M. Tonkova. Adornments.

A COMPANION TO ANCIENT THRACE Edited by Julia Valeva, Emil Nankov, and Denver Graninger This edition first published 2015 © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Registered Office John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial Offices 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/ wiley-blackwell. The right of Julia Valeva, Emil Nankov, and Denver Graninger to be identified as the authors of the editorial material in this work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. 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Nankov, Emil, editor, author. III. Graninger, Denver, editor, author. DR50.6.C66 2015 939′.861–dc23 2014047937 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Cover image: Apollo (?) on a chariot drawn by winged horses, detail from a jug from the Rogozen hoard, 4th century BC. Regional Museum of History, Vratsa, Bulgaria / photo by Nikolai Genov. Set in 9.5/11.5pt Galliard by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India 1 2015 Contents Editors’ Preface Notes on Contributors Abbreviations Part I 1 Thrace and Thracians An Introduction to Studying Ancient Thrace Nikola Theodossiev ix xi xiv 1 3 2 Geography Jan Bouzek and Denver Graninger 12 3 22 Ethnicity and Ethne Denver Graninger Part II History 33 4 Early History of Thrace to the Murder of Kotys I (360 BCE) Michael Zahrnt 35 5 Thrace from the Assassination of Kotys I to Koroupedion (360–281 BCE) Peter Delev 48 6 From Koroupedion to the Beginning of the Third Mithridatic War (281–73 BCE) Peter Delev 59 7 Roman Thrace Ivaylo Lozanov 75 8 Thrace in Late Antiquity Boyan Dumanov 91 Part III Evidence 9 Settlements Hristo Popov 107 109 vi Contents 10 Dolmens and Rock-Cut Monuments Georgi Nekhrizov 126 11 “Ritual Pits” Rumyana Georgieva 144 12 Tomb Architecture Daniela Stoyanova 158 13 The Decoration of Thracian Chamber Tombs Julia Valeva 180 14 Gold, Silver, and Bronze Vessels Julia Valeva 197 15 Adornments Milena Tonkova 212 16 229 The Pottery of Ancient Thrace Anelia Bozkova 17 Inscriptions Dan Dana 18 Introduction to the Numismatics of Thrace, ca. 530 BCE–46 CE Evgeni I. Paunov Part IV 19 Influence and Interaction The Greek Colonists Margarit Damyanov 243 265 293 295 20 Athens Matthew A. Sears 308 21 Persia Maya Vassileva 320 22 Thracian and Macedonian Kingship William S. Greenwalt 337 23 Thracians and Scythians: Tensions, Interactions and Osmosis David Braund 352 24 Celts Julij Emilov 366 Part V 383 25 Controversies Social Life of Thrace Zosia Archibald 26 Urbanization Emil Nankov 385 399 Contents vii 27 Trade Chavdar Tzochev 412 28 Warfare Totko Stoyanov 426 29 Religion Kostadin Rabadjiev 443 Index 457 CHAPTER 15 Adornments Milena Tonkova 15.1 Introduction This chapter provides an introduction to major developments in jewelry fashion in Thrace ca. 1200–1,1 with an emphasis on sociopolitical context. Adornments decorating the body and dress are among the most evocative monuments of Thracian culture. In elite Thracian society, they marked the wealth and power of the wearer, as well as the religious or ceremonial functions performed by the individual; only secondarily did they function as simple decoration. During the Classical period, the Early Iron Age foundations of Thracian jewelry fashion were thoroughly transformed; jewelry became distinctly elitist and was adapted by elites in the emerging states of Thrace, above all the Odrysian kingdom, to mark their new political and social status. In the early Hellenistic period, jewelry fashion became strongly influenced by broader trends in the Hellenistic world. After the mid-third century, while jewelry fashion of the coastal Greek cities continued to follow broader trends in Greek jewelry, inland Thrace pursued a different trajectory; there Celtic influence prevails, while Greek fashion is less prominent. 15.2 The Early Iron Age, 1200–500 To fully appreciate the transformation of jewelry in Thrace in the Classical period, it will be useful to begin with a preliminary sketch of the Early Iron Age background (Gergova 1980; 1987). Jewelry used in this period was made of bronze, iron, silver, amber, and, less often, gold. Most common during the twelfth and eleventh century were bronze, single-spiral fibulae with twisted bow, as well as double-spiral fibulae with a high triangular plate and bow with knobs; the hoard of gold earrings and silver belts from Barzitsa (Gergova 1982) is also dated to this period. Fibulae of the eighth and seventh century are of the single- or doublespiral type, large, made of bronze, and, in some regions like the Rhodope mountains, also in iron. During the seventh and sixth centuries, the fibulae become lighter and gradually display simpler ornamentation; the bows are knobbed, twisted, quadrangular, or round in section. Single-spiral fibulae have smaller dimensions with either a low triangular or high quadrangular A Companion to Ancient Thrace, First Edition. Edited by Julia Valeva, Emil Nankov, and Denver Graninger. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Adornments 213 catch plate. The so-called Thessalian-type fibulae appear in western Thrace at this time. At first, such fibulae are heavy, with incised geometric decoration; later their size is reduced and the cuttings on top of the catch plate become V-shaped. Both early and later versions are often made of silver. Developments within this type are thought to have led to the emergence of the typical, Thracian-type fibulae of the Late Iron Age. Of the adornments associated with dress, round pendants and open-work belts appear popular in northwestern Thrace. The bracelets are heavy, made in bronze, and have tapered ends and geometric designs. Torques are rare and have a twisted body. Earrings, usually hoops made in bronze or silver, are also uncommon; the so-called “nail-shaped” type is also present. The large, gold, boat-shaped earrings from the Barzitsa hoard are unique. Necklaces include amber beads, beads made of spiral twisted bronze wire or strip components (e.g., so-called saltaleone), or cylindrical bronze beads. Open bracelets with overlapping spiral terminals or gold, ring-shaped ornaments served as hand and hair ornaments. Finds of gold and silver diadems, as well as pectorals, are extremely rare at this time. 15.3 The Early Classical Period, ca. 500–375 Assemblages and general characteristics Adornments are known from relatively few, rich burial assemblages, ca. 500–350. While these are concentrated along the upper and middle reaches of the Maritsa (anc. Hebros) and Tundzha (anc. Tonzos) Rivers, the likely core of the Odrysian kingdom, such finds are also known from Getic territories of northeastern Thrace. Adornments are typically associated with weapons in presumed warrior burials.2 An exception is provided by the three rich, weapon-free graves in Kukuva, Mushovitsa, and Arabadzhiyska tumuli from the famous necropolis at Duvanli (Filov 1934). These are traditionally interpreted as female burials (Filov 1934, 190), though, according to A. Fol (1983, 5) these too are of males. The earliest complexes in Odrysian territory are from Duvanli. The burials in Kukuva and Mushovitsa tumuli date to the mid-fifth century, while that from the Arabadzhiyska tumulus belongs to