The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Mark Richards (Florida State Univeristy, Tallahassee, FL) W illiams is perhaps best known for his film music themes, most of which are based on eight-bar models that divide into discernible halves of 4+4 bars, each half usually containing two short ideas of two bars each1. Though this type of thematic structuring has been the norm for the majority of Hollywood film history2, Williams’s themes include variation more frequently than is typical for Hollywood films. More specifically, many of his themes for films from the mid 1970s through the early 1990s rework the initial idea such that it is not merely repeated or contrasted with, but varied. From one point of view, variation within a film theme serves very practical purposes. The similarity of varied and initial ideas facilitates the recognition of such themes should they move beyond their first idea, which they usually do. This is an important consequence in film, where an audience’s attention is divided among the narrative, images, dialogue, sound effects, and music. At the same time, since a varied idea involves both similarity to and difference from the initial idea, it provides a built-in sense of balance between coherence and variety, an especially effective technique for the richly leitmotivic scores Williams often writes, in which a small handful of themes typically permeates the film. Yet from another point of view, themes with varied ideas can be interpreted as describing key narrative elements in a musical manner. Specifically, Williams’s main themes from the mid 70s to the early 90s not only tend to paint a vivid picture of their narrative association through their melody, harmony, rhythm, and instrumentation, but themes with particular associations are also linked even more deeply to their narrative meanings 1 . These eight-bar theme types frequently appear as sections of larger thematic structures such as those based on models of sixteen-bar periods, AB or ABA binary forms, and the like. However, in order for themes to group together in a consistent manner and to limit the scope of the present study, when such larger structures were encountered, only the theme type of its opening section, based on an eight-bar model, was included for analysis. 2 . See my article, Richards 2016, Ex. 41. Mark Richards by way of their thematic structure. In order to more fully appreciate the central role that variation plays in Williams’s film music, an understanding of how these themes are constructed is necessary. I therefore divide this chapter into four parts: Part i lays out the theoretical framework for thematic structures. Part ii describes the ways in which Williams varies a theme’s initial idea and how it impacts the theme’s expression. Part iii illustrates the theme types that result from these varied ideas and how they help to communicate their narrative association. And Part iv explores tendencies of these themes with regard to time period and narrative association across Williams’s entire career. The goal is to begin to construct a picture of how themes in Williams’s film music operate musically to convey specific aspects of the film’s narrative. Part i: Theme Categories, Classes, and Types If a film music theme is defined as a distinctive passage of music with a narrative association in the film3, then all themes may be said to fall into one of three broad categories: grammatical themes, motto themes, and discursive themes4. Grammatical themes are generally based on eight-bar models and divide into beginning-end halves such as the antecedent and consequent of the traditional period form. By contrast, motto themes are shorter than grammatical ones, and although they may be looped into an ostinato, like Williams’s main theme for Jaws (Steven Spielberg, 1975), structurally they achieve only a beginning portion and never venture into a second half that would become an answering end portion. Finally, discursive themes are relatively long themes that either lack the grouping into halves of grammatical themes or contain more than two such groupings, like Williams’s main theme for Catch Me if You Can (Steven Spielberg, 2002). The result is a sizable theme that does not signal where it will end and thus gives a run-on impression by continually spinning its material out. Most of Williams’s themes fall into the grammatical category, hence they will be the focus of this chapter. Grammatical themes are further divided into four large classes that are defined by the relationship of the theme’s second half to its first, as shown in Table 1: sentence, clause, period, and composite. 3 . On a theme constituting a distinctive musical idea, see Cook 1992, p. 9, who remarks that the term ‘theme’ (in Western music generally) «refers to some readily recognizable musical element which serves a certain formal function by virtue of occurring at structural points». See also Bribitzer-Stull 2015, p. 34, who comments that, in order for it to be recognizable, «a theme must employ (and retain) a variety of identifiable musical parameters. These may include, but are not limited to: contour, rhythmic content, pitch content, length, orchestration, texture, register, tempo, harmonic progression, harmonic function, and contrapuntal framework». 4 . This breakdown of themes into three large categories and the taxonomy of theme classes and types given below are discussed in detail in Richards 2016. 120 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Table 1: Second Halves of Grammatical Themes Sentence 1st Half 2nd Half Formal Term for 2nd Half x ––––––––––––> Acceleration Continuation Clause x ––––––––––––> Variation Divergence Period x ––––––––––––> Return Antecedent Composite x ––––––––––––> Contrast Departure In sentences, the second half begins with an acceleration in relation to the first half in terms of phrase structure, harmony, or surface rhythm. In clauses, the second half begins with a variation of the preceding idea in the first half. In periods, the second half begins as a return to the opening of the first half. And in composites, the second half begins with material that contrasts with the first half but does not accelerate. Each type of second half is described with a formal term, as shown in the figure. Variation may occur between the two halves as in the clause, but it may also arise between the two ideas of a single half, particularly the first, which may be structured in one of three ways, as shown in Table 2. Table 2: First Halves of Grammatical Themes 1st Half Idea 1 Idea 2 Presentation A A Antecedent A B Development A A2 Within a first half, the second idea may repeat the first idea to form a presentation, contrast with it to form an antecedent, or vary it to form a development. What I call the basic form of each theme class is that which is generally the most common in the film repertoire. The sentence and clause usually begin with a presentation, whereas the period and composite usually begin with an antecedent5. The developing form of a theme, which begins with a development, is therefore less common than the basic form. Themes may also adopt a first half that is the opposite of its typical layout (i.e., repetition instead of contrast or contrast instead of repetition). These are what I call the hybrid form of each theme. With four theme classes and three possible forms within each class, there are a total 5 . Occasionally, a presentation will include a number of basic ideas other than two, usually one or three. When it contains only one, I term the structure a monofold sentence whereas when it contains three, I term it a trifold sentence. For more detail on these structures, see Richards 2011, pp. 190-196. 