" Justice for all " : An examination of self-identified LGBT job satisfaction in the US federal workforce

Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences Revue canadienne des sciences de l’administration 34: 182–197 (2017) Published online 1 December 2016 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/CJAS.1420 “Justice for all”: An examination of self-identified LGBT job satisfaction in the US federal workforce Stephanie A. Pink-Harper* Randolph Burnside Southern Illinois University Carbondale Southern Illinois University Carbondale Randall S. Davis Southern Illinois University Carbondale Abstract The diversity management literature is inconsistent regarding factors that affect job satisfaction of marginalized groups. We examine job satisfaction of LGBTs in the US federal workforce by following the path of the diversity management and job satisfaction research. We empirically test this relationship using the 2014 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey employing confirmatory factor analysis and structural equal modelling. We find that increased perceptions of a culture of diversity contribute to LGBT employee perception of their skills being effectively utilized as well as employee job satisfaction. We also find that LGBT’s perception of their skills directly contributes to job satisfaction. We conclude by offering policy implications for public managers to consider when developing diversity management strategies for marginalized groups. Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Résumé Quels sont les facteurs qui influencent la satisfaction au travail des groupes marginalisés? À cette question, la littérature sur la gestion de la diversité propose des réponses variées. Dans cet article, nous examinons la satisfaction au travail des personnes LGBT dans l’effectif fédéral américain en suivant la piste des recherches sur la gestion de la diversité et la satisfaction au travail. Nous testons empiriquement la relation entre les deux concepts en nous appuyant sur le Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey réalisé en 2014, sur l’analyse factorielle confirmatoire et sur la modélisation égale structurale. Les résultats montrent que les perceptions accrues d’une culture de diversité contribuent non seulement à la perception que l’employé LBGT a de l’utilisation effective de ses compétences, mais aussi à sa satisfaction au travail. Par ailleurs, la perception qu’il a de ses compétences contribue directement à la satisfaction au travail. Nous concluons en proposant les aspects politiques que les gestionnaires publics doivent considérer pendant la mise sur pied de stratégies de gestion de la diversité en faveur des groupes marginalisés. Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Keywords: LGBTs, diversity management, job satisfaction, US federal employee viewpoint survey, skill utilization Mots-clés : LGBTs, gestion de la diversité, satisfaction au travail, US federal employee viewpoint survey, utilisation des compétences The demographic characteristics of America are increasingly evolving (Selden & Selden, 2001). As the demographic characteristics of society expand, the characteristics of the workforce are also expected to expand, yielding a more diverse American workforce. As a result, these trends have caused the management of workforce diversity to become one of the most salient personnel and public management issues of the 21st century (Pitts & Wise, 2010). The expansion of demographic changes in society have led to legally mandated affirmative action programs and equal employment opportunity initiatives as a means to increase access to job opportunities for women and minorities in the public sector (Choi & Rainey, 2010; Cornwell & Kellough, 1994; Foldy 2004; Riccucci, 2002). Expanding our knowledge and understanding of the impact that diversity has on *Please address correspondence to: Stephanie A. Pink-Harper, Department of Political Science, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, 1000 Faner Hall, Mail Code 4501, Carbondale, Illinois 62901. Email: sapink@siu.edu Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 182 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. organizational performance and employee satisfaction is thus warranted (Milliken & Martins, 1996) and the focus of this study. The scope of the diversity management concept has expanded from affirmative action, to a legal mandate, to a managerial tool for enhancing organizational effectiveness (Wise & Tschirhart, 2000). Some have made a “business case” for diversity, which rests partially on the assumption that a more diverse labour force introduces new and broader skills into an organization that can be used to enhance performance (Ivancevich & Gilbert, 2000; Page, 2007). The business case for diversity management is deeply rooted and supported in the federal government as a personnel management practice that promotes commitment to recruit, retain, and reward a heterogeneous workforce that mirrors the growing demographic trends of society (Ivancevich & Gilbert, 2000). Thomas (1990) suggested that diversity management aids organizations in becoming more competitive. Similarly, Cox and Blake (1991) posited that organizations that successfully integrate a diverse array of employees will retain their competitiveness. Other advocates of the practice have posited that diversity management is necessary in developing an organizational culture where all employees, including ones from different backgrounds, are successful (Pitts, Hicklin, Hawes, & Melton, 2010). Recent research suggests the empirical results of the effects of workforce diversity are somewhat unclear and inconsistent (Choi & Rainey, 2010; Choi, 2009). It is possible that the inconsistency in these studies is due to the fact that scholars assume that diverse organizations possess a broader array of skills, and that those skills are effectively tapped to enhance performance. However, it is important to note that limited research actually examines the extent to which the skill sets possessed by increasingly diverse organizations are actually effectively utilized. Given the inconsistency in empirical studies, we examine gains in performance related outcomes associated with organizational diversity, and the extent to which employees feel that cultures that favour diversity actually benefit from their unique contributions. Including skill utilization in broader models of diversity management may clarify the inconsistencies in previous diversity studies. A significant amount of the literature in the area of diversity management examines its impact on racial minorities and women’s job satisfaction. Although largely unknown, according to the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) Sex-Based Discrimination (Paragraph 1) (2015a), “Discrimination against an individual because of gender identity, including transgender status, or because of sexual orientation is discrimination because of sex in violation of Title VII.” Sexual orientation and gender identity are also prohibited forms of discrimination protected under Executive Order 11478: “Executive Order 11478, as amended, expressly prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. identity within executive branch civilian employment.” EEOC (2015b), under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, has concluded that: Title VII’s prohibition on sex discrimination protects persons who have been discriminated against based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Further, civil service laws prohibit certain employment decisions or personnel actions when the decisions or actions are based on conduct that does not adversely affect job performance, including sexual orientation and gender identity. Individual agencies and unions may establish procedures to resolve disputes, including complaints of discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity (Page 2, Paragraph 3). Additionally, an amendment to the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 “protects federal government applicants and employees from discrimination in personnel actions… which can include sexual orientation or gender identity” (U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission [EEOC], n.d. Paragraph 5). Several case laws have been established regarding LGBTs and anti-employment discrimination. Generally, the courts are finding shelter for transgender people under Title VII, however it is still not universal. Additionally, the protection of sexual orientation under Title VII has seen some litigation.1 Furthermore, to date, limited research exists exploring the impact of diversity management techniques for the job satisfaction of sexual orientation minorities (i.e., lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender [LGBT] people in the public workplace). The aim of this research is to examine the extent to which diversity management of this minority group of US federal workforce impacts their job satisfaction. Our objective is to expand understanding of how specific diversity management concepts, such as fostering a culture of diversity and effective skill utilization of diverse employees, influences job satisfaction among sexual orientation minorities in the US federal government. The central question guiding this research is: What factors impact LGBTs job satisfaction in the federal government? Specifically, we examine factors that affect job satisfaction of self-identified LGBT members in the federal workforce by following the path of diversity management and job satisfaction research. First, this paper reviews the literature on job satisfaction followed by a discussion of the theoretical model of diversity management guiding our research. To test our model, we use the 2014 US Office of Personnel Management (2014b), Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS) (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, 2014b), which is presented in the method section. We then discuss our analysis and the proposed policy implications for enhancing the performance of US federal agencies. Finally, we conclude with suggestions for future research to expand our understanding of diversity management and improve organizational performance. 