the final third of the fifth century (Archibald 1998, 162–165). Associated with these burials were splendid sets of head and body ornaments, consisting of numerous hoop or boat-shaped earrings, pendants for earrings, a necklace, a torque, bracelets, finger-rings, chains with pendants and fibulae, and pectorals; most of these finds were previously unfamiliar to the Thracian jewelry repertoire. Many rich warrior burials can also be dated to the middle and second half of the fifth century, which contain weapons, gold pectorals, and often gold rings, as in, for example, tumulus no. 1 near Chernozem (Kisyov 2005) and Golyamata tumulus near Duvanli, among others. In two burials from the Svetitsa tumulus near Shipka, dated ca. 450–400 (Kitov 2006, 85–91), and from Dalakova mound near Topolchane, dated ca. 400–375 (Kitov and Dimitrov 2008), the gold rings are not associated with pectorals, but with impressive gold funerary masks. Rich warrior burials are found also in Getic territories, containing weapons as well as gold breastplates and other categories of gold ornament. For example, a grave with weapons and horse trappings dated to the late fifth century from Golemanite also contained a torque, bracelets, pendant-amulets, and a breastplate (Tsarov 2008); similarly rich complexes are known from Koprivets (Stanchev 1997, 38) and Dolishte (Doncheva 2004). The mid-fifth-century transformation of Thracian jewelry fashion was radical. It is marked by both the increased use of gold and the introduction of new types of earrings, necklaces, and rings. Greek-style adornments, employing the technical resources of Greek jewelry art, are the prevalent finds. These are either cast or made in the repoussé style, decorated with 214 Milena Tonkova granulation and, less often, filigree. The earliest adornments with granulation and filigree are: the earrings, earring pendants, necklaces, and bracelets from the three rich, so-called “priestess” burials from Duvanli of the mid-fifth century; the ring and bead-amulet from Golemanite; and the earrings, crescent-shaped pendant, and fibula from Koprivets. Glyptic items, like scaraboid rings, also mark their first appearance, as do glass beads. These are restricted to the Odrysian territories. The repoussé technique is widely applied in the decoration of the breastplates – for freehand tracing or punching the ornaments. Adornments from Odrysian territories are quite diverse stylistically. Most of the Duvanli necropolis artifacts can be included among the principal Greek jewelry forms that come in many variants. The circulation of these items in Thrace, however, is specific. The earrings, earring pendants, and necklaces have distinctly Greek manufacture and are often cited as classical examples of the Greek jewelry art of the time (Higgins 1961, 122–124, 213; Deppert-Lippitz 1985, 122–130, 145–150); rings with a horseman adhere to Greek models, but are fashioned after a local style (Boardman 1970, 214, 230). The torque is of a known late Early Iron Age type. The bracelets, breastplates, and fibulae have prototypes in the Archaic and early Classical jewelry craft of the northern Balkan peninsula and Macedonia. Details in the composition of these popular models, however, render them unique, such as the use of gold and the employment of decorative techniques previously unknown in Thrace, like filigree and granulation. Therefore, analysis of the Duvanli adornments is two-fold. On the one hand, all basic forms have analogues in Greek and Macedonian jewelry (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, 99–108; Archibald 1998, 190–194; Tonkova 2000–2001; Tonkova and Penkova 2010). Yet, by and large, the Duvanli headdresses, made up of six or ten earrings, combined with earring pendants, are unique, with no comparanda outside of the necropolis. It would thus appear to be an original Thracian headdress, possibly part of an evocative ceremonial costume; the model was designed for the Odrysian elite and might be considered their distinctive mark (Tonkova 1997a, 18–22; Tonkova and Penkova 2010). Hence, one may reach the conclusion that the new Thracian repertoire of splendid gold adornments from the fifth century was not primarily the result of fashion trends. Such jewelry satisfied efforts to invent a unique insignia of authority, recognizable to subjects, allies, and enemies alike. The distinctive Greek traits in the earliest adornments from the Odrysian territories, combined with elements characteristic of Thrace alone, suggest that Greek artisans and goldsmiths, who may have been stationed in inland Thrace with the Odrysian court, influenced the appearance of these ceremonial items (Tonkova 1998; Tonkova 2000–2001; Tonkova and Penkova 2010). The Getic early Classical jewelry fashion seems rather more eclectic. Adornments found here mirror the interactions of the Getae with Greeks, Illyrians, and Scythians. Even Achaemenid jewelry has been found in several sets, as well as a fibula from north Italy. Gold pectorals are again the distinctive trait of the Getic adornments; recalling forms known from the Odrysian territories, they testify to contacts between the Getae and the Odrysian realm (Tonkova 2000–2001). Categories of jewelry Hoop- and boat-shaped earrings, with a long history in Greek and Near Eastern traditions and with numerous variants, spread in Thrace in the mid-fifth century. Made in gold, with thickened body and spherical and conical beads at the ends, they feature fine granulation and filigree. At Duvanli these come not in pairs, but in sets of six or ten that are uncharacteristic of Greek customs. In the three “female” burials from Duvanli discussed above, they Adornments 215 are associated with omega-shaped and spiral earring pendants, forming together a unique headdress. A distinctive type of hoop earring, with a pyramid featuring granulation at one tip, appeared for the first time during this period at Koprivets; although derivative of Greek models, the type was created and developed as genuine Thracian jewelry, which remained in the local repertoire until the end of the fourth century. Another mid-fifth-century premiere is the classic Greek necklace composed of biconical and spherical beads alternating with complex, composite beads of supporting and suspended elements. Three examples come from the Duvanli “female” burials. The necklace from Kukuva tumulus has a central flower bud pendant (Figure 15.1), while the Arabadzhiyska tumulus necklace features fine granulation. Though of recognized Greek types, they find no exact comparanda outside of Thrace. The many similarities among the three imply that they came from the same atelier attending to Thracian elites. From the Getic territories come a necklace of fluted tubes and large flower-bud pendants (Dolishte), as well as single pendantamulets of different shapes: crescent (Koprivets), pyramidal, or biconical (Golemanite). Glass beads also appear during this period; instead of being strung together, at this time they were likely worn individually or in combination with other elements as amulets. The necklace of bronze saltaleones combined with glass beads is considered an Early Iron Age survival (Tonkova and Penkova 2010, 204, pl. Х.2). The gold cylindrical elements with transverse flutes, in imitation of the earlier saltaleones that are known from Dolishte, are another innovation of the time. Torques were also transformed. While the twisted wires and outward-bent terminals of the omega-shaped torque from Duvanli’s Kukuva tumulus recall the previous age, it is now quite heavy and made of gold. The Golemanite gold torque, with tapering terminals, is a novel type with parallels in Scythian contexts. Fifth-century bracelet shapes are also novel. These heavy, open hoops are now made of gold. Similar to models from the Near East, the terminals of the bracelet depict animal heads. Figure 15.1 Gold necklace from Kukuva mogila near Duvanli, Plovdiv province. Middle of fifth century BCE. National Archaeological Museum, Sofia, inv. 6193, 6136. Photo by Krasimir Georgiev. 