Regional Report
Sustainable Mountain Development
in Central Asia
From Rio 1992 to Rio 2012 and beyond
2012
1
Sustainable Mountain Development
From Rio 1992 to 2012 and beyond
Sustainable Mountain Development. From Rio 1992 to 2012 and beyond. Central Asia Mountains.
© 2012, University of Central Asia, Zoï Environment Network, Mountain Partnership, GRID-Arendal
This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part in any form for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission
from the copyright holders, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. Organisations would appreciate receiving a copy of any
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Central Asia
mountains
Disclaimers:
The views expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect views of the partner organizations
and governments.
The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries. We regret any errors or omissions that may unwittingly have been made.
Edited and produced by Zoï Environment Network, Switzerland
Printed in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Acknowledgement: The Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) has provided support for the process
of identifying trends, developments, lessons and opportunities in the Central Asia mountains and in
other mountain regions.
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This report was prepared by the University of Central Asia (head office in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan) and Zoï Environment Network (head
office in Geneva, Switzerland) in cooperation with Mountain Partnership and GRID-Arendal and with assistance and advice from: the
Kyrgyz State Agency on Environmental Protection and Forestry, the Tajik Committee on Environmental Protection and Forestry under
the Government, CAMP Alatoo, CAMP Kuhiston, the Alliance of Central Asian Mountain Communities, The Aga Khan Mountain Societies Development Support Programme, the Regional Mountain Centre in Bishkek, the Kyrgyz National Centre on Mountain Regions
Development, the Tajik Centre for Climate Change and Disaster Reduction, Osh Aarhus Environmental Information Centre, Issyk-Kul
State University, and the Central-Asian Institute for Applied Geosciences. Colleagues at the Consortium for Sustainable Development
of the Andean Ecoregion and at Bern University provided useful comments.
Numerous site visits, regional consultations in Bishkek and Karakol and online discussions helped shape this report. A preliminary version was presented at the Lucerne World Mountain Conference (10-12 October 2011, Switzerland) where the experience and insights
of colleagues in other mountain regions of the world informed this final report.
Editorial and production team:
Concept:
Ch. Dear, O. Simonett, V. Novikov
Editor:
G. Hughes
Case study authors, contributors and reviewers:
E. Batjargal (coordinator), N. Dhanani, N. Safarov, A. Aidaraliev, A. Soronkulova, B. Toktoraliev, B. Salykmambetova,
Ch. Alibakieva, I. Dairov, T. Mamatov, M. Anarbaev, L. Joldubaeva, Sh. Kainazarov, G. Ilipbaeva, M. Kuchmanov, N. Abdylasoba,
A. Kiyazova, A. Barieva, U. Kasymov, J. Kojomuratova, E. Gabatuler, A. Isakov, M. Moldaliev, R. Kalygulova, G. Sharsheke, Sh.
Stevenson, A. Karsymbek, C. Kelner, T. Bakirov, A. Tekenova, K. Adishov, A. Satkynaliev, S. Jumaeva, G. Nekushoeva, Kh. Berdova,
T. Berkeliev, J. Annachariyeva, N. Djumabaev, S. Mogilyuk, K. Isabaev, E. Sagyntay, I. Domashov, N. Abdurasulova, N. Imanbaev, A.
Nazarov, F. Illarionova, L. Hislop, V. Pelle, M. Saravia, Th. Kohler, D. Maselli.
Art work:
M. Libert
Cartography and visuals:
M. Beilstein, V. Novikov, C. Daniel
Layout:
A. Ismailov
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Executive Summary
Why the Central Asia
mountains matter
The Central Asian mountains provide an astonishing array of essential ecosystem goods and services not only
to mountain inhabitants but also to people in the lowlands and around the globe. These goods and services include the storage and release of fresh water; watershed
protection; forest products and land for food production; habitat for flora and fauna of local and global significance; the regulation of natural hazards and climate;
natural areas for leisure and recreational activities.
Central Asia’s mountains modulate the climate across wide areas, and are important reservoirs for the storage of carbon, but
global warming is slowly decimating mountain glaciers, affecting snow reserves and at the same time increasing the water
requirements of basic agricultural crops. The downstream and
lowland water resource disruptions challenge governments and,
in some cases, international relations. Tensions between highland and lowland countries often centre on the issues of energy
accessibility and water usage. Almost 90 per cent of the popula-
tion of Central Asia relies on water that falls in the mountains.
Lowland agriculture needs water in the summer and fall, and the
mountain countries need the water for power generation primarily in the winter. Finding the balance between energy generation, such as large-scale hydropower, and water provision for
large-scale agriculture is difficult and politically sensitive. As the
demand for energy and food continues to grow, tensions surrounding water and energy may escalate.
The Central Asia mountains are crucial to the maintenance of
natural and agricultural global biodiversity, and host at least
20 distinct ecosystems and thousands of species of vascular
plants, many of which are unique to the region. They are home
to globally significant fruit-and-nut forests comprising walnuts,
almonds, pears, apples, cherries and pistachios.
The future we want for the
Central Asia mountains
The mountain regions of the world have much in common, and while the future we want for Central Asia
shares many hopes with other places, what we envision
for Central Asia mountains is specific to that region.
The Central Asia mountain report team recommends the exploration of two ideas that have increasingly become part of the
discussions on sustainable mountain development in the region:
•
•
Where the mountains of Central Asia were once barriers to
trade, they are now becoming important hubs. Tourism, mining
and trade have been gathering momentum and the supporting
infrastructure has developed accordingly. In Central Asia the mix
of traditional skills and modern practices are contributing to the
revival of the ancient Silk Road in the age of globalization.
The mountains of Central Asia provide a profound sense of place,
a source of inspiration and a rich cultural heritage.
The creation of a mountain countries group under the auspices of the United Nations
The exchange of external debt for an equivalent investment
in sustainable development.
Linking strategies for mountain development with broader
agreements on trade, economic development, conflict resolution and resource management may enhance the efforts. International organizations can build on the subregional experience
exchanges by providing assistance at the community level, and
subnational governments may exercise their power to determine
the future of their communities.
Climate change
The lowland countries that are affected by climate change in the
mountains are well advised to account for mountain ecosystems
in their planning. The mountains have a vast potential for carbon
storage through afforestation projects, and sustainable land use
practices will benefit the entire region. Mountain regions have
the opportunity to build water storage facilities that can release
water to downstream regions in drought years.
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Water and energy
Investing in more efficient water use is not only cost-effective
but necessary to avoid conflicts. Small-scale water management
solutions should be promoted. Principles for the pricing of resources and services provided by mountain areas to downstream
regions should be established, tested and introduced in practice.
The potential of hydropower in the mountain countries provides
the opportunity to combine progress on the goals of energy security, climate resiliency and economic development.
Biodiversity
The expansion of protected areas creates a foundation for further biodiversity protection. And new pasture regulations that
combine a scientific approach with economic tools and community participation pave the way for others to adopt sustainable
approaches in livestock herding.
Tourism, mining and trade
Central Asia governments can broaden the opportunities for a
community-based tourism. In the mining sector, governments
need to promote responsible mining and to ensure that the local concerns are aired and respected. The mountain regions of
Central Asia are strategically positioned to create in the heart of
Eurasia rail and road links that would benefit their economies
and raise their regional importance.
Education, institutions and the preservation
of cultural diversity
Governments and other active players should encourage the trend
in the mix of traditional skills and modern practices. Central Asian
universities are now specializing in mountain development issues,
and higher education institutions have an additional opportunity
to focus on the preparation of the next generation of managers
in tourism, mining and infrastructure development. An integrated
approach to sustainable mountain development provides a regional cooperation model that institutions and non-governmental
organizations can follow.
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Contents
1. Setting the stage
Mountain ecosystem goods and services
Key characteristics of the Central Asian mountains
Trends in the Central Asia mountain regions over the past 20 years
Geopolitical Changes
Global Environmental Changes, Globalization and Technology
Security and Tensions
Social Dynamics
Soviet environmental legacies and emerging conditions
Institutions and governance in sustainable mountain development
Monitoring and research
2. Case studies:
Progress, changes and lessons learned
Networks
Food, biodiversity and land management
Climate change and natural disasters
Community-based tourism
Science and education
Integrated approach to mountain development
Lessons learned
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43
51
74
80
89
92
94
98
99
104
113
115
116
120
121
3. Opportunities and the prospects
for a green economy
124
Opportunities associated with the trends
Towards a green economy
Institutions and governance
Calls for action
125
128
129
129
Findings and observations
For the five countries of Central Asia – the Republic of Kazakhstan,
the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
the Republic of Uzbekistan – the sustainable development movement launched in Rio in 1992 has played out in the context of the
1991 collapse of the Soviet Union. The transition from a planned
to a market economy and from totalitarianism to democracy and
independence was a rocky period of geopolitical changes that coincided with rapid technological development and globalization and
a growing awareness of environmental changes related to climate,
biodiversity and land degradation. Regional tensions and conflicts
gave rise to new security requirements. New demographic and labour market realities and changes in the ownership and control of
natural resources created shifting social dynamics.
This report analyses the region’s progress in sustainable mountain
development over the past 20 years, and examines how the forces
and trends affecting Central Asia create both challenges and opportunities for the new countries and their people. The Lucerne
World Mountain Conference in October 2011 issued a call for action for the protection of water supplies, the reduction of poverty
and the unlocking of the economic potential of the mountains of
the world. A summary of how Central Asia is performing against
the Lucerne call for action follows:
•
Compared to other mountain regions, Central Asia lacks experience in mountain governance, but the 2002 Bishkek Global
Mountain Summit, which concluded with the formation of the
Bishkek Mountain Platform, marks a turning point, and provides a strong basis for further improvements.
•
In the energy, mining and tourism sectors, the challenges
regarding the equitable sharing of benefits are substantial,
but so too are the opportunities, and numerous efforts are
underway to unlock the economic potential for the benefit
of all the affected parties.
•
Children of the mountains
References
Acronyms and abbreviations
Glossary
Photo credits
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146
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•
The decentralization that has occurred as part of the transition
to independence has increasingly involved mountain people in
the decision-making that affects their lives and communities.
The region has experienced an impressive growth in the number of Village Organizations and Civil Society Organizations
whose participation has influenced countless decisions.
In many instances of transboundary or highland–lowland
tensions, the political will to resolve mutual problems is missing, but international aid organizations such as the Aga Khan
Foundation and regional institutions such as the Interstate
Commission for Sustainable Development are working on capacity-building and on the generation and exchange of knowledge, expertise and innovation in mountain development.
•
Organic agriculture and small hydropower offer promising
avenues for private sector investment in sustainable development in Central Asia, and the region’s strategic location is a
built-in incentive for private investment in trade and public
investment in the transport infrastructure. Commitments to
mountain development may change with the political winds,
and mountain advocates may find more consistent public
support for their concerns by working to integrate mountain
issues into the Rio conventions and the associated country
plans and programmes.
•
All of the Central Asia countries recognize the vulnerability of
their mountain ecosystems, but the protection of these ecosystems could benefit from linking the strategies for mountain
development with other, broader agreements on trade, economic development, conflict resolution and resource management.
•
The Global Environment Facility supports the preparation of
reports and plans related to the Rio conventions, and funds
projects from the local to the regional level in Central Asia.
The mountains could benefit from more explicit inclusion in
other development projects, and the countries of the region
may want to consider debt exchange – a mechanism that redirects debt repayments to sustainable mountain development.
•
With more than 90 per cent of their national territories considered as mountainous, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are mountain
countries, while Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan –
with smaller mountainous regions – are countries with mountains. The mountain regions of these latter three countries are
no less important, but this report necessarily devotes more
space to the main Central Asian mountain regions, which lie
in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
The findings of this report fall within four broad categories –
people; infrastructure; ecosystems; and institutions, governance
and knowledge. The effects of the forces and trends at work
have been both positive and negative, sometimes both at the
same time, and progress in the mountains of Central Asia can be
characterized as a series of forward and backward steps.
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People in the mountains
(one step forward, two steps back)
Infrastructure in the mountains
(two steps forward, one step back)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Border security concerns have constrained the movement
of goods and people, especially the nomadic people and
those living in or traveling around mountain enclaves.
Public expenditures on education and health are less
than one quarter of the previous (Soviet) levels. The
official literacy rate is high, but the declining quality of
education in mountain countries is becoming an obstacle to sustainable development. Child mortality rates
are falling, but the risk of malaria, tuberculoses, HIV/
AIDS and other diseases remains high.
The rules on ownership rights have relaxed across the
region, and a free and competitive market system has
evolved, but corruption marred the transition.
Tajikistan’s animal husbandry and food production
exceed 1991 levels, and honey production has substantially increased. Kyrgyzstan’s food production has
increased, but its animal husbandry and honey production lag behind previous levels.
Large-scale hydroelectric projects are a drain on national
resources, a source of international tensions and a cause
of resentment among the local communities that may
share the costs, but may never share the benefits.
A reluctance on the part of governments and mining companies to share profits equitably, and a lack
of transparency in decisions, have led to discontent
among groups in the mountains.
Civil war and armed conflict wracked the mountainous regions of Tajikistan for the entire decade of the
1990s. In Kyrgyzstan, violence widened the ethnic
and geographic divides.
Women have become heads of households as a result of
the labour migration of men. In rural areas they are highly
vulnerable to crop failures, heatwaves and cold waves,
droughts and natural disasters.
•
•
•
•
The expansion and improvement of the road system
have increased the accessibility to remote mountain
areas. The increase in the number of people who have
cars has improved mobility and connectivity.
The use of the Internet and mobile technology in mountain countries has grown substantially. Online education
and distance learning are increasingly available options.
Information technologies in the banking sector have
lowered the costs and increased the efficiency of labour remittances.
The quality of traditional hydrometeorological observations and equipment has declined sharply. At the same
time, the usage of automatic hydrometeorological and
environmental monitoring stations has expanded.
Kyrgyzstan enacted economic and structural reforms,
became a World Trade Organization member and allowed access to geologic information to promote development in the mining sector. Tajikistan and some
other countries lag behind.
•
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are working to develop
their large hydropower potential, less than 10 per
cent of which is used.
•
Tourism offers a promising source of alternative livelihoods. Central Asian countries have an opportunity to
further develop winter sports and cultural and health
tourism in their mountain regions.
•
The establishment of a green economy and the further
pursuit of good governance are relevant and necessary
steps for successful sustainable mountain development
in Central Asia. The greening of the energy, agriculture,
forestry, tourism and water sectors will not only provide
environmental safeguards, but also give the countries a
competitive advantage economically and promote the
equitable distribution of social benefits.
Mountain ecosystems
(one step forward, two steps back)
Institutions, governance, knowledge
(one step forward, one step back)
•
The increased use of cars has increased the risks to previously unreachable mountain ecosystems.
•
"Electronic government" systems promote more efficient and decentralized governance, and increase public access to government information and services.
•
Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan have the lowest greenhouse
gas emissions in Central Asia.
•
Mountain countries and provinces are providing better
media access, establishing small local data bases and
issuing environmental reports online, thus expanding
the opportunities for participation in governance.
•
In the last 50–60 years, between 15 per cent and 35 per
cent of the Tien Shan and Pamirs glaciers have melted.
•
The use of woody biomass and dried dung as major
sources of energy, combined with forest cuttings and
the widespread collection of slow-growing shrubs have
diminished mountain biodiversity.
•
Kyrgyzstan passed new laws promoting decentralization and the use of natural resources and energy. The
process reached the village level with the establishment of democratically elected Pasture Committees.
•
Fires and pest attacks on mountain forests due to limited controls and hot, dry weather conditions have destroyed and damaged significant forested areas, especially in Kazakhstan.
•
Mountain-focused NGOs advocate for open processes
of policy formulation and act to bridge any gaps between new legislation and strategies and the realities
in mountain communities.
•
Lake Issyk-Kul fisheries have declined to negligible levels, and previously abundant endemic fish species have
become endangered.
•
In Kyrgyzstan, enforcement efforts could not keep up
with the rapid pace of the new legislation passed to
respond to evolving local needs and ambitions.
•
The enrichment of agricultural biodiversity resulting
from the efforts of Soviet agronomists is threatened by
the pressures to compete in global markets, and the
genetic diversity of the local food base is at risk.
•
Tajikistan continues to rely on a command-and-control
approach to governing. The legislative process is less
transparent and less inclusive.
•
•
The growth in rainfed crop cultivation in the mountain
areas has increased soil erosion on steep slopes.
The 2002 Bishkek Global Mountain Summit generated
momentum for regional cooperation on mountain issues, but the impetus has diminished and the cooperation has been inconsistent.
•
Overgrazing and the collection of bush exposes the
mountain territories to a high risk of desertification.
•
The potential for local conflict over pasture and water
use has increased, but the support of NGOs and improvements in governance have reduced anxieties.
•
The continuing improvement in the efficiency and
effectiveness of institutions will aid in the development of a green economy and in the progress towards good government.
•
Protected areas have doubled in size over the past 20
years, and include buffer zones, corridors and national
parks, but underfunding and inexperience limit the effectiveness of the protection.
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1. Setting the stage
Mountain ecosystem goods
and services
The mountains of Central Asia provide an astonishing array
of essential ecosystem goods and services that serve not only
the mountain inhabitants but also those in the lowlands and
people around the globe. These goods and services, which
fall into three broad categories – provisioning, regulating
and cultural – include forest products and land for food production; watershed protection; habitat for flora and fauna of
local and global significance; the regulation of natural hazards and climate; natural areas for leisure and recreational
activities; and perhaps most important of all, the storage and
release of water. In the Regional Sustainable Development
Strategy of Central Asia (2008), the governments officially
acknowledge the role of mountains as "water towers" and
storehouses of biodiversity.
Sport and tourism
Almost 90 per cent of the population of Central Asia relies on
water that falls in the mountains where it is stored in glaciers
and snow before making its way downstream to population
centres. Densely populated valleys and oases of the vast drylands of Central Asia depend on mountain water transported
by numerous rivers and streams, especially the Syr Darya River,
which arises in the Tien Shan Mountains, and the Amu Darya,
which arises in the Pamirs. Each flows more than 2 000 kilometres to empty into the Aral Sea. Other major regional rivers
originating in the mountains are the Ili, Chu, Talas and Saryjaz.
Overall, Tajikistan holds 40 per cent, and Kyrgyzstan 30 per
cent, of the water resources serving the five Central Asia
countries. These water resources also serve China and Russia.
Uzbekistan, with the largest population in the region, is the
biggest water consumer, in large part because of an economy
based on irrigated agriculture. With 90 per cent of their water
resources coming from mountains located outside their country
borders, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, are highly vulnerable
to water shortages, especially the downstream communities.
Weather formation, climate regulation
Sense of place,
spiritual value,
inspiration
Indicators of
global changes,
decomposition,
weathering
Recreation,
health services,
mineral water
T
he Preamble to Agenda 21, the comprehensive
programme for global action on sustainable development adopted by the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro, begins with a simple statement: “Humanity stands at a defining moment in history.”
The same might have been said in a different context the previous year when the Soviet Union collapsed. For the people
of Central Asia, the transition to independence has coincided
with the global sustainable development movement, and as
the new countries of Central Asia have increasingly engaged
with the wider world, the ideas of sustainable development
have helped shape progress in the region.
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Water storage
Hazard regulation,
carbon storage,
soil formation,
watershed protection
Diverse mountain ranges described by the early Persians as the
“Roof of the World” and by the Chinese as the “Heavenly Mountains” have always played a pivotal role in this vast area comprising five countries – the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Kyrgyz Republic, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and the Republic of
Uzbekistan. Agenda 21 recognizes the mountain environment as
nothing less than “vitally necessary for the survival of mankind.” In
2002, the halfway point between Rio and Rio+20, the International
Year of Mountains culminated with the Global Mountain Summit
in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. The Bishkek Summit coincided with an economic upturn in Central Asia, and marks an important moment in
sustainable mountain development in the region.
Diversity of habitats,
unique flora and fauna
Pollination, purification
Au
Genetic resources,
wild fruit-nut forests
Mineral resources
Natural pastures
Traditional knowledge
and products
Food products, crops
Water supply
Hydropower potential
13
Zeravshan glacier melting due to
climate warming (TAJIKISTAN)
2010
1991
1927
2.5 km
Source: Tajikhydromet
Background image is based on the digital elevation model adapted from Google Earth
Paxtakor
3 000 m
2 000
1 000
500
Gijdduvon
Bukhara
200
Qorakol
Farap Amu Darya
Turkmenabat
Kogon
Navoiy
Jizzax
Zarafshan
Katta-Kurgan
Nurobod
Dashtobod
U Z B E K I S T A N
Istaravshan
Global warming is slowly decimating mountain glaciers, affecting snow reserves and at the same time increasing the water
requirements of basic agricultural crops. A relatively large Zeravshan glacier in Tajikistan – a source of water for half a million hectares of irrigated lands and densely populated ancient
Suljukta
KYRGYZSTAN
Bulungur
Zarafshan
Urgut Pandjakent
Ajni
Shahrisabz
Konibodom
Syr Darya Isfara
Chelak
Samarkand
Khujand
Yangiyer Bekobod
T A J I K I S T A N
0
25
50
75
100 km
Map produced by Zoï Environment Network, November 2010
oases of Samarkand and Bukhara in Uzbekistan – retreated by
2.5 kilometres between 1927 and 2010. A projected reduction
in the Amu Darya river runoff – the expected effect of climate
change in the Pamirs over the next 20 to 40 years – can only
make matters worse.
Zeravshan Glacier, Tajikistan
14
15
40
30
20
Talgar
0
100
Almaty
10 km
Qaskelerg
4979
2000
K A Z A K H S T A N
Pik Talgar
0
t a u
A l a 4000
i
l
- I
n s
a
Korday KAZAKHSTAN
T r
300
10 km
100
00
20
4886
o r
i s3000
K y r g y z
70
60
Bajgiran
n g e
R a
KAZAKHSTAN
50
40
T A J I K I S T A N
30
2500
4065
Chukurydara
10 km
Hisor
Parkent
Chatkal
Mountains
2500
al
10 km
Rohati
rnihon
Kofa
Vahdat
20
30
40
50
UZBEKISTAN
Toytepa
Boka
KYR
Katta Chimgan
Chirchiq
0
50
Shahrinav
Dushanbe
Saryaghash
Tashkent
Varzob
20
0
200
Ghazalkent 3309
2000
gTakfon
Gaznok
1000
u
t a
a
l
A
3555
Baba-i Togh
0
a
00
25
Pik Zapadnyy Alamedin
0
D
Big Ganza
1500
1500
KYRGYZSTAN
4875
t
5306
H
500
150
e
10km
1000
Annau
0
1500
2000
25
00
20
Belovodskoe
Ashgabat
20
30
K Y RBishkek
G Y Z S T A NIvanovka
100
30
40
0
The main drivers of change in the extent and quality of Central
Asian mountain ecosystems and their services since the 1950s
have been population growth (and associated increasing consumption of natural resources and energy); agricultural developments; changes in land use; industrialization (and associated
ecosystem fragmentation, over-exploitation and pollution); and,
increasingly, the effects of global warming. During the last two
decades, a continuation or augmentation of these drivers in
combination with political, economic and social changes has
rendered development unsustainable in some areas. At the
same time, new opportunities and initiatives for sound natural
resource management and conservation have developed and
counter-balanced some of the negative trends.
Chemolgan
Esik
Shu
Abadan
50
16
The challenges to the continuing capacity of mountain environments to deliver their ecosystem goods and services come
from natural hazards and disasters, from climate change and
its effects on mountain ecosystems and from the competing
uses of the resources. The management of risks entails the
balancing of interests – highland and lowland; agricultural
and industrial; local, national and regional; and economic,
educational and cultural.
Boralday
Kant
p
Mountain forests provide invaluable watershed protection and
erosion control, and contribute to the regulation of water resources by decreasing or smoothing runoff – with a corresponding decrease in erosion – and by retaining groundwater. They
also provide mountain people with a rich source of the fuel
wood essential to the heating of living spaces, the cooking of
food and the purification of drinking water, and with timber
and other forest products such as wild fruits, nuts and medicinal plants for subsistence or trade. A relic species of Tien Shan
spruce forms a unique and spectacular forest belt in the Tien
Shan Mountains. Juniper woodlands of the Gissar and PamirAlai Mountains may be 1 000 years old.
The rich and diverse cultures of Central Asia and the strong
sense of place in the mountains attract visitors from around
the world, and tourism offers an additional income source
for mountain communities.
600
Main cities and mountains
o
Mountain forests and shrublands in Central Asia cover almost
five million hectares, including 2.5 million hectares of coniferous
forests, and more than 350 000 hectares of globally significant
fruit-and-nut forests comprising walnuts, almonds, pears, apples, cherries and pistachios.
Mountains provide a profound sense of place, a source of inspiration and a rich cultural heritage. The degree of cultural
diversity varies among the mountain regions of the world. In a
manner reminiscent of Switzerland, people in isolated mountain areas of Central Asia, especially in the Pamirs, differ significantly from those in the main valleys, and communities tend
to develop distinctive cultural identities and languages. In the
Soviet period, however, mountain minorities were integrated
with the "mainland" and partly lost their specificity. Before
the era of industrialization and urbanization, spirituality was
also common in mountain communities of Central Asia, where
people regarded the mountains as living forces and sources of
power or symbols of the sacred.
For residents of the largest Central Asian cities – Tashkent, Almaty, Bishkek, Dushanbe and Ashgabat – mountains provide fresh air and the breezes that disperse urban air pollution. Mountains and their refreshing lakes
and white-water streams are among the most popular
weekend destinations for urban residents. In addition
to picnics, hiking or skiing in beautiful unspoiled highlands, the key mountain attractions include geothermal
sources and spas, kumis horse milk therapy and the
sampling of diverse mountain honeys, local herbal teas
and traditional products.
K
The Central Asia mountains host at least 20 distinct ecosystems
and 4 500–5 500 species of vascular plants, almost one quarter
of which are unique (endemic) to the region. At lower altitudes
and in the foothills, dryland ecosystems prevail. At higher altitudes, grasslands, shrubs and forests are widespread. Meadows and tundra-like ecosystems are found on high mountain
plateaus. Globally endangered species resident in the mountains include the snow leopard (with more than half of global
population) and the Marco Polo sheep. The numbers of these
species have declined, however, as a result of poaching, hunting and the depletion of the food base. The high biodiversity
richness and endemism of flora and fauna of the mountains
of Central Asia is exemplified by the fact that the number of
vascular plant species found in the Pamir-Alai or the Tien Shan
Mountains is four times higher than that of the nearby lowland
Karakum Desert, which has twice the area.
In addition to reducing erosion, mountain forests also protect
communities and transport infrastructure from natural hazards
by preventing, or reducing the impact of, such events as landslides, flash floods and avalanches. And while mountains are
vulnerable to the effects of climate change, they also play an
important role in modulating the climate across wide areas, and
are important reservoirs for the storage of carbon.
Ch
at k
Mountain regions are crucial to the maintenance of the natural
and agricultural global biodiversity. The vertical distribution of
natural species by elevation results in a wide range of species
and ecosystems spread over a relatively small surface area. Endemic species find homes in isolated islands of mountain habitat with characteristics conducive to unique life forms and varieties. The region is famous for harbouring genetic resources
of the wild species of several domesticated plants and animals
such as wheat, apples, almonds, walnuts and pistachios, as
well as horses, goats and yaks.
Angren
Ahangaran
Olmaliq
TAJ
17
Key characteristics of the
Central Asian mountains
Main mountain regions of Central Asia
Proportion of mountain area by country
Altai
K A Z A K H S T A N
Kazakh
uplands
Tarbagatai
Djungar Alatoo
UZBEKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN
Kopet Dag
I R A N
Nuratau
Tien-Shan
KYRGYZSTAN
CHINA
Alai
Gissar TAJIKISTAN Pamirs
Kugitang
Karakorum
Hindu Kush
PAKISTAN
Himalaya
AFGHANISTAN
INDIA
The landscape of Central Asia is characterized by dramatic
peaks, high mountain plateaus, deep valleys, massive glaciers,
steppes and vast desert plains. Two of Asia’s major mountain ranges – the Pamirs in Tajikistan and the Tien Shan in
Kyrgyzstan – make those countries the most mountainous in
the region, with an average elevation of about 3 000 metres
above sea level, peaks exceeding 7 000 metres and more than
90 per cent of their national territories considered as mountainous. In addition to being more mountainous, Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan are less developed and less economically advanced than the other three Central Asian countries. At the
same time, these countries often label their mountain territories as the Alps or the Switzerland of Central Asia.
Mountain ecosystems also cover parts of Eastern Kazakhstan
(Kazakh uplands, Djungar Alatoo, Tarbagatai and Altai), southeast Uzbekistan (Western Tien Shan and Gissar) and Turkmenistan (Kopet-Dag and Kugitang), and extend into Afghanistan
(Hindu Kush) and China (Eastern Tien Shan and Pamir). Mountains comprise 20 per cent of the area of Uzbekistan, 10 per
cent of Kazakhstan and 5 per cent of Turkmenistan, but the
natural resource programmes in these countries nevertheless
tend to highlight the role of mountains in specific geographic
areas, and to focus on mountain biodiversity treasures. Overall, mountains cover 800 000 square kilometres or 20 per cent
of the total area of Central Asia.
18
10%
Kazakhstan
20%
Uzbekistan
5%
Turkmenistan
90%
Kyrgyzstan
93%
Tajikistan
The Tien Shan Mountains, one of the most extensive mountain
systems of Central Asia, cover all of Kyrgyzstan and extend into
Kazakhstan and the Chinese province of Xinjiang. The highest
peak of the Tien Shan is Jengish Chokusu, or Victory Peak, which
stands at 7 439 metres. In south-eastern Kazakhstan, the picturesque Djungar Alatoo Mountains, together with the Tien Shan,
form a 400 kilometre-long natural border with China.
Mountain village, Tajikistan
The 300 kilometre-long and 170 kilometre-wide Ferghana Valley
separates the Tien Shan from the Pamir Mountains, and extends
into Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. It is the most densely
populated and ethnically diverse region of Central Asia, with an
average population density of 350 persons per square kilometre.
Some districts exceed 1 000 persons per square kilometre, and
in 2010 the total population in the valley and nearby mountains
exceeded 12 million.
The Pamir Mountains join the Tien Shan in Kyrgyzstan in the
north and the Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan and Pakistan in the south, and contain some of world’s highest peaks
including the Conger, which rises to 7 719 metres in China, and
Somoni Peak, at 7 495 metres in central Tajikistan. The Eastern
Pamir are dominated by high plateaus (above 3 000 metres) and
host nomadic populations of Kyrgyz origin, while the Western
Pamir are carved by rapid mountain rivers, with deep valleys,
spectacular gorges and traditional settlements nestled on alluvial fans. Eighteen distinct ethnic groups are known to occupy
this culturally diverse region, and the 200 000 people living there
depend largely on subsistence farming and international aid.
Yurts at sunset, Kyrgyzstan
19
ha
Pamir and Tien Shan
0
Ba
3000
100
4000
5000
200
300 km
Karakum Can
Baharly
Taldykorgan
Gokdepe
Z
A
K
H
S
T
A
N
Magtymguly
u
Kazakhstan
Kapchagay Lake
Almaty
as
Tal
a
ary
rD
Bishkek
Ysyk-Kol
Shymkent
Na
r yn
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Tashkent
T
i
h
S
n
a
Uzbekistan
Maraveh
Tappeh
Iran
Aksu
5982
Dankova Peak
n He
Hota
Namangan
Ferghana Valley
Kokand
UZBEKISTAN
Jizakh
Piramida Peak
Pa
nj
Dushanbe
Vakh
sh
7134
Lenin Peak
TAJIKISTAN
Mazar-e Sharif
A F G H A N I S T A N
C
H
I
N
A
T a k l a m a k a n
7719
Kongur Shan
7495
Ismoil Somoni Peak
6974
Independence
Peak
Hotan
P a m i r
Termiz
Amu
Darya
7282
PAKISTAN
Glaciers cover 4 per cent of Kyrgyzstan and 6 per cent of
Tajikistan. They are also present in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. In total they cover an area of 12 000–14 000 square kilometres within Central Asia and about 20 000 square kilometres
if the glaciers within China's territory are included. The glaciers
contain frozen water reserves of about 1 000 cubic kilometres
– the equivalent of 10 years of water flowing down the Amu
Darya and Syr Darya Rivers. Melt water from snow, glaciers
and permafrost supplies about 80 per cent of the total river
20
He
Kashgar
5509
Samarkand
Karshi
Osh
Ferghana
Yarka
nt
Navoiy
Kujand
Disthegil Sar
7885
7788
Rakaposhi
o
e
p
A tre k
Bojnurd
I
R
Turkmenistan
7439
Jengish (Pobeda)
Peak
n
e
K
D
t
Shirvan
Talgar Peak
4979
Sy
Taraz
Kaka
Dushak
Kalat-e Naderi
Ch
Turkestan
Lotfabad
Ghulja
Ili
Qyzylorda
A
al
Ashgabat
Abadan
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, November 2011
K
Teje
n
T U R K M E N I S T A N
500 1000 1500 2000
e
2000
Lak
1000
Tejen
Altitude in metres
lk
Altitude in metres
Kopet Dag
sh
Muztag
8611
K2
Quchan
A
a
g
Radkan
N
Kashaf
Chakaneh Sofli
Mashad
0
Afghanistan
millimetres average annual precipitation, mainly in winter
and spring). Many high mountains consist of barren ground,
glaciers and other environments inhospitable to humans, but
home to wild animals such as the Marco Polo sheep and the
snow leopard. Mountains with more favorable climatic conditions possess fine grasslands and forests.