121 Mark Richards of twelve grammatical theme types, all of which are shown schematically in Table 3, the ‘x’ ending many themes indicating a variable position in which any material may occur6. Table 3: Twelve Types of Grammatical Theme as Determined by the Relationship of the Second Half to the First, and the Second Idea to the First BASIC FORM Acceleration Variation 2nd Half Compared to 1st Half Contrast HYBRID FORM Sentence Presentation A A(ʹ) Continuation Accel Developing Sentence Development Continuation A A2 Accel Periodic Sentence Antecedent Continuation A B Accel Clause Presentation A A(ʹ) Divergence A2 x Developing Clause Development Divergence A A2 A3 x Periodic Clause Antecedent Divergence A B B2 x HYBRID FORM Return DEVELOPING FORM DEVELOPING FORM Developing Period Development Consequent A A2 A(ʹ) x Period Antecedent A B Sentential Composite Sentential Composite Presentation Departure A A(ʹ) B x Developing Composite Developing Composite Development Departure A A2 B x Composite Composite Antecedent Departure A B C x Varied CLAUSE BASIC FORM Sentential Period Presentation Consequent A Aʹ A x Similar SENTENCE Consequent A(ʹ) x PERIOD COMPOSITE Different 2nd Idea Compared to 1st Idea 6 . For the analysis of Williams’s themes, Zacharopoulos 2017 adopts the period and several subtypes of the sentence according to the number of identical or varied ideas the theme states successively. Hence these categories do not distinguish between an idea’s repetition and its variation, which, as I illustrate below, is a crucial distinction both for the patterns of associations that Williams’s themes take on and for the division of his film scores into style periods. Zacharopoulos’s categories, however, cannot simply be mapped onto those presented here since they rely on fundamentally different concepts. As I discuss below, the developing period and clause are two forms that are central to Williams’s film themes but remain inaccessible within his categories. His period category for instance, includes not only my developing period, but the basic and sentential forms as well. Likewise, depending on the number of basic or varied ideas involved, clauses are categorized as trifold sentences such as the main theme from Presumed Innocent (Alan J. Pakula, 1990), as unfolding sentences such as the Irish theme from Far and Away (Ron Howard, 1992), or even sentences with dissolving third statements (Princess Leia’s theme from Star Wars [George Lucas, 1977]). I therefore prefer the methodology outlined in the present chapter, which allows themes with variation to be separated from other types. 122 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Part ii: Techniques of Variation in Williams’s Film Themes With the above theme types in place, we may now examine more precisely how Williams incorporates variation into the structure of his film themes. Most of his grammatical themes that employ variation do so through the manipulation of the first idea, called the basic idea. The resulting developing idea includes both similarity to and difference from the basic idea and may appear at any point after the initial basic idea7. Regardless of where the developing idea occurs, however, Williams employs four main techniques to refashion the basic idea into a developing one, as shown visually in Table 4. While these techniques tend to occur singly in any developing idea, they occasionally occur successively in the same idea8. Table 4: Means of Varying the Basic Idea To Create a Developing Idea 1) Varied Harmony Basic Idea Developing Idea Melody Harmony 2) Motivic Substitution or Alteration Developing Idea Basic Idea Melody Motive x Motive y Motive x Motive z 3) Hinge Technique Basic Idea Developing Idea Melody 
ive x Motive y Motive y Motive z 4) Non-Ornamental Extension Developing Idea Basic Idea Melody Extension 7 8 . The term ‘basic idea’ is from Caplin 1998 whereas ‘developing idea’ is from Richards 2016. . See, for instance, “Parade of the Ewoks” in Ex. 5 and the “Force Theme” in Ex. 7. 123 Mark Richards Varied Harmony (Rhythm and Contour Essentially Intact) A common device is to essentially retain the rhythm and contour of the entire basic idea but to vary its harmony, perhaps with smaller ornamental changes to the melody that do not drastically affect its structure. A good example occurs with the “Remembering Childhood” theme from Hook (Steven Spielberg, 1991), given in Ex. 19. Ex. 1: variation in the “Remembering Childhood Theme” from Hook (© 1991 BMI), published by EMI Intertrax Music Inc, reduced from The Flight to Neverland, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. The opening basic idea begins with a repeated interval of a falling third from scale degree 5^ to ^3 of the major scale, a figure that appropriately evokes the world of a child through its appearance at the start of many traditional children’s songs such as “Ring Around the Rosy”, “This Old Man”, “Rain, Rain, Go Away”, and even the taunting “Nyah Nyah” song. These falling-third figures are set in a Lombard rhythm (i.e., reversed dotted rhythm) and flow into a turn figure set in a long-short-short rhythm that returns to the falling third with a closely-related syncopated figure. The second idea restates the first 9 . Musical examples in this chapter are reductions of the original orchestral textures. Those with relatively simple textures are transcribed with two staves while those with very active or complex textures are instead notated in the manner of a lead sheet with a single staff of melody and chord symbols so as to maintain focus on the melodic ideas. Moreover, some examples are re-notated in a metre that clarifies the length of the basic idea as two perceived bars of music. See Caplin 1998, p. 35, which states that «what a listener perceives as “one full measure” of music does not necessarily correspond to the notated bar lines of the score. We thus need to distinguish between a real, experiential measure and a notated measure. The former, which may or may not correspond to the latter, is the only valid measure for an analysis of form based on our musical experience». The re-notated examples include the main themes from Hook, Star Wars, and Close Encounters of the Third Kind. 124 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes almost exactly as the rhythm and contour are preserved, forming a presentation. A few of its notes are raised up a step, and the harmonic extensions of the supporting F major chord are slightly shifted to accommodate the change in melody. But these alterations are minor and essentially leave the basic idea intact. With the third idea, the rhythms of the Lombard, long-short-short, and final syncopation are all preserved exactly as in the first idea, and the contour is the same except for the new downward inflection ending the long-short-short figure. The harmony, however, now breaks away from the unwavering F major support of the presentation, moving to a Bb major chord and even changing to a C7 within the same idea. The fact that two chords now accompany the idea rather than one produces an acceleration in the harmonic rhythm, a device that is typically associated with sentence continuations, which drive the theme toward its end. Consequently, although this third idea is clearly related to the preceding ideas, its harmonic alterations introduce fundamentally different material, breaking the pattern of repetition with the first two ideas and signalling that the theme is entering its second portion. In other words, what is stated here is not another basic idea, but a developing idea based on variation. Motivic Substitution or Alteration Another common technique for producing developing ideas in Williams’s themes is the substitution or alteration of a portion of the basic idea, almost always after the head of the idea. The fanfare theme from Superman: The Movie (Richard Donner, 1978), given in Ex. 2 (p. 126), illustrates this concept. Here, the basic idea comprises two distinct motives, labelled x and y. Both motives are composed only of scale degrees 1^ and 5^ of the major scale, and elaborate the intervals of the perfect fifth (C-G) and perfect octave (C-C, the highest and lowest notes)10. This emphasis on relatively large and very consonant intervals conveys a feeling of strength and heroism, and the on-beat march rhythm along with the militaristic triplet give the sense of a powerful force, both of which aptly describe the Superman character11. In the second idea, motive x is retained exactly while motive y is replaced with a new motive, z, which is given a fuller texture, louder dynamic, and a dotted rhythm that almost seems to speak the character’s name12. Moreover, this new motive closes like a half cadence, on dominant harmony — quite a change from the constant tonic harmony that underpinned 10 . Matessino ET AL. 2007 notes that the theme’s emphasis on 1^and the 5^ above it (tonic and dominant) is an element that was preserved from two Superman themes in other media, both of which rise through the full major triad from tonic to dominant: one by Sammy Timberg for animated shorts in the 1940s and another attributed to Leon Klatzkin for the 1950s television series. 