Avignon Papacy

01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Avignon Papacy Joëlle Rollo­Koster LAST MODIFIED: 26 APRIL 2018 DOI: 10.1093/OBO/9780195399301­0391 Introduction Throughout the Middle Ages, popes resided outside of Rome in cities like Viterbo or Anagni, often finding temporary refuge from the summer heat or Roman revolts. But Avignon, in Provence near the Comtat Venaissin papal territory since 1274, kept a pope for some four generations between 1309 and 1403, a reminder that “Rome is where the pope is.” There popes founded their legitimacy on reinforcement and centralization of papal authority, grounded on tight fiscal oversight. From 1309 to 1377 seven legitimate popes ruled before returning to Rome and the subsequent Great Western Schism (1378–1417), when two and even three popes ruled their own respective obediences. In 1305 cardinals elected Bertrand de Got, a Gascon, who took the name Clement V after a lengthy conclave that lasted for almost a year. An astute diplomat, traveling in France at the time of his election, the pope was crowned in Lyon and decided to remain on the continent to settle pressing matters like the Council of Vienne, the Templars’ affair, and the Franco­British rivalry. Within a few years, he remodeled the cardinalate, naming a majority of French cardinals, and in 1309 settled his court in Avignon, a city that lay close to French Vienne where its council was ready to open. Over the span of some seventy years, the six popes who succeeded him and chose to remain in the city fought as best as they could secular encroachments on their prerogatives, quite successfully tightening and reforming the ecclesiastical administration and finances, regaining papal territories, and engaging with secular leaders. However, returning the papacy to Rome always remained a pressing concern. After Urban V’s failed attempt in 1367, Gregory XI effectively brought back the papacy to Rome, entering the city in grand pomp in January 1377. He died a few months later in March 1378. A College of still largely French cardinals elected Pope Urban VI in April 1378, but after a few weeks of a disastrous relationship, cardinals reneged on the legitimacy of their April election and named in September a counterpope, Clement VII. Urban never stepped down and the Great Western Schism was consummated. States each followed one of the two popes, who maintained their respective obediences and courts in Rome and Avignon. The schism lasted until 1417 when the Council of Constance, after the deposition of two concurrent popes, elected Martin V unique sovereign of Christianity and first pope of the Renaissance. General Overviews Most histories of the papacy will summarize its Avignon phase or, in certain cases, offer a more developed narrative. Readers should beware that before the 20th century most papal histories were generally biased and unflattering with regard to the Avignon popes, often focusing on negative aspects like their subservience to the French crown (see for example, Mandell Creighton’s History of the Papacy, 1882). Most discussions of the medieval papacy can introduce the topic. See the separate Oxford Bibliographies in Renaissance and Reformation articles “Papacy” and “Papal Rome” by Frederick McGinness, “Cardinals” by Stella Fletcher, and “General Church Councils, Pre­Trent” by Nelson Minnich. Mollat 1963 and Renouard 1970, both translations of earlier works dating back respectively to 1912 and 1954, have remained the standard studies for generations. They are still valuable for being the first scholarly analyses and evaluation of the Avignon papacy. Zutshi 2000 offers in a few pages a general overview, focusing on relations with France, crusades and missions, papal court, and administration. The most recent monographs covering the papacy and its imprint on the city of Avignon are Favier 2006 and Rollo­Koster 2015. While earlier works usually ended their survey with the 1377 return to Rome, it is of note that both latter works continue well into the Schism, rendering it an organic part of the Avignon papacy. Since the interpretation in Kaminsky 2000 that the institutional culture that grew from the Avignon papacy was directly responsible for the break, it is now accepted to treat the Schism in continuity with the Avignon papacy. The best overview of the Schism from the point of view of Avignon remains the four volumes of Valois 1896–1902. Even if its title refers to France, the span of the work is large enough to encompass the ramifications of the crisis all over Europe. The initiation of the crisis is covered in both Ullmann 1972 and Rollo­Koster 2008 with the former focusing on a political reading of the crisis and the latter on sociocultural issues. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Favier, Jean. Les papes d’Avignon. Paris: Fayard, 2006. The first modern reading of the Avignon papacy, this major work offers a thick description of everything related to it: why the papacy moved; how Avignon became a capital; and the formidable political, administrative, and financial machine that grew from there, certainly influenced by the French but not under its control. Kaminsky, Howard. “The Great Schism.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History, c. 1300–1415. Vol. 6. Edited by Michael Jones, 674–696. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. A short but thorough review of the Schism. Kaminsky is the leading historian on the political motivations and expediency of the Schism. Mollat, Guillaume. The Popes at Avignon, 1305–1378. Translated by Janet Love. London: T. Nelson, 1963. The renowned abbot offers here his deep knowledge of Avignon papal sources. Mollat focuses on short biographies of The Popes, with an emphasis on external politic and papal rapports with European states, especially Italy and Spain. The book was unique at the time of its penning (1912) for its overture to sociocultural history, with a section analyzing the curial organization and bureaucracy including its financial management. Renouard, Yves. The Avignon Papacy, 1305–1403. Translated by Denis Bethell. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1970. Written by a specialist in the economic history of the 14th­century papacy, this survey considers the profound consequences of the Avignon sojourn on the ecclesiastical institution and most of all on its modernization of the Church, sometimes done at the price of a certain despiritualization. Rollo­Koster, Joëlle. Raiding Saint Peter: Empty Sees, Violence, and the Initiation of the Great Western Schism (1378). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2008. This work engages the historiography and reframes the interpretation of the schism’s initiation within a sociocultural analysis. The author suggests that the rites of violence common during papal interregna were deployed in 1378, evidence that the cardinals’ claims that fear impeached their free choice need to be mediated with their knowledge of such rites. Rollo­Koster, Joëlle. Avignon and its Papacy, 1309–1417: Popes, Institutions, Society. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2015. The most recent survey of the topic. The author updates the historiography of each pope, focusing on the administrative and financial development of the papacy and on its impact on the urban development and society of the city of Avignon. Ullmann, Walter. The Origins of the Great Schism: A Study in Fourteenth­Century Ecclesiastical History. Hamden, CT: Archon, 1972. This work explores the origins of the crisis, Urban’s 1378 election and Clement VII’s counterelection, and the many disputations between Urbanists and Clementists. The work offers translation of the main legal treatises of each obedience, including Baldus de Ubaldis’s and Cardinal Zabarella’s. The tone is again political, with an explanation of the crisis focused on the pope’s monarchist views versus the cardinals’ oligarchic ones. Valois, Noël. La France et le grand schisme d’occident. 