12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
PHOTOCATALYTIC NANOSTRUCTURED TiO2 FOR PROTECTION OF
POROUS AND COMPACT STONE
Antonella Pagliarulo,1 Francesca Petronella,1 Antonio Licciulli2, A. Rocca3, D.
Diso , A.Calia4, M. Lettieri4, D.Colangiuli4, Angela Agostiano,1,5 M. Lucia Curri5 and
Roberto Comparelli5
3
1
Università degli Studi di Bari – Dipartimento di Chimica, Via Orabona 4, 70126,
Bari, Italy
2
Università degli Studi del Salento, via per Arnesano 73100 Lecce
3
Salentec srl, Via dell’Esercito 8, 73020 Cavallino, Lecce, Italy
4
CNR-IBAM, Prov.le Lecce Monteroni, 73100 Lecce
5
CNR-IPCF, c/o Dipartimento di Chimica, Via Orabona 4, 70126, Bari, Italy
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Abstract
The enhanced photocatalytic activity for degradation of a wide range of pollutants
makes nanostructured TiO2 an ideal candidate for self-cleaning coatings.
The deposition of different types of TiO2 nanocrystalline coatings on stone has
been investigated in order to test the surface protection and self-cleaning abilities of the
nanostructured materials. TiO2 nanocrystals with controlled size, shape and surface
chemistry have been prepared by using two distinct synthetic approaches, namely
colloidal synthesis by hot injection and hydrothermal nanophase crystallisation. Two
different types of stones, possessing different porosity, namely porous calcarenite and a
compact limestone have been selected, being both widely used in South Italian
monuments and building relevant for cultural heritage.
The physical properties of coated and uncoated stone surfaces, respectively, have
been investigated, and colour, wettability and stability of the coatings have been
checked. The self-cleaning properties of the nanostructured TiO2 coated surfaces under
solar irradiation have been tested by monitoring the degradation of a model organic
molecule, namely an organic dye. The obtained results have confirmed that the
nanocrystalline TiO2 coatings are promising candidate for environmental protection
upon appliance on either porous and compact stone. Moreover, the nanostructured TiO2
obtained colloidal synthesis by hot injection has demonstrated to provide hydrophobic
treated surfaces.
Keywords: TiO2 nanocrystals, hydrophilic and hydrophobic treatments, calcareous
stones, cultural heritage.
1.
Introduction
TiO2 is generally recognized as one of the most interesting compounds in several
technological fields based on photoinduced phenomena (Chen, et al.,2007). In particular,
many efforts have been devoted to the environmental applications of TiO2, due to its
efficiency in photocatalytic degradation of both organic and inorganic compounds.
Indeed TiO2 is regarded as one of the most efficient, non-toxic, and inexpensive
photocatalysts (Carp, et al.,2004). When TiO2 is irradiated with photons with energy
higher than or equal to its band gap energy, electrons (e-) and photo-holes (h+) are
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
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created (Herrmann,2010). These charges can migrate to the surface and react with
adsorbed electrons donors or acceptors. In this step strongly reactive radicals, potentially
able to mineralize a target molecule, are generated (Herrmann,1999).
In the last decade growing attention has been devoted to the exploitation of
nanosized semiconductors in photocatalysis. Indeed nanostructured catalysts show
higher photocatalytic activity than their bulk counterpart, as they are characterized by
high surface to volume ratio thus resulting in higher density of active sites for adsorption
and catalysis (Comparelli, et al.,2005)
Nanostructured photocatalytic materials have been exploited in several
technological fields, including air cleaning, water purification (Teoh, et al.,2012), and
bacteria inactivation (Rengifo-Herrera, et al.,2009) as well as in the construction
industry, to keep supplementary functions to windows glass, pavement, walls and roofs.
(Lee, et al.,2010)
A challenging task is represented by the possibility of exploiting TiO2
nanoparticles for protection and conservation of cultural heritage, in order to prevent
pollution and darkening of monuments and buildings. In particular, the opportunity of
coating surface of stones with photoactive TiO2 nanoparticles could grant self-cleaning
properties to the treated surfaces (La Russa, et al.,2012, Quagliarini, et al.,2012).
