Odissa, Tamilnadu and Uttar Pradesh is ranging from 1.5
to 1.99. This has gone up to more than 2 in J and K, Madhya
Pradesh and Rajasthan states.3
68.8% of global blindness is attributed to three most common conditions, cataract, glaucoma and age related macular
degeneration.4 80% of total blindness is in above 50 years
age group. According to increased age of population, the
proportion of blindness is also increasing. Impaired vision
and blindness cause signiicant effect on quality of life and
it is both social and economic loss the individual and his
family and to the nation.
In depth study of causes of blindness region wise is necessary to strengthen ophthalmic services in the region. Eye
clinics, PHCs, district level and tertiary care level hospitals
are dedicated to provide broad spectrum of eye care services.
Careful analysis of this data will be useful for better planning
and management of limited resources. Governments with the
support of private and public partnership are trying to uplift
the downtrodden people. The present study is an effort to
analyze the data of a tertiary care hospital where the PWDs
(People with disabled) were mobilized and for certiication
to provide social security pensions.Objectives of the research
were to know the causes of ophthalmic disability, to identify
the high risk groups of community and to assess burden of
disability in proportion.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The study was conducted in 2012-13. Place of study is a terAssociate Professor, Department of Ophthalmology, RIMS, Ongole, Prakasham District, AP, 2Professor, Department of Community Medicine, Malla Reddy Medical College for Women, Suraram,
Qutubullapur Mandal, Hyderabad, RR District, Telangana State,
India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. D. Babu Rao, Associate Professor,
Department of Ophthalmology, Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Medical
Sciences, Ongole, Prakasham District, Andhra Pradesh, India
How to cite this article: D. Babu Rao, C. Bala Krishna Chadaram.
Epidemiology of disability due to blindness in prakasham district
of Andhra Pradesh, India. International Journal of Contemporary
Medical Research 2016;3 (1):271-274.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
271
Rao et al.
Epidemiology of Disability Due to Blindness
tiary care hospital in Prakasham District of Andhra Pradesh.
The study subjects are the PWDs (People with disability)
mobilized from various parts of the district to tertiary care
level hospital located at district head quarters. A sample size
of 1009 was taken for the study. The referred subjects were
examined under similar conditions and with standard guidelines and protocol provided the Government. SADAREM
(Software to assess disability for access Rehabilitation and
empowerment) was used to collect the data and for the inal
certiication of disability. The subjects were examined by the
concerned specialists appointed by the hospital authorities.
The author was part of the team.
RESULTS
The total number of patients attended the hospital for certiication was 1009. 61% of them were males. 24% of the
attended patients were from SC and ST communities and
37% of them were from back ward community. 59% of the
patients were below the age of 50 years.
71% of the attended patients were married. 69% of them
were without any employment and another 25% were depending on daily wages. 80% of patents attended were illiterate. 28% of the patients are with complete blindness.
Table 1 shows distribution of study group on literacy status
wise. Majority of the group under study was illiterate 821
(81.37%). 121 (11.99%) and 30 (2.97%) were literate with
primary and 10th standard. 19 (1.88%) studied up to intermediate. 2 of the patients studied diploma in professional
course. 13 (1.29%) were having graduation. Only 2 subjects
had post graduate qualiication.
Table 2 shows distribution of study group as per degree of
ophthalmic disability as per the guidelines of GOI. Certiication was done by the concerned specialty. They were classiied according to degree of disability 5 groups. 376 (37.26%)
of the study group classiied as disability of 40%. 280
(27.75%) of the referred subjects to the tertiary care hospital
for certiication were with 100% blindness as per the criteria
of GOI. 112 (11.1%) were having 75% disability. Among the
referred only 23 (2.28%) were with normal vision.
Table 3 shows distribution of subjects as per pathology of
anatomical site of eye ball. Among the studied subjects, in
both the eyes the pathological indings were studied by the
specialists and classiied according to anatomical site of pathology. 133 (12.19%) and 109 (10.8%) in both left and right
eyes are free from pathology and normal in their indings.
Corneal pathology was emerged out as a major problem in
both the eyes 153 (15.16%) and 146 (14.47%) in left and
right eyes. Phthisis bulbi was observed in 169 (16.75%) and
177 (17.54%) in left and rights eyes. These are the patients
with soft eye, shrunken eye Opacity of lens was observed
in 91 (9.02%) 106 (10.51%) in both the eyes. The prevalence of refractive errors in both the eyes was 83( 8.23%).
Aphakia was observed in 36 (3.57%) and 57 (5.65%) in left
and right eyes. Prevalence of Glaucoma was 14 (1.39%) and
272
10 (0.99%) in left and right eyes. Evicertion was done in 9
(0.89) and 4 (0.4%) in left and right eyes. 3% of studies subjects were suffering with infection.
Among the referred patients from all over the district of
Prakasham, 133 and 109 of both left eye and right eye without any ophthalmic disability and their vision is normal. Corneal pathology is contributing signiicantly for disability. In
both the eyes pathology due to cornea is around 15%. Tandon et al and Rekhi et al conducted two studies of hospital
based in 2010 and 19915 got the similar type of results of
15.24% of ophthalmic disability is due to corneal pathology.
The studies were conducted at New Delhi and Jaipur, India.
Lenticular opacity was observed in around 10% of the cases.
In the examination, phthysisbulbi is the commonest condition observed. In the present study, 8% of the patients are
having refractive errors. Prevalence of glaucoma is around
1%. 4-6% of the patients had aphakia due to surgical interLiteracy Status
No
%
Illiterate
821
81.37
Primary education
121
11.99
10Th Standard
30
2.97
Intermediate
19
1.88
Diploma
2
0.2
Graduate
13
1.29
PG
2
0.2
Total
1009
100
Chi Square=20.9; P<0.01
Table-1: Distrribution of subjects literacy statuswise
Degree of oph. Disability
No
%
Zero
23
2.28
20
12
1.19
30
206
20.42
40
376
37.26
75
112
11.1
100
280
27.75
Total
1009
100
Chi Square=47.9; P<0.01
Table-2: Distribution of subjects degree of disabilitywise
Morbidity
LT Eye
%
RT Eye
%
Nil pathology
133
12.19
109
10.8
Corneal pathology
153
15.16
146
14.47
Lens
91
9.02
106
10.51
Phthisis bulbi
169
16.75
177
17.54
Glaucoma
14
1.39
10
0.99
Retina
4
0.4
4
0.4
Other
291
28.84
276
27.35
Infections
26
2.58
32
3.17
Refraction
83
8.23
83
8.23
Aphakia
36
3.57
57
5.65
Eviceration
9
0.89
4
0.4
Total
1009
100
1009
100
Chi square=28.2; P<0.01
Table-3: Morbidity according to anatomical site of eye
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Rao et al.
vention for cataract. Eviceration was done for 9 patients due
to various reasons.
Table 4 shows distribution of study group according to disability of eye. 613 (60.75%) of the males were referred for
ophthalmic disability to tertiary care hospital. 396 (39.25%)
of women consulted for their ophthalmic condition.
DISCUSSION
The present study was conducted in Rajiv Gandhi Institute
of Medical Sciences, Ongole, Prakasham District of State
Andhra Pradesh during December 2012 to December 2013.
During that period, 1009 subjects were taken into the study
to know the ophthalmic disability of the patients referred
from all over the district under SEDAREM Programme to
provide beneit to the disabled persons certiied by the institution according to their degree of disability.
Among the referred subjects, 61% males and 39% were females. Mostly there are from socio-economically from backward community (37%) and open category was (34%). 22%
of the study group belongs to ST community and 3% each of
both ST and Minority groups. In the study group, 59% under
the age of 50 years and the rest of them above 50 years age.
72% of the study group was married. 27% were not married
and around 1% either divorced or widow/widower. 70% of
the referred were unemployed. 25% of the patients were daily wage earners. The remaining was doing petty business.
81% of the study group was illiterate. Even among the literate group, those are having primary education 12%. Rest of
them were having high school and above education.
28% of the study group was with 100% blindness on examination. 11% of the study group had 75% of ophthalmic
disability.
The major reasons for ophthalmic disability were in the present study, phthisis bulbi. In this condition, complete blindness with loss of structure of eye ball and shrinking of the
eye ball was observed (18%). Next commonest condition
was corneal blindness (14%). Opacity of the optic lens was
observed in( 11%) of cases. The prevalence of glaucoma was
(1%). Refractive errors were in 8% of patients. Aphakia due
to various causes was observed in (6%) of cases. Eviceration
of eye ball was done for (0.4%) of cases.
In the estimations done in various countries of the world by
Serge Resnikoff et al5, 2004, cataract emerged as commonest cause of ophthalmic disability. Second common cause in
their study was glaucoma. They observed in their study altering trend of disease burden of eye conditions in both developed and developing countries. Age related macular degeneration is the third common cause in the study done by them.
In a study conducted by A. Reidy, D.C. Minassian et al6 in
1998, observed 30% of the examined population of above 65
had visual impairment in the general practice (<6/12). 72%
of the condition was potentially remediable. 21% of them
had vision <6/60 in one or both the eyes. Prevalence of cataract was 30%. 88% of the patients were away from health
Epidemiology of Disability Due to Blindness
Sex
No
%
Male
613
60.75
Female
396
39.25
Total
1009
100
t=0.10; P>0.0
Table-4: Distribution of subjects disability wise
services. In their study they found age related macular degeneration 8% and 3% with glaucoma.
A study conducted by Hyman L et al7 observed cataract is the
commonest cause and it is followed by age related macular
deneration. Third and fourth causes are glaucoma and diabetic retinopathy.
The study conducted by David A et al8 found common presenting symptoms of four diseases and they were age related
macular degeneration, glaucoma, cataract and Diabetic retinopathy.
The study conducted by TY Wong et al9 found different eye
conditions in different countries. In 1994, Glaucoma and cataract were the major causes of disability due to eye condition.
In Nepal cataract was the main cause. In China, the major
causes were cataract and refractive errors. In the same study,
a study conducted in Andhra Pradesh to know the prevalence
of refractive errors found the prevalence of myopia 19.4%,
hyperopia 9.8% and astigmatism 12.9%. Prevalence of glaucoma (POAG) 1.6% and ( PACG) 1.1%. Prevalence of retinopathy studied in Andhra Pradesh in 1999 was 22.4% through
clinical examination. In Palakka it was in 2002 26.2%. In
the study conducted by Aravind Eye Hospital in 2004 found
10.5%. Through photography, the prevalence of retinopathy in
Chennai urban and rural Epidemiological study found 5.1%.
In all the above studies, several variations have been observed both geographically and socio-economic development of the regions. Periodic evaluation, continuous monitoring, population and hospital based studies give valuable
information to strengthen ophthalmic eye services.
CONCLUSION
90% of the referred subjects of district were suffering from
ophthalmic disability. 20% of pathology is due to hereditary
and congenital. Corneal pathology is the major cause of disability and followed by phythysisbulbi and refractive errors.
One out of every 10 is with pathology in retina due to various
causes. Among the referred subjects more 1% with enucleated eyes. Data from various levels through proper analysis will be helpful to establish treatment centers and timely
guidance to needy to avoid or minimize disability due to eye
conditions in the community.
REFERENCES
1.
Thylefors et al, Blineness, Vitamin A deiciency and
Trachoma, Bulletin of World Health Orgnization
1995:73:115-121.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
273
Rao et al.
Epidemiology of Disability Due to Blindness
2.
Ramesh Verma, PradeepKhanna, VarunArora et al,.The
National Programme for control of Blindness in India,
The Australsian Medical Journal. 2011:4:1-3.
3. G. Venkata S Murthy, S.K. Gupta, D. Bachani, R.Rose,
N.John et al,Current estimates of Blindness in India.
British Journal of Ophthalmology 2005;89:257-260.
4. S.Reskinoff, D. Pascolini, SP Maroiotti et al,Global
Magnitude of visual impairment caused by uncorrected
refractive errors in 2004, Bulletin of World Health Organization 2008;86:63-70
5. Serge Resnikoff, Donatella Pascolini, Daniel Etya’ale,
Ivo Kocur, RamachandraPararajasagaram, Gopal P.
Pokhare, Silvio P. Mariotti et al, Global Data on Visual
Impairment in the year 2002; Bull World Health Oran
2004: 82;11.
6. A. Reidy, D.C. Minassian, G. Vaidis, S. Farrow, J.Wu,
P.Desai et al,Prevalence of serious eye disease and
visual impairment in a north London Population: Population based, cross sectional study, BMJ 1998;316:1643
7. Hyman L et al,Epidemiology of eye diseases in the elderely, Eye (Lond), 1987;1; 330-41
8. David A. Quillen MD, Pennsylvania State University
College of Medicine, Hershey, Penselvania, Am Fam
Physician,, Common causes of vision loss in elderly patients, 1999;60:99-108.
9. T Y Wong, S-C Loon & S M Saw,Epidemiology
of age related eye diseases in Asia, Br J Ophthalmol.2006;90:506-511.
10. Tandon et al and Rekhi et al. Magnitude and causes of
corneal blindness in India (hospital –based studies):
Tandonet, Indian Journal of Community Medicine
2013;38:198-206.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 04-12-2015; Published online: 25-12-2015
274
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Study of Autonomic Variation of Heart Rate in Middle Aged
Diabetics
M. Usharani1, Chandini2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The Back ground of this study is thatthe number of patients with diabetes in India is currently around 40.9
million and is expected to rise to 101 million by 2030. It is
estimated that almost one in six people are currently at risk
of developing diabetes related complications. Cardiovascular
disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality and morbidity
in patients with diabetes.
Materials and methods: The present study was conducted
on 100 middle aged Diabetics attending Diabetic outpatient
department, King George Hospital, Visakhapatnam.The patients were divided into two groups, based on age, 36-45yrs
and 46-55yrs. Parameters: Resting pulse rate, Deep breathing
test, Heart-Rate variation to Valsalva Manoeuver, Heart rate
response to standing - Postural Tachycardia Index (PTI) were
measured.
Results: The mean ± SD of all the parameters above are determined and results were analyzed. 1) Changes within the
groups before and after the tests were analyzed by paired ‘t’.
test. 2) Inter group changes were analyzed by unpaired ‘t’ test.
Discussion: Involvement of nervous system is a well-known
complication of diabetes. Neuropathy is one of the most common complications of diabetes. At an early stage autonomic
dysfunction may be asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic.
Symptomatic autonomic neuropathy carry worst prognosis, so
early diagnosis is essential for maximum beneit.
Conclusion: More sympathetic tests have shown signiicant
abnormal responses in diabetics compared to parasympathetic
tests.
Keywords: Autonomic variation, Heartrate, Middle aged Diabetics
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus (DM) refers to a group of common metabolic disorders that share the phenotype of hyperglycemia.1
NIDDM occurs mainly in middle aged and elderly, and is
much more common than IDDM.2 Diabetes mellitus (DM)
is a global epidemic affecting at least 8.3% of the global
population and 371 million people worldwide with a signiicant proportion (50%) remaining undiagnosed. The number
of patients with diabetes in India is currently around 40.9
million and is expected to rise to 101 million by 2030. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality
and morbidity in patients with diabetes and subsequently the
primary goal of diabetes treatment is to reduce the burden of
CVD as well as the vascular complications associated with
diabetes.2
Autonomic neuropathies affecting the cardiovascular system
cause a resting tachycardia and orthostatic hypotension.1
Quantitative Autonomic Function Tests consists of a series
of simple noninvasivetests for detecting cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy. Autonomic function tests are considered
reliable, reproducible,simple and quick to carry out and all
of them are non – invasive.The present study is undertaken
to assess the severity of adverse effects of diabetes on autonomic functions of CVS which helps in early detection of
CAN (Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy) in asymptomatic diabetic and there by promotes timely diagnostic and
therapeutic intervention.
Aims and objectives of the study were to assess the functional status of cardiovascular autonomic function in middleaged
diabetics and to detect cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy
in middle aged diabetic patientson treatment in terms of altered sympathetic and parasympathetic functionswhich are
depicted as changes in Heartrate.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Selection of Subjects
100 diabetic patients who belong to the middle age group of
35-55years attending the diabetic outpatient department in
King George Hospital, Visakhapatnam are selected.
Inclusion Criteria
• Cases of already diagnosed Type II Diabetes.
• Cases who are in the age group of 35-55 years
• Cases who are attending the diabetic outpatient department in King George Hospital, Visakhapatnam.
Exclusion Criteria
• Patients suffering from cardiac, neuronal and other endocrinal disorders.
Professor & HOD, Department of Physiology, RIMS, Srikakulam,
Assistant Professor, Department of Physiology, RMC, Kakinada,
A.P, India
1
2
Corresponding author: Dr. M. Usharani, Prof & HOD, Department of Physiology, RIMS, Srikakulam, A.P, India
How to cite this article: M. Usharani, Chandini. Study of autonomic variation of heart rate in middle aged diabetics. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):275-278.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
275
Usharani et al.
•
Autonomic Variation of Heart Rate in Middle Aged Diabetics
Patients under medications other than oral hypoglycemics
Methods to collect the data
The protocol was explained to the subjects and patients, who
volunteered for the present study and informed consent was
obtained from each of the participant. The subjects were
asked to have light breakfast two hours before the tests and
were instructed not to have coffee, tea or cola 12 hours prior
to the tests. The subject was asked to relax in supine position for 30 minutes. The resting heart rate was recorded on a
standard ECG from lead II, at a paper speed of 25 mm/sec.
Materials
Autonomic function tests can be carried out by usingElectrocardiograph, manual recording of pulse and thermometer.
A) PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS:
Resting pulse rate
The subjects / patients were asked to take rest for 10 minutes
and radial pulse
rate was recorded in supine position and expressed as beats
/ min.
Body temperature
The body temperature of the subjects was measured by using
a mercury
thermometer.
into a mouthpiece connected to a mercury sphygmomanometer and holding it at a pressure of 40 mm of mercury for 15
seconds, while a continuous ECG was being recorded. The
ECG was continued to be recorded after release of pressure
at the end of 15 seconds for 30seconds. The change in heart
rate induced by the Valsalva maneuver is expressed asthe
ratio of the maximal tachycardia during the manoeuvre to
the maximal bradycardiaafter the manoeuvre. This ratio was
deined as the Valsalva ratio and was calculated asthe ratio of
maximum R-R interval after the maneuver to minimum R-R
interval duringthe manoeuvre.Valsalvaratio (VR) = maximal
tachycardia/maximum bradycardia = maximum R-R interval/minimum R-R interval.A value of 1.10 or less is deined
as an abnormal response, 1.11-1.20as borderline, and 1.21 or
more as a normal response.
3. Heart rate response to standing - Postural Tachycardia
Index (PTI)
The subjects were asked to lie on the examination table quietly while heart rate is being recorded on ECG. They were
then asked to stand-up unaided and ECG was recorded for
1minute. The shortest R-R interval at or around 15th beat
and longest R-R interval at or around 30th beat was measured. The result was expressed as ratio of 30/15.
PTI= Longest R-R interval at 30th beat / shortest R-R at 15th
beat.
A ratio of 1.00 or less was deined as an abnormal response,
1.01-1.03 as borderline and 1.04 as normal response.
RESULTS
B) PROCEDURE OF AUTONOMIC
EVALUATION
In the early 1970’s three simple non invasive cardiovascular
relex tests were proposed such as HR response to valsalva
manoeuver, HR response to deep breathing, HR response to
standing up.These tests have been widely used in a variety
of studies.3
1. Deep breathing test
In the sitting position subject was asked to breathe quietly
and deeply at the rate of 3 breaths per 30sec. A continuous
ECG was recorded for 3 cycles with marker to indicate the
onset of each inspiration and expiration. The maximum and
minimum R-R intervals were measured during each breathing cycles and converted to beats per minute. The result was
then expressed as mean of the difference between maximum
and minimum heart rate for 3 measured cycles in beats per
minute. Deep breathing difference (DBD) = mean of heart
rate differences in 3 breath cycles. A normal response was
a difference of 15beats/min or more, 11-14 beats/min borderline and less than 10 beats/min was considered abnormal
2. Heart-Rate variation to Valsalva Manoeuver
The subject was seated comfortably and was asked to blow
276
The mean ± SD of Age of the groups 36-45yrs and 46-55yrs
were found to be 41.125 ± 2.95 and 51.51 ± 2.78 respectively.The mean ± SD of Body Temperature of the groups 3645yrs and 46-55yrs were foundto be 96.74 ± 1.01 and 96.64
± 2.48 respectively The mean ± SD of Resting Pulse Rate of
the groups 36-45yrs and 46-55yrs were found to be 82.63 ±
11.14 and 75.20 ± 9.65 respectively.Results were analyzed
and expressed in the following ways:
1. Changes within the groups before and after the tests
were analyzed by paired ‘t’ test.
2. Inter group changes were analyzed by unpaired ‘t’ test
DISCUSSION
1. Heart Rate Response to Deep Breathing
Percentage distribution of cases according to age groups in
normal, borderline & abnormal patterns is given in table no.3
England JD, Gronseth GS, Franklin G, Carter GT et al. in
2009 in their study titled “Evaluation of distal symmetric
polyneuropathy: the role of autonomic testing, nerve biopsy,
and skin biopsy” stated that heart rate variability with deep
breathing is the most widely used test of cardiovagal function and has about _80% speciicity.4
Christopher H. Gibbons, Roy Freeman, AristidisVeves, in
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Usharani et al.
Autonomic Variation of Heart Rate in Middle Aged Diabetics
the year 2010 recruited 130 individuals: 25 healthy subjects
and 105 subjects with diabetes. Heart rate response is signiicantly lesser in diabetics (8.2±5.0 bpm) when compared with
that of normal subjects (16.3±6.7 bpm).5
Sixty diabetic patients were taken against age matched controls by Fareeda banu AB, Gorkal AR, NarsimhaSetty KR
in 2011 in their study ‘a simple test of one minute heart rate
variability during deep breathing for evaluation of sympathovagal imbalance in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus’. Statistically signiicant decrease in mean minimal heart
rate and 1 minute HRV (16.30±6.42 vs 29.33±8.39) was
observed during deep breathing among Type 2 Diabetic patients on comparison with that of healthy controls.6
S Sucharita, GanapathiBantwal, JyothiIdiculla, VageeshAyyar, and Mario Vaz in their study in 2011, recruited 23 diabetic subjects and their age matched controls. Test of cardiac parasympathetic activity ie timed deep breathing was
signiicantly lower in patients with diabetes compared to the
controls (P<0.05).7
In a study titled Autonomic changes in preoperative uncomplicated diabetic patients with postural changes by Yun WH
et al in 2010,heart rate variability during deep breathing of
diabetics and healthy normal subjects were matched in different postures. HRV in diabetic patients was lower than in
controls at all positions.8
the year 2010 recruited 130 individuals: 25 healthy subjects
and 105 subjects with diabetes. Valsalva ratio was signiicantly less in diabetics (1.26 ±0.21) when compared with
normal subjects (1.54±0.23).5
In a study on Inluence of cardiovascular diseases upon the
results of the cardiovascular relex tests in diabetic and non
diabetic subjects by Kronert et al have opined that, in the
old non diabetic and diabetic patients, cardiovascular relexes were generally impaired but did not show any difference
between subjects with and without cardiovascular diseases.