11 . For more detail on this interpretation, see my blog post on the theme, Richards 2013c. 12 . As the film’s director, Richard Donner, recalls, «the day we went into a recording studio, and we ran the opening credits, [and] as “Superman” came on the screen, I swear to God, if you listen carefully, it literally, the music, speaks the word». See Thau 2001. 125 Mark Richards Ex. 2: variation in the “Superman Fanfare” from Superman: The Movie (© 1978 BMI), published by WarnerBarham Music LLC, reduced from “Superman March”, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. the opening basic idea. The second idea’s combination of both similarity to and difference from the basic idea renders it a developing idea. This in turn renders the theme’s first half a development within a developing period. Hinge Technique The two above variation techniques for developing ideas are the most widespread in Williams’s film themes, but there are two others that appear occasionally. The first involves a restating of the basic idea’s last motive as the first motive of the next idea, or what I call hinge technique13. The main-title theme from Star Wars (George Lucas, 1977), shown in Ex. 3, provides a fine instance of the technique. 13 . I introduce this term in Richards 2016, paras. 49-51, using as examples the Star Wars main-title theme and “Gabriel’s Oboe” from Ennio Morricone’s score for The Mission (Roland Joffé, 1987). 126 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Ex. 3: variation in the “Main Title” theme from Star Wars (© 1977 BMI), published by Bantha Music/ Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp., reduced from Star Wars: Suite for Orchestra, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. Once again, the basic idea breaks down into two motives, x and y. And like the Superman fanfare, the two motives depict the strength, power, and heroism of the film’s main character, Luke, through the emphasis on the perfect fifth (Bb-F) and octave (Bb-Bb, the highest and lowest notes), the on-beat articulation of most notes, and the triplet figure14. But with the second idea, motive y is relocated in the unit, appearing at the beginning rather than the end. Although motive x is completely omitted here, the restatement of motive y immediately after its initial appearance creates a clear connection between the first and second ideas. With the following y2 motive, however, the contour of motive y is altered, leaping down instead of up, the final note is omitted, and the harmony sounds an appropriately swashbuckling ‘cowboy cadence’ to complete the theme’s first half 15. With the hinge technique, then, it is the juxtaposition of motive y with itself that creates the clear similarity to the basic idea while the repositioning of the motive and omission 14 . For more on motivic manipulation in the entire rounded binary structure of this theme, see my blog post, Richards 2013b. 15 . Lehman 2013, para. 4.12, Schneller 2013, pp. 55-56, and Morrell 2013-2015, vol. i, ch. 3, p. 13, likewise note the cowboy cadence in this theme. However, while film-music scholars regularly suggest that the cadence or modal triadic writing in general derives from Aaron Copland’s Americana-styled music, Lehman 2013, fn. 47, cautions against such a link, raising as possibilities influences from Thomson or Ives, or original thought in the case of Moross and his landmark score for The Big Country (William Wyler, 1958). 127 Mark Richards of motive x involves enough difference to distinguish it from the basic idea and instead produce a developing idea16. Non-Ornamental Extension The final means by which a developing idea may be formed in Williams’s themes is by a non-ornamental extension added onto an essentially intact basic idea. Consider the main theme to SpaceCamp (Harry Winer, 1986), shown in Ex. 4. Ex. 4: variation in the main theme from SpaceCamp (© 1986 BMI), published by ABC Circle Music/ Marjer Publishing Company, ear transcription from the film’s soundtrack. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. This theme is associated with the sense of awe the adolescent characters share for the wonders of outer space, and the structure of its basic idea expresses a musical version of this sentiment. The basic idea encompasses a gradual stepwise motion up the major scale from degree 1^ to ^3 (Bb-C-D). Note, however, that there is a slight pause on the second note through the tie, then the initial ascent from 1^ to ^2 is repeated in a faster rhythm before leaping up to scale degree 5^. This chain of events suggests being captivated by something positive, beautiful perhaps, and repeatedly striving to attain it. After the first ‘reach’ up to 5^ , the following ^3 suggests modest progress from the initial earthbound tonic. The following idea replicates this trajectory with the exception of a larger leap upward, to 7^ rather than 5^, before falling back to the same scale degree 3^ . The larger 16 . As I demonstrate in Richards 2015, “Across the Stars”, the main theme to Star Wars, Episode II: Attack of the Clones (George Lucas, 2002), possesses not only the same thematic structure as the original film’s main theme for Luke, but also very similar motivic material. As a result, the later theme can be heard as a darkened, pessimistic version of the original, establishing an appropriate musical opposition between the tragic fate of Anakin and Padme’s love and the heroic fate of Luke. 128 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes leap seems to imply a more outstretched reach for the source of captivation, while the return to ^3 now becomes a stepping stone to greater heights. Upon arriving at ^3 , the idea is extended up several steps, now reaching scale degree 7^ in the more ‘attainable’ manner of stepwise motion. The extension not only continues the stepwise ascent begun ^ , a chromatic with the basic idea, but also possesses its own hesitant pause, now on #4 note borrowed from the Lydian mode that in film has, among other things, come to signify wonder and amazement17. The stepwise ascent continues into the theme’s final notes, where it reaches a euphoric tonic degree at the very top of the scale, but now over the IV chord instead of the tonic. Although this tonic degree is in one sense stable since it is the tonic, its accompanying change of harmony renders it the fifth of the chord, which sits high atop the chordal root (understood as a perfect fifth below it). The emotional implication is both one of satisfaction at having achieved a desired goal (such as reaching outer space), and yet having one’s sense of wonder suddenly expanded upon reaching that goal (as though experiencing the sheer vastness of space once arriving there). With its seamless integration into the material of the basic idea and the material that follows, it would be difficult to dismiss this extension as merely ornamentation of a repeated basic idea. Instead, the extension adds substantial difference to the material, producing a developing idea within another small-scale development and, with the fragmentation that follows it, a developing sentence overall. Part iii: Theme Types with Developing Ideas in Williams As we have seen, a developing idea can define different theme types depending on its position in the theme. Of the twelve types of grammatical themes, six include at least one developing idea: the basic, developing, and hybrid forms of the clause (which contain variation by definition) and the developing form of the other three theme classes (sentence, period, and composite). Of these six possible forms, Williams displays a distinct preference for only two: the developing period and the clause, shown schematically in Table 5. As before, each ‘x’ below is a variable representing any material. 