Journeys Exposed: Women's Writing, Photography and Mobility

Journeys Exposed Journeys Exposed: Women’s Writing, Photography and Mobility examines contemporary literature written by women that are all related to Italy in different ways. It argues that photography provides women with a means to expose aspects of their nomadic self and of others’ mobile lives within and beyond the writing process. By resorting to the visual, women individualistically respond to forms of hegemonic power, fragmentation, displacement, loss and marginality and make these experiences key to their creative production. Giorgia Alù teaches in the School of Languages and Cultures at the University of Sydney. Routledge Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Literature 88 Attachment, Place, and Otherness in Nineteenth-Century American Literature New Materialist Representations Jillmarie Murphy 89 Shame and Modern Writing Edited by Barry Sheils and Julie Walsh 90 Provincializing the Bible Faulkner and Postsecular American Literature Norman W. Jones 91 Avant-Garde Pieties Aesthetics, Race, and the Renewal of Innovative Poetics Joel Bettridge 92 Modern Political Aesthetics from Romantic to Modernist Literature Choreographies of Social Performance Tudor Balinisteanu 93 Spatial Modernities Geography, Narrative, Imaginaries Edited by Johannes Riquet and Elizabeth Kollmann 94 God Behind the Screen Literary Portraits of Personality Disorders and Religion Janko Andrijasevic 95 Journeys Exposed Women’s Writing, Photography and Mobility Giorgia Alù For more information about this series, please visit: https://www.routledge. com Journeys Exposed Women’s Writing, Photography and Mobility Giorgia Alù First published 2019 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2019 Taylor & Francis The right of Giorgia Alù to be identiied as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identiication and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data CIP data has been applied for. ISBN: 978-1-138-34502-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-43770-0 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by codeMantra For my mother Contents List of Figures Acknowledgements ix xi Introduction: Narrating, Exposing and Moving 1 PART I Performances: Escapes and Resistance 1 2 25 Fleeting Photographs and Vanishing Rebels in Melania Mazzucco’s Fiction 27 Stranger at Home: Ornela Vorpsi’s Visual Writing of Endurance 50 PART II Intersections: Itinerancies with a Camera 3 4 77 Hidden Lights: Monika Bulaj’s Empathic Photo-Reportage of Afghanistan 79 Carla Cerati’s Photo-Textual Social and Personal Journeys 109 viii Contents PART III Tapestries: Transits through Origins 143 5 Re-writing: Narrations of Family Displacement 145 6 Reimaging: Threads, Laces and Stitches 169 Conclusion: Multiple Exposures 205 Index 211 Figures 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 5.1 Ornela Vorpsi, “Pomeriggio 10.” From Vetri Rosa, 2006 Ornela Vorpsi, from the series “Pomeriggi” 2006 Ornela Vorpsi, from Nothing Obvious, 2001 Ornela Vorpsi, from Nothing Obvious, 2001 Ornela Vorpsi, from Nothing Obvious, 2001 Ornela Vorpsi, from Nothing Obvious, 2001 Ornela Vorpsi, from Nothing Obvious, 2001 Monika Bulaj, from Nur: La luce nascosta dell’Afghanistan, 2013 Monika Bulaj, from Nur: La luce nascosta dell’Afghanistan, 2013 Monika Bulaj, from Nur: La luce nascosta dell’Afghanistan, 2013 Monika Bulaj, from Nur: La luce nascosta dell’Afghanistan, 2013 Monika Bulaj, from Nur: La luce nascosta dell’Afghanistan, 2013 Carla Cerati, “Evandro il cantastorie,” from the series “Maghi e streghe d’Abruzzo” (1963) Carla Cerati, “Casa di ringhiera in via Correggio,” from the series “Milano Metamorfosi” (1970–75) Carla Cerati, “Pannello Donna professione fotografa” (SICOF 1974) Carla Cerati, “Pannello Donna professione fotografa” (SICOF 1974) Carla Cerati, from the series “Percorso. Racconto in dieci stazioni” (1977) Carla Cerati, “Funerali di Giangiacomo Feltrinelli al Cimitero Monumentale di Milano,” from the series “Milano Metamorfosi” (March 1972) “The pens at Ellis Island, Registry Room (or Great Hall),” 1902–1913. New York Public Library Digital Collections 64 65 66 66 68 69 70 95 95 96 101 102 112 116 117 118 122 127 151 x Figures 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 Lewis Wickes Hine, “A group of the youngest breaker boys,” January 1911. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations Detroit Photographic Co. Manhattan: Mulberry Street Bayard Street. Photographic Views of New York City, 1870’s-1970’s. The New York Public Library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations Guglielmo Luti from Fosciandora (Lucca) and a friend. New York, 1919. Fondazione Paolo Cresci, Lucca Front cover of Elena Gianini Belotti, Pane amaro. Un immigrato italiano in America (2006) Giulia Giuffrè, “The Fabric of Memory,” from Primavera, or The Time of Your Life (2011) B. Amore, “Ancestor Scroll: Concettina De Iorio.” Life line: ilo della vita. Ellis Island, Immigration Museum 2000–2001 B. Amore, “D’Amore Triptych: Family Stories.” Life line: ilo della vita B. Amore, “Following the Thread IV: Concettina De Iorio.” Life line: ilo della vita Interactive installation for Beyond Borders: Transnational Italy. Oltre I Conini: Italia Transnazionale. Routes Agency, The British School at Rome, October 2016 Interactive installation for Beyond Borders: Transnational Italy Katthy Cavaliere, Nest 2, 2010 Katthy Cavaliere, Loved, 2008 “Me and my hospital roommate, Connie Robinson,” Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York City. Photo: Anthony Caliendo, 1981. In Annie Rachele Lanzillotto, L is for Lion: An Italian Bronx Butch Freedom Memoir, 2013 “More Demerol please. Nurse Arlene and me,” Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York City. Photo: Anthony Caliendo, 1981. In Lanzillotto, L is for Lion “Me, gutted. Recovering from a laparotomy,” Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York. Photo: Anthony Caliendo, 1981. In Lanzillotto, L is for Lion “Self-portrait of the author. X marks the spot of the tumor for radiation therapy,” Memorial SloanKettering Cancer Center, New York City, 1982. In Lanzillotto, L is for Lion “My grandmother Rosa Marsico Petruzzelli, passaporto, 1919.” In Lanzillotto, L is for Lion 151 152 161 161 178 180 181 181 184 184 187 187 192 192 193 195 195 Acknowledgements Many people and institutions have helped me throughout the years. My deep gratitude goes to Nancy Pedri, Giuliana Minghelli, Sarah (Sally) Hill, Ilaria Vanni, Rita Wilson, Maria Cristina Mauceri and Lee Wallace, who at various stages read and commented on the chapters in this book. I also thank the anonymous readers of the journals where sections of this book irst appeared and the anonymous readers of the manuscript proposal for their useful suggestions. Research and writing for this project have mostly been undertaken with the inancial support and two sabbatical leaves granted to me by the University of Sydney. Part of this book was also written whilst on two Visiting Fellowships: at the Centre for the Study of Contemporary Women’s Writing and at the Institute of Modern Language Research of the University of London, in 2013–2014 and 2016–2017. I am very grateful to Shirley Jordan, Godela Weiss-Sussex, Adalgisa Giorgio, Gill Rye, Catherine Davies and other colleagues I met on those occasions for their support and critical engagement with this project. I would like to thank Elena Ceratti and Mimosa Ceratti, who provided assistance with material and photographs from the Carla Cerati archive. Furthermore, I thank the other artists, writers and curators who promptly responded to my requests for help and for copyright permissions: Ornela Vorpsi, Monika Bulaj, Anna Maria Riccardi, B. Amore, Annie Lanzillotto, Maria Pallotta-Chiarolli, Giulia Giuffrè, Daniel Murdie Cunningham, Margaret Hills de Zarate and Viviana Gravano. Sandra M. Gilbert kindly granted me permission to quote entirely her poem “Daguerreotype: Lace Maker.” Other writers have generously offered their help with material, information and answers to my questions. I would like to thank, in particular, Joanna Clapps Herman, June Avignone and Rossana Carcassi. Several suggestions and ideas have originated from my talks with them, although regrettably not all the material could be included in this book. I want to thank the staff at the following institutions: the British Library and Senate House Library in London, the New South Wales xii Acknowledgements State Library in Sydney, the University of Sydney Library, the Italian Historical Society in Melbourne, the Centre for Migration Studies in New York, the New York Public Library, the Biblioteca Nazionale Braidense