183 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. role in shaping factors such as work motivation, turnover, commitment, and productivity (Locke, 1976; Mobley, Griffeth, Hand, & Meglino, 1979; Mobley, Horner & Hollingsworth, 1978; Wright, 2001, 2004; Wright & Davis, 2003). Given the connection between performancerelated factors and job satisfaction, understanding the productivity of certain employee groups partially depends on uncovering how patterns of satisfaction evolve. Because underrepresented groups are more likely to desire government jobs under the assumption that they will have better job protection in the public sector (Blank, 1985; Lewis & Frank, 2002), understanding satisfaction and performance among these individuals is paramount. Lewis and Pitts (2009) assert that the US federal government does and should act as the “model employer” for equal protection of under-represented groups (i.e., minorities and women in the workplace; Lewis & Pitts, 2009). However scant research explores the satisfaction levels among those with varying demographic characteristics in the US federal government. According to Bell, Özbilgin, Beauregard, and Sürgevil (2011), diversity and job satisfaction research did not begin until Johnston and Packer’s (1987) assessment forecasting demographic trends of the US workforce. Since their groundbreaking research, marginalized groups associated with workplace diversity protections now include persons who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBTs) (EEOC, 2015a). Thus, it is imperative that all federal employees and their levels of satisfaction be assessed as characteristics of workplace demographics continue to expand. Assessing the level of satisfaction of all employee groups can help identify sources and implications for any discrepancies that may exist among US federal workers’ satisfaction in the workplace. Job Satisfaction The concept of job satisfaction generally refers to a person’s attitudes about their work. Edwin Locke (1976) characterized job satisfaction as the “pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job” (p. 1300). Since the early work examining the existence and effects of job satisfaction, the theory has evolved along three dimensions (Judge & Klinger, 2007). The first major stream of job satisfaction research asserts that situational factors of work, including job tasks, give rise to patterns of satisfaction (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). For the second stream, many scholars argue that personality traits and dispositional factors shape the extent to which one is satisfied with work (Locke, 1976; Staw & Ross, 1985; Ting, 1996 & 1997; Weitz 1952). In the final theoretical vein, job satisfaction is depicted as the product of an interaction between personality factors and job characteristics (Hulin, 1991). A significant proportion of the literature in public management assesses job satisfaction from a situational perspective (e.g., Jung, 2014; Wright & Davis, 2003). Though each of these streams of literature offers certain advantages for examining job satisfaction, an approach that merges job characteristics and personal disposition may be most advantageous for examining LGBT employees. The advantages of applying the personal disposition-bysituation approach to job satisfaction for LGBT employees are twofold. First, evidence asserts that satisfaction levels across groups vary in accordance with their unique background and history (Ting, 1996). For LGBT employees, elements of personal background and the historical trajectory of acceptance in the workplace are likely to be particularly salient.2 Evidence of the salience of dispositional factors for influencing job satisfaction among minority groups exists in several disciplines. For example, Cox and Blake (1991) asserted that levels of job satisfaction among minorities and women are generally lower than other groups. Choi and Rainey (2010) and Choi (2009) conversely have found that when managed well, racial minorities in diverse organizations report greater levels of job satisfaction. In addition to individual background and history, several important workrelated factors, such as goal ambiguity, rule content, and skill utilization, also influence employees’ job satisfaction levels (DeHart-Davis, Davis, & Mohr 2015; Wright & Davis, 2003). Importantly, these factors occur in conjunction with personal histories to shape job satisfaction in meaningful ways. According to Cantarelli, Belardinelli, and Belle (2015), the concept of job satisfaction has drawn considerably more attention than any other concept in the field of public administration. While job satisfaction alone may represent an important area of study, an important case for examining job satisfaction is that its byproducts (e.g., turnover and organizational commitment) represent some of the raw materials required for organizational performance. Though job satisfaction often indirectly relates to performance related factors, it plays some Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Diversity Culture, Job Satisfaction, and Skill Utilization in the Public Sector The Direct Pathway Research in public administration often asserts that diversity can aid organizations in completing task and service delivery (Bradbury & Kellough 2008; Riccucci 2002; Selden, 1997). Though often situated under the heading of representative bureaucracy, these scholars assumed that more diverse organizations are better able to attain important policy goals (Meier & O’Toole, 2006). This suggests that a diverse collection of employees in public organizations helps ensure that the interests of diverse groups are represented in policy formulation and implementation processes (Bradbury & Kellough, 2008). The major principle behind this idea is that structuring organizational personnel such that they reflect demographic characteristics similar to the general public leads to the pursuit of policies that reflect the interest of a particular group of people (Bradbury & Kellough, 2008; Hindera, 1993a, 1993b; Keiser, Wilkins, 184 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. Meier, & Holland, 2002; Meier, 1993; Meier & Stewart, 1992; Mosher, 1982; Selden, 1997). Though patterns of representation in public organizations can enhance policy performance and increase governmental legitimacy, the more recent business case for diversity argues that increased diversity can enhance organizational performance regardless of sector. Support of diversity management in the public sector has grown as research highlights benefits associated with its impact on organizational performance. Advocates of the positive implications of the diversity management literature suggest that diversity enhances organization’s capacity to solve problems and asserts that a diverse workforce leads to higher productivity (Ely 2004; Hambrick & Mason, 1982; Richard, 2000). More specifically, this literature suggests that well-managed diversity leads to increased organizational productivity because of the variation of ideas presented from different groups of individuals. Nevertheless, a separate stream of research argues that increases in diversity may undermine important performance related variables, such as job satisfaction, by generating unfavourable evaluations of work elements. Understanding job satisfaction among LGBT employees requires a robust examination of satisfaction patterns among various groups in an increasingly diversifying workforce. Indeed, the literature on this topic is mixed (Choi, 2009; Choi & Rainey, 2010; Cox & Blake, 1991). Even in the face of inconsistent results, attraction-similarity, social identity, and self-categorization theories present compelling rationales for why job satisfaction should decrease among social groups in diverse workforces. When taken as a group these perspectives indicate that people are psychologically drawn to those who exhibit similar attitudes, beliefs, and traits (Berscheid & Walster 1969; Byrne, 1971). One tends to be psychologically attracted to those they perceive as similar because similarity encourages feelings of solidarity, reinforcement, and predictability in social life (Byrne, 1971). However, in the face of increasing heterogeneity, lines tend to be drawn between those who are similar and those who are different, which diminishes cohesion and enhances intergroup conflict (Ely, 2004; Lott & Lott, 1961; O’Reilly, Caldwell, & Barnett, 1989; Smith et al., 1994; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). When diversity is coupled with limited cohesion and high intergroup conflict, diversity in organizations can also cause workplace tension due to the lack of trust among individuals from dissimilar groups (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). High tension, increased conflict, and limited trust may exert forces in the workplace that diminish the degree to which an individual can focus on the satisfying elements of work. Thus, there seems to be a lively debate in the literature about the importance of satisfaction among diverse groups. Adding additional groups of workers to the mix, such as LGBT employees, adds further