Timelines of Nearly Everything

Timelines of Nearly Everything "The only true wisdom is in knowing you know nothing." — Socrates Edited By Manjunath.R #16/1, 8th Main Road, Shivanagar, Rajajinagar, Bangalore560010, Karnataka, India *Corresponding Author Email: manjunath5496@gmail.com *Website: http://www.myw3schools.com/ This book takes readers back and forth through time and makes the past accessible to all families, students and the general reader and is an unprecedented collection of a list of events in chronological order and a wealth of informative knowledge about the rise and fall of empires, major scientific breakthroughs, groundbreaking inventions, and monumental moments about everything that has ever happened. "History repeats itself, first as tragedy, second as farce." − Karl Marx "History is only the register of crimes and misfortunes." − Voltaire Contents History is always written wrong, and so always needs to be rewritten. ― George Santayana The Story of the Universe 1 Timeline of ancient history 40 Timeline of environmental history 57 Timeline of European exploration 92 Timeline of European imperialism 129 Timeline of human prehistory 142 Timeline of natural history 153 Timeline of epochs in cosmology 183 Timeline of the Middle Ages 206 Timeline of women in the United States 264 Timeline of project management 266 Timeline of scientific thought 272 Timeline of mathematics 294 Timeline of zoology 320 Timeline of solar astronomy 340 Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology 342 Timeline of human evolution 355 Timeline of historic inventions 374 Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran 406 Timeline of speech and voice recognition 422 Timeline of solar cells 426 Timeline of steam power 432 Timeline of women's education 441 Timeline of luminiferous aether 478 Timeline of Jodrell Bank Observatory 485 Timeline of the telephone 488 Timeline of telescope technology 500 Timeline of psychology 505 Genetics Timeline 539 Timeline of nuclear weapons development 548 Timeline of photography technology 579 Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering 586 Timeline of alcohol fuel 614 Timeline of agriculture and food technology 624 Timeline of snowflake research 627 Timeline of mathematical innovation in South and West Asia 630 Timeline of geometry 631 Timeline of numerals and arithmetic 636 Timeline of computational mathematics 640 Timeline of abelian varieties 643 Timeline of calculus and mathematical analysis 646 Timeline of number theory 649 Timeline of mathematical logic 653 Timeline of the evolutionary history of life 653 Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene 666 Timeline of chemistry 679 Timeline of events related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances 698 Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics 716 Timeline of particle physics 730 Timeline of quantum computing 732 Timeline of thermodynamics 751 Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics 759 Timeline of carbon nanotubes 776 Timeline of physical chemistry 781 Timeline of nuclear fusion 812 Timeline of crystallography 826 Timeline of scientific computing 834 Timeline of computational physics 839 Timeline of the Manhattan Project 841 Timeline of particle physics technology 849 Timeline of automobiles 849 Timeline of transportation technology 878 Maritime timeline 887 Timeline of hypertext technology 893 Timeline of medicine and medical technology 896 Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world 912 Timeline of psychotherapy 918 Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs, and surveys 924 Timeline of Solar System astronomy 927 Timeline of cancer treatment development 936 Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae 941 Timeline of scientific discoveries 943 Timeline of cosmological theories 953 Timeline of paleontology 961 Timeline of biotechnology 966 Timeline of British botany 969 Timeline of scientific experiments 970 Timeline of the history of scientific method 974 Timeline of Polish science and technology 978 Timeline of black hole physics 994 Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity 998 Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium 1006 Timeline of cosmic microwave background astronomy 1007 Timeline of stellar astronomy 1011 Timeline of astronomy 1013 Timeline of algorithms 1026 Timeline of information theory 1032 Timeline of probability and statistics 1035 Timeline of classical mechanics 1038 Timeline of particle discoveries 1042 Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries 1045 Timeline of microscope technology 1048 Timeline of telecommunication 1051 Timeline of rocket and missile technology 1053 Timeline of states of matter and phase transitions 1058 Timeline of postal history 1060 Timeline of lighting technology 1070 Timeline of time measurement technology 1074 Timeline of materials technology 1075 Timeline of low-temperature technology 1078 Timeline of hydrogen technologies 1085 Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology 1092 Timeline of heat engine technology 1095 Timeline of clothing and textiles technology 1099 Timeline of women in library science 1106 Timeline of Artificial Intelligence 1107 Timeline of machine learning 1130 Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 1138 Timeline of computer viruses and worms 1148 Timeline of HIV/AIDS 1166 Timeline of Norse colonization of the Americas 1184 Timeline of the BBC 1184 Timeline of Jewish history 1226 Timeline of Zionism 1260 Timeline of Israeli history 1278 Timeline of antisemitism 1286 Timeline of the Holocaust 1411 Timeline of the Holocaust in Norway 1428 Timeline of German history 1432 Timeline of Native American art history 1492 Timeline of the Three Kingdoms period 1502 Timeline of Indian history 1509 Timeline of Buddhism 1547 Timeline of Jainism 1572 Timeline of Western philosophers 1575 Timeline of Eastern philosophers 1594 Timeline of World War I 1606 Timeline of events preceding World War II 1660 Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula 1689 Timeline of category theory and related mathematics 1721 Timeline of Gulf War (1990−1991) 1763 Timeline of sexual orientation and medicine 1770 Timeline of Solar System exploration 1776 Timeline of meteorology 1793 Timeline of the English Civil War 1814 Timeline of quantum mechanics 1824 Timeline of Christianity 1849 Timeline of the French Revolution 1896 Timeline of chemical element discoveries 1946 Timeline of the English Reformation 1976 Timeline of human vaccines 1981 100 Most Influential Scientists Who Shaped World History 1983 100 most influential people in the world 2158 Timeline of Roman history 2192 Timeline of ancient Greece 2248 Timeline of communication technology 2282 Timeline of coaching psychology 2287 Timeline of women in mathematics in the United States 2288 The Story of the Universe In Big Bang model (Cosmic model that presumes that the whole observable universe has expanded from an earlier state of much higher density) one finds that our universe started with an explosion − sending the matter and energy hurtling in all directions. This was not any ordinary explosion as might occur today, which would have a point of origin (center) and would spread out from that point. The explosion occurred simultaneously everywhere, filling all space with infinite heat and energy. At this time, order and structure were just beginning to emerge − the universe was hotter and denser than anything we can imagine (at such temperatures as hig h as t his a r e r eached in H ydr o gen- bomb exp lo s io ns and densities (of about a trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion trillion (1 with 72 zeros after it) tons per cubic inch) gravity and quantum mechanics were no longer treated as two separate entities as they were in point-particle quantum field theory, the four known forces were unified as one unified super force) and was very rapidly expanding much faster than the speed of light (this did not violate Einstein’s dictum that nothing can travel faster than light, because it was empty space that was expanding) and cooling in a way consistent with Einstein field equations. Planck energy ( ℏc5 √ G ) was the energy scale of the big bang, where all the forces were unified into a single ℏG superforce. At Planck length ( √ 3 ), the gravitational force was as strong as the other forces c and space-time was "foamy" − filled with tiny bubbles and wormholes appearing and disappearing into the vacuum. Quasars were quasi-stellar objects that were formed shortly after the big bang. As the universe was expanding, the temperature was decreasing. Since the temperature was decreasing, the universe was cooling and its curvature energy was converted into matter like a formless water vapor freezes into snowflakes whose unique patterns arise from a combination of symmetry and randomness. Approximately 10 −37 seconds into the expansion, a phase transition caused a cosmic inflation, during which the universe underwent an incredible amount of superliminal expansion and grew exponentially by a factor e 3Ht (where H was a constant called Hubble parameter and t was the time) – just as the prices grew by a factor of ten million in a period of 18 months in Germany after the First World War and it doubled in size every tiny fraction of a second – just as prices double every year in certain countries. After inflation stopped, the universe was not in a de Sitter phase and its rate of 1 expansion was no longer proportional to its volume since H (which measures the rate of expansion of the universe, and its inverse correlates roughly to the age of the universe) was no longer constant. At that time, the entire universe had grown by an unimaginable factor of 1050 and consisted of a hot plasma "soup" of high energetic quarks as well as leptons (a group of particles which interacted with each other by exchanging new particles called the W and Z bosons as well as photons). The composition of the hot plasma was identical everywhere and quarks and gluons were "deconfined" and free to move over distances much larger than the hadron size (>>1 fm) in a soup called quark gluon plasma (QGP). There were a number of different varieties of quarks: there were six "flavors," which we now call up, down, strange, charmed, bottom, and top. And among the leptons the electron was a stable object and muon (that had mass 207 times larger than electron and now belongs to the second redundant generation of particles found in the Standard Model) and the tauon (that had mass 3,490 times the mass of the electron) were allowed to decay into other particles. And associated to each charged lepton, there were three distinct kinds of ghostly particles called neutrinos (the most mysterious of subatomic particles − which are affected only by the weak force and gravity, are difficult to detect because they rarely interact with other forms of matter. Although they can easily pass through a planet or solid walls, they seldom leave a trace of their existence. Evidence of neutrino oscillations prove that neutrinos are not massless but instead have a mass less than one- hundred-thousandth that of an electron):  the electron neutrino (which was predicted in the early 1930s by Wolfgang Pauli and discovered by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan in mid-1950s)  the muon neutrino (which was discovered by physicists when studying the cosmic rays in late 1930s)  the tauon neutrino (a heavier cousin of the electron neutrino) Temperatures were so high that these quarks and leptons were moving around so fast that they escaped any attraction toward each other due to nuclear or electromagnetic forces. However, they possessed so much energy that whenever they collided, particle – antiparticle pairs of all kinds were being continuously created and destroyed in collisions. And the uncertainty in the position of the particle times the uncertainty in its velocity times the mass of the particle was never smaller than a certain quantity, which was known as Planck's constant. Similarly, ∆E × ∆t 2 was ≥ h 4π (where h was a quantity called Planck's constant and π = 3.14159 . . . was the familiar ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter). Hence the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle (which captures the heart of quantum mechanics – i.e. features normally thought of as being so basic as to be beyond question (e.g. that objects have definite positions and speeds and that they have definite energies at definite moments) are now seen as mere artifacts of Planck's constant being so tiny on the scales of the everyday world) was a fundamental, inescapable property of the universe. At some point an unknown reaction led to a very small excess of quarks and leptons over antiquarks and antileptons — of the order of one part in 30 million. This resulted in the predominance of matter over antimatter in the universe. The universe continued to decrease in density and fall in temperature, hence the typical energy of each particle was decreased in inverse proportion to the size of the universe (since the average energy – or speed – of the particles was simply a measure of the temperature of the universe). The symmetry (a central part of the theory [and] its experimental confirmation would be a compelling, albeit circumstantial, piece of evidence for strings) however, was unstable and, as the universe cooled, a process called spontaneous symmetry breaking phase transitions placed the fundamental forces of physics and the parameters of elementary particles into their present form. After about 10−11 seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments. At about 10 −6 seconds, there was a continuous exchange of smallest constituents of the strong force called gluons between the quarks and this resulted in a force that pulled the quarks to form little wisps of matter which obeys the strong interactions and makes up only a tiny fraction of the matter in the universe and is dwarfed by dark matter called the baryons (protons – a positively charged particles very similar to the neutrons, which accounts for roughly half the particles in the nucleus of most atoms − and neutrons – a neutral subatomic particles which, along with the protons, makes up the nuclei of atoms – belonged to the class baryons) as well as other particles. The small excess of quarks over antiquarks led to a small excess of baryons over antibaryons. The proton was composed of two up quarks and one down quark and the neutron was composed of two down quarks and one up quark. And other particles contained other quarks (strange, charmed, bottom, and top), but these all had a much greater mass and decayed very rapidly into protons and neutrons. The charge on the up quark was = + 3 2 3 e and the chargeon the down quark was = – 1 3 e. The other quarks possessed charges of + 2 3 e or – 1 3 e. The charges of the quarks added up in the combination that composed the proton but cancelled out in the combination that composed the neutron i.e. 1 2 2 Proton charge was = ( 3 e ) + ( 3 e ) + (– e) = e 3 1 1 2 Neutron charge was = ( 3 e) + (– e) + (– e) = 0 3 3 And the force that confined the rest mass energy of the proton or the neutron to its radius was so strong that it is now proved very difficult if not impossible to obtain an isolated quark. As we try to pull them out of the proton or neutron it gets more and more difficult. Even stranger is the suggestion that the harder and harder if we could drag a quark out of a proton this force gets bigger and bigger – rather like the force in a spring as it is stretched causing the quark to snap back immediately to its original position. This property of confinement prevented one from observing an isolated quark (and the question of whether it makes sense to say quarks really exist if we can never isolate one was a controversial issue in the years after the quark model was first proposed). However, now it has been revealed that experiments with large particle accelerators indicate that at high energies the strong force becomes much weaker, and one can observe an isolated quark. In fact, the standard model (one of the most successful physical theories of all time and since it fails to account for gravity (and seems so ugly), theoretical physicists feel it cannot be the final theory) in its current form requires that the quarks not be free. The observation of a free quark would falsify that aspect of the standard model, although nicely confirm the quark idea itself and fits all the experimental data concerning particle 1 physics without exception. Each quark felt the strong force and possessed baryon number = 3 : the total baryon number of the proton or the neutron was the sum of the baryon numbers of the quarks from which it was composed. And the electrons and neutrinos contained no quarks; they were themselves truly fundamental particles. And since there were no electrically charged particles lighter than an electron and a proton, the electrons and protons were prevented from decaying into lighter particles − such as photons (that carried zero mass, zero charge, a definite energy E = pc and a momentum p = mc) and less massive neutrinos (with very little mass, no electric charge, and no radius — and, adding insult to injury, no strong force acted on it). And a 4 free neutron being heavier than the proton was not prevented from decaying into a proton (plus an electron and an antineutrino). The temperature was now no longer high enough to create new proton– antiproton pairs, so a mass annihilation immediately followed, leaving just one in 1010 of the original protons and neutrons, and none of their antiparticles (i.e., antiparticle was sort of the reverse of matter particle. The counterparts of electrons were positrons (positively charged), and the counterparts of protons were antiprotons (negatively charged). Even neutrons had an antiparticle: antineutrons. A similar process happened at about 1 second for electrons and positrons (positron: the antiparticle of an electron with exactly the same mass as an electron but its electric charge is +1e). After these annihilations, the remaining protons, neutrons and electrons were no longer moving relativistically and the energy density of the universe w a s dominated by photons − (what are sometimes referred to as the messenger particles for the electromagnetic force) − with a minor contribution from neutrinos. At E=mc2 ≥ 100 GeV: the distinction between the electromagnetic force and the weak force disappeared. The density of the universe was about 4 × 109 times the density of water and much hotter than the center of even the hottest star – no ordinary components of matter as we know them – molecules, atoms, nuclei – could hold together at this temperature. And the total positive charge due to protons plus the total negative charge due to electrons in the universe was = 0 (Just what it was if electromagnetism would not dominate over gravity and for the universe to remain electrically neutral). As per Albert Einstein's theory of gravity: the four dimensional space-time curved, stretched, contracted and wiggled. Free neutron was highly unstable and decayed into: proton + electron + antineutrino. π0 decayed into two photons: π0 → γ + γ. Intrinsic energy of π0 was = total energy of photons. K0 decayed into two charged pions: K0 → π+ + π−. Intrinsic energy of K0 was = total energy of pions. And a few minutes into the expansion, when the temperature was about a billion (one thousand million; 109) Kelvin and the density was about that of air, protons and neutrons no longer had sufficient energy to escape the attraction of the strong nuclear force and they started to combine together to produce the universe’s deuterium and helium nuclei in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. And most of the protons remained uncombined as hydrogen nuclei. And inside the tiny core of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons, which was roughly 10 −13 cm across or roughly an angstrom, a proton was never permanently a proton and also a neutron was never permanently a neutron. They kept on changing into each other. A neutron emitted a π meson (a particle predicted by Hideki Yukawa 5 (for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics in 1949) – composed of a quark and antiquark, which is unstable because the quark and antiquark can annihilate each other, producing electrons − Particles of negative electricity − and other particles) and became proton and a proton absorbed a π meson and became a neutron. That is, the exchange force resulted due to the absorption and emission of π mesons kept the protons and neutrons bound in the nucleus. And the time in which the absorption and emission of π mesons took place was so small that π mesons were not detected. And a property of the strong force called asymptotic freedom caused it to become weaker at short distances. Hence, although quarks were bound in nuclei by the strong force, they moved within nuclei almost as if they felt no force at all. Gamma rays of very short wavelength, was produced in radioactive decay (spontaneous breakdown of one type of atomic nucleus into another) or by collisions of elementary particles. If the crests and troughs of two waves coincided, they resulted in a stronger wave, but if one wave's crests coincided with another's troughs, the two waves cancelled each other. The electron orbits in atoms were h such that the angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus was an integer of 2π, where h denoted Planck's constant. And when an electron changed from one orbit to another one nearer to the atomic nucleus, energy (equivalent to the difference of energy between the two orbits) was released in the form of a photon of wavelength = Planck constant momentum — which collided with an another atom, it moved an electron from an orbit nearer the nucleus to one farther away. Higgs field permeated the universe: whose value determined masses of elementary particles, broke the symmetry among the fundamental forces, and fixed the energy of the vacuum. The speed of light was the same for all observers. But the measurements of space and time differed for observers who were moving with respect to one another. Antigravity was opposite of gravity, which was repulsive rather than attractive. This antigravity force, however, was much too small to be measured in the laboratory, so it had no practical implications. Within only a few hours of the big bang, the Big Bang nucleosynthesis stopped. And after that, for the next million years or so, the universe just continued expanding, without anything much happening. Eventually, once the temperature had dropped to a few thousand degrees, there was a continuous exchange of virtual photons between the nuclei and the electrons. And the 6 exchange was good enough to produce — what else? — A force (proportional to a quantity called their charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them). And that force pulled the electrons (elementary particles which exhibited both particle-like and wavelike characteristics, depending on the circumstances) towards the nuclei to form neutral atoms (the basic unit of ordinary matter, made up of a tiny nucleus (consisting of protons and neutrons) surrounded by orbiting electrons). And these atoms reflected, absorbed, and scattered light and the resulted light was red shifted by the expansion of the universe towards the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum. And there was cosmic microwave background radiation (which, through the last 15 billion years of cosmic expansion, has now cooled to a mere handful of degrees above absolute zero (–273ºC − the lowest possible temperature, at which substances contain no heat energy and all vibrations stop—almost: the water molecules are as fixed in their equilibrium positions as quantum uncertainty allows) and today, scientists measure tiny deviations within this background radiation to provide evidence for inflation or other theories). The effect of the cosmic expansion was to decrease the cosmic microwave background temperature. At redshift z, the CMB temperature was: T = T0 (1 + z), where T0 = 2.728 ± 0.002 K. At z ≥ 1000: matter and radiation achieved thermal equilibrium. The photons (or any other classical waves) were emitted or absorbed only in discrete quanta, whose energy was proportional to their frequency, and inversely proportional to their wavelength. E= hυ = hc λ The wavelength of photons increased as it travelled across the universe. Electricity and magnetism were inseparable aspects of the electromagnetic waves (waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields) and these waves traveled at a fixed speed that matched exactly the speed of light given by: c= magnitude of electric field magnitude of magnetic field Because relativistic mass = = 1 √vacuum permittivity × vacuum permeability rest mass : the faster an particle moved, the more kinetic energy it 2 √1−v2 c 7 possessed. But according to E= mc2, kinetic energy added to an particle's mass, so the faster an particle moved, the harder it was to further increase the particle's speed. This effect was really significant only for particles moving at speeds close to the speed of light. As a particle approached the speed of light, its mass increased ever more quickly to infinite, so it took infinite amount of energy to speed it up further. This was the reason that any material particle was forever confined by relativity to move at speeds slower than the speed of light. Only photons that had no intrinsic mass moved at the speed of light. E2 = p2c2 + m02c4 m0 = 0: E = pc Nuclear transition was mediated by the weak force, in which the nuclear charge (Q = Ze) changed by one, either: Ze → (Z+1) e with the emission of an electron plus an antineutrino; or Ze → (Z−1) e with the emission of a positron plus a neutrino. Electrons, neutrinos, protons, and neutrons obeyed the Pauli's exclusion principle; their wave function was antisymmetric under interchange of particle position. The curvature of four-dimensional spacetime emerged from the distribution of matter and the motion of matter was influenced by the curvature of spacetime. Described mathematically by: Gμν = 8πG c2 × Tμν where Gμν denoted the Einstein tensor, constructed from the Ricci tensor, and had dimensions of inverse length, and Tμν was the four-dimensional stress-energy tensor and had dimensions of mass per unit volume. The irregularities in the universe meant that some regions of the nearly uniformly distributed atoms had slightly higher density than others. The gravitational attraction of the extra density slowed the expansion of the region, and eventually caused the region to collapse to form galaxies and stars. And the nuclear reactions in the stars transformed hydrogen to helium 8 (composed of two protons and two neutrons and symbolized by 2He4, highly stable—as predicted by the rules of quantum mechanics) to carbon (with their self- bonding properties, provide the immense variety for the complex cellular machinery— no other element offers a comparable range of possibilities) with the release of an enormous amount of energy via Einstein’s equation E = mc2. This was the energy that lighted up the stars. And the process continued converting the carbon to oxygen to silicon to iron. And the nuclear reaction ceased at iron. And the star experienced several chemical changes in its innermost core and these changes required huge amount of energy which was supplied by the severe gravitational contraction. And as a result the central region of the star collapsed to form a neutron star. And the outer region of the star (whose mass > 1.4 solar masses) got blown off in a tremendous explosion called a supernova, which outshone an entire galaxy of 100 billion stars, spraying the manufactured elements into space. And these elements provided some of the raw material for the generation of cloud of rotating gas which went to form the sun (which emitted approximately a black body radiation at a rate proportional to the product of fourth power of its absolute temperature and its surface area) and a small amount of the heavier elements collected together to form the asteroids, stars, comets, and the bodies that now orbit the sun as planets like the Earth and their presence caused the fabric of space around them to warp (more massive the bodies, the greater the distortion it caused in the surrounding space). Matter in galaxies, clusters, and possibly between clusters that did not scattered or absorbed light and was not been observed directly but was detected by its gravitational effect. As much as 90 percent of the mass of the universe was in the form of dark matter. A thin tube of space-time connected distant regions of the universe. Wormholes provided link to parallel or baby universes and also provided the possibility of time travel. The laws of quantum mechanics accurately governed the structure of atoms and molecules and the anthropic laws of nuclear and statistical physics governed the burning of stars – which made the universe appear to be simple and comprehensible. The conservation of matter and energy posited that the total amount of matter and energy in the universe was a constant. The infall of matter onto a forming star occurred because of their mutual gravitational attraction. Accretion was essential in the formation of stars and planetary systems. Active galactic nuclei were thought to be powered by the release of potential gravitational energy by accretion of matter onto a supermassive black hole. Two black holes orbiting each other (like stars in a binary system) radiated away significant orbital 9 energy by emission of gravitational radiation that lead to orbital decay − with the two black holes spiraling down toward each other and ultimately coalescing to form a single black hole. 1.4 solar masses was the maximum mass of cold matter that can be supported by degeneracy pressure, especially of electrons. This laid the maximum possible masses for white dwarfs and for the cores of massive stars before they collapse. Turbulent fragmentation took place in which a giant cloud of gas fragments broke into smaller clouds, which later became protostars. The volatile material of comets (cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust that, when passing close to the Sun, warms and begins to release gases) was primarily amorphous water ice but also constituted, with some variation in quantity, other simple molecules including a few percent (relative to water) of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, methanol, and methane. The inelastic scattering of high energy photons by charged electrons, where energy was lost by the photon because of the electron recoil. A photon carried momentum, part of which was exchanged between the photon and the electron. Conservation of energy and momentum yielded an increase in the photon wavelength (and hence a decrease in photon energy) as measured in the initial rest frame of the electron equal to: λ – λ0 = λC (1−cosθ) where λ0 denoted the wavelength of the incident photon, θ the scattering angle, λ the photon wavelength after scattering, and λC a constant equal to 2.43×10−12 m, called the Compton wavelength. If the scattered photon wavelength exceeded the Compton wavelength, then the energy exchange was irrelevant and the scattering was elastic (Thomson scattering). In plasma, collisions were mediated through long-range electrostatic (Coulomb) forces between electrons and protons. Dark cloud was a part of the interstellar medium that emitted little or no light at visible wavelengths and was composed of dust and gas that strongly absorbed the light of stars. Most of the gas was in molecular form and the densities were of the order of 10 3 to 104 particles cm−3 with masses of 102 to 104 solar masses and sizes of a few parsecs. The earth was initially very hot and without an atmosphere. In the course of time the planet earth produced volcanoes and the volcanoes emitted water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gases. And there was an atmosphere. This early atmosphere contained no oxygen, but a lot of other gases and among them some were poisonous, such as hydrogen sulfide (the gas that gives 10 rotten eggs their smell). And the sunlight dissociated water vapor and there was oxygen. And carbon dioxide in excess heated the earth and balance was needed. So carbon dioxide dissolved to form carbonic acid and carbonic acid on rocks produced limestone and subducted limestone fed volcanoes that released more carbon dioxide. And there was high temperature and high temperature meant more evaporation and dissolved more carbon dioxide. And as the carbon dioxide turned into limestone, the temperature began to fall. And a consequence of this was that most of the water vapor condensed and formed the oceans. And the low temperature meant less evaporation and carbon dioxide began to build up in the atmosphere. And the cycle went on for billions of years. And after the few billion years, volcanoes ceased to exist. And the molten earth cooled, forming a hardened, outer crust. And the earth’s atmosphere consisted of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, plus other miscellaneous gases (hydrogen sulfide, methane, water vapor, and ammonia). And then a continuous electric current through the atmosphere simulated lightning storms. And some of the gases came to be arranged in the form of more complex organic molecules such as simple amino acids (the basic chemical subunit of proteins, when, when linked together, formed proteins) and carbohydrates (which were very simple sugars). And the water vapor in the atmosphere probably caused millions of seconds of torrential rains, during which the organic molecules reached the earth. And it took two and a half billion years for an ooze of organic molecules to react and built earliest cells as a result of chance combinations of atoms into large structures called macromolecules and then advance to a wide variety of one – celled organisms, and another billion years to evolve through a highly sophisticated form of life to primitive mammals endowed with two elements: genes (a set of instructions that tell them how to sustain and multiply themselves), and metabolism (a mechanism to carry out the instructions). But then evolution seemed to have speeded up. It only took about a hundred million years to develop from the early mammals (the highest class of animals, including the ordinary hairy quadrupeds, the whales and Mammoths, and characterized by the production of living young which are nourished after birth by milk from the teats (MAMMAE, MAMMARY GLANDS) of the mother) to Homosapiens. With the invention of sex, two organisms exchanged whole paragraphs, pages and books of their DNA helix, producing new varieties for the sieve of natural selection. And the natural selection was a choice of stable forms and a rejection of unstable ones. And the variation within a species occurred randomly, and that the survival or extinction of each organism depended upon its 11 ability to adapt to the environment. And organisms that found sex uninteresting quickly became extinct. Language acquisition took place in which something called curiosity ensued which triggered the breath of perception and our caveman ancestors became conscious of their existence and they learned to talk and they developed spoken language – Glaciation occurred in which a thousand-year ice age began. Innovation occurred in which advanced tools were widely made and used – religion transpired in which a diversity of beliefs emerged – animal domestication took place in which humans domesticated animals. Food surplus production succeeded in which humans developed and promoted agriculture – inscription took place in which writing was invented and it allowed the communication of ideas. Warring nations occurred in which nation battled nation for resources – empire creation and destruction took place in which the first empire in human history came and went – civilization emerged in which many and sundry events occurred and a constitution was written – industrialization took place in which automated manufacturing and agriculture revolutionized the world – World conflagrations took place in which most of the world was at war and humans developed nuclear weapons – Computerization evolved in which computers were developed. Space exploration emerged in which humans began to explore outer space – population explosion preceded in which the human population of the earth increased at a very rapid pace. Superpower confrontation took place in which two powerful nations risked it all – internet expansion occurred in which a network of computers developed. Resignations took place in which one human quitted his job – reunification took place in which a wall went up and then came down. World Wide Web creation emerged in which a new medium was created. Composition took place in which a book was written and future events were discussed. The thermal neutrons were captured by atmospheric nitrogen 14 14 N, a proton was emitted and the cosmogenic nuclide C resulted. 14C produced in the lower stratosphere was transported down to the troposphere and carried out to earth by rain, and its traces were assimilated by living matter and stored, for instance in trees. The escape velocity (speed giving a zero total energy [kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy]) from the gravitational pull of a star of mass M and radius R was: 2GM ves = √ R where: G denoted the Newtonian gravitational constant. Adding mass to the star (increasing 12 M), or compressing the star (reducing R) increased v es = 2GM √ R . When the escape velocity exceeded the speed of light: the star became a black hole of radius r = 2GM c2 . Because r = 2GM c2 : the speed of light was the ultimate velocity in the universe, this denoted that nothing can escape a black hole, once an particle had crossed the event horizon. Black holes were of various sizes. Galactic black holes, lurking in the center of vast cosmic islands of stars and quasars, weighed millions to billions of solar masses. Stellar black holes were the remnant of a dying star, perhaps originally up to forty times the mass of our Sun. In a dying star, the electron degeneracy pressure was the repulsive force that prevented electrons or neutrons from completely collapsing. And this force was due to the Pauli Exclusion Principle, which stated that no two electrons can occupy precisely the same quantum state. The total entropy of the universe was always increasing, which meant that the second law of thermodynamics ultimately predicted the heat death of the universe. Entropy was conceptually associated with disorder; the greater the entropy the less ordered energy was available. The farther a galaxy was from Earth, the faster it moved. And this observation agreed with Albert Einstein's theory of an expanding universe. The distance D between almost any pair of galaxies was increasing at a rate: ν = dD dt c = HD. Beyond a certain distance, known as the Hubble distance H, it exceeded the velocity greater than the speed of light in vacuum. But, this was not a violation of relativity, because recession velocity was caused not by motion through space but by the expansion of space. A collapsed star consisted of a solid mass of neutrons was neutron star and these stars of 3 solar masses collapsed into a black hole. An object that experienced only gravitational forces moved along a geodesic in a spacetime, and its acceleration was zero. Black holes radiated away energy in form of Hawking radiation via quantum effects, in which case their horizon contracted. Cosmic rays interacting with the Earth's atmosphere created neutrons (of mass slightly greater than that of protons), as well as other particles and cosmogenic nuclides. Because neutrons were electrically neutral, their motion was not influenced by the Earth's geomagnetic field. Volcanoes were subjected to periodic eruptions during which molten rock (magma) and volcanic ash flew to the Earth's surface. 13 The interaction between 2 objects in the universe depended only on their distances and masses: FG = GMm r2 where FG denoted the attractive force, M and m the masses, r was their separation. Hydrostatic equilibrium was the condition in a star where the inward force of gravity was precisely balanced by the outward force due to the gradient of pressure. In the absence of hydrostatic equilibrium, a star expanded or contracted on the free-fall time scale. A slight imbalance led to stellar pulsation. A large imbalance led to either catastrophic collapse or violent explosion, or both. The known forces of the universe were divided into four classes:  Gravity: This was the weakest of the four; it acted on everything in the universe as an attraction. And if not for this force, everything would have gone zinging off into outer space and the life sustaining star would have detonated like trillions upon trillions of hydrogen bombs.  Electromagnetism: This was much stronger than gravity; it acted only on particles with an electric charge, being repulsive between charges of the same sign and attractive between charges of the opposite sign.  Weak nuclear force: This caused radioactivity and played a vital role in the formation of the elements in stars.  Strong nuclear force: This force held together the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus of an atom. And it was this same force that held together the quarks to form protons and neutrons. If these forces were unified, the positively charged particles (protons) − which constituted up much of the mass of ordinary matter − would have been unstable, and eventually decayed into lighter particles such as antielectrons. However, the probability of a proton in the universe gaining sufficient energy to decay was so small that one has to wait at least a million million million million million years. When an electron and a positron approached each other, they annihilated i.e., destroyed each other. During the process their masses were converted into energy in accordance with E = mc2. The energy thus released manifested as γ photons. 14 The massive bodies that were accelerated caused the emission of gravity waves, ripples in the curvature of 4 dimensional fabric of space-time that traveled away in all directions like waves in a lake at a specific speed, the speed of light. Like light, gravity waves carried energy away from the bodies that emit them. The ultimate fate of the universe was determined by a parameter called critical density  3H2 8πG : 2 3H Density of the universe > 8πG implied: the universe will eventually stop expanding then collapse.  3H2 Density of the universe < 8πG implied: the universe will expand forever. Below Planck Time: ℏG √ c5 ℏG Below Planck Length: √ 3 c ℏc5 Above Planck Temperature: √ 2 GkB All the known laws of physics were meaningless. Weird things occurred at the atomic and subatomic level:  Energy was quantized (E = nhυ).  Momentum was quantized (L = nℏ).  Charge was quantized (Q = ne). 4 NUMBERS described the characteristics of electrons and their orbitals:  Principal quantum number: a number that described the average distance of the orbital from the nucleus and the energy of the electron in an atom. 15  Angular momentum quantum number: a number that described the shape of the orbital.  Magnetic quantum number: a number that described how the various orbitals were oriented in space.  Spin quantum number: a number that described the direction the electron was spinning in a magnetic field — either clockwise or counterclockwise. The stars were shining, supernovae were exploding, black holes were forming, winds on planetary surfaces were blowing dust around, and hot things like coffee mugs were cooling down and the cosmological arrow of time pointed in the direction of the universe's expansion. The space was simply the lowest energy state of the universe. It was neither empty nor uninteresting, and its energy was not necessarily zero. Because E = mc2 (the equation that represents the correlation of energy to matter: essentially, energy and matter were but two different forms of the same thing) and due to the fuzziness of quantum theory (that implies: photon carries mass proportional to its frequency i.e., m = h c2 ʋ), some of the most incredible mysteries of the quantum realm (a jitter in the amorphous haze of the subatomic world) got far less attention than Schrödinger's famous cat. Virtual particle-antiparticle pairs of energy ΔE were continually created out of the empty space consistent with the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle of quantum ℏ mechanics (which implied: ΔE × Δt ≥ , where: Δt stood for time during which virtual particle2 antiparticle pairs appeared together, moved apart, then came together and annihilated each other giving energy back to the space without violating the law of energy conservation − which stated that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed from one form to another). Spontaneous births and deaths of roiling frenzy of particles so called virtual matter – antimatter pairs momentarily occurred everywhere, all the time − violated the Energy-momentum relationship: E = √p2 c 2 + m20 c 4 − was the conclusion that mass and energy were interconvertible; they were two different forms of the same thing. However, spontaneous births 16 and deaths of so called virtual particles could have produced some remarkable problem, because an infinite number of virtual particle-antiparticle pairs of energy (ΔE ≠ Δpc) were spontaneously created out of the empty space, therefore, by Einstein’s famous equation E = mc 2, infinite number of virtual particle antiparticle pairs bared an infinite amount of mass and according to general relativity, the infinite amount of mass could have curved up the universe to infinitely small size. But which obviously had not happened. The word virtual particles literally meant that these particles were not observed directly, but their indirect effects were measured to a remarkable degree of accuracy. Their properties and consequences were well established and well understood consequences of quantum mechanics. Everything was quantum. Subatomic particle behavior was governed by quantum mechanics, which produced different rules of physics for the very small entities. Without quantum mechanics, atoms would have not existed. The electrons, as they whizz around the nucleus, would have lost energy and collapsed into the center, destroying the atom. However, quantum mechanics prevented this from happening. The rest mass energy of each particle in the universe was given by: m0c2 = kBTp, where: Tp implied the threshold temperature below which that particle was effectively removed from the universe. All quarks possessed baryon number = 1 3 1 and all antiquarks possessed baryon number = − 3. All the known subatomic particles in the universe belonged to one of two groups, Fermions or 1 bosons. Fermions were particles with integer spin 2 and they constituted up ordinary matter. Their ground state energies were negative. Bosons were particles (whose ground state energies were positive) with integer spin 0, 1, 2 and they acted as the force carriers between fermions (For example: The electromagnetic force of attraction between electron and a proton was pictured as being caused by the exchange of large numbers of virtual massless bosons of spin 1, called photons). The equation S = kB c3 A 4ℏG implied that information about what fell into a black hole was stored like that on a record, and played back as the black hole evaporated. 6.022 × 1023 was the number of atoms, molecules or particles found in exactly one mole of substance. 17 The inverse of H was Hubble time and H was = Fractional rate of change of the scale factor of the universe. Since the gigantic universe was expanding adiabatically then it satisfied the first law of thermodynamics: 0 = dQ = dU + PdV where: Q denoted the total heat which was assumed to be constant, U the internal energy of the matter and radiation in the universe, P the pressure and V the volume of the universe. The change of energy of stationary black holes was related to change of area, angular momentum, and electric charge by the equation: dE = κ 8π dA + ΩdJ + ϕdQ where: E denoted the energy, κ the surface gravity, A the horizon area (which was a nondecreasing function of time: dA dt ≥ 0), Ω the angular velocity, J the angular momentum, ϕ the electrostatic potential and Q the electric charge. Fossil Fuels consisted largely of hydrocarbons, derived from decay of organic materials under geological conditions of high pressure and temperature. The rest mass energy of an electron was mec2 = 0.511 MeV and the rest mass energy of a proton was mPc2 = 938.3 MeV. And 1 eV was = 1.6 ×10−19 J. The flux received at Earth from a star of luminosity L at a distance r was given by an inverse square law: Flux = L 4πr2 The decay time of free neutron was 940 s, about a quarter of an hour. Since protons out mass electrons by a factor of 1836 to 1, the mass density of electrons was only a small perturbation to the mass density of protons and neutrons. Photons ionized an atom by kicking an electron out of 18 its orbit, this process was known as photoionization. And higher energy photons broke an atomic nucleus apart; this process was known as photodissociation. Light from a distant star which just grazed the Sun's surface deflected through an angle: α = 4GM , where M and R c2 R denoted the mass and radius of the sun. The ionization energy of hydrogen atom was: Q = 13.6 eV. A photon with an energy hυ > Q was capable of photoionizing a hydrogen atom: Hydrogen atom + photon → proton + electron This reaction rushed in the opposite direction, as well; a proton and an electron underwent radiative recombination, forming a bound hydrogen atom while a photon carried away the excess energy: proton + electron → Hydrogen atom + photon. An atomic nucleus of radius = 1.25 × 3 10−15 m × √Atomic mass number contained Z protons and N neutrons, where Z was ≥ 1 and N was ≥ 0. Protons and neutrons were collectively called nucleons. The total number of nucleons within an atomic nucleus was termed the mass number, and was given by the formula: A = Z + N. The proton number Z of a nucleus determined the atomic element to which that nucleus belonged. When a neutron and a proton were bound together to form a deuterium nucleus, energy of 2.22 MeV was released: proton = neutron ↔ deuterium + 2.22 MeV. The radiant intensity varied with wavelength and was a maximum for a particular wavelength "λmax" for a given star. The wavelength corresponded to the value of λmax decided the color of the star and one could calculate effective surface temperature of the star "TS" using Wien's displacement law: λmaxTS = 2.897 × 10−3mK. For example: effective surface temperature of the sun was 5800K, this corresponded to λmax ≈ 5500 Å. Hence, the sun appeared yellow in color. According to virial theorem: 19 1 Thermal energy was = − gravitational potential energy 2 Since gravitational potential energy was negative for any bounded system. Thermal energy was always positive. Fusion reactions took place only at very high temperature of the order of 107 to 109K. Hence, these reactions were termed thermonuclear reactions. A star was able to control thermonuclear reaction in its core because of its strong self gravity. The nuclear fusion reaction occurring inside a star was as follows: 4 protons → 1 helium nucleus + 2 positrons + KE where: KE denoted the total energy was released in the form of kinetic energy of different particles. White dwarfs were hot stars of lower luminosity. These stars had lower radius than compared to the sun. There was a mass limit to neutron stars. It was approximately about 4 solar masses. Beyond this limit the degenerate neutron pressure was not sufficient to overcome the gravitational contraction and the star collapsed. There was no mass limit to the mass of a black hole. As there was no agency which can prevent the collapse of the dark star, the entire mass of a black hole shrinked to a point of infinite density. Atom was composed of a tiny nucleus in which its positive charge and nearly all its mass were concentrated, with the electrons some distance away. Therefore most of the space in an atom was empty. When an electron was absorbed by the atomic nucleus, a nuclear proton became a neutron: Proton + electron → neutron Thus in this process Z was reduced to (Z − 1) and N was increased to (N + 1). A reaction in which energy was absorbed was termed endoergic or endothermic reaction. And a reaction in which energy was released was termed exoergic or exothermic reaction. 20 The photoelectric effect was explained in terms of the energy conservation. The energy of a single photon was E = hυ = W + 1 2 2 mvmax , where W denoted the work function required to remove an electron from the metal surface, and vmax the maximal velocity of the emitted electron. A Wave and particle aspect of radiation was: Wave nature Particle nature Polarization Photoelectric effect Interference Compton scattering Diffraction Blackbody radiation The wave function ѱ was complex, but the product ѱѱ was always real and a positive quantity. The number of isotopes varied from element to element and was larger for heavier elements – i.e. those with a greater number of nucleons. The heaviest naturally occurring element was uranium, which possessed nineteen isotopes, all of which owned 92 protons. The most common of these was U238, which contained 146 neutrons, while the isotope involved in nuclear fission was U235 with 143 neutrons. When a neutron was added to a heavy nucleus, such as U235, it underwent fission into smaller fragments. More neutrons were released in this process, which led to a chain reaction triggering the fission of other nuclei. Nuclides with the same mass number were termed isobars, Nuclides with the same atomic number were termed isotopes, Nuclides with the same neutron number were termed isotones. The fourth state of matter was plasma − a state made of positive and negative electric charges and electromagnetic radiation − which was abundant in the Universe because it was present in the stars. The behavior of photons in matter was very different from that of charged particles. Indeed, the photons were subjected to numerous interactions with atomic electrons − the photoelectric effect, Compton scattering (including Thomson and Rayleigh collisions) and pair 21 production. An electron-positron pair was created by a high energy photon in the Coulomb field of a nucleus: gamma photon + nucleus → electron-positron pair + nucleus. The electromagnetic interaction was considered as a unification of the electrostatic and magnetic forces and the q1 q2 electrostatic force was ruled by Coulomb's law: F = K 2 , where q1 and q2 denoted the pointr like particle electric charges, r the distance between them, and K was a proportionality constant ≈ 8.988×109 Nm2C−2. The electrostatic force attracted or repelled particles, depending on the ℏc relative sign of the charges. The Planck mass √ which was a huge mass compared to the most G known massive particles and the Planck length was ≈ 1020 smaller than the proton size. Particles with masses in the range 0.1–3GeV/c2 and with lifetimes ranging from 10−6 to 10−12 s decayed via the weak interaction. The density of the universe was expressed as the sum of different density terms:  Visible baryonic matter  Nonvisible baryonic matter  Nonbaryonic dark matter  Neutrinos  Dark energy Nuclear forces were stronger by a factor of 137 from the electromagnetic force and were stronger by a factor of 1040 from gravitational forces − did not depend on the electric charge and had an interaction range of about 10−15 m. The nuclear volume was proportional to the number of nucleons: R3 α A. The radon was a noble and radioactive gas formed by the decay of radium in the uranium decay chain. Alpha particles were helium nuclei which were very stable and with a binding energy ≈ 28:3MeV. Magnetic moment of an electron was one Bohr magneton: μB = while that of a proton was one nuclear magneton: μN = amu and 1 amu was ≈ 1.660538 × 10−27 kg. 22 eℏ 2mp eℏ 2me . The weight of 1 atom of 12C was 12 Energy width Γ and lifetime τ of a particle were related by the equation: Γ= ℏ τ . Every symmetry was associated with it a conservation law and vice-versa. Energy, charge, momentum and angular momentum were conserved in all interactions. The relative charge of electron : proton : neutron was −1 : +1 : 0. One electron-Volt was the energy gained by an electron when accelerated by a potential difference of one volt. An electron possessed rest mass energy of 0.511MeV. And the energy required to create an electron-positron pair was 2mec2 = 2 × 0.511MeV = 1.022 MeV. Neutrinos and anti-neutrinos were probably the most numerous particles in the universe created in β decay and nuclear fusion reaction. Feynman diagrams represented particle motion in time and illustrated particle interactions and decays. Quantum Field Theory described fundamental interactions of elementary particles and combined quantum mechanics and special relativity. ℏ Very small (∆x × ∆p ≥ ) 2 Very fast (v ≈ c) Classical Physics Quantum mechanics Special relativity Quantum field theory Negative energy particles (with mc2 < 0) moved backwards in space and time. The range of forces was related to the mass of exchange particle ∆m. An amount of energy ΔE=∆mc2 borrowed for a time Δt was governed by the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: ∆E × ∆t ~ ℏ. The maximum distance the particle could travel was Δx = c × Δt, where c denoted the speed of light in vacuum. Δx = ℏc ∆E ~ ℏ ∆mc W boson possessed a mass of 80 GeV/c2 and the Range of weak force was 197 MeV fm 8×105 Mev ~ 2 ×10−3 fm 23 Color was a conserved quantity − gluons (exchange particles for the strong force between quarks) were thought of as carrying a color and an anticolor charge. Quarks constantly changed their color charges as they exchanged gluons with other quarks. Neutrinos and photons were massless − there was nothing to decay for them into. The electron was lightest charged particle, so conservation of charge prevented its decay. The mean life time of μ mesons in a burst of cosmic rays was found to be ∆t = ∆t0 2 √1−v2 c , where ∆t0 denoted the mean life of μ mesons at rest. The gravitational binding energy of a star was − 3GM2 5R . The proton-proton cycle occurred in less massive stars with smaller central temperatures (≈ 107K). 4H1 → 2He4 + 2e+ + 2νe + 26.8 MeV In this cycle, the total energy released was 26.8 MeV, which maintained the luminosity of the star. In Sun, 90% of the energy produced was because of proton-proton cycle. In more massive stars in which temperature exceeded 15 ×106K, hydrogen burning occurred with an entirely different sequence of reactions in which 6C12 nucleus acted as a catalyst. In this process, reactions proceeded with the formation of nitrogen and oxygen isotopes. The entire cycle was termed CNO cycle. The total energy produced in this cycle was 25.7 MeV per fusion reaction. The degeneracy of the electron gas in white dwarfs was decided by the following conditions:  kBT << KEF → fully degenerate gas  kBT ~ KEF → partially degenerate gas  kBT >> KEF → non-degenerate gas where KE F denoted the Fermi kinetic energy and T the temperature of the electron gas. If the mass of the star was < 1.4 Solar mass, it stabilized as a white dwarf. If the mass of the star was >1.4 Solar mass, the gravity was the winner and star kept collapsing into next stage, which was neutron star. This neutron star attained equilibrium by balancing the inward gravitational pull by the outward pressure of degenerate neutrons. CNO cycle was not observed in less massive stars. CNO cycle required temperature of the order of 15 ×10 6K and this temperature was observed in more massive stars. There was a mass limit to neutron stars. It was approximately about 4 Solar mass. Beyond this limit the degenerate neutron pressure was not sufficient to 24 overcome the gravitational contraction and the star collapsed. Pulsars (highly magnetized rotating compact stars that emit beams of electromagnetic radiation out of their magnetic poles) were nothing but rotating neutron stars:  the size of each was around 10 km  the rotational period of a pulsar was comparable with that of a neutron star. The average life-time of the free neutron was about 885 seconds. The evolution of stars was generally a slow and peaceful phenomenon. But the fate of all stars was not the same. There were a few stars whose peaceful evolution was disturbed by sudden and violent outburst. These were coined exploding stars or supernova. Any star whose mass exceeded 1.4 solar mass had a chance to explode as supernova. These massive stars experienced several chemical changes in its innermost core. At first, hydrogen in the core was converted into helium. Subsequently, the core contracted, the temperature increased and the helium in the core was changed into carbon, oxygen and neon. Further contraction and increase in the temperature in the core transformed carbon group of elements in the core first into silicon group of metals and then into iron group. At this stage, a peculiar change took place, iron group of metals were suddenly changed back into helium and some neutrons were set free. This change required huge amount of energy which was supplied by the severe gravitational contraction. The core could hardly bear such excessive contraction which therefore collapsed. At the same time, the outer layer became so hot that thermonuclear reaction started in that region liberating huge amount of energy. This energy could not be radiated away quickly as was necessary to hold the structure of the star. As a result, the star suffered a violent explosion. The total energy released in a supernova explosion was nearly of the order of 1042J. There were two types of supernova, namely:  Type I Supernova  Type II Supernova For a typical Type II supernova, the ejected envelope was ∼10 solar mass and observed ejecta velocities were about 104 km/s, giving kinetic energy of the ejected envelope (Ekin) ∼ 1051 erg. The supernova had a luminosity L ≈ (2 × 108 × solar luminosity) for up to several months, so that the total energy lost in the form of radiation was Eph ∼ 1049 erg. Therefore: Eph ∼ 0.01Ekin ∼ 10−4Egr (where Egr denoted the gravitational energy released during the collapse of the core) and 25 Egr ≫ Eenv + Ekin + Eph (where Eenv denoted the energy necessary to expel the envelope). Photons were absorbed and reemitted (scattered) while passing through the stellar interior. Therefore they transported energy from hotter to cooler layers. The pressure inside a star was the sum of the gas pressure and radiation pressure: P = Pradiation + Pgas = Pradiation + Pions + Pelectrons In the process of electron scattering, a photon was scattered by a free electron. There was a tiny probability that the outgoing photon was replaced by a neutrino-antineutrino pair: Photon + electron → electron + neutrino + antineutrino The probability of producing a neutrino-antineutrino pair instead of a photon was ∝ T4. In dense plasma, an electromagnetic wave generated collective oscillations of the electrons. The energy of these waves was quantized and a quantum of this oscillation energy was called a 'plasmon'. The plasmon decayed into photons. The stars much more massive than 100 solar mass were very unstable and indeed none were known to exist (while those with mass > 50 solar mass indeed showed signs of being close to instability i.e., they lost mass very readily). Shell-burning stars obeyed something called the mirror principle: Core contraction ⇒ envelope expansion Core expansion ⇒ envelope contraction If the temperature in the contracting core reached values close to 1010 K, the energy of the photons was large enough to break up the heavy nuclei into lighter ones − in particular 56Fe was disintegrated into α particles and neutrons: 56 Fe + γ ↔ 13 4He + 4 n Ignition threshold temperatures for various nuclear reactions were as follows: 26 Process Reaction Ignition threshold temperature hydrogen fusion H→ He 10 × 106K helium fusion He → C,O 100 × 106K carbon fusion C→O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 × 106K neon fusion Ne → O, Mg 1200 × 106K Pulsating stars were thermodynamic heat engines and radial oscillations were the result of sound waves resonating in the stellar interior. A rough estimate for the pulsation period, Π, was obtained by calculating the length of time it would take a sound wave to travel across the diameter of a star. That was, Π = material inside a star was ∝ 2 ×radius of the star . At high temperature, the opacity of the speed of sound wave density (temperature)3.5 . When a nucleus had an excess of neutrons over that of protons it was unstable and emitted electrons. Thus in this process Z was increased by one unit to (Z + 1) and N was decreased to (N − 1). Being nearly massless, neutrinos travelled at nearly the speed of light, which was approximately 186,000 miles (299,338 kilometers) a second. Thunderstorms produced protons with energies of up to several tens of MeV. Intrinsic energy of each proton was = (kinetic energy of quarks + potential energy of quarks + intrinsic energy of quarks). For each particle there was a threshold temperature: T = m0 c2 kB . Once the universe dropped below that temperature the particle was effectively removed from the universe. The threshold temperature of the proton was ≈ 1.1 × 1013 K. The volume of the universe was ∝ (scale factor of the universe) 3, so the matter density varied as 1 (scale factor of the universe)3 . When particle A entered the ergosphere of a Kerr black hole, it split into particles B and C: EA = EB + EC such that: EC < 0, EB > EA. The particle B exited the ergosphere with more energy than particle A while particle C went into the black hole. In this way, rotational energy was extracted from the black hole, resulting in the Kerr black hole being spun down to a lower rotational speed. 27 The Compton wavelength h m0 c of a particle characterized the length scale at which the wave property of a given particle started to show up. In an interaction that is characterized by a length scale larger than the Compton wavelength, particle behaved classically (i.e., no observation of wave nature). For interactions that occur at a length scale comparable than the Compton wavelength, the wave nature of the particle began to take over from classical physics. The black hole of mass M emitted thermal Hawking radiation at the rate Mc2 3tev through its evaporation time. As the black hole lost mass, the temperature of the black hole (which was = ℏc3 8πGMkB ) raised and its rate of emission of particle increased, so it lost energy more and more quickly at a rate proportional to 1 M2 . The black hole ought to emit particles and radiation as if it were a hot body with a temperature that depended only on the black hole's mass: the higher the mass, the lower the temperature. The total entropy of the universe S uni, was continually increasing with time and entropic energy of the universe was never less than or greater than T × S uni but = T × Suni. The universe obeyed the relation: dSuni ≥ 0 Because h was very small, the frequency of the photon υ = E h was always greater than its energy. And the only thing that quantum mechanics was going for it, in fact, is that it was unquestionably correct. Since the Planck's constant was very small, quantum mechanics was for little things and quantum mechanical effects were not noticeable for macroscopic objects. In expanding space, recession velocity kept increasing with distance. Beyond a certain distance, known as the Hubble c distance H , it exceeded the velocity greater than the speed of light in vacuum. However, this was not a violation of relativity, because recession velocity was caused not by motion through space but by the expansion of space. 28 23 The effective temperature experienced by a uniformly accelerating observer in a vacuum field was given by: T U = ℏa 2πckB , where a denoted the acceleration of the observer, kB the Boltzmann constant, ħ the reduced Planck constant, and c the speed of light in vacuum. The entire electromagnetic spectrum — from radio waves to gamma rays, most of the light in the universe — resembled nothing but transverse waves of energy E = hc , which in turn were vibrating λ h Maxwell force fields differing only in their wavelength λ = . The Coulombic repulsive force p between two protons inside the nucleus was 1036 times the gravitational force between them. The nuclear attractive force between two neutrons was 1038 times the gravitational force between them. The nuclear reaction occurring inside the sun, irrespective of pp or CNO cycle, was as follows: 4 protons → 1 helium nucleus + 2 positrons + E, where E denoted the energy released in the form of radiation. Approximately it was 25 MeV ≈ 40 × 10 − 13J. The unification of so called weak nuclear forces with the Maxwell equations was what known as the Electro weak theory. And the electro weak theory and QCD together constituted the so called Standard Model of particle physics, which described everything except gravity. Material, such as gas, dust and other stellar debris that approached the black hole prevented themselves from falling into it by forming a flattened band of spinning matter around the event horizon called the accretion disk. And since the spinning matter accelerated to tremendous speeds (v ≈ c) by the huge gravity of the black hole the heat and powerful X-rays and gamma rays were released into the universe. Because r = 3GM c2 the photon spheres existed only in the space surrounding an extremely compact object (a black hole or possibly an "ultracompact" neutron star). This story of a universe that started off very hot and cooled as it expanded is in agreement with all the observational evidence that we have today. Nevertheless, it leaves an important question unanswered whether the laws of physics had any choice in the creation of the world. And this is a fundamental question. And compared to this question, all other questions seem trivial. Yes, it would have had many choices if it had wanted to set the value of the speed of light much smaller 29 24 than its actual value and the values of electron mass, proton mass, and constants determining the magnitudes of electromagnetic interaction, strong interaction, and weak interaction much larger than their actual values. However, in order to have sun-like stars in the universe which can sustain life; it seemed that it had only limited choices. "The role played by time at the beginning of the universe is, I believe, the final key to removing the need for a Grand Designer, and revealing how the universe created itself. … Time itself must come to a stop. You can’t get to a time before the big bang, because there was no time before the big bang. We have finally found something that does not have a cause because there was no time for a cause to exist in. For me this means there is no possibility of a creator because there is no time for a creator to have existed. Since time itself began at the moment of the Big Bang, it was an event that could not have been caused or created by anyone or anything. … So when people ask me if a god created the universe, I tell them the question itself makes no sense. Time didn’t exist before the Big Bang, so there is no time for God to make the universe in. It’s like asking for directions to the edge of the Earth. The Earth is a sphere. It does not have an edge, so looking for it is a futile exercise." ― Stephen W. Hawking 30 Spheres of Earth  Lithosphere – Rock  Atmosphere – Air  Hydrosphere – Water  Biosphere – Life Claudius Ptolemy Earth-centered Cosmology Edwin Hubble Nicolaus Copernicus Big Bang Cosmology Sun-centered Cosmology We have little idea of its physical nature. Quintessence is a theory that allows the cosmological constant " Λ " to vary with time. 31 Universe: Open, closed, or flat? Three possibilities: Open  Negative curvature  Infinite in extent  Will expand forever (not enough matter to halt expansion → Big Freeze) Closed  Positive curvature  Finite in extent  Will collapse (enough matter to halt expansion → Big Crunch) Flat  In essence, no curvature  Infinite in extent  Expansion will stop at infinite time  Big Bang theory: universe created from dense primeval fireball.  Steady state theory: matter continuously created with net constant density. 32 Friedmann Equation: 1 = 8πGρm 3H2 Mass density − k a 2 H2 Curvature + Λ 3H2 Vacuum energy density The electromagnetic and weak interactions lose their symmetry below 100 GeV Big Bang model rests on 2 theoretical foundations:  The general theory of relativity  The cosmological principle (The universe is both isotropic and homogeneous) 100 billion stars in Milky Way 10% with planetary systems 1% of planetary systems have habitable planets 33 Unseen energy accelerating galaxies 73% Dark Energy Universe 23% Cold Dark Matter 4% Atoms Mass ≈ 10−27 grams Size less than 10−16 centimeters The Electron is Smallest electric charge known. Olber's Paradox Neutrinos! If the Universe were: (Very low energy: 1.94K → hard to detect) 1) infinitely large, 2) infinitely old, 3) filled isotropically with stars, Then the night sky would not be dark  Uniform, "Fossil" Light from the Big Bang  Isotropic (2.7 K everywhere)  Unpolarized Cosmic microwave background 34 Belgian astronomer and cosmologist George Lemaitre proposed the idea that the universe was expanding in 1927. He named it the "Hypothesis of the primeval atom". Protons and neutrons combined to make long-lasting helium nuclei when universe was ~ 3 minutes old. DARK MATTER Matter that does not shine or absorb light, and has therefore escaped direct detection by electromagnetic transducers like telescopes, radio antennas, X-ray satellites... One light year → The distance that light travels through space in one year. The sun and planets formed from a cloud of gas NEBULAR MODEL and dust that collapsed because of gravity. 35 Hubble's Law:  More Distant Galaxies Recede Faster General Theory of Relativity (Albert Einstein 1915) Predicts that gravitational waves propagate at the speed of light. Describes gravity in terms of the warping of space-time by the presence of mass and energy. Universe How did it start, and how it is going to end ? dE = − p dV Volume V of an expanding universe grows, so its energy decreases if pressure p is positive. Total energy of matter and of gravity (related to the shape and the volume of the universe) is conserved, but this conservation is somewhat unusual: The sum of the energy of matter and of the gravitational energy is equal to zero. 36 "It is said that there is no such thing as a free lunch. But the universe is the ultimate free lunch". − Alan Guth Comets are made up of: At the Planck Distances: Small, Planck-sized Black Holes pop out of vacuum and  The nucleus  The coma  The ion tail  The dust tail disappear within Planck time: ℏG √ 5 c Planet → derived from a Greek word that means "wanderer ". Stars moving away = Red shift Stars moving toward = Blue shift Greater the shift = faster the speed Matter is composed out of elementary particles bound together by forces, mediated QUANTUM FIELD THEORY by exchange of other elementary particles. 37 Type I Supernova Type II Supernova Total energy ejected 1042J 1043J Peak luminosity 109 × solar luminosity 108 × solar luminosity 1 Average mass ejected 2 solar mass to 2 solar mass 2 solar mass to 5 solar mass Fall off of luminosity vs. time Regular Irregular Spectrum of radiation No hydrogen lines Strong hydrogen lines Location With old and young stars With young stars Gravitational redshift: λobserved = λemitted √1− (1 + z) = λobserved λemitted 2GM c2 R 1 = √1− 2GM c2 R Gravitational time dilation: tdilated = t0riginal 2GM c2 R = (1 + z) toriginal √1− λobserved λemitted = tdilated t0riginal λobserved ∝ tdilated λemitted ∝ toriginal If R= 3GM c2 : 38 tdilated = √3 toriginal λobserved = √3 λemitted (1 + z) = λobserved λemitted = √3 z = 0.73205080756 If R = 2 × 2GM c2 : tdilated = √2 toriginal λobserved = √2 λemitted (1 + z) = λobserved λemitted = √2 z = 0.41421356237 "In science it often happens that scientists say, 'You know that's a really good argument; my position is mistaken,' and then they would actually change their minds and you never hear that old view from them again. They really do it. It doesn't happen as often as it should, because scientists are human and change is sometimes painful. But it happens every day. I cannot recall the last time something like that happened in politics or religion." ― Carl Sagan 39 Timeline of ancient history We are not makers of history. We are made by history. Martin Luther King, Jr.  c. 3200 BC: Sumerian cuneiform writing system and Egyptian hieroglyphs  3200 BC: Newgrange built in Ireland  3200 BC: Cycladic culture in Greece  3200 BC: Norte Chico civilization begins in Peru  3200 BC: Rise of Proto-Elamite Civilization in Iran  3150 BC: First Dynasty of Egypt  3100 BC: Skara Brae in Scotland  c. 3000 BC: Egyptian calendar  c. 3000 BC: Stonehenge construction begins. In its first version, it consisted of a circular ditch and bank, with 56 wooden posts.  c. 3000 BC: Cucuteni-Trypillian culture in Romania and Ukraine  3000 BC: Jiroft civilization begins in Iran  3000 BC: First known use of papyrus by Egyptians  2800 BC: Kot Diji phase of the Indus Valley Civilization begins  2800 BC: Longshan culture in China  2700 BC: Minoan Civilization ancient palace city Knossos reach 80,000 inhabitants  2700 BC: Rise of Elam in Iran  2700 BC: The Epic of Gilgamesh becomes the first written story  2700 BC: The Old Kingdom begins in Egypt 40  2600 BC: Oldest known surviving literature: Sumerian texts from Abu Salabikh, including the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymn.  2600 BC: Mature Harappan phase of the Indus Valley civilization (in presentday Pakistan and India) begins  2600 BC: Emergence of Maya culture in the Yucatán Peninsula A millennium before Europeans were willing to divest themselves of the Biblical idea that the world was a few thousand years old, the Mayans were thinking of millions and the Hindus billions. Carl Sagan We're coming into a rebirth of the planet. And some cultures have echoed it, such as the Mayans have echoed that, and it came from the ancient Egyptians. Jimmy Cliff  2560 BC: King Khufu completes the Great Pyramid of Giza. The Land of Punt in the Horn of Africa first appears in Egyptian records around this time.  2500-1500 BC: Kerma culture in Nubia  2500 BC: The mammoth goes extinct.  2334 or 2270 BC: Akkadian Empire is founded, dating depends upon whether the Middle chronology or the Short chronology is used.  2250 BC: Oldest known depiction of the Staff God, the oldest image of a god to be found in the Americas. 41  2200-2100 BC: 4.2 kiloyear event: a severe aridification phase, likely connected to a Bond event, which was registered throughout most North Africa, Middle East and continental North America. Related droughts very likely caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt and of the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia.  2200 BC: completion of Stonehenge.  2055 BC: The Middle Kingdom begins in Egypt  2000 BC: Domestication of the horse  1900 BC: Erlitou culture in China  1800 BC: alphabetic writing emerges  1780 BC: Oldest Record of Hammurabi's Code.  1700 BC: Indus Valley Civilization comes to an end but is continued by the Cemetery H culture; The beginning of Poverty Point Civilization in North America  1600 BC: Minoan civilization on Crete is destroyed by the Minoan eruption of Santorini island.  1600 BC: Mycenaean Greece  1600 BC: The beginning of Shang Dynasty in China, evidence of a fully developed Chinese writing system  1600 BC: Beginning of Hittite dominance of the Eastern Mediterranean region  c.1550 BC: The New Kingdom begins in Egypt  1500 BC: Composition of the Rigveda is completed  c.1400 BC: Oldest known song with notation  1400-400 BC: Olmec civilization flourishes in Pre-Columbian Mexico, during Mesoamerica's Formative period  1200 BC: The Hallstatt culture  1200-1150 BC: Bronze Age collapse in Southwestern Asia and in the Eastern Mediterranean region. This period is also the setting of the Iliad and the Odyssey epic poems (which were composed about four centuries later).  c. 1180 BC: Disintegration of Hittite Empire 42  1100 BC: Use of Iron spreads.  1046 BC: The Zhou force (led by King Wu of Zhou) overthrow the last king of Shang Dynasty; Zhou Dynasty established in China  1000 BC: Nok culture in West Africa  c.1000 BC: King David begins his reign as the second King of Israel, after Saul  970 BC: King Solomon begins his reign as third King of Israel, after David  890 BC: Approximate date for the composition of the Iliad and the Odyssey  814 BC: Foundation of Carthage by the Phoenicians in today known Tunisia  800 BC: Rise of Greek city-states  788 BC: Iron Ancient in Sungai Batu (Old Kedah)  c.785 BC: Rise of the Kingdom of Kush  776 BC: First recorded Ancient Olympic Games.  753 BC: Founding of Rome (traditional date)  745 BC: Tiglath-Pileser III becomes the new king of Assyria. With time he conquers neighboring countries and turns Assyria into an empire.  728 BC: Rise of the Median Empire.  722 BC: Spring and Autumn period begins in China; Zhou Dynasty's power is diminishing; the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought.  700 BC: The construction of Marib Dam in Arabia Felix.  660 BC: Purported date of the accession of Jimmu, the mythical first Emperor of Japan.  653 BC: Rise of Persian Empire.  612 BC: An alliance between the Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians succeeds in destroying Nineveh and causing subsequent fall of the Assyrian empire.  600 BC: Pandyan kingdom in South India.  600 BC: Sixteen Maha Janapadas ("Great Realms" or "Great Kingdoms") emerge in India.  600 BC: Evidence of writing system appears in Oaxaca used by the Zapotec civilization.  c. 600 BC: Rise of the Sao civilization near Lake Chad 43  563 BC: Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha), founder of Buddhism is born as a prince of the Shakya tribe, which ruled parts of Magadha, one of the Maha Janapadas.  551 BC: Confucius, founder of Confucianism, is born. By three methods we may learn wisdom: First, by reflection, which is noblest; Second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest. Confucius  550 BC: Foundation of the Persian Empire by Cyrus the Great.  549 BC: Mahavira, founder of Jainism, is born. Kill not, cause no pain. Nonviolence is the greatest religion. Lord Mahavira 6 Important Teachings of Lord Mahavira:  non-injury  speaking truth  non-stealing Rejection of Vedas  non-adultery  Nonviolence  non-possession  Freedom to Women  Belief in Soul and Karma  Nirvana  Non-Belief in God  Attain salvation Through 44  546 BC: Cyrus the Great overthrows Croesus King of Lydia.  544 BC: Rise of Magadha as the dominant power under Bimbisara.  539 BC: The fall of the Babylonian Empire and liberation of the Jews by Cyrus the Great.  529 BC: Death of Cyrus  525 BC: Cambyses II of Persia conquers Egypt.  c. 512 BC: Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia, subjugates eastern Thrace, Macedonia submits voluntarily, and annexes Libya, Persian Empire at largest extent.  509 BC: Expulsion of the last King of Rome, founding of Roman Republic (traditional date).  508 BC: Democracy instituted at Athens  c. 500 BC: Completion of Euclid's Elements There is no Royal Road to Geometry. Euclid Euclid's Five Postulates:   Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other.  If equals are added to equals, the wholes (sums) are equal.  If equals are subtracted from equals, the remainders (differences) are equal.  Things that coincide with one another are equal to one another.  The whole is greater than the part. 500 BC: Panini standardizes the grammar and morphology of Sanskrit in the text Ashtadhyayi. Panini's standardized Sanskrit is known as Classical Sanskrit.  500 BC: Pingala uses zero and binary numeral system 45 499 BC: King Aristagoras of Miletus incites all of Hellenic Asia Minor to rebel against  the Persian Empire, beginning the Greco-Persian Wars.  490 BC: Greek city-states defeat Persian invasion at Battle of Marathon  483 BC: Death of Gautama Buddha Three things cannot be long hidden: the sun, the moon, and the truth. Buddha 5 Important Teachings of Lord Buddha:  Abstain from killing living beings  Avoid stealing  Avoid sexual misconduct  Avoid lying  Avoid intoxication  480 BC: Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes; Battles of Thermopylae and Salamis  479 BC: Death of Confucius  475 BC: Warring States period begins in China as the Zhou king became a mere figurehead; China is annexed by regional warlords  470/469 BC: Birth of Socrates  465 BC: Murder of Xerxes  460 BC: Birth of Democritus  458 BC: The Oresteia by Aeschylus, the only surviving trilogy of ancient Greek plays, is performed.  449 BC: The Greco-Persian Wars end. 46  447 BC: Building of the Parthenon at Athens started  432 BC: Construction of the Parthenon is completed  431 BC: Beginning of the Peloponnesian war between the Greek city-states  429 BC: Sophocles's play Oedipus Rex is first performed  427 BC: Birth of Plato The beginning is the most important part of the work. Plato The four cardinal Platonic virtues:  Wisdom  Courage  Moderation  Justice Plato's three levels of reality:  Recollection  The art of investigating or discussing the truth of opinions  Desire  424 BC: Nanda dynasty comes to power.  404 BC: End of the Peloponnesian War  400 BC: Zapotec culture flourishes around city of Monte Albán  c. 400 BC: Rise of the Garamantes as an irrigation-based desert state in the Fezzan region of Libya  399 BC: Death of Socrates  384 BC: Birth of Aristotle 47  370 BC: Death of Democritus  331 BC: Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela, completing his conquest of Persia.  326 BC: Alexander the Great defeats Indian king Porus in the Battle of the Hydaspes River.  323 BC: Death of Alexander the Great at Babylon.  322 BC: Death of Aristotle If we turn our backs of the Scythians who have provoked us, how shamefully shall we march against the revolted Bactrians; but if we pass Tanais and make the Scythians feel, by dear experience, that we are invincible, not in Asia only, it is not to be doubted but that Europe itself, as well as Asia, will come within the bounds of our conquests. Alexander the Great Aristotle's Ten Categories of Being: Substance Quantity Quality Relative Place Time Position Having Acting upon Being affected 48  321 BC: Chandragupta Maurya overthrows the Nanda Dynasty of Magadha.  305 BC: Chandragupta Maurya seizes the satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachosia (Qanadahar) and Gedrosia (Baluchistan) from Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of Babylonia, in return for 500 elephants.  300 BC: Sangam literature (Tamil: சங் க இலக்கியம் , Canka ilakkiyam) period in the history of ancient southern India (known as the Tamilakam)  300 BC: Chola Empire in South India  300 BC: Construction of the Great Pyramid of Cholula, the world's largest pyramid by volume (the Great Pyramid of Giza built 2560 BC Egypt stands 146.5 meters, making it 91.5 meters taller), begins in Cholula, Puebla, Mexico.  273 BC: Ashoka becomes the emperor of the Mauryan Empire  261 BC: Kalinga war  257 BC: Thục Dynasty takes over Việt Nam (then Kingdom of Âu Lạc)  255 BC: Ashoka sends a Buddhist missionary led by his son who was Mahinda Thero (Buddhist monk) to Sri Lanka (then Lanka) Mahinda (Buddhist monk) I have enforced the law against killing certain animals and many others, but the greatest progress of righteousness among men comes from the exhortation in favor of non-injury to life and abstention from killing living beings. Ashoka 5 main principles of Ashoka's Dhamma (cosmic law and order):  People should live in peace and harmony.  Everyone should practise the principle of non-violence.  People should love one another and show respect and tolerance towards other religious faiths. 49  Children should obey their elders and elders should treat children with understanding.  People should be truthful, charitable and kind to all, even towards servants and slaves. In Buddhism, one of the most missionary religions of the world, we find inscriptions remaining of the great Emperor Asoka — recording how missionaries were sent to Alexandria, to Antioch, to Persia, to China, and to various other countries of the then civilized world. Three hundred years before Christ, instructions were given them not to revile other religions: "The basis of all religions is the same, wherever they are; try to help them all you can, teach them all you can, but do not try to injure them." Every day in Central Asia some inscription or other is being found. India had forgotten all about Buddha and Asoka and everyone. But there were pillars, obelisks, columns, with ancient letters which nobody could read. Some of the old Mogul emperors declared they would give millions for anybody to read those; but nobody could. Within the last thirty years those have been read; they are all written in Pali. Swami Vivekananda  250 BC: Rise of Parthia (Ashkâniân), the second native dynasty of ancient Persia  232 BC: Death of Emperor Ashoka; Decline of the Mauryan Empire  230 BC: Emergence of Satavahanas in South India  221 BC: Qin Shi Huang unifies China, end of Warring States period; marking the beginning of Imperial rule in China which lasts until 1912. Construction of the Great Wall by the Qin Dynasty begins.  207 BC: Kingdom of Nan Yueh extends from Canton to North Việt Nam . 50  206 BC: Han Dynasty established in China, after the death of Qin Shi Huang; China in this period officially becomes a Confucian state and opens trading connections with the West, i.e. the Silk Road.  202 BC: Scipio Africanus defeats Hannibal at Battle of Zama.  200 BC: El Mirador, largest early Maya city, flourishes.  200 BC: Paper is invented in China.  c. 200 BC: Chera dynasty in South India.  185 BC: Shunga Empire founded.  167–160 BC: Maccabean Revolt.  149–146 BC: Third Punic War between Rome and Carthage. War ends with the complete The Four Great Chinese Inventions - compass, gun-powder, paper, and print - are legendary. Less talked about are meritocracy and banknotes. ― Thorsten J. Pattberg destruction of Carthage, allowing Rome to conquer modern day Tunisia and Libya.  146 BC: Roman conquest of Greece.  121 BC: Roman armies enter Gaul for the first time.  111 BC: First Chinese domination of Việt Nam in the form of the Nanyue Kingdom.  c. 100 BC: Chola dynasty rises in prominence.  c. 82 BC: Burebista becomes the king of Dacia.  80 BC: The city of Florence is founded.  c. 60 BC- 44 BC: Burebista conquers territories from south Germany to Thrace,reaching The invention of the printing press was one of the most important events in human history. Ha-Joon Chang the coast of the Aegean sea.  49 BC: Roman Civil War between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great.  44 BC: Julius Caesar murdered by Marcus Brutus and others; End of Roman Republic; beginning of Roman Empire.  44 BC: Burebista is assassinated in the same year like Julius Caesar and his empire breaks into 4 and later 5 kingdoms in modern-day Romania.  40 BC: Roman conquest of Egypt.  30 BC: Cleopatra ends her reign as the last active ruler of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt. Cleopatra 51 In praising Antony I have dispraised Caesar. Cleopatra  27 BC: Formation of Roman Empire: Octavius is given titles of Princeps and Augustus by Roman Senate - beginning of Pax Romana. Formation of influential Praetorian Guard to provide security to Emperor  18 BC: Three Kingdoms period begins in Korea. The temple of Jerusalem is reconstructed.  6 BC: Earliest theorized date for birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Roman succession: Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar groomed for the throne.  4 BC: Widely accepted date (Ussher) for birth of Jesus Christ.  9: Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, the Imperial Roman Army's bloodiest defeat.  14: Death of Emperor Augustus (Octavian), ascension of his adopted son Tiberius to the throne.  26-34: Crucifixion of Jesus Christ, exact date unknown. 10 Important Teachings of Jesus Christ:  Love God.  Love your neighbor as yourself.  Forgive others who have wronged you.  Love your enemies.  Ask God for forgiveness of your sins.  Jesus is the Messiah and was given the authority to forgive others.  Repentance of sins is essential.  Don't be hypocritical.  Don't judge others.  The Kingdom of God is near. It's not the rich and powerful —but the weak and poor—who will inherit this kingdom. 52  37: Death of Emperor Tiberius, ascension of his nephew Caligula to the throne.  40: Rome conquers Morocco.  41: Emperor Caligula is assassinated by the Roman senate. His uncle Claudius succeeds him.  43: Rome enters Britain for the first time.  54: Emperor Claudius dies and is succeeded by his grand nephew Nero.  68: Emperor Nero commits suicide, prompting the Year of the four emperors in Rome.  70: Destruction of Jerusalem by the armies of Titus. For three thousand years, Jerusalem has been the center of Jewish hope and longing. No other city has played such a dominant role in the history, culture, religion and consciousness of a people as has Jerusalem in the life of Jewry and Judaism. Throughout centuries of exile, Jerusalem remained alive in the hearts of Jews everywhere as the focal point of Jewish history, the symbol of ancient glory, spiritual fulfillment and modern renewal. This heart and soul of the Jewish people engenders the thought that if you want one simple word to symbolize all of Jewish history, that word would be ‘Jerusalem.’ — Teddy Kollek In the Jewish tradition, there is at the same time Jerusalem in the heavens and Jerusalem on the ground. Jerusalem is a living city, but also the heart, the soul of the Jewish people and the state of Israel. Yitzhak Rabin  79: Destruction of Pompeii by the volcano Vesuvius.  98: After a two-year rule, Emperor Nerva dies of natural causes, his adopted son Trajan succeeds him. 53  100-940: Kingdom of Aksum in the Horn of Africa  106-117: Roman Empire at largest extent under Emperor Trajan after having conquered modern-day Romania, Iraq and Armenia.  117: Trajan dies of natural causes. His adopted son Hadrian succeeds him. Hadrian pulls out of Iraq and Armenia.  122: Construction of Hadrian's Wall begins.  126: Hadrian completes the Pantheon in Rome.  138: Hadrian dies of natural causes. His adopted son Antoninus Pius succeeds him.  161: Death of Antoninus Pius. His rule was the only one in which Rome did not fight in a war.  161: Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor of the Roman Empire.  180: Reign of Marcus Aurelius officially ends.  180 - 181: Commodus becomes Roman Emperor.  192: Kingdom of Champa in Central Việt Nam.  200s: The Buddhist Srivijaya Empire established in Maritime Southeast Asia.  220: Three Kingdoms period begins in China after the fall of Han Dynasty.  226: Fall of the Parthian Empire and Rise of the Sassanian Empire.  238: Defeat of Gordian III (238–244), Philip the Arab (244–249), and Valerian (253– 260), by Shapur I of Persia, (Valerian was captured by the Persians).  280: Emperor Wu established Jin Dynasty providing a temporary unity of China after the devastating Three Kingdoms period.  285: Diocletian becomes emperor of Rome and splits the Roman Empire into Eastern and Western Empires.  285: Diocletian begins a large-scale persecution of Christians.  292: The capital of the Roman empire is officially moved from Rome to Mediolanum (modern day Milan).  301: Diocletian's edict on prices 54  313: Edict of Milan declared that the Roman Empire would tolerate all forms of religious worship.  325: Constantine I organizes the First Council of Nicaea.  330: Constantinople is officially named and becomes the capital of the eastern Roman Empire.  335: Samudragupta becomes the emperor of the Gupta empire.  337: Emperor Constantine I dies, leaving his sons Constantius II, Constans I, and Constantine II as the emperors of the Roman empire.  350: Constantius II is left sole emperor with the death of his two brothers.  354: Birth of Augustine of Hippo  361: Constantius II dies, his cousin Julian succeeds him.  378: Battle of Adrianople, Roman army is defeated by the Germanic tribes.  380: Roman Emperor Theodosius I declares the Arian faith of Christianity heretical.  395: Theodosius I outlaws all religions other than Catholic Christianity.  406: Romans are expelled from Britain.  407-409: Visigoths and other Germanic tribes cross into Roman-Gaul for the first time.  410: Visigoths sacks Rome for the first time since 390 BC.  415: Germanic tribes enter Spain.  429: Vandals enter North Africa from Spain for the first time  439: Vandals have conquered the land stretching from Morocco to Tunisia by this time.  455: Vandals sack Rome, capture Sicily and Sardinia.  c. 455: Skandagupta repels an Indo-Hephthalite attack on India.  476: Romulus Augustus, last Western Roman Emperor is forced to abdicate by Odoacer, a chieftain of the Germanic Heruli; Odoacer returns the imperial regalia to Eastern Roman Emperor Zeno in Constantinople in return for the title of dux of Italy; most frequently cited date for the end of ancient history.  476: The Roman Empire doesn't really dissolve. The succeeding empire: Byzantine, was an extension until 1453 AD. 55 One of the saddest lessons of history is this: If we've been bamboozled long enough, we tend to reject any evidence of the bamboozle. We're no longer interested in finding out the truth. The bamboozle has captured us. It's simply too painful to acknowledge, even to ourselves, that we've been taken. Once you give a charlatan power over you, you almost never get it back. — Carl Sagan Carl Sagan received 22 honorary degrees from colleges and universities throughout the U.S., published more than 600 scientific papers and articles, authored best-selling books and hosted a record-breaking public television series, "Cosmos: A Personal Voyage." He discovered how the planet Venus was heated through the greenhouse effect. 56 Timeline of environmental history A nation that destroys its soils destroys itself. Forests are the lungs of our land, purifying the air and giving fresh strength to our people. Franklin D. Roosevelt Environment Physical environment Biological environment Cultural environment  Atmosphere  Floral  Society  Hydrosphere  Faunal  Economy  Lithosphere  Microbia  Politics It is horrifying that we have to fight our own government to save the environment. Ansel Adams Pre-Holocene (1.5 Mya) 57 Year(s) Start c. 2,588,000 BC Event(s) End c. 12,000 BC c. 21,000 BC Pleistocene era Recent evidence indicates that humans processed (gathered) and consumed wild cereal grains as far back as 23,000 years ago. c. 20,000 BC Antarctica sees a very rapid and abrupt 6 °C increase in temperatures c. 19,000 BC Last Glacial Maximum/sea-level minimum c. 20,000 BC c. 12,150 BC Mesolithic 1 period c. 17,000 BC c. 13,000 BC Oldest Dryas stadial (cool period) during the last Ice age/glaciation in Europe. c. 13,000 BC Beginning of the Holocene extinction. Earliest evidence of warfare. Meltwater pulse 1A raises sea level 20 meters. c. 12,670 BC c. 12,000 BC Bølling oscillation interstadial (warm and moist period) between the Oldest Dryas and Older Dryas stadials (cool periods) at the end of the Last glacial period. In places where the Older Dryas was not seen, it is known as the Bølling-Allerød. c.12,340 BC c.11,140 BC Cemetery 117: site of the world's first known battle/war. c.12,500 BC c.10,800 BC Natufian culture begins minor agriculture c. 12,150 BC c. 11,140 BC Mesolithic 2 (Natufian culture), some sources have Mesolithic 2 ending at 9500 BC c. 12,000 BC c. 11,700 BC Older Dryas stadial (cool period) 58 33 c. 11,700 BC c. 10,800 BC Allerød oscillation c.13,000 BC c.11,000 BC Lake Agassiz forms from glacial melt water. It bursts and floods out through the Mackenzie River into the Arctic Ocean at 11,000 BC, possibly causing the Younger Dryas cold period. c. 12,000 BC c. 8,000 BC Göbekli Tepe, world's earliest known temple-like structure, is created. c. 10,900 BC (calibrated) or Younger Dryas impact event suspected at either of these c. 8900 BC (non-calibrated) dates. c. 10,800 BC Younger Dryas cold period begins. c. 10,000 BC  Preboreal period begins.  World: Sea levels rise abruptly and massive inland flooding occurs due to glacier melt.  Neolithic culture begins, end of most recent glaciation.  First cave drawings of the Mesolithic period are made, with war scenes and religious scenes, beginnings of what became storytelling, and metamorphosed into acting. 10th millennium BC  Humans use only 1% of all available water  The combined weight of ants on the planet earth is higher than all human beings. Year(s) Start c. 9700 BC Event(s) End  Lake Agassiz reforms from glacial melt water  Bering Sea: Land bridge from Siberia to North America disappears as sea level rises. 34 59  North America: Long Island becomes an island, and not just a terminal moraine, when rising waters break through on the western end of the interior lake c. 9660 to c. 9600 BC Younger Dryas cold period ends. Pleistocene ends and Holocene begins. Large amounts of previously glaciated land become habitable again. Some sources place the Younger Dryas as stretching from 10,800 BC to 9500 BC. This cool period was possibly caused by a shutdown of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation (Gulf Stream/Jet Stream), due to flooding from Lake Agassiz as it reformed. c. 9500 BC  Ancylus Lake, part of the modern-day Baltic Sea, forms.  There is evidence of harvesting, though not necessarily cultivation, of wild grasses in Asia Minor about this time.  End of the pre-Boreal period of European climate change.  Pollen Zone IV Pre-boreal, associated with juniper, willow, birch pollen deposits.  Neolithic era begins in Ancient Near East.  Evidence of the earliest settlement in Jericho  In Antarctica, long-term melting of the Antarctic ice sheets is commencing.  Creosote bush – Larrea tridentata clonal colony, named "King Clone", germinates in the Mojave Desert near the Lucerne Valley in California. c. 9270 BC Greenland sees an abrupt and rapid 4 °C rise in temperatures c. 9000 BC First stone structures at Jericho built. 9th millennium BC 34 60 Year(s) Start Event(s) End c. 8500 BC to 7370 Jericho is established as one of the oldest cities in the world sometime between 8500 BC and 7370 BC c. 8000 BC  Transition from Boreal period to Atlantic period  Last glacial period ends  Upper Paleolithic period ends and the Mesolithic period begins  Old Man in the Mountain formed in New Hampshire by retreating glaciers  Antarctica — long-term melting of the Antarctic ice sheets is under way.  Asia — rising sea levels caused by postglacial warming.  North America — The glaciers were receding and by 8000 BC the Wisconsin glaciation had withdrawn completely.  World — Inland flooding due to catastrophic glacier melt takes place in several regions.  Neolithic Revolution, some humans begin to switch from a hunter-gatherer existence, to agriculture 8th millennium BC About five million tons of oil produced in the world end up in oceans every year. Year(s) Start Event(s) End 36 61 c. 7900 BC c. 7700 BC Lake Agassiz refills from glacial melt-water around 7900 BC as Glaciers retreat north c. 7640 BC Date theorized for impact of Tollmann's hypothetical bolide with Earth and associated global cataclysm. c. 7500 BC  Mesolithic hunters reach Ireland  9,500-year-old Norway spruce – Picea abies clonal colony named "Old Tjikko" germinates in Sweden. 7500–7000 BC 3500–3000 BC Neolithic Subpluvial begins in northern Africa, Mesolithic period ends. Until about 5000 BC, the Sahara desert is substantially wetter than today, comparable to a savannah as part of the African humid period. About 71% of the Earth's surface is water-covered. The oceans hold 7th millennium BC approximately 96.5% of this water and the ice caps hold about 2%. Year(s) Start Event(s) End c. 6600 BC c. 6500 BC Jiahu symbols, carved on tortoise shells in Jiahu, Northern China  English Channel formed  Ubaid period begins in Mesopotamia  Chalcolithic (Copper Age) and invention of the wheel occur during this time  Paleolithic period ends and Neolithic period begins in China, continues to 2300 BC 36 62 c.6440±25 BC Kurile volcano on Russia's Kamchatka Peninsula has VEI 7 eruption. It is one of the largest of the Holocene epoch c. 6400 BC Lake Agassiz drains into oceans for the final time, leaving Lakes Manitoba, Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, and Lake of the Woods, among others in the region, as its remnants. The draining may have caused the 8.2 kiloyear event, 200 years later c. 6200 BC 8.2 kiloyear event, a sudden significant cooling episode c. 6100 BC The Storegga Slide, causing a megatsunami in the Norwegian Sea  c. 6000 BC Climatic or Thermal Maximum, the warmest period in the past 125,000 years, with minimal glaciation and highest sea levels. (McEvedy)  Rising sea levels form the Torres Strait, separate Australia from New Guinea.  Increasing desiccation of the Sahara. End of the Saharan Pluvial period.  Associated with Pollen Zone VI Atlantic, oak-elm woodlands, warmer and maritime climate. Modern wild fauna plus, increasingly, human introductions, associated with the spread of the Neolithic farming technologies.  Rising sea levels from glacial retreat flood what will become the Irish Sea, separating the island of Ireland from the British Isles and Continental Europe. 6th millennium BC  A modern glass bottle would take 4000 years or more to decompose.  Humans Make Up Just 1/10000 of Earth's Biomass Year(s) Start Event(s) End 36 63 c. 5600 BC According to the Black Sea deluge theory, the Black Sea floods with salt water. Some 3000 cubic miles (12,500 km³) of salt water is added, significantly expanding it and transforming it from a fresh-water landlocked lake into a salt water sea. c. 5500 BC Beginning of the desertification of north Africa, which ultimately leads to the formation of the Sahara desert from land that was previously savannah, though it remains wetter than today. It's possible this process pushed people in the area into migrating to the region of the Nile in the east, thereby laying the groundwork for the rise of Egyptian civilization. c. 5300 BC  Vinča script (Tărtăria tablets), among the oldest writing systems c. 5000 BC  The Older Peron transgression, a global warm period, begins.  Use of a sail begins. The first known picture is on an Egyptian urn found in Luxor. 5000 BC 700 BC 5th millennium BC  Transition from Atlantic period to Subboreal period  Metallurgy appears Megalithic Temples of Malta were created As of 2018, the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in our atmosphere was 408 parts per million — the highest it has been in 3 million years. Year(s) Start Event(s) Recycling of End aluminum cans saves c. 4570 BC c. 4250 BC Merimde culture on the Nile River 4400 BC 3500 BC Amratian/Naqada I culture in Predynastic Egypt 95% of the energy required to make the same amount of aluminum from its virgin source. 64 39 4000 BC 3100 BC 4th millennium BC Uruk period begins in Mesopotamia  Rainforests are being cut down at a rate of 100 acres per minute.  Fungi are earth's environmental managers. Without them, all life in the forest would be buried under layers of dead matter. Year(s) Start Event(s) End 3900 BC  Intense aridification triggered worldwide migration to river valleys, which might have caused changes in human behaviour. 3600 BC 2800 BC  Abrupt end of the Ubaid period.  Climatic deterioration in Western Europe and the Sahara as the African humid period ends.  In Europe Pollen zone VII Sub Boreal, oak and beech.  Glacial advances of the Piora oscillation, with lower economic prosperity in areas not able to irrigate in the Middle East. 3500 BC to 3000 BC The end of the Neolithic Subpluvial era and return of extremely hot and dry conditions in the Sahara Desert, hastened by the 5.9 kiloyear event and the Piora Oscillation. 3500 BC 3200 BC Gerzeh/Naqada II culture in Egypt 3200 BC 3000 BC Naqada III and Protodynastic Period of Egypt 3100 BC 2686 BC Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. The hallmarks of Ancient Egypt (art, architecture, religion) all formed during this period. This is widely assumed to be the time and place of the first writing system, the Egyptian hieroglyphs (date is disputed, some claim they were used as far back as 3200 BC, 40 65 while others believe they weren't invented until the 28th century BC). between 3000 BC and 2800 BC 30 km/19 mi-wide Burckle Crater is formed in Indian Ocean from a possible meteor or comet impact, possibly inspiring most flood myths. 3rd millennium BC Tropical forests cover less than 7% of Earth's landmass but are home to about 50% of all living things on the planet. Year(s) Start c. 30th century BC Event(s) End  c. 3000 BC: Stonehenge begins to be built. In its first version, it consists of a circular ditch and bank, with 56 wooden posts. (National Geographic, June 2008).  Sumerian Cuneiform script, considered among the oldest writing systems, is created. 2900 BC Floods at Shuruppak from horizon to horizon, with sediments in Southern Iraq, stretching as far north as Kish, and as far south as Uruk, associated with the return of heavy rains in Nineveh and a potential damming of the Karun River to run into the Tigris River. This ends the Jemdet Nasr period and ushers in the Early Dynastic Period of Mesopotamian cultures of the area. Possible association of this event with the Biblical deluge. c. 2880 BC Germination of Prometheus (a bristlecone pine of the species Pinus longaeva), formerly the world's oldest known non-clonal organism. c. 2832 BC Germination of Methuselah (a bristlecone pine of the 66 41 species Pinus longaeva), currently the world's oldest known non-clonal organism. 2807 BC Suggested date for an asteroid or comet impact occurring between Africa and Antarctica, around the time of a solar eclipse on May 10, based on an analysis of flood stories. Possibly causing the Burckle crater and Fenambosy Chevron.  2650 BC Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh describes vast tracts of cedar forests in what is now southern Iraq. Gilgamesh defies the gods and cuts down the forest, and in return the gods say they will curse Sumer with fire (or possibly drought). By 2100 BC, soil erosion and salt buildup have devastated agriculture. One Sumerian wrote that the "earth turned white." Civilization moved north to Babylonia and Assyria. Again, deforestation becomes a factor in the rise and subsequent fall of these civilizations.  Some of the first laws protecting the remaining forests decreed in Ur. c. 2630 BC 2500 BC 1815 BC Construction of the Egyptian pyramids. Sahara becomes fully desiccated, and conditions become largely identical to those of today. Desiccation had been proceeding from 7500–6000 BC, as a result of the shift in the West African tropical monsoon belt southwards from the Sahel, and intensified by the 5.9 kiloyear event. Subsequent rates of evaporation in the region led to a drying of the Sahara, as shown by the drop in water levels in Lake Chad. Tehenu of the Sahara attempt to enter into Egypt, and there is evidence of a Nile drought in the pyramid of Unas. 42 67 2300 BC Neolithic period ends in China. 2200 BC Beginning of a severe centennial-scale drought in northern Africa, southwestern Asia and midcontinental North America, which very likely caused the collapse of the Old Kingdom in Egypt as well as the Akkadian Empire in Mesopotamia. This coincides with the transition from the Subboreal period to the subatlantic period. 21st century BC Construction of the Ziggurat of Ur. 2nd millennium BC  97% of the earth's water is actually salt water found in the oceans.  The boreal forest, also known as the taiga, covers about 11% of the land mass of this planet. Year(s) Start c. 2000 BC Event(s) End c. 1000 BC Continued mountain formation in the Himalayas contributes to the drying up of the Sarasvati River and the desertification of the Thar Region. This contributes to the decline of the Harappan civilization. 1900 BC The Atra-Hasis Epic describes Babylonian flood, with warnings of the consequences of human overpopulation. Around 1600 BC Minoan eruption destroys much of Santorini island, but does not destroy (contrary to what was previously believed) the Minoan civilization on Crete. This may have inspired the legend of Atlantis. 1450 BC Minoan civilization in the Mediterranean declines, but scholars are divided on the cause. Possibly a volcanic eruption was the source of the catastrophe (see Minoan eruption). On the other hand, gradual deforestation may have led to materials shortages 43 68 in manufacturing and shipping. Loss of timber and subsequent deterioration of its land was probably a factor in the decline of Minoan power in the late Bronze Age, according to John Perlin in A Forest Journey. 1206 BC 1187 BC Evidence of major droughts in the Eastern Mediterranean. Hittite and Ugarit records show requests for grain were sent to Egypt, probably during the reign of Pharaoh Merenptah. Carpenter has suggested that droughts of equal severity to those of the 1950s in Greece, would have been sufficient to cause the Late Bronze Age collapse. The cause may have been a temporary diversion of winter storms north of the Pyrenees and Alps. Central Europe experienced generally wetter conditions, while those in the Eastern Mediterranean were substantially drier. There seems to have been a general abandonment of peasant subsistence agriculture in favour of nomadic pastoralism in Central Anatolia, Syria and northern Mesopotamia, Palestine, the Sinai and NW Arabia. Reduction and reuse are the most effective ways we can 1st millennium BC save natural resources and protect the environment. Year(s) Start 800 BC Event(s) End 500 BC  Sub-Atlantic period in Western Europe.  Pollen Zone VIII, sub-Atlantic. End of last Sea Level rise.  Spread of "Celtic fields", Iron Age A, and Haalstadt Celts.  Increased prosperity in Europe and the Middle East. 44 69 200 BC Axial age, a revolution in thinking that we know as Philosophy, begins in China, India, and Europe, with people such as Socrates, Plato, Homer, Lao Tzu, Confucius, among others, alive at this time. 753 BC Ancient Rome begins, with the founding of Rome. This marks the beginning of Classical antiquity. 508 BC Democracy created in Athens, Ancient Greece 356 BC 323 BC Alexander the Great 269 BC 232 BC Reign of Ashoka the Great, and the beginning of propagation of Buddhism c. 225 BC The Sub-Atlantic period began about 225 BC (estimated on the basis of radiocarbon dating) and has been characterized by increased rainfall, cooler and more humid climates, and the dominance of beech forests. The fauna of the Sub-Atlantic is essentially modern although severely depleted by human activities. The Sub-Atlantic is correlated with pollen zone IX; sea levels have been generally regressive during this time interval, though North America is an exception. c. 200 BC Sri Lanka first country in the world to have a nature reserve, King Devanampiyatissa established a wildlife sanctuary 1st millennium AD The Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion technology uses the temperature difference between the cold water in the deep sea (5°C) and the warm surface seawater 1st century Year(s) (25°C) to generate clean, renewable electricity. Event(s) Start End 79 AD Mount Vesuvius erupts, burying Pompeii and Herculaneum 2nd century King Devanampiyatissa 44 70 "Environmental history unites the oldest themes with the newest in contemporary historiography: the evolution of epidemics and climate, those two factors being integral parts of the human ecosystem; the series of natural calamities aggravated by a lack of foresight . . . ; the destruction of Nature, caused by soaring population and/or by the predators of industrial overconsumption; nuisances of urban and manufacturing origin, which lead to air or water pollution; human congestion or noise levels in urban areas, in a period of galloping urbanization." Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, "Histoire et Environnement," special issue of Annales (1974), as quoted in Donald Worster, The Ends of the Earth (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 291. "It is in the midst of this compromised and complex situation--the reciprocal influences of a changing nature and a changing society--that environmental history must find its home." Richard White, "Historiographical Essay, American Environmental History: The Development of a New Field," 54, Pacific Historical Review (1985): 297-335, quotation on p. 335. "The best scholarship [on Native Americans and the environment] will take its inspiration from ecology, not in any mechanistic sense which eliminates culture as a creative force, but rather by stressing the interplay and reciprocal influences between Indian cultures and the natural world." Richard White, "Native Americans and the Environment," in W.R. Swagerty, ed., Scholars and the Indian Experience (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984): 179-204, quotation on p. 197. 71 "Any explanation of environmental change should account for the mutually constitutive nature of ecology, production, and cognition, the latter at the level of individuals, which we call ideology, or at the societal level, which in the modern world we call law. . . . To externalize any of the three elements . . . is to miss the crucial fact that human life and thought are embedded in each other and together in the non-human world." Arthur McEvoy, "Toward an Interactive theory of Nature and Culture: Ecology, Production, and Cognition in the California Fishing industry," Environmental Review 11, no. 4 (Winter 1987): 289-305, quotation on pages 300-301. "The range of human and ecological processes that are inherent in each human-environment relationship . . . illustrate how the "thickness" of historical description increases as additional processes are incorporated into theory. . . . If the theories that historians employ help separate the strands of change into identifiable threads, their ability to trace change over time with precision will be increased. The choice among which of those histories is the "correct" interpretation is far from a flight into relativity; rather it is a matter of conscious social decision-making that is itself subject to change over time." Barbara Leibhardt, "Interpretation and Causal Analysis: Theories in Environmental History," Environmental Review 12, no. 1 (Spring 1988): 23-36, quotation on p. 33. "From [environmental] histories we can infer the modes of thought and behavior that are more likely than others to be detrimental to the environment we want to live in. A primary element of 72 such histories should be the social analysis of scientific knowledge construction, because many technologies that are science-based cause so many environmental problems." Elizabeth Ann R. Bird, "The Social Construction of Nature: Theoretical Approaches to the History of Environmental Problems," Environmental Review 11, no. 4 (Winter 1987): 255-264, quotation on p. 255. "There is little history in the study of nature, and there is little nature in the study of history. I want to show how we can remedy that cultural lag by developing a new perspective on the historian's enterprise, one that will make us Darwinians at last." Donald Worster, "History as Natural History: An Essay on Theory and Method," Pacific Historical Review 53 (1984): 1-19, quotation on p.1. "We may be entering a new phase of history, a time when we begin to rediscover . . . the traditional teaching that power must entail restraint and responsibility, the ancient awareness that we are interdependent with all of nature and that our sense of community must take in the whole of creation." Donald Worster, "The Vulnerable Earth," in Worster, ed., The Ends of the Earth (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 20. "Environmental historians . . . insist that we have got to go . . . down to the earth itself as an agent and presence in history. Here we will discover even more fundamental forces at work over time. And to appreciate those forces we must now and then get out of parliamentary chambers, out of birthing rooms and factories, get out of doors altogether, and ramble into fields, woods, 73 and the open air. It is time we bought a good set of walking shoes, and we cannot avoid getting some mud on them." Donald Worster, "Doing Environmental History," in Worster, ed., The Ends of the Earth (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 289. "Environmental history was . . . born out of a moral purpose, with strong political commitments behind it, but also became, as it matured, a scholarly enterprise that had neither any simple, nor any single, moral or political agenda to promote. Its principal goal became one of deepening our understanding of how humans have been affected by their natural environment through time and, conversely, how they have affected that environment and with what results." Donald Worster, The Ends of the Earth (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 290. "Imperialism engenders a particular type of ecological drama involving several characteristic phases or acts. The play has been repeated many times, and as with all classical drama, the plot is now well understood. Indeed some might argue that there is a depressing repetitiveness to the successive enactments of the colonial eco-drama, as if man and nature knew how to write only one scenario and insisted upon staging the same play in theater after theater on an everexpanding worldwide tour." 74 Timothy Weiskel, "Agents of Empire: Steps Toward an Ecology of Imperialism," Environmental Review 11, no. 4 (Winter 1987): 27588, see p. 275. "Within the various acts of the ecodrama should be included scenes in which men's and women's roles come to center stage and scenes in which Nature 'herself' is an actress." Carolyn Merchant, "Gender and Environmental History," Journal of American History, 76, no. 4 (March 1990): 1117-1121, quotation on p. 1121. "The great task for environmental historians is to record and analyze the effects of man's recently achieved control over the natural world. What is needed is a longer-term global, comparative, historical perspective that treats the environment as a meaningful variable." John Richards, "Documenting Environmental History: Global Patterns of Land Conversion," Environment 26, no. 9, (1984), quotation on p. 37. "The environmental historian participates in the gulf between the ecological ideal and historical reality, between the two cultures of science and the humanities, and between disinterested objectivity and the ethical obligation of advocacy." John Opie, "Environmental History: Pitfalls and Opportunities," Environmental Review 7 (1983): 8-16, quotation on p. 15. 75 "We have been saddled in recent years with a notable set of stock characters, or stereotypes. These include the Noble Savage [and] four joyless rapists--the Forest Service, the farmer, the army engineer, and the lumberman--assaulting Mother Nature, while the Sierra Club purveys chastity belts. . . . Historians who regard conservation as past politics might profit by a spell on the sawmill greenchain, or as trail workers for the Park Service to get some grassroots insights." Lawrence Rakestraw, "Conservation Historiography: An Assessment," Pacific Historical Review 43 (1972): 271288, quotation on p. 288. "The preservation of wilderness areas is but one aspect of [a] series of conflicts, compromises, and accommodations involving use and preservation." Lawrence Rakestraw, "Conservation Historiography: An Assessment," Pacific Historical Review 43 (1972), 271-288, quotation on p. 283. "Environmental history... refer[s] to the past contact of man with his total habitat. . . . The environmental historian like the ecologist [s]hould think in terms of wholes, of communities, of interrelationships, and of balances." Roderick Nash, "American Environmental History: A New Teaching Frontier," Pacific Historical Review 41: 362-372 (1972), quotations on p. 363. 76 "Environmental history fit[s] into the framework of New Left history. [It is] history "from the bottom up," except that here the exploited element [is] the biota and the land itself." Roderick Nash, "American Environmental History: A New Teaching Frontier," Pacific Historical Review 41: 362-372 (1972), quotations on p. 363. Observations Types of Pollution Questions Hypothesis  Air pollution  Water pollution Acute toxicity:  Soil pollution Excessive intake of fluoride  Radioactive pollution over short period of time  Noise pollution Fluoride toxicity   Reject hypothesis Predictions Test Fail to reject hypothesis Chronic toxicity: Excessive intake of fluoride Results over long period of time Renewable resources cannot be depleted sunlight, wind, wave energy Nonrenewable resources can be depleted Oil, coal, minerals Risks  Dental fluorosis  Skeletal fluorosis  Thyroid problems  Neurological problems 77 Year(s) Event(s) Start End 114 117 Rome reaches its greatest expanse in terms of territory, stretching from the Sahara desert, to England and Belgium, along the Danube River and Black Sea to Mesopotamia and modern-day Kuwait. 186 Hatepe eruption in New Zealand turns the skies red over Rome and China. 3rd century  Turkeys Were Once Worshipped Like Gods  Napoleon Was Once Attacked By a Horde of Bunnies Year(s) Event(s) Start End 235 284 4th century Crisis of the third century affects Ancient Rome In 1386, a pig was executed in France. In the Middle Ages, a pig attacked a child who went to die later from their wounds. The pig was arrested, kept in prison, and then sent to court where it stood trial for murder, was found guilty and then executed by hanging. Year(s) Event(s) Start End c. 300 Migration period begins. This leads in a couple of centuries to the fall of Rome. 301 San Marino founded, claims to be the world's oldest republic 5th century 78 46 Year(s) Event(s) Pope Gregory IV Declared a War On Cats in the 13th Century. Start End c. 400 c. 800 Migration Period c. 450 Malaria epidemic in Italy. 476 Fall of Rome, end of the Western Roman Empire 6th century Year(s) Cleopatra Was Not Egyptian Event(s) Start End 535 536 7th century Year(s) 535–536: global climate abnormalities affecting several civilizations. John Adams Was the First President to Live In the White House Event(s) Start End 650 Muslim conquests of the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe 600 Mount Edziza volcanic complex in British Columbia, Canada erupts 8th century Alexander the Great was buried alive… accidentally. 