216 Milena Tonkova Bracelets with stylized representations of snake heads from Duvanli’s Kukuva tumulus are very close to characteristically Macedonian, more precisely Chalcidic models, yet their ornamentation with large granules is unique to gold items. Bracelets with antelope-head (?) terminals from Dolishte are believed to be imports from Anatolia (Doncheva 2004, 126). Bronze spiral and open hoop bracelets with snake-head terminals and fashioned in a distinctive local style are recovered chiefly from pit sanctuaries (Tonkova and Penkova 2010, 205, pl. Х.2). The classic, hoop-and-bezel shape of finger-rings appears for the first time in Thracian warrior burials in the mid-fifth century. Archaic traits in some artifacts suggest considerably earlier manufacture. The two foremost Greek types are heavy, all-metal rings with decorated bezel and rings with a swivel bezel with gem, the so-called scaraboids. Another rare type, with granulated bezel and hoop in archaic fashion, is represented by the Golemanite ring. The massive gold signet rings with incised representations of a horseman and the name of the owner (Duvanli, Golyamata, and Arabadzhiyska tumuli) become increasingly characteristic of the Odrysian elite and enjoy a long development. The horseman theme evolves into an investiture scene by the end of the fourth century. Unlike the heavy signet rings, gem scaraboids were produced in Greek workshops and had a fleeting presence in Thrace. The rings from tumulus 1 at Chervenkovi Mogili near Brezovo, from Chernozem, and from Krushare have chalcedony and agate gems, with deities, athletes, and warriors rendered in refined Greek style. These early glyptic items disappear after the fifth century. One later local imitation is the famous Ezerovo ring, all gold and engraved with a Thracian inscription in Greek letters (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, 374, no. 206). Chains attached by fibulae are also first found in the fifth century. The earliest examples are loop-in-loop gold chains with flower-bud pendants from Mushovitsa tumulus, Duvanli. The pendants are attached to the edges of a breastplate by three gold “Thracian type” fibulae. Thus there emerges an upper body adornment for elites in Thrace, distinctive of the region, and rendered in several variants until the end of the fourth century (Tonkova 1998). The entire spectrum of Early Iron Age fibulae gradually blended together before being replaced in the fifth century by the simplified and elegant model of the single-spiral, bowshaped fibula of so-called “Thracian type.” Examples are known from throughout the entire territory of ancient Thrace over the course of the following centuries. Among the earliest examples are the three gold fibulae from Mushovitsa tumulus in the Duvanli necropolis dated to the mid-fifth century. Gold fibulae are attested only during this period; gold fibulae have also been found at Koprivets and Dolishte. The Dolishte fibula retains the form of the Thessalian type, but, like contemporary Greek models, has a hollow bow made in repoussé of gold sheet. Occasionally, the boat-shaped “Italian type” fibulae appear, such as the gold fibula from Koprivets (Tonkova 2000–2001, 283–287). Early variations of hinged fibulae in bronze are attested at Pernik and Pistiros, the core distribution area of which was the central Balkans (Vasileva 2012, 34; Vasic 1999, 103, 105, type I, II). Gold, ornamented pectorals were invariable components of Thracian ceremonial dress and armor in the fifth century. These were a characteristic marker of Thracian elites and remained so throughout the Classical and early Hellenistic period. The pectorals are diamond, crescent, or oval shaped and usually decorated with embossed geometric motifs, and also figural scenes, normally arranged around a stylized “tree of life” motif. Pectorals are found in almost all rich burials in Thrace, from the Odrysian and Getic territories alike (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, 103–105). The earliest and most impressive examples, from Dalboki, Duvanli, and Chernozem, are decorated with figural and floral designs inspired by Greek and Oriental themes and styles; they are also very large and heavy: the Chernozem pectoral, for example, is made of 1 mm thick, 23 carat gold sheet, measures 31 cm x 27 cm, and weighs 132.80 g (Kisyov 2005, 48). Adornments 15.4 217 The Late Classical Period, ca. 375–325 The burial assemblages of this time are less numerous, but equally impressive in terms of wealth. Immensely rich warrior burials remain traditional in Odrysian territory. A rich male burial in Dalakova tumulus, near Topolchane, is dated approximately to the second quarter of the fourth century. The burial gifts include a gold mask, a gold phiale, silver rhyta, and a gold signet ring with a portrait of a ruler and the engraved names of Seuthes and Teres (Kitov and Dimitrov 2008). In another exceptionally rich burial of a young man from Zlatinitsa, there was placed a gold wreath, ornamented gold appliqués that have been interpreted as diadem segments, and a gold ring, as well as a silver greave depicting what has been interpreted as the Thracian Great Goddess (cf. Chapter 29); a nearly identical greave is known from Agighiol (Sȋrbu 2006, 90). These finds were accompanied by expensive sets of drinking vessels and a full set of armor; the burial is dated to the mid-fourth century (Agre 2011) or a little later. Similar finds are known from Rosovets and the Mogilanskata tumulus in Vratsa (Agre 2011, 31–44). The gold fittings from Topolchane and Zlatinitsa reflect an important moment in the evolution of the insignia used by Thracian elites. On the one hand, there is a clear attempt towards self-definition in the creation and use of distinctive markers of power and status, such as the gold signet rings that appear to present an investiture scene in which a goddess bestows the insignia of authority upon a horsemen, interpreted as a ruler. Local elites can also be seen to attempt to identify themselves with contemporary political elites outside of Thrace, especially the Macedonian kings. So, for example, gold wreaths and other luxury items that match those found in royal Macedonian tombs begin to appear in Thracian warrior burials at this time. Close dating of these assemblages has proved elusive, unfortunately, and it remains unclear whether the peak of their distribution should be placed in the third or, more probably, last quarter