in Milan and Centro Studi Migrazione in Rome. For assistance and permission to reproduce images I also would like to thank the Centro Studi e Archivio della Comunicazione in Parma, the Paolo Cresci Foundation in Lucca, and Rizzoli publishers. Permission to rework and expand some of my previously published articles has been granted to me by the University of Toronto Press and Taylor & Francis. At the University of Sydney, my students have helped me to consider and rethink some of the issues in this book, especially Valentina Seffer and Elena Carletti. Thanks also to Catherine Davis and Emma Barlow for their initial help with proofreading. My husband and my dog have fetched and chewed the burden of this project for years, and I could not have completed it without their immense patience and love. Introduction Narrating, Exposing and Moving How can women narrate mobility in order to relect the permeable and luid traits of this varied experience? What creative practices can female subjectivities engage in when shaped by forms of resistance, marginality and displacement? Journeys Exposed aims to answer these questions by looking at women who are, in different ways, related to Italy, who expose themselves and others and move and are moved through writing and photography. At the beginning of her inluential book on the art of storytelling, Relating Narratives, Italian philosopher Adriana Cavarero draws upon an anecdote recalled by Karen Blixen in the chapter “The Roads of Life” in Out of Africa (1937) and subsequently analysed by Hannah Arendt (Cavarero 2000; and Arendt 1998). The story is about a man who, during a stormy night, has to leave his house to ix a leakage in his pond’s dam as it is causing ish and water to escape. He stumbles around, falling over several times in the struggle to ind his way to the pond in the dark. The next morning, while contemplating his handy work from the window of his house, he sees that the tracks left by his night-time wanderings had traced the outline of a stork in the muddy ground. The story of the stork offers relections on how narratives make sense of the chaos of life. The outline of the stork, in fact, gives sense and unity to the action the man took in a moment of crisis. It is also symbolic of the unity of pattern in the process of storytelling. The anecdote, in particular, illustrates how the story of a unique human being can only be narrated a posteriori and from a certain distance – that is both temporal and spatial – or by a narrator not currently engaged in the events of the story: “The stork is only seen at the end, when whoever has drawn it with his life – or when other spectators, looking from above – see the prints left on the ground” (Cavarero 2000, 1). This narratable self – Cavarero speciies, following Hannah Arendt – is exposed to the rest of the world from our birth. Through this constitutive exhibition, the “self” begins to desire his or her own life story as it is told by others. For this reason, a “necessary other,” who tells the story, is crucial. This is another person whose relation to the “narratable self” is a relation between singular, unique beings. 2 Introduction The stork is a signiicant component of Blixen’s tale. In Western tradition, the stork is a motherly bird that migrates, brings babies and narrates tales. She passes on, transports lives and transmits life stories. The stork is a traveller, like Karen Blixen herself; she is a female storyteller and story holder. She is, thus, nomadic and engaged in acts of transferring. Indeed, when Blixen was a child, the person telling her the story would sketch a picture before her eyes while narrating. Her text thus includes both the image of the stork and the written account on the same page. The drawing of the stork concretizes the volatility of the words. It reproduces the subject’s itinerary and narrates the subject’s life story. Telling and showing, reading and seeing are, therefore, intensely interlaced in this act of narrating while also being narrated. It is an act where lives are transported and rendered accessible through their exposure to the verbal and visual. Indeed, to expose – according to The Oxford English Dictionary – is “to present to view” and also to display and exhibit and to disclose publicly. Additionally, to “expose” refers to the chemical photographic process through which a sensitized surface is submitted to the action of actinic rays. This process has the power to bring bodies, places and objects to light. Moreover, in Blixen’s story, the footprints left by the itinerant’s subject also evoke the photographic trace. They are residual marks of something moving but absent, traces of something that existed but no longer exists.1 Cavarero and Blixen’s story of the stork shows a revealing relation between words and images, the visual and the verbal, women’s narration and mobility. Journeys Exposed is, in fact, about mobile women who narrate themselves or the stories of mobility of others through writing and photography. Whether these others are real or ictional, the writings of these women, imbued in visual metaphors, language and visual materiality, relect what Cavarero refers to as “a sort of spontaneous relex of the narratable self’s desire for narration” (Cavarero 2000, 67–77). In other words, it is their desire to know the other’s story and to recognize the narratability of others and of themselves. Autobiography and biography, framing the self and others, result, in so doing, “from an existence that belongs to the world, in the relational and contextual form of self-exposure to others” (Cavarero 2000, 33–34). 2 In the context of this book, relating and connecting are acts of transferring that occur through narration as well as by moving from words to the visual and vice versa. Rosi Braidotti’s use of the term “transposition” is useful here to explain this sense of luid “interconnection” that occurs at a human level through different modes of representation. Braidotti suggests, in fact, an ethical, non-unitary view of the subject that “proposes an enlarged sense of interconnection between self and others, including the non-human or ‘earth’ others, by removing the obstacle of self-centred individualism” (Braidotti 2006, 35). “Transposition,” in particular, “indicates an intertextual, cross-boundary or transversal Introduction 3 transfer, in the sense of a leap from one code, ield or axis into another” (Braidotti 2006, 5). In the works studied in this book, transposition and connection happen between writing and photography. The relationship between words and images is generally perceived as one of mutual illumination, complementarity and tension. For Peter Wagner (1995), in a unique text, words and images together create “in-between- spaces,” where the two modes blend through ambivalent relationships – as in Blixen’s tale. In these intermedial texts, or “iconotexts,” images and words do not always tell the same story. Louvel (2011, 15), too, theorizes the iconotext as an in-between object where text and image “merge in a pluriform fusion,” maintaining, however, their speciicity. Yet in Picture Theory Mitchell (1995) argues that visual representation incorporates textuality, and words are like pictures in many ways, so the two means cannot be clearly separated. For Mitchell, “the medium of writing deconstructs the possibility of a pure image or pure text, along with the opposition between the ‘literal’ (letters) and the ‘igurative’ (pictures) on which it depends. Writing, in its physical, graphic form, is an inseparable suturing of the visual and the verbal, the ‘imagetext’ incarnate” (Mitchell 1995, 95). Writing, understood as a medium of artiice and absence, is “caught between two othernesses, voice and vision, the speaking and the seeing subject” (Mitchell 1995, 114). Whether in the in-between space or in the impure and heterogeneous representational practice created by the encounter between the two means, women can ind an attractive, ambivalent ield in which to expose their subjectivities. Although in the last thirty years diverse scholarly studies have explored the complex relationship between literature and photography (for instance, Hunter 1987; Rabb 1995; Bryant 1996; Haverty Rugg 1997; Brunet 2009), studies concerning issues of gender, women’s writing and photography are still scarce. 