47 79 Year(s) Start Event(s) End Dates unknown Classical Mayan civilization begins to decline; Beowulf saga is probably written in Europe sometime in this century 750 Muslim Caliphate is moved to Baghdad, ushering in its golden age as a cultural crossroads 774 775 Unusually-high levels of Carbon 14 are found in tree rings throughout Japan, most likely from a gamma-ray burst, previously thought to be from cosmic rays or abnormally strong solar flares 772 804 Charlemagne invades what is now northwestern Germany, battling the Saxons for more than thirty years and finally crushing their rebellion, incorporating Old Saxony into the Frankish Empire and the Christian world. 9th century Thomas Alva Edison Didn't Invent the Light Bulb. The real inventor was actually Warren de la Rue, a British astronomer and chemist, who actually created the very first light bulb forty years before Edison. Year(s) Event(s) Start End c. 850 Severe drought exacerbated by soil erosion causes collapse of Central American city states and the end of the Classic Maya civilization. 874 10th century According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland begins. In the Ancient Olympics, athletes performed naked. 47 80 Year(s) Event(s) Start End 930 Althing, oldest parliamentary institution in the world that is still in existence, is founded 980s Greenland settled by Viking colonists from Iceland 2nd millennium 11th century  John Adams and Thomas Jefferson Died on the Same Day.  Columbus Didn't Actually Discover America. It was the Norse explorer Leif Erikson who landed on American shores during the 10th century. Year(s) Event(s) Start End 985 1080 Norse Colony at L'Anse aux Meadows 1006 SN 1006 supernova, brightest apparent magnitude stellar event in recorded history (−7.5 visual magnitude) 1054 SN 1054 supernova, created the Crab Nebula 1099 The Hodh Ech Chargui and Hodh El Gharbi Regions of southern Mauritania become desert. 12th century Gaius Julius Caesar was stabbed 23 times. 47 81 Year(s) Start Event(s) End 1104 Venice Arsenal in Venice, Italy is founded, employed 16,000 at its peak for the mass production of sailing ships in large assembly lines, hundreds of years before the industrial revolution Renaissance of the 12th century in Europe, blast furnace for the smelting 1150 of cast iron is imported from China 1185 First record of windmills in Europe Dates unknown Nan Madol is constructed on Pohnpei in Micronesia On Black Tuesday, October 24th, 1929, the most shocking stock market crash occurred 13th century in U.S. history. It was widely believed that this financial crisis caused countless deaths by suicide, but this was not the case. There were two. Year(s) Start c. 1250 Event(s) End c. 1850 Start of the Little Ice Age, a stadial period within our interglacial warm period 1257 Catastrophic eruption of Samalas in Indonesia, with climate effects comparable to that of the 1815 Tambora eruption. This contributed to the cooling seen in the Little Ice Age. end of the 13th century beginning of the Renaissance era in Italy, gradually spreads throughout Europe. 14th century 82 50 Year(s) Event(s) Start End 1315 1317 1347 1350s Bubonic plague decimates Europe, creating the first attempts to enforce public Great Famine of 1315–1317 (Europe) health and quarantine laws. 1350 Western Settlement in Greenland abandoned, possibly due to the deteriorating climate caused by the onset of the Little Ice Age 15th century Augustus Caesar was the wealthiest man to ever live in history. Year(s) Event(s) Start End 1408 last known recording (a wedding) of Norse settlers in Greenland 1453 Eruption of Kuwae in Pacific contributes to fall of Constantinople. Environmental Science is developed. 1492 Christopher Columbus lands in Caribbean islands, starting the Columbian Exchange, causing the Aztec Empire and Inca Empire to fall to the Spanish in the next century, as well as bringing various species of animals and plants across the Atlantic Ocean. 16th century Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin was a Russian mystic and self-proclaimed holy man who befriended the family of Nicholas II, the last emperor of Russia, and gained considerable influence in late Imperial Russia. He survived being poisoned and being shot. 83 51 Ecological factors Biotic  competition  parasitism  predation  symbiosis Abiotic    Producers (Green Plants) Consumers (Animals) Decomposers (Microorganisms)   Edaphic        Topographic Mountains Slopes Climate soil type and structure soil pH and salinity soil temperature soil moisture organic carbon and nitrogen content heavy metals content       temperature sunlight atmospheric pressure humidity of the air radiation and ionization of the air chemical composition of water and atmosphere There is a deep interconnectedness of all life on earth, from the tiniest organisms, to the largest ecosystems, and absolutely between each person. Bryant McGill 84 Year(s) Start 1585 Event(s) End 1587 Roanoke Colony, now in North Carolina End of the 16th century End of the Renaissance era, gradual transition towards the Baroque, Romantic, Enlightenment, and Modern eras. 17th century Charles Darwin's theory of evolution states that evolution happens by natural selection. Year(s) Event(s) Start End 1600 Huaynaputina erupts in South America. The explosion had effects on climate around the Northern Hemisphere (Southern hemispheric records are less complete), where 1601 was the coldest year in six centuries, leading to a famine in Russia; see Russian famine of 1601–1603. 1610 It has been posited that 1610 marks the beginning of the Anthropocene, or the 'Age of Man', marking a fundamental change in the relationship between humans and the Earth system. 18th century No two animals are the same, even if they belong to the same species. Year(s) Start Event(s) End 52 85 c. 1750 Beginning of Industrial Revolution, which eventually turns to use of coal and other fossil fuels to drive steam engines and other devices. Anthropogenic carbon pollution presumably increases. 1755 Great Lisbon earthquake occurred in the Kingdom of Portugal on Saturday, 1 November, the holiday of All Saints' Day, at around 09:40 local time; subsequent fires and a tsunami almost totally destroyed Lisbon and adjoining areas, accentuating political tensions in the kingdom and profoundly disrupting Portugal's colonial ambitions. 1770 Failure of the monsoons in the late 1760s contribute to the Bengal famine of 1770 where 10 million people die. This forces a change in tax policy in the British Empire, which was a cause of the American War of Independence. 1783 The volcano Laki erupts, emitting sufficient sulfur dioxide gas and sulphate particles to kill a majority of Iceland's livestock and cause an unusually cold winter in Europe and Western Asia. 1789 1793 A recent study of El Niño patterns suggests that the French Revolution was caused in part by the poor crop yields of 1788–89 in Europe, resulting from an unusually strong El-Niño effect between 1789–93. 1798 Thomas Robert Malthus publishes An Essay on the Principle of Population, thus beginning Malthusian economics. 19th century Little changes within one species can add up and create a whole new species. Year(s) Start Event(s) End 52 86 1804 World human population reaches 1 billion mark. 1815 Eruption of Mt. Tambora in what is now Indonesia, largest in the 2nd millennium AD. Leads to the... 1816 1845 ... "Year Without a Summer" across North America and Europe. 1857 Unusually wet weather in Northern Europe causes crop failures. The worst crop affected was the potato on which both Ireland (the Great Famine) and Scotland (the Highland Potato Famine) were heavily dependent. Elsewhere in Europe, the food shortages lead to civil unrest and the revolutions of 1848. Counting the Irish diaspora and the forty-eighters, millions of Europeans emigrate to North America, South America, and Australia. 1859 John Tyndall discovers that some gases block infrared radiation. He suggests that changes in the concentration of these gases could bring climate change. 1883 Eruption of Krakatoa in Indonesia. The sound of the explosion is heard as far as Australia and China, the altered air waves causes strange colours on the sky and the volcanic gases reduce global temperatures during the following years. A disputed but vivid sunset was captured in Edvard Munch's The Scream. 1896 Svante Arrhenius mathematically quantifies the effects of carbon dioxide on climate change related to the Industrial Revolution and the burning of fossil fuels. 20th century We share about 31% of our genes with single living cell yeast that replicates itself every 90 minutes. Year(s) Start 1900 Event(s) End The Galveston Hurricane of 1900 hits Galveston, Texas and reverses the city's previously rapid growth. 54 87 1906 San Francisco earthquake causes collapse of insurance markets and the Panic of 1907. 1908 1914 Tunguska Explosion decimates a remote part of Siberia. 1918 World War I, which involves heavy bombardment, explosions, and poison gas warfare. Spanish flu kills between 20 and 50 million people worldwide shortly 1918 after World War I. 1927 1932 World human population reached 2 billion mark. 1937 Exceptional precipitation absence in northern hemisphere exacerbated by human activities causes the Dust Bowl drought of the US plains and the Soviet famine of 1932-1933 (harsh economic damage in US and widespread death in USSR). 1939 1945 World War II, with heavy bombardment, genocide, and explosions. Towards the end of the war, nuclear warfare occurs for the first and only time when Hiroshima and Nagasaki are bombed. post-1945 Nuclear tests are performed by the United States, Soviet Union, India, Pakistan, China, North Korea, the United Kingdom, and France. Above-ground detonations continue until the Partial Test Ban Treaty is signed in 1963, causing fallout and spreading radiation around the explosion sites. 1955 Gilbert Plass submits his seminal article "The Carbon Dioxide Theory of Climatic Change". 1957 Sputnik is launched, becomes first man-made object to orbit the earth, and triggers the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union, culminating with the first man in space in 1961, and the Moon landing, humanity's first ventures to the Moon in 1969. 54 88 1960 World human population reached 3 billion mark. 1963 The Clean Air Act is passed in the United States, with subsequent amendments in 1970, 1977 and 1990. 1974 World human population reached 4 billion mark. 1970s 2010s Deindustrialization occurs in the Midwest and then much of the United States, as manufacturing industries (and their pollution) move to China, India, and other countries. 1980 Mount St. Helens erupts explosively in Washington state. 1984 Bhopal disaster. 1986 Chernobyl meltdown and explosion, contaminating surrounding area, including Pripyat. 1987 World human population reached 5 billion mark. 1989 The Montreal Protocol comes into effect, phasing out chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other substances responsible for ozone depletion. 1992 The Earth Summit is held in Rio, attended by 192 nations. 1997 The Kyoto Protocol is signed, committing nations to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 1999 World human population reached 6 billion mark. 3rd millennium The discovery of fire influenced human evolution. Fire 21st century allowed humans to cook their food, which made food easier to chew and digest—which, in turn, contributed to the reduction of human tooth and gut size. 89 56 Year(s) Event(s) Start End 2004 Earthquake causes large tsunamis in the Indian Ocean, killing nearly a quarter of a million people. 2005 Hurricanes Katrina, Rita, and Wilma cause widespread destruction and environmental harm to coastal communities in the US Gulf Coast region, especially the New Orleans area. 2008 Cyclone Nargis makes landfall over Myanmar, causing widespread destruction and killing over 130,000 people. 2010  Earthquake in Haiti destroyed vital infrastructure and kills over 100,000 people.  Earthquake in Chile of a magnitude of 8.8, caused damage on many cities.  The eruption of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano affected activities in Europe and across the world.  Deepwater Horizon oil spill in Gulf of Mexico causes millions of barrels of oil to pollute the gulf. 2011  Tsunami in Japan An earthquake and later a tsunami hit the continent on March 11, 2011. After this disaster, nuclear power plants in Japan have been releasing radiation due to damage from the earthquake.  World human population reached the 7 billion mark.  Tornadoes of 2011, a series of destructive and record-breaking tornado outbreaks and tornado outbreak sequences strike the heartland of the United States, killing hundreds of people, injuring scores more, and causing billions of dollars in damages, particularly in St. Louis and Joplin in Missouri, Tuscaloosa and Birmingham in Alabama, and elsewhere. 57 90 2012 Hurricane Sandy devastates the eastern third of North America, from Florida to Quebec, and from Michigan to Nova Scotia, as the largest Atlantic basin hurricane in history. 2013  Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda) ravages the central Philippines, with explosive strengthening and a record-setting wind-speed at landfall of 195 miles per hour (314 km/h).  A multivortex tornado touches down in El Reno, Oklahoma and grows to a recordsetting width of 2.6 miles (4.2 km).  Minamata Convention on Mercury is signed, committing nations to reducing mercury poisoning. 2015 A global climate change pact is agreed at the COP 21 summit, committing all countries to reduce carbon emissions for the first time. 2016 150 nations meeting at the UNEP summit in Rwanda agree to phase out hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), as an extension to the Montreal Protocol. At first sight nothing seems more obvious than that everything has a beginning and an end, and that everything can be subdivided into smaller parts. Nevertheless, for entirely speculative reasons the philosophers of Antiquity, especially the Stoics, concluded this concept to be quite unnecessary. The prodigious development of physics has now reached the same conclusion as those philosophers, Empedocles and Democritus in particular, who lived around 500 B.C. and for whom even ancient manhad a lively admiration. Svante Arrhenius 91 I decided that it was not wisdom that enabled poets to write their poetry, but a kind of instinct or inspiration, such as you find in seers and prophets who deliver all their sublime messages without knowing in the least what they mean. Socrates The Three Socratic Principles  Discover and Pursue Your Life's Mission  Care for your soul  Be a good person and you will not be harmed by outside forces Timeline of European exploration Exploration is really the essence of the human spirit. Frank Borman 15th century 92  1418 – Portuguese explorers João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira discover Porto Santo Island in the Madeira archipelago.  1419 – Gonçalves and Vaz discover the main island of Madeira.  1431 – Diogo de Silves discovers the Azores.  1434 – Gil Eanes passes Cabo de Não and becomes the first to sail beyond Cape Bojador and return alive.  1444 – Dinis Dias reaches the mouth of the Senegal River.  1446 – The Portuguese reach the mainland peninsula of Cape Verde and the Gambia River. We were meant to explore this earth like children do, unhindered by fear, propelled by curiosity and a sense of discovery. Allow yourself to see the world through new eyes and know there are amazing adventures here for you. Laurel Bleadon Maffei 3 main reasons for European Exploration:  Economy  Religion  Glory  1456 – Alvise Cadamosto and Diogo Gomes explore the Cape Verde Islands, 560 kilometres (350 mi) west of the Cape Verde peninsula.  1460 – Pêro de Sintra reaches Sierra Leone.  1470 – Cape Palmas is passed.  1472 – Fernão do Pó discovers the island of Bioko. 93  1473 – Lopo Gonçalves is the first European sailor to cross the Equator.  1474–75 – Ruy de Sequeira discovers São Tomé and Príncipe.  1482 – Diogo Cão reaches the Congo River, where he erects a padrão ("pillar of stone").  1485–86 – Cão reaches Cape Cross, where he erects his last padrão.  1487–92 – Pêro da Covilhã travels to Arabia, to the mouth of the Red Sea, and then eastward by sail to the Malabar Coast (visiting Calicut and Goa on the Indian subcontinent). He later sails south along the east coast of Africa, visiting the trading stations of Mombasa, Zanzibar, and Sofala; on his return journey he visits Mecca and Medina before reaching Ethiopia in search of the mythical Prester John.  1488 – Bartolomeu Dias rounds the "Cape of Storms" (Cape of Good Hope), at the southernmost tip of the African continent.  1492 – Under the patronage of the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Italian explorer Christopher Columbus discovers the Bahamas, Cuba, and "Española" (Hispaniola), which are only later recognized as part of the New World.  1493–94 – On his second voyage to the Americas, Columbus discovers Dominica and Guadeloupe, among other islands of the Lesser Antilles, as well as Puerto Rico and Jamaica. By prevailing over all obstacles and distractions, one may unfailingly arrive at his chosen goal or destination. Christopher Columbus  1497 – Under the commission of Henry VII of England, Italian explorer John Cabot discovers Newfoundland, becoming the first European to explore the coast of mainland North America since the Norse explorations of Vinland five centuries earlier.  1497–98 – Vasco da Gama sails to India and back. 94  1498 – On his third voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus discovers mainland South America. I am not the man I once was. I do not want to go back in time, to be the second son, the second man. Vasco da Gama  1499 – Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda explores the South American mainland from about Cayenne (in modern French Guiana) to Cabo de la Vela (in modern Colombia), discovering the mouth of the Orinoco River and entering Lake Maracaibo.  1499 – Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci discovers the mouth of the Amazon River and reaches 6°S latitude, in present-day northern Brazil.  1499 – João Fernandes Lavrador, together with Pêro de Barcelos, sight Labrador.  1499 – Gaspar and Miguel Corte-Real reach and map Greenland. 16th century  1500 – Vicente Yáñez Pinzón reaches the northeast coast of what today is Brazil at a cape he names "Santa Maria de la Consolación" (Cabo de Santo Agostinho) and sails fifty miles up a river he names the "Marañón" (Amazon).  1500 – Pedro Álvares Cabral makes the "official" discovery of Brazil, leading the first expedition that united Europe, America, Africa, and Asia.  1500 – João Fernandes reaches Cape Farewell, Greenland ("Terra do Lavrador", or Land of the Husbandman).  1500–02 – Gaspar and Miguel Corte Real discover and name the coasts of "Terra Verde" (likely Newfoundland) and Labrador.  1500–01 – Diogo Dias discovers Madagascar and reaches the gate of the Red Sea, the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait. 95  1500 – Rodrigo de Bastidas explores the Colombian coast from Cabo de la Vela to the Gulf of Urabá.  1501–02 – Gonçalo Coelho discovers "Rio de Janeiro" (Guanabara Bay).  1502–03 – On his fourth voyage to the Americas, Christopher Columbus explores the North American mainland from Guanaja off modern Honduras to the present-day border of Panama and Colombia.  1505 – Juan de Bermúdez discovers Bermuda.  1506 – Lourenço de Almeida reaches the Maldives and Sri Lanka.  1506 – Tristão da Cunha discovers the remote island of Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic Ocean.  1509 – Diogo Lopes de Sequeira reaches Sumatra and Malacca.  1511 – Duarte Fernandes leads a diplomatic mission to Ayutthaya Kingdom (Siam or Thailand).  1511 – Rui Nunes da Cunha leads a diplomatic mission to Pegu (Burma or Myanmar).  1511–12 – João de Lisboa and Estevão de Fróis discover the "Cape of Santa Maria" (Punta Del Este) in the River Plate, exploring its estuary, and traveling as far south as the Gulf of San Matias at 42ºS, in present-day Uruguay and Argentina (penetrating 300 km (186 mi) "around the Gulf").  1511–12 – António de Abreu sails through the Strait of Malacca, between Sumatra and Bangka, and along the coasts of Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, and Flores to the "Spice Islands" (Maluku).  1513 – Jorge Álvares becomes the first European to reach China by sea, landing on Nei Lingding Island at the Pearl River Delta.  1513 – Vasco Núñez de Balboa crosses the Isthmus of Panama and reaches the Bay of San Miguel, discovering the "Mar del Sur" (Pacific Ocean).  1513 – Juan Ponce de León discovers "La Florida" (Florida) and the Yucatán.  1514–15 – António Fernandes reaches present-day Zimbabwe.  1515 – Gonzalo de Badajoz crosses the Isthmus of Panama at the site of Nombre de Dios, reaching as far as the interior of the Azuero Peninsula. 96  1516 – Juan Díaz de Solís explores the River Plate estuary and names it "La Mar Dulce" ("The Fresh-Water Sea").  1516 – Portuguese traders land in Da Nang, Champa, naming it Cochinchina (modern Vietnam).  1518 – Lourenço Gomes reaches Borneo.  1518 – Juan de Grijalva explores the Mexican coast from "Patouchan" (Champotón) to just north of the Pánuco River. I did not write half of what I saw, for I knew I would not be believed Marco Polo  1519 – Hernán Cortés travels from Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan on Lake Texcoco.  1519 – Alonzo Alvarez de Pineda sails around the Gulf of Mexico to the Pánuco, proving its insularity; also discovers the "Father of Waters" (the Mississippi).  1519 – Gaspar de Espinosa sails west along the west coasts of modern Panama and Costa Rica as far as the Gulf of Nicoya.  1519–22 – Ferdinand Magellan's expedition completes the first circumnavigation of the globe, exploring the coast of Patagonia and discovering and traversing the Strait of Magellan.  1520–21 – João Alvares Fagundes explores Burgeo and Saint Pierre and Miquelon in Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia.  1521 – Francisco Gordillo and Pedro de Quexos find the mouth of a river they name "Rio de San Juan Bautista" (perhaps Winyah Bay at the mouth of the Pee Dee River in modern South Carolina). 97  1521 – Cristóvão Jacques explores the Plate River and discovers the Parana River, entering it for about 23 leagues (around 140 km), to near the present city of Rosario.  1522 – Gil González Dávila explores inland from the Gulf of Nicoya, discovering Lake Nicaragua, while his pilot Andrés Niño explores along the coast to the west, discovering the Gulf of Fonseca and perhaps reaching as far as the southwestern coast of modern Guatemala.  1524 – Under the commission of Francis I of France, Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano explores the eastern seaboard of the present-day United States from about Cape Fear to Maine. He also discovers the mouth of the Hudson River.  c. 1524 – Aleixo Garcia travels westward from Santa Catarina, across the Paraná River (perhaps sighting Iguazu Falls) to the Paraguay River near the site of Asunción, then across the Gran Chaco to the Andes and the Inca frontier, somewhere between Mizque and Tomina in modern Bolivia. I resolved to abandon trade and to fix my aim on something more praiseworthy and stable; whence it was that I made preparation for going to see part of the world and its wonders. Those new regions [America] which we found and explored with the fleet . . . we may rightly call a New World . . . a continent more densely peopled and abounding in animals than our Europe or Asia or Africa; and, in addition, a climate milder than in any other region known to us. Amerigo Vespucci 98 Christopher Columbus Letter to Noble Lord Raphael Sanchez Announcing the Discovery of America As I know that it will afford you pleasure that I have brought my undertaking to a successful result, I have determined to write you this letter to inform you of everything that has been done and discovered in this voyage of mine. On the thirty‑third day after leaving Cadiz I came into the Indian Sea, where I discovered many islands inhabited by numerous people. I took possession of all of them for our most fortunate King by making public proclamation and unfurling his standard, no one making any resistance. To the first of them I have given the name of our blessed Saviour, trusting in whose aid I had reached this and all the rest; but the Indians call it Guanahani. To each of the others also I gave a new name, ordering one to be called Sancta Maria de Concepcion, another Fernandina, another Hysabella, another Johana; and so with all the rest. As soon as we reached the island which I have just said was called Johana, I sailed along its coast some considerable distance towards the West, and found it to be so large, without any apparent end, that I believed it was not an island, but a continent, a province of Cathay. But I saw neither towns nor cities lying on the seaboard, only some villages and country farms, with whose inhabitants I could not get speech, because they fled as soon as they beheld us. I continued on, supposing I should come upon some city, or country‑houses. At last, finding that no discoveries rewarded our further progress, and that this course was leading us towards the North, which I was desirous of avoiding, as it was now winter in these regions, and it had always been my intention to proceed Southwards, and the winds also were favorable to such desires, I concluded not to attempt any other adventures; so, turning back, I came again to a certain harbor, which I had remarked. From there I sent two of our men into the country to learn whether there was any king or cities in that land. They journeyed for three days, and found innumerable people and habitations, but small and having no fixed government; on which account they returned. Meanwhile I had learned from some Indians, whom I had seized at this place, that this country was really an island. Consequently I continued along towards the East, as much as 322 miles, always hugging the shore. Where was the very extremity of the island, from there I saw another island to the Eastwards, distant 54 miles from this Johana, which I named Hispana; and proceeded to it, and directed my course for 564 miles East by North as it were, just as I had done at Johana. The island called Johana, as well as the others in its neighborhood, is exceedingly fertile. It has numerous harbors on all sides, very safe and wide, above comparison with any I have ever seen. Through it flow many very broad and health‑giving rivers; and there are in it numerous very lofty mountains. All these islands are very beautiful, and of quite different shapes; easy to be traversed, and full of the greatest variety of trees reaching to the stars. I think these never lose their leaves, as I saw them looking as green 99 and lovely as they are wont to be in the month of May in Spain. Some of them were in leaf, and some in fruit; each flourishing in the condition its nature required. The nightingale was singing and various other little birds, when I was rambling among them in the month of November. There are also in the island called Johana seven or eight kinds of palms, which as readily surpass ours in height and beauty as do all the other trees, herbs and fruits. There are also wonderful pinewoods, fields and extensive meadows; birds of various kinds, and honey; and all the different metals, except iron. In the island, which I have said before was called Hispana, there are very lofty and beautiful mountains, great farms, groves and fields, most fertile both for cultivation and for pasturage, and well adapted for constructing buildings. The convenience of the harbors in this island, and the excellence of the rivers, in volume and salubrity, surpass human belief, unless one should see them. In it the trees, pasture‑lands and fruits differ much from those of Johana. Besides, this Hispana abounds in various kinds of spices, gold and metals. The inhabitants of both sexes of this and of all the other islands I have seen, or of which I have any knowledge, always go as naked as they came into the world, except that some of the women cover their private parts with leaves or branches, or a veil of cotton, which they prepare themselves for this purpose. They are all, as I said before, unprovided with any sort of iron, and they are destitute of arms, which are entirely unknown to them, and for which they are not adapted; not on account of any bodily deformity, for they are well made, but because they are timid and full of terror. They carry, however, canes dried in the sun in place of weapons, upon whose roots they fix a wooden shaft, dried and sharpened to a point. But they never dare to make use of these; for it has often happened, when I have sent two or three of my men to some of their villages to speak with the inhabitants, that a crowd of Indians has sallied forth; but when they saw our men approaching, they speedily took to flight, parents abandoning their children, and children their parents. This happened not because any loss or injury had been inflicted upon any of them. On the contrary I gave whatever I had, cloth and many other things, to whomsoever I approached, or with whom I could get speech, without any return being made to me; but they are by nature fearful and timid. But when they see that they are safe, and all fear is banished, they are very guileless and honest, and very liberal of all they have. No one refuses the asker anything that he possesses; on the contrary they themselves invite us to ask for it. They manifest the greatest affection towards all of us, exchanging valuable things for trifles, content with the very least thing or nothing at all. But I forbade giving them a very trifling thing and of no value, such as bits of plates, dishes, or glass; also nails and straps; although it seemed to them, if they could get such, that they had acquired the most beautiful jewels in the world. For it chanced that a sailor received for a single strap as much weight of gold as three gold solidi; and so others for other things of less price, especially for new blancas, and for some gold coins, for which they gave whatever the seller asked; for instance, an ounce and a half or two ounces of gold, or thirty or forty pounds of cotton, with which they were already familiar. So too for pieces of hoops, jugs, jars and pots they bartered cotton and gold like beasts. This I forbade, because it was plainly unjust; and I gave them many beautiful and pleasing things, which I had brought with me, for no return whatever, in order to win their affection, and that they might become Christians and inclined to love 100 our Kino; and Queen and Princes and all the people of Spain; and that they might be eager to search for and gather and give to us what they abound in and we greatly need. They do not practice idolatry; on the contrary, they believe that all strength, all power, in short all blessings, are from Heaven, and that I have come down from there with these ships and sailors; and in this spirit was I received everywhere, after they had got over their fear. They are neither lazy nor awkward ; but, on the contrary, are of an excellent and acute understanding. Those who have sailed these seas give excellent accounts of everything; but they have never seen men wearing clothes, or ships like ours. As soon as I had come into this sea, I took by force some Indians from the first island, in order that they might learn from us, and at the same time tell us what they knew about affairs in these regions. This succeeded admirably; for in a short time we understood them and they us both by gesture and signs and words; and they were of great service to us. They are coming now with me, and have always believed that I have come from Heaven, notwithstanding the long time they have been, and still remain, with us. They were the first who told this wherever we went, one calling to another, with a loud voice, Come, Come, you will see Men from Heaven. Whereupon both women and men, children and adults, young and old, laying aside the fear they had felt a little before, flocked eagerly to see us, a great crowd thronging about our steps, some bringing food, and others drink, with greatest love and incredible good will. In each island are many boats made of solid wood; though narrow, yet in length and shape similar to our two‑bankers, but swifter in motion, and managed by oars only. Some of them are large, some small, and some of medium size; but most are larger than a two‑banker rowed by 18 oars. With these they sail to all the islands, which are innumerable; engaging in traffic and commerce with each other. I saw some of these biremes, or boats, which carried 70 or 80 rowers. In all these islands there is no difference in the appearance of the inhabitants, and none in their customs and language, so that all understand one another. This is a circumstance most favorable for what I believe our most serene King especially desires, that is, their conversion to the holy faith of Christ; for which, indeed, so far as I could understand, they are very ready and prone. I have told already how I sailed in a straight course along the island of Johana from West to East 322 miles. From this voyage and the extent of my journeyings I can say that this Johana is larger than England and Scotland together. For beyond the aforesaid 322 miles, in that portion which looks toward the West, there are two more provinces, which I did not visit. One of them the Indians call Anan, and its inhabitants are born with tails. These provinces extend 180 miles, as I learned from the Indians, whom I am bringing with me, and who are well acquainted with all these islands. 101 The distance around Hispana is greater than all Spain from Colonia to Fontarabia; as is readily proved, because its fourth side, which I myself traversed in a straight course from West to East, stretches 540 miles. This island is to be coveted, and not to be despised when acquired. As I have already taken possession of all the others, as I have said, for our most invincible King, and the rule over them is entirely committed to the said King, so in this one I have taken special possession of a certain large town, in a most convenient spot, well suited for all profit and commerce, to which I have given the name of the Nativity of our Lord; and there I ordered a fort to be built forthwith, which ought to be finished now. In it I left as many men as seemed necessary, with all kinds of arms, and provisions sufficient for more than a year; also a caravel and men to build others, skilled not only in this trade but in others. I secured for them the good will and remarkable friendship of the King of the island; for these people are very affectionate and kind; so much so that the aforesaid King took a pride in my being called his brother. Although they should change their minds, and wish to harm those who have remained in the fort, they cannot; because they are without arms, go naked and are too timid; so that, in truth, those who hold the aforesaid fort can lay waste the whole of that island, without any danger to themselves, provided they do not violate the rules and instructions I have given them. In all these islands, as I understand, every man is satisfied with only one wife, except the princes or kings, who are permitted to have 20. The women appear to work more than the men; but I could not well understand whether they have private property, or not; for I saw that what every one had was shared with the others, especially meals, provisions and such things. I found among them no monsters, as very many expected; but men of great deference and kind; nor are they black like the Ethiopians; but they have long, straight hair. They do not dwell where the rays of the Sun have most power, although the Sun’s heat is very great there, as this region is twenty‑six degrees distant from the equinoctial line. From the summits of the mountains there comes great cold, but the Indians mitigate it by being inured to the weather, and by the help of very hot food, which they consume frequently and in immoderate quantities. I saw no monsters, neither did I hear accounts of any such except in an island called Charis, the second as one crosses over from Spain to India, which is inhabited by a certain race regarded by their neighbors as very ferocious. They eat human flesh, and make use of several kinds of boats by which they cross over to all the Indian islands, and plunder and carry off whatever they can. But they differ in no respect from the others except in wearing their hair long after the fashion of women. They make use of bows and arrows made of reeds, having pointed shafts fastened to the thicker portion, as we have before described. For this reason they are considered to be ferocious, and the other Indians consequently are terribly afraid of them; but I consider them of no more account than the others. They have intercourse with certain women who dwell alone upon the island of Mateurin, the first as one crosses from Spain to India. These women follow none of the usual occupations of their sex; but they use bows and arrows like those of their 102 husbands, which I have described, and protect themselves with plates of copper, which is found in the greatest abundance among them. I was informed that there is another island larger than the aforesaid Hispana, whose inhabitants have no hair; and that there is a greater abundance of gold in it than in any of the others. Some of the inhabitants of these islands and of the others I have seen I am bringing over with me to bear testimony to what I have reported. Finally, to sum up in a few words the chief results and advantages of our departure and speedy return, I make this promise to our most invincible Sovereigns, that, if I am supported by some little assistance from them, I will give them as much gold as they have need of, and in addition spices, cotton and mastic, which is found only in Chios, and as much aloes‑wood, and as many heathen slaves as their majesties may choose to demand; besides these, rhubarb and other kinds of drugs, which I think the men I left in the fort before alluded to, have already discovered, or will do so; as I have myself delayed nowhere longer than the winds compelled me, except while I was providing for the construction of a fort in the city of Nativity, and for making all things safe. Although these matters are very wonderful and unheard of, they would have been much more so, if ships to a reasonable amount had been furnished me. But what has been accomplished is great and wonderful, and not at all proportionate to my deserts, but to the sacred Christian faith, and to the piety and religion of our Sovereigns. For what the mind of man could not compass the spirit of God has granted to mortals. For God is wont to listen to his servants who love his precepts, even in impossibilities, as has happened to me in the present instance, who have accomplished what human strength has hitherto never attained. For if any one has written or told any‑ thing about these islands, all have done so either obscurely or by guesswork, so that it has almost seemed to be fabulous. Therefore let King and Queen and Princes, and their most fortunate realms, and all other Christian provinces, let us all return thanks to our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, who has bestowed so great a victory and reward upon us; let there be processions and solemn sacrifices prepared; let the churches be decked with festal boughs; let Christ rejoice upon Earth as he rejoices in Heaven, as he foresees that so many souls of so many people heretofore lost are to be saved; and let us be glad not only for the exaltation of our faith, but also for the increase of temporal prosperity, in which not only Spain but all Christendom is about to share. As these things have been accomplished so have they been briefly narrated. Farewell. CHRISTOPHER COLOM, Admiral of the Ocean Fleet. Lisbon, March 1 103  1524–25 – Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro explore from Punta Piña (7°56'N) on the southern coast of Panama to the San Juan River (4°N), on the west coast of Colombia.  1525 – Estêvão Gomes probes Penobscot Bay, Maine.  1525 – The Portuguese reach "Celebes" (Sulawesi).  1525 – Diogo da Rocha and Gomes de Sequeira discover the Caroline Islands.  1526 – Alonso de Salazar discovers the Marshall Islands (Bokak Atoll).  1526–28 – Pizarro and his pilot Bartolomé Ruiz explore the west coast of South America from the San Juan River south to the Santa River (about 9°S), becoming the first Europeans to sight the coasts of Ecuador and Peru.  1526–27 – Jorge de Menezes discovers New Guinea.  1527–28 – Sebastian Cabot explores several hundred miles up the Paraná River, past its confluence with the Paraguay.  1528 – Diogo Rodrigues explores the Mascarene Islands (which he names after Pedro Mascarenhas), naming the islands of Réunion, Mauritius, and Rodrigues.  1528–36 – Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and three others are the only survivors of a group of several hundred colonists who travel from the coast of western Florida to the Rio Sinaloa in northern Mexico, where they encounter Spanish slavers.  1531 – Diego de Ordaz ascends the Orinoco to the Atures rapids, just past its confluence with the Meta.  1532–33 – Pizarro explores and conquers inland to Cajamarca and Cuzco.  1533 – Fortún Ximénez finds the tip of Baja California.  1534 – Jacques Cartier explores the Gulf of St. Lawrence, discovering Anticosti Island and Prince Edward Island.  1535 – Fray Tomás de Berlanga discovers the Galapagos Islands.  1535 – Cartier ascends "La Grande Rivière" or "La Rivière de Hochelaga" (the St. Lawrence River) to the village of Hochelaga (present-day Montreal).  1535–37 – Diego de Almagro leads en expedition from Cuzco to the south, taking the Inca highway to the southwest shore of Lake Titicaca, through the altiplano and 104 the Salta valley to Copiapó; a detachment continues south to the Maule River. Almagro takes the coastal route back, through the Atacama Desert.  1539 – Francisco de Ulloa sails to the head of the Gulf of California and around Baja California to Cedros Island, establishing that Baja is a peninsula.  1539–43 – An expedition led by Hernando de Soto explores much of the presentday Southern United States, becoming the first to cross the Appalachians (over the Blue Ridge Mountains) and the Mississippi River.  1540–42 – Francisco Vásquez de Coronado travels overland from Mexico in search of the mythical Seven Cities of Cibola, only to find villages of mud and thatch in what is now the Southwestern United States. He sends out smaller parties, one of which, under García López de Cárdenas, discovers the Grand Canyon; another reports the discovery of a city of gold called Quivira (in modern Kansas), which Coronado later visits – although he finds no gold. The sea is dangerous and its storms terrible, but these obstacles have never been sufficient reason to remain ashore... Unlike the mediocre, intrepid spirits seek victory over those things that seem impossible... It is with an iron will that they embark on the most daring of all endeavors... to meet the shadowy future without fear and conquer the unknown. The church says the earth is flat; but I have seen its shadow on the moon, and I have more confidence even in a shadow than in the church. Ferdinand Magellan  1540 – Hernando de Alarcón ascends the Colorado River to the confluence of the Gila River (near present-day Yuma, Arizona).  1541–42 – Francisco de Orellana sails down the length of the Amazon River. 105  1542–43 – Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo explores the coasts of modern Baja and California from Punta Baja to the Russian River, discovering the Channel Islands; after his death, his second-in-command, Bartolomé Ferrer, reaches Point Arena.  1542 or 1543 – Fernão Mendes Pinto, António Mota and Francisco Zeimoto reach Tanegashima, Japan.  1543 – Ruy López de Villalobos discovers three islands (Fais, Ulithi and Yap) in the Carolines and eight atolls (Kwajalein, Lae, Ujae, Wotho, Likiep, Wotje, Erikub and Maloelap) in the Marshall Islands.  1543 – Jean Alfonce explores up the Saguenay River, believing it to be "la mer du Cattay".  1553 – Hugh Willoughby seeks a Northeast Passage over Russia; reaches either Kolguyev Island or Novaya Zemlya.  1556 – Steven Borough reaches as far as Kara Strait, between Novaya Zemlya and Vaygach Island.  1557–59 – Juan Fernández Ladrillero and Cortés Hojea explore the Chilean coast from Valdivia (39° 48’ S) to Canal Santa Barbara (54° S); the former passes through the western entrance of the Strait of Magellan to its eastern entrance and back.  1565 – Miguel López de Legazpi discovers Mejit, Ailuk and Jemo in the Marshall Islands, while his subordinate Alonso de Arellano discovers Lib in the same island group, as well as five islands (Oroluk, Chuuk, Pulap, Sorol and Ngulu) in the Caroline Islands.  1568 – Álvaro de Mendaña discovers the Solomon Islands.  1576 – Martin Frobisher discovers "Meta Incognita" ("the unknown bourne"; Baffin Island) and what he believes to be a passage to Cathay: "Frobishers Streytes" (Frobisher Bay).  1577–80 – Sir Francis Drake completes the second circumnavigation of the globe.  1578 – Frobisher sails part way up the "Mistaken Straites" (Hudson Strait).  1581–82 – Yermak Timofeyevich and his men cross the Ural Mountains and reach as far as Isker on the banks of the Irtysh (near modern Tobolsk). 106  1585 – John Davis explores Davis Strait, reaching 66°40′ N; also sails up Cumberland Sound, thinking it to be a "passage to Cathay".  1587 – Davis sails up the west coast of Greenland as far as 72°46′ N (about modern Upernavik).  1589 – João da Gama reaches "Yezo" (Hokkaido).  1592 – Davis discovers the Falkland Islands.  1595 – Mendaña discovers the Marquesas.  1596 – Willem Barentsz discovers Spitsbergen. We Spaniards know a sickness of the heart that only gold can cure. Among these temples there is one which far surpasses all the rest, whose grandeur of architectural details no human tongue is able to describe; for within its precincts, surrounded by a lofty wall, there is room enough for a town of five hundred families. Hernan Cortes 17th century  1600–01 – Prince Miron Shakhovskoi and D. Khripunov descend the Ob to the Ob Estuary and ascend the Taz River, establishing the ostrog of Mangazeya about 161 kilometres (100 mi) to 240 kilometres (150 mi) from its mouth.  1602–06 – Portuguese missionary Bento de Góis travels overland from India to China, via Afghanistan and the Pamirs. 107  1605 – Ketsk serving men ascend the Ket, portage to the Yenisei, and descend it to its confluence with the Sym.  1606 – Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon discovers Australia at the mouth of the Pennefather River on the western coast of the Cape York Peninsula, exploring its coast from Badu Island south to Cape Keerweer (13°58'S).  1606 – Pedro Fernandes de Queirós discovers Espiritu Santo, the largest island in what is now the nation of Vanuatu.  1606 – Luís Vaz de Torres sails through the strait that now bears his name.  1607 – Mangazeyan promyshlenniki and traders reach the lower Yenisei, establish Turukhansk, and ascend the Lower Tunguska, while Ketsk serving men ascend the Yenisei to the Angara, which they also ascend.  1607 – Henry Hudson coasts the east coast of Greenland, naming "Hold-with-Hope" (around 73°N).  1609 – Hudson sails the Halve Maen up the Hudson River as far north as presentday Albany, New York.  1610 – Étienne Brûlé ascends the Ottawa River and reaches Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay in Lake Huron.  1610 – Kondratiy Kurochkin leads an expedition, sailing in kochi, from Turukhansk to the mouth of the Yenisei and east to the mouth of the Pyasina on the Taymyr Peninsula.  1610 – A detachment from Mangazeya ascends the Yenisei a further 640 kilometres (400 mi) to its confluence with the Sym.  1610–11 – Hudson sails through Hudson Strait into Hudson Bay, where he overwinters in James Bay.  1611 – Mangazeyan men reach the Khatanga.  1612–13 – Thomas Button is the first to explore the western shores of Hudson Bay, where he winters in the mouth of the Nelson River; also discovers Coats and Southampton Islands.  1614 – Whalers discover Jan Mayen. 108  1615–16 – Étienne Brûlé sights the western shore of Lake Ontario, descends the Niagara River, explores what are now parts of modern New York and Pennsylvania, and descends the Susquehanna River to Chesapeake Bay.  1616 – Jacob Le Maire and Willem Schouten discover and name Le Maire Strait, Staten Island, and Cape Horn; also discover Tonga (Niuafo'ou, Niuatoputapu, and Tafahi), Futuna and Alofi (in modern Wallis and Futuna), and several islands in the Tuamotu (Takaroa, Takapoto, Manihi, Ahe and Rangiroa) and Bismarck Archipelagos (including New Hanover and New Ireland).  1616 – Robert Bylot and William Baffin reach 77°30′ N, enter Baffin Bay, discover Smith, Jones, and Lancaster Sounds and sight the coasts of Ellesmere, Devon, and Bylot Islands.  1616 – Dirk Hartog explores some 576 kilometres (358 mi) of coastline (the coast of Western Australia from about 22° to 28° S), discovering Dirk Hartog Island and Shark Bay.  1617 – English walrus hunters sight the southern coast of "Sir Thomas Smith's Island" (Nordaustlandet).  1618 – Spanish missionary Pedro Páez is believed to be the first European to see and describe the source of the Blue Nile in Ethiopia.  1618 – Lenaert Jacobszoon discovers an "island" at 22°S (the coast of Western Australia from Point Cloates to North West Cape).  1619 – Frederick de Houtman sights the coast of Western Australia near Fremantle and sails along the coast north for over 640 kilometres (400 mi).  1620 – Mangazeyan serving men reach the Vilyuy River and descend it to its confluence with the Lena.  1621–23 – Étienne Brûlé and his companion Grenolle travel along the North Channel of Lake Huron (probably sighting Manitoulin Island) to "Grand Lac" (Lake Superior) via St. Mary's River.  1622 – The Dutch ship Leeuwin discovers land near present-day Cape Leeuwin.  1623 – Jan Carstenszoon discovers the western coast of Cape York Peninsula from Cape Keerweer to the southern mouth of the Gilbert River; while his consort Willem Joosten 109 van Colster discovers "Arnhemsland" and "Speultsland" (modern Arnhem Land and perhaps Groote Eylandt).  1624 – António de Andrade becomes the first known European to cross the Himalayas (through the Mana Pass), reaching Tibet.  1627 – Jesuit missionaries Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral cross the Himalayas and are the first to enter Bhutan.  1627 – François Thijssen, accompanied by Pieter Nuyts, discovers over 1,609 kilometres (1,000 mi) of coastline east of Cape Leeuwin to the eastern end of the Great Australian Bight. The light of past discovery draws me forward. Its shining light guides me to the glory of exploration. Francis Drake  1628 – Cabral is the first to enter Nepal.  1628 – Gerrit Frederikszoon de Witt captain of the Vianen discovers "Witsland" about 21° S, sailing 320 kilometres (200 mi) along the coast and discovering Barrow Island and parts of the Dampier Archipelago.  1628–30 – Vasilii Bugor ascends the Upper Tunguska and portages to the upper Lena, descending it to its confluence with the Kirenga.  1631–32 – Luke Foxe and Thomas James, in separate expeditions, both circumnavigate Hudson Bay in search of a Northwest Passage; Foxe sails through the channel and into the basin now named after him to 66°47′N, while James winters in the bay named after him.  1632–33 – Pyotr Beketov descends the Lena as far as its great bend, erects the ostrog Yakutsk, and sends a detachment some 720 kilometres (450 mi) downriver (where 110 the zimovie Zhigansk is built) and another east up the Aldan as far as the Amga (which they also ascend in search of yasak).  1633–34 – French trader Jean Nicolet discovers Lake Michigan and likely reaches Green Bay, Wisconsin.  1633–38 – Ilya Perfilyev and Ivan Rebrov sail from Zhigansk in kochi some 800 kilometres (500 mi) downriver to the mouth of the Lena and sail along the coast east and west, reaching the mouths of the Olenyok, Yana, and Indigirka rivers.  1638–40 – Poznik Ivanov crosses the Verkhoyansk Range into the upper reaches of the Yana, and then portages over the Chersky Range into the Indigirka River system.  1639–40 – Maksim Perfilyev ascends the Vitim River to the Tsipa, which he also ascends (until rapids force him to turn back), becoming the first Russian to enter Transbaikal.  1639–41 – Ivan Moskvitin ascends the Maya, portages across the Dzhugdzhur Mountains, and descends the Ulya to the Sea of Okhotsk; two groups are sent to the north and south, reaching the mouths of the Taui and Uda rivers, respectively.  1641 – Dmitri Zyrian discovers the Alazeya, which he ascends as far as the tree line.  1642–43 – Dutch explorer Abel Tasman discovers "Anthony van Diemenslandt" (Tasmania) and "Staten Landt" (New Zealand). The following year he discovers "'t Eylandt Amsterdam" (Tongatapu), Fiji and New Britain.  1643 – Kurbat Ivanov reaches the western shores of Lake Baikal, opposite Olkhon.  1643 – Maarten Gerritsz Vries sails along the eastern coast of "Yezo" (Hokkaidō), between Iturup and Urup, to Sakhalin.  1643 – Vasiliy Sychev discovers the Anabar, where he establishes the zimovie Anabarskoye.  1643–45 – Vassili Poyarkov crosses the Stanovoy Range and descends the Zeya to the Amur, which he follows to its mouth; from here, he coasts along the Sea of Okhotsk to the Ulya (on the way sighting the Shantar Islands).  1644 – Tasman maps the northern coast of Australia, connecting "Nova Guinea" (the Cape York Peninsula) with "the land of D'Eendracht" (Western Australia).  1644 – Mikhail Stadukhin reaches the Kolyma. 111  1644–47 – Ivan Pokhabov is the first to ascend the Angara to Lake Baikal, which he crosses to the Selenga; he later ascends it and reaches Urga (in present-day Mongolia).  1646 – Isaya Ignatyev reaches Chaunskaya Bay.  1648–49 – Semyon Dezhnyov sails from the Kolyma, rounds Cape Dezhnev (thus proving Asia and America are separate), and reaches the Anadyr River, which he ascends for some 563 kilometres (350 mi) (here he builds the zimovie Anadyrsk).  1649–51 – Yerofey Khabarov ascends the Olyokma River, crosses the northern Yablonoi Mountains, and descends the Amur to its confluence with the Songhua.  1650 – Stadukhin and Semen Motora travel from the Kolyma, across the Anyuyskiy Range, to Anadyrsk.  1651–57 – Stadukhin travels from Anadyrsk to the mouth of the Penzhina River, then west along the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk to Okhotsk.  1653–54 – Beketov ascends the Khilok, crosses the southern Yablonoi Mountains, and descends the Ingoda and Shilka rivers to the latter's confluence with the Nercha (where his men build the ostrog Nerchinsk).  1654 – Médard Chouart des Groseilliers explores the entire western shore of Lake Michigan.  1659 – Groseilliers and Pierre-Esprit Radisson explore the southern shore of Lake Superior as far west as Chequamegon Bay.  1661 – Jesuit missionaries Johann Grueber and Albert Dorville are the first to visit Lhasa.  1669 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle discovers the Ohio River, descending it as far as the Falls of the Ohio near the site of modern Louisville, Kentucky.  1673 – French-Canadian explorer Louis Jolliet and Jesuit missionary Jacques Marquette reach the upper Mississippi River, descending it to its confluence with the Arkansas River and becoming the first Europeans to map the surrounding river valley. They also discover the Missouri River.  1675 – During a commercial voyage, English merchant Anthony de la Roché accidentally discovers South Georgia Island, the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence. 112  1682 – Robert de La Salle descends the "Rivière de Colbert" (Mississippi) to its mouth.  1688–89 – Jacques de Noyon discovers Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods.  1690–92 – Henry Kelsey travels from York Factory southwestward, probably reaching the Saskatchewan and the headwaters of the Assiniboine, in the process becoming the first European to see the Canadian Prairies.  1696 – Luka Morozko travels almost halfway down the west coast of Kamchatka, reaching the Tigil River.  1697–99 – Vladimir Atlasov reaches as far as the Golygina River on the southwest coast of Kamchatka, from which he sights Atlasov Island; also crosses the Sredinny Range (twice), reaching Olyutorsky Gulf and the Kamchatka River. Sir Walter Raleigh's letter to his wife, the night before execution You shall now receive (my dear wife) my last words in these my last lines. My love I send you, that you may keep it when I am dead, and my counsel that you may remember it when I am no more. I would not by my will present you with sorrows (dear Bess). Let them go to the grave with me and be buried in the dust. And seeing that it is not the will of God that I should see you any more in this life, bear it patiently, and with a heart like thy self. First, I send you all the thanks which my heart can conceive, or my words can express for your many travails, and care taken for me, which, though they have not taken effect as you wished, yet my debt to you is not the less: but pay it I never shall in this world. Secondly, I beseech you for the love you bear me living, do not hide your self many days, but by your travails seek to help your miserable fortunes and the right of your poor child. Thy mourning cannot avail me, I am but dust. Thirdly, you shall understand, that my land was conveyed bona fide to my child: the writings were drawn at midsummer twelve months. My honest cousin Brett can testify so much, and Dalberry, too, can remember somewhat therein. And I trust that my blood will quench their malice that have thus cruelly murthered me: and that they will not seek also to kill thee and thine with extreme poverty. To what friend to direct thee I know not, for all mine have left me in the true time of trial. And I plainly perceive that my death was determined from the first day. 113 Most sorry I am, God knows, that being thus surprised with death I can leave you in no better estate. God is my witness I meant you all my office of wines or all that I could have purchased by selling it, half of my stuff, and all my jewels, but some on it for the boy. But God hath prevented all my resolutions, and even great God that ruleth all in all. But if you live free from want, care for no more, for the rest is but vanity. Love God, and begin betimes to repose your self upon him, and therein shall you find true and lasting riches, and endless comfort: for the rest when you have travailed and wearied your thoughts over all sorts of worldly cogitations, you shall but sit down by sorrow in the end. Teach your son also to love and fear God whilst he is yet young, that the fear of God may grow with him, and the same God will be a husband to you, and a father to him; a husband and a father which cannot be taken from you. Baylie oweth me 200 pounds, and Adrian Gilbert 600. In Jersey I also have much owing me besides. The arrearages of the wines will pay my debts. And howsoever you do, for my soul’s sake, pay all poor men. When I am gone, no doubt you shall be sought for by many, for the world thinks that I was very rich. But take heed of the pretences of men, and their affections, for they last not, but in honest and worthy men, and no greater misery can befall you in this life, than to become a prey, and afterwards to be despised. I speak not this (God knows) to dissuade you from marriage, for it will be best for you, both in respect of the world and of God. As for me, I am no more yours, nor you mine. Death hath cut us asunder and God hath divided me from the world, and you from me. Remember your poor child for his father’s sake, who chose you, and loved you in his happiest times. Get those letters (if it be possible) which I writ to the Lords, wherein I sued for my life. God is my witness, it was for you and yours that I desired life. But it is true that I disdained my self for begging of it. For know it (my dear wife) that your son is the son of a true man, and one who in his own respect despiseth death and all his misshapen and ugly formes. I cannot write much. God he knows how hardly I steal this time while others sleep, and it is also time that I should separate my thoughts from the world. Beg my dead body which living was denied thee; and either lay it at Sherburne (and if the land continue) or in Exeter-Church, by my father and mother. I can say no more, time and death call me away. The everlasting God, powerful, infinite, and omnipotent God, that almighty God, who is goodness itself, the true life and true light keep thee and thine. Have mercy on me, and teach me to forgive my persecutors and false accusers, and send us to meet in his glorious kingdom. 114 My dear wife farewell. Bless my poor boy. Pray for me, and let my good God hold you both in his arms. Written with the dying hand of sometimes thy husband, but now alas overthrown. Yours that was, but now not my own. WR 18th century  1706 – Mikhail Nasedkin reaches Cape Lopatka and sights Shumshu, northernmost of the Kuril Islands.  1710 – Yakov Permyakov discovers Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island.  1713 – Ivan Kozyrevsky reaches Shumshu and Paramushir.  1714 – Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont ascends the Missouri River as far as its confluence with the Platte River, becoming the first European to enter presentday Nebraska.  1720 – Pedro de Villasur travels from Santa Fe, through what is now part of southeastern Colorado, to the lower Platte in eastern Nebraska.  1722 – Dutch explorer Jakob Roggeveen discovers "Paasch Eiland" (Easter Island) and Tutuila and Upolu.  1728 – In the service of the Russian Empire, Danish explorer Vitus Bering sails through the strait that now bears his name. He also discovers and names Saint Lawrence Island.  1732 – Mikhail Gvozdev discovers the "Large Country" (Alaska).  1734 – Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye discovers Lake Winnipeg.  1734–37 – Stepan Muravev and Mikhail Pavlov chart the Russian coast from Arkhangelsk to just east of the Pechora, while Stepan Malygin charts it from there to the Ob River, including the Yamal Peninsula.  1735–36 – Vasili Pronchishchev charts the Russian coast from the Lena west to the Khatanga. 115  1737 – Dmitry Ovtsyn charts the Russian coast from the mouth of the Ob to the Yenisei.  1738 – Pierre de La Vérendrye visits Mandan villages near the site of presentday Bismarck, North Dakota.  1738–40 – Fyodor Minin charts the Russian coast from the Yenisei to the Pyasina.  1739 – Jean Bouvet de Lozier discovers "Cape Circumcision" (Bouvet Island).  1739–41 – Dmitry Laptev charts the Russian coast from the Lena to just east of the Kolyma.  1741 – Bering sights Mount St. Elias, the entrance of Prince William Sound, the Alaska Peninsula (from Cape Providence to Chignik Bay) and several of the Aleutian Islands (discovering Great Sitkin, Atka, and Kiska), as well as discovering Kayak, Montague, Hinchinbrook, Sitkalidak, and the Shumagin and Commander Islands; his second-in-command, Aleksei Chirikov, sights Mounts Fairweather and Douglas and discovers Noyes and Baker Islands (both off the west coast of Prince of Wales Island), as well as Baranof, Chichagof, Kruzof, Yakobi, Kodiak, Afognak, the Aleutian Islands (Umnak, Adak, Agattu, Attu, and the Islands of Four Mountains), and the Kenai Peninsula.  1741–42 – Khariton Laptev and Semion Chelyuskin chart the Taymyr Peninsula, with the latter reaching Cape Chelyuskin, the northernmost point of Asia.  1742 – Christopher Middleton discovers Wager Bay and Repulse Bay.  1742–43 – Louis-Joseph Gaultier de La Vérendrye and his brother François reach the Big Horn Mountains of modern Wyoming; on their return they reach the vicinity of presentday Pierre, South Dakota.  1747 – Jeremiah Westall discovers Chesterfield Inlet and sails about sixty miles up it.  1761–62 – William Christopher sails 370 kilometres (230 mi) into Chesterfield Inlet to the western end of Baker Lake.  1767 – Samuel Wallis discovers "King George's Land" (Tahiti).  1769 – José Ortega discovers San Francisco Bay. 116  1769–70 – English explorer James Cook circumnavigates both islands of New Zealand, proving they are not part of Terra Australis Incognita. He also charts the east coast of Australia from Cape Howe to Cape York.  1771–72 – Samuel Hearne reaches the Coppermine, descending it to what would become known as Coronation Gulf; the following year, on his way back, he becomes the first to sight and cross Great Slave Lake.  1772 – Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec discovers the Kerguelen Islands.  1772 – Pedro Fages sights the Sierra Nevada.  1773 – Ivan Lyakhov reaches Kotelny Island.  1773–75 – Cook is the first to cross the Antarctic Circle, reaching 71° 10’ S, thus finally disproving the existence of Terra Australis Incognita; also discovers New Caledonia and the South Sandwich Islands.  1774 – Juan José Pérez Hernández explores the western coast of North America from Cape Mendocino northwards, discovering the Queen Charlotte Islands, Vancouver Island, and Dall Island. I have not come here for such reasons. I have come to take away their gold. If you do not accept the yoke of the Church and the King of Spain, I will make war on you... Francisco Pizarro  1775 – Bruno de Heceta discovers the mouth of the Columbia River; his consort Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra discovers Prince of Wales Island (Bucareli Bay).  1776 – Attempting to travel overland to Las Californias, Franciscan priests Atanasio Domínguez and Silvestre Vélez de Escalante follow the Rio Grande north to the modern state of Colorado and then travel west, discovering Utah Lake and exploring much of the Four Corners region before returning to Santa Fe. 117  1777–78 – James Cook discovers Christmas Island and Hawaii, and also explores the Alaskan coast as far north as Icy Cape, discovering Cook Inlet and Prince William Sound.  1787 – Charles William Barkley discovers the Strait of Juan de Fuca.  1788 – Captain Arthur Phillip arrives with The First Fleet in Botany Bay on the coast of Sydney, Australia.  1789 – Alexander Mackenzie descends the Mackenzie River to its mouth in the Arctic Ocean.  1791 – Francisco de Eliza discovers the "Canal de Nuestra Señora del Rosario" (Strait of Georgia); José María Narváez explores up it, passing the mouth of the Fraser River and reaching as far north as Texada Island.  1791–95 – George Vancouver, together with William Broughton, Peter Puget, Joseph Whidbey, and James Johnstone, charts the modern states of Oregon and Washington, the coast of British Columbia, and the Alaska Panhandle, discovering Admiralty, Mitkof and Wrangell Islands in the Alexander Archipelago, as well as proving the insularity of Kuiu and Revillagigedo Islands. The expedition also charts Admiralty Inlet and Puget Sound and discovers the Chatham Islands and The Snares.  1792 – Spanish naval officers Dionisio Alcalá Galiano and Cayetano Valdés y Flores circumnavigate Vancouver Island, proving its insularity.  1792 – Jacinto Caamaño enters Clarence Strait, showing that much of the Alaska Panhandle is an archipelago and not part of the mainland, as had been presumed. He also sights the southwest coast of Revillagigedo Island.  1792–93 – Mackenzie ascends the Peace and Parsnip, crosses the Canadian Rockies to the headwaters of the Fraser, ascends the West Road River and crosses the Coast Mountains, reaching the Bella Coola, which he descends to North Bentinck Arm and Dean Channel.  1796 – Scottish explorer Mungo Park reaches the upper Niger, exploring it from Ségou to Silla. 118  1797–98 – George Bass explores from Cape Howe to Western Port, discovering the Bass Strait.  1798 – John Fearn discovers "Pleasant Island" (Nauru).  1798 – Francisco de Lacerda travels from Tete northwest to Lake Mweru.  1798–99 – English cartographer Matthew Flinders and George Bass circumnavigate Tasmania, proving its insularity. A sea setting us upon the ice has brought us close to danger. This land may be profitable to those that will adventure it. Henry Hudson 19th century  1800 – James Grant discovers the Australian coastline from Cape Banks to Cape Otway.  c. 1801–04 – A fur trading post is built on Great Bear Lake.  1802 – John Murray discovers Port Phillip Bay.  1802 – Matthew Flinders explores the coast from Fowlers Bay to Encounter Bay, discovering Spencer Gulf, Kangaroo Island, and Gulf St. Vincent.  1802 – Nicolas Baudin explores the coast from Cape Banks to Encounter Bay, where he meets Flinders.  1802–03 – Flinders circumnavigates Australia.  1805–06 – Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, from Fort Mandan, ascend the Missouri to its headwaters, cross the Continental Divide via Lemhi Pass in the Bitterroot Range to enter the present state of Idaho, and descend the Clearwater and Snake rivers to the Columbia, which they descend to its mouth; on the way back Lewis explores 119 the Blackfoot and Sun rivers, as well as the headwaters of the Marias, while Clark travels through Bozeman Pass and descends the Yellowstone to its confluence with the Missouri.  1805–06 – Mungo Park descends the Niger as far as the Bussa rapids, where he is drowned.  1806 – Yakov Sannikov discovers New Siberia Island.  1806 – Abraham Bristow discovers the Auckland Islands.  1808 – Simon Fraser descends the Fraser River for some 800 kilometres (500 mi) to its mouth, reaching the Strait of Georgia.  1810 – Frederick Hasselborough discovers Campbell and Macquarie Islands.  1811–12 – Wilson Price Hunt discovers Union Pass in the Wind River Range and reaches the upper Snake River, while Robert Stuart discovers South Pass—his route would later become the Oregon Trail.  1816 – Otto von Kotzebue discovers Kotzebue Sound.  1819 – William Smith discovers the South Shetland Islands.  1819–20 – William Edward Parry enters Lancaster Sound and reaches Melville Island, discovering and naming Cornwallis, Bathurst, and Somerset Islands; the following year sights "Banks Land" (Banks Island).  1820 – Edward Bransfield sights the Antarctic Peninsula; also discovers northernmost islands of the South Shetlands.  1820–21 – Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen discovers the northernmost islands of the South Sandwich group; following year discovers Peter I and Alexander Islands.  1821 – English naval officer John Franklin explores over 800 kilometres (500 mi) of coastline from the mouth of the Coppermine River to Point Turnagain on the Kent Peninsula.  1821 – Sealers Nathaniel Palmer and George Powell discover "Powell's Islands" (South Orkney Islands).  1821–23 – Parry explores the eastern side of the Melville Peninsula, reaching the western entrance of Fury and Hecla Strait; also explores the northern coast of Foxe Basin. 120  1823 – Dixon Denham, Walter Oudney, and Hugh Clapperton are the first Europeans to sight Lake Chad.  1823 – Sealer James Weddell sails to 74°15′S into "King George IV's Sea" (Weddell Sea).  1824 – Samuel Black ascends the Finlay to Thutade Lake, source of the Finlay-PeaceSlave-Mackenzie river system, then portages to the Stikine and Turnagain.  1824–25 – Étienne Provost, Jim Bridger, and Peter Skene Ogden independently reach the Great Salt Lake.  1825–26 – Franklin explores the Arctic coastline from the mouth of the Mackenzie River west to Point Beechey, while his partner John Richardson explores east to the Coppermine River, naming Dolphin and Union Strait and discovering "Wollaston Land" (part of the southern coast of Victoria Island) — combining to chart over 1,930 kilometres (1,200 mi) of coastline; Richardson also surveys the five arms of Great Bear Lake.  1826 – Frederick William Beechey charts the Alaskan coastline from Icy Cape to Point Barrow; also discovers Vanavana, Fangataufa, and Ahunui in the Tuamotu archipelago.  1826 – Scottish explorer Alexander Gordon Laing becomes the first European to reach the fabled city of Timbuktu, but is murdered upon leaving the city.  1827 – Jedediah Smith crosses the Sierra Nevada (via Ebbetts Pass) and the Great Basin.  1828 – French explorer René Caillié is the first European to return alive from Timbuktu.  1829–30 – John Ross discovers "Boothia Felix" (the Boothia Peninsula); the following year his nephew James Clark Ross crosses its narrow isthmus and reaches King William Island.  1830 – English explorer Richard Lander and his brother John descend the Niger for more than 643 kilometres (400 mi) from Bussa to its mouth.  1831–32 – John Biscoe discovers Enderby Land; following year discovers Adelaide, Anvers, and Biscoe Islands.  1833 – Andrei Glazunov and Semyon Lukin discover the mouth of the Yukon River. 121  1833–35 – Pyotr Pakhtusov and Avgust Tsivolko chart the entire east coast of Yuzhny Island, as well as the east coast of Severny Island north to nearly 74°24' N.  1834 – George Back descends the Back River to Chantrey Inlet.  1837 – Glazunov ascends the Unalakleet and portages to the middle Yukon.  1837–39 – Peter Warren Dease and Thomas Simpson reach Point Barrow from the east; following two summers they map the region from Point Turnagain to just north of the Castor and Pollux River on the Boothia Peninsula and chart the coastline of "Victoria Land" (Victoria Island) from Point Back to Point Parry.  1838 – Pyotr Malakhov reaches Nulato, near the confluence of the Koyukuk and Yukon.  1838–40 – Jules Dumont d'Urville discovers the Joinville Island group and Adélie Land (138°21' E).  1839 – John Balleny discovers the Balleny Islands and sights the Sabrina Coast (121° E).  1840 – An expedition led by United States Navy Lieutenant Charles Wilkes discovers Wilkes Land, mapping 2,414 kilometres (1,500 mi) of the Antarctic coast from Piner Bay (140°E) to the Shackleton Ice Shelf (97°E), proving that Antarctica is a continent.  1841–43 – James Clark Ross discovers the Ross Sea, reaches 78°09′30″S, and discovers the active volcano Mount Erebus on Ross Island, the Ross Ice Shelf, and Victoria Land. He also sights Snow Hill, Seymour, and James Ross Island.  1845 – John Bell discovers the Porcupine River, which he descends to its confluence with the Yukon.  1846 – Candido José da Costa Cardoso discovers Lake Malawi.  1846 – Rodrigues Graça travels from Angola to southwestern Katanga.  1846–47 – Scottish explorer John Rae maps over 1,046 kilometres (650 mi) of coastline from Lord Mayor Bay to Cape Crozier, discovering Committee Bay.  c. 1847–48 – António da Silva Porto reaches the upper Zambezi.  1848 – German missionary Johannes Rebmann is the first European to sight Mount Kilimanjaro. 122  1849 – David Livingstone and William Cotton Oswell cross the Kalahari Desert to Lake Ngami.  1849 – James Clark Ross charts 240 kilometres (150 mi) of the west coast of Somerset Island south to Cape Coulman, discovering Peel Sound.  1850 – Edwin De Haven sails up Wellington Channel, discovering and naming "Grinnell Land" (the Grinnell Peninsula, which forms the northwestern corner of Devon Island).  1850–54 – Robert McClure transits the Northwest Passage (by boat and sledge); he and his men also chart some 2,736 kilometres (1,700 mi) of new coastline, consisting of the entire coast of Banks Island and much of the northwestern coast of Victoria Island (from just east of Point Reynolds in the north to Prince Albert Sound in the south), in the process discovering Prince of Wales Strait and McClure Strait.  1851 – Rae charts over 965 kilometres (600 mi) of the southern coastline of Victoria Island, from Cape Back to Pelly Point. The wonders of the Grand Canyon cannot be adequately represented in symbols of speech, nor by speech itself. The resources of the graphic art are taxed beyond their powers in attempting to portray its features. Language and illustration combined must fail. We have an unknown distance yet to run, an unknown river to explore. What falls there are, we know not; what rocks beset the channel, we know not; what walls ride over the river, we know not. Ah, well! we may conjecture many things. John Wesley Powell  1851 – Erasmus Ommanney, Sherard Osborn and William Browne chart the northern half of Prince of Wales Island, Osborn west to Sherard Osborn Point (72°20’ N) and Browne 123 east to Pandora Island; meanwhile, Robert D. Aldrich charts the west coast of the Bathurst Island group north to Cape Aldrich (about 76°11’ N, on Île Vanier) and Dr. Abraham Bradford charts the east coast of Melville Island north to Bradford Point.  1851 – Robert Campbell descends the Pelly to the Yukon, which he descends to its confluence with the Porcupine, reaching Fort Yukon.  1851–52 – William Kennedy and Joseph René Bellot discover Bellot Strait and cross Prince of Wales Island east to west, reaching Ommanney Bay.  1852 – Edward Augustus Inglefield reaches 78° 28’ N, entering Smith Sound; also charts Jones Sound as far west as 84° 10' W.  1852–53 – Edward Belcher sails two of his squadron to the northwestern coast of the Grinnell Peninsula, wintering at 77° 52' N, 97° W; later circumnavigates the peninsula via Arthur Strait (now Fiord), discovering Cornwall and North Kent.  1853 – Richard Vesey Hamilton and George Henry Richards chart the Sabine Peninsula of Melville Island from Cape Mudge east to Bradford Point; the latter, along with Sherard Osborn, also charts the northern coast of Bathurst Island.  1853 – George Mecham discovers Prince Patrick and Eglinton Islands and charts the southwest corner of Melville Island; along with Francis Leopold McClintock, he charts nearly the entire coast of Prince Patrick; McClintock also charts the northwest coast of Melville Island, from Cape Fisher northwest to Cape Scott and south along its west coast to Cape Purchase.  1853–54 – American explorer Elisha Kent Kane and his men chart the Kane Basin and discover Kennedy Channel. One of his men, William Morton, reaches as far north as Kap Constitution (81°22'N).  1853–56 – Livingstone becomes the first to traverse Africa from west to east, traveling from Luanda in Angola to Quelimane in Mozambique; also explores much of the upper Zambezi and discovers and names Victoria Falls.  1854 – Rae charts the Boothia Peninsula from the Castor and Pollux River north to Point de la Guiche, discovering Rae Strait and proving the insularity of King William Island.  1858 – Richard Francis Burton and John Hanning Speke discover Lake Tanganyika and Lake Victoria. 124  1859 – McClintock charts the remaining 193 kilometres (120 mi) of the continental coastline of America (on the west coast of the Boothia Peninsula), while his companion Allen Young charts the southern half of Prince of Wales Island.  1860–61 – Robert O'Hara Burke and William Wills are the first to cross Australia from south to north, traveling from Melbourne to the Flinders River.  1862 – Speke discovers the Nile flowing from the northern end of Lake Victoria.  1862 – Ivan Lukin ascends the Yukon to Fort Yukon.  1864 – Samuel Baker discovers "Luta Nzige" (Lake Albert); in the distance he sights the Mountains of the Moon (the Rwenzori).  1865 – Edward Whymper is the first to ascend the Matterhorn.  1866–68 – A group of French colonial officers, led by Ernest Doudard de Lagrée, undertakes a naval exploration and scientific expedition of the Mekong River and into Southern China.  1869 – American naturalist John Wesley Powell leads the first expedition to travel the entire length of the Colorado River through the Grand Canyon.  1869–70 – Carl Koldewey and Julius von Payer explore the east coast of Greenland from 74°18’ to 77°01’N. The 2 major impacts of European exploration:   Columbian Exchange  Increase in international trade 1871 – Charles Francis Hall reaches Robeson Channel, sailing his ship as far north as 82°11’N; he later travels by sledge to 83°05’N.  1872 – William Adams proves the insularity of Bylot Island.  1873–74 – Karl Weyprecht and Von Payer discover and name Franz Josef Land. 125  1875–76 – George Nares sails as far north as 82°24’N; the following year, Albert Hastings Markham sledges to 83°20’26" N, while Pelham Aldrich sledges along the northern coast of Ellesmere Island east to Alert Point and Lewis A. Beaumont explores the northwestern coast of Greenland.  1875–77 – Henry Morton Stanley circumnavigates both Lakes Tanganyika and Victoria, sights Lake George, and descends the Lualaba and Congo to the sea.  1876 – Luigi D'Albertis ascends over 800 kilometres (500 mi) up the Fly River in New Guinea.  1878–79 – Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld is the first to transit the Northeast Passage.  1881–83 – Adolphus Greely explores the interior of Ellesmere Island, discovering Lake Hazen; one of his men, James Booth Lockwood, crosses the island and reaches Greely Fiord, as well as sledging eastwards to the vicinity of Kap Washington (reaching 83° 23’08" N in the process).  1883–84 – German-American anthropologist Franz Boas is the first to see Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island.  1887–89 – Stanley traverses the Ituri Rainforest, explores the Rwenzori, and follows the Semliki to its source (which he names Lake Edward).  1892 – Robert Peary discovers and names Independence Bay and Peary Land.  1893–96 – Fridtjof Nansen and Hjalmar Johansen sledge to 86°13'06" N; their ship, the Fram, under Otto Sverdrup, drifts in the ice from the New Siberian Islands west to the northwest coast of Spitsbergen, reaching 85°55'05" N—a new record for a ship.  1898–1902 – Sverdrup and Gunnar Isachsen chart the western coast of Ellesmere Island and discover and name Axel Heiberg, Ellef Ringnes, Amund Ringnes, and King Christian Islands. 20th century  1900 – Peary explores the north coast of Greenland from Kap Washington to Kap Clarence Wyckoff, on the way reaching Cape Morris Jesup, the most northern point of mainland Greenland. 126  1902–04 – Robert Falcon Scott traces the length of the Ross Ice Shelf, discovers the Edward VII Peninsula, reaches about 82°11’ S (in the process tracing 600 kilometres (370 mi) of the west coast of the shelf), crosses the Transantarctic Mountains and discovers the Antarctic Plateau, penetrating nearly 240 kilometres (150 mi) into it; he is also the first to see the dry valleys of the Antarctic.  1903–06 – Norwegian polar explorer Roald Amundsen leads the first expedition to traverse the entire Northwest Passage, in the sloop Gjøa; Godfred Hansen, his second-incommand, charts the east coast of Victoria Island north to Cape Nansen (72°02'N, 104°45'W).  1906–07 – Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen and Johan Peter Koch chart the northeast coast of Greenland from Kap Bismarck (76°42' N) to Kap Clarence Wyckoff (82°52' N), discovering Danmark Fjord.  1908–09 – Frederick Cook and Peary each claim to have reached the North Pole—the former is a fraud, the latter widely doubted.  1910–11 – Bernhard Hantzsch crosses Baffin Island from Cumberland Sound to the Koukdjuak River, exploring the west coast of the island north to 68°45’N.  1911–12 – Amundsen becomes the first person to reach the South Pole. Scott and his team reach the Pole over a month later, all perishing on the return journey.  1913 – Frederick Bailey and Henry Morshead on their exploration of the Tsangpo Gorge discover the route of the Yarlung Tsangpo river.  1913–14 – Boris Vilkitsky and Per Novopashennyy discover Severnaya Zemlya, surveying parts of its eastern coast from Mys Arkticheskiy to Mys Vaygacha (its southeast point), as well as much of its south coast west to Mys Neupokoyeva.  1915–17 – Vilhjalmur Stefansson discovers Brock, Mackenzie King, Borden, Meighen, and Lougheed Islands; one of his men, Storker T. Storkerson, charts part of the northeast coast of Victoria Island, discovering the Storkerson Peninsula and Stefansson Island.  1924–29 – Joseph Dewey Soper explores the interior of Baffin Island before surveying its west coast north to Hantzsch River.  1926 – Amundsen, Lincoln Ellsworth and Umberto Nobile in the airship Norge are the first definitely known to have sighted the North Pole. 127  1927 – George P. Putnam charts the north coast of the Foxe Peninsula from Cape Dorchester to Bowman Bay.  1930–32 – Georgy Ushakov and Nikolay Urvantsev survey the entire coast of Severnaya Zemlya, showing it to be made up of four main islands: October Revolution, Komsomolets, Pioneer, and Bolshevik Islands—in all surveying some 2,200 kilometres (1,400 mi) of coastline and interior.  1932 – W. A. Poole discovers Prince Charles Island.  1934 – Richard E. Byrd discovers and names Roosevelt Island.  1937–41 – Thomas and Ella Manning map the west coast of Baffin Island from the Hantzsch River to Steensby Inlet.  1940 – Byrd discovers Thurston Island, believing it to be a peninsula.  1948 – E. C. Kerslake charts Prince Charles, Air Force, and Foley Islands.  1950 – Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal of the French Annapurna expedition become the first climbers to reach the summit of an 8,000-metre peak.  1953 – Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay are the first to ascend Mount Everest.  1954 – Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni are the first to ascend K2 on the Italian Karakoram expedition.  1957 – Finn Ronne discovers Berkner Island. It is not the mountain we conquer but ourselves. There is something about building up a comradeship - that I still believe is the greatest of all feats - and sharing in the dangers with your company of peers. It's the intense effort, the giving of everything you've got. It's really a very pleasant sensation. Edmund Hillary 128 Timeline of European imperialism Every empire, however, tells itself and the world that it is unlike all other empires, that its mission is not to plunder and control but to educate and liberate. Edward Wadie Said Pre-1700 Europe Gave Birth to Western Civilization  1402: Castilian invasion of Canary Islands.  1420-1425: Portuguese settlement of Madeira.  1433-1436: Portuguese settlement of Azores.  1445: Portuguese construction of trading post on Arguin island.  1450: Portuguese construction of trading post on Goree island.  1462: Portuguese settlement of Cape Verde islands.  1474: Portuguese settlement of Annobon island.  1470's: Portuguese settlement of Bioko island.  1482: Portuguese construction of Elmina Castle.  1493: Portuguese settlement of Sao Tome and Principe.  1510: Portuguese conquest of Goa.  1511: Portuguese conquest of Malacca City.  1517: Portuguese conquest of Colombo. The Second Most  1556: Portuguese colonisation of Timor. Active Volcano in the  1557: Portuguese construction of trading post in Macau.  1556-1599: Spanish conquest of Philippines. 129 World War I ended the German, Russian, Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires and led to a new map of Europe. World is in Europe 5 major goals of European imperialism:  Exploration  Economic expansion  Increased political power  The diffusion of ideological beliefs  The spreading of religious beliefs and practices to others Within its history, Anglo-American imperialism has alienated the world outside the West in the form of the other, so that it could dream the other's redemption in the form of the self. Eric Cheyfitz Imperialism [is] more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition of the events themselves. Where Colonization finds analysts and analogies, imperialism must contend with crusaders for and against. Archibald Paton Thornton 130  1598: Dutch established colony on uninhabited island of Mauritius; they abandon it in 1710.  1608: Dutch opened their first trading post in India at Golconda.  1613: Dutch East India Company expands operations in Java.  1613–20: Netherlands becomes England's major rival in trade, fishing, and whaling. The Dutch form alliances with Sweden and the Hanseatic League; England counters with an alliance with Denmark.  1623. The Amboyna massacre occurs in Japan with execution of English traders; England closes its commercial base opened in 1613 at Hirado. Trade ends for more than two centuries.  1664. French East India Company Chartered for trade in Asia and Africa. The Plague killed about 60% of all Europeans in the 14th century. Colonization of North America  1565 – Saint Augustine, Florida – Spanish  1604 – Acadia – French  1605 – Port Royal – French; in Nova Scotia  1607 – Jamestown, Virginia – English; established by Virginia Company  1607 – Popham Colony – English; failed effort in Maine  1608 – Quebec, Canada – French  1610 – Cuper's Cove, First English settlement in Newfoundland; abandoned by 1820  1610 – Santa Fe, New Mexico – Spanish  1612 – Bermuda – English; established by Virginia Company  1615 – Fort Nassau – Dutch; became Albany New York  1620 – St. John's, Newfoundland – English; capital of Newfoundland  1620 – Plymouth Colony, absorbed by Massachusetts Bay– English; small settlement by Pilgrims 84 131  1621 – Nova Scotia – Scottish  1623 – Portsmouth, New Hampshire – English; becomes the Colony of New Hampshire  1625 – New Amsterdam – Dutch; becomes New York City  1630 – Massachusetts Bay Colony – English; The main Puritan colony.  1632 – Williamsburgh – English; becomes the capital of Virginia.  1633 – Fort Hoop – Dutch settlement; No part of Hartford Connecticut  1633 – Windsor, Connecticut – English  1634 – Maryland Colony – English  1634 – Wethersfield, Connecticut – First English settlement in Connecticut, comprising migrants from Massachusetts Bay.  1635 – Territory of Sagadahock – English  1636 – Providence Plantations – English; became Rhode Island  1636 – Connecticut Colony – English  1638 – New Haven Colony – English; later merged into Connecticut colony  1638 – Fort Christina – Swedish; now part of Wilmington Delaware  1638 – Hampton, New Hampshire – English  1639 – San Marcos – Spanish  1640? – Swedesboro- Swedish  1651 – Fort Casimir – Dutch  1660 – Bergen – Dutch  1670 – Charleston, South Carolina – English  1682 – Pennsylvania – English Quakers;  1683? – Fort Saint Louis (Illinois)- French;  1683 – East New Jersey – Scottish  1684 – Stuarts Town, Carolina – Scottish  1685 – Fort Saint Louis (Texas)- French  1698 – Pensacola, Florida – Spanish The Kingdom of Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. It was founded in the 10th century by Viking kings Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth. 85 132 Russia is the largest country in the world and bigger than Pluto. During the 45 years of the Cold War the Soviet Union and the USA never fought each other directly.  1699 – Louisiana (New France) – French; No has ever been able to prove or disprove Goldbach's Conjecture that every even positive number greater than 2 is equal to the sum of two prime numbers 1700 to 1799  1704: Gibraltar captured by British on 4 August; becomes British naval bastion into the 21st century  1713: Treaty of Utrecht, ends War of the Spanish Succession and gives Britain territorial gains, especially Gibraltar, Acadia. Newfoundland, and the land surrounding Hudson Bay. The lower Great Lakes-Ohio area became a free trade zone.  1756–63 Seven Years' War, Britain, Prussia, and Hanover against France, Austria, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Saxony. Major battles in Europe and North America; the East India Company also in involved in the Third Carnatic War (1756–1763) in India. Britain victorious and takes control of all of Canada; France seeks revenge.  1775–83: American Revolutionary War as 13 Colonies revolt; Britain has no major allies. It is the first successful colonial revolt in European history. o 1783: Treaty of Paris ends Revolutionary War; British give generous terms to US with boundaries as British North America on north, Mississippi River on west, Florida on south. Britain gives East and West Florida to Spain  1784: Britain allows trade with America but forbid some American food exports to West Indies; British exports to America reach £3.7 million, imports only £750,000  1784: Pitt's India Act re-organised the British East India Company to minimise corruption; it centralised British rule by increasing the power of the Governor-General Tetris (a tile-matching video game) came from Russia 1793 to 1870  1792: In India, British victory over Tipu Sultan in Third Anglo-Mysore War; cession of one half of Mysore to the British and their allies. 84 133  1793–1815: Wars of the French Revolution, and Napoleonic wars; French conquests spread Ideas of the French Revolution, including abolition of serfdom, modern legal systems, and of Holy Roman Empire; stimulate rise of nationalism  1804–1865: Russia expand across Siberia to Pacific.  1804–1813: Uprising in Serbia against the ruling Ottoman Empire  1807: Britain makes the international slave trade criminal; Slave Trade Act 1807; United States criminalizes the international slave trade at the same time.  1810–1820s: Spanish American wars of independence  1810–1821: Mexican War of Independence  1814–15: Congress of Vienna; Reverses French conquests; restores reactionaries to power. However, many liberal reforms persist; Russia emerges as a powerful factor in European affairs. There are over  1815–1817: Serbian uprising leading to Serbian autonomy  1819: Stamford Raffles founds Singapore as outpost of British Empire.  1821–1823: Greek War of Independence  1822: Independence of Brazil proclaimed by Dom Pedro I  1822–27: George Canning in charge of British foreign policy, avoids co-operation with 10,000,000,000,000,000 ants on the earth right now. European powers.  1823: United States issues Monroe Doctrine to preserve newly independent Latin American states; issued in cooperation with Britain, whose goal is to prevent French & Spanish influence and allow British merchants access to the opening markets. American goal is to prevent the New World becoming a battlefield among European powers.  1821–32: Greece wins Greek War of Independence against the Ottoman Empire; the 1832 Treaty of Constantinople is ratified at the London Conference of 1832.  1830: Start of the French conquest of Algeria  1833: Slavery Abolition Act 1833 frees slaves in British Empire; the owners (who mostly reside in Britain) are paid £20 million.  1839–42: Britain wages First Opium War against China 85 134 Advantages of Imperialism Disadvantages of Imperialism Access to modern technologies and improved lifestyle Exploitation of natural and human resources Improvement in Health care, infrastructure and Introduction of New religions and eradication of native transportation systems identity, belief and traditional culture Improvement in Agriculture production and food Enforcement of slavery and labor exploitation security Protection of human rights for indigenous people and Widespread genocide and ethnic cleansing enhanced defensive networks Stabilization of global economy and reduced poverty gap Unfair taxation, slave trade and racism Literacy through Education and scientific thinking Initiation of the Divide and Rule Policy and tainted morality No one today is purely one thing. Labels like Indian, or woman, or Muslim, or American are not more than starting-points, which if followed into actual experience for only a moment are quickly left behind. Imperialism consolidated the mixture of cultures and identities on a global scale. But its worst and most paradoxical gift was to allow people to believe that they were only, mainly, exclusively, white, or Black, or Western, or Oriental. Yet just as human beings make their own history, they also make their cultures and ethnic identities. No one can deny the persisting continuities of long traditions, sustained habitations, national languages, and cultural geographies, but there seems no reason except fear and prejudice to keep insisting on their separation and distinctiveness, as if that was all human life was about. Survival in fact is about the connections between things; in Eliot’s phrase, reality cannot be deprived of the “other echoes [that] inhabit the garden.” It is more rewarding - and more difficult - to think concretely and sympathetically, contrapuntally, about others than only about “us.” But this also means not trying to rule others, not trying to classify them or put them in hierarchies, above all, not constantly reiterating how “our” culture or country is number one (or not number one, for that matter). Edward W. Said 135  1842: Britain forces China to sign the Treaty of Nanking. It opens trade, cedes territory (especially Hong Kong), fixes Chinese tariffs at a low rate, grants extraterritorial rights to foreigners, and provides both a most favoured nation clause, as well as diplomatic representation.  1845: Oregon boundary dispute threatens war between Great Britain and the United States.  1846: Oregon Treaty ends dispute with the United States. Border settled on the 49th parallel. The British territory becomes British Columbia and later joins Canada. The American territory becomes the states of Washington and Oregon.  1846: The Corn Laws are repealed; free trade in grain strengthens the British economy by increasing trade with exporting nations.  1845: Republic of Texas voluntarily joins the United States. Annexation causes the Mexican–American War, 1846–48.  1848: United States victorious in Mexican–American War; annexes area from New Mexico to California  1848–49: Second Sikh war; the British East India Company subjugates the Sikh Empire, and annexes Punjab  1857: Indian Mutiny suppressed. It has major long-term impact on reluctance to grant independence to Indians.  1858: The government of India transferred from East India Company to the crown; the government appoints a viceroy. He rules portions of India directly, and dominates local princes in the other portions. British rule guarantees that local wars will not happen inside India.  1861–1867: French intervention in Mexico; United States demands French withdrawal after 1865; France removes its army, and its puppet Emperor is executed.  1862: Treaty of Saigon; France occupies three provinces in southern Vietnam.  1863: France establishes a protectorate over Cambodia.  1867: British North America Act, 1867 creates the Dominion of Canada, a federation with internal self-government; foreign and defence matters are still handled by London. 136 88 1870–1914  1874: Second Treaty of Saigon, France controls all of South Vietnam  1875–1900: Britain, France, Germany, Portugal and Italy join in the Scramble for Africa  1876: Korea signs unequal treaty with Japan  1878: Austria occupies Bosnia-Herzegovina while Ottoman Empire is at war with Russia  1878: Ottoman Empire loses main possessions in Europe; Treaty of Berlin recognizing the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and the autonomy of Bulgaria  1882: Korea signs unequal treaties with the United States and others  1884: France makes Vietnam a colony.  1885: King Leopold of Belgium establishes the Congo Free State, under his personal control. There is no role for the government of Belgium until the King's financial difficulties lead to a series of loans; it takes over in 1908.  1893: France makes Laos a protectorate.  1893: Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii  1895: Creation of French West Africa (AOF)  1895–1910: Japan takes full control of Korea.  1898: Fashoda Incident in Africa threatens war between France and Britain; Settled In 1918 influenza virus killed more people than those who died in World War I peacefully  1898: United States demands that Spain immediately reform its rule in Cuba; Spain procrastinates; US wins short Spanish–American War  1898: Annexation of the Republic of Hawaii as a United States territory via the Newlands Resolution  1898: In Treaty of Paris, US obtains the Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico, and makes Cuba a protectorate. For the first time US has an overseas empire.  1899–1900: Anti-imperialist sentiment in the United States mobilizes but fails to stop the expansion.  1900-08: King Leopold is denounced worldwide for his maltreatment of rubber workers in Congo. The campaign is led by journalist E.D. Morel. 137 88  1908: Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina; pays compensation for it; Serbia is outraged  1914: Most Frenchmen ignored foreign affairs and colonial issues. The chief pressure group was the Parti colonial, a coalition of 50 organizations with a combined total of 5,000 members. Half of the oxygen in the atmosphere is 1914–1939 generated by microbes.  1917: Jones Act gives full American citizenship to Puerto Ricans.  1918: Austrian Empire ends, Austria becomes a republic, Hungary becomes a kingdom, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia become independent  1919: German and Ottoman colonies came under the control of the League of Nations, which distributed them as "mandates" to Great Britain, France, Japan, Belgium, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. Mycoplasmas are the smallest known bacteria Imperialism is capitalism at that stage of development at which the dominance of monopolies and finance capitalism is established; in which the export of capital has acquiredpronounced importance; in which the division of the world among the international trusts hasbegun, in which the division of all territories of the globe among the biggest capitalist powers has been completed. Despite the 85 years that have passed since his death, Lenin's body remains relatively intact, and millions revere it as a true symbol of communism. Vladimir Lenin 138 Capitalism is the accumulation of resources by means of exploitation in the production and sale of commodities for profit. Capitalist exploitation is an unequal exchange wherein capitalists extract income from economic exchanges solely because they hold legal title to productive assets. There are two types of exploitation – primary and secondary. Primary exploitation, which takes the form of profit, is an unequal exchange with labor wherein capitalists appropriate all the “value added” in production, net of wages, because they own the business in which production takes place…. Secondary exploitation, which takes the form of rent and interest, is an unequal exchange between the capital-rich and the capitalpoor, including between wealthy and poor countries…. As a result, at all points of exchange in production, capitalists have institutionalized coercive power as employers, bosses, lenders, and landlords. Both Adam Smith and Karl Marx considered exploitation to be the application of coercive power in markets to obtain an unequal exchange. (Boswell, Terry and Chase-Dunn, Christopher The Spiral of Capitalism and Socialism, 2000, pp. 20-21) Capital that has extended its influence over these new territories knows its own interests, works together in its common interests even while individual capitals compete [and] coordinates its goals and its strategies in its common interest…. There will always be social inequality, because that increases profits; winners win more because losers lose more. Keeping the Third World in dependence and poverty is not an accident or failure of the world capitalist system, but part of its formula for success. (“Letter from the German Democratic Monthly Review, July/August 1990, p. 61) 139 Republic,” Representation 3 Laws of Capitalism: Conscious  production  accumulation of capital  competition Unconscious Sensation Cognition  Intuition  Concept Attribute Capitalism Socialism Communism Fascism Factors of production are Individuals Everyone Everyone Everyone Profit Usefulness to Usefulness to Nation- people people building Central plan Central plan Central plan Ability Ability Value to the owned by: Factors of production provide: Allocation decided by: Supply and demand Each gives according to: Market nation Each receives according to: Wealth Contribution Need Value to the nation Science is the great antidote to the poison of enthusiasm and superstition. Consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production; and the interest of the producer ought to be attended to, only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer. Adam Smith 140 There is no great genius without some touch of madness. In all things of nature there is something of the marvelous. Aristotle Aristotle's laws of motion:  Objects do not move without a force.  Objects in motion always require a force to keep them moving.  Objects seek their natural state, which is at rest.  Mechanical equilibrium can only be static.  Objects fall at a speed proportional to their weight and inversely proportional to the density of the fluid they are immersed in All our knowledge begins with the senses, proceeds then to the understanding, and ends with reason. There is nothing higher than reason. Immanuel Kant 141 Timeline of human prehistory We plant our roots in trembling earth, we live where mountains rose and fell and prehistoric seas burned away in mist. We and the towns we have built are not permanent; the earth itself is a passing train. Robert R. McCammon The evolution of the brain not only overshot the needs of prehistoric man, it is the only example of evolution providing a species with an organ which it does not know how to use. Arthur Koestler  315,000 years ago: approximate date of appearance of Homo sapiens (Jebel Irhoud, Morocco).  270,000 years ago: age of Y-DNA haplogroup A00 ("Y-chromosomal Adam").  250,000 years ago: first appearance of Homo neanderthalensis (Saccopastore skulls).  250,000–200,000 years ago: modern human presence in West Asia (Misliya cave).  230,000–150,000 years ago: age of mt-DNA haplogroup L ("Mitochondrial Eve").  210,000 years ago: modern human presence in southeast Europe (Apidima, Greece).  195,000 years ago: Omo remains (Ethiopia).  170,000 years ago: humans are wearing clothing by this date.  160,000 years ago: Homo sapiens idaltu.  150,000 years ago: Peopling of Africa: Khoisanid separation, age of mtDNA haplogroup L0. 142  125,000 years ago: peak of the Eemian interglacial period.  120,000 years ago: SE Australian Aboriginal people were cooking on hearths. Charcoal and Burnt Stone Feature #1 (CBS1) located within coastal dune sediments at Moyjil (Point Ritchie), Warrnambool, that independent geomorphic and OSL dating indicates is of Last Interglacial age (~120,000 years ago).  120,000–90,000 years ago: Abbassia Pluvial in North Africa—the Sahara desert region is wet and fertile.  120,000–75,000 years ago: Khoisanid back-migration from Southern Africa to East Africa.  100,000 years ago: Earliest structures in the world (sandstone blocks set in a semi-circle with an oval foundation) built in Egypt close to Wadi Halfa near the modern border with Sudan.  82,000 years ago: small perforated seashell beads from Taforalt in Morocco are the earliest evidence of personal adornment found anywhere in the world.  80,000–70,000 years ago: Recent African origin: separation of sub-Saharan Africans and non-Africans.  75,000 years ago: Toba Volcano supereruption that may have contributed to human populations being lowered to about 15,000 people.  70,000 years ago: earliest example of abstract art or symbolic art from Blombos Cave, South Africa—stones engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns.  67,000–40,000 years ago: Neanderthal admixture to Eurasians.  50,000 years ago: earliest sewing needle found. Made and used by Denisovans.  50,000–30,000 years ago: Mousterian Pluvial in North Africa. The Sahara desert region is wet and fertile. Later Stone Age begins in Africa.  45,000–43,000 years ago: European early modern humans.  45,000–40,000 years ago: Châtelperronian cultures in France.  42,000 years ago: Paleolithic flutes in Germany.  42,000 years ago: earliest evidence of advanced deep sea fishing technology at the Jerimalai cave site in East Timor—demonstrates high-level maritime skills and by 143 91 implication the technology needed to make ocean crossings to reach Australia and other islands, as they were catching and consuming large numbers of big deep sea fish such as tuna.  41,000 years ago: Denisova hominin lives in the Altai Mountains.  40,000 years ago: extinction of Homo neanderthalensis.  40,000 years ago: Aurignacian culture begins in Europe.  40,000 years ago: oldest known figurative art the zoomorphic Löwenmensch figurine.  40,000–30,000 years ago: First human settlements formed by Aboriginal Australians in several areas which are today the cities of Sydney, Perth and Melbourne.  40,000–20,000 years ago: oldest known ritual cremation, the Mungo Lady, in Lake Mungo, Australia.  35,000 years ago: oldest known figurative art of a human figure as opposed to a zoomorphic figure (Venus of Hohle Fels).  33,000 years ago: oldest known domesticated dog skulls show they existed in both Europe and Siberia by this time.  31,000–16,000 years ago: Last Glacial Maximum (peak at 26,500 years ago).  30,000 years ago: rock paintings tradition begins in Bhimbetka rock shelters in India, which presently as a collection is the densest known concentration of rock art. In an area about 10 km square, there are about 800 rock shelters of which 500 contain paintings.  29,000 years ago: The earliest ovens found.  28,500 years ago: New Guinea is populated by colonists from Asia or Australia.  28,000 years ago: oldest known twisted rope.  28,000–24,000 years ago: oldest known pottery—used to make figurines rather than cooking or storage vessels (Venus of Dolní Věstonice).  28,000–20,000 years ago: Gravettian period in Europe. Harpoons and saws invented.  26,000 years ago: people around the world use fibers to make baby carriers, clothes, bags, baskets, and nets. 144 92  25,000 years ago: a hamlet consisting of huts built of rocks and of mammoth bones is founded in what is now Dolní Věstonice in Moravia in the Czech Republic. This is the oldest human permanent settlement that has yet been found by archaeologists.  21,000 years ago: artifacts suggests early human activity occurred in Canberra, the capital city of Australia.  20,000 years ago: Kebaran culture in the Levant: beginning of the Epipalaeolithic in the Levant  20,000 years ago: oldest pottery storage or cooking vessels from China.  20,000–10,000 years ago: Khoisanid expansion to Central Africa.  20,000–19,000 years ago: earliest pottery use, in Xianren Cave, China.  18,000–12,000 years ago: Though estimations vary widely, it is believed by scholars that Afro-Asiatic was spoken as a single language around this time period.  16,000–14,000 years ago: Minatogawa Man (Proto-Mongoloid phenotype) in Okinawa, Japan  16,000–13,000 years ago: first human migration into North America.  16,000–11,000 years ago: Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer expansion to Europe.  16,000 years ago: Wisent (European bison) sculpted in clay deep inside the cave now known as Le Tuc d'Audoubert in the French Pyrenees near what is now the border of Spain.  15,000–14,700 years ago (13,000 BC to 12,700 BC): Earliest supposed date for the domestication of the pig.  14,800 years ago: The Humid Period begins in North Africa. The region that would later become the Sahara is wet and fertile, and the aquifers are full.  14,500–11,500: Red Deer Cave people in China, possible late survival of archaic or archaic-modern hybrid humans.  14,000–12,000 years ago: Oldest evidence for prehistoric warfare (Jebel Sahaba massacre, Natufian culture).  13,000–10,000 years ago: Late Glacial Maximum, end of the Last glacial period, climate warms, glaciers recede. 145 93  13,000 years ago: A major water outbreak occurs on Lake Agassiz, which at the time could have been the size of the current Black Sea and the largest lake on Earth. Much of the lake is drained in the Arctic Ocean through the Mackenzie River.  13,000–11,000 years ago: Earliest dates suggested for the domestication of the sheep.  12,900–11,700 years ago: the Younger Dryas was a period of sudden cooling and return to glacial conditions.  12,000 years ago: Jericho has evidence of settlement dating back to 10,000 BC. Jericho was a popular camping ground for Natufian hunter-gatherer groups, who left a scattering of crescent microlith tools behind them.  12,000 years ago: Earliest dates suggested for the domestication of the goat.  11,600 years ago (9,600 BC): An abrupt period of global warming accelerates the glacial retreat; taken as the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch.  11,200–11,000 years ago: Meltwater pulse 1B, a sudden rise of sea level by 7.5 m within about 160 years.  11,000 years ago (9,000 BC): Earliest date recorded for construction of temenoi ceremonial structures at Göbekli Tepe in southern Turkey, as possibly the oldest surviving proto-religious site on Earth.  11,000 years ago (9,000 BC): Emergence of Jericho, which is now one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Giant short-faced bears and giant ground sloths go extinct. Equidae goes extinct in North America.  10,500 years ago (8,500 BC): Earliest supposed date for the domestication of cattle.  10,000 years ago (8,000 BC): The Quaternary extinction event, which has been ongoing since the mid-Pleistocene, concludes. Many of the ice age megafauna go extinct, including the megatherium, woolly rhinoceros, Irish elk, cave bear, cave lion, and the last of the sabre-toothed cats. The mammoth goes extinct in Eurasia and North America, but is preserved in small island populations until ~1650 BC.  10,800–9,000 years ago: Byblos appears to have been settled during the PPNB period, approximately 8800 to 7000 BC. Neolithic remains of some buildings can be observed at the site. 146 94  10,000–8,000 years ago (8000 BC to 6000 BC): The post-glacial sea level rise decelerates, slowing the submersion of landmasses that had taken place over the previous 10,000 years.  10,000–9,000 years ago (8000 BC to 7000 BC): In northern Mesopotamia, now northern Iraq, cultivation of barley and wheat begins. At first they are used for beer, gruel, and soup, eventually for bread. In early agriculture at this time, the planting stick is used, but it is replaced by a primitive plow in subsequent centuries. Around this time, a round stone tower, now preserved to about 8.5 meters high and 8.5 meters in diameter is built in Jericho.  10,000–5,000 years ago (8,000–3,000 BC) Identical ancestors point: sometime in this period lived the latest subgroup of human population consisting of those that were all common ancestors of all present day humans, the rest having no present day descendants.  9,500–5,500 years ago: Neolithic Subpluvial in North Africa. The Sahara desert region supports a savanna-like environment. Lake Chad is larger than the current Caspian Sea. An African culture develops across the current Sahel region.  9,500 years ago (7500 BC): Çatalhöyük urban settlement founded in Anatolia. Earliest supposed date for the domestication of the cat.  9,200 years ago: First human settlement in Amman, Jordan; 'Ain Ghazal Neolithic settlement was built spanning over an area of 15 hectares.  9,000 years ago (7000 BC): Jiahu culture began in China.  9,000 years ago: large first fish fermentation in southern Sweden.  8,200–8,000 years ago: 8.2 kiloyear event: a sudden decrease of global temperatures, probably caused by the final collapse of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, which leads to drier conditions in East Africa and Mesopotamia.  8,200–7,600 years ago (6200–5600 BC): sudden rise in sea level (Meltwater pulse 1C) by 6.5 m in less than 140 year; this concludes the early Holocene sea level rise and sea level remains largely stable throughout the Neolithic.  8,000–5,000 years ago: (6000 BC–3000 BC) development of proto-writing in China, Southeast Europe (Vinca symbols) and West Asia (proto-literate cuneiform). 147 95  8,000 years ago: Evidence of habitation at the current site of Aleppo dates to about c. 8,000 years ago, although excavations at Tell Qaramel, 25 kilometers north of the city show the area was inhabited about 13,000 years ago, Carbon-14 dating at Tell Ramad, on the outskirts of Damascus, suggests that the site may have been occupied since the second half of the seventh millennium BC, possibly around 6300 BC. However, evidence of settlement in the wider Barada basin dating back to 9000 BC exists.  7,500 years ago (5500 BC): Copper smelting in evidence in Pločnik and other locations.  7,200–6,000 years ago: 5200–4000 BC:Għar Dalam phase on Malta. First farming settlements on the island.  6300 or 6350 years ago: Akahoya eruption creates the Kikai Caldera and ends the earliest homogeneous Jomon culture in Japan. When the Jomon culture recovers, it shows regional differences.  6,100–5,800 years ago: 4100–3800 BC: Żebbuġ phase. Malta.  6,070–6,000 years ago (4050–4000 BC): Trypillian build in Nebelivka (Ukraine) settlement which reached 15,000–18,000 inhabitants.  6,500 years ago: The oldest known gold hoard deposited at Varna Necropolis, Bulgaria.  6,000 years ago (4000 BC): Civilizations develop in the Mesopotamia/Fertile Crescent region (around the location of modern-day Iraq). Earliest supposed dates for the domestication of the horse and for the domestication of the chicken, invention of the potter's wheel.  5,800 years ago: (3840 to 3800 BC): The Post Track and Sweet Track causeways are constructed in the Somerset Levels.  5,800 years ago (3800 BC): Trypillian build in Talianki (Ukraine) settlement which reached 15,600–21,000 inhabitants.  5,800–5,600 years ago: (3800–3600 BC): Mġarr phase A short transitional period in Malta's prehistory. It is characterized by pottery consisting of mainly curved lines.  5,700 years ago (3800 to 3600 BC): mass graves at Tell Brak in Syria.  5,700 years ago (3700 BC): Trypillian build in Maidanets (Ukraine) settlement which reached 12,000–46,000 inhabitants, and built 3-storey building. 148 96  5,700 years ago: (3700 to 3600 BC): Minoan culture begins on Crete.  5,600–5,200 years ago (3600–3200 BC): Ġgantija phase on Malta. Characterized by a change in the way the prehistoric inhabitants of Malta lived.  5,500 years ago: (3600 to 3500 BC): Uruk period in Sumer. First evidence of mummification in Egypt.  5,500: oldest known depiction of a wheeled vehicle (Bronocice pot, Funnelbeaker culture)  5,500 years ago: Earliest conjectured date for the still-undeciphered Indus script.  5,500 years ago: End of the African humid period possibly linked to the Piora Oscillation: a rapid and intense aridification event, which probably started the current Sahara Desert dry phase and a population increase in the Nile Valley due to migrations from nearby regions. It is also believed this event contributed to the end of the Ubaid period in Mesopotamia.  5,300 years ago: (3300 BC): Bronze Age begins in the Near East Newgrange is built in Ireland. Ness of Brodgar is built in Orkney Hakra Phase of the Indus Valley Civilisation begins in the Indian subcontinent.  5,300–5,000 years ago (3300–3000 BC): Saflieni phase in Maltese prehistory.  5,000 years ago: Settlement of Skara Brae built in Orkney.  4,600 years ago: (2600 BC): Writing is developed in Sumer and Egypt, triggering the beginning of recorded history.  3,800 years ago (1800 BC): Currently undesciphered Minoan script (Linear A) and Cypro-Minoan script developed on Crete and Cyprus.  3,450 years ago (1450 BC): Mycenean Greece, first deciphered writing in Europe  3,200 years ago (1200 BC): Oracle bone script, first written records in Old Chinese  3,050–2,800 years ago: Alphabetic writing; the Phoenician alphabet spreads around the Mediterranean  2,300 years ago: Maya writing, the only known full writing system developed in the Americas, emerges. 149 97  2,260 years ago (260 BC): Earliest deciphered written records in South Asia (Middle Indo-Aryan)  1800s AD: Undeciphered Rongorongo script on Easter Island may mark the latest independent development of writing. Chimps are unbelievably like us – in biological, non-verbal ways. They can be loving and compassionate and yet they have a dark side… 98 per cent of our DNA is the same. The difference is that we have developed language – we can teach about things that aren’t there, plan for the future, discuss, share ideas… Jane Goodall Evolution is opportunistic, and any novel behavior pattern with a selective advantage will, under appropriate circumstances, be incorporated into the behavior of the evolving population. Campbell 150 Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Charles Darwin Permanent spontaneous Derived from an ancestral generation form Driving force for evolution Complexification over time Natural selection Modifications Adaptation to the environment Spontaneous variations Origin of life transmitted to the progeny Species extinction No, unless due to human Yes activities Biological Evolution is a consequence of these 4 factors  overproduction  genetic variation  natural selection  competition In prehistoric times, Homo sapiens was deeply endangered. Early humans were less fleet of foot, with fewer natural weapons and less well-honed senses than all the predators that threatened them. Moreover, they were hampered in their movements by the need to protect their uniquely immature young - juicy meals for any hungry beast. Robert Winston Through the study of fossils I had already been initiated into the mysteries of prehistoric creations. Pierre Loti 151 Through the release of atomic energy, our generation has brought into the world the most revolutionary force since prehistoric man's discovery of fire. This basic force of the universe cannot be fitted into the outmoded concept of narrow nationalisms. Albert Einstein Since Serengeti-scale savanna scenes are only one or two million years old, our earliest after-the-apes ancestors didn’t move into this scene so much as they evolved with it, as the slower climate changes and uplift produced more grass and less forest. William Calvin, A Brain for All Seasons: Human Evolution and Abrupt Climate Change University of Chicago Press 2002 [When environments change], they usually do so pretty rapidly, at rates with which adaptation by natural selection would be hard put to keep up. When such change occurs, the quality of your adaptation to your old habitat is irrelevant, and any competitive advantage you might have had may be eliminated at a stroke. Ian Tattersall, Becoming Human, 1998 152 Timeline of natural history I believe that natural history has lost much by the vague general treatment that is so common. Ernest Thompson Seton  ka (for kiloannum) – a unit of time equal to one thousand, or 103, years, or 1 E3 yr, also known as a millennium in anthropology and calendar uses. The prefix multiplier "ka" is typically used in geology, paleontology, and archaeology for the Holocene and Pleistocene periods, where a non−radiocarbon dating technique: e.g. ice core dating, dendrochronology, uranium-thorium dating, or varve analysis; is used as the primary dating method for age determination. If age is determined primarily by radiocarbon dating, then the age should be expressed in either radiocarbon or calendar (calibrated) years Before Present.  Ma (for megaannum) – a unit of time equal to one million, or 106, years, or 1 E6 yr. The suffix "Ma" is commonly used in scientific disciplines such as geology, paleontology, and celestial mechanics to signify very long time periods into the past or future. For example, the dinosaur species Tyrannosaurus rex was abundant approximately 66 Ma (66 million years) ago. The duration term "ago" may not always be indicated: if the quantity of a duration is specified while not explicitly mentioning a duration term, one can assume that "ago" is implied; the alternative unit "mya" does include "ago" explicitly. It is also written as "million years" (ago) in works for general public use. In astronomical applications, the year used is the Julian year of precisely 365.25 days. In geology and paleontology, the year is not so precise and varies depending on the author.  Ga (for gigaannum) – a unit of time equal to 109 years, or one billion years. "Ga" is commonly used in scientific disciplines such as cosmology and geology to signify extremely long time periods in the past. For example, the formation of the Earth occurred approximately 4.54 Ga (4.54 billion years) ago and the age of the universe is approximately 13.8 Ga. 153 ...[T]he natural history of the rat is tragically similar to that of man ... some of the more obvious qualities in which rats resemble men — ferocity, omnivorousness, and adaptability to all climates ... the irresponsible fecundity with which both species breed at all seasons of the year with a heedlessness of consequences, which subjects them to wholesale disaster on the inevitable, occasional failure of the food supply.... [G]radually, these two have spread across the earth, keeping pace with each other and unable to destroy each other, though continually hostile. They have wandered from East to West, driven by their physical needs, and — unlike any other species of living things — have made war upon their own kind. The gradual, relentless, progressive extermination of the black rat by the brown has no parallel in nature so close as that of the similar extermination of one race of man by another... Hans Zinsser A superficial knowledge of mathematics may lead to the belief that this subject can be taught incidentally, and that exercises akin to counting the petals of flowers or the legs of a grasshopper are mathematical. Such work ignores the fundamental idea out of which quantitative reasoning grows—the equality of magnitudes. It leaves the pupil unaware of that relativity which is the essence of mathematical science. Numerical statements are frequently required in the study of natural history, but to repeat these as a drill upon numbers will scarcely lend charm to these studies, and certainly will not result in mathematical knowledge. William W. Speer 154 Exposure → Host → Disease  Death  Disability  Recovery Empirical research Theory Reality Exploratory research Hypothesis Theory Proposed explanation that predicts what happens but Law Explanation that has been tested and verified Untested explanation based upon on observation or known facts does not explain how Carl Linnaeus's System of classification: Eukaryotes Domain  Animals Animalia Kingdom  Plants Chordata Phylum  Fungi Mammalia Class  Protists (very simple organisms) Primates Order  Monera (bacteria) Hominidae Family Homo Genus In natural science the principles of truth ought to be Homosapiens Species confirmed by observation. Carl Linnaeus 155  Ta (for teraannum) – a unit of time equal to 1012 years, or one trillion years. "Ta" is an extremely long unit of time, about 70 times as long as the age of the universe. It is the same order of magnitude as the expected life span of a small red dwarf.  Pa (for petaannum) – a unit of time equal to 1015 years, or one quadrillion years. The half-life of the nuclide cadmium-113 is about 8 Pa. This symbol coincides with that for the pascal without a multiplier prefix, though both are infrequently used and context will normally be sufficient to distinguish time from pressure values.  