The Nuratau, Chatkal and Gissar-Turkestan mountain ranges
of Uzbekistan are covered by protected areas, feature wellpreserved juniper forests and are important sources of water
for downstream cities and oases.
Kazakh uplands stretch for more than 1 000 kilometres from
west to east and feature numerous hills and mountains up to 1
500 metres above sea level. Several rivers of central Kazakhstan,
including the Ishim, Nura, Sarysu, Silety and others, originate
here. Numerous salty and freshwater lakes dot the uplands.
The Kopet-Dag, also known as the Turkmen-Khorasan Mountain Range, run along the border of Turkmenistan and the Islamic Republic of Iran, a region characterized by foothills, dry
and sandy slopes, mountain plateaus and steep ravines. The
highest Kopet-Dag peak in Turkmenistan stands southwest of
the capital, Ashgabat, at 2 940 meters. The country's highest
25
50
75
100 km
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, October 2011
elevation is 3 137 metres in the Kugitang range. Turkmen
mountains are famous for their deep and spectacular caves
and dinosaur footprints.
Arable lands occupy less than 0.5 per cent of the total area in
the Tajik Pamirs, and pastures another 12.0 per cent. In the
Tien Shan Mountains of Kyrgyzstan, the proportion of pastures and arable lands is higher. Only half of Kyrgyzstan's
land area and less than one third of Tajikistan's land area
is suitable for agriculture, mainly for grazing. Croplands and
gardens occupy less than 7 and 5 per cent of their land areas,
respectively. Other lands are considered not suitable for agriculture due to harsh climate, poor soils, the predominance of
rocks and glaciers. Nevertheless, a majority of the mountain
communities of Central Asia practice agriculture – principally
cultivating cereals and vegetables, gardening, collecting forest products and extensive livestock grazing on a wide range
of pastures. Tourism, mining and trade form important economic sectors that have been gathering momentum in the
mountain regions over the past 20 years. Infrastructure development has likewise experienced growth. All of these activities contribute to the revival of the ancient Silk Road in the
modern age of globalization.
runoff in Central Asia. Glaciers are crucial to the agricultural
economy of the region. They produce water in the hottest and
driest period of the year and compensate for low precipitation.
The Tien Shan and the Pamirs feature contrasting climates
from harsh and dry in the interior and in the eastern corners (below zero annual surface temperatures; 150–300 millimetres average annual precipitation, mainly in summer) to
more humid and temperate in the western parts (1 000–1 500
21
100
200
300 km
ha
0
sh
Lak
e
Ba
lk
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
A
Z
A
K
H
S
T
A
N
Ghulja
Ili
K
Qyzylorda
Taldykorgan
Ch
u
Kapchagay Lake
Almaty
Sy
Talgar Peak
4979
Talas
Karakol
Bishkek
Taraz
Ysyk-Kol
Balykchy
Talas
Shymkent
Toktogul
Na
r yn
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Tashkent
Ferghana
5982
Dankova Peak
Osh
Batken
Skalisty Peak
Kashgar
Lenin Peak
Panjakent
TAJIKISTAN
Vakh
sh
Pa
nj
Dushanbe
Kulob
Qurghonteppa
Yarka
nt
7134
5621
Denov
Aksu
Khujand
Samarkand
Karshi
n
e
n He
Hota
Navoiy
i
7495
Ismoil Somoni Peak
6974
Independence
Peak
ya
Mazar-e Sharif
H
I
N
A
T a k l a m a k a n
Murghab
Hotan
P a m i r
Khorog
7282
Kunduz
A F G H A N I S T A N
PAKISTAN
Disthegil Sar
7885
7788
Rakaposhi
Muztag
8611
Population density
Inhabitants per km²
50
5
C
7719
Kongur Shan
Termiz
Amu
Dar
7439
Jengish (Pobeda)
Peak
Ferghana Valley
Kokand
Jizakh
T
n
a
Namangan
Angren
UZBEKISTAN
Naryn
h
S
He
a
ary
rD
Turkestan
K2
Girls dancing in Tajikistan
Major densely populated areas nearby mountains
Populated areas above 2000 metres
Populated areas above 600 metres
Populated areas below 600 metres
Source: LandScan Global Population Database 2007, Oak Ridge, TN, Oak Ridge National Laboratory (→ www.ornl.gov/sci/landscan)
22
23
Somoni Peak, 7 495 m, Tajikistan
24
25
Gissar Mountains, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan
26
27
Konortchek Canyon, Kyrgyzstan
28
29
Forest in the Pamirs - Hindu Kush Mountains
30
31
Lake Sarez, Tajikistan
32
33
Lake Kuli-Kalon, Fann Mountains, Tajikistan
34
35
Lake Sarychalek, Kyrgyzstan
36
37
Surkhob Valley and Jirgital
38
39
Savnob village in the Pamirs
40
41
Trends in the Central Asia mountain
regions over the past 20 years
R U S S I A
Astana
K A Z A K H S T A N
AZR
Baku
Teheran
Bishkek
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN
UZBEKISTAN
Dushanbe
TURKMENISTAN
TAJIKISTAN
Ashgabat
I R A N
AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
C H I NA
INDIA
To the people of the Central Asian mountain communities,
the array of forces affecting their lives must seem at times as
diverse and powerful as the mountains themselves. As a result of geopolitical forces, five new countries faced the transition to independence and national governance and all that
that implies. The 20-year transition period coincided with a
period of rapid technological development and globalization
and a growing awareness of global environmental changes
related to climate, biodiversity and land degradation. New
requirements for security arose out of international and regional conflicts over governance, ethnic differences and resources. Socio-economic forces added to the mix as new demographic and labour market realities emerged, and changes
in the ownership and control of land and other vital natural
resources took effect. And all of this played out in the context
of the environmental degradation and the limited capacity to
respond that were the legacies of the former Soviet Union.
All of the changes resulting from these forces affect mountain
communities. And everything, it seems, is connected. One example can demonstrate the point: Global climate change affects glaciers, precipitation patterns and the timing of snowmelt. The water resource consequences may entail disruptions
in allocations and affect multiple users. This situation raises
the issues of resource distribution and ownership, and poses
challenges to governance and, in some cases, international relations. Water resource allocation decisions have implications
for individual livelihoods and economic development in such
sectors as tourism, energy production and agriculture. Competing demands may exacerbate urban–rural conflicts or conflicts
over scarce natural resources.
The following subsections identify the trends at work in Central
Asia, and make links among them. But as the climate change
example shows, the connections are numerous, and any attempt to exhaust the possible permutations would be futile.
Some of these trends will likely continue or intensify while others may fade. The effects of the trends are both positive and
negative, sometimes both at the same time, and progress in
the mountains can be characterized as a series of forward and
backward steps. Policymakers and stakeholders can decide for
themselves the lessons to take from the events of the past 20
years as they try to adjust to the driving forces in order to maximize the benefits for mountain communities.
Arguably, the mountain communities of Central Asia are
more sensitive to social, political and environmental changes than are lowland communities, and while they remain
marginalized and remote, their self-reliance and resilience
may help them seize the opportunities that changes bring.
By becoming more proactive and communicating their views
widely, and by learning from each other, mountain communities may be able to ride the wave of change to a more
stable, prosperous and sustainable future.
Geopolitical Changes
Independence and the transition
to national governance
Situated between the Russian Federation, Iran, Afghanistan
and China, Central Asia was a unified area under the Soviet
Union with a common heritage in terms of language (Russian in
combination with national languages), culture, education and
infrastructure, and with unified energy, water, agricultural and
industrial systems and road connections.
Following the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991, all the
former Soviet Republics of Central Asia declared their national
independence, thus ushering in a new political era characterized by diverse systems of national governance, inherited and
emerging economic development bases and differing strategic
visions. The task of political and economic transformation fell
mostly on the same authorities who had been Communist party
leaders and members. In 2011, all the Central Asian nations celebrated 20 years of national independence – a shared historical
milestone. At the same time, they continue to develop at very
different speeds along increasingly different paths.
Prior to 1992 the newly independent Central Asian nations had no
experience with democratic governance or market economies. The
energy-rich and industrialized countries – Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan
and Turkmenistan – enjoyed large capital inflows into energy and
industrial projects and invested new profits in the housing sector
and infrastructure development, especially the expansion and rebuilding of the capital cities of Astana, Tashkent and Ashgabat.
The withdrawal of Soviet support hit remote mountain communities in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan particularly hard, and a downward
development spiral continued from 1991 into the late 1990s. For
Geopolitical transition
SOVIETUNION
Financial dependency on Moscow has been steadily declining, but
Russia still plays an important role in the economies of Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan both directly – through the provision of loans and
funding for infrastructure and industrial projects – and indirectly
through opening its markets for labour migrants and traditional
agricultural products (wool, cotton, fruits and vegetables). Under the Soviet agricultural system, orders from central authorities determined agricultural specialties and crop patterns. After
a period of disruption that included undernourishment in mountain villages, a new system of self-management took root, and
in the last 5–10 years the mountain farmers have become more
self-reliant. The Kyrgyz and Tajik economies have been growing over the last 10 years as a result of increased agricultural
production, expansion of services and trade, favourable world
markets for gold and aluminum and soaring remittances from labour migrants abroad. Reducing dependency on the state, catalysing initiative and promoting an entrepreneurial spirit entailed
a major change in the mentality for both people and institutions .
A period of regional and global cooperation followed the post-Soviet era with Central Asian governments demonstrating a general
K A Z A K H S TA N
UZBEKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN
42
most of the 1990s, turbulent changes rocked the densely populated
areas and spread to the mountain villages of Central Asia where
economic collapse and the loss of job opportunities followed the
end of orders and subsidies from the Soviet government. Gross national products fell in just five years by almost 50 per cent, and the
new states were unable to maintain funding for such priority needs
as education, health and pensions. Only after 15 years of recovery
have the economies approached their 1991–1992 levels, but the
countries’ total external debt has increased. By end of 2011, the
external public debt exceeded US$ 2.7 billion in Kyrgyzstan and
US$ 2.2 billion in Tajikistan. The peak of the public debt servicing is
forecast for 2015–2020 when in addition to the interest on loans the
countries will have to repay the principle.
KYRGYZSTAN
TAJIKISTAN
K A Z A K H S TA N
KYRGYZSTAN
UZBEKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN
TAJIKISTAN
1990/1991
1991/1992
2012
The end of the Soviet era
The beginning of the independence era
Increasing fragmentation and border barriers
43
Gross National Income per person
willingness to cultivate closer relationships between each other and
with their regional neighbours and global players. Participation in
the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation
in Europe (OSCE), the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO),
the Eurasian Economic Community (EurAsEC), the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and the International Foundation for Saving the Aral Sea (IFAS) are some examples of this
wider cooperation, as is the progress toward World Trade Organization (WTO) membership. In Central Asia only Kyrgyzstan
is a WTO member, joining in 1998. Through the initiative of Kyrgyzstan, the UN declared the International Year of Mountains
in 2002 and supported the Bishkek Global Mountain Summit in
2002, and through the initiative of Tajikistan, the International
Year of Freshwater in 2003.
Uzbekistan, of all the Central Asian States, has retained a system
of central planning and management most like the Soviet style.
Strong political and economic control is still a dominant characteristic of the country, and the Uzbek government is striving
to increase levels of international trade and aiming to become
the regional leader in terms of population and agricultural and
industrial production capacity, much like in the Soviet era.
Kazakhstan has similar aspirations. A country rich in oil, gas
and mineral reserves, Kazakhstan has experienced an influx of
foreign investment leading to a rapid rise in wealth that has
brought both challenges and new opportunities. As the bridge
between Europe and Asia, Kazakhstan is also working hard to
raise the standing and prestige of the country on the international stage by chairing the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe in 2010, and by hosting events such as the
2011 Asian Winter Games, the 2010 Asia-Pacific and the 2011
Pan-European Environmental Conferences and other high-level
business and political meetings. Kazakhstan has recently put
forward a "Green Bridge" environmental initiative which will be
featured at the Rio Summit in 2012. In addition, the ambitious
strategic development plan, "Kazakhstan 2020", sets major economic and social targets for the country.
Turkmenistan’s abundant hydrocarbon resources are fuelling
the country's rapid economic growth and the modernization of
its economy, particularly in the textile, food and construction
industries. The state controls strategic farming sectors such as
cotton and wheat production, but private farmers grow most of
the fruits and vegetables, and manage the livestock. The government provides free electricity, natural gas, water and subsidies
for many services and consumer products, but political and media freedoms and civil society participation in decision-making in
Turkmenistan are tightly regulated.
44
Following the breakup of the Soviet Union all of the countries in
Central Asia experienced a period of upheaval in the transition
to market economies, but Kyrgyzstan is the only one to experience three periods of major political change: the demise of the
government of President Askar Akaev in 2005; the demise of the
government of President Kurmanbek Bakiev in 2010; and the
establishment of a parliamentary democracy with the President
having fewer powers than the Prime Minister and the National
Parliament. Arguably, the demand for change that fuelled the
“tulip revolution" in Kyrgyzstan started in the Naryn and Talas mountains, where the people saw a role for themselves in
decision-making at the individual, village and country levels. The
open spirit that exists in the mountains provided an environment where the people felt free to express their ideas for reform,
and the small population and its remoteness from urban centres meant that central government exerted little influence on
mountain affairs. The rapid economic changes, including growing energy tariffs without adequate social safeguards for the impoverished mountain areas, and the widespread corruption of
the central and provincial authorities further fuelled the uprising.
The benefits of political reform in Kyrgyzstan have come at a
cost – dozens of lives were lost, and in the absence of political
stability, mountain initiatives languished and investors looked
for opportunities in countries with more stable regimes.
At present, some observers point out that Kyrgyzstan is more
democratically advanced ("liberal") and decentralized than its
neighbours. Political parties play a role in the parliament and government, and local and provincial authorities have the autonomy
necessary to conduct their own affairs. Government ministries
are required to consult with public advisory councils, which include representatives of youth, non-governmental organizations,
well-known experts, citizens and representatives from the private
sector. These councils provide information to the ministries regarding government services and their participation may improve
efficiency and increase accountability. Under the new system and
the governing legislation, mountain communities can assert their
preference that taxes raised on mining operations directly benefit,
at least in part, the local communities.
Strict and effective enforcement of the central government prerogatives was a hallmark of the Soviet system, but the transition
to independence came with an exodus from the new Central
Asian republics of the European settlers (Russian, Ukrainians,
Germans and others) who had managed the enforcement bureaucracy and chiefly guided industrialization. This loss of experienced managers and engineers led to some initial problems
with both enforcement and engineering skills, but as new national managers and specialists gained experience, the situation
Current U.S. dollars per capita, thousand
9
8
7
6
5
4
Kazakhstan
3
Turkmenistan
2
Kyrgyzstan
Uzbekistan
1
Tajikistan
0
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Source: World Development Indicators (data.worldbank.org/indicator)
began to stabilize. In Kyrgyzstan, the shortage of skills and money
combined with major political shakeups meant that enforcement
efforts could not keep up with the rapid pace of the new legislation passed to respond to evolving local needs and ambitions. One
effect of this diminished enforcement capacity was that authorities, businesses and communities had difficulty keeping up with
all the changes. As part of their expanding role, NGOs now initiate
legislation and actively encourage enforcement of environmental
laws on such matters as pastures, mining, forests, energy efficiency and environmental audits, among others.
Tajikistan, in contrast, continues to rely on a system with an authoritarian approach to governing. Government and legislation are less
transparent and less inclusive, with limited practical mechanisms
for accepting feedback. Decentralization and self-governance in
Tajikistan is not as advanced as in Kyrgyzstan, but stronger control
and less diverse legislation make enforcement easier to manage.
The village councils that existed in the early 1990s were inher-
ited from the Soviet era. With little experience in strategic management, these councils found their responsibilities in the new
political and economic realities to be challenging. As the decade progressed, the village organizations evolved into stronger,
though still informal, bodies for local decision-making on routine
and strategic matters, and for planning village development. By
the turn of the century, village organizations had demonstrated
their efficiency and effectiveness, and were becoming well established, especially in the Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. They
are now self-reliant and independent, and enjoy widespread
support as they face the challenge of maintaining and improving the management skills necessary to respond to the rapidly
changing world around them.
45
ha
lk
Ba
e
Lak
Taldykorgan
Restricted access to the Pamirs
Risk of insecurity
Enclaves
K
Land transfers to China*
Ch
100
200
Z
A
K
H
S
Almaty
Bishkek
Talas
Toktogul
Na
r yn
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Tashkent
Panjakent
Sarvan (TAJ)
Karshi
Pa
nj
Dushanbe
Denov
T
Kulob
Qurghonteppa
i
n
e
Aksu
5982
Dankova Peak
7495
Ismoil Somoni Peak
6974
Independence
Peak
P a m i r
Kashgar
2011 from Tajikistan
to China
Murghab
A F G H A N I S T A N
no detailed geographic information
C
H
I
N
A
T a k l a m a k a n
Hotan
Khorog
7282
ya
Mazar-e Sharif
1998 and 2002 from
Kyrgyzstan to China
7719
Kongur Shan
Termiz
Amu
Dar
7439
Jengish (Pobeda)
Peak
Namangan
Ferghana Valley
Barak (KYR)
Kokand
Ferghana
Osh
N KhujandChong-Kara (UZB)
Jangy-ayyl (UZB)
Shakhimardan (UZB)
Batken
Kairagach (TAJ)
Sokh (UZB)
Vorukh (TAJ)
7134
5509
Piramida Peak
Lenin Peak
TAJIKISTAN
Naryn
h
S
n
Tengri
a Khan7010
n He
Hota
Samarkand
Ysyk-Kol
Balykchy
Shymkent
Navoiy
Talgar Peak
4979
Karakol
Taraz
Angren
Ghulja
N
Kapchagay Lake
300 km
Turkestan
UZBEKISTA
A
u
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
Jizakh
T
He
0
A
Yarka
nt
Qyzylorda
One of the most problematic regions is the Ferghana Valley
shared by Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, where people historically traded broadly across borders. With the new
restrictions, opportunities for local trade and labour markets
have significantly declined, while at the same time corruption
has flourished due to a growing shadow economy and illegal
trade. Additionally, episodes of shelling of civilians by the border
guards caused a wave of local public indignation.
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia continued for some
time to protect the border with Afghanistan with the same level of
guards and military presence as before, but gradually reduced its
presence and military assistance. The richer lowland countries with
gentle landscapes have been able to maintain a reasonably high
level of border security, but the rugged mountainous landscape and
limited financial and military resources of Tajikistan have meant that
border protection between the Tajik Pamirs and the Afghan Hindu
Kush remains a continuing challenge. Inadequate control in the
mountain regions of the Tajik–Afghan border has led to increased
security risks including the intrusion of armed troops and the trafficking in drugs. Joint efforts by the Afghan International Security
Assistance Force (ISAF) and the Collective Security Treaty Organization have improved border security, but drug trafficking remains a
destabilizing force in the mountain territories.
Land exchange between
Kazakhstan and China
Ili
46
Fortified borders
* Land transfers to China; currently being discussed and formalised
Physical borders – fences and trenches, for example – restrict the
movements of migratory animals, and may adversely affect the populations of some species as their migration patterns are disrupted.
Conversely, where there are no physical borders, stock from one
country may follow old grazing patterns that take them across the
new borders into another country where they may be appropriated
never to return to their owners. In places where border control is
strict, the formerly common economic space, including agricultural
land, is now divided, and one of the benefits has been the reduced
pressure on pastures that no longer receive stock from what is now
another country. In addition, many watersheds once held in common have become international, and what was once a matter for
one country has become much more administratively complicated.
sh
as
Tal
The increase in the number of borders has created a competitive disadvantage for the mountain countries in terms of international trade in perishable goods. Each border crossing entails
customs clearances, adding time in transit, and the additional
time – to say nothing of the costs – is particularly a problem in
the export of fresh food where time is of the essence. The mountain countries are more affected because they face more border
crossings to get their produce to foreign markets. Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan share borders with China, and could avoid the
multiple border problem with exports to the Chinese, but China
is not recipient of Central Asian produce.
New borders after 1991
a
In some cases the new borders have resulted in increased travel time.
Prior to independence, if the direct route between travelers’ points
of origin and their destinations crossed the borders of Soviet republics, the travelers could pass as if no border existed. Now, where
international crossings are restricted, the same trips may entail long
detours to avoid the borders. For poorer mountain countries and
communities this change is more than an inconvenience. The new
routes require expensive improvements in the existing road system
or the construction of the new roads and tunnels, an economic burden the countries can ill afford. The longer distances simultaneously
add to travel time and expense and reduce efficiency.
Soviet border until 1991
ary
rD
The creation of new borders has also altered the ownership status
of previously shared pastures, forests and watersheds. Moreover,
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have given up parts of their mountain
territories to China to settle border disputes, much to the consternation of the affected communities. As a result, some mountain
dwellers have had to relocate – some to lowland areas – and settle in new conditions that do not meet their previous standards.
Negotiations continue over some areas still in dispute including
unmarked borders from the Soviet era.
Borders
Sy
The revision of national boundaries following the emergence of
the independent states of Central Asia created new international
border entry points, and the opening up of airspace increased
the scope for international flights and international tourism. The
visually apparent definition of borders became a top priority after independence, and with the new political landscape came
more border restrictions – customs, immigration and security
checkpoints. Security concerns led to an increase in defensive
or fortified installations such as fences, trenches and even areas with land mines. These developments have constrained the
movement of goods and people, especially the nomadic mountain people who have traditionally moved both vertically and
horizontally through the mountains of the region.
Mountain enclaves – essentially islands of one country inside another – first appeared on maps in the Soviet period, and existed
only on paper. No one paid any attention to these borders, but
they persist as a Soviet legacy, and are making an already difficult life harder. With the advent of border fences and land mines,
these isolated communities have become even more isolated. The
restricted access also affects movement in the surrounding country
as travel within national boundaries now entails detours around
the mountain enclaves.
Vakh
sh
New international borders
PAKISTAN
These challenges to border security notwithstanding, Tajikistan and
Afghanistan can celebrate the development of friendship bridges
between the two countries. These new bridges encourage the exchange of goods and services, and benefit both sides.
Disthegil Sar
7885
7788
Rakaposhi
Muztag
8611
K2
As part of its sensitivity to border issues with China and Afghanistan, the Soviet Union restricted movement near the borders in the
mountain territories. After independence, Kyrgyzstan lifted the restrictions, but they remain in force in Tajikistan where outside businesses and travelers need special permission to operate in the Pamir
Mountains and non-local individuals need special access permits to
travel there. This policy is a constraint on commerce.
47
Fenced border between the former Soviet Union and China in the Pamirs
48
49
Global Environmental Changes,
Globalization and Technology
Political and economic influences
The transition to independence entailed the shift from one player
– the Soviet Union – to a multitude of players, among them: five
new states; numerous NGOs and advocacy groups; bilateral and
multilateral aid institutions; community groups; and vastly expanding numbers of businesses and farms. The participation of all these
new players altered the dynamics of development.
Russia is a long-standing partner of the mountain countries of Central Asia. The main areas of cooperation cover peace-keeping and
border security, trade and energy. Russia receives most of the labour
migrants from Central Asia's mountain areas, and is the main export
destination for their agricultural products. Russia supplies Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan with technology, fuel, wood and investment in hydropower projects, and provides soft loans.
China’s rise on the global stage and its dominance in international
trade has changed the patterns of business and trade in Central
Asia. Foreign investment and infrastructure development projects
increasingly come not from the West or from Russia, but from China,
and political relations are changing in the region in concert with
economic ties and trade. Among the technologies China now provides to the region are those related to mining, manufacturing, agriculture, power production and construction, and Chinese nationals
are found among the mining communities and trade bazaars in the
mountains. Some Chinese food exports now compete with specialized mountain products, and the lower cost and out-of-season
availability of the Chinese products place mountain growers at a
disadvantage. As an importer, China receives gold, raw materials
and fossil fuels from the Central Asian countries.
The Aga Khan Development Network (AKDN) and Switzerland have
been the main sources of aid for the mountain communities of Central Asia from the beginning of the transition to independence up to
the present, and although both sources have reduced their humani-
tarian aid from previous levels, they continue to provide follow-up
assistance. The AKDN provided aid across a range of functions, and
concentrated on mountain farmers in Tajikistan where they still provide food assistance and guidance on reforms. (See page 120 for
more information on the work of the Aga Khan in Central Asia.)
Switzerland divided its attention equally between Tajikistan and
Kyrgyzstan offering country-to-country aid on security, peace-building, disaster risk reduction, sustainable agriculture and forestry and
economic development. Both players have also been proactive in
mountain education, health and research. Switzerland provided
initial support to the Central Asian Mountain Partnership (CAMP),
which over the last decade has influenced and promoted the exchange of local and national mountain development good practices.
The European Union, the United States, Japan, Turkey, Iran and
other individual countries have provided bilateral aid in the form
of targeted interventions, and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the World Bank
(WB), the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
and the United Nations have provided multilateral assistance
for economic and social reforms at all levels, and for natural
resource management in the mountains. The multilateral aid
has contributed to the development of policies and institutions
through sustainable development and sectoral strategies for agriculture, water and energy. The ADB specifically assisted in the
development of national and regional sustainable mountain development strategies and a regional environmental action plan
in the early 2000s.
The regional organizations that deal with environmental issues
in Central Asia – the International Foundation for Saving the Aral
Sea, for example – form the basis for continuing regional cooperation on sustainable development. (Institutions and governance
in the region are discussed on pages 92-93, and Part 2 includes
numerous case studies involving the new players in the region.)
The effects of climate change
Weather records confirm that the surface temperatures in
Central Asia are rising. In the mountains of Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan, temperatures have increased by 0.3°C–1.2°C
in the last 50–70 years, depending on the location. Almost
everywhere, climate warming in winter is more pronounced
than in other seasons. A slight increase in precipitation has
occurred in the mountains of Uzbekistan, the northern Tien
Shan and the Western Pamir. In contrast, the central parts
of the Tien Shan and the Eastern Pamir have experienced decreases in precipitation.
The degradation of the large Fedchenko glacier in central
Tajikistan provides more vivid evidence of climate warming.
The glacier, which exceeds 70 kilometres in length and two
kilometres in width, shrank by one kilometre in length during
Change in precipitation, 1951-2001
Under likely climate change scenarios for Central Asia, average temperatures are expected to increase by 1°C–3°C by
2050, and, if the global greenhouse gas emissions are unmitigated, could rise by 3°C–6°C by the end of the century.
Scientists also project that climate change will reduce precipitation in the southern parts of Central Asia. The precise local
impact these weather changes may have, especially in the
mountains, is unknown.
RUSSIA
The health effects of climate change can be serious. Climate
warming and heat stress contribute to cardiovascular disease, increased risk of malaria outbreaks and intestinal infections (typhoid, salmonellosis, dysentery, helminthiasis) due to
heavy rainfall combined with inappropriate communal water
supply and sanitation.
TURKMENISTAN
As independence altered the political landscape, global
warming is changing the physical landscape, and the points
of reference that define some borders in mountain regions
are on the move. In the Alps, for example, retreating glaciers,
melting permafrost and the resulting landslides are changing
the mountain morphology. Some of the glacial ridges that
were used as border-defining reference points have moved,
and Swiss and Italian officials are working to redefine their
border. Central Asia can expect similar changes throughout
its mountain border regions.
Central Asian mountain dwellers and hikers have already
reported visible changes in frequently visited glaciers. Many
mountain paths that were reliable 30 years ago have disappeared or changed beyond recognition. The surface of many
glaciers has thinned and their ice bodies are increasingly covered with lakes and debris. Numerous low-altitude glaciers
50
smaller than 0.5 square kilometres have totally melted. Today’s rate of glacier loss in Central Asia is 0.5–1.0 per cent
per year, and in the last 50–60 years, between 15 per cent
and 35 per cent of the Tien Shan and Pamir glaciers have
melted, depending on location, size and elevation. This trend
is comparable to ice reduction in the European Alps, the Caucasus and the Himalayas, and these trends are confirmed by
the professional glaciological and meteorological monitoring.
Astana
KAZAKHSTAN
CHINA
Bishkek
UZBEKISTAN
Ashgabat
IRAN
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN
Rainfall change
mm per decade
Dushanbe
2
TAJIKISTAN
1
0
-1
-2
Sources: U.K. Climate Research Unit (data synthesis is available at: www.climatewizard.org),
compilation of information from the Second (and First) National Communications
Change in surface temperature, 1951-2001
RUSSIA
Astana
KAZAKHSTAN
CHINA
Bishkek
UZBEKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN
Ashgabat
IRAN
Tashkent KYRGYZSTAN
Temp. change
C° per decade
Dushanbe
TAJIKISTAN
0.1
0.2
0.4
Sources: U.K. Climate Research Unit (data synthesis is available at: www.climatewizard.org),
compilation of information from the Second (and the First) National Communications
51
Fedchenko Glacier, Tajikistan
52
53
Petrov Glacier and Lake, Central Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan
54
55
Glacier volume change
Glacier volume change
in Tajikistan
in Kyrgyzstan
Volume, km3
700
Volume, km3
700
600
600
500
500
400
400
300
300
200
200
?
100
?
100
0
0
50 years ago
Today
Next 50 years
Source: Kyrgyzstan’s Second National Communication, 2009
50 years ago
Today
Next 50 years
Source: Tajikistan’s Second National Communication, 2008
The World Bank has recently given the
highest vulnerability rank to the two
mountain countries of Central Asia –
Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan – among 28
nations of Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia. This ranking is based on current climate variability and the potential
impacts on natural disasters (droughts,
floods) that exacerbate sustainable development challenges in the areas of poverty
and food security, infrastructure, energy
and agriculture. Moreover, the high level
of male labour migration makes women
in rural areas highly vulnerable to shocks
from crop failures, heatwaves and natural
disasters. A consideration of this situation
led to Tajikistan’s selection for participation in the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience. (See page 113 for details.)
Index of vulnerability to climate change*
TAJIKISTAN
Albania
KYRGYZSTAN
Armenia
Georgia
UZBEKISTAN
Azerbaijan
TURKMENISTAN
Turkey
Moldova
Serbia
Macedonia (F.Y.R.)
Russia
Bulgaria
Bosnia
KAZAKHSTAN
the twentieth century, and substantially thinned. In Kazakhstan, the surface and the ice volume of the Tyuyksu glacier,
which is the only remaining reference site in Central Asia reporting to the World Glacial Monitoring Service, shrank by
more than 30 per cent in the last 50 years, receded by one
kilometre and lost more than 40 million cubic metres of ice.
This glacier is one of the main sources of water for Almaty,
the largest city of Kazakhstan.
Petrov Glacier in the north Akshirak massif of central Kyrgyzstan, where the country’s main gold mine, Kumtor, is located, shrank by almost two kilometres in the past 50 years.
A large glacial lake with a surface area of four square kilometres and water volume of 60 million cubic metres has formed
on top of its terminal moraine and is spreading steadily. Glacial dam stability, lake levels and permafrost thawing all increase the risk of flooding and its impacts on downstream
infrastructure in the upper Naryn.
The mountain snow cover that plays a critical role in the water cycle and in the existence of glaciers is also slowly disappearing. Over the past 20 years, the seasonal snow-covered
area of the Tien Shan has decreased by as much as 15 per
cent. In summer, rain instead of snow appears more often in
the mountains, even at high elevations. Since snow melt and
rainfall are the two main sources of water runoff from the
mountains of Central Asia, these climate change effects will
largely determine the availability of water.
56
In scenarios of strong climate warming and lack of precipitation, water resources in the main rivers would fall by 15–40
per cent. With less fresh water and land suitable for agricultural use, people will have to move to places where they
can survive. Droughts and crop failures will push inhabitants
of the rainfed mountain areas and pastures towards cities
and irrigated oases. Water is a key resource for both agricultural production and electricity generation in the region, and
competition for the control of this vital resource is likely to
increase as river flows decline.
As mountain countries, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan will probably have enough water for their own needs but may not be
able to meet demand in their role as regional water towers.
Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan, as downstream states with extensive irrigated agriculture and high dependence on external
water supplies, may suffer the most from a water deficit. In
the longer term, regional water resources are under threat. In
the next two to four decades the water flow in the Amu Darya
and Zeravshan may be reduced by 10–15 per cent and in the
Syr Darya by 5 per cent.
The good news is that in spite of reductions in glacier size
and volume, the flows of Central Asia rivers have not yet
changed significantly. In selected river basins, the intensified glacier and permafrost melting has even increased the
discharge of some rivers, while runoff from glacier-free river
basins has dropped slightly. Some experts suggest that rock
Romania
Ukraine
Belarus
Croatia
Poland
Latvia
Lithuania
Hungary
Slovakia
Sensitivity to climate change
Exposure to impacts
Adaptive capacity
Estonia
Czech Republic
Slovenia
10
8
6
4
2
Increasing sensitivity and exposure
0
-2
-4
-6
glaciers and high-altitude permafrost contain amounts of frozen water comparable to the ice in mountain glaciers and
therefore can compensate for the adverse effects of climate
change. But the current trend towards low-water years, as
water levels are reaching extreme minimums, is worrying.