Nonetheless, the application of coating for such a kind of treatment presents some
fundamental requirements, as chromatic change of the treated materials, their water
absorption ability by capillarity, and their permeability (Licciulli, et al.,2011). Herein,
TiO2 nanocrystals have been prepared by exploiting two distinct synthetic approaches
namely, hydrothermal crystallization and colloidal synthesis by hot-injection, which
provides nanocrystals with a rod-like geometry, and deposited on two different
lithotypes, characteristic of the South of Italy, namely “Pietra Leccese” (PL) and “Pietra
di Trani” (PT) as distinct examples of porous calcarenitic stone and compact limestone,
respectively. The morphological, physical and photocatalytic properties of the coating
have been investigated by colorimetry and reflectance spectra. The photocatalytic
properties of the coating have been tested in the degradation of a model compound (an
azo dye, Methyl Red) under solar irradiation. The obtained results suggest that both
nanocrystalline TiO2 based coatings seem good candidates for environmental protection
of stone materials. In addition, TiO2 nanorods prepared by hot-injection technique could
confer hydrophobic properties to the stone.
2. Experimental section
2.1 Synthesis of hydrothermal TiO2 nanocrystals
An aqueous colloidal suspension, of hydrothermal TiO2, has been prepared using
tetrapropyl orthotitanate (TPOT) from Sigma-Aldrich 97% as TiO2 precursor.
First, 5.7 g Hydrate oxalic acid (Carlo Erba 99.8%) have been dissolved in 957.6 g
of deionised water, then 37 g of TPOT have been added dropwise.
The precipitate has been readily dissolved by stirring and heating in about 2 h until
a TiO2 amorphous sol has been obtained. After that the sol has been processes in Teflonlined autoclave (Mars 5, CEM Corporation) for different dwells at the temperature of
125 °C and at the pressure of 3.5 bar. The heating rate was 2.5 °C/min. The temperature
was maintained with the accuracy of ±2 °C. The maximum process time is fixed at 10
min to prevent the anatase–rutile phase transformation (Licciulli, et al.,2011)
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
2.2 Colloidal synthesis of TiO2 nanorods by hot injection
TiO2 nanorods (100% anatase) have been synthesized by hydrolysis of TTIP
(titanium tetraisopropoxide 99.999%, from Aldrich) using technical grade oleic acid
(C18H33CO2H or OLEA) as a surfactant at low temperatures (100 °C) as reported
elsewhere.(Cozzoli, et al.,2003) Briefly, the synthesis involves the hydrolysis of TTIP
catalyzed by trimethylamino-N-oxide dihydrate solution ((CH3)3NO3 2H2O or TMAO,
98%) in presence of large excess of water. OLEA-coated anatase TiO2 NRs (20×3 nm)
have been readily precipitated upon addition of an excess of ethanol, recovered by
centrifugation and washed three times with ethanol to remove the excess of OLEA. At
this stage, OLEA capped TiO2 NRs have been easily re-dispersed in CHCl3, without any
further growth or irreversible aggregation and then properly diluted for the stone
treatments.
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2.3 Stone samples
The two different lithotypes, "Pietra Leccese" (PL) and "Pietra di Trani" (PT), that
have been selected for being investigated in this work, are mainly composed by calcite
minerals with a negligible insoluble residue. However PL and PT are very different in
terms of porosity, such a feature then represent a relevant parameter influencing the
effectiveness of their surface treatment. In particular, PT has an open porosity measuring
4% ca., while PL is characterized by a high porosity ranging from 30-to 40% (Licciulli,
et al.,2011).
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2.4 Application of the coatings on stone
All stone samples have been cut into 5×2×1 cm slabs and one 5×2 side of each
sample has been treated.
After removal of dust deposits by means of a soft brush, the stone specimens PL
and PT have been rinsed with deionized water, and dried at 60°C until the difference
between two consecutive weighing measurements was less than 0.1% of the original
weight of the stone samples.
Two different treatments have been carried out. In the first, hydrothermal TiO2 has
been applied by spray coating on PL and PT, while the TiO2 nanorods have been
deposited by drop casting only on a PL sample.