17 . As noted by Lehman 2012, pp. 31-32, and Schneller 2013, pp. 68-71. On p. 69, Schneller indicates that the SpaceCamp theme in particular intensifies these associations by twice transposing the Lydian I–II# progression up a step, reproducing it on a larger scale. On the Lydian mode in general, Karlin – Wright 2004, pp. 227-233, similarly points out that it «has been used many times to evoke a sense of other-worldliness», which certainly applies to this film, as does the observation in Lehman 2012, p. 14, fn. 2, that the Lydian aspects of this score, among several others, create an «empyrean» effect. Hence, in addition to the otherworldly association of the mode in film, I would add that this quality is generally a positive one. 129 Mark Richards Table 5: Developing Period and Clause Developing Period Development A A2 Consequent A x Clause Presentation A A Divergence A2 x Of the six theme types with a developing idea, these are the only two to include both a repetition and a variation of the basic idea, ensuring both unity and variety within the theme’s structure. Developing Period While the developing period was seen earlier with the themes from Superman and Star Wars, Ex. 5 gives another instance in “Parade of the Ewoks” from Return of the Jedi (Richard Marquand, 1983) that is worked out quite differently. Ex. 5: developing period, “Parade of the Ewoks” from Return of the Jedi (© 1989 BMI), published by Bantha Music/Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp., reduced from Music from the Star Wars Saga, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. Here, the basic idea begins with a three-note motive on a dotted rhythm that, together with the 4/4 time, on-beat articulations, accompanying staccato chords, and soft 130 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes dynamic, suggests the inconspicuous military might of the Ewoks. At the same time, the accompaniment’s inclusion of the note E in the Bb major chords expresses the Lydian mode, which here evokes a positive, otherworldly quality18. The melody includes Db as well, which clashes with the accompaniment’s D[n]. But since these Dbs are in such a high register, their clashing impact is minimized, the result being more playful than fearful — an affect that captures a central aspect of the creatures’ role in the film. The second idea begins just as the first did, then continues its rhythms with altered intervals, and replaces the rhythm of its last bar with a longer note that signals the end of the first half. Clearly, this second idea is a developing one, rendering the first half a development. The second half opens with the same basic idea as the first, forming a consequent, but alters the last few notes so as to end more conclusively, on the tonic note. This developing period is therefore composed of four ideas that are either identical or variations of one another. Given the playfulness of the theme, its construction from a single idea and its variations, along with the crystal clear symmetry between the two halves, indicates a kind of simplicity, one that evokes something of a child-like innocence, which is yet another aspect of the Ewoks that this theme manages to express19. Clause As noted earlier, the other very common theme type in Williams that incorporates developing ideas is the clause. Like the developing period, this theme type has already appeared above, in the theme from Hook, but a more extensive treatment of the form is heard in the main theme from Close Encounters of the Third Kind (Steven Spielberg, 1977), shown in Ex. 6 (p. 132). Although this theme is, in a sense, associated with Devils Tower (the location where humans finally meet the aliens face-to-face), its appearances in the film rather identify it as a theme of awe-filled discovery at gradually learning more about the significance of the Tower20. With this in mind, consider the theme’s opening three notes, the first of which is set to a BM7 chord in the accompaniment that clearly establishes B as the tonic. With G# in the melody moving to A# as scale degrees 6^ and 7^ in B major, we would expect the 18 . It is notable that the Lydian mode is also a central aspect of another of Williams’s prominent Star Wars themes: that for Yoda who, like the Ewoks, is a small alien creature who assists the Rebels in their cause. 19 . Reinforcing this interpretation is Williams’s orchestration of the theme, which includes a toy piano when it first appears in the film and when it returns in the end credits. 20 . Just as the significance of the tower is slowly disclosed in the film, so is its theme, at first appearing only in fragments and only reaching its full form with the end credits, after the aliens have been fully revealed and as the full splendour of their mothership is revealed. Audissino 2014 calls this technique in Williams’s scores «gradual disclosure of the main theme» (p. 126), citing examples in E. T., Jaws, and later in the book, in Raiders of the Lost Ark (p. 178). 131 Mark Richards Ex. 6: clause, “Devils Tower Theme” from Close Encounters of the Third Kind (© 1977 BMI), published by EMI Gold Horizon Music Corp., reduced from Excerpts from Close Encounters of the Third Kind, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. following note to be the tonic, B. But instead, the melody leaps up to D# (3^), another note in the B major chord. This act of reaching to a note beyond the nearest goal suggests an exuberance that cannot be contained simply by rising stepwise up the scale to B. Yet at the same time, it also deprives the figure of its expected goal tone and thus evades resolution. The entire basic idea is then repeated to form a presentation, extending this evasiveness across the clause’s entire first half. Along with the theme’s major-mode setting, one can well interpret the first half as reflecting the main characters’ emotions in the film’s moments of discovery; namely, being immersed in a trance-like state brought on by an overwhelming feeling of awe. The developing idea then begins the second half, the reaching figure now stretching more energetically to G#. After the developing idea, its last portion reappears, stretched further to A#, a resolution to B now palpably imminent. Indeed, B does follow in the next iteration of the reaching figure, but it is harmonized with a C# half-diminished chord, then a cadential 6/4 chord, both of which render the B a dissonance that does not attain the comfort of a stable, consonant chord tone. Nevertheless, the cascading contours that follow in the melody imply a gleeful celebration, as though revelling in one’s awe and the discoveries it brings. This expression is emphasized at the theme’s end, where, although 132 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes ending on B, the harmonic support is once again the half-diminished seventh on C#, even here avoiding resolution on a tonic B major chord. Developing Clause The remaining theme types discussed in this section appear far less frequently than the developing period and clause. I include them here because they are represented by at least one example from a well known film. The first of these is the developing clause, given schematically in Table 6. Table 6: Developing Clause Developing Clause Development A A2 Divergence A3 x With this theme type, it may seem that three successive similar ideas ought to be grouped together within the same portion of a theme. But in developing clauses, the third idea brings about greater change than did the second idea, hence pointing in a new direction that signals the onset of the second half. One instance is the “Force Theme” from Star Wars, shown in Ex. 7. Ex. 7: developing clause, the “Force Theme” from Star Wars (© 1977 BMI), published by Bantha Music/ Warner-Tamerlane Publishing Corp., reduced from Star Wars: Suite for Orchestra, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. 