Ea (for exaannum) – a unit of time equal to 1018 years, or one quintillion years. The halflife of tungsten-180 is 1.8 Ea. The idea of time as the fourth dimension came from Hermann Minkowski, one of Einstein's professors, who once called him a "lazy dog." The earliest Solar System In the earliest Solar System history, the Sun, the planetesimals and the jovian planets were formed. The inner Solar System aggregated more slowly than the outer, so the terrestrial planets were not yet formed, including Earth and Moon.  c.4,570 Ma – A supernova explosion (known as the primal supernova) seeds our galactic neighborhood with heavy elements that will be incorporated into the Earth, and results in a shock wave in a dense region of the Milky Way galaxy. The Ca-Al-rich inclusions, which formed 2 million years before the chondrules, are a key signature of a supernova explosion.  c.4,567±3 Ma – Rapid collapse of hydrogen molecular cloud, forming a thirdgeneration Population I star, the Sun, in a region of the Galactic Habitable Zone (GHZ), about 25,000 light years from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.  c.4,566±2 Ma – A protoplanetary disc (from which Earth eventually forms) emerges around the young Sun, which is in its T Tauri stage.  c.4,560–4,550 Ma – Proto-Earth forms at the outer (cooler) edge of the habitable zone of the Solar System. At this stage the solar constant of the Sun was only about 73% of its current value, but liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Proto-Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon 156 99 dioxide present in the atmosphere. Early bombardment phase begins: because the solar neighbourhood is rife with large planetoids and debris, Earth experiences a number of giant impacts that help to increase its overall size. Precambrian Supereon  c.4,533 Ma – The Precambrian (to c.541 Ma), now termed a "supereon" but formerly an era, is split into three geological periods called eons: Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic. The latter two are sub-divided into several eras as currently defined. In total, the Precambrian comprises some 85% of geological time from the formation of Earth to the time when creatures first developed exoskeletons (i.e., hard outer parts) and thereby left abundant fossil remains. Albert Einstein once said: "When you are courting a nice girl an hour seems like a second. When you sit on a red-hot cinder a Hadean Eon  second seems like an hour. That's relativity." c.4,533 Ma – Hadean Eon, Precambrian Supereon and unofficial Cryptic era start as the Earth-Moon system forms, possibly as a result of a glancing collision between protoEarth and the hypothetical protoplanet Theia. (The Earth was considerably smaller than now, before this impact.) This impact vaporized a large amount of the crust, and sent material into orbit around Earth, which lingered as rings, similar to those of Saturn, for a few million years, until they coalesced to become the Moon. The Moon geology preNectarian period starts. Earth was covered by a magmatic ocean 200 kilometres (120 mi) deep resulting from the impact energy from this and other planetesimals during the early bombardment phase, and energy released by the planetary core forming. Outgassing from crustal rocks gives Earth a reducing atmosphere of methane, nitrogen, hydrogen, ammonia, and water vapour, with lesser amounts of hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, then carbon dioxide. With further full outgassing over 1000-1500 K, nitrogen and ammonia become lesser constituents, and comparable amounts of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapour, and hydrogen are released. 100 157  c.4,500 Ma – Sun enters main sequence: a solar wind sweeps the Earth-Moon system clear of debris (mainly dust and gas). End of the Early Bombardment Phase. Basin Groups Era begins on Earth.  c.4,450 Ma – 100 million years after the Moon formed, the first lunar crust, formed of lunar anorthosite, differentiates from lower magmas. The earliest Earth crust probably forms similarly out of similar material. On Earth the pluvial period starts, in which the Earth's crust cools enough to let oceans form.  c.4,404 Ma – First known mineral, found at Jack Hills in Western Australia. Detrital zircons show presence of a solid crust and liquid water. Latest possible date for a secondary atmosphere to form, produced by the Earth's crust outgassing, reinforced by water and possibly organic molecules delivered by comet impacts and carbonaceous chondrites (including type CI shown to be high in a number of amino acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)).  c.4,300 Ma – Nectarian Era begins on Earth.  c.4,250 Ma – Earliest evidence for life, based on unusually high amounts of light isotopes of carbon, a common sign of life, found in Earth's oldest mineral deposits located in the Jack Hills of Western Australia.  c.4,100 Ma – Early Imbrian Era begins on Earth. Late heavy bombardment of the Moon (and probably of the Earth as well) by bolides and asteroids, produced possibly by the planetary migration of Neptune into the Kuiper belt as a result of orbital resonances between Jupiter and Saturn. "Remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."  c.4,030 Ma – Acasta Gneiss of Northwest Territories, Canada, first known oldest rock, or aggregate of minerals. When Albert Einstein addressed a group Archean Eon of Croatian intellectuals, he stated: I need my wife − she solves all the mathematical Eoarchean Era problems for me. 100 158  c.4,000 Ma – Archean Eon and Eoarchean Era start. Possible first appearance of plate tectonic activity in the Earth's crust as plate structures may have begun appearing. Possible beginning of Napier Mountains Orogeny forces of faulting and folding create first metamorphic rocks. Origins of life.  c.3,930 Ma – Possible stabilization of Canadian Shield begins  c.3,920–3,850 Ma – Final phase of Late Heavy Bombardment  c.3,850 Ma – Greenland apatite shows evidence of 12C enrichment, characteristic of the presence of photosynthetic life.  c.3,850 Ma – Evidence of life: Akilia Island graphite off Western Greenland contains evidence of kerogen, of a type consistent with photosynthesis.  c.3,800 Ma – Oldest banded iron formations found. First complete continental masses or cratons, formed of granite blocks, appear on Earth. Occurrence of initial felsic igneous activity on eastern edge of Antarctic craton as first great continental mass begins to coalesce. East European Craton begins to form - first rocks of the Ukrainian Shield and Voronezh Massif are laid down  c.3,750 Ma – Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt forms  c.3,700 Ma – Graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland Stabilization of Kaapval craton begins: old tonaltic gneisses laid down In 2013, 3 planets orbiting a star outside our solar system with a mass greater than Paleoarchean Era  Earth were discovered by the Kepler space telescope. c.3,600 Ma – Paleoarchean Era starts. Possible assembly of the Vaalbara supercontinent; oldest cratons on Earth (such as the Canadian Shield, East European Craton and Kaapval) begin growing as a result of crustal disturbances along continents coalescing into Vaalbara - Pilbara Craton stabilizes. Formation of Barberton greenstone belt: Makhonjwa Mountains uplifts on the eastern edge of Kaapval craton, oldest mountains in Africa area called the "genesis of life" for exceptional preservation of fossils. Narryer Gneiss Terrane stabilizes: these gneisses become the "bedrock" for the formation of the Yilgarn Craton in Australia - noted for the survival of the Jack Hills where the oldest mineral, a zircon was uncovered. 100 159  c.3,500 Ma – Lifetime of the Last universal ancestor: split between bacteria and archaea occurs as "tree of life" begins branching out - varieties of Eubacteria begin to radiate out globally. Fossils resembling cyanobacteria, found at Warrawoona, Western Australia.  c.3,480 Ma – Fossils of microbial mat found in 3.48 billion-yearold sandstone discovered in Western Australia. First appearance of stromatolitic organisms that grow at interfaces between different types of material, mostly on submerged or moist surfaces.  c.3,460 Ma – Fossils of bacteria in chert. Zimbabwe Craton stabilizes from the suture of two smaller crustal blocks, the Tokwe Segment to the south and the Rhodesdale Segment or Rhodesdale gneiss to the north.  c.3.400 Ma – Eleven taxa of prokaryotes are preserved in the Apex Chert of the Pilbara craton in Australia. Because chert is fine-grained silicarich microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or microfibrious material, it preserves small fossils quite well. Stabilization of Baltic Shield begins.  c.3.340 Ma – Johannesburg Dome forms in South Africa: located in the central part of Kaapvaal Craton and consists of trondhjemitic and tonalitic granitic rocks intruded into mafic-ultramafic greenstone - the oldest granitoid phase recognised so far.  c.3,300 Ma – Onset of compressional tectonics. Intrusion of granitic plutons on the Kaapvaal Craton.  c.3,260 Ma – One of the largest recorded impact events occurs near the Barberton Greenstone Belt, when a 58 km (36 mi) asteroid leaves a crater almost 480 km (300 mi) across – two and a half times larger in diameter than the Chicxulub crater. Mesoarchean Era  Venus has super-powerful winds c.3,200 Ma – Mesoarchean Era starts. Onverwacht series in South Africa form - contain some of the oldest microfossils mostly spheroidal and carbonaceous alga-like bodies.  c.3,200–2,600 Ma – Assembly of the Ur supercontinent to cover between 12–16% of the current continental crust. Formation of Limpopo Belt. 160 103 The Five Types of Bones: Flat Bones Protect Internal Organs Long Bones Support Weight and Facilitate Movement Short Bones Provide stability and some movement Irregular Bones Helps protect internal organs Sesamoid Bones Protect tendons from stress and wear Put briefly, genetic engineering is a "cut, paste, and copy" operation. SUSAN ALDRIDGE Modern genetics is on the verge of some truly fantastic ways of "improving" the human race, but let me emphasize at the onset that this technical know-how does not automatically bring with it the criteria for its use. This, I believe, is the most important fact that scientists and citizens alike must keep in mind as our technology progresses. It may be true that man has tremendous genetic potential for significant improvement, but in what direction? It is tempting to point to the great success animal breeders have had in "improving" their stocks and say that the same can be done in man, but we must remember that animal breeding was successful only because the breeders had a Platonic "ideal" and selected ruthlessly for uniformity to achieve it. It seems certain that the improvement of man does not lie in some simple uniform ideal analogous to the ideal dairy cow with her "opulent udder." James J. Nagle Saponification: Triglyceride + Alkali → Soap + water + glycerine Fatty acid + Alkali → Soap + water Soaps Detergents They are sodium or potassium salts of fatty They are sodium or potassium salts of acids sulphonic acids They have –COONa group They have –SO3Na group oxygen create Animals and Plants Green Plants through the breathe in oxygen process of photosynthesis exhale carbon dioxide  Breathing  Decomposition  Combustion  Rusting Used for In atmosphere: H2O CO2 sunlight → sunlight → H + OH CO + O O + OH → O2 + H About two-thirds of the oxygen in our atmosphere is produced in the surface waters of the sea by phytoplankton, the minute forms of algae that give the sea its slightly green hue, and which initiate the entire food web of the ocean. — Jacques-Yves Cousteau Nitrogen gas N2 Denitrification Nitrogen fixation  Nitrite (NO2−)  Nitrate (NO3−) Organic nitrogen Ammonification Nitrification Ammonium NH4+ Evaporation Carbon in Carbon in ocean water sunlight, chlorophyll Carbon in atmosphere Dissolution 6CO2 + 6H2O → Weathering rocks Tectonics C6H12O6 + 6O2 Decomposition Respiration Fuel + O2 → CO2 + H2O Photosynthesis Combustion Plants Soil Phytoplankton Biomass Fossil fuels Marine sediment Consumption Organic matter Lithification The process by which sediments harden to form sedimentary rock. Fossils of organisms become buried over time and are often found in sedimentary rock Borel makes the amusing supposition of a million monkeys allowed to play upon the keys of a million typewriters. What is the chance that this wanton activity should reproduce exactly all of the volumes which are contained in the library of the British Museum? It certainly is not a large chance, but it may be roughly calculated, and proves in fact to be considerably larger than the chance that a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen will separate into the two pure constituents. After we have learned to estimate such minute chances, and after we have overcome our fear of numbers which are very much larger or very much smaller than those ordinarily employed, we might proceed to calculate the chance of still more extraordinary occurrences, and even have the boldness to regard the living cell as a result of random arrangement and rearrangement of its atoms. However, we cannot but feel that this would be carrying extrapolation too far. This feeling is due not merely to a recognition of the enormous complexity of living tissue but to the conviction that the whole trend of life, the whole process of building up more and more diverse and complex structures, which we call evolution, is the very opposite of that which we might expect from the laws of chance. — Gilbert Newton Lewis  c.3,100 Ma – Fig Tree Formation: second round of fossilizations including Archaeosphaeroides barbertonensis and Eobacterium. Gneiss and greenstone belts in the Baltic Shield are laid down in Kola Peninsula, Karelia and northeastern Finland.  c.3,000 Ma – Humboldt Orogeny in Antarctica: possible formation of Humboldt Mountains in Queen Maud Land. Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolve; they use water as a reducing agent, thereby producing oxygen as a waste product. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore - over time oxygen concentration in the atmosphere slowly rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria. As Moon is still very close to Earth and causes tides 1,000 feet (305 m) high, the Earth is continually wracked by hurricane-force winds - these extreme mixing influences are thought to stimulate evolutionary processes. Rise of Stromatolites: microbial mats become successful forming the first reef building communities on Earth in shallow warm tidal pool zones (to 1.5 Gyr). Tanzania Craton forms.  c.2,940 Ma – Yilgarn Craton of western Australia forms by the accretion of a multitude of formerly present blocks or terranes of existing continental crust.  c.2,900 Ma – Assembly of the Kenorland supercontinent, based upon the core of the Baltic shield, formed at c.3100 Ma. Narryer Gneiss Terrane (including Jack Hills) of Western Australia undergoes extensive metamorphism. Neoarchean Era  c.2,800 Ma – Neoarchean Era starts. Breakup of the Vaalbara: Breakup of supercontinent Ur as it becomes a part of the major supercontinent Kenorland. Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons join together.  c.2,770 Ma – Formation of Hamersley Basin on the southern margin of Pilbara Craton last stable submarine-fluviatile environment between the Yilgarn and Pilbara prior to rifting, contraction and assembly of the intracratonic Gascoyne Complex.  c.2,750 Ma – Renosterkoppies Greenstone Belt forms on the northern edge of the Kaapvaal Craton.  c.2,736 Ma – Formation of the Temagami Greenstone Belt in Temagami, Ontario, Canada. 161 104  c.2,707 Ma – Blake River Megacaldera Complex begins to form in presentday Ontario and Quebec - first known Precambrian supervolcano - first phase results in creation of 8 km long, 40 km wide, east-west striking Misema Caldera - coalescence of at least two large mafic shield volcanoes.  c.2,705 Ma – Major komatiite eruption, possibly global - possible mantle overturn event.  c.2,704 Ma – Blake River Megacaldera Complex: second phase results in creation of 30 km long, 15 km wide northwest-southeast trending New Senator Caldera - thick massive mafic sequences which has been inferred to be a subaqueous lava lake.  c.2,700 Ma – Biomarkers of cyanobacteria discovered, together with steranes (sterols of cholesterol), associated with films of eukaryotes, in shales located beneath banded iron formation hematite beds, in Hamersley Range, Western Australia; skewed sulfur isotope ratios found in pyrites show a small rise in oxygen concentration in the atmosphere; Sturgeon Lake Caldera forms in Wabigoon greenstone belt — contains well preserved homoclinal chain of greenschist facies, metamorphosed intrusive, volcanic and sedimentary layers (Mattabi pyroclastic flow considered third most voluminous eruptive event); stromatolites of Bulawayo series in Zimbabwe form — first verified reef community on Earth.  c.2,696 Ma – Blake River Megacaldera Complex: third phase of activity constructs classic east-northeast striking Noranda Caldera which contains a 7-to-9-km-thick succession of mafic and felsic rocks erupted during five major series of activity. Abitibi greenstone belt in present-day Ontario and Quebec begins to form: considered world's largest series of Archean greenstone belts, appears to represent a series of thrusted subterranes.  c.2,690 Ma – Formation of high pressure granulites in the Limpopo Central Region.  c.2,650 Ma – Insell Orogeny: occurrence of a very high grade discrete tectonothermal event (a UHT metamorphic event).  c.2,600 Ma – Oldest known giant carbonate platform. Saturation of oxygen in ocean sediments is reached as oxygen now begins to dramatically appear in Earth's atmosphere. Proterozoic Eon 162 105 The Proterozoic (from c.2500 Ma to c.541 Ma) saw the first traces of biological activity. Fossil remains of bacteria and algae. Paleoproterozoic Era Siderian Period  c.2,500 Ma – Proterozoic Eon, Paleoproterozoic Era, and Siderian Period start. Oxygen saturation in the oceans is reached: Banded iron formations form and saturate ocean floor deposits - without an oxygen sink, Earth's atmosphere becomes highly oxygenic. Great Oxygenation Event led by cyanobacteria's oxygenic photosynthesis - various forms of Archaea and anoxic bacteria become extinct in first great extinction event on Earth. Algoman Orogeny or Kenoran: assembly of Arctica out of the Canadian Laurentian Shield and Siberian craton - formation of Angaran Shield and Slave Province.  c.2,440 Ma – Formation of Gawler Craton in Australia.  c.2,400 Ma – Huronian glaciation starts, probably from oxidation of earlier methane greenhouse gas produced by burial of organic sediments of photosynthesizers. First cyanobacteria. Formation of Dharwar Craton in southern India.  c.2,400 Ma – Suavjarvi impact structure forms. This is the oldest known impact crater whose remnants are still recognizable. Dharwar Craton in southern India stabilizes. Rhyacian Period  c.2,300 Ma – Rhyacian period starts.  c.2,250 Ma – Bushveld Igneous Complex forms: world's largest reserves of platinumgroup metals (platinum, palladium, osmium, iridium, rhodium and ruthenium), as well as vast quantities of iron, tin, chromium, titanium and vanadium appear – formation of Transvaal Basin begins.  c.2,200–1800 Ma – Continental Red Beds found, produced by iron in weathered sandstone being exposed to oxygen. Eburnean Orogeny, series of tectonic, metamorphic 163 106 and plutonic events establish Eglab Shield to the north of West African Craton and Man Shield to its south – Birimian domain of West Africa established and structured.  c.2,200 Ma – Iron content of ancient fossil soils shows an oxygen built up to 5–18% of current levels. End of Kenoran Orogeny: invasion of Superior and Slave Provinces by basaltic dikes and sills – Wyoming and Montana arm of Superior Province experiences intrusion of 5 km thick sheet of chromite-bearing gabbroic rock as Stillwater Complex forms.  c.2,100 Ma – Huronian glaciation ends. Earliest known eukaryote fossils found. Earliest multicellular organisms collectively referred to as the "Gabonionta" (Francevillian Group Fossil); Wopmay orogeny along western margin of Canadian Shield.  c.2,090 Ma – Eburnean Orogeny: Eglab Shield experiences syntectonic trondhjemitic pluton intrusion of its Chegga series – most of the intrusion is in the form of a plagioclase called oligoclase.  2.070 Ma – Eburnean Orogeny: asthenospheric upwelling releases large volume of postorogenic magmas – magma events repeatedly reactivated from the Neoproterozoic to the Mesozoic. Orosirian Period  c.2,050 Ma – Orosirian Period starts. Significant orogeny in most continents.  c.2,023 Ma – Vredefort impact structure forms.  c.2,005 Ma – Glenburgh Orogeny (to c.1,920 Ma) begins: Glenburgh Terrane in western Australia begins to stabilize during period of substantial granite magmatism and deformation; Halfway Gneiss and Moogie Metamorphics result. Dalgaringa Supersuite (to c.1,985 Ma), comprising sheets, dykes and viens of mesocratic and leucocratic tonalite, stabilizes.  c.2,000 Ma – The lesser supercontinent Atlantica forms. The Oklo natural nuclear reactor of Gabon produced by uranium-precipitant bacteria. First acritarchs.  c.1,900 - 1,880 Ma – Gunflint chert biota forms flourishes including prokaryotes like Kakabekia, Gunflintia, Animikiea and Eoastrion 164 107  c.1,850 Ma – Sudbury impact structure. Penokean orogeny. First eukaryotes. Bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) emerge before, or soon after, the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic lineages.  c.1,830 Ma – Capricorn Orogeny (1.83 - 1.78 Gyr) stabilizes central and northern Gascoyne Complex: formation of pelitic and psammitic schists known as Morrissey Metamorphics and depositing Pooranoo Metamorphics an amphibolite facies Statherian Period  c.1,800 Ma – Statherian Period starts. Supercontinent Columbia forms, one of whose fragments being Nena. Oldest ergs develop on several cratons Barramundi Orogeny (ca. 1.8 Gyr) influences MacArthur Basin in Northern Australia.  c.1,780 Ma – Colorado Orogeny (1.78 - 1.65 Gyr) influences southern margin of Wyoming craton - collision of Colorado orogen and Trans-Hudson orogen with stabilized Archean craton structure  c.1,770 Ma – Big Sky Orogeny (1.77 Gyr) influences southwest Montana: collision between Hearne and Wyoming cratons  c.1,765 Ma – As Kimban Orogeny in Australian continent slows, Yapungku Orogeny (1.765 Gyr) begins affecting Yilgarn craton in Western Australia - possible formation of Darling Fault, one of longest and most significant in Australia  c.1,760 Ma – Yavapai Orogeny (1.76 - 1.7 Gyr) impacts mid- to south-western United States  c.1,750 Ma – Gothian Orogeny (1.75 - 1.5 Gyr): formation of tonalitic-granodioritic plutonic rocks and calc-alkaline volcanites in the East European Craton  c.1,700 Ma – Stabilization of second major continental mass, the Guiana Shield in South America  c.1,680 Ma – Mangaroon Orogeny (1.68 - 1.62 Gyr), on the Gascoyne Complex in Western Australia: Durlacher Supersuite, granite intrusion featuring a northern (Minnie Creek) and southern belt - heavily sheared orthoclase porphyroclastic granites 165 108  c.1,650 Ma – Kararan Orogeny (1.65 Gyr) uplifts great mountains on the Gawler Craton in Southern Australia - formation of Gawler Range including picturesque Conical Hill Track and "Organ Pipes" waterfall Mesoproterozoic Era Calymmian Period  c.1,600 Ma – Mesoproterozoic Era and Calymmian Period start. Platform covers expand. Major orogenic event in Australia: Isan Orogeny influences Mount Isa Block of Queensland - major deposits of lead, silver, copper and zinc are laid down. Mazatzal Orogeny (to c.1,300 Ma) influences mid- to south-western United States: Precambrian rocks of the Grand Canyon, Vishnu Schist and Grand Canyon Series, are formed establishing basement of Canyon with metamorphosed gneisses that are intruded by granites. Belt Supergroup in Montana/Idaho/BC formed in basin on edge of Laurentia.  c.1,500 Ma – Supercontinent Columbia splits apart: associated with continental rifting along western margin of Laurentia, eastern India, southern Baltica, southeastern Siberia, northwestern South Africa and North China Block - formation of Ghats Province in India. First structurally complex eukaryotes (Hododyskia, colonial formamiferian?). Ectasian Period  c.1,400 Ma – Ectasian Period starts. Platform covers expand. Major increase in Stromatolite diversity with widespread blue-green algae colonies and reefs dominating tidal zones of oceans and seas  c.1,300 Ma – Break-up of Columbia Supercontinent completed: widespread anorogenic magmatic activity, forming anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite suites in North America, Baltica, Amazonia and North China - stabilization of Amazonian Craton in South America Grenville orogeny(to c.1,000 Ma) in North America: globally associated with assembly of Supercontinent Rodinia establishes Grenville Province in Eastern North America - folded mountains from Newfoundland to North Carolina as Old Rag Mountain forms 166 109  c.1,270 Ma – Emplacement of Mackenzie granite mafic dike swarm - one of three dozen dike swarms, forms into Mackenzie Large Igneous Province - formation of Copper Creek deposits  c.1,250 Ma – Sveconorwegian Orogeny (to c.900 Ma) begins: essentially a reworking of previously formed crust on the Baltic Shield  c.1,240 Ma – Second major dike swarm, Sudbury dikes form in Northeastern Ontario around the area of the Sudbury Basin Stenian Period  c.1,200 Ma – Stenian Period starts. Red alga Bangiomorpha pubescens, earliest fossil evidence for sexually reproducing organism. Meiosis and sexual reproduction are present in single-celled eukaryotes, and possibly in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Supercontinent of Rodinia(1.2 Gyr - 750 Myr) completed: consisting of North American, East European, Amazonian, West African, Eastern Antarctica, Australia and China blocks, largest global system yet formed - surrounded by superocean Mirovia  c.1,100 Ma – First dinoflagellate evolve: photosynthetic some develop mixotrophic habits ingesting prey - with their appearance, prey-predator relationship is established for first time forcing acritarchs to defensive strategies and leading to open "arms" race. Late Ruker (1.1 - 1 Gyr) and Nimrod Orogenies (1.1 Gyr) in Antarctica possibly begins: formation of Gamburtsev mountain range and Vostok Subglacial Highlands. Keweenawan Rift buckles in the south-central part of the North American plate - leaves behind thick layers of rock that are exposed in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Nebraska and creates rift valley where future Lake Superior develops.  c.1,080 Ma – Musgrave Orogeny (ca. 1.080 Gyr) forms Musgrave Block, an east-west trending belt of granulite-gneiss basement rocks - voluminous Kulgera Suite of granite and Birksgate Complex solidify  c.1,076 Ma – Musgrave Orogeny: Warakurna large igneous province develops - intrusion of Giles Complex and Winburn Suite of granites and deposition of Bentley Supergroup (including Tollu and Smoke Hill Volcanics) 167 110 Microorganisms Acellular Cellular (no cellular membrane)  Prokaryotes Eukaryotes (without nucleus) (with nucleus) Monera  Electron s  Lithotrophs Organotrophs  Animals  Plants  Fungi  Protists On mode of nutrition Energy Carbon  Autotrophs  Heterotrophs  Phototrophs  Chemotrophs In natural history, great discovery often requires a map to a hidden mine filled with gems then easily gathered by conventional tools, not a shiny new space-age machine for penetrating previously inaccessible worlds. Stephen Jay Gould 168 Rocks Sedimentary Igneous Metamorphic Intrusive Extrusive Clastic Biological  Gabbro  Basalt  Conglomerate  Coal  Diorite  Andesite  Breccia  Chert  Granodiorite  Dacite  Sandstone  Granite  Rhyolite  Siltstone  Shale  Mustone Chemical  Limestone  Dolostoone Natural history is not equivalent to biology. Biology is the study of life. Natural history is the study of animals and plants—of organisms. Biology thus includes natural history, and much else besides. Marston Bates Foliated Non-foliated  Slate  Schist  Gneiss 169  Quarzite  Marble Neoproterozoic Era Tonian Period  c.1,000 Ma – Neoproterozoic Era and Tonian Period start. Grenville orogeny ends. First radiation of dinoflagellates and spiny acritarchs - increase in defensive systems indicate that acritarchs are responding to carnivorous habits of dinoflagellates - decline in stromatolite reef populations begins. Rodinia starts to break up. First vaucherian algae. Rayner Orogeny as proto-India and Antarctica collide (to c.900 Ma). Trace fossils of colonial Hododyskia (to c.900 Ma): possible divergence between animal and plant kingdoms begins. Stabilization of Satpura Province in Northern India. Rayner Orogeny (1 Gyr - 900 Myr) as India and Antarctica collide  c.920 Ma – Edmundian Orogeny (ca. 920 - 850 Myr) redefines Gascoyne Complex: consists of reactivation of earlier formed faults in the Gascoyne - folding and faulting of overlying Edmund and Collier basins  c.920 Ma – Adelaide Geosyncline laid down in central Australia - essentially a rift complex, consists of thick layer of sedimentary rock and minor volcanics deposited on Easter margin - limestones, shales and sandstones predominate  c.900 Ma – Bitter Springs Formation of Australia: in addition to prokaryote assemblage of fossils, cherts include eukaryotes with ghostly internal structures similar to green algae - first appearance of Glenobotrydion (900 - 720 Myr), among earliest plants on Earth  c.830 Ma – Rift develops on Rodinia between continental masses of Australia, eastern Antarctica, India, Congo and Kalahari on one side and Laurentia, Baltica, Amazonia, West African and Rio de la Plata cratons on other - formation of Adamastor Ocean.  c.800 Ma – With free oxygen levels much higher, carbon cycle is disrupted and once again glaciation becomes severe - beginning of second "snowball Earth" event  c.750 Ma – First Protozoa appears: as creatures like Paramecium, Amoeba and Melanocyrillium evolve, first animal-like cells become distinctive from plants - rise of herbivores (plant feeders) in the food chain. First Sponge-like animal: similar to early colonial foraminiferan Horodyskia, earliest ancestors of Sponges were colonial cells that circulated food sources using flagella to their gullet to be digested. Kaigas (c.750 Ma): 170 111 first thought o be a major glaciation of Earth, however, the Kaigas formation was later determined to be non-glacial. Cryogenian Period  c.720 Ma – Cryogenian Period starts, during which Earth freezes over (Snowball Earth or Slushball Earth) at least 3 times. The Sturtian glaciation continues the process begun during Kaigas - great ice sheets cover most of the planet stunting evolutionary development of animal and plant life - survival based on small pockets of heat under the ice.  c.700 Ma – Fossils of testate Amoeba first appear: first complex metazoans leave unconfirmed biomarkers - they introduce new complex body plan architecture which allows for development of complex internal and external structures. Worm trail impressions in China: because putative "burrows" under stromatolite mounds are of uneven width and tapering makes biological origin difficult to defend - structures imply simple feeding behaviours. Rifting of Rodinia is completed: formation of new superocean of Panthalassa as previous Mirovia ocean bed closes - Mozambique mobile belt develops as a suture between plates on Congo-Tanzania craton  c.660 Ma – As Sturtian glaciers retreat, Cadomian orogeny (660 - 540 Myr) begins on north coast of Armorica: involving one or more collisions of island arcs on margin of future Gondwana, terranes of Avalonia, Armorica and Ibera are laid down  c.650 Ma – First Demosponges appear: form first skeletons of spicules made from protein spongin and silica - brightly coloured these colonial creatures filter feed since they lack nervous, digestive or circulatory systems and reproduce both sexually and asexually  c.650 Ma – Final period of worldwide glaciation, Marinoan (650 - 635 Myr) begins: most significant "snowball Earth" event, global in scope and longer - evidence from Diamictite deposits in South Australia laid down on Adelaide Geosyncline Ediacaran Period 171 112  c.635 Ma – Ediacaran period begins. End of Marinoan Glaciation: last major "snowball Earth" event as future ice ages will feature less overall ice coverage of the planet  c.633 Ma – Beardmore Orogeny (to c.620 Ma) in Antarctica: reflection of final break-up of Rodinia as pieces of the supercontinent begin moving together again to form Pannotia  c.620 Ma – Timanide Orogeny (to c.550 Ma) affects northern Baltic Shield: gneiss province divided into several north-south trending segments experiences numerous metasedimentary and metavolcanic deposits - last major orogenic event of Precambrian  c.600 Ma – Pan-African Orogeny begins: Arabian-Nubian Shield formed between plates separating supercontinent fragments Gondwana and Pannotia - Supercontinent Pannotia (to c.500 Ma) completed, bordered by Iapetus and Panthalassa oceans. Accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows for the formation of ozone layer: prior to this, land-based life would probably have required other chemicals to attenuate ultraviolet radiation enough to permit colonization of the land  c.575 Ma – First Ediacaran-type fossils.  c.565 Ma - Charnia, a frond-like organism, first evolves.  c.560 Ma – Trace fossils, e.g., worm burrows, and small bilaterally symmetrical animals. Earliest arthropods. Earliest fungi.  c.558 Ma - Dickinsonia, a large slow moving disc-like creature, first appears - the discovery of fat molecules in its tissues make it the first confirmed true metazoan animal of the fossil record.  c.555 Ma – The first possible mollusk Kimberella appears.  c.550 Ma – First possible comb-jellies, sponges, corals, and anemones.  c.550 Ma - Uluru or Ayers Rock begins forming during the Petermann Orogeny in Australia  c.544 Ma – The small shelly fauna first appears. Phanerozoic Eon Paleozoic Era 172 113 Cambrian Period  c.541 ± 1.0 Ma – beginning of the Cambrian Period, the Paleozoic Era and the current Phanerozoic Eon. End of the Ediacaran Period, the Proterozoic Eon and the Precambrian Supereon. The Ediacaran fauna disappears, while the Cambrian explosion initiates the emergence of most forms of complex life, including vertebrates (fish), arthropods, echinoderms and molluscs. Pannotia breaks up into several smaller continents: Laurentia, Baltica and Gondwana.  c.540 Ma – Supercontinent of Pannotia breaks up.  c.530 Ma – First fish - appearance of Myllokunmingia  c.525 Ma – First graptolites.  c.521 Ma – First trilobites.  c.518 Ma - Chengjiang biota flourishes - Maotianshan Shales reveal numerous invertebrates and arthropods that appear in the Burgess shales suggesting their range is global and includes a number of chordates including Haikouella, Yunnanozoon and early fish like Haikouichthys.  c.514 Ma - Paradoxides trilobites appear, the largest members of the Cambrian Trilobites.  c.511 Ma - Earliest crustaceans.  c.505 Ma – Deposition of the Burgess Shale - Biota includes numerous strange invertebrates and arthropods like Opabinia; First great apex predator Anomalocaris dominates.  c.490 Ma - Beginning of the Caledonian Orogeny as three continents and terranes of Laurentia, Baltica and Avalonia collide resulting in mountain-building recorded in the northern parts of Ireland and Britain, the Scandinavian Mountains, Svalbard, eastern Greenland and parts of north-central Europe.  c.488 Ma - Earliest brittle stars. Ordovician Period  c.485.4 ± 1.7 Ma – Beginning of the Ordovician and the end of the Cambrian Period. 173 114  c.485 Ma – First jawless fish - radiation of Thelodont fish into the Silurian  c.460 Ma - First crinoids evolve.  c.450 Ma - Late Ordovician microfossils of scales indicate the earliest evidence for the existence of jawed fish or Gnathostomata.  c.450 Ma – Plants and arthropods colonize the land. Sharks evolve. First horseshoe crabs and starfish. Silurian Period  c.443.8 ± 1.5 Ma – Beginning of the Silurian and the end of the Ordovician Period.  c.433 Ma - Great Glen Fault begins shaping the Scottish Highlands as the Caledonian Orogeny reaches its close.  c.430 Ma - First appearance of Cooksonia the oldest known plant to have a stem with vascular tissue and is thus a transitional form between the primitive nonvascular bryophytes and the vascular plants  c.420 Ma – First creature took a breath of air. First ray-finned fish and land scorpions.  c.410 Ma – First toothed fish and nautiloids. Devonian Period  c.419.2 ± 2.8 Ma – Beginning of the Devonian and end of the Silurian Period. First insects.  c.419 Ma - Old Red Sandstone sediments begin being laid in the North Atlantic region including, Britain, Ireland, Norway and in the west along the northeastern seaboard of North America. It also extends northwards into Greenland and Svalbard.  c. 415 Ma - Cephalaspis, an iconic member of the Osteostraci, appears, the most advanced of the jawless fish. Its boney armor serves as protection against the successful radiation of Placoderms and as a way to live in calcium-poor fresh water environments.  c.395 Ma – First of many modern groups, including tetrapods. 174 115  c.375 Ma - Acadian Orogeny begins influencing mountain building along the Atlantic seaboard of North America.  c.370 Ma - Cladoselache, an early shark, first appears.  c.363 Ma - Vascular plants begin to create the earliest stable soils on land.  c.360 Ma – First crabs and ferns. The large predatory lobe-finned fish Hyneria evolves.  c.350 Ma – First large sharks, ratfish and hagfish. Carboniferous Period  c.358.9 ± 2.5 Ma – Beginning of the Carboniferous and the end of Devonian Period. Amphibians diversify.  c.345 Ma - Agaricocrinus americanus a representative of the Crinoids appears as part of a successful radiation of the echinoderms.  c.330 Ma – First amniotes evolve.  c.320 Ma – First synapsids evolve.  c.318 Ma - First beetles.  c.315 Ma – The evolution of the first reptiles.  c.312 Ma - Hylonomus makes first appearance, one of the oldest reptiles found in the fossil record.  c.306 Ma - Diplocaulus evolves in the swamps with an unusual boomerang-like skull.  c.305 Ma – First diapsids evolve; Meganeura a giant dragonfly dominates the skies.  c.300 Ma - Last great period of mountain building episodes in Europe and North America in response to the final suturing together of the supercontinent Pangaea - the Ural mountains are uplifted Permian Period  c.298.9 ± 0.8 Ma – End of Carboniferous and beginning of Permian Period. By this time, all continents have fused into the supercontinent of Pangaea. Seed plants and conifers diversify along with temnospondyls and pelycosaurs. 175 116  c.296 Ma - Oldest known octopus fossil.  c.295 Ma - Dimetrodon evolves.  c.280 Ma - First cycads evolve.  c.275 Ma – First therapsids evolve.  c.270 Ma - Gorgonopsians, the apex predators of the Late Permian, first evolve.  c.251.4 Ma – Permian mass extinction. End of Permian Period and of the Palaeozoic Era. Beginning of Triassic Period, the Mesozoic era and of the age of the dinosaurs. Mesozoic Era Triassic Period  c.251.902 ± 0.4 Ma – Mesozoic era and Triassic Period begin. Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins.  c.245 Ma – First ichthyosaurs.  c.240 Ma – Cynodonts and rhynchosaurs diversify.  c.225 Ma – First dinosaurs and teleosti evolve.  c.220 Ma – First crocodilians and flies.  c.215 Ma – First turtles. Long-necked sauropod dinosaurs and Coelophysis, one of the earliest theropod dinosaurs, evolve. First mammals.  c.210 Ma - Earliest elasmosauridae. Jurassic Period  c.201.3 ± 0.6 Ma – Triassic-Jurassic extinction event marks the end of Triassic and beginning of Jurassic Period. The largest dinosaurs, such as Diplodocus and Brachiosaurus evolve during this time, as do the carnosaurs; large, bipedal predatory dinosaurs such as Allosaurus. First specialized pterosaurs and sauropods. Ornithischians diversify.  c.199 Ma - First squamata evolve. Earliest lizards. 176 117  c.190 Ma – Pliosaurs evolve, along with many groups of primitive sea invertebrates.  c.180 Ma – Pangaea splits into two major continents: Laurasia in the north and Gondwana in the south.  c.176 Ma – First stegosaurs.  c.170 Ma – First salamanders and newts evolve. Cynodonts go extinct.  c.165 Ma – First rays and glycymeridid bivalves.  c.164 Ma - The first gliding mammal, volaticotherium, appears in the fossil record.  c.161 Ma – First ceratopsians.  c.155 Ma – First birds and triconodonts. Stegosaurs and theropods diversify.  c.153 Ma - Earliest pine trees. Cretaceous Period  c.145 ± 4 Ma – End of Jurassic and beginning of Cretaceous Period.  c.145 Ma - First mantises.  c.140 Ma - Earliest orb-weaver spiders evolve.  c.130 Ma – Laurasia and Gondwana begin to split apart as the Atlantic Ocean forms. First flowering plants. Earliest anglerfish.  c.125 Ma - Sinodelphys szalayi, the earliest known marsupial, evolves in China.  c.122 Ma - Earliest ankylosauridae.  c.115 Ma – First monotremes.  c.110 Ma – First hesperornithes.  c.106 Ma – Spinosaurus evolves.  c.100 Ma – First bees.  c.94 Ma - First modern species of palm trees appear.  c.90 Ma – the Indian subcontinent splits from Gondwana, becoming an island continent. Ichthyosaurs go extinct. Snakes and ticks evolve.  c.86 Ma - First hadrosauridae.  c.80 Ma – Australia splits from Antarctica. First ants. 177 118  c.75 Ma - First velociraptors.  c.70 Ma – Multituberculates diversify. The Mosasaurus evolves.  c.68 Ma – Tyrannosaurus rex evolves. Earliest species of Triceratops. Quetzalcoatlus, one of the largest flying animals to ever live, first appears in the fossil record.  c.66.038 ± 0.011 Ma – Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event at the end of the Cretaceous Period marks the end of the Mesozoic era and the age of the dinosaurs; start of the Paleogene Period and the current Cenozoic era. Cenozoic Era Paleogene Period  c.63 Ma – First creodonts.  c.62 Ma - First penguins.  c.60 Ma – Evolution of the first primates and miacids. Flightless birds diversify.  c.56 Ma – Gastornis evolves.  c.55 Ma – the island of the Indian subcontinent collides with Asia, thrusting up the Himalayas and the Tibetan Plateau. Many modern bird groups appear. First whale ancestors. First rodents, lagomorphs, armadillos, sirenians, proboscideans, perissodactyls, artiodacty ls, and mako sharks. Angiosperms diversify.  c.52.5 Ma - First passerine (perching) birds.  c.52 Ma – First bats.  c.50 Ma – Africa collides with Eurasia, closing the Tethys Sea. Divergence of cat and dog ancestors. Primates diversify. Brontotheres, tapirs, and rhinos evolve.  c.49 Ma – Whales return to the water.  c.45 Ma - Camels evolve in North America.  c.40 Ma – Age of the Catarrhini parvorder; first canines evolve. Lepidopteran insects become recognizable. Gastornis goes extinct. Basilosaurus evolves.  c.37 Ma – First Nimravids. 178 119  c.33.9 ± 0.1 Ma – End of Eocene, start of Oligocene epoch.  c.35 Ma – Grasslands first appear. Glyptodonts, ground sloths, peccaries, dogs, eagles, and hawks evolve.  c.33 Ma – First thylacinid marsupials evolve.  c.30 Ma – Brontotheres go extinct. Pigs evolve. South America separates from Antarctica, becoming an island continent.  c.28 Ma – Paraceratherium evolves. First pelicans.  c.26 Ma – Emergence of the first true elephants.  c.25 Ma – First deer. Cats evolve.  c.24 Ma - Earliest pinnipeds (seals). Neogene Period  c.23.03 ± 0.05 Ma – Neogene Period and Miocene epoch begin  c.22 Ma - First hyenas.  c.20 Ma – Giraffes and giant anteaters evolve.  c.18-12 Ma – estimated age of the Hominidae/Hylobatidae (great apes vs. gibbons) split.  c.16 Ma - The hippopotamus evolves.  c.15 Ma – First mastodons, bovids, and kangaroos. Australian megafauna diversify.  c.10 Ma – Insects diversify. First large horses. Camels cross from America to Asia.  c.6.5 Ma – First members of the Hominini tribe.  c.6 Ma – Australopithecines diversify.  c.5.96 Ma – - 5.33 Ma – Messinian Salinity Crisis: the precursor of the current Strait of Gibraltar closes repeatedly, leading to a partial desiccation and strong increase in salinity of the Mediterranean Sea.  c.5.4-6.3 Ma – Estimated age of the Homo/Pan (human vs. chimpanzee) split.  c.5.5 Ma – Appearance of the genus Ardipithecus  c.5.33 Ma – Zanclean flood: the Strait of Gibraltar opens for the last (and current) time and water from the Atlantic Sea fills again the Mediterranean Sea basin. 179 120  c.5.333 ± 0.005 Ma – Pliocene epoch begins. First tree sloths. First large vultures. Nimravids go extinct.  c.4.8 Ma – The mammoth appears.  c.4.5 Ma – appearance of the genus Australopithecus  c.4 Ma - First zebras.  c.3 Ma – Isthmus of Panama joins North and South America. Great American Interchange. Cats, condors, raccoons and camelids move south; armadillos, hummingbirds, and opossums move north.  c.2.7 Ma – Paranthropus evolves.  c.2.6 Ma – The current ice age begins. Quaternary Period  c.2.58 ± 0.005 Ma – start of the Pleistocene epoch, the Stone Age and the current Quaternary Period; emergence of the genus Homo. Smilodon, the best known of the sabre-toothed cats, appears.  c.1.9 Ma – Oldest known Homo erectus fossils. This species might be evolved some time before, up to c.2 Ma ago.  c.1.7 Ma – Australopithecines go extinct.  c.1.8-0.8 Ma – colonisation of Eurasia by Homo erectus.  c.1.5 Ma – earliest possible evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus  c.1.2 Ma – Homo antecessor evolves. Paranthropus dies out.  c.0.79 Ma – earliest demonstrable evidence of the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus  c.0.7 Ma – last reversal of the earth's magnetic field  c.0.7 Ma: oldest archaic hominins that broke away from the modern human lineage that were found to have inserted into the Sub-Saharan African population genome approximately 35,000 years ago.  c.0.64 Ma – Yellowstone caldera erupts  c.0.6 Ma – Homo heidelbergensis evolves. 180 121  c.0.5 Ma - First brown bears.  c.0.315 Ma – Middle Paleolithic begins. Appearance of Homo sapiens in Africa  All the different classes of beings which taken together make up the universe are, in the ideas of God who knows distinctly their essential gradations, only so many ordinates of a single curve so closely united that it would be impossible to place others between any two of them, since that would imply disorder and imperfection. Thus men are linked with the animals, these with the plants and these with the fossils which in turn merge with those bodies which our senses and our imagination represent to us as absolutely inanimate. And, since the law of continuity requires that when the essential attributes of one being approximate those of another all the properties of the one must likewise gradually approximate those of the other, it is necessary that all the orders of natural beings form but a single chain, in which the various classes, like so many rings, are so closely linked one to another that it is impossible for the senses or the imagination to determine precisely the point at which one ends and the next begins? all the species which, so to say, lie near the borderlands being equivocal, at endowed with characters which might equally well be assigned to either of the neighboring species. Thus there is nothing monstrous in the existence zoophytes, or plant-animals, as Budaeus calls them; on the contrary, it is wholly in keeping with the order of nature that they should exist. And so great is the force of the principle of continuity, to my thinking, that not only should I not be surprised to hear that such beings had been discovered? creatures which in some of their properties, such as nutrition or reproduction, might pass equally well for animals or for plants, and which thus overturn the current laws based upon the supposition of a perfect and absolute separation of the different orders of coexistent beings which fill the universe;?not only, I say, should I not be surprised to hear that they had been discovered, but, in fact, I am convinced that there must be such creatures, and that natural history will perhaps someday become acquainted with them, when it has further studied that infinity of living things whose small size conceals them for ordinary observation and which are hidden in the bowels of the earth and the depth of the sea. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 181 Weathering Sedimentary Rocks Igneous Rocks Metamorphic Rocks Magma Minerals Metallic Non-metallic Energy Minerals    Ferrous Non-ferrous 182 Coal Petroleum Natural gas Science is opposed to theological dogmas because science is founded on fact. To me, the universe is simply a great machine which never came into being and never will end. The human being is no exception to the natural order. Man, like the universe, is a machine. Nothing enters our minds or determines our actions which is not directly or indirectly a response to stimuli beating upon our sense organs from without. Owing to the similarity of our construction and the sameness of our environment, we respond in like manner to similar stimuli, and from the concordance of our reactions, understanding is born. In the course of ages, mechanisms of infinite complexity are developed, but what we call 'soul' or 'spirit,' is nothing more than the sum of the functionings of the body. When this functioning ceases, the 'soul' or the 'spirit' ceases likewise. I expressed these ideas long before the behaviorists, led by Pavlov in Russia and by Watson in the United States, proclaimed their new psychology. This apparently mechanistic conception is not antagonistic to an ethical conception of life. Nikola Tesla Timeline of epochs in cosmology For me, it is far better to grasp the Universe as it really is than to persist in delusion, however satisfying and reassuring. Carl Sagan 183 Cools and condenses Hot glowing smooth gas  Stars and galaxies Gravitationally c. 0 seconds (13.799 ± 0.021 Gya): Planck Epoch begins: earliest meaningful time. The Big Bang occurs in which ordinary space and time develop out of a primeval state (possibly a virtual particle or false vacuum) described by a quantum theory of gravity or "Theory of Everything". All matter and energy of the entire visible universe is contained in a hot, dense point (gravitational singularity), a billionth the size of a nuclear particle. This state has been described as a particle desert. Other than a few scant details, conjecture dominates discussion about the earliest moments of the universe's history since no effective means of testing this far back in space-time is presently available. WIMPS (weakly interacting massive particles) or dark matter and dark energy may have appeared and been the catalyst for the expansion of the singularity. The infant universe cools as it begins expanding outward. It is almost completely smooth, with quantum variations beginning to cause slight variations in density.  c. 10 −43 seconds: Grand unification epoch begins: While still at an infinitesimal size, the universe cools down to 1032 kelvin. Gravity separates and begins operating on the universe—the remaining fundamental forces stabilize into the electronuclear force, also known as the Grand Unified Force or Grand Unified Theory (GUT), mediated by (the hypothetical) X and Y bosons which allow early matter at this stage to fluctuate between baryon and lepton states.  c. 10−36 seconds: Electroweak epoch begins: The Universe cools down to 10 28 kelvin. As a result, the strong nuclear force becomes distinct from the electroweak force perhaps fuelling the inflation of the universe. A wide array of exotic elementary particles result from decay of X and Y bosons which include W and Z bosons and Higgs bosons.  c. 10−33 seconds: Space is subjected to inflation, expanding by a factor of the order of 10 26 over a time of the order of 10−33 to 10−32 seconds. The universe is supercooled from about 1027 down to 10 22 kelvin. 184  c. 10−32 seconds: Cosmic inflation ends. The familiar elementary particles now form as a soup of hot ionized gas called quark-gluon plasma; hypothetical components of cold dark matter (such as axions) would also have formed at this time.  c. 10−12 seconds: Electroweak phase transition: the four fundamental interactions familiar from the modern universe now operate as distinct forces. The weak nuclear force is now a short-range force as it separates from electromagnetic force, so matter particles can acquire mass and interact with the Higgs Field. The temperature is still too high for quarks to coalesce into hadrons, and the quark-gluon plasma persists (Quark epoch). The universe cools to 1015 Kelvin.  c. 10−11 seconds: Baryogenesis may have taken place with matter gaining the upper hand over anti-matter as baryon to antibaryon constituencies are established.  c. 10−6 seconds: Hadron epoch begins: As the universe cools to about 1010 Kelvin, a quark-hadron transition takes place in which quarks bind to form more complex particles—hadrons. This quark confinement includes the formation of protons and neutrons (nucleons), the building blocks of atomic nuclei.  c. 1 second: Lepton epoch begins: The universe cools to 109 Kelvin. At this temperature, the hadrons and antihadrons annihilate each other, leaving behind leptons and antileptons – possible disappearance of antiquarks. Gravity governs the expansion of the universe: neutrinos decouple from matter creating a cosmic neutrino background.  c. 10 seconds: Photon epoch begins: Most of the leptons and antileptons annihilate each other. As electrons and positrons annihilate, a small number of unmatched electrons are left over – disappearance of the positrons.  c. 10 seconds: Universe dominated by photons of radiation – ordinary matter particles are coupled to light and radiation while dark matter particles start building non-linear structures as dark matter halos. Because charged electrons and protons hinder the emission of light, the universe becomes a super-hot glowing fog.  c. 3 minutes: Primordial nucleosynthesis: nuclear fusion begins as lithium and heavy hydrogen (deuterium) and helium nuclei form from protons and neutrons. 185 123  c. 20 minutes: Nuclear fusion ceases: normal matter consists of 75% hydrogen nuclei and 25% helium nuclei – free electrons begin scattering light.  c. 47,000 years (z=3600): Matter and radiation equivalence: at the beginning of this era, the expansion of the universe was decelerating at a faster rate.  c. 70,000 years: Matter domination in Universe: onset of gravitational collapse as the Jeans length at which the smallest structure can form begins to fall.  c. 370,000 years (z=1,100): The "Dark Ages" is the period between decoupling, when the universe first becomes transparent, until the formation of the first stars. Recombination: electrons combine with nuclei to form atoms, mostly hydrogen and helium. Distributions of hydrogen and helium at this time remains constant as the electron-baryon plasma thins. The temperature falls to 3000 kelvin. Ordinary matter particles decouple from radiation. The photons present at the time of decoupling are the same photons that we see in the cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation.  c. 400,000 years: Density waves begin imprinting characteristic polarization (waves) signals.  c. 10-17 million years: The "Dark Ages" span a period during which the temperature of cosmic background radiation cooled from some 4000 K down to about 60 K. The background temperature was between 373 K and 273 K, allowing the possibility of liquid water, during a period of about 7 million years, from about 10 to 17 million after the Big Bang (redshift 137–100). Loeb (2014) speculated that primitive life might in principle have appeared during this window, which he called "the Habitable Epoch of the Early Universe".  c. 100 million years: Gravitational collapse: ordinary matter particles fall into the structures created by dark matter. Reionization begins: smaller (stars) and larger nonlinear structures (quasars) begin to take shape – their ultraviolet light ionizes remaining neutral gas.  200–300 million years: First stars begin to shine: Because many are Population III stars (some Population II stars are accounted for at this time) they are much bigger and hotter and their life-cycle is fairly short. Unlike later generations of stars, these stars are 186 124 metal free. As reionization intensifies, photons of light scatter off free protons and electrons – Universe becomes opaque again.  200 million years: HD 140283, the "Methuselah" Star, formed, the unconfirmed oldest star observed in the Universe. Because it is a Population II star, some suggestions have been raised that second generation star formation may have begun very early on. The oldest-known star (confirmed) – SMSS J031300.36-670839.3, forms.  300 million years: First large-scale astronomical objects, protogalaxies and quasars may have begun forming. As Population III stars continue to burn, stellar nucleosynthesis operates – stars burn mainly by fusing hydrogen to produce more helium in what is referred to as the main sequence. Over time these stars are forced to fuse helium to produce carbon, oxygen, silicon and other heavy elements up to iron on the periodic table. These elements, when seeded into neighbouring gas clouds by supernova, will lead to the formation of more Population II stars (metal poor) and gas giants.  380 million years: UDFj-39546284 forms, current record holder for unconfirmed oldestknown quasar.  400 million years (z=11): GN-z11, the oldest-known galaxy, forms.  420 million years: The quasar MACS0647-JD, the, or one of the, furthest known quasars, forms.  600 million years HE 1523-0901, the oldest star found producing neutron capture elements forms, marking a new point in ability to detect stars with a telescope.  630 million years (z=8.2): GRB 090423, the oldest gamma ray burst recorded suggests that supernovas may have happened very early on in the evolution of the Universe.  670 million years: EGS-zs8-1, the most distant starburst or Lyman-break galaxy observed, forms. This suggests that galaxy interaction is taking place very early on in the history of the Universe as starburst galaxies are often associated with collisions and galaxy mergers.  700 million years: Galaxies form. Smaller galaxies begin merging to form larger ones. Galaxy classes may have also begun forming at this time including Blazars, Seyfert galaxies, radio galaxies, and dwarf galaxies as well as regular types (elliptical, barred spiral, and spiral galaxies). UDFy-38135539, the first distant quasar to be observed from 187 125 the reionization phase, forms. Dwarf galaxy z8 GND 5296 forms. Galaxy or possible proto-galaxy A1689-zD1 forms.  720 million years: Possible formation of globular clusters in Milky Way's Galactic halo. Formation of globular cluster, NGC 6723, in the Milky Way's galactic halo  740 million years: 47 Tucanae, second-brightest globular cluster in the Milky Way, forms  750 million years: Galaxy IOK-1 a Lyman alpha emitter galaxy, forms. GN108036 forms—galaxy is 5 times larger and 100 times more massive than the present day Milky Way illustrating the size attained by some galaxies very early on.  770 million years: Quasar ULAS J1120+0641, one of the most distant, forms. One of the earliest galaxies to feature a supermassive black hole suggesting that such large objects existed quite soon after the Big Bang. The large fraction of neutral hydrogen in its spectrum suggests it may also have just formed or is in the process of star formation.  800 million years: Farthest extent of Hubble Ultra Deep Field. Formation of SDSS J102915+172927: unusual population II star that is extremely metal poor consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium. HE0107-5240, one of the oldest Population II stars, forms as part of a binary star system. LAE J095950.99+021219.1, the Bogwiggit Galaxy, one of the most remote Lyman alpha emitter galaxies, forms. Lyman alpha emitters are considered to be the progenitors of spiral galaxies like the Milky Way. Messier 2, globular cluster, forms.  870 million years: Messier 30 forms in the Milky Way. Having experienced a Core collapse (cluster), the cluster has one of the highest densities among globular clusters.  890 million years: Galaxy SXDF-NB1006-2 forms  900 million years: Galaxy BDF-3299 forms.  910 million years: Galaxy BDF-521 forms  1 billion years (12.8 Gya, z=6.56): Galaxy HCM-6A, the most distant normal galaxy observed, forms. Formation of hyper-luminous quasar SDSS J0100+2802, which harbors a black hole with mass of 12 billion solar masses, one of the most massive black holes discovered so early in the universe. HE1327-2326, a population II star, is speculated to have formed from remnants of earlier Population III stars. Visual limit of the Hubble Deep Field. Reionization complete—the Universe becomes transparent again. Galaxy 188 126 evolution continues as more modern looking galaxies form and develop. Because the Universe is still small in size, galaxy interactions become common place with larger and larger galaxies forming out of the galaxy merger process. Galaxies may have begun clustering creating the largest structures in the Universe so far - the first galaxy clusters and galaxy superclusters appear.  1.1 billion years (12.7 Gya): Age of the quasar CFHQS 1641+3755. Messier 4 Globular Cluster, first to have its individual stars resolved, forms in the halo of the Milky Way Galaxy. Among the clusters many stars, PSR B1620-26 b, a gas giant known as the "Genesis Planet" or "Methusaleh", orbiting a pulsar and a white dwarf, the oldest observed extrasolar planet in Universe, forms.  1.13 billion years (12.67 Gya): Messier 12, globular cluster, forms  1.3 billion years (12.5 Gya): WISE J224607.57-052635.0, a luminous infrared galaxy, forms. PSR J1719-1438 b, known as the Diamond Planet, forms around a pulsar.  1.31 billion years (12.49 Gya): Globular Cluster Messier 53 forms 60,000 light-years from the galactic centre of the Milky Way  1.39 billion years (12.41 Gya): S5 0014+81, a hyper-luminous quasar, forms  1.4 billion years (12.4 Gya): Age of Cayrel's Star, BPS C531082-0001, a neutron capture star, among the oldest Population II stars in Milky Way. Quasar RD1, first object observed to exceed redshift 5, forms.  1.44 billion years (12.36 Gya): Messier 80 globular cluster forms in Milky Way - known for large number of "blue stragglers"  1.5 billion years (12.3 Gya): Messier 55, globular cluster, forms  1.8 billion years (12 Gya): Most energetic gamma ray burst lasting 23 minutes, GRB 080916C, recorded. Baby Boom Galaxy forms. Terzan 5 forms as a small dwarf galaxy on collision course with the Milky Way. Dwarf galaxy carrying the Methusaleh Star consumed by Milky Way – oldest-known star in the Universe becomes one of many population II stars of the Milky Way  2.0 billion years (11.8 Gya): SN 1000+0216, the oldest observed supernova occurs – possible pulsar formed. Globular Cluster Messier 15, known to have an intermediate 189 127 black hole and the only globular cluster observed to include a planetary nebula, Pease 1, forms  2.02 billion years (11.78 Gya): Messier 62 forms – contains high number of variable stars (89) many of which are RR Lyrae stars.  2.2 billion years (11.6 Gya): Globular Cluster NGC 6752, third-brightest, forms in Milky Way  2.4 billion years (11.4 Gya): Quasar PKS 2000-330 forms.  2.41 billion years (11.39 Gya): Messier 10 globular cluster forms. Messier 3 forms: prototype for the Oosterhoff type I cluster, which is considered "metal-rich". That is, for a globular cluster, Messier 3 has a relatively high abundance of heavier elements.  2.5 billion years (11.3 Gya): Omega Centauri, largest globular cluster in the Milky Way forms  3.0 billion years (10.8 billion Gya): Formation of the Gliese 581 planetary system: Gliese 581c, the first observed ocean planet and Gliese 581d, a super-earth planet, possibly the first observed habitable planets, form. Gliese 581d has more potential for forming life since it is the first exoplanet of terrestrial mass proposed that orbits within the habitable zone of its parent star.  3.3 billion years (10.5 Gya): BX442, oldest grand design spiral galaxy observed, forms  3.5 billion years (10.3 Gya): Supernova SN UDS10Wil recorded  3.8 billion years (10 Gya): NGC 2808 globular cluster forms: 3 generations of stars form within the first 200 million years.  4.0 billion years (9.8 Gya): Quasar 3C 9 forms. The Andromeda Galaxy forms from a galactic merger - begins a collision course with the Milky Way. Barnard's Star, red dwarf star, may have formed. Beethoven Burst GRB 991216 recorded. Gliese 677 Cc, a planet in the habitable zone of its parent star, Gliese 667, forms  4.5 billion years (9.3 Gya): Fierce star formation in Andromeda making it into a luminous infra-red galaxy  5.0 billion years (8.8 Gya): Earliest Population I, or Sunlike stars: with heavy element saturation so high, planetary nebula appear in which rocky substances are solidified – 190 128 these nurseries lead to the formation of rocky terrestrial planets, moons, asteroids, and icy comets  5.1 billion years (8.7 Gya): Galaxy collision: spiral arms of the Milky Way form leading to major period of star formation.  5.3 billion years (8.5 Gya): 55 Cancri B, a "hot Jupiter", first planet to be observed orbiting as part of a star system, forms. Kepler 11 planetary system, the flattest and most compact system yet discovered, forms – Kepler 11 c considered to be a giant ocean planet with hydrogen-helium atmosphere.  5.8 billion years (8 Gya): 51 Pegasi b also known as Bellerophon, forms – first planet discovered orbiting a main sequence star  5.9 billion years (7.9 Gya): HD 176051 planetary system, known as the first observed through astrometrics, forms  6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): Many galaxies like NGC 4565 become relatively stable – ellipticals result from collisions of spirals with some like IC 1101 being extremely massive.  6.0 billion years (7.8 Gya): The Universe continues to organize into larger wider structures. The great walls, sheets and filaments consisting of galaxy clusters and superclusters and voids crystallize. How this crystallization takes place is still conjecture. Certainly, it is possible the formation of super-structures like the Hercules-Corona Borealis Great Wall may have happened much earlier, perhaps around the same time galaxies first started appearing. Either way the observable universe becomes more modern looking.  6.2 billion years (7.7 Gya): 16 Cygni Bb, the first gas giant observed in a single star orbit in a trinary star system, forms – orbiting moons considered to have habitable properties or at the least capable of supporting water  6.3 billion years (7.5 Gya, z=0.94): GRB 080319B, farthest gamma ray burst seen with the naked eye, recorded. Terzan 7, metal-rich globular cluster, forms in the Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy  6.5 billion years (7.3 Gya): HD 10180 planetary system forms (larger than both 55 Cancri and Kepler 11 systems) 191 129  6.9 billion years (6.9 Gya): Orange Giant, Arcturus, forms  7 billion years (6.8 Gya): North Star, Polaris, one of the significant navigable stars, forms  7.64 billion years (6.16 Gya): Mu Arae planetary system forms: of four planets orbiting a yellow star, Mu Arae c is among the first terrestrial planets to be observed from Earth  7.8 billion years (6.0 Gya): Formation of Earth's near twin, Kepler 452b orbiting its parent star Kepler 452  7.98 billion years (5.82 Gya): Formation of Mira or Omicron ceti, binary star system. Formation of Alpha Centauri Star System, closest star to the Sun – formation of Alpha Centauri Bb closest planet to the Sun. GJ 1214 b, or Gliese 1214 b, potential earth-like planet, forms  8.08-8.58 billion years (5.718-5.218 Gya): Capella star system forms  8.2 billion years (5.6 Gya): Tau Ceti, nearby yellow star forms: five planets eventually evolve from its planetary nebula, orbiting the star – Tau Ceti e considered planet to have potential life since it orbits the hot inner edge of the star's habitable zone  8.5 billion years (5.3 Gya): GRB 101225A, the "Christmas Burst", considered the longest at 28 minutes, recorded  8.8 billion years (5 Gya, z=0.5): Acceleration: dark-energy dominated era begins, following the matter-dominated era during which cosmic expansion was slowing down.  8.8 billion years (5 Gya): Messier 67 open star cluster forms: Three exoplanets confirmed orbiting stars in the cluster including a twin of our Sun.  9.0 billion years (4.8 Gya): Lalande 21185, red dwarf in Ursa Major, forms.  9.13 billion years (4.67 Gya): Proxima Centauri forms completing the Alpha Centauri trinary system.  9.2 billion years (4.6–4.57 Gya): Primal supernova, possibly triggers the formation of the Solar System.  9.2318 billion years (4.5682 Gya): Sun forms - Planetary nebula begins accretion of planets.  9.23283 billion years (4.56717–4.55717 Gya): Four Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune ) evolve around the sun. 192 130 If we ascribe the ejection of the proton to a Compton recoil from a quantum of 52 × 106 electron volts, then the nitrogen recoil atom arising by a similar process should have an energy not greater than about 400,000 volts, should produce not more than about 10,000 ions, and have a range in the air at N.T.P. of about 1-3mm. Actually, some of the recoil atoms in nitrogen produce at least 30,000 ions. In collaboration with Dr. Feather, I have observed the recoil atoms in an expansion chamber, and their range, estimated visually, was sometimes as much as 3mm. at N.T.P. These results, and others I have obtained in the course of the work, are very difficult to explain on the assumption that the radiation from beryllium is a quantum radiation, if energy and momentum are to be conserved in the collisions. The difficulties disappear, however, if it be assumed that the radiation consists of particles of mass 1 and charge 0, or neutrons. The capture of the a-particle by the Be9 nucleus may be supposed to result in the formation of a C12 nucleus and the emission of the neutron. From the energy relations of this process the velocity of the neutron emitted in the forward direction may well be about 3 × 109 cm. per sec. The collisions of this neutron with the atoms through which it passes give rise to the recoil atoms, and the observed energies of the recoil atoms are in fair agreement with this view. Moreover, I have observed that the protons ejected from hydrogen by the radiation emitted in the opposite direction to that of the exciting a-particle appear to have a much smaller range than those ejected by the forward radiation. This again receives a simple explanation on the neutron hypothesis. Sir James Chadwick Letter From James Chadwick to German-British physicist Rudolf Peierls 193 July 14, 1944 Dear Peierls, I have now had talks with both Kearton and Fuchs about the future of the New York section and in particular about their own positions. As a result, Kearton will approach Keith and Benedict with the object of getting a letter by one or both of them to Groves to say that the services of Fuchs and Skyrme are no longer required. It is possible that this matter was raised by Groves on a visit to New York earlier in the week, but I have had no news from him so far. The position of Skyrme is quite clear. Bethe or Oppenheimer should write to Groves asking for his services in Y. Groves has provisionally agreed and there should be little delay over his transfer. Fuchs' future is not so clear. I gave you the gist of a cable from Akers in my letter of July 11. I did not agree with the suggestion made in this cable that Fuchs was not required in England, but I wished to discuss the question with Kearton before I made up my mind. Kearton was very strongly of the opinion that Fuchs was quite necessary in England if work on any kind of diffusion plant is to continue... I have now had a talk with Fuchs himself. He feels that he has a special contribution to make in England, whereas in Y he would be one of a number and can make no really significant difference to the work I agree completely with these views of Kearton and Fuchs, and I feel sure you also agree at least in principle. I come now to the point of this letter It would put me in a very awkward position if a request for Fuchs' services in Y were to be sent to Groves. If Groves were to agree I also should have to consent, for the consequences of refusing, on the grounds that he was needed in England for work which can have no significance for the war, might be quite serious. It would certainly cause great resentment in some quarters and our relations with the U.S. on this project would be impaired. I should attempt to justify his return as being useful for the New York project, for after his experience here he could interpret their requests and help to direct U.K. work into directions of immediate interest to them. This argument would of course not be valid if a low-separation diffucison plant were to be started in England. I therefore do not want Bethe to ask for Fuchs. Further than that, I want Bethe to say that Fuchs would not be specially useful in Y, if Groves asks if they want him, as he may. This means some 194 tactful work on your part and I hope you will be able to do what is necessary by suggestion rather than direct action. I have prepared the ground here and I think the matter can be arranged. I have stated that Fuchs could be useful in Y but that his special qualifications are not on the nuclear side but on the diffusion plant. Until I know something of what is happening in London I want to keep the New York psotion as fluid as possible. Yours sincerely, J. Chadwick I am glad that Dr. Chadwick has stuck to the view that it [the neutron] is a combination of a proton and electron. Some people have said it was a new kind of ultimate particle. It was really too much to believe—that a new ultimate particle should exist with its mass so conveniently close to that of the proton and electron combined. It was nothing but a bad joke played on its creator and on the rest of us. Still, there is no doubt this neutron business is going to have many developments. Sir Owen Willans Richardson 195  9.257 billion years (4.543–4.5 Gya): Solar System of Eight planets, four terrestrial (Mercury (planet), Venus, Earth, Mars) evolve around the sun. Because of accretion many smaller planets form orbits around the proto-Sun some with conflicting orbits – Early Bombardment Phase begins. Precambrian Supereon and Hadean eon begin on the Earth. Pre-Noachian Era begins on Mars. Pre-Tolstojan Period begins on Mercury – a large planetoid strikes Mercury stripping it of outer envelope of original crust and mantle, leaving the planet's core exposed – Mercury's iron content is notably high. Vega, fifthbrightest star in our galactic neighbourhood, forms. Many of the Galilean moons may have formed at this time including Europa and Titan which may presently be hospitable to some form of living organism.  9.266 billion years (4.533 Gya): Formation of Earth-Moon system following giant impact by hypothetical planetoid Theia (planet). Moon's gravitational pull helps stabilize Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation. Pre-Nectarian Period begins on Moon  9.271 billion years (4.529 Gya): Major collision with a pluto-sized planetoid establishes the Martian dichotomy on Mars – formation of North Polar Basin of Mars  9.3 billion years (4.5 Gya): Sun becomes a main sequence yellow star: formation of the Oort Cloud and Kuiper Belt from which a stream of comets like Halley's Comet and Hale-Bopp begins passing through the Solar System, sometimes colliding with planets and the Sun  9.396 billion years (4.404 Gya): Liquid water may have existed on the surface of the Earth, probably due to the greenhouse warming of high levels of methane and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere.  9.4 billion years (4.4 Gya): Formation of Kepler 438 b, one of the most Earth-like planets, from a protoplanetary nebula surrounding its parent star  9.5 billion years (4.3 Gya): Massive meteorite impact creates South Pole Aitken Basin on the Moon – a huge chain of mountains located on the lunar southern limb, sometimes called "Leibnitz mountains", form  9.6 billion years (4.2 Gya): Tharsis Bulge widespread area of vulcanism, becomes active on Mars – based on the intensity of volcanic activity on Earth, Tharsis magmas may have produced a 1.5-bar Carbon dioxide atmosphere and a global layer of water 120 m deep 196 131 increasing greenhouse gas effect in climate and adding to Martian water table. Age of the oldest samples from the Lunar Maria  9.7 billion years (4.1 Gya): Resonance in Jupiter and Saturn's orbits moves Neptune out into the Kuiper belt causing a disruption among asteroids and comets there. As a result, Late Heavy Bombardment batters the inner Solar System. Herschel Crater formed on Mimas (moon), a moon of Saturn. Meteorite impact creates the Hellas Planitia on Mars, the largest unambiguous structure on the planet. Anseris Mons an isolated massif (mountain) in the southern highlands of Mars, located at the northeastern edge of Hellas Planitia is uplifted in the wake of the meteorite impact  9.8 billion years (4 Gya): HD 209458 b, first planet detected through its transit, forms. Messier 85, lenticular galaxy, disrupted by galaxy interaction: complex outer structure of shells and ripples results. Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies experience close encounter – high levels of star formation in Andromeda while Triangulum's outer disc is distorted  9.861 billion years (3.938 Gya): Major period of impacts on the Moon: Mare Imbrium forms  9.88 billion years (3.92 Gya): Nectaris Basin forms from large impact event: ejecta from Nectaris forms upper part of densely cratered Lunar Highlands - Nectarian Era begins on the Moon.  9.9 billion years (3.9 Gya): Tolstoj (crater) forms on Mercury. Caloris Basin forms on Mercury leading to creation of "Weird Terraine" – seismic activity triggers volcanic activity globally on Mercury. Rembrandt (crater) formed on Mercury. Caloris Period begins on Mercury. Argyre Planitia forms from asteroid impact on Mars: surrounded by rugged massifs which form concentric and radial patterns around basin – several mountain ranges including Charitum and Nereidum Montes are uplifted in its wake.  9.95 billion years (3.85 Gya): Beginning of Late Imbrium Period on Moon. Earliest appearance of Procellarum KREEP Mg suite materials.  9.96 billion years (3.84 Gya): Formation of Orientale Basin from asteroid impact on Lunar surface – collision causes ripples in crust, resulting in three concentric circular features known as Montes Rook and Montes Cordillera 197 132  10 billion years (3.8 Gya): In the wake of Late Heavy Bombardment impacts on the Moon, large molten mare depressions dominate lunar surface – major period of Lunar vulcanism begins (to 3 Gyr). Archean eon begins on the Earth.  10.2 billion years (3.6 Gya): Alba Mons forms on Mars, largest volcano in terms of area  10.4 billion years (3.5 Gya): Earliest fossil traces of life on Earth (stromatolites)  10.6 billion years (3.2 Gya): Amazonian Period begins on Mars: Martian climate thins to its present density: groundwater stored in upper crust (megaregolith) begins to freeze, forming thick cryosphere overlying deeper zone of liquid water – dry ices composed of frozen carbon dioxide form Eratosthenian period begins on the Moon: main geologic force on the Moon becomes impact cratering  10.8 billion years (3 Gya): Beethoven Basin forms on Mercury – unlike many basins of similar size on the Moon, Beethoven is not multi ringed and ejecta buries crater rim and is barely visible  11.2 billion years (2.5 Gya): Proterozoic begins  11.6 billion years (2.2 Gya): Last great tectonic period in Martian geologic history: Valles Marineris, largest canyon complex in the Solar System, forms – although some suggestions of thermokarst activity or even water erosion, it is suggested Valles Marineris is rift fault  11.8 billion years (2 Gya): Star formation in Andromeda Galaxy slows. Formation of Hoag's Object from a galaxy collision. Olympus Mons largest volcano in the Solar System forms  12.1 billion years (1.7 Gya): Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy captured into an orbit around Milky Way Galaxy  12.7 billion years (1.1 Gya): Copernican Period begins on Moon: defined by impact craters that possess bright optically immature ray systems  12.8 billion years (1 Gya): Kuiperian Era (1 Gyr – present) begins on Mercury: modern Mercury, desolate cold planet influenced by space erosion and solar wind extremes. Interactions between Andromeda and its companion galaxies Messier 32 and Messier 110. Galaxy collision with Messier 82 forms its spiral patterned disc: galaxy interactions between NGC 3077 and Messier 81 198 133 In Flat Universe: Expansion slows until the rate approaches zero. E= m0 c2 2 √1−v2 c Tachyons (if they exist) have v > c. This means that E = m0c2 v2 √1− c2 is imaginary! Quantum Mechanics ℏ Quantum Field Theory Newtonian Quantum Gravity ℏ,c ℏ,G Quantum Gravity ℏ, c, G Special Relativity Newtonian Gravity c G General Relativity G, c 199 Special Philosophy  Metaphysics  Epistemology  Logic  Ethics General     Cosmology Theodicy Psychology Ontology Nothing happens until something moves. Albert Einstein Galilean Newtonian Relativity The basic laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames Einstein's Equivalence principle: inertial mass = gravitational mass acceleration = intensity of the gravitational field  Mach's Principle → geometry from matter  Wheeler's Geometrodynamics → matter from (pre) geometry Einstein's static universe is closed and contains a positive cosmological constant with value 4πGρ precisely Λ = 2 , where G is Newtonian gravitational constant, ρ is the energy density of the c 200 matter in the universe and c is the speed of light. The radius of curvature of space of the Einstein universe is equal to 1 √Λ = c √ 1 Planck force = ×√ 4πGρ c 4πρ If determinism — the predictability of the universe — breaks down in black holes, it could break down in other situations. Even worse, if determinism breaks down, we can’t be sure of our past history either. The history books and our memories could just be illusions. It is the past that tells us who we are. Without it, we lose our identity. Stephen Hawking Time Expanding universe We could imagine going back in time, before the Big Bang, but we encounter a singularity Big Bang Singularity The Conventional Big Bang Theory 201 Space Schwarzschild Cosmology: In this model: c = H 2GM Schwarzschild radius of c2 the observable universe de Sitter universe: Hubble radius of the observable universe E= H ∝ √Λ Planck power 2H Borde–Guth–Vilenkin theorem: spacetime had a singularity in the past Conformal cyclic cosmology: The Universe goes through infinite cycles. Each cycle begins with an event such as the Big Bang that birthed our own universe  travel with ultrarelativistic speed  neither emits nor absorbs light Hot dark matter   Relativity → deterministic explains Quantum mechanics → probabilistic   Spacetime Gravity explains   202 Atoms Nuclei The amazing thing is that every atom in your body came from a star that exploded. And, the atoms in your left hand probably came from a different star than your right hand. It really is the most poetic thing I know about physics: You are all stardust. You couldn’t be here if stars hadn’t exploded, because the elements - the carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, iron, all the things that matter for evolution - weren’t created at the beginning of time. They were created in the nuclear furnaces of stars, and the only way they could get into your body is if those stars were kind enough to explode. So, forget Jesus. The stars died so that you could be here today. Lawrence M. Krauss Scientists talk about dark matter, the invisible, mysterious substance that occupies the space between stars. Dark matter makes up 99.99 percent of the universe, and they don't know what it is. Well I do. It's apathy. That's the truth of it; pile together everything we know and care about in the universe and it will still be nothing more than a tiny speck in the middle of a vast black ocean of Who Gives a Fuck. David Wong Dirac large numbers hypothesis:  The strength of gravity, as represented by the gravitational constant, is inversely proportional to the age of the universe: G ∝ 203 1 t .  The mass of the universe is proportional to the square of the universe's age: M ∝ t2.  Physical constants are actually not constant. Their values depend on the age of the Universe. In 5 billion years, the expansion of the universe will have progressed to the point where all other galaxies will have receded beyond detection. Indeed, they will be receding faster than the speed of light, so detection will be impossible. Future civilizations will discover science and all its laws, and never know about other galaxies or the cosmic background radiation. They will inevitably come to the wrong conclusion about the universe......We live in a special time, the only time, where we can observationally verify that we live in a special time. Lawrence M. Krauss Dyson's eternal intelligence A means by which an immortal society of intelligent beings in an open universe may escape the prospect of the heat death of the universe by Eddington number → the number of protons in the observable universe extending subjective time to infinity even though expending only a finite amount of energy. 136 × 2256 ≈ 1.575 × 1079 204 Inflation The baby universe expands rapidly, smoothing out any lumps in its large-scale structure. Inflation → Expansion We are an impossibility in an impossible universe. ― Ray Bradbury Rapid inflation smoothes out any bumps Big Bang In time, small density fluctuations create the structure we see today. TIME Cyclic Universe The universe has no beginning and no end. Periodic contractions smooth out its structure. The beauty of a living thing is not the atoms that go into it, but the way those atoms are put together. Contraction → Expansion ― Carl Sagan A clumpy universe The contraction The universe In time, small contracts smoothes out any expands again fluctuations grow bumps TIME 205  13 billion years (800 Mya): Copernicus (lunar crater) forms from impact on Lunar surface in the area of Oceanus Procellarum – has terrace inner wall and 30 km wide, sloping rampart that descends nearly a kilometer to the surrounding mare  13.175 billion years (625 Mya): formation of Hyades star cluster: consists of a roughly spherical group of hundreds of stars sharing same age, place of origin, chemical content and motion through space  13.2 billion years (600 Mya): Collision of spiral galaxies leads to creation of Antenna Galaxies. Whirlpool Galaxy collides with NGC 5195 forming present connected galaxy system. HD 189733 b forms around parent star HD 189733: first planet to reveal climate, organic constituencies, even colour (blue) of its atmosphere  13.6–13.5 billion years (300-200 Mya): Sirius, the brightest star in the Earth's sky, forms.  13.795 billion years (100 Mya): Formation of Pleiades Star Cluster  13.790 billion years (20 Mya): Possible formation of Orion Nebula  13.788 billion years (12 Mya): Antares forms.  13.792 billion years (7.6 Mya): Betelgeuse forms.  13.795 billion years (4.4 Mya): Fomalhaut b, first directly imaged exoplanet, forms  13.8 billion years (Without uncertainties): Present day. Timeline of the Middle Ages 5th and 6th centuries Year c. 400 405 Date Event Significance Highland Maya fall to Begins the decline of Maya the lowland city culture and language in some parts of of Teotihuacan the highlands. St. Jerome finished The Christian Gospel is translated 206 134 410 August 24 the Vulgate. into Latin. Rome Decisive event in the decline of is sacked by Alaric, the Western Roman Empire. King of the Visigoths. 431 June 22 – July 31 Council of Ephesus Confirmed the original Nicene Creed, and condemned the teachings of Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, that led to his exile and separation with the Church of the East. 455 June 2 Rome Another decisive event in the Fall of is sacked by Genseric, Rome and held by some historians to King of the Vandals. mark the "end of the Roman Empire". 476 September 4 Odoacer deposes Considered by some historians to be the Roman the starting point of the Middle Ages. Emperor Romulus Augustulus 480 April 25 Death of Julius Nepos, Considered by some historians to be last Roman Emperor to the starting point of the Middle Ages. be recognized as such by the Roman Senate and the Eastern court c. 500 Tikal becomes the first Significant cultural exchange great Maya city between the Maya of Tikal and the citizens of Teotihuacan. 207 135 c. 500 Battle of Mons The West Saxon advance is halted Badonicus. by Britons in England. Chiefly known today for the supposed involvement of King Arthur but because of the limited number of sources, there is no certainty about the date, location, or details of the fighting. 507 Spring The Franks under Clovi The Visigoths retreated into Spain. s defeat the Visigoths in the Battle of Vouillé. c. 524 Boethius writes It has been described as the single his Consolation of most important and influential work Philosophy in the West on Medieval and early Renaissance Christianity. 525 Dionysius This initiated the Anno Domini era, Exiguus publishes used for the Gregorian and Julian the Dionysius Exiguus' calendars. Easter table. 527 August 1 Justinian Justinian is best remembered for his I becomes Eastern Code of Civil Law (529), and Roman Emperor. expansion of imperial territory retaking Rome from the Ostrogoths. 529–534 Justinian I publishes This compiled centuries of legal the Code of Civil Law. writings and imperial pronouncements into three parts of one body of law. 208 136 529 532 January 1 Benedict of The first of twelve monasteries Nursia founds founded by Saint Benedict, monastery at Monte beginning the Order of Saint Cassino. Benedict. Nika riots in Nearly half the city being burned or Constantinople. destroyed and tens of thousands of people killed. 533 December 15 Byzantines, Vandal kingdom ends and the under Belisarius, retake Reconquest of North Africa is North Africa from completed. the Vandals. 535–554 563 Gothic War in Italy as a Byzantines retook Italy but crippled part the Byzantine economy and left Italy of Justinian's Reconque unable to cope against the st. oncoming Lombards. Saint Columba founds Constructed an abbey which helped mission in Iona. convert the Picts to Christianity until it was destroyed and raided by the Vikings in 794. 568 c. 570 The Kingdom of the Survived in Italy until the invasion of Lombards is founded in the Franks in 774 Italy. under Charlemagne. Muhammad is born. Professed receiving revelations from a god, which were recorded in the Quran, the basis of Islamic theology, in which he is regarded as the last of the sent prophets. 209 137 577 The West Saxons Led to the permanent separation continue their advance of Cornwall, England from Wales. at the Battle of Deorham. 581–618 March 4 – May 23 Sui dynasty in China. China unified once again during this period for the first time in almost 400 years. 590 September 3 Gregory the The missionary work reached new Great becomes Pope. levels during his pontificate, revolutionized the way of worship for the Catholic Church (Gregorian chant), liturgy, etc., and was soon canonized after his death. 597 598–668 Augustine arrives Christianization of England (Anglo- in Kent. Saxons) begins. Massive Chinese Contributed to the fall of the Sui (Sui and Tang) dynasty, and Goguryeo fell under the invasions forces of the Tang and Silla. against Korean Gogurye o. c. 600 Deliberate fires set for Destroys the Teotihuacan civilization unknown reasons and empire. Tikal is now the destroy major buildings largest city-state in Mesoamerica. in Teotihuacan. 7th century 210 138 Year Date 602–629 Event Significance Last great Roman– Long conflict leaves both empires Persian War. exhausted and unable to cope with the newly united Arab armies under Islam in the 630s 604–609 Grand Canal in China Its main role throughout its is fully completed history was the transport of grain to the capital. 618–907 June 18 – June 1 Tang dynasty in China. The essential administrative system of this dynasty lasts for 286 years. 622 9 September – 23 September 626 627 December 12 Muhammad migrates Event will have designated first from Mecca to year of the Islamic calendar, Medina. as Anno Hegirae. Joint Persian–Avar– Constantinople saved, Avar Slav Siege of power broken and Persians Constantinople henceforth on the defensive Battle of Nineveh. The Byzantines, under Heraclius, crush the Persians. 632 June 8 Death of Muhammad By this point, all of Arabia is Muslim. 632–668 Establishment and The demise of Old Great expansion of Old Great Bulgaria lead to the founding of Bulgaria. the First Bulgarian Empire and Volga Bulgaria by 211 139 the sons of Kubrat. 632 June 8 Accession of Abu Though the period of his Bakr as first Caliph. caliphate was not long, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time. 633–634 Battle of Heavenfield. Northumbrian army under Oswald defeat Welsh army. 638 Jerusalem captured by the Arab army, mostly Muslims, but with contingents of Syrian Christians. 641 Battle of Nahavand. Muslims conquer Persia. 643 Arab Army led by Amr ibn alAs takes Alexandria. 645 In Japan, the Soga This initiates a period of imitation clan falls. of Chinese culture, The Nara period begins a year later. 650 Slav occupation of Balkans complete. c. 650 The city- Becomes an important cultural state Xochicalco is 212 140 founded by the and commercial center. Olmeca–Xicallanca. 663 Synod of Whitby. Roman Christianity triumphs over Celtic Christianity in England. 668 674–678 End of the Three Established a Unified Silla which Kingdoms period led to the North–South States in Korea. Period 30 years later. First Arab siege of First time Islamic armies Constantinople. defeated, forestalling Islamic conquest of Europe. 681 Establishment of A country with great influence in the Bulgarian Empire. the European history in the Middle Ages. 685 687 Battle of Dun Picts defeat Northumbrians, Nechtain. whose dominance ends. Battle of Tertry Established Pepin of Herstal as mayor over the entire realms of Neustria and Austrasia, which further dwindled Merovingian power. 698 698 Arab army End of Byzantine rule in North takes Carthage. Africa North–South States Silla and Balhae coexisted in the Period begins south and north of the peninsula, 213 141 in Korea. respectively, until 926 8th century Year Date 711 Event Significance Umayyad conquest of Will begin a period of Muslim rule Hispania under Tarik. within in the Al-Andalus (with various portions of Iberian peninsula) until nearly the end of the Fifteenth Century. 718 726 Second Arab The combined Byzantine– attack on Constantinople, Bulgarian forces stop the Arab threat ending in failure. in Southeastern Europe. Iconoclast movement begun in the Byzantine Empire under Leo III. This was opposed by Pope Gregory II, and an important difference between the Roman and Byzantine churches. 732 October Battle of Tours. Charles Significant moment that led to the Martel halts Muslim advance. forming of the Carolingian Empire for the Franks, and halted the advancement of the Moors in southwestern Europe. 735 26 May Death of Bede. Bede was later regarded as "the father of English history" 214 142 750 25 January Beginning of Abbasid Would become the longest lasting Caliphate. caliphate, until 1519 when conquered and annexed into the Ottoman Empire. 751 Pepin the Short founds the Carolingian dynasty. 754 Pepin promises the Pope central Italy. This is arguably the beginning of the temporal power of the Papacy. 768 Beginning of Charlemagne's reign. 778 15 August Battle of Roncevaux Pass. 786 14 September Accession of Harun alRashid to the Caliphate in Baghdad. 793 Sack of Generally considered the beginning Lindisfarne. Viking attacks on of the Viking Age that would span Britain begin. over two centuries, and reach as far south as Hispania and as far east as the Byzantine Empire, and present day Russia. 794 Heian period in Japan. Considered to be the last classical period of History of Japan. Chinese influence was at its strongest during this era in Japan. 215 143 795 29 July Death of Offa. Marks the end of Mercian dominance in England. 800 25 December Charlemagne is crowned Holy With his Roman Emperor. crowning, Charlemagne's kingdom is officially recognized by the Papacy as the largest in Europe since the fall of the Roman Empire. 800 Gunpowder is invented in China (somewhere around 9th century) 9th century Year 814 Date 28 January Event Significance Death of Charlemagne. Would be a factor towards the splitting of his empire almost 30 years later. 820 Algebrae et Alumcabola Muhammad ibn Musa- al-Khwarizmi Algorithm 825 827 Battle of Ellandun. Egbert Wessex becomes the leading kingdom defeats Mercians. of England. Muslims invade Sicily. First encounter of attempts to conquer Byzantine Sicily, until the last Byzantine outpost was conquered in 965. 840 Muslims capture Bari and much of southern Italy. 216 144 843 Division of Charlemagne's Sets the stage for the founding of Empire between his the Holy Roman Empire and France as grandsons with the Treaty separate states. of Verdun. 843 Kenneth McAlpin becomes king of the Picts and Scots, creating the Kingdom of Alba. 862 Viking state in Russia founded under Rurik, first at Novgorod, then Kiev. 864 Christianization of Bulgaria. 866 Fujiwara period in Japan. Would become the most powerful clan during the Heian period in Japan for around three centuries. 866 868 Viking Great Army arrives Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia in England. were overwhelmed. Earliest known printed book in China with a date. 871 Alfred the Great assumes He defended England the throne, the first king of from Viking invaders, formed new a united England. laws and fostered a rebirth of religious and scholarly activities. c. 872 Harold Fairhair becomes 217 145 King of Norway. 874 Iceland is settled by Norsemen. 882 Kievan Rus' is established. Would be sustained until the Mongol invasion of Rus' over four and a half centuries, despite peaking during the middle 11th century during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise. 885 Arrival of the disciples Creation of the Cyrillic script; in the of Saints Cyril and following decades the country became Methodius in Bulgaria the cultural and spiritual centre of the whole Eastern Orthodox part of the Slavic World. 885–886 Vikings attack Paris. 893 Emperor Simeon Golden age of the First Bulgarian I becomes ruler of the First Empire (896–927). The Cyrillic Bulgarian Empire in alphabet was developed in the Preslav the Balkans. Literary School and Ohrid Literary School. 896 Arpad and the Magyars are present in Pannonia. 899 c. 900 27 October Death of Alfred the Great. Lowland Maya cities in the Signifies the end of the Classic Period south collapse. of Maya history. The Maya in northern Yucatán continue to thrive. 218 146 I hope that in due time the chemists will justify their proceedings by some large generalizations deduced from the infinity of results which they have collected. For me I am left hopelessly behind and I will acknowledge to you that through my bad memory organic chemistry is to me a sealed book. Some of those here, Hofmann for instance, consider all this however as scaffolding, which will disappear when the structure is built. I hope the structure will be worthy of the labour. I should expect a better and a quicker result from the study of the powers of matter, but then I have a predilection that way and am probably prejudiced in judgment. Michael Faraday Letter From German mathematician Julius Plücker to Michael Faraday Dear Sir! I feel myself very much obliged to you for having proposed me a member of the Royal Institution, and find no words to express my thanks in a proper way; but believe me Sir the kindness you showed to me on several occasions gave to me the greatest satisfaction I ever felt in my scientific career. Permit me to offer to you a "Resume" of all my researches on Magnetism till July 1849. Since my last letter I had scarcely any time to continue them. I found only crystals of Oxide of Tin showing a very strong magnetic polarity in the direction of their single axis; they were directed very well by the Earth. Then I examined most attentively the sulfate of iron. The line attracted by the poles of the Magnet is not 219 perpendicular to the cleavage planes but makes with them an angle of 75˚. According to that you will observe that a piece of such a crystal, bounded by cleavage planes, points differently, when turned round its magnecrystallic axis, this axis being always horizontal. The difference is measured by an angle of 15˚ on both sides. The line attracted by the poles is one of the mid[d]le lines between the optic axes (which include an angle of 90˚), the other one being not at all affected by the Magnet. In this (exceptional) case the resulting effect can’t be deduced from the attraction of both the optic axes. Therefore I inquired, if the action may directly depend on the distribution of the Ether within the crystals, all the lines of less elasticity being attracted, the lines of greater elasticity repelled by the poles. But this law does not hold. Therefore new investigations only may give the true and complete law of nature. I cut out of a very nice crystal of sulphate of iron a cube, two surfaces of which were perpendicular to the mid[d]le line attracted by the poles. By a sensible balance I found no difference in the magnetic attraction whatever a surface might be put on the approached poles of the Magnet. This result, fully according to your experiments, appears to me very strange: the directing power of the mid[d]le line being in this case so very strong. These last days I tried again to prove that there is a diamagnetic polarity. The mutual action between magnetized iron being many thousand times stronger than that of magnetized iron on diamagnetic bismuth, you may never expect to see any mutual action between two pieces of demagnetized bismuth. Such an action must be many - many million times weaker. But if you give to a piece of bismuth being acted upon by a magnet and suspended within a copper wire, by means of a current sent t[h]rough this wire alternately in opposite direction[s], a new diamagnetic polarity, the repulsion may be altered in the ratio of the intensity of the diamagnetic polarity, given to the bismuth by the Magnet, to [sic] the intensity of that polarity, altered by the current. I[n] this way I succeeded to show by means of the balance that a cylindre of bismuth obtained by the wire a magnetic polarity opposite to that which a magnetic body would obtain under the same conditions. But the action is very weak and I must before I may pronounce on this important point, repeat the same experiment in a varied way. Being elected by the University of Bonn a deputy to the deliberations on the Universities’ reform, which will take place at Berlin by order of the Prussian government in the month of September; I am not able to accept the kind invitation from Birmingham. But I hope it is not the last time I crossed the Channel. I had the pleasure to see Prof. Wheatstone here at Bonn, and was exceedingly glad to learn from him, you were now of very good health. Most truly | Yours | Plücker 220 The beauty of electricity or of any other force is not that the power is mysterious, and unexpected, touching every sense at unawares in turn, but that it is under the law, and that the taught intellect can even govern it largely. Michael Faraday With all reserve we advance the view that a supernova represents the transition of an ordinary star into a neutron star consisting mainly of neutrons. Such a star may possess a very small radius and an extremely high density. As neutrons can be packed much more closely than ordinary nuclei and electrons, the gravitational packing energy in a cold neutron star may become very large, and under certain conditions may far exceed the ordinary nuclear packing fractions... Fritz Zwicky With the neutron bomb, which destroys life but not property, capitalism has found the weapon of its dreams. Edward Abbey 221 10th century Year 907 Date Event Significance Tang Dynasty ends with Emperor The Five Dynasties and Ten Ai deposed. Kingdoms period in China commences. 910 King Edward the Elder of England, son of King Alfred, defeats the Northumbrian Vikings at the Battle of Tettenhall; they never raid south of the River Humber again. 910 Cluny Abbey is founded by William Cluny goes on to become the I, Count of Auvergne. acknowledged leader of Western Monasticism. Cluniac Reforms initiated with the abbey's founding. 911 The Viking Rollo and his tribe settle in what is now Normandy by the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-surEpte, founding the Duchy of Normandy. 913 Sri Kesari Warmadewa reigned in Walidwipa (Bali) 917 919 Battle of Anchialus. Simeon I the Recognition of the Imperial Title Great defeats the Byzantines. of the Bulgarian rulers. Henry the Fowler, Duke of Henry I considered the founder Saxony elected German King. First and first king of the medieval 222 147 925 927 king of the Ottonian Dynasty. German state. The first King of Croatia (rex Tomislav united Croats of Croatorum), Tomislav (910–928) of Dalmatia and Pannonia into a the Trpimirović dynasty was single Kingdom, and created a crowned. sizeable state. King Aethelstan the Glorious unites the heptarchy of The AngloSaxon nations of Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Kent, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria foun ding the Kingdom of England. 927 According to Theophanes Bulgarian expansion to the west Continuatus (The Continuer of was stopped. Theophanes's Chronicle) – Tomislav of Croatia defeated Bulgarian army of Tsar Simeon I under Duke Alogobotur, in battle of the Bosnian Highlands. 927 Death of Simeon I the Great. Recognition of the Bulgarian Patriarchate, the first independent National Church in Europe. 929 Abd-ar-Rahman III of Beginning of the Caliphate of the Umayyad dynasty in al- Córdoba (929–1031). Andalus (part of the Iberian peninsula) takes the title of Caliph or ruler of the Islamic world. 223 148 936 Wang Geon unified Later Three Kingdoms of Korea. 938 955 c.960 Ngo Quyen won the battle of Bach This event marked the Dang against Chinese Southern Han independence of Vietnam after army. 1000 years under Chinese colony. Battle of Lechfeld. Otto the Great, son This is the defining event that of Henry the Fowler, defeats prevents the Hungarians from the Magyars. entering Central Europe. Mieszko I becomes duke of Polans. First historical ruler of Poland and de facto founder of the Polish State. 960 Song Dynasty begins after Emperor A 319-year period of Song rule of Taizu usurps the throne from (Northern & Southern combined) the Later Zhou, last of the Five goes underway. Dynasties. 962 963–964 Otto the Great crowned the Holy First to be crowned Holy Roman Roman Emperor. Emperor in nearly 40 years. Otto deposes Pope John XII who is Citizens of Rome promise not to replaced with Pope Leo VIII. elect another Pope without Imperial approval. 965–967 Mieszko I of Poland and his court embrace Christianity, which becomes national religion. 969 John I Tzimiskes and Nikephoros II are executed. 224 149 Sultane of Rums are proclaimed. 976 Death of John I Tzimiskes; Basil Under Basil II zenith of the II (his co-emperor) takes sole power. power of Eastern Empire after Justinian. 978 Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Peak of power of Moorish Iberia Aamir becomes de facto ruler of under "Almanzor". Muslim Al-Andalus. 981 Basil II (called "Bulgar Slayer") Conquest finished by 1018. begins final conquest of Bulgaria by Eastern Empire. 985 Eric the Red, exiled from Iceland, begins Scandinavian colonization of Greenland. 987 Succession of Hugh Capet to the Beginning of Capetian Dynasty. French Throne. 988 Volodymyr I of Kiev embraces Christianity, which becomes national religion. 989 Peace and Truce of God formed. The first movement of the Catholic Church using spiritual means to limit private war, and the first movement in medieval Europe to control society through non-violent means. 225 150 11th century Year Date Event Significance c. Leif Erikson is to settle during the winter Ericson is to be the first European to 1001 in present-day Canada at L'Anse aux settle in the Americas during Meadows. the Norse exploration of the Americas. 1016 1018 1021 Canute the Great becomes King Danes become kings of England for of England after the death of Edmund the next 26 years before the last rise Ironside, with whom he shared the of the Anglo-Saxons before English throne. the Norman Conquest. The Byzantines under Basil II conquer Concludes the Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria after a bitter 50-years struggle. Bulgaria. The Tale of Genji, written by Murasaki It is sometimes called the world's Shikibu, is completed sometime before first novel, the first modern novel, the this date. first psychological novel or the first novel still to be considered a classic. 1025 The Canon of Medicine Persian Avicenna set standard medical textbook through 18th century in Europe 1037 The Great Seljuk Empire is founded Would be a major force during the by Tughril Beg. first two Crusades, and an antagonist to the Byzantine Empire over the next century. 1049 Pope Leo IX ascends to the papal throne. Leo IX was the pope that excommunicated Patriarch of Constantinople, Michael 226 151 Cerularius (who also excommunicated Leo), which caused the Great Schism. 1050 The astrolabe, an ancient tool of Early tool of marine navigators, navigation, is first used in Europe. astrologers, astronomers. 1050 Westminster Abbey Edward the Confessor 1054 The East-West Schism which divided the Tensions will vary between the church into Western Catholic and Orthodox churches Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. throughout the Middle Ages. William the Conqueror, Duke of End of Anglo-Saxon rule in England Normandy, invades England and and start of Norman lineage. 1066 becomes King after the Battle of Hastings. 1067 Pope Gregory VII elevated to the papal This begins a period of church reform. throne. 1071 The Seljuks under Alp Arslan defeat Beginning of the end of Byzantine the Byzantine army at Manzikert. rule in Asia Minor. The Normans capture Bari, the last Byzantine possession in southern Italy. 1075 Dictatus Papae in which Pope Gregory Peak of the Gregorian Reform, and an VII defines the powers of the pope. immense factor in the Investiture Controversy. 1077 Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV walks This helps establish Papal rule over to Canossa where he stands barefoot in European heads of state for another the snow to beg forgiveness of the Pope 450 years. for his offences, and admitting defeat in 227 152 the Investiture Controversy. 1077 1086 The Construction of the Tower of The tower of London was the ultimate London begins. keep of the British Empire. The compilation of the Domesday Book, This is the first such undertaking a great land and property survey since Roman times. commissioned by William the Conqueror to assess his new possessions. 1088 University of Bologna is formed. It is the oldest university in Europe. 1095 Pope Urban issues the Crusades to This would be the first of 9 Major capture the Holy Land, and to repel Crusades, and a number of other the Seljuk Turks from the Byzantine crusades that would spread into the Empire from Alexios I Komnenos. late 13th century. The Cistercian Order is founded. Was a return to the original 1098 observance of the Rule of St. Benedict. 1099 First Crusade. Jerusalem is re-taken from This would lead to the beginning of the Muslims on the urging of Pope Urban the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which II. would last for nearly two centuries; within the era of the Crusades to the Holy Land. 12th century Year 1100 Date Event Latin-translation of the great masters of Arabic 228 153 Significance Constantine the African medicine: Rhazes, Ishaq Ibn Imran, Ibn Suleiman, and Ibn al-Jazzar 1102 Kingdom of Medieval Hungary and Croatia Croatia and Kingdom of were (in terms of public Hungary formed international law) allied by a personal union of two means of personal union until kingdoms united under the 1526. Although, HungarianHungarian king. The act Croatian state existed until the of union was deal beginning of the 20th century with Pacta conventa, by and the Treaty of Trianon. which institutions of separate Croatian statehood were maintained through the Sabor (an assembly of Croatian nobles) and the ban (viceroy). In addition, the Croatian nobles retained their lands and titles. 1102 Synods of Westminster End of simony, clerical marriages, slavery under Anselm of Canterbury 1106 28 September Henry I of This victory made a later England defeats his older struggle between England and brother Robert Curthose, the rising Capetian power in duke of Normandy, at France inevitable. the Battle of Tinchebrai, 229 154 and imprisons him in Devizes castle; Edgar Atheling and William Clito are also taken prisoner. 1107 Through the Compromise This compromise removed one of 1107, suggested of the points of friction between by Adela, the sister the English monarchy and the of King Henry, the Catholic Church. Investiture Struggle in England is ended. 1109 In the Battle Polish access to the sea is re- of Naklo, Boleslaus III established. Wrymouth defeats the Pomeranians. 1109 24 August In the Battle of German expansion to the centre Hundsfeld, Boleslaus III of Europe is stopped. Wrymouth defeats Emperor Henry V. 1116 1117 1118 The Byzantine army The Turks abandon the entire defeats the Turks coastal area of Anatolia and all at Philomelion. of western Anatolia The University of It is the oldest university in Oxford is founded. the United Kingdom. The Knights Templar are Becomes the most recognizable, founded to protect and impactful military Jerusalem and European orders during the Crusades. 230 155 pilgrims on their journey to the city. 1121 25 December St. Norbert and 29 This order played a significant companions make their role in evangelizing the Slavs, solemn vows marking the the Wends, to the east of beginning of the Holy Roman Empire. the Premonstratensian Ord er. 1122 1123 23 September 18 March - 27 March The Concordat of This concordat ended the Worms was drawn up investiture struggle, but bitter between Emperor Henry rivalry between emperor and V and Pope Calixtus II. pope remained. The First Lateran Council followed and confirmed the Concordat of Worms. 1125 School of Glossators Irnerius 1125 Lothair of Supplinburg, This election marks the duke of Saxony, is beginning of the great struggle elected Holy Roman between the Guelfs and Emperor instead of the the Ghibellines. nearest heir, Frederick of Swabia. 1125– Jingkang Incident 1127 The Jurchen soldiers sack Kaifeng, bringing an end to the Northern Song Dynasty in China; the Song moves further 231 156 south and makes Lin'an their new capital. 1130 25 December Roger II is crowned King This coronation marks the of Sicily, a Royal title beginning of the Kingdom of given him by Sicily and its Mediterranean the Antipope Anacletus II. empire under the Norman kings, which was able to take on the Holy Roman Empire, the Papacy, and the Byzantine Empire. 1130 Sic et Non Peter Abelard 1135 The Anarchy begins in This will mark a 19-year period England. of Government strife and Civil War between the supporters of Stephen and Matilda, and end with the crowning of Matilda's son, Henry II, and beginning the Plantagenet dynasty. 1139 April The Second Lateran Enforces the major reforms Council declared clerical that Gregory VII began to marriages invalid, heavily campaign for several regulated clerical dress, decades earlier. and punished attacks on clerics by excommunication. 1140 Decretum Gratian 1144 Rebuild of Basilica of Suger 232 157 Saint Denis 1147– The Second Crusade was This was the first Crusade to 1149 in retaliation for the fall have been led by European of Edessa, one of the kings. first Crusader States founded in the First Crusade. It was an overall failure. 1150 Ramon Berenguer IV, This marriage gave the Count of Barcelona, Kingdom of Aragon access to married Queen Petronilla the Mediterranean Sea, creating of Aragon. They had been a powerful kingdom which betrothed in 1137. expanded to control many of the Mediterranean lands. 1150 Founding of the University of Paris 1152 The Synod of Kells- This synod marks the inclusion Mellifont established the of the Irish Church into present diocesan system mainstream European of Ireland (with later Catholicism. modifications) and recognized the primacy of Armagh. 1154 Common Law Henry II 1158 The Hanseatic League is This marks a new period of founded. trade and economic development for northern and 233 158 central Europe. 1163 The first cornerstone is laid for the construction of Notre Dame de Paris. 1166 Stefan Nemanja united This marks the rise Serbian territories, of Serbia which will dominate establishing the Medieval the Balkans for the next three Serbian state. hundred years. Allies of Serbia at this moment become the Hungarian Kingdom and the Republic of Venice. 1171 King Henry II of With his landing, Henry begins England lands in Ireland the English claim to and to assert his supremacy occupation of Ireland which and the Synod of Cashel would last some seven and a acknowledges his half centuries. sovereignty. 1174 7/12 King William I of This is the beginning of the Scotland, captured in gradual acquisition of Scotland the Battle of Alnwick by by the English. the English, accepts the feudal lordship of the English crown and does ceremonial allegiance at York. 1175 Hōnen Shōnin (Genkū) This event marks the beginning founds the Jōdo shū (Pure of the Buddhist sectarian 234 159 1176 5/29 Land) sect of Buddhism. movement in Japan. At the Battle of Legnano, This is the first major defeat of the cavalry of Frederick cavalry by infantry, signaling Barbarossa is defeated by the new role of the bourgeoisie. the infantry of the Lombard League. 1175 Latin-translation Gerard of Cremona 1179 church schools Third Council of the Lateran 1179 March The Third Lateran Council limits papal electees to the cardinals alone, condemns simony, and forbids the promotion of anyone to the episcopate before the age of thirty. 1183 1183 The final Peace of The various articles of the treaty Constance between Freder destroyed the unity of the ick Barbarossa, the pope, Empire and Germany and Italy and the Lombard towns is underwent separate signed. developments. The Taira clan are driven The two-year conflict which out follows ends at the Battle of of Kyōto by Minamoto Yo Dan no Ura (1185). shinaka. 1184 November Pope Lucius III issues the papal bull Ad 235 160 This bull set up the organization Abolendam. 1185 of the medieval inquisitions. Windmills are first recorded. 1185 Uprising of Asen and Peter. The reestablishment of the Bulgarian Empire. 1185 At the Battle of Dan no The elimination of the Taira Ura, Minamoto Yoshitsun leaves the Minamoto the virtual e annihilates rulers of Japan and marks the the Taira clan. beginning of the first period of feudal rule known as the Kamakura Period. 1186 1/27 1187 1188 1189 July 6 The future emperor Henry This marriage shifts the focus of VI marries Constance of the Guelphs/Ghibelline struggle Sicily, heiress to to Sicily and marks the ruin of the Sicilian throne. the House of Hohenstaufen. Saladin recaptures Would lead to the Third Jerusalem. Crusade. Tractatus of Glanvil Oxford University Richard I ascends the His heavy taxation to finance throne of England. his European ventures created an antipathy of barons and people toward the crown, but his being absent enabled the English to advance in their political development. 236 161 1189– The Third Despite managing to win 1192 Crusade follows several major battles, the upon Saladin's uniting the Crusaders did not recapture Muslim world and Jerusalem. recapturing Jerusalem. 1192 1193 Minamoto no Yoritomo is He is the first of a long line of appointed Sei-i military dictators to bear this Taishōgun, or shōgun for title. The institution would last short. until 1913. Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar This is the beginning of the Khilji sack and burn the decline of Buddhism in India. university at Nalanda. 1193 The first known merchant guild. 1195 1199 Battle of Alarcos The The Almohads pushed Almohad Caliphate Christians to the north and decisively defeat the stablished themselves as the Kingdom of Castile. supreme power in Al-Andalus Europeans first use compasses. 13th century Year 1202 Date Event Significance The Fourth Siege of Zara was the first Crusade sacked Croatian town major Crusade's action and of Zadar (Italian: Zara), a rival the first attack against a 237 162 of Venice. Unable to raise enough Catholic city by Catholic funds to pay to crusaders. their Venetian contractors, the crusaders agreed to sack the city despite letters from Pope Innocent III forbidding such an action and threatening excommunication. 1204 Sack of Constantinople during Considered to be the the Fourth Crusade. beginning of the decline of the Byzantine Empire. 1205 Battle of Adrianople. The Beginning of the decline of Bulgarians under the Latin Empire. Emperor Kaloyan defeat Baldwin I. 1206 Genghis Khan was elected The Mongols would conquer as Khagan of the Mongols and much of Eurasia, changing the Mongol Empire was former political borders. established. 1208 Pope Innocent III calls for the Albigensian Crusade which seeks to destroy a rival form of Christianity practiced by the Cathars. 1209 The University of Cambridge is founded. 1209 Founding of the Franciscan Order. One of the more significant orders in the Roman Catholic church, founded 238 163 by Saint Francis of Assisi. 1212 1215 15 June Spanish Christians succeed in By 1238, only the small defeating the Moors in the southern Emirate of long Reconquista campaigns, after Granada remained the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. under Muslim control. The Magna Carta is sealed by John This marks one of the first of England. times a medieval ruler is forced to accept limits on his power. 1215 Fourth Lateran Council. Dealt with transubstantiation, papal primacy and conduct of clergy. Proclaimed that Jews and Muslims should wear identification marks to distinguish them from Christians. 1216 Papal recognition of the Dominican Order. 1219 Serbian Orthodox Church becomes autocephalous und er St. Sava, its first Archbishop. 1227 18 August Genghis Khan dies. His kingdom is divided among his children and grandchildren: Empire of the Great Khan, Chagatai Khanate, Mongolian Homeland, and the Blue Horde and White 239 164 Horde (which would later become the Golden Horde). 1237– Mongol invasion of Rus' resumes. 1240 Causes the split of Kievan Rus' into three components (present day Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, greatly effects various regions of raided lands in other parts of Europe; Golden Horde formed. 1257 Opening of the College of Sorbonne. 1257 Provisions of Oxford forced This establishes a new form upon Henry III of England. of government-limited regal authority. 1258 29 January – 10 Siege of Baghdad February Mongols (the Ilkhanate) ensure control of the region; Generally considered the end of the Islamic Golden Age. 1258 The first Mongol invasion of The Mongol army was Vietnam defeated by emperor Tran Thai Tong of Đại Việt 1272– The Ninth Crusade occurs. 73 Considered to be the Last Major Crusade to take place in the Holy Land. 240 165 1273 29 September Rudolph I of Germany is elected This begins the Habsburg de Holy Roman Emperor. facto domination of the crown that lasted until is dissolution in 1806. 1274 Thomas Aquinas' work, Summa Is the main staple of theology Theologica is published, after his during the Middle Ages. death. 1279 19 March Battle of Yamen. Marks the end of the Song Dynasty in China, and all of China is under the rule of Kublai Khan as the emperor. 1282 Sicilian Vespers. Sicilians Would mark a two decade massacre Angevins over a six-week period of war, and peace period, after a Frenchman harassed treaties mainly a woman. between Aragon, Sicily, and the Angevins. 1283 First regulated Catalan Courts. Presided by king Peter III of Aragon for the whole Principality of Catalonia, it became in one of the first parliamentary bodies that banned the royal power to create legislation unilaterally. 1285 The second Mongol invasion of The Mongol army was Vietnam defeated by emperor Tran Nhan Tong and general Tran 241 166 Hung Dao. 1287 The third Mongol invasion of Decisive Vietnam victory. To Vietnam avoid further conflict, Đại Việt agreed to a tributary relationship with the Yuan dynasty 1296 Edward I of England invades Scotland, starting the First War of Scottish Independence. 1297 11 September The Battle of Stirling Bridge. William Wallace emerges as the leader of the Scottish resistance to England. 1298 Marco Polo publishes his tales of A key step to the bridging of China, along with Rustichello da Asia and Europe in trade. Pisa. 1299 27 July The Ottoman Empire is founded Becomes longest lasting by Osman I. Islamic Empire, lasting over 600 years into the 20th century. 14th century Year Date 1305 Wednesday August 23 Event William Wallace is 242 167 Significance executed for treason. 1307 Friday, October 13th The Knights Templar are Hastens the demise of the rounded up and murdered order within a decade. by Philip the Fair of France, with the backing of the Pope. 1307 1310 Beginning of Begins a period of over seven the Babylonian Captivity decades of the Papacy outside of the Papacy during which of Rome that would be one of the Popes moved the major factors of to Avignon. the Western Schism. Dante publishes his Divine Is one of the most defining Comedy. works of literature during the Late Middle Ages, and among the most recognizable in all of literature. 1314 23–24 June Battle of Bannockburn. Robert the Bruce restores Scotland's de facto independence. 1325 The Mexica found the city This would later be the of Tenochtitlan. epicenter and capital of the Aztec Empire until the Siege of Tenochtitlan 200 years later. 