3 Liz Heron and Val Williams’s Illuminations: Women Writing on Photography from 1850s to the Present (1996) was the irst anthology to collect women’s essays on photography, and thus began to afirm the importance of the contributions of women to the theorizing of photography in aesthetics, history, theory, criticism and other areas long dominated by men. Conversely, women’s critical stance with regard to visuality and how images, in general, serve the interests of main power structures often emerges in other scholarly works. For instance, in Ordering the Facade: Photography and Contemporary Southern Women’s Writing (2007), Katherine Henninger focuses on women writers and ictional photographs to argue that women can create ictional photographs in their work to answer “speciic legacies of objectiication” (Henninger 2007, 23). More recently, Angela Lalen has explored – in Confronting Visuality (2014) – the way gender and sexuality, race, nation and issues of otherness relate to visuality. For Lalen, works by multi-ethnic female authors, like Toni Morrison, Margaret 4 Introduction Atwood or Alison Bechdel, speciically form a collective counternarrative to the twentieth- and twenty-irst-century fascination with images of women governed by the structures of white supremacist capitalist patriarchy. Their works, moreover, provide alternative ways of reading and negotiating the meanings of images in order to inluence the way in which readers will interpret them in the future (Lalen 2014, 10–11).4 Journeys Exposed draws on some of these studies and on others that have recently looked at how women have used the visual to respond to forms of hegemonic power, fragmentation, displacement, loss and marginality. It also aims, however, to move this discussion forward by looking at how the interlacing of women’s writing and photography develops from and generates diverse forms of mobility. This book argues that photography provides women with a supplementary means to expose aspects of their mobile self and of the mobile lives of others within and beyond the writing process. It does this by examining a corpus of texts that are malleably and variably linked to Italy. In these works, Italian, Italophone, hybrid and related hyphened identities, create and inspire verbal and visual narration that invites us to relect on the varied ways we can understand the dissolved thresholds of genre, female identity and space. Journeys Exposed is divided into three parts. Each part brings together authors born in Italy (Melania Mazzucco, Carla Cerati, Elena Gianini Belotti and Anna Maria Riccardi) with authors whose origins are from other countries but who write and publish in Italian (Ornela Vorpsi and Monika Bulaj). Others are multi-ethnic or bi-cultural authors, like the Italian American and Italian Australian writers and artists discussed in the last chapter of the book. The majority of these works were published in the last thirty years during a period characterized by economic, social, cultural and linguistic changes within the Italian context. 5 They emphasize internal and external tensions and invite us to relect on the role of photography in the processes of inclusion and exclusion, displacement, identiication and Othering, as well as on the interconnections between questions of vision, gender, mobility and social power. Journeys Exposed attempts to expose the similarities between writers and artists often studied in isolation from one another due to differences in their social and geographical contexts (i.e. the Italian American writers), and in the genres in which they write (i.e. iction, travel writing, memoir). There are also important similarities in the writers’ experiences as users and consumers of photographic images. Some of the authors are also professional photographers. Others, on the other hand, are viewers and collectors of photographs, or have developed a writing style intensely inluenced by photographic aesthetics. Part I is devoted to novels and images that narrate experiences of errancy, solitude and the search for freedom and the self. These are the Introduction 5 ictional stories by Italian writer Melania Mazzucco and Albanian and Italophone Ornela Vorpsi. In their works, the interrelation of writing and photography supports forms of female rebellion and resistance to social and cultural constraints, as well as to politics of spectatorship and control. The precarious and vanishing disposition of their female characters and the subjects in Vorpsi’s photographs needs to be seen as an act of reconquest and empowerment. Writing and photography become means through which female subjects can perform and reappropriate their own individuality away from any linguistic, cultural and social limitations. The texts discussed in Part II and Part III expose other ways and forms of articulating language, histories and identities that are constantly subject to change because of both temporary travels and migrancy. Part II is devoted to the photographers and writers Monika Bulaj and Carla Cerati. Although their artistic production differs in terms of subject, topic and style, Bulaj and Cerati share an aesthetic and emotional attention to others. Their spatial journeys (whether these are undertaken within or outside domestic and national borders) are crucial in discovering and remembering the histories of other people. Through their camera and diverse written narrations – travel reportage and semi-autobiographical novels – they move marginal realms (the female domestic world or the life of distressed people) to the centre, and make their life converge with that of their subjects. The dialogue between their photographs and writing raises issues of representational practices in relation to memory and emotions, but also ethics and aesthetics. It is through producing, viewing and using personal and family photographs that female subjects can position themselves and perform within transnational social practices. As explained earlier, the women discussed in this book also articulate the relationship between personal narrative and photographs as physical objects. They move photographs from one place to another, for instance from one country to another or from a family album to their memoirs and published books, or webpage. In so doing, photographs enter into a different visual economy. The last part of the book is therefore devoted to women who attempt to reconstruct family stories of migration through writing and photography. Chapter 5 examines two auto/biographical novels by the Italian women writers Elena Gianini Belotti and Anna Maria Riccardi.6 These texts ictionalize the migration stories of the authors’ parents and grandparents. Photographs enter their writings with the aim of retrieving the past of distant beloved people. At the same time, their verbal narrative raises questions about how women authors deal with the temporality of the photographic image in order to reconstruct both a personal and collective history. Conversely, Chapter 6 discusses the use of photography in literary memoirs and artistic works by Italian American and Italian Australian women for whom words and photographs are vehicles to 6 Introduction rediscover their roots. In this chapter, I interpret photographs as pieces of textual tapestries interwoven by women with other material forms in order to reconstruct others and their own stories. Here the tapestry mainly becomes a metaphor for the factual creation of texts as fabrics (and collage-like narratives), interweaving assorted visual, verbal and tactile materials related to personal and collective stories. Exposing Lives Through their artistic practices, the women discussed in this book both narrate themselves and are listeners, readers, viewers and spectators, collectors and preservers of others’ lives that they subsequently retell and expose in multifarious narrative forms and formats. Narrating is an ethical act in the sense that it involves the act of donating one’s own life story to others, and in the sense that it implies a political and ethical responsibility in exposing others’ existences. As Cavarero points out, “There is an ethic of the gift in the pleasure of the narrator. The one who narrates not only entertains and enchants […] but gives to the protagonists of his/her story their own stork” (Cavarero 2000, 3). The works explored in this study provide diverse forms of narration where experiences are verbally and visually represented and thus accessible to diverse readers and viewers. These experiences are both imaginary and real, and their narration blurs the boundaries between iction and different modes of writing about the self and others. The majority of the stories discussed in this book are thus forms of life writing, that is, writing about “lives or parts of lives,” or writing that provides “materials out of which lives or parts of lives are composed” (Leader 2015, 1).7 Some are well-deined auto/biographical writings. Others are works that insert, fuse and interpret degrees of autobiographical experiences (including perceptions, desires and feelings) into ictional