complexity and greater potential for conflict. Though we do not examine levels of organizational diversity in this study, we assumed that those Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. organizations where LGBT employees self-identify are generally more diverse agencies. Additionally, due to current fierce debates regarding the rights of LGBT individuals in the United States, we also assumed there are conflicting opinions about the rights of LGBT employees in the workplace. Given the possibility that increasing organizational diversity generates the conditions necessary for group conflict and diminished satisfaction, public management scholars have begun to argue for the importance of effectively managing diverse groups of employees. Diversity management is a multifaceted public personnel practice that represents a group of human capital development strategies (Mathews, 1998; Pitts, 2006). Pitts (2006) suggested that there are three facets of comprehensive human capital strategies that capitalize on the benefits of diversity. His study suggests that diversity management first involves recruitment strategies targeting women and minorities in the workplace. The second category involves the development of cultural awareness training programs promoting a diversity-friendly workplace culture. The last group of policies involves the integration of managerial employee-friendly-flexible policies that support the satisfaction and retention of diverse groups of employees in public sector organizations (Pitts, 2006). Collectively these strategies aid an organization in their ability to create a work environment that is welcomes diverse groups. We focused on the second element in the study, which includes fostering a culture welcoming diversity. When organizations generate a culture of diversity it is reasonable to assume that minority groups will exhibit greater satisfaction as compared to minority groups in less welcoming organizations (Pitts, 2009). As Oberfield (2014) argues, diversity management enhances employee and organizational performance by eliminating social barriers and promoting a sense of inclusion among workers. H1: Increased perceptions of a diversity culture within the organization are associated with increases in job satisfaction among LGBT employees. The Indirect Pathway Another component of the diversity literature suggests diverse groups respond better to environmental challenges because the diverse skill sets offered by minority groups present a broader array of potential solutions to problems (Choi 2009; Choi & Rainey 2010; Cox 1993; Cox & Blake 1991; Ely 2004; Pless & Maak, 2004; Pitts, 2009). For example, Williams and O’Reilly’s (1998) work suggests that diverse groups provide a broader range of skills, ideas, and information in the decision-making process. Diverse groups have access to different ideas because organizations characterized by homogeneity tend to share similar perspectives on topics based on their similar backgrounds. Demographically diverse organizations, on the other hand, house a broader 185 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. array of information that traditionally may be ignored in homogenous workplace environments (Tziner & Eden, 1985). Lazear (1997) argues that diversity promotes increased creativity in the workplace. Groups of workers from different backgrounds provide valuable insight that may differ from the workforce majority and therefore have the potential to contribute new information and insight (Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). Ely (2004), Cox and Blake (1991), and Cox (1993) also asserted that increased organizational diversity improves organizations’ decision-making capacity. While this rationale for diversity also focuses on the business case, it adds to the logic of the study presented by Pitts (2006). For example, Cox and Blake (1991) asserted that diversity can yield a competitive advantage for organizations by offering a wider variety of skills at the organization’s disposal. Yet, diversity must be managed effectively in ways that capitalize on the potential competitive advantage. For example, the productivity advantages offered by increased diversity are contingent on important contextual factors such as an organization’s culture and the presence of minority friendly policies (Jackson, Aparna, & Erhardt, 2003; Kochan et al., 2003; Williams & O’Reilly, 1998). Of particular importance is the assertion that when organizations create a culture of diversity they can increase levels of skill utilization among diverse groups of employees. directly connected to the contributions they make (Adams, 1965). In the context of skill utilization, an employee who perceives their skills are not effectively utilized likely determine this in relation to the way the organization uses the skills of others. Lower perceived skill utilization in this sense references a perceived lack of equity that can undermine satisfaction. As a result, we expect that: H3: Increases in perceived skill utilization lead to increases in job satisfaction among LGBT employees. To the extent that increased perceptions of a diversity culture contribute to one’s belief that their skills are effectively utilized (H2), and that increased perceptions of skill utilization lead to increases in job satisfaction (H3), it is possible that there exists an indirect connection between the presence of a diversity culture and job satisfaction. The potential influence of perceived diversity cultures on job satisfaction via its influence on perceived skill utilization leads to the following indirect pathway hypothesis: H4: Increases in perceived diversity culture within the organization lead to increases in job satisfaction via their influence on perceptions of skill utilization for LGBT employees. H2: Increases in perceived diversity culture contribute to increased perceptions of skill utilization among LGBT employees. Figure 1 presents a theoretical model that accounts for the direct pathway hypothesis and the series of hypotheses that lead to the indirect pathway hypotheses. An organization’s ability to effectively use the skill sets offered by a heterogeneous workforce may allow performance goals to be met, but it may also serve as a satisfying force for the individual employee (Humphrys & O’Brien, 1986; O’Brien, 1982; Ting, 1996). As argued earlier, job satisfaction represents an emotional outcome attached, in part, to the way employees evaluate the characteristics of their job (DeHart-Davis et al., 2015; Ting, 1996; Wright & Davis, 2003). Skill utilization is an important job characteristic with the capacity to enhance satisfaction for at least two important reasons. First, job satisfaction partly results from a perceived favourable value tradeoff from the perspective of the employee (Locke, 1969). To the extent that employees desire the opportunity to contribute their efforts to help achieve collective organizational goals, they place a higher value on an organization that effectively uses their unique skill set and employs the skills they have to offer to achieve those ends. Ultimately, the byproduct of a more meaningful contribution as a result of skill utilization will lead to job satisfaction. Second, job satisfaction develops as employees compare the way they are treated at work relative to other organizational members (DeHart-Davis et al., 2015; Organ, 1988). Employees who perceive that they are treated equitably by others within the organization often exhibit higher levels of satisfaction because they believe that rewards are Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Method The data used to test these hypotheses were drawn from the 2014 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS). The FEVS is administered annually to United States federal employees by the Office of Personnel Management (OPM). The survey is designed to evaluate the degree to which US federal employees view their agency as exhibiting the Figure 1. Proposed theoretical model 186 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. characteristics of effective organizations. In 2013 OPM began including a questionnaire item allowing employees to self-identify as LGBT, which they continued in 2014. The addition of this item provides researchers the opportunity to identify and evaluate perceptions specific to selfidentified LBGT employees. The OPM distributed the 2014 FEVS to a sample of 839,788 employees. When data collection concluded, 392,752 employees answered the survey for a response rate of 46.8% (US Office of Personnel Management, 2014). The data available include respondents from 28 different agencies in the US federal government. Of the 392,752 employees, 9,855 self-identified as LGBT. Table 1 provides select demographic characteristics for all FEVS respondents, and for the LGBT subsample of respondents. However, for the purposes of our study, we analyzed the responses from those employees who identified as LGBT. Where possible we sought to follow previous measurement strategies for the constructs we examined. Based on the work of Pitts (2009), we assessed employee perceptions of the extent to which their organization exhibits a culture of diversity based on three items listed below as diversity culture (α = .747). Additionally, the three variables we used were employed by Choi and Rainey (2010) as a measure of perceptions of diversity management. Employees reported whether they generally felt negative, neutral, or positive in response to the statements: (a) “Policies and programs promote diversity in the workplace (for example, recruiting minorities and women, training in awareness of diversity issues, mentoring)”; (b) “My supervisor is