1328 The First War of Scottish Independence ends in Scottish victory with 243 168 The World's 10 Oldest Ancient Civilizations  Mesopotamian Civilization Era: 3500 BC–500 BC Location: Ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) Notable Achievements: Invention of the wheel It is childish to assume that science began in Greece; the Greek "miracle" was prepared by millenia of work in Egypt, Mesopotamia and possibly in other regions. Greek science was less an invention than a revival. George Sarton  Indus Valley Civilization Era: 3300 BC–1900 BC Location: South Asia (modern-day Pakistan and northwest India) Notable Achievements: The first people to domesticate Cotton 244 By the fourth millennium BC, the Fertile Crescent was not the only region of coalesced communities; organized agricultural, military, religious, and administrative activity had also begun to appear in the Indus Valley, in what is now Pakistan. Even before written records, there is evidence of trade between these two regions. Archaeologists have discovered lamps and cups in Mesopotamia dating from the late fourth millennium BC and made from conch shells found only in the Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Oman. William J. Bernstein  Egyptian Civilization Era: 3150 BC–30 BC Location: Nile River Valley of Egypt Notable Achievements: The Great Pyramids Less than 1 percent of ancient Egypt has been discovered and excavated. With population pressures, urbanization, and modernization encroaching, we're in a race against time. Why not use the most advanced tools we have to map, quantify, and protect our past? Sarah Parcak 245  Mayan Civilization Era: 2600 BC–900 AD Location: Central America Notable Achievements: science of astronomy, calendar systems and hieroglyphic writing Evidence indicates that cats were first tamed in Egypt. The Egyptians stored grain, which attracted rodents, which attracted cats. (No evidence that such a thing happened with the Mayans, though a number of wild cats are native to the area.) I don't think this is accurate. It is certainly not the whole story. Cats didn't start as mousers. Weasels and snakes and dogs are more efficient as rodent-control agents. I postulate that cats started as psychic companions, as Familiars, and have never deviated from this function. William S. Burroughs  Chinese Civilization Era: 1600 BC–1046 BC Location: Yellow River region of northern China Notable Achievements: Invention of paper and silk 246 If you look at ancient Chinese culture, and depictions of it, the relationship between people and nature was very different. It almost felt as though feelings were always attached to a certain landscape. Jia Zhangke The Chinese culture belongs not only to the Chinese but also to the whole world. Hu Jintao  Greek Civilization Era: 2700 BC– 479 BC Location: Greece Notable Achievements: Concepts of democracy and the Senate, the Olympics Greek customs such as wine drinking were regarded as worthy of imitation by other cultures. So the ships that carried Greek wine were carrying Greek civilization, distributing it around the Mediterranean and beyond, one amphora at a time. Wine displaced beer to become the most civilized and sophisticated of drinks-a status it has maintained ever since, thanks to its association with the intellectual achievements of Ancient Greece. Tom Standage 247  Persian Civilization Era: 550 BC – 331 BC Location: Modern-day Iran Notable Achievements: The world's first postal service What has history said of eminence without honor, wealth without wisdom, power and possessions without principle? The answer is reiterated in the overthrow of the mightiest empires of ancient times. Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome! The four successive, universal powers of the past. What and where are they? Orson F. Whitney  Roman Civilization Era: 550 BC– 465 AD Location: Rome Notable Achievements: Roman Numerals I have a long view of history - my orientation is archaeological because I'm always thinking in terms of ancient Greece and Rome, ancient Persia and Egypt. Camille Paglia 248  Aztec Civilization Era: 1345 AD –1521 AD Location: Mexico Notable Achievements: Floating Gardens The Sun Stone, the famous Aztec calendar, is unquestionably a perfect summary of science, philosophy, art and religion. Samael Aun Weor Everything that is really Mexican is either Aztec or Spanish. Edward Burnett Tylor  Incan Civilization Era: 1438 AD–1532 AD Location: modern-day southern Peru Notable Achievements: Machu Picchu (one of the New 7 Wonders of the Modern World) 249 "Your emperor may be a great prince; I do not doubt it, seeing that he has sent his subjects so far across the waters; and I am willing to treat him as a brother. As for your pope of whom you speak, he must be mad to speak of giving away countries that do not belong to him. As for my faith, I will not change it. Your own God, as you tell me, was put to death by the very men He created. But my God still looks down on His children." Atahualpa, Inca Chief (On hearing Pope Alexander VI had declared Peru to be a possession of Spain) Top 10 Ancient Roman Inventions  Arches  Grid-based cities  Sewers and Sanitation  Roads and Highways  Aqueducts  Roman Numerals  Surgery Tools and Techniques  Julian Calendar  Newspapers  Concrete The war of ideas is a Greek invention. It is one of the most important inventions ever made. Indeed, the possibility of fighting with with words and ideas instead of fighting with swords is the very basis of our civilization, and especially of all its legal and parliamentary institutions. Karl Popper 250 Top 10 Inventions of the Maya Civilization  Astronomy  Ball Courts  Chocolate  Hallucinogenic Drugs  Law and Order  Mathematics  Maya Art  The Maya Calendar  Mayan Writing System  Rubber The Jews had a love-hate relationship with the Greek culture. They craved its civilization but resented its dominance. Josephus says they regarded Greeks as feckless, promiscuous, modernizing lightweights, yet many Jerusalemites were already living the fashionable lifestyle using Greek and Jewish names to show they could be both. Jewish conservatives disagreed; for them, the Greeks were simply idolaters. Simon Sebag-Montefiore Top 10 Inventions and Discoveries of Ancient Greece:  The Water Mill  Cartography  The Odometer  Olympics  The Alarm Clock  Basis of Geometry 251  Earliest Practice of Medicine  Concept of Democracy  Modern Philosophy  Discoveries in Modern Science To put it in a nutshell, the Central and South American high cultures of antiquity were entirely worthy of comparison with what the Old World had achieved by the time of the Han, the Gupta, and the Hellenistic age. The fact is that the Amerindian high cultures were a human modality of their own, and those Spaniards who came among them first would have had the sensation, if they had ever heard of such literature, of treading in a world of imaginative science fiction. But it was real, and the Amerindian achievements deserve all our sympathy and praise. Joseph Needham Top 10 Ancient Egyptian Inventions 252  Bowling  Paper and Ink  Make-Up and Wigs  Barbers  The Calendar and Timekeeping  Tables (and other Furniture)  Toothpaste and Breath Mints  The Police  The Lock  Medicines The Chinese had first learned of the Roman Empire in 139 B.C., when the emperor Wudi had sent an envoy, Zhang Qian, past the deserts to seek allies to the west. Zhang Qian traveled for twelve years to what is now Turkistan and back and reported on the astounding discovery that there was a fairly advanced civilization to the west. In 104 B.C. and 102 B.C., Chinese armies reached the area, a former Greek kingdom called Sogdiana with its capital in Samarkand, where they met and defeated a force partly composed of captive Roman soldiers. Mark Kurlansky Top 10 inventions of Indus Valley Civilization:  The invention of the Ruler  Demonstration of World's first-known urban sanitation systems  Start of a well-structured living area and housing  The innovation of Seal and Trade  Creation of typical scripts and Gods  Discovery of Artefacts  Discovery of various cooking methods  The invention of standardized weights  Ornamental buttons made from seashell  Origination of Stepwell Epic literature is not history but is again a way of looking at the past . ― Romila Thapar 253 Top 11 inventions and discoveries of Mesopotamian Civilization  The Wheel  The Chariot  The Sailboat  The Plow  Time  Astronomy and Astrology  The Map  Mathematics  Urban Civilization  The First Form of Writing: Cuneiform  Agriculture and Irrigation Top 20 Ancient Chinese Inventions  Seismographs   Porcelain The Waterwheel   Noodles The Crossbow  The Compass  Iron and Steel Smelting   Acupuncture Tuned Chime Bells  Alcoholic Beverages  Papermaking   The Great Wall Tea Production   The Silk Road Kites   Gunpowder The Seed Drill   Movable Type Printing Deep Drilling  Lacquer: A Natural Shapable Plastic 254 the Treaty of EdinburghNorthampton and de jure independence. 1323 Romance of the three kingdoms 1330 28 July 1333 Battle of Velbazhd. Emperor Go-Daigo returns The Kamakura Shogunate to the throne from exile, comes to an end, and the and begins the Kenmu Kenmu Restoration only lasts restoration. a few years before the Ashikaga Shogunate begins. 1337 The Hundred Years' The war will span through War begins. England and three/four different war France struggle for a periods within a 116-year dominating position in period. Europe and their region. 1346 August 26th Battle of Crécy. English forces led by Edward III and Edward, the Black Prince defeat the French forces of Philip VI despite being outnumbered at least 4 to 1, with the longbow being a major factor in favor of England. Also considered to be the beginning of the end of classic chivalry. 255 169 1347 The Black Death ravages The first of many Europe for the first of concurrences of this plague, many times. An estimated This was believed to have 20% – 40% of the wiped out as many as 50% of population is thought to Europe's population by its have perished within the end. first year. 1347 The University of Prague is It is the oldest Czech and founded. German-Speaking University in the world 1364 Astrarium Giovanni de dondi 1368 The fall of the Yuan The breakup of the Mongol Dynasty. Its remnants, Empire, which marked the known as Northern Yuan, end of Pax Mongolica. continued to rule Mongolia. 1370 Tamerlane establishes During this 35-year the Timurid Dynasty. period, Tamerlane would ravage his fellow Islamic states such as the Golden Horde and the Delhi Sultanate in order to accomplish his goal of a restored Mongol Empire. 1371 King Marko's realm is established, the capital is located in Prilep. 256 170 1378 The Western The Avignon Papacy ends. Schism during which three claimant popes were elected simultaneously. 1380 Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow led a united Russian army to a victory over the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo. 1380 Chaucer begins to Chaucer's greatest work, and write The Canterbury one of the foundations Tales. towards the formation of the Modern English language 1381 Peasants' Revolt in Quickest-spread revolt in England. English history, and the most popular revolt of the Late Middle Ages. 1381 1386 1389 October 18–19th June 28th The Bible is translated into First print published in English by John Wycliffe. English (Vulgate) The University of It is the oldest university Heidelberg is founded. in Germany. Battle of Kosovo in Serbia. This was in many respects the decisive battle between the Turks, led by Sultan Murat, and Christian army, led by the Serbs and their duke Lazar. The battle took place in 257 171 Kosovo, the southern province of the Medieval Serbian Empire. After this battle Turkish empire continued to spread over the Balkans, to finally reach Vienna. 1392 1396 Joseon Dynasty founded Becomes longest reigning in Korea. Korean dynasty. The Battle of Nicopolis. The last great Crusade fails. Bulgaria was conquered by the Ottomans 1397 The Kalmar Union is Queen Margaret I of formed. Denmark unites the Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, and lasts until 1523. 1399 Richard II abdicates the End of Plantagenet Dynasty, throne to Henry of beginning of Bolingbroke, who the Lancaster lineage of kings. becomes Henry IV of England. 15th century (until 1492) Year Date Event 258 172 Significance 1402 July 20th Battle of Ankara Bayezid I is captured by Tamerlane's forces, causing the interregnum of the Ottoman Empire. 1405 Chinese naval expeditions This will be the first of seven of of Southeast Asia and the the Ming Dynasty-sponsored Indian Ocean (to Eastern expeditions, lasting until 1433. Africa) begin, under the leadership of Zheng He. 1409 1410 Ladislaus of Naples sells his Dalmatia would with some "rights" on Dalmatia to interruptions remain under the Venetian Republic for Venetian rule for nearly four 100,000 ducats. centuries, until 1797. Battle of Grunwald Major turning point in history of Lithuania, Poland and the Teutonic Order. 1415 Kingdom of Beginning of the Portuguese Portugal conquers Ceuta. Empire. Beginning of the Age of Discovery. 1415 October 25 Battle of Agincourt. Henry The turning point in the Hundred V and his army defeat a Years' War for 15th-century numerically superior French England that leads to the signing army, partially because of of the Treaty of Troyes five years the newly later, making Henry V heir to the introduced English throne of France. longbow. 1417 The Council of The Western Schism comes to a 259 173 Constance ends. close, and elects Pope Martin V as the sole pope. 1419 Hussite Wars begin after Although the war was a stalemate four years after the death (ended around 1434), it was of Jan Hus in central another factor that between the Europe, dealing with the Catholics and Protestants before followers of Jan Hus and the Protestant Reformation. those against them. 1428 Itzcoatl, the Signifies the birth of the Aztec fourth Mexica king Empire and the start of an in Tenochtitlán, allied aggressive expansion lasting 90 with Texcoco and Tlacopan, years. Itzcoatl and his men began defeats Azcapotzalco. burning historic hieroglyphic books of conquered states, rewriting history with the Mexica at its center. 1429 Joan of Arc lifts the siege The battle at Orléans is the first of of Orléans for the Dauphin many which ultimately drive the of France, enabling him to English from continental Europe. eventually be crowned at Reims. 1431 30 May Trial and execution of Joan Death of the woman who helped of Arc. turn the Hundred Years' War in favor of the French over the past two years. 1434 The Medici family rises to This ushers in a period of prominence in Florence. significance of the Medicis, such as bankers, popes, queens (regents) 260 174 and dukes, throughout Europe (mainly Italy, especially the Florentine Republic), over the next three centuries. 1434 1438 Aronolfini Portrait Jan Van evidence on usage of convex Eyck mirror Prince Cusi Inca civilization begins expanding Yupanqui becomes the and the Inca Empire is born. first Inca emperor. 1439 Johannes Gutenberg invents Literature, news, etc. becomes the printing press. more accessible throughout Europe. 1442 Battle of Szeben Third significant victory for the Hungarian forces led by Janos Hunyadi over the Ottoman forces. 1443 1444 November 10 Sejong the Koreans gain an alphabet suited to Great creates Hangul their language Battle of Varna Final battle of the Crusade of Varna; Ottomans are victorious over the Hungarian-Polish armies, and Władysław III of Poland dies. 1452 Coronation of Frederick III 1453 Constantinople falls to End of the Byzantine Empire (or the Ottoman Turks. Eastern Roman Empire to some); Constantinople becomes capital of 261 175 Ottoman Empire. 1453 The Hundred Years' England's once vast territory in War ends. France is now reduced to only Calais, which they eventually lose control of as well. 1455 May 22 Battle of St. Albans Traditionally marks the beginning of the War of the Roses. 1456 Siege of Belgrade Major Ottoman advances are halted for seven decades; last major victory for Hunyadi. 1459 1461 Smederevo falls under Marks the end of the Medieval the Turks Serbian state. The Empire of Last Roman outpost to be Trebizond falls to conquered by the Ottomans. the Ottoman Turks. 1464 Dardanelles gun Turkish Munir Ali 1467–1477 Ōnin War takes place in First of many significant civil wars Japan. between shogunates that would continue for another century during the Muromachi period. 1475 The Khanate of Crimea is Venice is defeated and the conquered and made Ottoman Empire becomes master a vassal state by the of the Aegean Sea. Ottoman Empire. 1485 Thomas Perhaps the best-known work of 262 176 Malory composes Le Morte Arthurian literature in English. d'Arthur 1485 August 22nd Battle of Bosworth Field. Richard III dies in battle, and Henry Tudor becomes king of England; last shift of Houses/kingship during the War of the Roses. 1487 June 16 Battle of Stoke. Marks end of the War of the Roses. 1492 Reconquista ends. Marks end of Moorish-Muslim rule within Iberian Peninsula; Unification of Spain. 1492 Christopher Age of Discovery into the New Columbus reaches the New World begins. World. 15th century (after 1492) Year 1494 Date June 10 Event Significance Spain and Portugal sign Pope's ruling will lead to the the Treaty of Tordesillas and division of Brazil and Spanish agree to divide the World America, as well as the formation outside of Europe between of the Spanish themselves. Philippines and Portuguese colonies in India and Africa. 1494–1559 The Italian Wars. Italian Wars will eventually lead to the downfall of the Italian city- 263 177 states. 1497 Vasco da Gama begins his Vasco da Gama was the first first voyage European to sail directly to Eastern from Europe to India and Asia from Europe. back. 1499 Ottoman The first naval battle that used fleet defeats Venetians at cannons in ships. the Battle of Zonchio. Timeline of women in the United States  1756: Lydia Taft is the first woman to vote legally in Colonial America.  1821: Emma Willard founds the Troy Female Seminary in New York; it is the first school in the country founded to provide young women with a college-level education.  1837: The first American convention held to advocate women's rights was the 1837 AntiSlavery Convention of American Women held in 1837.  1837: Oberlin College becomes the first American college to admit women.  1840: The first petition for a law granting married women the right to own property was established in 1840.  1845: Lowell Female Labor Reform Association opened in 1845 as the first major labor union.  1848: The Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights convention, is held in Seneca Falls, New York.  1855: New York Women's Hospital opened in 1855 as the first hospital solely devoted to ailments affiliated with women.  1869: Wyoming is the first territory to give women the right to vote.  1870: Louisa Ann Swain is the first woman in the United States to vote in a general election. She cast her ballot on September 6, 1870, in Laramie, Wyoming. 264 178  1870: The first all-female jury in America is sworn in March 7, 1870 in Laramie, Wyoming.  1874: Mary Ewing Outerbridge, from Staten Island, introduces tennis to America, creating the first American tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket and Baseball Club.  1892: The first women's basketball game was played at Smith College, and conducted by Senda Berenson.  1916: Jeannette Rankin becomes the first woman to hold high office in the United States when she is elected to Congress, as a Republican from Montana.  1916: The first birth control clinic in America is opened by Margaret Sanger.  1940: The first social security beneficiary was Ida May Fuller, she received check 00000-001 in the amount of $22.54.  1948: The Women's Armed Services Integration Act gives women permanent status in the Regular and Reserve forces of the Air Force, Army, Navy, and Marine Corps.  1965: In Griswold v. Connecticut, the Supreme Court rules that Connecticut's ban on the use of contraceptives violates the right to marital privacy.  1972: The US Congress passes the Equal Rights Amendment, which stipulates that "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."  1972: Title IX is passed as a portion of the Education Amendments of 1972, which states (in part) that: "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance."  1973: Roe vs. Wade rules unconstitutional a state law that banned abortions except to save the life of the mother. The Supreme Court rules that the states are forbidden from outlawing or regulating any aspect of abortion performed during the first trimester of pregnancy, can only enact abortion regulations reasonably related to maternal health in the second and third trimesters, and can enact abortion laws protecting the life of the fetus only in the third trimester. Even then, an exception has to be made to protect the life of the mother. 265 179  1978: The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 amends Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to prohibit sex discrimination on the basis of pregnancy.  1980: Women first graduated from the U.S. service academies.  1989: In Webster v. Reproductive Health Services, the Supreme Court upheld a Missouri law that imposed restrictions on the use of state funds, facilities, and employees in performing, assisting with, or counseling on abortions.  1996: The Matter of Kasinga case sets a precedent allowing asylum seekers to seek asylum from gender-based persecution.  1996: In United States v. Virginia, the US Supreme Court struck down the Virginia Military Institute (VMI)'s long-standing male-only admission policy in a 7-1 decision.  2009: The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 is signed into law, which states that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new paycheck affected by that discriminatory action.  2016: Former First Lady, Senator of New York, and Secretary of State Hillary Clinton clinches the nomination for the Democratic Party, becoming the first female candidate for President on the ballot of a major party. Timeline of project management Early civilizations  2570 BC Great pyramid of Giza completed. Some records remain of how the work was managed: e.g. there were managers of each of the four faces of the pyramid, responsible for their completion (subproject managers).  208 BC The first major construction of the Great Wall of China. 15th - 19th century  Christopher Wren (1632–1723) was a 17th-century English designer, astronomer, geometer, mathematician-physicist and architect. Wren designed 55 of 87 London 266 180 churches after the Great fire of London in 1666, such as St Paul's Cathedral in 1710, as well as many secular buildings.  Thomas Telford (1757-1834) was a Scottish stonemason, architect and civil engineer and a road, bridge and canal builder, who managed the Ellesmere Canal and Pontcysyllte Aqueduct.  Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806–1859) was a British engineer who created the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships, such as the first with a propeller, and numerous bridges and tunnels. 20th century  1910s The Gantt chart developed by Henry Laurence Gantt (1861–1919) 1950s  1950s The Critical path method (CPM) invented  1950s The US DoD used modern project management techniques in their Polaris project.  1956 The American Association of Cost Engineers (now AACE International) formed  1958 The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) method invented 1960s  1969 Project Management Institute (PMI) launched to promote project management profession 1970s  1975 PROMPT methodology (acronym for Project Resource Organisation Management Planning Technique) created by Simpact Systems Ltd  1975 The Mythical Man-Month: Essays on Software Engineering by Fred Brooks published 1980s 267 181 Concept and initiation Project Management Project close Evaluate → Design Definition and planning Analyze ← Develop Execution Performance and control Popular Project Management Methodologies: Agile — collaborating to iteratively deliver whatever works Scrum — enabling a small, cross-functional, self-managing team to deliver fast Kanban — improving speed and quality of delivery by increasing visibility of work in progress and limiting multi-tasking Scrumban — limiting work in progress like Kanban, with a daily stand up like Scrum Lean — streamlining and eliminating waste to deliver more with less eXtreme Programming (XP) — doing development robustly to ensure quality Waterfall — planning projects fully, then executing through phases PRINCE2 — controlled project management that leaves nothing to chance PMI's PMBOK — applying universal standards to Waterfall project management 268 Waterfall methodology: Requirements Analysis Design 7 principles of PRINCE2: Implementation  Continued business justification  Learn from experience  Defined roles and responsibilities  Manage by stages  Manage by Exception  Focus on products  Tailor to suit the project environment Testing Deployment Maintenance Agile methodology: Requirements → Design → Develop → Test → Deploy Scrum methodology: Operations keeps the lights on, Envision strategy provides a light at the end of the tunnel, but project management is the train engine that moves the Speculate organization forward. ~ Joy Gumz Explore Adapt Close 269 Lean methodology: Define your customers and what they value Seek continuous improvement Map the Value Stream Establish Pull based on customer demand Create Flow to the customer Things to consider when evaluating the project:  Project budget  Timeline  Size and complexity  Stakeholder expectations  Project type and industry Flowchart method to illustrate, analyze and improve the steps required to deliver value from start to finish Six Sigma methodology: Define Project management can be defined as a way of developing structure in a complex project, where the independent variables of time, cost, resources and human behavior come together. Control Measure ~ Rory Burke Improve Analyze 270 SIX SIGMA LEAN  Eliminate Waste  Eliminate Process Variation  Shorten Cycle Time  Improve Process Capability  Increase Value Added Activities  Eliminate/reduce defects  Speed-up value creation processes Requirement analysis Design LEAN Six Sigma     Implementation Evolution Focus on customers Improve performance Enhance Customer Experience Impact Top and Bottom Line Flawless execution and their needs Testing Software development Life Cycle Project management is like juggling three balls – time, cost and quality. Program management is like a troupe of circus performers standing in a circle, each juggling three balls and swapping balls from time to time. ~ G. Reiss  Improves Productivity and Reduces Costs and Workload  Improves Customer Satisfaction 271  1984 The Goal by Eliyahu M. Goldratt published  1986 Scrum was named as a project management style in the article The New New Product Development Game by Takeuchi and Nonaka  1987 First Project Management Body of Knowledge Guide published as a white paper by PMI  1989 PRINCE method derived from PROMPTII is published by the UK Government agency CCTA and becomes the UK standard for all government information projects 1990s  1996 PRINCE2 published by CCTA (now Office of Government Commerce OGC) as a generic product management methodology for all UK government projects.  1997 Critical Chain by Eliyahu M. Goldratt published 21st century  2001 AgileAlliance formed to promote "lightweight" software development projects  2006 Total Cost Management Framework release by AACE  2009 PRINCE2 2009 edition, compatible with other methods and more flexible in approach Timeline of scientific thought chronological period 3rd millennium BC Scientific thought Sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system originated with the ancient Sumerians 4th century BCE Axiomatic science based on the logico-deductive method is founded owing to Euclid's Elements Publication which is at the root of formal system. 3rd century BCE Eratosthenes: calculated the size of the earth and its distance to 272 182 the sun and to the moon 150s BCE Seleucus of Seleucia: discovery of tides being caused by the moon... 5th century CE Hindu-Arabic numeral system (decimal) begins to be used 630 Abiyun al-Bitriq : Early astronomical instruments 721-815 Jabir ibn Hayyan : Father of chemistry. Did influential work on chemistry and chemical apparatus 776-869 Al-Jahiz : Very first scientist to discuss on natural selection in his "Book of Animal" 780-850 Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi : Foundation of modern Algebra and Algorithm 806 Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī : Invented first astrolabe for navigation 801-873 Al-Kindi : Father of cryptography, cryptanalysis and frequency analysis 858-929 Al-Battani : Produced many Trigonometric formulas, Calculation of the values for the precession of the equinoxes (54.5" per year, or 1° in 66 years) and the obliquity of the ecliptic (23° 35') 859 Fatima al-Fihri : Founded world's first & oldest degree granting university- "University of al-Qarawiyyin" 973-1050 Al-Beruni : Foundation of Chronology and Indology 10th century CE Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes): refutation of Aristotelian classical elements and Galenic humorism; and discovery of measles and smallpox, and kerosene and distilled petroleum 1021 Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics: First accurate vision theory, Father of scientific method 1020s Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine : Standard medical textbook in europe for 600 years 1027s Avicenna's Book of Healing :First accurate description of Newton's First Law of Motion 1048-1131 Omar Khayyam : Geometric Algebra, a precursor to Descartes' 273 183 Analytic Geometry; Solution of cubic equations 1058-1111 Al-Ghazali : Logic, Philosophy, Business Ethics 1121 Al-Khazini: variation of gravitation and gravitational potential energy at a distance; the decrease of air density with altitude 1135-1213 Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī : Invented linear Astrolabe; First to propose the idea of a mathematical function 12th century Ibn Bajjah (Avempace): discovery of reaction (precursor to Newton's third law of motion) 12th century Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (Nathanel): relationship between force and acceleration (a vague foreshadowing of a fundamental law of classical mechanics and a precursor to Newton's second law of motion) 1206 Ismail al-Jazari Inventor of classic Automata, Segmental Gear, Crankshaft, Camshaft that drives modern world 12th century Averroes: relationship between force, work and kinetic energy 1220–1235 Robert Grosseteste: rudimentals of the scientific method 1242 Ibn al-Nafis: pulmonary circulation and circulatory system 1247 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Invention of famous Tusi Couple 13th Century Ibn al-Shatir: Production of a new lunar model 13th century Theodoric of Freiberg: Correct explanation of rainbow phenomenon 13th century William of Saint-Cloud: pioneering use of camera obscura to view solar eclipses Before 1327 William of Ockham: Occam's Razor 1332-1406 Ibn Khaldun Pioneer of histeriography, sociology, demography and economics 1429 Ulugh Beg : astronomy-related mathematics, trigonometry and spherical geometry 1460 Ali Qushji : Development of astronomical physics 1494 Luca Pacioli: first codification of the Double-entry bookkeeping 274 system, which slowly developed in previous centuries 1430-1500 Ahmad ibn Mājid : Navigator and Cartographer; Guided Vasco da Gama to complete the first all water trade route between Europe and India 1543 Copernicus: heliocentric model 1550 Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf : Invented steam turbine -today known as Steam Jacks 1570s Tycho Brahe: detailed astronomical observations 1600 William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field 1609 – Johannes Kepler: first two laws of planetary motion 1610 Galileo Galilei: Sidereus Nuncius: telescopic observations 1614 John Napier: use of logarithms for calculation 1628 William Harvey: Blood circulation 17th century René Descartes creates Cartesian coordinate system — allowing reference to a point in space as a set of numbers, and allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a twodimensional coordinate system (and conversely, shapes to be described as equations). 17th Century Baruch Spinoza – opposed Cartesian mind body dualism. He considered the nature of reality of physical and mental worlds to be the same. Spinoza was determinist and believed that even human behaviour is fully determined, with freedom being our capacity to know and accept that we are determined. 1665 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first peer reviewed scientific journal published. 1669 Nicholas Steno: Proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of stratigraphy 1675 Anton van Leeuwenhoek: Observes Microorganisms by Microscope 1675 Leibniz developed Infinitesimal calculus and its widely used mathematical notation. Later he presented the theory 275 185 Christiaan Huygens (1629 – 1695) was a Dutch physicist, astronomer, mathematician and the founder of the wave theory of light. His book, Treatise on light, makes fascinating reading even today. He brilliantly explained the double refraction shown by the mineral calcite in this work in addition to reflection and refraction. He was the first to analyze circular and simple harmonic motion and designed and built improved clocks and telescopes. He discovered the true geometry of Saturn’s rings. Electron Emission Thermionic emission Field emission Photoelectric emission Occurs in metals that are heated Emission of electrons induced Electrons are ejected from the surface to a very high temperature by an electrostatic field (of the of the metal when it absorbs order of 108 Vm–1) electromagnetic radiation of the appropriate frequency 3 types of radioactive decay occur in nature:  α-decay in which a helium nucleus 42He is emitted.  β-decay in which electrons or positrons (particles with the same mass as electrons, but with a charge exactly opposite to that of electron) are emitted  γ-decay in which high energy (hundreds of keV or more) photons are emitted Current Direct current Alternate current (Electrons move in one direction) (Electrons flow in both directions) of Monads and developed the Binary number system which is elemental for modern digital computing. His Law of Continuity and Transcendental Law of Homogeneity found mathematical implementation only in the 20th century. 1687 Newton: Laws of motion, law of universal gravitation, basis for classical physics 1735 Carl Linnaeus published the first edition of his major work Systema Naturae. The tenth edition of this book is considered the starting point of zoological nomenclature. In 1753 he published Species Plantarum which is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. 1763 Bayes' theorem named for Thomas Bayes who first suggested using the theorem to update beliefs was significantly edited and updated by Richard Price after the death of Thomas Bayes and read at the Royal Society. This would later serve as foundation of Bayesian inference in statistics 1767 James Denham-Steuart: used the term supply and demand in his on economics in Inquiry into the Principles of Political economy, published in 1767. Later, Adam Smith used it in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations, and David Ricardo titled one chapter of his 1817 work Principles of Political Economy and Taxation "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price". 1778 Antoine Lavoisier (and Joseph Priestley): discovery of oxygen leading to end of Phlogiston theory 1796 Georges Cuvier: Establishes extinction as a fact 1800 Alessandro Volta: discovers electrochemical series and invents the battery 1805 John Dalton: Atomic Theory in (Chemistry) 1859 Charles Darwin published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his book On the Origin of Species 1866 Gregor Mendel published his work which demonstrated that 276 186 the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants follows particular patterns, now referred to as the laws of Mendelian inheritance. 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table 1877 Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy 1887 Michelson–Morley experiment was performed in 1887 by Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley to detect the relative motion of matter through the stationary luminiferous aether ("aether wind"). 1890s Santiago Ramón y Cajal discovered the axonal growth cone, and provided the definitive evidence for what would later be known as "neuron theory", experimentally demonstrating that the relationship between nerve cells was not one of continuity, but rather of contiguity. "Neuron theory" stands as the foundation of modern neuroscience. 1899–1900 Sigmund Freud developed his theory of the unconscious mind and began his works on psychodynamic theory and psychosexual development of human organism. He proposed that human thought and behavior is complex process of unconscious processes in the mind 1900 Max Planck: Planck's law of black body radiation, basis for quantum theory 1905 Albert Einstein: theory of special relativity, explanation of Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect 1906 Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics 1911 Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus 1911 Oskar Heinroth rediscovered the phenomenon of psychological Imprinting, reported by Douglas Spalding in 1877. It was extensively worked on in the 20th century by Nikolaas Tinbergen, Karl von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz who demonstrated a "critical period" and other aspects concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns in animals, earning them a Nobel prize in 1973. 277 187 1915 Albert Einstein: theory of general relativity 1924 Wolfgang Pauli: quantum Pauli exclusion principle 1925 – Erwin Schrödinger: Schrödinger equation (Quantum mechanics) 1927 – Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle (Quantum mechanics) 1927 Georges Lemaître: Theory of the Big Bang 1928 Paul Dirac: Dirac equation (Quantum mechanics) 1929 – Edwin Hubble: Hubble's law of the expanding universe 1930s Keynes introduced Keynesian revolution, overturning neoclassical economics that held free markets would, in the short to medium term, automatically provide full employment, as long as workers were flexible in their wage demands. Keynes instead argued that aggregate demand determined the overall level of economic activity, and that inadequate aggregate demand could lead to prolonged periods of high unemployment. 1931 Friedrich Hayek elaborated the "Austrian Theory of the Business Cycle". He argued that the business cycle resulted from the central bank's inflationary credit expansion and its transmission over time, leading to a capital misallocation caused by the artificially low interest rates. 1931 Kurt Gödel stated the incompleteness theorem which states that for any self-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (for example Peano arithmetic), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. 1934 James Chadwick: Discovery of the neutron 1934 Karl Popper emphasized the idea of falsifiability as the criterion demarcating science from non-science. 1937 Alan Turing: Introduced the mathematical concept of a Turing machine 1937 Kurt Lewin: on the basis of Herbert 278 188 Blumer's interactionist perspective, suggested that neither nature (inborn tendencies) nor nurture (how experiences in life shape individuals) alone can account for individuals' behavior and personalities, but rather that both nature and nurture interact to shape each person. This is expressed as Lewin's Equation for behavior B=ƒ(P,E). Earlier he coined the notion of genidentity, 1940s Benjamin Lee Whorf brought focus to the Principle of linguistic relativity which implies that the structure of a language affects the weltanschauung or worldview of the speakers of the language and their cognition of the world. Whorf's works tried to show that there is relationship between language and thought. The idea was introduced earlier by Humboldt and then worked on by Edward Sapir in the 1920s. 1942 Joseph Schumpeter introduced the idea creative destruction, sometimes known as "Schumpeter's gale" in his work Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy (1942), where in he described the way in which capitalist economic development arises out of the destruction of some prior economic order. 1943 Oswald Avery proves that DNA is the genetic material of the chromosome 1943 Walter Pitts and Warren McCulloch wrote the seminal paper entitled "A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943) and proposed the first mathematical model of a neural network. Their work also presented ideas drawn upon the work of Leibniz with later implications for cellular automata. 1944 John von Neumann and Stanislaw Ulam: introduced the mathematical idea of a cellular automata. This set the foundations for the later discipline of complexity science and agent based modeling 1944 John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern: wrote the seminal book Theory of games and economic behavior and began the 279 189 interdisciplinary research field of game theory 1947 William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor 1948 Claude Elwood Shannon & Warren Weaver: 'A mathematical theory of communication' a seminal paper in Information theory. 1948 Norbert Wiener: introduced the concept of Cybernetics in his work Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948 Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson: Quantum electrodynamics 1950 Ludwig von Bertalanffy began General systems theory with his publication "An Outline of General System Theory" in the British Journal for the Philosophy of Science Vol. 1 (No. 2) 1950s Kenneth Arrow, Gérard Debreu and Lionel W. McKenzie introduced the modern conception of general equilibrium in economics. Gerard Debreu presents this model in Theory of Value (1959). Though an earlier form of general equilibrium was presented by Leon Walras in 1874. 1950s Leon Festinger developed the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance and Social Comparison Theory, and discovered nature of the role of propinquity in the formation of social ties while also making other contributions to the study of social networks, psychological social psychology and sociological social psychology. 1951 John Bowlby developed attachment theory which states that human individuals, especially as children, needs to develop a stable and long lasting relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally. Relationships later in life are built on this primary foundation. The theory states that in human evolution, attachment behaviour increased the chances of survival. 280 190 1952 Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine 1953 Crick and Watson: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology 1953 Anatol Rapoport introduced mathematical models in the study of information transmission in human interaction and for the management of conflict and cooperation in human life 1953 Ludwig Wittgenstein: wrote his seminal work Philosophical Investigations in which he stated that conceptual confusions surrounding language use are at the root of most philosophical problems. 1954 Jean Piaget: elaborated on Genetic epistemology and the theory of cognitive development in his work "La construction du réel chez l'enfant" (The construction of reality in the child). 1956 Frank Harary and Dorwin Cartwright mathematically formalized generalizations of Fritz Heider's psychological theory of cognitive balance to give formalization of interpersonal network patterns. This laid the foundations for micro level social network analysis and small group research and group dynamics research in sociology and sociological social psychology 1957 Noam Chomsky: wrote Syntactic Structures which laid the foundation for the idea of transformational grammar. He also introduced the idea of poverty of the stimulus which states that natural language grammar is unlearnable given the relatively limited data available to children learning a language, and therefore that this knowledge is supplemented with some sort of innate linguistic capacity. A tenet of generative grammar. 1957 Herbert Simon: coined the term Bounded rationality in psychology as an alternative basis for the mathematical modeling of decision making, as used in economics and related disciplines which views rationality as a maximization process as described in rational choice theory. Instead, "bounded rationality" views rationality as 281 191 a Satisficing process. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978. 1958 William Phillips, introduced Phillips curve in economic theory. He described the observation of an inverse relationship between money wage changes and unemployment in the British economy over the period examined. In 1960 Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow took Phillips' work and made explicit the link between inflation and unemployment: when inflation was high, unemployment was low, and vice versa. 1960s Paul Ekman conducted seminal research on the specific biological correlates of specific emotions, demonstrating the universality and discreteness of emotions in a Darwinian approach. This served as one of the basis for E. O. Wilson's works on Sociobiology in the 1970s and later helped in the emergence of the approach of Evolutionary Psychology in the 1990s through the work of Leda Cosmides and John Tooby 1962 Thomas Kuhn stated that scientific fields undergo periodic "paradigm shifts" rather than solely progressing in continuous way; which open up new approaches to understanding that scientists would never have considered valid before; and that the notion of scientific truth, at any given moment, cannot be established solely by objective criteria but is defined by a consensus of a scientific community 1963 Stanley Milgram first published a series of experiments now known as Milgram experiment which demonstrated how people showed obedience to orders in a social system when the orders were given by authority figures even when people were asked to perform actions against their wish and conscience. The studies were done in order to explain conformity and obedience in society as seen during the Holocaust. 1963 Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate 282 192 tectonics (Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis). 1964 Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulate quarks leading to the standard model 1968 Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson 1968 experimentally demonstrated Self fulfilling prophecy in social relationships through their field experiment which showed that if teachers were led to expect enhanced performance from some children, then those children did indeed show that enhancement. This is also known as Late bloomers effect 1968–1970 Terry Winograd made the artificial intelligence and natural language processing program SHRDLU that was concerned with the problem of providing a computer with sufficient "understanding" to be able to use natural language. 1969 German computer pioneer Konrad Zuse published his book Calculating Space, proposing that the physical laws of the universe are discrete by nature, and that the entire universe is the output of a deterministic computation on a single cellular automaton; "Zuse's Theory" became the foundation of the field of study called digital physics 1969 invention of Internet 1970 George Akerlof elaborated the idea of economic activity under asymmetric information. He described information asymmetry, which occurs when the seller knows more about a product than the buyer. Later, Akerlof, Michael Spence, and Joseph Stiglitz jointly received the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 2001 for their work on economic behavior under asymmetric information. 1970 John Horton Conway made the computer program Game of Life, also known simply as Life, a cellular automaton in which its evolution is determined by its initial state, requiring no further input. The game of life simulates the rise, fall and alterations of a society 283 193 of living organisms. 1970s Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman published series of discoveries on the psychology of human judgment and decision making describing the pervasive nature of systematic human cognitive bias and handling of risk in everyday life. 1972 Paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould published a landmark paper developing this theory and called it punctuated equilibria 1972 Michael D. Cohen, James G. March and Johan Olsen proposed the Garbage can model of organizational decision making. They published the model along with a computer code. Earlier James G. March presented the Behavioral theory of the firm in 1963 and made a compendium of basic Organizational studies, Management science, and organizational behavior in his edition "A Handbook of Organizations" (1965). 1973 Mark Granovetter published his seminal work in modern sociology and social network theory on the spread of information in social networks known as "The Strength of Weak Ties" describing how weak ties enable reaching populations and audiences that are not accessible via strong ties. 1977 Voyager program launched two unmanned space missions, the probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 to study planetary systems 1981–1984 Robert Axelrod and W. D. Hamilton described the evolution of cooperation between cognitive entities and gave a mathematical and computational model describing the phenomena 1986 David Rumelhart and James McClelland described the idea of Parallel Distributed Processing in modeling human cognition in psychology. They made mathematical and computational models of psychological information processing and described computer simulations of perception, giving testable models of neural information processing and introducing Connectionism. 284 194 1987 John C. Turner and Michael Hogg along with other colleagues developed the Self categorization theory which gives a psychological theory for dynamics in group processes. It states that the self is not the foundational aspect of cognition, rather the self is a product of cognitive processes that occur in social processes. Earlier John Turner worked with Henri Tajfel (1979) on the precursor theory Social identity theory. 1988 The concept of a Quantum cellular automata was introduced thus advancing quantum computation and quantum computer 1970s–1988 Marvin Minsky & Seymour Papert started developing what came to be called The Society of Mind theory. They state how intelligence could be a product of the interaction of non-intelligent parts. Minsky says that the biggest source of ideas about the theory came from his work in trying to create a machine that uses a robotic arm, a video camera, and a computer to build with children's blocks. 1988 Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza reconstructed human evolution and migration patterns in human history in his work in population genetics. He claimed to show a strong association between language families and genetic trees of the same populations, proposing for genetic–linguistic coevolution. 1989–1990 Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web. He made a proposal for an information management system in March 1989, and on 25 December 1990, with the help of Robert Cailliau and a young student at CERN, he implemented the first successful communication between a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) client and server via the Internet. 1996 Joshua M. Epstein along with Robert Axtell developed the first large scale agent-based computational model, the Sugarscape, to explore the role of social phenomenon such as seasonal migrations, pollution, sexual reproduction, combat, and transmission of disease and even culture. With this work Epstein laid the foundation for 285 195 what he later called as Generative social science 1997 Roslin Institute: Dolly the sheep was cloned. 1998 Gerson Goldhaber and Saul Perlmutter observed that the expansion of the universe is accelerating 2000 Alison Gopnik and Andrew N. Meltzoff and Patricia K. Kuhl stated that the same mechanisms used by scientists to develop scientific theories are used by children to develop causal models of their environment. They state that the cognitive development of children in early life is made possible by three factors: innate knowledge, advanced learning ability, and the evolved ability of parents to teach their offspring. 2001 The first draft of the human genome is completed. 2002 Ray Jackendoff published his theory of conceptual semantics a comprehensive theory on the foundations of language, in the monograph (2002): Foundations of Language. Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Evolution. Earlier he worked with Fred Lerdahl, on musical cognition, presenting a Generative theory of tonal music. 2002 Daniel Wegner published his book stating that the experience of free will is an illusion. Wegner conducted a series of experiments in which people experience an illusion of control, feeling that their free will shapes events when actually it were determined by someone else. According to Wegner the fact that this illusion of free will can be created shows that it is an illusion and that it is "the mind's best trick". 2009 The Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Life Sciences Corporation completed making a draft sequencing of the genome of the closest human relative the Neanderthal 2010 J. Craig Venter Institute creates the first synthetic bacterial cell. 2011 a team led by Shinji Nishimoto made break through in Thought identification when they partially reconstructed visual images from only brain recordings of neural activity of volunteers who were 286 196 seeing actual visual pictures or images. 2012 Higgs Boson is discovered at CERN (confirmed to 99.999% certainty) There cannot be a language more universal and more simple, more free from errors and obscurities...more worthy to express the invariable relations of all natural things [than mathematics]. [It interprets] all phenomena by the same language, as if to attest the unity and simplicity of the plan of the universe, and to make still more evident that unchangeable order which presides over all natural causes. Joseph Fourier It is possible that these millions of suns, along with thousands of millions more we cannot see, make up altogether but a globule of blood or lymph in the veins of an animal, of a minute insect, hatched in a world of whose vastness we can frame no conception, but which nevertheless would itself, in proportion to some other world, be no more than a speck of dust. Anatole France 287 The Wöhler Synthesis of Urea (1828) Friedrich Wöhler (1800 −1882) carried out several reactions that resulted in the production of Urea [(NH2)2CO], an organic component of urine. One such reaction used Lead Cyanate and ammonia in aqueous solution: Pb(CNO)2 + 2NH3 + 2H2O → Pb(OH)2 + 2NH4(CNO) Ammonium Cyanate decomposes to Ammonia and Cyanic acid, which react reversibly to produce Urea: NH4(CNO) → NH3 + HCNO ↔ (NH2)2CO Letter from Wöhler to Berzelius "Organic chemistry just now is enough to drive one mad. It gives me an impression of a primeval tropical forest, full of the most remarkable things, a monstrous and boundless thicket, with no way to escape, into which one may well dread to enter " "I cannot, so to say, hold my chemical water and must tell you that I can make urea without thereby needing to have kidneys, or anyhow, an animal, be it human or dog" 288 Bertrand Russell had given a talk on the then new quantum mechanics, of whose wonders he was most appreciative. He spoke hard and earnestly in the New Lecture Hall. And when he was done, Professor Whitehead, who presided, thanked him for his efforts, and not least for "leaving the vast darkness of the subject unobscured." J. Robert Oppenheimer Science is not a system of certain, or -established, statements; nor is it a system which steadily advances towards a state of finality... And our guesses are guided by the unscientific, the metaphysical (though biologically explicable) faith in laws, in regularities which we can uncover—discover. Like Bacon, we might describe our own contemporary science—'the method of reasoning which men now ordinarily apply to nature'—as consisting of 'anticipations, rash and premature' and as 'prejudices'. Karl Raimund Popper All is born of water; all is sustained by water. — Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 289 Elements of Scientific Thought  Implications and Consequences  Assumptions  Concepts, Theories and models  Interpretation  Information, Facts, data and observations  Problem and Issue  Purpose and objective  Perspective In scientific thinking are always present elements of poetry. Science and music requires a thought homogeneous. Albert Einstein Theory Science  Information  Computation  Theory and models  Experiment + observation Real 290 Experiments Computational Experiments 7 Philosophical Pillars for Peace within Humanity:  Interdependence  Humanity  Sustainability  Education  Equity  Justice and Compassion  Science and Technology For a start, how is the existence of the other universes to be tested? To be sure, all cosmologists accept that there are some regions of the universe that lie beyond the reach of our telescopes, but somewhere on the slippery slope between that and the idea that there is an infinite number of universes, credibility reaches a limit. As one slips down that slope, more and more must be accepted on faith, and less and less is open to scientific verification. Extreme multiverse explanations are therefore reminiscent of theological discussions. Indeed, invoking an infinity of unseen universes to explain the unusual features of the one we do see is just as ad hoc as invoking an unseen Creator. The multiverse theory may be dressed up in scientific language, but in essence, it requires the same leap of faith. Paul Davies 291 Biomolecules  Carbohydrates  Proteins  Nucleic Acids  Lipids Life is not found in atoms or molecules or genes as such, but in organization; not in symbiosis but in synthesis. Edwin Grant Conklin Simple Sugars Complex Non-sugars Polysaccharides Homo eg. Starch Monosaccharides Disaccharides (does not undergo hydrolysis) (on hydrolysis yield two (on hydrolysis yield 3 − 10 Monosaccharides) Monosaccharides) ) ) Aldose Ketose eg. Glucose eg. Fructose Oligosaccharides Hetero Reducing sugar Non-reducing sugar eg. Lactose eg. Sucrose eg. Heparin The same few dozen organic molecules are used over and over again in biology for the widest variety of functions. Carl Sagan 292 Proteins Based on structure:  Fibrous proteins  Globular proteins  Intermediate proteins Based on composition:  Simple proteins  Conjugated proteins Based on function: Few scientists acquainted with the chemistry of  Structural proteins biological systems at the molecular level can avoid  Enzymes  Hormones  Pigments  Transport proteins  Contractile proteins organic chemists viewing crystal structures of  Storage proteins enzyme systems or nucleic acids and knowing the  Toxins being inspired. Evolution has produced chemical compounds exquisitely organized to accomplish the most complicated and delicate of tasks. Many marvels of specificity of the immune systems must dream of designing and synthesizing simpler organic compounds that imitate working features of these naturally occurring compounds. Donald J. Cram 293 Nucleic acid Nucleotides Nucleosides Phosphoric acid Nitrogenous bases Sugar Purines Pyrimidines  Adenine  Cytosine  Guanine  Uracil  Thymine Ribose Deoxyribose Mathematics is the art of giving the same name to Timeline of mathematics different things. Henri Poincare Rhetorical stage Before 1000 BC  ca. 70,000 BC – South Africa, ochre rocks adorned with scratched geometric patterns (see Blombos Cave).  ca. 35,000 BC to 20,000 BC – Africa and France, earliest known prehistoric attempts to quantify time.  c. 20,000 BC – Nile Valley, Ishango Bone: possibly the earliest reference to prime numbers and Egyptian multiplication. 294  c. 3400 BC – Mesopotamia, the Sumerians invent the first numeral system, and a system of weights and measures.  c. 3100 BC – Egypt, earliest known decimal system allows indefinite counting by way of introducing new symbols.  c. 2800 BC – Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent, earliest use of decimal ratios in a uniform system of ancient weights and measures, the smallest unit of measurement used is 1.704 millimetres and the smallest unit of mass used is 28 grams.  2700 BC – Egypt, precision surveying.  2400 BC – Egypt, precise astronomical calendar, used even in the Middle Ages for its mathematical regularity.  c. 2000 BC – Mesopotamia, the Babylonians use a base-60 positional numeral system, and compute the first known approximate value of π at 3.125.  c. 2000 BC – Scotland, Carved Stone Balls exhibit a variety of symmetries including all of the symmetries of Platonic solids.  1800 BC – Egypt, Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, findings volume of a frustum.  c. 1800 BC – Berlin Papyrus 6619 (Egypt, 19th dynasty) contains a quadratic equation and its solution.  1650 BC – Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, copy of a lost scroll from around 1850 BC, the scribe Ahmes presents one of the first known approximate values of π at 3.16, the first attempt at squaring the circle, earliest known use of a sort of cotangent, and knowledge of solving first order linear equations. Syncopated stage 1st millennium BC  c. 1000 BC – Simple fractions used by the Egyptians. However, only unit fractions are used (i.e., those with 1 as the numerator) and interpolation tables are used to approximate the values of the other fractions. 295  first half of 1st millennium BC – Vedic India – Yajnavalkya, in his Shatapatha Brahmana, describes the motions of the sun and the moon, and advances a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the sun and the moon.  800 BC – Baudhayana, author of the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, a Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, contains quadratic equations, and calculates the square root of two correctly to five decimal places.  c. 8th century BC – the Yajur Veda, one of the four Hindu Vedas, contains the earliest concept of infinity, and states "if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity."  1046 BC to 256 BC – China, Zhoubi Suanjing, arithmetic, geometric algorithms, and proofs.  624 BC – 546 BC – Greece, Thales of Miletus has various theorems attributed to him.  c. 600 BC – Greece, the other Vedic "Sulba Sutras" ("rule of chords" in Sanskrit) use Pythagorean triples, contain of a number of geometrical proofs, and approximate π at 3.16.  second half of 1st millennium BC – The Lo Shu Square, the unique normal magic square of order three, was discovered in China.  530 BC – Greece, Pythagoras studies propositional geometry and vibrating lyre strings; his group also discovers the irrationality of the square root of two.  c. 510 BC – Greece, Anaxagoras  c. 500 BC – Indian grammarian Pānini writes the Astadhyayi, which contains the use of metarules, transformations and recursions, originally for the purpose of systematizing the grammar of Sanskrit.  c. 500 BC – Greece, Oenopides of Chios  470 BC – 410 BC – Greece, Hippocrates of Chios utilizes lunes in an attempt to square the circle.  490 BC – 430 BC – Greece, Zeno of Elea Zeno's paradoxes 296  5th century BC – India, Apastamba, author of the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, another Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, makes an attempt at squaring the circle and also calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places.  5th c. BC – Greece, Theodorus of Cyrene  5th century – Greece, Antiphon the Sophist  460 BC – 370 BC – Greece, Democritus  460 BC – 399 BC – Greece, Hippias  5th century (late) – Greece, Bryson of Heraclea  428 BC – 347 BC – Greece, Archytas  423 BC – 347 BC – Greece, Plato  417 BC – 317 BC – Greece, Theaetetus (mathematician)  c. 400 BC – India, Jaina mathematicians write the Surya Prajinapti, a mathematical text classifying all numbers into three sets: enumerable, innumerable and infinite. It also recognises five different types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually.  408 BC – 355 BC – Greece, Eudoxus of Cnidus  400 BC – 350 BC – Greece, Thymaridas  395 BC – 313 BC – Greece, Xenocrates  390 BC – 320 BC – Greece, Dinostratus  380–290 – Greece, Autolycus of Pitane  370 BC – Greece, Eudoxus states the method of exhaustion for area determination.  370 BC – 300 BC – Greece, Aristaeus the Elder  370 BC – 300 BC – Greece, Callippus  350 BC – Greece, Aristotle discusses logical reasoning in Organon.  4th century BC – Indian texts use the Sanskrit word "Shunya" to refer to the concept of "void" (zero).  330 BC – China, the earliest known work on Chinese geometry, the Mo Jing, is compiled. 297  310 BC – 230 BC – Greece, Aristarchus of Samos  390 BC – 310 BC – Greece, Heraclides of Pontus  380 BC – 320 BC – Greece, Menaechmus  300 BC – India, Jain mathematicians in India write the Bhagabati Sutra, which contains the earliest information on combinations.  300 BC – Greece, Euclid in his Elements studies geometry as an axiomatic system, proves the infinitude of prime numbers and presents the Euclidean algorithm; he states the law of reflection in Catoptrics, and he proves the fundamental theorem of arithmetic.  c. 300 BC – India, Brahmi numerals (ancestor of the common modern base 10 numeral system)  370 BC – 300 BC – Greece, Eudemus of Rhodes works on histories of arithmetic, geometry and astronomy now lost.  300 BC – Mesopotamia, the Babylonians invent the earliest calculator, the abacus.  c. 300 BC – Indian mathematician Pingala writes the Chhandah-shastra, which contains the first Indian use of zero as a digit (indicated by a dot) and also presents a description of a binary numeral system, along with the first use of Fibonacci numbers and Pascal's triangle.  280 BC – 210 BC – Greece, Nicomedes (mathematician)  280 BC – 220BC – Greece, Philon of Byzantium  280 BC – 220 BC – Greece, Conon of Samos  279 BC – 206 BC – Greece, Chrysippus  c. 3rd century BC – India, Kātyāyana  250 BC – 190 BC – Greece, Dionysodorus  262 -198 BC – Greece, Apollonius of Perga  260 BC – Greece, Archimedes proved that the value of π lies between 3 + 1/7 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 + 10/71 (approx. 3.1408), that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle and that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He also gave a very accurate estimate of the value of the square root of 3. 298  c. 250 BC – late Olmecs had already begun to use a true zero (a shell glyph) several centuries before Ptolemy in the New World. See 0 (number).  240 BC – Greece, Eratosthenes uses his sieve algorithm to quickly isolate prime numbers.  240 BC 190 BC– Greece, Diocles (mathematician)  225 BC – Greece, Apollonius of Perga writes On Conic Sections and names the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola.  202 BC to 186 BC –China, Book on Numbers and Computation, a mathematical treatise, is written in Han Dynasty.  200 BC – 140 BC – Greece, Zenodorus (mathematician)  150 BC – India, Jain mathematicians in India write the Sthananga Sutra, which contains work on the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations.  c. 150 BC – Greece, Perseus (geometer)  150 BC – China, A method of Gaussian elimination appears in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.  150 BC – China, Horner's method appears in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.  150 BC – China, Negative numbers appear in the Chinese text The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art.  150 BC – 75 BC – Phoenician, Zeno of Sidon  190 BC – 120 BC – Greece, Hipparchus develops the bases of trigonometry.  190 BC – 120 BC – Greece, Hypsicles  160 BC – 100 BC – Greece, Theodosius of Bithynia  135 BC – 51 BC – Greece, Posidonius  206 BC to 8 AD – China, Counting rods  78 BC – 37 BC – China, Jing Fang 299  50 BC – Indian numerals, a descendant of the Brahmi numerals (the first positional notation base-10 numeral system), begins development in India.  mid 1st century Cleomedes (as late as 400 AD)  final centuries BC – Indian astronomer Lagadha writes the Vedanga Jyotisha, a Vedic text on astronomy that describes rules for tracking the motions of the sun and the moon, and uses geometry and trigonometry for astronomy.  1st C. BC – Greece, Geminus  50 BC – 23 AD – China, Liu Xin 1st millennium AD  1st century – Greece, Heron of Alexandria, (Hero) the earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers.  c 100 – Greece, Theon of Smyrna  60 – 120 – Greece, Nicomachus  70 – 140 – Greece, Menelaus of Alexandria Spherical trigonometry  78 – 139 – China, Zhang Heng  c. 2nd century – Greece, Ptolemy of Alexandria wrote the Almagest.  132 – 192 – China, Cai Yong  240 – 300 – Greece, Sporus of Nicaea  250 – Greece, Diophantus uses symbols for unknown numbers in terms of syncopated algebra, and writes Arithmetica, one of the earliest treatises on algebra.  263 – China, Liu Hui computes π using Liu Hui's π algorithm.  300 – the earliest known use of zero as a decimal digit is introduced by Indian mathematicians.  234 – 305 – Greece, Porphyry (philosopher)  300 – 360 – Greece, Serenus of Antinouplis  335 – 405– Greece, Theon of Alexandria 300  c. 340 – Greece, Pappus of Alexandria states his hexagon theorem and his centroid theorem.  350 – 415 – Byzantine Empire, Hypatia  c. 400 – India, the Bakhshali manuscript is written by Jaina mathematicians, which describes a theory of the infinite containing different levels of infinity, shows an understanding of indices, as well as logarithms to base 2, and computes square roots of numbers as large as a million correct to at least 11 decimal places.  300 to 500 – the Chinese remainder theorem is developed by Sun Tzu.  300 to 500 – China, a description of rod calculus is written by Sun Tzu.  412 – 485 – Greece, Proclus  420 – 480 – Greece, Domninus of Larissa  b 440 – Greece, Marinus of Neapolis "I wish everything was mathematics."  450 – China, Zu Chongzhi computes π to seven decimal places. This calculation remains the most accurate calculation for π for close to a thousand years.  c. 474 – 558 – Greece, Anthemius of Tralles  500 – India, Aryabhata writes the Aryabhata-Siddhanta, which first introduces the trigonometric functions and methods of calculating their approximate numerical values. It defines the concepts of sine and cosine, and also contains the earliest tables of sine and cosine values (in 3.75-degree intervals from 0 to 90 degrees).  480 – 540 – Greece, Eutocius of Ascalon  490 – 560 – Greece, Simplicius of Cilicia  6th century – Aryabhata gives accurate calculations for astronomical constants, such as the solar eclipse and lunar eclipse, computes π to four decimal places, and obtains whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern method.  505 – 587 – India, Varāhamihira  6th century – India, Yativṛṣabha  535 – 566 – China, Zhen Luan  550 – Hindu mathematicians give zero a numeral representation in the positional notation Indian numeral system. 301  7th century – India, Bhaskara I gives a rational approximation of the sine function.  7th century – India, Brahmagupta invents the method of solving indeterminate equations of the second degree and is the first to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He also develops methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses of the sun and the moon.  628 – Brahmagupta writes the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, where zero is clearly explained, and where the modern place-value Indian numeral system is fully developed. It also gives rules for manipulating both negative and positive numbers, methods for computing square roots, methods of solving linear and quadratic equations, and rules for summing series, Brahmagupta's identity, and the Brahmagupta theorem.  602 – 670 – China, Li Chunfeng  8th century – India, Virasena gives explicit rules for the Fibonacci sequence, gives the derivation of the volume of a frustum using an infinite procedure, and also deals with the logarithm to base 2 and knows its laws.  8th century – India, Shridhara gives the rule for finding the volume of a sphere and also the formula for solving quadratic equations.  773 – Iraq, Kanka brings Brahmagupta's Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta to Baghdad to explain the Indian system of arithmetic astronomy and the Indian numeral system.  773 – Al-Fazari translates the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta into Arabic upon the request of King Khalif Abbasid Al Mansoor.  9th century – India, Govindsvamin discovers the Newton-Gauss interpolation formula, and gives the fractional parts of Aryabhata's tabular sines.  810 – The House of Wisdom is built in Baghdad for the translation of Greek and Sanskrit mathematical works into Arabic.  820 – Al-Khwarizmi – Persian mathematician, father of algebra, writes the Al-Jabr, later transliterated as Algebra, which introduces systematic algebraic techniques for solving linear and quadratic equations. Translations of his book on arithmetic will introduce the Hindu-Arabic decimal number system to the Western world in the 12th century. The term algorithm is also named after him. 302  820 – Iran, Al-Mahani conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as doubling the cube to problems in algebra.  c. 850 – Iraq, Al-Kindi pioneers cryptanalysis and frequency analysis in his book on cryptography.  c. 850 – India, Mahāvīra writes the Gaṇitasārasan̄graha otherwise known as the Ganita Sara Samgraha which gives systematic rules for expressing a fraction as the sum of unit fractions.  895 – Syria, Thabit ibn Qurra: the only surviving fragment of his original work contains a chapter on the solution and properties of cubic equations. He also generalized the Pythagorean theorem, and discovered the theorem by which pairs of amicable numbers can be found, (i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other).  c. 900 – Egypt, Abu Kamil had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as xn xm = xm+n  940 – Iran, Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani extracts roots using the Indian numeral system.  953 – The arithmetic of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded." Al-Uqlidisi modified these methods for pen and paper use. Eventually the advances enabled by the decimal system led to its standard use throughout the region and the world.  953 – Persia, Al-Karaji is the "first person to completely free algebra from geometrical operations and to replace them with the arithmetical type of operations which are at the core of algebra today. He was first to define the monomials x, x2 , x3 , ... and 1/x, 1/x2 , 1/x3, ... and to give rules for products of any two of these. He started a school of algebra which flourished for several hundreds of years". He also discovered the binomial theorem for integer exponents, which "was a major factor in the development of numerical analysis based on the decimal system". 303  975 – Mesopotamia, Al-Batani extended the Indian concepts of sine and cosine to other trigonometrical ratios, like tangent, secant and their inverse functions. Derived the formulae: sinα = Symbolic stage tanα √1+tan2 α and cosα = 1 . √1+tan2 α 1000–1500  c. 1000 – Abū Sahl al-Qūhī (Kuhi) solves equations higher than the second degree.  c. 1000 – Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi first states a special case of Fermat's Last Theorem.  c. 1000 – Law of sines is discovered by Muslim mathematicians, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, and Abu alWafa.  c. 1000 – Pope Sylvester II introduces the abacus using the Hindu-Arabic numeral system to Europe.  1000 – Al-Karaji writes a book containing the first known proofs by mathematical induction. He used it to prove the binomial theorem, Pascal's triangle, and the sum of integral cubes. He was "the first who introduced the theory of algebraic calculus".  c. 1000 – Ibn Tahir al-Baghdadi studied a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem on amicable numbers, and he also made improvements on the decimal system.  1020 – Abul Wáfa gave the formula: sin (α + β) = sin α cos β + sin β cos α. Also discussed the quadrature of the parabola and the volume of the paraboloid.  1021 – Ibn al-Haytham formulated and solved Alhazen's problem geometrically.  1030 – Ali Ahmad Nasawi writes a treatise on the decimal and sexagesimal number systems. His arithmetic explains the division of fractions and the extraction of square and cubic roots (square root of 57,342; cubic root of 3, 652, 296) in an almost modern manner.  1070 – Omar Khayyám begins to write Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra and classifies cubic equations. 304  c. 1100 – Omar Khayyám "gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections". He became the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He also extracted roots using the decimal system (Hindu-Arabic numeral system).  12th century – Indian numerals have been modified by Arab mathematicians to form the modern Arabic numeral system (used universally in the modern world).  12th century – the Arabic numeral system reaches Europe through the Arabs.  12th century – Bhaskara Acharya writes the Lilavati, which covers the topics of definitions, arithmetical terms, interest computation, arithmetical and geometrical progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, the shadow of the gnomon, methods to solve indeterminate equations, and combinations.  12th century – Bhāskara II (Bhaskara Acharya) writes the Bijaganita (Algebra), which is the first text to recognize that a positive number has two square roots.  12th century – Bhaskara Acharya conceives differential calculus, and also develops Rolle's theorem, Pell's equation, a proof for the Pythagorean Theorem, proves that division by zero is infinity, computes π to 5 decimal places, and calculates the time taken for the earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places.  1130 – Al-Samawal gave a definition of algebra: "[it is concerned] with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."  1135 – Sharafeddin Tusi followed al-Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry, and wrote a treatise on cubic equations that "represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry".  1202 – Leonardo Fibonacci demonstrates the utility of Hindu-Arabic numerals in his Liber Abaci (Book of the Abacus).  1247 – Qin Jiushao publishes Shùshū Jiǔzhāng (Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections). 305  1248 – Li Ye writes Ceyuan haijing, a 12 volume mathematical treatise containing 170 formulas and 696 problems mostly solved by polynomial equations using the method tian yuan shu.  1260 – Al-Farisi gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorization and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17296 and 18416 that have also been joint attributed to Fermat as well as Thabit ibn Qurra.  c. 1250 – Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi attempts to develop a form of non-Euclidean geometry.  1303 – Zhu Shijie publishes Precious Mirror of the Four Elements, which contains an ancient method of arranging binomial coefficients in a triangle.  14th century – Madhava is considered the father of mathematical analysis, who also worked on the power series for π and for sine and cosine functions, and along with other Kerala school mathematicians, founded the important concepts of calculus.  14th century – Parameshvara, a Kerala school mathematician, presents a series form of the sine function that is equivalent to its Taylor series expansion, states the mean value theorem of differential calculus, and is also the first mathematician to give the radius of circle with inscribed cyclic quadrilateral. 15th century  1400 – Madhava discovers the series expansion for the inverse-tangent function, the infinite series for arctan and sin, and many methods for calculating the circumference of the circle, and uses them to compute π correct to 11 decimal places.  c. 1400 – Ghiyath al-Kashi "contributed to the development of decimal fractions not only for approximating algebraic numbers, but also for real numbers such as π. His contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Although not the first to do so, al-Kashi gave an algorithm for calculating nth roots, which is a special case of the methods given many centuries later by [Paolo] Ruffini and [William George] Horner." He is also the first to use the decimal point notation in arithmetic and Arabic numerals. His works include The Key of arithmetics, Discoveries in mathematics, The Decimal point, and The benefits of the zero. 306 The contents of the Benefits of the Zero are an introduction followed by five essays: "On whole number arithmetic", "On fractional arithmetic", "On astrology", "On areas", and "On finding the unknowns [unknown variables]". He also wrote the Thesis on the sine and the chord and Thesis on finding the first degree sine.  15th century – Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi introduced symbolic notation for algebra and for mathematics in general.  15th century – Nilakantha Somayaji, a Kerala school mathematician, writes the Aryabhatiya Bhasya, which contains work on infinite-series expansions, problems of algebra, and spherical geometry.  1424 – Ghiyath al-Kashi computes π to sixteen decimal places using inscribed and circumscribed polygons.  1427 – Al-Kashi completes The Key to Arithmetic containing work of great depth on decimal fractions. It applies arithmetical and algebraic methods to the solution of various problems, including several geometric ones.  1464 – Regiomontanus writes De Triangulis omnimodus which is one of the earliest texts to treat trigonometry as a separate branch of mathematics.  1478 – An anonymous author writes the Treviso Arithmetic.  1494 – Luca Pacioli writes Summa de arithmetica, geometria, proportioni et proportionalità; introduces primitive symbolic algebra using "co" (cosa) for the unknown. Modern 16th century  1501 – Nilakantha Somayaji writes the Tantrasamgraha.  1520 – Scipione dal Ferro develops a method for solving "depressed" cubic equations (cubic equations without an x2 term), but does not publish.  1522 – Adam Ries explained the use of Arabic digits and their advantages over Roman numerals. 307  1535 – Niccolò Tartaglia independently develops a method for solving depressed cubic equations but also does not publish.  1539 – Gerolamo Cardano learns Tartaglia's method for solving depressed cubics and discovers a method for depressing cubics, thereby creating a method for solving all cubics.  1540 – Lodovico Ferrari solves the quartic equation.  1544 – Michael Stifel publishes Arithmetica integra.  1545 – Gerolamo Cardano conceives the idea of complex numbers.  1550 – Jyeshtadeva, a Kerala school mathematician, writes the Yuktibhāṣā, the world's first calculus text, which gives detailed derivations of many calculus theorems and formulae.  1572 – Rafael Bombelli writes Algebra treatise and uses imaginary numbers to solve cubic equations.  1584 – Zhu Zaiyu calculates equal temperament.  1596 – Ludolf van Ceulen computes π to twenty decimal places using inscribed and circumscribed polygons. 17th century  1614 – John Napier discusses Napierian logarithms in Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio.  1617 – Henry Briggs discusses decimal logarithms in Logarithmorum Chilias Prima.  1618 – John Napier publishes the first references to e in a work on logarithms.  1619 – René Descartes discovers analytic geometry (Pierre de Fermat claimed that he also discovered it independently).  1619 – Johannes Kepler discovers two of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.  1629 – Pierre de Fermat develops a rudimentary differential calculus.  1634 – Gilles de Roberval shows that the area under a cycloid is three times the area of its generating circle. 308  1636 – Muhammad Baqir Yazdi jointly discovered the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 along with Descartes (1636).  1637 – Pierre de Fermat claims to have proven Fermat's Last Theorem in his copy of Diophantus' Arithmetica.  1637 – First use of the term imaginary number by René Descartes; it was meant to be derogatory.  1643 – René Descartes develops Descartes' theorem.  1654 – Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat create the theory of probability.  1655 – John Wallis writes Arithmetica Infinitorum.  1658 – Christopher Wren shows that the length of a cycloid is four times the diameter of its generating circle.  1665 – Isaac Newton works on the fundamental theorem of calculus and develops his version of infinitesimal calculus.  1668 – Nicholas Mercator and William Brouncker discover an infinite series for the logarithm while attempting to calculate the area under a hyperbolic segment.  1671 – James Gregory develops a series expansion for the inverse-tangent function (originally discovered by Madhava).  1671 – James Gregory discovers Taylor's Theorem.  1673 – Gottfried Leibniz also develops his version of infinitesimal calculus.  1675 – Isaac Newton invents an algorithm for the computation of functional roots.  1680s – Gottfried Leibniz works on symbolic logic.  1683 – Seki Takakazu discovers the resultant and determinant.  1683 – Seki Takakazu develops elimination theory.  1691 – Gottfried Leibniz discovers the technique of separation of variables for ordinary differential equations.  1693 – Edmund Halley prepares the first mortality tables statistically relating death rate to age.  1696 – Guillaume de L'Hôpital states his rule for the computation of certain limits. 309  1696 – Jakob Bernoulli and Johann Bernoulli solve brachistochrone problem, the first result in the calculus of variations.  1699 – Abraham Sharp calculates π to 72 digits but only 71 are correct. 18th century  1706 – John Machin develops a quickly converging inverse-tangent series for π and computes π to 100 decimal places.  1708 – Seki Takakazu discovers Bernoulli numbers. Jacob Bernoulli whom the numbers are named after is believed to have independently discovered the numbers shortly after Takakazu.  1712 – Brook Taylor develops Taylor series.  1722 – Abraham de Moivre states de Moivre's formula connecting trigonometric functions and complex numbers.  1722 – Takebe Kenko introduces Richardson extrapolation.  1724 – Abraham De Moivre studies mortality statistics and the foundation of the theory of annuities in Annuities on Lives.  1730 – James Stirling publishes The Differential Method.  1733 – Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if Euclid's fifth postulate were false.  1733 – Abraham de Moivre introduces the normal distribution to approximate the binomial distribution in probability.  1734 – Leonhard Euler introduces the integrating factor technique for solving first-order ordinary differential equations.  1735 – Leonhard Euler solves the Basel problem, relating an infinite series to π.  1736 – Leonhard Euler solves the problem of the Seven bridges of Königsberg, in effect creating graph theory.  1739 – Leonhard Euler solves the general homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients. 310  1742 – Christian Goldbach conjectures that every even number greater than two can be expressed as the sum of two primes, now known as Goldbach's conjecture.  1747 – Jean le Rond d'Alembert solves the vibrating string problem (onedimensional wave equation).  1748 – Maria Gaetana Agnesi discusses analysis in Instituzioni Analitiche ad Uso della Gioventu Italiana.  1761 – Thomas Bayes proves Bayes' theorem.  1761 – Johann Heinrich Lambert proves that π is irrational.  1762 – Joseph Louis Lagrange discovers the divergence theorem.  1789 – Jurij Vega improves Machin's formula and computes π to 140 decimal places, 136 of which were correct.  1794 – Jurij Vega publishes Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus.  1796 – Carl Friedrich Gauss proves that the regular 17-gon can be constructed using only a compass and straightedge.  1796 – Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectures the prime number theorem.  1797 – Caspar Wessel associates vectors with complex numbers and studies complex number operations in geometrical terms.  1799 – Carl Friedrich Gauss proves the fundamental theorem of algebra (every polynomial equation has a solution among the complex numbers).  1799 – Paolo Ruffini partially proves the Abel–Ruffini theorem that quintic or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula. 19th century  1801 – Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, Carl Friedrich Gauss's number theory treatise, is published in Latin.  1805 – Adrien-Marie Legendre introduces the method of least squares for fitting a curve to a given set of observations.  1806 – Louis Poinsot discovers the two remaining Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. 311  1806 – Jean-Robert Argand publishes proof of the Fundamental theorem of algebra and the Argand diagram.  1807 – Joseph Fourier announces his discoveries about the trigonometric decomposition of functions.  1811 – Carl Friedrich Gauss discusses the meaning of integrals with complex limits and briefly examines the dependence of such integrals on the chosen path of integration.  1815 – Siméon Denis Poisson carries out integrations along paths in the complex plane.  1817 – Bernard Bolzano presents the intermediate value theorem—a continuous function that is negative at one point and positive at another point must be zero for at least one point in between. Bolzano gives a first formal (ε, δ)-definition of limit.  1821 – Augustin-Louis Cauchy publishes Cours d'Analyse which purportedly contains an erroneous “proof” that the pointwise limit of continuous functions is continuous.  1822 – Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents the Cauchy integral theorem for integration around the boundary of a rectangle in the complex plane.  1822 – Irisawa Shintarō Hiroatsu analyzes Soddy's hexlet in a Sangaku.  1823 – Sophie Germain's Theorem is published in the second edition of Adrien-Marie Legendre's Essai sur la théorie des nombres  1824 – Niels Henrik Abel partially proves the Abel–Ruffini theorem that the general quintic or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula involving only arithmetical operations and roots.  1825 – Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents the Cauchy integral theorem for general integration paths—he assumes the function being integrated has a continuous derivative, and he introduces the theory of residues in complex analysis.  1825 – Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Adrien-Marie Legendre prove Fermat's Last Theorem for n = 5.  1825 – André-Marie Ampère discovers Stokes' theorem.  1826 – Niels Henrik Abel gives counterexamples to Augustin-Louis Cauchy’s purported “proof” that the pointwise limit of continuous functions is continuous.  1828 – George Green proves Green's theorem. 312  1829 – János Bolyai, Gauss, and Lobachevsky invent hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry.  1831 – Mikhail Vasilievich Ostrogradsky rediscovers and gives the first proof of the divergence theorem earlier described by Lagrange, Gauss and Green.  1832 – Évariste Galois presents a general condition for the solvability of algebraic equations, thereby essentially founding group theory and Galois theory.  1832 – Lejeune Dirichlet proves Fermat's Last Theorem for n = 14.  1835 – Lejeune Dirichlet proves Dirichlet's theorem about prime numbers in arithmetical progressions.  1837 – Pierre Wantzel proves that doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible with only a compass and straightedge, as well as the full completion of the problem of constructability of regular polygons.  1837 – Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet develops Analytic number theory.  1838 – First mention of uniform convergence in a paper by Christoph Gudermann; later formalized by Karl Weierstrass. Uniform convergence is required to fix Augustin-Louis Cauchy erroneous “proof” that the pointwise limit of continuous functions is continuous from Cauchy’s 1821 Cours d'Analyse.  1841 – Karl Weierstrass discovers but does not publish the Laurent expansion theorem.  1843 – Pierre-Alphonse Laurent discovers and presents the Laurent expansion theorem.  1843 – William Hamilton discovers the calculus of quaternions and deduces that they are non-commutative.  1847 – George Boole formalizes symbolic logic in The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, defining what is now called Boolean algebra.  1849 – George Gabriel Stokes shows that solitary waves can arise from a combination of periodic waves.  1850 – Victor Alexandre Puiseux distinguishes between poles and branch points and introduces the concept of essential singular points.  1850 – George Gabriel Stokes rediscovers and proves Stokes' theorem.  1854 – Bernhard Riemann introduces Riemannian geometry. 313  1854 – Arthur Cayley shows that quaternions can be used to represent rotations in fourdimensional space.  1858 – August Ferdinand Möbius invents the Möbius strip.  1858 – Charles Hermite solves the general quintic equation by means of elliptic and modular functions.  1859 – Bernhard Riemann formulates the Riemann hypothesis, which has strong implications about the distribution of prime numbers.  1868 – Eugenio Beltrami demonstrates independence of Euclid’s parallel postulate from the other axioms of euclidian geometry.  1870 – Felix Klein constructs an analytic geometry for Lobachevski's geometry thereby establishing its self-consistency and the logical independence of Euclid's fifth postulate.  1872 – Richard Dedekind invents what is now called the Dedekind Cut for defining irrational numbers, and now used for defining surreal numbers.  1873 – Charles Hermite proves that e is transcendental.  1873 – Georg Frobenius presents his method for finding series solutions to linear differential equations with regular singular points.  1874 – Georg Cantor proves that the set of all real numbers is uncountably infinite but the set of all real algebraic numbers is countably infinite. His proof does not use his diagonal argument, which he published in 1891.  1882 – Ferdinand von Lindemann proves that π is transcendental and that therefore the circle cannot be squared with a compass and straightedge.  1882 – Felix Klein invents the Klein bottle.  1895 – Diederik Korteweg and Gustav de Vries derive the Korteweg–de Vries equation to describe the development of long solitary water waves in a canal of rectangular cross section.  1895 – Georg Cantor publishes a book about set theory containing the arithmetic of infinite cardinal numbers and the continuum hypothesis.  1895 – Henri Poincaré publishes paper "Analysis Situs" which started modern topology. 314  1896 – Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin independently prove the prime number theorem.  1896 – Hermann Minkowski presents Geometry of numbers.  1899 – Georg Cantor discovers a contradiction in his set theory.  1899 – David Hilbert presents a set of self-consistent geometric axioms in Foundations of Geometry.  1900 – David Hilbert states his list of 23 problems, which show where some further mathematical work is needed. Contemporary 20th century  1901 – Élie Cartan develops the exterior derivative.  1901 – Henri Lebesgue publishes on Lebesgue integration.  1903 – Carle David Tolmé Runge presents a fast Fourier transform algorithm  1903 – Edmund Georg Hermann Landau gives considerably simpler proof of the prime number theorem.  1908 – Ernst Zermelo axiomizes set theory, thus avoiding Cantor's contradictions.  1908 – Josip Plemelj solves the Riemann problem about the existence of a differential equation with a given monodromic group and uses Sokhotsky – Plemelj formulae.  1912 – Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer presents the Brouwer fixed-point theorem.  1912 – Josip Plemelj publishes simplified proof for the Fermat's Last Theorem for exponent n = 5.  1915 – Emmy Noether proves her symmetry theorem, which shows that every symmetry in physics has a corresponding conservation law.  1916 – Srinivasa Ramanujan introduces Ramanujan conjecture. This conjecture is later generalized by Hans Petersson.  1919 – Viggo Brun defines Brun's constant B2 for twin primes.  1921 – Emmy Noether introduces the first general definition of a commutative ring. 315  1928 – John von Neumann begins devising the principles of game theory and proves the minimax theorem.  1929 – Emmy Noether introduces the first general representation theory of groups and algebras.  1930 – Casimir Kuratowski shows that the three-cottage problem has no solution.  1930 – Alonzo Church introduces Lambda calculus.  1931 – Kurt Gödel proves his incompleteness theorem, which shows that every axiomatic system for mathematics is either incomplete or inconsistent.  1931 – Georges de Rham develops theorems in cohomology and characteristic classes.  1933 – Karol Borsuk and Stanislaw Ulam present the Borsuk–Ulam antipodal-point theorem.  1933 – Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov publishes his book Basic notions of the calculus of probability (Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung), which contains an axiomatization of probability based on measure theory.  1938 – Tadeusz Banachiewicz introduces LU decomposition.  1940 – Kurt Gödel shows that neither the continuum hypothesis nor the axiom of choice can be disproven from the standard axioms of set theory.  1942 – G.C. Danielson and Cornelius Lanczos develop a fast Fourier transform algorithm.  1943 – Kenneth Levenberg proposes a method for nonlinear least squares fitting.  1945 – Stephen Cole Kleene introduces realizability.  1945 – Saunders Mac Lane and Samuel Eilenberg start category theory.  1945 – Norman Steenrod and Samuel Eilenberg give the Eilenberg–Steenrod axioms for (co-)homology.  1946 – Jean Leray introduces the Spectral sequence.  1948 – John von Neumann mathematically studies self-reproducing machines.I  1948 – Atle Selberg and Paul Erdős prove independently in an elementary way the prime number theorem.  1949 – John Wrench and L.R. Smith compute π to 2,037 decimal places using ENIAC. 316  1949 – Claude Shannon develops notion of Information Theory.  1950 – Stanisław Ulam and John von Neumann present cellular automata dynamical systems.  1953 – Nicholas Metropolis introduces the idea of thermodynamic simulated annealing algorithms.  1955 – H. S. M. Coxeter et al. publish the complete list of uniform polyhedron.  1955 – Enrico Fermi, John Pasta, Stanisław Ulam, and Mary Tsingou numerically study a nonlinear spring model of heat conduction and discover solitary wave type behavior.  1956 – Noam Chomsky describes a hierarchy of formal languages.  1956 – John Milnor discovers the existence of an Exotic sphere in seven dimensions, inaugurating the field of differential topology.  1957 – Kiyosi Itô develops Itô calculus.  1957 – Stephen Smale provides the existence proof for crease-free sphere eversion.  1958 – Alexander Grothendieck's proof of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem is published.  1959 – Kenkichi Iwasawa creates Iwasawa theory.  1960 – C. A. R. Hoare invents the quicksort algorithm.  1960 – Irving S. Reed and Gustave Solomon present the Reed–Solomon error-correcting code.  1961 – Daniel Shanks and John Wrench compute π to 100,000 decimal places using an inverse-tangent identity and an IBM-7090 computer.  1961 – John G. F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya independently develop the QR algorithm to calculate the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of a matrix.  1961 – Stephen Smale proves the Poincaré conjecture for all dimensions greater than or equal to 5.  1962 – Donald Marquardt proposes the Levenberg–Marquardt nonlinear least squares fitting algorithm.  1963 – Paul Cohen uses his technique of forcing to show that neither the continuum hypothesis nor the axiom of choice can be proven from the standard axioms of set theory. 317  1963 – Martin Kruskal and Norman Zabusky analytically study the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam– Tsingou heat conduction problem in the continuum limit and find that the KdV equation governs this system.  1963 – meteorologist and mathematician Edward Norton Lorenz published solutions for a simplified mathematical model of atmospheric turbulence – generally known as chaotic behaviour and strange attractors or Lorenz Attractor – also the Butterfly Effect.  1965 – Iranian mathematician Lotfi Asker Zadeh founded fuzzy set theory as an extension of the classical notion of set and he founded the field of Fuzzy Mathematics.  1965 – Martin Kruskal and Norman Zabusky numerically study colliding solitary waves in plasmas and find that they do not disperse after collisions.  1965 – James Cooley and John Tukey present an influential fast Fourier transform algorithm.  1966 – E. J. Putzer presents two methods for computing the exponential of a matrix in terms of a polynomial in that matrix.  1966 – Abraham Robinson presents non-standard analysis.  1967 – Robert Langlands formulates the influential Langlands program of conjectures relating number theory and representation theory.  1968 – Michael Atiyah and Isadore Singer prove the Atiyah–Singer index theorem about the index of elliptic operators.  1973 – Lotfi Zadeh founded the field of fuzzy logic.  1974 – Pierre Deligne solves the last and deepest of the Weil conjectures, completing the program of Grothendieck.  1975 – Benoît Mandelbrot publishes Les objets fractals, forme, hasard et dimension.  1976 – Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken use a computer to prove the Four color theorem.  1981 – Richard Feynman gives an influential talk "Simulating Physics with Computers" (in 1980 Yuri Manin proposed the same idea about quantum computations in "Computable and Uncomputable" (in Russian)). 318  1983 – Gerd Faltings proves the Mordell conjecture and thereby shows that there are only finitely many whole number solutions for each exponent of Fermat's Last Theorem.  1985 – Louis de Branges de Bourcia proves the Bieberbach conjecture.  1986 – Ken Ribet proves Ribet's theorem.  1987 – Yasumasa Kanada, David Bailey, Jonathan Borwein, and Peter Borwein use iterative modular equation approximations to elliptic integrals and a NEC SX2 supercomputer to compute π to 134 million decimal places.  1991 – Alain Connes and John W. Lott develop non-commutative geometry.  1992 – David Deutsch and Richard Jozsa develop the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm, one of the first examples of a quantum algorithm that is exponentially faster than any possible deterministic classical algorithm.  1994 – Andrew Wiles proves part of the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture and thereby proves Fermat's Last Theorem.  1994 – Peter Shor formulates Shor's algorithm, a quantum algorithm for integer factorization.  1995 – Simon Plouffe discovers Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula capable of finding the nth binary digit of π.  1998 – Thomas Callister Hales (almost certainly) proves the Kepler conjecture.  1999 – the full Taniyama–Shimura conjecture is proven.  2000 – the Clay Mathematics Institute proposes the seven Millennium Prize Problems of unsolved important classic mathematical questions. 21st century  2002 – Manindra Agrawal, Nitin Saxena, and Neeraj Kayal of IIT Kanpur present an unconditional deterministic polynomial time algorithm to determine whether a given number is prime (the AKS primality test).  2002 – Yasumasa Kanada, Y. Ushiro, Hisayasu Kuroda, Makoto Kudoh and a team of nine more compute π to 1241.1 billion digits using a Hitachi 64-node supercomputer.  2002 – Preda Mihăilescu proves Catalan's conjecture. 319  2003 – Grigori Perelman proves the Poincaré conjecture.  2004 – the classification of finite simple groups, a collaborative work involving some hundred mathematicians and spanning fifty years, is completed.  2004 – Ben Green and Terence Tao prove the Green-Tao theorem.  2007 – a team of researchers throughout North America and Europe used networks of computers to map E8.  2009 – Fundamental lemma (Langlands program) had been proved by Ngô Bảo Châu.  2010 – Larry Guth and Nets Hawk Katz solve the Erdős distinct distances problem.  2013 – Yitang Zhang proves the first finite bound on gaps between prime numbers.  2014 – Project Flyspeck announces that it completed proof of Kepler's conjecture.  2014 – Using Alexander Yee's y-cruncher "houkouonchi" successfully calculated π to 13.3 trillion digits.  2015 – Terence Tao solved The Erdös Discrepancy Problem  2015 – László Babai found that a quasipolynomial complexity algorithm would solve the Graph isomorphism problem  2016 – Using Alexander Yee's y-cruncher Peter Trueb successfully calculated π to 22.4 trillion digits  2019 – Using y-cruncher v0.7.6 Emma Haruka Iwao calculated π to 31.4 trillion digits. Timeline of zoology Ancient world  28000 BC. Cave painting (e.g. Chauvet Cave) in but, especially Spain, depict animals in a stylized fashion. Mammoths (the same species later to be seen thawing from ice in Siberia) were depicted in these European cave paintings.  10000 BC. Man (Homo sapiens) domesticated dogs, pigs, sheep, goats, fowl, and other animals in Europe, northern Africa and the Near East. 320  6500 BC. The aurochs, ancestor of domestic cattle, would be domesticated in the next two centuries if not earlier (Obre I, Yugoslavia). This fierce beast was the last major food animal to be tamed for use as a source of milk, meat, power, and leather in the Old World.  3500 BC. Sumerian animal-drawn wheeled vehicles and plows are developed in Mesopotamia, the region called the "Fertile Crescent" by U.S. archaeologist James Henry Breasted (1865–1935). Irrigation may also have used animal power. By increasing the area under cultivation and reducing the number of people required to raise food, society will permit a few people to become priests, artisans, scholars, and merchants. Since Sumeria had no natural defenses, armies with mounted cavalry and chariots became imperative and were a scourge upon the land they purported to protect. Civilization was thus built on the backs of equines (horses and asses).  2000 BC. Domestication of the silkworm in China.  1100 BC. Won Chang (China), first of the Chou emperors, stocked his imperial zoological garden with deer, goats, birds and fish from many parts of the world. Like zoos today, the animals may have been seen as exotic, alien, and possibly threatening. The emperor also enjoyed sporting events with the use of animals.  850 BC. Homer (Greek), reputedly a blind poet, wrote the epics Iliad and Odyssey. Both contain animals as monsters and metaphors (gross soldiers turned into pigs by the witch Circe), but also some correct observations on bees and fly maggots. Both epics make reference to mules. The ancient Greeks considered horses so highly that they "hybridized" them with humans, to form boisterous centaurs. At any rate, animals are used as metaphors and moral symbols by Homer to make a timeless story.  610 BC. Anaximander (Greek, 610 BC–545 BC) was a student of Thales of Miletus. The first life, he taught, was formed by spontaneous generation in the mud. Later animals came into being by transmutations, left the water, and reached dry land. Man was derived from lower animals, probably aquatic. His writings, especially his poem On Nature, were read and cited by Aristotle and other later philosophers, but are lost. 321  563 BC. Buddha (Indian, 563?–483 BC) had gentle ideas on the treatment of animals. Animals are held to have intrinsic worth, not just the values they derive from their usefulness to man.  500 BC. Empedocles of Agrigentum (Greek, 504–433 BC) reportedly rid a town of malaria by draining nearby swamps. He proposed the theory of the four humors and a natural origin of living things.  500 BC. Alcmaeon (Greek, c. 500 BC) performed human dissections. He identified the optic nerve, distinguished between veins and arteries, and showed that the nose was not connected to the brain. He made much of the tongue and explained how it functioned. He also gave an explanation for semen and for sleep.  500 BC. Xenophanes (Greek, 576–460 BC), a disciple of Pythagoras (?–497 BC), first recognized fossils as animal remains and inferred that their presence on mountains indicated the latter had once been beneath the sea. "If horses or oxen had hands and could draw or make statues, horses would represent the forms of gods as horses, oxen as oxen." Galen (130?–201?) revived interest in fossils that had been rejected by Aristotle, and the speculations of Xenophanes were again viewed with favor.  470 BC. Democritus of Abdera (Greek, 470–370 BC) made dissections of many animals and humans. He was the first Greek philosopher-scientist to propose a classification of animals, dividing them into blooded animals (Vertebrata) and bloodless animals (Evertebrata). He also held that lower animals had perfected organs and that the brain was the seat of thought.  460 BC. Hippocrates (Greek, 460?–377? BC), the "Father of Medicine", used animal dissections to advance human anatomy. Fifty books attributed to him were assembled in Alexandria in the 3rd century BC. These probably represent the works of several authors, but the treatments given are usually conservative.  440 BC. Herodotus of Halikarnassos (Greek, 484–425 BC) treated exotic fauna in his Historia, but his accounts are often based on tall tales. He explored the Nile, but much of ancient Egyptian civilization was already lost to living memory by his time.  384 BC. Aristotle (Greek, 384–322 BC) studied under Plato, but he was not reluctant to disagree with the master. His books Historia Animalium (9 books), De Partibus 322 Animalium, and De Generatione Animalium set the zoological stage for centuries. He emphasized the value of direst observation, recognized law and order in biological phenomena, and derived conclusions inductively from observed facts. He believed that there was a natural scale that ran from simple to complex. He made advances in the area of marine biology, basing his writings on keen observation and rational interpretation as well as conversations with local Lesbos fishermen for two years, beginning in 344 BC. His account of male protection of eggs by the barking catfish was scorned for centuries until Louis Agassiz confirmed Aristotle's description. Aristotle's botanical works are lost, but those of his botanical student Theophrastos of Eresos (372–288 BC) are still available (Inquiry into Plants).  340 BC. Plato (Greek, 427–347 BC) held that animals existed to serve man, but they should not be mistreated because this would lead people to mistreat other people. Others who have echoed this opinion are St. Thomas Aquinas, Immanuel Kant, and Albert Schweitzer.  323 BC. Alexander the Great (Macedonian, 356–323 BC) collected animals, some perhaps for his old teacher Aristotle, when he was not busy conquering the known world. He is credited with the introduction of the peacock into Europe. Aside from its decorative tail feathers, the peacock (a pheasant) was eaten regularly by Europeans until the arrival of the turkey. (Charlemagne is said to have served thousands at a single bash.)  95 BC. Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus) (Roman, 96?–55 BC) spent his whole life writing one poem (still unfinished), called De Rerum Natura, with a version of the atomic theory, a theory of heredity, etc.  70 BC. Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil) (70–19 BC) was a famous Roman poet. His poems Bucolics (42–37 BC) and Georgics (37–30 BC) hold much information on animal husbandry and farm life. His Aeneid (published posthumously) has many references to the zoology of his time.  36 BC. Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) wrote De Re Rustica, a treatise that includes apiculture. He also treated the problem of sterility in the mule and recorded a rare instance in which a fertile mule was bred. 323  50. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Roman, 4 BC–AD 65), tutor to Roman emperor Nero, maintained that animals have no reason, just instinct, a "stoic" position. He remarked on the ability of glass globes filled with water to magnify small objects.  77. Pliny the Elder (Roman, 23–79) wrote his Historia Naturalis in 37 volumes. This work is a catch-all of zoological folklore, superstitions, and some good observations.  79. Pliny the Younger (Roman, 62–113), nephew of Pliny the Elder, inherited his uncle's notes and wrote on beekeeping.  100. Plutarch (Roman, 46?–120) stated that animals' behavior is motivated by reason and understanding. Life of the ant mirrors the virtues of friendship, sociability, endurance, courage, moderation, prudence, and justice.  131. Galen of Pergamum (Greek, 131?–201?), physician to Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius, wrote on human anatomy from dissections of animals. His texts were used for hundreds of years, gaining the reputation of infallibility.  200 c. Various compilers in post-classical and medieval times added to the Physiologus (or, more popularly, the Bestiary), the major book on animals for hundreds of years. Animals were believed to exist in order to serve man, if not as food or slaves then as moral examples. Middle Ages  600 c. Isidorus Hispalensis (Spanish bishop of Seville) (560–636) wrote Origines sive Etymologiae, a compendium on animals that served until the rediscovery of Aristotle and Pliny. Full of errors, it nevertheless was influential for hundreds of years. He also wrote De Natura Rerum.  781. Al-Jahiz (Afro-Arab, 781–868/869), a scholar at Basra, wrote on the influence of environment on animals.  901. Horses came into wider use in those parts of Europe where the three-field system produces grain surpluses for feed, but hay-fed oxen were more economical, if less efficient, in terms of time and labor and remained almost the sole source of animal power in southern Europe, where most farmers continued to use the two-field system. 324 Lipids Simple Derived Complex Fatty acids Fats and oils Miscellaneous Alcohols Waxes  Phospholipids  Glycolipids  Sulfolipids  Lipoproteins Terpenes Aliphatic hydrocarbons The cause of nutrition and growth resides not in the organism as a whole but in the separate elementary parts—the cells. Theodor Schwann 3 Principles of Cell Theory:  All living things are made up of cells.  Cells are the basic building blocks of life.  All cells come from preexisting cells created through the process of cell division. Bacteria Shape Gram stain Oxygen demand  spherical (cocci)  Gram positive  Aerobic  rod (bacilli)  Gram negative  Anaerobic  spiral (spirilla) 4 ways antibiotics affect bacterial cells: For the first half of geological  Disrupt cell wall synthesis time our ancestors were bacteria.  Inhibit RNA synthesis Most creatures still are bacteria,  Inhibit protein synthesis and each one of our trillions of  Inhibit DNA replication cells is a colony of bacteria. Richard Dawkins Through the process of cell replication, some bacteria develop mutations that make them resistant to drug. Bacteria with the resistant mutation have a better chance of survival against drugs. Resistant bacteria continue to multiply, even when exposed to drugs. Exposure to bacteria → infection occurs and the bacteria spreads → Drug treatment is used Non-resistant bacteria Drug resistant bacteria  The bacteria multiply  The bacteria multiply  The bacteria die.   The bacteria continue to spread The person is healthy again  The person remains sick Virus  Presence of envelope → Enveloped virus (Influenza virus)  Absence of envelope → Non enveloped virus (Adeno virus) Genome:  DNA viruses (Adeno virus)  RNA virus (Corona virus) Strand of nucleic acid:  Double stranded DNA viruses  Single stranded DNA viruses  Double stranded RNA viruses  Single stranded RNA viruses Double stranded RNA virus 5 steps of viral infection:  Attachment If Charles Darwin reappeared  Penetration today, he might be surprised to  Uncoating (viral contents are released)  Biosynthesis  Maturation  Release learn that humans are descended from viruses as well as from apes. Robin Weiss Microorganisms Useful Mankind Food Ecosystem Decomposing Medicine Recycle nutrients 3 helpful microorganisms:  E. Coli is found in the intestines of humans and aid in digestion.  Streptomyces is used in making antibiotics.  Rhizobium is helpful bacteria found in the soil that helps in fixing nitrogen in leguminous plants. Lots of people think, well, we're humans; we're the most intelligent and accomplished species; we're in charge. Bacteria may have a different outlook: more bacteria live and work in one linear centimeter of your lower colon than all the humans who have ever lived. That's what's going on in your digestive tract right now. Are we in charge, or are we simply hosts for bacteria? It all depends on your outlook. Neil deGrasse Tyson  1114. Gerard of Cremona (1114–1187), after the capture of Toledo and its libraries from the Moors, translated Ptolemy, Aristotle, Euclid, Hippocrates, Galen, Pliny and many other classical authors from the Arabic.  1244–1248. Frederick II von Hohenstaufen (Holy Roman Emperor) (1194–1250) wrote De Arte Venandi cum Avibus (The Art of Hunting with Birds) as a practical guide to ornithology. Hawking was the sport for royalty in those days.  1244. Vincentius Bellovacensis (Vincent of Beauvais) (?–1264) wrote Speculum Quadruplex Naturale, Doctrinale, Morale, Historiale (1244–1254), a major encyclopedia of the 13th century. This work comprises three huge volumes, of 80 books and 9,885 chapters.  1248. Thomas of Cantimpré‚ (Fleming, 1204?–1275?) wrote Liber de Natura Rerum, a major 13th-century encyclopedia.  1254–1323. Marco Polo (Italian, 1254–1323) provided information on Asiatic fauna, revealing new animals to Europeans. "Unicorns" (rhinos?) were reported from southern China, but fantastic animals were otherwise not included.  1255–1270. Albertus Magnus of Cologne (Bavarian, 1206?–1280) (Albert von Bollstaedt or St. Albert) wrote De Animalibus. He promoted Aristotle but also included new material on the perfection and intelligence of animals, especially bees.  1304–1309. Petrus de Crescentii wrote Ruralum Commodorum, a practical manual for agriculture with many accurate observations on insects and other animals. Apiculture was discussed at length.  1453. The fall of Constantinople to the Turks ended the Byzantine Empire. Greek manuscripts became known in Europe, including books by Aristotle and Theophrastos that were translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza (Greek, ?–1478).  1492–1555. Edward Wotton (English, 1492–1555) wrote De Differentiis Animalium, a well thought-out work that influenced Gesner.  1492. Christopher Columbus (Italian) arrives in the New World. New animals soon begin to overload European zoology. Columbus is said to have introduced cattle, horses, and eight pigs from the Canary Islands to Hispaniola in 1493, giving rise to virtual 325 devastation of that and other islands. Pigs were often set ashore by sailors to provide food on the ship's later return. Feral populations of hogs were often dangerous to humans.  1500 c. Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bambastus von Hohenheim) (Swiss or German?, 1493– 1541), alchemist, wrote that poisons should be used against disease: he recommended mercury for treating syphilis.  1519–1520. Bernal Diaz del Castillo (Spanish, 1450?–1500), chronicler of Cortez's conquest of Mexico, commented on the zoological gardens of Aztec ruler Montezuma (1466–1520), a marvel with parrots, rattlesnakes, etc.  1523. Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés(Spanish, 1478–1557), appointed official historiographer of the Indies in 1523, wrote Sumario de la Natural Historia delas Indias (Toledo, 1527). He was the first to describe many New World animals, such as the tapir, opossum, manatee, iguana, armadillo, ant-eaters, sloth, pelican, humming birds, etc. Modern world  1551–1555. Pierre Belon (French, 1517–1564) wrote L'Histoire Naturelle des Estranges Poissons Marins (1551) and La Nature et Diversité des Poissons (1555). This latter work included 110 animal species and offered many new observations and corrections to Herodotus. L'Histoire de la nature des oyseaux avec leurs descriptions et naïfs portraicts (1555) was his picture book, with improved animal classification and accurate anatomical drawings. In this he published a man's and a bird's skeleton side by side to show the resemblance. He discovered an armadillo shell in a market in Syria, showing how Islam was distributing the finds from the New World.  1551. Conrad Gessner (Swiss, 1516–1565) wrote Historia animalium (Tiguri, 4 vols., 1551–1558, last volume published in 1587) and gained renown. This work, although uncritically compiled in places, was consulted for over 200 years. He also wrote Icones animalum (1553) and Thierbuch (1563).  1554–1555. Guillaume Rondelet (French, 1507–1566) wrote Libri de piscibus marinis (1554) and Universe aquatilium historia (1555). He gathered vernacular names in hope of being able to identify the animal in question. He did go to print with discoveries that disagreed with Aristotle. 326  1574. Johannes Faber (1576–1629), an early entomologist and member of the Accademia dei Lincei in Rome, gave the microscope its name.  1578. Jean de Lery (French, 1534–1611) was a member of the French colony at Rio de Janeiro. He published Voyage en Amerique avec la description des animaux et plantes de ce pays (1578) with observations on the local fauna.  1585. Thomas Harriot (English, 1560–1621) was a naturalist with the first attempted English colony in North America, on Roanoke Island, North Carolina. His Brief and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia (1590) describes the black bear, gray squirrel, hare, otter, opossum, raccoon, skunk, Virginia and mule deer, turkeys, horseshoe crab (Limulus), etc.  1589. José de Acosta (Spanish, 1539–1600) wrote De Natura Novi Orbis Libri duo (1589) and Historia Natural y Moral de las Indias (1590), describing many previously unknown animals from the New World. 17th century  1600. In Italy a spider scare lead to hysteria and the tarantella dance by which the body cures itself through physical exertions.  1602. Ulysses Aldrovandi (Italian, 1522–1605) wrote De Animalibus Insectis. This and his other works include much nonsense, but he used wing and leg morphology to construct his classification of insects. He is more highly regarded for his ornithological contributions.  1604–1614. Francisco Hernández de Toledo (Spanish) was sent to study Mexican biota in 1593–1600, by Philip II of Spain. His notes were published in Mexico in 1604 and 1614, describing many animals for the first time: coyote, buffalo, axolotl, porcupine, pronghorn antelope, horned lizard, bison, peccary and the toucan. He also figured many animals for the first time: ocelot, rattlesnake, manatee, alligator, armadillo, and the pelican.  1607 (1612?). Captain John Smith (English), head of the Jamestown colony, wrote A Map of Virginia in which he describes the physical features of the country, its climate, plants and animals, and inhabitants. He describes the raccoon, muskrat, flying squirrel, as well as a score of animals, all well identifiable. (In 1609 the Jamestown, Virginia, colony 327 was almost lost when settlers found that their stores had been devoured by rats from English ships.)  1617. Garcilaso de la Vega (Peruvian Spanish, 1539–1617) wrote Royal Commentaries of Peru, containing descriptions of the condor, ocelots, puma, viscacha, tapir, rhea, skunk, llama, huanaco, paca, and vicuña.  1620? North American colonists probably introduced the European honeybee, Apis mellifera, into Virginia. By the 1640s these insects were also in Massachusetts. They became feral and advanced through eastern North America before the settlers.  1628. William Harvey (English, 1578–1657) published Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628) with the doctrine of the circulation of blood (an inference made by him in about 1616).  1634. William Wood (English) wrote New England Prospect (1634) in which he describes New England's fauna.  1637. Thomas Morton (English, c. 1579–1647) wrote New English Canaan (1637) with treatments of 26 species of mammals, 32 birds, 20 fishes and 8 marine invertebrates.  1648. Georg Marcgrave (?–1644) was a German astronomer working for Johann Moritz, Count Maurice of Nassau, in the Dutch colony set up in northeastern Brazil. His Historia Naturalis Brasiliae (1648) contains the best early descriptions of many Brazilian animals. Marcgrave used Tupi names that were later Latinized by Linnaeus in the 13th edition of the Systema Naturae. The biological and linguistic data could have come from Moraes, a Brazilian Jesuit priest turned apostate.  1651. William Harvey published Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium (1651) with the aphorism Ex ovo omnia on the title page.  1661. Marcello Malpighi (Italian, 1628–1694) discovered capillaries (1661), structures predicted to exist by Harvey some thirty years earlier. Malpighi was the founder of microanatomy. He studied, among other things, the anatomy of the silkworm (1669) and the development of the chick (1672).  1662. John Graunt (English) provided the beginnings of demography with his Natural and Political Observations ... made upon the Bills of Mortality (1662). His speculations on Adam's and Eve's descendants and their growth rates showed an understanding of 328 geometrical population increase. He found that more males than females were born, a fact considered by Sir Matthew Hale as providential for the "needs of warfare".  1665. Robert Hooke (English, 1635–1703) wrote Micrographia (1665, 88 plates), with his early microscopic studies. He coined the term "cell".  1668. Francesco Redi (Italian, 1621–1697) wrote Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degli Insetti (1668) and De animaculis vivis quae in corpribus animalium vivorum reperiuntur (1708). His refutation of spontaneous generation in flies is still considered a model in experimentation.  1669. Jan Swammerdam (Dutch, 1637–1680) wrote Historia Insectorum Generalis (1669) describing metamorphosis in insects and supporting the performation doctrine. He was a pioneer in microscopic studies. He gave the first description of red blood corpuscles and discovered the valves of lymph vessels. His work was unknown and unacknowledged until after his death.  1672. Regnier de Graaf (1641–1673) reported that he had traced the human egg from the ovary down the fallopian tube to the uterus. What he really saw was the follicle.  1675–1722. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (Dutch, 1632–1723) wrote Arcana Naturae Detectae Ope Microscopiorum Delphis Batavorum, a treatise with early observations made with microscopes. He discovered blood corpuscles, striated muscles, human spermatozoa (1677), protozoa (1674), bacteria (1683), rotifers, etc.  1691. John Ray (English, 1627–1705) wrote Synopsis methodica animalium quadripedum (1693), Historia Insectorum (1710), and The Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation (1691). He tried to classify different animal species into groups largely according to their toes and teeth.  