International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET) Volume 7, Issue 3, May–June 2016, pp. 91–103, Article ID: IJCIET_07_03_009 Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=7&IType=3 Journal Impact Factor (2016): 9.7820 (Calculated by GISI) www.jifactor.com ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316 © IAEME Publication INVESTIGATING SURFACE DRAINAGE PROBLEM OF ROADS IN KHARTOUM STATE Magdi M. E. Zumrawi Civil Engineering Department, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan ABSTRACT Poor drainage contributes immensely to pavement deterioration and subsequently causing increased annual repair expenditure. The investigation is conducted to provide extensive diagnosis to point out the causes of roads problems associated with poor surface drainage and provides possible mitigation measures to overcome the problem in Khartoum state. Some cases of existing roads in different regions in Khartoum state, suffered from severe distresses and damages due to poor drainage were studied. The method used to assess the existing drainage system of the studied roads is field survey. Based on field observations, the drainage structures suffered from blockage with dumping wastes, inadequate inlets and outlet channels, failure of side walls and bed erosion. This critical situation of drainage, leads to severe distresses and damages of the investigated roads. The results revealed that the causes of drainage problem were found mainly linked to poor design, construction, and maintenance of drainage structures as well as negative attitude of residents. Finally, based on the investigation results, some recommendations are provided to design and construct adequate drainage system and apply proper maintenance in order to enhance pavement performance and life time. Key words: Adequate Drainage, Deterioration, Distresses, Drainage Problem. Cite this Article: Magdi M. E. Zumrawi, Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State, International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 7(3), 2016, pp. 91–103. http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=7&IType=3 1. INTRODUCTION Drainage is very essential in design of roads since it affects the road’s serviceability and life time. Drainage design involves providing facilities that collect, transport and remove runoff water from road pavement. There are two major road drainage systems, surface drainage and subsurface drainage. It is essential that adequate drainage http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 91 editor@iaeme.com Magdi M. E. Zumrawi systems provisions are made for road surface to ensure that a road pavement performs satisfactorily. Thus, a drainage system which includes the pavement and the water handling system must be properly designed, built, and maintained. Though water is very essential for all life on earth, it can also cause disasters through erosion and flooding. In fact, the surface runoff water is greatly increased in urban areas as a result of the development of infrastructures. The presence of water in pavement is mainly due to infiltration through pavement surfaces and shoulders, capillary action, and seasonal changes in the water table. Thus, the water need to be drained from road surface and safely disposed to rivers or outlet channels and thereby avoid the damages which might occur to the road and property [1]. Moreover, providing adequate drainage in urban areas has been proven as a necessary component in maintaining the general health, safety, welfare, and economic well-being of the residents of the region [2]. Poor drainage poses serious challenges in urban and suburban areas worldwide. The drainage problems in roads can cause early distresses and lead to structural or functional failures of pavement, if counter measures are not undertaken. Excessive water on road surface can cause one or more forms of pavement deteriorations such as reduction of subgrade and base/subbase strength, differential swelling in expansive subgrade soils, and stripping of asphalt in flexible pavements [3]. 1.1. Problem Statement Khartoum state is the capital of Sudan with high population and increased rate of transportation needs. The road network in Khartoum state has to sustain more traffic load than any other states in Sudan. In fact, poor drainage in most of the roads in Khartoum state greatly accelerates deterioration of pavements. Recently, Khartoum is facing very serious drainage problem during the rainy season (July to September). The state area has been experiencing drainage congestion and water logging for the last few years which cause serious problems. Increased urban development’s without providing sufficient drainage facilities results in water logging leaving parts of the state area inundated for several days. The logged water becomes polluted with solid waste, soil and contaminants, leading to unhealthy environment and spreading serious diseases. Thus, this problem becomes a burden for the residents and the public authorities in Sudan and in particular in Khartoum state. In the last year, heavy rains caused potential and severe damages in many roads in Khartoum. Consequently damage of properties as well as residents' injuries occurred. Moreover, traffic flow was completely ceased for a period due to inaccessible roads. Even a single closed road has an impact on transport system and can also affect other social activities. As can be seen in Fig.1, flooded roads create problems to vehicles and pedestrians. The main reason of these problems and challenges faced the residents is the inadequate drainage system of roads in Khartoum state. Therefore, the