forms. The ictional thus becomes a space where the author desires to be narrated from different perspectives. For instance, the game of hide and seek, appearance and vanishing of restless, peripatetic characters, that we ind in some of the novels discussed in this study, can be read – among other things – as the author’s rejection of ixity, conformism and forms of categorization. In this intersection between life and iction, and between words and photography, truth claims are constantly questioned.8 Similar to writing, photography occupies a midpoint position in cultural theory: photographs sit in between the spatial and the temporal, the seen and the unseen, the vanishing and the material, as well as the visual and the textual. Photographs are sensory phenomena, literal, indexical series of transcriptions in the photographic emulsion (Eco 1982, 32–38); they record an “optical unconscious” (Benjamin 1980); they are also messages “without a code” that refer the “that has been” (Barthes 1977, 36; 1982, 115). They are weak in their intentionality, especially Introduction 7 in comparison to a painting or a written story, and easily subject to manipulation (Berger and Mohr 1982, 90); or they are vehicles of power, whose intentionality is subordinated to institutions, social practices and structures which provide photography with its meaning (Tagg 1988). In terms of their social function, all images are constantly infused with writing (Krauss 1984). Undeniably, photography blurs the traditional distinction between showing and telling, visual and linguistic signs. “Photography,” according to Mitchell, “is and is not a language; language also is and is not a “photography’” (Mitchell 1995, 281). Postmodern photography, writes Linda Hutcheon, links verbal and visual discourses to highlight “the theoretical implications of the differences between, on the one hand, meaning-producing within the two separated and differing discourses and, on the other, any meaning created through their interaction” (Hutcheon 2002, 133). These “implications,” are not only theoretical but also political, social and ethical, as Mitchell asserts: “The relation of photography and language is a principal site of struggle for value and power in contemporary representations of reality; it is the place where images and words ind and lose their conscience, their aesthetic and ethical identity” (Mitchell 1995, 281). This is particularly evident when photographs are present in written texts in the form of ictional photographs – in the sense of photographs being ictionally represented through words – as in Melania Mazzucco’s novels or Carla Cerati’s stories examined in this study. In these examples, narrated photographs confront not only “representations of reality,” but also the dynamics and tensions of representation. These narrated photographs embody the elusive challenge of representing a verbal reality in the visual realm, of capturing the temporality of life in a spatial form (Henninger 2007, 20–21). Otherwise, in giving emphasis to the visual aspect of the text, ictional photography may stand for what is outside the text, for what is beyond the power of the text to represent – “a metaphor for the textual unrepresentability of time and voice” (Henninger 2007, 21). It is this lexibility of representation, derived from photography’s formal ambivalence, that enables ictional photographs to function so powerfully as symbols of ambiguous concepts such as space and time, memory and loss, appearance and disappearance. At the same time, the visual structure of the narrative, the use of imagery, ekphrasis and igurative language, all clearly point to the way we are used to seeing, perceiving and understanding the world. Ornela Vorpsi’s and Melania Mazzucco’s ictional works are examples of a modern understanding of the world through visual aesthetics. Yet their visual language reveals the mobile nature of the literary text where visibility and/or invisibility are linguistically performed as acts of female resistance against dominant cultural and social orders. As also the memoirs and visual works discussed in the last chapter of this book will show, “saying” and/with “seeing” offers a powerful narratability as an 8 Introduction embodied practice that relates the female self to others (and readers) through bodily senses. Cavarero (2000, 33) has suggested that both autobiography and biography are constitutive processes of the narratable self. Although auto/biographies are normally expected to tell personal and historical “truth,” (Eakin 2004), they are constructed representations of life. The permeability of borders between iction and life writing is also articulated by Linda Hutcheon: “to write of anyone’s history is to order, to give form to disparate facts, in short, to ictionalize” (Hutcheon 1988, 82). Similarly, photographs, although generally believed to represent “reality,” are fabricated images in which the subjects are presented according to the photographer’s, institutions’ or the subjects’ perspectives, ideologies and practices.9 For Linda Haverty Rugg, photography’s power to unambiguously denote reality rests on the fact that there is “a truth in photographs,” an intrinsic objectivity (Haverty Rugg 1997, 232–235). When a photograph appears in an autobiographical or biographical text, however, its power and function are, as Timothy Dow Adams reminds us, “far from simple or one-dimensional” (Adams 2000, XXI). In auto/biographical works (and in other types of texts), photography hardly functions as incontrovertible documentary evidence validating or establishing claims of truth. The photograph’s evidential value is rather challenged by various narrative choices. Nancy Pedri points out that it is the readers’ task to question what lies behind the photograph. If a photograph is included in life writing, “the subjective and not the objective is paramount in determining their evidential value. Photographs encourage readers to accommodate what is imaged to be their own personal convictions,” and readers are encouraged to be actively engaged by “stepping into the visual” (Pedri 2008, 155–173).10 From another perspective, scholars like Annette Kuhn (1995) and Marianne Hirsch (1997) have framed their theorization of photography as ambiguous autobiographical and familiar narrative, and owes much to Roland Barthes’s withholding of the well-known Winter Garden image in his Camera Lucida (1981). Photography becomes both a form of and a means for life writing through which we connect and relate to our other (often fragmented or grieving) selves, and also with others. An example is offered through the visual performance of Italian Australian artist Katthy Cavaliere, as discussed in Chapter 6. The sociological photographs of Italy in the 1960s and 1970s by Carla Cerati and the photographic travel books by Monica Bulaj also exemplify visual narration as a process of responding to the world and connecting ethically and emotionally with others’ realities. The photographs of places, events and bodies taken by these women express the desire to learn about the other’s story and to recognize the narratability of life. The self and the subjectivity of the photographer are unquestionably exposed through such an act of visual narration that – following Cavarero – becomes immanently political, relational and Introduction 9 embodied. Yet, although these photographs offer a narrativity of their own (their photo narrative),11 the written text that accompanies them forces the viewer to read the photograph in relation to the surrounding verbal context through, linear or transversal, acts of connections and relations. Spaces created by writing and the visual are sites for personal and emotional practices. At the same time, they are ields where relations of power unfold and where women are active participants who can transform traditional narratives through intermedial techniques (Smith and Watson 2002). Jean-Paul Sartre (1943), Jacques Lacan (1949), Michel Foucault (1975) and others have examined the role of vision in society. Vision is part of a complex web of discourses that position us in the world – a process that involves negotiations of knowledge, power and desire that cross into considerations of gender, class and race, and by dominant cultural discourses. While John Berger (1972) and Laura Mulvey (1975; 1989) – drawing on Freud’s theory on sexuality and Lacan’s “mirror stage” – have posit women as the object of a male and masculine gaze, women can also be active participants in scopic relations and in processes of visual meaning. Women’s writing is thus an ideal and significant ield for observing and analysing visual production and practices. In their works, women