4 vols. Paris: A. Picard et fils, 1896–1902. In this somewhat dispassionate analysis of the Schism, Valois’s deep knowledge of the Avignon and Vatican archives’ registers allows him to evaluate France’s role in the crisis. He highlights the hundreds of texts available at the Vatican archives, which at the time of his writing had recently opened to scholars. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Zutshi, Patrick. “The Avignon Papacy.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History. Vol. 6, c. 1300–1415. Edited by Michael Jones, 653–673. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000. One of the first surveys that updates Mollat and Renouard’s historiography. Zutshi insists on the close rapport between the French crown and the Avignon pope, and the functioning of the administration and court. Reference Works Most comprehensive histories of the papacy will cover the Avignon papacy, in more or less detail. Two stand out, however. The originally French dictionary of the papacy edited by Levillain in 1994 remains a standard for the thoroughness of its coverage, addressing both popes and institutions. Translated into English in 2002 (Levillain 2002) it makes available a myriad of information with bibliographical indications. The online Italian Treccani Enciclopedia (Treccani) offers exhaustive information for each Avignonese pope. Their attached bibliographies are in most cases thorough and consequential, with an easy to navigate interface that links with other information available online through the site. Levillain, Philippe, ed. The Papacy: An Encyclopedia. 3 vols. New York: Routledge, 2002. Originally labeled a dictionary of the papacy the work, now in three volumes, alphabetizes anything that has rapport with the papacy, from locations like Avignon, to detailed entries on each pope, offices, services, institutions related to the papacy, and liturgy. It offers detailed entries on topics ranging from “abbreviator” to Zosimus and pontifical Zouaves, adding in each case well­developed bibliographies. Treccani. Like the preceding work this online reference mixes quality with quantity. The entries are detailed and the bibliography comprehensive and often exhaustive even if limited by the original date of the entry (many in the ‘80s). Links open to similar entries found in other resources (e.g., biographical, papal, or historical dictionaries or encyclopedias). Journals In addition to the many journals specializing in medieval history and the history of the Church and Catholic institutions, two journals focus more specifically on Avignon and its papacy. The Society of the Friends of the Pope’s Palace and Monuments of Avignon (Société des amis du Palais des Papes et des monuments d’Avignon) based at the Departmental Archives of the Vaucluse has published annually since 1912 a small journal, the Annuaire de la Société des amis du Palais des Papes et des monuments d’Avignon. It focuses on the history and archeology of the city, its monuments, and its papal palace. Another learned society, l’Académie de Vaucluse, founded in 1801, extends its interest to the archeology, history, arts, and literature of the Vaucluse region, in which Avignon and its palace and papacy belong. It publishes monthly a small pamphlet (Bulletin) that offers news of the various activities of the society, and since 1882 it publishes yearly its Mémoires de l’Académie de Vaucluse. While not totally dedicated to papal Avignon, interested readers will find many articles on the Avignon papacy and more specifically on Avignon during the Middle Ages and its Society and Culture. In a category of its own the Mélanges de l’École française de Rome offers a wide range of articles, some touching on the papacy in general and the Avignon papacy in particular. The same can be said of the Bibliothèque de l’École des chartes. This highly specialized periodical, a publication of the Société de l’École des chartes, publishes essays focused on paleography and the study of documents from the medieval to modern world, leaving a large place for the study of medieval texts. Annuaire de la Société des amis du Palais des Papes et des monuments d’Avignon. 1912–. Founded in Avignon, the society from which this “Yearbook” is issued focuses on the history of the city and its architecture. The articles included are often detailed and well researched with ample bibliographical details and illustrations. The Yearbook publishes strictly in French and can be considered a review highlighting the protection and history of the city’s patrimony in all its forms. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Bibliothèque de l’École des chartes. 1839–. This publication is quite specialized and technical, offering the best in textual analyses for all periods. It addresses issues concerning the conservation of documents, archival studies, digital humanities, and is one of the only periodicals remaining today that still discusses paleography and codicology. Evidently it often touches on documents found at the Vatican archives. Mélanges de l’École française de Rome. 1881–. Based at the French School in Rome this periodical offers three series dedicated to specific time periods (ancient, medieval, and Italy and the Mediterranean worlds). The School also publishes a special series for conference publications and monographs. A description of all its titles can be found at École française de Rome. The site links to the appropriate pages for accessing the various journals published by the School, including its recent online iteration. Many of its articles and collections concern the Avignon papacy. Mémoires de l’Académie de Vaucluse. 1882–. The Mémoires offer a vast array of articles dedicated to the Society and Culture of the Avignon papacy, but the Middle Ages are not its domain exclusively. The articles are of high academic quality and offer abundant footnotes, often filled with archival references. The Bibliothèque nationale de France recently digitized the earliest volumes for the years 1882 until 1924 and made them available at the journal’s website. Primary Sources Thanks to the administrative capacity of the Chancery, which understood that creating duplicates is a sure way to preserve documentation, the Avignon papacy has left a rich documentary history. Most of it is now easily accessible online or in academic libraries. Archival documentation was exploited early on by individuals like Étienne Baluze (Baluze 1914–1922) or Karl H. Schäfer (Schäfer 1911). Baluze was, from 1630–1718, an antiquarian and librarian who unearthed and collected documents related to the Avignon popes. He composed the Lives of the Popes of Avignon (Vitae paparum avenionensium), published in 1693 in two volumes, offering the first detailed biographies of the Avignon popes based on primary documents issued from various libraries, including transcriptions from the Vatican’s documents (the archives had yet to open—they did in 1881—and thus Baluze offers some of the earliest evidence of its content). Baluze’s work was later edited and completed by Guillaume Mollat, who in 1927 added another two volumes of complementary notes to Baluze’s original two. Already in 1917 