purpose of this study is supposed to assess the current situation of drainage structures and road conditions and to find out probable causes of drainage problem in Khartoum roads. Moreover, it is supposed to minimize the possible damages of pavement through proper drainage structure provisions. http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 92 editor@iaeme.com Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State Figure 1 Flooded roads create problems to vehicles and pedestrians manover 1.2. The Study Scope and Objectives The scope of this study is concerned on road surface drainage and the integration between the drainage structures and the road network in Khartoum state. The study focuses specifically on the current situation of roads and drainage facilities and identifies causes of drainage problem of roads in Khartoum state. The general objective of the study is to investigate and identify the causes of road problems associated with poor drainage and its integration challenges in Khartoum state. The specific objectives of the research as outlined below:      To evaluate the existing condition of roads and drainage structures, To examine the problems experienced concerning drainage system of Khartoum roads. To explore the impacts of poor drainage on road performance and life time, To identify the reasons behind drainage problem in roads focusing on current situation of Khartoum main roads, and To suggest technical improvements for the existing drainage facilities. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Drainage is simply defined as the natural or artificial removal of surface and subsurface water from a catchment area. The surface drainage in roads is defined as a process of removing runoff water from road surface and directing it towards a drain to http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 93 editor@iaeme.com Magdi M. E. Zumrawi be disposed away from road in a water course or open area [4]. O’Flaherty [4] stated that drainage system is an integral component of road pavement and therefore its design cannot be undertaken in isolation from the road geometric design. Croke et al [5] found that road network complements natural drainage network and therefore modifies the path of runoff water flow within the slope and accelerates the water cycle. Thus, surface water flows as a result of adequate sloped road cross section that removes water from surface and then directed to drainage channels in the system. According to Finn et al [6], the main functions of a road drainage system are to prevent flooding of the road and ponding on the pavement surface, to protect the bearing capacity of the pavement and the subgrade soils, and to avoid the erosion of side slopes. 2.1. Adequate Road Surface Drainage It is an essential consideration that adequate provision is made for road drainage to ensure a road pavement performs satisfactorily [4]. Collier [7] in his study emphasized that a rainwater drainage system should be designed to collect and convey runoff water generated within a catchment area during and after rainfall events, for safe discharge into a receiving watercourse. Collier [7] found that the magnitude of peak flows that have to be accommodated depends primarily on the intensity of rainfall, topography, soil type, configuration and land use of the catchment area. Finn et al [6] stated that drains are normally located and shaped to minimize the potential traffic hazards and accommodate the anticipated surface water flows. Drainage inlets are often provided to prevent water ponding and limit the spread of water into traffic lanes. Proper design of the surface drainage system is an essential part of economic road design [4]. The surface drainage system collects and diverts runoff water from the road surface and surrounding areas to avoid flooding. Road ditches decrease the possibility of water infiltrating into pavement layers and thus help retain the road’s bearing capability. The road surface and cross-fall conduct water to surface drains, which take care of the runoff water [8]. The majority of ditches normally have a Vshaped cross section. Roadside ditches and culverts carry flow from the area around the road, especially during peak discharge events. This flow can be directed to streams by either ditches or culverts [9]. Suitable drainage dimensioning always contributes to the bearing capacity of the pavement and to road lifetime [8]. The effective road geometric factors on drainage are road cross-sectional width, traverse and longitudinal slopes, and slope of shoulders or sidewalks. A typical road drainage system is shown in Fig. 2. According to Finn et al [6] and O’Flaherty [4], drainage is a basic consideration in the establishment of road geometry and in general this means that: (a) cross falls should be a minimum of 2.5% on carriageways, with increased cross falls of up to 5.0% on hard shoulders draining to filter drains; (b) longitudinal gradients should not be less than 0.5% on kerbed roads; (c) flat areas should be avoided and consideration of surface water drainage is particularly important at rollovers, roundabouts and junctions; (d) outfall levels must be achievable; (e) the spacing of road gullies should be sufficient to remove surface water whilst achieving an acceptable width of channel flow. One gully for every 200 m2 of paved surface is generally found to be satisfactory. http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 94 editor@iaeme.com Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State Figure 2 Typical road drainage system (source [10]) 2.2. Drainage Problems Successful drainage depends on