interrogate important epistemological, social and cultural concerns on issues of control, presentation and power (see Lalen 2014). The works analysed in this book offer, therefore, crucial examples of how women’s writing engages with photography to ponder on contemporary cultural and societal anxieties. Photographs which are described, evoked or ictionalized in these women’s works can be understood as relections of the political and ethical power of visual means. Many of these (real and ictional) images recall, are based on or have been inspired by other already existing pictures (as in Mazzucco’s stories), and question the authority, inluence and legacy of visual representations in general. For Henninger, “to render one’s vision visible to the world – to make represent – is always a negotiated power” (Henninger 2007, 6). It is a negotiation that occurs between the photographer-writer and her subject, between her desire and that of her audience (who bring varied narrative “readings” to the photo-text), as well as between the ideologies or conventions of a culture and the positions of acceptance, ambivalence or resistance to those conventions. Moving Photographs During their varied journeys, the authors, narrators and protagonists of the stories examined in this book explore the aesthetics of photography. The photograph links them to the past and, at the same time, relates and exposes them to something that is present, as well as to something that is in the future. As both image and material object, the photograph 10 Introduction displays and is displayed. In its multifarious forms and formats, it both narrates and is narrated. Although associated with ixity and stillness, photography as both a product and a practice implies various levels of spatial and temporal mobility. Photographs can represent or prompt physical movements and refer to a journey towards another place or identity. At the same time, ambiguity gives movement to photographs, and photographs can move us emotionally. Eadweard Muybridges’s series “Animal Locomotion” (1887) is an early example of photography attempting to frame mobility. In more than 20,000 photographic negatives, Muybridge succeeded in capturing highspeed motion photographically by studying the movements of women, men, children and animals. Each segment of movement was recorded in a separate frame, in a system that emphasized the incremental aspect of time. In the same period, another predecessor to cinematography and moving ilm was Etienne-Jules Marey who, in the 1880s, produced his “chronophotographs”: instantaneous and successive images of a body in motion that are obtained in a negative multiple, permitting the study of the body’s position in space at precise intervals (Braun 1994; Solnit 2004). William Klein’s famous photographs of urban lux in big cities such as New York, Rome or Moscow, taken in the 1950s and 1960s, are further examples. His people move in all directions and blend together into an indistinguishable mass of humanity. These experiments revolutionized the representation of the passing of time, revealed the photograph’s capacity to show “an act, a motion, an event” (Solnit 2004, 194), and therefore its ability to narrate small stories (also in sequences). From another perspective, in the second half of the nineteenth century, the invention of photography had a dramatic inluence on travel (and travel writing) and marked a signiicant development in the evolution of image-making techniques associated with travelling. Photography claimed to be able to create objective “scientiic” records free from any inluence of human imagination, and to offer a neutral relection of the world. As Peter Osborne explains, at a time of European expansion, cameras and travelling became inseparable, cohabiting at the heart of the modernizing process. Through visualizing mechanisms, the world was “re-staged,” “space was shown as continuous and uniied,” and the camera articulated a relationship between identity, space, mobility, market economy and representation (Osborne 2000, 3–13). For centuries, photographs in travel diaries, journals and tourist guides (in paper or digital formats) have “moved” people – through “virtual” journeys – to where they cannot go. They can transport the viewer to other imaginary worlds and geographies; they are a medium for travelling, scattered and without rooting (Nair 2011, 195). At the same time, they exert power over people and places. Far from being transparent and dispassionate, photographs frequently conirm prevailing, constructed and controlling Introduction 11 views of “otherness.” The travel reportage of Afghanistan by Monika Bulaj – discussed in Chapter 3 – can be seen as an idiosyncratic response to the unrelenting hegemonic, imperial gaze on a complex, distant Other. Similar to people’s mobility, the circulation of photographs organizes and structures social life. Photographs themselves travel within families, across different generations and continents, as material objects. Photographs are to be seen, held and exchanged. They expose life. They also travel across time and space through printed material, such as postcards and letters, albums and books. Cases, frames, travelling mirrors and other objects and paraphernalia have also traditionally constituted some of the vehicles for such movements, as well as being the means for acts of remembrance (Batchen 2004). Photographic albums, for instance, are elaborated and gendered acts of collecting, preserving and narrating as both tactile and visual objects and juxtaposing images and other mnemonic traces (Di Bello 2007). They are part of rituals of separation and reunion, distance and memory, a means to narrativize families’ migratory stories, and as mediators between personal memory and public history. Many of the women discussed in this book create, use or appropriate photographic albums to preserve the past or fabricate reality, and to create narratives by combining personal and collective experiences. As stated by Michael Ignatieff, “Photographs are the freeze frames that remind us how discontinuous our lives actually are. It is in a tight weave of forgetting and selective remembering that a continual self is knitted together” (1987, 6). Photographs weave between the personal, the collective and the political. They are like pieces of cloth that can be joined together to create bonds and relations across time and space, or patterns of personal and family narratives that are a means of connecting. As I will discuss in Chapter 6, these patterns are “heirloom” items whose thread is inherently vulnerable and imperfect like blankets and lace embroidered by grandmothers, or the quilts made of (irregularly) patched fabric scraps. Their signiicance can alter according to context; they can confound any expectations of coherent and linear narrative. Photographs combined together or alongside words reveal gaps, incongruences and paradoxes that need to be negotiated. Photographs therefore circulate and move along pathways of distribution, passing on speciic cultural messages and values to receptive viewers. They are part of a complex and luid – and transnational – relationship between the photographer, the subjects and the viewer, as well as to other images (drawings, moving images), texts and objects. Through its dissociation from lived reality, the photograph points to new ways of seeing. It constantly blurs the borders between reality and iction, objectivity and subjectivity. If on the one hand, photographs, as Liz Wells reminds us, “mirror not the world but our way of seeing it” (Wells 2011, 262), on the other, as stated by Holland, Spence and Watney, “they also offer us identities to inhabit, constructing and circulating 12 Introduction a systematic regime of images through which we are constantly invited to think the probabilities and possibilities of our lives” (1986, 1). Photographs hold a narrative of origins, of important moments and main igures in the personal identity of both the subject and the viewer. As already mentioned, this narrative is continuously reformulated through their relation with the verbal. Still photographs are, like ilms, mediators of cultural ideas and emotions that today can move in incredibly far-reaching ways through the Internet and digital technologies. According to Tina Campt, photographs “move us to affect and to be affected; they move us by shifting us from one intense experiential state to another. They can arrest us in ways that diminish our capacity to respond and they provoke us in ways that augment our capacity to engage” (Campt 2012, 16).12 Beyond the visual, the photograph is, in fact, a material object to be understood through an embodied engagement