In young diabetic patients suffering from cardiovascular
diseases, the diagnostic value of cardiovascular relex tests
is reduced as far as cardiac autonomic neuropathy is concerned. The older patients, the tests are not suitable for the
diagnosis of diabetic autonomic neuropathy. More speciic
methods are required.11
2. Heart rate response to valsalva maneuver
• The abnormal Valsalva response (table No:4) in the subjects may be due early parasympathetic damage involving vagal nerve.
Prakash S B, Asmita S. Nene, Kalpana M in 2014 studied 100
diabetic patients matched against 50 normal healthy controls
in their study titled ‘A cross sectional study for the evaluation of autonomic nervous system functioning in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients’. The Valsalva ratio was decreased in
diabetics (1.24±0.03) as compared to controls (1.27±0.02)
which was statistically signiicant. (p< 0.01).9
Lata Patil et al in 2013 in a study entitled AComparative
study of heart rate variability during Valsalva maneuver in
healthy, hypertensive and diabetic subjects, VR was significantly reduced (1.1883+0.1302) statistically highly signiicant, which may be because of sympathetic dominance and
due to parasympathetic dysfunction.10
S Sucharita, GanapathiBantwal, JyothiIdiculla, VageeshAyyar, and Mario Vaz in their study in the year 2011, recruited
23 diabetic subjects and their age matched controls. Tests of
cardiac parasympathetic activity such as timed deep breathing and Valsalva ratio were signiicantly lower in patients
with diabetes compared to the controls
(P<0.05).7
Fisher B.M. and Frier B.M. in their study found 5 patients out
of 115 of asymptomatic diabetic patients showed abnormal
response to Valsalva ratio and 6 out of 9 patients of symptomatic diabetics showed abnormal response to this test.15
Christopher H. Gibbons, Roy Freeman, AristidisVeves, in
Deep breathing
Valsalva
Postural tachydifference (bpm)
ratio
cardia index
Mean
13.38
1.21
1.05
SD
6.31
0.13
0.09
SEM
1.29
0.03
0.02
Table-1: Heartrate response to Deep Breathing response and
Valsalvamenoeuver in 36-45yrs.
3. Heart rate response to standing
The abnormal heart rate response (table No:5) to standing in
the subjects may be due to vagaldamage as a part of diabetic
autonomic neuropathy.
In 2014, Prakash S B, Asmita S. Nene, Kalpana M studied
100 diabetic patients matched against 50 normal healthy
controls in their study titled ‘A cross sectional study for the
evaluation of autonomic nervous system functioning in type
Deep breathing
Valsalva
Postural tachydifference (bpm)
ratio
cardia index
Mean
12.42
1.17
1.04
SD
7.75
0.12
0.08
SEM
0.89
0.01
0.01
Table-2: Showing Heartrate response to Deep Breathing
response and Valsalvamenoeuver in 46-55yrs.
Age group
Total
Normal Borderline Abnormal
(Yrs)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
36-45
24(100) 10(41.7)
2(8.3)
12(50.0)
46-55
76(100) 22(28.9)
17(22.4)
37(48.7)
Table-3: Percentage distribution of cases according to age
groups in normal,border line and abnormal patterns in deep
breathing difference
Age group
Total
Normal Borderline Abnormal
(Yrs)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
36-45
24(100) 12(50.0)
8(33.3)
4(16.7)
46-55
76(100) 35(46.1)
13(17.1)
28(36.8)
Table-4: Percentage distribution of cases according to age
groups in normal,border line and abnormal patterns invalsalva
ratio
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
277
Usharani et al.
Autonomic Variation of Heart Rate in Middle Aged Diabetics
Age group
Total
Normal Borderline Abnormal
(Yrs)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
36-45
24(100) 15(62.5)
2(8.3)
7(29.2)
46-55
76(100) 42(55.3)
3(3.9)
31(40.8)
Table-5: Percentage distribution of cases according to age
groups in normal,border line andabnormal patterns postural
tachycardia index
2 diabetes mellitus patients’. Ratio of heart rate on standing
decreased in cases as compared to controls (p < 0.05).9
A study titled ‘Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy (CAN) in
Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients and its Association with
the Duration of Disease and Glycemic Control’ by Haji
Khan Khoharo, Shuaib Ansari, Imran Ali Shaikh and Fatima Qureshi in 2009, 24% of the subjects showed borderline
response whereas 10% of them showed abnormal heart rate
response to standing.12
S.N. Chugh, P. Mittal, S. Kumar, K. Chugh in their study in
2011, titled ‘QT Dispersion in Patients of Diabetes Mellitus
without Manifest Cardiac Dysautonomia’ consisted of 50
diagnosed cases of diabetes mellitus. Of them 13 subjects
showed abnormal response and 14 subjects were found to
have borderline response of heart rate to standing.13
In a study titled ‘Determination of sensitivity among various
cardiovascular autonomic function tests in diabetic patients of
Bijapur’ done by Chavan NR, Dhundasi SA, Das KK in 2009
recruited eleven diagnosed diabetic patients and ifteen healthy
age-matched control subjects were subjected to six standardized cardiovascular autonomic relex function tests. Only two
subjects have shown abnormal response and one subject has
shown borderline response of heart rate to standing.14
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
CONCLUSION
Involvement of nervous system is a well-known complication of diabetes. Neuropathy is one of the most common
complications of diabetes. At an early stage autonomic
dysfunction may be asymptomatic or mildly symptomatic.
Symptomatic autonomic neuropathy carry worst prognosis,
so early diagnosis is essential for maximum beneit.
In conclusion, our present study indicates that:
• More sympathetic tests have shown signiicant abnormal responses in diabetics compared to parasympathetic
tests.
• Probably no single test sufices indicating normality or
autonomic neuropathy in diabetics and a battery of tests
relecting both parasympathetic and sympathetic functions is preferable.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
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Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine. 18th edn.:
The Mc graw – Hill companies, inc; 2968 – 3002
GerasimosDimitropoulos, Abd A Tahrani, Martin J Stevens Cardiac autonomic neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus. World J Diabetes 2014;5:17-39
12.
13.
14.
15.
Ewing DJ, Clarke BF. Diagnosis and management of
diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed).
1982; 285: 916–918.
England JD, Gronseth GS, Franklin G, Carter GT, Kinsella LJ et al. Evaluation of distal symmetric polyneuropathy: the role of autonomic testing, nerve biopsy, and
skin biopsy (an evidence-based review). Muscle Nerve
2009;39:106–115
Christopher H. Gibbons, Roy Freeman, AristidisVeves.
Diabetic Neuropathy, A cross-sectional study of the relationships among tests of neurophysiology. Diabetes
Care 2010; 33:2629–2634
Fareeda banu AB, Gorkal AR, NarsimhaSetty KR. A
simple test of one minute heart rate variability during
deep breathing for evaluation of sympathovagal imbalance in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pak J
Physiol 2011;7.
S Sucharita, GanapathiBantwal, JyothiIdiculla, VageeshAyyar, Mario Vaz. Autonomic nervous system
function in type 2 diabetes using conventional clinical
autonomic tests, heart rate and blood pressure variability measures. Indian J EndocrinolMetab. 2011;15:
198–203.
Yun WH, Min SW, Huh J, Ro YJ, Kim CS. Autonomic
changes in preoperative uncomplicated diabetic patients
with postural changes J Int Med Res. 2010;38:1764-71
Prakash S B, Asmita S. Nene, Kalpana M. A cross sectional study for the evaluation of autonomic nervous
system functioning in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients.
Int J Biol Med Res. 2014; 5: 3879-3883
Lata Patil, ArchanaJadhav, N. G. Borade. A Comparative study of heart rate variability during Valsalva
maneuver in healthy, hypertensive and hypertensivediabetic subjects. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical
Sciences (IOSR-JDMS) 2013;4: 29-32.
Kronert K, Holder K, Kuschmierz G, Mayer B, Renn W,
Luft D et al. Inluence of cardiovascular diseases upon
the results of the cardiovascular relex tests in diabetic
and non diabetic subjects. ActaDiabetol Lat. 1990; 27:1
– 10
Haji Khan Khoharo, Shuaib Ansari, Imran Ali Shaikh
and Fatima Qureshi. Cardiac Autonomic Neuropathy
(CAN) in Type-1 Diabetes Mellitus Patients and its Association with the Duration of Disease and Glycemic
Control. Journal of the College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan 2009;19: 232-235
Chugh SN, Mittal P, Kumar S, Chugh K. QT Dispersion
in Patients of Diabetes Mellitus without Manifest Cardiac Dysautonomia. JIMSA 2011; 24.
Chavan NR, Dhundasi SA, Das KK. Determination of
sensitivity among various cardiovascular autonomic
function tests in diabetic patients of Bijapur. J Basic
Clin PhysiolPharmacol. 2009; 20: 187-96.
Fisher B.M and Frier B.M. Usefulness of cardiovascular tests of autonomic function in asymptomatic diabetic
patients. Diabetes Research and Clinical practice. 1989;
6: 157 – 160
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 26-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Analysis of Thyroid Disorders in Type - 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
Sundara Veena Nethala1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Among endocrine disorders after diabetes
mellitus condition, thyroid dysfunction is the most common.
Thyroid disorders and Diabetes are interrelated conditions and
the most common conditions presenting in clinical practice
Neglected thyroid disorders can leads to Diabetes, where as
people with diabetes are at increased risk of thyroid disorders.
The Present study aim is to ind the prevalence of thyroid
dysfunction among type - 2 Diabetes mellitus and assessing
the thyroid disorders in normal population by comparing with
Type - 2 Diabetes mellitus.
Materials and Methods: A total of 140 patients were selected for study, among these 70 were type 2 Diabetes mellitus
patients and another 70 were normal subjects. Venous Blood
sample collected from all patients and tested for Thyroid hormone levels (T3, T4, TSH). Fasting blood sugar, Random
Blood sugar, HbA1c, Lipid proile estimation also done in all
patients.
Results: Thyroid dysfunction has seen in 11 out of 70 Type
2 Diabetes mellitus patients about 15.7% and in 3 out of 70
normal subjects about 4.2%. Serum T3 and T4 levels were
comparatively lower in Type 2 Diabetes on comparison with
normal subjects and TSH levels were higher in Type 2 Diabetes mellitus. Out of 70 Type 2 Diabetes mellitus patients,
Hypothyroidism observed in 12.8% (55.5% of Subclinical
hypothyroidism, 44.4% of Primary hypothyroidism) and only
Subclinical Hyperthyroidism observed in 2.8%.
Conclusion: Thyroid dysfunction causes major impact on Diabetic control and aggravates diabetic complications. Regular
screening is necessary for thyroid disease among patients with
diabetes mellitus.
Keywords: Diabetes Mellitus, Thyroid disorders, Hypothyroidism, Hyperthyroidism.
INTRODUCTION
Diabetes mellitus is the third leading cause of death in many
developed countries. It affects about 2 to 3% of the general
population. It is a clinical condition characterized by hyperglycemia due to insuficient production of insulin from beta
cells of pancreas or ineficient insulin.Globally the prevalence of Diabetes is increasing because of rising population,
population ageing, urbanization, lifestyle changes like physical inactivity, obesity, smoking and medical illness like Hypertension, dyslipidemia.
Diabetes was previously rare in developing countries, but
now it's prevalence becoming more in developing countries
as compared to western countries.1-3 Worldwide by 2010, it
was estimated that 285 million people suffering with Diabetes mellitus, among which 3.90% had Type 2 Diabetes
Mellitus.4 Globally by 2030 diabetes mellitus will projected
towards 439 million, which represents 7.7% of the total adult
population of the world aged 20–79 years.1 Before Type 2
Diabetes mellitus usually seen in adults, but now it has become more common not only in young adults but also in
adolescents and, occasionally, in children.5
Among endocrine disorders after diabetes mellitus condition, thyroid dysfunction is the most common. Thyroid
is a gland that produces Triiodothyronine (T3), Thyroxine
(T4) which are regulated by Thyroid stimulating hormone
produced by Hypothalamus. Thyroid disorders are causing
problems worldwide. In India about 42 million people suffer
from thyroid diseases.6
Thyroid disorders and Diabetes are interrelated conditions
and the most common conditions presenting in clinical practice.7 Diabetes and thyroid disorders are caused by a group
of endocrine glands that secrete hormones that help regulate
growth, reproduction and nutrient use by cells.Diabetes and
thyroid disorders association known since 1979.8 Neglected
thyroid disorders can leads to Diabetes, where as people with
diabetes are at increased risk of thyroid disorders.
When compared with normal population thyroid disorders
shown higher prevalence among Diabetics. The prevalence
of Diabetes mellitus associated with thyroid dysfunction estimated between 2.2 to 17%9 and few other studies observed
high prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among Diabetes
about 31-46.5%.10 Thyroid disorders found in both Type 1
and Type 2 Diabetes, but Autoimmune thyroid diseases is
commonly seen in Type 1 Diabetes.
Reason for thyroid dysfunction in Diabetes Mellitus may be
due to affecting thyroid function at two levels, one is at the
level Thyroid stimulating hormone secretion i.e., from hypothalamus and another in peripheral tissue during conversion
of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3). Thyroid dysfunction include low T3, elevated levels of reverse T3 (rT3) and
low, normal or high levels of T4.11 After treating hyperglycemia these values return to normal level.12
1
Associate Professor, RIMS, Srikakulam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Corresponding author: Dr.Sundara Veena Nethala M.D., Associate Professor, Maheswaram Medical College, Secunderabad, India
How to cite this article: Sundara Veena Nethala. Analysis of thyroid disorders in type - 2 diabetes mellitus patients. International
Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):279-282.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
279
Nethala et al.
Thyroid Disorders in Type - 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
The Present study aim is to ind the prevalence of thyroid
dysfunction among type - 2 Diabetes mellitus and assessing the thyroid disorders in normal population by comparing
with Type - 2 Diabetes mellitus.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study has done in the Biochemistry department as a prospective at RIMS, Srikakulam. Informed consent has taken
from all the patients.
A total of 140 patients were selected for study, among these
70 were type 2 Diabetes mellitus patients and another 70
were normal subjects. Normal subjects were selected such
that their Fasting blood sugar levels and Glycated Hemoglobin (HbA1C) were normal, non-pregnant, no history of
usage of steroids, amiodarone, lithium bromide and without
any evidence of renal disorders, thyroid disorders. 70 normal
subjects matches with type 2 Diabetes mellitus study population by their age and BMI.
Type 2 Diabetes mellitus patients were selected by following
the criteria of American Diabetic Association, such as Fasting Blood sugar ≥110 mg/dl and Random blood sugar ≥200
mg/dl or taking any hypoglycemic medications or insulin or
any evidence of ketosis in the past.
Venous Blood sample about 5 ml is collected from all patients in a test tube under aseptic precautions and tested for
Thyroid hormone levels (T3, T4, TSH). Fasting blood sugar,
Random Blood sugar, HbA1c, Lipid proile estimation also
done in all patients.
Thyroid hormone levels (T3, T4, TSH) in the serum sample were estimated by ChemiluminescenceImmunoassay
(CLIA) Method. Normal values of Thyroid hormone levels:
T3 - 0.60-1.81 ng/mL; T4 - 5.01-12.45 μg/dL; TSH - 0.35 5.50 μIU/mL.
Other variables were estimated by following methods: 1.
Estimation of serum glucose by Glucose oxidase-peroxidase
method. 2. Estimation of Glycatedhaemoglobin (HbA1c)
by Ion Exchange Resin method Principle. 3. Estimation of
serum Total Cholesterol (TC) and High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) by cholesterol oxidase / phenol aminoantipyrine
method. 4. Estimation of serum triglycerides (TGs) by glycerol phosphate oxidase – phenol aminoantipyrine method.
5. Estimation of serum Low density lipoprotein (LDL) and
Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) using Friedewald’s
equation.
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
280
Guidelines to detect different types of thyroid dysfunction:
1. Primary Hypothyroidism - TSH more than 5.50 μIU/mL
and T3, T4 less than normal.
2. Subclinical Hypothyroidism - TSH more than 5.50 μIU/
mL and T3, T4 is within normal range.
3. Primary Hyperthyroidism - TSH less than 0.35 μIU/mL
and T3, T4 more than normal.
4. Subclinical Hyperthyroidism - TSH less than 0.35 μIU/
mL and T3, T4 is within normal range.All the results
were analyzed and tabulated. Results between Diabetes
mellitus patients and Normal subjects were compared.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
Statistical Signiicance assessed using Graph pad software.
The P value < 0.05 is considered signiicant.
RESULTS
Among 140 subjects, 70 were Type 2 Diabetes mellitus
(Study Group) and 70 were normal subjects (Control Group).
The mean age of Type 2 DM patients were 40.5±2.9 and normal subjects were 41.2±1.7. There was more female preponderance in both Type 2 DM patients and Normal subjects
about 64% and 52% respectively.
All the variables estimated among Type 2 DM patients
(70) and normal subjects (70) such as Fasting Blood sugar,
Glycated hemoglobin, Total cholesterol, TGs, HDL, LDL,
VLDL were compared and signiicance was analyzed (Table
No:1). Except HDL all other lipids and lipoproteins were increased in Type-2 diabetes mellitus signiicantly.
Table No:1 Various Biochemical changes compared among
type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Normal subjects.
Thyroid dysfunction has seen in 11 out of 70 Type 2 Diabetes mellitus patients about 15.7% and in 3 out of 70 normal
subjects about 4.2%.
Thyroid hormones - T3, T4, TSH levels were estimated in
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus patients and normal subjects, tabulated in Table No.2. This shown that serum T3 and T4 levels
were comparatively lower in Type-2 Diabetes on comparison
with normal subjects and TSH levels were higher in Type-2
Diabetes mellitus.
15.7% of thyroid disorders has seen in Type 2 Diabetes mellitus, among which Subclinical hypothyroidism (45.4%)
was more prevalent followed by Primary hypothyroidism,
Biochemical changes
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Normal subjects
P value
Signiicance
Fasting Blood Sugar
158.5±7.99
83.5±2.3
< 0.0001
ESS
Glycated Hemoglobin
7.6±2.13
5.2±3.6
< 0.0001
ESS
Total Cholesterol
209.7±3.4
164.3±1.89
< 0.0001
ESS
Triglycerides
159.6±1.7
128.5±4.5
< 0.0001
ESS
High Density Lipoprotein
40.6±1.4
44.2±1.32
< 0.0001
ESS
Low Density Lipoprotein
113.5±6.5
96.5±2.33
< 0.0001
ESS
Very Low Density Lipoprotein
36.5±4.5
25.6±4.1
< 0.0001
ESS
Table-1: Various Biochemical changes compared among type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Normal subjects.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Nethala et al.
Thyroid hormones
Serum T3
Serum T4
Serum TSH
Groups
Thyroid Disorders in Type - 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus patients
Normal Subjects (Mean±S.D)
(Mean±S.D)
0.92±2.4
1.61±1.4
8.11±1.3
9.4±3.1
7.32±2.2
3.21±1.5
Table-2: Thyroid hormone levels among Type 2 Diabetics and Normal persons
Gender
Primary HypothySubclinical HypoPrimary Hyperroidism
thyroidism
thyroidism
Type2 Diabetes Mellitus Male
2
1
0
Female
2
4
0
Normal subjects
Male
0
0
0
Female
1
0
1
Table-3: Showing types of thyroid disorders among Diabetics and Normal subjects
Subclinical hyperthyroidism. Females were most commonly
diagnosed with thyroid disorders among both groups (Table
No:3).
DISCUSSION
As Diabetes and Thyroid disorders were most common presenting conditions in clinical practice. Type 2 Diabetes mellitus (T2DM) condition is more prevalent worldwide, which
is a cause for many complications such as diabetic nephropathy, neuropathy, delayed wound healing, infections. Along
with these Diabetes patients were also facing problem with
thyroid dysfunction.
Diabetics has prevalence of thyroid disorders about 250%.9,10 In the present study the prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among diabetics was 15.7%. This wide range of
prevalence may be due to varying percentage of Diabetics in
different communities.
As per this study, TC, TGs, LDL, VLDL, FBS, HbA1C were
increased and HDL levels were decreased in Type-2 diabetes
mellitus signiicantly when compared with normal subjects.
Sulaiman et al13 and Sawant et al14 also reported that except
HDL all other lipids and lipoproteins increased in T2 DM.
Few studies15-18 documented that Overt hypothyroidism results in dyslipidemia among both Diabetics and Non Diabetics.
Thyroid dysfunction has seen in 11 out of 70 Type 2 Diabetes mellitus patients about 15.7% and in 3 out of 70 normal
subjects about 4.2%.In line with this study Catiacristina et
al,19 Radaideh AR et al,10 Perros et al,20 Papzairopoulou A et
al8 reported thyroid dysfunction among Diabetics as 14.7%,
12.5%, 13.4% and 12.3% respectively. In contrast to the
present study few studies reported high percentage of Thyroid dysfunction among Diabetics like Vikram B vikhe et al 30%21, Ghazia SM et al - 29.7%,22 Gurjeetsingh et al - 30%,23
LalooDemitrost et al - 31.2%,24 Diaz et al - 32.4%.25 Serum
T3 and T4 levels were comparatively lower in Type 2 Diabetes on comparison with normal subjects and TSH levels were
higher in Type 2 Diabetes mellitus. This was even supported
by other studies.26
P value
Signiicance
0.0396
0.0016
<0.0001
SS
SS
ESS
Subclinical Hyperthyroidism
0
2
1
0
Out of 70 Type 2 Diabetes mellitus patients, Hypothyroidism
observed in 12.8% (55.5% of Subclinical hypothyroidism,
44.4% of Primary hypothyroidism) and only Subclinical
Hyperthyroidism observed in 2.8%. Vikram B vikheet al21
reported 22 % had hypothyroidism and 8 % had hyperthyroidism. Laloo demistrot24 observed that 68.8% were euthyroid,16.3% have subclinical hypothyroidism, 11.4% had hypothyroidism, 2% had subclinical hyperthyroidism and 1.5%
were hyperthyroidism cases. Catiacristina et al19 reported
that Subclinical hypothyroidism was more frequent,in 13%
of patients with T1DM and in 12% of patients with T2DM.
Thyroid disorders occur in both Type 1 and type 2 Diabetes
mellitus.20 Thyroid disorders which goes unidentiied could
inluence negative impact on diabetes and its complications.11 The unrecognized TD may adversely affect the metabolic control and add more risk to an already predisposing
scenario for cardiovascular diseases.
CONCLUSION
We conclude that as thyroid dysfunction causes major impact on Diabetic control, regular screening for thyroid disease among patients with diabetes mellitus should perform.