early detection of problems before conditions require major action. Signs of drainage problems requiring attention include: puddles on the surface area, poor surface flow, slope erosion, clogged ditches, pavement edge raveling, preliminary cracking, pavement pumping, and surface settlement [11]. These signs indicate the start of failures which occur as soil particles are gradually washed away and as excess water seeps into the roadway reducing the load carrying ability of the subgrade. Major failures caused by poor drainage conditions include washouts, slides, slip outs, road and pavement breakup and flood damage [11]. Water is the biggest enemy of roads and most experts believe that most of pavement distresses and damages are due to poor drainage [12]. According to Ireri [13], eighty percent of existing road way problems can be traced to the presence of water from poor drainage either in or on the road pavement. Excessive water content in the pavement layers such as base, subbase, and subgrade soils can cause early distresses and lead to structural or functional failure of road, unless counter measures are undertaken. On his study, Anisha and Hossain [14] investigated the problem of water logging in Bangladesh. Anisha and Hossain [14] found that there is a lack of planned and adequate drainage network system in the Teknaf, a small urban area of southern part of Bangladesh beside the Bay of Bengal. They proposed a new drainage network composed of tertiary drains and cross drainage works (box and pipe culverts). The negative effects of water on road as softening and reducing the load carrying ability of subgrades and shoulders; increasing the disintegration of pavements and gravel surfaces; eroding roadside surfaces; depositing sediment and debris in ditches, pipes, catch basins and waterways; creating driving hazards for motorists and damaging adjacent property [14]. Floods and high water flows significantly affect the performance of drainage infrastructure. The anticipated pattern of flooding occasions will influence the number of incidents such as landslides, landslips, roads being washed away, submerged and http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 95 editor@iaeme.com Magdi M. E. Zumrawi inundated bridge supports, and road closures [15]. Many culverts, trenches, and other drainage facilities lack the capacity to deal with the current frequency of extreme flows. Increases in rainfall and severe weather events can affect the demand for emergency responses. Froehlich and Słupik [10] proved that during a flood event the road network delivers catchment area 60% of rainfall water and the specific flow on the road is higher than those observed in the river channel. Higher stream density allows the landscape to drain more efficiently. More efficient drainage means that water moves into streams faster, causing peak flows to be larger and to occur sooner [16]. As a result of this floods occur more frequently and are more severe - turning into flash floods. The drainage problems can directly cause or contribute to crashes. As an example, drainage features that fail to remove runoff water because they are too small or are clogged and pond water on the roadway can cause hydroplaning or force drivers to leave their lane. Additionally, other drainage features which do not have anything to do with causing a crash can significantly contribute to the severity of the crash, such as an errant vehicle striking a culvert headwall [10]. It is important to identify these potentially hazardous situations as soon as possible. Some of these conditions may have been in existence for quite some time, while others may have recently developed as a result of flooding or change in weather conditions. Drainage problem locations can be identified in several ways such as residents' complains, local police, crash data and field review. 3. CASE STUDY The current study aims to identify the causes of drainage problems that have led to pavement distresses and failures. In order to achieve this objective, it is required to survey and evaluate the existing condition of road surface and drainage facilities. Thus, the study was carried out on selected three major roads in Khartoum state as case study. 3.1. Project Description Three major roads in Khartoum state were selected for the study. The three roads were selected based on their different locations and different current drainage conditions. The selected roads are Alferdos road in Khartoum, Alazhari university road in Khartoum North, and Alarbeen road in Omdurman. These roads are located in the most crowded areas in Khartoum state. They were subjected to maintenance several times within the last ten years and still severing from severe distresses and failures. These roads are greatly suffered from poor drainage and have exhibited pavement distresses and damages. The investigation consisted of field survey of the existing condition of pavement and drainage facilities to identify the possible reasons of drainage problem. 3.2. Data Collection Two types of data were collected for the study, recorded data and field survey. Documents review was employed to collect data related to the geometric design, construction and maintenance records of the studied roads. This data was collected from the reports and manuals of the Road Corporation of Infrastructure Ministry in Khartoum state. Photographs were taken directly from the road sites during the field http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 96 editor@iaeme.com Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State survey to illustrate the existing condition and related obstacles in the drainage structures and the road pavement. 