Mollat (see Mollat 1917) had published a critical study of Baluze’s sources that he developed further in his 1927 edition. Karl H. Schäfer, like other members of the German School of Rome Heinrich Denifle and Franz Ehrle, exploited material issued from the Vatican Archives, which opened in 1881. While Denifle and Ehrle from 1885 to 1890 edited various works dealing with the Middle Ages—and not systematically the Avignon papacy—in their seven volumes of the Archiv für Literatur und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters, Schäfer, from 1911 to 1937, edited, transcribed, and analyzed specifically the financial record of the Avignon Apostolic Chamber. He focused on the expenses of the Apostolic Chamber, and Emil Göller dealt with its revenues (Göller 1910, Göller 1920). Along with the German School, the French School of Rome published all the papal letters produced by the Avignon popes in its fifty­four volumes of the Registres et lettres des papes du XIVme siècle. Because the Avignon popes knew their stay on the Rhône would not be eternal they duplicated their archives to ease the transfer between both capitals, Avignon and Rome. The Chancery labeled the paper copy of the registers Registra Avenionensia, and the parchments Registra Vaticana. This papal correspondence (Ut per litteras apostolicas 2013) touches on foreign affairs and diplomacy, and also political letters, nominations to posts and offices, special grants, and responses to petitions. The fifty­four volumes have now been digitized and are available online. Still the paper volumes are available in many academic libraries under the names of each specific pope and divided between curial and common letters. Finally, it should be noted that many ceremonial books (ordines) produced during the Avignon period have been transcribed and edited, most specifically in Dykmans 1977–1983. Baluze, Étienne. Vitae paparum avenionensium, hoc est, historia pontificum romanorum qui in Gallia sederunt ab anno Christi MCCCV usque ad annum MCCCXCIV. 4 vols. Edited by Guillaume Mollat. Paris: Letouzey et Ané, 1914–1922. Baluze’s Vitae are organized chronologically, starting with Clement V and ending with Clement VII at the beginning of the Schism. For each pope Baluze appends the various biographies available, labeling them for convenience first life, second life, etc., not following their penning’s specific chronology. The text has been recently digitalized after the edition of Guillaume Mollat, making it easily accessible. See Baluze online. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Denifle, Heinrich, and Franz Erhle, eds. Archiv für Literatur und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters. 7 vols. Berlin: Weidmannsche Buchhandlung, 1885–1900. These various volumes offer miscellaneous studies on the Avignon papacy and its documentation. Some are notes on specific documents, or on the papal libraries. The content is available online at Content, while the various volumes can be found at the Internet archives, Archive.org. Dykmans, Marc. Le cérémonial papal: De la fin du moyen âge à la renaissance. 4 vols. Brussels: Institut historique belge de Rome, 1977–1983. The first volume of this collection focuses on 13th­century ceremonies and liturgy, the others continue with the works of famous 14th­ century liturgists like Iacopo Stefaneschi, François de Conzié, and Pierre Ameil. These texts describe Christian liturgy according to calendar and officiant’s ranks, and other special occasions like vacant sees and papal elections, coronations, consecrations, consistories, councils, imperial and royal coronations, canonizations, cardinals’ elevations, ecclesiastical transfers, nuncios, and legates’ roles. Göller, Emil, ed. Die Einnahmen der apostolischen Kammer unter Johann XXII. Vatikanische Quellen zur Geschichte der päpstlichen Hof­ und Finanzverwaltung, 1316–1378, 1. Paderborn, Germany: F. Schöningh, 1910. Edition of the Vatican Archives’ registers concerning the revenues tallied during the papacy of John XXII (1316–1334). Göller, Emil, ed. Die Einnahmen der apostolischen Kammer unter Benedikt XII. Vatikanische Quellen zur Geschichte der päpstlichen Hof­ und Finanzverwaltung 1316–1378, 4. München [u.a.]: Schöningh, 1920. Edition of the Vatican Archives’ registers concerning the revenues tallied during the papacy of Benedict XII (1334–1342). Mollat, Guillaume. Étude critique sur les vitae paparum avenionensium d’Étienne Baluze. Paris: Librairie Letouzey et Ané, 1917. Here Mollat dissects Baluze’s approach, noting the lack of systemic scientific research for his sources. Mollat analyzes the provenance, validity, reliability, and utility of each of Baluze’s sources. Schäfer, Karl­Heinrich, ed. Die Ausgaben der apostolischen Kammer unter Johann XXII nebst den Jahresbilanzen von 1316– 1375. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1911. Edition of the Vatican Archives’ introitus et exitus series for Pope John XXII. The register tracks the Apostolic Chamber’s expenses from 1316 to 1334. Schäfer, Karl­Heinrich, ed. Die Ausgaben der apostolischen Kammer unter Benedikt XII, Klemens VI und Innocenz VI. Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1914. Edition of the Vatican Archives’ introitus et exitus series for Popes Benedict XII, Clement VI and Innocent VI. The register tracks the Apostolic Chamber’s expenses from 1335 to 1362. Schäfer, Karl­Heinrich, ed. Die Ausgaben der apostolischen Kammer unter den Päpsten Urban V und Gregor XI (1362–1378). Paderborn, Germany: Ferdinand Schöningh, 1937. Edition of the Vatican Archives’ introitus et exitus series for Popes Urban V and Gregory XI. The register tracks the Apostolic Chamber’s expenses from 1363 to 1378. Schäfer’s three volumes are available on the Internet Archives, Archive.org site. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Ut per litteras apostolicas . . . Lettres pontificales . . . Papal Letters online. This searchable database, published by Brepols in 2013, offers the textual content of the fifty­four volumes dedicated to the correspondence of the Avignon popes. It is an inestimable source for the mass of documents it makes available and the facility of searching the interface. The database is only available through paid membership. The Popes Several of the Avignon popes have recently attracted the attention of scholars. The latter have greatly enhanced the overall historiography of the Avignon papacy by focusing on specific aspects of these papacies. It is interesting to note that most biographies emphasize the popes’ relentless quest for maintaining crusading enterprises regardless of the vicissitudes of the moment. Menache 1998 rehabilitates the first pope of the Avignonese era by arguing that he was a far more astute politician than usually portrayed and less dependent on the French monarchy. His successor, John XXII, was a workaholic octogenarian who especially centralized ecclesiastical administration and finances; however Zanke 2013 focuses on his European outlook and Nold on the apostolic poverty controversy. Jenkins 1933 analyzes the peace efforts of his successor, Benedict XII (Jacques Fournier), known mostly for his inquisitorial activities in Pamiers. Fournier’s records made possible Le Roy Ladurie 1978, the French historian’s creation of one of the most celebrated books on medieval mentality, Montaillou. Clement VI, who liked to label himself as the “pope who knew how to be pope” remains the best researched pope with three recent biographies (Wood 1989, Lützelschwab 2007, and Anheim 2014). The popes who returned the papacy to Rome received the attention of two historians, Vones 1998 for the failed attempt of Urban V, and Thibault 1986 for Gregory’s successful effort. Anheim, Étienne. Clément VI au travail—Lire, écrire, prêcher au XIVe siècle. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2014. Before anything else this work follows its title and situates the pope in action while practicing his intellectual work: reading, writing, and preaching. Anheim focuses on the pope’s career, and literary and theological production. Jenkins, Helen. “Papal Efforts for Peace under Benedict XII (1334–1342).” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1933. This older study is focused on papal efforts at preventing or stalling various phases of the Hundred Years War during the 14th century. For the author, the pope was genuinely interested in preventing war in the west, in order to favor a return to offensive in the east. Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error. Translated by Barbara Bray. New York: G. Braziller, 1978. Groundbreaking study of mentalities, beliefs and behavior in the French southwest during the late 13th and early 14th century. It is founded on Jacques Fournier’s inquisitorial registers and is as informative on his frame of mind as on Montaillou’s inhabitants. Lützelschwab, Ralph. Flectat cardinales ad velle suum? Clemens VI. (1342–1352) und sein Kardinalskolleg: Ein Beitrag zur kurialen Politik in der Mitte des 14. Jahrhunderts. Munich: Oldenbourg, 2007. Lützelschwab studies the pope’s relations with his cardinals based on his sermons and other writings. He pays particular attention to the cardinals’ involvements with Foreign Policies and Diplomacy. Menache, Sophia. Clement V. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998. In this biography of the pope, Menache argues that Clement’s push for the renewal of Middle Eastern crusades influenced most of his actions. Nold, Patrick. Pope John XXII and his Franciscan Cardinal: Bertrand de la Tour and the Apostolic Poverty Controversy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. Nold focuses on John’s rejection of the Franciscans’ absolute poverty. Since 1279 the papacy had facilitated Franciscans’ devotion to absolute poverty. Theologians had argued that by using and not possessing goods which ultimately belonged to the Church http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Franciscans could satisfy their needs and the Church’s survival. Nold discusses the reasons behind John’s abrogation of this old entente and his motivations behind his approach. Thibault, Paul R. Pope Gregory XI: The Failure of Tradition. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1986. Focusing on the pope’s political performance the author argues that by relying on his predecessors’ policies Gregory failed at evolving with his time. His crusading policy was obsolete by the late 14th century. The work emphasizes relationships with Italy and the indubitable moral character of the pope. Vones, Ludwig. Urban V (1362–1370): Kirchenreform zwischen Kardinalkollegium, Kurie, und Klientel. Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1998. The author presents Urban before all as a reformer of his Benedictine order. Vones details the pope’s rise to his positon, his relationship to his College of Cardinals, and his efforts at reforming the curia. Wood, Diana. Clement VI: The Pontificate and Ideas of an Avignon Pope. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989. Wood attempts to rehabilitate a pope who is often accused of being one of the worst medieval popes for his nepotism, worldliness, and sumptuous lifestyle. By situating him within his time (Black Death, Hundred Years War), she shows that he faced challenges that were unprecedented. Zanke, Sebastian. Johannes XXII., Avignon, und Europa: Das politische Papsttum im Spiegel der kurialen Register (1316– 1334). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2013. Working from the thousands of letters that John’s Chancery produced, Zanke is able to demonstrate that the highly organized and efficient pope focused mainly on Italy in his European preoccupations. Finance and Administration The large body of institutional and financial documentary evidence left by the Avignon papacy has allowed historians to penetrate the day­to­day functioning of the curia. Some of the earliest works on the papacy (Mollat and Samaran 1905) actually concentrate on its financial machinery, one of the most developed of its time thanks to the high administrative capabilities of popes like John XXII and his camerlengo. Renouard 1941 continues the economic studies started by his predecessor in Mirot 1930, focusing on the Italian merchants, the financial intermediaries essential to lending and the collections of taxes. While Mirot emphasizes the role of Lucchese, Renouard opens his field of research to most Tuscan financial companies working for the court. Interested readers will find in Mollat and Glénisson 1964, Partner 1972, Housley 1986, and Weiss 2002 vivid examples of the curia’s constant needs for funding and the range of its expenses. After taxes, the right of spoils—that is, the right The Popes took in collecting unclaimed ecclesiastics’ succession— remained a new source of income for the Avignon popes. This right has been thoroughly studied by Williman 1988. Effective tax collection was essential for the continuation of the Great Western Schism, as either party could have collapsed without funds. Favier 1966 remains the major study of the various financial aspects of the crisis. Aux origines de l’état moderne 1990 published the conclusions of several specialists of the field, who discuss many of the groundbreaking elements of the Avignonese papal administration. Zutshi 2009 follows the trail of the many petitions received by the Avignon popes. Aux origines de l’état moderne, le fonctionnement administratif de la papauté d’Avignon: Actes de la table ronde organisée par l’École française de Rome, Avignon, 23–24 janvier 1988. Collection de l’Ecole francaise de Rome, 138. Rome: École française de Rome, 1990. This important collection of essays, most of them presented at a conference in Rome in 1988, may be the best overview of the administration of the Avignon papacy. Essays touch on various topics like petitions, the qualifications of curial personnel, the chancery and production of various letters and bulls, the distribution of ecclesiastical benefices, canonization, taxation, and the evolution of accounting systems. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Favier, Jean. Les finances pontificales à l’époque du Grand Schisme (1378–1409). Paris: E. de Boccard, 1966. Favier’s foremost interest lies in the financial means of both the Roman Urbanist and Avignonese Clementist papacy during the Schism. Grounded on research at the Vatican and national archives in France, this study itemizes revenues, expenses, and administrative means. In general, the Clementist obedience preserved a sounder financial administration inherited from the Avignon popes. Housley, Norman. The Avignon Papacy and the Crusades, 1305–1378. Oxford: Clarendon, 1986. Housley focuses on a time period not usually recognized as the flowering of crusading enthusiasm to demonstrate how recruitment for potential campaigns became sporadic “money­raising” phenomena. Mirot, Léon. Études Lucquoises. Paris: Imprimerie Daupeley­Gouverneur, 1930. This volume gathers Mirot’s essays published in the Bibliothèque de l’École des chartes. Each article is focused on a specific Lucchese family such as the Isbarre, Raponde, or Spifame known for their dealing with both the French crown and the church. Mollat, Guillaume, and Jean Glénisson. L’administration des états de l’église au XIVe siècle: Correspondance des légats et vicaires généraux Gil Albornoz et Androin de la Roche, (1353–1367). Paris: E. de Boccard, 1964. This volume dedicated to the correspondence between papal administrators (legates and vicars) in Italy and the pope shows how pressing financial needs directed foreign relations and the reconquest of papal states in the peninsula. Mollat, Guillaume, and Charles Samaran. La fiscalité pontificale en France au XIVe siècle. Paris: A. Fontemoing, 1905. Both authors focus on the financial rapport between the papacy and the French monarchy. Given its date this book became a precursor to all serious studies on papal finances. Ordinary revenues levied from papal estates never covered the various curial expenses, hence the constant needs for extraordinary revenues or taxes or both. The authors were first in paying attention to the system of tax collections and the organization of its collectors. Partner, Peter. The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972. The first book dedicated to papal possessions in central Italy, Partner discusses how these territories arrived into papal hands, and how they evolved from the early to late Middle Ages. He argues that while the papacy was criticized for its development as a temporal power, it admittedly could not avoid it in the name of its own survival. Renouard, Yves. Les relations des papes d’Avignon et des compagnies commerciales et bancaires de 1316 à 1378. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1941. Based on his research at the Vatican and Florentine archives, Renouard follows the development of what could be labeled “mercantile capitalism.” The author traces how Italian merchants­bankers (at once lenders, money changers, and buyers and sellers of goods) became literally and almost exclusively papal financial agents. Weiss, Stefan. Die Versorgung des päpstlichen Hofes in Avignon mit Lebensmitteln (1316–1378): Studien zur Sozial­ und Wirtschaftsgeschichte eines mittelalterlichen Hofes. Berlin: Akademie, 2002. This study of the provisioning of the papal court offers an extensive discussion of the needs of the papal household during the Avignon sojourn and how these needs were fulfilled. The author discusses the men who served that court, its guests and what was served (grain, poultry, fish, wine, etc.), detailing products and bookkeeping, including a reconstruction of accounting practices. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Williman, Daniel. The Right of Spoil of the Popes of Avignon, 1316–1415. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1988. Williman itemizes the 1200 or so cases of spoils which added to the Avignon pope’s revenues. Spoils were the movable property of ecclesiastics who had died intestate or whose property had been left unclaimed. Over the years canonists developed a theory that a pope in full authority could claim this vacant property. Zutshi, Patrick N. R. “Petitions to the Pope in the Fourteenth Century.” In Medieval Petitions: Grace and Grievance. Edited by W. Mark Ormrod, Gwilym Dodd, and Anthony Musson, 82–98. Woodbridge: York Medieval Press, 2009. The author discusses the thousands of petitions that reached the Avignonese popes, and their treatment. Foreign Policies and Diplomacy The political situation in Italy tended to monopolize the popes’ energy and has attracted much attention from scholars, maybe because it is at the core of the move to Avignon. See Mollat 1963 (cited under General Overviews) which offers a valuable survey while not focused strictly on foreign policies. See Zanke 2013 (cited under The Popes) who demonstrates how popes like John XXII devoted much of their attention to the peninsula. See also Mollat and Glénisson 1964 (cited under Finance and Administration) who offer a glimpse into what the preservation of these papal states meant to the church. For the conditions leading to the papal return to Rome, Mirot 1899 and Prou 1888 though dated remain indispensable. Beattie 2007 follows the tribulations of one of the pope’s special envoys, Cardinal Orsini. Throughout this period The Popes remained attached to Rome and engaged with its political life, including the “Republican” episode of Cola di Rienzo, the young notary turned Roman tribune of the people, at the time of the Black Death. The episode has been discussed in detail most recently in Musto 2003. The Kingdom of Naples was also of great importance to the popes and several Avignon popes dealt with the long rule of its most colorful, even if tragic, queen, Joanna of Naples, whose storyline Casteen 2015 has recently highlighted. Traditionally, Italian cities supported politically either the church (the so­called Guelf party) or Holy Roman Empire (Ghibelline party), but Florence, usually Guelph, abandoned its allegiance in the second half of the 14th century, provoking a papal interdict on the city in 1376. Both Brucker 1962 and Trexler 1974 analyze the prelude to and ensuing war “of the Eight Saints.” The Hundred Years War (see the separate Oxford Bibliographies in Renaissance and Reformation article “The Hundred Years War” by Clifford J. Rogers) remained a central preoccupation for all the Avignon popes, and Plöger 2005 investigates formal relationships between the papal court and the perceived to be neglected English party. Finally, relations with the Holy Roman Empire and questions of the Church’s universality are discussed by Renna 2013. It should be noted that most 14th­century wars were fought by companies of mercenaries usually under contract. These condottieri have received much attention, and Fowler 2001 is a good introduction to the topic. Beattie, Blake R. Angelus Pacis: The Legation of Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini, 1326–1334. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2007. Beattie discusses the famous Roman Orsini family, how Giovanni became legate in Italy, the definition of legatine powers, his wars in Tuscany and the Papal States, and his administrative duties. His legation is considered a failure because Orsini could not separate himself from traditional familial entanglement and favoritism. Beattie compares Orsini with Albornoz’s legation. Brucker, Gene A. Florentine Politics and Society, 1343–1378. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962. Set between the expulsion of the so­called Duke of Athens and the Ciompi revolution, Brucker’s volume studies Florence’s response to Milanese’s Visconti expansion and the church’s reconquest of papal territories in Tuscany. The author analyses how external and internal conditions directed the city’s actions, leading to a thorough study of the war with the papacy. Casteen, Elizabeth. From She­Wolf to Martyr: The Reign and Disputed Reputation of Johanna I of Naples. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2015. Casteen follows the various iteration of Joanna’s reputation, at once revered and reviled. She offers a review of the queen’s historiography, and argues that the queen actually knew how to construct and represent herself. The book offers a feminist and gendered analysis of the queen’s actions. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Fowler, Kenneth. Medieval Mercenaries: The Great Companies. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001. This volume offers a serious and detailed introduction to the “free companies,” name for the mercenaries gangs left unemployed during the many truces of the Hundred Years War. They ransomed, looted, and sacked the French countryside, and Provencal and Italian papal territories in quest of revenues and became an integral part of papal diplomacy, when popes, who often used them, had to declare crusades in order to force their departure, or offer indulgences to anyone who would fight them. Mirot, Léon. La politique pontificale et le retour du Saint­Siège à Rome en 1376. Paris: É. Bouillon, 1899. Mirot discusses all the elements that were necessary to a successful return of the papacy to Rome, including leadership of a great general like Cardinal Albornoz. Topics covered span the fight against Ludwig of Bavaria, the conquest of the papal states, relations with the Viscontis of Milan, and all the rebellious city­states of Italy including Florence. Musto, Ronald G. Apocalypse in Rome: Cola di Rienzo and the Politics of the New Age. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003. This latest and one of the best biographies of Cola offers a thorough historiographical review of this well­known historical character. Humble notary and politician inspired by the grandeur of ancient Rome, Cola attempted to break traditional medieval mores like aristocratic infighting, and defended Roman primacy over Italy. In the end, he lost to the pope and Roman nobility. Plöger, Karsten. England and the Avignon Popes: The Practice of Diplomacy in Late Medieval Europe. London: Legenda, 2005. This study brings its reader to the heart of what diplomatic relations meant between England, a country that felt shunned by a papacy perceived as representing the interest of its enemy (France) and the efforts produced by both sides to keep communications open. A rare glimpse into the wheels of trade during a period fraught with war, plague, and the ravages of unemployed companies of mercenaries. Prou, Maurice. Études sur les relations politiques du pape Urbain V avec les rois de France Jean II et Charles V (1362–1370). Paris: F. Vieweg, 1888. Following its title the book surveys the close relations between the pope, his court, and the mostly French cardinals with the Valois kings, as well as the various dealings between both courts, often taking the form of personal favors. Various documents touching on many topics are edited in the appendix. Renna, Thomas. The Conflict between the Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire During the Early Avignon Era, 1300–1360. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2013. This study offers a literate and humanistic discussion of the universalist pretention of the Church faced with the imperial claim of the Holy Roman Emperor. The author discusses the arguments presented by authors like John of Paris, Giles of Rome, James of Viterbo, Dante, Marsilius of Padua, and William of Ockham to name of few who defended either the pope or the emperor. Trexler, Richard C. Spiritual Power: Republican Florence under Interdict. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1974. Trexler focuses essentially on spiritual censure and the repercussions of the papal interdict on Florence between 1376 and 1378. The result was at once a spiritual and economical blow to the city, which led to new forms of lay religiosity and eventually the revolt of the Ciompi of the textile industry. Society and Culture http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies In certain ways, the Avignon papacy changed how the church conceptualized itself. It became efficiently centralized, and thanks to its utilization of the Apostolic Chamber, ran an administration that was maybe more effective than kingdoms like France. The impetus came from leadership, and certain popes like John XXII stand out, but day­to­day affairs were run by curial servants and functionaries or both who created in a sense a new “bureaucratic” culture. Things were recorded in multiple copies, triple­checked, archived, expenses were audited, etc., but pencil pushers encumbered the road to efficiency and they are largely the ones who gave a poor reputation to the papacy. Falkeid 2017 discusses this reputation. Jamme and Poncet 2005 survey some of the characteristics of this population of bureaucrats. Schools and universities were needed for training, and scores of administrators, bankers, scribes, archivists, intellectuals, painters, and hundreds of others were employed by the papal court, from humanists to prostitutes. Some were integral part of this curia, some were labeled “followers” (the Italian merchants and bankers, for example) because they “followed” the court and its pope. Thousands of other people also joined the institution with looser ties: the innkeepers, cobblers, washerwomen, and a myriad of other occupations that were necessary to the daily functioning of the institution and the population it attracted. No better study of this court, in its largest sense, has appeared since the imposing Guillemain 1962. The mentality of this population and its effect on the city and the curial’s judicial practices have been covered in Chiffoleau 1980 and Chiffoleau 1984. Le Blévec 2000 is a two­volume study that analyzes the duty of the papacy in physically supporting its poor and sick followers. Gardner 1992 and Tomasello 1983 study the artistic influence of the court with Hamesse 2005 offering a survey of the court’s artistic and intellectual life, including some of the papal libraries. Faucon 1886–1887 reaches into the intellectual activities of the popes by studying what they read; see also Anheim 2014 (cited under The Popes) for Clement VI’s interests. The papacy coincided with some of the major catastrophes of the 14th century, like the plague, which in turn affected sociocultural patterns, with, for example, attacks on minorities after the commencement of the disease. Regarding the Black Death, see the separate Oxford Bibliographies in Renaissance and Reformation articles “Black Death and Plague: The Disease and Medical Thought” and “Plague and Its Consequences” both by Samuel Kline Cohen. Regarding the Jewish population, see the separate Oxford Bibliographies in Renaissance and Reformation article “Jews” by Joshua Teplitski. Chiffoleau, Jacques. La comptabilité de l’au­delà: Les hommes, la mort et la religion dans la region d’ Avignon à la fin du moyen âge. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1980. This work is based on the analysis of hundreds of testaments from Avignon and its region. Its aim is to draw a sociocultural interpretation of death in the Middle Ages. Chiffoleau concludes that plague, urbanization, and immigration separated people from their usual sociocultural environment and led them to “individualism,” with morbid representation of their deaths (gisants), and flamboyant funerals with imposing tombs. Chiffoleau, Jacques. Les justices du pape. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1984. Chiffoleau tests and measures the growth of papal centralization through its judiciary system. He describes the many concurrent systems in place at the time, and the wide range of judicial officers. The bulk of the volume analyzes the type of crimes committed and criminals. Falkeid, Unn. The Avignon Papacy Contested. An Intellectual History from Dante to Catherine of Siena. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2017. This work brings its readers back to the traditional view that the Avignon papacy was “corrupted” and “true Babylon of the West.” Avignon’s centralizing push led to resistance, especially the ecclesiastical attempts at usurping secular prerogatives. Falkeid focuses on the intellectual critics of the Avignon papacy, from Dante to Catherine of Siena. Faucon, Maurice. La librairie des papes d’Avignon: Sa formation, sa composition, ses catalogues (1316–1420) d’après les registres de comptes et d’inventaires des archives vaticanes. 