By considering the prevalence of Thyroid disorders among
Diabetics and as there is possibility ofaggravation ofcomplications such as hypertension, dyslipidemia among Diabetics
due to undiagnosed thyroid dysfunction.
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Papazairopoulou A. Sotiropoulos A. Kokoloki A. Kardara M. Stamataki P. Pappas S. Prevalence of thyroid dysfunction among Greek type 2 diabetic patients attending
an outpatient clinic.J Clin Med Res. 2010;2:75-78.
VinuVij. PallaviChitnis. Vijay Kumar Gupta. Evaluation of thyroid dysfunction among type II diabetic patients. IJPBS. 2012;2:150-155.
Radaideh AR. Nusier MK. Amari FL et al. Thyroid dysfunction in patients type 2 diabetes mellitus in Jordan.
Saudi Medical Journal. 2004;25:1046-1050.
Wilma Delphine Silvia CR. Gandham Rajeev. Thyroid
dysfunction in type 2 Diabetes mellitus. International
Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research 2013;1.
Gabriela Brenta. A View of Diabetes from Thyroid corner. Thyroid International. 2011;3:2-15.
Sulaiman Amur Al-Alawi. Serum lipid proile and glycated hemoglobin status in Omani patients with type 2
diabetes mellitus attending a primary care polyclinic.
Biomed Res, 2014; 25: 161-166.
SawantAM. Shetty D. Mankeshwar Rand Ashavaid
TF.Prevalence of Dyslipidemia in Young Adult Indian
Population. JAPI. 2008;56: 99-102.
Staub JJ. Althaus BU. Engler H. Ryff AS. Trabucco
P. Marquardt K. Burckhardt D et al. Spectrum of subclinical and overthypothyroidism: effect onthyrotropin,
prolactin, and thyroid reserveand metabolic impact on
peripheral target tissues. Am JMed 1992;92:631-642.
Elder J. McLelland A. O’Reilly DS. Packard CJ. Series
JJ. Shepherd J. The relationship between serum cholesterol and serumthyrotropin, thyroxine and tri-iodothyronineconcentrationsin suspected hypothyroidism. Ann
ClinBiochem 1990;27:110-113.
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between serum cholesterol and serum thyroid hormones
in male patientswith suspected hypothyroidism. Ann
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in diabetics with clinically unrecognised primary thyroid failure. HormMetab Res 1981;13:508-510.
Catia Cristina Silva Sousa Vergara Palma. Marco Pavesi. Veronica GuedesNogueira. ElieteLeao Silva Clemente.Maria de Fatima Bevilacqua Motta Pereira Vasconcellos. Luiz Carlos Pereira.Prevalence of thyroid
dysfunction in patients with diabetes mellitus.Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome 2013;5:58.
Perros P. McCrimmon RJ. Shaw G.Frier BM. Frequency of thyroid dysfunction in diabetic patients: value of
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21. Vikram B Vikhe. Shubhangi A Kanitkar.Krunal K Tamakuwala.Anu N Gaikwad.MeenakshiKalyan. Rajani R
Agarwal.Thyroid dysfunction in patients with type 2
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 26-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Comparative Study of Eficacy of Two Different Doses of Epidural
Dexmedetomidine ( 0.6µg/kg and 1µg/kg) with 0.75% Ropivacaine
for Inguinal Hernioplasty
Swarna Gowri S1, Sreeharsha Sirigeri2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Epidural anaesthesia is one of the most common regional anaesthetic technique used for lower abdominal and lower limb surgeries. Various adjuvant are being used
with ropivacaine for prolongation of intra operative and postoperative analgesia in epidural block. Dexmedetomidine, the
highly selective α2 adrenergic agonist is a new neuraxial adjuvant gaining popularity.Dexmedetomidine has dose dependent action when used intrathecally and not much studies have
been conductedto determine the eficacy of different doses
of dexmedetomidine in epidural anaesthesia.So in our study
we selected two different doses of dexmedetomidine(1 and
0.6µg/kg)to determine the eficacy with ropivacaine.Aim of
the study was to evaluatethe eficacyof two different doses of
dexmedetomidine(0.6µg/kg and 1µg/kg)as an adjuvant to to
ropivacaine 0.75% in epidural anaesthesia for elective inguinal hernioplasty surgeries.
Materials and methods: One Hundred Patients scheduled for
elective inguinal hernioplasty under epidural anesthesia participated in this study. They were assigned into two groups:
Group A (n = 50), 15ml of 0.75% ropivacaine plus 0.6µg/kg
Dexmedetomidine given and in Group B (n = 50), 15ml of
0.75% ropivacaine plus 1 µg/kg of Dexmedetomidine given. The Following variables were studied: onset of sensory
and motor block, duration of sensory and motor block, maximal dermatomal level of analgesia.
Results: Group B had rapid onset of sensory and motor blockade (p<0.05), prolonged duration of sensory, motor block
(p<0.05), and determine more intense motor block (p<0.05),
greater sedation scores compared group A.Side effects like
hypotension and bradycardia were observed more with group
B but it was not stastically signiicant.There was no difference
in the maximal dermatomal level of analgesia.
Conclusion: Epidural Dexmedetomidine at 1 µg/kg as an
adjuvant to 0.75% Ropivacaine is associated with prolonged
sensory and motor block, hemodynamic stability, more intense motor block and greater sedation scores when compared
to dexmedetomidine 0.6 µg/kg with Ropivacaine.
Keywords: Dexmedetomidine, Ropivacaine, Epidural block
INTRODUCTION
Epidural anaesthesia is one of the most popular regional anaesthesia technique used for lower limb and lower abdomi-
nal surgeries. The advantages of epidural anaesthesia being
it1,2, provides good surgical anaesthesia and can meet the extended duration of surgical needs, provides post operative
analgesia, reduces the incidence of hemodynamic changes.
Different local anaesthetics are tried for epidural anaesthesia3, most popular in India being Lidocaine and Bupivacaine.
The drawback of lidocaine is its intermediate duration of action and the drawback of bupivacaine is the increased incidence of fatal cardiac toxicity after accidental intravascular
injection, because of narrow cardiovascular collapse/central
nervous system toxicity (cc/cns).4 For this reason, there has
been a search for alternative drugs with desirable blocking
properties of bupivacaine but with a greater margin of safety.
Ropivacaine and levobupivacaine are the newer long acting
amide local anaesthetics which have a wide margin of safety
compared to bupivacaine, with all its advantages.4
Recently Ropivacaine has been introduced, since Ropivacaine has all the advantages of bupivacaine with less cardiac toxicity5, it appears that it may be an ideal local anaesthetic for epidural anaesthesia. Various studies have found,
Ropivacaine to be an effective local anaesthetic for epidural
anaesthesia6,7,8,9, Richard Arthur et al.10 in their comparative pharmacokinetics of bupivacaine and ropivacaine have
found that when applied directly to an isolated vagus nerve
preparation, ropivacaine was less potent than bupivacaine
in terms of conduction blocks of Aβ ibers, but ropivacaine
blocked Aδ and C ibers to a greater extent than did bupivacaine. It is also found that lipid solubility of Ropivacaine is
2.9 compared with 3.9 of bupivacaine.11 Hence, in our study
ropivacaine was selected as the study drug.
The fear of surgery, strange surroundings of the operation
Senior Resident, Department of Anaesthesiology, Bangalore Medical College and Research Institute, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Anaesthesiology, Wayanad Institute of Medical Sciences,
India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Swarna Gowri S, 1Senior Resident,
Department of Anaesthesiology, Bangalore Medical College and
Research Institute, India.
How to cite this article: Swarna Gowri S, Sreeharsha Sirigeri.
Comparative study of eficacy of two different doses of epidural
dexmedetomidine ( 0.6µg/kg and 1µg/kg) with 0.75% ropivacaine
for inguinal hernioplasty. International Journal of Contemporary
Medical Research 2016;3 (1):283-287.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
283
Gowri et al.
Eficacy of Two Different Doses of Epidural Dexmedetomidine with 0.75% Ropivacaine
theatre, the sight and sound of sophisticated equipments, the
masked faces of many strange personale makes the patient
panic to any extent.
Sedation, stable haemodynamics and an ability to provide
smooth and prolonged post-Operative analgesia is the main
desirable qualities of an adjuvant in neuraxial anaesthesia.
α-2 adrenergic agonists have both analgesic and sedative
properties when used as an adjuvant in regional anaesthesia.
Dexmedetomidine is a highly selective α2 adrenergic agonist
with an afinity of eight times greater than clonidine. Various
studies have shown that the dose of clonidine is 1.5 – 2 times
higher than dexmedetomidine when used in epidural route.
The anaesthetic and the analgesic requirement get reduced to
a huge extent by the use of dexmedetomidine because of its
analgesic properties and augmentation of local anaesthetic
effects as they cause hyperpolarisation of nerve tissues by altering transmembrane potential and ion conductance at locus
ceruleus in the brainstem.12 The stable haemodynamics and
the decreased oxygen demand due to enhanced sympathoadrenal stability make it a very useful pharmacologic agent.
Considering the dose dependent action of intrathecaldexmedetomidine13 we hypothesize that higher dose of dexmedetomidine used as an adjuvant in epidural anaesthesia with
ropivacaine would result in better eficacy proile by further
prolonging the sensory and motor blockade. Not much studies have been conductedto determine the eficacy of different
doses of dexmedetomidine epidurally.So in our study we selected two different of dexmedetomidine (1 and 0.6µg/kg) to
determine the eficacy with epidural ropivacaine.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
A study entitled“Comparative study of eficacy of two different doses of epidural Dexmedetomidine (0.6 and 1µg/
kg) with 0.75% Ropivacaine for inguinal hernioplasty” was
undertaken in Kempegowda Institute of Medical Sciences
(K.I.M.S) hospital, Bangalore during the period October
2011 and July 2013. The study was undertaken after obtaining ethical committee clearance as well as informed consent
from all patients.
One hundred patients, scheduled for various elective inguinal
hernioplastysurgeries belonging to ASA class I and II were
included in the study. The study population was randomly
divided using computer generated randomization numbers
into two groups with 50 patients in each group.
Group A (n = 50), 15ml of 0.75% ropivacaine plus 0.6µg/
kginj Dexmedetomidine in 1ml of normal saline
Group B (n = 50), 15ml of 0.75% ropivacaine plus 1 µg/kg
of injDexmedetomidine in 1ml of normal saline
Inclusion criteria for the study
• Adult patients aged between 18 to 65 years of both sex.
• Patients belonging to ASA class I and II posted for elective lower abdominal and lower limb surgical procedures.
284
•
Weight > 50 kgs, Height 150-180cms
Exclusion criteria for the study
• Patient refusal for regional anaesthesia.
• Pregnancy and lactation.
• Patients posted for Emergency surgeries.
• Obese patient with BMI > 30.
• Patients having:
• raised intracranial pressure
• severe hypovolemia
• bleeding coagulopathy
• local infection
• uncontrolled hypertension/ diabetis mellitus
• neurological disorderand deformities of spine
• cardiac disease
• hepatic disease
• allergy to local anaesthetics and dexmedetomidine
METHODS
A routine pre-anaesthetic examination was conducted on the
evening before surgery.The patients were premedicated with
tablet alprazolam 0.5 mg and tablet ranitidine 150 mg orally
at bed time on the previous night before surgery. They were
kept nil orally 10 pm onwards on the previous night.
On the day of surgery, patient’s basal pulse rate and blood
pressure were recorded. A peripheral intravenous line with
18 gauge cannula after local anaesthesia was secured in one
of the upper limbs. All the patients were preloaded with 500
ml of Ringer lactate 30 minutes prior to the epidural procedure. Multiparameter monitor was connected which records
heart rate, non-invasive measurement of systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial
pressure(MAP), continuous electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring and oxygen saturation (SPO2).
With the patients in sitting position under aseptic precautions,
epidural space was identiied by loss of resistance technique
to air using 18G Tuohy needle via the midline approach at
either L2-3 or L3-4 inter spinous space. An epidural catheter
was threaded and ixed at 3 cms inside the epidural space. A
test dose of 3 ml of 2% lignocaine with 1:200000 adrenaline
was injected through the catheter after aspiration. After ruling out intrathecal and intravascular placement of the tip of
the catheter, study drug was injected in increments of 5 ml.
The patients were turned to supine position after 1 min.
Assessment of sensory and motor blockade were done at the
end of each minute with the patient in supine position after
completion of the injection of 16 ml of the study drug, which
is taken as the starting time. The onset time for sensory and
motor block, the maximum level of sensory block, intensity of motor block and sedation score were recorded.Sensory
blockade was assessed using a short bevel 22 gauge needle
and was tested in the mid clavicular line on the chest, trunk
and lower limbs on either side.
Motor blockade in the lower limbs was assessed using mod-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Gowri et al.
Eficacy of Two Different Doses of Epidural Dexmedetomidine with 0.75% Ropivacaine
iied Bromage scale.
0 – able to perform a full straight leg raise over the bed for
5 sec
1– unable to perform the leg raise but can lex the leg on the
knee articulation
2 – unable to lex the knee but can lex the ankle
3 – unable to lex ankle but can move the toes
4 – unable to move toes (total paralysis).
Measurements of blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen saturation will be recorded every 5 minutes till the end of 1hour
and then every 15 minutes till the end of surgery.
Sedation scoring as per (Five point scale):
Alert and wide awake
1
Arousable to verbal command
2
Arousable with gentle tactile stimulation
3
Arousable with vigorous shaking
4
Unarousable
5
Intraoperatively and postoperatively complications like fall
in blood pressure, variation in heart rate were noted, treated
and tabulated After the surgery, patients referred to the recovery room (PACU) post anaesthesia care unit where they
remained until there was complete recovery of sensory and
motor blockade. Epidural top up was given with 8ml of 0.2%
inj.ropivacaine once the patient complains of pain. Postoperatively vital parameters will be recorded every 15 minutes,
and also duration of sensory and motor blockade.
RESULTS
Table 1 shows the demographic data of the patient’s studied.
There was no statistically signiicant difference between the
groups with respect to mean age, weight, height and gender.
Table 2 shows the characteristics of sensory and motor block
in both the groups. There was statistically signiicant difference between the groups with respect to the onset of sensory
and motor block (p<0.05). There was signiicant prolongation of sensory block, motor block in group B compared to
group A (p = 0.000).
Table 3 shows the maximum sensory level attained in both
groups. 8 patients in group B had attained T5 level
Table 4 shows intensity of motor block in both the groups.
20 patients in group B had modiied bromage scores 4 and
12 in group A
Table 5 shows sedation scores of two groups.group B had
hiher sedation scores compared to group A and it was statistically signiicant (p<0.05).
Ropivacaine and dexmedetomidine Ropivacaine, has structural similarity to bupivacaine. Without cardiotoxic effects
of bupivacaine, has been introduced to Indian market recently. Dexmedetomidine has been studied by various authors
as an adjuvant to epidural local anaesthetic.14-21 Few studies
have compared ropivacaine and dexmedetomidine for epidural anaesthesia in India.18
Presynaptic activation of alpha-2A adrenoceptor in the locus
ceruleus inhibits the release of nor-epinephrine and results
in the sedative and hypnotic effects.22 In addition, the locus
Group A
Group B
P Value
Age in years
32.19 ± 11.1
32.8 ± 10.12
0.962
Mean±SD
Weight in kgs
58.64 ±5.17
56.10 ±6.11
0.27
Mean±SD
Height in cms
170
169.3
0.825
Gender M/F
36/15
34/17
0.69
Table-1: Demographic data of the study subjects
Group A
Group B
Pvalue
0.012
Mean time for
5.26±1.49
2.51±0.62
Onset of sensory
block (min)
Mean time for
11.22±3.28
9.24±0.56
0.031
Onset of motor
block (min)
Mean duration
359.30± 61.94 520.39 ± 20.21
0.000
of sensory block
(min)
233.70± 15.36 362.24 ± 17.26
0.000
Mean duration
of motor block
(min)
Table-2: Characteristics of sensory and motor block in both the
groups
Max SenGroup A
Group B
p-value
sory level
(No.of patients)
(No.of patients)
T5
0
8
T6
31
35
T8
17
6
0.010
T10
2
1
Table-3: Maximum level of sensory blockade attained
Bromage 2
Bromage 3
Bromage 4
Group A
Group B
3
0
35
30
12
20
Table-4: Grade of motor blockade
p-value
<0.001
0.35
<0.001
DISCUSSION
In this study,the hypothesis that higher dose of dexmedetomidine used as an adjuvant in epidural anaesthesia with
ropivacaine would result in better eficacy proile by further
prolonging the sensory and motor blockade
In our study, the drugs selected for epidural anaesthesia were
Sedation score
S1
S2
S3
S4
Group A
Group B
12
0
33
15
5
29
0
6
Table-5: Sedation score
p-value
0.001
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
285
Gowri et al.
Eficacy of Two Different Doses of Epidural Dexmedetomidine with 0.75% Ropivacaine
ceruleus is the site of origin for the descending medullospinal noradrenergic pathway, known to be an important modulator of nociceptive neurotransmission. Stimulation of alpha-2 adrenoceptors in this area terminates the propagation
of pain signals leading to analgesia. Postsynaptic activation
of alpha-2 receptors in the CNS results in decrease in sympathetic activity leading to hypotension and bradycardia.23
Alpha -2 adrenoceptors present on primary afferent terminal (peripheral and spinal endings),in the supericial laminae
of the spinal cord and within several brainstem nuclei have
been implicated in the analgesia, supports the possibility of
analgesic action of alpha agonist at peripheral, spinal and
brainstem site.
According to the results, the demographic proile in the present study was comparable and did not show any signiicant
difference(p>0.05). We found that there was a signiicant
difference in the onset of sensory and motor block with
group B compared to group A.
It was found that,the total duration of sensory block was signiicantly prolonged in Group B (520.39 ± 20.21 min) which
is in concordance with the results of Kaur S et al24 (535min)
as they had taken 20 ml of ropivacaine compared to Group A
(359.30± 61.94 min).
Total duration of motor block (regression to Bromage 0) in
Group B was 362.24 ± 17.26 min which is in concordance
with the results of Kaur S et al24 (385 min)as they had taken
20 ml of ropivacaine. Total duration of motor block in Group
A was 259.80 ± 15.86 min.
There was also greater enhancement of the intensity of motor block and greater sedation scores with group B compared
to group A. It provides better operative conditions and postoperative analgesia.
In group B,8patients attained T5 as the maximum sensory
level attained. There was no signiicant difference between
groups with regard to occurrence of hypotension and bradycardia at any time of the study.No side effects like pruritis,vomiting,headache,backache, respiratory depression were
reported in our study which was similar to other studies.25,26
Addition of dexmedetomidine to ropivacaine provides better operating and haemodynamic conditions,with signiicant
postoperative analgesia without increasing the morbidity.
Hence higher doses of dexmedetomidine appears to augment
the eficacy ofepidural ropivacaine.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
CONCLUSION
Dexmedetomidine appears to augment the eficacy of epiduralropivacaine in a dose dependent manner without assosciated increase in adverse effects,
15.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 05-12-2015; Published online: 26-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
287
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Prescription Auditing of Antimicrobial Agents in a Tertiary Care
Teaching Hospital in Andhra Pradesh
K. Anantha Babu1, Madhavi Latha2, Anjaly Mary Varghese3, G. Vijayakumar4
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Antimicrobial agents are the greatest contribution to 20th century, which are used for cure and prevention
of infections. Widespread use of antimicrobials has facilitated
the development of resistance. The present study was done
to screen rational use of antibiotics in the medicine OPD of a
tertiary care teaching hospital.
Material and Method: A total of 850 prescription iles were
collected from the medicine outpatient department over a period of six months. Prescriptions containing antimicrobial drugs
were assessed for appropriateness in dosage, duration of therapy and ixed dose drug combinations (FDCs). The antimicrobials were grouped using the anatomical therapeutic chemical
(ATC) codes.
Results: 25.37% of total patients evaluated received antibiotics. Among them 40.15% patients were prescribed one antibiotic and 27.40% were prescribed antimicrobial FDCs. Out
of the 248 prescriptions, 47.98% were found to be irrational.
The most commonly prescribed antibiotic categories were
penicillins (35.79%), followed by luoroquinolones (16.50%)
and combinations of antibiotics from different groups
(8.87%).
Conclusion: Rational use of antimicrobial agents is one of
the mainfactors in controlling worldwide emergence of antibacterial resistance, adverse effects and reduced cost of the
treatment.
Keywords: ATC codes, Antimicrobials, Fluoroquinolones,
Irrational
INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This was a prospective study conducted at the medicine
OPD of a tertiary care hospital i.eSanthiram Medical College and General Hospital, Nandyal, AP. Prescription iles
from OPD of the teaching hospital were collected on all Saturday over a period of six months ( June 2013- December
2013) and taken for analysis. Institutional ethics committee
approval was obtained prior to start of the study.The number of drugs prescribed in each prescription was taken into
Associate Professor, Department of Pharmacology, 2Associate Professor, Department of Skin and VD, 3Assistant Professor,
Department of Pharmacology, 4Associate Professor, Department
of Medicine, Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital,
Nandyal, Andhra Pradesh, India
1
Antimicrobials (AMA) have changed the outlook of physicians about the power of drugs on the diseases. These drugs
are used for various life threatening and trivial infections and
their signiicance is magniied in the developing countries,
where infective diseases are leading.1 But inappropriate and
indiscriminate use of antimicrobials have lead to the emergence of antibiotic resistant strains, treatment failure and increase in mortality and morbidity.2 The worldwide increase
in antibiotic resistant bacteria isof great worry but is not
described suficiently in the developing countries. It is the
duty of the doctors to develop good prescribing habits which
will help in reducing the intensity of the problem. Some of
the common causes that contribute to the development of
antimicrobial resistance are unnecessary use of antimicro-
288
bial drugs, unsuitable dose, inadequate duration of therapy
and use of irrational antimicrobial ixed dose drug combinations (FDCs). Incidence of infectious diseases is common
in developing countries resulting in higher consumption of
drugs due to non compliance and scarcity of funds favoring the development of drug resistance.3 Though the newer antimicrobials are introduced but the increased demand
is unable to meet the slow pace with which new molecules
of antimicrobials are introduced into the market. To tackle
with this problem, global initiatives are trying to promote
rational use of antibiotics.4,5 The therapy is considered as
rational if the antimicrobial use, its route of administration,
dose, frequency and its duration of use are appropriate for
the infection. The rational use of antibacterial agents being increasingly recognized as an important contributor to
control the worldwide emergence of antimicrobial resistance, to reduce side effects and to decrease the cost of treatment.6,7 So, the present study was conducted to assess use
of antimicrobial agents in tertiary care hospital of Andhra
Pradesh.