3.3. Field Survey A comprehensive field survey of the existing condition of drainage structures and pavements was conducted in this study. The existing carriageway geometric data such as length, width, longitudinal and cross falls slopes were measured using surveying equipments. The visual inspection of the pavement surface was carried out by a car driving at slow speed on the shoulders along the distresses locations. Frequently stops were made near locations where severe distresses were witnessed. Drainage structures intergraded with the studied roads were surveyed to identify the drainage problems. In addition, photographs of the failed pavements and drainage structures were taken at these locations. The details of the field survey of distresses for the three roads and the drainage situations are given in the sections below. 3.3.1. Alferdos Road Alferdos road starts from Alsteen road towards obeid Khatim road. The road is categorized as collector road with relatively high traffic volume. The road is a single carriageway of 1.8 km length and 7 m width. The longitudinal profile is almost flat with some depressions. The slopes of cross falls measured for most sections of the road are less than 1.5%, which is below the required minimum slope for adequate drainage. This critical situation of road geometry leads to significant water pools on the road surface. From the field survey, it was observed that the road surface experienced potholes, cracking, edge damages and accumulation of soil on a large area of road surface as shown in Fig. 3. The existing drain is located on north side of the road. It is open and earth drain with 1m width and 0.5 to 1 depth. The condition of this drain is very bad. It was full with soil accumulation and refuse dumps. The drain and box culvert were blocked with soil, debris, vegetation and solid waste as shown in Fig. 4. Figure 3 Significant potholes and soil accumulation on Alferdos road http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 97 editor@iaeme.com Magdi M. E. Zumrawi Figure 4 Existing drain and culvert of Alferdos road 3.3.2. Alazhari University Road This road connects Almaona road and Alsayid Ali road in Khartoum North. The road is a single carriageway of 1.0 km length and 7.5 m width. In this road, the cross falls slopes are totally less than one percent and there is no uniform longitudinal slope with some depressions. From the field inspection, edge cracking and damages has been seen on the road surface. Fig. 5 shows clearly severe and large potholes, edge failures and partial removal of asphalt surface. It was observed soils accumulated on the road sides to a level higher than the asphalt surface. Figure 5 Large potholes with sever edge damages on Alazhari university road Alazhari university road has drains on two sides, north and south sides. The north side drain is located far from the asphalt at a distance of 4 to 6m. It is a covered drain of small cross section, 1m width and 0.5 to 0.8 m depth. The drain is built and covered with reinforced concrete and small manholes without covers are distributed at 5 m intervals. The south side is a small open earth drain; about 50 m length is located adjacent to the asphalt layer. From Fig. 6, it can be seen that the drains are in a very bad condition. The open and earth drain was completely blocked with rubbish and solid waste. The covered drain suffered from debris and waste water at the locations of the manholes without covers. Also, the drains blocked with soils accumulated on http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 98 editor@iaeme.com Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State top at location of inlets and manholes, and over and above the drain outlets are blocked with grasses and rubbish (see Fig. 6). (a) (b) (c) Figure 6 The side drains of Alazhari university road (a) south side drain (b&c) north side drain 3.3.3. Alarbeen Road This road is located in the eastern part of Omdurman town. The road connects the most crowded areas in Omdurman. The road has two carriageways and four lanes, 15 m width and 2 km length. The road longitudinal and cross section slopes are almost flat with some deformations. The damage pavement was observed mainly in the middle portion of the road length, particularly in the edge lane of the eastern carriage. The majority of the damage was moderate to severe edge cracking and raveling. The severe raveling has lead to potholes and depression areas where the top surface has delaminated from the road pavement as clearly shown in the photographs of Fig. 7. Figure 7 Severe raveling and potholes on Alarbeen road It was observed that the eastern carriageway of the road is connected with a side drain. Most of the drain is covered with concrete slab and damage manhole covers. The drain has small cross section of 1m width and not more than 1m depth. The condition of the drain and its structures is very poor and rapidly deteriorated. The drain suffered from low capacity, soil accumulation, absence of inlets, lack of proper maintenance and disposal of solid waste into the drain and the crossing culverts. The http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 99 editor@iaeme.com Magdi M. E. Zumrawi drain blocked with silt and sand accumulation, debris and vegetation as shown in Fig. 8. Figure 8 The side drains of Alarbeen road 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of the field survey, to measure the existing slopes of the longitudinal and cross falls of the studied roads showed almost flat with some depressions levels. This non-uniform surface level of the roads may cause