Such a situation occurred in the Amu Darya basin in 2000,
2001 and 2008. The severe 2000–2001 drought in southern
Central Asia may provide a glimpse of the future. During that
drought Tajikistan and Afghanistan experienced a failure in
rainfed crops and pasture productivity, while water shortages
affected the lower reaches of the Amu Darya far from the
mountains, especially Karakalpakstan in Uzbekistan. In 2008,
hydrological drought and extreme cold in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, combined with the vulnerability of the energy sector,
rising food prices and lower access to remittances, created a
serious food and energy crisis. Damages amounted to about
US$ 250 million in Tajikistan alone. In the context of changing climate and drought impacts, mountain countries are pursuing expansion of large and small water storage facilities.
Climate change is increasingly becoming a factor defining
the future conditions of mountain ecosystems and adds to
ongoing environmental pressures on sensitive habitats, flora
and fauna. Vegetation succession can be observed at many
alpine sites that were covered by glaciers until recently.
Droughts, a more arid climate and the reduction of water
flow in the rivers all affect aquatic and tugai floodplain forest
ecosystems. The areas annually affected by locusts (mostly in
southern parts of Central Asia) significantly increased. Pest
attacks in southern Tajikistan in 2003–2005 halved the cotton harvest in the hardest-hit districts. Climate change has
amplified the risks of forest fires and the spread of forest
diseases, and scientists warn that the mountain forests of
Kazakhstan will be exposed to significant fire risks in dry
years due to the impacts of heatwaves. The past 15 years
featured particularly high numbers of, and large mountain
areas affected by, forest fires.
Adaptation capacity
Source: World Bank, 2009
* Vulnerability to climate change is a combination of:
i) exposure to hazards, measuring the strength of future
climate change relative to today’s climate, ii) sensitivity,
indicating which economic sectors and ecosystem services are likely to be affected in view of climate change,
e.g. renewable water resources, agriculture and hydropower production, and iii) adaptive capacity to climate
change, e.g. social, economic, and institutional settings
to respond to weather shocks and variability.
57
Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan have the lowest greenhouse gas
emissions in Central Asia (1–2 tonnes of CO2 per person
per year), mostly because hydropower is their main energy
source and they produce and consume only small amounts of
fossil fuel. In addition, after the Soviet Union disintegrated
in 1991, both countries experienced significant economic
and industrial decline and an energy crisis. Their total greenhouse emissions in 2005 were reduced to 33–40 per cent of
their peak emissions in 1990–1991. Mountain forests and
tree plantations in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan collectively absorb more than 1.5 million tonnes of CO2 annually, about
10–15 per cent of the country’s total CO2 emissions. The
capital cities and densely populated valleys contribute most
of the emissions in these countries. In contrast, energy-rich
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan have reasonably
high greenhouse emissions per capita (12–14 tonnes of CO2
per person per year), high total emissions and a lower carbon
absorption share.
Energy-related CO2 emissions in 2005
in Central Asia
One square equals one Million tonnes of CO2
Soild fuel (coal)
Liquid fuel (petroleum)
Natural gas
* National and international data differs
Natural disasters
Climate change could amplify the risk of floods, mudflows and
landslides in the mountains, including glacier-related hazards.
There has been a series of glacial outburst floods in the mountains of Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan,
making it even more urgent to monitor these hazards. With the
melting of glaciers, glacial lakes appear every summer in the
mountains. Some of them grow significantly and, if contained
by unstable moraines, they occasionally burst and release large
amounts of water in destructive flash floods, sometimes with
serious impacts on life and property.
Almost 1 000 glacial lakes exist in the mountains of Central
Asia. Annually, dozens of potentially risky glacial lakes appear
in the mountainous areas above Almaty, Bishkek and Tashkent
cities, around Lake Issyk-Kul and the densely populated Ferghana Valley, and in the narrow Pamir-Alai valleys. Experts suggest that climate change is likely to increase this number. There
have already been deadly floods in the past 15 years, including
in the Shahimardan (Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, 1998), Dasht
(Tajikistan, 2002) and Issyk-Kul (2008) valleys.
Kazakhstan
Uzbekistan
Turkmenistan
Kyrgyzstan
Tajikistan
Sources: Second National Communications of Kazakhstan 2009, Kyrgyzstan 2009, Tajikistan 2008,
Uzbekistan 2008, U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) http://www.eia.doe.gov/
Some large mountain lakes, such as Tajikistan’s Lake Sarez,
which formed in 1911 as the result of a rock slide in the central
Pamir mountains, represent a serious risk. Situated at an elevation of 3 000 metres, the lake is over 60 kilometres long, almost
500 metres deep and contains 17 cubic kilometres of water. A
new rockslide into the lake could form a high wave, and depending on its volume, the season and the location of the slide,
this wave could cause a destructive flood. The water level in the
lake is likely to grow due to intensified glacier and permafrost
melt caused by climate warming. Lake Sarez has received high
international attention, and a sophisticated monitoring and early
warning system has been installed with support from Switzerland and the World Bank.
In Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, average annual economic losses
from natural disasters reach 1.0–1.5 per cent of GDP (equivalent to US$ 25–30 million). Estimates foresee that in some
years the impact will reach 5 per cent of GDP. A recent assessment of Kazakhstan's climate vulnerability indicates that areas
58
most at risk from climate change and natural disasters are the
mountains and adjacent lowland provinces. Mountain regions
in Central Asia experience recurrent and devastating earthquakes: Almaty city in 1910, Ashgabat city in 1948, Tashkent
city in 1966, and numerous high mountain villages of Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan have all suffered major loss of
life and damage to property. Earthquakes cause the largest
number of deaths from natural disasters in Central Asia, followed by floods and landslides, while recent droughts affected
the largest number of people, causing substantial economic
losses and food insecurity. Agronomic practices are often inappropriate for sustainable land management and drought
resilience in mountains, and the lack of agricultural advisory
services and adequate meteorological forecasts for the mountain areas hamper their development potential.
The mountains of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan around the Ferghana Valley served the Soviet Union as important sources of
uranium ore, mercury, antimony and other metals. The legacy
of past mining operations remains in hazardous waste sites that
are often located in weather-sensitive, flood-prone locations
near towns and along rivers and drainage zones. Pollutant spills
and natural disasters in this and other mountain areas could affect a population far beyond the people living in the vicinity, and
could lead to profound transboundary effects.
The next decade or two offer a window of opportunity to ensure
that mountain development become more resilient and less vulnerable to climate change. This effort will require improvements
in water resource management and land use, as well as in biodiversity protection, and will benefit from improvements in addressing environmental pollution, and a strengthening of interstate cooperation on disaster forecasting and mitigation. Most
climate change and natural disaster effects have transboundary
dimensions, and regional cooperation among the responsible
state agencies, the civil and scientific community and international humanitarian organizations is essential to the development of an effective response. Disasters pose a serious obstacle
for sustainable development and could tighten the existing social and economic constraints. The reduction of vulnerability is a
key element of the sustainable development process.
59
100
200
300 km
ha
0
sh
Lak
e
Ba
lk
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, April 2012
A
Z
A
K
H
S
T
A
N
Ghulja
Ili
K
Qyzylorda
Taldykorgan
Ch
u
Kapchagay Lake
Almaty
Sy
Talgar Peak
4979
Talas
Karakol
Bishkek
Taraz
Ysyk-Kol
Balykchy
Talas
Shymkent
Toktogul
Na
r yn
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Tashkent
5982
Dankova Peak
Ferghana
Osh
Batken
Kashgar
Lenin Peak
5621
7134
Panjakent
TAJIKISTAN
H
I
N
A
T a k l a m a k a n
Lake Sarez
P a m i r
Pa
nj
Vakh
sh
C
7719
Kongur Shan
7495
Ismoil Somoni Peak
Dushanbe
Kulob
Qurghonteppa
Yarka
nt
Samarkand
Denov
Aksu
Khujand
Skalisty Peak
Karshi
n
e
n He
Hota
Navoiy
7439
Jengish (Pobeda)
Peak
Ferghana Valley
Kokand
Jizakh
T
i
n
a
Namangan
Angren
UZBEKISTAN
Naryn
h
S
He
a
ary
rD
Turkestan
Murghab
Hotan
Khorog
Termiz
7282
Amu
Dar
ya
Mazar-e Sharif
A F G H A N I S T A N
PAKISTAN
Disthegil Sar
7885
7788
Rakaposhi
Muztag
8611
K2
Natural hazards
Seismic risk
high
moderate
low
Epicentres of main earthquakes
Risk of flooding and mudflows
Risk of major avalanches
Landslide risk
Glacial lakes and lake outburst flood risk areas
Usoi Dam and Lake Sarez, Tajikistan
60
61
Dwindling biodiversity
With the abrupt end of the Soviet era, the people in the Kyrgyz
and Tajik mountains faced sudden poverty and the risk of famine, and responded by hunting wild animals for meat and trophies. The increase in hunting placed a corresponding increase
in the pressures on wildlife. The cessation of Soviet supplies of
solid and liquid fuels to the Tien Shan and Pamir Mountain communities had similar consequences – woody biomass and dried
dung became major sources of energy for cooking and heating,
and the widespread collection of slow-growing shrubs, such as
artemisia and teresken (Ceratoides papposa), as well as forest
cuttings throughout the 1990s and into the early 2000s have
diminished mountain land cover and biodiversity. Fires and pest
attacks on mountain forests due to limited controls and hot, dry
weather conditions destroyed and damaged significant forested
areas, especially in Kazakhstan.
Many grasslands have been affected by the overgrazing of 20
years ago. During the economic transition, the number of livestock initially declined, and herding practices centred around
settlements. This development led to overuse of so-called winter
and autumn pastures in the low mountains near populated areas
as the regular fodder supply was no longer available or affordable to most households. At the same time, the conditions of summer pastures in the high mountains improved, but the growth of
unpalatable grasses and shrubs increased. Currently, throughout
the region animal stock is increasing. But the new pasture legislation and regulations developed in Kyrgyzstan that combine a
scientific approach (carrying capacity of pastures) with economic
tools (pasture use tickets) and community participation pave the
way for more sustainable approaches in livestock herding.
A notable exception to the general decline in livestock populations was the dramatic increase in the numbers of goats,
and the extensive grazing of goats added significantly to the
grazing pressures already spreading to mountain forests. In
combination with the other unsustainable forest uses – illegal
cutting for fuel or sale and forest clearing in floodplains by
mining projects – these pressures resulted in the near extinction of medicinal and rare plants and animals important both
locally and globally. The development of sustainable forestry
practices over the last decade has turned the tide, and the
collection of medicinal plants and non-timber forest products
is now better organized. Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan protect
most of their mountain forests and prohibit timber felling,
and Kyrgyzstan gives communities responsibilities and incentives to take care of fruit and nut forests.
62
The condition of the ecosystems of the mountain lakes in Kyrgyzstan is alarming. Lake Issyk-Kul, with a surface area of
6 236 square kilometers the region’s largest mountain lake,
is among those threatened by overfishing and alien species.
Just four to five decades ago, Issyk-Kul was a flourishing
fishing ground and the country’s most popular holiday destination. In the last decade, however, fisheries declined to
negligible levels, and the government banned all fishing here
in 2003. In spite of this, thousands of illegal fishing nets are
detected annually. Endemic fish species previously abundant
in the lake have now become endangered. Issyk-Kul is on the
Ramsar Convention's list of globally significant wetlands and
forms the core of a biosphere reserve. The restoration of the
lake's ecosystem depends in large part on the restocking of
the lake with juvenile endemic fish from hatcheries and on
tighter control of illegal fishing.
In the Soviet era, professional agronomists assisted mountain
farmers in the selection, development and maintenance of
agricultural species – both animal and vegetable – adapted for the local mountain environment. The enrichment of
agricultural biodiversity resulting from these efforts is now
threatened by the pressures to compete in global markets,
and the genetic diversity of the local food base is at risk.
Because the arable land is so limited, the promise of higher
production and maximum output led to the replacement of
old species with new ones, and some of the old local varieties are disappearing or being underused. An untested new
variety may be vulnerable to a crop disease that could wipe
it out, and the unavailability or loss of the old variety leaves
the farmer with limited options.
Each new variety requires maintenance, and some new varieties work out and some do not. In the absence of rigorous
maintenance, the risks and uncertainties are growing. In addition, some crop varieties new to the mountains may require
chemical fertilizers to thrive in the environment, adding environmental pressures and production costs and reducing profits.
In the Kyrgyzstan stock sector, which benefited from the special
attention of the Soviets, some sheep breeds have almost disappeared in the switch from wool to meat production over the last
10–20 years. On the other hand, many milk- and meat-producing cattle from the Soviet era have been replaced by local breeds
better adapted to mountain conditions. In the 1980s, in an effort
to crack down on the problem of alcoholism, and at the initiative
of the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, many vines and some
gardens were eliminated in Kyrgyzstan. Plantations in Tajikistan
also suffered. The echo of that campaign still reverberates today.
Alien species and genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
are threats to biodiversity everywhere, but mountain environments, in view of the narrow range of habitats, are particularly vulnerable. The introduction of alien species is a risk
associated with the increasing accessibility of roads, higher
levels of trade and globalization, and farmers may introduce
GMOs unintentionally or in the interests of higher production.
In neither case do mountain communities have the capacity to manage the situation or to detect the problems that
may ensue. Habitats may change in response to the introduction of alien species or GMOs, to new grazing patterns or
crop selections and even to new ownership, and any of these
changes to habitats affects biodiversity.
Roads, rails and international trade
The region is taking a strong positive step with participation
in the Convention on Biological Diversity 10-year strategic
Aichi plan for enhanced cooperation on biodiversity and benefit-sharing. The plan address itself to the underlying causes
of biodiversity loss and direct human pressures, and aims to
improve the status of biodiversity and enhance the benefits to
all from ecosystem services.
Better construction technology has produced less expensive and
more reliable roads as well as new tunnels that provide mountain
communities with year-round access and that reduce commuting
time – in some cases by as much as half. These improvements
mean that mountain communities can now rely on outside suppliers even in winter. It is a dramatic improvement, considering that
only 15–20 years ago Tajikistan was separated into three isolated
parts in the winter due to lack of year-round roads and to difficult
alternative routes. Most of this new expansion is sponsored by
Chinese investment or the Asian Development Bank, and managed by Chinese companies. In Kyrgyzstan, the main roads are
rapidly improving, but marginal and remote mountain districts –
such as the Chatkal Valley – remain isolated. Local communities
hope that with the mining boom in the area, infrastructure and the
valley's accessibility will gradually get better.
Land degradation
Concerns over food security promoted the growth in rainfed crop
cultivation in the mountain areas, especially in Tajikistan. This
cultivation often increased soil erosion on steep slopes. Overgrazing near mountain villages across Kyrgyzstan and the collection of teresken bush for fuel in the Eastern Pamirs exposed
these mountain territories to a high risk of desertification. Soil
compaction, reduction of vegetative cover and increased erosion
of mountain slopes also contribute to higher sediment formation
and silt loading of the rivers with implications for the useful life
and effectiveness of the reservoirs and irrigation canals and the
operation of hydroelectric turbines.
The expansion of the road system through the improvement of
national roads and the addition of new international roads has
increased the accessibility to remote mountain areas. This new
accessibility has brought both additional pressures from visitors
and from business development, and new income opportunities in terms of tourism and hospitality and the trade of native
products. The increase in the number of people who have cars
has improved mobility and connectivity, but has also brought
increased risks to previously unreachable mountain ecosystems,
and the additional traffic has contributed to environmental
noise, air pollution and road accidents.
In Tajikistan, a new road from the capital, Dushanbe, to the northern province of Sogd has caused controversy. A significant part of
this nationally important road is already rebuilt to international
standards, and plans call for a total of 300 kilometres, but the development of the road occurred without regard to local concerns.
The tolls on the road are expensive for locals, and there is no alternative route. Despite the recent change to differentiated scales for
the different types of road users, dissatisfaction among the locals
remains high, and further progress may be stymied.
Air access in the mountains was better in the Soviet era when fuel
was cheaper and small aircraft were in service. The infrastructure
for this air service is still available, but it is no longer a cost-effective way to travel or transport goods. An exception to this trend
is the Issyk-Kul airport, which Kyrgyzstan recently completed to
serve the international tourism that is growing in importance.
Mountain countries are also seeking the development of rail
systems both for transport independence and for international
63
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trade. Transit countries – those between two destinations –
stand to benefit from China’s growing role in the region. Both
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan are discussing the possibilities of
rail connections with China, but controversies have arisen.
One option is for the countries to finance the developments
with loans that may strain national budgets. The cost of a
270-kilometre railroad from the Chinese border through Kyrgyzstan to Uzbekistan is estimated at US$ two billion. A second option is for the governments to give up mineral deposits
to China in exchange for rail (and road) investments. Here the
controversies are whether the exchange can be of equal value
and whether the local communities involved would prefer to
retain the land for traditional purposes.
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Another controversy is over the dimension of the rails – whether
to follow the Chinese (and Western European) standard or the
Soviet standard already in place in Central Asia. This matter is
currently subject to expert discussions and lively public debate.
The resolution of this issue will in all likelihood also determine
who provides the equipment and maintenance for the new system. If these issues are not enough of a challenge, there is the
technical challenge that the mountains in this region are very
dynamic. The implications for rail and tunnel construction and
maintenance are apparent.
The Central Asian mountain countries seeking to develop
international trade by expanding roads and rails may find
support for their rationale in the Swiss experience. Switzerland has built tunnels and improved roads largely for the
benefit of international trade.
In Kyrgyzstan, the opening of roads to China, in combination with attractive local conditions with regard to labour,
taxes, customs, trade regulations and connectivity, led to the
development about 20 years ago of the Dordoi market near
Bishkek. Currently the largest market in Central Asia, Dordoi
covers 100 hectares, and offers 40 000 trading outlets. The
local employment generated by the market is hard to estimate, but probably exceeds 50 000 jobs, and the current total
turnover surpasses US$ 4 billion per year. In the suburbs of
the southern Kyrgyz ancient trading city of Osh, the second
largest market, Kara-Suu, has 10 000 trading outlets. Markets in Kyrgyzstan are not just major shopping and employment centres, but also the main transit points through which
goods from China move to Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan
and Tajikistan. This re-export is one of the largest economic
activities of Kyrgyzstan and in recent years imports from China to Kyrgyzstan climbed to US$ 5 billion per year and more.
By 2020 China could become the largest economy in the world.
Rapid growth in wealth and consumption in neighboring countries such as Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan
could further opportunities for trade, transit and labour for the
mountain countries. By taking advantage of this trend and offering competitive, environmentally friendly food, original textile products, rapid and reliable logistical services, skilled and
low-cost human resources and by sharing valuable mountain
ecosystems goods and services, they have good prospects for
channeling their development in sustainable way.
The success of the Dordoi market and the rise in international
trade have boosted the textile industry in Kyrgyzstan. The industry now employs some 300 000 workers, mostly women, in the
production of clothing, carpets and other traditional products.
International trade has played an important role in Kyrgyz agriculture as well. In one notable development, approximately
15 years ago in the Talas Valley, Turkish interests identified
the possibilities for producing beans of good quality in an environmentally sensitive way. Now the entire valley specializes
in bean production (70 000 tonnes in 2010), and trade has expanded to Russia, Bulgaria, Kazakhstan and other countries.
Beans are a nitrogen-fixing crop so the ecological concerns
regarding monoculture are less a factor with beans than with
other crops, but there are economic vulnerabilities. Currently
the economic benefits are substantial, but the risks of crop or
market failures are more severe when a region relies on only
one crop. Similarly, Tajikistan has recently initiated the substantial expansion of orchards, mainly in mountain areas, to
diversify and increase the potential of its agricultural sector
to supply growing markets in Russia and across the region.
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
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Dushanbe
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Termiz
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Samarkand
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Andijan
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Naryn
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Angren
New opportunities in tourism
In the Soviet era, hot springs in and around mountain areas of
Central Asia were popular year-round destinations for vacationers and those seeking the healing powers of the waters.
Now privately managed, these resorts no longer benefit from
Soviet subsidies, and many have struggled to maintain their
viability. With proper development and management, the
hot springs could return to their previous popularity as major
mountain attractions and bring economic and social benefits to
the local communities. The springs also provide an opportunity
for the bottling of mineral water.
H
Qyzylorda
The use of geographic information systems enables the production and updating of maps regarding a range of environmental issues, but much of the excellent data compiled in the
Soviet era are not yet digitized. Botanical, soil, archeology
and other valuable information remains paper-based, and
only the basic geologic and meteorological data are being
digitized. In addition, many scientists fail to disclose their
data, in spite of the availability of outlets for dissemination,
and intentionally or not, provide no access or references.
Tourism is not currently a large part of the GDP of any Central
Asian country, but given the remoteness of mountain communities and the limitations of mountain agricultural production,
tourism offers a promising source of alternative livelihoods for
local operators and related businesses. In addition to developing winter tourism, Central Asian countries have an opportunity to further develop cultural tourism, particularly in the
summer months. Kyrgyzstan, which generated US$ 500 million
in the tourism sector in 2010, is currently working on this prospect, while Tajikistan may be underestimating the potential.
As Central Asia becomes increasingly accessible to outsiders,
international tourists may show more interest in learning about
the various mountain cultures by visiting the places where
those cultures exist.
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Taldykorgan
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Talas
Mountain communities are also improving the communication of public information by providing better media access
for news reporting, and by establishing small local data bases of interest to certain users. More data on mountain communities and their products and services are available on
Websites, and there is an increasing trend among mountain
provinces to issue regular socio-economic and environmental reports online. These developments are all steps toward
the greater decentralization of information availability, and
are expanding the opportunities for public participation in
decision-making and governance.
A
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This same communication technology is benefiting the
mountain environment as blogging and social media raise
awareness about environmental issues, and the sophisticated technology helps a new generation develop a better
understanding of ecosystem degradation and environmental protection measures. The more advanced technology and
the use of mobile communications for scientific observations are also improving the study of weather patterns and
the prediction of natural disasters. Mobile communication
technology allows for the more cost-efficient and rapid collection of climate and weather conditions, and improves the
prospects for effective early warnings. Mountain weather
stations increasingly use mobile networks to transmit data
and exchange information.
K
Sy
The Central Asian region is experiencing a significant upward trend in the availability and affordability of communication technology such as mobile telephones and Internet
access. The use of the Internet in mountain countries has
grown substantially over the past decade and many highland hotels, other tourist-related businesses and farmers are
now able to advertise their products and services and conduct business online. Online education and distance learning are also becoming popular and increasingly available
options, and consumers can now order mountain eco-produce online. The introduction of information technologies in
the banking sector has lowered the costs and increased the
efficiency of labour remittances, which now pass through
banks rather than being transferred through friends. The
growing capacity of "electronic government" systems allows broader, faster and more efficient and decentralized
state governance, as well as increased public access to key
government information and services.
The mass media are expanding their environmental coverage, and are increasingly looking for topics with a local connection. This development coincides with the Central Asian
Festival of Ecological Journalism, an annual event designed
to raise public awareness of environmental protection and
the rational use of natural resources, and to promote the development of ecological journalism in the region. The festival sponsors competitions, and publishes the entries online.
Vakh
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The expansion of mobile communications
and information technologies
sh
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Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
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Mazar-e Sharif
A F G H A N I S T A N
PAKISTAN
Tourism
Cultural tourism
Alpinism
Major road
Trekking and eco-tourism
Winter sports
Ancient silk road
Petroglyphs
Hot springs and spas
Other tourism roads
Summer tourism
Responsible hunting,
wildlife observation
Over the past decade, mountain trekking associations, through
experience exchanges with trekkers from other mountain re67
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Key mineral resources
The influx of new mining technologies and the launch of new
projects have given rise to both opportunities and difficulties for
governments and local communities. A reluctance on the part of
governments and mining companies to share gold-mining profits
equitably and a lack of transparency in decisions have led to feelings of discontent among poor and vulnerable groups in the mountains. Indeed, the benefit-sharing arrangement between mining
projects, central government and local communities remains a lingering cause of resentment. The conflict between the use of land
for traditional pasture and grazing, nature conservation and for
mining activities is also a source of friction in Kyrgyzstan.
The experience of the Kumtor gold mine in Issyk-Kul Province in
eastern Kyrgyzstan has influenced all the developments that followed. In 1997, with the support of Canadian investment, operations started at the Kumtor mine, which now produces 90 per cent
of Kyrgyzstan’s gold, about 15–18 tonnes per year. Kumtor tax
payments contribute substantially to the national budget, and the
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Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
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Ferghana Valley
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Kyrgyzstan, which foresaw the mining and energy sectors as
having significant development potential, moved to create conditions favourable to mining operators by enacting economic
reforms and by allowing access to geological information. Currently almost of all of its territory is licensed for mining activities. Tajikistan, in contrast, continues to consider its geological
information semi-confidential, as in the Soviet era, and its legislation and the ease of doing business currently lags behind Kyrgyzstan’s. As a result, Tajikistan has attracted fewer investors,
and where Kyrgyzstan’s mining sector has advanced, Tajikistan’s
remains stagnant. The World Bank is assisting both countries in
reducing barriers in mining sector.
Ghulja
Data on China and Pakistan is not displayed
n He
Hota
68
Local resistance to mining
Taldykorgan
Other metals
Talas
Uzbekistan has always had more capacity than its neighbours
to manage tourism, and its historical role as the hub for cultural and mountain tourism in Central Asia continues to this
day. This dominant role is sometimes resented by the mountain
people and tourist firms of the destination countries. With the
independent countries now managing their own economies,
the mountain communities of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan want
control of their own tourism. The new opportunities in the region provide Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan the chance to compete
with Uzbekistan, and to cooperate on the development of Silk
Road tourism ventures. The Chatkal, Alai and Turkestan Mountains in south-western Kyrgyzstan and the Fann and Gissar
Mountains in western Tajikistan have numerous cultural and
historical sites and are among the promising regions for cooperative ventures with Uzbekistan.
Kazakhstan is the regional leader in minerals production and processing, while Uzbekistan is the world’s ninth largest gold producer, but most of their mining projects are located in remote desert
areas. In the mountains, the development of the mining sector has
been significant over the past decade, particularly in Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan. At the end of the Soviet era and into the 1990s,
there was only marginal gold mining in either country, and little
state or international interest. With gold prices reaching record
levels over the past 20 years, however, both local and global investors have become interested in developing even low-grade deposits. Now, mining and metallurgy industries are the major cash
sources for national budgets, contributing up to 50 per cent of the
national export earnings in Tajikistan (aluminum and gold) and up
to 30 per cent in Kyrgyzstan (mainly gold from the Kumtor mine).
Coal
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The Central Asian mountains have long been famous for summer tourism, but until recently the potential for winter tourism
had been underutilized, a situation that started to change with
the 2011 Asian Winter Games, recently held in Kazakhstan, and
with new developments in Kyrgyzstan. Hosting Winter Games
comes with a major investment in facilities and infrastructure
that endures long after the games are over, and Kazakhstan now
has venues and systems that can support the development of
a winter tourism industry. Kok-Zhailyau, a new ski resort being
built near Almaty city, for example, will be the largest winter
mountain resort in Central Asia. The Swiss experience shows
that mountain sports development can bring risks of ecological
damage, and can mean a change of livelihoods for local residents. But the economic benefits can be significant, and Central
Asia is well situated to explore the possibilities for attracting
local, national and international tourists.
Silver
Sy
Shortly after independence, Kyrgyzstan recognized the potential
of tourism, and established a ministry of tourism to exploit those
possibilities. The increase in privatization has gradually reduced
the original role of the ministry, but Central Asian countries
would do well to explore new roles for government in the promotion of tourism in the new economy. In many western countries, governments regulate the tourism industry and promote it
for the benefits that accrue to the nation as well as to the local
communities and operators who host the tourists.
The gold rush and other mountain
mining developments
Ili
gions, have helped develop mountain trails and have sponsored
annual mountain cleanups. These associations also offer courses
on mountain safety, and hold Alpiniads – climbing and orienteering events intended to improve the skills of trekkers and to
instill respect for the mountains.
sh
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Gold
Kulob
Qurghonteppa
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Murghab
Hotan
Khorog
Termiz
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A F G H A N I S T A N
PAKISTAN
mine provides significant employment opportunities to communities throughout the area. In addition, Kumtor sponsors local social development programmes such as schools, kindergartens and
summer camps, and has introduced a local development fund that
is increasingly considered as a model by other mining companies.
Kumtor maintains high safety standards, but a transport accident
resulted in a spill of cyanide into a local river. The toxic material dispersed quickly causing some environmental damage, but
the psychological perception was significant and long-lasting.
The accident galvanized local resistance to mining whether or not
cyanide would be used in operations, especially in areas with no
mining history. The abandoned Soviet mining legacies across the
country stand as stark reminders of possible grim scenarios not to
be repeated. Now mining operators often encounter local opposition wherever they go, and find that environmental impact statements and the necessary permissions do not easily overcome the
hostility and distrust they face.
69
The central government’s failure to understand local demands and
its slow response to adjust its mining regulations complicate the
situation. The mining sector is important nationally, and the central government has been the main beneficiary of the taxes from
mining operations. The locals want a fair share, and because they
view the mining operators as more capable than the central government they increasingly seek more benefits from the companies.
Rather than step into the breach to negotiate with the parties, the
central government until recently has essentially left the mining
operators and the locals to their own devices.
Local resistance and dissatisfaction continue to grow as mining
operators fail to communicate their environmental protection
strategies with local communities, and then fail to meet the obligations they do make. The companies that operate the mines
change, and the commitments of one company may no longer be
honoured by the next. Broken promises, inequalities in salaries,
dubious local staff hiring procedures and potential environmental
damage have hardened local opposition, and the central government continues to underestimate the discrepancies between its
plan for the mining sector and the reality that has ensued. NGOs
have been quick to see the problems and have initiated dialogues
between operators and locals.
Regulations on mining are sometimes contradictory to environmental protection priorities: mining is allowed in river beds and
sometimes even in the buffer zones of protected nature areas. Local communities oppose mining developments in or near nature
reserves and along rivers and springs where ecosystem damage
caused by industrial operations could have negative implications.
Residents fear their valleys will become polluted and people will
stop buying their vegetables and other agricultural products. Some
companies have extensively developed alluvial deposits in sensitive ecosystems that provide clean water, and geological prospecting has affected high mountain pastures. But in a number of situations, local elites have taken advantage of the situation through
speculations on environmental grounds that seem whipped up
with the goal of extracting a bigger share of future profits or of
taking over and reselling the mining license. The tension between
local environmental interests and the mining sector mirror the experience in Western countries in previous decades. The stakes are
high: if political stability and consensus on social-environmental
issues in the Kyrgyz mining sector are achieved, the country's gold
production could double within the next few years. The Kyrgyz
experience may be instructive as Tajikistan moves forward with
development in the mining sector.
Tajikistan has had a less favourable business climate than Kyrgyzstan, but the Tajik government, with the assistance of inter70
national organizations, is currently working on reforms that may
lead to a mining boom in the future. Tajikistan has been famous
for silver mining from ancient times, and a recent geological audit suggests that it has probably one of the largest silver reserves
in world. The government has officially announced a request for
international tenders for the development of these deposits. Chinese investments and technology will likely support recently announced plans of Tajikistan to develop its own alumina mining
and to expand cement production capacities across the country.
Kyrgyzstan has taken the lead in promoting an international initiative on transparency in extractive industries, and is working to
involve as many mining companies as possible. The transparency
initiative requires financial disclosure that shows how mining activities benefit governments. The initiative does not, however,
require disclosure of how the activities may or may not benefit
local communities.
In both Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, the environmental problems
associated with the increase in mining and related activities are
offset to some extent by the declines in all other industrial sectors. While the increase in mining increases potential threats to
the environment, the reduction in industry reduces other threats.
Kyrgyzstan still operates a mercury mine from the Soviet era,
and while the operation is inefficient and mercury has a high
local and global environmental impact, the mine is important to
the local economy. The United Nations Environment Programme
is currently working on a mercury convention that would limit
mercury production, and the international community is looking
for opportunities to help Kyrgyzstan phase out its mercury mining without damaging local communities socially or economically. The replacement of mercury mining with gold extraction
or other business alternatives is considered an environmentally
and socially suitable alternative to the continuation of primary
mercury production.
Finally, both mountain countries have experienced a boom in
small-scale mining for placer gold, particularly in Kyrgyzstan.
Artisanal miners are a heterogeneous group of men aged from
16 to 60+ years, and their reasons for mining are varied. For
some, mining was and still is the main source of cash income.
Gold helped them to survive in the turbulent economic transition period of 1992–2000. For others it is an income supplement
in winter months when agricultural activities are limited in the
mountains. In any case, artisanal gold mining is beyond the control of central and local authorities and the increasing degree
of labour mechanization and the use of mercury for fine gold
extraction are growing threats to the mountain environment.
Tapping the vast potential of
energy resources
Over the past 20 years, national energy resources in Central Asia
have attracted international investors. Oil, gas, uranium and hydropower are proving to be lucrative sources of economic development. In light of this growing trend, the mountain countries in
the region have become both locations and transit routes for energy resources, mainly electricity. Years of intense exploitation of
uranium, however, has had a detrimental impact on the mountain environments and economies of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan.
Ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources is therefore an
important consideration for the region.
Both Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have large hydropower potential,
and both countries are working on policies and strategies to develop that potential on all scales. International organizations including the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank have demonstrated much more interest in the energy sector than in mining,
and are active in promoting markets for energy generation and
transfer. Energy-hungry neighbours, China, Pakistan, India and
Afghanistan, are also interested in the prospect of benefiting from
the development of Central Asia hydropower through the Central
Asia-South Asia Electricity Trade and Transmission (CASA-1000)
or other projects. Currently, Tajikistan has about 5 000 MW of
installed hydropower capacity and Kyrgyzstan has 2 700 MW, less
than 10 per cent of their technically feasible hydropower potential.