1699. Edward Tyson (English, 1650–1708) wrote Orang-Outang sive Homo Sylvestris (or Anatomy of a Pygmie Compared with that of a Monkey, an Ape and a Man) (1699), his anatomical study of the primate. This was the first detailed and accurate study of the higher apes. Other studies by Tyson include the female porpoise, male rattlesnake, tapeworm, roundworm (Ascaris), peccary and opossum. 18th century 329  1700? Discovery of the platypus in Australia.  1700. Félix de Azara (Spanish) estimated the feral herds of cattle on the South American pampas at 48 million animals. These animals probably descended from herds introduced by the Jesuits some 100 years earlier. (North America and Australia were to follow in this pattern, where feral herds of cattle and mustangs would explode, become pests, and reform the frontier areas.)  1705. Maria Sybilla Merian (German, 1647–1717) wrote and beautifully illustrated her Metamorphosis insectorum surinamensis (Veranderingen der Surinaamsche Insecten) (1705). In this book she stated that Fulgora lanternaria was luminous.  1730? Sir Hans Sloane (English (born Ireland), 1660–1753) was a founder of the British Museum.  1734–1742. René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (French, 1683–1756) was an early entomologist. His Mémoires pour servir ... l'histoire des insectes (6 volumes) shows the best of zoological observation at the time. He invented the glass-fronted bee hive.  1740. Abraham Trembley, Swiss naturalist, discovered the hydra which he considered to combine both animal and plant characteristics. His Mémoires pour Servir ... l'Histoire d'un Genre de Polypes d'Eau Douce ... Bras en Terme de Cornes (1744) showed that freshwater polyps of Hydra could be sectioned or mutilated and still reform. Regeneration soon became a topic of inquiry among Réaumur, Bonnet, Spallanzini and others.  1745. Charles Bonnet (French-Swiss, 1720–1793) wrote Traité d'Insectologie (1745) and Contemplation de la nature (1732). He confirmed parthenogenesis of aphids.  1745. Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis (French, 1698–1759) went to Lapland to measure the arc of the meridian (1736–1737). Maupertuis was a Newtonian. He generated family trees for inheritable characteristics (e.g., haemophilia in European royal families) and showed inheritance through both the male and female lines. He was an early evolutionist and head of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1744 he proposed the theory that molecules from all parts of the body were gathered into the gonads (later called "pangenesis"). Vénus physique was published anonymously in 1745. Maupertuis wrote Essai de cosmologie in which he suggests a survival of the fittest concept: "Could 330 not one say that since, in the accidental combination of Nature's productions, only those could survive which found themselves provided with certain appropriate relationships, it is no wonder that these relationships are present in all the species that actually exist? These species which we see today are only the smallest part of those which a blind destiny produced."  1748. John Tuberville Needham, an English naturalist, wrote Observations upon the Generation, Composition, and Decomposition of Animal and Vegetable Substances in which he offers "proof" of spontaneous generation. Needham found flasks of broth teeming with "little animals" after having boiled them and sealed them, but his experimental techniques were faulty.  1748–1751. Peter Kalm (Swede) was a naturalist and student of Linnaeus. He traveled in North America (1748–1751).  1749–1804. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (French, 1707–1788) wrote Histoire Naturelle (1749–1804 in 44 vols.) that had a great impact on zoology. He asserted that species were mutable. Buffon also drew attention to vestigial organs. He held that spermatozoa were "living organic molecules" that multiplied in the semen.  1758. Albrecht von Haller (Swiss, 1708–1777) was one of the founders of modern physiology. His work on the nervous system was revolutionary. He championed animal physiology, along with human physiology. See his textbook Elementa Physiologiae Corporis Humani (1758).  1758. Carl Linnaeus (Swedish, 1707–1778) published the Systema Naturae whose tenth edition (1758) is the starting point of binomial nomenclature for zoology.  1759. Caspar Friedrich Wolff (1733–1794) wrote Theoria Generationis (1759) that disagreed with the idea of preformation. He supported the doctrine of epigenesis. A youthful follower of the German philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646– 1716), Wolff sought to resolve the problem of hybrids (mule, hinny, apemen) in his epigenesis, since these could not be well explained by performation.  1768. Sir Joseph Banks (1743–1820) and Daniel Solander (1733–1782) sailed with Captain James Cook (English, 1728–1779) on the H.M.S. Endeavour for the South Seas (Tahiti), until 1771. 331  1769. Edward Bancroft (English) wrote An Essay on the Natural History of Guyana in South America (1769) and advanced the theory that flies transmit disease.  1771. Johann Reinhold Forster (German, 1729–1798) was the naturalist on Cook's second voyage around the world (1772–1775). He published a Catalogue of the Animals of North America (1771) as an addendum to Kalm's Travels. He also studied the birds of Hudson Bay.  1774. Gilbert White (English) wrote The natural history and antiquities of Selborne, in the county of Southampton (1774) with fine ornithological observations on migration, territoriality and flocking.  1775. Johan Christian Fabricius (Danish, 1745–1808) wrote Systema Entomologiae (1775), Genera Insectorum (1776), Philosophia Entomologica (1778), Entomologia Systematica (1792–1794, in six vols.), and later publications (to 1805), to make Fabricius one of the world's greatest entomologists.  1776. René Dutrochet (French, 1776–1832) proposed an early version of the cell theory.  1780. Lazaro Spallanzani (Italian, 1729–1799) performed artificial fertilization in the frog, silkmoth and dog. He concluded from filtration experiments that spermatozoa were necessary for fertilization. In 1783 he showed that human digestion was a chemical process since gastric juices in and outside the body liquefied food (meat). He used himself as the experimental animal. His work to disprove spontaneous generation in microbes was resisted by John Needham (English priest, 1713–1781).  1780. Antoine Lavoisier (French, 1743–1794) and Pierre Laplace (French, 1749–1827) wrote Memoir on heat. Animal respiration was a form of combustion, a conclusion reached by this discoverer of Oxygen.  1783–1792. Alexandre Rodrigues Ferreira (Brazilian) undertook biological exploration. He wrote Viagem Filosófica pelas Captanias do Grão-Pará, Rio Negro, Mato Grosso e Cuiabá. His specimens were taken by Saint-Hilaire from Lisbon to the Paris Museum during the Napoleonic invasion of Portugal. He is considered the "Brazilian Humboldt".  1784. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (German) wrote Erster Entwurf einer Einleitung in die vergleichende Anatomie (1795) that promoted the idea of archetypes to which animals should be compared. Vitalist and romantic, his zoology mostly follows Lorenz Oken. 332  1784. Thomas Jefferson (American) wrote Notes on the State of Virginia (1784) that refuted some of Buffon's mistakes about New World fauna. As U.S. President, he dispatched the Lewis and Clark expedition to the American West (1804).  1789? Guillaume Antoine Olivier (French, 1756–1814) wrote Entomologie, or Histoire Naturelle des Insectes (1789).  1789. George Shaw & Frederick Polydore Nodder published The Naturalist's Miscellany: or coloured figures of natural objects drawn and described immediately from nature (1789–1813) in 24 volumes with hundreds of color plates.  1792. François Huber made original observations on honeybees. In his Nouvelles Observations sur les Abeilles (1792) he noted that the first eggs laid by queen bees develop into drones if her nuptial flight had been delayed and that her last eggs would also give rise to drones. He also noted that rare worker eggs develop into drones. This anticipated by over 50 years the discovery by Jan Dzierżon that drones come from unfertilized eggs and queen and worker bees come from fertilized eggs.  1793. Lazaro Spallanzani (Italian, 1729–1799) conducted experiments on the orientation of bats and owls in the dark.  1793. Christian Konrad Sprengel (1750–1816) wrote Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (1793) that was a major work on insect pollination of flowers, previously discovered in 1721 by Philip Miller (1694–1771), the head gardener at Chelsea and author of the famous Gardener's Dictionary (1731–1804).  1794. Erasmus Darwin (English, grandfather of Charles Darwin) wrote Zoönomia, or the Laws of Organic Life (1794) in which he advanced the idea that environmental influences could transform species.  1795. James Hutton (English) wrote Theory of the Earth (1795) in which he interpreted certain geological strata as former sea beds.  1796–1829. Pierre André Latreille (French, 1762–1833) sought to provide a "natural" system for the classification of animals, in his many monographs on invertebrates. Insectes de l'Amerique Equinoxiale (1811) was devoted to insects collected by Humboldt and Bonpland. 333  1798. Thomas Robert Malthus (English, 1766–1834) wrote Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), a book that was important to both Darwin and Wallace.  1799. George Shaw (English) provided the first description of the duck-billed platypus. Everard Home (1802) provided the first complete description.  1799–1803. Alexander von Humboldt (German, 1769–1859) and Aimé Jacques Alexandre Goujaud Bonpland (French) arrived in Venezuela in 1799. Humboldt's Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America during the years 1799–1803 and Kosmos were very influential in his time and since.  1799. Georges Cuvier (French, 1769–1832) established comparative anatomy as a field of study. He also founded the science of paleontology. He wrote Leçons d'Anatomie Comparée (1801–1805), Le Règne Animal distribué d'après son organisation (1816), Ossemens Fossiles (1812–1813). He believed in the fixity of species and the Biblical Flood. His early Tableau élémentaire de l'histoire naturelle des animaux (1798) was influential, but it did not include Cuvier's major contributions to animal classification.  1799. American hunters killed the last bison in the American East, in Pennsylvania. 19th century  1802. Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck (French, 1744–1829) wrote Recherches sur l'Organisation des Corps Vivants and Philosophie zoologique (1809). He was an early evolutionist and organized invertebrate paleontology. While Lamarck's contributions to science include work in meteorology, botany, chemistry, geology, and paleontology, he is best known for his work in invertebrate zoology and his theoretical work on evolution. He published an impressive seven-volume work, Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertèbres ("Natural history of animals without backbones"; 1815–1822).  1813–1818. William Charles Wells (Scottish-American, 1757–1817) was the first to recognise the principle of natural selection. He read a paper to the Royal Society in 1813 (but not published until 1818) which used the idea to explain differences between human races. The application was limited to the question of how different skin colours arose. 334  1815. William Kirby and William Spence (English) wrote An Introduction to Entomology (first edition in 1815). This was the first modern entomology text.  1817. Georges Cuvier wrote Le Règne Animal (Paris).  1817–1820. Johann Baptist von Spix (German, 1781–1826) and Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius (German) conducted Brazilian zoological and botanical explorations (1817– 1820). See their Reise in Brasilien auf Befehl Sr. Majestät Maximilian Joseph I König von Bayern in den Jahren 1817 bis 1820 gemacht und beschrieben (3 vols., 1823–1831).  1817. William Smith, in his Strategraphical System of Organized Fossils (1817) showed that certain strata have characteristic series of fossils.  1817. Thomas Say (American, 1787–1834) was a brilliant young systematic zoologist until he moved to the utopian community at New Harmony, Indiana, in 1825. Luckily, most of his insect collections have been recovered.  William Lawrence (English, 1783–1867) published a book of his lectures to the Royal College of Surgeons in 1819. The book contains a remarkably clear rejection of Lamarckism (soft inheritance), proto-evolutionary ideas about the origin of mankind, and a forthright denial of the 'Jewish scriptures' (= Old Testament). He was forced to suppress the book after the Lord Chancellor refused copyright and other powerful men made threatening remarks. His subsequent life was highly successful.  1824. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) is founded at London.  1825. Gideon Mantell (English) wrote "Notice on the Iguanodon, a newly discovered fossil reptile, from the sandstone of Tilgate Forest, in Sussex" (Phil. Trans. Roy, Soc. Lond., 115: 179–186), the first paper on dinosaurs. The name dinosaur was coined by anatomist Richard Owen.  1826. The Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park is founded by the Zoological Society of London with help from Sir Thomas Raffles. It opened its "zoo" to the public for two days a week beginning April 27, 1828, with the first hippopotamus to be seen in Europe since the ancient Romans showed one at the Coliseum. The Society will help save bird and animal species from extinction. 335  1826–1839. John James Audubon (Haitian-born American, 1785–1851) wrote Birds of America (1826–1839), with North American bird portraits and studies.  1827. Karl Ernst von Baer (Russian embryologist, 1792–1876) was the founder of comparative embryology. He demonstrated the existence of the mammalian ovum, and he proposed the germ-layer theory. His major works include De ovi mammalium et hominis genesi (1827) and Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Tiere (1828; 1837).  1829. James Smithson (English, 1765–1829) donated seed money in his will for the founding of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington.  1830–1833. Sir Charles Lyell (English, 1797–1875) wrote Principles of Geology and gave the time needed for evolution to work. Darwin took this book to sea on the Beagle. Past environments were probably much more perturbed than Lyell admitted.  1830. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (French, 1772–1844) wrote Principes de philosophie zoologique (1830).  1831–1836. Charles Darwin (English, 1809–1882) and Captain Robert FitzRoy (English) went to sea as the original odd couple. Darwin's report is generally known as The Voyage of the Beagle.  1832. Thomas Nuttall (American?, 1786–1859) wrote A Manual of the Ornithology of the United States and Canada (1832) that was to become the standard text on the subject for most of the 19th century.  1835. William Swainson (English, 1789–1855) wrote A Treatise on the Geography and Classification of Animals (1835) in which he used ad hoc land bridges to explain animal distributions. He included some interesting, second-hand observations on Old World army ants.  1836. William Buckland (English, 1784–1856) wrote Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to natural Theology (1836) in which he stated that there were several creations. The zoologist is delighted by the differences between animals, whereas the physiologist would like all animals to work in fundamentally the same way. ― Alan Hodgkin 336  1839. Theodor Schwann (German, 1810–1882) wrote Mikroskopischen Untersuchungen über die Übereinstimmungen in der Strucktur und dem Wachstum der Thiere und Pflanzen (1839). With him the cell theory was made general.  1839. Louis Agassiz (Swiss-American, 1807–1873) arrived in the U.S. A former student of Cuvier, Louis Agassiz was an expert on fossil fishes. He founded the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Harvard University, and became Darwin's North American opposition. He was a popularizer of natural history and exhorted students to "study nature, not books". His Nomenclator Zoologicus (1842–1847) was a pioneering effort.  1840. Jan Evangelista Purkyně, a Czech physiologist, at Wrocław proposes that the word "protoplasm" be applied to the formative material of young animal embryos.  1842. Baron Justus von Liebig wrote Die Thierchemie in which he applied classic methodology to studying animal tissues, suggested that animal heat is produced by combustion, and founded the science of biochemistry.  1843. John James Audubon, age 58, ascended the Missouri River to Fort Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone to sketch wild animals.  1844. Robert Chambers (Scottish, 1802–1871) wrote the Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1844) in which he included early evolutionary considerations. The most primitive species originated by spontaneous generation, but these gave rise to more advanced ones. This book, anonymously published, had a profound effect on Wallace. Evolution "was the manner in which the Divine Author has been pleased to work".  1845. von Siebold recognized Protozoa as single-celled animals.  1848. Josiah C. Nott (American), a physician from New Orleans, published his belief that mosquitoes transmitted malaria.  1848. Alfred Russel Wallace (British, 1823–1913) and Henry W. Bates (English, 1825– 1892) arrived in the Amazon River valley in 1848. Bates stayed until 1859, exploring the upper Amazon. Wallace remained in the Amazon until 1852, exploring the Rio Negro. Wallace wrote A Narrative of Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro (1853), and Bates wrote The Naturalist on the River Amazons (1863). Later (1854–1862), Wallace went to the Far East, reported in his The Malay Archipelago (1869). 337  1849. Arnold Adolph Berthold demonstrated by castration and testicular transplant that the testis produces a blood-borne substance promoting male secondary sexual characteristics.  1850? Thomas Hardwicke (British naturalist) discovered the lesser panda (Ailurus fulgens) in northern India.  1855. Alfred Russel Wallace (English, 1823–1913) wrote On the law which has regulated the introduction of new species (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., September 1855) with evolutionary ideas that drew upon Wallace's experiences in the Amazon.  1857. Discovery of Neanderthal skull-cap.  1857–1881. Henri Milne-Edwards (French, 1800–1885) introduced the idea of physiologic division of labor and wrote a treatise on comparative anatomy and physiology (1857–1881).  1859. Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species, explaining the mechanism of evolution by natural selection and founding the field of evolutionary biology.  1864. Louis Pasteur disproved the spontaneous generation of cellular life.  1865. Gregor Mendel demonstrated in pea plants that inheritance follows definite rules. The Principle of Segregation states that each organism has two genes per trait, which segregate when the organism makes eggs or sperm. The Principle of Independent Assortment states that each gene in a pair is distributed independently during the formation of eggs or sperm. Mendel's trailblazing foundation for the science of genetics went unnoticed, to his lasting disappointment.  1869. Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic acids in the nuclei of cells.  1876. Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently described (in sea urchin eggs) the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus.  1892. Hans Driesch separated the individual cells of a 2-cell sea urchin embryo and shows that each cell develops into a complete individual, thus disproving the theory of preformation and showing that each cell is "totipotent," containing all the hereditary information necessary to form an individual. 338 Fungi Reproduction  Phycomycetes (lower fungi)  Ascomycetes (The sac fungi)  Basidiomycetes ( The club fungi)  Deuteromycetes ( The fungi imperfect) Mode of nutrition  saprophytic  parasitic  symbiotic  vegetative (fragmentation, fission or budding)  asexual (conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores)  sexual reproduction by oospores, ascospore and basidiospores We inherit every one of our genes, but we leave the womb without a single microbe. As we pass through our mother's birth canal, we begin to attract entire colonies of bacteria. By the time a child can crawl, he has been blanketed by an enormous, unseen cloud of microorganisms--a hundred trillion or more. They are bacteria, mostly, but also viruses and fungi (including a variety of yeasts), and they come at us from all directions: other people, food, furniture, clothing, cars, buildings, trees, pets, even the air we breathe. They congregate in our digestive systems and our mouths, fill the space between our teeth, cover our skin, and line our throats. We are inhabited by as many as ten thousand bacterial species; those cells outnumber those which we consider our own by ten to one, and weigh, all told, about three pounds--the same as our brain. Together, they are referred to as our microbiome--and they play such a crucial role in our lives that scientists like [Martin J.] Blaser have begun to reconsider what it means to be human. Michael Specter Algae Microalgae Macroalgae  Green algae (Chlorophyta)  Microscopic Green algae (Chlorophyta)  Red algae (Rhodophyta)  Diatoms and Golden brown algae (Chrysophyta)  Brown algae (Phaeophyta)  Dinoflagellates (Pyrrophyta or fire algae)  Blue-green algae (Cyanophyta) Algae is the perfect food plant. It doubles cell mass every twelve hours, depending on the strain. Homaro Cantu Uses  Algae is used to create biofuel and vegetable oil  Algae is a Great Human Food Supplement  Algae   function as an Energy Source  used for Animal Feed  used to create plastics Algae is a Productive CO2 Emissions Cleaner and can be an efficient component when it comes to wastewater treatment. Large, centralized organizations foster alienation like stagnant ponds breed algae. Ricardo Semler But we have not used our waters well. Our major rivers are defiled by noxious debris. Pollutants from cities and industries kill the fish in our streams. Many waterways are covered with oil slicks and contain growths of algae that destroy productive life and make the water unfit for recreation. "Polluted Water-No Swimming" has become a familiar sign on too many beaches and rivers. A lake that has served many generations of men now can be destroyed by man in less than one generation. Lyndon B. Johnson 3 main functions Nervous system Central nervous system brain  spinal cord sensory  integration  motor Peripheral nervous system The forward bend really relaxes   the nervous system and brings blood flow back to the brain. Mandy Ingber  spinal nerves  cranial nerves 20th century 1900–1949  1900. Three biologists Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, Erich von Tschermak independently rediscovered Mendel's paper on heredity.  1905. William Bateson coined the term "genetics" to describe the study of biological inheritance.  1907. Ivan Pavlov demonstrated conditioned responses with salivating dogs.  1922. Aleksandr Oparin proposed that the Earth's early atmosphere contained methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapour, and that these were the raw materials for the origin of life.  1935. Konrad Lorenz described the imprinting behavior of young birds.  1937. In Genetics and the Origin of Species, Theodosius Dobzhansky applies the chromosome theory and population genetics to natural populations in the first mature work of neo-Darwinism, also called the modern synthesis, a term coined by Julian Huxley.  1938. A living coelacanth was found off the coast of southern Africa.  1940. Donald Griffin and Robert Galambos announced their discovery of echolocation by bats. 1950–1999  1952. American developmental biologists Robert Briggs and Thomas King cloned the first vertebrate by transplanting nuclei from leopard frog embryos into enucleated eggs. More differentiated cells were the less able they are to direct development in the enucleated egg.  1961. Joan Oró found that concentrated solutions of ammonium cyanide in water can produce the nucleotide adenine, a discovery that opened the way for theories on the origin of life. 339  1967. John Gurdon used nuclear transplantation to clone an African clawed frog; first cloning of a vertebrate using a nucleus from a fully differentiated adult cell.  1972. Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed an idea called "punctuated equilibrium", which states that the fossil record is an accurate depiction of the pace of evolution, with long periods of "stasis" (little change) punctuated by brief periods of rapid change and species formation (within a lineage).  1996. Dolly the sheep was first clone of an adult mammal. Timeline of solar astronomy 9th century  850 — Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī (Alfraganus) gives values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the Sun 10th century  900–929 — Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius) discovers that the direction of the Sun's eccentricity is changing  950–1000 — Ibn Yunus observes more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres 11th century  1031 — Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī calculates the distance between the Earth and the Sun in his Canon Mas’udicus 17th century  1613 — Galileo Galilei uses sunspot observations to demonstrate the rotation of the Sun  1619 — Johannes Kepler postulates a solar wind to explain the direction of comet tails 340 19th century  1802 — William Hyde Wollaston observes dark lines in the solar spectrum  1814 — Joseph Fraunhofer systematically studies the dark lines in the solar spectrum  1834 — Hermann Helmholtz proposes gravitational contraction as the energy source for the Sun  1843 — Heinrich Schwabe announces his discovery of the sunspot cycle and estimates its period to be about a decade  1852 — Edward Sabine shows that sunspot number is correlated with geomagnetic field variations  1859 — Richard Carrington discovers solar flares  1860 — Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen discover that each chemical element has its own distinct set of spectral lines  1861 — Gustav Spörer discovers the variation of sun-spot latitudes during a solar cycle, explained by Spörer's law  1863 — Richard Carrington discovers the differential nature of solar rotation  1868 — Pierre Janssen and Norman Lockyer discover an unidentified yellow line in solar prominence spectra and suggest it comes from a new element which they name "helium"  1893 — Edward Maunder discovers the 1645-1715 Maunder sunspot minimum 20th century  1904 — Edward Maunder plots the first sunspot "butterfly diagram"  1906 — Karl Schwarzschild explains solar limb darkening  1908 — George Hale discovers the Zeeman splitting of spectral lines from sunspots  1925 — Cecilia Payne proposes hydrogen is the dominant element of the Sun, not iron  1929 — Bernard Lyot invents the coronagraph and observes the corona with an "artificial eclipse"  1942 — J.S. Hey detects solar radio waves  1949 — Herbert Friedman detects solar X-rays 341  1960 — Robert B. Leighton, Robert Noyes, and George Simon discover solar fiveminute oscillations by observing the Doppler shifts of solar dark lines  1961 — Horace W. Babcock proposes the magnetic coiling sunspot theory  1970 — Roger Ulrich, John Leibacher, and Robert F. Stein deduce from theoretical solar models that the interior of the Sun could act as a resonant acoustic cavity  1975 — Franz-Ludwig Deubner makes the first accurate measurements of the period and horizontal wavelength of the five-minute solar oscillations  1981 — NASA retrieves data from 1978 that shows a comet crashing into the Sun Berlin's Zoologischer Garten is the 21st century  largest zoo in the world 2004 — largest solar flare ever recorded occurs Timeline of telescopes, observatories, and observing technology Before the Common Era (BCE) Munich's Oktoberfest is the world's biggest folk festival 3500s BCE  The earliest sundials known from the archaeological record are the obelisks from ancient Egyptian astronomy and Babylonian astronomy 1900s BCE  Taosi Astronomical Observatory, Xiangfen County, Linfen City, Shanxi Province, China 1500s BCE  Shadow clocks invented in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia 600s BCE Nicanor Parra, got the Cervantes Prize, the most important literary prize in the Spanish-speaking world 342  11th–7th century BCE, Zhou dynasty astronomical observatory (灵台) in today's Xian, China German is the most popular third language that's taught in the world. 200s BCE  Thirteen Towers solar observatory, Chankillo, Peru 100s BCE  220-206 BCE, Han dynasty astronomical observatory (灵台) in Chang'an and Luoyang. During East Han dynasty, astronomical observatory (灵台) built in Yanshi, Henan Province, China  220-150 BCE, Astrolabe invented by Apollonius of Perga Common Era (CE) The capital of Germany, Berlin, is nine times larger than the city of Paris, and actually has more bridges than Venice. 400s  5th century – Observatory at Ujjain, India  5th century – Surya Siddhanta written in India  499 – Aryabhatiya written by Aryabhata 500s  Paul Ehrlich engineered the first antibiotic to treat syphilis in 1909. 6th century – Various siddhantas compiled by Indian astronomers 600s  c. 628 – Brahmasphutasiddhanta by Brahmagupta  632–647 – Cheomseongdae observatory is built in the reign of Queen Seondeok at Gyeongju, then the capital of Silla (present day South Korea) 343  618–1279 – Tang dynasty-Song dynasty, observatories built in Chang'an, Kaifeng, Hangzhou, China 700s  700–77 – The first Zij treatise, Az-Zīj ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab, written by Ibrahim alFazari and Muhammad al-Fazari  700–96 – Brass astrolabe constructed by Muhammad al-Fazari based on Hellenistic sources  c. 777 – Yaqūb ibn Tāriq wrote Az-Zij al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja based on Brahmagupta and Surya Siddhanta In 1993, Andrew Wiles presented his proof at a conference in Cambridge, but later that 800s  year a flaw was discovered in it. 9th century – quadrant invented by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī in 9th century Baghdad and is used for astronomical calculations  800–33 – The first modern observatory research institute built in Baghdad, Iraq, by Arabic astronomers during time of Al-Mamun  800–50 – Zij al-Sindhind written by Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Algorismi)  825–35 – Al-Shammisiyyah observatory by Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi in Baghdad, Iraq  869 – Mahodayapuram Observatory in Kerala, India, by Sankaranarayana 900s  10th century – Large astrolabe of diameter 1.4 meters constructed by Ibn Yunus  900–29 – Az-Zij as-Sabi written by Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī alBattānī (Albatenius)  994 – First sextant constructed in Ray, Iran, by Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi. It was a very large mural sextant that achieved a high level of accuracy for astronomical measurements. 344 1000s  1000 – Mokattam observatory in Egypt for Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah  1000 – Volvelle, an early paper analog computer, invented by Arabic physicians and improved by Abu Rayhan Biruni for use in astronomy.  11th century – Planisphere invented by Biruni  11th century – Universal latitude-independent astrolabe invented by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī (Arzachel)  1015 – Equatorium invented by Arzachel in Al-Andalus  1023 – Hamedan observatory in Persia  c. 1030 – Treasury of Optics by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) of Iraq and Egypt  1074–92 – Malikshah Observatory at Isfahan used by Omar Khayyám  1086 – Northern Song dynasty astronomical observatory 1100s  Germany is sometimes known as the land of poets and thinkers 1100–50 – Jabir ibn Aflah (Geber) (c. 1100–1150) invented the torquetum, an observational instrument and mechanical analog computer device  1114–87 – Tables of Toledo based on Arzachel and published by Gerard of Cremona  1115–16 – Sinjaric Tables written by al-Khazini  1119–25 – Cairo al-Bataihi observatory for Al-Afdal Shahanshah  cs. 1020 – Geared mechanical astrolabe invented by Ibn Samh 1200s  1206 – Al-Jazari invented his largest astronomical clock, the "castle clock", which is considered to be the first programmable analog computer.  1252–72 – Alfonsine tables recorded  1259 – Maragheh observatory and library of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi built in Persia under Hulagu Khan 345  c. 1270 – Terrace for Managing Heaven 26 observatory network of Guo Shoujing under Khubilai Khan  1272 – Zij-i Ilkhani written by Nasir al-Din al-Tusi  1276 – Dengfeng Star Observatory Platform, Gaocheng, Dengfeng City, Henan Province, China 1300s  1371 – The idea of using hours of equal time length throughout the year in a sundial was the innovation of Ibn al-Shatir 1400s  1400–29 – Khaqani Zij by Jamshīd al-Kāshī  1417 – Speculum Planetarum by Simones de Selandia  1420 – Samarkand observatory of Ulugh Beg  1437 – Zij-i-Sultani written by Ulugh Beg  1442 – Beijing Ancient Observatory in China  1467–71 – Observatory at Oradea, Hungary for Matthias Corvinus  1472 – The Nuremberg observatory of Regiomontanus and Bernhard Walther. Zhang Heng, made the first seismometer; died in 139 A.D. 1500s  1540 Apian "Astronomicum Caesareum"  1560 – Kassel observatory under Landgrave Wilhelm IV of Hesse  1574 – Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf describes a long-distance magnifying device in his Book of the Light of the Pupil of Vision and the Light of the Truth of the Sights, which may have possibly been an early rudimentary telescope.  1575–80 – Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din under Sultan Murad III  1576 – Royal Danish Astronomical Observatory Uraniborg at Hven by Tycho Brahe  1577 – Constantinople observatory constructed for Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf 346  1577–80 – Unbored Pearl, a Zij treatise by Taqi al-Din  1577–80 – Taqi al-Din invents a mechanical astronomical clock that measures time in seconds, one of the most important innovations in 16th-century practical astronomy, as previous clocks were not accurate enough to be used for astronomical purposes.  1577–80 – Taqi al-Din invents framed sextant  1581 – Royal Danish Astronomical Observatory Stjerneborg at Hven by Tycho Brahe  1589–90 – Celestial globe without seams invented in Mughal India by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman during Akbar the Great's reign. Paul Erdős, published around 1,500 mathematical papers during his lifetime, a figure that remains unsurpassed; died 1996 1600s  1600 – Prague observatory in Benátky nad Jizerou by Tycho Brahe  1603 – Johann Bayer's Uranometria is published  1608 – Hans Lippershey tries to patent an optical refracting telescope, the first recorded functional telescope  1609 – Galileo Galilei builds his first optical refracting telescope  1616 – Niccolò Zucchi experiments with a reflecting telescope  1633 – Construction of Leiden University Observatory  1641 – William Gascoigne invents telescope cross hairs  1641 – Danzig/Gdansk observatory of Jan Hevelius  1642 – Copenhagen University Royal observatory  1661 – James Gregory proposes an optical reflecting telescope with parabolic mirrors  1667 – Paris Observatory  1668 – Isaac Newton constructs the first "practical" reflecting telescope, the Newtonian Lars Ahlfors, known for his work of complex analysis telescope  1672 – Laurent Cassegrain designs the Cassegrain telescope  1675 – Royal Greenwich Observatory of England  1684 – Christiaan Huygens publishes "Astroscopia Compendiaria" in which he described the design of very long aerial telescopes 347 Used for imaging, communications, Satellite navigation, exploration of the solar system and human habitation. Natural satellite Artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) (Earth's Moon) The world's first artificial satellite launched by Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 The Earth has no business possessing such a Moon. It is too huge—over a quarter Earth’s diameter and about 1/81 of its mass. No other planet in the Solar System has even nearly so large a satellite. — Isaac Asimov It will be possible in a few more years to build radio controlled rockets which can be steered into such orbits beyond the limits of the atmosphere and left to broadcast scientific information back to the Earth. A little later, manned rockets will be able to make similar flights with sufficient excess power to break the orbit and return to Earth. (1945) [Predicting communications satellites.] — Arthur C. Clarke We can allow satellites, planets, suns, universe, nay whole systems of universe, to be 6 forms of energy governed by laws, but the smallest insect, we  Sound Energy  Chemical Energy  Radiant Energy  Electrical Energy  Atomic Energy  Mechanical Energy wish to be created at once by special act Charles Darwin Laws of reflection:  The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal ray at the point of incidence, lie in the same plane.  The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection Laws of refraction:  The incident ray refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the point of incidence all lie on the same plane.  The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. This is also known as Snell's law of refraction. The totality of life, known as the biosphere to scientists and creation to theologians, is a membrane of organisms wrapped around Earth so thin it cannot be seen edgewise from a space shuttle, yet so internally complex that most species composing it remain undiscovered. The membrane is seamless. From Everest's peak to the floor of the Mariana Trench, creatures of one kind or another inhabit virtually every square inch of the planetary surface. — Edward O. Wilson Carbon Compounds Organic compounds Inorganic compounds From living things  Sugar  Protein  Starch Not from living things Contain carbon  Aluminum arsenate  Ammonium chromate  Barium bromide This remarkable [nuclear] energy is spreading its tentacles to almost all walks of life - be it power, agriculture, medicine, laser systems, satellite imagery or Do not contain carbon environment protection. — Raja Ramanna Phenomenon Can be explained in terms of waves Can be explained in terms of particles Reflection ✔ ✔ Refraction ✔ ✔ Interference ✔ × Diffraction ✔ × Polarization ✔ × Photoelectric effect × ✔ 1700s  1704 – First observatory at Cambridge University (based at Trinity College)  1724 – Indian observatory of Sawai Jai Singh at Delhi  1725 – St. Petersburg observatory at Royal Academy  1732 – Indian observatories of Sawai Jai Singh at Varanasi, Ujjain, Mathura, Madras  1733 – Chester Moore Hall invents the achromatic lens refracting telescope  1734 – Indian observatory of Sawai Jai Singh at Jaipur  1753 – Real Observatorio de Cádiz (Spain)  1753 – Vilnius Observatory at Vilnius University, Lithuania  1758 – John Dollond reinvents the achromatic lens  1761 – Joseph-Nicolas Delisle 62 observing station network for observing the transit of Venus  1769 – Short reflectors used at 63 station network for transit of Venus  1774 – Vatican Observatory (Specola Vaticana), originally established as the Observatory of the Roman College.  1780 – Florence Specola observatory  1789 – William Herschel finishes a 49-inch (1.2 m) optical reflecting telescope, located in Slough, England  1798 – Real Observatorio de la Isla de Léon (actualmente Real Instituto y Observatorio de la Armada) (Spain) 1800s  1803 National Astronomical Observatory (Colombia), the first observatory in the Americas  1836 Swathithirunal opened Trivandrum observatory  1839 Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre (inventor of the daguerreotype photographic process) attempts in to photograph the moon. Tracking errors in guiding the telescope during the long exposure made the photograph came out as an indistinct fuzzy spot 348  1840 – John William Draper takes make a successful photographic image of the Moon, the first astronomical photograph  1845 – Lord Rosse finishes the Birr Castle 72-inch (1.8 m) optical reflecting telescope, located in Parsonstown, Ireland  1849 – Santiago observatory set up by USA, later becomes Chilean National Observatory (now part of the University of Chile)  1859 – Kirchhoff and Bunsen develop spectroscopy  1864 – Herschel's so-called GC (General Catalogue) of nebulae and star clusters published  1868 – Janssen and Lockyer discover Helium observing spectra of Sun  1871 – German Astronomical Association organized network of 13 (later 16) observatories for stellar proper motion studies  1863 – William Allen Miller and Sir William Huggins use the photographic wet collodion plate process to obtain the first ever photographic spectrogram of a star, Sirius and Capella.  1872 – Henry Draper photographs a spectrum of Vega that shows absorption lines.  1878 – Dreyer published a supplement to the GC of about 1000 new objects, the New General Catalogue  1883 – Andrew Ainslie Common uses the photographic dry plate process and a 36-inch (91 cm) reflecting telescope in his backyard to record 60 minute exposures of the Orion nebula that for the first time showed stars too faint to be seen by the human eye.  1887 – Paris conference institutes Carte du Ciel project to map entire sky to 14th magnitude photographically  1888 – First light of 91cm refracting telescope at Lick Observatory, on Mount Hamilton near San Jose, California  1889 – Astronomical Society of the Pacific founded  1890 – Albert A. Michelson proposes the stellar interferometer  1892 – George Ellery Hale finishes a spectroheliograph, which allows the Sun to be photographed in the light of one element only 349  1897 – Alvan Clark finishes the Yerkes 40-inch (1.0 m) optical refracting telescope, located in Williams Bay, Wisconsin 1900s  1902 – Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada established  1904 – Observatories of the Carnegie Institution of Washington founded  1907 – F.C. Brown and Joel Stebbins develop a selenium cell photometer at the University of Illinois Observatory. 1910s  1912 – Joel Stebbins and Jakob Kunz begin to use a photometer using a photoelectric cell at the University of Illinois Observatory.  1917 – Mount Wilson 100-inch (2.5 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Mount Wilson, California  1918 – 1.8m Plaskett Telescope begins operation at the Dominion Astrophysical Observatory, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada  1919 – International Astronomical Union (IAU) founded 1930s  1930 – Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot invents the coronagraph  1930 – Karl Jansky builds a 30-meter long rotating aerial radio telescope This was the first radio telescope.  1933 – Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot invents the Lyot filter  1934 – Bernhard Schmidt finishes the first 14-inch (360 mm) Schmidt optical reflecting telescope  1936 – Palomar 18-inch (460 mm) Schmidt optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Palomar, California  1937 – Grote Reber builds a 31-foot (9.4 m) radio telescope 350 1940s  1941 – Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov invents the Maksutov telescope which is adopted by major observatories in the Soviet Union and internationally. It is now also a popular design with amateur astronomers  1946 – Martin Ryle and his group perform the first astronomical observations with a radio interferometer  1947 – Bernard Lovell and his group complete the Jodrell Bank 218-foot (66 m) nonsteerable radio telescope  1949 – Palomar 48-inch (1.2 m) Schmidt optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Palomar, California  1949 – Palomar 200-inch (5.1 m) optical reflecting telescope (Hale telescope) begins regular operation, located in Palomar, California 1950s  1953 – Luoxue Mountain Cosmic Rays Research Center, Yunnan Province, in China founded  1954 – Earth rotation aperture synthesis suggested (see e.g. Christiansen and Warburton (1955))  1956 – Dwingeloo Radio Observatory 25 m telescope completed, Dwingeloo, Netherlands  1957 – Bernard Lovell and his group complete the Jodrell Bank 250-foot (75 m) steerable radio telescope (the Lovell Telescope)  1957 – Peter Scheuer publishes his P(D) method for obtaining source counts of spatially unresolved sources  1959 – Radio Observatory of the University of Chile, located at Maipú, Chile founded  1959 – The 3C catalogue of radio sources is published (revised in 1962)  1959 – The Shane 120-inch (3.0 m) Telescope Opened at Lick Observatory 351 1960s  1960 – Owens Valley 27-meter radio telescopes begin operation, located in Big Pine, California  1961 – Parkes 64-metre radio telescope begins operation, located near Parkes, Australia  1962 – European Southern Observatory (ESO) founded  1962 – Kitt Peak solar observatory founded  1962 – Green Bank, West Virginia 90m radio telescope  1962 – Orbiting Solar Observatory 1 satellite launched  1963 – Arecibo 300-meter radio telescope begins operation, located in Arecibo, Puerto Rico  1964 – Martin Ryle's 1-mile (1.6 km) radio interferometer begins operation, located in Cambridge, England  1965 – Owens Valley 40-meter radio telescope begins operation, located in Big Pine, California  1967 – First VLBI images, with 183 km baseline  1969 – Observations start at Big Bear Solar Observatory, located in Big Bear, California  1969 – Las Campanas Observatory 1970s  1970 – Cerro Tololo 158-inch (4.0 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Cerro Tololo, Chile  1970 – Kitt Peak National Observatory 158-inch (4.0 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located near Tucson, Arizona  1970 – Uhuru x-ray telescope satellite  1970 – Antoine Labeyrie performs the first high-resolution optical speckle interferometry observations  1970 – Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope completed, near Westerbork, Netherlands  1972 – 100 m Effelsberg radio telescope inaugurated (Germany) 352 Frank Donald Drake (born May 28, 1930) is an American astronomer and astrophysicist. He is involved in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence, including the founding of SETI, mounting the first observational attempts at detecting extraterrestrial communications in 1960 in Project Ozma, developing the Drake equation, and as the creator of the Arecibo Message, a digital encoding of an astronomical and biological description of the Earth and its life-forms for transmission into the cosmos. Drake Equation: N = R* × fp × ne × fl × fi × fc × L  N is the number of civilizations in our galaxy we could communicate with  R* is the average rate of star formation in our galaxy  fp is the fraction of stars with planetary systems  ne is the number of planets that can support life  fl is the number of those planets that will develop life  fi is the number of those planets that will develop intelligent life  fc is the number of civilizations that might develop transmission technologies  L is the amount of time that these civilizations would have to transmit their signals into space.  1973 – UK Schmidt Telescope 1.2 metre optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Anglo-Australian Observatory near Coonabarabran, Australia  1974 – Anglo-Australian Telescope 153-inch (3.9 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Anglo-Australian Observatory near Coonabarabran, Australia  1975 – Gerald Smith, Frederick Landauer, and James Janesick use a CCD to observe Uranus, the first astronomical CCD observation  1975 – Antoine Labeyrie builds the first two-telescope optical interferometer  1976 – The 6-m BTA-6 (Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalnyi or “Large Altazimuth Telescope”) goes into operation on Mt. Pashtukhov in the Russian Caucasus  1978 – Multiple Mirror 176-inch (4.5 m) equivalent optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located in Amado, Arizona  1978 – International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) telescope satellite  1978 – Einstein High Energy Astronomy Observatory x-ray telescope satellite  1979 – UKIRT 150-inch (3.8 m) infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea Observatory, Hawaii  1979 – Canada-France-Hawaii 140-inch (3.6 m) optical reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea Observatory, Hawaii  1979 – NASA Infrared Telescope Facility 120-inch (3.0 m) infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii 1980s  1980 – Completion of construction of the VLA, located in Socorro, New Mexico  1983 – Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) telescope  1984 – IRAM 30-m telescope at Pico Veleta near Granada, Spain completed  1987 – 15-m James Clerk Maxwell Telescope UK submillimetre telescope installed at Mauna Kea Observatory  1987 – 5-m Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope (SEST) installed at the ESO La Silla Observatory 353  1988 – Australia Telescope Compact Array aperture synthesis radio telescope begins operation, located near Narrabri, Australia  1989 – Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite 1990s  1990 – Hubble 2.4m space Telescope launched, mirror found to be flawed  1991 – Compton Gamma Ray Observatory satellite  1993 – Keck 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii  1993 – Very Long Baseline Array of 10 dishes  1995 – Cambridge Optical Aperture Synthesis Telescope (COAST)—the first very high resolution optical astronomical images (from aperture synthesis observations)  1995 – Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope of thirty 45 m dishes at Pune  1996 – Keck 2 10-meter optical/infrared reflecting telescope begins operation, located at Mauna Kea, Hawaii  1997 – The Japanese HALCA satellite begins operations, producing first VLBI observations from space, 25,000 km maximum baseline  1998 – First light at VLT1, the 8.2 m ESO telescope 2000s  2001 – First light at the Keck Interferometer. Single-baseline operations begin in the near-infrared.  2001 – First light at VLTI interferometry array. Operations on the interferometer start with single-baseline near-infrared observations with the 103 m baseline.  2005 – First imaging with the VLTI using the AMBER optical aperture synthesis instrument and three VLT telescopes.  2005 – First light at SALT, the largest optical telescope in the Southern Hemisphere, with a primary mirror diameter of 11 meters. 354 Timeline of human evolution Rank Name Common name Millions of years ago (commencement) Life 4,100 Archaea Domain Eukaryota Eukaryotes (slime molds and 2,100 related) Podiata Unikonts Obazoa Opisthokonts Holozoa + Fungi s.l. Holozoa 1,300 1,100 Filozoa Choanozoa + Filasterea Choanozoa Choanoflagelates + Animals 900 Kingdom Animalia Animals 610 Subkingdom Eumetazoa Chordates (Vertebrates and 530 Parahoxozoa Nephrozoa Deuterstomes Phylum Chordata 355 closely related invertebrates) Olfactores Subphylum Vertebrata Fish / Vertebrates 505 Infraphylum Gnathostomata Jawed fish 460 Sarcopterygii Lobe finned fish Tetrapoda Tetrapods (animals with four Superclass 395 limbs) Amniota Amniotes (fully terrestrial 340 tetrapods whose eggs are "equipped with an amnios") Synapsida Proto-Mammals 308 Therapsid Limbs beneath the body and 280 other mammalian traits Class Mammalia Mammals 220 Subclass Theria Mammals that give birth to live 160 young (i.e., non-egg-laying) Infraclass Eutheria Placental mammals (i.e., non- 125 marsupials) Magnorder Boreoeutheria Supraprimates, (most) hoofed 124–101 mammals, (most) carnivorous mammals, whales, and bats Superorder Euarchontoglires Supraprimates: primates, colugos, tree shrews, rodents, 356 100 and rabbits Grandorder Euarchonta Primates, colugos, and tree 99–80 shrews Mirorder Primatomorpha Primates and colugos 79.6 Order Primates Primates / Plesiadapiformes 75 Suborder Haplorrhini "Dry-nosed" (literally, "simple- 63 nosed") primates: tarsiers and monkeys (incl. apes) Infraorder Simiiformes monkeys (incl. apes) 40 Parvorder Catarrhini "Downward-nosed" primates: 30 apes and old-world monkeys Superfamily Hominoidea Apes: great apes and lesser 28 apes (gibbons) Family Hominidae Great apes: humans, 20–15 chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans—the hominids Subfamily Homininae Humans, chimpanzees, and 14–12 gorillas (the African apes) Tribe Hominini Includes 10–8 both Homo, Pan (chimpanzees), but not Gorilla. Subtribe Hominina Genus Homo and close human relatives and ancestors 357 8–4 after splitting from Pan— the hominins (Genus) Ardipithecus s.l. 6-4 (Genus) Australopithecus 3 Genus Homo (H. Habilis) (Species) H. Erectus s.l. (Species) H. Humans 2.5 Anatomically modern humans 0.8–0.3 heidelbergensis s.l. Species Homo sapiens Timeline Unicellular life Date 4.1 Ga (billion years ago) 3.9 Ga Event The earliest life appears. Further information: Abiogenesis Cells resembling prokaryotes appear. Further information: Cell (biology) § Origins 3.5 Ga This marks the first appearance of oxygenic photosynthesis and therefore the first occurrence of large quantities of atmospheric oxygen on Earth. Further information: Evolution of photosynthesis § Origin, 358 and Great Oxygenation Event 2.5 Ga First organisms to use oxygen. By 2400 Ma, in what is referred to as the Great Oxygenation Event, the pre-oxygen anaerobic forms of life were wiped out by the oxygen producers. Further information: Geological history of oxygen 2.1 Ga More complex cells appear: the eukaryotes. Further information: Eukaryote § Origin of eukaryotes 1.2 Ga Sexual reproduction evolves, leading to faster evolution where genes are mixed in every generation enabling greater variation for subsequent selection. 0.9 Ga The choanoflagellates may look similar to the ancestors of the entire animal kingdom, and in particular they may be the direct ancestors of sponges. Proterospongia (members of the Choanoflagellata) are the best living examples of what the ancestor of all animals may have looked like. They live in colonies, and show a primitive level of cellular specialization for different tasks. Animals or Animalia Date Event 700–660 Ma Urmetazoan: The first fossils that might represent animals appear in the 665-million-year-old rocks of the Trezona Formation of South Australia. 359 These fossils are interpreted as being early sponges. Separation from the Porifera (sponges) lineage. Eumetazoa/Diploblast: separation from the Ctenophora ("comb jellies") lineage. Planulozoa/ParaHoxozoa: separation from the Placozoa and Cnidaria lineages. Almost all cnidarians possess nerves and muscles. Because they are the simplest animals to possess them, their direct ancestors were very probably the first animals to use nerves and muscles together. Cnidarians are also the first animals with an actual body of definite form and shape. They have radial symmetry. The first eyes evolved at this time. 570–550 Ma Urbilaterian: Bilateria/Triploblasts, Nephrozoa (555 Ma), last common ancestor of protostomes (including the arthropod [insect, crustacean] and platyzoan [flatworms] lineages) and the deuterostomes (including the vertebrate [human] lineage). Earliest development of the brain, and of bilateral symmetry. Archaic representatives of this stage are flatworms, the simplest animals with organs that form from three germ layers. 541 Ma Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as marine species during the Cambrian explosion. Deuterostomes, last common ancestor of the chordate [human] lineage, the Echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers, etc.) and Hemichordata (acorn worms and graptolites). An archaic survivor from this stage is the acorn worm, sporting a circulatory system with a heart that also functions as a kidney. Acorn worms have a gill-like structure used for breathing, a structure similar to that of primitive fish. Acorn worms have a plexus concentrated into both dorsal and ventral nerve cords. The dorsal cord reaches into the proboscis, and is partially separated from the epidermis in that region. This part of the dorsal nerve cord is often hollow, and may well be homologous with 360 with the brain of vertebrates. Chordates Date Event 530 Ma Pikaia is an iconic ancestor of modern chordates and vertebrates. Other, earlier chordate predecessors include Myllokunmingia fengjiaoa, Haikouella lanceolata, and Haikouichthys ercaicunensis. The lancelet, still living today, retains some characteristics of the primitive chordates. It resembles Pikaia. Conodonts are a famous type of early (495 Mya and later) chordate fossil; they have the peculiar teeth of an eel-shaped animal characterized by large eyes, fins with fin rays, chevron-shaped muscles and a notochord. The animal is sometimes called a conodont, and sometimes a conodontophore (conodont-bearer) to avoid confusion. 505 Ma The first vertebrates appear: the ostracoderms, jawless fish related to presentday lampreys and hagfishes. Haikouichthys and Myllokunmingia are examples of these jawless fish, or Agnatha. They were jawless and their internal skeletons were cartilaginous. They lacked the paired (pectoral and pelvic) fins of more advanced fish. They were precursors to the Osteichthyes (bony fish). 480 Ma The Placodermi were prehistoric fishes. Placoderms were some of the first jawed fishes (Gnathostomata), their jaws evolving from the first gill arch. 361 410 Ma The first coelacanth appears; this order of animals was thought to be extinct until living specimens were discovered in 1938. It is often referred to as a living fossil. Tetrapods Date Event 390 Ma Some fresh water lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii) develop legs and give rise to the Tetrapoda. The first tetrapods evolved in shallow and swampy freshwater habitats. Primitive tetrapods developed from a lobe-finned fish (an "osteolepid Sarcopterygian"), with a two-lobed brain in a flattened skull, a wide mouth and a short snout, whose upward-facing eyes show that it was a bottomdweller, and which had already developed adaptations of fins with fleshy bases and bones. (The "living fossil" coelacanth is a related lobe-finned fish without these shallow-water adaptations.) Tetrapod fishes used their fins as paddles in shallow-water habitats choked with plants and detritus. The universal tetrapod characteristics of front limbs that bend backward at the elbow and hind limbs that bend forward at the knee can plausibly be traced to early tetrapods living in shallow water. Panderichthys is a 90–130 cm (35–50 in) long fish from the Late Devonian period (380 Mya). It has a large tetrapod-like head. Panderichthys exhibits features transitional between lobe-finned fishes and early tetrapods. Trackway impressions made by something that resembles Ichthyostega's limbs 362 were formed 390 Ma in Polish marine tidal sediments. This suggests tetrapod evolution is older than the dated fossils of Panderichthys through to Ichthyostega. Lungfishes retain some characteristics of the early Tetrapoda. One example is the Queensland lungfish. 375 Ma Tiktaalik is a genus of sarcopterygian (lobe-finned) fishes from the late Devonian with many tetrapod-like features. It shows a clear link between Panderichthys and Acanthostega. 365 Ma Acanthostega is an extinct amphibian, among the first animals to have recognizable limbs. It is a candidate for being one of the first vertebrates to be capable of coming onto land. It lacked wrists, and was generally poorly adapted for life on land. The limbs could not support the animal's weight. Acanthostega had both lungs and gills, also indicating it was a link between lobe-finned fish and terrestrial vertebrates. Ichthyostega is an early tetrapod. Being one of the first animals with legs, arms, and finger bones, Ichthyostega is seen as a hybrid between a fish and an amphibian. Ichthyostega had legs but its limbs probably were not used for walking. They may have spent very brief periods out of water and would have used their legs to paw their way through the mud. Amphibia were the first four-legged animals to develop lungs which may have evolved from Hynerpeton 360 Mya. Amphibians living today still retain many characteristics of the early tetrapods. 300 Ma From amphibians came the first reptiles: Hylonomus is the earliest known reptile. It was 20 cm (8 in) long (including the tail) and probably would have looked 363 rather similar to modern lizards. It had small sharp teeth and probably ate millipedes and early insects. It is a precursor of later Amniotes and mammallike reptiles. Αlpha keratin first evolves here. It is used in the claws of modern lizards and birds, and hair in mammals. Evolution of the amniotic egg gives rise to the Amniota, reptiles that can reproduce on land and lay eggs on dry land. They did not need to return to water for reproduction. This adaptation gave them the capability to colonize the uplands for the first time. Reptiles have advanced nervous systems, compared to amphibians, with twelve pairs of cranial nerves. Mammals Date Event 256 Ma Shortly after the appearance of the first reptiles, two branches split off. One branch is the Sauropsids, from which come the modern reptiles and birds. The other branch is Synapsida (Synapsids), from which come modern mammals. Both had temporal fenestrae, a pair of holes in their skulls behind the eyes, which were used to increase the space for jaw muscles. Synapsids had one opening on each side, while diapsids (a branch of Sauropsida) had two. The earliest mammal-like reptiles are the pelycosaurs. The pelycosaurs were the first animals to have temporal fenestrae. Pelycosaurs are not therapsids but soon they gave rise to them. The Therapsida were the direct ancestor of mammals. The therapsids have temporal fenestrae larger and more mammal-like than 364 pelycosaurs, their teeth show more serial differentiation, and later forms had evolved a secondary palate. A secondary palate enables the animal to eat and breathe at the same time and is a sign of a more active, perhaps warm-blooded, way of life. 220 Ma One sub-group of therapsids, the cynodonts, evolved more mammal-like characteristics. The jaws of cynodonts resemble modern mammal jaws. This group of animals likely contains a species which is the direct ancestor of all modern mammals. 220 Ma From Eucynodontia (cynodonts) came the first mammals. Most early mammals were small shrew-like animals that fed on insects. Although there is no evidence in the fossil record, it is likely that these animals had a constant body temperature and milk glands for their young. The neocortex region of the brain first evolved in mammals and thus is unique to them. Monotremes are an egg-laying group of mammals represented amongst modern animals by the platypus and echidna. Recent genome sequencing of the platypus indicates that its sex genes are closer to those of birds than to those of the therian (live birthing) mammals. Comparing this to other mammals, it can be inferred that the first mammals to gain sexual differentiation through the existence or lack of SRY gene (found in the y-Chromosome) evolved after the monotreme lineage split off. 160 Ma Juramaia sinensis is the earliest known eutherian mammal fossil. 100 Ma Last common ancestor of mice and humans (base of the clade Euarchontoglires). Primates 365 Date Event 85–66 Ma A group of small, nocturnal, arboreal, insect-eating mammals called Euarchonta begins a speciation that will lead to the orders of primates, treeshrews and flying lemurs. Primatomorpha is a subdivision of Euarchonta including primates and their ancestral stemprimates Plesiadapiformes. An early stem-primate, Plesiadapis, still had claws and eyes on the side of the head, making it faster on the ground than in the trees, but it began to spend long times on lower branches, feeding on fruits and leaves. The Plesiadapiformes very likely contain the ancestor species of all primates. They first appeared in the fossil record around 66 million years ago, soon after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that eliminated about three-quarters of plant and animal species on Earth, including most dinosaurs. One of the last Plesiadapiformes is Carpolestes simpsoni, having grasping digits but not forward-facing eyes. 63 Ma Primates diverge into suborders Strepsirrhini (wet-nosed primates) and Haplorrhini (dry-nosed primates). Strepsirrhini contain most prosimians; modern examples include lemurs and lorises. The haplorrhines include the two living groups: prosimian tarsiers, and simian monkeys, including apes. One of the earliest haplorrhines is Teilhardina asiatica, a mouse-sized, diurnal creature with small eyes. The Haplorrhini metabolism lost the ability to produce vitamin C, forcing all descendants to include vitamin C-containing fruit in their diet. 366 30 Ma Haplorrhini splits into infraorders Platyrrhini and Catarrhini. Platyrrhines, New World monkeys, have prehensile tails and males are color blind. The individuals whose descendants would become Platyrrhini are conjectured to have migrated to South America either on a raft of vegetation or via a land bridge (the hypothesis now favored). Catarrhines mostly stayed in Africa as the two continents drifted apart. Possible early ancestors of catarrhines include Aegyptopithecus and Saadanius. 25 Ma Catarrhini splits into 2 superfamilies, Old World monkeys (Cercopithecoidea) and apes (Hominoidea). Our trichromatic color vision had its genetic origins in this period. Proconsul was an early genus of catarrhine primates. They had a mixture of Old World monkey and ape characteristics. Proconsul's monkey-like features include thin tooth enamel, a light build with a narrow chest and short forelimbs, and an arboreal quadrupedal lifestyle. Its ape-like features are its lack of a tail, ape-like elbows, and a slightly larger brain relative to body size. Proconsul africanus is a possible ancestor of both great and lesser apes, including humans. Hominidae Date 18 Ma Event Hominidae (great ape ancestors) speciate from the ancestors of the gibbon (lesser apes) between c. 20 to 16 Ma. 16 Ma Homininae ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the orangutan between c. 18 367 Enzymes Biological catalysts that speed up reactions although they are not changed in the reaction Oxidoreductases Catalyze oxidoreduction reactions. Transferases Catalyze the transfer of a functional group from one molecule to another. Hydrolases Catalyze the cleavage of a covalent bond using water. Lyases Catalyses the joining of specified molecules or groups by a double bond. Isomerases Catalyze reactions involving a structural rearrangement of a molecule. Ligases Enzyme + substrate Catalyze the binding of two molecules. ↔ Enzyme−substrate complex → Product + Enzyme Substrate binding Catalytic step Our cells engage in protein production, and many of those proteins are enzymes responsible for the chemistry of life. Randy Schekman In your cells right now, an enzyme is making 14 methods of food preservation:  Chilling  Salting  Vacuum Packing  Refrigeration  Sugaring  Fermentation  Bottling  Sterilization  Dehydration  Lypophilization a copy of your DNA in less than two hours, right in the nucleus. Hugh Martin Prevent food spoilage until it can be consumed Producing Ethanol by Fermentation: yeast Glucose  Canning  Pasteurization  Irradiation  Addition of chemicals → ethanol + carbon dioxide Rapid freezing and dehydration of frozen product under vacuum Fishes  jawless fishes  cartilaginous fishes  bony fishes  Live in water  Have gills to filter oxygen from their water environment  Have fins to help them move through the water  Have backbones (vertebrae) for support and movement 4 main traits Nuclear DNA encodes all the proteins and enzymes that make you you, basically. Hendrik Poinar Plant Cell Animal Cell Cell Shape Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape Cell Wall Present Absent Cell Membrane Present Present Endoplasmic Reticulum Present Present Nucleus Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the centre of the cell Lysosomes Present but are very rare Present Centrosomes Absent Present Golgi Apparatus Present Present Cytoplasm Present Present Ribosomes Present Present Plastids Present Absent Vacuoles Few large or a single, centrally positioned vacuole Usually small and numerous Cilia Absent Present in most of the animal cells Mitochondria Present but fewer in number Present and are numerous Mode of Nutrition Primarily autotrophic Heterotrophic A cell has a history; its structure is inherited, it grows, divides, and, as in the embryo of higher animals, the products of division differentiate on complex lines. Living cells, moreover, transmit all that is involved in their complex heredity. I am far from maintaining that these fundamental properties may not depend upon organisation at levels above any chemical level; to understand them may even call for different methods of thought; I do not pretend to know. But if there be a hierarchy of levels we must recognise each one, and the physical and chemical level which, I would again say, may be the level of self-maintenance, must always have a place in any ultimate complete description. Sir Frederick Gowland Hopkins Three types of DNA Mutations: Types of Mutations:  Somatic mutations  Germline mutations  Chromosomal alterations  Point Mutations  Frameshift Mutations  base substitutions  deletions  insertions A change in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (Ribonucleic acid) Definition It is a long polymer with a deoxyribose and It is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate phosphate backbone with four nitrogenous bases: backbone with four nitrogenous bases:  thymine  uracil  cytosine  cytosine  adenine  adenine  guanine  guanine Location It is located in the nucleus of a cell and in the It is found in the cytoplasm, nucleus and in the mitochondria. ribosome. Sugar It has 2-deoxyribose. It has Ribose. Function DNA is functional is the transmission of genetic RNA is functional is the transmission of the genetic information. It forms as a media for long-term code that is necessary for the protein creation from storage. the nucleus to the ribosome. Structure The DNA is a double-stranded molecule that has a The RNA is a single-stranded molecule which has a long chain of nucleotides. shorter chain of nucleotides. Replication DNA replicates on its own − it is self-replicating.  RNA does not replicate on its own  It is synthesized from DNA when required Base Pairing The base pairing is as follows: The base pairing is as follows:  Guanine pairs with Cytosine  Guanine pairs with Cytosine  Adenine pairs with Thymine  Adenine pairs with Uracil UV Sensitivity DNA is vulnerable to damage by UV light. RNA is more resistant to damage from UV light than DNA If Watson and I had not discovered the [DNA] structure, instead of being revealed with a flourish it would have trickled out and that its impact would have been far less. For this sort of reason Stent had argued that a scientific discovery is more akin to a work of art than is generally admitted. Style, he argues, is as important as content. I am not completely convinced by this argument, at least in this case. Francis Crick to 14 Ma. Pierolapithecus catalaunicus is thought to be a common ancestor of humans and the other great apes, or at least a species that brings us closer to a common ancestor than any previous fossil discovery. It had the special adaptations for tree climbing as do present-day humans and other great apes: a wide, flat rib cage, a stiff lower spine, flexible wrists, and shoulder blades that lie along its back. 12 Ma Danuvius guggenmosi is the first-discovered Late Miocene great ape with preserved long bones, and greatly elucidates the anatomical structure and locomotion of contemporary apes. It had adaptations for both hanging in trees (suspensory behavior) and walking on two legs (bipedalism)—whereas, among present-day hominids, humans are better adapted for the latter and the others for the former. Danuvius thus had a method of locomotion unlike any previously known ape called "extended limb clambering", walking directly along tree branches as well as using arms for suspending itself. The last common ancestor between humans and other apes possibly had a similar method of locomotion. 10 Ma The clade currently represented by humans and the genus Pan (common chimpanzees and bonobos) splits from the ancestors of the gorillas between c. 10 to 8 Ma. 6 Ma Hominini: The latest common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees is estimated to have lived between roughly 10 to 5 million years ago. Both chimpanzees and humans have a larynx that repositions during the first two years of life to a spot between the pharynx and the lungs, indicating that the common ancestors have this feature, a precondition for vocalized speech in humans. Speciation may have begun shortly after 10 Ma, but late admixture between the lineages may have taken place until after 5 Ma. Candidates of Hominina or Homininae species which lived in this time period include Ouranopithecus (c. 8 Ma), Graecopithecus (c. 7 Ma), Sahelanthropus tchadensis (c. 7 Ma), Orrorin tugenensis (c. 6 Ma). 368 Ardipithecus is, or may be, a very early hominin genus (tribe Hominini and subtribe Hominina). Two species are described in the literature: A. ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene, and A. kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene). A. ramidus had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350 cm3. This is about the same size as the modern bonobo and female common chimpanzee brain; it is somewhat smaller than the brain of australopithecines like Lucy (400 to 550 cm3) and slightly over a fifth the size of the modern Homo sapiens brain. Ardipithecus was arboreal, meaning it lived largely in the forest where it competed with other forest animals for food, no doubt including the contemporary ancestor of the chimpanzees. Ardipithecus was probably bipedal as evidenced by its bowl shaped pelvis, the angle of its foramen magnum and its thinner wrist bones, though its feet were still adapted for grasping rather than walking for long distances. 3.6 Ma A member of the Australopithecus afarensis left human-like footprints on volcanic ash in Laetoli, northern Tanzania, providing strong evidence of fulltime bipedalism. Australopithecus afarensis lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago, and is considered one of the earliest hominins—those species that developed and comprised the lineage of Homo and Homo's closest relatives after the split from the line of the chimpanzees. It is thought that A. afarensis was ancestral to both the genus Australopithecus and the genus Homo. Compared to the modern and extinct great apes, A. afarensis had reduced canines and molars, although they were still relatively larger than in modern humans. A. afarensis also has a relatively small brain size (380–430 cm³) and a prognathic (anterior-projecting) face. 369 Australopithecines have been found in savannah environments; they probably developed their diet to include scavenged meat. Analyses of Australopithecus africanus lower vertebrae suggests that these bones changed in females to support bipedalism even during pregnancy. 3.5–3.3 Ma Kenyanthropus platyops, a possible ancestor of Homo, emerges from the Australopithecus. Stone tools are deliberately constructed. 3 Ma The bipedal australopithecines (a genus of the subtribe Hominina) evolve in the savannas of Africa being hunted by Megantereon. Loss of body hair occurs from 3 to 2 Ma, in parallel with the development of full bipedalism. Homo Date Event 2.5–2.0 Ma Early Homo appears in East Africa, speciating from australopithecine ancestors. Sophisticated stone tools mark the beginning of the Lower Paleolithic. Australopithecus garhi was using stone tools at about 2.5 Ma. Homo habilis is the oldest species given the designation Homo, by Leakey et al. (1964). H. habilis is intermediate between Australopithecus afarensis and H. erectus, and there have been suggestions to re-classify it within genus Australopithecus, as Australopithecus habilis. Stone tools found at the Shangchen site in China and dated to 2.12 million years ago are considered the earliest known evidence of hominins outside Africa, surpassing Dmanisi in Georgia by 300,000 years. Further information: Homo naledi and Homo rudolfensis 1.9–0.5 Ma Homo erectus derives from early Homo or late Australopithecus. Homo habilis, although significantly different of anatomy and physiology, is 370 thought to be the ancestor of Homo ergaster, or African Homo erectus; but it is also known to have coexisted with H. erectus for almost half a million years (until about 1.5 Ma). From its earliest appearance at about 1.9 Ma, H. erectus is distributed in East Africa and Southwest Asia (Homo georgicus). H. erectus is the first known species to develop control of fire, by about 1.5 Ma. H. erectus later migrates throughout Eurasia, reaching Southeast Asia by 0.7 Ma. It is described in a number of subspecies. Evolution of dark skin at about 1.2 Ma. Homo antecessor may be a common ancestor of humans and Neanderthals. At present estimate, humans have approximately 20,000–25,000 genes and share 99% of their DNA with the now extinct Neanderthal and 95–99% of their DNA with their closest living evolutionary relative, the chimpanzees. The human variant of the FOXP2 gene (linked to the control of speech) has been found to be identical in Neanderthals. 0.8–0.3 Ma Divergence of Neanderthal and Denisovan lineages from a common ancestor. Homo heidelbergensis (in Africa also known as Homo rhodesiensis) had long been thought to be a likely candidate for the last common ancestor of the Neanderthal and modern human lineages. However, genetic evidence from the Sima de los Huesos fossils published in 2016 seems to suggest that H. heidelbergensis in its entirety should be included in the Neanderthal lineage, as "pre-Neanderthal" or "early Neanderthal", while the divergence time between the Neanderthal and modern lineages has been pushed back to before the emergence of H. heidelbergensis, to about 600,000 to 800,000 years ago, the approximate age of Homo antecessor. Solidified footprints dated to about 350 ka and associated with H. heidelbergensis were found in southern Italy in 2003. 371 Surgery Emergency Urgent Scheduled (Surgery is required (Surgery is required (Surgery is required within 2 to 3 hours) within 24 hours) within 2 to 3 weeks) Elective A physician ought to have his shop provided with plenty (Surgery is done at the of all necessary things, as lint, rollers, splinters: let there be likewise in readiness at all times another small cabinet convenience of patient) of such things as may serve for occasions of going far from home; let him have also all sorts of plasters, Crops potions, and purging medicines, so contrived that they may keep some considerable time, and likewise such as may be had and used whilst they are fresh. — Hippocrates Cash crops Food crops Cereals Legumes Fiber crops Oil crops 7 principal cereals grown in the world:  Wheat  Maize  Rice  Barley  Oats  Rye  Sorghum of humanity. We are all formed of frailty and error; let us pardon reciprocally each other’s folly – that is the first law of nature. – Voltaire Fertilized egg Death Old Age Adult What is tolerance? It is the consequence Foetus The Human Life Cycle Baby Child Teenager After the birth of printing books became widespread. Hence everyone throughout Europe devoted himself to the study of literature... Every year, especially since 1563, the number of writings published in every field is greater than all those produced in the past thousand years. Through them there has today been created a new theology and a new jurisprudence; the Paracelsians have created medicine anew and the Copernicans have created astronomy anew. I really believe that at last the world is alive, indeed seething, and that the stimuli of these remarkable conjunctions did not act in vain. — Johannes Kepler Homo sapiens Date Event 300–130 ka Fossils attributed to H. sapiens, along with stone tools, dated to approximately 300,000 years ago, found at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco yield the earliest fossil evidence for anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Modern human presence in East Africa (Gademotta), at 276 kya. A 177,000-year-old jawbone fossil discovered in Israel in 2017 is the oldest human remains found outside Africa. However, in July 2019, anthropologists reported the discovery of 210,000 year old remains of a H. sapiens and 170,000 year old remains of a H. neanderthalensis in Apidima Cave, Peloponnese, Greece, more than 150,000 years older than previous H. sapiens finds in Europe. Neanderthals emerge from the Homo heidelbergensis lineage at about the same time (300 ka). Patrilineal and matrilineal most recent common ancestors (MRCAs) of living humans roughly between 200 and 100 ka with some estimates on the patrilineal MRCA somewhat higher, ranging up to 250 to 500 kya. 160,000 years ago, Homo sapiens idaltu in the Awash River Valley (near present-day Herto village, Ethiopia) practiced excarnation. 130–80 ka Marine Isotope Stage 5 (Eemian). Modern human presence in Southern Africa and West Africa. Appearance of mitochondrial haplogroup (mt-haplogroup) L2. 80–50 ka MIS 4, beginning of the Upper Paleolithic. Early evidence for behavioral modernity. Appearance of mt- 372 haplogroups M and N. Southern Dispersal migration out of Africa, ProtoAustraloid peopling of Oceania. Archaic admixture from Neanderthals in Eurasia, from Denisovans in Oceania with trace amounts in Eastern Eurasia, and from an unspecified African lineage of archaic humans in Sub-Saharan Africa as well as an interbred species of Neanderthals and Denisovans in Asia and Oceania. 50–25 ka Behavioral modernity develops, according to the "great leap forward" theory. Extinction of Homo floresiensis. M168 mutation (carried by all non-African males). Appearance of mthaplogroups U and K. Peopling of Europe, peopling of the North Asian Mammoth steppe. Paleolithic art. Extinction of Neanderthals and other archaic human variants (with possible survival of hybrid populations in Asia and Africa.) Appearance of YHaplogroup R2; mt-haplogroups J and X. after 25 ka Last Glacial Maximum; Epipaleolithic / Mesolithic / Holocene. Peopling of the Americas. Appearance of: Y-Haplogroup R1a; mthaplogroups V and T. Various recent divergence associated with environmental pressures, e.g. light skin in Europeans and East Asians (KITLG, ASIP), after 30 ka; Inuit adaptation to high-fat diet and cold climate, 20 ka. Extinction of late surviving archaic humans at the beginning of the Holocene (12 ka). Accelerated divergence due to selection pressures in populations participating in the Neolithic Revolution after 12 ka, e.g. East Asian types of ADH1B associated with rice domestication, or lactase persistence. 373 Letter from Alexander Graham Bell to his wife Mabel Hubbard Bell June 26, 1906 Beinn Bhreagh, Victoria County, Cape Breton, N.S. Dear Mabel, The French Journal L'Aerophile for January 1906 contains some interesting details concerning the flying machine of the Wright Brothers of Dayton Ohio. It seems strange that our enterprising American newspapers have failed to keep tract of the experiments in Dayton Ohio for the machine is so large that it must be visible over a considerable extent of country and an electrical tramway runs right by the field where the experiments were made. Numerous persons residing in the neighborhood of Dayton have witnessed the experiments and yet hardly any details of the apparatus employed have appeared in print in America. This seems to be due to the desire of secrecy. The Wright Brothers have made their experiments at a time when few people excepting the surrounding farmers have been out. They have declined to give the newspapers any information and when they discovered that the Dayton Daily News contained an article describing their apparatus they made arrangements with the Editor to have the edition suppressed. It seems however that a French Journal L'Auto sent to Dayton Ohio one of their correspondents, M. Robert Coquelle who interviewed various witnesses and although he could get no details from the Wright Brothers themselves he succeeded in obtaining for a price a copy of the suppressed number of the Dayton Daily News. He sent this to France and a French translation of it has appeared in L'Auto. L'Aerophile also gives extracts from it in the number published January 1906, Pages 18 and 19. Considering the fact that this information was published as long ago as the first of January 1906, it seems strange that no American journal has yet got ahold of the information. The January number of L'Aerophile also contains a letter from the Wright Brothers to the Editor of the Journal giving such information as they care to make public, but the information has not so far as I am aware yet appeared in the English Language. The same number of L'Aerophile contains a French translation of an interesting letter from a Mr. Weaver (who seems to be an American) addressed to M. Frank S. Lahm, but this letter too has not appeared in English. Mr. Weaver gives a plan sketch of the field where the experiments were made with its surroundings, and the results of interviews with the farmers who witnessed the experiments. The same number of L'Aerophile contains a French translation of a letter signed by Wilbur and Orville Wright, dated 3rd of January 1906, and addressed to M. Frank S. Lahm relating to the purchase of his machine by the French. The number of L'Aerophile published December 1905, pages 265 to 272 contains an account of the negotiations of the Wright Brothers with the French government, with pictures of the two brothers. Several letters are published from the Wright Brothers to persons in France with the object of inducing the French Government to purchase their machine. The price asked being one million francs. Cablegrams backwards and forwards across the Atlantic are also given. I do not understand how it is that so little attention has been paid to this matter by the American press. I am now studying carefully the details published. I wonder whether Bert would like me to ask Mr. Largelamb to send him some account of the matter. Your loving husband, Alec Mr. A. Graham Bell Twin Oaks, Woodley Lane, Washington, D. C. U. S. A Letter from Wilbur Wright to Smithsonian The Smithsonian Institution, Washington: Dear Sirs: “I am an enthusiast, but not a crank in the sense that I have some pet theories as to the proper construction of a flying machine. I wish to avail myself of all that is already known and then if possible add my mite to help on the future worker who will attain final success.” Wilbur Wright Benjamin Franklin, Advice to a Young Man on the Choice of a Mistress (1745). June 25, 1745 My dear Friend, I know of no Medicine fit to diminish the violent natural Inclinations you mention; and if I did, I think I should not communicate it to you. Marriage is the proper Remedy. It is the most natural State of Man, and therefore the State in which you are most likely to find solid Happiness. Your Reasons against entering into it at present, appear to me not well-founded. The circumstantial Advantages you have in View by postponing it, are not only uncertain, but they are small in comparison with that of the Thing itself, the being married and settled. It is the Man and Woman united that make the compleat human Being. Separate, she wants his Force of Body and Strength of Reason; he, her Softness, Sensibility and acute Discernment. Together they are more likely to succeed in the World. A single Man has not nearly the Value he would have in that State of Union. He is an incomplete Animal. He resembles the odd Half of a Pair of Scissars. If you get a prudent healthy Wife, your Industry in your Profession, with her good Economy, will be a Fortune sufficient. But if you will not take this Counsel, and persist in thinking a Commerce with the Sex inevitable, then I repeat my former Advice, that in all your Amours you should prefer old Women to young ones. You call this a Paradox, and demand my Reasons. They are these: 1. Because as they have more Knowledge of the World and their Minds are better stor'd with Observations, their Conversation is more improving and more lastingly agreable. 2. Because when Women cease to be handsome, they study to be good. To maintain their Influence over Men, they supply the Diminution of Beauty by an Augmentation of Utility. They learn to do a 1000 Services small and great, and are the most tender and useful of all Friends when you are sick. Thus they continue amiable. And hence there is hardly such a thing to be found as an old Woman who is not a good Woman. 3. Because there is no hazard of Children, which irregularly produc'd may be attended with much Inconvenience. 4. Because thro' more Experience, they are more prudent and discreet in conducting an Intrigue to prevent Suspicion. The Commerce with them is therefore safer with regard to your Reputation. And with regard to theirs, if the Affair should happen to be known, considerate People might be rather inclin'd to excuse an old Woman who would kindly take care of a young Man, form his Manners by her good Counsels, and prevent his ruining his Health and Fortune among mercenary Prostitutes. 5. Because in every Animal that walks upright, the Deficiency of the Fluids that fill the Muscles appears first in the highest Part: The Face first grows lank and wrinkled; then the Neck; then the Breast and Arms; the lower Parts continuing to the last as plump as ever: So that covering all above with a Basket, and regarding only what is below the Girdle, it is impossible of two Women to know an old from a young one. And as in the dark all Cats are grey, the Pleasure of corporal Enjoyment with an old Woman is at least equal, and frequently superior, every Knack being by Practice capable of Improvement. 6. Because the Sin is less. The debauching a Virgin may be her Ruin, and make her for Life unhappy. 7. Because the Compunction is less. The having made a young Girl miserable may give you frequent bitter Reflections; none of which can attend the making an old Woman happy. 8thly and Lastly They are so grateful!! Thus much for my Paradox. But still I advise you to marry directly; being sincerely Your affectionate Friend. Letter from Francis Crick to William Shockley Dr. W. Shockley Stanford Electronics Laboratories 2 April 1969 Stanford, California 94305 U.S.A. Thank you for your letter of the 17th March, and the enclosures, all of which I have read. The UPI story about my talk was slightly garbled; but was essentially correct. I certainly think these problems are important and that they should be dealt with objectively. Your experience clearly shows that this is not easy. At the moment we have a large new extension to our laboratory, and are, taking up research in scientific areas which are new to us. Consequently I have decided not to speak or write on these social problems until our new work is will launched. Yours sincerely F.H.C. Crick In a year or so I hope to take up these issues again. The Hall of Shame: How Bad Science can cause Real Harm in Real Life There are no qualms in accepting the fact that − in the past − things were different from what they are now. Even though science transformed extensively from our personal laptops, tablets, and phones to behind-thescenes technology, it is yet a continuing effort to discover and increase human knowledge and understanding. Science is ubiquitous and has made very rapid progress and completely transformed outwardly the manner of our living — allowing us to develop new technologies, solve practical problems, and make informed decisions — both individually and collectively. In its pursuit of excellence, it has lead to pollution, environmental crisis, greater violence, sorrow, tension, new pathogenic diseases, chemical and biological war to name a few. On the one hand, Science (a system of acquiring knowledge based on scientific method and research) has been a boon to mankind and on the other hand, it has also proved to be a cause of great distress or annoyance. "Although Nature needs thousands or millions of years to create a new species, man needs only a few dozen years to destroy one." : Victor Scheffer We humans, who began as a mineral and then emerged into plant life and into the animal state and then to being aggressive mortal beings who fought a survival struggle in caveman days, to get more food, territory or partner with whom to reproduce, now are glued to the TV set, marveling at the adventures of science and their dazzling array of futuristic technology from teleportation to telekinesis: rocket ships, fax machines, supercomputers, a worldwide communications network, gas-powered automobiles and high-speed elevated trains. The science has opened up an entirely new world for us. And our lives have become easier and more comfortable. With the help of science we have estimated about 8,000 chemotherapeutic exogenous nonnutritive chemical substances which when taken in the solid form by the mouth enter the digestive tract and there they are transformed into a solution and passed on to the liver where they are chemically altered and finally released into the blood stream. And through blood they reach the site of action and binds reversibly to the target cell surface receptors to produce their pharmacological effect. And after their pharmacological effect they slowly detaches from the receptor. And then they are sent to the liver. And there they are transformed into a more water soluble compound called metabolite and released from the body through urine, sweat, saliva, and excretory products. However, the long term use of chemotherapeutic drugs for diseases like cancer, diabetes leads to side effects. And the side effects — including nausea, loss of hair, loss of strength, permanent organ damage to the heart, lung, liver, kidneys, or reproductive system etc. — are so severe that some patients rather die of disease than subjecting themselves to this torture. And smallpox (an acute contagious disease caused by the variola virus, a member of the orthopoxvirus family) was a leading cause of death in 18th century, and the inexorable spread of the disease reliably recorded the death rate of some hundred thousand people. And the death toll surpassed 5000 people a day. Yet Edward Jenner, an English physician, noticed something special occurring in his small village. People who were exposed to cowpox did not get smallpox when they were exposed to the disease. Concluding that cowpox could save people from smallpox, Edward purposely infected a young boy who lived in his village first with cowpox, then with smallpox. Fortunately, Edward's hypothesis worked well. He had successfully demonstrated the world’s first vaccine and eradicated the disease. And vaccines which once saved humanity from the smallpox (which was a leading cause of death in 18th-century England), now have associated with the outbreaks of diseases like pertussis (whooping cough) which have begun showing up in the United States in the past forty years. TOP 5 DRUGS WITH REPORTED SIDE EFFECTS (Withdrawn from market in September 2004)  Drug: Byetta Used for: Type 2 diabetes Side effect: Increase of blood glucose level  Drug: Humira Used for: Rheumatoid arthritis Global warming shrinking the Greenland's ice shelves Side effect: Injection site pain  Drug: Chantix Used for: Smoking cessation Side effect: Nausea Burial of an unknown child after the Bhopal gas tragedy  Drug: Tysabri The eutrophication of the Lake Taihu, Wuxi in China Used for: Multiple sclerosis is evident from the bright Side effect: Fatigue green water, caused by a dense bloom of algae.  Drug: Vioxx* Used for: Arthritis Side effect: Heart attack In 1930s, Paul Hermann Muller a research chemist at the firm of Geigy in Basel, with the help of science introduced the first modern insecticide (DDT: dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) and it won him the 1948 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for its credit of saving thousands of human lives in World War II by killing typhus- carrying lice and malaria-carrying mosquitoes, dramatically reducing Malaria and Yellow Fever around the world. But in the late 1960s DDT which was a world saver was no longer in public favor – it was blamed moderately hazardous and carcinogenic. And most applications of DDT were banned in the U.S. and many other countries. However, DDT is still legally manufactured in the U.S., but only sold to foreign countries. At a time when Napoleon was almost disturbing whole of Europe due to his aggressive policies and designs and most of the world was at war – the science gave birth to the many inventions which took place in the field of textile industry and due to invention of steam engine and development of means of transportation and communication. Though it gave birth in England, yet its inventions spread all over the world in a reasonably period. And rapid industrialization was a consequence of new inventions and demand for expansion of large industrial cities led to the large scale exploitation of agricultural land. And socio-economic growth was peaking, as industries were booming, and agricultural lands were decreasing, as the world enjoyed the fruits of the rapid industrialization. As a result of this, the world’s population was growing at an exponential rate and the world's food supply was not in the pace of the population’s increase. And this resulted in widespread famine in many parts of the world, such as England, and as starvation was rampant. In that time line, science suppressed that situation by producing more ammonia through the Haber Bosch Process (more ammonia, more fertilizers. more fertilizers, more food production). But at the same time, science which solved the world's hunger problems also led to the production of megatons of TNT (trinitrotoluene) and other explosives which were dropped on all the cities leading to the death of some hundred million people. Rapid industrialization which once raised the economic and living standard of the people has now become a major global issue. The full impact of an industrial fuel economy has led to the global warming (i.e., the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of too much carbon dioxide emissions from industrial centers which acts as a blanket, trap heat and warm the planet). And as a result, Greenland's ice shelves have started to shrink permanently, disrupting the world’s weather by altering the flow of ocean and air currents around the planet. And violent swings in the climate have started to appear in the form of floods, droughts, snow storms and hurricanes. And industries are the main sources of sulfur dioxide emission and automobiles for nitrogen oxides. And the oxides of nitrogen and sulfur combine with the moisture in the atmosphere to form acids. And these acids reach the Earth as rain, snow, or fog and react with minerals in the soil and release deadly toxins and affect a variety of plants and animals on the earth. And these acids damage buildings, historic monuments, and statues, especially those made of rocks, such as limestone and marble, that contain large amounts of calcium carbonate. For example, acid rain has reacted with the marble (calcium carbonate) of Taj Mahal (an ivorywhite marble mausoleum on the south bank of the Yamuna river in the Indian city of Agra) causing immense damage to this wonderful structure (i.e., Taj is changing color). And science once introduced refrigerators for prolonging storage of food but now refrigerators are the active sources of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) which interact with the UV light during which chlorine is separated. And this chlorine in turn destroys a significant amount of the ozone in the high atmosphere admitting an intense dose of harmful ultraviolet radiation. And the increased ultraviolet flux produces the related health effects of skin cancer, cataracts, and immune suppression and produces a permanent change in the nucleotide sequence and lead to changes in the molecules the cell produce, which modify and ultimately affect the process of photosynthesis and destroy green plants. And the massive extinction of green plants may lead to famine and immense death of all living species including man. Fertilizers which once provided a sufficient amount of the essential nitrates to plants to synthesize chlorophyll and increase crop growth to feed the growing population and satisfy the demand for food, has now blamed for causing hypertrophication i.e., fertilizers left unused in soil are carried away by rain water into lakes and rivers, and then to coastal estuaries and bays. And the overload of fertilizers induces explosive growth of algal blooms, which prevents light from getting into the water and thereby preventing the aquatic plants from photosynthesizing, a process which provides oxygen in the water to animals that need it, like fish and crabs. So, in addition to the lack of oxygen from photosynthesis, when algal blooms die they decompose and they are acted upon by microorganisms. And this decomposition process consumes oxygen, which reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. And the depleted oxygen levels in turn lead to fish kills and a range of other effects promoting the loss of species biodiversity. And the large scale exploitation of forests for industrialization and residential purposes has not only led to the loss of biodiversity but has led the diseases like AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome caused by a virus called HIV (Human immunodeficiency virus) which alters the immune system, making victim much more vulnerable to infections and diseases) to transmit from forests to cities. At the dawn of the early century, the entire world was thoroughly wedded to fossil fuels in the form of oil, natural gas, and coal to satisfy the demand for energy. And as a result, fossil fuels were becoming increasingly rare and were slowly dooming to extinction. In that period, science (upon the work of Curie and Einstein) introduced nuclear fission reaction (the process by which a heavy nucleus breaks down into two or more smaller nuclei, releasing energy. For example: if we hit a uranium-235 nucleus with a neutron, it split into a krypton nucleus, a barium nucleus, three neutrons, and energy) as an alternate to the world’s energy supply and therefore prevented the world economy from coming to a grinding halt. But at the same time science introduced nuclear fission reaction to produce thousands of nuclear weapons, which were dropped on all the cities in World War II amounted to some two million tons, two megatons, of TNT, which flattened heavily reinforced buildings many kilometers away, the firestorm, the gamma rays and the thermal neutrons, which effectively fried the people. A school girl who survived the nuclear attack on Hiroshima, the event that ended the Second World War, wrote this first-hand account: "Through a darkness like the bottom of hell, I could hear the voices of the other students calling for their mothers. And at the base of the bridge, inside a big cistern that had been dug out there, was a mother weeping, holding above her head a naked baby that was burned red all over its body. And another mother was crying and sobbing as she gave her burned breast to her baby. In the cistern the students stood with only their heads above the water, and their two hands, which they clasped as they imploringly cried and screamed, calling for their parents. But every single person who passed was wounded, all of them, and there was no one, there was no one to turn to for help. And the singed hair on the heads of the people was frizzled and whitish and covered with dust. They did not appear to be human, not creatures of this world." Nuclear breakthroughs have now turned out to be the biggest existential threat to human survival. Nuclear waste is banking up at every single nuclear site. And as a result, every nation is suffering from a massive case of nuclear constipation (that Causes Intractable Chronic Constipation in Children). Ninety-one percent of world adults and 60 percent of teens own this device that has revolutionized the most indispensable accessories of professional and social life. Science once introduced this device for wireless communication but now they are pointed to as a possible cause of everything from infertility to cancer to other health issues. And in a study conducted at the University of London, researchers sampled 390 cell phones to measure for levels of pathogenic bacteria. The results of the study showed that 92 percent of the cell phones sampled had heavily colonized by high quantities of various types of disease-prone bacteria with high resistances to commonly used antibiotics (around 25,000 bacteria per square inch) and the results concluded that their ability to transmit diseases of which the mobile phones are no exception. The fluoridation of water at optimal levels has been shown to be highly beneficial to the development of tooth enamel and prevention of dental cavities since the late 1800s. And studies showed that children who drink water fluoridated at optimal levels can experience 20 to 40 per cent less tooth decay. But now fluoridation of water has termed to cause lower IQ, memory loss, cancer, kidney stones & kidney failures – faster than any other chemical. Science once introduced irradiation to prevent food poisoning by destroying molds, bacteria (such as one – celled animal 'Amoeba ' – that have as much information in their DNA as 1,000 Encyclopedia Britannicas – which is almost unbelievably minute form of life which, after being cut into six separate parts, is able to produce six complete bodies to carry on as though nothing had happened), yeast and virus (the smallest living things which cannot reproduce itself unaided and therefore it is lifeless in the true sense. But when placed in the plasma of a living cell and, in forty eight minutes it can reproduce itself four hundred times) and control microbial infestation. But now it has been blamed to cause the loss of nutrients, for example vitamin E levels can be reduced by 25% after irradiation and vitamin C by 5-10% and damage food by breaking up molecules and creating free radicals. And these free radicals combine with existing chemicals (like preservatives) in the food to produce deadly toxins. This has caused some food manufacturers to limit or avoid the process and bills have even been introduced to ban irradiated foods in public cafeterias or to require irradiated food to carry sensational warning labels. And the rapid advancement of science combined with human aggression and aim for global supremacy has led even the smaller nations to weaponize anthrax spores and other viruses for maximum death and destruction. And thus the entire planet is gripped with fear that one day a terrorist group may pay to gain access to weaponized H5N1 flu and other viruses. And the rapid development of nuclear technology has led to the banking up of nuclear waste at every single nuclear site. And as a result, every nation is suffering from a massive case of nuclear constipation. And the enormous automation, capacity of artificial intelligence and their ability to interact like humans has caused the humans to be replaced by artificial intelligence. But now artificial intelligence is taking off on its own, and re-designing itself at an ever increasing rate. And this has turned out to be the biggest existential threat to human survival (i.e., one day artificial intelligence may plan for a war against humanity). Highly toxic gases, poisons, defoliants, and every technological state are planning for it to disable or destroy people or their domestic animals, to damage their crops, and/or to deteriorate their supplies, threaten every citizen, not just of a nation, but of the world "The saddest aspect of life right now is that science gathers knowledge faster than society gathers wisdom." ― Isaac Asimov Good and Bad Effects of Chemistry: What is Chemistry? Chemistry (a creative discipline chiefly concerned with the study of matter: its structure, composition, properties, and reactivity through chemical reactions) is important because everything you do like cooking, fermentation, glass making, and metallurgy is chemistry! Even our Human body is made of chemical elements.  Element: Oxygen Percent by Mass: 65  Element: Carbon Percent by Mass: 18  Element: Hydrogen Percent by Mass: 10  Element: Before Acid Rain After Acid Rain Nitrogen The Effect of Acid Rain on Taj Mahal Percent by Mass: 3  Element: Calcium Percent by Mass: 1.5  Element: Phosphorus Percent by Mass: 1.2  Element: Potassium Percent by Mass: 0.2  Element: Sulfur Percent by Mass: 0.2  Element: Chlorine Bhopal Gas Tragedy: The world's worst industrial disaster which Percent by Mass: 0.2 killed twenty five thousand people and affected more than five lakh people with breathlessness, failing  Element: Sodium Percent by Mass: 0.1  Element: Magnesium Percent by Mass: 0.05  Elements: Iron, Cobalt, Copper, Zinc, Iodine Percent by Mass: eyesight, painful stomachs, missing limbs, angry skins. Trace  Elements: Selenium, Fluorine Percent by Mass: Minute amounts Chemical reactions (an integral part of technology and indeed of life itself that involves a rearrangement of the constituent atoms of the reactants to create one or more different substances ― the products) occur when you breathe, eat, or just sit there burning fuels, smelting iron, making liquid crystals and semiconductors, brewing beer, and making wine and cheese. All matter is made of chemical elements, so the importance of chemistry is that it's the study of everything ― is part of everything in our lives. Good Effects:  Helps mankind develop food preservatives that are widely used in the food industry to preserve the natural characteristics of food and to fight food spoilage caused by bacteria, molds, fungus, and yeast.  Helps mankind develop fuels that we use today as dense repositories of energy that are consumed to provide energy services such as heating, transportation and electrical generation.  Helps mankind enclose the design, development, and synthesis of pharmaceutical drugs that prolong our life and help us fight diseases.  Helps mankind develop cosmetics that we use today to enhance or alter the appearance of the face or fragrance and texture of the body.  Helps mankind develop pesticides that are widely used in agriculture for the protection of crops from disease, insects, rodents and regulating plant growth and killing weeds.  Helps mankind develop fertilizers that enhance the natural fertility of the soil and improve growth and productiveness of crops.  Helps mankind analyze the non-biological trace evidence that is brought in from crime scenes and reach a conclusion based on tests run on that piece of evidence.  Helps mankind devise new ways to make the manufacturing of the products (from fireworks to explosions) easier and more cost effective.  Helps mankind develop safety strategies for handling dangerous materials, and supervise the manufacture of nearly every product (from pharmaceuticals to fuels and computer components) we use.  Helps mankind to remove valuable metals from an ore and refine the extracted raw metals into a purer form. Bad effects:  Accidents or incorrect use of household cleaning products may cause immediate health effects, such as skin or eye irritation or burns, or may influence children's gut bacteria and cause obesity.  Chemistry is at the heart of environmental issues. Chemical pesticides are known to pollute the environment as they can work their way into the food chain and accumulate or persist in the environment for many years.  Maleic Hydrazide is generally added to potatoes to keep them from sprouting. It is a known chemical inhibitor and can even lead to cancer in the long run.  Plastic cannot biodegrade. Toxic chemicals leach out of plastic water bottles, bags and straws make their way into our bodies and cause a variety of health issues that result cancer, reproductive issues, immune system suppression and problems with childhood development.  Chemicals that are widely used in cosmetics and personal care products can cause changes in women's reproductive hormones and harm women's fertility or even cause breast cancer.  Chemical waste is a usually a byproduct of a large scale factories and laboratories that ― if improperly managed or disposed of ― may pose substantial hazards to human health and the environment.  The excessive use of fertilizers can destroy soil nutrients like sodium, potassium, nitrogen and creates imbalances in soil fertility and result in failure of crops in agriculture and can pollute groundwater. "If you wish to make an apple pie from scratch, you must first invent the universe." ― Carl Sagan Timeline of historic inventions Paleolithic The dates listed in this section refer to the earliest evidence of an invention found and dated by archaeologists (or in a few cases, suggested by indirect evidence). Dates are often approximate and change as more research is done, reported and seen. Older examples of any given technology are found often. The locations listed are for the site where the earliest solid evidence has been found, but especially for the earlier inventions, there is little certainty how close that may be to where the invention took place. Ancient education only taught basic reading, writing, and religion Lower Paleolithic The Lower Paleolithic period lasted over 3 million years, and corresponds to the human species prior to the emergence of Homo sapiens. The original divergence between humans and chimpanzees occurred 13 (Ma), however interbreeding continued until as recently as 4 Ma, with the first species clearly belonging to the human (and not chimpanzee) lineage being the Australopithecus anamensis. This time period is characterized as an ice age with regular periodic warmer periods – interglacial episodes.  3.3-2.6 Ma: Stone tools – found in present-day Kenya, they are so old that only a prehuman species could have invented them. The otherwise earliest known stone tools (Oldowan) were found in Ethiopia developed perhaps by Australopithecus garhi or Homo habilis  2.3 Ma: Earliest likely control of fire and cooking, by Homo habilis  1.76 Ma: Advanced (Acheulean) stone tools in Kenya by Homo erectus  1.5 Ma: Bone tools in Africa.  900-40 ka: Boats.  500 ka: Hafting in South Africa.  400 ka: Pigments in Zambia  400-300 ka: Spears in Germany likely by Homo heidelbergensis Horace Mann was a well-known education reformer in 19th century America. 374  350-150 ka: Estimated origin of language Rome never had any law requiring citizens to acquire any minimum level of education Middle Paleolithic The dawn of homo sapiens around 300 ka coincides with the start of the Middle Paleolithic period. Towards the middle of this 250,000-year period, humans begin to migrate out of Africa, and the later part of the period shows the beginning of long-distance trade, religious rites and other behavior associated with Behavioral modernity.  c. 320 ka: The trade and long-distance transportation of resources (e.g. obsidian), use of pigments, and possible making of projectile points in Kenya  279 ka: Early stone-tipped projectile weapons in Ethiopia  c. 200 ka: Glue in Central Italy by neanderthals. More complicated compound adhesives developed by homo sapiens have been found from c. 70 ka Sibudu, South Africa and have been regarded as a sign of cognitive advancement.  170-83 ka: Clothing (among anatomically modern humans in Africa). Some other evidence suggests that humans may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 100,000 to 500,000 years ago.  164-47 ka: Heat treating of stone blades in South Africa.  135-100 ka: Beads in Israel and Algeria  100 ka: Compound paints made in South Africa how to write in ancient  100 ka: Funerals (in the form of burial) in Israel America  90 ka: Harpoons in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.  77 ka: Beds in South Africa  70-60 ka: Oldest arrows (and evidence of bow-and-arrow technology), and oldest needle, Females were taught how to read but not at Sibudu, South Africa Upper Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic 50 ka has been regarded by some as the beginning of Behavioral modernity, defining the Upper Paleolithic period, which lasted nearly 40,000 years (though some research dates the beginning 375 of behavioral modernity earlier to the Middle Paleolithic). This is characterized by the widespread observation of religious rites, artistic expression and the appearance of tools made for purely intellectual or artistic pursuits.  49-30 ka: Ground stone tools – fragments of an axe in Australia date to 49-45 ka, more appear in Japan closer to 30 ka, and elsewhere closer to the Neolithic.  47 ka: The oldest-known mines in the world are from Swaziland, and extracted hematite for the production of the red pigment ochre.  44–42 ka: Tally sticks (see Lebombo bone) in Swaziland  43.7 ka: Cave painting in Indonesia  40-20 ka: Domestication of the Grey Wolf  37 ka: Mortar and pestle in Southwest Asia.  36 ka: Weaving – Indirect evidence from Czechia, Georgia and Moravia. The earliest actual piece of woven cloth was found in Çatalhöyük, Turkey  35 ka: Flute in Germany  33-10 ka: Star chart in France and Spain.  28 ka: Rope  28 ka: Phallus in Germany  26 ka: Ceramics in Europe.  19 ka: Bullroarer in Ukraine  16 ka: Pottery in China  14.5 ka: Bread in Jordan  14 ka: Dentistry in northern Italy The first schools in the thirteen colonies of ancient America opened in the 17th century Agricultural and Proto-Agricultural Eras The end of the Last Glacial Period ("ice age") and the beginning of the Holocene around 11.7 ka coincide with the Agricultural Revolution, marking the beginning of the agricultural era, which persisted until the industrial revolution. 376 Major contribution Archimedes Principle of buoyancy; Principle of the lever Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation; Laws of motion; Reflecting telescope Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction James Clerk Maxwell Electromagnetic theory; Light-an electromagnetic wave Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves J.C. Bose Ultra short radio waves W.K. Roentgen X-rays J.J. Thomson Electron Marie Sklodowska Curie Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on natural radioactivity Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect; Theory of relativity Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules Louis Victor de Broglie Wave nature of matter M.N. Saha Thermal ionization S.N. Bose Quantum statistics Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Werner Heisenberg Quantum mechanics; Uncertainty principle Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron; Quantum statistics Edwin Hubble Expanding universe Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron James Chadwick Neutron Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation Lev Davidovich Landau Theory of condensed matter; Liquid helium S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and evolution of stars John Bardeen Transistors; Theory of super conductivity C.H. Townes Maser; Laser Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic interactions If I had a time machine, I'd visit Marilyn Monroe in her prime or drop in on Galileo as he turned his telescope to the heavens. Stephen Hawking Science sent the Hubble telescope out into space, so it could capture light and the absence thereof, from the very beginning of time. And the telescope really did that. So now we know that there was once absolutely nothing, such a perfect nothing that there wasn't even nothing or once. Kurt Vonnegut Neolithic and Late Mesolithic During the Neolithic period, lasting 8400 years, stone remained the predominant material for toolmaking, although copper and arsenic bronze were developed towards the end of this period.  12-11 ka: Agriculture in the Fertile Crescent  12–11 ka: Domestication of sheep in Southwest Asia (followed shortly by pigs, goats and cattle)  11-8 ka: Domestication of rice in China  11 ka: Constructed stone monument – Göbekli Tepe, in Turkey  9000 BC: Mudbricks, and clay mortar in Jericho.  8000–7500 BC: Proto-city – large permanent settlements, such as Tell es-Sultan (Jericho) and Çatalhöyük, Turkey.  7000 BC: Dental drill in the Indus Valley site of Mehrgarh, Pakistan.  7000 BC: Alcohol fermentation – specifically mead, in China  7000 BC: Sled dog and Dog sled, in Siberia.  7000 BC: Tanned leather in Mehrgarh, Pakistan.  6500 BC: Evidence of lead smelting in Çatalhöyük, Turkey  6000 BC: Kiln in Mesopotamia (Iraq)  6th millennium BC: Irrigation in Khuzistan, Iran  6000-3200 BC: Proto-writing in present day Egypt, Iraq, Serbia, China and Pakistan.  5000 BC: Copper smelting in Serbia  5000 BC: Seawall in Israel  5th millennium BC: Lacquer in China  5000 BC: Cotton thread, in Mehrgarh, Pakistan, connecting the copper beads of a bracelet.  5000–4500 BC: Rowing oars in China  4500–3500 BC: Lost-wax casting in Israel or the Indus Valley  4400 BC: Fired bricks in China. 377  4000 BC: Probable time period of the first diamond-mines in the world, in Southern India.  Around 4000 BC: Paved roads, in and around the Mesopotamian city of Ur, Iraq.  4000 BC: Plumbing. The earliest pipes were made of clay, and are found at the Temple of Bel at Nippur in Babylonia. Earthen pipes were later used in the Indus Valley c. 2700 BC for a city-scale urban drainage system, and more durable copper drainage pipes appeared in Egypt, by the time of the construction of the Pyramid of Sahure at Abusir, c.2400 BCE.  4000–3500 BC: Wheel: potter's wheels in Mesopotamia and wheeled vehicles in Mesopotamia (Sumerian civilization), the Northern Caucasus (Maykop culture) and Central Europe (Cucuteni–Trypillia culture).  3630 BC: Silk garments (sericulture) in China  3500 BC: Domestication of the horse  3500 BC: Wine as general anesthesia in Sumer.  3500 BC: Seal (emblem) invented around in the Near East, at the contemporary sites of Uruk in southern Mesopotamia and slightly later at Susa in south-western Iran during the Proto-Elamite period, and they follow the development of stamp seals in the Halaf culture or slightly earlier.  3400-3100 BC: Tattoos in southern Europe Bronze Age The beginning of bronze-smelting coincides with the emergence of the first cities and of writing in the Ancient Near East and the Indus Valley. The Bronze Age is taken as a 2000-year long period starting in 3300 BC and ending in 1300 BC.  3300 BC: City in Sumer.  3300 BC: Writing – Cuneiform in Sumer, Mesopotamia (Iraq)  3300 BC: Copper-tin bronze in Sumer. 378  Before 3200 BC: dry Latrines in the city of Uruk, Iraq, with later dry squat Toilets, that added raised fired brick foot platforms, and pedestal toilets, all over clay pipe constructed drains.  3200 BC: Sailing in ancient Egypt  Before 3000 BC: Devices functionally equivalent to dice, in the form of flat two-sided throwsticks, are seen in the Egyptian game of Senet. Later, terracotta dice resembling modern ones were used at the Indus Valley site of Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan).  3000 BC: Tin extraction in Central Asia  3000 BC: Bronze in Mesopotamia  3000-2560 BC: Papyrus in Egypt  3000 BC: Comb in Persia.  3000 BC: Reservoir in Girnar, Indus Valley (India).  3000 BC: Distillation in Indus Valley (modern-day Pakistan).  3000 BC: Sea-going ships by Austronesians (modern-day Southern China, Taiwan)  3000 BC: Receipt in Ancient Mesopotamia (Iraq)  2800 BC: Latest possible data for invention of ploughing, Kalibangan, Indus Valley (India).  c. 2600 BC: Planned city in Indus Valley (India, Pakistan).  By 2650 BC: The Ruler, or Measuring rod, in the subdivided Nippur, copper rod. Shell, Terracotta, Copper, and Ivory rulers were in use by the Indus Valley Civilisation in what today is Pakistan, and North West India, prior to 1500 BCE.  c. 2600 BC: Public sewage and sanitation systems in Indus Valley sites such as MohenjoDaro and Rakhigarhi.  c. 2600 BC: Public bath in Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley (Pakistan).  2600 BC: Levee in Indus Valley (India, Pakistan).  By 2556 BC: Docks in either Egypt or the Indus Valley. A harbor structure has been excavated in Wadi al-Jarf, which is believed to have been developed during the reign of the Pharoah Khufu (2589–2566 B.C). A competing claim is from Lothal dockyard in 379 India, constructed at some point between 2400-2000 BC; however, more precise dating does not exist.  3000-2500 BC: Rhinoplasty in Egypt.  2500 BC: Puppetry in the Indus Valley.  2500 BC: Dictionary in Mesopotamia  c. 2400 BC: Copper pipes, the Pyramid of Sahure, and adjoining temple complex at Abusir, was discovered to have a network of copper drainage pipes.  After 2400 BC: Protractor in Lothal, Indus Valley (Present day India).  After 2400 BC: Weighing scales in Lothal, Indus Valley (India).  2400 BC: Touchstone in the Indus Valley site of Banawali (India).  Around 2000 BC: Water clock by at least the old Babylonian period (c. 2000 – c. 1600 BC), but possibly earlier from Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley.  2000 BC: Musical notation in Sumer  2000 BC: Chariot in Russia and Kazakhstan  2000 BC: Glass in Ancient Egypt  By at least 1500 BC: Sundial in Babylonia.  1500 BC: Seed drill in Babylonia  1500 BC: Scissors in Ancient Egypt  Before 1400 BC: rubber, Mesoamerican ballgame.  1300 BC: Lathe in Ancient Egypt  1400-1200 BC: Concrete in Tiryns (Mycenaean Greece). Waterproof concrete was later developed by the Assyrians in 688 BC, and the Romans developed concretes that could set underwater. The Romans later used concrete extensively for construction from 300 BC to 476 AD. Iron Age The Late Bronze Age collapse occurs around 1300-1175 BC, extinguishing most Bronze-Age Near Eastern cultures, and significantly weakening the rest. This is coincident with the complete 380 collapse of the already-fledgling Indus Valley Civilisation. This event is followed by the beginning of the Iron Age. We define the Iron Age as ending in 510 BC for the purposes of this article, even though the typical definition is region-dependent (e.g. 510 BC in Greece, 322 BC in India, 200 BC in China), thus being an 800-year period. It's worth noting the uncertainty in dating several Indian developments between 600 BC and 300 AD, due to the tradition that existed of editing existing documents (such as the Sushruta Samhita and Arthashastra) without specifically documenting the edit. Most such documents were canonized at the start of the Gupta empire (mid-3rd century AD).  