of the fourth century (Tonkova 2013). A rich assemblage from a tumulus near Kapinovo, dated to the mid-fourth century, features bronze and silver serving sets, Greek Red-Figure ceramics, and a unique piece to adorn the upper body or head, consisting of several long chains with flower-bud pendants and one pendant with a ram’s head in local style (Tonkova 1998; Antikenmuseum Basel 2007, no. 122). Gold buttons, the first to be discovered in Thrace, belonging to a Greek chiton that was placed as an offering, were also recovered in the burial. The distribution of buttons in Thrace was limited and restricted to the second half of the fourth and early third century (Tonkova 1997a, 25). In the second half of the fourth century, evidence for Thracian adornments is enriched by numerous iconographic monuments, especially toreutic artifacts and ceremonial armor with depictions of real jewelry. Ceremonial gilded silver helmets, for example, are often decorated with laurel and ivy wreaths, and the divine female personae featured on ceremonial silver greaves from Zlatinista (Agre 2011, 50) and Agighiol (Sȋrbu 2006, 90) wear torques, necklaces, and earrings that correspond to finds known in the region. Furthermore, clothes with buttons and agraphae (brooches), ivy wreaths, and other decorations are depicted upon the vessels from the Borovo hoard. The goddesses from the Panagyurishte treasure wear diadems and necklaces. 15.5 The Early Hellenistic Period, ca. 325–250 Assemblages and general characteristics After the mid-fourth century, the appearance of adornments gradually changed. Typically late Classical forms evolved and inspired the creation of true masterpieces of the Thracian school, such as the silver adornment from Bukjovtsi (Figure 15.2). At the same time, many 218 Milena Tonkova Figure 15.2 Silver adornment from Bukjovtsi (modern Miziya), Vratsa province. Second half of fourth century BCE. National Archaeological Museum, Sofia, inv. 2558-A. Photo by Krasimir Georgiev. new Greek models and decorative techniques defining the style of early Hellenistic jewelry art were introduced, including the use of incrustation, enamel, and polychromy: Thrace became part of the Hellenistic jewelry koine (Tonkova 1997a). Moreover, the early Hellenistic jewelry fashion in Thrace grew more democratic: rich burials with many gold adornments became less numerous, while single items appeared in a greater number of burial complexes, and artifacts of the same type were rendered in both precious and base metals. Imposing sets of multiple gold ornaments were found in several very rich tumulus burials from inland Thrace. As previously, the most numerous and finest examples come from the Odrysian territories. Gold and silver chain necklaces and a gold ring with investiture scene were recovered from Malkata tumulus in the Kazanlak valley, dated to the end of the fourth century (Kitov 2005; Kitov and Tonkova 1996; Antikenmuseum Basel 2007, nos. 140–144). Tumulus 1 near Seuthopolis and the Mal-tepe tumulus near Mezek (Filov 1937, 7–79) have yielded lion’s-head hoop earrings and necklaces with conical beads, which constitute the typical adornment set for the early Hellenistic period. From the Getic territories comes the rich grave from Kralevo, with lion’s-head earrings, snake-shaped bracelets, and a gold horse harness (Ginev 1983). A new jewelry center with its own style was established in Triballian territory in northwestern Thrace, known from numerous hoards in which silver jewelry is prominent. The original adornment composed of hinged fibulae, chains, and pendants with human masks from Bukjovtsi (Figure 15.2), together with wide lamellar bracelets and hinged fibulae from the Vladinya, Granitovo, and Stalijska mahala hoards (Dimitrova 1966), make up a peculiar regional horizon of silver jewelry items. These are among the most representative objects produced in Thrace in the late fourth century. Other finds, like the gold wreath, disc earrings Adornments 219 with boat-shaped pendants, gold ornamented appliqués, and gold amphora-shaped pendants from tomb 3 in Mogilanskata tumulus near Vratsa (Torbov 2005) reflect the interactions of local elites with the Macedonian court and novel trends in local goldsmith production. During this period, jewelry is found primarily in graves without weapons, which are thought to be female burials. The iconography of some artifacts supports this interpretation. Adornments worn by goddesses and noble Thracian women represented on greaves, luxury banquet sets, and frescoes from Thracian tombs correspond to actual finds; for example, the Athena represented on the greaves from the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus near Shipka, dated to the late fourth or early third century, wears a diadem and earrings; earrings and a luxurious necklace consisting of a band and pendants are depicted on the griffin’s-head hilt of the parade sword from the same burial (Kitov 2006, 77–79; Tonkova 2012, 720). In rare cases burial finds suggest that jewelry characteristic of female burials was worn by men as well. In the Malkata tumulus near Shipka, for example, ornaments like earrings, bracelets, necklaces, and a ring with an investiture scene are found alongside scepters and other attributes of royal and priestly authority, which were the exclusive prerogative of males; anthropological analysis of the skeleton recovered from the Malkata tumulus confirms it as a male burial (Kitov 2005, 252). Further evidence for the repertoire, professional orientation, and location of the Thracian workshops is provided by the numerous instruments for fine metalworking recovered to date, chiefly in northern Thrace. Punches with floral and figural motives, dies and formers, chisels, anvils, and tweezers come from a number of fortified Thracian centers, such as Sveshtari, Dragoevo, Seuthopolis, Ruen, and Pistiros; the Varna, Shumen, and Vratsa Regional Museums of History keep rich collections of instruments that have been found in their respective districts. Thus it is now generally accepted that jewelry workshops functioned in each prominent Thracian center, as well as near Thracian sanctuaries (Tonkova 1994; Tonkova 1999; Antonov 2007). Many early Hellenistic gold ornaments have been found in the cemeteries of the west Pontic Greek colonies (Minchev 1979; Dimitrova 1989; Pfrommer 1990, FK110; Tonkova 1997b; Tonkova 2002; Oppermann 2004, 202–205). They, together with the north Aegean cities, are among the trendsetters in jewelry fashion in Thrace. Workshops serving the Thracian elite may also have been stationed there. Each colony maintained its own unique style, despite some common repertoire features, like lion’s-head earrings. Local fashion is revealed, for example, in the gold jewelry from the tumular and non-tumular burials of Odessos and its hinterland, including richly ornamented discoid ear-studs, necklaces of composite beads with bull’s-head pendants, rings with either female heads or an Eros on the bezel, and discoid brooches; a pyramidal pendant with blue and green filigree enamel is among the earliest examples of polychromous jewelry from Thrace (Tonkova 1997b, 83–87). Sumptuous gold band necklaces with pendants and lion’s-head earrings in a set with beaded necklaces have been found in the necropolis of Mesambria (Antikenmuseum Basel 2007, no. 105, 106). Gold horse trappings from Mezek, Kralevo, and Kavarna, among other locations, all dated ca. 300–250, and recently discovered trappings from Golyamata tumulus near Sveshtari (Gergova 2012), are distinct in Thrace for being made in a “jewelry style” (Tonkova 1997a, 28–29; Tonkova 2011b); the decoration of their ornamented plates utilizes models, motifs, and jewelry techniques that are characteristic of Greek style jewelry, like filigree, granulation, and enamel. Some are comparable to the best Greek examples (Kavarna, Sveshtari), while others have ornaments in local styles (Ivanski, Mezek). Since decorative trappings are not part of the Greek tradition, these examples in gold from Thrace were possibly specially commissioned from the same artisans in the region who made jewelry for Thracian elites (Tonkova 2011b). 