Russia, China and Iran are interested in investments in the hydropower sector. Planned and ongoing projects aim to further expand
hydropower capacity on the rivers with existing power cascades,
chiefly on the Vakhsh in Tajikistan and on the Naryn in Kyrgyzstan.
Additional plans and projects contemplate development on nonmodified major rivers such as the Panj, Zeravshan and Obihingou
in Tajikistan and the Suusamyr and Saryjaz in Kyrgyzstan.
In view of the growing national energy demand, the mountain
countries of Central Asian have chosen to increase their power
generation capacities using both renewable (mainly hydropower)
and non-renewable energy sources such as coal, deposits of which
are accessible and affordable in the mountain countries. Coal-fired
plants would serve as a short-term solution to overcome energy
deficits and increase energy security. The emerging trend towards
increasing use of coal for power generation and in cement production and other industries is a concern, however, since this use adds
to the national carbon footprint and causes local air pollution.
countries to seek alternatives. Moreover, fuel prices in the Central
Asian mountain countries are very high and constrain local business profits. Kyrgyzstan sees biofuel plantations and home-grown
fuel production as a solution. The country's biofuel strategy foresees the initiation of biofuel crops in the near future. Currently,
populations in the mountains often uses dry biomass (wood and
dung) to meet local energy needs.
Like in the mining sector, the development of the energy sector
is rife with controversy and competing interests – upstream and
down, local and international. The Rogun Dam on the Vakhsh
River in southern Tajikistan is a case in point. Slated to rise more
than 300 metres high, the Rogun Dam is a source of tension between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. To facilitate the development of
the project and to attract international investors, the World Bank
is providing assistance in the technical, economic and socio-environmental assessments. In the absence of international investors,
Tajikistan sought to develop the project as a state-owned venture
financed out of the national budget and through shares that it
obliged its people to purchase.
The focus on large-scale projects has left governments and the
international development banks vulnerable to criticism. The
massive projects are a drain on national resources, a source of
international tensions and a cause of resentment among the local communities that may share the costs, but may never share
the benefits. Small projects with local beneficiaries do not enjoy
the economic and other incentives of the large projects, and rely
on individuals, NGOs and donors for sponsorship. The high potential of hydropower overshadows the potential of the geothermal, wind and solar energy that could also increase the provision
of energy at the local level.
Finally, corruption is reducing the development potential for the
largely state-owned energy sector. Illegal connections to the grid
are not uncommon, and the industrial sector enjoys privileges
while some communities have no service. For the past 20 years,
the system has operated without transparency and without
consultation of NGOs or citizens, but in July 2010, Kyrgyzstan
launched an initiative on transparency in the energy sector to
ensure the public participation in decision-making and the accountability of energy companies.
Frequent country-wide shortages of fossil fuels, chiefly gasoline,
diesel and natural gas, which are imported from Russia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, are pushing the mountain
71
100
200
300 km
ha
0
sh
lk
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, April 2012
Lak
e
Ba
Elevation
in metres
Taldykorgan
3000
1500
Ghulja
Ili
Glacier
Ch
u
K
A
Z
A
K
H
S
T
A
N
a
a ry
rD
Karakol
Bishkek
Taraz
Toktogul
Shymkent
Balykchy Ysyk-Kol
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Toktogul
Naryn
Shardara
Naryn
Tashkent
Ferghana
Osh
-10
Kashgar
SA
Batken
Yarka
nt
Zeravshan
Rogun
H
I
N
A
T a k l a m a k a n
Vak
hs
h
Kulob
Murghab
P a m i r
Pa
nj
Nurek
Qurghonteppa
C
TAJIKISTAN
Dushanbe
Denov
Aksu
n
00
Kokand
CA
Khujand
Panjakent
Mazar-e Sharif
e
i
h
S
Ferghana Valley
Samarkand
Termiz
Amu
Darya
T
Ak-Kiya
Tamga
n
a
n He
Hota
Kayrakum
UZBEKISTAN
Jizakh
Kambarata
Namangan
Angren
Karshi
Almaty
Talas
Sy
Turkestan
Talas
Navoiy
Kapchagay
Lake
Kapchagay
He
Qyzylorda
Hotan
Rushan
Dashtijum Khorog
Djumor
Upper
Amu Darya
PAKISTAN
A F G H A N I S T A N
CASA-1000
Actual and potential hydropower facilities
Hydropower facilities with small water storage
(0.01-1 km³) and run-of-river schemes:
Hydropower facilities with significant
water storage capacity (> 1 km³):
> 500 MW
> 500 MW
< 500 MW
< 500 MW
proposed
proposed
Key sources of electricity
Existing large dam
Proposed large dam
Transmission line
Projected transmission line
Kyrgyzstan
Fossil fuels
Source: Resources and Energy Atlas of Russia, 2006; Electric power sector of Tajikistan, Barki Tojik, 2011; Energy map of Kyrgyzstan, Kyrgyz Ministry of Energy 2011
72
Tajikistan
Hydropower
Note: each square equals 2%
Kurpasai hydropower plant, Kyrgyzstan
73
100
200
300 km
ha
0
Warfare in mountainous countries has had not only a serious
social and economic impact, but also an environmental one.
Conflicts in the mountains have directly affected progress on
the implementation of Agenda 21. The 1999 treacherous invasion of armed groups into the Batken region of Kyrgyzstan,
for example, destroyed the globally significant and unique
74
Lak
e
Ba
Finally, one remarkable achievement in the past 20 years in
the field of global security is Kazakhstan's decision to give
up its nuclear arsenal (the world's fourth largest) left by the
Soviet Union, and to close the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site
permanently. The more than 450 underground, surface and
airborne nuclear tests conducted here over several decades
led to adverse effects on the environment and human health.
Following a resolution on a nuclear-weapon-free Central Asia,
Kazakhstan is now promoting a Universal Declaration of a
Nuclear-Weapon-Free World at the UN.
H
S
T
A
N
Ghulja
Ch
Kapchagay Lake
u
Almaty
Zhanatas
Karakol
Bishkek
Ysyk-Kol
Balykchy
Talas
Shymkent
Toktogul
Na
r yn
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Shardara
Tashkent
Namangan
Angren
Samarkand
2010
1999
Kashgar
Yarka
nt
Abramov glacier
station (destroyed)
Panjakent
Dushanbe
Denov
C
H
I
N
A
T a k l a m a k a n
TAJIKISTAN
Vahdat
Kulob
Pa
nj
Karshi
Aksu
Osh
Kokand
Batken
i
n
Jalalabad
Andijan
Ferghana Valley
Khujand
Jizakh
T
2005
Ferghana
UZBEKISTAN
Naryn
e
n
a
h
S
He
Turkestan
n He
Hota
Conflict and insurgency in mountainous areas are much more
difficult to combat than those in the flat land and desert
countries of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, all
of which are also more prosperous. Rugged mountain terrain
provides effective hideouts for fighters thus making combat
more challenging.
K
2010
Navoiy
The Chinese province of Xinjiang, as the main physical connection between China and Central Asia, is an area of economic
and political importance, and ongoing conflicts there may impede progress towards better relations between the Central
Asian countries and China. Xinjiang refugees seeking protection in Central Asia have prompted stricter border security.
A
Taraz
Drug trafficking and the ongoing conflict in Afghanistan also
raise continuing security concerns. The United States and her
allies have long expressed concern about the possibility of infiltration between Afghanistan and the Central Asian states,
and border control – particularly for the mountain countries
– remains an important issue. Both the United States and
Russia have established military presences in Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan, and what happens in Afghanistan will certainly
have implications for Central Asia and mountain development.
Frictions and conflicts have weakened the mountain countries of
Central Asia. Unity, rule of law, justice and a national consensus
on how to proceed would strengthen these nations and substantially contribute to sustainable mountain development.
Z
Taldykorgan
Talas
Kyrgyzstan witnessed violent Kyrgyz–Uzbek inter-ethnic
clashes in its southern Osh province as early as 1989, and in
1999 armed groups again entered the southern area of the
country (now the Batken province). Resentment at widespread
poverty, nepotism and ethnic divisions between north and
south occasionally erupt in violence, and the country's first
two post-Soviet presidents were swept from power by popular
discontent. Economic damage from the events of April and
June 2010 in Kyrgyzstan exceeded US$ 70 million, excluding
impacts on investment and the business environment.
A
a
ary
rD
As soon as it became independent, Tajikistan plunged into a
civil war that resulted in the deaths of over 50 000 people.
An agreement brokered by Russia and the United Nations
brought peace, but sporadic violence and recurring insecurity
continued until as late as 2010. The country has undergone a
slow and sometimes painful process of reunification and reconstruction. Tajikistan has not yet recovered from the civil
war’s impacts on the economy, infrastructure and families,
and poverty remains widespread.
K
Qyzylorda
Sy
The mountain countries of Central Asia have not enjoyed the
same level of prosperity and stability as their lowland neighbours, and the highland regions thus tend to be more susceptible to discontent and violence. Civil war, armed conflict
and insecurity wracked the mountainous regions of Tajikistan
for the entire decade of the 1990s. In Kyrgyzstan, violence in
densely populated northern and southern areas widened the
ethnic (Kyrgyz–Uzbek) and geographic (north–south) divides.
Dostyk
Il i
Conflict and the need for hard
security measures
Abramov Glacier monitoring station. The Uzbek national hydrometeorological service – Uzhydromet – had been operating this strategically located station on the border between
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan for over 30 years. Similarly, security concerns stemming from the conflict in Afghanistan have
limited access to the Panj/Amu Darya River, which forms the
border between Tajikistan and Afghanistan, and have precluded water monitoring and flood warnings on this major
international river of Central Asia. Civil conflict in Tajikistan
has virtually devastated populations of endangered animals in
the Romit strict nature reserve and valley in central Tajikistan
and has adversely affected the Beshai Palangon (also known
as Tigrovaya Balka) strict nature reserve.
Vakh
sh
Security and Tensions
sh
lk
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
Qurghonteppa
P a m i r
Murghab
Hotan
Shaksam valley:
Jammu and Kashmir:
administered by China
administered by India
claimed by India
claimed by Pakistan
de facto accepted
Siachen glacier:
administered by India
claimed by Pakistan
Khorog
Termiz
Am
u
Dar
ya Kunduz
Mazar-e Sharif
Feyzabad
A F G H A N I S T A N
PAKISTAN
Aksai Chin:
administered by China
claimed by India
de facto accepted
Northern Areas:
administered by Pakistan
claimed by India
Conflict and insecurity
Persistent insecurity
International coalition in Afghanistan
Russian military site
Tajik civil war 1992-1997:
humanitarian and environmental crisis
Local conflicts and acts of violence
German military site
Main routes of drug smuggling
Damage to environmental observation and
conservation sites resulting from conflict
US military site
Flow gauging stations: limited operations
due to insecurity and strict border regime
Nature resource disputes
French military site
Sources: Russia’s Military Capabilities, Margarete Klein, 2009, German Institute for International and Security Affairs (→ www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/research_papers/2009_RP12_kle_ks.pdf)
75
Ob
Novosibirsk
Barnaul
Petropavlovsk
S e
a
200
300
Kyzylorda
Urganch
Ashgabat
Chirchik
Turkmenabat
Zeravshan
Samarkand
Murgab
Mashad
Abikajsar
Tejen
Kujand
A new era in highland–lowland relations
As the independence era has unfolded and new political realities have set in, interstate tensions and diverging priorities over
the use of water resources have started to dominate the political, economic and environmental agenda in the region. The last
decade in particular has been characterized by an increase in
disputes over water usage, particularly in countries dependent
on agriculture. A lack of political will and the absence of any effective mediation mechanisms have only exacerbated the problem. Tensions between the highland countries of Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan and the lowland countries of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have largely been generated by disparities
in levels of prosperity and stability, energy accessibility and different priorities for water usage.
Water for irrigation is crucial to the agricultural communities
in the lowland countries. The mountain countries, in contrast,
Naryn
Kara Darya
Osh
Ferghana
Kashgar
Dushanbe T A J I KVaksh
ISTAN
Mazar-e Sharif
Kafirnigan
Pyanj
AFGHANISTAN
400 km
Ysik-Kol
Bishkek
KYRGYZSTAN
Aksu
1.5
fsh
a
uD
Karakum Canal 11
ary
a
0.2
I
R
A
N
2
KYR 3
4 Kara Darya
Rivers of
Ferghana Valley: 8
KYR 0.1
n
0.3
Kafarnigan
TJK 6.6
0.6
0.5
4
5.6
1.5
20.2
33.3
Prospective expansion
of irrigation
C H I N A
sh
h
Vak
TAJIKISTAN
Dushanbe
Surhandarya
Karshi 4.19
UZB
1.4
Sherabad
Am
0.9
TJK 2
UZB 10
Amu-Bukhara 5.2
Kashkadarya 5.3
1.2
Ashgabat
C H I N A
1
15
UZB 10
9
Aydar Lake
Zar
a
Average river flow and water intake by canals
(km3/year)
Rivers of Northern
Afghanistan: 6.1
70 Water discharge
30 (km3/year)
10
5
A F G H A N I S T A N
Mountain regions above 2000 metres
duz
Kun
Vakhan Gilgit
Hari Rud
PAKISTAN
Mingora
UZB 5.3
Lebap 3.9
Naryn
Ahangaran
Tashkent
(37)
Great Turkmen Collector
(under construction)
Hotan
Bartang
Pamir
UZBEKISTAN
T U R K M E N I S T A N
Tashkent
Surkhan
Darya
Termiz
Mary
Gorgan
Taraz
Chatkal
UZBEKISTAN
Bukhara
Horezm 4.4
(UZB)
Dashoguz Collector
(under construction)
Almaty
Shymkent
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
76
Ghulja
Assa
Turkmenbashi
Golden Age Lake
(under construction)
0
INDIA
often face significant electricity and fuel shortages, especially
during the winter period, and therefore require water reserves
for power generation. In line with population growth, energy
demands have grown substantially over the past 20 years. Finding the balance between large-scale energy generation, such as
hydropower, and water provision for large-scale agriculture is
proving very difficult and politically sensitive. As the demand for
energy and food continues to grow, tensions surrounding water
may escalate.
Part of the conflict relates to the timing of the release of water:
lowland agriculture needs water in the summer and fall, and the
mountain countries need the water for power generation primarily in the winter. The retention of water through the summer and
the larger release of water in the winter have resulted in flooding
on the Syr Darya River.
The Soviet-era agreements and structures related to water allocation and supply for agriculture have generally stayed in place across
the region, but the barter system of energy-for-water exchanges is
250
500
750
Irrigated lands
Kabul
Drainage and irrigation runoff
Re-use of drainage
1000 km
Map produced by Zoï Environment Network, December 2010
no longer in effect. This has meant that mountain countries, which
have limited fossil fuel resources, are now exploring alternative
ways to meet their energy requirements. The development of the
hydropower sector in upstream states is a leading example of this
shift towards energy self-sufficiency but has been met with concern
by the lowland countries fearful of the impact on their own water
supplies needed for agriculture. An increase in mining operations in
mountain watersheds, largely in response to international demand
for the region’s gold and other mineral reserves, is also contributing
to the growing friction between the highlands and the lowlands.
Facilitating cooperation between the concerned parties is an important element of resolving disputes of water usage. The ongoing cooperation between Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan over the Chu-Talas
River Basin and cooperation in the small river basins of the Ferghana
Valley, are encouraging examples of modern cooperation. In the
other mountain corner of Central Asia, ties between Afghanistan
and Tajikistan on sustainable use and conservation of mountain
ecosystems and watershed management in the upper Amu Darya
river basin are gradually strengthening.
Ysik-Kol
KYRGYZSTAN
ChirchikCharvak
Dashoguz 6.5
Ili
Talas
Dashoguz
I R A N
N
Murgab
Sari
A
1
Planned collector
Tejen
Atrek
T
Chu
Nukus
Kara-BogazGol
S
a
Syr Darya
Western
Aral Sea
H
Bishkek
y
ar
a n
p i
C a s
100
K
Lake Zaysan
Lake Balkhash
Eastern
Aral Sea
Karakum Canal
0
A
Aral
TURKMENISTAN
Tehran
Z
Amu Darya
AZERBAIJAN
Rasht
A
Karakalpakstan 7.9
Zhezkazgan
Northern
Aral Sea
Makhachkala
KAZ 10
Sarygamysh
Lake
l
Go
az
og
aB
Kar
K
Aktau
Muynak
Karaganda
Malyi Uzen
Bolshoy Uzen
Ural
Ar a l K u m
Semey
Temirtau
Aktobe
Atyrau
seasonal lake
Astana
rD
Sy
Ilek
Southern
Aral Sea
Pavlodar
Orsk
Volgograd
Ili
K A Z A K H S T A N
Source: water flow and water use data www.cawater-info.net
b
But despite these welcome efforts to reduce
na tensions in the region,
he
the agriculture-water-energy nexus is poorly managed and has the
potential to escalate into further conflict or economic blockage to
stop the energy development projects of the mountain countries.
International organizations such as the Asian Development Bank,
the World Bank and the United Nations are among a number of
external parties that have been involved in facilitating dialogue between the governments of the highland and lowland countries. But
progress has been limited, not only due to a lingering lack of trust
and political will, but also due to practical problems such as lack
of the modern technology necessary for progress in the agricultural
and energy sectors.
C
Kostanay
Orenburg
Oral
Astrakhan
Kokshetau
5
Lake Balkhash
s
Magnitogorsk
RUSSIAN FEDERATION
Baku
Biysk
Aralsk
Northern
Aral Sea
(38)
Indu
Samara
Water resources
of the Aral Sea
basin
nj
Irtysh
Omsk
Kokcha
Ishim
Pa
Tobol
Transboundary surface waters in Central Asia
The emergence of China, Pakistan and India as dominant regional
players and major water and energy consumers is also altering the
political, economic and environmental landscape of the Central
Asian region. Similarly, earlier agreements on water allocations during the Soviet period did not consider Afghanistan, whose interests
in the basin have only recently begun to gain prominence.
77
Nurek Dam and Reservoir, Vakhsh River, Tajikistan
78
79
Soft security for stability and
conflict avoidance
The term “soft security”, as used here, describes the non-military factors that support stability and help avoid conflict. In
Central Asia, particularly in the remote and largely impoverished
mountain communities, the principle soft security factors relate
to energy and food security.
The tangible and detrimental impact of conflict on both mountain populations and the surrounding environment highlights
the urgent need for more sustainable development of highland
communities. By minimizing the root causes of discontent and
insecurity – such as poverty, the unequal distribution of land and
water, unaffordable food and energy and the lack of job opportunities and basic education – the risk of conflict can be lessened and the chances of sustainable development of mountain
environments and the well-being of mountain communities can
be increased. The potential for local conflict over pasture and
water use in border and densely populated regions has increased
throughout the last decade. The support of NGOs and improvements in governance have recently reduced anxieties.
Herding is the main livelihood for Kyrgyz mountain dwellers.
The access to Kyrgyz pastures by the herders from neighbouring Uzbekistan and Tajikistan was formerly regulated by local
arrangements, but Kyrgyz legislation introduced in 2009 calls
for agreement between the countries at the central level. In
spite of the new opportunities, the introduction of the new
pasture law has increased tensions over pasture use in nearborder regions, especially around enclaves in the Batken Province of southern Kyrgyzstan.
While the demand for affordable energy has increased with population growth, the withdrawal of support from Moscow has left
the region with an outdated and limited energy infrastructure.
This in turn has led to a hike in energy prices with the result
that, for poor communities in Central Asia’s mountain regions,
electricity and fuel supplies are prohibitively expensive. Energy
appears to be more affordable in Kyrgyzstan than in Tajikistan.
Most rural families in Tajikistan, especially the mountain regions,
seem to spend three quarters of their income on food and energy. Local initiatives have given rise to a number of generators
(solar heat, biogas) and small-scale hydropower supply facilities,
but the state generally still holds a monopoly on national power
resources, and most communities do not have reliable and affordable access to energy. In Tajikistan, about one million people
spend much of the winter without electricity and nearly half of
all households rely on firewood and dung for winter heating. In
80
Kyrgyzstan, households have responded to the growing energy
deficit by significantly increasing coal consumption.
The sad irony is that in spite of the huge hydropower potential, the
populations of both mountain countries experience – especially
in winter – energy deficits and recurrent electricity cut-offs that
negatively affect businesses, well-being, health and education.
The rising cost of fuel is also influencing the rising price of food
in the highlands. Since Soviet times, the Central Asian mountain nations have relied on imports of food products, particularly non-mountain products such as sugar, flour and cereals.
Now, with higher fuel costs, such staple goods are more expensive, and mountain populations are at risk of malnutrition and
related health issues. In Tajikistan, an increase in the proportion of bread consumption corresponded with the persistence
of malnutrition, and neither Tajikistan not Kyrgyzstan has yet
achieved food sufficiency. The importance of the links between
food security and energy security has led the United Nations and
other international aid organizations to adopt a compound crisis
analysis that considers food and energy as related problems that
require integrated solutions.
Social Dynamics
Natural resource ownership, management
approaches and property rights
As part of the transition from collective farming to a market economy, Central Asian governments launched a land redistribution
process that resulted in agricultural lands passing into a quasiprivate ownership or long-term private rental. This privatization
turned the management of formerly collective farms over to individuals, villages or groups, and the number of farming units skyrocketed. The corruption of local officials, however, marred the
transition as those in power sought the best land for themselves,
or sold favour to those seeking land of their own. Although the
state retains official ownership, private management systems such
as long-term individual leasing are now widespread.
For the states, the fragmentation into many smaller farms represented a challenge to their management capacity. Kyrgyzstan
left decisions on what to grow to the farmers while Tajikistan
took a more prescriptive approach. Even so, mountain farmers in
Tajikistan, far from the centre of government, enjoy a high degree of freedom. The challenge for farmers was deciding what,
and how much, to grow. With self-determination came personal
considerations about food security and whether to cultivate for
cash or for the flour that families needed to make their own
bread since the state no longer provided it. These changes in
the structure of agriculture conspired to constrict the options for
crop rotation. Fragmentation and smaller farm size, climate, elevation, terrain and the imperatives for cash or flour all implied
some limits on a farmer’s attitude regarding crop selection.
Rural dwellers in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan (70 per cent of the
total population) rely substantially on their own agriculture
production for food and income. Animal husbandry, which
has historically played a more important economic role in
Kyrgyzstan than in Tajikistan, has declined as a share of agricultural production in both countries. Wool production has
suffered the highest percentage declines. In recent years,
however, livestock production has increased steadily in both
countries. In 2010, Tajikistan’s animal husbandry (meat production, eggs, milk) and food production exceeded 1991 levels,
while Kyrgyzstan’s food production increased, but its animal
husbandry still lags behind previous levels. Honey production
in Tajikistan substantially increased over the same period, and
reached Kyrgyzstan's level of 2 500–3 000 tonnes per year. In
contrast, Kyrgyzstan honey production declined.
During the initial transition period, 1 500 Soviet collective farms
in Tajikistan were transformed into more than 37 000 individual farms, while 500 Soviet collective farms in Kyrgyzstan were
transformed to more than 70 000 individual farming units and
700 agricultural associations and cooperatives. Currently, the
number of private farming units exceeds 350 000 in Kyrgyzstan,
and 50 000 in Tajikistan.
Prior to the Soviet era, the mountain communities of Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan practiced primarily subsistence-based agriculture –
livestock production in the Kyrgyz Tien Shan, and a mixture of crop
cultivation, gardening and livestock breeding in the Tajik Pamirs
– with some trade between home-based agriculturalists and nomadic pastoralists. During the Soviet period the agricultural sector was transformed from a household-level system to a centrally
planned large-scale production system. Over the last 20 years, the
agricultural sector has reverted to household-level agriculture, but
with more reliance on trade than in the pre-Soviet period.
could not manage their herds, and could not replace the winter
fodder provided by the Soviets. Eventually many families lost their
animals. The Soviets had provided economic and agricultural management services, and with independence farmers were responsible for their own management, animal disease control, winter
fodder and access to markets. After 20 years many farmers now
have the necessary business skills, but the income gap persists.
The state continues to manage some mountain hunting areas,
and collects license fees and taxes, but the trend is toward private ownership and management. The well-run private hunting
reserves that are careful to prevent illegal hunting maintain the
highest wildlife levels. The corrupt private and state hunting reserves, in contrast, pursue aggressive short-term goals with no
attempt to balance hunting with the numbers of animals. As a
result, these reserves enjoy a short-term financial gain at the cost
of dramatically reduced animal populations.
With license fees that run from US$ 10 000 to US$ 15 000, the
potential for local income from international trophy hunting is significant. Tajikistan has established a revenue sharing scheme with
locals, but Kyrgyzstan, which has a low regard for international
hunting, has not yet done so.
The introduction of Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) water management associations and river commissions
changed the approach to water management over the past 20
years. The previous approach relied on administrative principles
and political boundaries; the new approach relies on hydrographic boundaries and local water users. The IWRM method
has already enjoyed success in small basins, and in the Ferghana
Valley, IWRM demonstrates how to manage resources more effectively with fewer disputes.
With the change in land ownership, the income gap widened
between those who acquired sufficient land for stock management and domestic animals and those who did not. The disruption of state-provided agricultural services, the rise in the number
of smallholder herding and the lack of self-organization limited
mobility and, subsequently, led to the breakdown of the transhumance system. People without enough land and a few animals
81
to Russia
sh
Denov
25
Qurghonteppa
Termiz
Amu
Darya
Termiz
2
Kazakhstan
2
Termiz
Amu
Darya
Kunduz
Burushaski
Kyrgyz
Sarikoli
Tajik
Kho
Sarikoli
Kazakh
Tajik
Shina
Russian
Mongol
Kyrgyz
5
Turkmenistan
Kazakh
1951
Xibe
Uighur
0
1955
1960
1965
1970
1975
1980
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/), data for 2010
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
2015
1
2020
0
Russian
Uzbek refugees from Southern Kyrgyzstan
Uighur
100
1
200
300 km
Burushaski
P A K I SA TF AG NH
PAKISTAN
Yaghnobi
Korean
Hazaragi
Ukrainian
Shina
German
Yazgulyam
Korean
2
Dungan (Hui)
ha
lk
Ba
e
2000s: 0.25 m
io Slavs* (permanent)
1990s: 0.5 mi
o Slavs* (permanent)
Lak
Na
r yn
2000s: 0.
2 mio
He
A
2000s: 0.
2 mio
A
He
Yarka
nt
Yarka
nt
N
T a k l a m a k a Kashgar
n
Chinese
C
T a k
2000s: 0.
2
Hotan
Murghab
Chinese
P a m i r
Hotan
Kulob
PAKISTAN
Burushaski
0
Yazgulyam
100
Rushani
Karalpak
Sarikoli
Balochi
Informal settlements growth
Bartangi
Kho
Ukrainian
but also
ShinaSlavs: mostly Russians,
Korean
Shugni
Ukrainians and Belarussians
Mongol
Ishkashimi
Internal migration
Xibe
Hazaragi
Rushani
German
Dungan (Hui)
2
I
T a k l T
aA
m Ja I kKaI S
n TAN
Balti
Uzbek (Pashtun,
refugees from
Southern Kyrgyzstan
1 Afghan
Pathan)
Refugees of the civil wars in Tajikistan and Afghanistan (1990s)
Uzbek refugees from Southern Kyrgyzstan
N
A N I S T A N
Kyrgyz
Bartangi
Tatar
Tajik
Shugni
Kazakh
Yaghnobi
Ishkashimi
Russian
BaltiArab
Uighur
Chinese (Han)
Tatar
Kho
Mongol
I
H
Languages and migration
Karalpak
Balochi
Balochi
Arab
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
82
Karalpak
Ukrainian
Xibe
2
Uzbek
Uzbek
Uzbek
Tajikistan
H
C
Osh
i
n
Kunduz
Mazar-e Sharif
Languages
andand
migration
Languages
migration
Kyrgyzstan
T
e
h
S
Khorog
Kulob
A F G H A N I S T A N
10
He
Qurghonteppa
P a m i Khorog
r
C
Dushanbe
Denov
2000s: 0.2 m
io Chines
e
hsh
Karshi
P a m i r
Murghab
Kulob
A F G H A N I S T A N
15
Kashgar
Panjakent
Naryn
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Batken
ael
o Isr
ws t
s: Je
0/90
198
Khorog
Amu
DarMazar-e
SharifKunduz
ya
Mazar-e Sharif
20
Samarkand
Ysyk-Kol
Talas
Khujand
Jizakh
Almaty
Balykchy
3
Namangan
Ferghana
Valley
1
Kashgar
Kokand Ferghana
mio
Chin
Karakol
Aksu
Angren
Kapchagay Lake
Bishkek
Pa
nj
Va
k
Karshi
TAJIKISTAN
hsh
ael
o Isr
ws t
s: Je
Qurghonteppa
0/90
Dushanbe
198
a
2000
s: 0.2
Aksu
Toktogul
Tashkent
Murghab
Dushanbe
Denov
30
TAJIKISTAN
Pa
nj
Karshi
Uzbekistan
Batken
Navoiy
h
S
n
Taraz
h
Ghulja
Chu
Taldykorgan
n
a
n
n
Va
k
l
Israe
s to
: Jew
s
0
0/9Panjakent
198
Samarkand
i
Va
k
Navoiy
Osh
e
i
AKarakolN
2000s: 0.2 m
io Chines
e
mio
Chin
ese
Shymkent
S
UZBEKISTAN
Khujand
hsh
Jizakh
Population, million
35
Batken
3
Namangan
Ferghana
Valley 1
Kokand Ferghana
Angren
U Z BPanjakent
EKISTAN
T
T
Yarka
nt
Tashkent
Samarkand
Population growth in Central Asia
Khujand
T
n He
Hota
Navoiy
2000s: 0.25 m
io Slavs* (permanent)
lk
ha
Jizakh
Na
r yn
UZBEKISTAN
0.25 0 0.25
Pa
nj
0.25 0 0.25
1990s: 0.5 mi
o Slavs* (permanent)
Lak
to Russia
to Russia
0.5
sh
mio
Chin
ese
n He
Hota
0
e
to Russia
Ili
0.5
Karakol
sia
Rus
0.5
y
an
erm
0
S
2000s: 0.2 m
io Chines
e
s
Tajik
mio
0.5
H
Ysyk-Kol
Naryn
Ysyk-Kol
Balykchy
K Y R G Y Z S T AOshN
K
2000
s: 0.2
Almaty
Naryn
A
Balykchy
to
vs*
Sla
Bishkek
3
Namangan
Talas
Ferghana
Valley 1
KokandToktogul
Ferghana
Angren
Z
K Y R G Y Z S T Turkestan
A N
Taraz
Tashkent
Taldykorgan
Kapchagay Lake
4
s: 1.
2000
1
Kapchagay Lake
Bishkek
.)
vs*
erm
Sla
s* (p
mio t)
Slav
0.4 nen
mio
0s: rma
0.1
199 (pe
0s:
200
0.5
Toktogul
A
Ge
rm
an
st
oG
s
Tajik
mio
0
Talas
0.1
0s:
199
Population, millions
Source: U.S. Census Bureau (www.census.gov/population/international/data/idb/), data for 2010
Qyzylorda
N
Chu
Shymkent
Shymkent
0-4
A
K
a
ary
rD
10-14
S TarazT
2000
s: 0.2
Almaty
a
ssi
Ru
to
ks
be
Uz
Ge
rm
an
st
oG
H
Ghulja
to Russia
yz
yrg
io K
5m
0.6
yz
0s:
yrg
200
K
mio
0.1
0s:
199
Talas
K
Turkestan
15-19
sh
Sy
25-29
to Russia
Ili
35-39
A
yz
yrg
io K
5m
0.6
0s:
gyz
200
Kyr
mio
0.1
0s:
199
Talas
45-49
Z
ia
uss
to R
y
vs*
an
Sla
ssia
erm
u
s
k
i
to R
o Taj
vs*
4 mi
Sla
s: 1.
iks
2000
sia
o Taj
i
s
Ru
1.4 mm.)
s*
:
r
v
to
jiks
000s (pe
Sla
2
*
ks
io Ta
be
m.)
avs
mio
)
r
vs*
l
t
Uz
Sla
.1 m arya
0.T4ajiksanen vs* (pe
io S
0
o
:
i
m
mio t)
rD
0s:
90.01sm (perm mio Sla
0.4 nen
0.1
Sy
199
01s9:
0s: rma
0s:
0.1
199
199 (pe
0s:
200
200
Qyzylorda
55-59
A
N
Ba
r
K
A
Chu
to Russia
Turkestan
65-69
T
2000s: 0.25 m
io Slavs* (permanent)
Turkmenistan
S
e
Kyrgyzstan
H
Lak
Tajikistan
Kazakhstan
K
Sy
Uzbekistan
A
y
an
erm
a
ssi
Ru
to
ks
be
rya
Uz
Da
Ge
rm
an
st
oG
Population pyramids: Central Asian nations in 2010
Age group, years
75-79
Z
to Russia
Qyzylorda
A
1990s: 0.5 mi
o Slavs* (permanent)
K
Taldykorgan
Ili
Over the past 50 to 60 years, population growth and an increase
in life expectancy have led to dramatic demographic changes
in the mountain regions of Central Asia. The population in
Tajikistan, for example, increased from 2.1 million in 1960 to 7.5
yz
yrg
io K
5m
0.6
0s:
gyz
200
Kyr
mio
0.1
0s:
199
Talas
million by 2011 (including 1.6 million since 1990). In Kyrgyzstan,
the population increased from 2.2 million in 1960 to 4.4 million
in 1990, and then to 5.3 million by 2011. Overall, the total population of Central Asia increased from 24.4 million in 1960 to over
60 million in 2011. In Tajikistan the average age is 22 years; in
Kyrgyzstan, 27 years; and in Kazakhstan, 30 years.