Corresponding author: Dr. K. Anantha Babu, Associate Professor, Department of Pharmacology, Santhiram Medical College
and General Hospital, NH 18, Nandyal, Kurnool District-518501,
Andhra Pradesh, India
How to cite this article: K. Anantha Babu, Madhavi Latha, Anjaly Mary Varghese, G. Vijayakumar. Prescription auditing of antimicrobial agents in a tertiary care teaching hospital in Andhra
Pradesh. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
2016;3 (1):288-291.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Babu et al.
account to calculate the incidence of polypharmacy. The
data from the records were entered into a specially designed
proforma. The following parameters were recorded for each
prescription: patient's demographic proile, diagnosis, drug
name, dose, route, frequency and duration of prescription.
The patients were categorized by sex and then divided into
four age groups. The frequency of prescription was calculated for each age group and for males and females separately. Prescribing frequency was expressed as a percentage
of the prescription of the individual drug/drug class in a
particular age/sex category to the total number of patients
in the particular age/sex category. WHO guidelines were
considered for evaluating the rationality of prescriptions.
The parameters for evaluation were: (1) Dose strength and
dosage schedule (2) Duration of therapy (3) FDCs: rational/irrational. The antibiotics were classiied using the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) classiication system.
In the ATC classiication system, the drugs are divided into
different groups according to the organ or system on which
they act and their chemical, pharmacological and therapeutic
properties.7
RESULTS
During the study period, prescriptions of 850 patients were
studied. It consisted of 449 (52.8%) males and 401(47.1%)
females. The age distribution of the patients is shown in
Table 1. The most common diagnosis which warranted antibiotic prescription in the medicine OPD was upper respiratory tract infection (35%), followed by diarrhoea (19%)
and urinary tract infection (15%). The number of drugs per
prescription is shown in Table 2. A total of 295 (34.70%)
patients received 2 drugs and 192 (22.50%) patients received
only one drug. The average number of drugs per prescription
was 2.42.
The duration of antibiotic drug prescription was less than
5 days in 37.73% of the patients and between 5-7 days in
62.27% of the patients.
Out of 850 prescriptions drugs prescribed in the medical
outpatient department, the most commonly prescribed drug
categories in the descending order were analgesics, antiulcer drugs, antibiotics, antihistamines, antihypertensives, oral
antidiabetics, antipsychotic drugs, antidepressants, vitamins
and haematinics.
Out of 850 patients, 248 (29.17%) received antibiotics. Out
of that, 101 (40.15%) patients were prescribed one antibiotic
and 68 (27.41%) were prescribed antimicrobial FDCs (Table 3). Out of 248 antimicrobial prescriptions, 47.98% were
irrational (Table 4). As per Table 5, the most commonly prescribed antibiotic categories were penicillins (35.7%), closely followed by luoroquinolones (16.51%) and combinations
of antibiotics from different groups (8.87%). ATC codes for
each antibiotics were stated. There was no prescription noted
with incorrect dosage, incorrect duration of therapy or use of
banned drug formulations of antibiotics
Prescription Auditing of Antimicrobial Agents
DISCUSSION
Inappropriate and indiscriminate use of antimicrobials is a
global concern causing selection of resistant strains.6-8 This
could result in a substantial economic load on individual and
health care systems. Antimicrobial drug resistance refers to
non-responsiveness of micro-organisms to an antimicrobial
agent. One of the primary reasons for antimicrobial drug resistance is unreasonable use of FDCs. This study was undertaken to assessthe rational use of antimicrobial FDCs in the
Medicine outpatient of a tertiary level teaching hospital.
Average number of drugs per person is aimportant index
of prescription audit. Mean number of drugs per prescription must be kept as low as possible. Polypharmacy leads
to increased risk of drug interaction, side effects, bacterial
resistance and also increased cost in hospital. This study
showed that most of prescriptions contained twodrugs and
antimicrobial monotherapy was the main stay. β lactam antibiotics (35.79%,) Aminoglycosides (9.27%),sulphonamides
(4.83%) and luoroquinolones (16.05%) were the preferred
drugs. β lactam antibiotics were commonly prescribed drugs
which was corresponding with the previous studies by Khan
FA et al and Das BP et al.9,10 This might be due to their round
Age in years
Male (%)
Female (%)
16-30
94
93
31-45
174
165
46-60
113
95
> 60
68
48
Total
449(52.8)
401(47.1)
Table-1: Distribution by age and sex of patients who had
visited medicine OPD
No. of drugs per prescrip- No. of prescriptions
%
tion
0
42
4.94%
1
192
22.5%
2
295
34.70%
3
234
27.5%
4
48
5.6%
Above 4
39
4.5%
Table-2: Frequency of drugs administered per prescription
Parameter
No. of patients (n=248)
%
Antibiotic prescriptions
248
29.17%
Single antibiotic
101
40.05%
Two antibiotics
45
18.14%
>Two antibiotics
34
13.70%
Antimicrobial FDCs
68
27.41%
Table-3: Number of antibiotics prescribed per patient
Evaluation
No. of patients (n=248)
%
Rational
129
52.01%
Irrational
119
47.98%
Table-4: Evaluation of antibiotic therapy
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
289
Babu et al.
Prescription Auditing of Antimicrobial Agents
Drug group
Subgroup
Tetracyclines
Penicillins
Tetracyclines
Extended spectrum penicillins
Combination of penicillins (Amoxicillin and Clavulanic
acid)
Other β-lactams
1st Generationcephalosporins
3rd Generationcephalosporins
Sulfonamide with Trimethoprim
Combination of Sulfonamide with Trimethoprim
Aminoglycosides
Other Aminoglycosides
Macrolides
Macrolides
Quinolones
Fluoroquinolones
Combination of antibiotics
Combination of antibiotics (Combination of Fluoroquinolones and Nitroimidazole)
Other antibiotics
Glycopeptideantibacterials
Imidazole derivatives
Agents against amoebiasis and other protozoal Nitroimidazole derivatives
diseases
Other agents against amoebiasis and other protozoal
diseases
Table-5: Distribution of antibiotics with ATC codes
the year availability. Among the antimicrobials- amoxicillin,
cotrimoxazole and cephalexin were commonly prescribed
drugs. Each drug was assigned with ATC code. ATC classiication is needed in detecting adverse drug reactions which
is the need of the hour. Apart from this, it has a role in drug
utilization studies. Our study found that the 75.04 % drugs
were prescribed by generic name. This indings were similar
with the previousstudies.11,12 Generic drugs are cheaper than
brand name drugs. Moreover, ours is a tertiary care hospital
where prescription of generic drugs is always emphasized.
But this is in contradiction to some previous studies where
brand name drugs were commonly prescribed.13 In our study
FDC were 27.4%, this matches with the previous study doneby Patel S et al.14 Irrational FDC might have been prescribed
based on the patient’s requirement or else only rational FDCs
were preferred. Doctor should have a clear understanding
and knowledge of rational therapeutic use of antimicrobial
agents. Doctors should be well versed with the prevalence of
pathogens and resistance patterns in their working hospital
and work out good practice and decision in selection of the
antibiotic regimens.15 Additionally they should keep abreast
of recent strains of pathogens toavoid inappropriate use of
drugs. Irrationality can be tackledby properusage of guidelines, educational programs and surveillance at all level of
health care. So, speciic procedures should be taken to avoid
the inappropriate use of antibiotics. Drug utilization review
programshould be undertaken to study the rational use of antimicrobials.
CONCLUSION
The rational use of antimicrobial agents is one of the main
factor in controlling the global emergence of antimicrobial
resistance, adverse effects ofdrugs and also to reduced cost
of the treatment.
290
ATC
code
J01A
J01CA
J01CR
No of
patients
8(3.2%)
19(7.66%)
31(12.5%)
J01DB
J01DD
J01EE
J01GB
J01FA
J01MA
J01RA
24(9.6%)
15(6.04%)
12(4.83%)
23(9.27%)
20(8.06%)
41(16.5%)
22(8.87%)
J01XA
J01XD
P01AB
P01AX
5(2.01%)
8(3.20%)
8(3.20%)
12(4.83%)
REFERENCES
1.
Woldu MA, Suleman S, Workneh N, Berhane H. Retrospective study of the pattern of antibiotic use in Hawassa University Referral Hospital Pediatric Ward, Southern Ethiopia. J App Pharm Sci; 2013;3:93-8.
2. Amane H, Kop P. Prescription analysis to evaluate rational use of antimicrobials. IntJ Phar. ma and Biosci
2011;2:314-319.
3. Ernest J.S. Resistance to antimicrobials in humans and
animals. BMJ 2005, 331:1219-20.
4. Tripathi KD. Antimicrobial drugs, Essentials of Medical Pharmacology.7 th Edition, 12. New Delhi JAYPEE
Brothers medical publishers, 2013; 688-704.
5. World Health Organization Financing of Health in India
Available from: http://www.ino.searo.who.int/Linkiles/
Other_Content_WHD11-Seinar _Presentation-WRpdf.
Date accessed 21 December 2015
6. Amane H, Kop P. Prescription analysis to evaluate rational use of antimicrobials. Int J Pharma and Biosci
2011;2: 314-319.
7.
Ernest J.S. Resistance to antimicrobials in humans and
animals. BMJ 2005; 331:1219-20.
8. Sharma M, Eriksson B, Marrone G, Dhaneria S, Lundborg CS. Antibiotic prescribing in two private sector hospitals; one teaching and one non-teaching: a
cross-sectional study in Ujjain, India. BMC Infect Dis.
2012;12:155-58.
9. Khan FA, Singh VK, Sharma S, Singh P. Prospective
Study on the Antimicrobial Usage in the Medicine Department of a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital. J ClinDiagn Res 2013;7:1343-46.
10. Das BP, Sethi A, Rauniar GP, Sharma SK. Antimicrobial utilization pattern in outpatient services of ENT
department of tertiary care hospital of Eastern Nepal.
Kathmandu Univ Med J. 2005;3:370-75.
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11. Sharma R, Khajuria B. Prescribing practices of doctors
in rural and urban India. J ClinDiag Res 2009;3:148082.
12. Babalola CP, Awoleye SA, Akinyemi JO, Kotila O.
Evaluation of prescription pattern in Osun State (Southwest) Nigeria. J Public Health Epidem 2011; 3:94-8.
13. Saurabh MK, Jaykaran, Yadav AK, Jyoti N. Study of
prescribing pattern and assessment of rational use
of drugs in tertiary hospital, Rajasthan. J Pharm Res
2010;3:474-7.
14. Patil S, Kachare A, Shaikh T, Nikam SS. Evaluation and
prescribing pattern study of antibacterial agents in Medicine out-patient department of a teaching and referral
Hospital in satara district area. UJP 2014;03:75-8.
15. Hanssens Y, Ismaeili BB. Antibiotic prescription pattern
in a medical intensive care unit in Qatar. Saudi Med J
2005;3:1269-76
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 06-12-2015; Published online: 27-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
291
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Study on Etiological Proile of Lower Zone Pneumonitis in Patients
Attending to the Department of Pulmonary Medicine in Santhiram
Medical College and General Hospital, Nandyal
K Sivakrishna1, P Chakradhar1, Sumanth A2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Lower zone involvement on chest radiography
may be the presentation in cases of a Variety of pneumonias.
The aim of our study is to ind out the various etiological causesof the lower zone pneumonitis in the patients attending to
the department of pulmonary medicine, santhiram medical
college and general hospital, Nandyal.
Materials and Methods: All the patients with lower zone
pneumonitis attending to the department of pulmonary medicine from january-2014 are included in the study. Patients are
subjected toSputum for AFB examination, Sputum for culture
and sensitivity, Sputum for KOH mount, Sputum for malignant cytology, Endo-bronchial washing and Bronchial brushings/biopsy
Results: In present study 5% patients have Interstitial lung
disease, 31% patients have Tuberculosis, 47% have CAP, 9%
Have Bronchiectasis, 4% have Malignancies 2% have fungal
infections and remaining 2% have Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia.
Conclusion: Community acquired pneumonia is the commonest cause for lower zone pneumonitis patients followed by
tuberculosis. In diabetic patients also CAP is the commonest
cause for lower zone pneumonitis.
Keywords: Lower zone Pneumonitis, CAP, Tuberculosis
INTRODUCTION
Lower zone involvement on chest radiography may be the
presentation in cases of a Variety of pneumonias. The presentation of bronchiectasis is patchy shadowing, usually in
the lower zones and so is the location of pulmonary hydatid
cysts. Many a time, lung cancer may present in lower zones,
most commonly as multiple nodules
Due to secondaries. In cases of lymphangiticcarcinomatosis, the shadows are more obvious in the lower zones as
multiple small nodular or linear lesions. Certain diseases
like sarcoidosis,pneumoconiosis and progressive massive
ibrosis
Produce diffuse radiological shadows. Such shadows may
also be seen in advanced interstitial ibrosis, drug reactions,
acute allergic alveolitis and fat embolism.1,2
We have tried to study in detail the diseases which may
present as bilateral lower zone lungshadows and to com-
292
pare the initial diagnosis suspected on the basis of clinical
and radiologicalindings with the inalclinico-pathological
diagnosis.1
MATERIAL AND METHODS
100 patients attended to the department of pulmonary medicine, Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital,
Nandyal were studied. All the patients with lower zone
pneumonitis attending to the department of pulmonary medicine from january-2014 are included in the study. A detailed
clinical history and a thorough examination was conducted.
Routine haematologicalinvestigations, Renal Function Tests,
chest X-ray and CT Thorax were performed. Sputum for
AFB by Z-N staining, pyogenic organisms by Gram’sstaining, and cytopathological examination was performed along
with culture for Mycobacteriumtuberculosis and pyogenic
organisms. Similarly, if needed. Finally, specimen collected
by ibreoptic bronchoscopy were smeared and subjected H
and E staining.
Patients were subjected to
A Sputum for AFB examination.
B Sputum for culture and sensitivity.
C Sputum for KOH mount.
D Sputum for malignant cytology.
E Endo-bronchial washing.
F Bronchial brushings/biopsy.
Paediatric age group, patients with co-existing upper zone
involvement and patients with congestive cardiac failure and
pulmonary edema are excluded in our study
Post Graduate Student, 2Associate Professor, 3Assistant Professor,
Department of TB and Chest, Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital, Nandyal, Kurnool District, AP, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. P. Chakradhar, Associate Professor,
Department of TB and Chest, Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital NH-18, Nandyal, Kurnool (Dist.), Andhra Pradesh.
India
How to cite this article: K Sivakrishna, P Chakradhar, Sumanth A.
Study on etiological proile of lower zone pneumonitis in patients
attending to the department of pulmonary medicine in santhiram
medical college and general hospital, nandyal. International Journal
of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):292-295.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Sivakrishna et al.
RESULTS
The age of patients ranged from 21 years to 80 years with a
mean age of 47.67 Years (Figure No 1 and Table No 1).
Cough was the most common presenting complaint in 88%
of cases, followed by dyspnea in 76%, Fever in 73%, expectoration in 42% and chest pain in 28% cases.
On examination crepitation’s was the predominant inding in
46% cases followed by clubbing in 12% cases. (Figure No 2)
Diabetes was the most common associated medical condition (38% cases), 2% cases had deranged renal functions.
Consolidation was the most common radiographic feature
65% cases followed by nodular shadows in 15% cases, bronchiectatic changes in 10% cases and mass lesions in 4% cases.
Suspected clinical diagnosis were made in all the cases. 6 cases (6%) were diagnosed as sputum positive for acid fast bacilli
and 3 cases (3%) diagnosed as Retro-viral and all 3 cases (3%)
were diagnosed as Tuberculosis. Community acquired pneumonia was the most common inal diagnosis in our study.
Present in 47 cases (47%) out of which 45 cases had an infectious etiology and aspiration pneumonia was diagnosed
in 2 cases. Streptococcus Pneumoniae was the commonest
organism isolated in 25% cases followed by KlebsiellaPneumoniae in 10% cases, Pseudomonas in 8% cases, Staphylococcus aureus in 2 % cases and mixed organism in 2%
cases. Tuberculosis was the next common inal diagnosis, in
31 cases (31% of total) out of which 6 cases were diagnosed
by sputum for AFB and remaining 25 cases were diagnosed
with the help of Fibre-Optic Bronchoscopy. Bronchial Washings for AFB was positive in 25 cases. All the 9 Cases (9%)
initially suspected as bronchiectasis had a inal diagnosis of
bronchiectasis. In 4 Cases CT thorax was conirmatory while
the remaining 5 showed characteristic changes of bronchiectasis on chest X-ray.
5 cases (5%) had diagnosis of interstitial lung disease and all
the cases had increased neutrophils and eosinophils on BAL
luid. 4 cases (4%) were diagnosed to be malignant, 1 case
was adenocarcinoma, 2 cases were squamous cell carcinoma
and 1 case was small cell carcinoma. Two cases (2%) suspected tropical pulmonary eosinophilia had their diagnosis
conirmed on the basis of increased eosinophils on bronchial
lavage luid examination.
Two cases (2%) were diagnosed as pulmonary candidiasis
on the basis of broncho alveolar lavage luid highly positive
for growth of candida. In the Present study Out of 100 Patients 13% falls in 21-40 Years age group, 67% falls in 41-60
Years Age group and rest (20%) falls in above 60 years of
age group. In the Present Study 64 % patients were Male and
remaining 36% were Females. In present study 5% patients
have Interstitial lung disease, 31% patients have Tuberculosis, 47% have CAP, 9% Have Bronchiectasis, 4% have
Malignancies 2% have fungal infections and remaining 2%
have Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia (Table No 2). Most
common symptoms/signs were Cough, Fever, Crepitation’s
and Expectoration.
Etiological Proile of Lower Zone Pneumonitis
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
43%
24%
12%
9%
4%
8%
21- 40 Years
41- 60 Years
> 60 Years
Male
Female
Figure-1: Distribution of Patients according to Age and Sex
Symptoms and Signs (n = 100)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
88%
76%
73%
46%
42%
28%
4%
Column1
Figure-2: Symptoms and Signs of disease
Sex
Total
Male
Female
Age 21-40 Count
9
4
13
Years % within Age
69.2%
30.8%
100.0%
% of Total
9.0%
4.0%
13.0%
41-60 Count
43
24
67
Years % within Age
64.2%
35.8%
100.0%
% of Total
43.0%
24.0%
67.0%
>60
Count
12
8
20
Years % within Age
60.0%
40.0%
100.0%
% of Total
12.0%
8.0%
20.0%
Total
Count
64
36
100
% within Age
64.0%
36.0%
100.0%
% of Total
64.0%
36.0%
100.0%
Table-1: Distribution of Patients according to Age and Sex
DISCUSSION
In our study out of 100 patients 64% patients were males
and 36% patients were females.The mean age in our study
was 47.67 years.In a study conducted by RanaSherwani et
al1 mean age was 44.5 years.
In our study the most common symptom was cough (88%)
followed by dyspnea (76%), fever (73%), Cough with expectoration was seen in (42%) and pleuritic chest pain in 28%
cases. On examination clubbing was seen in 12% cases and
crepitations in 46% of our patients.In a study conducted by
RanaSherwani et al1 cough was the most common presenting
complaint in 78.5% cases followed by dyspnea in 73.2%,
cough with expectoration in 69.6%, fever in 62.5% cases and
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
293
Sivakrishna et al.
Interstitial Lung Disease
Tuberculosis
CAP
Fungal Infections
Bronchiesctasis
Malignancy
Tropical Pulmonary Eosinophilia
Etiological Proile of Lower Zone Pneumonitis
Age
21-40 Years
41-60 Years
Count
0
1
% within Final Diagnosis
0.0%
20.0%
Count
4
18
% within Final Diagnosis
12.9%
58.1%
Count
9
37
% within Final Diagnosis
19.1%
78.7%
Count
0
1
% within Final Diagnosis
0.0%
50.0%
Count
0
7
% within Final Diagnosis
0.0%
77.8%
Count
0
1
% within Final Diagnosis
0.0%
25.0%
Count
0
2
% within Final Diagnosis
0.0%
100.0%
Count
13
67
% within Final Diagnosis
13.0%
67.0%
Table-2: Distribution of Patients according to their Diagnosis
chest pain in 37.5% cases.On examination crepitations was
predominant inding in 57.5% cases followed by clubbing
in 19.6% cases.In a study conducted by Bilal Bin Abdullah
et al2 cough was the most common presenting complaint in
74% cases followed by cough with expectoration in 64%,
fever in 56% cases, dyspnea in 22%, and chest pain in 20%
cases.On examination crepitations was predominant inding
in 94% cases followed by clubbing in 4% cases. In our study
out of 47 Patients (100%) diagnosed as community acquired
pneumonia 30 patients (63.8%) were males and 17 (36.2%)
patients were females.In a study conducted by Bilal Bin Abdullah et al2 70% patients were males and remaining 30%
cases were females.
47 patients out of 100 patients in our study was diagnosed
as community acquired pneumonia affected the lower zone.
In our Study out of 47 cases (100%) most common organism causing community acquired pneumonia is Streptococcus pneumonia (53.2%) followed by klebsiellapneumoniae
(21.3%), pseudomonas aeruginosa (17%), and staphylococcus aureus (4.25%).
In a study conducted by Vishak k acharya et al3 on community acquired pneumonia most common organism casing was
streptococcus pneumonia (31%) followed by pseudomonas
aeruginosa (15%), Klebsiella pneumonia (13%), and Staphylococcus aureus (8%).In a study conducted by Vinay et al4
oncommunity acquired pneumonia Most common organism
casing was Streptococcus pneumonia (28%) followed by
klebsiellapneumoniae (26.2%), pseudomonas aeruginosa
(12.3%) and staphylococcus aureus (20%).In a study conducted by Bilal bin Abdullah et al2 on community acquired
pneumonia, most common organism casing was Streptococcus pneumonia (16%) followed by klebsiellapneumoniae
(6%), pseudomonas aeruginosa (4%) and staphylococcus
aureus (2%).In a study conducted by Bansal et al5 on community acquired pneumonia, most common organism casing
was Streptococcus pneumonia (35.8%) followed by kleb-
294
Total
>60 Years
4
80.0%
9
29.0%
1
2.1%
1
50.0%
2
22.2%
3
75.0%
0
0.0%
20
20.0%
5
100.0%
31
100.0%
47
100.0%
2
100.0%
9
100.0%
4
100.0%
2
100.0%
100
100.0%
siellapneumoniae (22%), pseudomonas aeruginosa (9.4%),
and staphylococcus aureus (17%).In a study conducted by
Bomagiriraj et al6 on community acquired pneumonia, most
common organism casing was Streptococcus pneumonia
(30.43%) followed by klebsiellapneumoniae (13%), pseudomonas aeruginosa (28.3%) and staphylococcus aureus
(4.35%).In a study conducted by Kejriwal et al7 on community acquired pneumonia, most common organism casing
was Streptococcus pneumonia (48%) followed by klebsiellapneumoniae (1.3%), pseudomonas aeruginosa (11.1%) and
staphylococcus aureus (3.3%).In a study conducted by W S
Lim et al8 on community acquired pneumonia, most common organism casing was Streptococcus pneumonia (56%)
followed by klebsiellapneumoniae (13%), pseudomonas
aeruginosa (11%) and staphylococcus aureus (3%).In a study
conducted by Bashir ahmed et al9 out of 100 patients with
Community acquired pneumonia Gram –ve organism was
commonest (19%), Gram +ve organism (10%) and 71%cases had no etiological cause.