1300 BC: Iron smelting in either India or the Middle East.  By 800 BC: Reconstructive surgery in India.  700 BC: Grammar in Northern India (note: Sanskrit Vyākaraṇa predates Pāṇini).  700 BC: Saddle (fringed cloths or pads used by Assyrian cavalry)  650 BC: Crossbow in China.  600 BC: Coins in Phoenicia (Modern Lebanon) or Lydia  Late 7th or early 6th century BC: Wagonway called Diolkos across the Isthmus of Corinth in Ancient Greece  6th century BC: Steel (as Wootz steel) in South India.  6th century BC: First known (probably accidental) ancient use of nanoparticles in Wootz Steel in South India. Later uses include the Roman Lycurgus Cup.  6th century BC: Crucible method in South India.  6th century BC: University in Taxila in Ancient India (modern-day Pakistan).  6th century BC: Systematization of medicine and surgery in the Sushruta Samhita in Vedic Northern India.  6th to 2nd centuries BC (historical layers of the development of the Sushruta Samhita): Cataract surgery (Couching) in the Sushruta Samhita in Vedic or Mauryan India.  6th to 2nd centuries BC: Caesarean section in the Sushruta Samhita (India).  6th to 2nd centuries BC: Prosthetic limb in the Sushruta Samhita (India). 381  6th to 2nd centuries BC: Plastic surgery in the Sushruta Samhita (India).  Late 6th century BC: Crank motion (rotary quern) in Carthage or 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain Later during the Roman empire, a mechanism appeared that incorporated a connecting rod.  Before 5th century BC: Loan deeds in Upanishadic India.  c. 515 BC: Crane in Ancient Greece  500 BC Lighthouse in Greece Max Born was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in the year 1954, for his research in quantum mechanics and his Classical antiquity and medieval era statistical interpretation of the wave function. 5th century BC  500 BC: The earliest manifestation of the stirrup was widely used in India in the 2nd century BC, although may have originated as early as 500 BC.  485 BC: Catapult by Ajatashatru in Magadha, India.  485 BC: Scythed chariot by Ajatashatru in Magadha, India.  5th century BC: Cast iron in Ancient China: Confirmed by archaeological evidence, the earliest cast iron is developed in China by the early 5th century BC during the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BC), the oldest specimens found in a tomb of Luhe County in Jiangsu province.  c. 480 BC: Spiral stairs (Temple A) in Selinunte, Sicily  By 407 BC: Wheelbarrow in Greece. The word "Islam" means "submission to the will of God." 4th century BC  4th century BC: Traction trebuchet in Ancient China.  4th century BC: Gears in Ancient China  4th century BC: Reed pens, utilizing a split nib, were used to write, with ink, on Papyrus, in Egypt. 382  4th century BC: Pens (sharp pointed needles used with ink) in South India.  375–350 BC: Animal-driven rotary mill in Carthage.  Approximately 350 BC: Greek hydraulic semaphore system, an optical communication system developed by Aeneas Tacticus.  By the late 4th century BC: Corporations in either the Maurya Empire of India or in Ancient Rome (Collegium).  Late 4th century BC: Cheque in the Maurya Empire of India.  Late 4th century BC: Potassium nitrate manufacturing and military use in the Maurya Empire, India.  Late 4th century BC: Formal systems by Pāṇini in India, possibly during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.  4th to 3rd century BC: Zinc production in North-Western India during the Maurya Empire. The earliest known zinc mines and smelting sites are from Zawar, near Udaipur, in Rajasthan. 3rd century BC  The Islam started in 622 AD when Prophet Muhammad traveled from Mecca to Medina. The day he left Mecca is the day that starts the Islamic calendar. By 3rd century BC: Automatons in either the Hellenistic world or India. Kautilya's Arthashastra describes the use of calayantras (dynamic devices) such as automatic doors in Indian warfare. Later commentaries and texts describe a theoretic foundation for the engineering of basic automatons, describing them as compositions of simple machines operating through pressure, rotation and weight. However robots remained foreign to India at the time, with a Hindu-Buddhist tale attributing their invention to the Hellenistic world.  3rd century BC: Analog computers in the Hellenistic world (see e.g. the Antikythera mechanism), possibly in Rhodes.  By at least the 3rd century BC: Archimedes screw in Ancient Greece  Early 3rd century BC: Canal lock in Ancient Suez Canal under Ptolemy II (283–246 BC) in Hellenistic Egypt  3rd century BC: Cam during the Hellenistic period, used in water-driven automata. 383  By the 3rd century BC: Water wheel. The origin is unclear: Indian Pali texts dating to the 4th century BCE refer to the cakkavattaka, which later commentaries describe as arahatta-ghati-yanta (machine with wheel-pots attached). Helaine Selin suggests that the device existed in Persia before 350 BC. The clearest description of the water wheel and Liquid-driven escapement is provided by Philo of Byzantium (c. 280 – 220 BC) in the Hellenistic kingdoms.  3rd century BC: Gimbal described Philo of Byzantium  Late 3rd century BC: Dry dock under Ptolemy IV (221–205 BC) in Hellenistic Egypt  3rd–2nd century BC: Blast furnace in Ancient China: The earliest discovered blast furnaces in China date to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, although most sites are from the later Han Dynasty. 2nd century BC  2nd century BC: Paper in Han Dynasty China: Although it is recorded that the Han Dynasty (202 BC – AD 220) court eunuch Cai Lun (born c. 50–121 AD) invented the pulp papermaking process and established the use of new raw materials used in making paper, ancient padding and wrapping paper artifacts dating to the 2nd century BC have been found in China, the oldest example of pulp papermaking being a map from Fangmatan, Gansu.  Early 2nd century BC: Astrolabe invented by Apollonius of Perga. Innovation drives economic growth and raises wages. 1st century BC  1st century BC: Segmental arch bridge (e.g. Pont-Saint-Martin or Ponte San Lorenzo) in Italy, Roman Republic  1st century BC: News bulletin during the reign of Julius Caesar. A paper form, i.e. the earliest newspaper, later appeared during the late Han dynasty in the form of the Dibao.  1st century BC: Arch dam (Glanum Dam) in Gallia Narbonensis, Roman Republic.  Before 40 BC: Trip hammer in China 384  38 BC: an empty shell Glyph for zero, is found on a Maya numerals Stela, from Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.  Before 25 BC: Reverse overshot water-wheel by Roman engineers in Rio Tinto, Spain  37-14: Glass blowing developed in Jerusalem. 1st century  1st century: The Aeolipile, a simple steam turbine is recorded by Hero of Alexandria.  1st century: Vending machines invented by Hero of Alexandria.  By the 1st century: The double-entry bookkeeping system in India.  By 50 AD: Flamethrowers by the Early Cholas of Southern India (according to the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea). Silicon gets its name from the Latin silex − meaning flint or hard stone. 2nd century  132: Seismometer and pendulum in Han Dynasty China, built by Zhang Heng. It is a large metal urn-shaped instrument which employed either a suspended pendulum or inverted pendulum acting on inertia, like the ground tremors from earthquakes, to dislodge a metal ball by a lever trip device.  2nd century: Carding in India. 3rd century  By at least the 3rd century: Crystallized sugar in India.  Early 3rd century: Woodblock printing is invented in Han Dynasty China at sometime before 220 AD. This made China become the world's first print culture.  Late 3rd–early 4th century: Water turbine in the Roman Empire in modern-day Tunisia. The first commercial silicon transistor 4th century was announced in 1954. 385  280-550 AD: Chess in India during the Gupta Empire.  By 4th century: Araghatta or Persian wheel in India.  4th century: Mariner's compass in Tamil Southern India: the first mention of the use of a compass for navigational purposes is found in Tamil nautical texts as the macchayantra. However, the theoretical notion of magnets pointing North predates the device by several centuries.  4th century: Iron suspension bridge in India.  4th century: Fishing reel in Ancient China: In literary records, the earliest evidence of the fishing reel comes from a 4th-century AD work entitled Lives of Famous Immortals.  347 AD: Oil Wells and Borehole drilling in China. Such wells could reach depths of up to 240 m (790 ft).  4th–5th century: Paddle wheel boat (in De rebus bellicis) in Roman Empire 5th century  By the 5th century: Numerical zero in Ancient India: The concept of zero as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India. In India, practical calculations are carried out using zero, which is treated like any other number by at least the time of Aryabhata, even in case of division.  400 AD: The construction of the Iron pillar of Delhi in Mathura by the Gupta Empire shows the development of rust-resistant ferrous metallurgy in Ancient India, although original texts do not survive to detail the specific processes invented in this period.  5th century: Horse collar in Southern and Northern Dynasties China: The horse collar as a fully developed collar harness is developed in Southern and Northern Dynasties China during the 5th century AD. The earliest depiction of it is a Dunhuang cave mural from the Chinese Northern Wei Dynasty, the painting dated to 477–499.  5th/6th century: Pointed arch bridge (Karamagara Bridge) in Cappadocia, Eastern Roman Empire 386 6th century  By the 6th century: Incense clock in India.  after 500 AD: Charkha (spinning wheel/cotton gin): invented in India (probably during the Vakataka dynasty of Maharashtra), between 500 and 1000 A.D.  563 AD: Pendentive dome (Hagia Sophia) in Constantinople, Eastern Roman Empire  577 AD: Sulfur matches exist in China.  589 AD: Toilet paper in Sui Dynasty China, first mentioned by the official Yan Zhitui (531–591), with full evidence of continual use in subsequent dynasties. 7th century  650 AD Windmill in Persia  672 AD: Greek fire in Constantinople, Byzantine Empire: Greek fire, an incendiary weapon likely based on petroleum or naphtha, is invented by Kallinikos, a Lebanese Greek refugee from Baalbek, as described by Theophanes. However, the historicity and exact chronology of this account is dubious, and it could be that Kallinikos merely introduced an improved version of an established weapon.  7th century: Banknote in Tang Dynasty China: The banknote is first developed in China during the Tang and Song dynasties, starting in the 7th century. Its roots are in merchant receipts of deposit during the Tang Dynasty (618–907), as merchants and wholesalers desire to avoid the heavy bulk of copper coinage in large commercial transactions.  7th century: Porcelain in Tang Dynasty China: True porcelain is manufactured in northern China from roughly the beginning of the Tang Dynasty in the 7th century, while true porcelain was not manufactured in southern China until about 300 years later, during the early 10th century. Jacob Berzelius is typically credited with discovering silicon in 1824. 8th century 387  700 AD: Manmade pinhole camera, still extant, in the Virupaksha Temple in Karnataka, India, during the Chalukyas of Vatapi. 9th century  9th century: Gunpowder in Tang Dynasty China: Gunpowder is, according to prevailing academic consensus, discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality. Evidence of gunpowder's first use in China comes from the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (618–907). The earliest known recorded recipes for gunpowder are written by Zeng Gongliang, Ding Du, and Yang Weide in the Wujing Zongyao, a military manuscript compiled in 1044 during the Song Dynasty (960–1279).  9th century: Degree-granting university in Morocco 10th century  10th century: Fire lance in Song Dynasty China, developed in the 10th century with a tube of first bamboo and later on metal that shot a weak gunpowder blast of flame and shrapnel, its earliest depiction is a painting found at Dunhuang. Fire lance is the earliest firearm in the world and one of the earliest gunpowder weapons.  10th century: Fireworks in Song Dynasty China: Fireworks first appear in China during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), in the early age of gunpowder. Fireworks could be purchased from market vendors; these were made of sticks of bamboo packed with gunpowder. 11th century  11th century: Ambulance by Crusaders in Palestine and Lebanon  11th century: Early versions of the Bessemer process are developed in China.  11th century: Endless power-transmitting chain drive by Su Song for the development an astronomical clock (the Cosmic Engine) There are 32 Nobel Prize winners among Stanford alumni. 388  1088: Movable type in Song Dynasty China: The first record of a movable type system is in the Dream Pool Essays, which attributes the invention of the movable type to Bi Sheng. The 5 pillars of Islam: 12th century  12th century: Bond trading in France. 13th century   Shahada – The declaration of faith.  The Salah, or Salat – The five daily prayers  Zakat – The practice of charitable giving  Sawm – The fasting  Haji – The Pilgrimage to Mecca 13th century: Rocket for military and recreational uses date back to at least 13th-century China.  13th century: The earliest form of mechanical escapement, the verge escapement in Europe.  13th century: Buttons (combined with buttonholes) as a functional fastening or closing clothes appear first in Germany.  1277: Land mine in Song Dynasty China: Textual evidence suggests that the first use of a land mine in history is by a Song Dynasty brigadier general known as Lou Qianxia, who uses an 'enormous bomb' (huo pao) to kill Mongol soldiers invading Guangxi in 1277.  1286: Eyeglasses in Italy  13th century: Explosive bomb in Jin dynasty Manchuria: Explosive bombs are used in 1221 by the Jin dynasty against a Song Dynasty city. The first accounts of bombs made of cast iron shells packed with explosive gunpowder are documented in the 13th century in China and are called "thunder-crash bombs", coined during a Jin dynasty naval battle in 1231.  13th century: Hand cannon in Yuan Dynasty China: The earliest hand cannon dates to the 13th century based on archaeological evidence from a Heilongjiang excavation. There is also written evidence in the Yuanshi (1370) on Li Tang, an ethnic Jurchen commander under the Yuan Dynasty who in 1288 suppresses the rebellion of the Christian prince Nayan with his "gun-soldiers" or chongzu, this being the earliest known event where this phrase is used. 389  13th or 14th century: worm gear cotton gin in Peninsular India (i.e. probably under the Yadava dynasty although may also be the Vijayanagara Empire or Bahmani Sultanate). 14th century  Early to Mid 1300s: Multistage rocket in Ming Dynasty China described in Huolongjing by Jiao Yu.  By at least 1326: Cannon in Ming Dynasty China  14th century: Jacob's staff invented by Levi ben Gerson  14th century: Naval mine in Ming Dynasty China: Mentioned in the Huolongjing military manuscript written by Jiao Yu (fl. 14th to early 15th century) and Liu Bowen (1311– 1375), describing naval mines used at sea or on rivers and lakes, made of wrought iron and enclosed in an ox bladder. A later model is documented in Song Yingxing's encyclopedia written in 1637. Mary, the mother of Jesus is the 15th century only woman mentioned by name in the Quran  Early 15th century: Coil spring in Europe  15th century: Mainspring in Europe  15th century: Rifle in Europe  1420s: Brace in Flandres, Holy Roman Empire  1439: Printing press in Mainz, Germany: The printing press is invented in the Holy Roman Empire by Johannes Gutenberg before 1440, based on existing screw presses. The first confirmed record of a press appeared in a 1439 lawsuit against Gutenberg.  Mid 15th Century: The Arquebus (also spelled Harquebus) is invented, possibly in Spain.  1480s: Mariner's astrolabe in Portuguese circumnavigation of Africa 16th century  1560: Floating Dry Dock in Venice, Venetian Republic 390  1569: Mercator Projection map created by Gerardus Mercator  1589: Stocking frame: Invented by William Lee.  1594: Backstaff: Invented by Captain John Davis.  By at least 1597: Revolver: Invented by Hans Stopler. Modern era On his deathbed in 1836, Andre Marie Ampere ordered that an inscription be placed upon his tombstone: Tandem Felix (Happy at Last). 17th century  1605: Newspaper (Relation): Johann Carolus in Strassburg, Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.  1608: Telescope: Patent applied for by Hans Lippershey in the Netherlands. Actual inventor unknown since it seemed to already be a common item being offered by the spectacle makers in the Netherlands with Jacob Metius also applying for patent and the son of Zacharias Janssen making a claim 47 years later that his father invented it.  c. 1620: Compound microscopes, which combine an objective lens with an eyepiece to view a real image, first appear in Europe. Apparently derived from the telescope, actual inventor unknown, variously attributed to Zacharias Janssen (his son claiming it was invented in 1590), Cornelis Drebbel, and Galileo Galilei.  1630: Slide rule: invented by William Oughtred  1642: Mechanical calculator. The Pascaline is built by Blaise Pascal  1643: Barometer: invented by Evangelista Torricelli, or possibly up to three years earlier by Gasparo Berti.  1650: Vacuum pump: Invented by Otto von Guericke.  1656: Pendulum clock: Invented by Christiaan Huygens. It was first conceptulized in 1637 by Galileo Galilei but he was unable to create a working model.  1663: Friction machine: Invented by Otto von Guericke.  1680: Christiaan Huygens provides the first known description of a piston engine. 18th century 391 1700s  1701: Jethro Tull invented the first seed drill.  c. 1709: Bartolomeo Cristofori crafts the first piano.  1709: Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the alcohol thermometer. Anders Celsius was a Swedish astronomer and physicist who taught at the University of Uppsala. He published a 1710s  collection of observations of the aurora borealis and built the Uppsala Observatory. He also invented the Celsius (or centigrade) thermometer scale. 1712: Thomas Newcomen builds the first commercial steam engine to pump water out of mines. Newcomen's engine, unlike Thomas Savery's, uses a piston. 1730s  c. 1730: Thomas Godfrey and John Hadley independently develop the octant  1733: John Kay enables one person to operate a loom with the flying shuttle  1736: John Harrison tests his first Sea Clock, H1.  1738: Lewis Paul and John Wyatt invent the first mechanized cotton spinning machine. 1740s  1745: Musschenbroek and Kleist independently develop the Leyden jar, an early form of capacitor.  1746: John Roebuck invents the lead chamber process. 1750s  1755: William Cullen invents the first artificial refrigeration machine. 1760s  1764: James Hargreaves invents the spinning jenny.  1765: James Watt invents the improved steam engine utilizing a separate condenser.  1767: Joseph Priestley invents a method for the production of carbonated water. 392  1769: Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot invents the first steam-powered vehicle capable of carrying passengers, an early car. 1770s  1770: Richard Salter invents the earliest known design for a weighing scale.  1774: John Wilkinson invents his boring machine, considered by some to be the first machine tool.  1775: Jesse Ramsden invents the modern screw-cutting lathe.  1776: John Wilkinson invents a mechanical air compressor that would become the prototype for all later mechanical compressors. 1780s  1783: Claude de Jouffroy builds the first steamboat.  1783: Joseph-Ralf and Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier build the first manned hot air balloon.  1785: Martinus van Marum is the first to use the electrolysis technique.  1786: Andrew Meikle invents the threshing machine.  1789: Edmund Cartwright invents the power loom. 1790s  1790: Thomas Saint invents the sewing machine.  1792: Claude Chappe invents the modern semaphore telegraph.  1793: Eli Whitney invents the modern cotton gin.  1795: Joseph Bramah invents the hydraulic press.  1796: Alois Senefelder invents the lithography printing technique.  1797: Samuel Bentham invents plywood.  1798: Edward Jenner develops the first successful vaccine, the smallpox vaccine. 393  1799: George Medhurst invents the first motorized air compressor.  1799: The first paper machine is invented by Louis-Nicolas Robert. 19th century 1800s  1800: Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, an early form of battery in Italy, based on previous works by Luigi Galvani.  1802: Humphry Davy invents the arc lamp (exact date unclear; not practical as a light source until the invention of efficient electric generators).  1804: Friedrich Sertürner discovers morphine as the first active alkaloid extracted from the opium poppy plant.  1804: Richard Trevithick invents the steam locomotive.  1804: Hanaoka Seishū creates tsūsensan, the first modern general anesthetic.  1807: Nicéphore Niépce invents the first internal combustion engine capable of doing useful work.  1807: François Isaac de Rivaz designs the first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine fuelled by hydrogen.  1807: Robert Fulton expands water transportation and trade with the workable steamboat. 1810s  1810: Nicolas Appert invents the canning process for food.  1811: Friedrich Koenig invents the first powered printing press, which was also the first to use a cylinder.  1812: William Reid Clanny pioneered the invention of the safety lamp which he improved in later years. Safety lamps based on Clanny's improved design were used until the adoption of electric lamps. 394  1814: James Fox invents the modern planing machine, though Matthew Murray of Leeds and Richard Roberts of Manchester have also been credited at times with its invention.  1816: Francis Ronalds builds the first working electric telegraph using electrostatic means.  1816: Robert Stirling invents the Stirling engine.  1817: Baron Karl von Drais invents the dandy horse, an early velocipede and precursor to the modern bicycle.  1818: Marc Isambard Brunel invents the tunnelling shield. 1820s  1822: Thomas Blanchard invents the pattern-tracing lathe (actually more like a shaper) and was completed by for the U.S. Ordnance Dept. The lathe can copy symmetrical shapes and is used for making gun stocks, and later, ax handles. The lathe's patent is in force for 42 years, the record for any U.S. patent.  1822: Nicéphore Niépce invents Heliography, the first photographic process.  1822: Charles Babbage, considered the "father of the computer", begins building the first programmable mechanical computer.  1823: Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner invents the first lighter.  1824: Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse invents the bolt-action rifle.  1825: William Sturgeon invents the electromagnet.  1826: John Walker invents the friction match.  1828: James Beaumont Neilson develops the hot blast process.  1828: Patrick Bell invents the reaping machine.  1828: Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik invents the first commutated rotary electromechanical machine with electromagnets.  1829: William Mann invents the compound air compressor. 1830s 395  1830: Edwin Budding invents the lawn mower.  1831: Michael Faraday invents a method of electromagnetic induction. It would be independently invented by Joseph Henry the following year.  1834: Moritz von Jacobi, a German-born Russian, invents the first practical electric motor.  1835: Joseph Henry invents the electromechanical relay.  1837: Samuel Morse invents Morse code.  1838: Moritz von Jacobi invents Electrotyping.  1839: William Otis invents the steam shovel.  1839: James Nasmyth invents the steam hammer.  1839: Edmond Becquerel invents a method for the photovoltaic effect, effectively producing the first solar cell. 1840s  1841: Alexander Bain devises a printing telegraph.  1842: William Robert Grove invents the first fuel cell.  1842: John Bennet Lawes invents superphosphate, the first man-made fertilizer.  1844: Friedrich Gottlob Keller and, independently, Charles Fenerty come up with the wood pulp method of paper production.  1845: Isaac Charles Johnson invents Modern Portland cement.  1846: Henri-Joseph Maus invents the Tunnel boring machine.  1847: Ascanio Sobrero invents Nitroglycerin, the first explosive made that was stronger than black powder.  1848: Jonathan J. Couch invents the pneumatic drill.  1849: Walter Hunt invents the first repeating rifle to use metallic cartridges (of his own design) and a spring-fed magazine.  1849: James B. Francis invents the Francis turbine. 396 1850s  1850: Sir William Armstrong invents the hydraulic accumulator.  1852: Robert Bunsen is the first to use a chemical vapor deposition technique.  1852: Elisha Otis invents the safety brake elevator.  1852: Henri Giffard becomes the first person to make a manned, controlled and powered flight using a dirigible.  1853: François Coignet invents reinforced concrete.  1855: James Clerk Maxwell invents the first practical method for color photography, whether chemical or electronic.  1855: Sir. Henry Bessemer patents the Bessemer process for making steel, with improvements made by others over the following years.  1856: James Harrison produces the world's first practical ice making machine and refrigerator using the principle of vapour compression in Geelong, Australia.  1856: William Henry Perkin invents Mauveine, the first synthetic dye.  1857: Heinrich Geissler invents the Geissler tube.  1859: Gaston Planté invents the lead acid battery, the first rechargeable battery. 1860s  1860: Joseph Swan produces carbon fibers.  1862: Alexander Parkes invents parkesine, also known as celluloid, the first manmade plastic.  1864: Louis Pasteur invents the pasteurization process.  1865: Carl Wilhelm Siemens and Pierre-Émile Martin invented the Siemens-Martin process for making steel.  1865: Gregor Mendel publishes 'Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden' ("Experiments on Plant Hybridization"), effectively founding the science of genetics, though the importance of his work would not be appreciated until later on. 397  1867: Alfred Nobel invents Dynamite, the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder.  1867: Lucien B. Smith invents barbed wire, which Joseph F. Glidden will modify in 1874, leading to the taming of the West and the end of the cowboys. Henry Ford designed and built his first operational steam engine in 1878, when he was only 15 years old! 1870s  1872: J.E.T. Woods and J. Clark invented Stainless steel. Harry Brearley was the first to commercialize it.  1873: Frederick Ransome invents the rotary kiln.  1873: Sir William Crookes, a chemist, invents the Crookes radiometer as the by-product of some chemical research.  1873: Zénobe Gramme invents the first commercial electrical generator, the Gramme machine.  1874: Gustave Trouvé invents the first metal detector.  1876: Nicolaus August Otto invents the Four-stroke cycle.  1876: Alexander Graham Bell has a patent granted for the telephone. However, other inventors before Bell had worked on the development of the telephone and the invention had several pioneers.  1877: Thomas Edison invents the first working phonograph.  1878: Henry Fleuss is granted a patent for the first practical rebreather.  1878: Lester Allan Pelton invents the Pelton wheel.  1879: Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison both patent a functional Incandescent light bulb. Some two dozen inventors had experimented with electric incandescent lighting over the first three-quarters of the 19th century but never came up with a practical design. Swan's, which he had been working on his since the 1860s, had a low resistance so was only suited for small installations. Edison designed a high-resistance bulb as part of a largescale commercial electric lighting utility. 1880s 398  1881: Nikolay Benardos presents carbon arc welding, the first practical arc welding method.  1884: Hiram Maxim invents the recoil-operated Maxim gun, ushering in the age of semiand fully automatic firearms.  1884: Paul Vieille invents Poudre B, the first smokeless powder for firearms.  1884: Sir Charles Parsons invents the modern steam turbine.  1884: Hungarian engineers Károly Zipernowsky, Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri intvent the closed core high efficiency transformer and the AC parallel power distribution.  1885: John Kemp Starley invents the modern bicycle.  1886: Carl Gassner invents the zinc-carbon battery, the first dry cell battery, making portable electronics practical.  1886: Charles Martin Hall and independently Paul Héroult invent the Hall–Héroult process for economically producing aluminum in 1886.  1886: Karl Benz invents the first petrol or gasoline powered auto-mobile (car).  1887: Carl Josef Bayer invents the Bayer process for the production of alumina.  1887: James Blyth invents the first wind turbine used for generating electricity.  1887: John Stewart MacArthur, working in collaboration with brothers Dr. Robert and Dr. William Forrest develops the process of gold cyanidation.  1888: John J. Loud invents the ballpoint pen.  1888: Heinrich Hertz publishes a conclusive proof of James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in experiments that also demonstrate the existence of radio waves. The effects of electromagnetic waves had been observed by many people before this but no usable theory explaining them existed until Maxwell. 1890s  1890s: Frédéric Swarts invents the first chlorofluorocarbons to be applied as refrigerant.  1890: Clément Ader invents the first aircraft, airplane, fly machine called Eole (aircraft) or Ader Éole 399  1891: Whitcomb Judson invents the zipper.  1892: Léon Bouly invents the cinematograph.  1893: Rudolf Diesel invents the diesel engine (although Herbert Akroyd Stuart had experimented with compression ignition before Diesel).  1895: Guglielmo Marconi invents a system of wireless communication using radio waves.  1895: Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen invented the first radiograph (xrays).  1898: Hans von Pechmann synthesizes polyethylene, now the most common plastic in the world.  1899: Waldemar Jungner invents the rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery (NiCd) as well as the nickel-iron electric storage battery (NiFe) and the rechargeable alkaline silvercadmium battery (AgCd) 20th century Technetium was the first artificially produced element. It was isolated by Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè in 1937. 1900s  1900: The first Zeppelin is designed by Theodor Kober.  1901: The first motorized cleaner using suction, a powered "vacuum cleaner", is patented independently by British engineer Hubert Cecil Booth and American inventor David T. Kenney.  1903: The first successful gas turbine is invented by Ægidius Elling.  1903: Édouard Bénédictus invents laminated glass.  1903: First manually controlled, fixed wing, motorized aircraft flies at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina by Orville and Wilbur Wright. See Claims to the first powered flight.  1904: The Fleming valve, the first vacuum tube and diode, is invented by John Ambrose Fleming.  1907: The first free flight of a rotary-wing aircraft is carried out by Paul Cornu.  1907: Leo Baekeland invents bakelite. 400  1907 (at some time during the year), the tuyères thermopropulsives after 1945 (Maurice Roy (fr)) known as the statoreacteur a combustion subsonique (the ramjet) – R. Lorin  1908: Cellophane is invented by Jacques E. Brandenberger.  1909: Fritz Haber invents the Haber process.  1909: The first instantaneous transmission of images, or television broadcast, is carried out by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier. The actor who played the "Marlboro man" died of lung cancer. 1910s  1911: The cloud chamber, the first particle detector, is invented by Charles Thomson Rees Wilson.  1913: The Bergius process is developed by Friedrich Bergius.  1913: The Kaplan turbine is invented by Viktor Kaplan.  1915: The first operational military tanks are designed, in Great Britain and France. They are used in battle from 1916 and 1917 respectively. In Britain the designers are Walter Wilson and William Tritton; in France, Eugène Brillié. (Although it is known that vehicles incorporating at least some of the features of the tank were designed in a number of countries from 1903 onwards, none reached a practical form.)  1916: The Czochralski process, widely used for the production of single crystal silicon, is invented by Jan Czochralski.  1917: The crystal oscillator is invented by Alexander M. Nicholson using a crystal of Rochelle Salt although his priority was disputed by Walter Guyton Cady 1920s  Pepsi got its name from the digestive enzyme pepsin. 1925: The Fischer–Tropsch process is developed by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Kohlenforschung.  1926: The Yagi-Uda Antenna or simply Yagi Antenna is invented by Shintaro Uda of Tohoku Imperial University, Japan, assisted by his colleague Hidetsugu Yagi. The Yagi Antenna was widely used by the US, British, and Germans during World War II. After the war they saw extensive development as home television antennas. 401  1926: Robert H. Goddard launches the first liquid fueled rocket.  1927: The quartz clock is invented by Warren Marrison and J.W. Horton at Bell Telephone Laboratories.  1928: Penicillin is first observed to exude antibiotic substances by Nobel laureate Alexander Fleming. Development of medicinal penicillin is attributed to a team of medics and scientists including Howard Walter Florey, Ernst Chain and Norman Heatley.  1928: Frank Whittle formally submitted his ideas for a turbo-jet engine. In October 1929, he developed his ideas further. On 16 January 1930 in England, Whittle submitted his first patent (granted in 1932).  1928: Philo Farnsworth demonstrates the first practical electronic television to the press.  1929: The ball screw is invented by Rudolph G. Boehm. The periodic table reflects its creator's love for card games 1930s  1930, the supersonic combusting ramjet (the turbojet) — Frank Whittle  1930: The Phase-contrast microscopy is invented by Frits Zernike.  1931: The electron microscope is invented by Ernst Ruska.  1933: FM radio is patented by inventor Edwin H. Armstrong.  1935: Nylon, the first fully synthetic fiber is produced by Wallace Carothers while working at DuPont.  1938: Z1 built by Konrad Zuse is the first freely programmable computer in the world.  1938, December: Nuclear fission discovered in experiment by Otto Hahn (Nazi Germany), coined by Lise Meitner (fled to Sweden from Nazi-occupied Austria) and Fritz Strassman (Sweden). The Manhattan Project, and consequently the Soviet atomic bomb project were begun based on this research, as well as the German nuclear energy project, although the latter one declined as its physicists were drafted into Germany's war effort.  1939: G. S. Yunyev or Naum Gurvich invented the electric current defibrillator 402 1940s  1940, February, Pu-239 isotope (isotope of plutonium) a form of matter existing with the capacity for use as a destructive element (because the isotope has an exponentially increasing spontaneous fissile decay) within nuclear devices — Glenn Seaborg  1941: Polyester is invented by British scientists John Whinfield and James Dickson.  1942: The V-2 rocket, the world's first long range ballistic missile, developed in Nazi Germany during World War II.  July 1945: The atomic bomb is first successfully developed by the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada as a part of the Manhattan Project and swiftly deployed in August 1945 in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, effectively terminating World War II.  1946: Sir James Martin invents the ejector seat, inspired by the death of his friend and test pilot Captain Valentine Baker in an aeroplane crash in 1942.  1947: Holography is invented by Dennis Gabor.  1947: Floyd Farris and J.B. Clark (Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation) invents hydraulic fracturing technology.  December 1947: The first transistor, a bipolar point-contact transistor, is invented by John Bardeen and Walter Brattain under the supervision of William Shockley at Bell Labs.  1948: The first atomic clock is developed at the United States's National Bureau of Standards.  1948: Basic oxygen steelmaking is developed by Robert Durrer. The vast majority of steel manufactured in the world is produced using the basic oxygen furnace; in 2000, it accounted for 60% of global steel output. Google was originally called BackRub. 1950s  1950: The Toroidal chamber with axial magnetic fields (the Tokamak) is developed by Igor E. Tamm and Andrei D. Sakharov 403  1952: The float glass process is developed by Alastair Pilkington.  December 20, 1951: First use of nuclear power to produce electricity for households in Arco, Idaho  1952: The first thermonuclear weapon is developed by the United States of America.  1953: The first video tape recorder, a helical scan recorder, is invented by Norikazu Sawazaki.  1954: Invention of Solar Battery by Bell Telephone scientists, Calvin Souther Fuller, Daryl Chapin and Gerald Pearson capturing the sun's power. First practical means of collecting energy from the sun and turning it into a current of electricity.  1955: The hovercraft is patented by Christopher Cockerell.  1955: The intermodal container is developed by Malcom McLean.  1956: The hard disk drive is invented by IBM.  1957: The first personal computer used by one person and controlled by a keyboard, the IBM 610, is invented in 1957 by IBM.  1957: The first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, is built and launched by the Soviet Union.  1958–59: The integrated circuit is independently invented by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.  1959: The MOSFET (MOS transistor) is invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs. It is used in almost all modern electronic products. It was smaller, faster, more reliable and cheaper to manufacture than earlier bipolar transistors, leading to a revolution in computers, controls and communication. 1960s "Yahoo" is an acronym for "Yet Another Hierarchical Officious Oracle."  1960: The first functioning laser is invented by Theodore Maiman.  1963: The first electronic cigarette is created by Herbert A. Gilbert. Hon Lik is often credited with its invention as he developed the modern electronic cigarette and was the first to commercialize it.  1965: Kevlar is invented by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont.  1969: ARPANET first deployed via UCLA, SRI, UCSB, and The University of Utah. 404 Thermodynamics Deals with the transfer of energy from one from one form to another Classical Thermodynamics Statistical Thermodynamics Chemical Thermodynamics Classical thermodynamics ... is the only physical theory of universal content which I am convinced ... will never be overthrown. Equilibrium Thermodynamics Albert Einstein Evolution in the biosphere is therefore a necessarily irreversible process defining a direction in time; a direction which is the same as that enjoined by the law of increasing entropy, that is to say, the second law of thermodynamics. This is far more than a mere comparison: the second law is founded upon considerations identical to those which establish the irreversibility of evolution. Indeed, it is legitimate to view the irreversibility of evolution as an expression of the second law in the biosphere. Jacques Monod Cell genetics led us to investigate cell mechanics.  Mendelian Disorders (due to the changes in the DNA of an organism): Cell mechanics now compels us to infer the  Haemophilia structures underlying it. In seeking the mechanism  Colour Blindness of heredity and variation we are thus discovering  Sickle-cell Anaemia the molecular basis of growth and reproduction. The theory of the cell revealed the unity of living processes; the study of the cell is beginning to reveal their physical foundations. — Cyril Dean Darlington  Chromosomal Disorders (due to the changes in structure or number of the chromosomes of an organism):  Down's Syndrome  Klinefelter's Syndrome  Turner's Syndrome Genetic Disorder Monogenic Disorder Polygenic Disorder Variance in one particular Variance in multiple genes gene only at the same time  Sickle cell anemia  Diabetes  Cystic fibrosis  Obesity and heart diseases Fossil bones and footsteps and ruined homes are the solid facts of history, but the surest hints, the most enduring signs, lie in those miniscule genes. For a moment we protect them with our lives, then like relay runners with a baton, we pass them on to be carried by our descendents. There is a poetry in genetics which is more difficult to discern in broken bones, and genes are the only unbroken living thread that weaves back and forth through all those boneyards. — Jonathan Kingdon Warfare Chemical warfare Biological warfare Use of chemicals to inflict death or injury Use of pathogens to inflict death or disease Nuclear warfare Use of nuclear weapons to produce mass destruction in a much shorter time and have a long-lasting radiological result The power of biological weapons is ten times more than the nuclear power. Unless we act fast with an open mind, any one of them can extinct the human race. Although chemical weapons killed proportionally few soldiers in World War I (1914–1918), the psychological damage from gas fright and the exposure of large numbers of soldiers, munitions workers, and civilians to Amit Ray chemical agents had significant public health consequences. 1970s  1970: The pocket calculator is invented in Japan.  1971: Email is invented by Ray Tomlinson.  1971: The first single-chip microprocessor, the Intel 4004, is invented. Its development was led by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS technology. This led to the personal computer (PC) revolution.  1972: The first video game console, used primarily for playing video games on a TV, is the Magnavox Odyssey.  1973: The first commercial graphical user interface is introduced in 1973 on the Xerox Alto. The modern GUI is later popularized by the Xerox Star and Apple Lisa.  1973: The first capacitive touchscreen is developed at CERN.  1973–74: The Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) is proposed by Vinton Cerf and Robert E. Kahn for the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) ARPANET, creating the basis for the modern Internet.  1975: Altair 8800 is the spark that ignited the microcomputer revolution. 1980s  1980: Flash memory (both NOR and NAND types) is invented in Japan by Fujio Masuoka while working for Toshiba. It is formally introduced to the public in 1984.  1982: A CD-ROM contains data accessible to, but not writable by, a computer for data storage and music playback. The 1985 Yellow Book standard developed by Sony and Philips adapted the format to hold any form of binary data.  1983: Stereolithography is invented by Chuck Hull  1984: The first commercially available cell phone, the DynaTAC 8000X, is created by Motorola.  1985: The lithium-ion battery is invented by John B. Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino. It has impacted modern consumer electronics and electric vehicles. 405 1990s  1990: The World Wide Web is first introduced to the public by English engineer and computer scientist Sir Tim Berners-Lee.  1993: Mosaic, the first popular web browser is introduced  1995: DVD is an optical disc storage format, invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. DVDs offer higher storage capacity than Compact Discs while having the same dimensions.  1998: The first portable MP3 player is released by SaeHan Information Systems. 21st century 2000s  2000: Sony develops the first prototypes for the Blu-ray optical disc format. The first prototype player was released in 2003. 2010s  2019: IBM launched IBM Q System One, its first integrated quantum computing system for commercial use. Timeline of the nuclear program of Iran 1956–1979  1957: The United States and Iran sign a civil nuclear co-operation agreement as part of the U.S. Atoms for Peace program.  August 9, 1963: Iran signs the Partial nuclear test ban treaty (PTBT) and ratifies it on December 23, 1963. 406  1967: The Tehran Nuclear Research Centre is built and run by the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI).  September 1967: The United States supplies 5.545 kg of enriched uranium, of which 5.165 kg contain fissile isotopes for fuel in a research reactor. The United States also supplies 112 g of plutonium, of which 104 g are fissile isotopes, for use as start-up sources for research reactor.  July 1968: Iran signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and ratifies it. It goes into effect on March 5, 1970.  1970s: Under the rule of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, plans are made to construct up to 20 nuclear power stations across the country with U.S. support and backing. Numerous contracts are signed with various Western firms, and the German firm Kraftwerk Union (a subsidiary of Siemens AG) begins construction on the Bushehr power plant in 1974.  1974: the Atomic Energy Act of Iran was promulgated. The Act covers the activities for which the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran was established at that period. These activities included using atomic energy and radiation in industry, agriculture and service industries, setting up atomic power stations and desalination factories, producing source materials needed in atomic industries. This creates the scientific and technical infrastructure required for carrying out the said projects, as well as co-ordinating and supervising all matters pertaining to atomic energy in the country.  1974: The Shah lent $1 billion to the French Atomic Energy Commission to help build the Eurodif uranium processing company in Europe. In exchange, Iran received rights to 10% of the enriched uranium product, a right Iran never exercised. After a bitter legal dispute, the loan was repaid in 1991. Following the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737 in 2006, UN financial sanctions required France to freeze dividend payments to the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. 407  1975: Massachusetts Institute of Technology signs a contract with the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran to provide training for Iranian nuclear engineers.  1975: Iran buys a 15% interest in the Rössing uranium mine of Namibia. However, due to international pressure, it is never allowed to collect any uranium from this outside country. 1979–1996  1979: Iran's Islamic revolution puts a freeze on the existing nuclear program and the Bushehr contract with Siemens AG is terminated as the German firm leaves.  1982: Iranian officials announced that they planned to build a reactor powered by their own uranium at the Isfahan Nuclear Technology Centre.  1983: International Atomic Energy Agency inspectors inspect Iranian nuclear facilities, and report on a proposed co-operation agreement to help Iran manufacture enriched uranium fuel as part of Iran's "ambitious program in the field of nuclear power reactor technology and fuel cycle technology." The assistance program is later terminated under U.S. pressure.  1984: Iranian radio announced that negotiations with Niger on the purchase of uranium were nearing conclusion.  1985: Iranian radio programs openly discuss the significance of the discovery of uranium deposits in Iran with the director of Iran’s Atomic Energy Organisation. also in this year Iran, Syria and Libya say that they should all develop nuclear weapons to counter the Israeli nuclear threat.  1989: the Radiation Protection Act of Iran was ratified in public session of April 9, 1989 by the Parliament and was approved by the Council of Law-Guardians on April 19, 1989.  1990: Iran begins negotiations with the Soviet Union regarding the re-construction of the Bushehr power plant. 408  1992: Iran signs an agreement with China for the building of two 950-megawatt reactors in Darkhovin (Western Iran). To date, construction has not yet begun.  1993: China provides Iran with an HT-6B Tokamak fusion reactor that is installed at the Plasma Physics Research Centre of Azad University.  January 1995: Iran signs an $800 million contract with the Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy (MinAtom) to complete a Light water reactor in Bushehr under IAEA safeguards.  1996: China and Iran inform the IAEA of plans to construct a nuclear enrichment facility in Iran, but China withdraws from the contract under U.S. pressure. Iran advises the IAEA that it plans to pursue the construction anyway. 2002–2004  August 2002: A spokesman for the MEK terrorist group holds a press conference to "expose" two nuclear facilities in Natanz and Arak that they claim to have discovered. However, the sites were already known to U.S. intelligence. Furthermore, under the terms of Iran's then-existing safeguards agreement with the IAEA, Iran was under no obligation to disclose the facilities while they were still under construction and not yet within the 180-day time limit specified by the safeguards agreement.  December 2002: The United States accuses Iran of attempting to make nuclear weapons.  Spring 2003: Iran makes a comprehensive proposal of negotiations with the United States that offers "full transparency for security that there are no Iranian endeavors to develop or possess WMD", joint decisive action against terrorists, coordination on a stable Iraq, coordination on nuclear matters, stop of any material support to Palestinian opposition groups (Hamas, Jihad etc.) resisting Israeli occupation, and a normalization of relationships. The offer is spurned by V.P. Cheney and the Bush administration, which instead criticizes the Swiss ambassador who forwarded the offer.  June 16, 2003: Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, declares that "Iran failed to report certain nuclear materials and activities" and 409 requests "co-operative actions" from the country. The International Atomic Energy Agency does not at this time decide to declare Iran in non-compliance with its safeguards agreement under the Non-Proliferation Treaty.  October 21, 2003: As a confidence-building measure, Iran and the EU-3 agree to negotiations under the terms of the Paris Agreement, pursuant to which Iran agrees to temporarily suspend enrichment and permit more stringent set of nuclear inspections in accordance with the Additional Protocol, and the EU-3 explicitly recognizes Iran's right to civilian nuclear programs in accordance with the Non-Proliferation Treaty. The EU-3 submits a demand in August 2005 that Iran abandon enrichment nonetheless.  October 31, 2003: After negotiations with Iran and the US on language in the IAEA document, the IAEA declares that Iran has submitted a "comprehensive" declaration of its nuclear program.  November 11, 2003: The IAEA reports that Iran had many breaches and failures to comply with its safeguards agreement, including a "policy of concealment" from the IAEA, but also states that there is "no evidence" that Iran is attempting to build an atomic bomb.  November 13, 2003: The Bush administration claims that the IAEA conclusion of "no evidence" is "impossible to believe."  December 18, 2003: As agreed in the Paris Agreement, Iran voluntarily signs and implements the Additional Protocol to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Though the Protocol was not binding on Iran until ratified, Iran voluntarily agrees to permit expanded and more intensive IAEA inspections pursuant to the Protocol, which fail to turn up a nuclear weapons program in Iran. Iran ends the voluntary implementation of Additional Protocol after two years of inspections, as a protest to continued EU-3 demands that Iran abandon all enrichment.  June 2004: Kamal Kharrazi, Iran's foreign minister, responding to demands that Iran halt its nuclear program, says: "We won't accept any new obligations. Iran has a high 410 Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, a French military engineer and physicist, began his career as a military engineer in the West Indies. In 1776, he returned to Paris and retired to a small estate to do his scientific research. He invented a torsion balance to measure the quantity of a force and used it for determination of forces of electric attraction or repulsion between small charged spheres. He thus arrived in 1785 at the inverse square law relation, now known as Coulomb's law: F = q1 q2 4πε0 r2 . The law had been anticipated by Priestley and also by Cavendish earlier, though Cavendish never published his results. Coulomb also found the inverse square law of force between unlike and like magnetic poles. 1 Ampere-second = 1 coulomb Total internal reflection The complete reflection of a light ray moving from a more dense medium to a less dense medium when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle Some examples of total internal reflection in daily life are the formation of a mirage, shining of empty test-tube in water, shining of crack in a glass-vessel, sparkling of a diamond, transmission of light rays in an optical fiber, etc. Reflection Regular Reflection Multiple Reflection Diffused Reflection Reflected rays are parallel to Reflected rays are not parallel Reflection of light back and forth each other to each other several times between reflecting surfaces The scattering of light by molecules was intensively investigated by Indian physicist C.V. Raman and his collaborators in Kolkata in the 1920s. Raman was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930 for this work. Interference Diffraction The phenomenon where two waves of the same kind The bending of a wave around the corners of an overlap to produce a resultant wave of greater, lower, or obstacle or aperture the same amplitude Fission Chain Reaction Controlled chain reaction Uncontrolled chain reaction Chain of nuclear reactions that take place Chain of nuclear reactions that take place subsequently under controlled conditions and in subsequently but not under controlled conditions and the presence moderators to generate electricity in the absence moderators to generate nuclear bombs technical capability and has to be recognised by the international community as a member of the nuclear club. This is an irreversible path."  June 14, 2004: Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, accuses Iran of "less than satisfactory" co-operation during the IAEA investigation of its nuclear program. ElBaradei demands "accelerated and proactive cooperation" from Iran which exceed the terms of Iran's legal obligations.  July 27, 2004: Iran removes seals placed upon uranium centrifuges by the International Atomic Energy Agency and resumes construction of the centrifuges at Natanz.  On June 29, 2004, IAEA Director General Mohammad ElBaradei announced that the Bushehr reactor was "not of international concern" since it was a bilateral RussianIranian project intended to produce nuclear energy.  July 31, 2004: Iran states that it has resumed building nuclear centrifuges to enrich uranium, reversing a voluntary October 2003 pledge to Britain, France, and Germany to suspend all uranium enrichment-related activities. The United States contends that the purpose is to produce weapons-grade uranium.  August 10, 2004: Several long-standing charges and questions regarding weapons-grade uranium samples found in Iran are clarified by the IAEA. Some samples match Pakistani and Russian sources which had contaminated imported Iranian equipment from those countries. The sources of the remaining samples remain unaccounted for.  August 24, 2004: Iranian Foreign Minister Kamal Kharrazi declares in Wellington, New Zealand, that Iran will retaliate with force against Israel or any nation that attempts a preemptive strike on its nuclear program. Earlier in the week, Israel's Chief of Staff, General Moshe Ya'alon, told an Israeli newspaper that "Iran is striving for nuclear capability and I suggest that in this matter [Israel] not rely on others."  September 6, 2004: The latest IAEA report finds that "unresolved issues surrounding Iran's atomic program are being clarified or resolved outright". 411  September 18, 2004: The IAEA unanimously adopts a resolution calling on Iran to suspend all activities related to uranium enrichment.  September 21, 2004: Iran announces that it will continue its nuclear program converting 37 tonnes of yellowcake uranium for processing in centrifuges.  October 18, 2004: Iran states that it is willing to negotiate with the U.K., Germany, and France regarding a suspension of its uranium enrichment activities, but that it will never renounce its right to enrich uranium.  October 24, 2004: The European Union makes a proposal to provide civilian nuclear technology to Iran in exchange for Iran terminating its uranium enrichment program permanently. Iran rejects this outright, saying it will not renounce its right to enrichment technologies. A decision to refer the matter from the International Atomic Energy Agency to the United Nations Security Council is expected on November 25, 2004.  November 15, 2004: Talks between Iran and three European Union members, the United Kingdom, France, and Germany, result in a compromise. Iran agrees to temporarily suspend its active uranium enrichment program for the duration of a second round of talks, during which attempts will be made at arriving at a permanent, mutually-beneficial solution.  November 15, 2004: A confidential UN report is leaked. The report states that all nuclear materials within Iran have been accounted for and there is no evidence of any military nuclear program. Nevertheless, it still cannot discount the possibility of such a program because it does not have perfect knowledge.  November 22, 2004: Iran declares that it will voluntarily suspend its uranium enrichment program to enter negotiations with the EU. Iran will review its decision in three months. The EU seeks to have the suspension made permanent and is willing to provide economic and political incentives. 412  November 24, 2004: Iran seeks to obtain permission from the European Union, in accordance with its recent agreement with the EU, to allow it to continue working with 24 centrifuges for research purposes.  November 28, 2004: Iran withdraws its demand that some of its technology be exempted from a freeze on nuclear enrichment activities. 2005  Jan 17, 2005: Iran offers a proposal to the EU. It includes: An Iranian commitment not to pursue weapons of mass destruction; cooperation on combating terrorism, and on regional security, including for Iraq and Afghanistan; and cooperation on strategic trade controls. The proposal was not accepted.  Mar 23, 2005: Iran offers a proposal to the EU including: Iran’s adoption of the IAEA Additional Protocol and continuous on-site inspections at key facilities; as well as limiting the expansion of Iran’s enrichment program, and a policy declaration of no reprocessing. The proposal was not accepted.  June 2005: U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice said IAEA head Mohamed ElBaradei should either "toughen his stance on Iran" or fail to be chosen for a third term as the agency's head. Following a one on one meeting between Rice and ElBaradei on June 9, the United States withdrew its opposition and ElBaradei was re-elected to his position on June 13, 2005.  August 5, 2005: The EU-3 submit a proposal to Iran pursuant to the Paris Agreement which requires Iran to permanently cease enrichment. The proposal is rejected by Iran as a violation of the Paris Agreement and Iran's Non-Proliferation Treaty rights.  Between August 8 and August 10, 2005: Iran resumed the conversion of uranium at the Isfahan facility, under IAEA safeguards, but did not engage in enrichment of uranium.  August 9, 2005: The Iranian Head of State, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons. The full text 413 of the fatwa was released in an official statement at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency in Vienna.  August 11, 2005: The 35-member governing board of the IAEA adopted a resolution calling upon Iran to suspend uranium conversion, and instructing ElBaradei to submit a report on Iran's nuclear program by September 3, 2005.  August 15, 2005: Iran's new president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, installed his new government. Iranian presidents do not have exclusive control over Iran's nuclear program, which falls mainly under the purview of Iran's Supreme Leader. Ali Larijani replaced Hassan Rowhani as secretary of the Supreme National Security Council, Iran's top policy-making body, with nuclear policy in his purview.  September 15, 2005: Ahmadinejad stated at a United Nations high-level summit that Iran has the right to develop a civil nuclear-power program within the terms of the 1970 treaty on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons. He offered a compromise solution in which foreign companies would be permitted to invest and participate in Iran's nuclear program, which he said would ensure that it could not be secretly diverted to make nuclear weapons. The majority of the U.S. delegation left during his speech, but the U.S./UN mission denied there was a walkout.  September 24, 2005: The IAEA Board of Governors finds that the failures and breaches reported in November 2003 constitute non-compliance with Iran's safeguards agreement.  October 10, 2005: Iranian Oil Ministry Deputy for International Affairs Hadi NejadHosseinian said that Iran could run out of oil reserves in nine decades.  November 5, 2005: The Iranian government approved a plan that allows foreign investors to participate in the work at the Natanz uranium enrichment plant. The cabinet also authorised the AEOI to take necessary measures to attract foreign and domestic investment in the uranium enrichment process.  November 19, 2005: The IAEA released a report saying that Iran blocked nuclear inspectors from the United Nations from conducting a second visit to a site known as 414 Parchin military complex, where Iran was not legally required to allow inspections at all. The first inspections had failed to turn up any evidence of a nuclear program. IAEA Director-General Mohamed ElBaradei said in the report, "Iran's full transparency is indispensable and overdue." Separately, Iran confirmed that it had resumed the conversion of new quantities of uranium pursuant to its rights under the NPT, despite an IAEA resolution to stop such work. 2006  January 2006: Iran provides the European negotiating side with a six-point proposal, which includes an offer to again suspend uranium enrichment for a period of two years, pending the outcome of continued negotiations. The offer is dismissed by the Europeans, and not reported in the Western press. This offer of compromise follows several other offers from Iran, all of which were summarily dismissed by the US.  January 31, 2006: The IAEA reports that "Iran has continued to facilitate access under its Safeguards Agreement as requested by the Agency ... including by providing in a timely manner the requisite declarations and access to locations" and lists outstanding issues.  January 2006: The New York Times reporter James Risen published State of War, in which he alleged a CIA operation code-named Operation Merlin backfired and may have helped Iran in its nuclear program, in an attempt to delay it feeding them false information.  February 4, 2006: The IAEA votes 27-3 to report Iran to the United Nations Security Council. After the vote, Iran announced its intention to end voluntary co-operation with the IAEA beyond basic Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty requirements, and to resume enrichment of uranium.  March 2006: The U.S. National Security Strategy decried Iran, stating that "Iran has violated its Non-Proliferation Treaty safeguards obligations and refuses to provide objective guarantees that its nuclear program is solely for peaceful purposes." The term "objective guarantees" is understood to mean permanent abandonment of enrichment. 415  March 15, 2006: Mahmoud Ahmadinejad reaffirms Iran's commitment to developing a domestic nuclear power industry.  March 27, 2006: In a Foreign Policy article entitled "Fool Me Twice", Joseph Cirincione, director for non-proliferation at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, claimed that "some senior officials have already made up their minds: They want to hit Iran." and that there "may be a co-ordinated campaign to prepare for a military strike on Iran." Joseph Cirincione also warns "that a military strike would be disastrous for the United States. It would rally the Iranian public around an otherwise unpopular regime, inflame anti-American anger around the Muslim world, and jeopardise the already fragile U.S. position in Iraq. And it would accelerate, not delay, the Iranian nuclear program. Hard-liners in Tehran would be proven right in their claim that the only thing that can deter the United States is a nuclear bomb. Iranian leaders could respond with a crash nuclear program that could produce a bomb in a few years."  April 11, 2006: Ahmadinejad announced that Iran had enriched uranium to reactor-grade using 164 centrifuges. He said, "I am officially announcing that Iran has joined the group of those countries which have nuclear technology. This is the result of the Iranian nation's resistance. Based on international regulations, we will continue our path until we achieve production of industrial-scale enrichment". He reiterated that the enrichment was performed for purely civil power purposes and not for weapons purposes.  April 28, 2006: The International Atomic Energy Agency hands a report titled Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement in the Islamic Republic of Iran to the UN Security Council. The IAEA says that Iran has stepped up its uranium enrichment programs during the 30-day period covered by the report.  June 1, 2006: The UN Security Council agrees to a set of proposals designed to reach a compromise with Iran.  July 31, 2006:United Nations Security Council Resolution 1696 gives until August 31, 2006 for Iran to suspend all uranium enrichment and related activities or face the prospect of sanctions. The draft passed by a vote of 14-1 (Qatar, which represents Arab states on 416 the council, opposing). The same day, Iran's U.N. Ambassador Javad Zarif qualified the resolution as "arbitrary" and illegal because the NTP protocol explicitly guarantees under international law Iran’s right to pursue nuclear activities for peaceful purposes. In response to today’s vote at the UN, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said that his country will revise his position vis-à-vis the economic/incentive package offered previously by the G-6 (5 permanent Security council members plus Germany.)  September 16, 2006: (Havana, Cuba) All of the 118 Non-Aligned Movement member countries declare their support for Iran's nuclear program for civilian purposes in their final written statement . That is a clear majority of the 192 countries comprising the entire United Nations.  December 23, 2006: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737 was unanimously passed by the United Nations Security Council. The resolution, sponsored by France, Germany and the United Kingdom, imposed sanctions against Iran for failing to stop its uranium enrichment program following resolution 1696. It banned the supply of nuclear-related technology and materials and froze the assets of key individuals and companies related to the enrichment program. The resolution came after the rejection of UN economic incentives for Iran to halt their nuclear enrichment program. The sanctions will be lifted if Iran suspends the "suspect activities" within 60 days to the satisfaction of the International Atomic Energy Agency. 2007  January 15, 2007: Ardeshir Hosseinpour, an Iranian junior scientist involved in The Uranium Conversion Facility at Isfahan, dies, reportedly due to "gassing". Several other scientists may also be killed or injured, and treated in nearby hospitals.  January 21, 2007: The death of Ardeshir Hosseinpour is finally reported by the Al-Quds daily and the Iranian Student's News Agency (in Arabic & Persian).  February 2, 2007: The U.S. private intelligence company Stratfor releases a report saying that Ardeshir Hosseinpour was killed by the Mossad through radioactive poisoning. 417  February 4, 2007: Reva Bhalla of Stratfor confirms the details of Stratfor's report to The Sunday Times. Despite the previous reports, the "semi-official" Fars News Agency reports that an unnamed informed source in Tehran told them that Ardeshir Hosseinpour was not involved in the nuclear facility at Isfahan, and that he "suffocated by fumes from a faulty gas fire in sleep."  March 6, 2007: Gholam Reza Aghazadeh, the head of Atomic Energy Organization of Iran declared that Iran has started construction of a domestically built nuclear power plant with capacity of 360 MW in Darkhovin, in southwestern Iran.  March 24, 2007: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747 is adopted unanimously by the United Nations Security Council. In the resolution, the Council resolved to tighten the sanctions imposed on Iran in connection with that nation's nuclear program. It also resolved to impose a ban on arms sales and to step up the freeze on assets already in place.  April 9, 2007: President Ahmadinejad has announced Iran can now produce nuclear fuel on an industrial scale. Some officials said 3,000 uranium gas enrichment centrifuges were running at the Natanz plant in central Iran.  June 7, 2007: *Head of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Mohammad ElBaradei was quoted by the BBC as warning against the views of "new crazies who say 'let's go and bomb Iran'".  June 30, 2007: U.S. Congressional Representatives Mark S. Kirk and Robert E. Andrews proposed a bill to sanction against any company or individual that provides Iran with refined petroleum products. The plan is to pressure Iran over its nuclear program from December 31, 2007.  December 3, 2007: The U.S. Intelligence Community released a National Intelligence Estimate concluding that Iran "halted its nuclear weapons program" in 2003, but "is keeping open the option to develop nuclear weapons." 418  December 11, 2007: British spy chiefs have grave doubts that Iran has mothballed its nuclear weapons program, as a US intelligence report claimed last week, and believe the CIA has been hoodwinked by Tehran.  December 16, 2007: Iran's president said on Sunday the publication of a U.S. intelligence report saying Iran had halted a nuclear weapons program in 2003 amounted to a "declaration of surrender" by Washington in its row with Tehran. 2008  March 4, 2008: The UN Security Council adopts Resolution 1803 - the third sanction resolution on Iran with a 14-0 vote (Indonesia abstained). The resolution extends financial sanctions to additional banks, extends travel bans to additional persons and bars exports to Iran of nuclear- and missile-related dual-use items.  March 24, 2008: The last shipment of fuel and equipment arrives at the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant.  May 16, 2008: Iran offers proposed package to the UN, UN Security Council, Group of G+1 and submitted to Russia and China. 2009  February 17: In Paris, International Atomic Energy Agency Director-General Mohamed ElBaradei said that Iran is still not helping United Nations nuclear inspectors find out whether it worked on developing an atom bomb in the past but Tehran has slowed its expansion of a key nuclear facility. "They haven't really been adding centrifuges, which is a good thing," ElBaradei said at a think-tank in Paris, adding: "Our assessment is that it's a political decision."  June 5: IAEA releases report on Iran's compliance with the NPT. The IAEA claims the following: Access not granted for a recent inspection on May 19; access not granted since August 2008 to heavy water reactor at Arak; and, IAEA not given design information for reactor at Darkhovin. The IAEA further reports that Iran has not implemented the 419 Additional Protocol (a requirement of UN Security Council Resolution 1737) and has not cooperated in providing information which remains unclear or missing.  June 19: El Baradei stated he had a "gut feeling that Iran definitely would like to have the technology" enabling it to possess nuclear weapons. He told the BBC that Iran wants to "send a message" to its neighbors and the rest of the world: "Don't mess" with Iran and "we can have nuclear weapons if we want to." Asked about voices in Israel who back a military strike against Iran to stop it from getting a nuclear weapon, El Baradei reiterated his opposition, saying "military action" would turn the region "into a ball of fire."  July 8–10: On the 35th G8 summit, US president Obama said Iran will have to September (at the G20 meeting) to show some improvements on the negotiations about Iran's nuclear program, or else "face consequences". French president Nicolas Sarkozy said G8 are united on the issue with Iran, stating that patience with Iran was running thin: "For the past 6 years we have extended our hand saying stop your nuclear armament program... Do they want discussions or don't they want them? If they don't, there will be sanctions" he told reporters. Sarkozy also stated that Israel attacking Iran, would be an absolute catastrophe. "Israel should know that it is not alone and should follow what is going on calmly," he said, adding that he had not received any assurances that Israel would hold off on any action ahead of the September deadline.  July 25: Mohammad Ali Jafari, Iran's Revolutionary Guards commander-in-chief, said that if Israel attacked Iran, Iran would strike Israel's nuclear facilities with their missiles: "Our missile capability puts all of the Zionist regime (Israel) within Iran's reach to attack," Jafari said.  August 7: US Air Force General Charles Wald said that a devastating US military strike against Iran's nuclear and military facilities "is a technically feasible and credible option". 2010  May 17: Iran, Turkey and Brazil announced a deal on procedures for a nuclear fuel swap aimed at easing concerns over Tehran's nuclear program.  August 21: Iran acquires nuclear fuel rods from Russia 420 2011  May 10, 2011: Iran’s Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant began operating at a low level.  November 8, 2011: IAEA released a safeguards report that included detailed account of "possible military dimensions" to Iran's nuclear program. The Agency expressed serious concerns regarding Iran's "activities relevant to the development of a nuclear explosive device." According to information from the report, Parchin military complex has been used for testing high explosives that could be used in nuclear weapons. Yukiya Amano, Director General of the IAEA, also stated in his report that the Agency cannot "conclude that all nuclear material in Iran is in peaceful activities," since "Iran is not providing the necessary cooperation." 2012  January 2012: Iran announced it had begun uranium enrichment at the Fordu facility near Qom. The IAEA confirmed Iran started the production of uranium enriched to 20%. 2013  March 2013: The United States began a series of secret negotiations with Iranian officials in Oman. The negotiations were kept hidden from other P5+1 partners. The White House asked journalists not to report on the talks.  August 3, 2013: Hassan Rouhani was inaugurated as the president of Iran.  November 11, 2013: Iran and the IAEA signed a Joint Statement on a Framework for Cooperation committing both parties to cooperate and resolve all present and past issues. As a first step, the Framework identified six practical measures to be completed within three months.  November 24, 2013: Iran and the P5+1 reached an interim agreement (Joint Plan of Action). 2014 421  July 20, 2014: Initial deadline for reaching a comprehensive agreement between the P5+1 and Iran. The deadline was extended to November 24, 2014.  August 25, 2014: Iran has implemented three of the five specific steps agreed with the IAEA in May 2014 but failed to meet the deadline of 25 August on the other steps. 2015  July 14, 2015: The P5+1 and Iran reached agreement on the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), which lifted Sanctions on Iran in exchange for limits on Iran's nuclear program and expanded IAEA verification.  July 20, 2015: The JCPOA was codified in United Nations Security Council Resolution 2231. 2018  April 30, 2018: Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu gave a speech on where he spoke of "new and conclusive proof of the secret nuclear weapons program that Iran has been hiding for years from the international community in its secret atomic archive."  May 8, 2018: U.S. President Donald Trump announced United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action. Timeline of speech and voice recognition Overview Time period 1877–1971 Key developments Speech recognition is at an early stage of development. Specialized devices can recognize few words and accuracy is not very high. 1971–1987 Speech recognition rapidly improves, although the technology is still not 422 commercially available. 1987–2014 Speech recognition continues to improve, becomes widely available commercially, and can be found in many products. Full timeline Year Month and date Event type Details (if applicable) 1877 Invention Thomas Edison's phonograph becomes the first device to record and reproduce sound. The method is fragile, however, and is prone to damage. 1879 Invention Thomas Edison invents the first dictation machine, a slightly improved version of his phonograph. 1936 Invention A team of engineers at Bell Labs, led by Homer Dudley, begins work on the Voder, the first electronic speech synthesizer. 1939 March 21 Invention Dudley is granted a patent for the Voder, US patent 2151091 A. 1939 Demonstration The Voder is demonstrated at the 1939 [[Golden Gate International College] in [Nepal]]. A keyboard and footpaths where students used to have the machine emit speech. 1939– Demonstration 1940 1952 The Voder is demonstrated at the 1939-1940 World's Fair in New York City. Invention A team at Bell Labs designs the Audrey, a machine capable of understanding spoken digits. 423 1962 Demonstration IBM demonstrates the Shoebox, a machine that can understand up to 16 spoken words in English, at the 1962 Seattle World's Fair. 1971 Invention IBM invents the Automatic Call Identification system, enabling engineers to talk to and receive spoken answers from a device. 1971– Program DARPA funds five years of speech 1976 recognition research with the goal of ending up with a machine capable of understanding a minimum of 1,000 words. The program led to the creation of the Harpy by Carnegie Mellon, a machine capable of understanding 1,011 words. Early Technique The hidden Markov model begins to be used 1980s in speech recognition systems, allowing machines to more accurately recognize speech by predicting the probability of unknown sounds being words. Mid Invention IBM begins work on the Tangora, a machine 1980s that would be able to recognize 20,000 spoken words by the mid 1980s. 1987 Invention The invention of the World of Wonder's Julie Doll, a toy children could train to respond to their voice, brings speech recognition technology to the home. 1990 Invention Dragon launches Dragon Dictate, the first speech recognition product for consumers. 1993 Invention Speakable items, the first built-in speech recognition and voice enabled control software for Apple computers. 1993 Invention Sphinx-II, the first large-vocabulary 424 continuous speech recognition system, is invented by Xuedong Huang. 1996 Invention IBM launches the MedSpeak, the first commercial product capable of recognizing continuous speech. 2002 Application Microsoft integrates speech recognition into their Office products. 2006 Application The National Security Agency begins using speech recognition to isolate keywords when analyzing recorded conversations. 2007 January 30 Application Microsoft releases Windows Vista, the first version of Windows to incorporate speech recognition. 2007 Invention Google introduces GOOG-411, a telephonebased directory service. This will serve as a foundation for the company's future Voice Search product. 2008 November 14 Application Google launches the Voice Search app for the iPhone, bringing speech recognition technology to mobile devices. 2011 October 4 Invention Apple announces Siri, a digital personal assistant. In addition to being able to recognize speech, Siri is able to understand the meaning of what it is told and take appropriate action. 2014 April 2 Application Microsoft announces Cortana, a digital personal assistant similar to Siri. 2014 November 6 Invention Amazon announces the Echo, a voicecontrolled speaker. The Echo is powered by Alexa, a digital personal assistant similar to Siri and Cortana. While Siri and Cortana are 425 not the most important features of the devices on which they run, the Echo is dedicated to Alexa. Timeline of solar cells 1800s  1839 - Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observes the photovoltaic effect via an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light.  1873 - Willoughby Smith finds that selenium shows photoconductivity.  1874 - James Clerk Maxwell writes to fellow mathematician Peter Tait of his observation that light affects the conductivity of selenium.  1877 - W.G. Adams and R.E. Day observed the photovoltaic effect in solidified selenium, and published a paper on the selenium cell. 'The action of light on selenium,' in "Proceedings of the Royal Society, A25, 113.  1883 - Charles Fritts develops a solar cell using selenium on a thin layer of gold to form a device giving less than 1% efficiency.  1887 - Heinrich Hertz investigates ultraviolet light photoconductivity and discovers the photoelectric effect  1887 - James Moser reports dye sensitized photoelectrochemical cell.  1888 - Edward Weston receives patent US389124, "Solar cell," and US389125, "Solar cell."  1888-91 - Aleksandr Stoletov creates the first solar cell based on the outer photoelectric effect  1894 - Melvin Severy receives patent US527377, "Solar cell," and US527379, "Solar cell."  1897 - Harry Reagan receives patent US588177, "Solar cell."  1899 - Weston Bowser receives patent US598177, "solar storage." 426 1900–1929  1901 - Philipp von Lenard observes the variation in electron energy with light frequency.  1904 - Wilhelm Hallwachs makes a semiconductor-junction solar cell (copper and copper oxide).  1905 - Albert Einstein publishes a paper explaining the photoelectric effect on a quantum basis.  1913 - William Coblentz receives US1077219, "Solar cell."  1914 - Sven Ason Berglund patents "methods of increasing the capacity of photosensitive cells."  1916 - Robert Millikan conducts experiments and proves the photoelectric effect.  1918 - Jan Czochralski produces a method to grow single crystals of metal. Decades later, the method is adapted to produce single-crystal silicon.  1921 - Einstein awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the photoelectric effect. 1930–1959  1932 - Audobert and Stora discover the photovoltaic effect in Cadmium selenide (CdSe), a photovoltaic material still used today.  1935 - Anthony H. Lamb receives patent US2000642, "Photoelectric device."  1941 - Russell Ohl files patent US2402662, "Light sensitive device."  1948 - Gordon Teal and John Little adapt the Czochralski method of crystal growth to produce single-crystalline germanium and, later, silicon.  1950s - Bell Labs produce solar cells for space activities.  1953 - Gerald Pearson begins research into lithium-silicon photovoltaic cells.  1954 - On April 25, 1954, Bell Labs announces the invention of the first practical silicon solar cell. Shortly afterwards, they are shown at the National Academy of Science Meeting. These cells have about 6% efficiency. The New York Times forecasts that solar cells will eventually lead to a source of "limitless energy of the sun." 427  1955 - Western Electric licences commercial solar cell technologies. Hoffman Electronics-Semiconductor Division creates a 2% efficient commercial solar cell for $25/cell or $1,785/watt.  1957 - AT&T assignors (Gerald L. Pearson, Daryl M. Chapin, and Calvin S. Fuller) receive patent US2780765, "Solar Energy Converting Apparatus." They refer to it as the "solar battery." Hoffman Electronics creates an 8% efficient solar cell.  1957 – Mohamed M. Atalla develops the process of silicon surface passivation by thermal oxidation at Bell Laboratories. The surface passivation process has since been critical to solar cell efficiency.  1958 - T. Mandelkorn, U.S. Signal Corps Laboratories, creates n-on-p silicon solar cells, which are more resistant to radiation damage and are better suited for space. Hoffman Electronics creates 9% efficient solar cells. Vanguard I, the first solar powered satellite, was launched with a 0.1W, 100 cm² solar panel.  1959 - Hoffman Electronics creates a 10% efficient commercial solar cell, and introduces the use of a grid contact, reducing the cell's resistance. 1960–1979  1960 - Hoffman Electronics creates a 14% efficient solar cell.  1961 - "Solar Energy in the Developing World" conference is held by the United Nations.  1962 - The Telstar communications satellite is powered by solar cells.  1963 - Sharp Corporation produces a viable photovoltaic module of silicon solar cells.  1964 - The satellite Nimbus I is equipped with Sun-tracking solar panels.  1964 - Farrington Daniels' landmark book, Direct Use of the Sun's Energy, published by Yale University Press.  1967 - Soyuz 1 is the first manned spacecraft to be powered by solar cells  1967 - Akira Fujishima discovers the Honda-Fujishima effect which is used for hydrolysis in the photoelectrochemical cell.  1968 - Roger Riehl introduces the first solar powered wristwatch. 428  1970 - First highly effective GaAs heterostructure solar cells are created by Zhores Alferov and his team in the USSR.  1971 - Salyut 1 is powered by solar cells.  1973 - Skylab is powered by solar cells.  1974 - Florida Solar Energy Center begins.  1974 - J. Baldwin, at Integrated Living Systems, co-develops the world's first building (in New Mexico) heated and otherwise powered by solar and wind power exclusively.  1976 - David Carlson and Christopher Wronski of RCA Laboratories create first amorphous silicon PV cells, which have an efficiency of 2.4%.  1977 - The Solar Energy Research Institute is established at Golden, Colorado.  1977 - The world production of photovoltaic cells exceeded 500 kW  1978 - First solar-powered calculators.  Late 1970s: the "Energy Crisis"; groundswell of public interest in solar energy use: photovoltaic and active and passive solar, including in architecture and off-grid buildings and home sites. 1980–1999  1980 - John Perlin and Ken Butti's landmark book A Golden Thread published, covering 2500 Years of Solar Technology from the Greeks and Romans until the modern day  1980 - The Institute of Energy Conversion at University of Delaware develops the first thin film solar cell exceeding 10% efficiency using Cu2S/CdS technology.  1981 - Isofoton is the first company to mass-produce bifacial solar cells based on developments by Antonio Luque et al. at the Institute of Solar Energy in Madrid.  1982 - Kyocera Corp is the first manufacturer in the world to massproduce Polysilicon solar cells using the casting method, today's industry standard.  1983 - Worldwide photovoltaic production exceeds 21.3 megawatts, and sales exceed $250 million.  1984 - 30,000 SF Building-Integrated Photovoltaic [BI-PV] Roof completed for the Intercultural Center of Georgetown University. Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch. took 20th 429 Tides Waves Produced due to the interaction of gravitational Produced due to the extreme raging force effects between the Earth, the moon, and the exerted on the surface of the water by the wind. sun. Life Cycle of a Frog: Egg mass Tadpole Adult Frog Young Frog Tadpole with legs Life Cycle of a Silkworm: Eggs on Mulberry leaves Larvae feed on leaves Adult silkworm Cocoons with Pupa Life Cycle of a Fish: Eggs Embryo Adult fish Juvenile fish Larva Life Cycle of a Plant: Fruit Seed Flower Mature Plant Young Plant Life Cycle of a Chicken: Eggs Embryo Adult Chicken Chicks Hatching Francois-Marie Raoult was a French chemist who conducted research into the behavior of solutions, especially their physical properties. Raoult's Law: vapor pressure of the solution = mole fraction of the solvent × vapor pressure of the pure solvent Ideal Solution Non-ideal Solution Obey Raoult 's law Do not obey Raoult's law Anniversary Journey by Horseback for Peace and Photovoltaics in 2004 from solar roof to Ground Zero NY World Trade Center to educate public about BI-PV Solar Architecture. Array was still generating an average of one MWh daily as it has since 1984 in the dense urban environment of Washington, DC.  1985 - 20% efficient silicon cells are created by the Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering at the University of New South Wales.  1986 - 'Solar-Voltaic DomeTM' patented by Lt. Colonel Richard T. Headrick of Irvine, CA as an efficient architectural configuration for building-integrated photovoltaics [BIPV]; Hesperia, CA field array.  1988 - The Dye-sensitized solar cell is created by Michael Grätzel and Brian O'Regan (chemist). These photoelectrochemical cells work from an organic dye compound inside the cell and cost half as much as silicon solar cells.  1988–1991 AMOCO/Enron used Solarex patents to sue ARCO Solar out of the business of a-Si (see Solarex Corp.(Enron/Amoco) v.Arco Solar, Inc.Ddel, 805 Fsupp 252 Fed Digest.)  1989 - Reflective solar concentrators are first used with solar cells.  1990 - The Magdeburg Cathedral installs solar cells on the roof, marking the first installation on a church in East Germany.  1991 - Efficient Photoelectrochemical cells are developed  1991 - President George H. W. Bush directs the U.S. Department of Energy to establish the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (transferring the existing Solar Energy Research Institute).  1992 - The PV Pioneer Program started at Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD). It was the first broad based commercialization of distributed, grid-connected PV system ("roof-top solar").  1992 - University of South Florida fabricates a 15.89% efficient thin-film cell  1993 - The National Renewable Energy Laboratory's Solar Energy Research Facility is established. 430  1994 - NREL develops a GaInP/GaAs two-terminal concentrator cell (180 suns) which becomes the first solar cell to exceed 30% conversion efficiency.  1996 - The National Center for Photovoltaics is established. Graetzel, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland achieves 11% efficient energy conversion with dye-sensitized cells that use a photoelectrochemical effect.  1999 - Total worldwide installed photovoltaic power reaches 1,000 megawatts. 2000–2018  2003 - George Bush has a 9 kW PV system and a solar thermal systems installed on grounds keeping building at the White House  2004 - California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger proposed Solar Roofs Initiative for one million solar roofs in California by 2017.  2004 - Kansas Governor Kathleen Sebelius issued a mandate for 1,000 MWp renewable electricity in Kansas by 2015 per Executive Order 04-05.  2006 - Polysilicon use in photovoltaics exceeds all other polysilicon use for the first time.  2006 - California Public Utilities Commission approved the California Solar Initiative (CSI), a comprehensive $2.8 billion program that provides incentives toward solar development over 11 years.  2006 - New World Record Achieved in Solar Cell Technology - New Solar Cell Breaks the “40 Percent Efficient” Sunlight-to-Electricity Barrier.  2007 - Construction of Nellis Solar Power Plant, a 15 MW PPA installation.  2007 - The Vatican announced that in order to conserve Earth's resources they would be installing solar panels on some buildings, in "a comprehensive energy project that will pay for itself in a few years."  2007 - University of Delaware claims to achieve new world record in Solar Cell Technology without independent confirmation - 42.8% efficiency.  2007 - Nanosolar ships the first commercial printed CIGS, claiming that they will eventually ship for less than $1/watt. However, the company does not publicly disclose the technical specifications or current selling price of the modules. 431  2008 - New record achieved in solar cell efficiency. Scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) have set a world record in solar cell efficiency with a photovoltaic device that converts 40.8% of the light that hits it into electricity. However, it was only under the concentrated energy of 326 suns that this was achieved. The inverted metamorphic triple-junction solar cell was designed, fabricated and independently measured at NREL.  2010 - US President Barack Obama orders installation of additional solar panels and a solar water heater at the White House  2011 - Fast-growing factories in China push manufacturing costs down to about $1.25 per watt for silicon photovoltaic modules. Installations double worldwide.  2013 - After three years, the solar panels ordered by President Barack Obama were installed on the White House.  2016 - University of New South Wales engineers established a new world record for unfocused sunlight conversion to electricity with an efficiency increase to 34.5% . The record was set by UNSW’s Australian Centre for Advanced Photovoltaics (ACAP) using a 28 cm² four-junction mini-module – embedded in a prism – that extracts the maximum energy from sunlight. It does this by splitting the incoming rays into four bands, using a four-junction receiver to squeeze even more electricity from each beam of sunlight.  2016 - First Solar says it has converted 22.1 percent of the energy in sunlight into electricity using experimental cells made from cadmium telluride—a technology that today represents around 5 percent of the worldwide solar power market.  2018 - Alta Devices, a US-based specialty gallium arsenide (GaAs) PV manufacturer, claimed to have achieved a solar cell conversion efficiency record of 29.1%, as certified by Germany's Fraunhofer ISE CalLab. Timeline of steam power Early examples 432 Rome – the city of visible history, where the past of a whole hemisphere seems moving in funeral procession with strange ancestral images and trophies gathered from afar. George Eliot, pen name of Mary Ann Evans, an English poet 6 Major Causes of the American Revolution:  Increased sense of independence among the colonists and Growing Unity among the Colonies  Unsatisfactory Administrative System and Mercantilist Regulations  Boston Massacre, Townshend Acts, Intolerable Acts and the Rejection of the Olive Branch Petition  Spread of revolutionary concepts like social contract, limited government and the consent of the governed  Imposition of a number of new taxes on the American colonies including taxes on tea, glass, paper, paint, and lead  British attacks on coastal towns (October 1775 − January 1776) A general dissolution of principles and manners will more surely overthrow the liberties of America than the whole force of the common enemy. While the people are virtuous they cannot be subdued; but when once they lose their virtue then will be ready to surrender their liberties to the first external or internal invader. Samuel Adams Did you know? In May 1660, nearly 20 years after the start of the English Civil Wars, Charles II finally returned to England as king, ushering in a period known as the Restoration . 10 Major Causes of the Industrial Revolution: Drawbacks  Political and Economic Competition In Europe  Scientific Revolution in Europe  low wages and child labor  Agricultural Revolution in Britain  air, water pollution and soil contamination   significant deterioration of quality of life and life expectancy Government Policies  Political Influence over India and Other Colonies  Innovations in Technology and Growing International Market  Growth in Population and Increase in the demand for Goods  Availability of Coal and Iron  Financial Innovations – Capitalism and Entrepreneurship  Transport Systems Did you know? The word "luddite" refers to a person who is opposed to technological change. The term is derived from a group of early 19th century English workers who attacked factories and destroyed machinery as a means of protest. They were supposedly led by a man named Ned Ludd, though he may have been an apocryphal figure. Since [World War I] we have seen the atomic age, the computer age, the space age, and the bio-engineering age, each as epochal as the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the Renaissance and the Industrial Revolution. And all these have occurred in one generation. Man has stood on the moon and looked back on the earth, that small planet now reduced to a neighbourhood. But our material achievements have exceeded the managerial capacities of our human minds and institutions. Lord Peter Ritchie-Calder The Industrial Revolution as a whole was not designed. It took shape gradually as industrialists and engineers figured out how to make things. The result is that we put billions of pounds of toxic materials in the air, water and soil every year and generate gigantic amounts of waste. If our goal is to destroy the world—to produce global warming and toxicity and endocrine disruption—we're doing great. William McDonough The development of science has produced an industrial revolution which has brought different peoples in such close contact with one another through colonization and commerce that no matter how some nations may still look down upon others, no country can harbor the illusion that its career is decided wholly within itself. John Dewey  1st century AD – Hero of Alexandria describes the Aeolipile, as an example of the power of heated air or water. The device consists of a rotating ball spun by steam jets; it produced little power and had no practical application, but is nevertheless the first known device moved by steam pressure. He also describes a way of transferring water from one vessel to another using pressure. The methods involved filling a bucket, the weight of which worked tackle to open temple doors, which were then closed again by a dead weight once the water in the bucket had been drawn out by a vacuum caused by cooling of the initial vessel.  1125: In Reims, according to William of Malmesbury, an organ was powered by heated water. He claims it was built by Pope Sylvester II.  Late 15th century AD: Leonardo Da Vinci described the Architonnerre, steam-powered cannon.  1551: Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf describes a steam turbine-like device for rotating a spit.  1601: Giovanni Battista della Porta performs experiments on using steam to create pressure or a vacuum, building simple fountains similar to a percolator.  1606: Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont receives a patent for a steam-powered device for pumping water out of mines.  1615: Salomon de Caus, who had been an engineer and architect under Louis XIII, publishes a book showing a device similar to that of Porta.  1629: Giovanni Branca suggests using a steam turbine device similar to that described by Taqi al-Din but intended to be used to power a series of pestles working in mortars.  1630: David Ramsay is granted a patent for various steam applications, although no description is given and the patent also covers a number of unrelated inventions. He refers to a "fire engine", and this term is used for many years. Development of a practical steam engine  1663: Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquis of Worcester, publishes a selection of his inventions. One is a new sort of steam pump, essentially two devices like de Caus', but 433 attached to a single boiler. A key invention is the addition of cooling around the containers to force the steam to condense. This produces a partial vacuum inside the chambers, which is used to draw a volume of water into the containers through a pipe, thus forming a pump. He builds one of very large size into the side of Raglan Castle, apparently the first "industrial scale" steam engine. He has plans to build them for mining, but dies before he can set up his company.  1680: Christiaan Huygens publishes memoirs describing a gunpowder engine that drives a piston. It is historically notable as the first known description of a piston engine.  1698: Thomas Savery introduces a steam pump he calls the Miner's Friend. It is almost certainly a direct copy of Somerset's design. One key improvement is added later, replacing the cold water flow on the outside of the cylinder with a spray directly inside it. A small number of his pumps are built, mostly experimental in nature, but like any system based on suction to lift the water, they have a maximum height of 32 feet (and typically much less). In order to be practical, his design can also use the pressure of additional steam to force the water out the top of the cylinder, allowing the pumps to be "stacked", but many mine owners were afraid of the high risk of explosion and avoided this option. (Savery engines were re-introduced in the 1780s to recirculate water to water wheels driving textile mills, especially in periods of drought).  c. 1705: Thomas Newcomen develops the atmospheric engine, which, unlike the Savery pump, employs a piston in a cylinder; the vacuum pulling the piston down to the bottom of the cylinder when water is injected into it. The engine enabled a great increase in pumping height and the draining of deeper mines than possible when using vacuum to pull the water up. Savery holds a patent covering all imagined uses of steam power, so Newcomen and his partner John Calley persuade Savery to join forces with them to exploit their invention until the expiration of the patent in 1733.  1707: Denis Papin publishes a study on steam power, including a number of ideas. One uses a Savery-like engine to lift water onto a water wheel for rotary power. The study also proposes replacing the water of a Savery engine with a piston, which is pulled on by the vacuum in a cylinder after steam inside is condensed, but he was unable to build the device. 434  1718: Jean Desaguliers introduces an improved version of the Savery engine, which includes safety valves and a two-way valve that operated both the steam and cold water (as opposed to two separate valves). It is not commercially employed. The Newcomen Engine: Steam power in practice  1712: Newcomen installs his first commercial engine.  1713: Humphrey Potter, a boy charged with operating a Newcomen engine, installs a simple system to automatically open and close the operating valves. The engine can now be run at 15 strokes a minute with little work other than firing the boiler.  1718: Henry Beighton introduces an improved and much more reliable version of Potter's operating system.  1720: Leupold designs an engine based on expansion, which he attributes to Papin, in which two cylinders alternately receive steam and then vent to the atmosphere. Although likely a useful design, it appears none were built.  1733: Newcomen's patent expires. By this time about 100 Newcomen engines have been built. Over the next 50 years engines are installed in collieries and metal mines all over England, notably in Cornwall, and are also used for municipal water supply and pumping water over water wheels, especially in ironworks.  1755: Josiah Hornblower installs the first commercial Newcomen engine in the USA, at the Schuyler Copper Mine in what is now North Arlington in Bergen County, New Jersey, using parts imported from the UK.  1769: John Smeaton experiments with Newcomen engines, and also starts building improved engines with much longer piston stroke than previous practice. Later engines, which marked probably the high point of Newcomen engine design, deliver up to 80 horsepower (around 60 kW).  1775: By this date about 600 Newcomen engines erected in the UK.  1779: The crank first applied by James Pickard to a Newcomen engine, producing rotary motion. Pickard patents this the following year, but the patent is unenforcable. 435  1780: Newcomen engines continue to be built in large numbers (about a thousand between 1775 and 1800), especially for mines but increasingly in mills and factories. Many have Watt condensers added after the patent expires (see below). Several dozen improved Savery engines are also built. Watt's engine  1765: James Watt invents the separate condenser, the key being to relocate the water jet, (which condenses the steam and creates the vacuum in the Newcomen engine) inside an additional cylindrical vessel of smaller size enclosed in a water bath; the still-warm condensate is then evacuated into a hot well by means of a suction pump allowing the preheated water to be returned to the boiler. This greatly increases thermal efficiency by ensuring that the main cylinder can be kept hot at all times, unlike in the Newcomen engines where the condensing water spray cooled the cylinder at each stroke. Watt also seals the top of the cylinder so that steam at a pressure marginally above that of the atmosphere can act on top of the piston against the vacuum created beneath it.  1765: Matthew Boulton opens the Soho Manufactory engineering works in Handsworth.  1765: Ivan Polzunov builds a two-cylinder Newcomen engine for powering mine ventilation in Barnaul, Russia. It includes an automated system for governing the water level in the boiler.  1769: James Watt is granted a patent on his improved design. He is unable to find someone to accurately bore the cylinder and is forced to use a hammered iron cylinder. The engine performed poorly, due to the cylinder being out of round, allowing leakage past the piston. However, the increase in efficiency is enough for Watt and his partner Matthew Boulton to license the design based on the savings in coal per year, as opposed to a fixed fee. It would take Watt ten years in total to get an accurately bored cylinder.  1774: John Wilkinson invents a boring machine capable of boring precise cylinders. The boring bar goes completely through the cylinder and is supported on both ends, unlike earlier cantilevered boring tools. Boulton in 1776 writes that "Mr. Wilkinson has bored us 436 several cylinders almost without error; that of 50 inches diameter, which we have put up at Tipton, does not err on the thickness of an old shilling in any part".  1775: Watt and Boulton enter into a formal partnership. Watt's patent is extended by Act of Parliament for 25 years until 1800.  1776: First commercial Boulton and Watt engine built. At this stage and until 1795 B&W only provided designs and plans, the most complicated engine parts, and support with onsite erection.  1781: Jonathan Hornblower patents a two-cylinder "compound" engine, in which the steam pushes on one piston (as opposed to pulling via vacuum as in previous designs), and when it reaches the end of its stroke is transferred into a second cylinder that exhausts into a condenser as "normal". Hornblower's design is more efficient than Watt's single-acting designs, but similar enough to his double-acting system that Boulton and Watt are able to have the patent overturned by the courts in 1799.  1782: First Watt rotative engine, driving a flywheel by means of the sun and planet gear rather than a crank, thus avoiding James Pickard's patent. Watt secures further patents in this year and 1784.  1783: Watt builds his first "double acting" engine, which admits steam so as to alternately act on one side of the piston then on the other, and the introduction of his parallel motion linkage allows the transmission of the power of the piston motion to be transmitted to the beam on both strokes. This change enables use of a flywheel imparting steady rotary motion controlled by a governor, thus making it possible for the engine to drive machinery in non speed critical applications like milling, breweries and other manufacturing industries. Because the centrifugal governor alone had poor response to load changes, Watt's engine was not suitable for cotton spinning.  1784: William Murdoch demonstrates a model steam carriage working on "strong steam". He is dissuaded from patenting his invention by his employer, James Watt.  1788: Watt builds the first steam engine to use a centrifugal governor for the Boulton & Watt Soho factory.  1790: Nathan Read invented the tubular boiler and improved cylinder, devising the highpressure steam engine. 437  1791: Edward Bull makes a seemingly obvious design change by inverting the steam engine directly above the mine pumps, eliminating the large beam used since Newcomen's designs. About 10 of his engines are built in Cornwall.  1795: Boulton and Watt open their Soho Foundry, for the manufacture of steam engines  1799: Richard Trevithick builds his first high-pressure engine at Dolcoath tin mine in Cornwall.  1800: Watt's patent expires. By this time about 450 Watt engines (totaling 7,500 hp) and over 1500 Newcomen engines have been built in the UK. Improving power  1801: Richard Trevithick builds and runs Camborne road engine.  1801: Oliver Evans builds his first high-pressure steam engine in the U.S. (Ptd. 1804)  1804: Richard Trevithick builds and runs single-cylinder flywheel locomotive on the 9mile Pen-y-Darran tramway. Due to plate breakages the engine is installed at Dowlais for stationary use.  1804: John Steel builds locomotive to Trevithick's model at Gateshead for Mr Smith. This is demonstrated to Christopher Blackett who refuses it for reasons of excess weight.  1804: Arthur Woolf re-introduces Hornblower's double-cylinder designs now that Watt's patents have expired. He goes on to build a number of examples with up to nine cylinders as boiler pressures increase through better manufacturing and materials.  1808: Christopher Blackett relays track at Wylam Colliery.  1808: Richard Trevithick demonstrates the passenger carrying railway with his "steam circus" (using the locomotive Catch Me Who Can on a circular track) in London.  1811: Blackett employs Thomas Waters to build a new flywheel locomotive.  1811: Blackett instructs Timothy Hackworth to build hand-cranked chassis to prove feasibility of smooth rail for traction.  1811: Second Wylam locomotive built by Blackett's development team consisting of Timothy Hackworth, William Hedley, and Jonathan Foster. 438  1812: Blenkinsop develops rack railway system in collaboration with Matthew Murray of Leeds Round Foundry - single-flue boiler; vertical cylinders sunk into boiler.  1813: Third Wylam locomotive built, with 8 wheels to spread axle load.  1815: George Stephenson builds Blücher - similar to Blenkinsop model.  1825: Robert Stephenson & Co build Locomotion for Stockton and Darlington Railway.  1827: Timothy Hackworth builds highly efficient Royal George with centrallyplaced blastpipe in the chimney for Stockton and Darlington Railway.  1829: Robert Stephenson & Co successfully competes at Rainhill Trials with The Rocket against Hackworth's Sans Pareil and Braithwaite's and Ericsson's Novelty.  1830: Stephensonian locomotive configuration appears with Stephenson's Planet type along with Edward Bury's Liverpool - horizontal cylinders placed beneath smokebox; drive to rear crank - bar frames. Liverpool Manchester Line opens with tumultuous acclaim  1849: George Henry Corliss develops and markets the Corliss-type steam engine, a fourvalve counterflow engine with separate steam admission and exhaust valves. Trip valve mechanisms provide sharp cutoff of steam during admission stroke. The governor is used to control the cut off instead of the throttle valve. The efficiency of Corliss engines greatly exceeds other engines of the period, and they are rapidly adopted in stationary service throughout industry. The Corliss engine has better response to changes in load and runs at a more constant speed, making it suitable for applications such as thread spinning.  1854: John Ramsbottom publishes a report on his use of oversized split steel piston rings which maintain a seal by outward spring tension on the cylinder wall. This allows much better sealing (compared to earlier cotton seals) which leads to significantly higher system pressures before "blow-by" is experienced.  1862: The Allen steam engine (later called Porter-Allen) is exhibited at the London Exhibition. It is precision engineered and balanced allowing it to operate at from three to five times the speed of other stationary engines. The short stroke and high speed minimize condensation in the cylinder, significantly improving efficiency. The high speed allows direct coupling or the use of reduced sized pulleys and belting. 439  1862: The steam engine indicator is exhibited at the London Exhibition. Developed for Charles Porter by Charles Richard, the steam engine indicator traces on paper the pressure in the cylinder throughout the cycle, which can be used to spot various problems and to optimize efficiency. Earlier versions of the steam engine indicator were in use by 1851, though relatively unknown.  1865: Auguste Mouchout invents the first device to convert solar energy into mechanical steam power, using a cauldron filled with water enclosed in glass, which would be put in the sun to boil the water.  1867: Stephen Wilcox and his partner George Herman Babcock patent the "Babcock & Wilcox Non-Explosive Boiler", which uses water inside clusters of tubing to generate steam, typically with higher pressures and more efficiently than the typical "firetube" boilers of that time. Babcock & Wilcox-type boiler designs become popular in new installations.  1881: Alexander C. Kirk designs the first practical triple expansion engine which was installed in SS Aberdeen.  1884: Charles Algernon Parsons develops the steam turbine. Used early on in electrical generation and to power ships, turbines were bladed wheels that created rotary motion when high pressure steam was passed through them. The efficiency of large steam turbines was considerably better than the best compound engines, while also being much simpler, more reliable, smaller and lighter all at the same time. Steam turbines would eventually replaced piston engines for most power generation.  1893: Nikola Tesla patents a steam powered oscillating electro-mechanical generator. Tesla hoped it would become competitive with steam turbines in producing electric current but it never found use outside his laboratory experiments.  1897: Stanley Brothers begin selling lightweight steam cars, over 200 being made.  1899: The Locomobile Company begins manufacture of the first production steampowered cars, after purchasing manufacturing rights from the Stanley Brothers.  1902: The Stanley Motor Carriage Company begins manufacture of the Stanley Steamer, the most popular production steam-powered car. 440  1903: Commonwealth Edison Fisk Generating Station opens in Chicago, using 32 Babcock & Wilcox boilers driving several GE Curtis turbines, at 5000 and 9000 kilowatts each, the largest turbine-generators in the world at that time. Almost all electric power generation, from the time of the Fisk Station to the present, is based on steam driven turbine-generators.  1913: Nikola Tesla patents a bladeless steam turbine that utilizes the boundary layer effect. This design has never been used commercially due to its low efficiency.  1923: Alan Arnold Griffith publishes An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design, describing a way to dramatically improve the efficiency of all turbines. In addition to making newer power plants more economical, it also provides enough efficiency to build a jet engine.  1933: George and William Besler of the United States are the first aviators (and to this date only aviators) to successfully fly on steam power on April 12, 1933 with a converted Travel Air 2000 biplane, using a 90° V-twin compound engine of their own design.  2009: On August 25, 2009, Team Inspiration of the British Steam Car Challenge broke the long-standing record for a steam vehicle set by a Stanley Steamer in 1906, setting a new speed record of 139.843 mph (225.055 km/h) over a measured mile at Edwards Air Force Base, in the Mojave Desert of California.  2009: On August 26, 2009, Team Inspiration broke a second record by setting a new speed record of 148.308 mph (238.679 km/h) over a measured kilometer. Timeline of women's education 13th century 1237  Italy: Bettisia Gozzadini earns a law degree at the University of Bologna. 1239 441  Italy: Bettisia Gozzadini teaches Law at the University of Bologna. First woman believed to teach at a university (first university established in 1088). 14th century  Italy: Dorotea Bucca holds a chair of medicine and philosophy in the university of Bologna for 40 years from 1390.  Italy: Novella d'Andrea teaches Law at the University of Bologna. 16th century  Spain: Luisa de Medrano teaches at the University of Salamanca and writes works of philosophy, now lost.  Spain: Isabella Losa gets a D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) theology degree.  Spain: Francisca de Lebrija teaches rhetorics at a University of Alcala.  Spain: Beatriz Galindo excels in Latin, studies at one of the institutions dependent on the University of Salamanca, writes commentary on Aristotle and becomes a teacher of the queen. 17th century 1608  Spain: Juliana Morell, a Spanish woman, earns a Law doctorate degree. According to Lope de Vega, she taught "all the sciences from professorial chairs". 1636  Netherlands: German-born Dutch Anna Maria van Schurman, proficient in 14 languages, studied as the first female student at the university of Utrecht, Netherlands, but without obtaining a degree. 1639 442  Acadia: The French colony of Acadia, which at the time included part of Maine, had an Ursuline boarding school by 1639 that was geared toward the education of young girls. The school was founded in Quebec City and is still in operation today, though this part of Canada no longer includes the part of Maine that it once did. 1644  Sweden: first female college students, Ursula Agricola and Maria Jonae Palmgren. 1674  New Spain: In this year Bishop Calderon of Santiago wrote to Queen Mother Marie Anne of Spain concerning the Spanish efforts at colonizing Florida. In his letter he included some comments about the state of education and stated, "The children, both male and female, go to church on work days, to a religious school where they are taught by a teacher whom they call Athequi of the church; [a person] whom the priests have for this service." This description indicates that the colonies of New Spain had facilities for female education at least by the 1600s. It is not clear how far back this goes; the 1512 laws of Burgos, from over a hundred years earlier, did not specify whether instruction should be for males only: it uses the word hijos, which means sons, but can include daughters if they are mixed in with the boys. 1678  Italy: Elena Cornaro Piscopia, an Italian woman, earns a Ph.D. – Philosophy doctorate degree from the University of Padua in Italy and is said to have taught mathematics at the University of Padua. 1685  Italy: Rosa Venerini opens the first free school for girls in Italy, in the town of Viterbe. 18th century 443 1727  United States: Founded in 1727 by the Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula, Ursuline Academy, New Orleans, is both the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States. The Ursuline Sisters founded this school out of the conviction that the education of women was essential to the development of a civilized, spiritual and just society, and has influenced culture and learning in New Orleans by providing an exceptional education for its women. 1732  Italy: Laura Bassi, an Italian woman, earned a Ph.D. degree at the University of Bologna in Italy, and taught physics at the same university. 1742  United States: At only 16 years of age, Countess Benigna von Zinzendorf established the first all-girls boarding school in America, sponsored by her father Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf. Originally known as the Bethlehem Female Seminary upon its 1742 founding, it changed its name to Moravian Seminary and College for Women by 1913. 1863 proved the Germantown, Pennsylvania-based school’s most landmark year, however, when the state recognized it as a college and granted it permission to reward bachelor's degrees. As a result, most tend to accept Moravian as the oldest—though not continuously operational because of its current co-ed status—specifically female institute of higher learning in the United States. 1751  Italy: Cristina Roccati became the third woman to receive a Ph.D. degree in Italy. and taught physics at the Academia. 1783 444  United States: Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland, appointed the first women instructors at any American college or university, Elizabeth Callister Peale and Sarah Callister – members of the famous Peale family of artists – taught painting and drawing. 1786  Russia: Catherine the Great opened free public primary and high school education to girls. 1787  Germany: Dorothea Schlözer became the first German woman to earn a PhD from Georg-August Universität Göttingen. 1788  Sweden: Aurora Liljenroth became the first female college graduate. 19th century 1800–1849 1803  United States: Bradford Academy in Bradford, Massachusetts was the first higher educational institution to admit women in Massachusetts. It was founded as a coeducational institution, but became exclusively for women in 1837. 1818  India: Western Christian missionaries opened the first schools in India open to girls. 1822 445  Serbia: Girls were allowed to attend elementary schools with boys up until the fourth grade. 1823  Argentina: the Sociedad de Beneficencia de Buenos Aires was charged by the government to establish and control (private) elementary schools for girls (they retain the control of the schools for girls until 1876). 1826  United States: The first American public high schools for girls were opened in New York and Boston. 1827  Brazil: the first elementary schools for girls and the profession of school teacher were opened. 1829  United States: The first public examination of an American girl in geometry was held. 1830s  Egypt: In Egypt Christian missionaries were allowed to open elementary schools for girls. 1831  United States: As a private institution in 1831, Mississippi College became the first coeducational college in the United States to grant a degree to a woman. In December 1831 it granted degrees to two women, Alice Robinson and Catherine Hall. 1834 446  Greece: Greece got compulsory prime education for both boys and girls, in parallel with the foundation of the first private secondary educational schools for girls such as the Arsakeio. 1834  Iran: The first modern school for girls was opened in Iran, Urmia. 1837  United States: Bradford Academy in Bradford, Massachusetts, due to declining enrollment, became a single-sexed institution for the education of women exclusively. 1839  United States: Established in 1836, Georgia Female College in Macon, GA opened its doors to students on January 7, 1839. Now known as Wesleyan College, it was the first college in the world chartered specifically to grant bachelor's degrees to women. 1841  Bulgaria: In Bulgaria the first secular girls school made education and the profession of teacher available for women. 1842  Sweden: Sweden requires compulsory Elementary school for both sexes. 1843  Ghana: Catherine Mulgrave arrived on the Gold Coast from Jamaica and subsequently established three boarding schools for girls at Osu (1843), Abokobi (1855) and Odumase (1859) between 1843 and 1891. 1844 447  Finland: The foundation of the Svenska fruntimmersskolan i Åbo and its sister school Svenska fruntimmersskolan i Helsingfors in Helsinki. 1846  Denmark: The foundation of the Den højere Dannelsesanstalt for Damer, the first college for women in Denmark. 1847  Belgium: elementary school for both genders  Costa Rica: first high school for girls, and the profession of teacher was opened to women.  Ghana: Rosina Widmann opens vocational school for girls in January 1847, with the first classes in needlework for 12 girls at her home in Akropong in the Gold Coast colony 1849  United States: Elizabeth Blackwell, born in England, became the first woman to earn a medical degree from an American college, Geneva Medical College in New York.  United Kingdom: Bedford College opens in London as the first higher education college for women in the United Kingdom.  India: Secondary education for girls was made available by the foundation of the Bethune School. 1850–1874 1850  United States: Lucy Sessions earned a literary degree from Oberlin College, becoming the first black woman in the United States to receive a college degree.  France: Elementary education for both sexes, but girls were only allowed to be tutored by teachers from the church. 448  Haiti: First permanent school for girls. the l'Institution Mont-Carmel of Marie-Rose Léodille Delaunay. 1851  Ghana: Regina Hesse moved into the household of her mentor, Catherine Mulgrave and her spouse, Johannes Zimmermann to understudy the methods of pedagogy. She later became the de facto principal of Mulgrave's girls' school at Christiansborg. 1852  Nicaragua: Josefa Vega are granted dispensation to attend lectures at university, after which women are given the right to apply for permission to attend lectures at university (though not to an actual full university education). 1853  Egypt: The first Egyptian school for females was opened by the Copts minority.  Serbia: The first secondary educational school for females was inaugurated (public schools for girls having opened in 1845–46).  Sweden: The profession of teacher at public primary and elementary schools was opened to both sexes. 1854  Chile: First public elementary school for girls. 1855  United States: University of Iowa becomes the first coeducational public or state university in the United States. 1857  Netherlands: Elementary education compulsory for both girls and boys. 449  Spain: Elementary education compulsory for both girls and boys. 1858  United States: Mary Fellows became the first woman west of the Mississippi River to receive a baccalaureate degree.  Ottoman Empire: The first state school for girls is opened; several other schools for girls are opened during the following decades.  Russia: gymnasiums for girls. 