220 Milena Tonkova The first La Tène imports appear in Thrace at the end of the fourth and during the first half of the third century. The finds of fibulae in early La Tène scheme and distinctive gold ornaments, like the Gorni Cibar torque, as well as pseudo-filigree and pseudo-granulation jewelry in bronze and glass bracelets from northwestern Thrace, are indicative of contacts with Celts and the La Tène world of central Europe (Domaradzki 1980, 1984; Anastassov 2006; Lazarov 2006; Еmilov 2010; Vasileva 2012, 5–33; see also Chapter 25). The cohabitation of Thracians, Celts, and Greeks in northwestern Thrace and in the Kazanlak valley was at the foundation of the cultural synergy of the late fourth and early third century that is reflected in the local styles of personal ornaments (Tonkova 2006). Categories of jewelry While breastplates remain in use during the early Hellenistic period, their quality deteriorates (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, 104; Tonkova, 1997a, 22). They are less carefully made and have smaller dimensions; if they are made of gold, it is of thin sheet, but quite often they are rendered in silver; ornamentation is inferior and schematic, while their inclusion in graves, it seems, was symbolic. The new insignia of Thracian elites were gold wreaths (Tonkova 2013). Wreaths found at Zlatinitsa, Rozovets, and in the Mogilanskata tumulus near Vratsa are associated with rich complexes dated to the middle of the third or fourth quarter of the fourth century and share many common features. The Zlatinitsa wreath consists of olive branches and a Nike, while the Rozovets and Vratsa finds are almost identical laurel wreaths. These were executed in a naturalistic style and are among the most representative examples of Greek jewelry art. Traces of cork or resin on the berries on the laurel branches suggest that the wreaths were safely packed to prevent damage during transportation and may indicate that they were meant to be used by the living. These pieces were likely the work of prominent Aegean ateliers, where gold wreaths were quite popular at this time. Their dissemination in Thrace can be linked to political contacts between local elites and their counterparts outside of Thrace, especially Macedonians. A splendid oak wreath from the tomb of Seuthes III in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus near Shipka confirms this proposition. It is comparable to the gold wreath from tomb 2 at Vergina (Kitov 2006, 74), that has recently been dated to the late fourth century (Pfrommer 1990, 259, FK 111; Borza and Palagia 2007). The wreath from the Golyama Kosmatka tumulus furnishes one of many arguments for the high rank of the individual buried there and suggests that he maintained political contacts with the Macedonian court. Imitations of these splendid gold wreaths in bronze and clay are also known. Ceremonial gold diadems of the late fourth century are rare in Thrace. One gold pediment diadem with figural designs is known from Shapladere near Alexandroupolis (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, no. 249). From inland Thrace the type is only known from the goddesses depicted on the rhyta from the Panagyurishte hoard (Tonkova 2005) and the Athena represented on the greaves from the tomb in the Golyamata Kosmatka tumulus near Shipka (Kitov 2006, 76–77). Another ceremonial type known from the rich tombs of the Macedonian elites, the openwork gold diadem with tendrils, is so far known in Thrace only from a single fine gold branch from the tomb in Momina tumulus, near Bratya Daskalovi, in the Chirpan Heights region (Tonkova 2012). Hoop earrings with a granulated pyramidal tag remain a popular element of the ceremonial headdress, now larger in size and made of gold or silver. Among the new earring types introduced into Thrace, only the lion’s-head hoop earrings are found in large number, equally common in coastal and inland Thrace (Dimitrova 1989). Disc-shaped earrings with rich filigree decoration, typical of the “opulent style” in late fourth-century Greek jewelry, are only Adornments 221 found in the city and hinterland of Odessos, where there also was discovered a pair of discoid earrings with a Nike figurine, listed among the masterpieces of its time (Jackson 2011). The splendid “Ionian type” boat-shaped earrings, consisting of an ornamented disk with boatpendant, a very popular Greek model of the third and last quarter of the fourth century, are only represented by the gold set from the Mogilanskata tumulus near Vratsa (Tonkova 1997a, 21, 23). Simple necklaces of beads with conical finials are popular at this time, occasionally featuring a central pendant; a wide range of types is known, however, including various pendant, chain, and band necklaces. The golden necklace with amphora pendants covered with very fine granulation discovered in Malkata mogila near Shipka is among the masterpieces of Hellenistic jewelry (e.g., Tonkova 1997a, 23; Tonkova 1998; Tonkova 2005; Kitov 2005; Tonkova 2012). The gold band necklace with spearhead pendants from Mesambria is to date the only example of a late fourth-century Greek “opulent style” necklace. The complex, composite, silver breast ornament from Bukjovtsi, obviously ceremonial in function, includes hinged fibulae that are typical in Thrace, through which chains pass with human mask-shaped and floral pendants (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, 210–211); it is among the best examples of jewelry from Thrace in the second half of the fourth century (for the date, see Tonkova 1998; Tonkova 2011a) and demonstrates mastery of all fundamental goldsmith techniques: casting, forging, stamping, chiseling, filigree, and granulation. The human mask pendants became a trademark of late fourth-century Thracian jewelry workshops, used commonly for both personal ornaments and horse trappings (Tonkova 1998). During the early Hellenistic period, torques were still fashionable in Thrace (Ivanova 1988, 10–12). While the torque with terminals bent outward remained in fashion, with attested examples in silver and round in section, a new local type in silver appeared with twisted wires and flat triangular terminals. Standing apart from local finds, the Gorni Tsibar gold torque with spherical terminals and plastic floral decoration in “Waldalgesheim” style is exemplary of the Celtic