Out of 31 Cases (100%) diagnosed as tuberculosis, 19 patients (61.3%) are males and 12 patients (38.7%) are females. Out of 31 cases (100%) diagnosed as tuberculosis,
16 cases (51.6%) have diabetes mellitus and 3 cases (11.3%)
are retro-viral. In a study conducted by RanaSherwani et al1
on lower zone pneumonitis Tuberculosis was most common
diagnosis, 25% cases with bilateral lower zone shadows
were diagnosed as tuberculosis. In our study out of 31 cases
(100%) Bronchial alveolar lavage positive for AFB is 74%
and sputum positive for AFB is 26%.In a study conducted by
Chandrasekhar et al10 Bronchial alveolar lavage positive for
AFB was 15% and sputum positive for AFB was 63%.
In our study out of 100 patients, 9 cases are diagnosed as having bronchiectasis, Out of 9 cases (100%), 4 cases (44.44%)
are diagnosed as bronchiectasis by CT THORAX and remaining 5 cases (55.55%) are diagnosed as bronchiectasis
by characteristic changes of bronchiectasis on chest X-ray.In
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Sivakrishna et al.
a study conducted by Ranasharwani et al1 8.9% cases were
diagnosed as having Bronchiectasis.
In our study out of 100 patients 4% (4 cases) having malignancy. Out of 4 cases 1 case is diagnosed as adenocarcinoma, 2 cases are diagnosed as Squamous cell carcinoma and 1
case is diagnosed as small cell carcinoma.In a study conducted by Ranasherwani et al1 on bilateral lower zone shadows,
out of 56 patients 9 % cases were diagnosed as malignancy
and most common type was broncho alveolar carcinoma.
In this study out of 100 patients 5 (5%) cases were diagnosed
as having interstitial lung disease. In all these 5 patients Sputum and FOB analysis were negative for AFB, Bacterial and
Fungal culture.Diagnosis is done based on HR CT Thorax
indings and Restrictive pattern on spirometry (Helios 401).
In a study conducted by Rana Sherwani et al1 7.14% cases
were diagnosed as interstitial lung disease, all the cases had
increased neutrophils and eosinophils on BAL luid Examination.
In our study out of 100 patients 2 cases are diagnosed as
fungal infections, In this 2 patients Sputum is negative for
AFB staining and no bacterial growth on sputum culture,
BAL was negative for AFB staining and no bacterial growth
on BAL culture and BAL is Positive for candida species.In a
study conducted by Rana sherwani et al1, 1 case (1.78%) out
of 56 patients (100%) was diagnosed as having pulmonary
candidiasis.
Etiological Proile of Lower Zone Pneumonitis
Sebastian, Kunal Bhuta. A Clinical, Bacteriological and
Radiological Proile of Community Acquired Pneumonia in Navi Mumbai, India. IOSR-JDMS 2015;14:5861.
8. W S Lim, J T Macfarlane, T C J Boswell, T G Harrison, D Rose,M Leinonen et al., Study of community acquired pneumonia aetiology (SCAPA) in adults admitted to hospital implications for management guidelines.
Thorax 2001;56:296-301
9. Bashir Ahmed Shah, Gurmeet Singh, Muzafar Ahmed
Naik, Ghulam Nabi Dhobi Bacteriological and clinical
proile of Community acquired pneumonia in hospitalized patients, Lung India 2010;27:54-57
10. Dr. P. Chandrasekhara, Dr. Mohsin Aslam, Dr. S. Koshy. A Study of Lower Lung Tuberculosis. IOSR-JDMS
2013;12:19-24.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 06-12-2015; Published online: 27-12-2015
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2.
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4.
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Rana Sherwani, Kail Akhtar, Talat Siddiqui, R. Bhargava, Suian Zaheer Bilateral lower zone shadows on
chest radiograph – a Clinico pathological proile. Indian
J Tuberc 2005; 52:137-142.
Bilal Bin Abdullah, Mohammed Zoheb, Syed Mustafa
Ashraf, Sharafath Ali, and Nida Nausheen. A Study of
Community-Acquired Pneumonias in Elderly Individuals in Bijapur, India. ISRN Pulmonology 2012; 2012:
10.
Vishak K Acharya, Mahesha Padyana, Unnikrishnan
B, Anand R, Preethm R Acharya, Divya Jyoti Juneja.
Microbiological Proile and Drug Sensitivity Pattern
among Community Acquired Pneumonia Patients in
Tertiary Care Centre in Mangalore, Coastal Karnataka,
India. J Clin Diagn Res 2014;8:MC04-6
Vinay Dharmadhikari, Tinku Joseph,Ajit Kulkarni.
Bacteriological And Clinical Proile Of Community Acquired Pneumonia In Hospitalized Patients. Int J Pharm
Bio Sci 2013;4:695 – 702.
S. Bansal, S. Kashyap, L.S. Pal and A. Goel, Clinical
and Bacteriological Proile of CommunityAcquired
Pneumonia in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. Indian J
Chest Dis Allied Sci 2004;46:17-22.
Boma Giriraj, Deepak Manthale Clinico-Microbiological Proile Of Community Acquired Pneumonia In A
tertiary Care Hospital. JBPR 2015;4:65-68.
Kejriwal. A, Arjun S. Shenoi, Raghuram Pusukuru, Ciji
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
295
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Implementation of Artemisinin based Combination Therapy Policy
in Treatment of Uncomplicated Malaria in Private Medicines
Outlets: Practice of Medicines Dispenser’s in Mwanza Region,
Tanzania
Stanley Mwita1, Angela Jesse2, Deogratius Katabaro1, Carol Marwa3, Deodatus Ruganuza4
ABSTRACT
Introduction: A combination of Artemether-lumefantrine
(ALu) is recommended by Tanzania MoHSW as irst line therapy for uncomplicated malaria while Sulphadoxine–pyrimethamine (SP) is recommended only for intermittent preventive
treatment during pregnancy (IPTp). Despite the change of the
policy, SP is still being dispensed by private medicine outlets
for treatment of uncomplicated malaria. Assessing dispensing
practice of medicines dispenser’s is therefore crucial.
Materials and Methods: The study was a descriptive
cross-sectional study; simulated clients were used to capture
quantitative data while qualitative data were captured using
focus group discussion. The study population was private
medicine outlets i.e Pharmacies and Accredited Drug Dispensing Outlets (ADDOs) located in Nyamagana and Sengerema District. For quantitative data the whole study had 65
outlets which constituted of 33 ADDOs and 32 Pharmacies
while for qualitative data the study constituted 20 dispensers.
The coded quantitative data were analyzed using Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (Version 20.0) computer analysis
software. Practice of dispensers was analyzed using cross-tabulation, chi-square and Fisher’s exact test. Qualitative data
were manually analyzed using content analysis.
Results: During malaria patient simulation 9.7 % of outlets
dispensed ALU to simulated client while 85.5% dispensed SP.
Results show that 90.6% of Pharmacies and 80% of ADDOs
dispensed SP to simulated client even though SP is reserved
for IPTp.
Conclusion: The study concluded that SP is still dispensed for
uncomplicated malaria treatment rather than being reserved
for IPTp where patient demand for a single dose medicine is
one of driving factor for irrational dispensing and use of SP.
Keywords: ACT Policy, ALU, Dispensing practice, Private
medicine outlets, SP, Mwanza.
in the prior 14 days, 41% sought care at a pharmacy and
drug shop, whereas only 19% went to a government health
facility.2 A review of studies from some countries found that
around half of caregivers initially sought medicines for the
treatment of common childhood illnesses from private drug
sellers.3
In the year 2005 Tanzania changed its malaria treatment policy for uncomplicated malaria from (SP) to artemisinin-based
combination therapy (ACT) – speciically artemether-lumefantrine (ALU).4 SP remains the medicine of choice for IPTp.
It is particularly important that medicines used in pregnancy
are known to be safe.5
The study done by Menendez in 2010 revealed that, there
was reductions in neonatal mortality by up to 61.3% have
been reported following IPTp administration.6 The study
done by Ramharter in Gabon revealed that; after introduction of IPTp, there was a marked beneit on the prevalence of
low birth weight and premature birth for women adhering to
national recommendations.7
Adherence to ACT policy is important in ensuring malaria treatment eficacy, as well as to reduce the likelihood of
malaria parasite resistance to ACT.8 In order to preserve
SP eficacy for IPTp, all possible efforts should be made to
avoid SP use for the treatment of clinical cases of malaria.9
Therefore this study intended to examine practices of private medicines outlets in dispensing of ALU for treatment
of uncomplicated malaria and to identify the extent at which
Assistant Lecturer, School of Pharmacy, 3Lecturer, Department
of Pharmacology, 4Assistant Lecturer, Department of Parasitology
and Entomology, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences
(CUHAS), 2Assistant Lecturer, Department of Urban and Regional
Planning, Ardhi University, Tanzania
1
INTRODUCTION
Corresponding author: Stanley Mwita, School of Pharmacy,
Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences (CUHAS), P.O.
BOX 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania
Malaria is a life-threatening blood disease caused by a parasite that is transmitted to humans by the Anopheles mosquito. Malaria is one of the leading causes of death in children
under ive years of age and accounts for up to 40% of outpatient visits in Tanzania.1 A household survey in three regions
in Tanzania, found that of those who sought care for fever
How to cite this article: Stanley Mwita, Angela Jesse, Deogratius
Katabaro, Carol Marwa, Deodatus Ruganuza. Implementation of
artemisinin based combination therapy policy in treatment of uncomplicated malaria in private medicines outlets: practice of medicines Dispenser’s in Mwanza Region, Tanzania. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):296-300.
296
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Mwita et al.
Implementation of Artemisinin based Combination Therapy Policy
SP is dispensed in treatment of uncomplicated malaria. The
study involved over the counter malaria treatment only and
not prescriptions.
For qualitative data; information obtained was transcribed
and translated immediately to obtain meaningful information. The analysis was done manually using a content analysis approach.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
RESULTS
Data collection
The principal researcher collected qualitative data using focus group discussion while quantitative data were collected
by two simulated clients as research assistants. The focus
group discussion was conducted in four sessions of ive participants in each group.
The simulated client form was used by two simulated clients
who acted as if they had symptoms of uncomplicated malaria
and seek over the counter treatment. The form was used to
record medicines advised by dispensers and medicines which
were dispensed after client demand for SP. Ethical clearance
was sought from the Ethical Review Committee of Muhimbili University of Health and Allied Sciences (MUHAS). To
protect dispensers’ privacy, no names of staffs were recorded
and names of outlets are not mentioned in connection with
the study’s results.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
All the collected data were counter-checked for their reliability and validity. The coded data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (Version 20.0) computer
analysis software. A P-value of less than 0.05 was considered as statistically signiicance, at 95% conidence interval.
Proportion of dispensers (%)
Sample size and Sampling technique
For quantitative data the whole study had 65 medicines
outlets which constituted of 33 ADDOs and 32 Pharmacies. The sample size was calculated using formula for
calculating sample size for single proportion of the inite
population.10 For qualitative data the study constituted 20
dispensers. There are 45 pharmacies and 19 ADDOs in
Nyamagana district while Sengerema has 2 pharmacies and
31 ADDOs. Therefore sampling unit constitutes of 47 Pharmacies and 50 ADDOs. That makes the total of 97 medicine
outlets.
The selection of medicine outlets was based on random sampling process. One dispenser was involved per outlet. Purposive sampling was employed on the focus group discussion.
Results from simulated clients
Out of 65 medicines outlets, only 62 (95.4%) outlets participated in simulation, which involved 32 pharmacies and 30
ADDOs. Three ADDOs did not agree to dispense anti malarial without laboratory test results. After simulated clients
explained their malaria symptoms, dispensers advised various antimalarials ; results revealed that most of dispensers of
private medicine outlets; 40.3% advised the use of ALU and
few of them; 5% only advised the use of sulfamethoxypyrazine/pyrimethamine (SPP), (Figure 1).
Results showed that there is relationship between type of the
medicine outlet and the antimalarial advised by the dispenser, (χ2= 11.544; P value =0.003). Most of ADDO dispenser’s
i,e 56.7% advised the use of ALU while most of pharmacy
dispenser’s i.e 30.7% of dispenser’s advised the use of Dihydroartemisinin Piperaquine (DPQ), (Figure 2).
Out of all 62 outlets; 11 outlets advised simulated clients
to use SP while other 51 outlets advised simulated clients’
medicine other than SP. Thus simulated clients requested
those 51 outlets to give them SP since it is single dose medicine, some dispensers agreed while others disagreed. Results
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40.3
20.2
17.7
9.8
ALU
tablets
SP
DPQ
AP
7
AAQ
60
SPP
56.7
50
40
30
30.7
25
23.3
21.3
20
12.5
10
0
ALU
12.8
10.5
4.5
2.7
0
Pharmacy
ADDO
2.5
SP
DPQ AP AAQ SPP
Antimalarials
Figure-2: Medicines advised by dispensers to simulated clients, in
Pharmacies (n=32), ADDOs (n=30)
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
5
Antimalarials
Figure-1: Medicines advised by dispensers to simulated clients in
all medicine outlets (n=62)
Proportion of dispensers (%)
Study area and population
This study was a descriptive cross sectional study design
which intended to capture qualitative and quantitative data;
it was conducted in Mwanza region, which was conveniently selected as study site because it is highly populated and
has high prevalence of malaria. The study population was
medicine outlets i.e Private Pharmacies and ADDOs located
in Nyamagana and Sengerema District. This study was conducted between October 2014 and May 2015.
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297
Mwita et al.
Implementation of Artemisinin based Combination Therapy Policy
Dispenser’s responses
Total
Agree
Disagree
Pharmacy
25(89.3%)
3(10.7%)
28(100%)
ADDO
18(78.3%)
5(21.7%)
23(100%)
Total
43(84.3%)
8(15.7%)
51(100%)
Table-1: Dispenser’s responses after simulated clients demand
for SP (n=51)
Proportion of dispensers (%)
Type of outlet
85.5
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
9.7
4.8
SP
Others
Antimalarials
Figure-3: Medicines dispensed to simulated clients in all medicine
outlets (n=62)
Proportion of dispensers (%)
ALU tablets
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
90.6
80
Pharmacy
ADDO
6.2
13.3
3.1 6.7
ALU
SP
Others
Antimalarials
Figure-4: Medicines dispensed to simulated clients, in Pharmacies
(n=32), ADDOs (30)
showed that after simulated clients demanded for SP in 51
outlets which initially advised other antimalarials; only 8
outlets (15.7%), (Table 1) disagreed to dispense it, reasons
being SP was out of stock or it is reserved for IPTp. There is
no relation between type of medicine outlet and dispenser’s
response, P Value =0.44.
Following dispenser’s advice and simulated client’s demand
for SP, various antimalarials were inally dispensed; Study
revealed that only 9.7 % of medicine dispenser’s, dispensed
ALU to simulated client. Most of medicine dispenser’s i.e
85.5% dispensed SP while only 4.8% advised the use of other medicines which were DPQ, SPP and Artemisinin/ Piperaquine (AP), (Figure 3).
Results show that, most medicine dispensers from both
Pharmacies and ADDOs i.e 90.6% of pharmacies and 80%
of ADDOs dispensed SP to simulated client even though SP
is reserved for IPTp. There is the no relationship between
type of the medicine outlet and the medicine dispensed to
simulated clients. P value= 0.47, (Figure 4).
Simulated clients reported price of medicines, revealed that
SP and SPP were cheapest medicine with price ranging from
298
Tsh1000/= to 1500/=, ALU and Artesunate/ Amodiaquine
(AAQ) tablets ranged from Tsh2500/= to 3000/= while DPQ
and AP were ranging between Tsh10, 000/= to 12,000/=.
Results from focus group discussion
On general overview in private medicine outlets, SP is mainly dispensed for treatment of uncomplicated malaria than
IPTp. When medicines dispenser’s asked, why they still dispense SP for the treatment of uncomplicated malaria even
though it is prohibited, they had various responses such as;
lack of knowledge to dispensers, inadequate training, lack
of awareness to the community that SP is reserved for IPTp
only, low cost of SP compared to ALU and other available
antimalarial, patient demand for single dose medicine, complicated dosing schedule of ALU and clients belief that they
can only be treated by SP. One of them said:
“We dispense SP for treatment of malaria due to various
reasons such as; poor adherence to ALU as it has a lot of
tablets; ALU has high cost and is more needful e.g patients
have to eat fat food before taking ALU. If the patient has
only 1000tsh you can’t give him/her ALU which is more than
2000Tsh.”(Participant 9)-Pharmacy.
Private medicine outlets face the following challenges when
they advise clients to use ALU for those who ask for over
the counter treatment of uncomplicated malaria: (1) Some
clients complains that ALU has high price, many tablets and
complicated dosing schedule so they need single dose medicine. (2) There are clients who believe they can be treated
with SP only, for them there is no other medicine which is
better than SP. (3) Other clients says that ALU always fails
to treat them, others says it gives them they get side effects
once they use it. (4) Some clients believe ALU has low quality/ substandard as there are lot brands of ALU, they believe
ALU with leaf symbol is the best than those which are currently available.
One of respondents said: “there are clients who believe they
can be treated with SP only, for them there is no other medicine which is better than SP. There are clients who create
habit of using sp for treatment of uncomplicated malaria,
they say when they take SP it takes them only one day to be
cured”. (Respondent 2)- Pharmacy.
Another respondent said; “Most of our clients do not prefer
to use ALU because of its high price, they can’t afford to buy
one dose of ALU for Tsh2500/= -3000/=, some adult clients
request to buy half course or even 4 tablets only”. (Respondent 7)- ADDO
When asked which anti malarial medicine they prefer to dispense to the client for the over the counter treatment of malaria all of them said ALU. However SP is mainly dispensed
for treatment of uncomplicated malaria than IPTp. Reasons
given for the SP to be still dispensed by private facilities for
the treatment of uncomplicated malaria even though it is prohibited, included; SP still treat some patients, failure of ALU,
clients like to use medicine which are used to, single dose
and few number of tablets, SP is cheap compared to ALU,
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Mwita et al.
Implementation of Artemisinin based Combination Therapy Policy
poor adherence to ALU, patient choice, lack of awareness
to the community that SP is reserved for IPTp only. One of
respondents said:
“Clients complain are not treated by ALU but treated by SP;
also many clients prefer medicine with few tablets.” (Participant 10) –ADDO.
Another respondent said; “I prefer to advise my clients to
use ALU and if client don’t prefer ALU because it have many
tablets, I will give him/her medicine of his/her choice.” (Participant 8)-Pharmacy.
bility of other medicines with high price in Pharmacies than
ADDOs is one of the contributing factors for the difference
observed. However, there is no relationship between the type
of the medicine outlet and antimalarial dispensed by dispensers with P>0.05, which indicate that both dispensers in Pharmacies and ADDOs are driven by patient demand which lead
to irrational dispensing, this is supported by focus group discussion were dispensers from both pharmacies and ADDOs
mentioned patient demand as factor for irrational dispensing. Other similar studies indicate similar results, e.g a study
done in Kenya by Rusk in 2012 to determine if antimalarial
drug knowledge predict antimalarial dispensing practice in
drug outlets revealed that most of the medicine retailers surveyed (65%) were able to identify ALU as the Kenyan Ministry of Health recommended irst-line anti-malarial therapy for uncomplicated malaria. However, the proportion of
medicine retailers who recommended the correct treatment
was low. Only 48% would recommend ALU to adults. It was
discovered that customer demand has an inluence on retailer
behavior. Retailer training and education were found to be
correlated with antimalarial drug knowledge, which in turn
is correlated with dispensing practices.13
All participants in Focus group mentioned that, they prefer
to advise their patients to use ALU. However the actual practice differs as per results from simulated clients. Even though
the aim of SP to be allowed in private market is for IPTp
reill, it was evident as it was mentioned by all participants
that, SP is mainly dispensed for treatment of uncomplicated
malaria instead of being reserved for IPTp. This will jeopardize its effectiveness in IPTp if the situation will remain
the same. Dispensers had different opinions in effectiveness
of ALU; even though most of them reported that, it is effective in treating Malaria with some cases of reported treatment failure. Hence they requested the MoHSW and other
stakeholders to research on its effectiveness.
It was revealed from this study that, dispensers of private
medicines outlets face the following challenges in ACT policy implementation; some clients are complaining that ALU
has high price, cases of reported ALU failure, many tablets
and complicated dosing schedule so they need single dose
medicine. Other challenges being customers believe in SP to
be the best medicine than ALU, clients demand and pressure.
However the study done in Tanzania by Kabanywanyi; from
patients perspective, show that upon proper pictorial instruction and making patient believe that ALU is effective in treatment of malaria 87.1% of patients found ALU easier to take
and 87.7% believed that ALU was more effective than SP.14
As part of intervention Tanzania Food and Drug Authority
(TFDA) has asked pharmaceutical manufactures to write the
label on SP package which will indicate that is for IPTp only.
Once those labeled batches enter into the market, other study
could be done to compare the practice with what has been reported in this study. The limitation of this study is that, view
of the National Drug Regulatory Authority was not sought in
order to be able to clarify some of the issues such as reasons
DISCUSSION
Private medicines outlets are important source for treatment
of uncomplicated malaria, including dispensing of antimalarials for self medication. ALU is the recommended irst line
antimalarial for treatment of uncomplicated malaria while
SP is reserved for IPTp. Intermittent preventive treatment
has recently been shown to be highly cost-effective for both
prevention of maternal malaria and reduction of neonatal
mortality in areas with moderate or high malaria transmission.11 Despite the spread of SP resistance, IPTp continues
to provide signiicant beneit, resulting in protection against
both neonatal mortality (protective eficacy 18%) and low
birth weight reduction by 21% under routine program conditions.12
In this study, proportion of dispensers in medicine outlets
who dispense ALU, SP and other antimalarials for over the
counter treatment of malaria were determined. Study results
show that about 40% of all medicine outlets advised simulated clients to use ALU, but after simulated clients requested
for SP since it is a single dose medicine, more than 80% of
those who initially didn’t advice on the use of SP agreed to
dispense it. This entails that, without client pressure almost
forty percent of private medicine outlets dispensers would
dispense ALU to clients who seek over the counter treatment
of malaria. All participants appeared in focus group discussion, know that ALU is the irst line medicine for treatment
of uncomplicated malaria, but only less than 10% dispensed
it to simulated clients while about 85% dispensed SP. Difference in proportion between advised medicines and dispensed medicines were due to patient demand. However
the percentage of anti malarial dispensed could have been
different if availability of both ALU and SP could be 100%.