with an affective world (Edwards 2012, 221–234). Elizabeth Edwards points three aspects of the photograph as material object: its visual form, what the photographic image shows; its material form that is, for instance, the kind of paper it is printed on, its material state; and its representational form (Edwards 2002, 67–75). “Photographs are both images and physical objects that exist in time and space and thus in social and cultural experience” (Edwards and Hart, 2004, 1). Materiality transfers the abstract and representational “photography” into “photographs” as objects (2004, 2). For Gillian Rose, thinking of photographs – especially family photographs – as objects is “useful because it focuses both on the material qualities of a photograph and on how some of those qualities are emergent in speciic social practices” (Rose 2010, 20–22). Photographs comfort us. They often partake in our lives. They are, above all, custodians of our memories. Yet, they do not really reveal themselves. Rather, they reveal, like other objects, “only our investments in them” (Schwenger 2006, 3).13 Longing (for a past and for what is yet to come) and (cultural, spatial, affective, sexual) belonging, in particular, are implicit in the subject’s dynamic with the material photograph. Journeys Exposed deals with women in search of photographs, photographs reaching women (offered by others or found by chance), photographs instigating journeys to other countries and photographs taken in other countries. They are, in one way or another, travelling photographs or photographs that move people physically and emotionally; they are agents of the visuality of mobility and of the mobility of the visual experience. Moving Selves As it emerges in the tale of the stork, mobility is an inextricable element of any life story that is exposed, narrated and then donated to others. Mobility allows a life experience to emerge and become narratable. Introduction 13 For Rosi Braidotti, within feminist philosophy, our main question is not “who we are,” but “who we want to become.” By placing a postmodernist emphasis on multiplicity and fragmentation, Braidotti argues that our subjectivity is continuously in lux. For Braidotti, the subject is “the site of multiple, complex, and potentially contradictory sets of experiences, deined by overlapping variables such as class, race, age, lifestyles, sexual preference, and others” (Braidotti 1994, 4). Nomadism, in particular, expresses one’s desire for an identity that comprises transitions and shifts, one lacking in and opposed to an essential unity. By applying the Deleuzian idea of nomadism within a broader poststructural feminist understanding, Braidotti shifts the ontological dimension of being into that of becoming (Braidotti 1994). Nomadism involves an awareness of – and a freedom from – a non-ixity of boundaries. It represents a “form of political resistance to hegemonic and exclusionary views of subjectivity” (1994, 23). This type of nomadism belongs to thought and does not always denote actual physical moving. Rather, it is “the kind of critical consciousness that resists settling into socially coded modes of thought and behavior” (1994, 5). “Transposition” is at the heart of this identity iguration that is nomadic, committed and creative. The mobility of the nomad is a liberating identity that moves between cultures, places, languages, disciplines and arts in a constant state of becoming.14 Braidotti’s emphasis on multiplicity, fragmentation and nomadism diverges, to a certain extent, from Cavarero’s theory of the living uniqueness of a self that is generated through plural, concrete and corporeal relationships with other human beings. Yet Cavarero’s theorization implies a relational identity that is mobile and therefore similar to Braidotti’s nomadic subject that rejects “steady identities” (Braidotti 1994, 5) and boundaries. Mobilities depend on and produce social norms, values and ideas about being a woman or a man. Women experience travel and mobility differently from men, generally because of their traditional roles, and constraints, within the house, their family and society. According to Bourdieu – in his studies of tribal societies in Algeria – the main differences in gendered mobilities were displaced through attitudinal dispositions to movement. For the female centripetal dispositions, their movement was inwardly directed, leading towards the house and the hearth. For men, their mobility was centrifugal and leading outwards to the market and to the ields (Bourdieu 1977). Similarly – from a philosophical perspective – Iris Marion Young (building on Merleau-Ponty) considers how feminine bodily movement has often appeared centripetal, passive and “self-referred.” This is a female motion that is inward facing and inhibited, “looked at and acted upon,” whereby the woman comes into view as “object-subject,” rather than a “body-subject” (Young 2005, 39). On this matter, Cresswell, in his book On the Move, analyses some of Eadweard Muybridge’s photographic studies of human mobility, 14 Introduction mentioned earlier. In Muybridge’s photographs, men and women were portrayed as being involved in a variety of activities. Men were photographed in motion such as running, fencing, boxing and as experts or masters of their motions. Women, by contrast, were photographed in activities related to the arts and aesthetics and never referred to as masters of their own motions. They were described with reference to their civil status, age or height; they were representative of their everyday mobility (Cresswell 2006, 63–69; see also Cresswell and Uteng 2008). Envisioned by art, culture and memory, mobility has historically been a condition not available to women. The daguerreotype of the lace maker described in Sandra Gilbert’s poem, mentioned in the last chapter of this book, exempliies this position of immobility through which women have been traditionally framed and conceptualized. For Massey, “The limitation of women’s mobility, in terms both of identity and space, has been in some cultural contexts a crucial means of subordination” (Massey 1994, 179). Within travel studies, for instance, much of the traditional discussion of travel has assumed a male traveller and, with few exceptions, “a male literature” quintessentially dominated by male activities such as adventure, conquest, exploration and exploitation.15 Today, women’s everyday actions and movements across geographies and places (i.e. home, work place, day care, market) encourage a reassessment of identity, and of the relationship between places, often perceived as limiting and oppressive, and subjectivity, as shown in the black and white panels by Carla Cerati introduced in Chapter 4. Narration, however, can break boundaries when life stories not only tell and show a narratable self but also expose both the female singularity of the narrator together with that of the narrated. In this way, storytelling is a journey without ixed destinations, and punctuated by constant interactions with others. It is a multi-layered and multi- directional experience where margins and borders are put under pressure and repositioned, including those between reality and iction, word and image. Although for Braidotti nomadic subjects do not essentially move physically, spatial mobility (and motility) constitutes an important experience or phase where the subject critically and creatively interacts with others. Women, owing to their experiences of space, family, memory, body and power, are indeed privileged subjects who can demonstrate alternative ways of understanding and coniguring mobility. Journeys Exposed looks at women on the move who are writers, artists, narrators and ictional characters. Although their journeys are all of a different nature, each one travels across time, place, generations and disciplines. If they do not move physically, they narrate the journey of others. In all cases, they undergo signiicant transits and nomadic experiences that promote some sort of change and (un-)awareness about themselves and the world. They all share an interest in exploring the relationship between public and private selves, within and across national, Introduction 15 gender and artistic boundaries. Hence, mobility is both physical movement and space of creativity. Indeed, in different ways and manners, we all are mobile. We travel from one country, town, village, street to another; we cross enclosed spaces such as a room, a corridor, a ward; we travel through space and also through time. Iris Marion Young, summarizing Merleau-Ponty’s notion that subjectivity is located in the body, maintains: “It is the body in its orientation toward and action upon and within its