presence in the Danube basin in the late fourth and early third century (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, no. 254; Domaradski 1984, 139). There are various styles of Thracian bracelets. Local types are made of silver, while the new Hellenistic models are of gold. From the previous period continues the open hoop bracelet with snake-head finials (Kabile). Silver lamellar bracelets are typical of the Triballian territory in northwestern Thrace (Dimitrova 1966, 120–122; for the date, see Tonkova 1998, 750– 751; Tonkova 2011a, 191). The gold snake-bracelets from Kralevo and Aytos in eastern Thrace are realistically shaped and reflect Greek influence; to this group belong also the bracelets ending with animal heads (Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, no. 252, 193; Ginev 1983; Tonkova 1997a, 24). Recently, a specific group of ornaments, cast in bronze in a peculiar pseudo-filigree and pseudo-granulation technique, was identified in northeastern Bulgaria; such finds are characteristic of the Celtic cultural circle (Anastassov 2006; Tonkova 2006). Possibly associated with the Celtic presence in the region are also some distinctive glass bracelets (Domaradski 1984, 140). Early Hellenistic rings are of two types: with engravings or with figural motifs in relief on the bezel. While the former was typical throughout Thrace, the latter was particularly characteristic of Odessos, where examples with Eros and head of Aphrodite have been found. The homogeneous group of gold signet rings depicting a horseman or investiture scene remained restricted to Odrysian territory; such scenes are also found on the rings from Glozhene, Brezovo, Rozovets, and Malkata tumulus near Shipka, and on wall paintings in Thracian tombs (e.g., Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, no. 207, 209; Tonkova 1997a, 21, 24; Kitov 2005). New motifs gained popularity, including sphinxes, snakes, griffins, tortoises, and grapes (Kitov 2006, 93). Engraved iron and bronze rings were also very popular, particularly in Odrysian territories, and feature Greek deities like Hermes, Heracles, Eros, Artemis, Phosphoros, allegorical figures, as well as a satyr and a maenad; animal images were also 222 Milena Tonkova common. The themes and ornaments are characteristic of Greek jewelry craft. Some, executed in the refined Greek style (e.g., Topalchane: Dimitrova 2008), were imported, while others were locally made; such rings were equally characteristic of the colonies (Mladenova 1963, 300) and the inland centers (Ognenova-Marinova 1984, 164–165), and illustrate the spread of Greek culture among the local population (Tonkova forthcoming a). During the early Hellenistic period, Thracian-type fibulae became extremely popular. They are both an accessory to clothing and an ornament, and secured the attachment of chains with pendants. They were made chiefly in bronze, but often also in silver; numerous variations appeared throughout Thrace, even in some Greek colonies like Apollonia (Domaradski 2000; Vasileva 2012, 5–22). At the same time, La Tène types of bilateral spiral fibulae began to be imported and made in local workshops (Domaradzki 1980; Domaradski 1984; Anastassov 2006; Vasileva 2012, 5–33). Hinged fibulae also became more popular (Vasic 1999, 114–115, type Vb, c; Vasileva 2012, 35); six fibulae of this type served to attach the ceremonial ornament from Bukjovtsi hoard (Figure 15.2) (Dimitrova 1966). They were less common as burial finds. Gold buttons and ornamented gold plates were sporadically found. 15.6 The Middle and Late Hellenistic Period, ca. 250–1 The development of the jewelry fashion in the Greek colonies and inland Thrace diverged after the middle of the third century. The west Pontic coast: Assemblages and general characteristics The jewelry fashion of the colonies follows broader trends in Greek jewelry at this time, with the polychrome style becoming prevalent during the middle Hellenistic period and dominant during the late Hellenistic period. This development can be seen in the fine gold ornaments from the cemeteries of Odessos, Mesambria, and Apollonia, ca. 250–150 (Dimitrova 1989; Pfrommer 1990, FK 95–98; Tonkova 1997b; Tonkova 2002; Oppermann 2004, 202–205). Exceptionally evocative jewelry has been recovered from rich tumulus burials from Sinemorets and Anchialo on the Black Sea coast (Agre 2009; Balabanov 1976). Inlay was more common in the middle Hellenistic period; for example, inlayed cabochons or stringed multicolored beads of carnelian, amethyst, garnet, or even colored glass became typical of the jewelry fashion of Mesambria and Apollonia. In the following centuries the style finds its full expression and leads to the domination of colored elements over the gold base or frame. First-century earrings with pendants of colorful stones from Anchialo are characteristic of this new style (Tonkova 2002; Tonkova forthcoming b). Despite sharing some features, the repertoire of each town was distinct. Among these, the jewelry fashion of Mesambria ca. 250–150 is most impressive. A strikingly rich mid-thirdcentury burial complex discovered in 2009 is illustrative: numerous gold pieces with incrustation and enamel are featured, including fine gold diadems with detailed enamel ornament, gem rings with representations of Aphrodite and Athena, and a chain band with Heracles knot (Kiyashkina, Bozkova, and Marvakov 2012, nos. 63–73). These finds are analogous to jewelry complexes discovered in rich burials of the Macedonian elite and suggest that these Mesambrians possessed comparable wealth and status. Most models recur and define the specific jewelry style of this Greek colony, such as, for example: earrings and chains with Adornments 223 lion-griffin’s head; earrings with a maenad head or with a centaur’s forepart; rings with an elaborated shield and cabochon; original spiral rings; and gold foil replicas of “solid” ornaments (Frel 1963; Venedikov and Gerasimov 1973, nos. 188, 190, 195, 201, 202, 221; Pfrommer 1990, 245, FK 95–98; Tonkova 1997b, 88–92; Tonkova 2002; Oppermann 2004, 202–205). According to my recent observations, Mesambria was not only an importer of products of renowned workshops, but also one of the leading jewelry centers of its time. Comparison with the jewelry style from Odessos reveals that the latter was more conservative and avoided the use of polychromy (Tonkova 1997b, 87). The affluence, artistic taste, and preferences of Thracian elites in the coastal area rival those of the richest Greek colonists. For example, a grave found recently in a tumulus in Sinemorets, dated 250–200, included gold jewelry with polychromous decoration that featured incrusted elements and filigree in a fine Greek style. The models are Greek and include fittings from a diadem with incrusted gold elements, earrings with a figurine of Nike on a chariot, and a necklace of bull’s-head beads (Agre 2009). The magnificent gold adornments of a “Thracian noblewoman” from Anchialo provide a further illustration of the second- to first-century jewelry fashion along the coast (Balabanov 1976; Tonkova 1997b, 92–93; Tonkova forthcoming b). The west Pontic coast: Categories of jewelry The diadems from Mesembria and Sinemorets are made of separate gold elements