In focus group discussion it was reported that dispensers
grant the request of their customers; they reported client’s
choice as the factor of dispensing SP instead of ALU. There
is relationship between type of the medicine outlet and anti
malarial advised by dispensers. There is high chance for the
patients to use ALU when she/he visit ADDO for self medication compared to when she/he go to the pharmacy. As it
was revealed from this study, 56.7% of dispensers in ADDOs
advised the use of ALU while almost 60% of dispensers in
Pharmacies advised other antimalarials which were DPQ,
AP, Artesunate/ Amodiaquine (AAQ) and SPP. High availa-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
299
Mwita et al.
Implementation of Artemisinin based Combination Therapy Policy
for availability of SP in ADDOs and Pharmacies.
8.
CONCLUSION
Results of this study indicate that less than half of dispensers
in private medicine outlets would advise the use of ALU for
treatment of uncomplicated malaria. However, SP is still dispensed for malaria treatment rather than being reserved for
IPTp. Patient demand for a single dose medicine is one of
driving factor for irrational dispensing and use of SP, other
factors being affordability of SP and lack of awareness to the
community that SP should be reserved for IPTp only. Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria during pregnancy is
a key intervention in the national strategy for malaria control
in Tanzania. Irrational dispensing of SP, which may result
into SP developing resistance in IPTp and compromise the
effort of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare in reducing prevalence of malaria in pregnancy. Information to the
community regarding proper use of SP and ALU should be
disseminated through mass media. Tanzania Food and Drugs
Authority (TFDA) should prohibit availability of SP to private medicine outlets and instead, it should be available in
Private and public health facilities with Antenatal care clinics only.
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Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 06-12-2015; Published online: 27-12-2015
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
ORIGINAL RESEARCH
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Gardening and Health: A Cross Sectional Study of Occupational
Health Behaviour of Gardeners
Shashi Prabha Tomar1, PK Kasar2, Rajesh Tiwari3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Occupational safety and health (OSH) also
commonly referred to as occupational health and safety
(OHS) or workplace health and safety (WHS) is an area concerned with the safety, health and welfare of people engaged
in work or employment. The goals of occupational safety and
health programs include to foster a safe and healthy work environment. Working in Garden and feild without taking appropriate protective measures will lead these workers several risk
like Physical, biological and psychological hazards Hence the
present study aims at studying socio demographic and health
related behaviour of occupational gardeners.
Materials and Methods: The study group comprised 100
occupational gardeners of the Jabalpur city. A pretested proforma questionnaire was used to record the necessary information like medical history, sociodemographic factors, and
indings of clinical investigations.
Result: Among the study subjects 33% were underweight
with a mean BMI of 16.89 and further 11% persons were overweight with 26.78 mean BMI. Regarding personal protective
behaviour during work only 17% gardeners uses cloth or mask
to cover mouth while working, none of them bear apron, only
4% gardeners bear goggles and mask while spraying. Only 3%
wear gloves while working and 59% wear shoes while working. The most common health problems are vision disturbance
(25%), eye inlammation (16%), sneezing and running nose
found in(11%), joint pain swelling and muscle stiffness16.%),
and accidental injury (26%). Most rarely found health issue
was varicose veins 2%.
Conclusion: Gardeners should be educated to use protective
clothing, quit smoking and tobacco consumption, adopt proper body posture, and ensure vaccination.
Keywords: Body weight, BMI, blood pressure, community
gardener, occupational disease
INTRODUCTION
World Health Organization deined "occupational health
deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace
and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards."1,2
Health has been deined as "a state of complete physical,
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of
disease or inirmity."3 The 2010 NHIS-OHS found elevated prevalence rates of several occupational exposures in the
agriculture, forestry, and ishing sector which may negative-
ly impact health. These workers often worked long hours.
The prevalence rate of working more than 48 hours a week
among workers employed in these industries was 37%, and
24% worked more than 60 hours a week. Of all workers
in these industries, 85% frequently worked outdoors compared to 25% of all U.S. workers. Additionally, 53% were
frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes, compared
to 25% of all U.S. workers.4 Without appropriate protective
measures Gardening may be associated with lots of injuries.
the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) reports
that gardeners suffer thousands of injuries every year. In
2012, for example, the CPSC estimates there were more than
100,000 injuries related to garden equipment or accessories
in the United States.5 Although no such reports available for
India due to lack of studies Lack of o health information in
many sub-populations like gardeners in India, required to
explore health behaviour of this perticular group of population. Working in Garden and ield without taking appropriate
protective measures will lead these workers several risk like
Physical, biological and psychological hazards Hence the
present study aims at studying socio demographic and health
related behaviour of occupational gardeners.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The study was conducted on 100 gardeners randomly selected from work place from different nurseries and garden during between July to September 2014. Sample of 100 purposely selected for study convenience. Nurseries of all the four
directions east west north south were covered to complete
the sample of 100. Data were collected by person-to-person
visits. They were assured of the conidentiality of the data
and their informed consent was obtained. Sociodemographic
information like age, sex, educational level, occupation status, and behavioral characteristics like use of tobacco, bidi,
and alcohol were collected using a predesigned and pretestAssistant Professor, 2Professor and Head, 3Associate Professor,
Department of Community Medicine, NSCBMC Jabalpur, M.P,
India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Shashi Prabha Tomar, Plot no: 137,
PNT Colony, Dhanvantri Nagar, Jabalpur, India
How to cite this article: Shashi Prabha Tomar, PK Kasar, Rajesh
Tiwari. Gardening and health: a cross sectional study of occupational health behaviour of gardeners. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):301-304.
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
301
Tomar et al.
Gardening and Health
ed questionnaire. Health status was assessed by conducting
appropriate anthropometrical, history and examination of
each subject following standard clinical methods. All the
available personal medical records including investigation
report and medication held by the persons were evaluated
and were recorded.During personal interviews, the subjects
were asked speciic questions regarding the use of personal
protective devices like shoes, gloves, goggles, face masks,
etc. Similarly, they were asked whether the employer organized any health education session or were given any personal
advice regarding the use of personal protective devices and
quitting habits such as smoking and tobacco chewing.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The results were expressed in terms of mean ± SEM. Experimental data were entered analysed in MS excel.
RESULTS
A total of 100 gardeners with the age ranging from 11 to 65
years were surveyed during in three month duration between
July to September 2014. Most of the population 87% belongs to 20- 50 yrs of age group, only 5 gardener were of age
51-60 yrs and 3 were of 61 to 70 yrs of age. 74 % gardeners
were males.Table 1
Among the study subjects 33% were underweight with a
mean BMI of 16.89 and further 11% persons were overweight with 26.78 mean BMI. table 2. High blood pressure
was found in 15% subjects with systolic BP 140 and above
and diastolic BP 90 and above. and 15 were diabetics found
on the basis of history and clinical reports. table 3. All the
subjects were surveyed for their general health status and beAge distribution in years
No (%)
11-20
5(5%)
21-30
30(30%)
31-40
34(34%)
41-50
23(23%)
51-60
5(5%)
61-70
3(3%)
Total
100(100%)
Sex Distribution
Male
74(74%)
Female
26(26%)
Total
100(100%)
Table-1: Socio-demographic proile of study subjects
According to BMI: Category
No (Percentage)
Normal
56(56%)
Underweight
33(33%)
Overweight
11(11%)
BMI: Body Mass index (Underweight,16.5-18.5, normal
18.5—25, overweight 25-30).
Table-2: Distribution of study subjects according to body
weight
302
havioral characteristics concerning different organ systems
as depicted in Table 3
Most common physical hazard was overworking 53% followed by feeling of fatigue 45%. In our study 51% suffered
minor cuts during gardening with 78 % of them site effected
was hands. Regarding personal protective behaviour during
work only 17% gardeners uses cloth or mask to cover mouth
while working, none of them bear apron, only 4% gardeners
bear goggles and mask while spraying. Only 3%wear gloves
while working and 59% wear shoes while working.None of
the gardeners bore apron during work. Smoking behaviour
Health related problems and working behaviour
1. Physical complains
Fatigue
headach
body ache
Poor sleep
Overworked
2. Work related injury:Minor cuts from routine weapon
Insect bite
Snake bite
Accidental injuries during work
Vericose veins
3. Respiratory problems
Respiratory allergies
Asthma
Cough and cold Running nose
4. Occular problems
Watering of eyes
Diminished vision
Any Ocular inlammation(conjunctiviites an,keratiis,,sty)
5. Skin problems
Contact derrmatis
Skin infection mostly fungal and bacteria
Worm penetration through abraded skin
6. Chronic disease
Diabetes
Hypertention
7. Personal habbits
Alchoholism
Smoking
Tobbaco chewing
No (%)
45(45%)
17(17%)
25(25%)
39(39%)
53(53%)
51(51%)
17(17%)
1(1%)
23(26%)
2(2%)
30(30%)
3(3%)
11(11%)
7(7%)
25(25%)
16(16%)
32(32%)
39(39%)
2(2%)
15(15%)
23(23%)
21(21%)
39(39%)
28(28%)
8. Joint pain and muscels stiffness
Arthritis
16(16%)
Back pain
34(34%)
9. Personal protective behavior atworking place
Wear shoes while working.
59(59%)
Aprons
0(0%)
Gloves
3(3%)
Clothes / mask to cover mouth
1717(%)
Use of mask and googles while spraying pesti4(4%)
cide.
Table-3: Distribution of study subjects according to their
health status and behavioral characteristics
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Tomar et al.
was found in 39 % subjects and alcohol consumption in
21%. The most common health problems are vision disturbance (25%), eye inlammation (16%), sneezing and running
nose found in(11%), joint pain swelling and muscle stiffness16.%), and accidental injury (26%). Most rarely found
health issue was varicose veins 2%.
DISCUSSION
Most of gardeners in our study (83%) were literate educated
primary and above and only 17 % were illiterate. The study
populations of gardeners were mostly literate.67% gardeners
were fulltime gardeners and 33% were irregular workers do
part time other works also, despite this their main occupation
was gardening only. They resided in overcrowded and unhygienic conditions of the slum areas, making them susceptible
to vulnerable diseases. Most of study population belongs to
lower socioeconomic class. Among the study subjects 33%
were underweight with a mean BMI of 16.89 and further 11%
persons were overweight with 26.78 mean BMI. Body mass
index (BMI): weight in kg/height in metres value less than
18.5 was considered as thinness or chronic energy deiciency
and BMI more than 25 was considered as overweight.6-7
Hypertension was deined as SBP 140 mmHg and/or DBP 90
mm Hg and/or treatment with antihypertensive drugs.8 High
blood pressure was found in 15% subjects with systolic BP
140 and above and diastolic BP 90 above.which was lower
than general population. Gardening has been shown to be
a relaxing active activity that can signiicantly lower blood
pressure in people with hypertension and prehypertension
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), moderate-intensity level activity for 2.5 hours each
week can reduce the risk for obesity, high blood pressure.8
In a Sentinel Surveillance Project, documented 28% overall
prevalence of hypertension (criteria: =JNC VI) from 10 regions of the country in the age group 20-69. Another study
carried out in 1998 among Industrial population in the Bharat
Electronics Limited (BEL), India using the same criteria illustrated a prevalence of 30% among men.9-11
In our study 15% were diabetic found on the basis of history
and clinical reports Which was found higher than general
population. The hectic work schedules of occupational gardeners and unregulated diet may be the responsible factors.
During 1972-75, ICMR carried out a large multicentric study
in India, which documented 2.6% and 1.5% prevalence of
diabetes (criteria:FBS>5.6mmol/l or Post 1-h glucose value>=7.8mmol/l or Post 2-h glucose value>=6.7mmol/l)
among men and women in the urban areas while in rural areas had a lower prevalence: 1.8% and 1.3%.9
Smoking behaviour was found in 39 % subjects and alcohol
consumption in 21% and tobacco consumption 27%. National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) note on consumption of tobacco in India in Madhya Pradesh depicted 33.6
%urban male and 7.2 % urban female are tobacco consumers.10 State-level prevalence of tobacco smoking in India in
Gardening and Health
Madhya Pradesh found 29.4% in urban males 0.9% in urban
females.13
In our study 51% suffered minor cuts during gardening with
78 % of them site effected was hands. Only 68 % of those
having injury with rusted weapon followed primary medical treatment and TT vaccination, rest of the population just
washed it and tied a wet cloth over it. These data reveals
ignorant behaviour of gardeners regarding self health and
minor cuts a and wounds. Most of gardeners using garden
tools, those with sharp edges or pointed tips. Make them
prone for cuts on hands and ingers. Several time these cut
goes unnoticed.
In our study 59% wear shoes while working, working with
working ware foot make them prone for soil contamination,
worm penetration, also spraying and handling various kind
of pesticides and insecticide make them prone for chemical
hazards, respiratory allergies ocular inlammation and irritation. In our study vision disturbance was found in (25%),
eye inlammation (16%), sneezing and running nose found
in(11%).Small organisms in the soil can enter the body
through lesions and lead to infection. Buried objects such
as metal or glass can also cause puncture wounds and carry
a risk of tetanus. In our study 17%, insect bites, one case of
snake bite was found as most of gardener took place in open
and outdoor making them prone for insect bite ants, scorpions, and a host of lying insects can have irritating bites or
cause allergic reactions in some peoples.
In this study, joint pain swelling and muscle stiffness16.%),
The gardeners have to work in different postures continuously for long durations which results in joints pain, swelling,
muscle stiffness, and back pain. The percentage of accidental
injury was found to be 28%. This can be reduced by proper
training. Most gardening tools are old-fashioned and need
more physical labor to operate
The most common health problems are vision disturbance
(25%), eye inlammation (16%), The gardeners are exposed
to intense sunlight, chemicals, and pesticides which cause
inlammation and irritation in eyes. Long-term exposure to
sunlight especially ultraviolet (UV) rays and chronic eye irritation from dry dusty conditions seem to play an important
role.14
CONCLUSION
So on the basis of study we recommend the following action
should be taken at personal as well as public label for all
gardening population to assure positive health beneits and
promote safe gardening practices.
Gardeners should be educated regarding proper use of safety
goggles, sturdy shoes or high rubber boots, and long pants
when using lawn mowers, and other machinery.
The gardeners should be motivated to wear gloves, long
sleeves, and sunshades to lower risk of skin irritation, sunburn, and skin cancer.
Instructions and warning labels on chemical, lawn and gar-
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
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Tomar et al.
Gardening and Health
den equipment should be followed carefully.
Tetanus lives in the soil and enters the body through cuts
in the skin. Because gardeners use sharp tools, dig in the
dirt and handle plants with sharp points, they are particularly prone to tetanus infections. Ensure tetanus/diphtheria
vaccination.
Despite the fact study was carried in limited number of subjects, the study revealed several important facts regarding
working behaviour of gardenners but still it is recommended at a broader scale to give more promising result and will
deinitely help to improve gardeners health and promote safe
gardening practices.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We heartily acknowledge the cooperation and support of the
community gardeners who participated in our study. We also
acknowledge the dedicated work of the students of NSCB
Medical College who helped us in collecting the survey data.
on consumption of tobacco in India: NSS 50th Round,
1993-94. Sarvekshana 1998 anuary-March; New Delhi:
Department of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Government of India; 1998:76-89.
13. Rani M, Bonu S, Jha P, Nguyen SN, Jamjoum L. Tobacco use in India: Prevalence and predictors of smoking and chewing in a national cross-sectional household survey. Tobacco Control 2003;12:4. Available
from URL:http://wwwtobaccocontrol.com/cgi/content/
full/12/4/e4 (accessed on 17 August 2004).
14. Anonymous. Eye irritation, white growth on cornea,
diminished vision? Pterygium. [last accessed on 2009
May 24]. Available from: http://www.mylot.com/w/discussions/1440139.aspx.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 06-12-2015; Published online: 27-12-2015
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Oak Ridge National Laboratory | ORNL. www.ornl.
gov. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
2. WPRO | Occupational health. www.wpro.who.int. Retrieved 2015-10-30.
3. WHO Deinition of Health. World Health Organization.
World Health Organization
4. CDC – NHIS – Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Sector Proile Page – NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health
Topic. National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
June 28, 2013. Retrieved July 16, 2013.
5. Availlable from: htpp//www.mnn.com/family/protection/safety/stories/how-to-avoid-common-garden-injuries.
6. World Health Organization. Physical status: The use
and interpretation of anthropometry. Technical report
Series-854. WHO: Geneva; 1995.
7. Ramana GN, Sastry JG, Peters D. Health transition
in India: Issues and challenges. Natl Med J India
2002;15:37-42.
8. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on
prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high
blood pressure. 1997;157:2413-46.
9. WHO-Project on sentinel surveillance of Indian Industrial population.
10. Prabhakaran D, Shah P, Chaturvedi V, Ramakrishnan
L, Manhapra A, Reddy KS. Cardiovascular risk factor
prevalence among men in a large industry of North India. In press
11. Ahuja MMS. Epidemiological studies on diabetes mellitus in India. In: Epidemiology of diabetes in developing countries. Ahuja MMS, Ed. New Delhi, Interprint,
1979: 29–38.
12. National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO). A note
304
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CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
PapillonLefevre Syndrome: Report of a Case Successfully Treated
with Acitretin
Gaurav Chaudhary1, Bharat Kalaria2, Yash Raj Bahadur3, Ishu Agarwal1
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Papillon-Lefevre syndrome (PLS) is a rare
syndrome of autosomal recessive inheritance characterized by
palmoplantar hyperkeratosis and early onset of a severe destructive periodontitis, leading to premature loss of both primary and permanent dentitions. The etiopathogenesis includes
a genetic basis for susceptibility to speciic virulent pathogens
but a recent report has suggested that the condition is linked
to mutations of the cathepsin C gene. Effective treatment includes extraction of primary teeth, systemic Acitretin, and antibiotics along with topical keratolytics and professional teeth
cleaning.
Case report: This paper presents our experience with acitretin therapy in a case of PLS, who had an excellent response in
palmoplantar skin lesions within four weeks.
Conclusion: As dentists play a signiicant role in diagnosis
and management of PLS, this case report is an effort to create
awareness among the dental fraternity.
Keywords: Papillon-Lefevre syndrome, palmoplantar hyperkeratosis, Acitretin
INTRODUCTION
In 1924, Papillon and Lefevre described a brother and sister
with a condition characterized by palmoplantar hyperkeratosis (keratoderma) associated with severe, early onset periodontitis and premature loss of primary and permanent teeth.
Gorlin et al added calciication of the falx cerebri to the syndrome, converting it into a triad. Variable indings in the syndrome include retardation of somatic development, follicular
hyperkeratosis, nail dystrophy, and hyperhidrosis.1,2
The prevalence of PLS is 1-4 per million individuals with
no sex predilection and no racial predominance. A genetic
predisposition, with greater frequency of occurrence in offsprings of parents with consanguinity, has been reported.3
In addition to genetic alterations, several environmental and
host factors are involved in the PLS periodontitis including
(a) speciic virulent bacterial and viral infection of periodontium, particularly Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, cytomegalovirus, and Epstein-Barr type 1 virus; (b)
impaired neutrophil chemotaxis, migration, and phagocytoxic functions, and increased superoxide production (c) reduced functional activity of monocytes elicited by decreased
phagocytosis, increased tendency to aggregate, and impaired
Fc-receptor function; (d) decreased mitogenic activity of
lymphocytes, and reversed ratio of T-helper to T-killer cells
(e) degenerative changes of plasma cells and elevation of serum immunoglobulin (IgG) and (f) disrupted functioning of
ibroblast and cementoblast along with defective periodontal
ligament attachment and gingival epithelium leading to imbalanced collageno-lytic activity in the periodontal ligament.
Accumulated etiopathogenesis suggests that PLS is a complex interaction between immune-mediated deiciencies in
the host defense mechanism and inherited genetic defects.4,5
An increased susceptibility to infection has been reported in
approximately 25% of Papillon-Lefevre patients.1
CASE REPORT
A fourteen year old girl reported to the outpatient department complaining of loose teeth and dificulty in chewing.
[Fig.1] Patients also complained of peeling of the skin of the
hands and feet. On further conversation, patient told that her
parents were irst cousins and had consanguineous marriage.
Parents and other members of the family were not affected. On general examination, the patient had overall normal
physical and mental development. Extra oral examination
demonstrated keratoderma on the palmo plantar aspects of
hands, feet, lateral aspect of the legs, knees and elbows. On
intraoral examination the patient had permanent dentition
with gingival inlammation, deep periodontal pockets along
with mobility affecting all the teeth. [Fig.1] Orthopantomogram revealed generalized destruction of alveolar bone
while lateral skull projections did not reveal any calciic
areas within the skull. [Fig.1] Baseline investigations like
complete blood count, liver function tests, electrolytes, fasting cholesterol and triglycerides were within normal limits.
Assistant Professor, Department of Orthodontics, Seema Dental
College, Veerbhadra Road, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, 2Professor, Department of Oral Pathology, Shaheed Kartarsingh Dental College,
Sharaba, Punjab, 3Assistant Professor, Department of Orthodontics,
Kothiwal Dental College and Research Centre, Moradabad, Uttar
Pradesh, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Ishu Agarwal, c/o Dr. R. P. Singh,
Saraikhalsa, Behind Head Post Ofice, Moradabad, UP 244001,
India
How to cite this article: Gaurav Chaudhary, Bharat Kalaria, Yash
Raj Bahadur, Ishu Agarwal. PapillonLefevre syndrome: report of
a case successfully treated with acitretin. International Journal of
Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):305-307.
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
305
Chaudhary et al.
PapillonLefevre Syndrome treated with acitretin
Thus the patient was diagnosed to be suffering from Papillon Lefevre Syndrome.Treatment consisted of oral Acitretin
10mg per day, Cotrimoxazole (200:40) and topical keratolytics which included 6% coal tar, sulphur and salicyclic acid
(salytar). Initially the patient was put on Acitretin 10mg once
daily for two days of every three for 8 weeks and then every
alternate day for next 8 weeks and then once in three days for
another 8 weeks. Within 4 weeks, marked regression of the
palmoplantar keratoderma was seen. (Fig.2,3,4) Periodontal
health also improved considerably. The patient was followed
on the same maintenance dose for next six months and reviewed monthly. The baseline investigations were repeated
every 6 months. At one year follow up visit we noticed almost healthy skin though there was history of exacerbations
during the winters.
DISCUSSION
Papillon Lefèvre syndrome is called so because it was described by Papillon and Lefèvre in 1924. The hallmark of this
syndrome is diffuse palmoplantar hyperkeratosis and juvenile
periodontitis. Initial manifestations are noticed during irst
decade of life in the form of hyperkeratosis seen over soles
and dorsal surface of the hands and feet. Erythematous hyperkeratotic plaques may also be present at the elbows, knees,
and trunk. Severe periodontitis affecting both primary and
permanent dentition in 3- 4year old young children is seen.3
In PLS, there is eruption of primary teeth in the normal sequence, with the teeth being of normal form and structure.