The hydrothermal nano-TiO2 sol has been applied by spray coating a nano-TiO2
based dispersion on PL and PT by means of an HPLV (High Volume Low Pressure)
spray gun with a 0,8 mm diameter nozzle. The stone specimen treated with
hydrothermal nano-TiO2 are labeled as PLHT and PTHT.
The TiO2 nanorods on PL samples have been deposited by casting of 150 µL of a
0.05M chloroform solution of TiO2 nanorods. Hereafter, such stone specimens will be
referred as PLNR.
After the treatments the stone specimens have been kept in a desiccator to prevent
humidity accumulation.
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
2.5 Static contact angle measurements
Measurements have been performed by using a Costech contact angle measuring
instrument (NORMALRec33/89,Rome 1989).
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2.6 Colorimetric measurements
These tests have been performed by means of a Minolta CR 300 Chroma Meter
reflectance colorimeter to evaluate the color changes. (CIEStandardS014-4/E:2007,1976,
NORMALRec43/93,1993)
The effect of TiO2 based treatments on the aesthetical properties of stone
specimens has been investigated by the CIELab method. The method exploits three
different coordinates in order to define objectively a color: L*, which corresponds to the
brightness, a* corresponding to the red-green color intensity, and b* corresponding
yellow-blue color intensity.
The chromatic variations with reference to the color parameters of the stone
surface before and after the application of the treatments are expressed as:
eq.1
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2.7 Determination of TiO2 leaching from stone
In order to assess possible TiO2 leaching from stones in presence of water and light
the samples, after the application of the coatings, have been immersed in water for 3h.
The resulting solutions have been analyzed for determination of dissolved Ti
concentrations by using graphite furnace absorption spectroscopy using GFS97
instrumentation (Thermo).
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2.8 Photocatalysis experiments
In order to investigate the self cleaning properties of PLHT, PTHT and PLNR,
photocatalysis experiments have been performed at treated stone-air interface. Treated
stone specimens have been stained with 100 µl of Methyl Red solution (2-(4dimethylamino-phenyl-azo)-benzoic acid, C. I. 13020 or MR) 3.5*10-3 M dissolved in
isopropanol. The stained stone specimens have been let to dry for 12 h and subsequently
exposed to a solar light simulator, ORIEL Instruments, equipped with a Xenon arc lamp,
with a power of 150W, and a light flux of 0.0455 W/cm2 corresponding to 0.33 SUN.
At a fixed illumination time, the irradiation has been stopped, and the total
reflectance spectra of the stained stone have been registered in order to monitor the
degradation course of the model dye.
Dye decoloration has been estimated by measuring the absorbance intensity at the
maximum wavelength of the dye (430 nm) according to the equation 2:
eq 2
Reflectance spectra have been carried out with UV Vis-near IR Cary 5 (Varian)
spectrophotometer equipped with an integrating sphere.
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
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3. Results and discussion
3.1 Characterization of coated stone specimens
The stone specimens have been characterized before and after coating deposition
by colorimetric measurements, and static contact angle measurements. The main
characteristics of the specimens after coating deposition are reported in Table 1.
Colorimetric results have showed acceptable color variations after the treatment
with both hydrothermal TiO2 nanocrystals and TiO2 nanorods (Table 1).
In order to assess the wettability properties of the stone specimens after each
treatment, static contact angle measurements have been performed, in order to detect
possible change in the contact angle upon coating applications.
For PLHT and PTHT samples, no effect of the treatments has been detected by
contact angle measurements. The contact angle value, indicative for a hydrophilic
surface, has remained unchanged in the case of the PTHT. On the other hand, due to the
high porosity of PL samples, the contact angle has not been recorded as the water drop
has been quickly adsorbed by the stone for both untreated and hydrothermal TiO2 coated
samples, thus preventing the measurement to be performed.
Table 1. Characterization of stone samples: mass of catalyst, static contact angle values ±
standard deviation, color variations. (CIEStandardS014-4/E:2007,1976).
α±sd
b.t.
mg TiO2
PLHT
0.54
PTHT
0.42
A
mg/cm2
Samples
PLNR
0.60
α±sd
a.t.