Na
r yn
Demographics, poverty and labour migration
e
Ba
lk
ha
to Russia
3
200
Chinese (Han)
2
German
Dungan (Hui)
Tatar
Bartangi
Yaghnobi
Shugni
Inform
Informal
settlements
growth
Arab
Ishkashimi
Slavs
Ukrai
Hazaragi
Balti
Intern
Rushani
Afghan (Pashtun, Pathan)
Slavs:
mostly Russians,
but also
Yazgulyam
Chinese (Han)
Ukrainians and Belarussians
Internal migration
Refugees of the civil wars in Tajikistan and Afghanistan (1990s)
3
km
Labour migration300
in the
Ferghana Valley region
Afghan (Pashtun, Pathan)
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
Source: Weidmann, Nils B., Jan Ketil Rød and Lars-Erik Cederman (2010). "Representing Ethnic Groups in Space: A New Dataset". (→ http://www.icr.ethz.ch/research/greg)
All figures on migration are estimates
Refugees of the civil wars in Tajikistan and Afghanistan (1990s)
Source: Weidmann, Nils B., Jan Ketil Rød and Lars-Erik Cederman (2010). "Representing Ethnic Groups in Space: A New Dataset". (→ http://www.icr.ethz.ch/research/greg)
All
estimates
0 figures on migration are100
200
300 km
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
Source: Weidmann, Nils B., Jan Ketil Rød and Lars-Erik Cederman (2010). "Representing Ethnic Groups in Space: A New Dataset". (→ http://www.icr.ethz.ch/research/greg)
3
Labour migration in the Ferghana Valley region
83
Labour migration in the
As small, mountain, poor, geographically isolated and landlocked countries with predominantly agricultural economies and
rural populations, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are more impoverished and less industrially developed than their neighbours.
These Central Asian republics had benefited from substantial
budgetary support and the economic power and common markets of the Soviet Union, and Soviet policies had led to a high
level of social and economic development and strategic support
for the populations of Central Asia, particularly those in the remote mountain areas, in terms of security, jobs, food and fodder provision and energy supplies. The withdrawal of subsidies
and the interruption of traditional trading links and markets led
to rapid increases in unemployment and poverty, and dispelled
illusions of an easy path to new and better lives. Poverty rates
reached 60–80 per cent in both countries, and affected all remote mountain provinces. Over the last two decades, Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan have remained Central Asia's poorest nations,
though recent poverty rates declined to 40–50 per cent.
Labour income and social transfers (pensions and aid) remain
important income sources for households in Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan, and income from the sale of foodstuffs and local produce accounts for a similar share. The role of remittances has
increased dramatically over the last decade and has become
the major source of income as well as the safety net for most
households. The construction and urban service sectors in Russia and Kazakhstan are major sources of employment for labour
migrants coming from Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
Unemployment and subsequent urban migration have changed
the social fabric of many mountain communities. The Soviet
withdrawal led to a major deficit of jobs, and many men from
mountain communities now travel to capital cities or to Russia
or Kazakhstan to find work. This drain of young and middle-aged
men from traditional mountain communities has had an impact
on family structures and placed an additional burden on women,
who increasingly take the lead in households, while village elders take on the roles usually played by younger men. In some
poverty-stricken areas, women who are heads of households
have also joined the labour migration. Civil unrest, political instability and ethnic issues have also contributed to the emigration of skilled workers from the Central Asian region generally.
According to official data and expert estimates, more than one
million residents of Tajikistan and 500 000 residents of Kyrgyzstan now work and live abroad.
Tajikistan now has more than 800 000 men working in Russia
alone, and the evidence suggests that the temporary migration
of one individual can lead to the permanent migration of en84
tire families. Remittances sent home by migrants constitute a
large financial inflow to their home countries and often exceed
the amount offered in international aid. The value of remittances to Tajikistan officially reported by banks in 2010 exceeded
US$ 2.5 billion, an amount equal to one half of the national
budget. In Kyrgyzstan, the value of remittances is lower than in
Tajikistan, but still significant – US$ 1.0 billion.
Real incomes of households in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan grew
rapidly over the past decade, leading to an equivalent growth in
private consumption, and a nearly 50 per cent reduction in poverty. These trends are largely attributable to the gradual increase
in transfers from labour migrants. While ten years ago remittances accounted for 5–10 per cent of GDP in both Tajikistan and
Kyrgyzstan, by 2010–2011 the proportion stood at more than
30–40 per cent of GDP. In 2008, Tajikistan topped the world
with remittances as a proportion of GDP at over 50 per cent.
Remittances maintain national economies and are key factors for
economic and social stability. The growing importance of remittances as a source of foreign exchange is reflected in the fact that
cumulatively they have outpaced foreign direct investment and official development assistance over the past 10 years. The officially
reported figures on remittances no doubt underestimate their full
scale, since remittances through informal channels are not counted in the financial statistics. Excessive dependence on remittances, on the other hand, has economic and social drawbacks. The
national economies of Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan are ever more
dependent on the economic and labour conditions in the countries
receiving migrants. The effects of the 2008–2010 global economic
crisis on Russia and Kazakhstan have negatively affected the flow
of remittances. The disruptions to family and village life lead to
increases in the number of divorces and other personal problems.
Labour migrants abroad are sometimes subject to exploitation and
abuse – most of them work illegally, do not speak Russian, have
no awareness of labour regulations and have low qualifications.
Russia's plans for tightening immigration policies on temporary
labourers could force many migrants, especially those with limited
command of the Russian language and the lack of basic skills and
vocational education, to return home.
Urbanization
The urban populations in the mountain countries of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan in the Soviet era were a small percentage of the total populations. After independence, Kyrgyzstan
experienced a movement of people from poverty areas in the
mountains to urban centres, but new residential construction did not keep pace with the influx of new residents, and
the resulting informal settlements exacerbated the existing
urban problems. Bishkek and Osh are surrounded by these
informal and unregulated settlements that developed chaotically and without regard to seismic hazards, and the cities
now face the questions of how to integrate the settlements
safely into the city structure and how to provide infrastructure and services.
Within its borders, Tajikistan experienced a migration in the
opposite direction: from lowlands and urban areas back to
the mountains. During the 1950s and the 1970s, the Soviets orchestrated the resettlement from the mountains to the
lowlands for the purposes of land development and cotton
cultivation. Some of the migration was forced, and some
voluntary, but in any case, whole mountain communities
were abandoned for many years. At the time of independence, about half of these migrants from the resettlement
programme went back to their old villages. Civil war in the
1990s and the availability of wood for heating and land for
food cultivation were additional factors encouraging people
to return to the mountains.
The Tajikistan rural population has grown over the past 20
years, but some of the same problems experienced by Kyrgyzstan are present – urban construction has not kept pace
with population increases, and although privatization has
led to higher quality in some expensive developments, most
builders opt for cheaper solutions of lower quality. Ownerbuilt houses in both rural and urban areas are not in conformity with the formal building regulations and until recent
years, most new construction failed to meet minimum standards of earthquake resistance and energy efficiency. The energy-intensive construction sector offers huge opportunities
for improvements in efficiencies. Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan
have already introduced new energy-efficient requirements
for lighting and are about to enforce new energy standards
for the building sector. Waste management is another problem – smaller communities lack waste management systems,
and larger ones, such as the capitals and main cities, may
have the systems but do not have proper landfill facilities.
Urban services have dramatically changed in the past 20
years. In the 1990s, most of the urban housing stock was
taken over by city residents, and semi-private services and
homeowners’ associations have largely replaced the Sovietera state municipal management and maintenance companies. Urban service providers in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan,
however, often operate below cost-recovery levels, and revenues from tariffs cannot cover the costs of upgrading the
deteriorating urban infrastructure. Water losses in degraded
urban pipelines are rather high, and many urban wastewater
treatment facilities are not functioning properly (especially for
biological treatment) and generally perform less effectively
than two decades ago. Urban water consumption has generally
declined mainly due to changes in the industrial and economic
profiles of urban areas, and partly due to the introduction of
individual water meters. (Urban drinking and industrial water
systems were often connected, so a decline in industrial operations has resulted in reduced water consumption.)
Two decades ago, industrial air pollution was one of the major
urban environmental issues. Nowadays, air pollution associated with road traffic density is one of the major factors undermining air quality, and traffic congestion is limiting the mobility
of urban residents and commuters. This is particularly evident
in Almaty city in the foothills of the Zailisky Alatoo Mountains.
With a population of more than 1.4 million, Almaty is the largest urban agglomeration in Kazakhstan. Pollution from traffic
is exaggerated by specific meteorological conditions such as
mountain–valley winds and temperature inversions in autumn
and winter. The introduction of city metro, bus priority lanes
and the enforcement of better fuel standards are some of the
ongoing response measures in Almaty.
85
Education and health:
Investing in human capital
The health implications of mountain-to-lowland migration and
vice versa are subject to research that was started by the Soviets
and that continues today. The findings demonstrate that long-time
lowland residents who move to the mountains have diminished
performance. The same outcome follows when the move is in the
other direction. The adaptation period is long, and the migration
may shorten longevity. At very high elevations – 3 000 metres or
higher – life expectancy is 48 years (Murgab district in Tajikistan's
Eastern Pamir) compared to 70 years at lower elevations.
The decline in Soviet support for mountain communities has affected not only the economy and opportunities for employment,
but also the levels of basic education and healthcare. Literacy
and the education of children living in rural and isolated mountain communities were Soviet priorities, but the withdrawal of
funding from Moscow has left many of the newly independent
states of Central Asia with insufficient funds to maintain the
same levels of education. Public expenditures on education and
health are less than one quarter of the Soviet levels. As a percentage of GDP, current spending on health and education (3–4
per cent) is also considered low. The abandonment or privatization of the traditional summer mountain camps for children
has further limited the access of poorer children from rural areas
to educational and health restoration opportunities. Many rural
mountain schools are without an adequate number of teachers (due to low salaries and lack of teachers), and the number
of doctors per resident and the number of hospital beds have
declined by half. In healthcare, in particular, the remoteness of
mountain communities only exacerbates the problems associated with inadequate staff and facilities.
The official literacy rate is high (98–99 per cent) and is comparable to advanced economies. Indeed, the population is a relatively
well-educated, which is the admirable heritage of the Soviet era.
But increasingly, mountain countries face the crucial situation
when the declining quality of education becomes an obstacle for
sustainable development. The numbers of students and universities have increased three- to five-fold in the last twenty years, but
the quality of graduate and post-graduate teaching, especially in
natural sciences and engineering, has deteriorated.
The competitiveness of countries in today's high-tech and globalized world is dependent on investment in human capital. Resource management skills, a sense of responsibility and knowledge of and respect for mountain ecosystems are key factors for
success in pursuing a sustainable mountain development agenda.
86
Kyrgyzstan has taken active steps to join the Bologna Process to adjust its higher education to international standards, but vocational education and professional development courses still lag behind the realistic needs. Tajikistan
is planning major reforms in basic education by introducing a 12-year study cycle with options for specialist courses
and certified technical training. Issyk-Kul State University
in Kyrgyzstan and Khorog State University in Tajikistan historically lead in mountain-focused higher education, and
the International University of Kyrgyzstan has created the
UNESCO Chair on sustainable mountain development. The
University of Central Asia is now working to increase the focus on mountains, and organizations such as the Aga Khan
Foundation are providing assistance to mountain societies
to develop both traditional and modern knowledge. (See
pages 118-119 for more detailed information.)
As industrial and agricultural practices have changed, the
environmental health risks from the associated pollution
have decreased, but the growth of populations in mountain
valleys has come with increased risks from biological pollution. The majority of these populations take their water
from open sources, and are thus exposed to microbial and
bacterial contamination. Inadequate wastewater-processing facilities increase the risks, and natural disasters such
as mudslides and earthquakes can introduce even more contamination into water sources and thereby increase the risk
of water-borne disease outbreaks.
Child mortality rates are generally falling, but in the highmountain city of Naryn, the rate is twice that of Bishkek. The
risk of malaria, tuberculoses, HIV/AIDS and other dangerous
diseases remains high, and increases with poor living standards, increased migration and inadequate preventive measures
and health services. Tajikistan is the only country in the world
where polio is on the rise. About 450 confirmed cases have
been reported in 2010 in the country, compared to 900 cases
worldwide. Kyrgyzstan faces health risks from epizooties (such
as brucellosis, foot-and-mouth disease and anthrax) in the
southern mountain areas, and domestic animals are sometimes
poisoned by grazing on land polluted in the Soviet era.
Religion, culture, ethnicity
and traditional knowledge
The Tien Shan nomadic communities have deep roots in Tengriism, an ancient religion that incorporates elements of shamanism and animism, and that focuses on living in harmony
with nature. Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain in Osh, Kyrgyzstan, is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site. The scenic
mountain oasis of Ulytau, situated among the arid grasslands
in the geographic centre of Kazakhstan, and its Auliye-Tau
Sacred Mountain, comprise an ancient Kazakh shrine, which
is covered with beautiful legends and rock engravings. Mountain areas of Central Asia have numerous mazars, which are
among the distinguished pilgrimage sites in the region.
Houses in the Tajik Pamirs have distinctive architectural elements combining pre-Islamic and Islamic traditions and values. Made of stone and mud, these houses have main living
rooms with columns that are named after saints, and that
symbolize faith, peace, purity, friendship, love, loyalty and
protection. In contrast, the nomadic populations in the Kyrgyz
Tien Shan often live in traditional yurts – easy to assemble
and transport houses with wooden (willow) structures, wool
coverings and colourful carpets. The dome of the Kyrgyz yurt
is displayed on the Kyrgyz national flag. While yurts are widely used across Kyrgyzstan and in other parts of Central Asia
by pastoral communities, the majority of the rural population
live in modern houses. Because the Tajik Pamir dwellers raise
more crops than livestock, they eat mainly vegetables, legumes and foodstuffs such as bread and noodles made from
wheat flour. The diet of the Kyrgyz Tien Shan dwellers has a
high proportion of meat and horse milk. Changes during the
economic transition affected nutrition and led to a considerable reduction in food variety. Consumption of meat products,
fruits and vegetables generally declined, while consumption
of bread, potato and dairy products increased.
Independence saw the rise of Islam in Central Asia, particularly in Tajikistan and the mountain regions where the roots
of the religion go deep. Differences in belief regarding whether government should be secular or theocratic have been a
source of civil conflict and difficult relations between countries. Extreme Islamic groups across Central Asia have used
the mountains as hiding places. In Uzbekistan, where government repression has led to opposition to the regime, extremists have resorted to hiding in Tajikistan from which they
launch attacks into Uzbekistan. This situation has strained
relations between the countries.
Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain in Osh, Kyrgyzstan
From the beginning of the transition to independence, His
Highness the Aga Khan, the forty-ninth hereditary Imam of
the Ismaili Muslims, has been active in supporting development in the Tajik Pamirs. In the tradition of service in international affairs, the Aga Khan has provided development assistance to Tajikistan through the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF)
and the Aga Khan Development Network. (See pages 120-121
for a description of the activities and accomplishments of the
AKF Mountain Societies Development Support Programme.)
The rise of Islam in the region corresponds with a fall in pork
production and consumption, as well as with a decrease in
the hunting of wild boars in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. As a
result, the wild boar population has increased. The consumption of alcohol also appears to be falling, but no reliable statistics are available to confirm this impression.
Since independence, the Central Asian states have begun to
reassert their identities, drawing upon the indigenous cultures that had often been overlooked during the previous era.
Families have always been an important part of social networks in the region, and with the end of Soviet support have
taken a major role in supporting children and the elderly. The
role of families is often underestimated, but is crucial in a
culture where social security is a private responsibility.
The lack of resources has led mountain communities to resume traditional practices or to adapt modern ideas to the
resources available. Energy shortages have limited the oppor87
tunities for food-processing, for example, and the mechanical
solutions are too expensive, so some mountain communities
have tried to re-establish water mills. In the Soviet era, there
was no demand for the animal hides and wood-carving products traditionally made in the mountains, and the skills in
those traditional crafts significantly diminished. Now, however, with the new market opportunities and the growth of
tourism in the region, the traditional mountain crafts are experiencing a resurgence, and some communities are specializing in traditional crafts.
Traditional music of enormous diversity has long been an
integral part of life in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, and with
independence only became more important and more diverse.
These countries’ music incorporates a range of instruments
from the simple and traditional to the electronic, and shows
little influence from western sources. The Aga Khan supports
the further development and dissemination of music traditions through programmes at the University of Central Asia.
The recently deceased Kyrgyz writer and philosopher, Chingiz
Aitmatov, was a Central Asian cultural hero whose work was
translated into more than 150 languages. His evocative descriptions of the mountain environment and his advocacy for
mountain ecosystem conservation brought attention to the issue, and his career demonstrates how one man can influence
an entire region through his cultural contributions.
88
After independence, the exodus of Russians and Europeans
from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan changed the proportions of
the countries’ populations in terms of national ethnicity: with
fewer outsiders, higher percentages of the populations are
Kyrgyz or Tajik. A related factor – place of origin as distinct
from ethnicity – affects personal lives and politics throughout
the region. North–south and east–west differences are quite
pronounced in Tajikistan but geographic divisions are also
important in Kyrgyzstan. The exploitation of these place-oforigin differences can lead to political and social unrest and
conflict. The increasing number of Chinese workers in both
countries may create antipathy among residents due to labor
competition, wage inequalities and cultural differences.
Russian remains the international language of Central Asia,
and in Kyrgyzstan – where the links to Russian investments
are historically stronger – the Russian language remains
well known in both metropolitan and rural areas. Russian
was common in Tajikistan 20 years ago, but now, because
of the stronger national identity and legislative requirements
regarding national language, Russian is fading away. But
Russia is the main receiving country for Tajik migrants, and
Russian is the language of regional meetings, and Russian
language skills are therefore still important to many people in
Tajikistan. At the same time, the Chinese language is becoming more popular among students and traders who plan to
develop business connections or participate in China-linked
trade, mining and energy projects in Central Asia.
Soviet environmental legacies and
emerging conditions
The trends discussed in the previous section all have a bearing
on the environmental, economic and social conditions in Central
Asia, as do the environmental legacies left by the Soviets. This
section is not an exhaustive assessment of those legacies, but
rather a consideration of the more visible and pressing concerns
of public and private interest. The institutional and governance
aspects of sustainable mountain development, discussed in the
next section, fit within the context of the trends and the legacies.
Abandoned mines, hazardous industrial waste sites and mine
tailings – mostly legacies of the Soviet period – continue to be a
major environmental concern for the mountain areas of Central
Asia. Although their reserves are not large in modern terms, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan were among the pioneers in developing
the uranium mining sector. When the Soviets left, they simply
abandoned the mines and tailings with no remediation. These
hazardous sites remain obstacles to sustainable development,
environmental protection and population security in the region.
Abandoned and active mining sites and metallurgy industries
cause environmental problems in the Altai Mountains of Kazakhstan and in the Irtysh River basin, where the country's mining
sector was born in the eighteenth century.
The cost of remediation is prohibitive for the countries, and in
the absence of legislation or financial resources to undertake
the task, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan have no remediation plans
in place, but are looking to international partners for assistance.
Abandoned mining sites pose as much or more danger to neighbours in the event of a flood or other mine failure, and regional
cooperation is one prospective solution. Russia is participating in
negotiations and may commit to helping resolve the problems.
In Kyrgyzstan, abandoned uranium tailings are a national priority
both politically and environmentally, but because of the scale of
the problem the resources needed are overwhelming, no progress
has been made. Continued efforts at cooperation with Russia and
the other Central Asian countries is a promising path, as is the
prospect of private sector involvement. Private firms may be interested in reopening some mines or in re-mining some tailings.
The independence era has seen a dramatic reduction in water
pollution as a result of changes in industrial practices and the
ending of some industrial and mining operations. In Kyrgyzstan,
for example, the production of animal skins no longer employs
the toxic chemicals that killed almost all the fish in some areas,
and fish stocks in rivers are slowly recovering as a result of the
changes in business operations and land use. Similarly, the water quality in Lake Issyk-Kul is improving as a result of reductions
in fertilizer use because the agricultural runoff no longer carries
away high levels of chemical residues. Currently, illegal fishing,
overfishing and invasive species are the main threats to the Lake
Issyk-Kul ecosystem.
Another positive environmental development in the independence era is the expansion of protected areas in the mountains – a
doubling in the size of the total area protected in Tajikistan and
Kyrgyzstan – and the application of particular types of protection, such as buffer zones and corridors, to local circumstances.
Currently, all the countries of Central Asia protect their mountain ecosystems relatively well through regulations and the
maintenance of protected areas. Where the Soviets maintained
strict nature reserves that excluded visitors, the new states –
underfunded and with less experience – are developing national
parks, a new concept in the region, and one in keeping with the
spirit of Rio and the Aichi targets. They are also creating reserves
for special purposes such as watershed protection, forestry or
regulated hunting reserves without necessarily restricting access
for recreation or other compatible uses.
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TALAS
Industrial pollution and waste hotspots
in the Ferghana Valley
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300 km
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Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, April 2012
TEREKSAY
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Kokand
Jizzakh
SOGD
Kara-Darya
Andijan
Reservoir
CHINA
ANZOB
Pesticides and hazardous chemicals
Metallurgical industry
Oil and coal production
Radioactive contamination sites
Uranuim tailings and radioactive material processing sites
Transboundary and local risk of soil,
air and water contamination
Spills and possible cross-border
impacts of industrial accidents
Karshi
MAP BY VIKTOR NOVIKOV AND PHILIPPE REKACEWICZ
Produced by GRID-ARENDAL - APR 2005 Updated by ZOI Environment Network - FEB 2012
n
e
Aksu
5982
Dankova Peak
Sulaiman-Too
Osh
Kashgar
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5621
TAJIKISTAN
Denov
Ferghana
Batken
Skalisty Peak
Samarkand
Shahrisabz
i
Dushanbe
Kulob
Qurghonteppa
Lenin Peak
7495
Ismoil Somoni Peak
6974
Independence
Peak
P a m i r
Murghab
In the Soviet era, the state owned the forests and managed the
planting programmes, and used afforestation primarily for river
bank and slope protection. Now, individual planting programmes
are investments in the economic and environmental future and
90
In some ways, water protection in the Soviet era was better,
particularly in the exclusion of riparian areas from any other
uses. Now, the absence of controls and the diversity of land
uses have meant less protection. Water resources have become more vulnerable to physical use and damage, and the
associated ecosystem services have diminished.
H
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A
T a k l a m a k a n
Hotan
Khorog
7282
Amu
Dar
are targeted to a range of specific applications – visual amenity
benefits, timber or fuel, for example. Forest managers assist in
the natural regeneration of forests, and, on the premise that the
community cares more than the central government, communities are now managing local nut forests.
C
7719
Kongur Shan
Termiz
Over the past decade, the border mountain regions have seen
the development of joint parks and other biodiversity initiatives. In the Altai Mountains, Russia and Kazakhstan cooperate
on forest fire and wildlife protection and on ecotourism, and in
the Western Tien Shan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan
maintain a joint park that is nominated for UNESCO World Heritage designation. Afghanistan, Tajikistan, China and Pakistan are
working on plans for a project in the Wakhan Corridor.
7439
Jengish (Pobeda)
Peak
Khujand
Sarazm
Panjakent
Pollution pathways
T
Ferghana Valley
Kokand
Navoiy
Naryn
h
S
n
a
Namangan
Angren
Jizakh
Mining tailing ponds
Talas
Tashkent
UZBEKISTAN
Ysyk-Kol
Balykchy
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
OSH
TAJIKISTAN
Polluting industries
Bishkek
Toktogul
CHAUVAY
KHAIDARKAN
Talgar Peak
4979
Karakol
Taraz
Shymkent
CHONKOY
Zeravshan
Urban waste
Turkestan
Mausoleum of Khoja
Ahmed Yasawi
KYZYL-KIA
KADAMJAI
Batken
Ghulja
Kapchagay Lake
u
Kyzyls
Poorly managed waste sites
N
Tamgaly Petroglyphs
u
Osh
KAN
BATKEN
A
n He
Hota
SULUKTA
Andijan
Ferghana
KANIBADAM
ISFARA
DEGMAY
SHURAB
GAFUROV
CHKALOVSK
T
Almaty
Jalal-Abad
MINGBULAK
OIL FIELD
Khujand
BEKABAD
S
He
Sy
H
Talas
a
UZBEKISTAN
TABOSHAR
a
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Da
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Ch
a
ary
rD
a ry
Gulistan
SYRDARYA
UYGURSAY
ADRASMAN
A
Sy
ALMALYK
JALAL-ABAD
Z
MAILUU-SUU
CHARKESAR
Namangan
Sy
r- D
Syrdarya
SUMSAR
A
Yarka
nt
a
Ah
YANGIABAT
ANGREN
TASHKENT
JIZZAKH
n
ar o
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Qyzylorda
Taldykorgan
Na
r yn
ng
Tashkent
KYZYLDZHAR
SHEKAFTAR
TASH-KUMYR
Pa
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ik
ch
Naryn
Vakh
sh
h ir
Charvak
Reservoir
Ili
C
KAZAKHSTAN
Chardara
Reservoir
Toktogul
Reservoir
KYRGYZSTAN
Lak
e
Ba
CHUY
ya
Mazar-e Sharif
A F G H A N I S T A N
PAKISTAN
Disthegil Sar
7885
7788
Rakaposhi
Muztag
8611
K2
Protected areas
Large protected areas
UNESCO World Heritage sites
Small protected areas
RAMSAR sites (Convention on wetlands of international importance)
Ysyk-Kol Biosphere Territory
91
Institutions and governance in
sustainable mountain development
The period of glasnost and perestroika started by Mikhail
Gorbachev near the end of Soviet era raised public awareness
about the environment and led to the strengthening of environmental institutions and legislation. After independence
Central Asian governments were quick to develop national
action plans, programmes and strategies on environmental
protection in general, as well as on specific environmental
issues such as climate change, desertification, biodiversity,
persistent organic pollutants and others. All the countries of
Central Asia are signatories to the three Rio Conventions: the
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the UN Convention on Combating Desertification. In addition, numerous multilateral and
regional environmental agreements have been signed or ratified. The countries have taken different development paths,
and their strategies and approaches to sustainable mountain
ecosystem management have developed differently.
The key regional player in water and environmental cooperation is the International Fund for Saving the Aral Sea, an organization that deals with environmental and socio-economic
challenges of the Aral Sea basin through its Aral Sea Basin
Programme. Funded by international donors and by the Central Asia states, the Programme works on climate change,
natural disasters in the mountains and watershed protection,
among numerous other issues. Some ongoing projects in the
mountains not directly linked to the Programme are contributing to its implementation.
The Interstate Commission for Sustainable Development (ICSD)
was established in 1993 to assess regional environmental conditions and to coordinate the planning and implementation
of environmental and sustainable development programmes.
In 2008, the ICSD supported the initiative of Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan to establish the Regional Mountain Centre of Central Asia (RMCСA) with headquarters in Bishkek. The RMCCA
promotes cooperation in the Central Asia region for mountain
ecosystems conservation and the sustainable use of natural resources, and works to improve the socio-economic conditions
in mountain areas by providing policy support and by promoting cooperation with other mountain regions. The Regional
Environmental Centre of Central Asia (RECCA) is implementing
the Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) project with Swiss
support in the tourist and agricultural areas in the mountains
of Issyk-Kul Province of Kyrgyzstan.
92
Kyrgyzstan began to attract the attention of the international
community to mountain development in 1998, and successfully advocated for the UN declaration of the International Year
of Mountains in 2002, which culminated with the Bishkek
Global Mountain Summit. The Summit concluded with the
formation of the Bishkek Mountain Platform, and reinforced
the International Partnership for Sustainable Development in
Mountain Regions (known as the ”Mountain Partnership”).
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
offer to host the Secretariat was welcomed, and since its establishment, the Mountain Partnership Secretariat has been
advocating for an integrated approach to sustainable development in the world’s mountain regions. In 1998, Kyrgyzstan
established the National Centre for Mountain Regions Development (NCMRD), which is responsible for coordination and
formulation of national policy on mountains. In 2003, the
International Information and Education Centre for mountain
states was established under the NCMRD. The Kyrgyz Agency
for Rural Investments has played a major role in supporting
rural infrastructure and business initiatives in the mountain
villages across the country.
Tajikistan focused its attention on regional freshwater resources and glaciers, and conducted numerous regional and
national activities highlighting the importance and crucial
role of Central Asia mountains as water towers. Kazakhstan
has recently established the Regional Centre on Glaciology
under UNESCO auspices to promote the exchange of scientific knowledge and popular information about conditions of
mountain glaciers across the region, and also established the
Regional Centre for Disaster Response and Risk Reduction.
The high level of poverty together with the growing vulnerability of the ecosystems affected by the unsustainable use of
natural resources by local communities demanded urgent interventions. In 2000 the Government of Switzerland launched
the Central Asian Mountain Partnership (CAMP) initiative in
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan with an aim to promote sustainable mountain development. In a shift from
waiting to acting, civil society started to participate in the
development process. In 2002, at the initiative of civil society
and NGOs, and with support of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, the new programme was launched as
an association of rural communities that would exchange information, knowledge and experience to foster participation
in solving common local problems. In 2003, the Alliance of
Central Asian mountain communities (AGOCA) was formally
created and registered in Kyrgyzstan. The overall goal of the
organization is to assist in the sustainable development of
Central Asian mountain regions and thereby contribute to the
improvement of local living standards.
Mountain-focused NGOs involve various levels of stakeholders from central governments to village institutions and the
general public. They often communicate "mountain voices",
advocate for interactive and open processes of policy formulation and act to bridge any gaps between new legislation and
strategies and the realities in mountain communities. Another
category of civil society organizations – mountain associations – are working with young people and hikers to promote
mountain environmental knowledge, to clean up garbage and
to cultivate responsible outdoor traditions. Finally, private and
public foundations such as the Aga Khan Development Network have contributed to integrated mountain development.
The Regional Environmental Action Plan (REAP) approved in
2001 by all Central Asian states treats mountain ecosystems
as regional environmental priorities. The Framework Convention on Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development of Central Asia, adopted in November 2006, is aiming
to strengthen regional environmental cooperation in five
priority areas: air pollution, water pollution, land degradation, waste management and mountain ecosystem degradation. Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan have signed
the Convention. The Central Asian Sub-Regional Strategy for
Sustainable Development, drafted In 2007–2008, is now being considered by the countries. In general, however, the progress on the implementation of all these regional agreements
has been rather slow.
National strategies, programmes and action plans on biodiversity, land management, climate change, natural disasters
and the environment all mention the role of mountain regions, but often do not include adequate and realistic financial provisions. They also underestimate the implementation
capacities at the local level and the cross-border importance
of mountain ecosystems and services. The Global Environment Facility has recently supported national exercises on
improving the linkages between finance mechanisms and regional capacity-building and the action plans associated with
the Rio conventions. Mountain development would benefit
from an elaboration of more specific actions, from sufficient
resourcing of these actions and from synergies with development projects in tourism, trade and commerce, roads and
agriculture. New opportunities in climate change and renewable energy finance, support for watershed protection, and
biodiversity benefit sharing and PES are among the emerging
funding prospects.
With the launch of a mountain partnership in Central Asia,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan prepared national
sustainable mountain development strategies and a regional
strategy, but the shortage of resources over the last decade
resulted in poor implementation, especially at the local level.
Environmental institutions or scientific groups often designed
and implemented these strategies, while the key stakeholders
in agriculture, water, energy and others remained preoccupied with their own development priorities. Most economic,
social and environmental development strategies in the years
of independence focused on densely populated, industrial or
agricultural regions, and failed to consider the specific circumstances of the mountain communities. The growing number
of obligations under multilateral environmental agreements
and national legislation were not matched by an increase in
institutional capacity and financing priorities. The deterioration of management and enforcement capacities at both the
central and local levels further constrained implementation.
Stakeholder responses to new mining, water, forestry and
pasture programmes and strategies varied from support to
strong opposition.
New laws at the beginning of 2000 moved Kyrgyzstan toward
a decentralized government with specific attention devoted
to mountain areas. The Law of the Kyrgyz Republic on mountain territories was approved in 2002, and the Kyrgyz Government Decree on state support to the population living and
working in high-altitude areas, in 2007. These laws provide
salary and pension increments, as well as financial support
for mountain schools, hospitals and infrastructure improvements. Kyrgyzstan leads Central Asia in developing decentralized governance, and offers new opportunities through
legislation on the use of natural resources in such key sectors
as pastures and forests.
93
Over the past decade, attitudes and perceptions have started to
change in this regard, with both governments and international
donors such as the World Bank, the United States Agency for International Development and the Swiss Development Coopera94
During the Soviet era, the high mountains of Central Asia were
home to many glacier monitoring sites, two of which – in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan – were of global importance. Most of these
stations ceased operation in the post-Soviet period, and only the
major glacier observation site in Kazakhstan at Tuyksu glacier remains active, albeit in an outdated and underfunded state.