1859  Denmark: The post of teacher at public schools are opened to women.  Ghana: Rose Ann Miller started an all-girls' boarding school at Aburi under the auspices of the Basel Mission.  Sweden: The post of college teacher and lower official at public institutions are open to women. 1860  Norway: Women are allowed to teach in the rural elementary school system (in the city schools in 1869). 1861  Sweden: The first public institution of higher academic learning for women, Högre lärarinneseminariet, is opened. 1862  United States: Mary Jane Patterson became the first African-American woman to earn a BA in 1862. She earned her degree from Oberlin College. 1863 450  Serbia: The inauguration of the Women's High School in Belgrade, first high school open to women in Serbia (and the entire Balkans).  United States: Mary Corinna Putnam Jacobi graduated from the New York College of Pharmacy in 1863, which made her the first woman to graduate from a United States school of pharmacy. 1864  United States: Rebecca Crumpler became the first African-American woman to graduate from a U.S. college with a medical degree and the first and only black woman to obtain the Doctress of Medicine degree from New England Female Medical College in Boston, MA.  Belgium: The first official secondary education school open to females in Belgium.  Haiti: Elementary schools for girls are founded. 1865  Romania: The educational reform granted all Romanians access to education, which, at least formally, gave also females the right to attend school from elementary education to the university. 1866  United States: Lucy Hobbs Taylor became the first American woman to earn a dental degree, which she earned from the Ohio College of Dental Surgery. 1866  United States: Sarah Jane Woodson Early became the first African-American woman to serve as a professor. Xenia, Ohio’s Wilberforce University hired her to teach Latin and English in 1866. 1867 451  Switzerland: University of Zurich formally open to women, though they had already been allowed to attend lectures a few years prior. 1868  Croatia: The first high school open to females. 1869  United States: Fanny Jackson Coppin was named principal of the Institute for Colored Youth in Philadelphia, becoming the first black woman to head an institution for higher learning in the United States.  Austria-Hungary: The profession of public school teacher is open to women.  Costa Rica: Elementary education compulsory for both girls and boys.  Ottoman Empire: The law formally introduce compulsory elementary education for both boys and girls.  Russia: University Courses for women are opened, which opens the profession of teacher, law assistant and similar lower academic professions for women (in 1876, the courses are no longer allowed to give exams, and in 1883, all outside of the capital is closed).  United Kingdom: Watt Institution and School of Arts, a predecessor of Heriot-Watt University, admits women. Mary Burton persuaded the Watt Institution and School of Arts to open its doors to women students in 1869 and went on to become the first woman on the School’s Board of Directors and a life Governor of Heriot-Watt College. One of the first women to serve on Edinburgh Parochial and School Boards, Mary was a lifelong campaigner for women’s suffrage and an advocate for educational opportunities for all.  United Kingdom: The Edinburgh Seven were the first group of matriculated undergraduate female students at any British university. They began studying medicine at the University of Edinburgh in 1869 and although they were unsuccessful in their struggle to graduate and qualify as doctors, the campaign they fought gained national attention and won them many supporters including Charles Darwin. It put the rights of women to a University education on the national political agenda which eventually resulted in legislation to ensure that women could study at University in 1877. 452  United Kingdom: Girton College opens as the first residential college for women in the United Kingdom. 1870:  United States: The first woman is admitted to Cornell.  United States: The Board of Regents of the University of California ruled that women should be admitted on an equal basis with men. With the completion of North and South Halls in 1873, the university relocated to its Berkeley location with 167 male and 22 female students.  Finland: Women allowed to study at the universities by dispensation (dispensation demand dropped in 1901).  United States: Ada Kepley became the first American woman to earn a law degree, from Northwestern University School of Law.  United States: Ellen Swallow Richards became the first American woman to earn a degree in chemistry, which she earned from Vassar College in 1870.  Ottoman Empire: The Teachers College for Girls are opened in Constantinople to educate women to professional teachers for girls school; the profession of teacher becomes accessible for women and education accessible to girls.  Spain: The Asociación para la Enseñanza de la Mujer is founded: promoting education for women, it establishes secondary schools and training colleges all over Spain, which makes secondary and higher education open to females for the first time.  Sweden: Universities open to women (at the same terms as men 1873). The first female student is Betty Pettersson. 1871  Netherlands: Aletta Jacobs became the first female to get accepted at the University of Groningen.  United States: Frances Elizabeth Willard became the first female college president in the United States, as president of Evanston College for Ladies in Illinois. 453  India: First training school for woman teachers.  Japan: Women are allowed to study in the USA (though not yet in Japan itself).  New Zealand: Universities open to women.  United States: Harriette Cooke became the first woman college professor in the United States appointed full professor with a salary equal to that of her male peers. 1872:  Sweden: First female university student: Betty Pettersson.  Japan: Compulsory elementary education for both girls and boys.  Ottoman Empire: The first government primary school open to both genders. Women's Teacher's Training School opened in Istanbul.  Spain: María Elena Maseras is allowed to enlist as a university student with special dispensation: having been formally admitted to a class in 1875, she was finally allowed to graduate 1882, which created a Precedent allowing females to enroll at universities from this point on. 1873:  United States: Linda Richards became the first American woman to earn a degree in nursing.  Egypt: The first public Egyptian primary school open to females: two years later, there are 32 primary schools for females in Egypt, three of whom also offered secondary education. 1874–1899 1874:  United States: The first woman to graduate from the University of California, Rosa L. Scrivner, obtained a Ph.B in Agriculture. 454  Iran: The first school for girls is founded by American missionaries (only non-Muslims attend until 1891).  Japan: The profession of public school teacher is opened to women.  Netherlands: Aletta Jacobs becomes the first woman allowed to study medicine.  United Kingdom: London School of Medicine for Women founded, the first medical school in Britain to train women.  Germany: Russian mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaya became the first woman in modern Europe to gain a doctorate in mathematics, which she earned from the University of Göttingen in Germany.  Canada: Grace Lockhart became the first woman in the British Empire to receive a Bachelor's degree, graduating from Mount Allison University in Canada. 1875:  Switzerland: Stefania Wolicka-Arnd, a Polish woman, became the first woman to earn a PhD from the University of Zurich in Switzerland.  Denmark: Universities open to women.  India: First women admitted to college courses, although with special permission (at Madras Medical College). 1876:  Argentina: Girls are included in the national school system by the transference of the control of the private girls schools from the charitable Beneficent Society to the provincial government.  Great Britain: Medical examining bodies given the right to certify women.  India: Women allowed to attend university exams at the Calcutta University.  Italy: Universities open to women.  Netherlands: Universities open to women.  United States: Anna Oliver was the first woman to receive a Bachelor of Divinity degree from an American seminary (Boston University School of Theology). 455 1877:  United States: Helen Magill White became the first American woman to earn a Ph.D., which she earned at Boston University in the subject of Greek.  Chile: Universities open to women.  New Zealand: Kate Edger became the first women to graduate from a university in New Zealand. 1878:  Austria-Hungary: Women allowed to attend university lectures as guest auditors.  Bulgaria: Elementary education for both genders.  Russia: The Bestuzhev Courses open in Saint Petersburg.  United Kingdom: Lady Margaret Hall, the first college in the University of Oxford to admit women, is founded.  United States: Mary L. Page became the first American woman to earn a degree in architecture, which she earned from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.  United Kingdom: The University of London receives a supplemental charter allowing it to award degrees to women, the first university in the United Kingdom to open its degrees . 1879:  United States: Mary Eliza Mahoney became the first African-American in the U.S. to earn a diploma in nursing, which she earned from the School of Nursing at the New England Hospital for Woman and Children in Boston.  Brazil: Universities open to women.  France: Colleges and secondary education open to women.  India: The first college open to women: Bethune College (the first female graduate in 1883). 1880: 456  United Kingdom: First four women gain BA degrees at the University of London, the first women in the UK to be awarded degrees.  Australia : Universities open to women.  Belgium: The University of Brussels opened to women.  Canada: Universities open to women.  France: Universities open to women.  France: Free public secondary education to women.  France: Public teachers training schools open to women. 1881:  United Kingdom: Women were allowed to take the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos exams, after Charlotte Angas Scott was unofficially ranked as eighth wrangler.  United States: American Association of University Women founded 1882:  United Kingdom: College Hall opened by University College London and the London School of Medicine for Women as the first women's hall of residence in the UK.  France: Compulsory elementary education for both genders.  Norway: Women allowed to study at the university.  Nicaragua: The first public secular education institution for women, Colegio de Señoritas, open.  Poland: The Flying University provides academic education for women.  Serbia: Compulsory education for both genders.  Belgium: Universities open to women.  India: Bombay University open to women.  Romania: Universities open to women. 1883: 457 5 Causes of Nuclear Pollution: 7 metals of alchemy:  Nuclear attacks  Gold  Weapon testing  Silver   Mercury Nuclear disasters  Copper  Radioisotopes  Lead   Iron Nuclear Waste disposal  Tin 3 main goals of alchemy:  To find the Stone of Knowledge (The Philosophers' Stone)  To discover the medium of Eternal Youth and Health  To discover the transmutation of metals I prefer the spagyric chemical physicians, for they do not consort with loafers or go about gorgeous in satins, silks and velvets, gold rings on their fingers, silver daggers hanging at their sides and white gloves on their hands, but they tend their work at the fire patiently day and night. They do not go promenading, but seek their recreation in the laboratory, wear plain learthern dress and aprons of hide upon which to wipe their hands, thrust their fingers amongst the coals, into dirt and rubbish and not into golden rings. They are sooty and dirty like the smiths and charcoal burners, and hence make little show, make not many words and gossip with their patients, do not highly praise their own remedies, for they well know that the work must praise the master, not the master praise his work. They well know that words and chatter do not help the sick nor cure them... Therefore they let such things alone and busy themselves with working with their fires and learning the steps of alchemy. These are distillation, solution, putrefaction, extraction, calcination, reverberation, sublimination, fixation, separation, reduction, coagulation, tinction, etc. — Philippus Aureolus Paracelsus A school of thought that flourished in Greek and Roman antiquity 4 virtues of stoicism: 8 Principles of Stoicism:  Wisdom  Justice  Courage  Moderation  Nature: Nature is rational.  Law of Reason: The universe is governed by the law of reason. Humans can't actually escape its inexorable force, but they can, uniquely, follow the law deliberately.  Virtue: A life led according to rational nature is virtuous.  Wisdom: Wisdom is the root virtue. From it spring the cardinal virtues: insight, bravery, self-control, and justice.  Apathea: Since passion is irrational, life should be waged as a battle against it. Intense feeling should be avoided.  Pleasure: Pleasure is neither good nor bad. It is only acceptable if it doesn't interfere with the quest for virtue.  Evil: Poverty, illness, and death are not evil.  Duty: Virtue should be sought, not for the sake of pleasure, but for duty. I feel that I have at last struck the solution of a great problem—and the day is coming when telegraph wires will be laid on to houses just like water or gas—and friends converse with each other without leaving home. — Alexander Graham Bell Microscopy Optical Microscopy Electron Microscopy Scanning Probe Microscopy Scanning Force Scanning Tunneling Microscopy Microscopy Scanning Near-Field Atomic Force Microscopy Optical Microscopy Electrostatic Force Microscopy Two important features of microscopy:  Magnification  Resolution Magnetic Force Microscopy The eye of a human being is a microscope, which makes the world seem bigger than it really is. Khalil Gibran  Australia: Bella Guerin became the first woman to graduate from a university in Australia, graduating from the University of Melbourne in 1883.  Sweden: Ellen Fries, First female Ph.D. promoted.  United States: Susan Hayhurst became the first woman to receive a pharmacy degree in the United States, which she received from the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy.  United Kingdom: Sophie Bryant becomes the first woman in Britain to earn a DSc. 1885:  Sierra Leone: Adelaide Casely-Hayford became the first African woman study music at the Stuttgart Conservatory. The Sahara is the world's largest hot desert and one of the harshest environments on the planet Earth. 1886:  United States: Winifred Edgerton Merrill became the first American woman to earn a PhD in mathematics, which she earned from Columbia University.  France: Women eligible to join public education boards.  Costa Rica: A public academic educational institution open to women.  Korea: The first educational institution for women, Ewha Womans University is founded.  Mexico: Universities open to women.  United States: Anandibai Joshi from India, Keiko Okami from Japan, and Sabat Islambouli from Syria became the first women from their respective countries (and in Joshi's case the first Hindu woman) to get a degree in western medicine, which they each got from the Women’s Medical College of Pennsylvania (WMCP), where they were all students in 1885.  France: Iulia Hasdeu was the first Romanian woman to study at the Sorbonne. She enrolled at age 16 and died two years later while preparing her doctoral thesis. 1887:  Albania: The first Albanian language elementary school open to female pupils. 458 1889:  United States: Maria Louise Baldwin became the first African-American female principal in Massachusetts and the Northeast, supervising white faculty and a predominantly white student body at the Agassiz Grammar School in Cambridge.  United States: Susan La Flesche Picotte became the first Native American woman to earn a medical degree, which she earned from Woman's Medical College of Pennsylvania.  Egypt: The first teacher training college for women.  Argentina: Cecilia Grierson became the first woman in Argentina to earn a medical university degree.  Palestine: The first school open to girls founded by missionaries.  Sweden: Women eligible to join boards of public authority such as public school boards.  Sweden: First female professor: Sofia Kovalevskaya.  United Kingdom: Scottish universities opened to women by the Universities (Scotland) Act 1889.  El Salvador: Antonia Navarro Huezo became the first Salvadoran woman to earn a topographic engineering doctorate. Toilets and sewerage systems existed in ancient Egypt. 1890:  United States: Ida Gray became the first African-American woman to earn a Doctor of Dental Surgery degree, which she earned from the University of Michigan.  Finland: Signe Hornborg graduates as an architect from the Helsinki University of Technology in Finland, becoming the first ever formally qualified female architect in the world.  Bohemia: The first secondary education school for females in Prague.  Greece: Universities open to women. Sudan has more pyramids than any other 1891: country on earth – even more than Egypt. 459  Albania: The first school of higher education for women is opened. It was founded by siblings Sevasti Qiriazi and Gjerasim Qiriazi.  Germany: Women are allowed to attend university lectures, which makes it possible for individual professors to accept female students if they wish.  Portugal: The first medical university degree is granted to a woman.  Switzerland: Secondary schools open to women. 1892:  United States: Laura Eisenhuth became the first woman elected to state office as Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1893:  Ottoman Empire: Women are permitted to attend medical lectures at Istanbul University.  France: Dorothea Klumpke became the first woman to be awarded a doctorate in sciences. 1894:  Poland: Kraków University open to women.  United States: Margaret Floy Washburn became the first American woman to be officially awarded the PhD degree in psychology, which she earned at Cornell University under E. B. Titchener. Around 137 species of plants, 1895: animals and insects become extinct  Austria-Hungary: Universities open to women.  Egypt: A public school system for girls is organized. every single day in the Amazon because of deforestation and cattle ranching. 1896:  Norway: Women are admitted at all secondary educational schools of the state. 460  Spain: María Goyri de Menéndez Pidal became the Spanish first woman to earn a degree in philosophy and letters. She earned a licentiate from the University of Madrid. 1897:  Switzerland: Anita Augspurg became the first German woman to receive a Doctor of Law, which earned at the University of Zurich, despite not being able to practice law in Germany until 1922.  Austria-Hungary: Gabriele Possanner became the first woman to receive a medical degree and subsequently, the first practicing female doctor of the country. 1898:  Haiti: The Medical University accept female students in obstetrics.  Serbia: Co-education, banned since the 1850s, is re-introduced, equalizing the schooling of males and females.  United Kingdom: Margaret Murray became the first woman lecturer of archaeology in the United Kingdom. 1899:  Germany: Women are admitted to study medicine, dentistry and pharmacy. 20th century 1900–1939 The origin of 80% of the varieties of food we get across the world origin in the Amazon rainforest. 1900:  Egypt: A school for female teachers is founded in Cairo.  United States: Otelia Cromwell became the first black woman to graduate from Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts.  Tunisia: The first public elementary school for girls. 461  Japan: The first Women's University.  Baden, Germany: Universities open to women.  Sri Lanka: Secondary education open to females. 1901: One-fourth of the world's western medicine  Bulgaria: Universities open to women.  Cuba: Universities open to women. uses ingredients from the Amazon rainforest. 1902:  Australia: Ada Evans became the first woman to graduate in law in Australia at the University of Sydney. 1903:  United States: Mignon Nicholson became the first woman in North America to earn a veterinary degree, which she earned from McKillip Veterinary College in Chicago, Illinois.  Canada: Clara Benson and Emma Sophia Baker became the first women to earn a PhD from the University of Toronto.  Norway: Clara Holst became the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in Norway, which she earned from Royal Frederick University. Her dissertation was titled Studier over middelnedertyske laaneord i dansk i det 14. og 15. aarhundrede (English: Study of Middle Low German loanwords in Danish in the 14th and 15th centuries). 1904:  United States: Helen Keller graduated from Radcliffe, becoming the first deafblind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree.  United Kingdom: Millicent Mackenzie is appointed as Assistant Professor of Education at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire (part of the University of Wales), the first woman professor in the UK. 462  Württemberg, Germany: Universities open to women. 1905:  United States: Nora Stanton Blatch Barney, born in England, became the first woman to earn a degree in any type of engineering in the United States, which she earned from Cornell University. It was a degree in civil engineering.  Argentina: University preparatory secondary education open to females.  Iceland: Educational institutions open to women.  Russia: Universities open to women.  Serbia: Female university students are fully integrated in to the university system.  Australia: Flos Greig became the first woman to be admitted as a barrister and solicitor in Australia, having graduated in 1903. The name 'Amazon' was given by Spanish explorer Francisco Orellana. 1906:  Saxony, Germany: Universities open to women. 1907:  China: Girls are included in the education system.  Sudan: The first school open to Muslim girls.  Iran: Compulsory primary education for females.  Iran: The first Iranian school for girls is established by Tuba Azmudeh, followed by others in the following years.  Japan: Tohoku University, the first (private) coeducational university. 1908:  United States: Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority, the first black Greek letter organization for woman, was founded at Howard University. 463  United Kingdom: Edith Morley is appointed Professor of English Language at University College Reading, becoming the first full professor at a British university institute.  Korea: Secondary education for females through the foundation of the Capital School for Girl's Higher Education.  Peru: Universities open to women.  Prussia, Alsace-Lorraine and Hesse, Germany: Universities open to women.  Switzerland: The Russian-born Anna Tumarkin was the first female professor in Europe with the right to examine doctoral and post-doctoral students 1909:  United States: Ella Flagg Young became the first female superintendent of a large city school system in the United States.  Spain: María Goyri de Menéndez Pidal became the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in Spain, which she earned at the University of Madrid in the subject of philosophy and letters. 1910:  United Kingdom: Millicent Mackenzie is promoted to full professor, the first woman to reach this level at a fully chartered university in the UK. 1911:  Luxembourg: A new educational law gives women access to higher education, and two secondary education schools open to females. The Amazon rainforest covers some 40% of the South American continent. 1912:  China: The Chinese government established secondary schools for young women.  Costa Rica: Felícitas Chaverri Matamoros becomes the first female university student of the country in the Pharmacy School, in 1917 she becomes the first Costa Rican female university graduate.  Japan: Tsuruko Haraguchi became the first Japanese woman to earn a Ph.D. 464 1913:  United Kingdom: Caroline Spurgeon successfully competed for the newly created chair of English Literature at Bedford College, London, becoming the second female professor in England. Around 30% of our carbon emissions come from burning the Amazon rainforest. 1914:  Sierra Leone: Kathleen Mary Easmon Simango became the first West African woman to become an Associate of the Royal College of Art. 1915:  United States: Lillian Gilbreth earned a PhD in industrial psychology from Brown University, which was the first degree ever granted in industrial psychology. Her dissertation was titled "Some Aspects of Eliminating Waste in Teaching". 1917:  Greece: The first public secondary educational school for girls open.  Iran: Public schools for girls are opened in order to enforce the law of compulsory education for girls in practice.  Uruguay: University education open to women.  Nicaragua: The first female obtains a university degree. 1918:  The Amazon rainforest contains more than 3,000 fruits. Only 200 of these are Thailand: Universities open to women. consumed in the western world. 1920:  Portugal: Secondary school open to women.  China: The first female students are accepted in the Peking University, soon followed by universities all over China. 465 1921:  United States: Sadie Tanner Mossell became the first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in the U.S. when she earned a Ph.D. in Economics from the University of Pennsylvania.  Thailand: Compulsory elementary education for both girls and boys. 1922:  United States: Sigma Gamma Rho Sorority was founded. It was the fourth black Greek letter organization for women, and the first black sorority established on a predominantly white campus, Butler University in Indianapolis, Indiana. 1923:  Canada: Elsie MacGill graduated from the University of Toronto in 1927, and was the first Canadian woman to earn a degree in electrical engineering.  Egypt: Compulsory education for both sexes.  United States: Virginia Proctor Powell Florence became the first black woman in the United States to earn a degree in library science. She earned the degree (Bachelor of Library Science) from what is now part of the University of Pittsburgh. 1924  Russia: Olga Freidenberg was the first woman in Russia to earn a Ph.D. in classical philology, which she earned from Petrograd University. 1925:  1926: Korea: Professional school for women (at Ewha Womans University). Reptiles are ectothermic − which means they get their body heat from external sources. 466  United States: Dr. May Edward Chinn became the first African-American woman to graduate from the University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 1927:  Afghanistan: The monarch introduces compulsory education for the daughters of officials. after the independence 1928:  India's national anthem was adopted three years Afghanistan: The first women are sent abroad to study (women banned from studying abroad in 1929).  Bahrain: The first public primary school for girls.  Egypt: The first women students are admitted to Cairo University.  Ghana: Jane E. Clerk was one of two students in the first batch of Presbyterian Women’s Training College. 1929:  Greece: Secondary education for females is made equal to that of males.  Nigeria: Agnes Yewande Savage became the first West African woman to graduate from medical school, obtaining her degree at the University of Edinburgh.  United States: Jenny Rosenthal Bramley, born in Moscow, became the first woman to earn a Ph.D. in physics in the United States, which she earned from New York University.  United States: Elsie MacGill, from Canada, became the first woman in North America, and likely the world, to be awarded a master's degree in aeronautical engineering. 1930:  Turkey: Equal right to university education for both men and women. 1931: 467  United States: Jane Matilda Bolin was the first black woman to graduate from Yale Law School.  United States: Bradford Academy, in Bradford, Massachusetts, changed name to Bradford Junior College and offered a two year degree for women. 1932:  United States: Dorothy B. Porter became the first African-American woman to earn an advanced degree in library science (MLS) from Columbia University. 1933:  Sierra Leone: Edna Elliott-Horton became the first West African woman to receive a baccalaureate degree in the liberals arts when she graduated from Howard University.  United States: Inez Beverly Prosser became the first African-American woman to earn a PhD in psychology, which she earned from the University of Cincinnati. 1934:  United States: Ruth Winifred Howard became the second African-American woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in psychology, which she earned from the University of Minnesota. Pakistan got its independence a day before India 1935:  Iran: Women were admitted to Tehran University. The access of university education to females is, in fact, also a reform regarding women's access to professions, as it open numerous professions to women.  United States: Jesse Jarue Mark became the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in botany, which she earned at Iowa State University. 1936: 468  United States: Flemmie Kittrell became the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in nutrition, which she earned at Cornell University. 1937:  Kuwait: The first public schools open to females.  United States: Anna Johnson Julian became the first black woman to receive a Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Pennsylvania. 1938:  Nigeria: Elizabeth Abimbola Awoliyi became the first woman to be licensed to practise medicine in Nigeria after graduating from the University of Dublin and the first West African female medical officer with a license of the Royal Surgeon (Dublin). 1939:  United Kingdom: Dorothy Garrod becomes the Disney Professor of Archaeology at the University of Cambridge, making her the first female professor at either Oxford or Cambridge. 1940–1969 1940:  Green iguanas become immobile when the temperature drops below 40 degrees. United States: Roger Arliner Young became the first black woman to earn a Ph.D. in zoology, which she earned from the University of Pennsylvania. 1941:  United States: Ruth Lloyd became the first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in anatomy, which she earned from Western Reserve University.  United States: Merze Tate became the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in government and international relations from Harvard University. 469 1942:  United States: Margurite Thomas became the first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in geology, which she earned from Catholic University. 1943:  Iran: Compulsory primary education for both males and females.  United States: Euphemia Haynes became the first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in Mathematics, which she earned from Catholic University. 1945:  United States: Zora Neale Hurston became the first African-American woman to be admitted to Barnard college.  United States: Harvard Medical School admitted women for the first time. 1946:  Ghana: Jane E. Clerk was among a batch of pioneer women educators in West Africa to selected study education at the Institute of Education of the University of London. 1947:  Ghana: Susan Ofori-Atta became the first Ghanaian woman to earn a medical degree when she graduated from the University of Edinburgh.  United States: Marie Maynard Daly became the first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in chemistry, which she earned from Columbia University.  United Kingdom: Cambridge University becomes the last university in the UK to allow women to take full degrees. 1948: Reptiles digest food slower than mammals do. 470  United Kingdom: Elizabeth Hill became the first Professor of Slavonic studies at the University of Cambridge. 1949:  United States: Joanne Simpson (formerly Joanne Malkus, born Joanne Gerould) was the first woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in meteorology, which she received in 1949 from the University of Chicago. 1950:  Ghana: Matilda J. Clerk became the first woman in Ghana and West Africa to attend graduate school, earning a postgraduate diploma at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine.  Ghana: Annie Jiagge became the first woman in Ghana to professionally qualify as a lawyer when she was called to the Bar at Lincoln's Inn. 1951:  Bahrain: First secondary education school open to females.  Ghana: Esther Afua Ocloo became the first person of African ancestry to obtain a cooking diploma from the Good Housekeeping Institute in London and to take the postgraduate Food Preservation Course at Long Ashton Research Station, Department of Horticulture, Bristol University.  United States: Maryly Van Leer Peck, became first female chemical engineer graduate. Peck also became the first woman to receive an M.S. and a Ph.D. in chemical engineering from the University of Florida. 1952:  United States: Georgia Tech's president Blake R Van Leer admitted the first women to the school and his wife Ella Wall Van Leer setup support groups for future female engineers. 471 It was Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy and the first 1955: Governor-General of the country,  Qatar: First public school for girls. the independence of India. 1957:  who chose August 15 to declare Southern Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe): Sarah Chavunduka became the first black woman to attend the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (today the University of Zimbabwe) 1959:  United States: Lois Graham becomes the first US woman to earn a PhD in mechanical engineering. 1962:  United States: Martha E. Bernal, who was born in Texas, became the first Latina to earn a PhD in psychology, which she earned in clinical psychology from Indiana University Bloomington.  Kuwait: The right to education is secured to all citizens regardless of gender. 1963:  Nigeria: Grace Lele Williams became the first Nigerian woman to earn any doctorate when she earned her Ph.D. in Mathematics Education from the University of Chicago.  The Gambia: Florence Mahoney became the first Gambian woman to obtain a PhD, graduating from the School of Oriental and African Studies with a doctorate in History. 1964:  Afghanistan: The 1964 constitution stated the equal right of women to education. 1965: 472  United States: Sister Mary Kenneth Keller became the first American woman to earn a PhD in Computer Science, which she earned at the University of Wisconsin– Madison. Her thesis was titled "Inductive Inference on Computer Generated Patterns."  Kuwait: Compulsory education for both boys and girls. 1966:  Kuwait: University education open to women. 1969:  United States: In 1969, Lillian Lincoln Lambert became the first African-American woman to graduate from Harvard Business School with an MBA.  United States: Princeton, Yale, Colgate, Johns Hopkins, and Georgetown opened applications to women. Mahatma Gandhi could not celebrate the first 1970–1999 Independence Day in Delhi 1970:  United States: Bowdoin, Williams and the University of Virginia allowed women to apply for admittance. 1971:  United States: Bradford Junior College in Bradford, Massachusetts changed to Bradford College and offered four year degrees for women.  Egypt: The new constitution confirms women's right to education.  United States: Brown and Lehigh allowed women to apply for admittance. 1972:  United States: Title IX was passed, making discrimination against any person based on their sex in any federally funded educational program(s) in America illegal. 473  United States: Willie Hobbs Moore became the first African-American woman to receive a Ph.D. in Physics, which was conferred by the University of Michigan.  United States: Bradford College in Bradford, Massachusetts became a co-educational institution (again) after being founded in 1803 as co-educational and then serving exclusively as a female institution of higher learning from 1837 to 1972. Bradford College closed permanently in May, 2000. The Bradford Alumni Association continues today and is the third oldest continuing alumni association in the United States.  United States: Dartmouth, Davidson, Duke and Wesleyan allowed women to apply for admittance. 1975:  United States: Lorene L. Rogers became the first woman named president of a major research university in the United States, the University of Texas.  United States: On July 1, 1975, Jeanne Sinkford became the first female dean of a dental school when she was appointed the dean of Howard University, School of Dentistry.  United Kingdom: The Sex Discrimination Act 1975 (c. 65) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which protected women from discrimination on the grounds of sex or marital status. The Act concerned education among other things.  United States: Amherst, Claremont, US Naval Academy, West Point, US Airforce Academy and US Coast Guard Academy allowed women to apply for admittance. 1976:  United States: U.S. service academies (US Military Academy, US Naval Academy, US Air Force Academy and the US Coast Guard Academy) first admitted women in 1976. 1977:  United States: Harvard’s ratio of four men to one woman ended with “sex-blind admissions.” The Gold Rush was the largest mass migration in U.S. history. 474  United States: The American Association of Dental Schools (founded in 1923 and renamed the American Dental Education Association in 2000) had Nancy Goorey as its first female president in 1977. 1978:  Afghanistan: Mandatory literacy and education of all females. 1979:  United States: Christine Economides became the first American woman to receive a PhD in petroleum engineering, which was conferred by Stanford University.  United States: Jenny Patrick became the first black woman in the United States to receive a Ph.D. in chemical engineering, which was conferred by Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1980:  United States: Women and men were enrolled in American colleges in equal numbers for the first time. The Great Wall is more than 2,300 years old. 1982:  United States: The number of bachelor's degrees conferred on women first surpassed those conferred on men.  United States: Mississippi University for Women v. Hogan, 458 U.S. 718 (1982) was a case decided 5–4 by the Supreme Court of the United States. The court held that the single-sex admissions policy of the Mississippi University for Women violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution.  United States: Judith Hauptman became the first woman to earn a PhD in Talmud, which she earned from the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York. 1983: 475  United States: Christine Darden became the first black woman in the U.S. to receive a Ph.D. degree in mechanical engineering, which was conferred by George Washington University.  United States: Columbia College of Columbia University allowed women to apply for admittance. The rebellious act from Mangal Pandey led to the dismal of confidence 1984:  on the ruling power of British East India Company in the nation. United States: The U.S. Supreme Court's 1984 ruling Grove City College v. Bell held that Title IX applied only to those programs receiving direct federal aid. The case reached the Supreme Court when Grove City College disagreed with the Department of Education's assertion that it was required to comply with Title IX. Grove City College was not a federally funded institution; however, they did accept students who were receiving Basic Educational Opportunity Grants through a Department of Education program. The Department of Education's stance was that, because some of its students were receiving federal grants, the school was receiving federal assistance and Title IX applied to it. The Court decided that since Grove City College was only receiving federal funding through the grant program, only that program had to be in compliance. The ruling was a major victory for those opposed to Title IX, as it made many institutions' sports programs outside of the rule of Title IX and, thus, reduced the scope of Title IX. 1987:  United States: Johnnetta Cole became the first black president of Spelman College. 1988:  United States: The Civil Rights Restoration Act was passed in 1988 which extended Title IX coverage to all programs of any educational institution that receives any federal assistance, both direct and indirect. The beautiful Eureka diamond was first 1994: discovered in South Africa by a 15-year-old boy named Erasmus Stephanus in 1867. 476  United States: In 1994, the Equity in Athletics Disclosure Act, sponsored by congresswoman Cardiss Collins, required federally assisted higher education institutions to disclose information on roster sizes for men's and women's teams, as well as budgets for recruiting, scholarships, coaches' salaries, and other expenses, annually. 1996:  United States: United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515 (1996), was a landmark case in which the Supreme Court of the United States struck down the Virginia Military Institute (VMI)'s long-standing male-only admission policy in a 7–1 decision. (Justice Clarence Thomas, whose son was enrolled at VMI at the time, recused himself.) 21st century Reptiles Evolved From Amphibians 2001:  United States: Ruth Simmons became the eighteenth president of Brown University, which made her the first black woman to lead an Ivy League institution. 2005–2006:  United States: For the first time, more doctoral degrees are conferred on women then men in the United States. This educational gap has continued to increase in the U.S., especially for master's degrees where over 50% more degrees are conferred on women than men. 2006:  After retiring in 1913, Georg Cantor spent the rest of his life in poverty. He lived his final years in a sanatorium and died of a heart attack on January 6, 1918. United States: On November 24, 2006, the Title IX regulations were amended to provide greater flexibility in the operation of single-sex classes or extracurricular activities at the primary or secondary school level. 2011: 477  India: In April 2011, the Institute for Buddhist Dialectical Studies (IBD) in Dharamsala, India, conferred the degree of geshe (a Tibetan Buddhist academic degree for monks and nuns) to Venerable Kelsang Wangmo, a German nun, thus making her the world's first female geshe. 2013:  Saudi Arabia: The Saudi government sanctioned sports for girls in private schools for the first time.  Saudi Arabia: Mai Majed Al-Qurashi became the first woman to receive a PhD in Saudi Arabia, which was conferred by the King Abdullah University of Science and Technology.  United Kingdom: It was announced that Ephraim Mirvis created the job of ma’ayan by which women would be advisers on Jewish law in the area of family purity and as adult educators in Orthodox synagogues. This requires a part-time training course for 18 months, which is the first such course in the United Kingdom.  Tibet: Tibetan women were able to take the geshe exams for the first time. 2016:  Tibet: Twenty Tibetan Buddhist nuns became the first Tibetan women to receive geshema degrees. The great mathematician Georg Cantor wanted to be a violinist like his mother. However, his father, who was a merchant, did not let his young son pursue this dream. Instead, Cantor's father encouraged him to become an engineer. Timeline of luminiferous aether Early experiments  4th-century BC – Aristotle publishes Physics, in which the aether is briefly described as being an element lighter than air that surrounds celestial bodies. He describes the aether in relation to other elements - aether is lighter than air and is located above it, whereas air is lighter than water, and water is lighter than earth. 478 In Aristotle's view, each element returns to its proper place when displaced, which explains why air rises, why earth and water fall, and why the heavens remain in place.  1704 – Isaac Newton publishes Opticks, in which he proposes a particle theory of light. This had trouble explaining diffraction, so he adds a "fudge factor," claiming that an "Aethereal Medium" is responsible for this effect, and going further to suggest it might be responsible for other physical effects such as heat.  1727 – James Bradley measures stellar aberration for the first time, proving (again) that light has a finite speed as well as that the Earth is moving.  1818 – Augustin Fresnel introduces the wave theory of light, which proposes light is a transverse wave travelling in an aether, thereby explaining how polarization can exist. It is important to note that both Newton's particle theory and Fresnel's wave theory both assume an aether exists, albeit for different reasons. From this point on, no one even seems to question its existence.  1820 – Discovery of Siméon Poisson's "Bright Spot", supporting the Wave Theory.  1830 – Fresnel develops a formula for predicting and measuring aether dragging by massive objects, based on a coupling constant. Such dragging seems to be at odds with aberration however, which would require the Earth not to drag the aether in order to be visible.  George Gabriel Stokes becomes a champion of the dragging theory.  1851 – Armand Fizeau carries out his famous experiment with light travelling through moving water. He measures fringing due to motion of the water, perfectly in line with Fresnel's formula. However he sees no effect due to the motion of the Earth, although he does not comment on this. Nevertheless this is seen as very strong evidence for aether dragging.  1868 – Martinus Hoek carries out an improved version of Fizeau's using an interferometer experiment with one arm in water. He sees no effect at all, and cannot offer an explanation as to why his experiment is so at odds with Fizeau's.  1871 – George Biddell Airy re-runs Bradley's experiment with a telescope filled with water. He too sees no effect. It appears that aether is not dragged by mass. 479  1873 – James Clerk Maxwell publishes his Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.  1879 – Maxwell suggests absolute velocity of Earth in aether may be optically detectable.  1881 – Albert Abraham Michelson publishes his first interferometer experiments, using the device for the measurement of extremely small distances. To Michelson's dismay, his experiment finds no "ether drag" slowing light, as had been suggested by Fresnel.  Hendrik Antoon Lorentz finds Michelson's calculation have errors (i.e., doubling of the expected fringe shift error).  1882 – Michelson acknowledges his interpretation errors.  1887 – the Michelson–Morley experiment (MMX) produces the famous null Crisis result. A small drift is seen, but it is too small to support any "fixed" aether theory, and is so small that it might be due to experimental error.  Many physicists dust off Stokes' work, and dragging becomes the "standard solution"  1887 to 1888 – Heinrich Hertz verifies the existence of electromagnetic waves.  1889 – George FitzGerald proposes the Contraction Hypothesis, which suggests that the measurements are null due to changes in the length in the direction of travel through the aether.  1892 – Oliver Lodge demonstrates that aether drag is invisible around rapidly moving celestial bodies.  1895 – Lorentz proposes independently the Contraction Hypothesis.  1902 to 1904 – Morley and Morley conduct a number of MM experiments with a 100 ft interferometer, producing the null result.  1902 to 1904 – Lord Rayleigh and DeWitt Bristol Brace found no signs of double refraction (due to FitzGerald–Lorentz Contraction) of moving bodies in the aether. 480  1903 – the Trouton–Noble experiment, based on an entirely different concept using electrical forces, also produces the null result  1905 – Miller and Morley's experiment data is published. Test of the Contraction Hypothesis has negative results. Test for aether dragging effects produces null result.  1908 – the Trouton–Rankine experiment, another experiment based on electrical effects, does not detect the FitzGerald–Lorentz Contraction. Change  1904 – Hendrik Lorentz publishes a new theory of moving bodies, without discarding the stationary (electromagnetic) ether concept.  1905 – Henri Poincaré shows that Lorentz's theory fulfills the principle of relativity, and publishes the Lorentz transformations. His model was still based on Lorentz's ether, but he argues that this aether is perfectly undetectable.  1905 – Albert Einstein publishes an observationally equivalent theory, but complete with a derivation from principles alone (leaving the ether aside). Einstein also emphasized that this concept implies the relativity of space and time. He later labelled it special relativity.  1908 – Trouton–Rankine experiment shows that length contraction of an object according to one frame does not produce a measurable change of resistance in the object's rest frame  1913 – Georges Sagnac uses a rotating MMX device and receives a clearly positive result. The so-called Sagnac effect was considered excellent evidence for aether at the time, but was later explained via general relativity. Good explanations based on SR also exist.  1914 – Walther Zurhellen uses observations of binary stars to determine if the speed of light is dependent on movement of the source. His measurements show that it is not to 10−6. This is claimed to be additional evidence against aether dragging.  1915 – Einstein publishes on the general theory of relativity. 481  1919 – Arthur Eddington's Africa eclipse expedition is conducted and appears to confirm the general theory of relativity.  1920 – Einstein says that special relativity does not require rejecting the aether, and that the gravitational field of general relativity may be called aether, to which no state of motion can be attributed.  1921 – Dayton Miller conducts aether drift experiments at Mount Wilson. Miller performs tests with insulated and non-magnetic interferometers and obtains positive results.  1921 to 1924 – Miller conducts extensive tests under controlled conditions at Case University.  1924 – Miller repeats his experiments at Mount Wilson and yields a positive result.  Rudolf Tomaschek uses stars for his interferometer light source, getting the null result.  1925 – the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment produces a positive result while attempting to detect the effect of Earth's rotation on the velocity of light. The significance of the experiment remains debated to this day, but this planetary Sagnac effect is measured by ring laser gyros and taken into account by the GPS system.  1925 April – Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences.  Arthur Compton explains the problems with the Stokes aether drag solution.  Miller presents his positive results of the aether drag.  1925 December – American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting.  Miller proposes two theories to account for the positive result. One consists of a modified aether theory, the other a slight departure from the Contraction Hypothesis.  1926 – Roy J. Kennedy produces a null result on Mount Wilson  Auguste Piccard and Ernest Stahel produce a null result on Mont Rigi.  1927 – Mount Wilson conference. 482  Miller talks of partial entrainment  Michelson talks about aether drag and altitude differential effects  K. K. Illingworth produces a null result using a clever version of the MMX with a step in one mirror that dramatically improves resolution. The resolution is so good that most partial entrainment systems can be eliminated.  1929 – Michelson and F. G. Pease perform the Pearson experiment and produce a null result.  1930 – Georg Joos produces a null result using an extremely accurate interferometer placed entirely in vacuum.  1932 – the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment uses an interferometer with arms of different lengths and not at right angles. They measure over several seasons and record on photographs to allow better post-measurement study. The Kennedy Thorndike experiment becomes one of the fundamental tests for SR, proving the independence of light speed wrt to the speed of the emitting source. The other two fundamental tests are Michelson–Morley experiment (proves light speed isotropy) and Ives–Stilwell experiment (proves time dilation)  1934 – Georg Joos publishes on the Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment, stating that it is improbable that aether would be entrained by translational motion and not by rotational motion.  1935 – Hammar experiment disproves aether entrainment  1951 – Paul Dirac writes that currently-accepted quantum field theory requires aether, although he never formulated this theory completely. Debate slows  1955 – R. S. Shankland, S. W. McCuskey, F. C. Leone, and G. Kuerti performed an analysis of Miller's results and explained them as stemming from systematic errors (Shankland's explanation is now widely accepted).  1958 – Cedarholm, Havens, and Townes use two masers frequency locked to each other and send the light in two directions. They receive the null result. The 483 experiment is not as precise as earlier light-based MMX experiments, but demonstrates a novel setup that would become much more accurate in the future.  1964 – Jaseja, Javan, Murray and Townes repeat the earlier experiment with newer and much more precise masers.  1969 – Shamir and Fox repeat the MMX experiment with the "arms" in acrylic glass waveguides and a highly stable laser as the source. The experiment should detect a shift as small as ~0.00003 of a fringe, and none is measured.  1972 – R. S. Shankland admits he would not likely have given the effort to question Dayton Miller's work had it not been for Albert Einstein's "interest and encouragement."  1973 – Trimmer finds a null result in a triangular interferometer with one leg in glass.  1977 – Brecher repeats Zurhellen's experiment with binary pulsars, showing no difference in light speed to 2 x 10−9  1979 Brillet and Hall use the Townes setup with highly accurate lasers, demonstrating no drift to 3 parts in 1015. The experiment also demonstrates a leftover 17 Hz signal, but the authors assume it is linked to the laboratory.  1984 – Torr and Kolen find a cyclic phase shift between two atomic clocks, but the distance between is relatively short (0.5 km) and they are clocks of the lessprecise rubidium type  1988 – Gagnon et al. measure one way light speed and detect no anisotropy  1990 – Hils and Hall repeat the Kennedy–Thorndike experiment with lasers, taking measurements over the period of a year. They find no shifting in 2 x 10 −13  Krisher et al., Phys. Rev. D, 42, No. 2, pp. 731–734, (1990) use two hydrogen masers fixed to the earth and separated by a 21 km fiber-optic link to look for variations in the phase between them. They put an upper limit on the one-way linear anisotropy of 100 m/s.  1991 – Over a six-month period, Roland DeWitte finds, over a 1.5 km underground coaxial cable, a cyclic component in the phase drift between higherprecision caesium-beam clocks on more-or-less the same meridian; the period equals the sidereal day 484  2003 – Holger Mueller and Achim Peters carry out a Modern Michelson–Morley Experiment using Cryogenic Optical Resonators at Humboldt University, Berlin. They find no shifting in 10−15. Timeline of Jodrell Bank Observatory 1930s  1939 — Jodrell Bank site purchased by the University of Manchester as a botany field station. 1940s  1945, December — Bernard Lovell arrives at Jodrell Bank with several trailers of radar equipment from World War II.  1947 — The 66 meter Transit Telescope is constructed. 1950s  1950, August — The transit telescope is used to make the first detection of radio waves from the nearby Andromeda Galaxy.  1950 — Charles Husband presents first drawings of the proposed giant, fully steerable radio telescope.  1952, September — Construction of the Mark I telescope begins.  1957, October — The Mark I telescope becomes operational. It tracks the carrier rocket of Sputnik 1; the only telescope in the West able to do so. 485 1960s  1960, May — Lord Nuffield pays the remaining debt on the Mark I and the observatory is renamed the Nuffield Radio Astronomy Laboratories.  1962 — As part of a radio-linked interferometer, the Mark I identifies a new class of compact radio sources, later recognised as quasars.  1962 — Jodrell Bank radio telescope is mentioned in the Science Fiction novel A for Andromeda by Fred Hoyle and John Elliot.  1964 — The Mark II telescope is completed.  1966 — The Mark I receives pictures from Luna 9, the first spacecraft to make a soft landing on the Moon.  1966 — The Mark III telescope is completed.  1968 — The Mark I confirms the existence of pulsars.  1968 — The Mark I took part in the first transatlantic VLBI experiment in 1968, with other telescopes being those at Algonquin and Penticton in Canada.  1969 — The Mark I is used for the first time in a VLBI observation, with the Arecibo radio telescope in 1969. 1970s  1970–1971 — The Mark I is repaired and upgraded; it is renamed to the Mark IA.  1972–1973 — The Mark I carries out a survey of radio sources; amongst these sources was the first gravitational lens, which was confirmed optically in 1979.  1976, January — storms bring winds of around 90 mph which almost destroy the telescope. Bracing girders are added. 1980s  1980 — The Mark IA is used as part of the new MERLIN array.  1982 — The 42 ft telescope is built, to replace the 50 ft.  1986 — The first pulsar in a globular cluster is discovered. 486 Planets Inferior Planets Superior Planets Inner Planets Outer Planets (Terrestrial Planets) Mars, Jupiter, Mercury and Venus Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto Mercury, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Earth and Mars Uranus, Neptune and Pluto The planets inside the orbit of the earth The planets outside the orbit of the earth The planets outside the asteroid belt The planets inside the asteroid belt Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune Gas Giant Planets (Jovian Planets) From the Moon's surface, the Earth is but a tiny, blue teardrop in the inky blackness of space. Don't have hard surfaces and instead have swirling gases above a solid core ― Stewart Stafford  1986 — The Mark II telescope is given a new surface that is accurate to 1/3 mm.  1987 — The Mark IA is renamed the Lovell Telescope after Bernard Lovell. 1990s  1990 — The new 32 m Cambridge telescope at Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory is added to the MERLIN array.  1992 — The MERLIN array becomes a national facility.  1993 — At the request of NASA, the Lovell Telescope searches for the Mars Observer spacecraft.  1998 — The Lovell Telescope begins participation with the SETI Project Phoenix 2000s  2000, February — The Lovell Telescope searches for NASA's Mars Polar Lander.  2000 — Placebo recorded the video for The Bitter End at Jodrell Bank.  2000–2002 — The Lovell Telescope is resurfaced, increasing its sensitivity at 5 GHz by a factor of five.  2003, December — The Lovell Telescope searches for the Beagle 2 lander on Mars.  2004, January — Astronomers from Jodrell Bank, Australia, Italy and the U.S. discover the first known double pulsar.  2004 — Minor scenes for the film of the Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy are filmed at Jodrell Bank.  2005, February — Astronomers using the Lovell Telescope discovered a galaxy that appears to be made almost entirely of dark matter.  2005, March — Jodrell Bank becomes the centre of the World's largest scale model of the Solar System as part of the Spaced Out project.  2006, September — Jodrell Bank wins the BBC's online competition to find the UK's greatest "Unsung Landmark". 487 2010s  2011, March — Jodrell Bank is included on the UK Tentative List for nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage Site  2019, July — The observatory becomes a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Timeline of the telephone Up to 1875  1667: Robert Hooke creates an acoustic string telephone that conveys sounds over a taut extended wire by mechanical vibrations.  1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first suggests the idea of an electric "speaking telegraph", or telephone.  1849: Antonio Meucci demonstrates a communicating device to individuals in Havana. It is disputed that this is an electromagnetic telephone, but it is said to involve direct transmission of electricity into the user's body.  1854: Charles Bourseul publishes a description of a make-and-break telephone transmitter and receiver in L'Illustration, (Paris) but does not construct a working instrument.  1854: Meucci demonstrates an electric voice-operated device in New York, but it is not clear what kind of device he demonstrated.  1860: Johann Philipp Reis of Germany demonstrates a make-and-break transmitter after the design of Bourseul and a knitting-needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted.  1861: Johann Philipp Reis transfers voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet with his Reis telephone. To prove that speech can be recognized successfully at the receiving end, he uses the phrase "The horse does not eat cucumber salad" as an example because this phrase is hard to understand acoustically in German. 488  1864: In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, Innocenzo Manzetti invents the 'speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers.  1865: Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important."  1871: Meucci files a patent caveat (a statement of intention to file a patent application) for a Sound Telegraph, but it does not describe an electromagnetic telephone.  1872: Elisha Gray founds the Western Electric Manufacturing Company.  1872: Professor Vanderwyde demonstrates Reis's telephone in New York.  July 1873: Thomas Edison notes varying resistance in carbon grains due to pressure, and builds a rheostat based on the principle but abandons it because of its sensitivity to vibration.  May 1874: Gray invents an electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use a metallic diaphragm.  July 1874: Alexander Graham Bell conceives the theoretical concept for the telephone while vacationing at his parents' farm near Brantford, Canada. Alexander Melville Bell records notes of his son's conversation in his personal journal.  29 December 1874: Gray demonstrates his musical tones device and transmits "familiar melodies through telegraph wire" at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois.  4 May 1875: Bell conceives of using varying resistance in a wire conducting electric current to create a varying current amplitude.  2 June 1875: Bell transmits the sound of a plucked steel reed using electromagnet instruments.  1 July 1875: Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voice-like sounds" but not clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments. 489  1875: Thomas Edison experiments with acoustic telegraphy and, in November, builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it. 1876 to 1878  11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but he did not make one.  14 February 1876, about 9:30 am: Gray or his lawyer brings Gray's patent caveat for the telephone to the Washington, D.C. Patent Office (a caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application. It was like a patent application, but without a request for examination, for the purpose of notifying the patent office of a possible invention in process).  14 February 1876, about 11:30 am: Bell's lawyer brings to the same patent office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requests that it be registered immediately in the cash receipts blotter.  14 February 1876, about 1:30 pm: Approximately two hours later Elisha Gray's patent caveat is registered in the cash blotter. Although his caveat was not a full application, Gray could have converted it into a patent application and contested Bell's priority, but did not do so because of advice from his lawyer and his involvement with acoustic telegraphy. The result was that the patent was awarded to Bell.  7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. Patent, No. 174,465 for the telephone is granted.  10 March 1876: Bell first successfully transmits speech, saying "Mr. Watson, come here! I want to see you!" using a liquid transmitter as described in Gray's caveat, and Bell's own electromagnetic receiver.  16 May 1876: Thomas Edison files first patent application for acoustic telegraphy for which U.S. patent 182,996 was granted October 10, 1876.  25 June 1876: Bell exhibits his telephone at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, where it draws enthusiastic reactions from Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil and Lord Kelvin, attracting the attention of the press and resulting in the first announcements of the invention to the general public. Lord Kelvin describes the telephone as "the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph". 490  10 August 1876: Alexander Graham Bell makes the world's first long-distance telephone call, one-way, not reciprocal, over a distance of about 6 miles, between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, Canada.  1876: Hungarian Tivadar Puskás invents the telephone switchboard exchange (later working with Edison).  9 October 1876: Bell makes the first two-way long-distance telephone call between Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts.  October 1876: Edison tests his first carbon microphone.  1877: The first experimental Telephone Exchange in Boston.  20 January 1877: Edison "first [succeeds] in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure-sensitive varying resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm.  30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. Patent No. 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.  4 March 1877: Emile Berliner invents a microphone based on "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on Reis' Telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process.  April 1877: A telephone line connects the workshop of Charles Williams, Jr., located in Boston, to his house in Somerville, Massachusetts at 109 Court Street in Boston, where Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson had previously experimented with their telephone. The telephones became No. 1 and 2 in the Bell Telephone Company.  27 April 1877: Edison files telephone patent applications. U.S. patents (Nos. 474,230, 474,231 and 474,232) were awarded to Edison in 1892 over the competing claims of Alexander Graham Bell, Emile Berliner, Elisha Gray, Amos Dolbear, J.W. McDonagh, G.B. Richmond, W.L.W. Voeker, J.H. Irwin and Francis Blake Jr. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver are used, with improvements, by the Bell system for many decades thereafter.  4 June 1877: Emile Berliner files telephone patent application that includes a carbon microphone transmitter. 491  9 July 1877: The Bell Telephone Company, a common law joint-stock company, is organized by Alexander Graham Bell's future father-in-law Gardiner Greene Hubbard, a lawyer who becomes its first president.  6 October 1877: the Scientific American publishes the invention from Bell – at that time still without a ringer.  25 October 1877: the article in the Scientific American is discussed at the Telegraphenamt in Berlin  November 1877: First permanent telephone connection in UK between two business in Manchester using imported Bell instruments.  12 November 1877: The first commercial telephone company enters telephone business in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin using the Siemens pipe as ringer and telephone devices build by Siemens.  1 December 1877: Western Union enters the telephone business using Edison's superior carbon microphone transmitter.  14 January 1878: Bell demonstrates the device to Queen Victoria and gives her an opportunity to try it. Calls are made to Cowes, Southampton and London, the first longdistance calls in the UK. The queen asks to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell offers to make a model specifically for her.  28 January 1878: The first commercial North American telephone exchange is opened in New Haven, Connecticut.  4 February 1878: Edison demonstrates the telephone between Menlo Park, New Jersey and Philadelphia, a distance of 210 kilometres (130 mi).  14 June 1878: The Telephone Company (Bell's Patents) Ltd. is registered in London. Opened in London on 21 August 1879, it is Europe's first telephone exchange, followed a couple of weeks later by one in Manchester.  12 September 1878: the Bell Telephone Company sues Western Union for infringing Bell's patents.  1878: The first Australian telephone trials were made between Semaphore and Kapunda (and later Adelaide and Port Adelaide) in South Australia. 492 1879 to 1919  Early months of 1879: The Bell Telephone Company is near bankruptcy and desperate to get a transmitter to equal Edison's carbon transmitter.  17 February 1879: Bell Telephone merges with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. Theodore Vail takes over operations.  1879: Francis Blake invents a carbon transmitter similar to Edison's that saves the Bell company from extinction.  2 August 1879: The Edison Telephone CompLondon Ltd, registered. Opened in London 6 September 1879.  10 September 1879: Connolly and McTighe patent a "dial" telephone exchange (limited in the number of lines to the number of positions on the dial.).  1879: The International Bell Telephone Company (IBTC) of Brussels, Belgium was founded by Bell Telephone Company president Gardiner Greene Hubbard, initially to sell imported telephones and switchboards in Continental Europe. International Bell rapidly evolved into an important European telephone service provider and manufacturer, with major operations in several countries.  19 February 1880: The photophone, also called a radiophone, is invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter at Bell's Volta Laboratory. The device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light.  20 March 1880: National Bell Telephone merges with others to form the American Bell Telephone Company.  1 April 1880: world's first wireless telephone call on Bell and Tainter's photophone (distant precursor to fiber-optic communications) from the Franklin School in Washington, D.C. to the window of Bell's laboratory, 213 meters away.  1 July 1881: The world's first international telephone call is made between St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada, and Calais, Maine, United States.  11 October 1881: The Sydney telephone exchange opened with 12 subscribers.  1882: A telephone company—an American Bell Telephone Company affiliate—is set up in Mexico City. 493  14 May 1883: The Adelaide exchange was opened, with 48 subscribers.  7 September 1883: The Port Adelaide exchange was opened, with 21 subscribers.  4 September 1884: Opening of telephone service between New York and Boston (235 miles).  3 March 1885: The American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) is incorporated as the long-distance division of American Bell Telephone Company. It will become the head of the Bell System on the last day of 1899.  1886: Gilliland's Automatic circuit changer is put into service between Worcester and Leicester featuring the first operator dialing allowing one operator to run two exchanges.  1887: Tivadar Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, that had an epochal significance in the further development of telephone exchange.  13 January 1887: the Government of the United States moves to annul the master patent issued to Alexander Graham Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. The case, known as the 'Government Case', is later dropped after it was revealed that the U.S. Attorney General, Augustus Hill Garland had been given millions of dollars of stock in the company trying to unseat Bell's telephone patent.  1888: Telephone patent court cases are confirmed by the Supreme Court, see The Telephone Cases  1889: AT&T becomes the overall holding company for all the Bell companies.  2 November 1889: A.G. Smith patents a telegraph switch which provides for trunks between groups of selectors allowing for the first time, fewer trunks than there are lines, and automatic selection of an idle trunk.  10 March 1891: Almon Strowger patents the Strowger switch the first Automatic telephone exchange.  30 October 1891: The independent Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company is formed.  3 May 1892: Thomas Edison awarded patents for the carbon microphone based on applications lodged in 1877. 494 Model Algorithmic Analytical Approximate Algebraic Numeric Stimulation  Scalene Triangle: All sides are unequal  Isosceles Triangle: Two sides are equal  Equilateral Triangle: All the three sides are equal and all angles measures to 60 degrees. Approaches for studying geography:  Geography Regional Approach (Identities differences between Places)  Systematic Approach (Identities similarities between Places) Physical Geography Human Geography Economic Geography  18 October 1892: Opening of telephone service between New York and Chicago (950 miles).  3 November 1892: The first Strowger switch goes into operation in LaPorte, Indiana with 75 subscribers and capacity for 99.  30 January 1894: The second fundamental Bell patent for the telephone expires; Independent telephone companies established, and independent manufacturing companies (Stromberg-Carlson in 1894 and Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company in 1897).  30 December 1899: American Bell Telephone Company is purchased by its own longdistance subsidiary, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) to bypass state regulations limiting capitalization. AT&T assumes leadership role of the Bell System.  25 December 1900: John W. Atkins, the manager at International Ocean Telegraph Company (IOTC), a subsidiary of Western Union Telegraph Company made the first international telephone call over telegraph cable at 09:55am from his office in Key West to Havana, Cuba. Atkins was reported in the Florida Times Union and Citizen as saying, "For a long time there was no sound, except the roar heard at night sometimes, caused by electric light current." He continued calling Cuba and finally came back the words, clear and distinct: "I don't understand you."  27 February 1901: United States Court of Appeal declares void Emile Berliner's patent for a telephone transmitter used by the Bell telephone system  1902: The first Australian interstate calls between Mount Gambier and Nelson.  26 February 1914: Boston-Washington underground cable commenced commercial service.  16 January 1915: The first automatic Panel exchange was installed at the Mulberry Central Office in Newark, New Jersey; but was a semi-automatic system using non-dial telephones.  25 January 1915: First transcontinental telephone call (3600 miles), with Thomas Augustus Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco receiving a call from Alexander Graham Bell at 15 Dey Street in New York City, facilitated by a newly invented vacuum tube amplifier. 495  21 October 1915: First transmission of speech across the Atlantic Ocean by radiotelephone from Arlington, Virginia to Paris, France.  1919: The first rotary dial telephones in the Bell System installed in Norfolk, Virginia. Telephones that lacked dials and touch-tone pads were no longer made by the Bell System after 1978.  1919: AT&T conducts more than 4,000 measurements of people's heads to gauge the best dimensions of standard headsets so that callers' lips would be near the microphone when holding handsets up to their ears. 1920 to 1969  16 July 1920: World's first radiotelephone service commences public service between Los Angeles and Santa Catalina Island.  11 April 1921: Opening of deep sea cable from Key West, Florida, to Havana, Cuba (115 miles).  22 December 1923: Opening of second transcontinental telephone line via a southern route.  7 March 1926: First transatlantic telephone call, from London to New York.  7 January 1927: Transatlantic telephone service inaugurated for commercial service (3500 miles).  17 January 1927: Opening of third transcontinental telephone line via a northern route.  7 April 1927: world's first videophone call via an electro-mechanical AT&T unit, from Washington, D.C. to New York City, by then-Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover.  8 December 1929: Opening of commercial ship-to-shore telephone service.  3 April 1930: Opening of transoceanic telephone service to Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay and subsequently to all other South American countries.  25 April 1935: First telephone call around the world by wire and radio.  1937: The Western Electric type 302 telephone becomes available for service in the United States.  8 December 1937: Opening of fourth transcontinental telephone line. 496  1941: Multi-frequency dialing introduced for operators in Baltimore, Maryland  1942: Telephone production is halted at Western Electric until 1945 for civilian distribution due to the retooling of factories for military equipment during World War II.  1946: National Numbering Plan (area codes)  1946: first commercial mobile phone call  1946: Bell Labs develops the germanium point-contact transistor  1947: December, W. Rae Young and Douglas H. Ring, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for provisioning of mobile telephone service.  1948: Phil Porter, a Bell Labs engineer, proposed that cell towers be at the corners of the hexagons rather than the centers and have directional antennas pointing in 3 directions.  1950: The Western Electric Type 500 telephone becomes available in the United States after announcement in 1949.  30 June 1948: First public demonstration of the transistor by Bell Telephone Laboratories.  10 November 1951: Direct Distance Dialing (DDD) first offered on trial basis at Englewood, New Jersey, to 11 selected major cities across the United States; this service grew rapidly across major cities during the 1950s  1955: the laying of trans-Atlantic cable TAT-1 began – 36 circuits, later increased to 48 by reducing the bandwidth from 4 kHz to 3 kHz  1958: Modems used for direct connection via voice phone lines  1959: The Princess telephone is introduced in the Bell System in the United States.  1959: UKs first public car radio-telephone service opens in Liverpool and Manchester  1959: Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Telephone Laboratories invent the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), which later enables the rapid development and wide adoption of pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital telephony.  1960: Bell Labs conducts extensive field trial of an electronic central office in Morris, Illinois, known at the Morris System.  1960s: Bell Labs developed the electronics for cellular phones 497  1961: Initiation of Touch-Tone service trials  1962: T-1 service in Skokie, Illinois  1963, November 18: AT&T commences the first subscriber Touch-Tone service in the towns of Carnegie and Greensburg, Pennsylvania, using push-button telephones that replaced rotary dial instruments.  1965 (May 31): The world's first electronic switching system commences commercial service in Succasunna, New Jersey in form of the 1ESS.  1965: first geosynchronous communications satellite – 240 circuits or one TV signal  1965: The Trimline telephone is introduced by Western Electric for use in the Bell System. 1970 to 1999  1970: ESS-2 electronic switch.  1970: modular telephone cords and jacks introduced.  1970: Amos E. Joel, Jr. of Bell Labs invented the "call handoff" system for "cellular mobile communication system" (patent granted 1972).  1970: British companies Pye TMC, Marconi-Elliott and GEC develop the digital pushbutton telephone, based on metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) technology. It uses MOS memory chips to store phone numbers, which could then be used for speed dialing.  1971: AT&T submitted a proposal for cellular phone service to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC).  3 April 1973: Motorola employee Martin Cooper placed the first hand-held cell phone call to Joel Engel, head of research at AT&T's Bell Labs, while talking on the first Motorola DynaTAC prototype.  1973: packet switched voice connections over ARPANET with Network Voice Protocol (NVP). 498  1973: Bell Labs combined MOS technology with touch-tone technology to develop a push-button MOS touch-tone phone called the "Touch-O-Matic" telephone, which uses MOS integrated circuit chips and could store up to 32 phone numbers.  1974: David A. Hodges, Paul R. Gray and R.E. Suarez at UC Berkeley develop MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit technology, in the form of the MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit, which they use to develop the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip used in digital telephony.  1975: Paul R. Gray and J. McCreary develop the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) MOS chip, used in digital telephony.  1976: Kazuo Hashimoto invented Caller ID  1978: Bell Labs launched a trial of the first commercial cellular network in Chicago using Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).  1978: World's first NMT phone call in Tampere, Finland.  1979: VoIP – NVP running on top of early versions of IP  1980: W.C. Black and David A. Hodges develop the silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) pulse-code modulation (PCM) codec-filter chip, which has since been the industry standard for digital telephony, widely used in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) as well as cordless telephones and cell phones.  1981: The world's first fully automatic mobile phone system NMT is started in Sweden and Norway.  1981: BT introduces the British Telephone Sockets system.  1982: FCC approved AT&T proposal for AMPS and allocated frequencies in the 824894 MHz band.  1982: Caller ID patented by Carolyn Doughty, Bell Labs  1983: last manual telephone switchboard in Maine is retired  1984: AT&T completes the divestiture of its local operating companies. This forms a new AT&T (long-distance service and equipment sales) and the Baby Bells.  1987: ADSL introduced  1988: First transatlantic fiber optic cable TAT-8, carrying 40,000 circuits 499  1990: analog AMPS was superseded by Digital AMPS.  1991: the GSM mobile phone network is started in Finland, with the first phone call in Tampere.  1993: Telecom Relay Service available for the disabled  1994: The IBM Simon becomes the first smartphone on the market.  1995: Caller ID implemented nationally in USA  1999: creation of the Asterisk Private branch exchange 2000 to present  11 June 2002: Antonio Meucci is recognized for "...his work in the invention of the telephone" (but not "...for inventing the telephone") by the United States House of Representatives, in United States HRes. 269.  21 June 2002: The Parliament of Canada responds by passing a motion unanimously 10 days later recognizing Alexander Graham Bell as the inventor of the telephone.  2005: Mink, Louisiana finally receives traditional landline telephone service (one of the last in the United States). Timeline of telescope technology BC 2560 BC to 1 BC  c.2560 BC–c.860 BC — Egyptian artisans polish rock crystal, semi-precious stones, and latterly glass to produce facsimile eyes for statuary and mummy cases. The intent appears to be to produce an optical illusion.  c.470 BC–c.390 BC — Chinese philosopher Mozi writes on the use of concave mirrors to focus the sun's rays. 500  424 BC Aristophanes "lens" is a glass globe filled with water.(Seneca says that it can be used to read letters no matter how small or dim)  3rd century BC Euclid is the first to write about reflection and refraction and notes that light travels in straight lines AD 1 AD to 999 AD  2nd century AD — Ptolemy (in his work Optics) wrote about the properties of light including: reflection, refraction, and colour.  984 — Ibn Sahl completes a treatise On Burning Mirrors and Lenses, describing planoconvex and biconvex lenses, and parabolic and ellipsoidal mirrors. 1000 AD to 1999 AD  1011–1021 — Ibn al-Haytham (also known as Alhacen or Alhazen) writes the Kitab alManazir (Book of Optics)  12th century — Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics is introduced to Europe translated into Latin.  1230–1235 — Robert Grosseteste describes the use of 'optics' to "...make small things placed at a distance appear any size we want, so that it may be possible for us to read the smallest letters at incredible distances..." ("Haec namque pars Perspectivae perfecte cognita ostendit nobis modum, quo res longissime distantes faciamus apparere propinquissime positas et quo res magnas propinquas faciamus apparere brevissimas et quo res longe positas parvas faciamus apparere quantum volumus magnas, ita ut possible sit nobis ex incredibili distantia litteras minimas legere, aut arenam, aut granum, aut gramina, aut quaevis minuta numerare.") in his work De Iride.  1266 — Roger Bacon mentions the magnifying properties of transparent objects in his treatise Opus Majus. 501  1270 (approx) — Witelo writes Perspectiva — "Optics" incorporating much of Kitab alManazir.  1285–1300 spectacles are invented.  1570 — The writings of Thomas Digges describes how his father, English mathematician and surveyor Leonard Digges (1520–1559), made use of a "proportional Glass" to view distant objects and people. Some, such as the historian Colin Ronan, claim this describes a reflecting or refracting telescope built between 1540 and 1559 but its vague description and claimed performance makes it dubious.  1570s — Ottoman astronomer and engineer Taqi al-Din seems to describe a rudimentary telescope in his Book of the Light of the Pupil of Vision and the Light of the Truth of the Sights. He also states that he wrote another earlier treatise explaining the way this instrument is made and used, suggesting that he invented it some time before 1574.  1586 Giambattista della Porta writes "...to make glasses that can recognize a man several miles away" It is unclear whether he is describing a telescope or corrective glasses.  1608 — Hans Lippershey, a Dutch lensmaker, applies for a patent for a perspective glass "for seeing things far away as if they were nearby", the first recorded design for what will later be called a telescope. His patent beats fellow Dutch instrumentmaker's Jacob Metius's patent by a few weeks. A claim will be made 37 years later by another Dutch spectacle-maker that his father, Zacharias Janssen, invented the telescope.  1609 — Galileo Galilei makes his own improved version of Lippershey's telescope, calling it a "perspicillum".  1611 — Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani coins the word "telescope" (from the Greek τῆλε, tele "far" and σκοπεῖν, skopein "to look or see"; τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos "far-seeing") for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei.  1611 — Johannes Kepler describes the optics of lenses (see his books Astronomiae Pars Optica and Dioptrice), including a new kind of astronomical telescope with two convex lenses (the 'Keplerian' telescope).  1616 — Niccolo Zucchi claims at this time he experimented with a concave bronze mirror, attempting to make a reflecting telescope. 502 Asteroids C-type (Carbon rich) S-type (Stony) Small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun M-type (Metallic) If one small and odd lineage of fishes had not evolved fins capable of bearing weight on land (though evolved for different reasons in lakes and seas,) terrestrial vertebrates would never have arisen. If a large extraterrestrial object—the ultimate random bolt from the blue—had not triggered the extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago, mammals would still be small creatures, confined to the nooks and crannies of a dinosaur's world, and incapable of evolving the larger size that brains big enough for self-consciousness require. If a small and tenuous population of protohumans had not survived a hundred slings and arrows of outrageous fortune (and potential extinction) on the savannas of Africa, then Homo sapiens would never have emerged to spread throughout the globe. We are glorious accidents of an unpredictable process with no drive to complexity, not the expected results of evolutionary principles that yearn to produce a creature capable of understanding the mode of its own necessary construction. Stephen Jay Gould Comets Cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust that orbit the Sun Periodic comets Non-periodic comets (Halley's Comet) (Comet Hale–Bopp) Comets with no meaningful orbit (The Great Comet of 1106) Edmond Halley was an English astronomer who calculated the orbit of the comet now called Halley's Comet. He was a supporter of Lost comets Newton. (Brorsen's Comet) Nikola Tesla Inventions:  AC Power (alternating current) Of the 10,000 or so meteorites that have been  Tesla Coil collected and analyzed, eight are particularly  Magnifying Transmitter  Tesla Turbine since 1979 some investigators have thought  Shadowgraph they might have originated not in asteroids, as  Radio  Neon Lamp  Hydroelectric Power  Induction Motor  Radio Controlled Boat unusual. They are so unusual, in fact, that most meteorites did, but on the surface of Mars. — Lawrence M. Krauss  1630 — Christoph Scheiner constructs a telescope to Kepler's design.  1650 — Christiaan Huygens produces his design for a compound eyepiece.  1663 — Scottish mathematician James Gregory designs a reflecting telescope with paraboloid primary mirror and ellipsoid secondary mirror. Construction techniques at the time could not make it, and a workable model was not produced until 10 years later by Robert Hooke. The design is known as 'Gregorian'.  1668 — Isaac Newton produces the first functioning reflecting telescope using a spherical primary mirror and a flat diagonal secondary mirror. This design is termed the 'Newtonian'.  1672 — Laurent Cassegrain, produces a design for a reflecting telescope using a paraboloid primary mirror and a hyperboloid secondary mirror. The design, named 'Cassegrain', is still used in astronomical telescopes used in observatories in 2006.  1674 — Robert Hooke produces a reflecting telescope based on the Gregorian design.  1684 — Christiaan Huygens publishes "Astroscopia Compendiaria" in which he described the design of very long aerial telescopes.  1720 — John Hadley develops ways of aspherizing spherical mirrors to make very accurate parabolic mirrors and produces a much improved Gregorian telescope  1721 — John Hadley experiments with the neglected Newtonian telescope design and demonstrates one with a 6-inch parabolic mirror to the Royal Society.  1730s — James Short succeeds in producing a Gregorian telescopes to true paraboloidal primary and ellipsoidal secondary design specifications.  1733 — Chester Moore Hall invents the achromatic lens.  1758 — John Dollond re-invents and patents the achromatic lens.  1783 — Jesse Ramsden invents his eponymous eyepiece.  1803 — The "Observatorio Astronómico Nacional de Colombia (OAN)" is inaugurated as the first observatory in the Americas in Bogotá, Colombia.  1849 — Carl Kellner designs and manufactures the first achromatic eyepiece, announced in his paper "Das orthoskopische Ocular". 503  1857 — Léon Foucault improves reflecting telescopes when he introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors.  1860 — Georg Simon Plössl produces his eponymous eyepiece.  1880 — Ernst Abbe designs the first orthoscopic eyepiece (Kellner's was solely achromatic rather than orthoscopic, despite his description).  1897 — Largest practical refracting telescope, the Yerkes Observatorys' 40 inch (101.6 cm) refractor, is built.  1900 — The largest refractor ever, Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900 with an objective of 49.2 inch (1.25 m) diameter is temporarily exhibited at the Paris 1900 Exposition.  1910s — George Willis Ritchey and Henri Chrétien co-invent the Ritchey-Chrétien telescope used in many, if not most of the largest astronomical telescopes.  1930 — Bernhard Schmidt invents the Schmidt camera.  1932 — John Donovan Strong first “aluminizes" a telescope mirror a much longer lasting aluminium coating using thermal vacuum evaporation.  1944 — Dmitri Dmitrievich Maksutov invents the Maksutov telescope.  1967 — The first neutrino telescope opened in Africa.  1970 — The first space observatory, Uhuru, is launched, being also the first gamma-ray telescope.  1975 — BTA-6 is the first major telescope to use an altazimuth mount, which is mechanically simpler but requires computer control for accurate pointing.  1990 — Hubble Space Telescope (HST) was launched into low Earth orbit 2000 CE to 2025 CE  2003 — The Spitzer Space Telescope (SST), formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), is an infrared space observatory launched in 2003. It is the fourth and final of the NASA Great Observatories program  2008 — Max Tegmark and Matias Zaldarriaga created the Fast Fourier Transform Telescope. 504  2021 — The James Webb telescope is to be launched by NASA. An average individual's mind wanders 30% of the time. Timeline of psychology Ancient history – BCE  c. 1550 BCE – The Ebers Papyrus mentioned depression and thought disorders.  c. 600 BCE – Many cities in Greece had temples to Asklepios that provided cures for psychosomatic illnesses. Too Much Stress Results In Poor Performance  540–475 Heraclitus  c. 500 Alcmaeon - suggested theory of humors as regulating human behavior (similar to Empedocles' elements) More mind wandering = more creativity  500–428 Anaxagoras  490–430 Empedocles proposed a first natural, non-religious system of factors that create things around, including human characters. In his model he used four elements (water, fire, earth, air) and four seasons to derive diversity of natural systems.  490–421 Protagoras  470–399 Socrates – Socrates has been called the father of western philosophy, if only via his influence on Plato and Aristotle. Socrates made a major contribution to pedagogy via his dialectical method and to epistemology via his definition of true knowledge as true belief buttressed by some rational justification.  470–370 Democritus – Democritus distinguished between insufficient knowledge gained through the senses and legitimate knowledge gained through the intellect—an early stance on epistemology.  460 BC – 370 BCE – Hippocrates introduced principles of scientific medicine based upon naturalistic observation and logic, and denied the influence of spirits and demons in diseases. Introduced the concept of "temperamentum"("mixture", i.e. 4 temperament types based on a ratio between chemical bodily systems. Hippocrates was 505 among the first physicians to argue that brain, and not the heart is the organ of psychic processes.  387 BCE – Plato suggested that the brain is the seat of mental processes. Plato's view of the "soul" (self) is that the body exists to serve the soul: "God created the soul before the body and gave it precedence both in time and value, and made it the dominating and controlling partner." from Timaeus  c. 350 BCE – Aristotle wrote on the psuchê (soul) in De Anima, first mentioning the tabula rasa concept of the mind.  c. 340 BCE – Praxagoras  371–288 Theophrastus  341–270 Epicurus  c. 320 Herophilus  c. 300–30 Zeno of Citium taught the philosophy of Stoicism, involving logic and ethics. We Can Only Remember 3 to 4 Things at a Time In logic, he distinguished between imperfect knowledge offered by the senses and superior knowledge offered by reason. In ethics, he taught that virtue lay in reason and vice in rejection of reason. Stoicism inspired Aaron Beck to introduce cognitive behavioral therapy in the 1970s.  304–250 Erasistratus  123–43 BCE – Themison of Laodicea was a pupil of Asclepiades of Bithynia and founded a school of medical thought known as "methodism." He was criticized by Soranus for his cruel handling of mental patients. Among his prescriptions were darkness, restraint by chains, and deprivation of food and drink. Juvenal satirized him and suggested that he killed more patients than he cured.  c. 100 BCE – The Dead Sea Scrolls noted the division of human nature into two temperaments. We Make Most of Your Decisions Unconsciously First century  c. 50 – Aulus Cornelius Celsus died, leaving De Medicina, a medical encyclopedia; Book 3 covers mental diseases. The term insania, insanity, was first used by him. The methods 506 of treatment included bleeding, frightening the patient, emetics, enemas, total darkness, and decoctions of poppy or henbane, and pleasant ones such as music therapy, travel, sport, reading aloud, and massage. He was aware of the importance of the doctor-patient relationship.  c. 100 – Rufus of Ephesus believed that the nervous system was instrumental in voluntary movement and sensation. He discovered the optic chiasma by anatomical studies of the brain. He stressed taking a history of both physical and mental disorders. He gave a detailed account of melancholia, and was quoted by Galen.  93–138 – Soranus of Ephesus advised kind treatment in healthy and comfortable conditions, including light, warm rooms. We Reconstruct our Memories Second century  c. 130–200 – Galen "was schooled in all the psychological systems of the day: Platonic, Aristotelian, Stoic, and Epicurean" He advanced medicine by offering anatomic investigations and was a skilled physician. Galen developed further the theory of temperaments suggested by Hippocrates, that people's characters were determined by the balance among four bodily substances. He also distinguished sensory from motor nerves and showed that the brain controls the muscles.  c. 150–200 – Aretaeus of Cappadocia Third century Dopamine Makes us Addicted to Seeking Information  155–220 Tertullian  205–270 Plotinus wrote Enneads a systematic account of Neoplatonist philosophy, also nature of visual perception and how memory might work. Culture shapes our brain Fourth century  c. 323–403 – Oribasius compiled medical writings based on the works of Aristotle, Asclepiades, and Soranus of Ephesus, and wrote on melancholia in Galenic terms. 507  345–399 – Evagrius Ponticus described a rigorous way of introspection within the early Christian monastic tradition. Through introspection, monks could acquire self-knowledge and control their stream of thought which signified potentially demonic influences. Ponticus developed this view in Praktikos, his guide to ascetic life.  c. 390 – Nemesius wrote De Natura Hominis (On Human Nature); large sections were incorporated in Saint John Damascene's De Fide Orthodoxia in the eighth century. Nemesius' book De Placitis Hippocratis et Platonis (On the Doctrines of Hippocrates and Plato) contains many passages concerning Galen's anatomy and physiology, believing that different cavities of the brain were responsible for different functions.  397–398 – St. Augustine of Hippo published Confessions, which anticipated Freud by near-discovery of the subconscious. Augustine's most complete account of the soul is in De Quantitate Animae (The Greatness of the Soul). The work assumes a Platonic model of the soul. Fifth century  Chromostereopsis (visual illusion) is most likely to occur when blue and red or green and red are placed side by side. 5th century – Caelius Aurelianus opposed harsh methods of handling the insane, and advocated humane treatment.  c. 423–529 – Theodosius the Cenobiarch founded a monastery at Kathismus, near Bethlehem. Three hospitals were built by the side of the monastery: one for the sick, one for the aged, and one for the insane.  c. 451 – Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople: his followers dedicated themselves to the sick and became physicians of great repute. They brought the works of Hippocrates, Aristotle, and Galen, and influenced the approach to physical and mental disorders in Persia and Arabia Seventh century  We Want More Choices and Information Than we Can Actually Process 625–690 – Paul of Aegina suggested that hysteria should be treated by ligature of the limbs, and mania by tying the patient to a mattress placed inside a wicker basket and suspended from the ceiling. He also recommended baths, wine, special diets, and 508 sedatives for the mentally ill. He described the following mental disorders: phrenitis, delirium, lethargus, melancholia, mania, incubus, lycanthropy, and epilepsy Ninth century  We Are Hard-Wired For Imitation and Empathy c. 800 – The first bimaristan was built in Baghdad. By the 13th century, bimaristans grew into hospitals with specialized wards, including wards for mentally ill patients.  c. 850 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari wrote a work emphasizing the need for psychotherapy. If we Use Social Media Without Laughter we aren't Being Social Tenth century  c. 900 – Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi urged doctors to ensure that they evaluated the state of both their patients' bodies and souls, and highlighted the link between spiritual or mental health and overall health.  c. 900 – al-Razi (Rhazes) promoted psychotherapy and an understanding attitude towards those suffering from psychological distress. Pictures of People Eleventh century  Our Attention is Riveted By 1025 – In The Canon of Medicine, Avicenna described a number of conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, pa ralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.  c. 1030 – Al-Biruni employed an experimental method in examining the concept of reaction time. Twelfth century  What People Look At On a Picture Or Screen Depends On What You Say To Them c. 1200 – Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders, and described rabies and belladonna intoxication. We Are Most Affected by Brands and Thirteenth century Logos When we Are Sad or Scared 509 Knowledge Acquisition Knowledge Deepening Knowledge Creation  Preparation  Incubation  Illumination  Evaluation  Revision  Remembering  Understanding  Applying  Analyzing  Evaluating  Creating Every person on this earth is full of great possibilities that can be realized 5 Stages of Creativity through imagination, effort, and perseverance. Scott Barry Kaufmann Motivation Internal motives Needs External motives Cognitions Emotions  c. 1180 – 1245 Alexander of Hales  c. 1190 – 1249 William of Auvergne  1215–1277 Peter Juliani taught in the medical faculty of the University of Siena, and wrote on medical, philosophical and psychological topics. He was personal physician to Pope Gregory X and later became archbishop and cardinal. He was elected pope under the name John XXI in 1276.  c. 1214 – 1294 Roger Bacon advocated for empirical methods and wrote on optics, visual perception, and linguistics.  1221–1274 Bonaventure  1193–1280 Albertus Magnus  1225 – Thomas Aquinas  1240 – Bartholomeus Anglicus published De Proprietatibus Rerum, which included a dissertation on the brain, recognizing that mental disorders can have a physical or psychological cause.  1247 – Bethlehem Royal Hospital in Bishopsgate outside the wall of London, one of the most famous old psychiatric hospitals was founded as a priory of the Order of St. Mary of Bethlem to collect alms for Crusaders; after the English government secularized it, it started admitting mental patients by 1377 (c. 1403), becoming known as Bedlam Hospital; in 1547 it was acquired by the City of London, operating until 1948; it is now part of the British NHS Foundation Trust.  1266–1308 Duns Scotus  c. 1270 – Witelo wrote Perspectiva, a work on optics containing speculations on psychology, nearly discovering the subconscious.  1295 Lanfranc writes Science of Cirurgie Fourteenth century  1317–40 – William of Ockham, an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher and theologian, is commonly known for Occam's razor, the methodological principle that 510 the simplest explanation is to be preferred. He also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology, advancing his thoughts about intuitive and abstracted knowledge.  1347–50 – The Black Death devastated Europe.  c. 1375 – English authorities regarded mental illness as demonic possession, treating it with exorcism and torture. Fifteenth century  c. 1400 – Renaissance Humanism caused a reawakening of ancient knowledge of science and medicine.  1433–1499 Marsilio Ficino was a renowned figure of the Italian Renaissance, a Neoplatonist humanist, a translator of Greek philosophical writing, and the most influential exponent of Platonism in Italy in the fifteenth century.  c. 1450 – The pendulum in Europe swings, bringing witch mania, causing thousands of women to be executed for witchcraft until the late 17th century. Sixteenth century  1590 – Scholastic philosopher Rudolph Goclenius coined the term "psychology"; though usually regarded as the origin of the term, there is evidence that it was used at least six decades earlier by Marko Marulić. Seventeenth century  c. 1600–1625 – Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, lawyer, jurist, author, and pioneer of the scientific method. His writings on psychological topics included the nature of knowledge and memory.  1650 – René Descartes died, leaving Treatise of the World, containing his dualistic theory of reality, mind vs. matter.  1672 – Thomas Willis published the anatomical treatise De Anima Brutorum, describing psychology in terms of brain function. 511  1677 – Baruch Spinoza died, leaving Ethics, Demonstrated in Geometrical Order, Pt. 2 focusing on the human mind and body, disputing Descartes and arguing that they are one, and Pt. 3 attempting to show that moral concepts such as good and evil, virtue, and perfection have a basis in human psychology.  1689 – John Locke published An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which claims that the human mind is a Tabula Rasa at birth. Eighteenth century  1701 – Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz published the Law of Continuity, which he applied to psychology, becoming the first to postulate an unconscious mind; he also introduced the concept of threshold.  1710 – George Berkeley published Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, which claims that the outside world is composed solely of ideas.  1732 – Christian Wolff published Psychologia Empirica, followed in 1734 by Psychologia Rationalis, popularizing the term "psychology".  1739 – David Hume published A Treatise of Human Nature, claiming that all contents of mind are solely built from sense experiences.  1781 – Immanuel Kant published Critique of Pure Reason, rejecting Hume's extreme empiricism and proposing that there is more to knowledge than bare sense experience, distinguishing between "a posteriori" and "a priori" knowledge, the former being derived from perception, hence occurring after perception, and the latter being a property of thought, independent of experience and existing before experience.  1783 – Ferdinand Ueberwasser designated himself Professor of Empirical Psychology and Logic at the Old University of Münster; four years later, he published the comprehensive textbook Instructions for the regular study of empirical psychology for candidates of philosophy at the University of Münster which complemented his lectures on scientific psychology.  1798 – Immanuel Kant proposed the first dimensional model of consistent individual differences by mapping the four Hippocrates' temperament types into dimensions of 512 emotionality and energetic arousal. These two dimensions later became an essential part of all temperament and personality models. Nineteenth century 1800s  c. 1800 – Franz Joseph Gall developed cranioscopy, the measurement of the skull to determine psychological characteristics, which was later renamed phrenology; it is now discredited.  1807 – Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel published Phenomenology of Spirit (Mind), which describes his thesis-antithesis-synthesis dialectical method, according to which knowledge pushes forwards to greater certainty, and ultimately towards knowledge of the noumenal world.  1808 – Johann Christian Reil coined the term "psychiatry". 1810s  1812 – Benjamin Rush became one of the earliest advocates of humane treatment for the mentally ill with the publication of Medical Inquiries and Observations Upon Diseases of the Mind, the first American textbook on psychiatry. 1820s  1829 – John Stuart Mill's father James Mill published Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (2 vols.). 1840s  1840 – Frederick Augustus Rauch (1806–1841) published Psychology, or a View of the Human Soul, including Anthropology  1843 – Forbes Benignus Winslow (1810–1874) published The Plea of Insanity in Criminal Cases, helping establish the plea of insanity in criminal cases in Britain. 513  1844 – Søren Kierkegaard The Concept of Anxiety, the first exposition on anxiety.  1848 – Vermont railroad worker Phineas Gage had a 3-foot rod driven through his brain and jaw in an explosives accident, permanently changing his personality, revolutionizing scientific opinion about brain functions being localizable.  1849 – Søren Kierkegaard published The Sickness Unto Death. 1850s  1852 – Hermann Lotze published Medical Psychology or Physiology of the Soul.  1856 – Hermann Lotze began publishing his 3-volume magnum opus Mikrokosmos (1856–64), arguing that natural laws of inanimate objects apply to human minds and bodies but have the function of enabling us to aim for the values set by the deity, thus making room for aesthetics.  1859 – Pierre Briquet published Traite Clinique et Therapeutique de L'Hysterie. 1860s  1860s – Franciscus Donders first used human reaction time to infer differences in cognitive processing.  1860 – Gustav Theodor Fechner published Elements of Psychophysics, founding the subject of psychophysics.  1861 – Paul Broca discovered an area in the left cerebral hemisphere that is important for speech production, now known as Broca's area, founding neuropsychology.  1869 – Francis Galton published Hereditary Genius, arguing for eugenics. He went on to found psychometrics, differential psychology, and the lexical hypothesis of personality. 1870s  1872 – Douglas Spalding published his discovery of psychological imprinting. 514  1874 – Wilhelm Wundt published Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology), the first textbook of experimental psychology.  1878 – G. Stanley Hall was awarded the first PhD on a psychological topic from Harvard (in philosophy).  1879 – Wilhelm Wundt opened the first experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany. 1880s  1882 – The Society for Psychical Research was founded in England.  1883 – G. Stanley Hall opened the first American experimental psychology research laboratory at Johns Hopkins University.  1883 – Emil Kraepelin published Compendium der Psychiatrie.  1884 – Ivan Pavlov began studying the digestive secretion of animals.  1884 – Tourette's Syndrome was first described.  1885 – Hermann Ebbinghaus published Über das Gedächtnis (On Memory), a groundbreaking work based on self-experiments, first describing the learning curve, forgetting curve, and spacing effect.  1886 – John Dewey published the first American textbook on psychology, titled Psychology.  1886 – Vladimir Bekhterev established the first laboratory of experimental psychology in Russia at Kazan University.  1886 – Sigmund Freud began private practice in Vienna.  1887 – Georg Elias Müller opened the 2nd German experimental psychology research laboratory in Göttingen.  1887 – George Trumbull Ladd (Yale) published Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American textbook to include a substantial amount of information on the new experimental form of the discipline. 515  1887 – James McKeen Cattell founded an experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, the 3rd in the United States.  1887 – G. Stanley Hall founded the American Journal of Psychology with a $500 contribution supplied by Robert Pearsall Smith of the American Society for Psychical Research.  1888 – William Lowe Bryan founded the United States' 4th experimental psychology laboratory at Indiana University.  1888 – Joseph Jastrow founded the United States' 5th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Wisconsin–Madison.  1888 – G. Stanley Hall left Johns Hopkins for the presidency of the newly founded Clark University in Worcester, Mass.  1889 – James Mark Baldwin published the first volume of his Handbook of Psychology, titled "Sense and Intellect".  1889 – Edmund Sanford, a former student of G. Stanley Hall founded the United States' 6th experimental psychology laboratory at Clark University.  1889 – Edward Cowles founded the United States' 7th experimental psychology laboratory at the McLean Asylum in Waverley, Mass.  1889 – Harry Kirke Wolfe founded the United States' 8th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Nebraska. 1890s  1890 – Christian von Ehrenfels published On the Qualities of Form, founding Gestalt psychology.  1890 – William James published The Principles of Psychology.  1890 – James Hayden Tufts founded the United States' 9th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Michigan.  1890 – G. T. W. Patrick founded the United States' 10th experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Iowa. 516  1890 – James McKeen Cattell left Pennsylvania for Columbia University where he founded the United States' 11th experimental psychology laboratory.  1890 – James Mark Baldwin founded the first permanent experimental psychology laboratory in the British Empire at the University of Toronto.  1891 – Frank Angell founded the United States' 12th experimental psychology laboratory at the Cornell University.  1891 – Edvard Westermarck described the Westermarck effect, where people raised early in life in close domestic proximity later become desensitized to close sexual attraction, raising theories about the incest taboo.  1892 – G. Stanley Hall et al. founded the American Psychological Association (APA).  1892 – Edward Bradford Titchener took a professorship at Cornell University, replacing Frank Angell who left for Stanford University.  1892 – Edward Wheeler Scripture founded the experimental psychology laboratory at Yale University, the 19th in United States.  1892–1893 – Charles A. Strong opened the experimental psychology laboratory at the University of Chicago, the 20th in the United States, at which James Rowland Angell conducted the first experiments of functionalism in 1896.  1894 – Margaret Floy Washburn was the first woman to be granted a PhD in Psychology after she studied under E. B. Titchener at Cornell University.  1894 – James McKeen Cattell and James Mark Baldwin founded the Psychological Review to compete with Hall's American Journal of Psychology.  1895 – Gustave Le Bon published The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind.  1896 – John Dewey published the paper The Reflex Arc Concept in Psychology, founding functionalism.  1896 – The first psychological clinic was opened at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer; although often celebrated as marking the birth of clinical psychology, it was focused primarily on educational matters.  1896 – Edward B. Titchener, student of Wilhelm Wundt and originator of the terms "structuralism" and "functionalism" published An Outline of Psychology. 517  1897 – Havelock Ellis published Sexual Inversion.  1898 – Boris Sidis published The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society.  1899 – On 4 November Sigmund Freud published The Interpretation of Dreams (Die Traumdeutung), marking the beginning of psychoanalysis, which attempts to deal with the Oedipal complex. Twentieth century 1900s  1901 – Sigmund Freud published The Psychopathology of Everyday Life.  1903 – John B. Watson graduated from the University of Chicago; his dissertation on rat behavior has been described as a "classic of developmental psychobiology" by historian of psychology Donald Dewsbury.  1903 – Helen Thompson Woolley published her doctoral dissertation, The Mental Traits of Sex, for which she had conducted the first experimental test of sex differences.  1904 - Ivan Pavlov won the Nobel Prize for his studies of conditioning. This was the first Prize given for research adopted by psychologists.  1904 – Charles Spearman published the article General Intelligence in the American Journal of Psychology, introducing the g factor theory of intelligence.  1905 – Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon created the Binet-Simon scale to identify students needing extra help, marking the beginning of standardized psychological testing.  1905 – Edward Thorndike published the law of effect.  1905 – Sigmund Freud published Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality.  1906 – The Journal of Abnormal Psychology was founded by Morton Prince, for which Boris Sidis was an associate editor and significant contributor.  1908 – Sigmund Freud published the paper On the Sexual Theories of Children, introducing the concept of penis envy; he also published the paper 'Civilized' Sexual Morality and Modern Nervous Illness. 518  1908 – Wilfred Trotter published the first paper explaining the herd instinct.  1909 – Sigmund Freud lectured at Clark University, winning over the U.S. establishment. 1910s  1910 – Sigmund Freud founded the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA), with Carl Jung as the first president, and Otto Rank as the first secretary.  1910 – Grace Helen Kent and J. Rosanoff published the Kent-Rosanoff Free Association Test  1910 – Boris Sidis opened the private Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, New Hampshire for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods.  1911 – Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.  1911 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) was founded.  1911 – William McDougall, founder of Hormic Psychology published Body and Mind: A History and Defence of Animism, claiming that there is an animating principle in Nature and that the mind guides evolution.  1912 – Max Wertheimer published Experimental Studies of the Perception of Movement, helping found Gestalt Psychology  1913 – Carl Jung developed his own theories, which became known as Analytical Psychology.  1913 – Jacob L. Moreno pioneered group psychotherapy methods in Vienna, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction; they later became known as psychodrama and sociometry.  1913 – John B. Watson published Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, sometimes known as "The Behaviorist Manifesto".  1913 – Hugo Münsterberg published Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, considered today as the first book on Industrial and Organizational Psychology. 519  1914 – Boris Sidis published The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology, where he provided the scientific foundation for the field of psychology, and detailed his theory of the moment consciousness.  1917 – Sigmund Freud published Introduction to Psychoanalysis. 1920s  1920 – John B. Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the Little Albert experiment, using classical conditioning to make a young boy afraid of white rats.  1921 – Sigmund Freud published Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego.  1921 – Jacob L. Moreno conducted the first large scale public psychodrama session at the Komedienhaus in Vienna; he moved to New York in 1925.  1921 – Melanie Klein began to develop her technique of analyzing children.  1922 – Karen Horney began publishing a series of 14 papers (last in 1937) questioning Freud's theories on women, founding feminist psychology.  1922 – Boris Sidis published Nervous Ills: Their Cause and a Cure, a popularization of his work concerning the subconscious and the treatment of psychopathic disease.  1923 – Sigmund Freud published The Ego and the Id.  1924 – Jacob Robert Kantor founded interbehavioral psychology based on John Dewey's psychology and Albert Einstein's relativity theory.  1924 – Otto Rank published The Trauma of Birth, coining the term "pre-Oedipal". Freud had originally praised him for such, but changed his stance and as such caused their falling out.  1926 – Otto Rank gave the lecture "The Genesis of the Object Relation", founding object relations theory.  1927 – Ivan Pavlov published Conditioned Reflexes, containing his theory of classical conditioning.  1928 – Jean Piaget published Judgment and Reasoning in the Child.  1928 – [Shoma Morita] published Morita Therapy: The True Nature of Shinkeishitsu (Anxiety-based Disorders), which contains his peripheral theory of consciousness, while 520 noting Freud's theory of the unconscious. (Translation by A. Kondo, Edited by P. LeVine in 1998, SUNY Press)  1929 – Edwin Boring published A History of Experimental Psychology, pioneering the history of psychology.  1929 – Lev Vygotsky founded cultural-historical psychology. 1930s  1930 – Edwin Boring discussed the Boring figure.  1931 – Gordon Allport et al. published the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values, which defines six major value types.  1932 – Journal of Personality founded as first personality psychology research periodical originally titled Character and Personality.  1933 – Pyotr Gannushkin published Manifestations of Psychopathies.  1933 – Clark L. Hull published Hypnosis and Suggestibility, proving that hypnosis is not sleep and founding the modern study of hypnosis.  1933 – Wilhelm Reich published Character Analysis and The Mass Psychology of Fascism.  1934 – Lev Vygotsky published Thought and Language (Thinking and Speech).  1934 – Ruth Winifred Howard became the first African American woman to earn a PhD in psychology.  1935 – John Ridley Stroop developed a color-word task to demonstrate the interference of attention, the Stroop effect  1935 – Helen Flanders Dunbar published Emotions and Bodily Changes: A Survey of Literature on Psychosomatic Interrelationships; in 1942 she founded the American Psychosomatic Society (American Society for Research in Psychosomatic Problems), and was the first editor of the society's journal Psychosomatic Medicine: Experimental and Clinical Studies, founded in 1939.  1935 – Henry Murray and Christiana Morgan of Harvard University published the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). 521  1935 – Theodore Newcomb began the Bennington College Study, which ended in 1939, documenting liberalization of women students' political beliefs, along with the effects of proximity on acquaintance and attraction.  1936 – Kurt Lewin published Principles of Topological Psychology, containing Lewin's Equation B = f (P, E), meaning that behavior is a function of a person in their environment.  1936 – Wilhelm Reich published The Sexual Revolution.  1936 – Kenneth Spence published an analysis of discrimination learning in terms of gradients of excitation and inhibition, showing that mathematical deductions from a quantitative theory could generate interesting and empirically testable predictions.  1936 – The Psychometric Society was founded by Louis Leon Thurstone, who proposed dividing general intelligence into seven primary mental abilities (PMAs).  1938 – B.F. Skinner published his first major work The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis, introducing behavior analysis.  1939 – Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley published a classic report in the journal Nature of the first recording of an action potential.  1939 – Neal E. Miller et al. published the frustration-aggression theory, which claims that aggression is the result of frustration of efforts to attain a goal.  1939 – David Wechsler developed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale.  1939 – On 1 September World War II began with the German invasion of Poland; on 20 September Adolf Hitler signed the Euthanasia Decree, written by psychologist Max de Crinis, resulting in the Aktion T4 euthanasia program; on 23 September Sigmund Freud committed physician-assisted suicide in London on the Jewish Day of Atonement; on 31 October his archrival Otto Rank died of a kidney infection in New York City after uttering the word "comical"; Wilhelm Reich fled to New York, coining the word orgone and building "orgone accumulators", which got him in trouble with the psychiatric establishment and the federal government. 1940s 522  1940 – Edwin Boring discussed the moon illusion.  1941 – Erich Fromm published Escape from Freedom, founding political psychology.  1941 – B.F. Skinner and William Kaye Estes introduced the conditioned emotional response (CER)/conditioned fear response (CFR) paradigm via electric shocks given to rats.  1942 – Ludwig Binswanger founded existential therapy.  1942 – Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy, suggesting that respect and a nonjudgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.  1943 – J. P. Guilford developed the Stanine (Standard Nine) test for the U.S. Air Force to evaluate pilots.  1943 – Clark L. Hull published Principles of Behavior, establishing animal-based learning and conditioning as the dominant learning theory.  1943 – Leo Kanner published Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact, the first systematic description of autistic children.  1943 – Abraham Maslow published the paper A Theory of Human Motivation, describing Maslow's hierarchy of needs.  1944 – Zach Andrew and Cameron Peter published Myer's Psychology Second Edition where they revolutionized the approach of learned Psychology  1945 – The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.  1946 – Kurt Lewin founded action research.  1946 – Stanley Smith Stevens published his levels of measurement theory.  1947 – Jerome Bruner published Value and Need as Organizing Factors in Perception, founding New Look Psychology, which challenges psychologists to study not just an organism's response to a stimulus but also its internal interpretation.  1947 – Kurt Lewin coined the term "group dynamics".  1947 Nikolai Bernstein summarized his research on the measurement of actions using his original devices that became a beginning of a new discipline of kinesiology 523  1948 – Alfred Kinsey of Indiana University published Sexual Behavior in the Human Male.  1949 – The Boulder Conference outlined the scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology.  1949 – Donald Hebb published The Organization of Behavior: A Neuropsychological Theory, in which he provided a detailed, testable theory of how the brain could support cognitive processes, revolutionizing neuropsychology and making McGill University a center of research.  1949 – David Wechsler published the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). 