133 Mark Richards While this theme throughout the entire saga does indeed accompany scenes in which a character uses or discusses the Force, its association is more specifically with the Jedi, taken individually or as a group. Although the theme appears in a variety of contexts involving one or more Jedi or those with Force powers, its main purpose seems to be to depict their various struggles21. The theme’s basic idea encapsulates the beginning of such a struggle in its melodic structure. After a pickup on 5^ , the idea begins with a slow rise through scale degrees 1^, 2^ , and 3^ of the minor scale (with 2^ being slightly ornamented with the 3^ and 4^ of the triplet figure) before returning to its opening note on the low 5^. This initial shape, of a slow stepwise rise then a quick leaping fall, suggests encountering a setback in attempting to achieve a difficult goal, even while making gradual progress. This general depiction of a struggle continues to play out over the rest of the theme. With the following developing idea, notice that the first five notes retrace the entire basic idea (omitting the ornamental 3^-4^ figure), though now altered, being compressed into a smaller space. This compression leaves room to expand on the idea’s material with a triplet figure that rises to 5^, the highest note yet, before falling a step to 4^. Once again, forward progress has been tempered by a setback. Notice, however, that the harmony of this scale degree 4^ is the major IV, a chord that would be minor within the minor scale that is implied in the theme and thus is a sign of hope within a negative environment22. The next developing idea begins like the second, with the same compressed version of the basic idea’s outline. But now, the previous idea is itself reworked as the large leap from 3^ down to 5^ (Ab-C) is omitted and its triplet material instead appears in a dotted rhythm. This dotted motive extends the rising motion up to a climactic tonic, which, as the highest note in the theme and in its harmonization with the major VI chord, is another positive sign within the negative minor mode. The final contrasting idea not only differs from the previous ideas in its rhythm, but in its contour as well, as it closes the theme by outlining a fall from 5^ to 1^ rather than a rise. Overall then, the expression of struggle depicted individually in the theme’s first three ideas (i.e., increasingly greater heights yielding more quickly to a final descent) is reproduced across the theme as a whole, more powerfully imparting the protracted and arduous nature of the Jedi struggle23. 21 . No doubt, it is this sense of struggle with its incorporation of both positive and negative affects that grants the theme such versatility in the Star Wars saga and thus distinguishes it from the other themes in the original film. Indeed, as Adams 1999, p. 23, points out, this theme is «the only heroic A New Hope theme in which Williams employs large downward intervallic leaps (although it still begins with a characteristically rising perfect fourth). The other major heroic character themes all reach out with a sense of yearning and impetuousness». 22 . Murphy 2014, p. 488, notes that two-chord progressions in film music of a minor tonic to its major subdominant (as here with i-iv), or a major tonic to its minor dominant — which he labels ‘m5M’ and ‘M7m’, respectively — tend to be associated with experiences of wonderment, optimism, success, or transcendence. Clearly, the most pertinent of these associations in the “Force Theme” are the central two: optimism and success, or perhaps more fittingly in this case, optimism for success. 23 . I also discuss this struggle-infused contour of the “Force Theme” in Richards 2013a. 134 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Varied Period Forms So far, this study has focused on developing ideas as the main source of variation in Williams’s film music themes. The potential for varying ideas, however, also extends to basic ideas that return in period forms. Even when a basic idea returns in a period, that returning basic idea can be varied without destroying the sense of return it expresses. In particular, when the head of the third idea is more similar to that of the initial idea than is the second, a sense of return is activated and overrules the variation component as a determinant of the theme type24. I refer to such theme types as varied periods, which, in the present corpus, are found to occur only in the basic form of the period. In other words, the varied period is a special case of the basic period, which is why I do not list it as a separate theme type in the comprehensive table of grammatical themes in Table 3. “Rey’s Theme” from Star Wars – The Force Awakens ( J. J. Abrams, 2015), given in Ex. 8, is a prominent instance of the varied period in its basic form. More than simply being a musical label for the film’s main character, “Rey’s Theme” depicts the character’s traits in this film in an unusually subtle manner — specifically, the latency of her powers with the Force25. Ex. 8: varied period, “Rey’s Theme” from The Force Awakens (© 2015 BMI), published by Utapau Music, reduced from Star Wars, The Force Awakens: Suite for Orchestra, printed by Hal Leonard. Used in compliance with the U.S. Copyright Act, Section 107. The theme is in 4/4 time and most of the notes in its basic idea are set to onbeat rhythms, the others being in a slow dotted rhythm. The idea thus makes a veiled 24 . As described in Richards 2016, para. [21]. . For more on how this theme depicts Rey’s other character traits, see Richards 2017. 25 135 Mark Richards implication of a march, which hints at a strength that Rey possesses but has not yet fully expressed. This interpretation is further supported by the accompaniment, which injects the militaristic long-short-short, or ‘gallop’, rhythms throughout that are heard on their own in the theme’s introductory portion (not shown). The contrasting idea that follows continues with a different melodic profile of onbeat rhythms and a slow dotted rhythm (now slightly decorated with sixteenth notes). More importantly, the harmony turns conspicuously from the minor tonic chord to the major subdominant, iv. As we have seen, this progression at the end of a second idea is a prominent facet of the “Force Theme” and thus here it suggests that Rey’s hidden powers are linked to the Force26. The developing idea that follows begins with a syncopation, then plays out much like the basic idea as it starts on the same tonic harmony, exactly repeats its rhythm, restates its opening two notes, and retraces its contour up until the final note. Yet the harmony retains the Force-theme-like i-iv motion that characterized the contrasting idea, perhaps suggesting that, as Rey reappears throughout this film’s narrative (or returns, as a period’s basic idea does), though she will not be completely transformed, she will undergo noticeable changes on account of her interactions with the Force. The use of a varied period allows the theme to capture these relatively subtle changes while explicitly associating them with their source in the narrative. Part iv: Stylistic Trends in Williams’s Themes with Variation The above analyses have shown that Williams’s treatment of variation-based themes can be interpreted individually, as musical manifestations of character traits or narrative ideas in the film. But it is also valuable to view these themes from two broader perspectives: their style period, and a more general categorization of their association. I examine each of these in order below. Dividing Williams’s film scores into style periods has, as far as I am aware, not yet been suggested in published scholarship. Useful indications are provided, however, by changes in Williams’s thematic structures over the course of his career thus far. In order to obtain data in a reasonably objective manner, I set out with the intention of selecting the main theme from each film he has scored. Exceptions arose in several cases. In a handful of scores from the 1960s and early 70s, Williams was given thematic material on which to base the score. These include films with a popular song written by another composer and musicals, for which Williams was again given material by other composers. Hence, I did not include themes from these films. From the late 1970s onward, Williams began to 26 . Williams further emphasizes this relationship in the end credits, where the ideas of Rey’s theme appear in alternation with those of the “Force Theme” over the same i-IV progression. 