Glaciers have, however, become a hot political topic over the
past few years, with heads of national governments and donors
increasingly highlighting the melting of glaciers as a consequence and indicator of climate change. Central Asia’s glaciers,
some of which are the largest in the Eurasia, are also proving to
be popular tourist attractions, putting glaciers and their protection back on the national agenda.
All of the Central Asia countries with glaciers (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan) are in the process of compiling glacier inventories through a combination of field research
and satellite imagery. Given that the last such assessment was
lk
Ba
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100
200
300 km
Ghulja
Qyzylorda
Map produced by ZOÏ Environment Network, February 2012
Ch
u
Kapchagay Lake
K
A
Z
A
K
H
S
T
A
Almaty
Ts. Tyuyksu
N
Turkestan
Bishkek
Taraz
Enylchek
7439
Jengish (Pobeda)
Peak
Ysyk-Kol
Kara-Batkak
Akshirak
massif Petrov
Adegyne
Shymkent
Talgar Peak
4979
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Aksu
5982
Dankova Peak
Tashkent
Namangan
Kokand
Skalisty Peak
5621
Samarkand
Zeravshan
TAJIKISTAN
Karshi
Dushanbe
Kashgar
Abramov
He
Jizakh
Navoiy
Osh
Ferghana
C
H
I
N
A
Yarka
nt
UZBEKISTAN
Kujand
n He
Hota
During the Soviet era, meteorological monitoring received extensive support from the state and was an important aspect of
environmental planning across Central Asia. The Soviet hydrometeorological service was strategically important, but its high
level of staffing and funding were beyond the means of the new
countries, and over the past 20 years, the quality of the stations
and the equipment has declined sharply, and the vast majority
of former monitoring sites are in a state of neglect. This is due in
part to the failure of the newly independent states to recognize
the importance of meteorological forecasting and data and to
ensure that environmental monitoring remained a priority on the
national agenda. The high costs of maintaining and servicing
weather monitoring stations, particularly in mountain countries,
also contributed to the decline in investment in meteorological
services.
Ice, snow and permafrost
0
Taldykorgan
Ili
Hydrometeorology
Glacial monitoring sites
a
ary
rD
Arguably, much of the baseline information for current environmental research in the Pamir mountains comes from an ironic
source – the search for Bigfoot. Rampant speculation in the
1960s regarding the existence of Bigfoot led scientists, under
the guidance of K. Stanukovich, to advocate successfully for an
expedition of discovery in the Pamirs. The ensuing research uncovered no credible evidence of the elusive Bigfoot, but it did
establish a significant base of knowledge related to botany and
physical geography, and considerably advanced environmental
knowledge in the region.
The replacement of manual monitoring with modern technology
and the corresponding reduction in the reliance on human labour are other important trends in meteorological observation in
the region. These developments permit more efficient and consistent monitoring of weather conditions in remote and inhospitable mountain areas, but local institutions have often greeted
the introduction of new technologies with distrust. This situation
is changing and automatic weather stations are being integrated into daily operations. The monitoring equipment provided by
donors is often specific to the country of origin, and requires
specialized training as the technology varies across the region. A
more coordinated approach by donors is needed in this regard.
Meteorological stations
Sy
Environmental monitoring and research provide an essential
base for sustainable mountain development. The collection
and analysis of hydrometeorological observations enable the
weather and climate forecasting that benefits farmers and that
supports disaster risk reduction. The monitoring of glaciers and
permafrost tracks the progression of climate change, and helps
scientists predict the downstream implications of a changing
mountain environment. Research and conservation related to
biodiversity and land resources help ensure the continuing provision of valuable ecosystem services. And geologic and seismic
research encourage the development of mineral resources and
lessen the potential impacts of natural disasters.
tion recognizing the benefits of having reliable weather forecasting systems in place across the region. The role and impact of the
weather on agriculture, notably crop production, is one aspect
that has captured the attention of many governments in Central
Asia. Equipped during Soviet times to monitor the surrounding
vegetation and land, the agrometeorological stations proved
extremely useful for the forecasting of summer grass growth
and the conditions of pastures for grazing. The benefits of this
agricultural meteorology are once again being recognized, and
investment in the necessary infrastructure should be encouraged. Seasonal weather forecasting – the prediction of weather
patterns for the coming months – is a particular challenge and
requires further improvement.
sh
Lak
Monitoring and research
ha
Glaciers and high mountain
climate observation
7134
Lenin Peak
Fedchenko
7495
Ismoil Somoni Peak
6974 Independence Peak
7719
Kongur Shan
Hotan
Termiz
Amu
Darya
Mazar-e Sharif
A F G H A N I S T A N
7282
PAKISTAN
done in the 1970s, this is a timely development. Since 2005, international donors have established several new glacier monitoring sites. One site – established with with Czech support near
Bishkek at Adegyne glacier – is helping in early warning of potentially devastating glacial lake outbursts. In addition, German
support and the participation of the Central Asian Institute for
Applied Geosciences and the German Research Center for Geosciences established a site on Enylchek, the largest glacier in Kyrgyzstan, as a multi-purpose science complex equipped to meas-
Disthegil Sar
7885
7788
Rakaposhi
Muztag
8611
K2
ure not only glacier activity, but also weather patterns, mountain
lakes, paleoclimate and even the movement of tectonic plates.
The methodology and approach to glacier monitoring has
changed significantly since the end of Soviet rule, bringing both
benefits and drawbacks for the region. On the plus side, there is
now a greater involvement of local scientists in glacier monitoring activities, as opposed to the dominant involvement of experts from the central institutions in Moscow or Tashkent. On
95
the downside, the growing autonomy of countries within Central Asia has led to a diverse array of glacier monitoring and
assessment methodologies and a subsequent lack of regional
coordination and compatibility. In an attempt to overcome this
problem, the long-standing glacier monitoring center in Kazakhstan, in collaboration with UNESCO, is starting to hold regional
glacier-focused conferences to encourage better regional coordination. Kazakhstan and UNESCO have recently established a
regional glacier centre in Almaty.
In response to the increasing impacts of climate change, a number of global researchers are heading to Central Asia to undertake ice-drilling and glacier measurement activities, a practice
the Soviet authorities never extensively pursued. With the use of
advanced technology, scientific researchers are now able to drill
down to depths of 1 000 metres and are developing a deeper
understanding of the impact of climate change on the region’s
glaciers. High levels of competition between the various glacier
research groups is, however, a persistent problem. The limited
exchange of information can result in a repetition of activities
and be detrimental to the development of effective measures.
In the Soviet period, snow researchers placed gauges in the
mountains, and using helicopters, calculated accurate measurements of water equivalency from annual snowfall. With the
withdrawal of Soviet support, these procedures proved to be too
expensive to continue. Recent attempts to replace the earlier
programme with satellite observations are promising, but the
new approach needs more testing, and a 20-year gap in observations remains. Soviet-era meteorological stations with a focus on
snow research are still in service, and continue to take manual
measurements and to provide avalanche risk analysis and warnings crucial to local decision-making. Researchers have made
initial efforts to automate the system of snow measurements,
but the new methods are unproven.
Kazakhstan operates a special laboratory for permafrost monitoring and a research site with a dozen thermometric wells up
to 300 metres deep, and advises important economic sectors of
their findings. This laboratory does not have the same capacity
as in the Soviet period, but it delivers useful information. It conducted permafrost research at several sites in the central regions
of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan in the 1970s and 1980s. A renewed
focus on permafrost research can assist in the development of
mining and roads, rails and other infrastructure.
Biodiversity and land resources
In Central Asia, mountain biodiversity conservation is carried out
in three key ways – through the upkeep of botanical gardens,
animal reserves and nurseries; in specially designated wild nature conservation sites; and through nature parks and reserves.
These efforts are usually funded by both national institutions and
through international projects and bilateral cooperation channels.
The Pamir botanical garden near the Tajik town of Khorog is one
of the highest botanical gardens in the world (at an elevation of
2 000 metres), and is now a popular tourist destination. Diminished funding and local capacity, however, have resulted in a decline in the maintenance levels of many of the region’s botanical
gardens and natural parks. Similarly, small mountain research
centres have virtually disappeared over the past 20 years, mainly
as a result of privatization or poor budget management.
Nature parks and reserves have generally been retained and protected throughout the independence era, with many flora and
fauna conservation programmes being carried out by scientific
and public institutions across the region. While this is a welcome
development, these programmes are becoming outdated and
should be reassessed to account for modern trends and challenges such as climate change and an increase in invasive species.
Inventories of mountain forest areas should also be carried out
in a more systematic way, especially given that forest protection
also directly benefits lowland areas. Kyrgyzstan, with the help of
the Swiss government, is the only Central Asian country to have
completed an up-to-date inventory of mountain forests, and offers hope that other countries will do the same. On the positive
side, heightened global awareness and interest in the region’s
snow leopard and other endangered species has led to an increase in state and donor funding for biodiversity conservation.
Local authorities are starting to take more control over what
was a poorly monitored and unregulated system of land use and
conservation. In the immediate aftermath of independence, a
chaotic period of illegal land grabbing ensued, and the central
authorities were unable to determine how the land was used.
Over the past five–ten years, governments and donors have begun to pay more attention to ensuring that land is used sustainably and to investing in systems to register lands, and to monitor
soil erosion and the quality of crop production. Up-to-date soil
inventories do not exist in the region, but steps to improve this
system are welcome, despite the slow level of progress so far.
Since 2000, a new focus on biodiversity research employs
sophisticated techniques to link species population numbers
across borders. The results of this research are used to regulate
96
hunting and to improve biodiversity protection in the region.
In addition to this effort, the World Wildlife Fund is promoting
the development of maps of ecological networks and migration corridors, and is working to establish buffer zones to limit
disturbances from human activity.
Finally, governments in Central Asia are looking to follow the
lead of the United Kingdom and other countries in formally
evaluating the monetary value of national ecosystems and their
benefits. This kind of assessment will help in determining how
much should be invested in nature protection initiatives and may
encourage further funding. If mountain regions can prove both
the value and critical importance of their existence, downstream
countries may also be encouraged to invest in highland areas.
These activities are in line with the Nagoya Protocol and are
beneficial in ensuring that the genetic resources of countries are
valued, recognized and invested in accordingly.
Geological survey and seismology
State-funded geological research during the Soviet era identified deposits of various precious minerals in significant quantities across Central Asia. Under Soviet rule, however, only a
small number of mining facilities, notably in Kyrgyzstan and
Tajikistan, were given the green light to exploit the sites. In
Kyrgyzstan the private sector is now taking over geological research and developing the country’s mining sector. The nature
of the private geological research is proving to be more detailed than in Soviet times and more oriented towards attracting global interest to Kyrgyzstan’s mining sector. In contrast,
Tajikistan – despite being on the path to a market economy
and democratic reforms – has not yet encouraged private or
foreign investment in the country’s mining sector, and its geological research remains under-developed and lacking capacity. Kyrgyzstan provided its skilled labour force with incentives
to stay in the geological research and mining sector, but many
skilled workers from Tajikistan have left the country in search
of better pay and working conditions.
The governments of Central Asia are increasingly better equipped
to manage emergency situations. In the wake of the devastating
tsunami that struck Japan in March 2011, however, and the nuclear crisis which ensued at the Fukushima nuclear plant, Central
Asian countries need to review the security of their industrial
facilities. Given that the region is at particular risk from flash
flooding, earthquakes and landslides, measures to prevent accidents involving industrial facilities such as mines (and tailings),
dams and power plants should be put in place.
Other mountain research
The Soviets conducted high-level research in fundamental physics and solar energy in the mountains of Central Asia. This research, which focused on high-energy particles in cosmic rays,
was reduced after 1991, but Russian and other international
interest in the work has given rise to the possibility of restarting the research by renewing the existing facilities and installing new equipment. The Soviets also employed high-elevation
telescopes in Central Asia observatories, and these facilities are
still in use for satellite tracking, and for astronomy.
The research started by the Soviets on the health effects associated with life at high elevations has expanded to include international scientists who participate with Central Asian colleagues
on joint efforts, the results of which are now more widely shared
in the scientific community.
The infrastructure, resources and facilities needed for seismic research have largely remained in place in Central Asia. But although
the equipment and technology has undergone a degree of modernization, the results of seismic research remain disconnected
from practical implications for community facilities such as housing. Business development plans still need to take into account the
potential consequences of seismic activity. (See pages 116-117 for
recent developments in seismic research in the region.)
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2. Case studies:
Progress, changes and lessons learned
Networks
Three of the case study projects demonstrate the benefits of
networking among groups working on mountain sustainable development – the Central Asian Mountain Partnership network,
the Alliance of Central Asian Mountain Communities experience
exchange and the Interstate Commission on Sustainable Development in Central Asia.
The Central Asian Mountain Partnership network
The Central Asian Mountain Partnership (CAMP) focuses on institutional development for civil society organizations:
Started with action-oriented research and baseline studies in
three Central Asian countries, CAMP consisted of small-scale
projects on natural resource management; livelihood and village
development; community mobilization; and the introduction
of participatory mechanisms. This initial work was undertaken
jointly with the Centre for Development and Environment supported by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation.
This project became especially relevant in the wake of the year
2002, which was declared the International Year of Mountains
by the United Nations. At that time Central Asian states received
a rare opportunity to attract the world's attention to the problems of rural people living in mountain areas.
T
he problems constraining sustainable mountain development are formidable, among them: environmental
challenges and poor natural resource management;
limited infrastructure and local development opportunities; poor economic performance and governance inefficiencies; poverty; and the erosion of education. The demand and
the will to tackle these problems are on the rise and are genuine.
Some demands have roots in the previous high standards and levels
of education, security, energy and food sufficiency.
Over the past 20 years the Central Asian mountains have benefited from numerous sustainable development projects and
initiatives. The sponsors and participants have included gov-
98
The network aimed at promoting sustainable development in the
mountainous regions of Central Asia, and soon spun off successor organizations – CAMP Alatoo in Kyrgyzstan, CAMP Kuhiston
in Tajikistan and CAMP Consulting in Kazakhstan, all part of the
CAMP network. These newly established agencies faced the immediate challenge of strengthening their own capacity and securing institutional stability.
Civil society in Central Asia has developed significantly since 1991.
A more open and enabling environment, and the urgent need to
plug gaps in social services left by the withdrawal of state support,
have led to the mushrooming of civil society organizations (CSOs).
In Tajikistan, for example, by 2011 the number of CSOs exceeded
2 000, up from 150 operating in the mid-1990s. In Kyrgyzstan, the
number of civil society organizations exceeds 8 000. Governments
accept the role and contribution of CSOs to democratic transformation and socio-economic development.
The institutional growth for the CAMP agencies took place in parallel with the formation and growth of local institutions supported under the programme: the Territorial Public Self-governance
bodies (TPSs) at the village level, and the Alliance of Mountain
Communities of Central Asia and the Mountain Villages Partnership and Development Foundation at the regional level. Thanks
to successful partnerships, the geographical focus of projects has
been expanded and sustainability ensured. The projects on energy
efficiency, pasture management and local risk management have
ernments, international organizations, NGOs – both global and
local – and educational and scientific institutions. This part of
the report presents excerpts from case studies on selected sustainable development projects in the region. The cases are a selection of stories outlining the progress, challenges and lessons
learned on the path towards sustainable mountain development
in Central Asia. Individual cases demonstrate how the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability connect
and overlap, and taken together the cases show the progress
made in the mountains in this critical period of adjustment. The
case study projects typically relate to one or more of the trends
discussed in Part 1.
Community members discussing rural development plans
99
Villagers checking their harvest
Experience exchange: The Alliance of Central
Asian Mountain Communities
Setting up a Kyrgyz yurt at a summer pasture
been implemented in all three countries. As the CAMP agencies
evolved in different specializations, some difficulties in cooperation arose. Currently, CAMP Consulting in Kazakhstan focuses on
felt products, CAMP Kuhiston in Tajikistan is strong in disaster
management and CAMP Alatoo in Kyrgyzstan focuses on pastures
and mountain development in general.
The main outcome of the CAMP network effort is seen in the local capacity-building for integrated management of the natural
resource base. Capacity-building efforts including the well-known
training modules such as “Learning for Sustainability - L4S”
helped to introduce participatory management and partnership
principles, thus empowering local communities and fostering a
new generation of local leadership and community-based institutions safeguarding environmental sustainability in conjunction
with economic profit.
The L4S module is based on the approach developed by the Centre
for Development and Environment of Bern University and adapted
for local conditions by CAMP Alatoo and CAMP Kuhiston. This approach promotes group learning on priority topics related to sustainable development: sustainable pasture management, water
resources management, integrated local risk management, energy
efficiency, conflict over natural resources and others.
100
The programme mobilized local communities to take ownership of
their own destinies instead of maintaining a passive, anticipatory
position. As the CAMP network interventions are guided by the
integrated and holistic approach to local development, many of
initiatives have been replicated and scaled up by others.
Eleven years of institutional sustenance also demonstrates the
growth in terms of local capacity and leadership. The geographic
focus for the CAMP projects and programmes and their high degree
of relevance and responsiveness to local needs have been built on
strong linkages with mountain communities. The annual CAMP
forum networking events provide opportunities for sharing experiences and fostering dialogue between the concerned stakeholders
and the general public. The 2004 CAMP forum focused on "Social
mobilization and village development"; in 2005, "The role of local
self-governance in sustainable development"; in 2006, "Strategies
for sustainable energy use in villages"; in 2007, "Cooperation with
state structures at the local community level"; in 2008, "Mountain
communities and business – dialogue and cooperation"; in 2009,
"Labour migration – facing challenges and opportunities"; in 2010,
"Central Asian mountain communities and climate change – call to
action"; and in 2011, " Mountain Green product – challenges and
opportunities for mountain communities of Central Asia". About 100
participants attended each forum. These forums bring forward the
voices of mountain communities to the national and regional levels
and show the importance of working together for a common goal.
The Alliance of Central Asian Mountain Communities (AGOCA)
was founded in 2003 with the overall goal of assisting in the
sustainable development in the Central Asian mountains. The
AGOCA approach to its goal entails training and the exchange
of information and experiences:
At the foundation of the Alliance, 10 pilot villages were selected
from three countries – Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan –
to develop the AGOCA mission. The main expectations of the
communities was that AGOCA provide updated mountain-related information to its members as well as regular exchangeof-experience visits among the villages and countries. Today,
AGOCA is active in 40 villages.
Since 2003 AGOCA has carried out practical and theoretical
workshops and training in such areas as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Solar cabinets for cooking
Processing of dairy products at home
Willow-twining
Wool processing
Microfinance
Energy efficiency
To date, more than 2 500 villagers have participated in AGOCA
training and have acquired skills and knowledge that enhance
their capacity and increase their opportunities. From 2003 to
2009, twice-annual national meetings in the three countries focused on the exchange of communities’ experiences and discus-
sions of realized projects and plans for the coming year. Members who attend the exchange-of-experience visits pay only their
transportation costs one way, while AGOCA covers the other
way and the hosts provide meals and lodging.
The annual AGOCA Conference, rotated among the member countries, serves as a general assembly meeting of AGOCA members
and Territorial Public Self-governance bodies, and is the Alliance’s
main decision-making body. Thanks to AGOCA training, the leaders of the TPSs have won a high degree of respect in their communities: four have become deputies in local self-governments and
two have become heads of their villages.
The publishing of White Books – collections of successfully realized AGOCA projects in Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Kazakhstan
– was a significant achievement. With the aim of broader dissemination of good practices among our villages and abroad,
the White Books were published from 2004 to 2007 in five
languages: Kyrgyz, Tajik, Kazakh, Russian and English. Once a
year AGOCA also publishes its own magazine in the five AGOCA
languages. Distributed through AGOCA members and partner
organizations to all the countries of Central Asia, AGOCA magazine covers projects from planning to implementation, and includes recommendations and lessons learned.
In 2011, AGOCA founded the Kyrgyz language newspaper Ayil
Demi (Spirit of the Village) with a circulation of 5 000. The
newspaper covers the development issues of mountain communities in Kyrgyzstan and provides a platform to express their
needs, thoughts and good practices.
101
The Interstate Commission on Sustainable
Development in Central Asia
The Interstate Commission on Sustainable Development in Central Asia (ICSD) was established in 1994 and coordinates and
manages regional cooperation in environmental protection and
sustainable development in Central Asia. The Commission consists of representatives from environmental ministries and agencies, and ministries of economy and science. A similar Commission dealing with water issues is composed of representatives of
water ministries. The Commission allows participation of civil society organizations as observers and cooperates with the youth
environmental network of Central Asia:
The Sustainable Development Commission was instrumental
in developing the Regional Environmental Action Plan (2001),
which targets air pollution, water resources, land degradation,
mountain ecosystems and waste management. Over the last
decade, the Commission produced themed reports on emerging
environmental and development issues such as renewable energy, sound chemicals management, atmospheric brown cloud
and stability of mountain lakes, and provided inputs to the Global Environment Outlooks 4 and 5. In 2009, the ICSD produced
ICSD meeting, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, June 2007
102
a draft regional strategy on adaptation to climate change. The
initiative "Green Bridge", which aims to promote the partnership among Europe, Asia and the Pacific, was also facilitated and
supported by the Commission.
The Commission has provided substantial inputs to the development of the "Framework Convention on Environmental Protection
for Sustainable Development of Central Asia", which was endorsed
in 2006. Prolonged procedures in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan,
however, have prevented this Convention from coming into effect.
In 2007–2008, the Commission formulated a "Sub-Regional Strategy on Sustainable Development of Central Asia", which is pending approval. Both documents highlight the role of mountain areas
as regionally important providers of ecosystem goods and services.
The ICSD supported the initiative of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan
to establish the Regional Mountain Centre of Central Asia in
Bishkek in 2007. This initiative promotes cooperation for mountain ecosystems conservation, sustainable use and improved socio-economic conditions of the mountain people. The significant
continuous dependency of the Commission's activities on external funding, however, created financial vulnerability. Currently,
new funding mechanisms are being discussed.
Yapshorv and Roshkorv villages, Bartang Valley, Tajikistan
103
Food, biodiversity and land
management
of sanitation and hygiene through mass campaigns and public
meetings. Kitchen gardeners have since become more independent and need less support from VHCs. The Training and Extension
System (TES) Centre and Osh Rural Advisory Service conducted
training on making compost, conserving vegetables and preparing
fresh salads and juices to obtain the maximum nutritional benefit
from harvested vegetables. The TES Centre also helped develop a
manual with this critical gardening information and the measures
to avoid bacterial contamination (particularly botulism) during the
process of canning vegetables. Local government, including Aiyl
Okmutus (AOs) and village organizations, assisted in collecting
information and identifying candidates for participation. The Kyrgyz Republic Ministry of Agriculture, through its district agricultural departments, benefits from the increased production in their
districts in line with their mandate.
The first case in this group of four is a kitchen garden project
from Kyrgyzstan. The next two cases consider pasture management in the mountains. The first pasture project, also located in
Kyrgyzstan, takes a community-based natural resources management approach, and works at the watershed level. The second is
a cross-border collaboration between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan
on regional cooperation for sustainable resource management.
The final case in this group is a Kyrgyz–Swiss collaboration in
sustainable forestry.
K
Kyrgyz high-altitude kitchen gardens
A Z A K H S T A N
Almaty
KAZAKHSTAN
Bishkek
Tashkent
UZBEKISTAN
KYRGYZSTAN
Setting up high-altitude kitchen gardens, Alai Valley, Kyrgyzstan
Osh
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TAJIKISTAN
Dushanbe
Kyrgyz high-altitude kitchen gardens
The Kyrgyzstan Mountain Societies Development Support ProMain
areas and
gramme
(MSDSP
KG)villages
used a multi-input area development approach in a kitchen gardens project that combined market developMap produced
by ZOÏ Environment Network, November
2011
and
A F G H ment,
A N I natural
S T A Nresource management
PAKISTA
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The kitchen garden project links with Village Health Committees
(VHCs) – independent institutions comprised of volunteers elected by the villagers and headed by a medical professionals – and
works within a challenging context where villagers commonly
express disbelief in the potential for vegetable cultivation in highaltitude mountain areas. Kyrgyzstan’s high mountain communities
have low population densities and limited market access. District
center markets generally operate only once a week, and due to
high transportation costs, vegetable prices are at least three times
higher than in urban areas.
In 2005, an initial baseline survey of health conditions in the Alai
and Chon-Alai districts of Kyrgyzstan revealed that the vast ma104
jority of health problems suffered by women and children were
related to nutrient deficiencies and malnutrition. The survey
demonstrated an apparent need for improved access to nutrientrich diets to mitigate anemia especially among mountain-dwelling mothers and children.
In 2006, the MSDSP KG Health Programme launched a project to
address the poor nutritional status of women and children by introducing kitchen gardens in the high-altitude communities (2 000–3
100 m) of the Alai and Chon-Alai, areas that have not traditionally
grown vegetables. The introduction of vegetable cultivation is encouraged through direct training and the provision of instructional
booklets, high quality seeds (tomatoes, carrots, sweet peppers, red
beets and cabbage), and materials to build greenhouses. The overall objective of the project was to improve access to fresh vegetables in high-altitude communities. The project has established 310
kitchen gardens in 28 villages in the Alai and Chon-Alai districts, or
in 35 per cent of the villages.
The outcomes included:
• An improved nutritional status among women and
children resulting from reduced susceptibility to vitamin and mineral deficiencies
•
•
A paradigm shift changing the perceptions of highmountain communities about the possibility of growing vegetables in high-altitude climates
Alternative income-generating opportunities for poor,
remote mountain-dwelling households.
The kitchen gardens were initiated with a very small pilot sampling of households – just six groups (two in the Alai, four in the
Chon-Alai) of less than 60 households. The present number of
310 kitchen gardening households was achieved incrementally,
and specifically based on best practices as assessed annually.
This methodology was a key factor in the project’s success. An
overall assessment of the project brings to light the successful
combination of environmentally sound technologies, including
climate- and altitude-appropriate techniques, which proved to
coalesce for a net benefit: improved health status, improved soil
quality and income generation.
Village Health Committees disseminated information and played a
strong organizational role in the project from the very beginning.
Their main responsibilities included disseminating information on
the prevention of common diseases, assisting with immunizations, monitoring of proper nutrition and adherence to standards
On average, each kitchen gardener generated US$ 280 in additional income from selling vegetables. Of more than 20 kitchen
gardeners interviewed, half produce enough vegetables (cabbage, tomatoes, carrots) to be able to sell a part of their harvest.
In contrast to the land-use practices of typical households, this
crop diversification strategy promotes the use of crop rotation,
which prevents the degradation of soil quality, excessive erosion,
insect and disease problems and phytotoxic effects. According to
2008 government data, potatoes were cultivated on three thousand hectares of land in the Alai and Chon-Alai districts. Almost
every kitchen gardener participating in the project attested to
growing solely potatoes before the intervention. Therefore, the
crop diversification and rotation practices promoted food security and sustainable land use of high-mountain arable lands.
Most of the kitchen gardeners were able to preserve vegetables
for the winter period from vegetables they had grown. On average, each household preserved 30–50 liters of vegetables. Socially,
this improved their community standing and ability to meet the demands of holidays and receiving guests. Both the seasonally fresh
vegetables and preserved vegetables contributed to the improved
health status of project participants. Of the participants surveyed,
56 per cent reported improvements in health, especially in the
health of women and children.
Overall, the change in attitudes was the most difficult objective to
attain, and the most significant outcome of this project. Kitchen
gardeners – and their many neighbours who witnessed the successful growing of vegetables – now believe that vegetables can
be grown in high-altitude mountain communities. The successes of
the kitchen gardens of 310 project-sponsored households affected
the attitudes and beliefs of over 9 000 households in 28 villages.
The project had no negative environmental effects, but there is the
105
Sustainable pasture management
potential for future damages to soil content and pasture quality if
crop rotation practices are not maintained. In order to ensure their
maintenance, MSDSP KG plans to increase the capacity of local
governments and district agricultural departments to serve as advocates of this environmentally sound approach.
K
As the success of the kitchen gardens reduced the demand for
valley produce, the negative economic effects of the project fell
on those businesses who earn money transporting vegetables
weekly from valleys to the mountain regions. The negative social
effects were limited to a lifestyle adjustment. Traditional Kyrgyz
mountain communities sustained themselves primarily on livestock. Many semi-nomadic communities travel to summer pastures at high altitudes and have been doing so for generations.
Vegetable cultivation requires close care and interferes with the
semi-nomadic lifestyle traditionally practiced in the region.
Additional marketing skills are needed for kitchen gardeners who
intend to increase vegetable production and serve their villages
as well as neighboring ones. For instance, farmers from Jekendi
and Karamyk villages of the Chon-Alai can make a wider variety
of vegetables available to communities in the Kashka-Suu subdistrict, which is more than 2 800 metres above sea level, and
where growing vegetables such as tomatoes and sweet peppers
is difficult and arable land is limited.
The project subsidized 70 per cent of the total cost for each villager interested in starting a kitchen garden and the villager was
expected to pay back 30 per cent to the project to be shared
between the Village Organization and the VHC. But repayment
rarely occurred on time, leaving these stakeholders emptyhanded. Currently, this poor mechanism for the collection and
disbursement of seed costs undermines the relationship and
trust between kitchen gardeners and stakeholders. The VHCs are
supposed to collect and manage the funds, but gardeners are
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Almaty
Bishkek
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In 2011, the kitchen gardens were studied to analyze the results of the kitchen garden initiatives, to identify the challenges
faced by the beneficiaries and to discover opportunities for
marketing vegetables.
Access to high-quality and climate-appropriate vegetable seeds and
pest control remains one of the main challenges for project participants. There is a need to develop small seed shops locally because
many kitchen gardeners from remote areas of the Chon-Alai reported travelling 300 kilometres to Osh city to locate seed vendors.
Despite the relatively low concentration of pests at high altitudes,
farmers are still challenged by the unavailability of insecticides and
herbicides locally for their high-altitude farming practices.
A
office in the Naryn region maintained vertical liaison with all local stakeholders. A network of local pasture committees and
microfinance agencies was created to disseminate sustainable
pasture management tools developed by CAMP, and to encourage replication in other regions. Initial investments were made
in repairing the pasture infrastructure and in increasing winter
feed production. Learning for Sustainability (L4S) modules were
developed for local community training, and field offices were
set up to work with the communities of CAMP pilot villages.
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Maturing crops in high-altitude kitchen gardens
resistant to pay because they do not have a clear understanding
of the intended use of the money. Village Health Committees
– and local governments, for that matter – lack the transparency needed to operate such a system. The system needs to be
reevaluated and remedied.
The initiative could be expanded to other villages where communities traditionally have not grown vegetables. Further plans
are being developed to organize exchange visits to other highaltitude farming environments where market approaches have
been successfully integrated – in China, for example. Additionally, project evaluations suggest that kitchen gardeners would
greatly benefit from improved links to input supply chains.
Additionally, the project will seek to expand the involvement
of stakeholders in multiple stages of implementation. Specifically, the AOs and district agricultural departments need further
training so they can play a more active role as a resource and
work towards institutionalizing the healthy development of their
citizens. Local government members can be invited to kitchen
garden training and learn to facilitate the promotion of access
to high-quality inputs.
A F G HOne
A NofI Sthe
T Aorganizations
N
in Kthe
PA
I SCentral
T A N Asian Mountain Partnership network is CAMP Alatoo, an NGO that promotes sustainable development in the mountains of Kyrgyzstan. The importance of livestock grazing for mountain livelihoods and the
degraded conditions of Kyrgyz pasture land prompted CAMP
Alatoo to initiate a project on sustainable pasture management
at the watershed level:
The project covered an area of 200 000 hectares of pasture land
in the watersheds of the Zhergetal and On-Archa Rivers in the
mountainous Naryn region of Kyrgyzstan. Villages from five ayil
okrugs (rural administrative districts) participated in the initiative. The ayil okrugs and the number of residents in each are
as follows: Zhergetal (5 420); Minbulak (5 123); Onarcha (3 138);
Kazankuigan (1 130); and Emgekchil (3 025).
The collaboration between CAMP Alatoo and local pasture users started with awareness-raising workshops conducted for local communities. These training sessions helped to identify the
village activists with whom CAMP Alatoo continued to work,
building their capacity as members of “pioneer” pasture committees well before the 2009 Pasture Law that gave locals the
right to manage and utilize pasture resources at their own discretion. The collaboration also involved local authorities, as well
as pasture departments at the village and district levels. The field
The goal of CAMP’s sustainable pasture management effort was
to improve resource management practices through participatory
and community-based processes. Addressing pasture management
in all its complexity enables herders – the primary user groups – to
make well-informed decisions on herd size and pasture resource
management. The objectives were to enable herders to join the
efforts for collective actions on the maintenance of pasture infrastructure; to improve their capacity for assessment, planning and
monitoring; and to achieve the sustainable use of the common resources. Reaching these objectives would improve the productivity
and profitability of the livestock sector and thereby reduce poverty.
Initial investments were made in repairing the pasture infrastructure and in increasing winter feed production. In each pilot
village a micro-credit agency was established to support sustainable pasture management initiatives. This is an ongoing process,
not an easy one given the difficulties of crippled infrastructure,
destroyed extension services and livelihood challenges. Mobilizing herders for the co-management of resources was one of the
project’s biggest challenges. It took time to convince the herders
of the need to change grazing practices, and to provide training
in the skills necessary to maintain pasture resources and to manage herd size and quality. Prior to the 2009 Pasture Law, local
institutions had no authority to manage pasture resources, and
the institutional split among local, district and regional authorities often created more challenges regarding land tenure and
land use in near-village, intensive and remote pastures.