with polychromous decoration: each is unique. The Mesambria diadem consists of oval, round, and rectangular gold plates, decorated with inlayed cabochons and fine filigree enamel, combined with other miniature details like rosettes and diamonds with blue and green enamel (Kiyashkina et al. 2012, nos. 68–70). The Sinemorets diadem features a central rectangular plate with floral ornaments shaped by filigree wire and other round gold elements with rosettes and inlayed cabochons. The diadem was commissioned for the wife of a prominent Thracian aristocrat, as suggested by the inscription in Greek traced with filigree wire on the central plate: according to the reading, “[the goldsmith] Demetrios made it for [a Thracian woman named] Kortozous” (Agre 2009). The animal-head hoop earrings show a clearly discernible transformation. Lion’s-head earrings remained in circulation, but were now reinterpreted in novel local variations, and many other motifs also appeared; for example, a local variant with tall filigree cones appears in Odessos in the second half of the third and the beginning of the second century. New original types also appear; these include: hoop earrings with a head of a maenad, or a lion-griffin with the forepart of a centaur, or full figures of a sphynx, or a Nike in a chariot; and earrings with applied cabochon cells and glass pendants on a hinge (Tonkova 1997b, 87–93). Most necklaces dated to 250–100 were based on older models, but employed new, diverse elements and decorative techniques. Use of multicolored ornament, not uncommon in the mid-third century, became prevalent during the second century. Bead necklaces remained popular ca. 250–200 with fine examples from Mesambria and Anchialo. Band and chain necklaces were popular as well during the third and second century and developed in novel ways. Odessos, for example, has produced gold necklaces, which may have been elements of a breast ornament, consisting of two braided bands with a central medallion of an Eros head and Aphrodite and Artemis busts in high relief; while the high relief busts were characteristic of the late third and early second century, the Odessos model has no exact parallel. Several types of ring were prominent in the late third to early second century: the bezel of one features a cabochon, while the other displays a bust of Aphrodite with Erotes. The gold gem rings with depictions of Athena and Aphrodite recently discovered in Mesambria are at 224 Milena Tonkova present exceptional (Kiyashkina et al. 2012, nos. 72–73). The style of the representations and the precision of the craftsmanship suggest manufacture in prominent Greek workshops; exact parallels are known from the famous tomb of the Erotes from Eretria. Snake rings, such as the remarkable gold ring with a Ketos head with stone incrustations, are distinctive of Mesambria (Tonkova 1997b, 88; Marazov 1998, 126, 127). Also peculiar to Mesambrian ateliers were brooches of decorated foil, pinned to the dress by fibulae. These portray a Medusa head and a winged bolt, and feature filigree thread ornaments and incrusted cabochons. One gold brooch is decorated with figural motifs rendered in repoussé, while others are cast in silver and bronze. Although the motifs used are common to Greek art, the Mesambrian adornments find no exact parallels outside of the town and can be considered a product of the local jewelry school (Tonkova 1997b, 89). Inland Thrace The jewelry fashion of inland Thrace reflects the region’s cultural difference from the Black Sea coast. After the mid-third century, when the influence from La Tène culture predominated over Greek aesthetics, gold ornaments became exceptional. Goldsmith workshops continued to operate in the old Getic and Odrysian centers, where original local models were created. Local variations of animal-head earrings, like lion’s-head hoop earrings with tall filigree cones, are known from Odessos, Madara, and Dalgopol in northeastern Thrace and may reflect Celtic influence (Dimitrova 1989, 9–11; Tonkova 2006, 267–269). Goldsmith workshops functioned also in the Seuthopolis area; among its products are a fine pair of gold fibulae in middle La Tène patterns dated to the late third century found in the Seuthopolis necropolis (Еmilov 2010, 76, fig. 3). A Seuthopolis workshop may also have produced the unique gold fibula with light green and dark blue enamel found in Sashova tumulus near Shipka, dated to the early second century (Marazov 1998, 102; Tonkova 2002, 107), which is the only example of polychromous decoration known from inland Thrace at this time; it combines the shape of a middle La Tène-type fibula with typically Greek decorative techniques. A remarkable find of silver appliqués for horse trappings, from Ravnogor in the central Rhodope Mountains, features busts of Athena, Artemis, winged Dionysus, and Aphrodite (Marazov 1998, 132–135); the find indicates close interactions with Hellenistic jewelry traditions of the early second century. Their style is comparable in some details to the famous gold ornaments for a sophisticated hair-dress from the so-called Carpenisi hoard in Thessaly, believed to be the product of Macedonian workshops; items like the Ravnogor appliqués may have been produced by such a workshop for Thracian elites. After the mid-third century, gold jewelry and Greek-style ornaments of the Ravnogor type became exceptional. Jewelry fashion was shaped rather by the development of traditional forms, mostly under La Tène influence, and informed by the increasing number of La Tène imports, primarily fibulae. The Thracian-type fibula was replaced by fibulae in the La Tène pattern, typical of La Tène C and D. New types of torques and bracelets appeared. As a rule, the adornments of this period were in silver and bronze, while fibulae were worked in iron (Domaradski 1984, 138–142). During the late Hellenistic period, jewelry fashion was substantially transformed. Silver items, discovered as part of hoards or as single accidental finds, spread during the mid-second to the first century, mostly in northern Thrace (e.g., Marazov 1998, 234–237; Tonkova 2011a). There is an entirely new repertoire of forms, including, for example: snake-head torques; collier chains with cylindrical ends; open, massive bracelets; closed bracelets and hoops with overlapping ends; large spirals with bunched snake heads for terminals; and fibulae with diamond shaped bow, some of which are typical of the so-called Dacian hoards of silver Adornments 225 jewelry objects (Horedt 1973; Rustoiu 1996). Most, however, have specific characteristics that distinguish them from finds north of the Danube. The workshops operating south of the Danube constitute a discrete group, awaiting examination, yet their autonomous style is obvious; they should be regarded as actively contributing to the formation of the La Tène repertoire of forms and its extension into much of Europe. One further trait must be noted for the late Hellenistic period in Thrace. Imported Roman jewels, of the Graeco-Roman and Italo-Roman jewelry craft style begin to appear during the first century, including objects with polychromatic elements dominating over gold. After a gap of four centuries, gem jewelry reappeared in inland Thrace – products of late Hellenistic and early Republican glyptics. Translated by V. Bineva NOTES 1 All ancient dates BCE, unless otherwise noted. 