committed to a workforce representative of all segments of society.”; and (c) “Supervisors work well with employees of different backgrounds.” We also assessed the extent to which employees felt their unique skill set was adequately fostered and used within the organizations based on three items (α = .810). The measurement of perceived skill utilization is based on the work of O’Brien (1982), and assesses the extent to which the employee felt positive, neutral, or negative in response to the statements: (a) “I am given a real opportunity to improve my skills in my organization”; (b) “I feel encouraged to come up with new and better ways of doing things.”; and (c) “My talents are used well in the workplace.” Next, we drew from multiple sources to develop a 4item job satisfaction construct (α = .830). Pitts (2009) and Yang and Kassekert (2010) have both used items from the Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of All Respondents & LGBT Subsample Demographic characteristics of all respondents (N = 392,752) Demographic characteristics of LGBT respondents (N = 9,855) Gender Male Female Missing Age Under 40 40–49 50–59 60 or Older Missing Federal tenure 5 Years or Less 6–14 Years 15 Years or More Missing Minority status Minority Non-Minority Missing Supervisory status Non-Supervisory Role Supervisory Role Missing LGBT status LGBT Heterosexual Missing Gender Male Female Missing Age Under 40 40–49 50–59 60 or Older Missing Federal Tenure 5 Years or Less 6–14 Years 15 Years or More Missing Minority Status Minority Non-Minority Missing Supervisory Status Non-Supervisory Role Supervisory Role Missing LGBT Status LGBT Heterosexual Missing N 187,071 173,304 32,377 % 47.63% 44.13% 8.24% 82,757 103,811 140,961 57,828 7,395 21.07% 26.43% 35.89% 14.72% 1.88% 79,597 125,241 162,836 25,078 20.27% 31.89% 41.46% 6.39% 120,116 229,559 43,077 30.58% 58.45% 10.97% 288,877 75,735 28,140 73.55% 19.28% 7.16% 9,855 295,494 87,403 2.51% 75.24% 22.25% Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 187 N 5,518 4,054 283 % 55.99% 41.14% 2.87% 2,733 2,752 3,316 852 202 27.73% 27.92% 33.65% 8.65% 2.05% 2,541 3,595 3,674 45 25.78% 36.48% 37.28% 0.46% 2,710 6,781 364 27.50% 68.81% 3.69% 7,548 2,061 246 76.59% 20.91% 2.50% 9,855 --- 2.51% --- Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. FEVS to assess job satisfaction including, (a) “Considering everything how satisfied are you with your job?” and (b) “Considering everything how satisfied are you with your organization?” to assess job satisfaction. We included both items in our job satisfaction construct to comport with previous research. Other literature in public administration, however, treats job satisfaction as an emotional response to evaluating elements of work relative to personal expectations (Davis, 2013a; DeHart-Davis et al., 2015). These studies suggest that emotions, including pride in accomplishment and enjoyment of the work itself, are important emotive elements of job satisfaction. As such, we also employed items that ask employees to evaluate two statements including (c) “I like the kind of work I do” and (d) “My work gives me a feeling of personal accomplishment” to measure job satisfaction. All items were coded such that higher values represent more positive feelings toward the statements. Table 2 provides the question wording and descriptive statistics for LGBT respondents on each of the theoretical variables used in the statistical model, Table 3 provides the correlation matrix for the variables included. An appendix is available online as supporting information. In addition to the theoretical constructs of interest, we also employed several demographic variables as model controls to rule out alternative explanations. Rainey (2009) noted that researchers traditionally include some of the following correlates of job satisfaction: education, tenure, gender, skills, goal ambiguity, rewards, and leadership. He further noted that results are mixed regarding their impact on employee’s job satisfaction. Thus, we controlled for gender (1 = male, 2 = female); age group (1 = under 40, 2 = 40– 49, 3 = 50–59, and 4 = 60 or older); federal tenure (1 = five or fewer years, 2 = 6–14 years, and 3 = 15 or more years); and minority status (1 = minority and 2 = nonminority) to determine the actual nature of the relationships among theoretical constructs. These controls were also used by Choi and Rainey (2010) in their examination of diversity management in federal agencies. While we did not specifically theorize about each of these variables, research on job satisfaction often employs these variables to rule out potential alternative explanations based on personal characteristics (Davis, 2013b; DeHart-Davis et al., 2015; DeSantis & Durst, 1996; Kim, 2002; Wright & Davis, 2003). It is also possible that perceptions of the existence and value of diversity oriented cultures and skill utilization vary across these demographic categories because women and minorities could have different expectations about the value and necessity of diversity cultures. Finally, it may be reasonable to expect that organizational level variables influence broader expectations about diversity culture, skill utilization, and job satisfaction. As such, we have constructed an organization level measure that characterizes the degree to which LGBT employees are represented at managerial levels. We have extended the measure of bureaucratic representation built by Subramaniam (1967) that divides the proportion of a demographic category in the civil service by their proportion in the general population to reflect LGBT representation in management. We divided the proportion of LGBT employees at managerial levels by the proportion of LGBT employees in the organization as a whole. A value of 1 indicates that the proportion of LGBT employees at the Table 2 Descriptive Statistics Question wording (a) “I am given a real opportunity to improve my skills in my organization”; (b) “I feel encouraged to come up with new and better ways of doing things.”; and (c) “My talents are used well in the workplace.” (a) “Policies and programs promote diversity in the workplace (for example, recruiting minorities and women, training in awareness of diversity issues, mentoring)”; (b) “My supervisor is committed to a workforce representative of all segments of society”; and (c) “Supervisors work well with employees of different backgrounds.” (a) “Considering everything how satisfied with your job?”; (b) “Considering everything how satisfied are you with your organization?”; (c) “I like the kind of work I do”; and (d) “My work gives me a feeling of personal accomplishment.” Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Index Skill utilization Diversity culture Job satisfaction 188 N Response range Min Max Mean S.D. 9194 1 to 3 1.00 3.00 2.35 0.80 9018 9187 1 to 3 1 to 3 1.00 1.00 3.00 3.00 2.56 2.46 0.70 0.77 9841 1 to 3 1.00 3.00 2.35 0.85 9703 1 to 3 1.00 3.00 2.28 0.87 9485 9777 1 to 3 1 to 3 1.00 1.00 3.00 3.00 2.25 2.53 0.89 0.77 9672 9788 1 to 3 1 to 3 1.00 1.00 3.00 3.00 2.72 2.41 0.60 0.81 9816 1 to 3 1.00 3.00 2.28 0.85 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) 1. Skill utilization (a) 2. Skill utilization (b) 3. Skill utilization (c) 4. Diversity culture (a) 189 5. Diversity culture(b) 6. Diversity culture (c) 7. Job satisfaction (a) 8. Job satisfaction (b) 9. Job satisfaction (c) 10. Job satisfaction (d) Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N Pearson correlation N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 9841 .610** 9694 .572** 9475 .366** 9182 .428** 9004 .442** 9176 .514** 9765 .330** 9660 .559** 9776 .550** 9804 1 9703 .586** 9349 .347** 9054 .440** 8882 .445** 9049 .511** 9628 .310** 9535 .548** 9639 .555** 9666 1 9485 .341** 8854 .401** 8682 .436** 8845 .553** 9411 .401** 9322 .596** 9428 .552** 9449 1 9194 .464** 8611 .482** 8708 .291** 9122 .195** 9023 .356** 9132 .405** 9161 1 9018 .541** 8608 .350** 8946 .224** 8857 .430** 8955 .417** 8983 1 9187 .370** 9121 .263** 9021 .479** 9126 .532** 9154 1 9777 .597** 9597 .613** 9715 .515** 9740 1 9672 .485** 9613 .359** 9635 1 9788 .730** 9754 1 9816 EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Table 3 Correlation Matrix **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Note: Variable numbering here follows the numbering patterns in the appendix. PINK-HARPER ET AL. Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. managerial level is identical to the proportion in the whole organization; a value below 1 indicates underrepresentation of LGBT employees in management; and a value over 1 reflects overrepresentation. This also replicates the work of Choi and Rainey (2010), which uses organizational level variables to assess diversity. Each of the control variables included here are modelled as full covariates. Full covariates are modelled as predictors of every theoretical construct in an effort to extract the variation due to those factors, which provides a more accurate depiction of true relationships between theoretical constructs of interest. variables on a 3-point scale. The question asked respondents the following: “Do you consider yourself to be one or more of the following? (mark as many as apply)”: 0-hetrosexual or straight; 1-gay, lesbian, or bisexual, or transgender; 2-I prefer not to say. For the purposes of this analysis, we excluded all respondents who identified as heterosexual or who preferred not to answer the question. Given the 3-point ordinal measurement, all survey items are treated as ordered categorical in the statistical models. Mplus uses robust weighted least squares estimation when using ordered categorical variables, which prevents testing parameter significance in the usual way. The parameter significance values we reported use a corrected χ 2 difference test to account for the robust weighted least squares estimation. Second, we also estimated the indirect effects of diversity culture on job satisfaction through the extent to which the employee feels their skills are utilized by the organization. Bootstrapping is often recommended for testing the significance of indirect relationships (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). To adequately test the significance of the indirect relationships posited in H4, we computed standard errors and confidence intervals based on 1,000 bootstrap draws. Finally, we used full information maximum likelihood, which is a modern missing data analysis technique, to recover missing information on the theoretical variables of interest. FIML estimation provides unbiased parameter estimates and standard errors when data are missing at random (Enders 2010; Enders & Bandalos, 2001). Prior to estimating the predictive structural equation models, we examined the CFA to assess the extent to which our constructs exhibited reasonable psychometric properties. Figure 2 presents the fully standardized parameter estimates and model fit statistics for the CFA model. The fully Results The statistical techniques we employed—confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM)—are well suited for evaluating latent variables defined by multiple questionnaire items. These techniques are particularly helpful when analyzing attitudinal and emotive measures that possess some degree of measurement error. Latent variables were defined by the shared variance between questionnaire items, whereas the variance unique to each item was presumed to represent measurement error (Kline, 2005). This technique also affords us the opportunity to test complex relationships between multiple variables in the same model. Specifically, in the context of this study, we sought to test the indirect relationship between perceived diversity culture and job satisfaction through perceptions of skill utilization. We used Mplus version 7.31 to estimate all models (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2012). There are a few important points to note regarding model estimation and specification. First, the data set includes the LGBT identifier released by the OPM codes Figure 2. Standardized CFA estimates Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 190 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. standardized results allow for interpreting the relationships between constructs as correlations rather than covariances. The findings presented in Figure 1 illustrate that this model fits the data well, and that relatively high proportions of variance in the questionnaire items are explained by the theoretical constructs. The factor loadings and fit statistics suggest adequate measurement of the constructs of interest. The findings also illustrate that each of the constructs we examined are significantly, positively correlated as expected. Given that the measurement model is a reasonable fit to the data, we introduced the control variables and estimated a series of structural equation models to test the hypotheses above. In the first step we estimated a structural equation model including control variables for gender, age group, tenure, minority status, and LGBT representation in management. The results from the model indicate that all three predictive paths in the model are statistically significant at p < .001, which supports H1 through H3. First, increases in the extent to which LGBT employees perceive a culture of diversity contribute to increases in job satisfaction and the extent to which they feel their unique skill set is effectively utilized. These findings confirm H1 and H2. Second, increases in the extent to which LGBT employees feel their skills are effectively utilized directly contributes to job satisfaction, which supports H3. Figure 3 provides the standardized parameter estimates and model fit statistics for the SEM including all relevant control variables, and Table 4 illustrates the parameter significance levels for each direct path. Our findings also illustrate the explanatory capacity of our model. Unlike traditional regression models, which report a single R2 value for the dependent variable, SEM models report an R2 value for each endogenous variable. First, the model controls including gender, minority status, age group, federal tenure, and LGBT representation in management explain a Table 4 Parameter Significance Levels Model df Δχ 2 Δdf p Full model Parameter significance Diversity culture ➔ Skill utilization Diversity culture ➔ Job satisfaction Skill utilization ➔ Job satisfaction 67 NA NA NA 1 1 1 <.001 <.001 <.001 68 5282.244 68 24.651 68 630.533 modest 3.8% of the variation in perceptions of diversity culture. Second, the model controls and the perceived presence of a diversity culture explain 61.8% of the variation in perceived skill utilization. Finally, model controls, perceptions of the existence of a culture favourable for diversity, and perceived skill utilization explain 81.2% of the variation in job satisfaction. Given that our model explains over 80% of the variation in job satisfaction with only seven variables, the explanatory capacity is impressive. Although the statistical model presented in Figure 3 illustrates the significance of several direct relationships, it is also possible that the perceived presence of a diversity culture influences job satisfaction indirectly via shaping perceived skill utilization. Estimating indirect effects involves computing the product of multiple direct effects (Kline, 2005). Based on our results, the indirect effect of perceived diversity culture on job satisfaction through perceptions of skill utilization is positive (β = .645) and statistically significant (p < .001). This finding supports H4. Adding direct effect of diversity culture on job satisfaction to its indirect effect through perceived skill utilization illustrates the total influence of diversity culture on job satisfaction. Based on our results, the total effect of diversity culture on job satis- Figure 3. Standardized SEM estimates Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 191 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. employees report lower levels of job satisfaction relative to minority LGBT employees, whereas female LGBT employees report higher levels of job satisfaction relative to male employees. Additionally, an increase in age group for LGBT employees is associated with increases in job satisfaction. The results for LGBT managerial levels show that increases in the extent to which LGBT employees are represented at managerial levels leads to decreased perceptions of skill utilization. Interestingly, the extent to which LGBT employees are represented at the managerial levels leads to increased perceptions of diversity culture. Lastly, the extent to which LGBT employees are represented at managerial levels leads to increased job satisfaction. The finding on skill utilization is also interesting and may reflect the belief of lower-level employees that utilizing their skills is less important because they are not employed at the managerial level. Table 5 provides the standardized estimates associated with each of the control variables. It is important to note that we only examined LGBT employees in this analysis. What that means and perhaps what makes the findings more profound, is that nonminority LGBT employees perceive lower skill utilization, higher diversity culture, and lower job satisfaction. Moreover, lesbian employees (those that are both female and selfidentified LGBT) report greater skill utilization, lower diversity culture, and higher job satisfaction. Collectively, these results indicate that individuals characterized by more than one minority status (e.g., LGBT and nonwhite or LGBT and female) have unique patterns of attitudes. They feel as though their skills are better utilized, they perceive less pronounced diversity cultures, and they exhibit higher job satisfaction. Table 5 Standardized Parameter Estimates for Control Variables Skill utilization EST Nonminority Female Federal tenure Age group LGBT management representation Diversity culture Nonminority Female Federal tenure Age group LGBT management representation Job satisfaction Nonminority Female Federal tenure Age group LGBT management representation 0.112 0.052 0.027 0.004 SE EST/SE p 0.023 0.022 0.016 0.013 4.860 <0.001 2.403 0.016 1.756 0.079 0.303 0.762 0.478 0.096 4.967 <0.001 EST 0.356 0.126 0.023 0.009 SE EST/SE p 0.027 12.970 <0.001 0.026 4.859 <0.001 0.019 1.240 0.215 0.015 0.570 0.569 0.780 0.114 EST 0.040 0.071 0.027 0.061 0.265 6.841 <0.001 SE EST/SE p 0.019 2.156 0.031 0.017 4.157 <0.001 0.012 2.145 0.032 0.010 6.044 <0.001 0.075 3.529 <0.001 faction is 0.793. It is important to note that the magnitude indirect effect of diversity culture on job satisfaction through skill utilization for these LGBT employees is greater than the direct effect. This is important given our assertion that the diversity management literature assumes that skills from diverse workforces are effectively utilized. We found support for the assumptions in the diversity management literature, and suggest that symbolic attitudes toward diversity are not enough to generate important performance-related outcomes. Rather, active steps must be taken to actually employ the skills of a diverse workforce. Finally, there are a few significant relationships between the control variables and the theoretical constructs of interest. First, nonminority LGBT employees perceive greater degrees of a diversity