As the resource base for the livestock sector is better managed,
the benefits can be seen in improved environmental quality for
pastures and in more areas restored. The reduced pressure on
grazing land resulting from the introduction of improved breeds,
together with a flexible pasture management system, improved
the environmental quality of pastures and enabled the restoration
of more areas. The monitoring data that pasture users were trained
to collect can be used as indicators for the environmental outputs
in succeeding years. The yields in terms of economic profits are visible when the herds are better managed through focusing on herd
quality. Timely pasture rotation results in better fattening of the
107
Pamir-Alai Land Management and regional
cooperation in mountainous countries
Qyzylorda
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Several trainings, seminars and round-tables on a broad range
of topics covering sustainable land management, including the
FAO Land Assessment in Dry Areas (LADA) methodology were
conducted in Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan. At present, this methodology is increasingly used by pasture committees.
Almaty
Bishkek
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UZBEKISTAN
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Navoiy
Karshi
Family reviewing pasture tickets
herd, thus producing more profits and a preferred quality of meat
from open range grazing in high mountain pastures.
In addition to reduced poverty and increased food security, the
social aspects of the project are evident in the decentralization
process that reached the village level with the establishment of
democratically elected Pasture Committees. In the pilot area three
Pasture Committees were established and the project supported
the development of local pasture management plans that include
activities for pasture infrastructure improvement, including bridges
and access roads to remote pastures.
One outcome of the new Kyrgyz pasture law is that with 450 legally
empowered pasture committees ("Jayet Committees") nationwide,
local representatives better present and promote the long-term interests of the community, while numerous intermediary institutions
and bureaucracies are eliminated. Another feature is the application of the market user fee-based mechanisms that would be fully
retained at the local level and reinvested into the conservation of
pastures. The size of user fees varies and is set by the local community depending on the needs for sustainable use and conservation
of pastures. The financial capacity available from fees rose from
nine million Kyrgyz soms (US$ 200 000) in 2008 to 33 million soms
(US$ 730 000) in 2010. In pilot villages covered by CAMP Alatoo,
the fee collection rates reach 80–90 per cent.
108
A heightened sense of community and sense of responsibility for
the stewardship and ownership of resources is apparent when
herders and community members sit together to coordinate their
moves to summer pastures, repair bridges by mobilizing their own
resources or develop and implement pasture use plans. The project’s participatory and inclusive processes of negotiation, reporting and accountability contributed to local community empowerment and capacity improvement at all levels. Ulan Bakaev, 36,
from Zhergetal village described his experience this way:
“The CAMP Alatoo project changed my life and helped to improve the well-being of my family. A few years ago I used to be
one of the village jobless trouble-makers, spending days in pottering around the village and drinking. Driven by poverty and
desperately seeking for the ways to support my wife and kids,
I even decided to go to Russia for earnings...But then CAMP
Alatoo launched their project in our aiyl okrug, and I joined
those folks who attended their training and became actively
involved in the project activities... Now I am a member of the
local Pasture Committee, I am respected by my community,
they even put forward my name in the elections for the village
head last year... The knowledge and skills gained in the CAMP
Alatoo project helped me to improve my farming management
skills and earn more money. I’ve got skills on artificial insemination and improve not only my livestock quality, but provide
services to other villagers...”
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AFGHANISTAN
tween local communities and local and central government authorities. Due to the uncertainties of climate and the fluctuations
in distant and local markets, local communities require secure resource rights and long-term security of land tenure and occupancy
rights if they are to adopt sustainable land management practices
and assume responsibility for ecosystem protection.
PAKISTAN
A transboundary initiative of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, the
Pamir-Alai Land Management (PALM) project is funded by the
Global Environment Facility and numerous national and international partners. The project considers the link between poverty
and land degradation, and seeks to restore, sustain and enhance
the mountain ecosystems to the benefit of the economic and
social well-being of the rural communities:
The project area focuses on the Pamir Mountains in Tajikistan
and the Pamir-Alai Mountain ranges in Kyrgyzstan. The region is
highly diverse. It contains within its borders a great variety of climatic, topographic and ecological conditions, leading to different forms of land use and to livelihood systems based on natural
resources. The area can be divided into three broad subregions
differentiated on the basis of topographic, climatic and sociocultural and land-use differences.
Given that all land resources are legally the property of the state,
the lack of clarity regarding private user rights for individual farm
plots, together with de facto common property resources (e.g.,
pastures, wildlife, woodlands), encourage short-term resource exploitation rather than long-term conservation. The results include
a lack of stewardship, a deterrent to invest in conservation and
disputes over occupancy and resource use rights within and be-
The issue of pasture rotation is extremely important. A successful
pasture rotation programme would allow animals to graze on remote pastures for longer periods of the year and could contribute to
remediating the land degradation due to overgrazing close to the villages while at the same time increasing the quality of the livestock.
In combination with pasture management, work is needed to restore
the degraded land. Most urgent is the recovery and re-establishment of shrubby vegetation and forests. This has long-term positive
effects on the sustainable supply of fuel wood, on regeneration of
biodiversity and wildlife and on carbon sequestration in the region.
As part of the PALM project, targeted communities in the
Alai Mountains in Kyrgyzstan and in the Pamir Mountains in
Tajikistan are developing their own land-use plans and implementing specific micro-projects incorporating sustainable land
management. Beyond the local level, PALM supports the strategic and policy environment for sustainable land management
on a regional scale. The strategy and action plan for the entire
project area (endorsed in 2011) covers four priorities:
•
•
•
•
Improving biodiversity and forest management
Increasing the efficiency of farming
Improving the sustainable use of mountain pastures and
increasing the productivity of livestock
Reducing risks from natural disasters.
The strategy and action plan is supported by a memorandum
of understanding signed by central environmental authorities of
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and by the administrations of the Osh
Province in Kyrgyzstan and the Mountain Badakhshan Autonomous Province and the Jergetal district in Tajikistan.
In parallel, research and advisory agencies are working with local
communities on targeted approaches – such as introducing improved fodder cropping and improved goat husbandry; an analysis
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of the value chain of local products from the Pamir Alai region;
promoting community-based protection areas and wildlife protection; and the mapping of local small-scale hydropower potential
and natural disaster hazards and land use risks in the area – as
well as on assessing global and regional price trends and the demand for wool, berries and medicinal plants.
Local experts consider that the experience gained in the PALM
project implementation is worth demonstrating in other mountain areas of Central Asia and beyond. One mechanism for
knowledge exchange is the World Overview of Conservation
Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT), which already features
selected PALM lessons.
Jamoats in Tajikistan and aiyl okmots in Kyrgyzstan, are
distinct administrative, legal and political entities at the lowest
level of local government. Each of these subdistrict units contains 2–6 settlements that, while forming separate communities,
usually have some common social ties based on ethnicity, geographic location and ecosystem resource use.
Each jamoat/aiyl okmotu community land-use plan and
sustainable land management strategy includes a portfolio of
micro-projects for those agreed priority component activities
that require external investment funding. To be eligible for financial support, a micro-project must be one with a need identified through the community land-use planning process. To date,
more than US$ 200 000 were provided as grants for co-financing
of micro-projects. The projects’ implementation must also be
expected to make a positive contribution to reducing poverty
while restoring, sustaining and enhancing the productive capacity and protective functions of the ecosystem resources of the
High Pamir and Pamir Alai Mountains. The concept of environmentally sensitive tourism is worth pursuing as a potential future
income-generator.
Community-based forestry
K
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The basic approach to the development of national forest policy
in Kyrgyzstan is a working partnership involving stakeholders
from state agencies, forest management, science, local communities, the private sector and civil society in a "bottom-up"
approach. The development of the forestry sector of Kyrgyzstan
was viewed as a constant process of reform through the optimization of control systems, the improvement of relationships
and the introduction of modern technologies, all coupled with
capacity-building.
N
Almaty
Bishkek
KYRGYZSTAN
Tashkent
UZBEKISTAN
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Dushanbe T A J I K I S T A N
A F G HThe
A NKyrgyz–Swiss
ISTAN
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K I S T Aprogramme
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Forestry
(KIRFOR) was
launched in 1995 to develop and maintain forest sector reform
in Kyrgyzstan with a focus on productive and sustainable forest
management. The main participants were the State Agency for
Environment and Forestry, the National Forest Institute, the
State Agency for Local Self Governance, ayil okmutu and forest enterprises. Funded by the Swiss Agency for Development
and Cooperation, the KIRFOR programme was implemented by
Intercooperation – a leading Swiss non-profit organization –
and by the Swiss Foundation for Development and International
Cooperation (SDC):
The problems resulting from human impact on the forests of
Kyrgyzstan prompted the adoption of urgent measures to implement a comprehensive policy of multilateral cooperation in
the sustainable development of forests. The goals included the
improvement of the quality of life, the strengthening of local
economies and the conservation of natural resources.
From the outset, institutional reform was a priority. The KIRFOR
programme began at the field level with the reform of forestry
practices then extended to the national level and included an
intersectoral approach.
The current national forest policy in Kyrgyzstan provides a systematic examination of the problems of the forest based on three
elements: "Forest-Man-State". “Forest” includes the imperative
of stability of forest resources and biodiversity. “Man” in forest
policy reflects the need to involve local communities and the private sector in forest management, and to account for their influence and interests in forest management.
The role of “State” in the forestry sector is changing with the
course of social development. Under the provisions of national
forest policy, the state reserves the controlling and regulating
function and passes the production functions of forest management to local communities and the private sector. Together
these three elements are intended to create a sustainable forest
management system that preserves and increases forests while
contributing to socio-economic development.
The need to develop new approaches for forest resources is due
to the real environmental situation and the dynamics of socioeconomic development. The main threat to the stability of forest
ecosystems has come from the growing pressure on local populations forced to make use of natural resources in their lives.
Prohibitions on forest use have only created conflict. Today, the
centralized system of forest management, due to lack of resources, cannot fully ensure the sustainability of forest development.
Therefore, a sustainable forest management community is the
most promising management option for forest conservation and
renewal.
After studying traditional forest management schemes, Kyrgyzstan
introduced community forest management, an experimental approach that engaged community groups and local authorities to
manage forests. The development of cooperation between the forestry sector and ayil okmotu has created a framework for information sharing, planning and decision-making.
Teresken plants collected for fuel in the Tajik Pamirs
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A positive result of the efforts in the development of a new national forest policy for Kyrgyzstan was a package of documents
designed to create the conditions necessary for the preservation,
growth and sustainable use of forests, and in sustainable forest
sector development:
•
•
•
•
•
The concept of sustainable development of forestry until
2025, approved by the government in 2004
The National Forest Programme 2005–2010, approved
by the government in 2004
The National Action Plan for Forestry 2006–2010, approved by the government in 2006
A new plan for 2011–2015, pending approval by the
government
An Action Plan to strengthen law enforcement and
governance in the forestry sector, approved by the
government in 2009.
Despite the success of the KIRFOR programme in walnut and fruit
forests, implementation of sustainable forest management is far
from complete. The remaining challenges include involving local
populations in the participatory management of other types of
forests, particularly juniper, spruce and riverside forests. Building upon the experience gained from the KIRFOR programme,
the Kyrgyz authorities, with support from donors (the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations), are developing joint forest
management models that should allow forest enterprises, ayil
okmutu and local communities to plan and implement decisions together.
Climate change and natural disasters
Two case studies focus on the related issues of climate change
and natural disasters. The first is a study on the Pilot Program
for Climate Resilience (PPCR), and the second is a tree-planting
project designed to stabilize mountain slopes.
Climate change: Pilot Program for Climate
Resilience in Tajikistan
The Centre for Climate Change and Disaster Reduction, a local
NGO in Tajikistan, addresses the issues of climate change adaptation and natural disaster risk reduction in mountain regions.
Oxfam GB in Tajikistan funded and facilitated this study:
The Strategic Climate Fund provided funding for several countries participating in the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience:
Bangladesh, Bolivia, Cambodia, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger,
Tajikistan, Yemen, Zambia and two regions (the Caribbean
and Pacific). The criteria for participation in the PPCR included
the level of vulnerability to climate change hazards and risks,
country preparedness to move towards climate resilient development plans and country distribution across regions and types
of hazards. The participation of Tajikistan as a landlocked
mountain country in the PPCR is justified by its high vulnerability and low adaptive capacity to cope with the current climate
variability that will likely exacerbate existing development
challenges. In Tajikistan the PPCR is coordinated by the World
Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development.
This study analyses the Pilot Program for Climate Resilience in
Tajikistan. The goal of the PPCR is to help countries adopt a
climate-resilient development path that is consistent with national poverty reduction and sustainable development goals. The
main objectives of the study were to identify lessons learned and
to make recommendations for channeling climate change adaptation funds in the context of Tajikistan. The study was based
on interviews and focus group discussions with a wide range
of stakeholders. Participants included representatives of government institutions, international and local NGOs, academia, bilateral and multilateral donors and civil society.
Arslanbob walnut forests, southern Kyrgyzstan
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The key outcomes of the PPCR are the development of the Strategic Program for Climate Resilience (SPCR) and the approval from
the Climate Investment Fund of a US$ 50 million grant for a 3–5
year period. The project areas set to receive SPCR funding include:
•
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Capacity-building for climate resilience
Improving weather, climate and hydrological
service delivery
Improving climate science and modelling
Enhancing climate resilience in the energy sector
Developing sustainable agriculture and land
management
Building climate resilience in the Panj River basin.
With the exception of the last item, the list specifies
no geographic area for any of the projects. The region
would benefit from an equitable distribution of funds
across both programmatic and geographic areas.
The critical lessons learned and recommendations of the
Pilot Program for Climate Resilience in Tajikistan include:
PPCR-funded projects should address the needs of
those most vulnerable to climate change and contribute to the sustainable development of the country
The Government of Tajikistan should be the primary actor in designing, implementing and channeling resources
for national climate change adaptation strategies
Civil society and communities should be guaranteed
meaningful participation throughout the process of
planning and implementing climate funding
Capacity-building should accompany climate funding
Climate funding processes should be transparent and
accountable to the people of Tajikistan
Country-level ownership of adaptation finance is required
Gender equality and women’s participation should
be central to climate funding
National climate funding approaches should be
informed by existing models.
The PPCR process faced high expectations from a wide range of
interested parties and could not hope to meet all of them. The PPCR
could have provided, and still should provide, a real opportunity to
pilot ways of reaching those most impacted by climate change in
ways that could radically improve their quality of life.
The results of the study were published as a report (in English,
Russian and Tajik) and presented to the public and relevant
stakeholders in order to address the gaps and lessons learned
in the first phase of the PPCR. The report is available online at:
http://www.oxfam.org/en/policy/ climate-change-investmentresilience-tajikistan.
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The stabilization of hazardous mountain
slopes through planting trees
Bishkek
KYRGYZSTAN
Tashkent
UZBEKISTAN
Kujand
Ferghana
Osh
ticipated in local risk assessments, the formulation of mitigation
measures and emergency response. A total of 2 000 fruit trees
(peach, apple, quince, walnut, pear, cherry and apricot) were
planted in seven communities. The trees will stabilize the soil
cover, improve the soil structure and increase the nutrient content of the soil. As the trees have grown and become established, the risk of natural hazardous such as floods and mudslides has decreased. Up to 100 people received training on fruit
tree planting and on soil and water conservation measures. The
newly planted peach trees suffered in the heavy spring rains,
and their growth was not as rapid as first hoped. But they survived and will most likely produce fruit in several years. This case
study was documented in the World Overview of Conservation
Approaches and Technologies database.
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CAMP Kuhiston took an integrated approach linking disaster risk
management in mountains with the planting of appropriate fruit
tree species to improve land productivity in the Nurobod district:
Over-exploitation of natural resources is one of the unsustainable activities leading to increased risk of natural disasters. Shahtuti Bolo village burns almost 12 metric tonnes of dry wood per
year, and the average annual fuel bill is US$ 350 per household,
both amounts typical for the Nurobod district. To supplement
the planting of the fruit trees, a campaign on energy efficiency
measures is under way to reduce the amount of biomass burned
by households. This is achieved by improvements in outdoor
cooking stoves, by introducing energy efficient indoor stoves and
through better thermal insulation and the installation of solar
water heaters.
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CAMP Kuhiston catalysed donor support and facilitated disaster
risk management training and tree planting to stabilize hazardous
mountain slopes around the villages. Initially, the local government
showed limited interest, but when the practical interventions started, it became more interested and supportive. The Tajik Horticulture
Institute developed a tree planting plan, selected saplings, conducted training and monitored tree development. This was complemented by soil sampling by the Tajik Soil Institute. The head of the village
initiated a local community action day known as a khashar to erect
a wire fence and to plant the saplings in accordance with the plan.
The project targeted about 300 community members, who increased their natural disaster management skills and who par-
A
Community-based tourism
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Almaty
Chong-Kemin
KAZAKHSTAN
Tamchy
Bishkek
Talas
Kazarman
Kara-Suu
Tashkent
UZBEKISTAN
Kyzyl-Oi
Arslanbob
Jalalabad
Karakol
Kochkor
Naryn
•
Osh
Alay
Sary-Mogol
Tree plantings in central Tajikistan
cal food products and handicrafts. In addition, the ”One villageOne product” project contributed to the quality improvement
and competitiveness of local products in this and other villages
around Lake Issyk-Kul.
The Bokonbaevo community-based tourism (CBT) association,
in cooperation with local self-government bodies, organizes annual events with such themes as:
Bokonbaevo
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Dushanbe
The prospects for tourism
Korug in Central Asia have improved since
independence, and Kyrgyzstan in particular has worked to develop the sector. Ecotourism and cultural community-based tourism, generally regarded as sustainable development activities,
A F G Hoffer
A N Isignificant
S T A N opportunities
P A K I at
S Tthe
A Nnational and local levels.
Community-based tourism is the practice of providing tourism
services that utilize local accommodation, food, music, crafts
and traditions. The experience of Bokonbaevo village, Issyk-Kul
Province, Kyrgyzstan, demonstrates some of the possibilities:
Based on the idea that ecotourism ensures the protection and careful use of natural resources and benefits the local population, and in
light of the importance of tourism in general, the Alliance of Central
Asian Mountain Communities provided training to its members on
“Sustainable Use of Natural Resources: Techniques for Receiving
Tourists”. More than 150 participants from seven villages attended
the training sessions. The training covered topics of hospitality;
service orientation; language courses for local guides; food and
beverage service; and environmental safeguarding practices. The
communities were supported in their marketing and public outreach
activities. Later, standards and classifications for guest houses were
introduced. As a result, most of villages initiated ecotourism products and one of those villages is Bokonbaevo.
In the Nurobod district of central Tajikistan, numerous tributaries flowing from the high mountains have cut deep gorges into
the soft loess soils, and during the spring snow melt there is a
risk of floods, landslides and mudflows that threaten mountain
communities. In the spring of 2010, the single local road that
links the 26 villages in the area to the main road to the capital
Dushanbe was blocked for 41 days due to a mudslide.
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A
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Qurghonteppa
AFGHANISTAN
H
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This initiative was launched with the aim of reviving forgotten
kinds of tourism and introducing visitors to the national customs,
games, horse-riding and life in traditional Kyrgyz yurts.
The social and cultural aspects of Bokonbaevo tourism activities
foster preservation of traditional culture, knowledge and skills.
Overall, up to one fourth of the total village population of 12
000 is involved in activities associated with tourism, including
homestay, cultural sightseeing, trekking, horse-riding, ecologi-
•
•
Promotion of traditional embroidery such as saima and
shyrdak
Demonstration of Kyrgyz horses
Southern Lake Issyk-Kul beach clean-up.
Community-based tourism differs from commercial tourism in the way income is generated and distributed: all the
income remains in the villages where the CBT members decide themselves how to distribute it. By creating demand in
tour products and locally produced goods and services, tourism has many positive direct and indirect economic outcomes
on local livelihood and rural poverty alleviation. The jobs that
were previously available only to skilled non-locals employed
by commercial tourism companies based in the capital city are
now filled by local residents. Guides, interpreters, cooks and
chefs, drivers and managers all come from the local community. This promotes social balance, justice and inclusiveness for
local communities.
Environmental considerations for minimizing the adverse impacts from tourism include programmes on waste management. As the ecosystem services and goods are exploited for
profit generation, the local communities invest 5–20 per cent
of the income in environmental conservation. The use of renewable energy in guest houses and other services helps to
raise awareness at the household and small business levels
and to reduce the carbon footprint of the local tourism sector.
An energy efficiency programme run by CAMP Alatoo installed
100 energy-efficient stoves, and improved thermal insulation
for 30 houses in Bokonbaevo village.
Community-based tourism services can be easily booked centrally through the Bishkek coordination office or via CBT in
villages across Kyrgyzstan. The CBT Bokonbaevo earns more
than US$ 10 000 per summer season, but the cold off season
for tourism (lasting for 8–9 months) is problematic. In this
context, the village is looking forward for cooperation with
tourism service providers in the skiing sector.
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Science and education
The last two case studies concern developments in the areas of science and education. The Central Asia Cross-Border Natural Disaster
Prevention (CASCADE) project focuses on capacity-building in the
area of disaster risk reduction, specifically earthquake risk reduction.
The University of Central Asia is a multi-campus regional institution
with ambitions to become a global leader in higher education.
Earthquake risk reduction:
The CASCADE project
Initiated by the German Foreign Office in 2008, CASCADE is
implemented by the German Research Centre for Geosciences
(GFZ)–Helmholtz Centre in Potsdam and the Central-Asian Institute for Applied Geosciences (CAIAG):
The representatives of Central Asian agencies involved in disaster risk management, among them decision-makers from ministries responsible for emergency response and leading seismologists from Germany and Central Asia, met together to confirm
their readiness to join efforts in earthquake risk reduction in
Central Asia, to establish the platform for political and scientific
cooperation and to implement the coordinate concept of seismological monitoring in Central Asia.
The project objective was to strengthen international and regional
cooperation in disaster prevention and risk management in order
to minimize the consequences of earthquakes. One part of the
project concentrated on science and one part on capacity-building.
The scientific component included:
• Installation of a cross-border seismic network
• Seismic microzonation
• Assessment of building vulnerability.
Science station in Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan
Experts from GFZ, CAIAG and the national institutes of seismology in five countries established the Central Asian Real Time
Monitoring System. Six seismic stations, located in Kazakhstan,
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan, operate within this
network, and the last seismic station is scheduled to be installed
in Uzbekistan in 2012. The main feature of this network is realtime data flow. A seismoComp3 system was installed in the data
centres of each partner allowing local scientists to receive, analyse and archive the continuous data streaming from different
countries in Central Asia.
The CASCADE project devoted strong efforts to collecting data
about the seismic vulnerability of the building stock in the different
countries, and worked with local partners on the harmonization of
the vulnerability classification, converting, as a first step, the original local classification to a common scale. The information will be
exploited in future collaborations to improve the development of
seismic risk scenarios for Central Asia.
Science station in Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan
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In developed countries, earthquake risk reduction strategies are
not centred as much on forecasting as on earthquake-resistant
construction. Scientists and regulators use seismic microzonation to develop building codes that contemplate the specific seismic characteristics of an earthquake-prone area in defining the
specific construction requirements. Microzonation is basically
site-specific risk analysis that considers the geophysical qualities of a given area in order to understand the potential consequences of an earthquake. The project’s seismic microzonation of Bishkek, for example, allows analysts to quantify the
expected differences in earthquake hazards within the city
based on local site effects. The Bishkek experience highlights
the need for similar studies in the main cities of Central Asia,
especially in light of population growth and urbanization.
The project did not focus on technology alone. Capacity-building
and awareness-raising activities targeted scientists and engineers as well as decision-makers, regional planning authorities,
educators, civil society representatives and the mass media.
Central Asian scientists were trained in the use of modern seismological equipment, in the newest technologies for data processing and analysis and on advanced techniques for estimating
site effects in urban areas. Overall, the capacity-building effort
trained more than 200 persons.
Using the existing consortium of 11 national and international
partners and seismic monitoring network created during the
CASCADE project, it had been followed up by the new initiatives
such as the Earthquake Model of Central Asia (EMCA) which is a
part of the Global Earthquake Model programme, aiming at the
crossborder assessment of seismic hazard and risks in Central
Asia and Tien-Shan Pamir Tibet Monitoring Project (TIPTIMON)
aiming to study seismotectonics of the Tajik depression bordered
by Tien Shan, Pamir and Hindu Kush mountains. The future results of the both projects will promote the development of seismic risk scenarios and early warning systems in Central Asia,
and will allow identification of active seismic structures for this
densely populated mountain region.
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The University of Central Asia:
One university, three campuses
As one of more than a dozen institutions within the larger
Aga Khan Development Network, UCA connects directly with
mountain societies through AKDN agencies such as the Aga
Khan Foundation and the Mountain Societies Development
Support Program in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan and the Rural
Support Program in Pakistan and Afghanistan. The University
collaborates with a wide range of government agencies and
departments. Existing professional development programs are
currently supported by more than 40 memorandums of understanding with its three Founding States. Critical to UCA’s programs are its relationships with universities in Europe, North
America and elsewhere in Asia. Also, UCA is the host of the
Central Asia regional hub of the Mountain Partnership and
Mountain Forum as well as the Swiss-based National Centre
for Competence in Research North–South.
Tekeli
Campus
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Qyzylorda
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Bishkek
Headoffice
K Y R G Y Z S T A N
Naryn
Tashkent
Campus
UZBEKISTAN
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Navoiy
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Karshi
Khorog
Campus
AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
Founded in 2000 to promote Central Asian social and economic
development, the University of Central Asia (UCA) is a secular
and private institution established by the International Treaty
and Charter signed by the Presidents of Tajikistan, the Kyrgyz
Republic and Kazakhstan, and by His Highness the Aga Khan:
UCA aims to achieve its education and development goals
through three schools (a Graduate School of Development, an
undergraduate School of Arts and Sciences and a School of Professional and Continuing Education), a Research Program (including the Mountain Societies Research Centre and the Institute for Public Policy and Public Administration), a Central Asian
Faculty Development Program and a Humanities Program. The
University also aims to develop and maintain itself in a manner
that benefits the social and economic development of nearby
communities and the region as a whole.
UCA is located in and designed to serve the mountain regions of Central Asia. The University will have residential
campuses in Tekeli (Kazakhstan), Naryn (Kyrgyz Republic)
and Khorog (Tajikistan). The UCA School of Professional and
Continuing Education has learning facilities in these locations as well as in the region’s capital cities and other locations, including Northeast Afghanistan.
118
knowing that UCA will receive financial and technical support in
the early years to establish its financial footing. Second, UCA is
nested within AKDN and benefits from the Network’s extensive
experience in the Central Asia region. Third, the concept of UCA
was developed over a number of years by leading international
and regional intellectuals, practitioners and other resource people. This in-depth analysis of the need for and role of UCA established a solid conceptual foundation for the university. Fourth,
while making the commitments from the international treaty
operational has sometimes proven challenging, the existence of
the treaty represents the high-level political commitment necessary to achieve the grand ambitions of UCA. Finally, the regional
presence of UCA with its three campuses is a unique characteristic that has been attractive to international educational institutions and funders that want to expand their reach to the region
through dealing with only one institution.
Certain UCA programs are currently operational, while others,
including the undergraduate and graduate programs, are in the
planning stages. The University is currently supporting 30 Central
Asian Faculty Development scholars to pursue post-graduate studies at international partner universities. These scholars will return
to UCA to serve as faculty. These scholars are part of a program
to help UCA achieve its aim of having 80 per cent of its faculty be
from the region and to hold doctoral degrees earned at universities meeting international standards. At the School of Professional
and Continuing Education, more than 34 000 learners have participated in internationally benchmarked non-degree programmes
such as accounting; information technology; applied languages;
entrepreneurship and microfinance; tourism; public administration; and technical and vocational education. Some graduates are
envisioned to serve as support staff for the university in the future.
In 2010, 154 trained instructors at 35 universities in the region
were using the Aga Khan Humanities Program (AKHP) curriculum
and were reaching 7 500 learners. The AKHP curriculum was developed to provide education that promotes principles of pluralism, ethics, democratic values and social justice. The University
employs 400 full-time staff (more than 95 per cent Central Asian)
and is creating jobs in rural communities in an era of labour migration and urbanization. The University also trains and temporarily
employs 400–450 staff annually in activities associated with the
construction of the university campuses. The number of construction staff is expected to increase dramatically with the initiation of
major construction of the three campuses in 2012.
Several key factors have enabled UCA’s early achievements and
have laid the foundation for long-term success. First, the Aga
Khan and the Aga Khan Development Network have made a
long-term commitment to establish UCA not as a project, but as
a permanent institution. University planners have the benefit of
Students at the University of Central Asia
119
The Aga Khan Community Health Project works to empower
community members and community-based organizations to address their own healthcare needs. Since its inception, the Project
has trained over 500 community health promoters.
The Nursing Development Project aims to improve the education of nurses in Tajikistan. In partnership with the World Health
Organization, the project has developed and implemented a new
four-year nursing curriculum in all medical colleges of Tajikistan.
Teachers from nursing institutions throughout the country are
now trained in an expanded range of disciplines including sociology, psychology, nursing management, family health, communication, health promotion and safe motherhood.
Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan
Integrated approach to mountain
development
Since 1992 the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) and the Aga Khan
Development Network have worked in mountain communities in
many regions of Tajikistan. Collaborating with individual agencies in such areas as economic development, education, cultural
revitalization, health care and financial services, the AKDN seeks
to build institutions and programmes that respond to the challenges and opportunities of social, economic and cultural growth
in Tajikistan. The Mountain Societies Development Support Programme (MSDSP), sponsored by the AKF, works in several areas
in rural development – natural resource management, community development, enterprise development, engineering and policy
and evaluation. The programme targets a population of more
than 730 000 people:
Since 1998, MSDSP has been working with local communitybased organizations to strengthen their capacity to identify, prioritize and realize their development agendas. The programme
supports communities to establish their own community-based
groups and provides them with institutional support in the form
of training, capacity-building and community development
funds. At the local level, these organizations are called village
organizations (VOs). To date, MSDSP has supported over 1 150
VOs with more than 100 000 active village members, half of
them women.
Since 1997, MSDSP has supported the construction or rehabilitation of 400 water and sanitation projects, 864 irrigation projects, 270 road and bridge projects, 280 health facilities, 158
schools and 28 mini hydropower projects. Alongside every pro120
ject, the MSDSP enables community-based organizations and local governments to ensure their maintenance over the long term
through special interest groups, such as Water User Associations
and similar units.
The Aga Khan Development Network established the First MicroFinanceBank of Tajikistan (FMFB) in 2003, the first fully licensed commercial bank in the country to have a principal focus
on micro-credit lending. One of the most important products that
FMFB offers is a group loan, aimed at the poorer segments of
Tajik population who have difficulty providing collateral to the
Bank. Based on the principle of group solidarity, the loan is given
to a group of 3–10 individuals and repayment becomes a collective responsibility; each member effectively guarantees the repayment of the other members. Group loans are often offered to
women, usually for small business start-up costs or small-scale
agricultural production.
A core MSDSP strategic direction is to increase rural incomes and
employment by strengthening the private sector through microand small-enterprises, business services and capital.
Agricultural processing and tourism are among strategic areas
for local business development.
The Aga Khan Development Network sponsors opportunities
for local market development and cultural exchange along the
Tajik-Afghan border. Providing communities on both sides of the
border with access to opportunity increases the potential for income generation and improved livelihoods. Cross-border activities began in 2006 at Darvaz then expanded into other areas to
promote local markets and the exchange of ideas.
In 2001, the Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED)
launched the Indigo mobile telephony company in Tajikistan as
part of an effort to improve service and spur competition in the
country’s mobile services industry. In March 2010, the company
announced the change of its brand to Tcell. Today, Tcell is the
largest mobile operator in Tajikistan by revenue, with annual figures in excess of US$ 110 million, and by subscriber base, with
a 35.5 per cent market share in 2010 (over two million subscribers). It has become an exemplar in the country for its corporate
practices and customer service.
Lessons learned
Making generalizations from any case study is a risky proposition. By their nature case studies are specific to a particular time
and place, and the degree to which the experience is transferrable to any other time and place is subject to the comparability of
the circumstances. A project such as the Kyrgyz kitchen gardens,
for example, may not work in neighbouring Tajikistan much less
in Morocco or Panama. On the other hand, conditions may be
sufficiently similar that a kitchen garden project would succeed
in these other countries. The point to remember is that the people in the other places are in the best position to decide whether
such a project would work, and whether some adjustments for
local conditions might be necessary. The replication of successes
is an inherent goal of pilot projects. The highest value of the
cases presented here is in the potential transfer of knowledge to
others in a similar situation.