2 Many factors hinder determining the sex of buried individuals. Most often, the preserved evidence is simply not probative and earlier excavations were not accompanied by osteological analysis. Thus, associated finds, especially the presence or absence of weapons, have traditionally been used to identify male or female burials. REFERENCES Agre, Daniela. 2009. “Hellenistic Gold Plate with Inscription from a Tumular Grave near Sinemorets, Tsarevo Region.” Archaeologia Bulgarica, 2: 21–26. Agre, Daniela. 2011. 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Tonkova, Milena. 1997a. “Traditions and Aegean Influences on the Jewellery of Thracia in Early Hellenistic Times.” Archaeologia Bulgarica, 1: 18–31. Tonkova, Milena. 1997b. “Hellenistic Jewellery from the Colonies on the West Black Sea Coast.” Archaeology in Bulgaria, 1: 83–102. Tonkova, Milena. 1998. “Les ateliers d’orfèvres de luxe en Thrace: méthodes de localisation.” Topoi, 8/2: 749–764. Tonkova, Milena. 1999. “L’orfèvrerie en Thrace aux Ve–IVe s. av. J.-C. Gisements d’or et d’argent, ateliers, parures.” In Thasos. Matières premières et technologie de la préhistoire à nos jours. Actes du Colloque International, Thasos, Limenaria, 1995, edited by H. H. Koukouli-Hrizantaki, A. Muller, and S. Papadopoulos, 185–194. Paris: De Boccard. Tonkova, Milena. 2000–2001. “Classical Jewellery in Thrace: Origins and Development, Archaeological Contexts.” Talanta (Amsterdam), 32–33: 277–288. Tonkova, Milena. 2002. “Nakiti s polihromna ukrasa ot V–I v. pr. Hr. ot Trakiya.” Izvestiya na Narodniya Muzei Burgas, 4: 98–112. Tonkova, Milena. 2005. “Izobrazheniia na nakiti varhu trite kanichki s glava na zhena ot Panagiurskoto sakrovishte.” In Heros Hephaistos: Studia in honorem Liubae Ognenova-Marinova, edited by Totko Stoyanov, Milena Tonkova, Christo Preshlenov, and Christo Popov, 262–275. Veliko Tarnovo: Faber. Tonkova, Мilena. 2006. “Influences réciproques dans l’orfèvrerie des Thraces et des Celtes au IVe–IIIe siècles av. J.-C.” In Thracians and Celts. Proceedings of the International Colloquium from Bistrita, edited by Valeriu Sîrbu and Dan L. Vaida, 265–278. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Mega. Tonkova, Milena. 2011a. “The Silver Jewellery Hoard from Chelyushnitsa in Thrace – A New Perspective.” In The Eastern Celts. The Communities between the Alps and the Black Sea, edited by Mitja Guštin and Miloš Jevtić, 189–198. Beograd: Univerza na Primorskem, Znanstveno-raziskovalno središče Koper, Založba Annales. Tonkova, Milena. 2011b. “Les parures d’harnachement en or de Thrace et l’orfèvrerie de la haute époque hellénistique.” Bolletino di Archeologia on line (Numero speciale dedicato al Congresso di archeologia, A.I.A.I., 2008), 44–63. Tonkova, Milena. 2012. “Zlatnata klonka ot Momina mogila i azhurnite ukrasi s lastari ot kasniya IV v. pr. Hr.” In Izkustvo i ideologiya: Sbornik v chest na Ivan Marazov, edited by Kostadin Rabadzhiev, Tatiana Shalganova, Valentina Ganeva-Marazova, and Ruslan Stoychev, 709–725. Sofia: Universitetsko izdatelstvo “Sv. Kliment Ohridski.” Tonkova, Milena. 2013. “Gold Wreaths from Thrace.” In The Thracians and Their Neighbors in the Bronze and Iron Age. Proceedings of the 12th International Congress of Thracology. Târgovişte, 10th–14th September 2013. Vol. II, Necropolises, Cult Places, Religion, Mythology, edited by Valerui Sîrbu and Radu Ștefănescu, 413–445. Braşov: Muzeul Brǎilei, Editura Istros. Tonkova, Milena. Forthcoming a. “Les bagues à chaton gravé des Ve–IIIe siècles av. J.-C. en Thrace.” Archaeologia Bulgarica. Tonkova, Milena. Forthcoming b. “Jewellery of ‘rich Thracian woman’ from Anchialos and the Middle and Late Hellenistic Jewellery Fashion.” In Actualité de la recherche sur les mobiliers non céramique de l’Antiquité et du haut Moyen Âge, Actes des Rencontres Instrumentum des 18–20 octobre 2012 à Lyon (F, Rhône), Table ronde européenne, edited by St. Raux et al. Chauvigny and Montagnac: Association des Publications Chauvinoise et Éditions Monique Mergoil. Tonkova, Мilena, and Petia Penkova. 2010. “Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli du Ve s. av. J.-C.: le cas du tumulus de Kukova.” ArcheoSciences, 33: 201–210. Torbov, Nartsis. 2005. Mogilanskata mogila vŭv Vratsa. Vratsa: Izdatelstvo Maĭobo. Tsarov, Ivan. 2008. Trakite kraĭy Atrius. Trakiyskoto pogrebenie ot s. Golemanite, Velikotarnovsko. Sofiia: Universitetsko izdatelstvo “Sv. Kliment Ohridski.” Vasić, Rastko. 1999. Die Fibeln im Zentralbalkan (Prähistorische Вronzefunde, Band 12). Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag. 228 Milena Tonkova Vasileva, Miglena. 2012. Fibuli ot kasnozheliaznata epoha v Drevna Trakiia (V–I v.pr.Chr.). PhD dissertation, Sofia. Venedikov, Ivan, and Todor Gerasimov. 1973. Trakiyskoto izkustvo. Sofia: Bulgarski Houdozhnik. GUIDE TO FURTHER READING Agre, Daniela, and Deyan Dichev. 2006. “Klasifikatsiia na fibulite ot dolmenite v Strandzha.” In IV International Symposium “Settlements in Thrace,” edited by I. Iliev, 9–30. Yambol: Ya. Offers a region-specific analysis of fibulae from the Strandzha mountains of Thrace. Dimitrova-Milcheva, Alexandra. 1980. Antichni gemi i kamei. Sofia: Septemvri. Presents the gems and cameos in the collections of the National Archaeological Museum, Sofia. Gencheva, Evgeniya. 2004. Rimskite fibuli ot Bulgaria ot kraya na I v.pr. n.e. do kraya na VI v. na n.e. Veliko Tarnovo: Faber. Presents fibulae from Roman Thrace. Gergova, Diana. 1980. “Genesis and Development of the Metal Ornaments in the Thracian Lands during the Early Iron Age (11th–6th c. B.C.).” Studia Praehistorica, 3: 97–112. Synthesizing discussion of jewelry in Early Iron Age Thrace. Popov, Hristo. 2006. “Eine ältereisenzeitliche Fibelgruppe aus Koprivlen (Südwestbulgarien). Problemkreis und Interpretationsversuche.” Archaeologia Bulgarica, 10: 9–36. Offers a site-specific analysis of fibulae from Koprivlen. Ruseva-Slokoska, Liudmila. 1991. Roman Jewellery. A Collection of the National Archaeological Museum, Sofia. London: Cromwell Editions. Includes discussion of late Hellenistic jewelry in Thrace. Tonkova, Milena. 1997. “Traditions and Aegean Influences on the Jewellery of Thracia in Early Hellenistic Times.” Archaeologia Bulgarica, 1: 18–31. Analyzes the problem of the interpenetration of Greek and local Thracian jewelry forms. Tonkova, Milena. 1997. “Hellenistic Jewellery from the Colonies on the West Black Sea Coast.” Archaeology in Bulgaria, 1: 83–102. Analyzes the splendid fashion of adornment in the colonies on the west Pontic coast. Tonkova, Milena. 2000–2001. “Classical Jewellery in Thrace: Origins and Development, Archaeological Contexts.” Talanta (Amsterdam), 31–32: 277–288. Defines the main characteristics of jewelry fashion in Thrace in the Classical period. Tonkova, Мilena. 2006. “Influences réciproques dans l’orfèvrerie des Thraces et des Celtes au IVe–IIIe siècles av. J.-C.” In Thracians and Celts. Proceedings of the International Colloquium from Bistrita, edited by Valeriu Sîrbu and Dan L. Vaida, 265–278. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Mega. Discusses symbiosis between Thracian and Celtic jewelry.