culture within the organization. Female LGBT employees perceive that the organization’s culture fosters diversity to a lesser extent. Perhaps this is due to the fact that government agencies have often been considered one of the best employers by minority employees because they are afforded protections in the public sector that may not be granted in the private sector. Second, nonminority LGBT employees, as compared to minority LGBT employees, perceive lower levels of skill utilization. Alternatively, female LGBT employees as compared to male LGBT employees report higher levels of skill utilization. Finally, nonminority LGBT Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Discussion Summary and Contributions to Scholarship Our study examines factors that contribute to job satisfaction among a large sample of LGBT employees in the US federal government. First, we examined the extent to which the presence of a diversity culture influences job satisfaction among LGBT employees. Consistent with previous research conducted with a broader conceptualization of minority status (see Pitts, 2009), we found that presence of a diversity culture does indeed increase job satisfaction for LGBT employees. Second, we found that increases in perceptions of diversity culture encourage one to feel that their unique skill set is better utilized, which ultimately contributes to greater job satisfaction. Applied Implications and Limitations These findings lead to a few important implication. First, in the diversity management study by Pitts (2006), 192 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. it suggests that the development of cultural awareness with respect to minority groups will contribute to favourable outcomes of the organization and the employee. Our findings support this assertion, but they also offer insight into why cultural awareness leads to favourable outcomes. The findings we present illustrate that the magnitude of the indirect pathway is nearly six times greater than that of the direct pathway. This means that the most important role diversity culture plays in shaping job satisfaction is through the effective use of unique employee skill sets. This finding is important because it provides some insight for organizations as they seek to shape training programs that promote cultural awareness. It may be that the recognition that LGBT employees are a part of an increasingly diversified workforce is not enough to enhance their satisfaction. In addition to recognition, LGBT employees must be solicited to offer input into the skills they believe they bring to the workplace and management must be trained to structure work in such a way that capitalizes on these skills. Based on our findings one could argue that absent skill utilization managerial recognition of a demographic group is little more than lip service. Thus, we suggest that management focus on ways to promote the integration and inclusion ideas from diverse groups in all aspects of the workplace environment. For example, federal agencies should maintain consistent usage of OPM’s Special Emphasis Initiatives and Programs (SEP) to aid managers in identifying ways to promote the inclusion of LGBTs in the federal workplace. The SEP should be supported and integrated as a way for managers and minority status groups to communicate their ideas with others in their workplace regarding various aspects of the workplace environment. Second, although the research is somewhat dated, scholars have argued that the ability afforded to employees to use their skills is a significant determinant of mental health in the workplace (Kornhauser, 1965). In our view, too little research emphasis in public administration has focused on the mental health outcomes associated with public sector work. Our research suggests that while the presence of a diversity culture may be important for increasing organizational performance, it also helps facilitate work conditions that promote psychological well-being. This finding is particularly vital since according to Lewis and Pitts (2009), women and minorities are more likely to desire government jobs under the assumption that they will have better job protection in the public sector. However, Fernandez, Resh, Moldogaziev, and Oberfield (2015) caution researchers of the measurement validity limitations associated with usage of the FEVS. More specifically, they noted that the survey items may not be properly measured resulting in few valid items options to be included in research. Additionally they noted that the construction of the FEVS survey may not align with research validating the measures of the concepts included. Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Future Research Directions Enhanced performance, while important, should play a secondary role to promoting the health and welfare of organizational employees. Given the stigmatization of LGBT employees among certain social and political groups, it is reasonable to assume that they are at higher risk of mental health problems including depression (Ross, Doctor, Dimito, Kuehl, & Armstrong, 2008). It is important that the workplace be structured as such that it alleviates, rather than compounds, factors with the potential to diminish psychological well-being of all minority status groups. Effective skill utilization may achieve that aim. To explore this relationship further, research should also examine the relationship explored here among other minority status groups. For example, are these results consistent for racial minorities? Are these results consistent for women? The data we received from OPM did not allow us to examine these factors. However, results from further analysis will provide insight in identifying ways that minority status groups collectively and individual may need to succeed in today’s evolving organizations. Future research should also consider the inclusion of additional LGBT job satisfaction correlates highlighted by Cantarelli et al. (2015) to further understand the factors that impact the job satisfaction of marginalized groups. For example, Ko, Hur, and Smith-Walter (2013) found that worklife benefits impact employee job satisfaction. Additionally Fernandez and Moldogaziev (2013) noted a relationship between employment and job satisfaction. Future studies exploring these additional impacts may further aid public managers in better understanding the context in which job satisfaction may be increased for marginalized groups including women, racial minorities, and LGBTs. Notes 1 193 See the following federal cases involving transgender individuals ((Macy v. Dep’t of Justice (2012); Jameson v. U.S. Postal Service (2013); Complainant v. Dep’t of Veterans Affairs (2014); Lusardi v. Dep’t of the Army (2015)). See the following federal cases involving lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals (Baldwin v. Dep’t of Transportation (2015); Veretto v. US Postal Service (2011); Castello v. U.S. Postal Service (2011); Dupras v. Dep’t of Commerce (2013); Culp v. Dep’t of Homeland Security (2013); Brooker v. U.S. Postal Service (2013); Morris v. Dep’t of the Army (2013); Couch v. Dep’t of Energy (2013); Complainant v. Dep’t of Transportation (2014); Complainant v. DHS (2014); Complainant v. US Postal Service (2014); Complainant v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2014); Complainant v. U.S. Postal Service (2015)) (EEOC, 2014). For additional examples see Smith v. City of Salem (2004) and Barnes v. City of Cincinnati (2005) by the 5th Circuit; Gleen v. Brumby (2011) by the 11th Circuit plus various lower court rulings.) Federal district court rulings e.g. Oiler v. WinnDixie Louisiana, Inc. (2002); by the 10th Circuit; Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989); and Ulane v. Eastern Airline, Inc. (1984). Also see https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/litigation/selected/lgbt_facts.cfm for additional information regarding: Recent EEOC litigation regarding Title VII & LGBT-Related Discrimination cases. Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION 2 PINK-HARPER ET AL. While our project does not examine specific dispositional variables we examine a group of individuals that have not historically been accepted into society. For example, Burns, Graham, and Menefee-Libey (2012) noted that LGBT employees have had a history of experiencing employment discrimination and unequal treatment in the public sector workforce. Incidents such as those experienced by Frank Kameny, a gay rights pioneer losing his federal government job due to his sexual orientation preference illustrate the challenges faced by this marginalized group of employees Although these trends are shifting the historical trajectory of LGBT acceptance is likely to impact these individuals. By examining only LGBT employees in this study we acknowledge that these histories play a role in how LGBT employees experience, interpret, and assess work (Burns et al., 2012) Choi, S. (2009). Diversity in the US federal government: Diversity management and employee turnover in federal agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research Theory, 19 (3),603–630. doi:10.1093/jopart/mun010 Choi, S. & Rainey, H.G. (2010). Managing diversity in U.S. federal agencies: Effects of diversity and diversity management on employee perceptions of organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 70(1),109–121. doi: 10.1111/j.15406210.2009.02115.x Complainant v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, EEOC Appeal No. 0120141108, 2014 WL 7398828 (Dec. 18, 2014) Complainant v. Dep’t of Transportation, EEOC Appeal No. 0720140023, 2014 WL 3790725 (July 24, 2014) Complainant v. Dep’t of Veterans Affairs, EEOC Appeal No. 0120133123, 2014 WL 1653484 (Apr. 16, 2014) Complainant v. DHS, EEOC Appeal No. 0120110576, 2014 WL 4407422 (Aug. 20, 2014) Complainant v. U.S. Postal Service, EEOC Appeal No. 0120132452,2014 WL 6853897 (Nov.18, 2014) Complainant v. U.S. Postal Service, EEOC Appeal No. 0120133382 2015 WL 755097(Feb. 11. 