136 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes write for sequels to films he had scored. While most sequels are generally furnished with the same main theme as the original film, Williams typically writes new themes as well, and thus, in order to obtain more data for the study, I selected from sequels the secondary theme that seemed the most prominent, some of which can actually overshadow the main theme, as “The Imperial March” does in The Empire Strikes Back (Irvin Kershner, 1980). Finally, for Not with My Wife, You Don’t! (Norman Panama, 1966), I selected two themes that were equally prominent, befitting the narrative about two men vying with equal fervour for the affections of the same woman. The resulting data set of Williams themes is shown in Appendix 1. Table 7 distils this information, highlighting notable trends with the shaded areas27. Table 7: Notable Trends in Frequencies for Grammatical Theme Types across Williams’s career Year # Main Themes per Year Theme Type Theme Category % Sentence (Basic) % Clause (Basic) % Developing Period % Grammatical 1958 1 100 0 0 100 0 0 1960 1 100 0 0 100 0 0 1961 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 1962 1 0 0 0 0 100 0 1965 2 50 0 0 100 0 0 1966 6 33 17 17 83 0 17 1967 3 0 0 0 100 0 0 1969 2 50 0 0 100 0 0 1970 2 50 0 0 100 0 0 1972 5 20 20 0 100 0 0 1973 4 25 25 0 100 0 0 1974 4 0 25 75 100 0 0 1975 2 0 50 0 50 0 50 1976 3 0 0 0 100 0 0 1977 3 0 33 33 67 0 33 1978 3 0 0 33 100 0 0 1979 2 0 50 0 100 0 0 1980 1 0 100 0 100 0 0 1981 2 0 0 0 100 0 0 1982 2 0 0 0 100 0 0 27 % Discursive % Motto . Note that 2017 includes The Last Jedi (Rian Johnson) but not The Post (Steven Spielberg) since the latter’s release postdates this writing. 137 Mark Richards 1983 1 0 0 100 100 0 0 1984 2 0 0 100 100 0 0 1986 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 1987 3 0 0 33 100 0 0 1988 1 0 100 0 100 0 0 1989 3 0 0 33 100 0 0 1990 3 33 33 0 100 0 0 1991 2 50 50 0 100 0 0 1992 2 0 0 50 100 0 0 1993 2 0 50 0 50 50 0 1995 2 0 50 0 50 0 50 1996 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 1997 4 0 0 0 75 0 25 1998 2 0 0 0 100 0 0 1999 2 50 0 0 50 50 0 2000 1 0 0 100 100 0 0 2001 2 0 0 50 100 0 0 2002 4 0 0 25 50 25 25 2004 2 50 0 0 100 0 0 2005 4 0 0 0 50 0 50 2008 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 2011 2 0 0 0 50 0 50 2012 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 2013 1 0 100 0 100 0 0 2015 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 2016 1 0 0 0 100 0 0 2017 1 0 0 100 100 0 0 Notice that, up to 1973, basic sentences had usually comprised a substantial portion of the selected themes but that with 1974, sentences disappear for over a decade and only appear sporadically thereafter. Instead, clauses and developing periods become consistent in his output — the two theme types I mentioned above as the most common to include developing ideas. Further evidence stems from Williams himself, who describes the untimely death of his wife, Barbara Ruick, in March of 1974 as a «pivotal moment» in his life and career: «after that point, in my writing, in my approach to music, in everything I was doing, I felt clear about what it is I was trying to do and how I could do it with whatever small gift I may have been given»28. Although all of this suggests 1974 as a major 28 . See Williams 2014. 138 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes turning point in Williams’s film music, I would suggest that his new efforts did not come to full fruition until he scored Jaws in 1975. It is with this score that Williams’s main themes begin to be exceedingly tailored to their particular association, fusing a wealth of musical techniques that as a whole conjure up a very specific mental image. Also consider that the number of films he scores per year drops in 1975 from four or five in 1972-1974 to only two, and in the years following, the number almost always falls into a range of one to three. For all the above reasons, I understand Jaws as a stylistic watershed in Williams’s career. Table 7 shows another change that becomes apparent in 1993. At this point, grammatical themes, which hold a near monopoly in this corpus up to that year, now regularly yield to discursive and motto themes. 1993 was the year Williams officially retired from his position as conductor of the Boston Pops Orchestra «to devote more time to serious musical compositions», a decision he announced in December 1991, shortly before his sixtieth birthday29. One will also notice an increase in his scoring of more serious, drama films and a shift away from the action and fantasy genres for which he became known. But perhaps more pertinent are the changes that took place in filmmaking more generally from about 1990 onward due to the increased reliance on digital technology. With regard to Williams specifically, Emilio Audissino observes that the composer’s scores for the second Star Wars trilogy (which began in 1999) were less melodic and more modular than those for the first trilogy, and speculates that this was the result of two influences: 1) a sound mix that, in contemporary films generally, has become «too thick to allow space for the same melodic flow and leitmotivic network as in the first trilogy», and 2) last-minute film edits that have become easy with the aid of computer editing but can interfere with longer melodic lines in the score30. In both cases, short motto themes or patchwork-like discursive themes are typically more adaptable than grammatical ones, of which Williams tends to state the entire first half when they appear31. And indeed motto and discursive themes become more regular in Williams’s film scores starting from about 1993, which therefore seems another stylistic turning point in Williams’s film scores. Finally, there is some evidence to regard 2008 as the beginning of a fourth period. With that year’s lone score, that for Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull (Steven Spielberg), there is a return to grammatical themes as the prevalent category of theme in the corpus from there to the present, the motto theme of The Adventures of Tintin (Steven Spielberg, 2011) being the sole exception. The large-scale trends in theme class across the style periods is most clearly evident when the percentage of each class per period can be compared, as in Appendix 2. I would also point out that, like 1975, Williams’s productivity in film scoring drops, now to only one or two films per year. While this fourth period is defined by themes from only eight films, I nevertheless find the evidence compelling 29 . Catalano 1991. . Audissino 2017, pp. 228-229. 31 . As noted in Zacharopoulos 2017, p. 248. 30 139 Mark Richards enough to justify such a division. With these turning points in place, we may divide Williams’s film scores into four style periods, named simply by their chronology, as shown in Table 832. Table 8: Williams’s Four Style Periods in His Film Music Style Period Years Films (Beginning – End) First 1958-1975 Daddy-O – The Eiger Sanction Second 1975-1992 Jaws – Home Alone 2 Third 1993-2005 Jurassic Park – Munich Fourth 2008-present Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull – Having identified style periods, it is now possible to track within each period the percentage of themes in the corpus that make use of substantial variation. Appendix 3 shows the number and percentage of each theme type Williams wrote across the four style periods. Of the twelve grammatical theme types, six employ developing ideas: the four developing forms of each theme class and the basic and hybrid clause. There are also varied periods, which are forms of the basic period. Table 9 shows the results of collecting all of the variation-based theme types together into a single category. Table 9: Frequencies of Variation-Based Main Themes per Style Period Style Period Years in Period # Main Themes per Style Period % Variation-Based Themes 1st 1958-1975 32 38 2nd 1975-1992 36 53 3rd 1993-2005 26 31 2008-present 8 50 th 4 In a separate study, I determined frequencies of theme types and categories across the corpus of scores nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score (or its equivalent)33. As shown in Table 10, the frequency of variation-based themes in each of Williams’s style periods is always higher than in the corresponding period of the Oscar corpus (excluding Williams)34. 32 . Even so, there are cases in which Williams writes main themes that, in their structuring, harken back to those of his second period. Examples include the developing period that opens Hedwig’s theme from Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone (Chris Columbus, 2001), and Irina’s theme from Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull, which opens with a developing clause. 33 . See Richards 2016. 34 . The two corpuses compared here end with 2015 since that was the last year included in the earlier study. 