No delay in eruption timings is seen. Severe gingival inlammation and generalized aggressive periodontitis leading to
tooth mobility has been reported with erupting dentition. As
a result of which primary teeth are exfoliate by the age 4 or 5
years. After exfoliation of the primary dentition the gingival
inlammation resolves only to revert back in same sequence
with eruption of permanent teeth. Thus, permanent dentition
is lost by 15-17 years of age. Severe resorption of alveolar
bone gives the teeth characteristic ‘loating-in-air’ appear-
Figure-1: Extra Oral proile, Intraoral Photograph showing severe
periodontitis and OPG showing generalized bone loss.
306
Figure-2: A, A: Pre and post treatment photograph of palmar aspect of both hands. B, B: Pre and post treatment photograph of both
hands (front view)
Figure-3: C, C: re and post treatment photograph of medial surface
of right leg. D, D: Pre and post treatment photograph of medial
surface of left leg.
Figure-4: E, E: Pre and post treatment photograph of plantar aspect
of both legs. F, F: Pre and post treatment photograph of both legs
(front view)
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Chaudhary et al.
ance on dental radiographs. Palmoplantar keratosis may be
in the form of mild psoriasiform scaly skin to hyperkeratosis
involving skin of entire hands, feet, elbows and knees.2,6
Especially in winter, palmoplantar hyperkeratosis worsens
with painful issures, similar to our case, thereby limiting
routine activities and necessitating systemic treatment.7 The
etiology of PLS is debatable, but most widely accepted hypothesis states it to be due to mutations in one or both the
alleles of cathepsin c gene which results in loss of function.
Cathepsin c gene, located on chromosome 11q14.1-q14.3 is
expressed in palms, soles, knees, and keratinized oral gingiva. All these regions are commonly affected by PLS It is
also expressed at high levels in various immune cells including polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages, and their
precursors. It encodes a cysteine-lysosomal protease also
known as dipeptidyl-peptidase I which functions to remove
dipeptides from the amino terminus of the protein substrate.
It also has endopeptidase activity. Mutations in cathepsin c
gene result in PLS syndrome, haim-munk syndrome, and
prepubertal periodontitis.Severe early-onset periodontitis in
all of these three conditions.8,9
Haim munk syndrome is the most closely mimicking entity
which is deined by tapered, pointed phalangeal ends, claw
like volar curves, pes planus and arachnodactyly.6,10,11 But
none of these were seen in our case. Conditions like acrodynia, hypophosphatasia, histiocytosis X, leukemia, cyclic
neutropenia, Takahara’s syndrome are associated with periodontitis and premature loss of teeth but no palmoplantar hyperkeratosis. Other group of closely resembling conditions
Unna Thost, mal de Meleda, Howel-Evans syndrome, keratosis punctata, keratoderma hereditarium mutilans (Vohwinkel’s syndrome), and Greither’s syndrome but these entities
are not associated with periodontopathy.1 Histopathological
indings of affected skin have not been well described in the
literature. Reported histopathological indings include hyperkeratosis or parakeratosis, acanthosis, and slight perivascular inlammatory iniltrate.5,11 A multidisciplinary approach is
essential for the effective management of patients with PLS.
Keratolytics are the drug of choice for skin manifestations in
PLS. Salicylic acid, coal tar and sulphur may be added to the
regimen as adjuncts. Oral retinoids including acitretin, etretinate, and isotretinoin are helpful to treat both the keratoderma and periodontitis associated with PLS.12 For obvious
reasons, the outcome of treatment is better if initiated during
the eruption and maintained during the development of the
permanent teeth. Effective periodontal management includes
antibiotics, thorough oral prophylaxis and extraction of the
primary teeth. Role of etretinate and acitretin lies in preserving the teeth by modulating the course of periodontitis. Antibiotics are prescribed to control the active periodontitis so
as to prevent spread of bacteria in blood which might cause
pyogenic liver abscess.5,13
PapillonLefevre Syndrome treated with acitretin
ical fraternity about a not-so-common disease which has a
negative psychological impact of lives of young children.
Early dental evaluation and parental counselling as a part of
preventive treatment is essential for providing complete psychosocial rehabilitation for PLS patients.
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Lefevre Syndrome. JAPI. 2006; 54:246-7.
Didem Didar Balci, Gamze Serarslan, Ozlem Sangun. Acitretin for Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome in a
ive year old girl. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol.
2008;74:71-3.
Molecular genetics & genomic medicine. Mol Genet
Genomic Med. 2014;2:217-28.
Subramaniam P, Mathew S, Gupta KK. Papillon-Lefevre syndrome: A case report. J Indian Soc Pedod Prev
Dent. 2008;26:171–4.
Shahbaz A Janjua, Amor Khachemoune. Papillon
lefèvre syndrome: case report and review of the literature. Dermatology Online Journal. 2004;10:13.
Anita Munde, Manjiri Joshi, Sonia Sagoo. Papillon
lefevre syndrome: A report of 3 cases and review of the
literature. Journal of Indian academy of Oral Medicine
and Radiology. 2008;20:36-40
Khan FY, Jan SM,Mustaq M. Papillon-Lefèvre syndrome: Case report and review of the literature. J Indian
Soc Periodontol. 2012; 16: 261–265.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 07-12-2015; Published online: 28-12-2015
CONCLUSION
To conclude, we have tried to create awareness among medInternational Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
307
CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Triple Malignancy Involving Breast, Ovary and Uterine Vault: A
Case Report and Literature Review
Mohammad Shadab Alam1, Roshan Perween2, Shahid A Siddiqui3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: The occurrence of two or more primary malignant neoplasms in the same person is rare. We have a case report of a 45-year-old woman with triple malignancy involving
breast, ovary and uterine vault being managed at our center
since 5 years.
Case Report: Our patient presented as a post operated case
of two primary malignant neoplasms of carcinoma breast and
ovary. For carcinoma ovary she underwent adjuvant chemotherapy and interval cytoreductive surgery. For carcinoma
breast she received adjuvant locoregional radiotherapy and
chemotherapy. After latent period of 42 months, patient was
diagnosed with squamous cell carcinoma vault for which she
received pelvic radiotherapy. After around one year she developed locoregional recurrence of vault carcinoma. She received six cycles of palliative chemotherapy and is on regular
follow-up. Our patient presented with two synchronous primary malignancies and one metachronous malignancy. Two
primary malignancies were carcinoma ovary and breast. She
was diagnosed with the third malignancy (carcinoma uterine
vault) when she was in regular follow-up and the two previous
primaries were controlled. This emphasizes the importance of
a regular follow-up and the need of a meticulous work-up for
early diagnosis and prompt management of any metachronous
malignancy.
Conclusion: Regular follow-up with suspicion of any metachronous primary malignancy and prompt diagnostic workup to detect them at early stage is very crucial for better outcome. Moreover the choice of appropriate treatment strategy
remains the cornerstone in management of patients with multiple primary malignancies.
Keywords: Multiple primary malignancies, iniltrating ductal
carcinoma of breast, papillary serous cyst-adenocarcinoma of
ovary, squamous cell carcinoma cervix.
INTRODUCTION
Warren and Gates irst described multiple primary malignancies (MPM) in the same individual. When two or more
malignancies with no relationship between them occur in the
same individual, it is deined as MPM. In 1932, Warren and
Gates deined three criterias for diagnosing multiple primary
cancers, namely: (1) The histopathology of each tumor must
have component of malignancy, (2) They must have different histopathology, and (3) Any one of the tumor must not
be metastasis of the other malignancy.1 It is of two types (a)
308
synchronous in which all the malignancies occur at the same
time or within six months of irst malignancy (b) metachronous when the gap between second or high order malignancies and the previous one is at least six months.2
There are various but ill-deined risk factors for multiple primary malignancies, mainly including genetic predisposition,
environmental factor and previous treatment history. Multiple primary tumors mainly involve respiratory, gastrointestinal and genitourinary tract.3 According to various studies
their prevalence is in the range of 3-5% among which triple
tumors occur in only 0.5% of cases.4 There is an increase in
the incidence of MPM and one of the most important causes
of this increasing trend is the gain in survival of cancer patients nowadays due to advances in diagnostic modalities,
treatment and supportive care.5 According to one report,
about sixteen percent cancer patients in their further lifetime
develop second malignant neoplasm.6 There are several cases of MPM reported in literature. After thorough review of
literature, it is concluded that this case report is the irst one
to describe three primary malignancies in a postmenopausal woman from India in which two malignancies involving
breast and ovary are synchronous type and one involving
uterine vault is metachronous type.
CASE REPORT
It is a case of a previously undescribed combination of coexistent triple primary malignant neoplasms. Each of the three
lesions demonstrated the classical picture of a characteristic neoplasm of the structure involved, namely, iniltrating
ductal carcinoma of breast, papillary serous cyst-adenocarcinoma of ovary and squamous cell carcinoma of uterine
vault. No distant metastases to viscera were observed from
Assistant Professor, 3Professor and Chairman, Department of
Radiotherapy, 2Assistant Professor, Department of Obstetrics and
Gynecology, J.N. Medical College and Hospital, Aligarh Muslim
University, Aligarh, U.P., India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Mohammad Shadab Alam, Designation and address: Assistant Professor, Department of Radiotherapy, J.N. Medical College and Hospital, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, U.P. – 202002, India
How to cite this article: Mohammad Shadab Alam, Roshan Perween, Shahid A Siddiqui. Triple malignancy involving breast, ovary and uterine vault: a case report and literature review. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):308-311.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Alam et al.
any of the tumors, despite the clear-cut microscopic picture
of malignancy and gross local invasiveness. A 45-year-old
Indian woman with triple primary malignancy of carcinoma
of breast and ovary followed by carcinoma of uterine vault
over last ive years is managed successfully at our center. In
her medical history, she had no personal or family history of
cancer or management related to it. She is an unmarried lady
with age of menarche at 15 years and surgical menopause at
40 years. Our patient never received hormone replacement
therapy and oral contraceptive pills in her lifetime. She is a
known hypertensive since ten years and is on antihypertensive drugs. In January 2010 patient presented to our OPD as
post operated case of carcinoma breast and ovary for adjuvant treatment. She had history of breast lump and ovarian
cyst for which she got operated outside in a private clinic.
She had undergone modiied radical mastectomy for breast
lump and bilateral ovarian cystectomy for ovarian cyst. Histopathology of mastectomy specimen revealed iniltrating
ductal carcinoma breast (5x4x4 cm) with margin positive and
all 5 resected axillary nodes positive for malignancy (Fig.
1). Ovarian histopathology was papillary serous cyst-adenocarcinoma of bilateral ovaries with involvement of external
surfaces (Fig. 2). Both the hormone receptors (estrogen and
progesterone receptors) and her2 neu were negative. She
was planned for adjuvant chemotherapy followed by adjuvant radiation to chest wall and regional lymph nodes. She
received three cycles of paclitaxel (260mg) and carboplatin
(450 mg) every 21 days. Any chemotherapy induced serious
adverse events were not reported during and after completion of chemotherapy. Following this her serum CA 125 level was within normal limit (15 IU/ml) but her CECT abdomen showed well deined hypodense pelvic lesion invading
adjacent bowel loops and rectum with metastatic deposits
over bowel loops and uterine ibroid. In May 2010, she was
planned for interval debulking surgery. She underwent laparotomy with total hysterectomy, omentectomy, all metastatectomy and lymph-node sampling. Histopathology revealed
metastatic deposits on omentum, chronic cervicitis with all
the resected nodes showing reactive changes. After this she
received three more cycles of same chemotherapy. Then she
was treated with irradiation to chest wall and regional lymph
nodes. Her treatment was completed in September 2010.
She was on regular follow up. During her follow up period
she underwent thorough physical examination with regular
monitoring of serum CA 125 level and radiological investigations as per requirement. In April 2012 she was admitted
in gynecology ward for bleeding per vaginum and ultrasonography (USG) of abdomen revealed a 65 X 63 mm mass
in uterine fossa with rich vascularity. All other organs were
normal with no evidence of metastasis but her CA 125 level
was raised to 1276 U/ml. She got symptomatic improvement
following conservative treatment. She was again planned for
chemotherapy and received 6 cycles of cyclophosphamide,
adriamycin and cisplatin repeated every 21 days. After the
completion of chemotherapy, radiologically the pelvic mass
Triple Malignancy Involving Breast, Ovary and Uterine Vault
Figure-1: Histopathological features of iniltrated duct carcinoma
of breast.
Figure-2: Histopathological features of serous papillary adenocarcinoma of ovary.
completely resolved and serum CA 125 level was within normal limit. In June 2013 she again presented with complains
of bleeding per vaginum. Clinical examination revealed an
ulceroproliferative growth involving uterine vault with induration of right sided parametrium short of pelvic wall.
USG showed a heterogeneous hypoechoic mass in vaginal
vault region. Vault biopsy was suggestive of squamous cell
carcinoma (Fig.3). She received pelvic external beam radiotherapy (EBRT) dose of 50 Gray in 25 fractions along with
concurrent weekly cisplatin based chemotherapy. It was followed by intravaginal brachytherapy dose of 3 fractions of
6.5 Gray each prescribed at vaginal mucosa. After radiotherapy there was complete response of vault growth with CA
125 level of 0.890 U/ml and USG abdomen showing normal
scan. The patient was kept on regular follow up. In November 2014, she again had complain of whitish discharge per
vaginum and on clinical examination there was recurrence
of vault growth reaching upto introitus. Biopsy conirmed
it as moderately differentiated squamous cell carcinoma.
USG abdomen was suggestive of irregular mass in the pel-
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
309
Alam et al.
Triple Malignancy Involving Breast, Ovary and Uterine Vault
Figure-3: Histopathological features of squamous cell carcinoma
of uterine vault.
Figure-4: USG abdomen showing irregular mass in the pelvis posterior to the base of urinary bladder.
vis posterior to the base of urinary bladder (Fig. 4) and serum CA 125 level was 226.13 U/ml. She received six cycles
of three weekly gemcitabine (1.4 gm) and carboplatin (450
mg) based chemotherapy. The pelvic disease responded to
chemotherapy and the patient is kept on regular follow-up.
Our patient tolerated all her treatment well with minimal
side effects and without complications. In the last follow,
all the three primary malignancies are well controlled with
evidence of treatment related late toxicities. At present the
patient is alive and disease free with no evidence of any recurrent or residual disease.
DISCUSSION
MPM are rare but now with increasing survival of cancer
patients, the incidence of MPM is increasing. In 1879 Billroth, reporting the earliest recognized cases of true multiple
malignancy, postulated that each tumor must have a different
histologic appearance, must arise in a different location, and
must produce its own metastases. Mercanton, in 1893, added
that there must be no reappearance on removal. Warren and
310
Gates pointed out that there was no signiicant difference in
the age of female patients with one, two, or three cancers,
and that the average duration of life in patients with multiple
cancers is less than a year longer than the two-year average for a single malignant growth. The opposing contention
of Hanlon, however, that patients with multiple malignant
growths are generally several years older than those dying
with a single new growth, somewhat confuses the issue.
There is 20% higher risk of new primary cancer in same or
different organ of a cancer survivor in comparison with general population. These newly developed primary cancers can
be due to previous therapy, some syndrome related or some
common etiologic factors.7
The most common cases of MPM involve hematological,
lung, thyroid, breast, skin and genitourinary systems.3 Because of embryological and hormonal factors, in MPM the
most common organ to be involved is breast. The combined
occurrence of carcinoma of breast and ovary is related to a
familial carcinoma syndrome. In this case there are two primary synchronous malignancies namely carcinoma breast
and ovary. There is no family history of any cancer in our
patient. The patient is nulliparous and this is the only known
risk factor for these malignancies. So it may be concluded
that this case is an example of sporadic occurrence of theses malignancies which may be described by environmental
modiications and polygenic model.8 In a similar report, SooKyung Noh described a case of four malignancies involving
breast and rectum followed by ovary and endometrium.9
The third malignancy in this case is squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine vault. It fulills the criteria of metachronous
MPM as it occurred some time after the two synchronous varieties. This unusual occurrence of two synchronous MPMs
namely, iniltrating duct carcinoma of breast and papillary
serous cyst adenocarcinoma of ovary followed by one metachronous squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine vault, has
not been reported among Indians. As the general condition
of our patient was good, she underwent three surgical procedures, received 18 cycles of chemotherapy and two times
irradiated at two different sites. But the choice of treatment
and their sequencing was dificult task. Challenges faced in
management of this case were due to differential diagnosis
and diagnosis of onset of new malignant lesion with different
histopathology. Through aggressive and systematic diagnostic approach, a clinician may resolve these problems. There
are no standard recommendations and guidelines for management of MPM. The management should be based on general condition of patients, the types of malignancies, proper
sequencing of treatment modalities and response to therapy.
Curative lesions should be treated with radical approach.
All other lesions are approached with palliative intent. After
management of irst malignancy, risk of development of subsequent higher order malignant lesions must be kept in mind.
During follow up period of a cancer survivor, a clinician
should not only focus on diagnosis of any recurrent or metastatic lesion from irst malignancy, but also keep in mind
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Alam et al.
Triple Malignancy Involving Breast, Ovary and Uterine Vault
the occurrence of any second or higher order malignancies at
the same or different site. The preventive and interventional
strategies should be targeted for this high risk population.
Among the cases of MPM, there are only about 10 per cent
cases of true triple malignancies, with reporting of approximately 135 cases only. With this background, it is felt that
this case warrants recording in the literature.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 07-12-2015; Published online: 28-12-2015
CONCLUSION
Suspicion, awareness, appropriate and aggressive diagnostic
work up is crucial for detection of MPM at early stage to
have better outcome. For the management of multiple primary malignancies, choice of appropriate treatments and their
sequencing remains the cornerstone. It is a general tendency that if a patient with known malignancy develops new
symptoms, it is correlated with recurrence of the previous
one. In the follow-up period after successful management of
irst malignancy, a clinician should always keep in mind the
development of second or, higher order primary malignancy,
for detection at early stage with better outcome.
REFERENCES
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2.
3.
4.
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8.
9.
Warren S., Gates O. Multiple primary malignant tumors. A survey of the literature and a statistical study.
American Journal of Cancer. 1932;16:1358–414.
Moertel C.G. Multiple primary malignant neoplasms:
historical perspectives. Cancer. 1977;40(Suppl.
4):1786–92.
Jayaraman S., Balakrishnan S., Rao D. Multiple metachronous malignancies, one patient with three primary
malignancies. Indian Journal of Surgery. 2011;73:377–
9.
Hu N.C., Hsiech S.C., Chen T.J., Chang J.Y. Multiple
primary malignancies including colon, stomach, lung,
breast and liver cancer: a case report and literature review. Chinese Medical Journal. 2009;122:3091–3.
Cercato M.C., Colella E., Ferraresi V., Diodoro M.G.,
Tonachella R. Report of two cases of quintuple primary
malignancies and review of the literature. Anticancer
Research. 2008;28:2953–8.
Wood M.E., Vogel V., Ng A., Foxhall L., Goodwin P.,
Travis L.B. Second malignant neoplasms: assessment
and strategies for risk reduction. Journal of Clinical Orthodontics: JCO. 2012;30:3734–45.
Travis L.B., Hill D., Dores G.M. Cumulative absolute
breast cancer risk for young women treated for Hodgkin lymphoma. Journal of the National Cancer Institute.
2005;97:1428–37.
Hemminki K., Aaltonen L., Li X. Subsequent primary
malignancies after endometrial carcinoma and ovarian
carcinoma. Cancer. 2003;97:2432–9.
Noh S.-K., Yoon J.Y., Ryoo U.N., Choi C.H., Sungand
C.O. A case report of quadruple cancer in a single patient including the breast, rectum, ovary, and endometrium. Journal of Gynecologic Oncology. 2008;19:265–9.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
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CASE REPORT
www.ijcmr.com
Acute Coronary Syndrome in an Adolescent with Homozygous
Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Biswajit Das1, Trinath Kumar Mishra2
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Familial hypercholesterolemia is a single gene
disorder with autosomal codominant pattern of inheritance.
While heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia is common,
homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia is distinctly uncommon with a worldwide prevalence of 1 in 1 million persons.
Case report: Here we report a boy of 15 years of age, who
had xanthomas, xanthelasmas and presented to us with acute
coronary syndrome. His paternal uncle had died prematurely
of coronary artery disease. The patient had very high level of
LDL-C in blood. Coronary angiography revealed left main coronary artery stenosis with involvement of other coronaries.
Conclusion: Very few cases of familial hypercholesterolemia
have been reported from India. This is more likely due to lack
of awareness of the disease rather than due to its rarity. Early
diagnosis and prompt treatment will help prevent life threatening complications like premature atherosclerosis.
Keywords: Familial Hypercholesterolemia, Xanthomas, Premature Atherosclerosis.
INTRODUCTION
Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a genetic disorder
characterized by elevated level of low density lipoprotein
cholesterol (LDL-C), tendinous xanthomas and premature
coronary atherosclerosis It is an autosomal codominant disorder characterized by gene dose defect, in that the individuals with two mutant LDL receptor alleles (FH homozygotes)
are much more affected than those with one mutant allele
(FH heterozygotes).1
FH is one of the commonest inherited disorders, with an estimated worldwide prevalence of 1 in 500 (heterozygotes).2
The homozygous state is rare with a prevalence of one in
million persons. These prevalences likely represent underestimates. The patients of FH are at high risk of developing
coronary artery disease and sudden death, unless the condition is recognized and treated promptly. Here, we report a
case of homozygous FH in an adolescent who presented with
acute syndrome.
None of the siblings suffered from coronary artery disease
(CAD). The parents were also doing well. However, one paternal uncle had died of acute myocardial infarction at the
age of 38 years.
Hemodynamically he was stable. Cutaneous examination
revealed multiple and extensive tendinous xanthomas of varying size (1-10 cm), distributed over axilla, elbows, hands,
knees and feet. (Fig.1-4).
Xanthelasmas were present around the eyelids and the eyes
showed corneal arcus (Fig 3). Examination of dorsum of
hands revealed characteristic involvement of interdigital
spaces showing pathognomonic intertriginous xanthomas
(Fig 2). The patient͛s parents had noticed xanthomas in the
patient since 5 years of age. The ECG showed signiicant
ST segment depression in anterior precordial leads with ST
segment elevation in lead aVR. The troponin level was not
elevated. A diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome was made.
The echocardiographic examination was normal.