ΔE
n.d.
n.d.
2.10
0.042
54 ± 8
53 ± 9
1.24
0.060
n.d.
132±8
3.64
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0.054
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b.t. = before treatment; a.t. = after treatment; n.d. = not determined
On the contrary, contact angle measurements performed on PLNR sample have
recorded a value of 132±8° which is consistent with a hydrophobic surface. This result
suggest that the OLEA-capped TiO2 nanorods confer hydrophobicity to the stone surface.
3.2 Absorption of a model dye in aqueous solution
The resistance against the water penetration of the two TiO2 based coatings on PL
have been compared. PLHT and PLNR, have been immersed in an aqueous solution of
MR (3.5*10-5M, pH 6.5) for 3h, under stirring, in the dark.
Afterwards, the stone specimens have been removed from the MR solution and let to dry
at the dark. Total reflectance spectra have been recorded and compared with the total
reflectance spectra of the respective stone specimen before the experiment (Figure 1).
Under such experimental conditions MR aqueous solution is able, first of all, to probe
stone wettability.
The broad band below 400 nm, present in all the sample, could be ascribed to the
presence of TiO2 coatings. After the immersion in MR solution in the dark, the
reflectance spectrum of PLHR has showed an increase in the absorption signals, along the
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
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whole investigated spectral range, and, mainly, in the region between 400 and 500 nm.
The increase in the absorption signals could be ascribed to the presence of water
molecules adsorbed on the stone surface.. Therefore, it is reasonable to infer that the
PLHT can absorb water or dye molecules dissolved in water solution, despite the
treatment with hydrothermal TiO2. Indeed it must be taken into account that static
contact angle measurement could not be performed on the PLHT stone as the coating
cannot prevent water drop adsorption (Table 1).
Figure 1. Total reflectance spectra recorded before (solid lines) and after (dashed lines) the
immersion in MR solution at dark, for PLHT sample (a) and PLNR sample (b) The inset of Fig. 1b
shows a photograph of PLNR after the immersion in the aqueous solution of MR at dark. The
magnification points out how in the corner of the sample is possible to distinguish the TiO2
nanorod treated region from the accidentally untreated one.
Conversely, after the immersion in MR at dark, the reflectance spectrum of PLNR
sample, has strongly resembled to that of the sample prior to the immersion in MR. No
absorption signals ascribable to water or MR has been observed. Such a result is
consistent with the contact angle measurements, thus suggesting that TiO2 nanorod
based coating could confer a hydrophobic character to the PL surface.
A further evidence of such a behavior is shown in the inset of Fig 1b, reporting a
photograph of a PLNR sample. The edges of the PL stone specimen, accidentally not
covered with TiO2 nanorods, appear darker due to MR molecules absorbed, while the
stone surface treated with TiO2 nanorods remainalmost unchanged with respect to the
original appearance.
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
Such results are in good agreement with contact angle measurements and
reasonably support the indication that the different surface chemistry of TiO2
nanoparticles, prepared by the two distinct synthetic strategies, can affect the surface
properties of the treated stones.
In fact, hydrothermal TiO2 consisting of nanoparticles with an average size of 3.5
nm, without any capping agent (Licciulli, et al.,2011), expose OH groups at their surface,
thus providing a hydrophilic character to the coating on PL. On the other hand, TiO2
nanorods are capped by OLEA molecules, possessing a polar moiety able to coordinate
the surface OH groups of TiO2 nanorods and a hydrophobic tail exposed outward,
ultimately endowing a hydrophobic character to TiO2 nanorods, and, consequently to the
PLNR surface where they are applied.
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3.3 Stability of coating against water exposure and solar illumination
The stability of the TiO2 coatings against water and light has been investigated by
dipping each stone in water (pH 6.5) and irradiating the sample with a solar light
simulator for 3h under stirring. Subsequently, the water solution has been analyzed by
Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) to detect concentration of Ti species possibly
released in water
For all investigated cases the amount of TiO2 leached in the solution represents a
negligible fraction of the total TiO2 content of each coating, indicating a good stability
of the TiO2 based coatings under the investigated conditions (Table 2).