140 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Table 10: Comparison of Frequencies of Variation-Based Main Themes in Williams and in Oscar-Nominated Scores By Other Composers Period Williams Corpus Oscar Corpus 1958-1975 38 24 1975-1992 53 46 1993-2005 31 21 2008-2015 50 6 Whereas a sizable proportion of themes in each period are variation-based, the frequency is substantially higher in the second and fourth periods, the former in large part due to an increase in the proportion of clauses and developing periods. This relationship between variation and the second period, however, runs somewhat deeper. Of the 40 themes in the second period, 18 are variation-based. After viewing each film, I determined the main association of each theme in its film. In total, 14 of the 40 themes have an association that involves an element of what can broadly be referred to as fantasy. Such elements include the supernatural, imagined worlds, and sentient aliens and robots. Table 11 summarizes these findings, with variation-based themes highlighted by being shaded in the rightmost column. Table 11: Associations and Theme Types of Main Themes in Williams’s Second Period Year Film Association of Main Theme or (for Sequels) Most Prominent Secondary Theme Fantasy Element in Association? Theme Type 1975 Jaws Antagonist – Shark Motto 1976 Family Plot Antagonists – Shoebridge and accomplices Period 1976 The Missouri Breaks Love / Bonding – Tom and Jane Sentential Period 1976 Midway Protagonist – US military Period 1977 Black Sunday Antagonists – Dahlia and Michael Motto 1977 Star Wars Protagonist – Luke 1977 Close Encounters of the Third Kind Location – Devil’s Tower 1978 The Fury Supernatural powers – Psychic abilities 1978 Jaws 2 Protagonists – Adolescents sailing 1978 Superman: The Movie Protagonist – Superman x Developing Period 1979 Dracula Antagonist – Dracula x Clause 141 x Developing Period x Clause x Developing Trifold Sentence Sentential Period Mark Richards 1979 1941 Protatgonist – Air Force pilot Kelso 1980 The Empire Strikes Back Antagonist – Darth Vader Period 1981 Raiders of the Lost Ark Protagonist – Indiana Jones 1981 Heartbeeps Love / Bonding – Aqua and Val x Developing Composite 1982 E. T.: The-Extra-Terrestrial Love / Bonding – E. T. and Elliot x Developing Clause 1982 Monsignor Protagonist – Father Flaherty 1983 Return of the Jedi Secondary Characters – Ewoks x Developing Period 1984 Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom Treasure / Secondary Characters – Sacred Stones / Slave Children x Developing Period 1984 The River Protagonists – Garvey family Developing Period 1986 SpaceCamp Emotion – Awe, breakthrough Developing Sentence 1987 The Witches of Eastwick Antagonist – Daryl 1987 Empire of the Sun Protagonist – Jamie / Jim 1987 Superman IV: The Quest for Peace Antagonist – Nuclear Man 1988 The Accidental Tourist Protagonist – Macon Clause 1989 Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade Love / Bonding – Indiana and Henry Jones Period 1989 Born on the Fourth of July Protagonist – Ron Period 1989 Always Love / Bonding – Pete and Dorinda 1990 Stanley and Iris Love / Bonding – Stanley and Iris Sentence 1990 Presumed Innocent Protagonist – Rusty Clause 1990 Home Alone Love / Bonding – Kevin and family Period 1991 Hook Emotion – Childhood wonder 1991 JFK Emotion – Patriotic and moralistic hope Sentence 1992 Far and Away Love / Bonding – Shannon and Joseph Developing Period 1992 Home Alone 2: Lost in New York Emotion – Joy of Christmas Period x Clause Sentential Period Composite x Period Developing Period x x x Period Developing Period Clause Strikingly, 12 of these 14 fantasy-associated themes, or 86%, also have a variationbased structure35. Compare this with the non-fantasy themes in the list, of which only 6 35 . The two exceptions are the main theme for The Witches of Eastwick (George Miller, 1987), which is associated with the devil in human form, and “Nuclear Man’s Theme” from Superman IV: The Quest 142 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes of 21, or 29%, have a variation-based structure. In short, these figures suggest that, when Williams wrote a prominent fantasy-based theme during his second period, the theme’s structure was almost always a variation-based type. This is not to say that variation-based themes are exclusive to fantasy associations, but rather that, between 1975 and 1992, fantasy associations are given a theme with variation on nearly every occasion. Whether done consciously or not, I would suggest that this relationship has to do with a fundamental similarity between fantasy and variation-based themes. Both constitute what might be called imaginative developments of an established source. Fantasy is, after all, a kind of reshaping of the people, places, and principles that we understand as constituting the real world. Thus, the established source it develops is our perceived reality. In a similar way, variation-based themes reshape the rhythms, intervals, and harmonies of its own established source, the initial basic idea. Since this idea is generally distinctive enough to fulfil the function of a leitmotif by itself, it can be said to succinctly characterize the sound world or musical reality of the theme. These themes therefore reimagine musical ideas in a way that parallels the way in which fantasy aspects of film narratives reimagine reality, infusing the themes with a subconscious connection to their association. But as we have seen in some of the analyses, variation-based themes from Williams’s second period can also be understood as capturing many of the idiosyncrasies of each individual association whether it is the jaw-dropping awe of gradually discovering aliens in Close Encounters or the long and arduous struggles of the Jedi in Star Wars. Although many of Williams’s second-period themes are celebrated in part because they occur in highly-exposed blockbuster films, without doubt it is the tight relationship between these themes and their association that have allowed many to progress beyond a memorability in the film in question and instead achieve an iconic status in the history of Hollywood music. for Peace (Sidney J. Furie, 1987), which are set as basic periods. These fantasy associations differ from the others of this style period in that they contain significant comedic elements. In both cases, although the associated character is the antagonist, he is also something of a comic relief. Notably, there seems to be a connection in this style period between films that draw on the comedy genre and main themes with any sort of period structure, as 6 of 7 (or 86%) of such main themes are set as a theme type from that class. These comedy films include Family Plot (Alfred Hitchcock, 1976), 1941 (Steven Spielberg, 1979), Heartbeeps (Allan Arkush, 1981), The Witches of Eastwick, Always (Steven Spielberg, 1989), Home Alone (Chris Columbus, 1990), and Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (Chris Columbus, 1992). Of these, only Heartbeeps lacks a period form, being instead a developing composite. But I would point out that, although I selected the love theme from this film since it is the most prominent theme throughout, the theme that bookends the film in the main title and end credits (and may also be considered a main theme) begins with an eight-bar sentential period. Hence, one could argue that all of Williams’s main themes for comedies during this era take on some sort of period structure. 