2 vols. Paris: Ernest Thorin, 1886–1887. Discussion of and inventories of the papal libraries at Avignon, including during the Schism. Gardner, Julian. The Tomb and the Tiara: Curial Tomb Sculpture in Rome and Avignon in the Later Middle Ages. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. This architectural study focuses on monumental tombs and funeral sculptures in Rome and Avignon before and after the Avignon papacy, tracing artistic influences and borrowings from secular and ecclesiastical models. Gardner identifies major changes in style brought by the Avignon papacy with, for example, iconographic representation of the funerary corteges on the tombs. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Guillemain, Bernard. La cour pontificale d’ Avignon: Étude d’ une société. Paris: E. de Boccard, 1962. Based on the analysis of a massive corpus of sources, this work is the foundational study of the Avignon population at the time of the papacy. It is a sociocultural analysis of the population that flocked to the city working and following The Popes. The study covers the court, its functionaries, the court’s followers, the citizenship of Avignon, and its Jewish minority. Hamesse, Jacqueline, ed. La vie culturelle, intellectuelle et scientifique à la cour des Papes d’ Avignon. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2005. This collection of essays focuses on intellectual life at the court, giving a large part to the popes’ personal libraries. Essays also deal with encyclopedism, the plague, and some of the theological and intellectual crises of the time, like the beatific vision controversy. Jamme, Armand, and Olivier Poncet, eds. Offices et papauté, XIVe­XVIIe siècle: Charges, hommes, destins. Rome: École française de Rome, 2005. This collection of essays focuses on careerists at the court, looking at various officials and officers ranging from, for example, cardinals to general vicars, chaplains, diplomats, cooks, and messengers. Le Blévec, Daniel. La part du pauvre: L’assistance dans les pays du Bas­Rhône du XIIe siècles au milieu du XVe siècle. 2 vols. Rome: École française de Rome, 2000. Le Blévec focuses on the various form of support and assistance deployed by lay and religious institutions in Avignon and its regions. He discusses the Pignotte, the almshouse of the papacy, and all other religious institutions, like monasteries, that offered succor to the poor and indigents. Tomasello, Andrew. Music and Ritual at Papal Avignon, 1309–1403. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983. This work itemizes, and catalogue instances when and where music and musicians were utilized by the court. It deals with actors, style, and liturgy. But it also offers a history of music at the papal court. The Great Western Schism Once initiated with the election of Clement VII in September 1378 the Schism shattered Christian unity, dividing Europe into two camps, the ones who followed the Roman obedience of Urban VI (Urbanist obedience) and his eventual successors, and the ones who sided with Clement VII and his successors (Clementist obedience). Religious and political alignments followed geographical lines. Unable to physically defeat Urban and maintain his position in Italy, Clement returned to Avignon, where France became his most ardent supporter. Urban VI faced more organizational difficulties because he had to start from scratch recreating a court, naming cardinals and officers, etc., and hardly maintained the allegiance of Italian states. He had to negotiate support at every step, but England, for example, sided with him. Christian believers did not seem to have faced a crisis of conscience. People were told that as long as they followed the obedience of their rulers all would be well. Liturgy continued and people were content to receive sacraments as they had always done. Institutionally, the division of course had its consequences: a crisis of authority for the papacy and of the foundation of its legitimacy with the strong emergence of conciliarism, and the movements of national churches who questioned the traditional centralizing pull of “Rome.” These institutional consequences have attracted the most scholarly interest. Delaruelle, et al. 1962 offers an institutional overview of the crisis, while Millet 2009, Rollo­Koster and Izbicki 2009, and Favier 1980 enlarge the scope of research outside purely institutional issues. Even if dated, Gayet 1889, a history of the initiation of the crisis with scores of documents appended to his narrative, remains valuable for his textual edition. Case studies set during this time period have started to interest historians, Lewin 2003 focuses on Florence, Harvey 1999 on the expatriate colony of British in Rome, and Maillard­Luypaert 2001 on Belgium. Cultural histories have developed recently (e.g., Blumenfeld­Kosinski 2006). Finally Stump 1994 offers the most recent survey on conciliar theories. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Blumenfeld­Kosinski, Renate. Poets, Saints, and Visionaries of the Great Schism, 1378–1417. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2006. This is one of the very few works that focuses on the imaginaire and subconscious consequences of the Schism. It is neither a political nor institutional work but rather the author opts to decipher through the work of poets, saints, and visionaries how people perceived and felt the crisis. Delaruelle, Étienne, E. R. Labande, and Paul Ourliac. L’église au temps du Grand Schisme et de la crise conciliaire (1378– 1449). Paris: Bloud & Gay, 1962. This work is a thorough religious and institutional survey of the crisis, and of all the means deployed to end it. Favier, Jean, ed. Genèse et débuts du grand schisme d’occident: Colloque international tenu à Avignon, 25–28 septembre 1978. Paris: Éditions du CNRS, 1980. This collection of essays, issued from a conference set in Avignon in 1378 on the anniversary of the Schism’s initiation, focuses on the parties usually designated as the Schism’s initiators, the cardinals. But the volume touches on other topics like nepotism, the role of universities, law, and humanism. Gayet, Louis. Le grand schisme d’occident d’après les documents contemporains déposés aux archives secrètes du Vatican. Florence: Loescher et Seeber, 1889. Gayet introduces most of the documents that he transcribed relating to the initiation of the crisis. Most issued from depositions given by contemporary witnesses to representatives of the Kings of Castile and Aragon who were attempting to identify the rights and wrongs of each obedience in order to choose between them. Harvey, Margaret. The English in Rome, 1362–1420: Portrait of an Expatriate Community. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999. A study of the sociocultural profile of the English expatriates in Rome. The author defines first their presence in the city over several decades, before and after the Schism, the various means of support found in the city for these expatriates, and the influential members of this community. Lewin, Alison Williams. Negotiating Survival: Florence and the Great Schism, 1378–1417. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2003. Original in its scope, this study focuses on the relationship between Florence and the multiple popes and obediences during the Schism. This is a story of alliances and reversals for the sake of survival. Maillard­Luypaert, Monique. Papauté, clercs, et laïcs: Le diocése de Cambrai à l’épreuve du Grand Schisme d’Occident (1378– 1417). Brussels: Publications des Facultés universitaires Saint­Louis, 2001. This work specifically focuses on the diocese of Cambrai. Using hundreds of documents, the author weights the relative detachment of the population from the crisis and looks at its repercussions from the bottom up. Millet, Hélène. L’Église du Grand Schisme 1378–1417. Paris: Picard, 2009. Specialist in medieval prosopography Millet presents in this collection her conclusions on multiple points, with essays published in the late 20th and early 21st century. She discusses actors, and negotiators, and questions the views of the crisis (crisis of the Church or the papacy?) and most of all the various opinions presented by high­ranking ecclesiastics. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies Rollo­Koster, Joëlle, and Thomas Izbicki, eds. A Companion to the Great Western Schism (1378–1417). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2009. This collection of essays attempt at opening the field of discussion outside purely institutional histories, focusing for example on the effect of the crisis on people and perception of the crisis outside of Christianity. It also brings in sociocultural topics like discussions of art production during the era. Stump, Phillip H. The Reforms of the Council of Constance, 1414–1418. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 1994. The council of Constance marked the end of the Schism with the election of a pope recognized by a united Christianity. Here Stumps discusses the council paying closer attention to the reforms it attempted to initiate and their successes and failures. Avignon Capital Because of the wealth of its sources the study of Avignon has for many years attracted social and cultural historians (see also chapter 5 of Rollo­Koster 2015, cited under General Overviews). The architecture and layout of the medieval city is well known through the works of Pansier 1930, and Girard 1958. The housing clusters of the cardinals (the so­called livrées) are discussed in detail in Pansier 1926– 1931 and Dykmans 1971, while the papal palace has been thoroughly studied in Vingtain 1998, offering the most recent updates on its historiography. Hayez 1993 is the edition of the medieval equivalent of a cadaster and offers precious information on the city’s seven parishes and other neighborhoods. Documentation on life in the medieval city has been collected in Guillemain 1988, while Gagnière 1979 edited a volume on the history of the city that offers specific chapters covering the various centuries of the Middle Ages. Rollo­ Koster 2009 describes the population which flocked to the city in the aftermath of the pope’s installation and made Avignon a truly multicultural capital, while Rossiaud 2007 focuses on the Rhône river and the history of its usage, which was so crucial to the area’s circulation and communication. Dykmans, Marc. “Les palais cardinalices d’Avignon: Un supplement du XIVe siècle aux listes du docteur Pansier.” In Mélanges de l’École française de Rome: Moyen­Age. By École Française de Rome, 389–438. Temps modernes 83. Rome: École Française de Rome, 1971. This article completes the lists and nomenclature created by Pansier, presenting again the impact these housing sequestrations had on the local population. Gagnière, Sylvain, ed. Histoire d’Avignon. Aix­en­Provence, France: Édisud, 1979. The volume is a collection of essays by a specialist of the field on the history of the city. Each chronological chapter covers all aspects of the city’s life. Girard, Joseph. Évocation du vieil Avignon. Paris: Les éditions de minuit, 1958. Girard surveys the history of old Avignon before and after the papal sojourn. He then details specific locations like the pope’s palace, the rock of the Doms where the palace is located, and life in Avignon at the time of The Popes. A third section highlights specific neighborhoods and streets. Guillemain, Bernard, comp. Avignon au moyen âge: Textes et documents. Avignon, France: Aubanel, 1988. This is a collection of primary documents, edited and translated by leading historians of the city and focusing on all aspects of life in medieval Avignon. It discusses constructions, the famous bridge St. Benezet, marriage contracts, and miscellaneous cases focusing on the social, economic, cultural, and religious life of the city. Hayez, Anne­Marie. Le terrier avignonnais de l’évêque Anglic Grimoard: 1366–1368. Paris: CTHS, 1993. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch 01/05/2018 Avignon Papacy - Renaissance and Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies The terrier was used to keep track of tax payments for the bishop of the city and it became an invaluable tool to define the physical and social topography of the city. All property is minutely described with names of owners and neighbors to help localize the habitations, vineyards, fields, gardens and all types of landed property. Pansier, Pierre. Les palais cardinalices d’Avignon aux XIVe et XVe siècles. 3 vols. Avignon, France: Roumanille, 1926–1931. This is a detailed account of the thirty or so housing clusters occupied by cardinals and their courts during the Avignon stay. Most often the court requisitioned groups of houses that were delimited by thick chains to create “palaces” for cardinals and their household that could count up to five hundred members each. Cardinals often rehabilitated these clusters into luxurious residences. Pansier, Pierre. Dictionnaire des anciennes rues d’ Avignon. Avignon: Roumanille, 1930. This volume lists most recent and past streets of Avignon, explaining their location and history, often citing first time mention in documentation. A convenient tool for locating any type of address in medieval Avignon. Rollo­Koster, Joëlle. The People of Curial Avignon: A Critical Edition of the Liber Divisionis and the Matriculae of Notre Dame la Majour. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2009. Based on the edition and analysis of two large censuses of the Avignonese population (citizens and followers of the Roman court) in 1371 and roughly 1364–1381, the author is able to identify the thousands of immigrants who reached the city by cities of origin, and in substantial numbers also by profession. Rossiaud, Jacques. Le Rhône au Moyen Âge: Histoire et représentations d’un fleuve européen. Paris: Aubier, 2007. This somewhat unusual book tells the story of the Rhone river and the people who lived near and from its region from roughly the 1350s to the 1550s. It is a magisterial study of nature and men. The author focuses on four poles: space and time; the river’s universe; the large array of people who made a living from the Rhône; and the imaginaire—that is, the river’s lore. Vingtain, Dominique. Avignon: Le palais des papes. Saint­Léger­Vauban, France: Zodiaque, 1998. The author details and analyzes the origin and history of the pope’s palace. Benedict XII, who took the decision to actually stay in Avignon, exchanged residences with the bishop of the city whom he had recently named. He gave him what is now the Petit Palais and rehabilitated the episcopal residence into an austere fortress. This was the old palace; Clement VI upgraded and added to this construction to form the new palace that is still visible today. back to top Copyright © 2018. All rights reserved. http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0391.xml?rskey=1euFuA&result=1&q=Avignon+papacy&print#firstMatch