significant water logging on the road surface. This problem probably affects the drainage system of the road. To avoid accumulation of water on the road surface, it is suggested to redesign the geometry of the three roads. This can be attained by changing the road surface slopes in the traverse and longitudinal directions. Providing the road profile with a gentle longitudinal gradient (1:1000) improves the road surface drainage. This slope facilitates the discharge of water from sections of the road surface with limited crossslope. For roads with asphalt surface, the camber is normally 2% to 3%, because water will easily flow off a asphalt surface. The field observations for the three roads showed different defects and damages on pavements. Figs. 3, 5, and 7 show the photos of pavements having severe potholes, cracking and edge failures appeared at the middle and side edges of the carriageway. Moreover, it can be observed that the roads suffered from soil accumulation and the defected areas are almost adjacent to the side drains which show significant depressions. These distresses and deformations on pavement results in non uniform surface which may fail to remove runoff water from the pavement surface and direct it to the side drains. The drainage structures connected to the investigated roads are shown in Figs. 4, 6, and 8. From figures, it can be seen the drains and culverts suffered from serious problems. Drains were blocked with soil and debris accumulation in drains and it may reduce the drain capacity. It is clear that the drains being converted to dumpy places and subsequently obstructed the water flow. The existence of erosion on drain side slopes and earth bed is a common problem. Most of covered drains have no inlets, manholes without covers, indefinite outlets. This critical situation of the drainage mainly causes severe flooding which creates damages and problems to the road pavement. http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 100 editor@iaeme.com Investigating Surface Drainage Problem of Roads In Khartoum State In the three cases studied, the factors which contribute to poor drainage and pavement failures in Khartoum state are: poor design and construction, lack of maintenance, and negative attitude of residents. In general, most of the side drains in Khartoum state are open earth drains. Some drains built from bricks, stones or concrete. Others built drains are covered with concrete slabs or blocks. Failure of built drains like collapse of side walls, beds and/or covers caused by improper design and construction. One of the main problems of drainage in Khartoum state is lack of maintenance. As seen in the photographs taken from the drains sites, the drainage structures were left to deteriorate. The drains and culverts are rarely maintained and whenever maintenance is attempted it is done haphazardly. The field survey observations as clearly seen in photographs shows the negative attitudes of residents which have converted the drains and the culverts into refuse dump places. As a result, blockage of drains will reduce the capacity and obstruct water flow. 5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1. Conclusion This paper focuses on surface drainage problem of roads in Khartoum state. Based on the study results, the following conclusions are drawn.     The drainage problem is highly compounded in Khartoum state because of inadequate drainage system thereby result in damages of pavements and leading to unhealthy environment. Thus, this problem will become a burden for the residents and public authorities unless counter measures are undertaken. . The drainage infrastructures built in most roads in Khartoum state cannot flush out rain water. Moreover, the surface drains and culverts usually remain clogged due to the dumping of garbage of all sorts by residents. Thus, stagnant rain water causes severe damage to the road pavements. Poor drainage conditions especially during rainy seasons, force the water to enter the pavement from the sides as well as from the top surface. In case of open graded bituminous layer, this phenomenon becomes more dangerous and the top layer gets detached from the lower layers. The most common causes of road drainage problem were found related to improper road geometry, insufficient capacity of drainage structures, poor construction, and lack of proper maintenance. 5.2. Recommendations     Proper road geometry needs to be maintained to provide required crown and longitudinal slopes. This will reduce the drainage path lengths of the water flowing over the pavement and will prevent flow build-up. Provision of proper connections or integrations between the road network and drainage network systems is required with regular maintenance. Deficiencies in road drainage should be identified and ranked in order of priority as part of the normal maintenance program. Where remedial treatments to road pavements are being carried out any deficiencies in road drainage must be addressed prior to or in conjunction with the pavement improvement works. Road authorities should consider providing a specific budget on an annual basis for both drainage maintenance works, drainage improvement works and for the http://www.iaeme.com/IJCIET/index.asp 101 editor@iaeme.com Magdi M. E. Zumrawi   maintenance/repair of culverts and bridges. They should also aim to employ drainage inspectors who would monitor and report on required drainage maintenance works. A program for cleaning out the surface drainage system is essential. Need to clean out open drains and culverts by using manpower or machine. 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