The literature on sustainable mountain development is rich with
advice on practices that have proven effective over time and
across space. Extensive research and field experience have led to
a broad agreement on the important considerations for successful sustainable development. Professionals in the field are likely
to advocate for:
•
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and civil war,
Tajikistan’s electrical infrastructure was in need of significant
investment. Among the most affected areas was the Mountain
Badakhshan Autonomous Province, where economic and human
development was stifled during the cold winter months as a result of a lack of electricity for heating and the consequent closure
of schools, health centres and businesses. Many of the region’s
220 000 residents resorted to wood fuel for their heating and
cooking needs during the winter, resulting in the decimation of
local forests. The AKFED, in partnership with the International
Finance Corporation, formed the PamirEnergy Company in 2002
to address the situation. Over US$ 30 million has since been invested by the company to repair the electrical infrastructure of
the province and to expand hydroelectric capacity. In the wake
of these efforts, almost 90 per cent of the region’s inhabitants
now have access to electricity while tariff subsidies have ensured
that even the poorest households are able to access power.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A decentralized approach that provides local participants
with a share in decision-making
A capacity-building function that assists participants to
acquire the tools and knowledge necessary to succeed
The broad participation of civil society, NGOs and decisionmakers at all levels
A strong and effective process for incorporating the views
of stakeholders
The inclusion of all relevant sectors
A process that honours traditional knowledge
A multidisciplinary and geographically focused approach
A balance among the three components (environmental,
economic and social) of sustainable development.
Conforming to this guidance may not guarantee a project’s success, but the failure to conform may increase the likelihood of
failure. Where there is no tradition of local participation in civic
affairs, adherence to the best sustainable development practices may be more difficult, but the experience of the Central
Asian mountain projects reported here suggests that the effort
to overcome the barriers to broad participation is rewarded by
the success of the projects.
The capacity-building component of sustainable development
can include a wide range of activities – from workshops on the
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processes to be followed to training on the specific tasks necessary to implement a project to institution-building. The CASCADE
earthquake risk reduction project, for example, applied a highly
sophisticated analysis of seismic data to the development of an
appropriate building code. The capacity-building component of
the project focused on helping scientists, engineers and decision-makers understand the seismological equipment and technology used in the analysis. The project succeeded in training
200 people, a significant increase in the knowledge base needed
to develop earthquake building code. In the meantime, however,
rapid urbanization in Bishkek ran ahead of the seismic study, and
the informal and unregulated settlements that sprang up must
now be integrated into the city structure. The Bishkek experience
indicates the importance of having the necessary institutions in
place as part of the context for sustainable development – the
success of the seismic project now depends on the development
of the institutional capacity to regulate the construction of new
buildings and the retrofitting of existing buildings.
The analysis of mountain development in Central Asia beyond
the case studies also shows that:
•
•
•
•
•
Two of the networking case studies provide the kind of modest
lessons learned that connect directly to the experience gained
from the projects. The CAMP study found that the introduction
of participatory and partnership principles to replace the centralized command system required the development of new systems;
that consolidating the efforts for more coordinated and cohesive
interventions required the strengthening of institutional capacity at all levels; and that institutional development required
investment in human potential and local capacity-building. The
AGOCA experience exchange found that neglectful and careless selection of training participants leads to a reduction in
the percentage of participants who benefit from the project.
This finding led to the strengthening of the selection process.
The CAMP Alatoo pasture management project also derived
lessons directly from their work. In this case the findings have
implications for the science, financial requirements, scale and
policy considerations for pasture management. The study finds
that the complexity of sustainable pasture management requires a holistic, multidisciplinary and integrated approach;
that policy level interventions and practical implementation of
the work needs to be supported with the allocation of sufficient financial resources; and that future sustainable pasture
management interventions should be undertaken at the watershed scale to address the upstream and downstream and
transboundary aspects of mountain massifs that span two or
more countries. The CAMP Alatoo project concludes that raising awareness and promoting the concept of payment for ecosystem services is of the utmost importance.
•
•
•
•
•
Political stability and conflict avoidance are the key factors
for sustainable mountain development.
Personal safety, food and energy security, decent jobs,
health and education, and poverty alleviation are the key
priorities for people in the Central Asia mountains. If these
basic necessities are not addressed and balanced, sustainable mountain development and environmental protection
cannot be ensured.
Good governance, corruption prevention, transparency and
participation in decision-making in the main economic and
social sectors are paramount to success of development
projects in the mountains.
Communication of easily understandable, reliable information is crucial for public understanding, support and
motivation to act responsibly.
The absence of well-defined property and management
rights and responsibilities puts constraints on, and adds
uncertainties to, sustainable mountain development.
Heavy reliance on subsidies (as in the Soviet period),
natural resource extraction and use without benefit sharing (as in the energy and mining sectors) and continuing
reliance on substantial external donor inputs may lead to
unsustainable mountain development patterns that could
hit hard in times of abrupt change.
Affordable microfinance, successful demonstration projects
and new knowledge often lead to self-reliance.
The valuation of mountain ecosystem services and the
provision for ecosystem carrying capacity, including the
regulation and mitigation of man-made pressures, are essential to mountain development and benefit sharing.
Legislation and programmes on mountain development are
essential, and need to be supported by efficient institutions
and resources.
The lack of willingness to cooperate and the tensions
between upstream and downstream countries (mainly
on region's delicate and politicized water issues) impede
regional cooperation.
Kyrgyz yurt on pasture, Kyrgyzstan
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3. Opportunities and the
prospects for a green economy
Opportunities associated
with the trends
The transition to independence required the new countries to
establish their own governments and economies without their
former reliance on the Soviets for administration, planning and
finance. The end of dependence on the Soviet state paved the way
for self-reliance at both the state and individual levels. With greater exposure to the international community and more responsibility for their own destinies, the new countries are learning to tackle
their own problems. The progress in responding to the depletion
of mountain resources, for example, is an area where the advice
and assistance of the international community over the last 20
years has helped develop the knowledge and skills necessary for
the task, and has created the opportunity for continuing success at
the state, local and individual levels.
Independence and governance
As the countries have developed their own legislation and the
corresponding enforcement regimes, they have replaced the former centralized and subsidized system. Continuing this work, and
strengthening what now exists on the basis of their own resources, will help the countries establish the rule of law. At both the national and local levels there are opportunities to develop governance that leads to greater stability, prosperity and sustainability.
T
he trends enumerated in Part 1 have influenced, and
continue to influence, the development of the new
Central Asian countries – for better or for worse.
The countries may seem at times to be at the mercy
of the geopolitical, socio-economic and global forces
at work, but the trends associated with these forces
provide an array of opportunities as diverse and profound as the
forces themselves. The governments, communities and people
who take advantage of the opportunities afforded by the trends
stand to benefit for years to come. This part of the report offers
suggestions on where the best opportunities may lie and on how
the people of Central Asia might seize them to their advantage.
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Even today, almost twenty years after the Rio 1992 Summit,
which highlighted the importance of mountain ecosystems in
Agenda 21, the national development strategies in key socioeconomic sectors do not fully consider mountain ecosystem
services and sometimes lack consistency with national environmental and sustainable development strategies. By truly incorporating environmental and sustainable development considerations into their national strategies, the countries can seize the
opportunity for better coordination and efficiency among their
planning efforts, and can realize the synergy that comes with the
participation of all the relevant players.
Legislation and programmes that target mountain territories
are already in place in Central Asia, but they need to be enriched by international practices and strengthened to support
sustainable development. The consolidation of efforts and the
creation of a mountain countries group under the United Nations could help to define and promote common interests and
exchange good practices.
Another initiative, initially proposed by Kyrgyzstan in 2005 and
being increasingly pursued by the Kyrgyz government since then,
is the exchange of external debt for sustainable development. The
idea behind this mechanism is that the lender would agree to convert debt repayments into support for sustainable development
projects. A similar system was successful in Latin American countries, and Kyrgyzstan is hoping for replicate that success.
New borders and mobility
At the beginning of independence, the Central Asian countries
placed a high priority on the definition of the new international borders and the development of new border controls. In the
mountains, where the terrain is complex and travel is difficult, the
new border controls have worsened the situation by further restricting the movement of goods and people. The establishment of
travel corridors that easily accommodate the movement of goods
and people would enable commerce to the benefit of the states
and to the people who live near the borders. All the Central Asian
countries would stand to gain from the improvement of travel corridors, and the situation is ripe for international cooperation in the
development of mutually beneficial solutions.
Subnational cooperation
The political and economic assistance to Central Asia has come in
the form of multilateral and bilateral aid from a variety of sources.
While traditional cooperation across borders is normally a bilateral
endeavour between countries, there are an increasing number of
subnational efforts occurring at city and regional levels. These
efforts offer the opportunity to explore more fully the benefits of
experience exchanges and direct cooperation on mutual concerns.
International organizations with specific expertise, through better
coordination of their work, could build on this experience with
programmes that provide assistance at the community, rather
than at the national level, and that link lowland benefits to mountain projects and vice versa.
The Issyk-Kul Biosphere Territory in Kyrgyzstan stands as an
example of a sustainability initiative that might be duplicated
in other areas. Established in 1998-2001, Issyk-Kul Biosphere
Territory benefited from sound scientific planning and strong
local participation in its development. The rules of the reserve
ensure that all human activities from the household level to
agriculture to mining are consistent with the functions of the
territory, and while the reserve has not reached its full potential, it provides a good legal framework and a set of practices
that can guide new developments. The Kyrgyz government has
the opportunity to parlay the Issyk-Kul experience in managing
a large territory into region-to-region cooperation with other
parts of the country, the Central Asia region and the rest of the
world – anywhere similar challenges exist.
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In Tajikistan, almost half of the Pamirs and Badakhshan Province are
included in Tajik National Park, the country’s largest. Nominated for
UNESCO World Heritage designation, Tajik National Park is similar to
the Issyk-Kul Biosphere Territory, but has much less economic activity
– some small-scale agriculture and tiny mountain villages.
Each of these protected areas has its own sustainable mountain development and land-use plans that were approved for specific areas
as opposed to their whole countries. Local authorities want the Tajik
National Park to exclude mining and some other economic activities,
and to concentrate on sustainable agriculture, ecotourism and legal
hunting. Assistance with branding, public relations and promotion at
the national level could enhance the prospects for success in these
endeavours. Governments can also acknowledge provincial distinctions and, through their support, help make regional products more
competitive in local and regional markets.
Climate change
Climate change and natural disasters require responses at a national
level, but there are also opportunities for regional cooperation across
Central Asia. Currently the countries of the region conduct their own
research and devise their own climate change policies and disaster
risk reduction strategies. A lessening of the political barriers among
the countries could encourage collaboration and the exchange of
knowledge that could lead to a more effective regional response to
climate change and natural disasters in the lowlands as well as in
the mountains. While the mountain communities do not contribute
significantly to greenhouse gas emissions, the mountain regions will
benefit from any progress on mitigating climate change. The mountains have a vast potential for carbon storage through afforestation
projects, and sustainable land use practices to enhance this potential
will benefit the entire region.
Mountains are complex environments with complex climates, and
the response to the effects of climate change requires a greater effort
to consider the specific mountain conditions. Flatland approaches
may not apply, and targeted research and interventions are necessary for an effective response. The lowlands are affected by climate
change in the mountains, and the lowland countries are well advised
to account for mountain ecosystems in their planning. Mountain environments are particularly sensitive to climate change, and are often
the first place where the effects are visible – in shrinking glaciers,
for example. This sensitivity and visibility create the opportunity to
increase awareness of climate change in the mountains, and to build
support for an effective local, national and regional response.
The total GHG emissions in Central Asia are projected to grow in
the coming decade in almost all scenarios reported by the countries.
From the perspective of mitigating global climate change this is an
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unfortunate development and more could be done to increase energy
efficiency, promote the use of renewable energy sources and efficient
stoves and increase resilience to climate change through adaptation.
Natural disasters
Disaster risk reduction strategies need to contemplate the links
between natural and industrial hazards both within and between
countries. Where existing resources are inefficiently spent, there are
opportunities for greater cooperation among the ministries and institutions that have responsibility for seismic and flood monitoring,
industrial risk analysis and disaster relief.
Biodiversity management and conservation
The expansion of protected areas in the independence era, including cross-border natural parks and biosphere reserves, has created
a foundation for further protection of the region’s rich biodiversity.
Special reserves for watershed protection or forestry afford the opportunity for stronger measures to protect native flora and fauna,
especially in the mountains.
The mountains are a warehouse of genetic resources related to agriculture, and as such offer an opportunity for further promotion and
research. Governments can provide incentives, such as discounts
or local produce promotions, to farmers to maintain local varieties
alongside other crops, and international organizations may be able to
influence the direction of mountain agriculture and to help improve
local varieties and breeds. The mountains would also benefit from
the more careful control of invasive species and genetically modified
organisms, along with more bio-friendly methods of crop production.
The number of domestic animals already exceeds the high levels
attained during the Soviet era, and this agricultural achievement
should be viewed not only from an economic angle but also in the
context of the Soviet experience – the serious land degradation that
occurred then may occur again. Now, however, local innovative practices and sustainable pasture management may accommodate the
greater number of stock without the degradation of the land resulting from overgrazing.
Land degradation
Excess irrigation leads to land degradation in addition to water losses
in the agricultural sector, and the irrigation systems in Central Asia
need to adjust to modern standards. Similarly, the expansion of rainfed agriculture on steep mountain slopes needs to be monitored, and
crop rotation needs to be encouraged to prevent land degradation
from water and wind. Governments and local communities can work
to create favourable conditions, and the more rational use of water
for irrigation can benefit the entire region.
Geographic isolation, roads and trade
Energy
The development of roads and rails throughout Central Asia, while
a boon to trade and commerce, may have negative environmental implications that deserve careful consideration. The mountain
countries, surrounded as they are by big players and big consumers, are strategically positioned to create rail links, the development of which would benefit their economies and raise their regional importance. Similar benefits would accrue if the countries
become energy hubs and develop their power infrastructure. The
mountain countries could also pass legislation to make themselves more competitive in encouraging the regional trade that
helps their economies. The international community, including the
United Nations, could assist mountain countries in tackling the
economic effects of geographic isolation and high shipment costs.
The huge potential of hydropower in the mountain countries provides the opportunity to combine progress on the goals of energy
security, climate resiliency and economic development. Investments in large projects need to consider the environmental and
downstream effects. By balancing local, national and international
interests in energy development, the countries can secure power
for their own people, and sell power to their neighbours. Modernization of the power system may require higher tariffs, but governments should take account of income levels, especially for those
living in the mountains, in devising a fair tariff system.
Information technology
The expansion of mobile communications and information technologies has already benefited the region in numerous ways.
Mountain businesses can further this progress by increasing
their use of the Internet for advertising, and communities can
communicate the trade and tourism opportunities in their areas.
As remote mountain areas link to the rest of the world, they can
develop educational and professional opportunities, promote
ecosystem awareness, contribute to environmental knowledge
and communicate their concerns.
Tourism
The tourism sector in Central Asia has expanded in the independence era, and governments now have a chance to provide
incentives to broaden the opportunities for a community-based
tourism that relies on a traditional style of modest accommodations and quality service. Winter tourism that focuses on activities other than skiing (with its high capital and operating costs)
could help mountain communities by providing seasonal employment at the time of year it is most needed.
Mining
The resolution of the continuing controversies in the mining sector
requires creativity and perseverance. Governments need to ensure
that the local concerns are aired and respected in order to reduce
the tensions that are currently preventing mining operations. In
addition, governments need to bring artisanal mining practices
into compliance with modern standards by ensuring that competent authorities provide the necessary monitoring and oversight.
In their efforts to clean up the abandoned mines and tailings left
over from the Soviet era, governments would be wise to seek opportunities to develop economically viable ways to rehabilitate
the sites through partnerships with potentially affected countries,
international organizations and private enterprise.
In the development of biofuel production programmes, governments should learn from the experiences of others, balance the
requirements of both the economy and the environment in determining the crops to use and recognize the environmental challenges in deciding how much biofuel to develop.
Security
The cooperation on intelligence exchange and border controls currently in place in Central Asia forms a solid foundation on which
to build a stronger system that is adequate to the actual threats.
All the participants will benefit from better security arrangements,
especially in the mountains where potential hideouts are plentiful. At the national level, a dialogue between ethnic and religious
groups may help build the trust necessary to achieve internal security, maintain stability and reduce the potential for conflict.
Tensions between the highland and lowland countries often centre on the issues of energy accessibility and water usage, and are
evident in the absence of trust in the economic and environmental assessments of power and water projects. Comprehensive and
transparent assessments may help, but absent the political will to
change, a breakthrough is unlikely. All of the regional players need
to recognize the role of mountain ecosystems with respect to water resources in Central Asia, and to cooperate on the investment
in, and maintenance of, mountain ecosystem services.
Food, energy and water security are crucial to the maintenance of
stability in the mountains and the neighbouring regions. In light of
their marginal existence and the scarcity of resources, mountain
communities may need the support of outsiders to provide these
essential elements of soft security.
Resource ownership and property rights
As resource ownership in Central Asia has slowly moved from
state to private hands, the increase in efficiency has been apparent in such areas as tourism, mining and agriculture. But property rights are not yet well respected, and legal uncertainties
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undermine the sense of responsibility that normally follows from
ownership. In addition, there are growing inequities between
rich and poor. Governments need to establish fair resource distribution policies and encourage the efficiencies and responsibilities that come with property ownership.
Migration
The remittances that come from labour migrants have become a
crucial source of income for families, and the Central Asia governments need to recognize the situation with new policies that
establish the legal framework and official services that migrants
and their families need. The prospect that unskilled workers may
no longer be welcome in recipient countries suggests that governments need to invest in education and language skills, and to
work collaboratively with international partners. In recognition of
the changing status of women as heads of household, the governments also need to consider labour regulations and other approaches that help lift the burden on women.
Education and health
As educational opportunities have increased in the independence era, the quality of education has declined, and realistic literacy rates are falling. Reversing this trend requires a greater
investment in human capital, more innovation and an increase
in the number of teachers. That Central Asian universities are
now specializing in mountain development issues is an encouraging trend. Higher education institutions have an additional
opportunity to focus on the preparation of the next generation
of managers in tourism, mining and infrastructure, all of which
demonstrate promising growth potential.
In health, many trends are similarly encouraging – decreasing
child mortality and greater access to safe drinking water, among
others. These advances in public health are a good base for the
development of stronger environmental health protection. The
complex changes in the mountain environment require more attention to the associated environmental health risks.
Traditions and modernity
The mix of traditional skills and modern practices represents a
flourishing trend in mountain trade and services, and governments
and other active players should encourage the conditions that enable the trend to grow and spread to other regions. The production of authentic, high quality products should be a source of pride
in the countries where they are made. The ongoing reanalysis of
history and culture and traditions should continue to support this
revitalization and celebration of mountain culture.
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Towards a green economy
Given their low-carbon profile and the high proportion of hydropower in their energy use, the mountain countries of Central Asia
are well positioned for a transition to a low-carbon, resource-efficient and socially inclusive green economy. Rural electrification
experienced a step back in the last 20 years as energy production capacities have not been adequate to meet growing energy
demands. The development of community-scale hydro, biomass,
wind and solar facilities, together with the improvement of energy
efficiency in the housing sector, could help improve the accessibility and reliability of energy supplies. Booming businesses – in
tourism and agro-processing, for example – may also invest in
small renewable energy systems to make their businesses climate
friendly. Reducing the energy losses in energy infrastructure is another area that promises significant advances.
The economies and populations of the mountain countries rely on
agriculture, biodiversity and forest products, and increasingly on
mineral extraction, transport and trade. Green economy initiatives
in these sectors can provide significant benefits.
Agriculture, water and land use
The agricultural sector employs nearly half of the total population
in the Central Asian mountain countries, and a green economy offers significant opportunities to diversify the sector through the expansion of organic crops and environmentally sound grazing practices. The global and regional markets for organic food and other
high-quality and environmentally friendly mountain goods (wool,
fibre, wild forest products) are growing, but only a small fraction
of agricultural production in Central Asia is currently certified and
labeled as organic. There is a great potential to reduce pollution
and to increase yields and local benefits through the introduction
of biological pest controls, crop rotation and diversification, all of
which will ultimately reduce soil erosion and biodiversity loss, and
enhance the quality of life and food security of mountain dwellers.
"One village–one product" schemes and improving market access
for local producers promise broader opportunities for local agricultural products and handicrafts. Fish stocks in mountain lakes
– heavily depressed by over-exploitation – need to be restored and
managed sustainably.
Increasing fodder production for animal feed is an effective way
to reduce pressures on pastures, and encouraging poplar and
other native tree plantations to serve heating and construction
needs would reduce dependence on wild forests. The expansion
of mountain orchards and vineyards has several potential benefits
– a boost for local income; the appropriate use of valuable local
genetic resources and the rational use of mountain terrain; and
the employment of local people in a labour-intensive enterprise.
This strategy also takes advantage of the natural potential of the
mountains to provide long-term storage of products.
Central Asian agriculture is infamous for its inefficient use of water. Growing population and food demands increase pressure on
water resources, while climate change is adding to an already
difficult situation. Investing in more efficient water use and improved sanitation is not only cost-effective but also necessary to
avoid conflicts and water-related diseases and epidemics. One of
the responses to growing water scarcity is the building of dams.
But dams require massive investments and could have negative
environmental consequences. Small-scale water management solutions should be promoted. Principles for the pricing of resources
and services provided by mountain areas to lowland and downstream regions, and mechanisms for the allocation of a fair share
of the benefits to mountain communities, should be established,
tested and introduced in practice.
New thinking, new technologies, new skills
Trade liberalization can facilitate consumer access to clean technologies at lower costs. Access to affordable renewable energy
technologies and energy efficient products produced in China
and better construction materials could help reduce energy consumption, for example.
The transition to a green economy requires changes in strategies
and the application of new technologies and management approaches. These changes require new skills, expertise and ways
of thinking often lacking in existing institutions. The successful
application of new policies and technologies and the facilitation
of coordinated actions require a strengthening of the capacities of
local and national institutions, and the reinforcement of the role of
the private sector and the civil society.
Institutions and governance
Following the Bishkek Global Mountain Summit, the role of civil
society in sustainable mountain development expanded significantly, and numerous NGOs interested in mountain issues opened
an era of regional cooperation. These organizations developed
their own areas of expertise and sought their own niches, and
as their specialization increased, the cooperation among groups
seemed to diminish. The Mountain Societies Development Support Programme, which works throughout Central Asia, takes an
integrated approach to sustainable mountain development, and
provides a model that other organizations can follow to renew
their regional cooperation.
Calls for action
In The Future We Want, a document produced in advance
of the Rio+20 Earth Summit, the United Nations Conference on
Sustainable Development recognizes the benefits provided by
mountain ecosystems, and identifies the need to explore ways
of compensating and rewarding mountain communities for their
ecosystem protection services. Similarly, the Mountain Partnership
argues that such compensation would assure the continuation of
these benefits while enhancing livelihoods and reducing poverty.
The Mountain Partnership also calls for national mountain-specific
strategies and for the inclusion of mountain programmes in the
Rio conventions.
This and other regional mountain reports were conceived and
developed to inform the Rio+20 Earth Summit and the Lucerne
World Mountain Conference. In its own call for action, the Lucerne
Conference seeks the recognition of the vulnerability of mountain
ecosystems by the Rio conventions, and calls for:
•
•
•
The Central Asia governments do not maintain a consistent, well
advanced policy focus on mountains, and while the countries recognize the vulnerability of their mountain ecosystems, the protection of these ecosystems could benefit from a linking of the
strategies for mountain development to the Rio conventions and
to other, broader agreements on trade, economic development,
conflict resolution and resource management. The integration
of sustainable mountain development into the Rio strategies,
programmes and plans would help ensure political attention for
mountain concerns, and help establish financial security for the
funding of mountain projects.
Mountain governance that accounts for the unique characteristics of mountains
Support for mountain communities to assure fair access to
resources and a fair share of benefits
The involvement of mountain people in decision-making that
concerns their livelihood, economy, environment and culture
Both the Lucerne Conference and the Mountain Partnership propose the strengthening of efforts related to transboundary cooperation and highland-lowland interactions, and support sustainable
development based on the specific conditions in the mountains.
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Children of the mountains
The Mountain Partnership project, "Dreams of the mountain children in
Central Asia", gives voice to some 600 children from 35 villages of Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Tajikistan, telling their stories and dreams in their
own words and in photos. Selected photos and essays from the project are
available at: www.photo.kg/gallery/children
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131
In the future I want my village to become a city added to the list of cities
of Kyrgyzstan. Our city will have big stores, apartment buildings, kindergartens. We will construct a three-storey school with a cafeteria, a gym
and new desks in every room. Our city in the mountains will be very beautiful with many parks and fountains.
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133
My dream is that my dad stay with us and see
how we grow. I think that Tajikistan will develop faster if all fathers come back to their families
from working somewhere else.
My dream is to study at school and then for profession, but in our village we cannot do homework in winter because of the electricity cuts.
Therefore, if I would become country leader I
would provide the entire country with electricity.
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135
I want to become a doctor, as people of this profession save people's lives. I will study in Bishkek.
My parents will be proud of me. To become a doctor, you must be brave, kind and not be afraid of
giving injections.
My dream is to be useful at home and be a good
citizen of my country. I want to go to college and
finish it with honours. My dream is to become a
soldier to defend my homeland.
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My biggest dream is to become Zhigit (local
hero). Zhigit fights our enemies, is very strong and
should have a horse and a dagger. I will live in a
yurt and ride a horse in the mountains.
I dream that when I grow up I will finish school
with honours and go to college to become a
builder. I love this profession. My dream is to build
houses. I want to build a beautiful family house
with large and clean rooms and strong walls.
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Old and religious people of our village go to the
mosque every Friday. But some people cannot afford
to go there. So I want to build a mosque in our village.
Now there are many rude and dishonest people. If there
will be a mosque, people would be kinder and honest.
I want to achieve great results in sport just as Chingiz
Aitmatov did in literature. My strength will be as great
as the power of the mountains.
Mountains are a market where you can find everything.
They give us water, food, and separate us from others.
In the future I want to become a teacher. I have
always liked this profession. I like my teachers and
I want to educate children.
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References
–––. 2006. National Environmental Action Plan of the Republic
of Tajikistan.
Main background documents:
–––. 2007a. Concept of transition to sustainable development of
the Republic of Tajikistan.
Asian Development Bank. 2010. Central Asia Atlas of Natural
Resources.
–––. 2007b. National development strategy of the Republic of
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145
Acronyms and
abbreviations
ADB
AGOCA
AKDN
AKF
AKFED
AKHP
AO
CAIAG
CAMP
CAREC
CASCADE
CBO
CHP
CSO
EDU
EurAsEC
FAO
FMFB
GBAO
GDP
GFZ
GMOs
Asian Development Bank
Alliance of Central Asian Mountain
Communities
Aga Khan Development Network
Aga Khan Foundation
Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development
Aga Khan Humanities Program
Aiyl Okmutu (village government/communal
executive in Kyrgyzstan)
Central-Asian Institute for Applied
Geosciences
Central Asian Mountain Partnership
Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation
Central Asia Cross-Border Natural Disaster
Prevention
community-based organization
Community Health Promoter
civil society organization
Enterprise Development Unit
Eurasian Economic Community
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations
First MicroFinanceBank of Tajikistan
Mountain Badakhshan Autonomous Province
gross domestic product
German Research Centre for Geosciences
genetically modified organisms
ICSD
IFAS
ISAF
KIRFOR
MSDSP
NGO
OSCE
PALM
PPCR
RMCСA
SCO
SUDVO
TES
TPS
UCA
UNDP
UNECE
UNESCO
USAID
VHC
VO
WTO
Interstate Commission on Sustainable
Development
International Foundation for Saving the
Aral Sea
Afghan International Security Assistance
Force
Kyrgyz–Swiss Forestry Support programme
Mountain Societies Development Support
Programme
non-governmental organization
Organization for Security and Co-operation
in Europe
Pamir-Alai Land Management
Pilot Program for Climate Resilience
Regional Mountain Centre of Central Asia
Shanghai Cooperation Organization
Social Union for the Development of
Village Organizations
Training and Extension System
Territorial Public Self-governance body
University of Central Asia
United Nations Development
Programme
United Nations Economic Commission
for Europe
United Nations Educational, Scientific
and Cultural Organization
United States Agency for International
Development
Village Health Committee
Village Organization
World Trade Organization
Glossary
Ayil aimak
Ayil okmotu
Ayil kenesh
Jamoat
Mazar
146
Photo credits
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P 19:
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P 26-27:
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P 34-35:
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P 54-55:
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P 73:
P 78-79:
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P 130-140:
Zeravshan Glacier, Tajikistan © A. Tagoibekov
Mountain village, Tajikistan © A. Karsymbek
Yurts at sunset © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)
Girls dancing in Tajikistan © V. Novikov
Somoni Peak, 7495 m, Tajikistan © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Gissar Mountains, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan © L. Hislop
Konortchek Canyon, Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)
Forest in the Pamirs / Hindu Kush Mountains © V. Novikov
Lake Sarez, Tajikistan © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Lake Kuli-Kalon, Fann Mountains, Tajikistan © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Lake Sarychalek, Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)
Surkhob Valley and Jirgital © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Savnob village in the Pamirs © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Fenced border between the former Soviet Union and China in the Pamirs © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Fedchenko glacier, Tajikistan © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Petrov Glacier and Lake, Central Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan © S. Erochin
Usoi Dam and Lake Sarez, Tajikistan © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Kurpasai hydropower plant, Kyrgyzstan © V. Novikov
Nurek Dam and Reservoir, Vakhsh River, Tajikistan © L. Hislop
Sulaiman-Too Sacred Mountain in Osh, Kyrgyzstan © V. Novikov
Community members discussing rural development plans © A. Karsymbek
Setting up a Kyrgyz yurt at a summer pasture © A. Karsymbek
Villagers checking their harvest © A. Karsymbek
ICSD meeting, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan, June 2007 © V. Novikov
Yapshorv and Roshkorv villages, Bartang Valley, Tajikistan © M. Mergili (www.mergili.at)
Setting up high-altitude kitchen gardens, Alai Valley, Kyrgyzstan © AKDN
Maturing crops in high-altitude kitchen gardens © AKDN
Family reviewing pasture tickets © A. Karsymbek
Teresken plants collected for fuel in the Tajik Pamirs © V. Novikov
Arslanbob walnut forests, southern Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)
Tree plantings in central Tajikistan © V. Novikov
Science station in Tien Shan, Kyrgyzstan © CAIAG (www.caiag.kg)
Students at the University of Central Asia © UCA (www.ucentralasia.org)
Tien Shan Mountains, Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)
Kyrgyz yurt on pasture, Kyrgyzstan © V. Ushakov (www.photo.kg)
Children of the mountains. Photos by © M. Romanyuk, T. Zeinalova, V. Ushakov, A. Karsymbek
lowest administrative and territorial unit at which the state performs its functions
executive body of the ayil aimak
representative body of ayil aimak
rural municipality in Tajikistan
holy place marked by a landmark such as a spring, a stone or a tree; or a burial place
147
Variations in selected geographic
names used in the report
Alatoo
Alatau
Ashgabat
Ashhabad
Dordoi
Dordoy
Enylchek
Inylchek
Gissar
Hissar
Hissor
Gorno-Badakhshan
Mountain Badakhshan
Kuhistoni Badakhshon
Jengish Chokusu
Jenish Choqusu
Peak Pobedy
Lucerne
Luzern
Onarcha
On-Archa
Zeravshan
Zarafshan
Zhergetal
Jirgital
Many geographic and local names are pronounced and spelled differently depending on the international
or local usage, historical and modern style and other peculiarities. This report maintains a consistent spelling of names, and the table above presents some variations in selected names used in the report.
148
149
This report is an illustrated overview of the trends and challenges in sustainable mountain development in Central Asia since 1992. It highlights selected achievements and
lessons learned, and identifies opportunities for further progress. The information
comes from interviews with key actors, from official and scientific sources and from
media accounts. While the report strives to maintain high research standards, it presents the scientific and technical material in a manner accessible to lay readers.
150
151
In 1992, at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development – commonly referred to as ‘Rio 1992’ or
‘the Rio Earth Summit’ – mountains received unexpected high political attention. They were granted a chapter in the
‘Agenda 21’ as fragile ecosystems that matter for humankind.
Since then, efforts by different actors have been undertaken to promote Sustainable Mountain Development. Some of
them relate to the above event, others just emerged on their own. However, in view of the UN Conference Rio+20 –
United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2012 it seemed relevant to assess and understand what has
been achieved by whom and how. It appears equally important to learn what has worked and what has not worked, and
why, in order to draw lessons for more effective interventions in future. The anticipation of possible future challenges or
opportunities may further help to be better prepared for their management. This will certainly encompass the adaptation
to and mitigation of global change as the mainstream concern of the last decade as well as the new, albeit disputed paradigm of a Green Economy. As in the past, major unexpected and unpredictable political, social, economic or technological
innovations may overshadow such mainstreams.
The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, committed to sustainable mountain development since many decades, has commissioned a number of regional reports to assess achievements and progress in major mountain regions such
as in particular Central Asia, Hindu Kush-Himalaya and the South East Pacific, South and Meso America or the Middle
East and North Africa. The Swiss Federal Office for Spatial Development has commissioned - in the context of the Swiss
Presidency of the Alpine Convention 2011/12 – a report on the European Alps. In addition, UNEP has provided a report
on Eastern Europe and one on Africa’s mountains; and the Aspen International Mountain Foundation together with the
Telluride Institute has prepared a report on the mountains of North America.
The insights gained through these reports in which key local, regional and global actors have been actively involved
provided the inputs for a mountain section in the outcome document of Rio+20. They are also meant to feed into future
global and regional processes, institutional mechanisms, and initiatives that emerge as a result of Rio+20 in support of
Sustainable Mountain Development.
152