Routine laboratory parameters like Hb%, DC, TLC, blood
sugar, serum urea, creatinine thyroid function tests and liver function tests were normal. Lipid proile of the patient
demonstrated LDL-C to be very high with normal triglyceride level (Table 1). Lipid proile of the parents and siblings
were done. Both the parents and 1 brother had very high
serum LDL-C level. Coronary angiogram was done on the
next day which revealed left main coronary artery stenosis
and involvement of other coronary arteries as well. (Fig 5,6)
A inal diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia with acute
coronary syndrome was made. The patient was immediately
sent to cardiothoracic surgery department for coronary artery
bypass surgery because of signiicant left main coronary artery involvement. In the meantime, he was put on high dose
statin (Atorvastatin 80 mg/day) along with anti-ischemic
agents. The diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia was
made in this case as per the Dutch Lipid Clinic
Associate Professor, 2Professor, Department of Cardiology Institute of Cardiovascular Science, SCB Medical College, Cuttack,
Odisha, India
1
Corresponding author: Dr. Trinath Kumar Mishra, Professor &
HOD, Department of Cardiology, SCB Medical College, Cuttack
753007, Odisha, India.
CASE REPORT
A ifteen year old boy, born of nonconsanguineous marriage,
presented with severe chest pain of 5 days duration. The pain
was typical of angina. The boy had 1 brother and 2 sisters.
312
How to cite this article: Biswajit Das, Trinath Kumar Mishra.
Acute coronary syndrome in an adolescent with homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):312-314.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Das et al.
Total
LDL –C
TG (mg/
HDL
choles(mg/dl)
dl)
(mg/dl)
terol
(mg/dl)
Patient
1080
923
168
40
Father
389
281
159
43
Mother
413
295
160
38
Brother
390
267
138
44
Eldest sister
197
106
145
45
Elder sister
401
308
156
37
Table 1: Lipid proile of the patient and the family members
Group 1: Family history
Points
(i) First-degree relative with known premature (<55
1
years, men; <60 years, women) coronary heart
disease (CHD) OR
(ii) First-degree relative with known LDL cholesterol
1
th
>95 percentile by age and gender for country OR
(iii) First-degree relative with tendon xanthoma and/
2
or corneal arcus OR
th
(iv) Child(ren) <18 years with LDL cholesterol >95
2
percentile by age and gender for country
Group 2: clinical history
(i) Subject has premature (<55 years, men; <60
2
years, women) CHD
(ii) Subject has premature (<55 years, men;<60
1
years, women) cerebral or peripheral vascular
disease
Group 3: physical examination
(i) Tendon xanthoma
6
(ii) Corneal arcus in a person,<45 years
4
Group 4: biochemical results (LDL cholesterol)
>8.5 mmol/L (>325 mg/dL)
8
6.5–8.4 mmol/L (251–325 mg/dL)
5
5.0–6.4 mmol/L (191–250 mg/dL)
3
4.0–4.9 mmol/L (155–190 mg/dL)
1
Group 5: molecular genetic testing (DNA analysis)
(i) Causative mutation shown in the LDLR, APOB,
8
or PCSK9 Genes
A ‘deinite FH’ diagnosis can be made if the subject scores .8
points. A ‘probable FH’ diagnosis can be made if the subject
scores 6 to 8 points. A ‘possible FH’ diagnosis can be made if
the subject scores 3 to 5 points. An ‘unlikely FH’ diagnosis
can be made if the subject scores 0 to 2 points. Use of the
diagnostic algorithm: per group only one score, the highest
applicable, can be chosen. For example, when coronary heart
disease and tendon xanthoma as well as dyslipidaemia are
present in a family, the highest score for family history is 2.
However, if persons with elevated LDL cholesterol levels as
well as premature coronary heart disease are present in a family,
but no xanthoma or children with elevated LDL cholesterol
levels or a causative mutation are found, then the highest score
for family history remains 1.
Table-2: Dutch Lipid Clinic Network criteria for diagnosis of
heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia in adults
Network Criteria. (Table 2)3
A diagnosis of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia
was made because of of signiicant left main coronary ar-
Acute Coronary Syndrome in an Adolescent
Figure-1: Xanthomas over the elbows; Figure-2: Intertriginous
xanthomas
Figure-3: Xanthelasmas; Figure-4: Xanthomas over the knees
Figure-5: CAG (AP cranial view) showing involvement of Left
main and LAD & LCX; Figure-6: CAG (AP caudal view) showing
involvement of Left main and LAD & LCX
tery involvement. In the meantime, he was put on high dose
statin (Atorvastatin 80 mg/day) along with anti-ischemic
agents.
DISCUSSION
Familial hypercholesterolemia is one of the commonest inherited disorder, though the frequency is considerably higher
in some populations because of a founder effect. There is no
true estimate of people diagnosed with familial hypercholesterolemia in India. Patients coming to hospitals are screened
for their cholesterol levels only without any emphasis on the
diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia. In western countries, deinite criteria for FH have been laid down and cascade screening is routinely done to diagnose FH.3 Reports of
homozygous FH are still rare from India and only few cases
have been reported. Scant reports may have been due to lack
of awareness of the disorder as Indians migrated and settled
in Africa have an increased frequency of FH.7
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
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Das et al.
Acute Coronary Syndrome in an Adolescent
The pedigree of the family has been depicted in the igure.
Though FH is an autosomal codominant disorder, exogenous
factors like environmental, metabolic, and genetic factors
inluence the clinical phenotype.2 This explains absence of
CAD in parents and siblings of the index patient despite
having signiicant elevation of LDL-C level. Familial hypercholesterolemia or Fredricksons type IIa hyperlipoproteinemia is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by >900
mutations in the LDL receptor gene present on chromosome
19, leading to lack of functional LDL receptors on the cell
surface.1 This causes decreased uptake of LDL into the cells,
particularly into the liver, from the blood, resulting in increased LDL-C.
While FH in heterozygous state has a prevalence of 1 in 500
individuals, homozygous FH is very rare with a prevalence
of 1 in 1 million persons.2 LDL-C is removed from the plasma in heterozygous state at two- third of normal rate, resulting in two- three fold elevation of LDL-C. In homozygous
state it is removed at one- third of the normal rate resulting
in 6-8 fold elevation of plasma LDL-C.5 Our patient of homozygous FH had LDL-C level of 926 mg/dl. Homozygous
FH patients develop xanthomas before the irst decade of
life. Patients have multiple types of xanthomata, including
tuberous, subperiosteal, tendon xanthomas, elevated xanthomatous plaques.8 Our patient had all these forms of xanthomata. Besides, he had intertriginous xanthomas in the
web spaces of ingers, which is characteristic of homozygous
FH. These xanthomas develop because lipid leakage from
the vessel into the surrounding tissues, where macrophages subsequently phagocytose these lipids. The cholesterol
is not degraded, which accumulates in these cells, giving
rise to foamy macrophages. Familial hypercholesterolemia
is a common genetic disorder of premature coronary namely acute myocardial infarction and angina, due to lifelong
elevated LDL-C If levels.9 left untreated heterozygous FH
patients develop CAD before age 55, while homozygous patients typically develop CAD very early and if left untreated
die before age 20.3 Our patient of homozygous FH was 15
had already developed left main coronary artery stenosis,
with involvement of other coronary arteries leading to acute
coronary syndrome. While the immediate attention of such
patients is to revascularise the coronary arteries, long term
therapy includes lifestyle modiication including dietary restriction and physical activity.10 Cholesterol lowering drugs
should be initiated immediately which includes high dose
statins, ezetimibe, and bile acid binding resins. In homozygous FH cases, lipoprotein aphaeresis is often necessary,
which is conducted only in specialised lipid clinics.
tant for the patient and also has serious implications for the
family members who inherit the same disorder. Early diagnosis and prompt institution of therapy to lower the serum
LDL-C level will prevent the patient from developing premature atherosclerosis.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
Jayaram S, Meera S, Kadi S. An Interesting Case of
Familial Homozygous Hypercholesterolemia—A Brief
Review. Ind J Clin Biochem; 2012, 27, 309-313.
Austin MA, Hutter CM, Zimmern RL et al. Genetic
causes of monogenic heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia: a HuGE prevalence review. Am J Epidemiol 2004;160:407–420.
Nordestgaard B, Chapman MJ, Humphries SE, et al.
Familial hypercholesterolemia is underdiagnosed and
undertreated in the general population: guidance for
clinicians to preventcoronary heart disease. Consensus
Statement of the European Atherosclerosis Society. Eur
HeartJ 2013. Downloaded from http:// eurheartj-oxfordjournals.org.
Sethuraman G, Thappa DM, Karthikeyan K, Intertriginous xanthomas--a marker of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemiaIndian Pediatr. 200037:338
Reddy BSN, Chaudhuri SN. Familial hypercholesterolemia with multiple cutaneous xanthomas. Indian J
Dermatol 2006;51: 204-206.
Source of Support: Nil; Conlict of Interest: None
Submitted: 07-12-2015; Published online: 28-12-2015
CONCLUSION
We report a case of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia with severe premature atherosclerosis. coronary arteries Despite huge medical advancement, FH is frequently
under diagnosed, with a delay in diagnosis of FH is impor-
314
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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
www.ijcmr.com
Functional Disability and Quality of Life Due to Dementia in Post
Stroke Patients
Sonali Surbhi1, Vivek Chauhan2, Sunil Bhatt3
ABSTRACT
Introduction: Stroke is associated with an excess risk of dementia. The aim of this study to determine Quality of Life and
Functional Disability is more affected in which type of poststroke patients in demented patient or non-demented patients.
Material and methods: A total of 30 subjects both male and
female were recruited for the study on the basis of inclusion
and exclusion criteria after obtaining informed consent. The
subjects were divided into two Groups 1 (dementia) and
Group 2 (non-dementia)on the basis of scales. And outcome
measures on the basis of Stroke-speciic quality of life and
barthelindex.
Results: Result of this study demonstrated a signiicant difference of quality of life and barthel index between group 1 and 2
and signiicant correlation between quality of life and barthel
index in group 2.
Conclusion: This study shown signiicant difference between
group 1(dementia) and group 2 (non-dementia) Quality of life
and functional disability is better in non dementia group and
statistically signiicant correlation between group 2.
Keywords: Stroke,dementia, non-dementia, functional disability, quality of life.
INTRODUCTION
The World Health Organization (WHO) deinition of the
"stroke" is rapidly developing clinical signs of focal (or
global) disturbances of cerebral function, with symptom lasting 24 hours or longer or leading to death, with no apparent
cause other than vascular origin.1
Stroke is associated with an excess risk of dementia. Epidemiological studies suggest a several-fold increased incidence of various dementias after stroke. About 700000 persons in the US experienced a new or recurrent stroke during
2002. The large number of strokes, taken in combination
with the association of stroke and dementia onset, implies
that stroke-related dementia is a major public health issue.2
Stroke is the most common acute neurological illness, the
leading cause of disability for adults, and the third cause of
mortality in developed countries. Cerebrovascular disease
was recognized as an important cause of dementia.3
The clinical determinants of dementia included features of
the presenting stroke such as its size and location, vascular
risk factors such as diabetes mellitus and prior stroke, and
host characteristics such as older age.4
One year after stroke, the probability of new-onset dementia is 5.4% in patients over 60 years and 10.4% in patients
over 90 years.5 Cerebrovascular disease is considered to be
the second most common cause of dementia; 20%-25% of
cases of dementia are due to stroke, and another 10%—15%
are attributed to a combination of vascular and Alzheimer's
disease.6
Post Stroke Dementia (PSD), that includes any dementia
after stroke, irrespective of its cause, is therefore a clinical
syndrome – and not a disease – and it appears to be one of the
main causes of dependency in stroke survivors.
Patient-related variables associated with an increased risk
of PSD are increasing age, low education level, dependency
before stroke, prestroke cognitive decline without dementia,
diabetes mellitus, atrial ibrillation, myocardial infarction,
epileptic seizures, sepsis, cardiac arrhythmias, congestive
heart failure, silent cerebral infarcts, global and medial-temporal-lobe atrophy, and white-matter changes. Stroke-related
variables associated with an increased risk of PSD are stroke
severity, cause, location, and recurrence. PSD might be the
result of vascular lesions, Alzheimer pathology, white-matter
changes, or combinations of these.7 Long-term stroke studies
have reported age, depression, cognitive impairment, disability, aphasia and poor social network to be associated with
poor HRQOL.8
Consensus about the deinition of QOL has yet to be reached,
but most researchers believe it is multidimensional, comprising 3 broad “domains”: physical, mental, and social.Duncan
and colleagues in the United States recently found that 8
key areas (strength, hand function, activities of daily living,
mobility, communication, memory, emotion, and social participation) emerged as the key areas from the patient’s perspective. Similarly, Williams et al16 reported that patients
identiied 12 key domains (mobilityenergy, upper-extremity
function, work/productivity, mood, self-care, social roles,
Student Researcher, Department of Neurology, 2Associate Professor, Department of Musculoskeletal Disorders 3Assistant Professor,
Department of Neurosciences, Dolphin (PG) Institute of Biomedical and Natural Sciences, Manduwala, Dehradun, India
1
Corresponding author: Sonali Surbhi, c/o- Mr. Sateesh Kumar,
Magadh Vihar Colony, North Rukunpura, Patna-14, India
How to cite this article: Sonali Surbhi, Vivek Chauhan, Sunil
Bhatt. Functional disability and quality of life due to dementia in
post stroke patients. International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research 2016;3 (1):315-318.
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
315
Surbhi et al.
Functional Disability and Quality of Life Due to Dementia
METHODOLOGY
Participant: Patients of stroke were selected on the bases of
inclusion and exclusion criteria and were recruited for study.
Purpose of the study was explained to the patients. Written
consent form was signed by the patients. Selected subjects
were divided into two groups by the assessment of dementia
and non – dementia in post stroke
Inclusion criteria: Patient of stroke atleast three months
of stroke, dominant hand should not be affected and able to
read and write.
Exclusion criteria: Patient of pre diagnosed depression
before the attack of stroke,should not be any other
neurological disorder and should be less than 80 years.
Outcome measures: Stroke speciic quality of life scale
for measured quality of life and barthel index to measure
functional disability.
Procedure: The whole procedure was explained to each
subject and the subjects signed a consent form before
performing the study. Participants were assessed using the
Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE). Several previous
studies, restricted the cognitive proile to this test; however
this alone cannot yield a diagnosis for dementia. Thus we
useed the Clock Drawing Test, Which both completes and
improves the detection rate of dementia. Moreover, the
Frontal Assessment Batterry, which investigates executive
duties were administered.10 And after that we administered
Stroke- Speciic Quality Of Life Scale and Barthel Index for
assessed quality of life and functional disability.
Data analysis: The data was analysed using SPSS software
version 17.0 statistical analysis computational package. The
arithmetical mean and standard deviation of quality of life
and barthel index in group statistics data were evaluated.Ttest was used to calculate mean and standard deviation of
quality of life and functional disability in dementia group
and non dementia group and Pearsons Correlation was used
for correlation in both groups. Signiicant difference between
group 1 (dementia) and group 2 (non dementia) of quality of
life and barthel index is p = .000 and p = .001 respectively.
And a positive signiicant correlation of quality of life and
barthel index in non-dementia group p = .012.
RESULT
In Group 1 mean of quality of life is 19.722 and SD is
8.47005, and in Group 2 is 44.417 and SD is 9.28790. And in
Group 1 mean of barthel index is 46.000 and SD is 36.42559
and in Group 2 is 83.333 and Sdis 19.22751.
316
In ig.1.1 comparison of Quality of Life between Group 1 and
Group 2 show statistically signiicant difference (p=.001).
Comparison of Barthel Index between In ig.1.2 between
Group 1 and Group 2 statistically signiicant difference (p
= .001). In ig. 1.3 correlation of Quality of Life and Barthel
Index in Group 2 show statistically siggniicant value (p =
.012).
DISCUSSION
A syndrome of rapidly developing clinical signs of focal (or
global) disturbance of cerebral function, with symptoms lasting 24 hours or longer or leading to death, with no apparent
cause other than of vascular origin.
A disability is deined by the WHO as any restriction or lack
of ability to perform an activity in a manner or within a range
considered normal for human beings and relects the consequences of impairment in terms of functional performance
60
50
40
Dementia
Non Dementia
30
44.417
20
10
19.722
0
SS QOL
Figure-1: Between group analysis of QOL scores
Comparison of barthel index between both groups
120
100
80
60
Dementia
83.333
40
Non Dementia
46
20
0
B1
Figure-2: Between group analysis of BI scores
Corelation of disability & quality of life in subjects with
Barthel Index
family roles, vision, language, thinking, and personality).9
150
100
Series 1
50
Linear (Series 1)
0
80
40
60
SS QOL
Figure-3: Corelation of Disability and Quality of Life in subjects
Without Dementia
0
20
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379
Surbhi et al.
and activity by the individual.
In the present study the result depicted that comparison of
QOL is higher in group 2. In support of our result Meryl
broad et al. (1999) concluded in their study that the dementia
affects the QOL.11
QOL in terms of satisfaction of basic human needs: physiological, safety and security, social, self esteem and accomplishment. It assessed on the basis of scores obtained
for measures of physical, pschological, emotional and social
funtioning. Activities of daily living are particularly affected, with a much higher proportion of demented patients affected than non demented patients.
Christian et al. described in his study patients dependent
upon others to perform activities of daily living clearly had a
lower QOL than independent patients.12 Elias OlukoredeWahab et al. says early onset dementia regardless of the age it
starts, even before the age of 65 changes in the brain can be
caused by disease / trauma, and can result in loss of cognitive
functioning which includes memory, thinking, reasoning,
deecision making and verbal communication. It sometimes
results in behavioral or personality changes, which all impedes on the QOL of an individual, which includes consumer
spendings and production measures.13
Early onset dementia has a profound effect on the QOL of
patients, as its symptoms are serious, the sense of loss for
the people, with EOD are enormous which are the Memory
problems, especially short terrm memory loss, poorjudgement and language problems, which includes the pronouncement of words, erratic changes in moods, behaviour and
personality,disorientation in time, place and the persons, dificulties in recognition, understanding and comprehension,
agitation and hallucination.
Functional disability was found in group 1. HeddaAguerro
Torres et al. (1998) concluded that in a very old population
in dementia and cognitive impairment make the strongest
contribution to both the development of long term functional
dependence and decline in function. Dementia is a determinant for developing functional disability and functional decline because of poor judgement, disorientation, dificulty
in understanding, less participation in family, society make
them less conident. Patients have a fear to making wrong
deccisions they can’t do any work alone. They afraid to going outside of the home, climbing stairs, and other functional
activities due poor judgement. These fears and incapability
increase the dependency of the patients.
Correlation of quality of life and barthel index within group
1 show statistically non signiicant value due to small sample
size. Inga H. Suenkeler et al. (2015) concluded that there is
non signiicant correlations were found between QOL and
admission scores of BI they give the reason the patients were
left sided brain lesion, the presence of limb paresis, hypertension, hypercholesterinemia, history of previous brain infarct, atrial ibrillation and presence of other cardiovascular
disease. But there is also a great difference between mean
value of dementia and non ddementia described in table no.
Functional Disability and Quality of Life Due to Dementia
6 (non dementia group) and table no. 8 (dementia group).
Correlation of QOL and BI group 2 was signiicant. Due
to better memory, better capacity of thinking, judgement,
ability to ADL independently may be better. Our result of
comparison between dementia and non dementia group also
shows that the QOL and functional disability is better in non
dementia group
Future research and Limitation
Future investigation in patients with stroke with diagnosis may give us information about the Dementia and Non
Dementiataking large sample size equally divided in two
groups.
The male and female subjects should keep in two different
groups.
CONCLUSION
The conclusion of the study reveals that the subjects shown
signiicant difference between group 1 (dementia) and group
2 (non – dementia). Quality of Life and Functional Disability
is better in (non dementia) group 2. And there is statistically
non signiicant correlation within group 1 and statistically
signiicant correlation within group 1 and statistically correlation within group 2.
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65. A Study on Echocardiographic Evaluation of Pericardial Diseases
Ravindra Kumar, M. Sitaram
254-256
66. Pancreatitis in Children: Experience at a Tertiary Care Centre
Alka Bhambri, Nisha Pandey
257-259
67. Epidemiological Profile of Head and Neck Cancer Patients in Western Utter Pradesh and Analysis of
Distributions of Risk Factors in Relation To Site of Tumor.
Mohammad Shadab Alam, Roshan Perween, Shahid A Siddiqui
260-264
68. Retrospective Study Comparing Primary Debulking Surgery (PDS) with Adjuvant Chemotherapy
vs. Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy (NACT) Followed by Interval Debulking Surgery (IDS) with Adjuvant
Chemotherapy in Advanced Carcinoma Ovary
Mohammad Shadab Alam, Roshan Perween, Shahid A Siddiqui
265-270
69. Epidemiology of Disability due to Blindness in Prakasham District of Andhra Pradesh, India
D. Babu Rao, C. Bala Krishna Chadaram
271-274
70. Study of Autonomic Variation of Heart Rate in Middle Aged Diabetics
M. Usharani, Chandini
275-278
71. Analysis of Thyroid Disorders in Type - 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients
Sundara Veena Nethala
279-282
72. Comparative Study of Efficacy of Two Different Doses of Epidural Dexmedetomidine ( 0.6µg/kg and
1µg/kg) with 0.75% Ropivacaine for Inguinal Hernioplasty
Swarna Gowri S, Sreeharsha Sirigeri
283-287
73. Prescription Auditing of Antimicrobial Agents in a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital in Andhra
Pradesh
K. Anantha Babu, Madhavi Latha, Anjaly Mary Varghese, G. Vijayakumar
288-291
74. Study on Etiological Profile of Lower Zone Pneumonitis in Patients Attending to the Department of
Pulmonary Medicine in Santhiram Medical College and General Hospital, Nandyal
K Sivakrishna, P Chakradhar, Sumanth A
292-295
75. Implementation of Artemisinin based Combination Therapy Policy in Treatment of Uncomplicated
Malaria in Private Medicines Outlets: Practice of Medicines Dispenser’s in Mwanza Region,
Tanzania
Stanley Mwita, Angela Jesse, Deogratius Katabaro, Carol Marwa, Deodatus Ruganuza
296-300
76. Gardening and Health: A Cross Sectional Study of Occupational Health Behaviour of Gardeners
Shashi Prabha Tomar, PK Kasar, Rajesh Tiwari
301-304
77. PapillonLefevre Syndrome: Report of a Case Successfully Treated with Acitretin
Gaurav Chaudhary, Bharat Kalaria, Yash Raj Bahadur, Ishu Agarwal
305-307
78. Triple Malignancy Involving Breast, Ovary and Uterine Vault: A Case Report and Literature Review
Mohammad Shadab Alam, Roshan Perween, Shahid A Siddiqui
308-311
79. Acute Coronary Syndrome in an Adolescent with Homozygous Familial Hypercholesterolemia
Biswajit Das, Trinath Kumar Mishra
312-314
80. Functional Disability and Quality of Life Due to Dementia in Post Stroke Patients
Sonali Surbhi, Vivek Chauhan, Sunil Bhatt
iv
315-318
International Journal of Contemporary Medical Research
Volume 3 | Issue 1 | January 2016
ISSN (Online): 2393-915X; (Print): 2454-7379