surroundings that constitutes the initial meaning-giving act” (Young 2005, 35). The journey is also a metaphor for the way we describe the mind’s imaginative adventures (Roberson 2001, xi). Yet other contemporary critics claim that all narration is a form of moving and travelling.16 Regardless of the type of mobility we undertake, some commonalities ensue, such as identity formation, displacement, the travel-home dichotomy, the relationship between power and knowledge. We are always located within “nodal points” of big or small communication circuits (see for instance Lyotard 1984). Cresswell – and the so-called “mobilities turn” – identiies three types of physical mobility (Cresswell 2006; Hannam, Sheller and Urry 2006). The irst is a potentially observable and empirical reality. This is mobility measured and studied by modellers, analysts and transport planners, captured by computers or tracked by closed circuit television in airports and other public spaces. The second type of mobility is conveyed through an assortment of discourses that make sense of it through the production of meanings, which are frequently ideological, from medicine to law, literature, philosophy, ilm and photography. The third is mobility as practices and experiences. It is a way of being in the world and, consequently, speaks to a deeply embodied experience. For Cresswell, overall it is important to understand mobility in its connection between mobile physical bodies and forms of representation (Cresswell 2006, 4). For Massey, who debates on the limitations of how we represent a transitory world, any form of representation ixes and reduces the low of life (Massey 2005). Yet, mobility is interdependent on immobilities. Forms of detachment or “deterritorialization” associated with “liquid modernity” (Bauman 2000) are always accompanied by various forms of attachment and reterritorialization. Attachment does not, necessarily, imply ixity; it can be a personal, emotional relation to space, as well as material objects. For instance, according to Kort – in his discussion on housing as a metaphor for a sense of the world, and drawing from Bachelard – positive, place-relations are characterized by the feeling of being “at home.” This implies a more intimate, inclusive perception of space that favours designations of arrival and permanence, and leads to deinitions of place relations as representations of “rootedness” (Kort 2001, 66). Yet for Sara Ahmed, “home” is both a site of strangeness and movement (Ahmed 2000, 88; Ahmed, Castañeda, Fortier, and Sheller 16 Introduction 2003).17 Further, for Stephen Greenblatt, it is impossible to understand mobility without rootedness, in the forms of traditions, rituals, expressions, beliefs that, however, mobility threatens to decentre, decontextualize and misplace (Greenblatt 2010, 252). In the stories discussed in this book, questions of rootedness and ixity both clash and combine with forms of journeys. The house, for instance, as in the case of Carla Cerati’s artistic production, is a decisive space of departure, exploration, interrogation and return, where both writing and photography originate. It is through the interlacing of photography and writing that these women also articulate subjectivity as a visual, material and spatial engagement between domesticity and transnational exchanges. Moving Borders, Moving Italy The women studied in this book are, in diverse ways, all related to Italy. They cross ethnic and geographical borders and turn their photo-textual works into a means for conceptualizing, interrogating and surpassing the gender and power dimensions of social relations across national conines. These female writers and artists are deined as Italians, Italophones, migrants or expatriates to Italy, or alternatively through hyphenated adjectives of nationality, as Italian-American or Italian-Australian writers.18 Their link to Italian culture is malleable and diverse. The authors studied in Journeys Exposed invite us to relect on the varied ways we understand a country’s luid cultural and literary practices. Characterized by a “particular mobile disposition” (Ben-Ghiat and Hom 2016, 4), modern Italy has historically been an intersection point of both travelling and migrancy. Since its uniication in the second half of the nineteenth century, Italy has been shaped and deined by diverse movements and transits. It has seen foreign travellers arriving eager to discover its architectural and artistic beauties and Italian travellers departing to explore other exotic lands, lowing out in massive numbers in search of work and better living conditions overseas, or participating in colonial mobilities, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Gabaccia 2003; Choate 2008). Waves of people arriving and departing have continued and increased throughout the twentieth and twenty-irst centuries, with the intensiication of mass tourism on the one hand (Black 2003; Hom 2015) and the dramatic increase of immigrants escaping to Italy from war, persecution and other calamities on the other. Intersecting transnational with national mobilities, people have also moved from Italy’s South to its more industrialized North, and from its rural areas to the more urban districts (Arru and Ramella 2003). Yet Italy is a country where gender and spatial and creative mobilities have been hindered in modern and contemporary history. The authors, narrators and characters discussed in this book exemplify some of the social and cultural constraints, boundaries, immobility and surveillance Introduction 17 imposed on Italian women throughout time: from the self-righteous, claustrophobic society at the beginning of the twentieth century, as described in Mazzucco’s Il bacio della Medusa (Medusa’s Kiss); to the limitations on women’s creativity in the 1960s and 1970s, as expressed by Cerati’s work; to the patriarchal hegemony of Italian American and Italian Australian cultures. At the same time, however, Italy becomes an imagined entity that allows female subjectivities to be expressed, not only through physical journeys towards it or within its borders, but also through verbal and visual language, as for the Italophone writers and photographers Ornela Vorspi and Monika Bulaj. Despite its limitations and borders, Italy offers these women a real, imaginary or emotional space where they can ind a temporary commonality of experiences, whether these are experiences of displacement, exploitation, constraints, resistance, freedom or rediscovery. It is a geographical or linguistic agent that incites women’s telling, unfolding and exposing of stories through literature and the arts. The verbal and visual narratives analysed in this book are texts that also raise questions about the representation of history, such as the case of the Italian diaspora as narrated in the work of Elena Gianini Belotti and Anna Maria Riccardi, and the Italian American and Italian Australian authors. In another example, Monika Bulaj’s travel account introduces the case of Trieste, a border city with past and present dislocations and marginalities – similar to Ornela Vorpsi’s Albania with its past and more recent links to Italy. Finally, the representations of the unrests in the 1960s and 1970s in Italy are described in Carla Cerati’s production. In these works, Italy is at the centre of national and transnational movements, conlicts and moments that are re-presented through a creative process. The works studied here, therefore, deal both with micro-histories and wider, historical geopolitical situations. They study a past that is both personal and public, and juxtapose it with the present by negotiating aesthetics and ethics. In conclusion, the works studied in Journeys Exposed reinforce the case of how women – owing to their experiences of space, family, memory, body and power – propose alternative ways of narrating and exposing theirs and others’ mobility. They also provide reader–viewers with the critical skills to interpret the role and function of literary and visual means in contemporary society and the mechanisms through which words and images inluence and transform our imagination, and our perception of reality and history. Notes 1 The photographic trace has been theorized notably by Susan Sontag (1977), Roland Barthes (1982), Alan Sekula (1984) and Rosalind Krauss (1984), among others. 18 Introduction 2 The interlacing and relational acts of looking and telling are, in fact, present in the Italian title of Cavarero’s book, Tu che mi guardi, tu che mi racconti (1997) (literally “You who look at me, you who narrate me”) – translated as Relating Narratives (2000) in English. 