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Table 2. AAS for determination of Ti, on aqueous solution after 3h of irradiation
Sample list
Ti Concentration (µg/L)
% TiO2 in solution
15.63
0,1
PTHT
1.490
0,01
PLNR
0.940
0.003
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PLHT
3.4 Photocatalysis tests
Photocatalysis experiments have been performed at solid-air interface, in order to
investigate the self cleaning properties, of the coatings exposed to a solar light simulator.
In particular hydrothermal TiO2 nanocrystals have been tested on a PT sample, while
TiO2 nanorods have been tested on a PL sample. A solution of MR in isopropanol has
been used as staining agent, to simulate a generic pollution on the stone surfaces. In
particular the MR solution used as staining agent represents a convenient choice,
because its degradation mechanism has been extensively studied and it is thus possible
to obtain reliable information on the photodegradation course (Comparelli, et al.,2005,
Petronella, et al.,2011). Photocatalysis experiments have been monitored by recording
total reflectance spectra at scheduled time intervals. In order to obtain a selective
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
identification of MR signals, the reflectance spectra have been recorded in absorption
mode, using the reflectance spectra of the treated stones, as a reference.
Photocatalytic tests have been typically carried out for 6 h and the main absorption peak
of MR has been monitored at 430 nm, by applying, then, the eq. 2 to calculate the
decolouration percentage. Reported data are presented as mean values ± standard
deviation, calculated from the analysis of three replicates.
Fig. 2 shows that both hydrothermal nano-TiO2 on PT and TiO2 nanorods on PL have
exhibited a significant photocatalytic activity in the dye degradation. During the first
hour of irradiation, the degradation percentage have been above 50 percent, afterwards
the decoloration percentage has increased more slowly.
The obtained results suggest that the both the TiO2 based treatments are able to
confer self cleaning properties to the investigated stone specimens
100
100
b
60
40
20
PTHT
0
80
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% Decolouration (%)
80
0
60
120
180
60
40
20
A
% Decolouration (%)
a
240
0
300
0
60
120
180
240
300
Time (min)
R
Time( min )
PLNR
4.
D
Figure 2. Time course evolution of decoloration of MR value for PTHT (a), and PLNR (b),
respectively, evaluated by monitoring the absorbance intensity at 430 nm from total reflectance
spectra.
Conclusions
In this work, two different nanosized semiconductors, namely hydrothermal TiO2
nanocrystals and TiO2 nanorods have been synthesized exploiting an hydrothermal
method and the “hot injection technique” respectively.
The two nanostructured materials have been applied on two types of stones, with
the same carbonatic composition, but with different porosity “Pietra Leccese” (PL) and
“Pietra di Trani”(PT). The investigation of the physical characteristics of both the nanoTiO2 based coatings applied on porous and compact calcareous stones, which are both
widely used within stone buildings of the cultural heritage has been carried out.
Experimental results have revealed that both nano-TiO2 based coatings are rather
stable under the investigated conditions, and the application of the nanoTiO2 based
coatings does not significantly affect the aesthetical characteristics of the investigated
stone specimens. Interestingly, TiO2 nanorods have been demonstrated to convey a
hydrophobic behavior to PL, probably due to the presence of oleic acid molecules
coordinating the surface of TiO2 nanorods.
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12th International Congress on the Deterioration and Conservation of Stone
Columbia University, New York, 2012
Finally the photocatalytic activity of hydrothermal TiO2 and TiO2 nanorods has
been tested at solid/air interface, using the azo dye Methyl Red as target compound, in
order to simulate a form of deterioration and pollution. Photocatalysis tests have
revealed that both TiO2 nanorods and hydrothermal TiO2 nanocrystals are
interestingcandidates to endow a self-cleaning behavior and to provide a protective
coating to the stone specimens, under the investigated conditions.
Acknowledgments
This work was partially supported by Apulia Region Funded Projects PS_083
within the Scientific Research Framework Program 2006. The Authors wish to tanks Dr.
Giuseppe Mascolo (CNR IRSA, Bari, Italy) for AAS measurements.
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