2015) Cornwell, C. & Kellough, J.E. (1994). Women and minorities in federal agencies: Examining new evidence from panel data. Public Administration Review, 54(3),265–270. doi:10.2307/ 976730 Couch v. Dep’t of Energy, EEOC Appeal No. 0120131136, 2013 WL 4499198 (Aug. 13, 2013) Cox, T. Jr. (1993). Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research, and Practice. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler. Cox, T.H. & Blake, S. (1991). Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. The Executive, 5 (3),45–56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4165021 Culp v. Dep’t of Homeland Security, EEOC Appeal No. 0720130012, 2013 WL 2146756 (May 7, 2013) Davis, R. S. (2013a). Union commitment and stakeholder red tape: How union values shape perceptions of organizational rules. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 33(4), 365–383. doi:10.1177/0734371x12453056 Davis, R. S. (2013b). Unionization and work attitudes: How union commitment influences public sector job satisfaction. Public Administration Review, 73(1), 74–84. doi:10.1111/j.15406210.2012.02609.x DeHart-Davis, L., Davis, R. S., & Mohr, Z. (2015). Green tape and job satisfaction: Can organizational rules make employees happy? Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 25(3), 849–876. doi:10.1093/jopart/muu038 DeSantis, V. S., & Durst, S. L. (1996). Comparing job satisfaction among public- and private- sector employees. The American Review of. Public Administration, 26(3), 327–343. doi: 10.1177/027507409602600305 Dupras v. Dep’t of Commerce, EEOC Request No. 0520110648, 2013 WL 1182329 (Mar. 15, 2013) Ely, R.J. (2004). A field study of group diversity, participation in diversity education programs, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25(6), 755–780. doi:10.1002/ job.268 Enders, C.K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. New York: Guilford Publications. Enders, C.K., & Bandalos, D.L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation JEL Classifications: J28, J71, J24, J53 References Adams, J.S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (pp. 267–299). New York, New Work: Academic Press. Ashforth, B. E. & Mael, F. (1989). Social identity theory and the organization. Academy of Management Review, 14(1), 20–39. Baldwin v. Dep’t of Transportation, EEOC Appeal No. 0120133080 (July 15, 2015) Barnes v. City of Cincinnati, 401 F.3d 729 (6th Cir. 2005) Bell, M. P., Özbilgin, M. F., Beauregard, T. A., & Sürgevil, O. (2011). Voice, silence, and diversity in 21st century organizations: Strategies for inclusion of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender employees. Human Resource Management, 50 (1), 131–146. doi:10.1002/hrm.20401 Berscheid, E., & Walster, E. H. (1969). Interpersonal attraction. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Blank, R. M. (1985). An analysis of workers’ choice between employment in the public and private sectors. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 38(2), 211–214. doi: 10.2307/2523830 Bradbury, M. D., & Kellough, J. E. (2008). Representative Bureaucracy: Exploring the Potential for Active Representation in Local Government. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 18(4), 697–714. doi:10.1093/jopart/mum033 Brooker v. U.S. Postal Service, EEOC Request No. 0520110680, 2013 WL 4041270 (May 20, 2013) Burns, C., Graham, K.S., & Menefee-Libey, S. (2012). Gay and transgender discrimination in the public sector. Why It’s a problem for state and local government, employees and taxpayers. Center for American Progress. Retrieved February 12, 2016 from https://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/LGBTPublicSectorReport1.pdf. Byrne, D. E. (1971). The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press. Cantarelli, P., Belardinelli, P., & Belle, N. (2015). A meta-analysis of job satisfaction correlates in the public administration literature. Review of Public Personnel Administration. OnlineFirst. March 31, 2015. doi:10.1177/0734371X15578534 Castello v. U.S. Postal Service, EEOC Request No. 0520110649, 2011 WL 6960810 (Dec. 20, 2011) Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 194 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. Science Review, 96(3), 553–564. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3117929 Kim, S. (2002). Participative management and job satisfaction: Lessons for management leadership. Public Administration Review, 62(2), 231–241. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00173 Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, New York: The Guilford Press. Ko, J., Hur, S., & Smith-Walter, A. (2013). Family-friendly work practices and job satisfaction and organizational performance: Moderating effects of managerial support and performanceoriented management. Public Personnel Management, 42(4), 545–565. Kochan, T., Bezrukova, K., Ely, R., Jackson, S., Joshi, A., Jehn, K., Leonard, J., Levine, D., & Thomas, T. (2003). The Effects of Diversity on Business Performance: Report of the Diversity Research Network. Human Resource Management, 42(1), 3–21. Kornhauser, A. (1965). Mental health of the industrial worker: A Detroit study. Oxford, England: John Wiley. Lazear, E. (1997). Diversity and immigration. Working Paper, Graduate School of Business, Stanford University May 17. Lewis, G. B., & Frank, S. A. (2002). Who wants to work for government? Public Administration Review, 62(4), 395–404. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00193 Lewis, G. B., & Pitts, D. (2009). Representation of lesbians and gay men in federal, state and local bureaucracies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(1), 159–180. doi: 10.1093/jopart/mup030 Locke, E. A. (1969). What is job satisfaction?. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(4), 309–336. Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In M.D. Dunnette (Ed). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, (pp. 1297–1349). Chicago, Illinois: Rand McNally. Lott, A. J., & Lott, B. E. (1961). Group cohesiveness, communication level, and conformity. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(2), 408–412. Lusardi v. Dep’t of the Army, EEOC Appeal No. 0120133395, 2015 WL 1607756 (April 1, 2015) Macy v. Dep’t of Justice, EEOC Appeal No. 0120120821, 2012 WL 1435995 (April 20, 2012) Mathews, A. (1998). Diversity: A principle of human resource management. Public Personnel Management, 27 (2),175–186. doi:10.1177/009102609802700205 Meier, K. J. (1993). Latinos and representative bureaucracy: Testing the Thompson and Henderson hypotheses. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 3(4), 393–414. Meier, K. J., & O’Toole, L. J. (2006). Bureaucracy in a democratic state: A governance perspective. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Meier, K. J., and Stewart, J.J. Jr. (1992). The impact of representative bureaucracies: Educational systems and public policies. American Review of Public Administration, 22(3), 157–171. doi: 10.1177/027507409202200301 Milliken, F.J., & Martins, L.L. (1996). Searching for common threads: Understanding the multiple effects of diversity in organizational groups. Academy of Management Review, 21(2), 402–434. Mobley, W.H., Horner, S.O., & Hollingsworth, A.T. (1978). An Evaluation of precursors of hospital employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(4), 408–414. for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(3), 430–457. Fernandez, S., & Moldogaziev, T. (2013), Employee Empowerment, Employee Attitudes, and Performance: Testing a Causal Model. Public Administration Review, 73(3), 490–506. doi: 10.1111/puar.12049 Fernandez, S. Resh, W.G., Moldogaziev, T., Oberfield, Z.W. (2015). Assessing the past and promise of the federal employee viewpoint survey for public management research: A research synthesis. Public Administration Review, 75(3), 382–294. DOI: 10.1111/puar.12368 Foldy, E.G. (2004). Learning from diversity: A theoretical exploration. Public Administration Review, 64(5), 529–538. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6210.2004.00401.x Glenn v. Brumby, 663 F.3d 1312 (11th Cir. 2011) Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G.R. (1976). Motivation through design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16(2), 250–79. Hambrick, D. E. & Mason, P.A. (1982). Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Academy of Management Review, 9(2), 193–206. Hindera, John J. (1993a). Representative bureaucracy: Further evidence of active representation in EEOC district offices. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 3(4), 415–429. Hindera, John J. (1993b). Representative bureaucracy: Imprimis evidence of active representation in EEOC district offices. Social Science Quarterly, 74(1), 95–108. Hulin, C. L. (1991). Adaptation, persistence, commitment in organizations. In M. Dunnette and L. Hough (Eds). Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, (pp. 445–507). Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press. Humphrys, P., & O’Brien, G. E. (1986). The relationship between skill utilization, professional orientation and job satisfaction for pharmacists. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 59(4), 315–326. Ivancevich, J.M. & Gilbert, J.A. (2000). Diversity management time for a new approach. Public Personnel Management, 29 (1),75–92. doi: 10.1177/009102600002900106 Jackson, S. E., Aparna, J., & Erhardt, N. L. (2003). Recent Research on Team and Organizational Diversity: SWOT Analysis and Implications. Journal of Management, 29(6), 801–30. Jameson V. U.S. Postal Service, EEOC Appeal No. 0120130992, 2013 WL 2368729 (May 21, 2013) Johnston, W. B., & Packer, A. E. (1987). Workforce 2000: Work and workers for the twenty-first century. Indianapolis: Hudson Institute, Inc. Judge, T. A., and R. Klinger. 2007. Job satisfaction: Subjective well-being at work. In M. Eid & R. Larsen (Eds.) The Science of Subjective Well-being. (pp. 393–413). New York, New York: Guilford Publications. Jung, C. S. 2014. Organizational goal ambiguity and job satisfaction in the public sector. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 24(4): 955–981 24. doi:10.1093/ jopart/mut020 Keiser, L. R., Wilkins, V. M., Meier, K. J., & Holland, C. A. (2002). Lipstick and logarithms: Gender, institutional context, and representative bureaucracy. American Political Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 195 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. Ross, L. E., Doctor, F., Dimito, A., Kuehl, D., & Armstrong, M. S. (2008). Can talking about oppression reduce depression? Modified CBT group treatment for LGBT people with depression. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 19(1), 1–15. Selden, S. C. (1997). The Promise of representative bureaucracy: Diversity and responsiveness in a government agency. Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe. Selden, S. C. & Selden, F. (2001). Rethinking diversity in public organizations for the 21st century: Moving toward a multicultural model. Administration & Society, 33(3), 303–329. doi:10.1177/00953990122019785 Smith v. City of Salem, 378 F.3d 566 (6th Cir. 2004). Smith, K. G., Smith, K. A., Olian, J. D., Sims Jr, H. P., O’Bannon, D. P., & Scully, J. A. (1994). Top management team demography and process: The role of social integration and communication. Administrative Science Quarterly, 39(3), 412–438. Staw, B. M., & Ross, J. 1985. Stability in the midst of change: A dispositional approach to job attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 469–480. Subramaniam, V. (1967). Representative bureaucracy: A reassessment. American Political Science Review, 61(4), 1010–1019. doi:10.2307/1953403. Thomas, R.R. (1990). From affirmative action to affirming diversity. Harvard Business Review, 68(2), 107–117. doi: 10.1111/0033-3352.00103 Ting, Y. (1996). Analysis of job satisfaction of the federal whitecollar work force: Findings from the survey of federal employees. The American Review of Public Administration, 26 (4), 439–456. doi: 10.1111/0033-3352.00103 Ting, Y. (1997). Determinants of job satisfaction of federal government employees. Public Personnel Management, 26(3), 313–334. doi: 10.1177/009102609702600302 Tziner, A. & Eden, D. (1985). Effects of crew composition on crew performance: Does the whole equal the sum of its parts? Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(1), 85–93. U. S. Office of Personnel Management. (2014a). Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS). Retrieved from U. S. Office of Personnel Management. U. S. Office of Personnel Management. (2014b). Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS). Retrieved from http://www. fedview.opm.gov/2014/Reports/ U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2014). What you should know about EEOC and the enforcement protections for LGBT workers. Retrieved from http://www.eeoc. gov/eeoc/newsroom/wysk/ enforcement_protections_lgbt_workers.cfm U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2015a). SexBased Discrimination. Retrieved February 12, 2016, from https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/types/sex.cfm U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2015b). Addressing sexual orientation and gender identity discrimination in federal civilian employment: A guide to employment rights, protections, and responsibilities. Retrieved February 12, 2016, from https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/diversityand-inclusion/reference-materials/addressing-sexual-orientation-and-gender-identity-discrimination-in-federal-civilianemployment.pdf U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (n.d.) Facts about discrimination in federal government employment based on marital status, political affiliation, status as a parent, Mobley, W. H., Griffeth, R. W., Hand, H. H., & Meglino, B. M. (1979). Review and Conceptual Analysis of the Employee Turnover Process. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 493–522. Morris v. Dep’t of the Army, EEOC Appeal No. 0120130749, 2013 WL 4499198 (May 23, 2013) Mosher, F. C. (1982). Democracy and the public service. 2nd Edition. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2012). Mplus Users Guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, California: Muthén & Muthén. Oberfield, Z. W. (2014). Accounting for time: Comparing temporal and atemporal analyses of the business case for diversity management. Public Administration Review, 74(6),777–789. doi: 10.1111/puar.12278 O’Brien, G. E. (1982). The relative contribution of perceived skillutilization and other perceived job attributes to the prediction of job satisfaction: A cross-validation study. Human Relations, 35(3), 219–237. doi:10.1177/001872678203500304 Oiler v. Winn-Dixie Louisiana, Inc., 2002 WL 31098541, *5 n. 59 (E.D. La. Sept. 16, 2002) O’Reilly, C. A., III, Caldwell, D. F., & Barnett, W. P. (1989). Work group demography, social integration, and turnover. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34(1), 21–37. Organ, Dennis W. 1988. A restatement of the satisfactionperformance hypothesis. Journal of Management, 14(4), 547–557. Page, S.C. (2007). The Difference: How the Power of Diversity Creates Better Groups, Firms, Schools, and Societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Pitts, D. (2006). Modeling the impact of diversity management. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 26(3), 245–268. doi:10.1177/0734371X05278491 Pitts, D. (2009). Diversity management, job satisfaction, and performance: Evidence from U.S. federal agencies. Public Administration Review, 69(2), 328–338. doi:10.1111/j.15406210.2008.01977.x Pitts, D. W. & Wise, L. R. (2010). Workforce diversity in the new millennium: Prospects for research. Review of Public Personnel Administration, 30(1), 44–69. doi:10.1177/ 0734371X09351823 Pitts, D.W., Hicklin, A.K., Hawes, D.P., & Melton, E. (2010). What drives the implementation of diversity management programs? Evidence from public organizations. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 20(4), 867–886. doi: 10.1093/jopart/mup044 Pless, N.M. & Maak, T. (2004). Building an inclusive diversity culture: Principles, processes and practice. Journal of Business Ethics, 54(2), 129–147. Preacher, K., & Hayes, A. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879 Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989). Rainey, H.G. (2009). Understanding and managing public organizations. San Francisco, California: John Wiley. Riccucci, N. M. (2002). Managing diversity in public sector workforces. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. Richard, O. (2000). Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance: A resource- based view. Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 164–177. Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. 196 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017) EXAMINING LGBTS FEDERAL JOB SATISFACTION PINK-HARPER ET AL. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 11 (4), 559–586. Wright, B. E. (2004). The Role of Work Context in Work Motivation: A Public Sector Application of Goal and Social Cognitive Theories. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 14(1): 59–78. Wright, B. E., & Davis, B. S. (2003). Job satisfaction in the public sector: the role of the work environment. The American Review of Public Administration, 33(1), 70–90. doi: 10.1177/0275074002250254 Yang, K., & Kassekert, A. (2010). Linking management reform with employee job satisfaction: Evidence from federal agencies. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 20(2), 413–436. doi:10.1093/jopart/mup010 sexual orientation, and gender identity. Retrieved from https:// www.eeoc.gov/federal/otherprotections.cfm U.S. Office of Personnel Management. (2014a). 2014 Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS). Retrieved from http:// www.fedview.opm.gov/2014/What/ U. S. Office of Personnel Management. (2014b). Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey (FEVS). Retrieved from http://www. fedview.opm.gov/2014/Reports/ Ulane v. Eastern Air Lines, Inc., 742 F.2d 1081 (7th Cir. 1984) Veretto v. U.S. Postal Service, EEOC Appeal No. 0120110873, 2011 WL 2663401 (July 1, 2011) Weitz, J. 1952. A neglected concept in the study of job satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 5(3), 201–205. Williams, K. Y. & O’Reilly, C. A. III. (1998). Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. Research in Organizational Behavior, 20, 77–140. Wise, L.R., & Tschirhart, M. (2000). Examining empirical evidence on diversity effects: How useful is diversity research for public-sector managers? Public Administration Review, 60 (5), 386–394. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00102 Wright, B. E. (2001). Public-Sector Work Motivation: A Review of the Current Literature and a Revised Conceptual Model. Copyright © 2016 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Supporting Information Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article on the publisher’s website. 197 Can J Adm Sci 34(2), 182–197 (2017)