3 On photography and literature, see also the special issues of Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature (2004), English Language Notes (2006) and Poetics Today (2008). Other scholarly works on literature and photography associated with one country include: Shloss (1987), Vogl (2003), Cunningham, Fisher and Mays (2005), Schwartz and Tierney-Tello (2006), Novak (2008), Gidley (2009), Kawakami (2013) and Alù and Pedri (2015). 4 Other recent discussions on twentieth- and twenty-irst women’s literary works and photography have been carried out by McHaney (2014), Kinnahan (2017) and Letzler Cole (2016). Pamela A. Pears (2015) examines the relation between word and image in Francophone literature by three Algerian women writers, by focusing on the text alongside its paratext and the marketing strategies deployed by publishers. 5 A further dimension has seen the concept of Italianness put into question. For recent studies on Italianness and Italian identity in twenty-irst-century Italy, see Allen and Russo (1997), Ardizzoni (2007) and Mammone and Veltri (2010). 6 Using Saunders’s deinition, they are also “relational memoirs,” memoirs built around a relative (parent, grandparent, sibling, etc.) (Saunders 2010, 7). 7 See also Smith and Watson (2001), Lee (2009), Saunders (2010) and Boldrini and Novak (2017). On the relationship between forms of auto/biography and visual images, see Smith and Watson (2002) and Tamboukou (2010a, 29–47; 2010b, 170–179). 8 Moreover, Saunders writes that “while every text is autobiography, no reader can know for sure in what way it is, because every reading is itself a species of involuntary and unconscious autobiography, and distorts the features of the writerly autobiographer into those of the readerly one” (Saunders 2010, 4). 9 Notable examples of contemporary autobiographical works by women who use photography in their writing are Nobody Nowhere: The Extraordinary Autobiography of an Autistic Girl (1992) by Australian writer and artist Donna Williams, Canicula (1995) by Chicana writer Norma Elia Cantú, Imaginary Parents (1996) by the American author Sheila Ortiz Taylor and the books by French authors Marie NDiaye, Annie Ernaux and Sophie Calle. 10 For a theoretical study on biography and iction, see Nadel (1984). 11 The term “photo narrative” generally refers to two ways photographs can narrate. The irst refers to a series of sequences of photographic images like, for instance, in picture-story photojournalism or the photonovel. Photo narrative can also indicate narrativity within the photographic image itself. See Baetens (2008, 349–358) and Ribière (1995). Apart from a short discussion on photographic sequence in the panels by Carla Cerati in Chapter 4, in this book I will primarily use the term photo narrative according to the second meaning. 12 Scholars like Tagg, Sekula and Bourgin draw upon the critical tools of neo-Marxist historical materialism, discourse analysis and psychoanalytic theory, to consider photography as a technology of surveillance and ideological apparatus where meanings are also constructed through circulation and distribution. Only recently has attention been devoted to affect and feeling in photography, following the new critical models that emerged with the socalled “affective turn.” See, for instance, Ticineto Clough with Halley (2007). Introduction 19 13 Peter Schwenger discusses the role of real or perceived material objects in emotional life. The melancholy that interests him “is not that of objects, but of the representations by which they are always necessarily mediated” (Schwenger 15). 14 Kathy Ferguson (1993) speaks of mobile subjectivities and Braidotti (1994) of nomadic subjectivities. Mobile and nomadic subjectivities are both moving. In this book I employ the terms “mobility” and “mobile” as applied to human subjects, as well as to disciplines and material objects. 15 This has been the case of inluential books, such as the studies by Fussell (1980) and Leed (1991), although discussions on travel writing and gender have consistently evolved in the last twenty years. 16 See the case of the metaphor “travel” in Van Den Abbeele (1992). As Clifford points out, travel is both generalized and simpliied; it can denote an experience of “mobility and movement through which people experience a range of material, spatial practices, that produce knowledge, stories, traditions, comportments, musics, books, diaries and other cultural expressions,” and it can be “a term of cultural comparison” (Clifford 1997, 35 and 39). 17 See also Ahmed (1998) and Butler (2005). 18 There has been a substantial body of research on hyphenated identities since the 1990s. 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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Holland, Patricia, Jo Spence and Simon Watney, ed. 1986. Photography/ Politics: Two. London: Comedia. Hom, Stephanie Malia. 2015. The Beautiful Country. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Horstkotte, Silke and Nancy Pedri, eds. 2008. Photography in Fiction Spec. issue of Poetics Today. 29 (1) (Spring 2008). Hunter, Jefferson. 1987. Image and Word: The Interaction of Twentieth Century Photographs and Texts. Boston, MA: Harvard University Press. Hutcheon, Linda. 1988. The Canadian Postmodern. Toronto, ON: Oxford University Press. Hutcheon, Linda. 2002. The Politics of Postmodernism. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. Ignatieff, Michael. 1987. The Russian Album. New York: Viking. Jacobs, Karen. ed. 2006. Photography in Literature. Spec. issue of English Language Notes 44 (2) (fall/winter 2006). Kawakami, Akane. 2013. Photobiography: Photographic Self-Writing in Proust, Guibert, Ernaux, Macé. Oxford: Legenda. Kinnahan, Linda A. 2017. Mina Loy, Twentieth-Century Photography and Contemporary Women Poets. Abingdon: Routledge. Kort, Wesley. 2001. A.C.S. Lewis Then and Now. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Krauss, Rosalind. 1984. “A Note on Photography and the Simulacral.” October 31: 49–68. Kuhn, Annette. 1995. Family Secrets: Acts of Memory and Imagination. London and New York: Verso. Lacan, Jacques. (1949) 2006. “The Mirror Stage as Formative of the I Function as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience.” In Écrits, translated by Bruce Fink, 74–81. New York and London: W.W. Norton. Lalen, Angela. 2014. Confronting Visuality in Multi-Ethnic Women’s Writing. New York: Palgrave. Leader, Zachary. 2015. “Introduction.” In On Life-Writing, edited by Zachary Leader, 1–6. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lee, Hermione. 2009. Biography: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Leed, Eric J. 1991. The Mind of the Traveller: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism. London: Basic Books. Letzler Cole, Susan. 2016. Serious Daring: The Fiction and Photography of Eudora Welty and Rosamond Purcell. Fayetteville: The University of Arkansas Press. Introduction 23 Louvel, Liliane. 2011. Poetics of the Iconotexts. Edited by Karen Jacobs and translated by Laurence Petit. Farnham: Ashgate. Lyotard, J.F. 1984. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Mammone, Andrea and Giuseppe A. Veltri, eds. 2010. Italy Today. The Sick Man of Europe. New York: Routledge. Massey, Doreen. 1994. Space, Place and Gender. Cambridge: Polity Press. Massey, Doreen. 2005. For Space. London: Sage. McCance, Dawne, ed. 2004. The Photograph. Spec. issue of Mosaic: A Journal for the Interdisciplinary Study of Literature 37 (4). McHaney, Pearl Amelia. 2014. Eudora Welty’s Noniction and Photographs. Jackson: The University Press of Mississippi. Meskimmon, Marsha. 2010. Contemporary Art and the Cosmopolitan Imagination. London and New York: Routledge. Mitchell, W.J.T. 1995. 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The Tears of Things: Melancholy and Physical Objects. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota. Sekula, Allan. 1984. Photography against the Grain: Essays and Photo Works 1973–1983. Halifax: Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design. Shloss, Carol. 1987. In Visible Light: Photography and the American Writer, 1840–1940. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Smith, Sidonie and Julia Watson. 2001. Reading Autobiography: A Guide for Interpreting Life Narratives. Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press. Smith, Sidonie and Julia Watson, eds. 2002. Interfaces: Women, Autobiography, Image, Performance. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Solnit, Rebecca. 2004. River of Shadows: Eadweard Muybridge and the Technological Wild West. London: Penguin. Tagg, John. 1988. The Burden of Representation: Essays on Photographies and Histories. London: Macmillan. 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