143 D APPEN IX 1 ANALYSES OF 101 MAIN THEMES OR MOST PROMINENT SECONDARY THEMES BY JOHN WILLIAMS FROM FEATURE FILMS OR TELEVISION FILMS ‘Melodic Material in Cue’ refers to sections distinguished by their motivic material or by material of a different function (especially introductory material such as an opening fanfare vs. the start of the theme proper). ‘Melodic Statement in Section’ refers to one of multiple statements of the same melodic material within a section. List of films from Wikipedia: <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_compositions_by_John_Williams>, accessed February 2018. Films excluded from this list: r REASON FOR EXCLUSION Pop song by Duane Eddy in main title is the main theme Pop song by Hugo Winterhalter in main title is the main theme Pop song by George David Weiss in main title is the main theme Pop song by Henry Mancini is the main theme Pop song by André Previn in main title is the main theme Music arranged by Williams Music arranged by Williams Music arranged by Williams M FILM Because They’re Young Diamond Head Gidget Goes to Rome The Killers Valley of the Dolls Goodbye, . Chips Fiddler on the Roof Tom Sawyer M Daddy-O I Passed for White The Secret Ways Bachelor Flat None but the Brave John Goldfarb, Please Come Home! The Rare Breed How to Steal a illion The Plainsman Not with ife You Don’t Not with ife You Don’t Penelope A Guide for the rried Man Fitzwilly Heidi y a M 1958 1960 1961 1962 1965 1965 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966 1966 1967 1967 1967 M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 FILM y YEAR M # LOCATION OF THEME Main title Main title Main title Main title Main title Main title 1:20:58 Main title Main title 27:49 1:21:12 Main title Main title Main title End credits MELODIC MATERIAL IN CUE MELODIC STATEMENT IN SECTION 1st 1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st --1st 2nd ----1st 1st 1st 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st --1st 2nd ----1st 1st 1st 1st THEME CATEGORY Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Discursive Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical THEME TYPE Sentence Sentence (Varied) period --Period Sentence Developing period Sentence Period --Clause Sentence Period Sentential period Sentential period Mark Richards 144 YEAR 1960 1963 1963 1964 1967 1969 1971 1973 1969 1969 1970 1970 1972 1972 1972 1972 1972 1973 1973 1973 1973 1974 1974 1974 1974 1975 1975 1976 1976 1976 1977 1977 1977 1978 1978 1978 1979 1979 1980 1981 1981 1982 1982 1983 1984 1984 Daddy’s Gone a Hunting The Reivers Storia di una Donna (Story of a Woman) Jane Eyre The Cowboys The Screaming Woman Images The Poseidon Adventure Pete ’n’ Tillie The Long Goodbye The Man Who Loved Cat Dancing The Paper Chase Cinderella Liberty Conrack The Sugarland Express Earthquake The Towering Inferno The Eiger Sanction Jaws Family Plot The Missouri Breaks Midway Black Sunday Star Wars Close Encounters of the Third Kind The Fury Jaws 2 Superman: The Movie Dracula 1941 The Empire Strikes Back Raiders of the Lost Ark Heartbeeps E. T.: The Extra-Terrestrial Monsignor Return of the Jedi Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom The River Main title Main title 12:00 Main title Main title End credits Main title Main title Main title Main title Main title 35:25:00 1:13:35 Main title Main title Main title Main title Main title Main title 14:17 End credits End credits End credits Main title End credits Main title End credits Main title Main title End credits End credits End credits End credits End credits Main title End credits End credits End credits 1st 3rd --3rd 1st 1st 1st --1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st last 1st 2nd ----------1st 3rd 1st 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 4th 1st 3rd 4th 2nd 4th 2nd 2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 2nd 1st ----------2nd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Sentence Period Sentence Developing sentence Composite Clause Period Sentence (Varied) period Developing sentence Sentence Monofold sentence Clause Developing period Developing period Clause Developing period Clause --Period Sentential period Period --Developing period Clause Developing trifold sentence Sentential period Developing period Clause Period Clause Sentential period Developing composite Developing clause Composite Developing period Developing period Developing period The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes 145 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 1986 1987 1987 1987 1988 1989 1989 1989 1990 1990 1990 1991 1991 1992 1992 1993 1993 1995 1995 1996 1997 1997 1997 1997 1998 1998 1999 1999 2000 2001 2001 2002 2002 2002 2002 2004 2004 2005 SpaceCamp The Witches of Eastwick Empire of the Sun Superman IV: The Quest for Peace The Accidental Tourist Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade Born on the Fourth of July Always Stanley and Iris Presumed Innocent Home Alone Hook JFK Far and Away Home Alone 2: Lost in New York Jurassic Park Schindler’s List Sabrina Nixon Sleepers Rosewood The Lost World: Jurassic Park Seven Years in Tibet Amistad Saving Private Ryan Stepmom Star Wars, Episode I: The Phantom Menace Angela’s Ashes The Patriot A. I.: Artificial Intelligence Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone Star Wars, Episode II: Attack of the Clones Minority Report Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets Catch Me if You Can Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban The Terminal Star Wars, Episode III: Revenge of the Sith End credits End credits 1:07:15 45:46 9:05 End credits End credits End credits End credits End credits End credits End credits End credits Main title End credits 20:23 End credits Main title Disc 2 - 1:34:50 Main title End credits 2:05:25 End Credits Main Title End Credits 1:28:34 End Credits End Credits End Credits End Credits End Credits End Credits End Credits End Credits Main Title End Credits End Credits End Credits 1st 1st ------2nd 1st 2nd 2nd 1st 5th 1st 1st 2nd 2nd 1st 1st ------1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st --1st 2nd 3rd 1st 1st 3rd --4th 1st 2nd 1st 3rd 4th 3rd 3rd 1st 3rd 1st 5th 1st 1st --1st 1st 2nd 1st 1st 1st --3rd 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st 1st Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Discursive Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Grammatical Discursive Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Discursive Grammatical Grammatical Motto Developing sentence Period Developing period Period Clause Period Period Developing period Sentence Clause Period Clause Sentence Developing period Period Clause Clause --Period Period Composite Developing clause Composite Period --Sentence Developing period Composite Developing period Developing period --Composite --(Varied) period Sentence --- Mark Richards 146 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 War of the Worlds Memoirs of a Geisha Munich Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull The Adventures of Tintin: The Secret of the Unicorn War Horse Lincoln The Book Thief Star Wars, Episode VII: The Force Awakens The BFG Star Wars, Episode VIII: The Last Jedi 2005 2005 2005 2008 2011 2011 2012 2013 2015 2016 2017 2nd 1st 1st --------3rd 4th 1st 4th End Credits End Credits End Credits 5:45 Main Title End Credits 1:47 End Credits End Credits End Credits End Credits 1st 1st 1st --------1st 2nd 1st 1st Motto Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Motto Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical Grammatical --Developing clause Composite Developing clause --Sentential composite Period Clause (Varied) period Period Developing period APPENDIX 2 147 PERCENTAGE OF EACH THEME CLASS PER STYLE PERIOD STYLE PERIOD GRAMMATICAL DISCURSIVE MOTTO 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 94 94 69 87.5 3 0 12 0 3 6 19 12.5 Total 87 4 9 The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 APPENDIX 3 GRAMMATICAL THEME TYPES PER STYLE PERIOD Note: Types that had no instances in the corpus are not listed in the table. Dev = Developing Sent = Sentential P = Periodic Mono = Monofold Tri = Trifold V = Varied 148 TOTAL NUMBER OF THEMES PER STYLE PERIOD IN CORPUS Mono 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 32 36 26 8 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 9 2 2 0 2 1 0 0 4 7 2 1 0 1 2 1 5 9 3 2 4 8 3 1 Total 102 1 1 13 3 14 4 19 16 TOTAL NUMBER OF THEMES PER STYLE PERIOD IN CORPUS Mono 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 32 36 26 8 3 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 28 6 8 0 6 3 0 0 13 19 8 13 0 3 8 13 16 25 12 25 13 22 12 13 Total 102 1 1 13 3 14 4 19 16 STYLE PERIOD SENTENCE Dev Tri Basic Dev CLAUSE Basic Dev Basic PERIOD Dev Sent COMPOSITE Dev Sent Var Basic 2 3 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 1 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 5 4 7 1 1 Var Basic 6 8 0 0 6 0 4 13 3 3 19 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 13 5 4 7 1 1 PERCENTAGE STYLE PERIOD SENTENCE Dev Tri Basic Dev CLAUSE Basic Dev Basic PERIOD Dev Sent COMPOSITE Dev Sent Mark Richards TOTAL NUMBER The Use of Variation in John Williams’s Film Music Themes Bibliography Adams 1999 Adams, Doug. ‘Sounds of the Empire: Analyzing the Themes of the Star Wars Trilogy’, in: Film Score Monthly, iv/5 (1999), pp. 22-25. 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