1950s  1950 – Karen Horney summarized her ideas in her magnum opus Neurosis and Human Growth: The Struggle Toward Self-Realization.  1950 – Erik Erikson published Childhood and Society, in which he introduced his theory on the stages of psycho-social development and the concept of an identity crisis.  1950 – Rollo May published The Meaning of Anxiety.  1951 – Solomon Asch published the Asch conformity experiments, demonstrating the power of conformity in groups.  1951 – Morton Deutsch published Interracial Housing: A Psychological Evaluation of a Social Experiment, producing scientific evidence of the bad effects of segregated housing, helping to end it in the U.S.  1951 – Carl Rogers published his magnum opus Client-Centered Therapy.  1951 – Lee Cronbach published his measure of reliability, now known as Cronbach's alpha.  1952 – The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification; it was revised in 1968, 1980/7, 1994, 2000 and 2013.  1952 – Hans Eysenck started a debate on psychotherapy with his critical review, claiming that psychotherapy had no documented effect, and psychoanalysis had negative effects. 524  1953 – Alfred Kinsey published Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.  1953 – Nathaniel Kleitman of the U. of Chicago discovered rapid eye movement sleep (REM), founding modern sleep research.  1953 – David McClelland proposed need theory.  1953 – B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature.  1953 – The Code of Ethics for Psychologists was developed by the American Psychological Association (APA).  1953 – Harry Stack Sullivan published The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, which holds that an individual's personality is formed by relationships.  1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found humanistic psychology, later developing Maslow's hierarchy of needs.  1954 – Paul E. Meehl published a paper claiming that mechanical (formal algorithmic) methods of data combination outperform clinical (subjective informal) methods when used to arrive at a prediction of behavior.  1954 – James Olds and Peter Milner of McGill University discovered the brain reward system, involving the brain's pleasure center.  1954 – Julian Rotter published Social Learning and Clinical Psychology, founding social learning theory.  1954 – Herman Witkin published Personality Through Perception, which claims that personality can be revealed through differences in how people perceive their environment; he went on to develop the Rod and Frame Test (RFT).  1955 – Lee Cronbach published Construct Validity in Psychological Tests, popularizing the concept of construct validity.  1955 – J. P. Guilford developed the Structure of Intellect (SOI) theory, which divides human intelligence into 150 abilities along three dimensions, operations, content, and products; it is discredited by the 1990s.  1955 – George Kelly founded personal construct psychology. 525  1956 – George Armitage Miller published the paper The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two, in which he showed that there is a limit on the amount of information that can be memorized at one time.  1956 – Rollo May published Existence, promoting existential psychology.  1957 – Leon Festinger published his theory of cognitive dissonance.  1957 – Stanley Smith Stevens published Stevens' power law.  1957 – Eric Berne developed Transactional analysis (TA), in which psychiatry patients can be treated for emotional distresses by analyzing and altering their social transactions.  1958 – John Cohen published Humanistic Psychology, the first book on the subject.  1958 – Harry Harlow gave the speech The Nature of Love, summarizing his isolation studies on infant monkeys and rejecting behavioristic and psychoanalytic theories of attachment.  1958 – Joseph Wolpe published his theory of reciprocal inhibition, leading to his theory of systematic desensitization for anxieties and phobias.  1959 – Viktor Frankl published the first English edition of Man's Search for Meaning [with a preface by Gordon Allport], which provided an existential account of his Holocaust experience and an overview of his system of existential analysis called Logotherapy.  1959 – Noam Chomsky published his review of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, an event seen as by many as the start of the cognitive revolution.  1959 – George Mandler and William Kessen published The Language of Psychology.  1959 – Lawrence Kohlberg wrote his doctoral dissertation, outlining Kohlberg's stages of moral development. 1960s  1960 – John L. Fuller and W. Robert Thompson published the seminal text Behavior Genetics.  1960 – Thomas Szasz inaugurated the anti-psychiatry movement with the publication of his book, The Myth of Mental Illness. 526  1961 – Albert Bandura published the Bobo doll experiment, a study of behavioral patterns of aggression.  1961 – Neal E. Miller proposed the use of biofeedback to control involuntary functions.  1962 – Wilfred Bion presented his unconventional theory of thinking.  1962 – Albert Ellis published Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy, describing the theoretical foundations of his therapeutic system known as Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy.  1962 – George Armitage Miller published Psychology, the Science of Mental Life, rejecting the idea that psychology should study only behavior.  1962 – Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, presenting his ideas of self-actualization and the hierarchy of human needs.  1962 – Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed the two-factor theory of emotion, which considers emotion to be a function of both cognitive factors and physiological arousal; "People search the immediate environment for emotionally relevant cues to label and interpret unexplained physiological arousal."  1962 – Silvan Tomkins published volume one (of two) of Affect Imagery Consciousness, presenting his affect theory  1963 – Stanley Milgram published his study of obedience to authority, now known as the Milgram experiment.  1964 – Jean M. Mandler and George Mandler published Thinking: From Association to Gestalt.  1964 – Virginia Satir published Conjoint Family Therapy, the first of several books on family therapy, causing her to become known as the "Mother of Family Therapy"  1965 – Anna Freud published Normality and Pathology in Childhood: Assessments of Development, presenting the concept of developmental lines.  1965 – William Glasser published Reality Therapy, describing his psycho-therapeutic model and introducing his concept of control theory [later renamed to Choice Theory]. 527  1965 – Donald Winnicott published The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment, which became a main text in clinical psychodynamic developmental psychology.  1966 – Nancy Bayley became the first woman to receive the APA Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award for her contribution in developmental psychology.  1966 – Konrad Lorenz published On Aggression, which discusses his hydraulic model of instinctive pressures.  1966 – Masters and Johnson published Human Sexual Response.  1966 – Julian Rotter published a paper proposing the Internal-External Locus of Control Scale (I-E Scale).  1967 – Aaron Beck published a psychological model of clinical depression, suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.  1967 – Edward E. Jones and Victor Harris published a paper defining fundamental attribution error, underestimating the effect of the situation in explaining social behavior.  1967 – Ulric Neisser founded cognitive psychology.  1968 – George Cotzias developed the L-Dopa treatment for Parkinson's disease.  1968 – Mary Main published her hypothesis of a fourth attachment style in children, the insecure disorganized attachment style.  1968 – Walter Mischel published the paper "Personality and Assessment", criticizing Gordon Allport's works on trait assessment with the observation that a patient's behavior is not consistent across diverse situations but dependent on situational cues.  1968 – DSM-II was published by the American Psychiatric Association.  1968 – The first Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D.) professional degree program in Clinical Psychology was established in the Department of Psychology at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign.  1969 – The California School of Professional Psychology was established as the first freestanding school of professional psychology.  1969 – The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology was founded by Abraham Maslow, Stanislav Grof, and Anthony Sutich. 528  1969 – John Bowlby published his attachment theory in the classic book Attachment and Loss (vol. 1 of 3).  1969 – Harry Harlow published his experiment on affection development in rhesus monkeys.  1969 – Joseph Wolpe published the Subjective Units of Distress (Disturbance) Scale (SUDS).  1969 – Elisabeth Kübler-Ross published On Death and Dying, presenting the KüblerRoss model, commonly referred to as the five stages of grief.  1969 – The Association for Women in Psychology (AWP) was founded, with Joann Evansgardner as the first (temporary) president. 1970s  1970 – At an APA Town Hall Meeting, with the support of the Association for Women in Psychology, Phyllis Chesler and Nancy Henley prepared a statement on APA's obligations to women and demanded one million dollars in reparation for the damage psychology had perpetrated against women's minds and bodies.  1970 – APA Division 29 gives its first Distinguished Professional Award in Psychology and Psychotherapy to Eugene Gendlin.  1970 – Masters and Johnson published Human Sexual Inadequacy.  1971 – The Stanford prison experiment, conducted by Philip Zimbardo et al. at Stanford University, studied the human response to captivity; the experiment quickly got out of hand and was ended early.  1971 – Martin Shubik performed the dollar auction, illustrating irrational choices.  1971 – In Nov. John O'Keefe and Jonathan O. Dostrovsky announced their discovery of place cells in the hippocampus.  1971 – The Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information at the University of Trier was founded to publish the PSYNDEX database of references to psychology in the Germanspeaking world. 529  1972 – The Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study commenced, a longitudinal study began, with 96% retention rate as of 2006, unprecedented for a longitudinal study, comparing to 20–40% dropout rates for other studies.  1972 – Robert E. Ornstein published The Psychology of Consciousness, about the use of biofeedback et al. to shift mood and awareness.  1972 – Endel Tulving first made the distinction between episodic and semantic memory.  1973 – Ernest Becker published The Denial of Death, siding with Otto Rank against Sigmund Freud, claiming that knowledge of one's mortality not sexuality is the basis of character.  1973 – Morton Deutsch published The Resolution of Conflict.  1973 – Vygotsky Circle neuropsychologist Alexander Luria published The Working Brain, a detailed description with great emphasis on rehabilitation of damage.  1973 – The Vail Conference of Graduate Educators in Psychology endorsed the scholarpractitioner training model, and approved the Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D) degree.  1973 – Division 35, later the Society for the Psychology of Women of the APA, was formed, with Elizabeth Douvan as the first president.  1973 – The Committee on Women in Psychology of the APA was formed, with Martha Mednick as its first chair.  1973 – The American Psychiatric Association declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder.  1973 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association was officially founded to advocate to the APA on LGBT mental health issues; in 1985 it changed its name to the Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists.  1973 – Nancy Friday published My Secret Garden: Women’s Sexual Fantasies  1973 – Timothy Leary published Neurologic, describing the eight-circuit model of consciousness.  1974 – Sandra Bem created the Bem Sex-Role Inventory.  1974 – Robert Hinde published Biological Bases of Human Social Behavior, a main text in etological-oriented developmental psychology. 530  1974 – Arnold Sameroff published Reproductive Risk and the Continuum of Caretaking Causality, introducing the transactional model of psychology, which became influential.  1974 – Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch of the Univ. of York proposed Baddeley's model of working memory.  1974 – Elizabeth Loftus began publishing papers on the malleability of human memory, the misinformation effect, and false memory syndrome and its relation to recovered memory therapy.  1974 – The APA Task Force on Sex Bias and Sex-Role Stereotyping in Psychotherapeutic Practice was appointed.  1975 – Georgia Babladelis became the first editor of the Psychology of Women Quarterly.  1975 – George Mandler published Mind and Emotion.  1975 – Mary Wright became the first chair of the new Task Force on the Status of Women in Canadian Psychology.  1975 – Robert Zajonc published the confluence model, showing how birth order and family size affect IQ.  1975 – The first APA-sponsored Psychology of Women Conference was held.  1975 – The journal Sex Roles was founded.  1975 – The first review article on the psychology of women appeared in the women's studies journal Signs, by Mary Parlee.  1975 – The first article on the psychology of women was published in the Annual Review of Psychology.  1975 – The council of representatives of the American Psychological Association (APA) declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder.  1976 – Stanislav Grof founded the International Transpersonal Association to promote his transpersonal psychology.  1976 – Julian Jaynes published The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, which coins the term bicameral mind for the brain of humans who lived 531 before about 1,000 B.C.E., whose right side "speaks" in the name of a chieftain or god, and whose left side "listens" and takes orders.  1976 – Michael Posner published Chronometric Explorations of Mind, using the subtractive method of Franciscus Donders to study attention and memory.  1976 – The Psychology of Women Quarterly was founded.  1977 – Ernest Hilgard proposed the divided consciousness theory of hypnosis.  1977 – Alexander Thomas published Temperament and Development, a longitudinal study on the importance of temperament for the development of personality and behavioral problems.  1977 – Albert Bandura published the book Social Learning Theory and an article on the concept of self-efficacy, A Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change.  1977 – Susan Folstein and Michael Rutter published a study of 21 British twins in Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry that reveals a high genetic component in autism.  1977 – Robert Plomin et al. proposed three major ways in which genes and environments act together to shape human behavior, coining the terms passive, active, and evocative gene-environment correlation.  1977 – Andrey Lichko published Psychopathies and Accentuations of Character of Teenagers.  1978 – Child psychologist Mary Ainsworth published her book Patterns of Attachment about her work on attachment theory and the Strange Situation Experiment (Protocol).  1978 – Paul Ekman published the Facial Action Coding System.  1978 – David Premack published the book Does the Chimpanzee Have a Theory of Mind?, about his research on mental abilities of monkeys, introducing the term theory of mind.  1978 – The term cognitive neuroscience was coined by Michael Gazzaniga and George Armitage Miller for the effort to understand how the brain represents mental events.  1978 – John O'Keefe and Lynn Nadel published The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map. 532  1978 – E.O. Wilson published On Human Nature, considered the first landmark text to deal with what would become evolutionary psychology.  1978 – The first Canadian Institute on Women and Psychology pre-convention conference was hosted at the Canadian Psychological Association by IGWAP (Interest Group on Women and Psychology).  1978 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association, (now known as the Association of Gay and Lesbian Psychiatrists) successfully petitioned the American Psychiatric Association (APA) to create a task force on lesbian and gay issues; it was elevated to a full standing committee in the APA in 1988.  1979 – Alice Miller published The Drama of the Gifted Child, the first of a series of books criticizing Freud and Jung for blaming the child for the sexual abuse of the parents, which she calls the "poisonous pedagogies".  1979 – Urie Bronfenbrenner published The Ecology of Human Development, founding ecological systems theory. 1980s  1980 – Transgender people were officially classified by the American Psychiatric Association as having "gender identity disorder."  1980 – DSM-III was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).  1980 – George Mandler published Recognizing: The Judgment of Previous Occurrence, claiming a dual process basis of recognition, prior occurrence and identification.  1980 – Robert Zajonc published the paper "Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences", arguing that affective and cognitive systems are largely independent, and that affect is more powerful and important, reviving the study of emotion and affective processes. 533  1981 – Alan P. Bell, Martin S. Weinberg, and Sue Kiefer Hammersmith's Sexual Preference is published. The work later becomes one of the most frequently cited retrospective studies relating to sexual orientation.  1982 – Carol Gilligan published In a Different Voice, a work on feminist psychology.  1982 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) was recognized as a representative in the APA assembly, speaking directly on matters of special concern to lesbian and gay members.  1983 – Howard Gardner published Frames of Mind, introducing his theory of multiple intelligences.  1983 – The Caucus of Gay, Lesbian, and Bisexual Members of the American Psychiatric Association (APA) successfully petitioned the APA to create a task force on psychiatric aspects of AIDS, which ultimately led to the 1984 publication of two important APA volumes Innovations in Psychotherapy with Homosexuals and Psychiatric Implications of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.  1983 – W. David Pierce et al. published a paper about activity-based anorexia.  1984 – Jerome Kagan published The Nature of the Child, a biological and socially oriented description of the role of temperament in human development.  1984 – Peter Saville published the OPQ Pentagon questionnaire, a psychological personality inventory measuring the five factor model.  1984 – Florence Denmark, Carolyn R. Payton, and Laurie Eyde received the first American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Women in Psychology Leadership Awards.  1985 – Daniel Stern published The Interpersonal World of the Infant, proposing an extensive mental life in early infancy.  1985 – Robert Sternberg proposed his triarchic theory of intelligence  1985 – Reuben Baron and David A. Kenny published the article The ModeratorMediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology proposing a distinction of moderating in mediating variables in psychological research. 534  1985 – Simon Baron-Cohen published Does the Autistic Child Have a 'Theory of Mind'? with Uta Frith and Alan Leslie, proposing that children with autism show social and communication difficulties as a result of a delay in the development of a theory of mind.  1985 – Costa & McRae published the NEO PI_R Five-Factor Personality Inventory, a 240-question measure of the five factor model  1986 – Albert Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory.  1986 – David Rumelhart and James McClelland published Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition.  1987 – Erik Erikson published The Life Cycle Completed, expanding on Erikson's stages of psychosocial development.  1987 – Roger Shepard published the universal law of generalization for psychological science.  1987 – The diagnostic category of "ego-dystonic homosexuality" was removed from the American Psychiatric Association's DSM with the publication of the DSM-III-R, though it still potentially remains in the DSM-IV under the category of "sexual disorder not otherwise specified" including "persistent and marked distress about one’s sexual orientation".  1988 – Michael M. Merzenich et al. showed that sensory and motor maps in the cortex can be modified with experience, a process called neural plasticity.  1988 – Claude Steele proposed the theory of self-affirmation.  1989 – Psychophysiologist Vladimir Rusalov published first activity-specific model of temperament 1990s  1990 – On 17 May the World Health Organization (WHO) declassified homosexuality as a mental disorder, launching the International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia. 535  1990 – Leonard Berkowitz published the cognitive neoassociation model of aggressive behavior to cover the cases missed by the frustration-aggression hypothesis.  1991 – Steven Pinker proposed his theory on how children acquire language in Science, later popularized in the book The Language Instinct.  1991 – The first issue of Feminism & Psychology was published.  1991- The American Psychoanalytic Association (APA) passed a resolution opposing "public or private discrimination" against homosexuals. It stopped short, however, of agreeing to open its training institutes to these individuals.  1992 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APA) extended the provisions of its 1991 resolution (see above) to training candidates at its affiliated institutes.  1992 – Jaak Panksepp coined the term affective neuroscience for the name of the field that studies neural mechanisms of emotion, and in 1998 published the book Affective Neuroscience – The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions  1992 – Sandra Scarr published Developmental Theories of the 1990s, proposing that genes control experiences, and search and create environments.  1992 – Joseph LeDoux summarized and published his research on brain mechanisms of emotion and emotional learning.  1992 – The American Psychological Association (APA) selected behavioral genetics as one of two themes that best represented the past, present, and future of psychology.  1994 – DSM-IV was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA).  1994 – Antonio Damasio published Descartes' Error, presenting the somatic marker hypothesis (SMH) by which emotional processes can guide (or bias) behavior, particularly decision-making.  1994 – Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray published The Bell Curve.  1994 – Michael Posner and Marcus Raichle published Images of the Mind, using positron emission tomography (PET) to localize brain cognitive functions.  1994 – Esther Thelen and Linda B. Smith published A Dynamic Systems Approach to the Development of Cognition and Action, a book on the use of developmental models based on dynamic systems. 536  1995 – Simon Baron-Cohen coined the term mental blindness to reflect the inability of children with autism to properly represent the mental states of others.  1996 – Giacomo Rizzolatti published his discovery of mirror neurons.  1996 – Amos Tversky defined ambiguity aversion, the idea that people do not like ambiguous choices, relating it to comparative ignorance.  1997 – The American Psychoanalytic Association (APsaA) became the first U.S. national mental health organization to support same-sex marriage.  1998 – Martin Seligman established Positive Psychology as his main theme when he became President of the American Psychological Association (APA).  1999 – George Botterill published The Philosophy of Psychology, about how modern cognitive science challenges our common sense self-image. Twenty-first century 2000s  2000 – Alan Baddeley updated his model of working memory from 1974 to include the episodic buffer as a third slave system alongside the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad  2000 – Max Velmans published Understanding Consciousness, arguing for reflexive monism.  2002 – Avshalom Caspi et al. presented a study that was the first to provide epidemiological evidence that a specific genotype moderates children's sensitivity to environmental insults.  2002 – Steven Pinker published The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature, arguing against tabula rasa models of the social sciences.  2002 – Daniel Kahneman won Nobel Prize  2007 – George Mandler published A History of Modern Experimental Psychology 2010s 537  2010 – The draft of DSM-5 by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) was distributed for comment and critique.  2010 – Simon LeVay published Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why, which in 2012 received the Bullough Book Award for the most distinguished book written for the professional sexological community published in a given year.  2012 – In 2009 America's professional association of endocrinologists established best practices for transgender children that included prescribing puberty-suppressing drugs to preteens followed by hormone therapy beginning at about age 16, and in 2012 the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry echoed these recommendations.  2012 – The American Psychiatric Association issued official position statements supporting the care and civil rights of transgender and gender non-conforming individuals.  2013 – On 2 April U.S. President Barack Obama announced the 10-year BRAIN Initiative to map the activity of every neuron in the human brain.  2013 – DSM-5 was published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Among other things, it eliminated the term "gender identity disorder," which was considered stigmatizing, instead referring to "gender dysphoria," which focuses attention only on those who feel distressed by their gender identity.  2014 – Stanislas Dehaene, Giacomo Rizzolatti, and Trevor Robbins, were awarded the Brain Prize for their research on higher brain mechanisms underpinning literacy, numeracy, motivated behaviour, social cognition, and their disorders.  2014 – Brenda Milner, Marcus Raichle, and John O'Keefe received the Kavli Prize in Neuroscience for the discovery of specialized brain networks for memory and cognition  2014 – John O'Keefe shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser for their discoveries of cells that constitute a positioning system in the brain.  2015 – The journal Psychology Today announced that it will no longer accept ads for gay conversion therapy, and is deleting medical practitioners who list such therapy in their professional profiles.° 538  7 August 2015 – The American Psychological Association barred psychologists from participating in national security interrogations at sites violating international law.  27 August 2015 – A team led by Brian Nosek of the University of Virginia published an article in Science that revealed that only 39 of 100 studies published in major psychology journals could be replicated. Genetics Timeline Early timeline  1856–1863: Mendel studied the inheritance of traits between generations based on experiments involving garden pea plants. He deduced that there is a certain tangible essence that is passed on between generations from both parents. Mendel established the basic principles of inheritance, namely, the principles of dominance, independent assortment, and segregation.  1866: Austrian Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel's paper, Experiments on Plant Hybridization, published.  1869: Friedrich Miescher discovers a weak acid in the nuclei of white blood cells that today we call DNA. In 1871 he isolated cell nuclei, separated the nucleic cells from bandages and then treated them with pepsin (an enzyme which breaks down proteins). From this, he recovered an acidic substance which he called "nuclein."  1880–1890: Walther Flemming, Eduard Strasburger, and Edouard Van Beneden elucidate chromosome distribution during cell division  1889: Richard Altmann purified protein free DNA. However, the nucleic acid was not as pure as he had assumed. It was determined later to contain a large amount of protein.  1889: Hugo de Vries postulates that "inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles", naming such particles "(pan)genes"  1902: Archibald Garrod discovered inborn errors of metabolism. An explanation for epistasis is an important manifestation of Garrod's research, albeit indirectly. When 539 Garrod studied alkaptonuria, a disorder that makes urine quickly turn black due to the presence of gentisate, he noticed that it was prevalent among populations whose parents were closely related.  1903: Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri independently hypothesizes that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units; see the chromosome theory. Boveri was studying sea urchins when he found that all the chromosomes in the sea urchins had to be present for proper embryonic development to take place. Sutton's work with grasshoppers showed that chromosomes occur in matched pairs of maternal and paternal chromosomes which separate during meiosis. He concluded that this could be "the physical basis of the Mendelian law of heredity."  1905: William Bateson coins the term "genetics" in a letter to Adam Sedgwick and at a meeting in 1906  1908: G.H. Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg proposed the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium model which describes the frequencies of alleles in the gene pool of a population, which are under certain specific conditions, as constant and at a state of equilibrium from generation to generation unless specific disturbing influences are introduced.  1910: Thomas Hunt Morgan shows that genes reside on chromosomes while determining the nature of sex-linked traits by studying Drosophila melanogaster. He determined that the white-eyed mutant was sex-linked based on Mendelian's principles of segregation and independent assortment.  1911: Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan's collaborators, invented the procedure of linkage mapping which is based on the frequency of crossing-over.  1913: Alfred Sturtevant makes the first genetic map, showing that chromosomes contain linearly arranged genes  1918: Ronald Fisher publishes "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance" the modern synthesis of genetics and evolutionary biology starts. See population genetics.  1920: Lysenkoism Started, during Lysenkoism they stated that the hereditary factor are not only in the nucleus, but also in the cytoplasm, though they called it living protoplasm. 540  1923: Frederick Griffith studied bacterial transformation and observed that DNA carries genes responsible for pathogenicity.  1928: Frederick Griffith discovers that hereditary material from dead bacteria can be incorporated into live bacteria.  1930s–1950s: Joachim Hämmerling conducted experiments with Acetabularia in which he began to distinguish the contributions of the nucleus and the cytoplasm substances (later discovered to be DNA and mRNA, respectively) to cell morphogenesis and development.  1931: Crossing over is identified as the cause of recombination; the first cytological demonstration of this crossing over was performed by Barbara McClintock and Harriet Creighton  1933: Jean Brachet, while studying virgin sea urchin eggs, suggested that DNA is found in cell nucleus and that RNA is present exclusively in the cytoplasm. At the time, "yeast nucleic acid" (RNA) was thought to occur only in plants, while "thymus nucleic acid" (DNA) only in animals. The latter was thought to be a tetramer, with the function of buffering cellular pH.  1933: Thomas Morgan received the Nobel prize for linkage mapping. His work elucidated the role played by the chromosome in heredity. Morgan voluntarily shared the prize money with his key collaborators, Calvin Bridges and Alfred Sturtevant.  1941: Edward Lawrie Tatum and George Wells Beadle show that genes code for proteins; see the original central dogma of genetics  1943: Luria–Delbrück experiment: this experiment showed that genetic mutations conferring resistance to bacteriophage arise in the absence of selection, rather than being a response to selection. The DNA era  1944: The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment isolates DNA as the genetic material (at that time called transforming principle) 541  1947: Salvador Luria discovers reactivation of irradiated phage, stimulating numerous further studies of DNA repair processes in bacteriophage, and other organisms, including humans  1948: Barbara McClintock discovers transposons in maize  1950: Erwin Chargaff determined the pairing method of nitrogenous bases. Chargaff and his team studied the DNA from multiple organisms and found three things (also known as Chargaff's rules). First, the concentration of the pyrimidines (guanine and adenine) are always found in the same amount as one another. Second, the concentration of purines (cytosine and thymine) are also always the same. Lastly, Chargaff and his team found the proportion of pyrimidines and purines correspond each other.  1952: The Hershey–Chase experiment proves the genetic information of phages (and, by implication, all other organisms) to be DNA.  1952: an X-ray diffraction image of DNA was taken by Raymond Gosling in May 1952, a student supervised by Rosalind Franklin  1953: DNA structure is resolved to be a double helix by Rosalind Franklin, James Watson and Francis Crick  1955: Alexander R. Todd determined the chemical makeup of nitrogenous bases. Todd also successfully synthesized adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) . He was awarded the Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1957 for his contributions in the scientific knowledge of nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes.  1955: Joe Hin Tjio, while working in Albert Levan's lab, determined the number of chromosomes in humans to be of 46. Tjio was attempting to refine an established technique to separate chromosomes onto glass slides by conducting a study of human embryonic lung tissue, when he saw that there were 46 chromosomes rather than 48. This revolutionized the world of cytogenetics.  1957: Arthur Kornberg with Severo Ochoa synthesized DNA in a test tube after discovering the means by which DNA is duplicated . DNA polymerase 1 established requirements for in vitro synthesis of DNA. Kornberg and Ochoa were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1959 for this work. 542  1957/1958: Robert W. Holley, Marshall Nirenberg, Har Gobind Khorana proposed the nucleotide sequence of the tRNA molecule. Francis Crick had proposed the requirement of some kind of adapter molecule and it was soon identified by Holey, Nirenberg and Khorana. These scientists help explain the link between a messenger RNA nucleotide sequence and a polypeptide sequence. In the experiment, they purified tRNAs from yeast cells and were awarded the Nobel prize in 1968.  1958: The Meselson–Stahl experiment demonstrates that DNA is semiconservatively replicated.  1960: Jacob and collaborators discover the operon, a group of genes whose expression is coordinated by an operator.  1961: Francis Crick and Sydney Brenner discovered frame shift mutations. In the experiment, proflavin-induced mutations of the T4 bacteriophage gene (rIIB) were isolated. Proflavin causes mutations by inserting itself between DNA bases, typically resulting in insertion or deletion of a single base pair. The mutants could not produce functional rIIB protein. These mutations were used to demonstrate that three sequential bases of the rIIB gene's DNA specify each successive amino acid of the encoded protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid.  1961: Sydney Brenner, Francois Jacob and Matthew Meselson identified the function of messenger RNA.  1961 - 1967: Combined efforts of scientists "crack" the genetic code, including Marshall Nirenberg, Har Gobind Khorana, Sydney Brenner & Francis Crick.  1964: Howard Temin showed using RNA viruses that the direction of DNA to RNA transcription can be reversed  1964: Lysenkoism Ended  1966: Marshall W. Nirenberg, Philip Leder, Har Gobind Khorana cracked the genetic code by using RNA homopolymer and heteropolymer experiments, through which they figured out which triplets of RNA were translated into what amino acids in yeast cells.  1969: Molecular hybridization of radioactive DNA to the DNA of cytological preparation. by Pardue, M. L. and Gall, J. G. 543  1970: Restriction enzymes were discovered in studies of a bacterium, Haemophilus influenzae, by Hamilton O. Smith and Daniel Nathans, enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA.  1972: Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer at UCSF and Stanford University constructed Recombinant DNA which can be formed by using restriction Endonuclease to cleave the DNA and DNA ligase to reattach the "sticky ends" into a bacterial plasmid. The genomics era  1972: Walter Fiers and his team were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for bacteriophage MS2 coat protein.  1976: Walter Fiers and his team determine the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA  1976: Yeast genes expressed in E. coli for the first time.  1977: DNA is sequenced for the first time by Fred Sanger, Walter Gilbert, and Allan Maxam working independently. Sanger's lab sequence the entire genome of bacteriophage Φ-X174.  In the late 1970s: nonisotopic methods of nucleic acid labeling were developed. The subsequent improvements in the detection of reporter molecules using immunocytochemistry and immunofluorescence,in conjunction with advances in fluorescence microscopy and image analysis, have made the technique safer, faster and reliable  1980: Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger developed methods of mapping the structure of DNA. In 1972, recombinant DNA molecules were produced in Paul Berg's Stanford University laboratory. Berg was awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for constructing recombinant DNA molecules that contained phage lambda genes inserted into the small circular DNA mol. 544 Metabolites Primary Metabolites Secondary Metabolites Compounds that are directly involved in the Compounds that are produced by various organisms that metabolic pathways of an organism necessary are not directly involved in the growth, development, or for its growth, development and reproduction reproduction of the organism but are essential in the ecological and other activities There is not perhaps another object in the heavens that presents us with such a variety of extraordinary phenomena as the planet Saturn: a magnificent globe, encompassed by a stupendous double ring: attended by seven satellites: ornamented with equatorial belts: compressed at the poles: turning upon its axis: mutually eclipsing its ring and satellites, and eclipsed by them: the most distant of the rings also turning upon its axis, and the same taking place with the farthest of the satellites: all the parts of the system of Saturn occasionally reflecting light to each other: the rings and moons illuminating the nights of the Saturnian: the globe and satellites enlightening the dark parts of the rings: and the planet and rings throwing back the sun's beams upon the moons, when they are deprived of them at the time of their conjunctions. — Sir William Herschel Organic chemistry Restricted to carbon compounds Inorganic chemistry Biochemistry Restricted to non-covalent carbon components Restricted to chemical components of living systems Bioinorganic chemistry Restricted to biochemical function of inorganic elements Nutrients Macronutrients Micronutrients The nutrients the human body needs The nutrients the human body needs in larger amounts in smaller amounts carbohydrates, protein and fat vitamins and minerals Protein Fat Carbohydrates build, repair and maintain human body carrier of vitamins provide energy to the human body  1980: Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer received first U.S. patent for gene cloning, by proving the successful outcome of cloning a plasmid and expressing a foreign gene in bacteria to produce a "protein foreign to a unicellular organism." These two scientist were able to replicate proteins such as HGH, Erythropoietin and Insulin. The patent earned about $300 million in licensing royalties for Stanford.  1982: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the release of the first genetically engineered human insulin, originally biosynthesized using recombination DNA methods by Genentech in 1978. Once approved, the cloning process lead to mass production of humulin (under license by Eli Lilly & Co.).  1983: Kary Banks Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction enabling the easy amplification of DNA  1983: Barbara McClintock was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for her discovery of mobile genetic elements. McClintock studied transposon-mediated mutation and chromosome breakage in maize and published her first report in 1948 on transposable elements or transposons. She found that transposons were widely observed in corn, although her ideas weren't widely granted attention until the 1960s and 1970s when the same phenomenon was discovered in bacteria and Drosophila melanogaster.  1985: Alec Jeffreys announced DNA fingerprinting method. Jeffreys was studying DNA variation and the evolution of gene families in order to understand disease causing genes. In an attempt to develop a process to isolate many mini-satellites at once using chemical probes, Jeffreys took x-ray films of the DNA for examination and noticed that mini-satellite regions differ greatly from one person to another. In a DNA fingerprinting technique, a DNA sample is digested by treatment with specific nucleases or Restriction endonuclease and then the fragments are separated by electrophoresis producing a template distinct to each individual banding pattern of the gel.  1986: Jeremy Nathans found genes for color vision and color blindness, working with David Hogness, Douglas Vollrath and Ron Davis as they were studying the complexity of the retina.  1987: Yoshizumi Ishino accidentally discovers and describes part of a DNA sequence which later will be called CRISPR 545  1989: Thomas Cech discovered that RNA can catalyze chemical reactions, making for one of the most important breakthroughs in molecular genetics, because it elucidates the true function of poorly understood segments of DNA.  1989: The human gene that encodes the CFTR protein was sequenced by Francis Collins and Lap-Chee Tsui. Defects in this gene cause cystic fibrosis.  1992: American and British scientists unveiled a technique for testing embryos in-vitro (Amniocentesis) for genetic abnormalities such as Cystic fibrosis and Hemophilia.  1993: Phillip Allen Sharp and Richard Roberts awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery that genes in DNA are made up of introns and exons. According to their findings not all the nucleotides on the RNA strand (product of DNA transcription) are used in the translation process. The intervening sequences in the RNA strand are first spliced out so that only the RNA segment left behind after splicing would be translated to polypeptides.  1994: The first breast cancer gene is discovered. BRCA I, was discovered by researchers at the King laboratory at UC Berkeley in 1990 but was first cloned in 1994. BRCA II, the second key gene in the manifestation of breast cancer was discovered later in 1994 by Professor Michael Stratton and Dr. Richard Wooster.  1995: The genome of bacterium Haemophilus influenzae is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced  1996: Saccharomyces cerevisiae , a yeast species, is the first eukaryote genome sequence to be released  1996: Alexander Rich discovered the Z-DNA, a type of DNA which is in a transient state, that is in some cases associated with DNA transcription. The Z-DNA form is more likely to occur in regions of DNA rich in cytosine and guanine with high salt concentrations.  1997: Dolly the sheep was cloned by Ian Wilmut and colleagues from the Roslin Institute in Scotland.  1998: The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, Caenorhabditis elegans, is released  2000: The full genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaster is completed. 546  2001: First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics.  2001: Francisco Mojica and Rudd Jansen propose the acronym CRISPR to describe a family of bacterial DNA sequences that can be used to specifically change genes within organisms.  2003 (14 April): Successful completion of Human Genome Project with 99% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% accuracy  2003: Paul Hebert introduces the standardisation of molecular species identification and coins the term 'DNA Barcoding', proposing Cytochrome Oxidase 1 (CO1) as the DNA Barcode for Animals.  2004: Merck introduced a vaccine for Human Papillomavirus which promised to protect women against infection with HPV 16 and 18, which inactivates tumor suppressor genes and together cause 70% of cervical cancers.  2007: Michael Worobey traced the evolutionary origins of HIV by analyzing its genetic mutations, which revealed that HIV infections had occurred in the United States as early as the 1960s.  2007: Timothy Ray Brown becomes the first person cured from HIV/AIDS through a Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.  2007: The Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD) is set up as an international reference library for molecular species identification (www.barcodinglife.org).  2008: Houston-based Introgen developed Advexin (FDA Approval pending), the first gene therapy for cancer and Li-Fraumeni syndrome, utilizing a form of Adenovirus to carry a replacement gene coding for the p53 protein.  2009: The Consortium for the Barcode of Life Project (CBoL) Plant Working Group propose rbcL and matK as the duel barcode for land plants.  2010: transcription activator-like effector nucleases (or TALENs) are first used to cut specific sequences of DNA.  2011: Fungal Barcoding Consortium propose Internal Transcribed Spacer region (ITS) as the Universal DNA Barcode for Fungi. 547  2012: The flora of Wales is completely barcoded, and reference specimines stored in the BOLD systems database, by the National Botanic Garden of Wales.  2016: A genome is sequenced in outer space for the first time, with NASA astronaut Kate Rubins using a MinION device aboard the International Space Station. Timeline of nuclear weapons development Before 1930  1895 – Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen discovers X-rays at the University of Würzburg.  1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers that uranium emits radiation at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris.  1898 – J.J. Thomson observes the photoelectric effect.  1900 – Max Planck theorizes that matter can only absorb energy in fixed quanta.  1904 – Frederick Soddy first proposes a bomb powered by nuclear fission to the Royal Engineers.  1905 – Albert Einstein develops the theory of relativity equating energy and matter.  1911 – Ernest Rutherford discovers that the majority of the energy in an atom is contained in the nucleus through experiments at the University of Manchester.  1912 – J.J. Thomson discovers isotopes through experiments with neon.  1914 – H.G. Wells writes The World Set Free, a science fiction novel postulating a world war in 1956 pitting the United Kingdom and France against Germany and AustriaHungary. Inspired by the research of Rutherford, Sir William Ramsay, and Frederick Soddy, the novel predicts the development of nuclear weapons, and features a uraniumbased hand grenade that does not extinguish once detonated.  1920 – Rutherford postulates the existence of a neutral particle in the atomic nucleus at a Bakerian Lecture in London.  1924 – Writing for The Pall Mall Gazette, Winston Churchill speculates "Might a bomb no bigger than an orange be found to possess a secret power to destroy a whole block of 548 buildings – nay to concentrate the force of a thousand tons of cordite and blast a township at a stroke?" 1930–1940  1932 – James Chadwick discovers the neutron, leading to experiments in which elements are bombarded with the new particle.  1933 – Leó Szilárd realizes the concept of the nuclear chain reaction, although no such reaction was known at the time. He invented the idea of an atomic bomb in 1933 while crossing a London street in Russell Square. He patented it in 1934. (British patent 630,726)  1934 – Enrico Fermi conducts experiments in which he exposes uranium and thorium to neutrons to create distinct new substances. Although he is unaware at the time, he creates the first synthetic elements, the transuranium elements.  1938 – Fermi is awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his achievements, and flees from Fascist Italy to the United States due to the racial laws ratified under pressure from Nazi Germany.  1938 – December – The German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman detect barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons. This is correctly interpreted by Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch as nuclear fission.  1939 – January – Otto Robert Frisch experimentally confirms Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman's discovery of nuclear fission. Frisch goes to Copenhagen to share the discovery with his Niels Bohr, who in turn reports the discovery to his American colleagues. Bohr and John Archibald Wheeler determine later that year through chainreaction experiments at Princeton University that uranium-235 could produce a nuclear explosion.  1939 – April – Nazi Germany begins the German nuclear energy project.  1939 – September 1 – World War II begins after the invasion and subsequent partition of Poland between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. 549  1939 – October – U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt receives the Einstein–Szilárd letter and authorizes the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium. The Uranium Committee has its first meeting on October 21, and $6,000 was budgeted for conducting neutron experiments. 1940–1950  1940 – April – The MAUD Committee (Military Application of Uranium Detonation) is established by Henry Tizard and the British Ministry of Aircraft Production to investigate feasibility of an atomic bomb.  1940 – May – The paper which Dr. Yoshio Nishina of Nuclear Research Laboratory of Riken and Professor of Chemical Institute, Faculty of Science, Imperial University of Tokyo, Kenjiro Kimura presented to Physical Review, showed that they had produced neptunium-237 by exposing triuranium octoxide to fast neutrons for more than 50 hours.  1940 - June - The French Third Republic collapses during the Battle of France. The rapid military collapse would contribute to nearly universal French public support for a nuclear deterrent in later years.  1940 – July – The paper explaining that Dr. Yoshio Nishina and Kenjiro Kimura discovered symmetric fission on the previously described test appeared in Nature. The LibreTexts libraries based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation says, "Multiple combinations of symmetric fission products are possible for fission chain reactions." And, again, it as fission product yield, is known that the higher the energy of the state that undergoes nuclear fission is more likely a symmetric fission.  1940 – July – The Soviet Academy of Sciences starts a committee to investigate the development of a nuclear bomb.  1941 – February – Plutonium discovered by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl at the University of California, Berkeley.  1941 – May – A review committee postulates that the United States will not isolate enough uranium-235 to build an atomic bomb until 1945. 550  1941 – June – President Roosevelt forms the Office of Scientific Research and Development under Vannevar Bush.  1941 – June 15 – The MAUD Committee approves a report that a uranium bomb could be built.  1941 – June 22 – Operation Barbarossa, the 1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union, begins. Soviet nuclear research is subsequently delayed.  1941 – October – President Roosevelt receives MAUD report on the design and costs to develop a nuclear weapon. Roosevelt approves project to confirm MAUD's finding.  1941 – December – The United States enters World War II after the Pearl Harbor attack and the German declaration of war against the United States, leading to an influx in funding and research for atomic weapons.  1942 – The United Kingdom opts to support the United States' efforts to build a bomb rather than to pursue its own nuclear weapons program due to wartime economic damage, and allows the Tube Alloys programme to be subsumed into the American project.  1942 – April – Joseph Stalin was first informed of the efforts to develop nuclear weapons based on a letter sent to him by Georgii Flerov pointing out that there was nothing being published on nuclear fission since its discovery, and the prominent physicists likely involved had not been publishing at all. This urged the Soviet Union to start a nuclear weapons program.  1942 – July – The Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordance Office) relinquishes control of the German nuclear energy project to the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council), essentially making it only a research project with objectives far short of making a weapon.  1942 – July through September – A summer conference at University of California, Berkeley is convened by physicist Robert Oppenheimer and discusses the design of a fission bomb. Edward Teller introduces the "Super" hydrogen bomb as a major discussion point.  1942 – August through November – The Manhattan Project is established by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under command of General Leslie Groves. "Site X" is chosen in Tennessee, for isotopic separation of uranium-235 from natural uranium, and will later 551 become Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Hanford Site is chosen in Washington, for making plutonium in nuclear reactors. "Site Y" is chosen by Groves and Dr. J. Robert Oppenheimer near Albuquerque, New Mexico, for bomb design and manufacture, and will later become Los Alamos National Laboratory.  1942 – December 2 – Enrico Fermi and his team achieve the first controlled nuclear reaction at Chicago Pile-1 constructed at the University of Chicago in a squash court underneath Stagg Field.  1943 – Laboratory No. 2 is established to pursue nuclear weapons research under Igor Kurchatov.  1943 – March – The Japanese Committee on Research in the Application of Nuclear Physics, chaired by Yoshio Nishina concludes in a report that while an atomic bomb was feasible, it would be unlikely to produce one during the war. Japan then concentrated on research into radar.  1943 – April – Introductory lectures begin at Los Alamos, which later are compiled into The Los Alamos Primer.  1943 – August – The Quebec Agreement is signed by President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. A team of British scientists join the Manhattan Project, including Klaus Fuchs.  1944 – April – Emilio Segrè discovers that the spontaneous fission rate of plutonium is too high to be used in a gun-type fission weapon. Leads to change in priority to the design of an implosion-type nuclear weapon. The calutrons at the Y-12 uranium enrichment plant are activated.  1944 – July – Sergei Korolev is released from a Gulag and assigned for rocket development.  1944 – September – The first plutonium reactor is activated in Hanford, but shuts itself off immediately.  1944 – September 8 – The Wehrmacht launches the V-2 rocket, the first ballistic missile and the template for later American and Soviet nuclear missile designs. It is based on the designs of Wernher von Braun. 552  1945 – March 10 – A Japanese Fu-Go balloon bomb nearly knocks out electrical power to the Hanford plant.  1945 – April 12 – U.S. Vice President Harry S. Truman is inaugurated President after the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and is informed about the Manhattan Project by War Secretary Henry L. Stimson.  1945 – May 7 – Nazi Germany formally surrenders to the Allied Powers, ending World War II in Europe.  1945 – May – The United States captures a number of important German rocket scientists, including Wernher von Braun, for work on American missile programs through Operation Paperclip. Von Braun is eventually assigned to the Army Ballistic Missile Agency at the Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama.  1945 – June – The Office of Military Government, United States hands over Nordhausen, including the Mittelwerk factory where the V-2 rocket was constructed, to the Group of Soviet Occupation Forces in Germany. Soviet forces find documents and equipment from the factory and recruit Helmut Gröttrup.  1945 – July 16 – The first nuclear explosion, the Trinity test of an implosion-type plutonium-based nuclear weapon known as "the gadget", near Alamogordo, New Mexico.  1945 – July 22 – Truman alludes to Stalin about having successfully detonated an atomic bomb at the Potsdam Conference.  1945 – August 6 – "Little Boy", a gun-type uranium-235 weapon, is dropped on Hiroshima, Japan.  1945 – August 9 – "Fat Man", an implosion-type plutonium-239 weapon, is dropped on Nagasaki, Japan.  1945 – August – The Smyth Report is published detailing the efforts of the Manhattan Project.  1945 – August – Surrender of Japan to the Allied Powers.  1945 – August – The Soviet atomic bomb project is accelerated under a Special Commission chaired by Lavrentiy Beria. The program would be heavily reliant on espionage on the Manhattan Project, especially by Fuchs and Theodore A. Hall. 553  1945 – October 18 – The Atomic Energy Commission (CEA) is established in France by French President Charles de Gaulle to investigate military uses of atomic energy.  1946 – January – The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 takes effect, officially turning over the Manhattan Project to the United States Atomic Energy Commission.  1946 – March 26 – The Strategic Air Command is established in the U.S. Army Air Forces for command and control of nuclear weapons.  1946 – June – First meeting of the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, which was established by the first resolution of the U.N. General Assembly, is held.  1946 – June – The Soviet Union rejects the Baruch Plan.  1946 – August – The Convair B-36 Peacemaker is introduced as the first purpose-built nuclear bomber.  1946 – December 25 – The Soviet Union activates the F-1 pile in Moscow, producing the first controlled nuclear reaction in Europe.  1947 – The RTV-A-2 Hiroc, the first design of an intercontinental ballistic missile, is cancelled by the United States.  1947 – A steppe near Semipalatinsk, Kazakh SSR is selected by Beria as the Soviet Union's nuclear test site.  1947 – January – British Prime Minister Clement Attlee approves the development of an atomic bomb through the High Explosive Research programme lead by William Penney, Baron Penney.  1947 – August 15 – The Partition of India between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan occurs.  1948 – June 19 – The Soviet Union's first plutonium production reactor is activated at Chelyabinsk-40.  1948 – Andrei Sakharov proposes the first design for a Soviet hydrogen bomb.  1948 – Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru ratifies an act establishing the Atomic Energy Commission of India chaired by Homi J. Bhabha. 554  1948 – September – The Soviet Union launches its first ballistic missile, a reverseengineered version of the V-2 rocket later renamed the R-1 rocket.  1948 – The United States transfers nuclear-capable B-29 bombers to Europe during the Berlin Blockade.  1949 – August – The Soviet Union conducts its first atomic test, First Lightning (nicknamed Joe 1 by the Americans).  1949 – September through December – Debate occurs within the Truman administration over whether to authorize the development of a hydrogen bomb. Although the AEC General Advisory Committee chaired by Oppenheimer condemns the idea, the bomb is encouraged by the Department of State, the Department of Defense, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, and the National Security Council.  1949 – The Communist Party of China wins the Chinese Civil War and captures the Mainland, establishing the People's Republic of China.  1949 – The U.S. Department of Defense prepares Operation Dropshot, a contingency plan for a nuclear and conventional war against the Soviet Union.  1949 – Following the Berlin Blockade and the articulation of the Truman Doctrine, the North Atlantic Treaty is ratified by 22 signatories in Western Europe and North America, including the United States, creating the collective security alliance NATO. The Treaty places its members under an American "nuclear umbrella" against a Soviet attack and provides the basis for nuclear weapons sharing agreements with Italy, the Netherlands, and Belgium. 1950–1960  1950 – January 31 – President Harry S. Truman authorizes the development of the hydrogen bomb.  1950 – April 7 – The National Security Council issues its classified NSC 68 policy paper advocating for the United States to expand its conventional and nuclear arms in response to the Cold War and the decline of former great powers such as the United 555 Kingdom, France, and Japan. President Truman takes the paper's advice and triples U.S. military expenditures over the course of three years.  1950 – Klaus Fuchs and Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are arrested in the United States for leaking atomic secrets to the Soviet Union.  1950 – December – General Douglas MacArthur of the UN Command requests 34 nuclear bombs after China intervenes in the Korean War.  1951 – January 12 – In response to the threat of a Soviet nuclear attack, President Truman creates the Federal Civil Defense Administration. The FCDA is succeeded by the Federal Civil Defense Authority in 1972, which is in turn succeeded by the Federal Emergency Management Agency in 1979.  1951 – President Truman establishes the CONELRAD emergency broadcasting system to alert the United States to an enemy attack. The system is later succeeded by the Emergency Broadcast System in 1963 and the Emergency Alert System in 1997.  1951 – The United States opens the Nevada Test Site for nuclear weapons tests.  1951 – MacArthur, with the approval of the Commander-in-Chief of the Strategic Air Command Curtis LeMay and South Korean President Syngman Rhee, pressures the government for the use of nuclear weapons against China. He is overruled and it becomes a factor in President Truman's relief of General Douglas MacArthur.  1951 – China and the Soviet Union sign an agreement whereby China would supply uranium ore in exchange for technical assistance in producing nuclear weapons.  1952 – October – The United Kingdom conducts Operation Hurricane, the first test of a British nuclear weapon. The plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon was detonated in a lagoon between the Montebello Islands, Western Australia.  1952 – Greece and Turkey join NATO, allowing them to participate in nuclear sharing programs.  1952 – November 1 – The United States test the first fusion bomb, Ivy Mike.  1953 – The first nuclear-tipped rockets are deployed by the United States. The MGR-1 Honest John is such as example. 556  1953 – February – President Eisenhower considers using nuclear weapons when negotiations on the Korean Armistice Agreement stalled.  1953 – August 12 – The Soviet Union conducts its first test of a hydrogen bomb, nicknamed Joe 4 by the Americans. Unlike the American hydrogen bomb, the Soviet RDS-4 design is deliverable.  1953 – August 20 – The United States test-fires the PGM-11 Redstone rocket, its first ballistic missile.  1953 – October 30 – The United States formalizes its New Look foreign policy through NSC 162/2, emphasizing the United States's superiority in nuclear and conventional forces.  1953 – December 8 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announces the Atoms for Peace program at the U.N. General Assembly.  1954 – British English Electric Canberra bombers of the Royal Air Force are outfitted with atomic bombs.  1954 – The Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star is introduced as the United States' primary airborne early warning and control aircraft.  1954 – January 12 – U.S. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles articulates a policy of "massive retaliation."  1954 – March 1 – The United States detonates its first deliverable thermonuclear weapons at Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands. One device had a yield almost three times as large as expected, leading to the worst radiological disaster in US history.  1954 – June 17 – Prime Minister Churchill decides to begin the British hydrogen bomb programme, and Minister of Defense Harold Macmillan publicly announces it in the next year on February 17.  1954 – September – The First Taiwan Strait Crisis begins when Communist China begins an artillery bombardment of the Kuomintang-held islands of Kinmen and the Matsu Islands, resulting in the United States concluding a Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan and contemplating a nuclear attack against the Mainland. Although the crisis ends after China's participation in the Bandung Conference, the Soviet Union agrees to assist China with nuclear weapons development as a result. 557  1954 – December 26 – The French nuclear weapons program is secretly established by Prime Minister Pierre Mendès France.  1955 – January 15 – China begins Project-596 under Marshal Nie Rongzheng with the approval of Mao Zedong. The Third Ministry of Machine Building, a predecessor of the China National Nuclear Corporation, is created to oversee the project.  1955 – February – The Boeing B-52 Stratofortress replaces the B-36 as the U.S. Air Force's primary strategic nuclear bomber.  1955 – India purchases a PUREX reactor from Canada and the United States, and constructs the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay.  1955 – West Germany joins NATO, allowing it to participate in nuclear sharing.  1955 – The Soviet Union introduces a modified version of the Myasishchev M-4 bomber capable of striking targets in continental North America.  1955 – February – The President's Science Advisory Committee recommends that the United States make missile production a national priority.  1956 – The Tupolev Tu-95, the primary intercontinental strategic bomber of the Soviet Air Forces, enters service.  1956 – Development on the Avro Blue Steel air-to-surface missile for the British "Vbomber" fleet begins.  1956 – The nuclear-capable PGM-19 Jupiter medium-range ballistic missile is created from the Redstone rocket.  1956 – October–November – The Soviet Union threatens nuclear strikes against the United Kingdom and France during the Suez Crisis.  1956 – November 30 – France establishes a secret committee for the Military Applications of Atomic Energy under Pierre Guillaumat and Yves Rocard. It establishes a secret protocol between the CEA and the Ministry of Defence for procuring weapons material.  1956 – The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission is established. This commission is responsible for the development of both the nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons of Pakistan. 558  1957 – Israel purchases a nuclear reactor from France, which is built at Dimona in the Negev. By this time it has already started a weapons program under Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, Defense Minister Shimon Peres, and Ernst David Bergmann.  1957 – July – The International Atomic Energy Agency is founded.  1957 – August 26 – The Soviet Union announces the successful test of an intercontinental ballistic missile, the R-7 Semyorka, capable of flying "into any part of the world."  1957 – October 4 – The Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, is launched using an modified version of the Soviet Union's ICBM, beginning the Space Race.  1957 – In response to the new threat of Soviet ICBMs, the U.S. Army accelerates production on the Nike Zeus missile, an anti-ballistic missile designed to intercept ICBMs in mid-air.  1957 – Operation Antler, the final British nuclear test in Australia, occurs in Maralinga, South Australia.  1957 – October 10 – The Windscale fire occurs in Seascale, Cumbria after a graphitemoderated reactor built for the British hydrogen bomb project catches fire, resulting in the release of radioactive contamination across the United Kingdom and Europe. An inquiry determines that the accident was avoidable and that the British Army ignored warnings by scientists, but is suppressed by the government to prevent damaging the Special Relationship.  1957 – October 15 – The Soviet Union agrees to provide a "sample bomb" and extensive technical assistance to the Chinese nuclear program.  1957 – December 12 – The SM-65 Atlas, the first U.S. ICBM, is launched.  1957 – December 17 – The Strategic Rocket Forces is established to maintain the Soviet nuclear arsenal.  1957 - Iran commences its nuclear program under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.  1958 – The United States and the United Kingdom sign the 1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement. This is a bilateral treaty on nuclear weapons cooperation signed after the United Kingdom successfully tested a hydrogen bomb during Operation Grapple. Under the agreement the United States supplies the United Kingdom with nuclear weapons through Project E. 559  1958 – The U.S. Air Force drafts Project A119, a classified plan to detonate a nuclear bomb on the Moon. The plan is quickly cancelled in favor of a Moon landing.  1958 – RAFAEL is formed by the Israeli Ministry of Defense to coordinate its nuclear program.  1958 – The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament is formed in the United Kingdom.  1958 – The Jiuquan Atomic Energy Complex is opened in China in the Gansu Province.  1958 – The United States considers a nuclear strike on China during the Second Taiwan Strait Crisis, in which China resumed its bombardment of Kinmen and the Matsu Islands.  1958 – January – The United States deploys nuclear weapons to South Korea.  1958 – August – The PGM-17 Thor intermediate-range ballistic missile, the U.S. Air Force's first ballistic missile, is declared operational and begins deployment in the United Kingdom through Project Emily.  1958 – November – The United States and the Soviet Union observe a nuclear-testing moratorium.  1958 – November 4 – The Democratic Party wins the 1958 United States elections in part due to public perception of a "missile gap" against the Soviet Union following the release of the Gaither Report. Although later proven to be an overestimate, the concept later helps John F. Kennedy to win the 1960 presidential election.  1958 – November 10 – Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev makes a speech demanding the withdrawal of American, British, and French forces from West Berlin, beginning a series of political crises.  1959 – Nuclear tests in Antarctica are banned under the Antarctic Treaty.  1959 – Fidel Castro takes power in Cuba and creates a Marxism–Leninist government aligned with the Soviet Union.  1959 – The Soviet Union scales back nuclear assistance to China as a result of the emerging Sino-Soviet split. 1960–1970 560  1960 – The United Kingdom cancels the De Havilland Blue Streak medium-range ballistic missile in favor of the American-produced Douglas GAM-87 Skybolt airlaunched ballistic missile, ending its attempts to produce an independent delivery system.  1960 – RAND Corporation analyst Herman Kahn releases On Thermonuclear War, which argues that the destructiveness of nuclear war can be limited through anti-aircraft defenses, civil defense preparations, and a doctrine targeting counterforces. The book becomes influential in U.S. nuclear strategy and helps formulate the Kennedy administration's policy of flexible response.  1960 – Operation Chrome Dome, in which nuclear-armed B-52 bombers are continually flown by the U.S. Air Force close to the Soviet Union on continuous alert, begins.  1960 – February 13 – France successfully tests a nuclear weapon, called Gerboise Bleue, in the Sahara near Reggane, French Algeria.  1960 – 1 May – An American Lockheed U-2 spy plane piloted by Francis Gary Powers is shot down over Soviet territory, deteriorating Soviet Union–United States relations, sabotaging the Four-Power summit in Paris, and hindering General Secretary Khrushchev's policy of peaceful coexistence.  1960 – December – The China Institute of Atomic Energy begins research on thermonuclear weapons.  1961 – The Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion informed the Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker that a pilot plutonium-separation plant would be built at the Dimona reactor. Intelligence would indicate from this and other information that Israel intended to produce nuclear weapons.  1961 – Australia considers purchasing nuclear weapons from the United Kingdom, but the idea is rejected by the Cabinet of Prime Minister Robert Menzies.  1961 - President Kennedy announces that the federal government will begin the construction of fallout shelters.  1961 – October 27 – The Berlin crisis occurring after the construction of the Berlin Wall by East German authorities culminates when the United States deploys tanks to Checkpoint Charlie, a move reciprocated by the Soviet Union. President Kennedy and 561 General Secretary Khrushchev ultimately negotiate the removal of the tanks through diplomatic backchannels and prevent a war.  1961 – October 30 – The Soviet Union detonates Tsar Bomba, the largest, most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated.  1962 – The term "mutually-assured destruction" is coined.  1962 – The Lockheed UGM-27 Polaris, the U.S. Navy's first submarine-launched ballistic missile, is introduced.  1962 – The Boeing LGM-30 Minuteman-I, the first American ICBM using liquidpropellant rocket to be able to have an immediate launch, is introduced.  1962 – July 9 – The Starfish Prime high-altitude nuclear test over Johnston Island creates an electromagnetic pulse that causes electrical damage in parts of Hawaii, disrupts telecommunications in the Pacific Ocean, and disables satellites in low Earth orbit.  1962 – October 17 through October 28 – The Soviet Union attempts to deploy R-12 Dvina medium-range ballistic missiles and R-14 Chusovaya intermediate-range ballistic missiles to Cuba within 90 miles of the contiguous United States, and is discovered by an American U-2 plane. The subsequent Cuban Missile Crisis nearly leads to a world war, and is only averted by an agreement between Soviet General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev and U.S. President John F. Kennedy to withdraw the missiles from Cuba in exchange for a public promise not to invade Cuba and a secret withdrawal of American missiles from Turkey.  1962 – December 21 – President John F. Kennedy and Prime Minister Harold Wilson ratify the Nassau Agreement agreeing for the United States to supply the United Kingdom with Polaris submarine-launched missiles. The Polaris Sales Agreement is signed on 6 April 1963 by Secretary of State Dean Rusk and British Ambassador to the United States David Ormsby-Gore.  1963 – August – The Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water opens for signatures. The treaty limited nuclear weapons tests to underground detonations.  1963 – August – President Kennedy considers using conventional and nuclear air strikes against China's nuclear facilities to prevent it from developing an atomic bomb. 562  1963 – American nuclear weapons are deployed in Canada, as well as Canadian Armed Forces bases in West Germany, through the NATO nuclear sharing program and NORAD.  1964 – January 29 – The Stanley Kubrick film Dr. Strangelove or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb is released satirizing predominant nuclear strategy.  1964 – October 13 – Leonid Brezhnev becomes General Secretary of the Soviet Union, and increases military expenditures.  1964 – October 16 – China successfully tests an atomic bomb at Lop Nur.  1964 – India produces weapons-grade plutonium.  1964 – The R-17 Elbrus tactical ballistic missile enters service in the Soviet Union. The subsequent series of Scud missiles eventually becomes a major proliferation concern.  1965 – January – The Soviet Union detonates Chagan as part of their Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy series to study the peaceful use of nuclear explosions.  1965 – Pakistan constructs a research reactor purchased from the United States.  1965 – The television docudrama The War Game is filmed in the United Kingdom as an episode of The Wednesday Play anthology series providing a realistic depiction of a nuclear war. Although the film's broadcast is blocked by the BBC and the British government for 20 years due to its disturbing content, it is released abroad to critical acclaim, and receives the 1966 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature in the United States.  1965 – March 10 – Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol claims that Israel "will not be the first state to introduce nuclear weapons" into the Middle East.  1965 – The Command Center for the Office of Emergency Planning mistakes the Northeast blackout for a nuclear attack.  1966 – France withdraws from SHAPE and the NATO integrated command structure due to disputes over its nuclear weapons and does not rejoin until 2009.  1966 – The United States' nuclear stockpile peaks at 31,149 warheads.  1966 - China begins moving its nuclear facilities into the interior during its Third FiveYear Plan. 563  1966 - October 27 - China tests a nuclear-armed Dongfeng-2 missile, which launches from Shuangchengzi Space and Missile Center and strikes Lop Nur. It is the only time a country has tested an armed nuclear missile over populated areas.  1967 – January – President Johnson claims that the Soviet Union has constructed an antiballistic missile barrier around Moscow.  1967 – January – The Outer Space Treaty prohibits nuclear tests in space.  1967 - February 27 – The Treaty of Tlatelolco is signed in Mexico City, creating a nuclear-weapon-free zone in Latin America.  1967 – March 29 – The French Navy launches the Redoutable-class submarine.  1967 – June 10 – Israel wins the Six-Day War, hindering the nuclear program in Egypt started by Gamal Abdel Nasser.  1967 – June 17 – China successfully tests a hydrogen bomb.  1967 – June 23–26 – President Johnson and Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin express a willingness to conduct arms-control negotiations at the Glassboro Summit Conference.  1967 – September – The United Kingdom assists France in thermonuclear weapons development in a failed attempt to lobby France to allow Britain to join the European Economic Community.  1967 – December – Japan, under Prime Minister Eisaku Satō, adopts the Three NonNuclear Principles.  1967 - The United States provides Iran with a 5-megawatt research reactor at the University of Tehran and supplies of enriched uranium.  1968 – January 28 – An aircraft accident occurs when an American B-52 bomber armed with a Mark 28 nuclear bomb bound for Thule Air Base, Greenland, has an in-flight fire and is forced to make a crash landing in North Star Bay, resulting in the detonation of the bomb's conventional explosives and the release of radioactive contamination over Greenland. The accident causes the cancellation of Operation Chrome Dome.  1968 – February 10 – During the Vietnam War, General William C. Westmoreland orders the movement of nuclear weapons to South Vietnam during 564 the Battle of Khe Sanh, but is overruled by Walt W. Rostow and President Lyndon B. Johnson.  1968 – July – The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty opens for signatures. This treaty is intended to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. To date, 189 countries have signed the treaty, including the five permanent members of the UN Security Council. Only India, Israel, Pakistan, and North Korea have not signed the treaty (as sovereign states).  1968 – With its ratification of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, Sweden formally ends the nuclear weapons program it has run since 1945.  1968 - During the 1968 United States presidential election Curtis LeMay becomes the running mate of the controversial American Independent Party candidate George Wallace, and advocates the use of nuclear weapons against North Vietnam. The ticket captures 13.5% of the popular vote and wins five states in the Electoral College.  1969 – The United Kingdom transfers its strategic nuclear warheads to its Polaris submarines away from the aging V-bomber fleet.  1969 – October – President Richard Nixon, as part of his "madman theory" postulating that the Soviet Union would avoid aggressive acts if they feared an unpredictable response from the United States, and National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger approve Operation Giant Lance, an operation involving nuclear-armed B-52 bombers flying near the Soviet border to simulate an American nuclear attack.  1969 – November – The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks commence in Helsinki, Finland. 1970–1980  1970 – The LGM-30 Minuteman III, the United States's current intercontinental-ballistic missile, is introduced.  1970 – The Soviet Navy considers constructing a base for nuclear submarines in Cienfuegos, Cuba. 565  1971 – March 31 – The United States deploys the UGM-73 Poseidon submarinelaunched ballistic missile on James Madison-class submarines.  1971 – December – India wins the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, resulting in the independence of Bangladesh.  1972 – Zulfikar Ali Bhutto launched Pakistan's atomic program in response to the loss of the war by making Munir Ahmad Khan as the program head.  1972 – March 26 – The SALT I Agreement is ratified between the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.  1972 – April 25 – President Nixon proposes using nuclear weapons to end the Vietnam War, but is quickly dissuaded by National Security Advisor Kissinger.  1972 – May – Pakistani nuclear scientist Abdul Qadeer Khan is employed at a Urenco Group nuclear laboratory in Amsterdam and makes repeated visits to an enrichment plant in Almelo.  1973 – October – Israel considers using nuclear weapons during the Yom Kippur War, while the Soviet Union considers transporting nuclear weapons to Egypt and causes the United States to place its military on high alert.  1974 – South Africa secretly decides to pursue a capability for nuclear bombs, ostensibly for peaceful nuclear explosions.  1974 – The Iranian nuclear program is commenced by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who founds the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran.  1974 – May – India tests its first nuclear device, "Smiling Buddha", at Pokhran using a core designed by Rajagopala Chidambaram.  1974 – May – Pakistan's Project-706 is established under command of General Zahid Ali Akbar.  1974 – November – A major breakthrough in the SALT II negotiations occurs at the Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control between General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev and President Gerald Ford.  1975 – The number of American nuclear warheads deployed in the Atlantic Ocean peaks at 4,500. 566  1975 - China deploys its first intercontinental ballistic missile, the Dong-Feng 4.  1975 - Brazil purchases a nuclear reactor from West Germany, a move criticized by the United States and Mexico due to concerns that it will use the reactor to produce nuclear weapons.  1975 – December – Khan returns to Pakistan with photographs and blueprints from his job.  1976 – Khan forms the Engineering Research Laboratories with the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission.  1977 – The U.S. Department of Energy is formed to maintain American nuclear weapons. James R. Schlesinger is the first Secretary of Energy.  1977 – Walter Pincus reports in The Washington Post that the United States is developing a neutron bomb, a warhead that causes relatively little blast damage but high casualties due to radiation, for deployment in Western Europe. The report causes political controversy in the United States, and U.S. President Jimmy Carter cancels the program in the next year.  1977 – March – The Boeing E-3 Sentry is introduced as NATO's primary AWACS aircraft.  1977 – July 13 – Somalia invades Ethiopia in the Ogaden War, and congressional support for SALT II in the United States weakens as a result of Soviet intervention in the war.  1978 – France begins development of the Aérospatiale Air-Sol Moyenne Portée missile.  1978 – South Africa develops highly enriched uranium at the Valindaba site near Pretoria.  1978 – Pakistan produces enriched uranium.  1979 – The Warsaw Pact conducts its Seven Days to the River Rhine military simulation emulating a retaliatory nuclear strike against NATO.  1979 – The United States begins to deploy Trident I C-4 missiles, its first SLBMs with intercontinental range, aboard its Ohio-class submarines.  1979 - Iran temporarily halts its nuclear program after the Islamic Revolution. 567  1979 – June 18 – General Secretary Brezhnev and President Carter sign the SALT II Agreement in Vienna agreeing to limit strategic nuclear weapons.  1979 – September 22 – An American Vela Hotel satellite records a strange double-flash of light near the Prince Edward Islands in Antarctica known as the Vela Incident. The flash is widely believed to have been caused by a nuclear test, possibly carried out by South Africa or Israel.  1979 – November 9 – A computer glitch at NORAD creates a false alarm for a Soviet missile launch, and U.S. nuclear forces prepare for a retaliatory strike.  1979 – December 12 – NATO makes its Double-Track Decision responding to the Soviet Union's increased deployment of RSD-10 Pioneer intermediate-range ballistic missiles and Tupolev Tu-22M bombers by deploying increased numbers of mediumrange and intermediate-range ballistic missiles, including Martin Marietta Pershing II missiles and GD BGM-109G Gryphon Ground Launched Cruise Missiles, in Western Europe while continuing to make the Warsaw Pact offers for negotiations. This results in increased east–west international tensions and domestic political controversy.  1979 – December 25 – The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan begins, resulting in collapse of support for SALT II. 1980–1990  1980 – January 3 – President Carter withdraws SALT II from the Senate for formal ratification.  1981 – June 7 -The Israeli Air Force conducts an airstrike, Operation Opera, on Baathist Iraq's light-water nuclear reactor near Baghdad, hindering the country's uranium enrichment and nuclear weapons program. As a result, only a few grams of weaponsgrade uranium is produced by the time the program is ended after the Gulf War.  1981 – The United Kingdom's nuclear stockpile peaks at over 500 warheads.  1981 – October – President Ronald Reagan announces an update of the U.S. nuclear arsenal, including increased numbers of bombers and missiles and development of new projects such as the Rockwell B-1 Lancer, the MX missile, and the MGM-134 Midgetman missile. 568  1982 – June 12 – The largest anti-war demonstration in history occurs against nuclear weapons in Central Park in New York City during a UN disarmament conference.  1982 – The BDS AGM-86 ALCM air-launched cruise missile is introduced in the United States.  1983 – The TTAPS study in Science first introduces the possibility of a nuclear winter, and a co-author Carl Sagan publishes an article on the subject in Parade magazine.  1983 – March 20 – President Reagan announces the Strategic Defense Initiative to defend against a Soviet nuclear attack.  1983 – September 26 – A false alarm occurs in the Soviet Union when the Oko earlywarning system malfunctions and erroneously reports an incoming American missile strike. The Soviet Air Defense Forces command officer at the Serpukhov-15 bunker, Lieutenant Colonel Stanislav Petrov, correctly deduces that the alarm was false and does not report it to his superiors, preventing a retaliatory strike.  1983 – 2 November-11 November – The Soviet Union, which had been monitoring American nuclear forces through the KGB's Operation RYAN, mistakes NATO's Able Archer 83 command post exercise for genuine preparations for a preemptive nuclear strike, and places its forces in East Germany and Poland on high alert.  1983 – November 20 – The television film The Day After premieres on ABC, significantly changing attitudes on nuclear war. A similar film, Threads, is released by the BBC and the Nine Network next year, while Testament is released by PBS and Paramount Pictures.  1983 – December 23 – The United States begins its deployment of Pershing II missiles to West Germany.  1984 – Canada ends its use of American nuclear weapons.  1984 – China joins the IAEA, and under Premier Zhao Ziyang expresses a stronger commitment against nuclear proliferation.  1984 - Iranian Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomenei revives Iran's nuclear program due to the stalemate in the Iran-Iraq War and Iran's chronic energy shortages.  1985 – International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. 569  1985 – South Africa decides to covertly build nuclear weapons.  1985 – July 10 – The Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior is sunken by the DGSE at the Ports of Auckland in New Zealand while traveling to protest French nuclear tests in Moruroa. causing international political controversy.  1985 – August 6 – The Treaty of Rarotonga establishes a nuclear-weapons-free zone in the South Pacific.  1986 – The Soviet Union's nuclear arsenal peaks at 39,197 warheads.  1986 – The Yongbyon Nuclear Scientific Research Center becomes operational near Pyongyang.  1986 – New Zealand announces a nuclear-free zone in its territorial waters, resulting in the unofficial cessation of the ANZUS Treaty.  1986 – September – Mordechai Vanunu divulges secrets about the Israeli nuclear weapons program to The Sunday Times in London. Vanunu would be abducted by the Mossad in Rome and imprisoned.  1986 – October 11 – The Reykjavik Summit occurs between President Ronald Reagan and General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev.  1987 – The Missile Technology Control Regime is formed by the Group of Seven to limit proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.  1987 – Yugoslavia abandons its nuclear weapons program.  1987 – Chang Hsien-yi, a colonel of the Republic of China Army and the deputy director of the INER, defects to the United States and provides the CIA with classified documents revealing a secret nuclear weapons program in Taiwan. The program is shut down by ROC President Chiang Ching-kuo under pressure from the IAEA and President Reagan.  1987 – The United States ends production of nuclear material for weapons.  1987 – December 8- The Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty is signed by Gorbachev and Reagan at the Washington Summit, and is later ratified by both countries.  1988 – Switzerland abandons its nuclear weapons program.  1988 – Pakistan reportedly has the capacity to build a nuclear bomb. 570  1989 – South Africa opts to dismantle the six nuclear weapons it has secretly built amid the negotiations to end apartheid.  1989 – Communism collapses in the Eastern Bloc during the Revolutions of 1989. The Soviet Union and the United States subsequently hold the Malta Summit aboard the TS Maxim Gorkiy announcing the end of the Cold War. 1990–2000  1990 - July – NATO issues the London Declaration declaring its relations with the Warsaw Pact and the Soviet Union to be no longer adversarial and urging reductions in tactical nuclear forces in Europe.  1990 – October 16 – The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act is ratified in the United States, providing monetary compensation to victims of radiation-related illnesses, including cancer, caused by contact with nuclear testing and uranium mining.  1991 – South Africa signs the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty; they also announce that from 1979 to 1989, they had built and then dismantled a number of nuclear weapons. The IAEA confirms that the program has been fully dismantled.  1991 – France and China ratify the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.  1991 – June – The Brazilian-Argentine Agency for Accounting and Control of Nuclear Materials is established to play an active role in verifying the pacific use of nuclear materials that could be used for the manufacture of nuclear weapons in Argentina and Brazil.  1991 – July 31 – The START I Treaty is ratified between the Soviet Union and the United States.  1991 – Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev signs a moratorium on nuclear weapons testing. The Soviet Union's 1990 nuclear test series became its last.  1991 – December – The United States withdraws its nuclear weapons from South Korea.  1991 – December 25 – The Soviet Union, which possesses the largest nuclear arsenal in the world, collapses. Gorbachev hands over the nuclear briefcase, the Cheget, to the new Russian President Boris Yeltsin. 571  1991 – December 30 – The Commonwealth of Independent States ratifies a preliminary agreement to transfer nuclear weapons of the former Soviet Union held in Belarus, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan to the new Russian Federation, but to allow their governments to veto their use.  1992 – The U.S. Senate votes for a nuclear testing moratorium despite opposition from President George HW Bush and Defense Secretary Dick Cheney. Operation Julin is the final American weapons test, and also ends British nuclear testing in the United States.  1992 – France's nuclear stockpile peaks at over 500 warheads.  1993 – January 3 – The United States and Russia mutually agree to ban multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles through the START II Treaty.  1993 – Russia formulates a military doctrine de-emphasizing nuclear weapons except in the case of a large-scale global conflict, although President Yeltsin authorizes development of the RT-2PM2 Topol-M intercontinental ballistic missile and the Boreiclass submarine fleet.  1993 – The United States agrees to purchase excess highly enriched uranium from dismantled Soviet nuclear warheads from Russia for conversion into lower-grade uranium for electricity production through the Megatons to Megawatts Program.  1993 – North Korea rejects IAEA inspections and threatens to withdraw from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.  1994 – January – The United States and Russia negotiate a detargeting agreement that they will no longer directly target each other with nuclear weapons.  1994 – After a meeting between Kim Il-Sung and Jimmy Carter and the ratification of the Agreed Framework, North Korea agrees to freeze its nuclear program in exchange for aid, easing of sanctions, and two civilian light-water reactors, which are built by the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Corporation.  1994 – The Vanguard-class submarines are introduced by the Royal Navy as an upgrade of the British strategic nuclear force, and carry American-built UGM-133 Trident II missiles. 572  1994 – December 10 – Ukraine agrees to the Budapest Memorandum transferring its strategic nuclear weapons to Russia and dismantling its nuclear infrastructure through the U.S.-sponsored Cooperative Threat Reduction Program in exchange for a guarantee of sovereignty from Russia.  1995 – The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty is ratified by 168 states. India, Pakistan, and North Korea have not signed the Treaty while China, Iran, Israel, and the United States have signed but not ratified it.  1995 – Russia agrees to complete the Bushehr Nuclear Power Plant in Iran that had been commenced by West Germany in the 1970s.  1995 – January 27 – A false alarm occurs after a Norwegian Black Brant XII sounding rocket launched to study the aurora borealis from Andøya is mistaken for an American high-altitude nuclear attack by Russia's Main Centre for Missile Attack Warning, and President Yeltsin activates the Cheget before the error is rectified.  1995 – April – Kazakhstan completes the transfer of its nuclear weapons to Russia.  1996 – January – France performs its last nuclear tests to date on Moruroa atoll.  1996 – April 11 – The Treaty of Pelindaba is ratified, creating a nuclear-weapon-free zone in Africa.  1996 – July 8 – The International Court of Justice rules in its Advisory opinion on the Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons that the use and threat of nuclear weapons is legal under international law.  1996 – July 29 – China conducts its final nuclear test.  1996 – Belarus and Ukraine complete the transfer of strategic nuclear weapons, ICBMs, and strategic bombers they had inherited after the dissolution of the Soviet Union to Russia through the U.S.-sponsored Cooperative Threat Reduction Program.  1997 – France launches Operation Xouthos, its final nuclear test.  1997 – March 21 – France launches the first of its Triomphant-class submarines.  1997 – After the U.S. Senate ratifies the START II Agreement, President Clinton and President Yeltsin begin negotiations for START III. The talks collapse due to tensions 573 over NATO intervention in the Kosovo War, the 1998 U.S. bombing of Iraq, and Operation Infinite Reach.  1998 – The United Kingdom decommissions the WE.177 bomb, the final warhead used by the Royal Air Force and the final tactical nuclear weapon used by Britain. The United Kingdom shifts towards exclusive reliance on its strategic SLBM programs for a nuclear deterrent in its Strategic Defence Review.  1998 – May – India tests five more nuclear weapons as part of Operation Shakti at the Pokhran test site. This was India's second round of nuclear weapons testing.  1998 – May – Pakistan detonates five high-enriched uranium nuclear weapons in the Chagai Hills. A sixth nuclear test, at Kharan, was a plutonium device.  1998 – The Iraqi disarmament crisis intensifies after Saddam Hussein forces the UN inspectors out, leading to Operation Desert Fox.  1999 – The U.S. Defense Intelligence Agency estimates that Israel possesses between 60 and 80 nuclear weapons. 2000–2010  2000 – January – Russia publicly begins to reformulate its doctrine to include the possibility of a nuclear response to a large-scale conventional attack.  2002 – U.S. President George W. Bush refuses to certify North Korea's compliance with the Agreed Framework and links it in an "Axis of Evil" with Iraq and Iran.  2002 – The National Council of Resistance of Iran reports the existence of secret Iranian nuclear facilities at Natanz and Arak. The IAEA inspects them a year later.  2002 – The Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty is signed by U.S. President Bush and Russian President Vladimir Putin, and is ratified by the U.S. Senate and the Russian State Duma on June 1.  2002 – June – The United States withdraws from the ABM Treaty, while Russia withdraws from the START II Agreement.  2002 – June – The Group of Eight announces the Global Partnership Against the Spread of Weapons and Materials of Mass Destruction at its 28th summit in Kananaskis, Alberta. 574  2002 – November 13 – UNMOVIC inspectors return to Iraq after the Iraq Resolution and UN Security Council Resolution 1441 to ensure that it has ended its CNBR weapons.  2002 – November 25 – The International Code of Conduct against Ballistic Missile Proliferation is ratified at The Hague, Netherlands, regulating proliferation of nuclearcapable ballistic missiles.  2002 – December 16 – President Bush issues a national security directive to construct a missile defense system in California and Alaska.  2003 – March 20 – Although Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei claim there is no evidence that Iraqi CNBR weapons development has resumed, President Bush authorizes the U.S.-lead invasion of Iraq. During the occupation of Iraq no evidence of weapons of mass destruction is found.  2003 – North Korea withdraws from the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.  2003 – North Korea announces that it has several nuclear explosives. The Six-Party Talks begin in Beijing.  2003 – December – Libya announces the closure of its WMD programs, including an early attempt to develop an atomic bomb using designs from Abdul Qadeer Khan.  2005 - June - Mahmoud Ahmadinejad is elected President of Iran and declares that Iran has a right to construct nuclear weapons.  2005 – August – In Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons.  2006 – May – The United States begins preparing missile defense systems in the Czech Republic and Poland.  2006 - April 11 - President Ahmedinejad announces that Iran has produced enriched uranium in defiance of the UN and the IAEA, leading to sanctions.  2006 – July – Prior to the 32nd G8 summit, Russia threatens to retaliate to missile defense preparations in Eastern Europe by targeting European urban centers.  2006 – October 9 – North Korea tests a nuclear weapon for the first time in the Hamgyong Mountains. 575  2006 – December – The Blair government in the United Kingdom issues a white paper announcing development of a new nuclear submarine using the Rolls-Royce PWR3 nuclear reactor.  2008 – The Russian Navy conducts ten limited patrols with its strategic nuclear submarines, its greatest amount since the collapse of the Soviet Union.  2008 – January – Israel is believed to have tested its first intercontinental ballistic missile, the Jericho III.  2008 – November – Poland and the Czech Republic agree to delay deployment of radar sites until after the 2008 United States presidential elections and the presidential transition.  2009 – April 4 – President Barack Obama pledges a "world without nuclear weapons" in a speech at Hradčany Square in Prague, Czech Republic.  2009 – November 12 – President Obama announces changes to the NATO missile defense system, including an increased reliance on the sea-based Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System and the AN/TPY-2 radar, and the RIM-161 Standard Missile 3 missile system.  2009 - October 29 - Iran rejects the Obama administration's first proposal for an antinuclear agreement. 2010–present  2010 – North Korea reveals its new uranium-enrichment plant during tensions from the ROKS Cheonan sinking, the May 24 measures, and the bombardment of Yeonpyeong.  2010 – February – Russia issues a revision of its military doctrine limiting the use of nuclear weapons to strictly defensive purposes.  2010 – April 8 – U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dimitri Medvedev sign the New START Treaty reducing strategic warheads.  2010 – May – The United Kingdom releases the Strategic Defence and Security Review under the Cameron-Clegg coalition pledging to limit to limit its number of 576 operational nuclear warheads to 120 with 40 per submarine, which it does by January 2015.  2010 – November 2 – The United Kingdom and France agree to closer cooperation regarding nuclear forces in the Lancaster House Treaties.  2012 – Russia announces that it will resume regular patrols with its SSBN fleet in international waters.  2012 – April 19 – India tests its first intercontinental ballistic missile, the Agni-V.  2012 – October – The Ministry of Foreign Affairs states that Russia will not renew the framework for cooperation with the United States on nuclear dismantlement after the expiration of the Nunn-Lugar Act.  2013 – After negotiations between Iran and the P5+1, the Joint Plan of Action is adopted.  2013 – June – President Obama proposes reducing American strategic nuclear weapons to their lowest point since 1953 in a speech at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin.  2013 – The U.S. Department of Defense reports to Congress that the PLA Navy is developing an ballistic missile submarine force.  2014 – September 18 – The 2014 Scottish independence referendum occurs and support for the Scottish National Party begins to grow. Speculations begin on how to withdraw the British nuclear arsenal from Scotland, where its SSBN fleet is deployed at HMNB Clyde and its nuclear arsenal is stored at RNAD Coulport, if it received independence or full fiscal autonomy.  2014 – December – After increasing tensions in Russia–United States diplomatic relations following the Russian annexation of Crimea and the Russian military intervention in Ukraine, cooperation with the United States on securing Russian nuclear stockpiles ends.  2015 – Under the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action, Iran agrees to limit its uraniumenrichment operations in exchange for submitting to IAEA inspections and reduced sanctions.  2015 – Reports about Russia's Status-6 Oceanic Multipurpose System, a system of unmanned underwater vehicles capable of delivering a thermonuclear cobalt bomb, leak. 577  2015 – September 12 – Jeremy Corbyn, a longtime opponent of nuclear weapons, wins the 2015 Labour Party leadership election and becomes Leader of the Opposition. He proposes ending the Trident programme or removing the Trident missiles' nuclear capability.  2015 – November – The Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015 announces the Dreadnought-class submarines a replacement for Britain's aging Vanguard-class submarines and Trident missiles, but is eventually delayed due to "Brexit".  2016 – January – North Korea Hydrogen bomb is 'tested' and confirmed by North Korea leader Kim Jong-Un.  2016 – May 27 – President Obama becomes the first American head of state to visit Hiroshima, expressing sympathy for victims but not issuing a public apology for the bombings as many expected.  2017 – July 7- The Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons, the first legallybinding international nuclear weapons ban, is ratified by 90 countries. The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons wins the Nobel Peace Prize for its campaigning for the Treaty.  2017 – September – North Korea conducted its seventh nuclear test with a yield between fifty and two hundred fifty kilotons, causing an international crisis. President Donald Trump adopts more bellicose rhetoric towards the country.  2017 – December 12 – The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2018 is ratified, declaring Russia to be in violation of the INF Treaty.  2018 – February – Under President Trump, the U.S. Department of Defense's Nuclear Posture Review announces the first expansion of the United States' nuclear arsenal since the end of the Cold War, citing violations of non-proliferation treaties by China and Russia as well as the Russian military intervention in Ukraine and the South China Sea territorial disputes.  2018 – March 15 – Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman announces on a 60 Minutes interview that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia will pursue nuclear weapons in the event of a successful Iranian nuclear test. 578  2018 – April 27 – Kim Jong-un meets South Korean President Moon Jaein in Panmunjom for a summit and pledges a denuclearized Korean Peninsula.  2018 – May 1 – President Putin announces a major modernization to Russian nuclear forces in his annual Presidential Address to the Federal Assembly, including announcing the Avangard hypersonic glide vehicle.  2018 – May 8 – President Trump announces the United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action.  2018 – June 12 – Trump and Kim meet at the 2018 North Korea–United States Singapore Summit, the first American and North Korean heads of state to meet, and issue a joint declaration pledging a denuclearized Korea.  2019 – February – The United States and Russia withdraw from the INF Treaty.  2019 – February 28 – The 2019 North Korea–United States Hanoi Summit ends prematurely without a deal, but both parties express commitment to a better relationship. Timeline of photography technology Prior to the 20th century  c. 1717 – Johann Heinrich Schulze makes fleeting sun prints of words by using stencils, sunlight, and a bottled mixture of chalk and silver nitrate in nitric acid, simply as an interesting way to demonstrate that the substance inside the bottle darkens where it is exposed to light.  c. 1800 – Thomas Wedgwood conceives of making permanent pictures of camera images by using a durable surface coated with a light-sensitive chemical. He succeeds only in producing silhouettes and other shadow images, and is unable to make them permanent.  1816 – Nicéphore Niépce succeeds in making negative photographs of camera images on paper coated with silver chloride, but cannot adequately "fix" them to stop them from darkening all over when exposed to light for viewing. 579  1822 – Niépce abandons silver halide photography as hopelessly impermanent and tries using thin coatings of Bitumen of Judea on metal and glass. He creates the first fixed, permanent photograph, a copy of an engraving of Pope Pius VII, by contact printing in direct sunlight without a camera or lens. It is later destroyed; the earliest surviving example of his "heliographic process" is from 1825.  1824 – Niépce makes the first durable, light-fast camera photograph, similar to his surviving 1826–1827 photograph on pewter but created on the surface of a lithographic stone. It is destroyed in the course of subsequent experiments.  1826 or 1827 – Niépce makes what is now the earliest surviving photograph from nature, a landscape. It requires an exposure in the camera that lasts at least eight hours and probably several days.  1834 – Hércules Florence, a French-Brazilian painter and the isolate inventor of photography in Brazil, coined the word photographie for his technique, at least four years before John Herschel coined the English word photography.  1835 – Henry Fox Talbot produces durable silver chloride camera negatives on paper and conceives the two-step negative-positive procedure used in most non-electronic photography up to the present.  1839 – Louis Daguerre publicly introduces his daguerreotype process, which produces highly detailed permanent photographs on silver-plated sheets of copper. At first, it requires several minutes of exposure in the camera, but later improvements reduce the exposure time to a few seconds. Photography suddenly enters the public consciousness and Daguerre's process is soon being used worldwide.  1839 – Talbot publicly introduces the paper-based process he worked out in 1835, calling it "photogenic drawing", but it requires much longer exposures than the daguerreotype and the results are not as clear and detailed.  1839 – Hippolyte Bayard presents the first public exhibition of photographs. He claims to have invented a photographic process prior to Daguerre and Talbot.  1839 – Sarah Anne Bright creates a series of photograms, six of which are known to still exist. These are the earliest surviving photographic images created by a woman. 580  1839 – John Herschel introduces hyposulfite of soda (now known as sodium thiosulfate but still nicknamed "hypo") as a highly effective fixer for all silver-based processes. He also makes the first glass negative.  1841 – Talbot introduces his patented calotype (or "talbotype") paper negative process, an improved version of his earlier process that greatly reduces the required exposure time.  1845 – Francis Ronalds invents the first successful camera for continuous recording of the variations in meteorological and geomagnetic parameters over time  1848 – Edmond Becquerel makes the first full-color photographs, but they are only laboratory curiosities: an exposure lasting hours or days is required and the colors are so light-sensitive that they sometimes fade right before the viewer's eyes while being examined.  1851 – Introduction of the collodion process by Frederick Scott Archer, used for making glass negatives, ambrotypes and tintypes.  1850s – Combination printing was introduced, probably first suggested by Hippolyte Bayard when he thought of using a separate negative of a properly exposed sky in combination with a proper negative of the landscape or monument documented for the Missions Héliographiques that started in 1851.  1854 – British Journal of Photography (initially established as the Liverpool Photographic Journal) first issue was published on 14 January 1854  1854 – André-Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri credited with introduction of the carte de visite (English: visiting card or calling card) format for portraiture. Disdéri uses a camera with multiple lenses that can photograph eight different poses on one large negative. After printing on albumen paper, the images are cut apart and glued to calling-card-size mounts.  1861 – James Clerk Maxwell presents a projected additive color image of a multicolored ribbon, the first demonstration of color photography by the three-color method he suggested in 1855. It uses three separate black-and-white photographs taken and projected through red, green and blue color filters. The projected image is temporary but the set of three "color separations" is the first durable color photograph. 581  1868 – Louis Ducos du Hauron patents his numerous ideas for color photography based on the three-color principle, including procedures for making subtractive color prints on paper. They are published the following year. Their implementation is not technologically practical at that time, but they anticipate most of the color processes that are later introduced.  1871 – The gelatin emulsion is invented by Richard Maddox.  1873 – Hermann Wilhelm Vogel discovers dye sensitization, allowing the blue-sensitive but otherwise color-blind photographic emulsions then in use to be made sensitive to green, yellow and red light. Technical problems delay the first use of dye sensitization in a commercial product until the mid-1880s; fully panchromatic emulsions are not in common use until the mid-20th century.  1876 – Hurter & Driffield begin systematic evaluation of sensitivity characteristics of photographic emulsions — the science of sensitometry.  1878 – Heat ripening of gelatin emulsions is discovered. This greatly increases sensitivity and makes possible very short "snapshot" exposures.  1878 – Eadweard Muybridge uses a row of cameras with trip-wires to make a high-speed photographic analysis of a galloping horse. Each picture is taken in less than the twothousandth part of a second, and they are taken in sufficiently rapid sequence (about 25 per second) that they constitute a brief real-time "movie" that can be viewed by using a device such as a zoetrope, a photographic "first".  1887 – Celluloid film base introduced.  1888 – The Kodak n°1 box camera, the first easy-to-use camera, is introduced with the slogan, "You press the button, we do the rest."  1888 – Louis Le Prince makes Roundhay Garden Scene. It is believed to be the first-ever motion picture on film.  1889 – The first commercially available transparent celluloid roll film is introduced by the Eastman Company, later renamed the Eastman Kodak Company and commonly known as Kodak.  1891 – Gabriel Lippmann announces a "method of reproducing colors photographically based on the phenomenon of interference". 582  1891 – William Kennedy Laurie Dickson develops the "kinetoscopic" motion picture camera while working for Thomas Edison.  1895 – Auguste and Louis Lumière invent the cinématographe.  1898 – Kodak introduces the Folding Pocket Kodak.  1900 – Kodak introduces their first Brownie, a very inexpensive user-reloadable pointand-shoot box camera. 20th century onwards  1901 – Kodak introduces the 120 film format.  1902 – Arthur Korn devises practical telephotography technology (reduction of photographic images to signals that can be transmitted by wire to other locations).WirePhotos are in wide use in Europe by 1910, and transmitted to other continents by 1922.  1907 – The Autochrome plate is introduced. It becomes the first commercially successful color photography product.  1908 – Kinemacolor, a two-color process known as the first commercial "natural color" system for movies, is introduced.  1909 – Kodak announces a 35 mm "safety" motion picture film on an acetate base as an alternative to the highly flammable nitrate base. The motion picture industry discontinues its use after 1911 due to technical imperfections.  1912 – Vest Pocket Kodak using 127 film.  1912 – Thomas Edison introduces a short-lived 22 mm home motion picture format using acetate "safety" film manufactured by Kodak.  1913 – Kodak makes 35 mm panchromatic motion picture film available on a bulk special order basis.  1914 – Kodak introduces the Autographic film system.  1914 – The World, the Flesh and the Devil, made in Kinemacolor, is the first dramatic feature film in color released.  1922 – Kodak makes 35 mm panchromatic motion picture film available as a regular stock. 583  1923 – The 16 mm amateur motion picture format is introduced by Kodak. Their CineKodak camera uses reversal film and all 16 mm is on an acetate (safety) base.  1923 – Harold Edgerton invents the xenon flash lamp for strobe photography.  1925 – The Leica introduces the 35 mm format to still photography.  1926 – Kodak introduces its 35 mm Motion Picture Duplicating Film for duplicate negatives. Previously, motion picture studios used a second camera alongside the primary camera to create a duplicate negative.  1932 – "Flowers and Trees", the first full-color cartoon, is made in Technicolor by Disney.  1932 – Kodak introduces the first 8 mm amateur motion picture film, cameras, and projectors.  1934 – The 135 film cartridge is introduced, making 35 mm easy to use for still photography.  1935– Becky Sharp, the first feature film made in the full-color "three-strip" version of Technicolor, is released.  1935 – Introduction of Kodachrome multi-layered color reversal film (16 mm only; 8 mm and 35 mm follow in 1936, sheet film in 1938).  1936 – Introduction by IHAGEE of the Ihagee Kine Exakta 1, the first 35 mm SLR (Single Lens Reflex) camera.  1936 – Agfacolor Neu (English: New Agfacolor) color reversal film for home movies and slides.  1939 – Agfacolor negative and positive 35 mm color film stock for professional motion picture use (not for making paper prints).  1939 – The View-Master 3-D viewer and its "reels" of seven small stereoscopic image pairs on Kodachrome film are introduced.  1942 – Kodacolor, the first color film that yields negatives for making chromogenic color prints on paper. Roll films for snapshot cameras only, 35 mm not available until 1958.  1947 – Dennis Gabor invents holography.  1947 – Harold Edgerton develops the Rapatronic camera for the U.S. government. 584  1948 – The Hasselblad camera is introduced.  1948 – Edwin H. Land introduces the first Polaroid instant camera.  1949 – The Contax S camera is introduced, the first 35 mm SLR camera with a pentaprism eye-level viewfinder.  1952 – Bwana Devil, a low-budget polarized 3-D film, premieres in late November and starts a brief 3-D craze that begins in earnest in 1953 and fades away during 1954.  1954 – Leica M Introduced  1957 – First Asahi Pentax SLR introduced.  1957 – First digital computer acquisition of scanned photographs, by Russell Kirsch et al. at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (now the NIST).  1959 – Nikon F introduced.  1959 – AGFA introduces the first fully automatic camera, the Optima.  1963 – Kodak introduces the Instamatic.  1964 – First Pentax Spotmatic SLR introduced.  1967 – First MOS 10 by 10 active pixel array shown by Noble  1972 – Integrated Photomatrix (Noble) demonstrates for 64 by 64 MOS active pixel array  1973 – Fairchild Semiconductor releases the first large image forming CCD chip: 100 rows and 100 columns of pixels.  1974 – Josef H. Neumann created the first Chemograms combining the disciplines painting and photography within the fotographic layer for the first time.  1975 – Bryce Bayer of Kodak develops the Bayer filter mosaic pattern for CCD color image sensors.  1976 – Steadicam becomes available.  1986 – Kodak scientists invent the world's first megapixel sensor.  1992 – Photo CD created by Kodak.  1993–95 – The Jet Propulsion Laboratory develops devices using CMOS or active pixel sensors.  1994 – Nikon introduces the first optical-stabilized lens. 585  1995 – "Kodak DC40 and the Apple QuickTake 100 become the first digital cameras marketed for consumers."  1996 – Eastman Kodak, FujiFilm, AgfaPhoto, and Konica introduce the Advanced Photo System (APS).  1997 – first known publicly shared picture via a cell phone, by Philippe Kahn.  2000 – J-SH04 introduced by J-Phone, the first commercially available mobile phone with a camera that can take and share still pictures.  2005 – AgfaPhoto files for bankruptcy. The production of Agfa brand consumer films ends.  2006 – Dalsa produces a 111 megapixel CCD sensor, the highest resolution at that time.  2008 – Polaroid announces it is discontinuing the production of all instant film products, citing the rise of digital imaging technology.  2009 – Kodak announces the discontinuance of Kodachrome film.  2009 – FujiFilm launches world's first digital 3D camera with 3D printing capabilities.  2011 – Lytro releases the first pocket-sized consumer light-field camera, capable of refocusing images after they are taken.  2018 – Kodak resumes the production of Ektachrome film. Timeline of electrical and electronic engineering History of discoveries timeline Year Event 2750 BC Ancient Egyptian texts described electric fish and identified them with thunder 600 BC Ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus described static electricity by rubbing fur on substances such as amber 586 800 AD Arabic naturalists and physicians described electric fish and electrostatic phenomena. 1300 Arabic naturalists and physicians described electric rays and identified them with lightning 1600 English scientist William Gilbert coined the word electricus after careful experiments. 1660 Otto von Guericke invented the device that creates static electricity. This is the first ever electric generator. 1705 English scientist Francis Hauksbee made a glass ball that glowed when spun and rubbed with the hand 1720 English scientist Stephen Gray made the distinction between insulators and conductors 1745 German physicist Ewald Georg von Kleist and Dutch scientist Pieter van Musschenbroek invented Leyden jars 1752 American scientist Benjamin Franklin showed that lightning was electrical by flying a kite, and explained how Leyden jars work 1780 Italian scientist Luigi Galvani discovered the Galvanic action in living tissue 1785 French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb formulated and published Coulomb's law in his paper Premier Mémoire sur l’Électricité et le Magnétisme 1785 French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace developed the Laplace transform to transform a linear differential equation to an algebraic equation. Later, his transform became a tool in circuit analysis. 1800 Italian physicist Alessandro Volta invented the battery 587 1804 Thomas Young: Wave theory of light, Vision and color theory 1808 Atomic theory by John Dalton 1816 English inventor Francis Ronalds built the first working electric telegraph 1820 Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted accidentally discovered that an electric field creates a magnetic field 1820 One week after Ørsted's discovery, French physicist André-Marie Ampère published his law. He also proposed right-hand screw rule 1821 German scientist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered thermoelectricity 1825 English physicist William Sturgeon developed the first electromagnet 1827 German physicist Georg Ohm introduced the concept of electrical resistance 1831 English physicist Michael Faraday published the law of induction (Joseph Henry developed the same law independently) 1831 American scientist Joseph Henry in United States developed a prototype DC motor 1832 French instrument maker Hippolyte Pixii in France developed a prototype DC generator 1833 Michael Faraday developed laws of electrolysis 1833 Michael Faraday invented thermistor 1833 English Samuel Hunter Christie invented Wheatstone bridge (It is named after Charles Wheatstone who popularized it) 1836 Irish priest (and later scientist) Nicholas Callan invented transformer in Ireland 588 1837 English scientist Edward Davy invented the electric relay 1839 French scientist Edmond Becquerel discovered the Photovoltaic Effect 1844 American inventor Samuel Morse developed telegraphy and the Morse code 1845 German physicist Gustav Kirchhoff developed two laws now known as Kirchhoff's Circuit laws 1850 Belgian engineer Floris Nollet invented (and patented) a practical AC generator 1851 Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff first coil, which he patented in 1851 1855 First utilization of AC (in electrotherapy) by French neurologist Guillaume Duchenne 1856 Belgian engineer Charles Bourseul proposed telephony 1856 First electrically powered light house in England 1860 German scientist Johann Philipp Reis invented Microphone 1862 Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell published four equations bearing his name 1866 Transatlantic telegraph cable 1873 Belgian engineer Zenobe Gramme who developed DC generator accidentally discovered that a DC generator also works as a DC motor during an exhibit in Vienna. 1876 Russian engineer Pavel Yablochkov invented electric carbon arc lamp 1876 Scottish inventor Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone 1877 American inventor Thomas Alva Edison invented phonograph 589 1877 German industrialist Werner von Siemens developed primitive loudspeaker 1878 First street lighting in Paris, France 1878 First hydroelectric plant in Cragside, England 1878 William Crookes invents Crooks tube a prototype of Vacuum tubes 1878 English engineer Joseph Swan invented Incandescent light bulb 1879 American physicist Edwin Herbert Hall discovered Hall Effect 1879 Thomas Alva Edison introduced a long lasting filament for the incandescent lamp. 1880 French physicists Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie discovered Piezoelectricity 1882 First thermal power stations in London and New York 1883 English physicist J J Thomson invented waveguides 1887 German American inventor Emile Berliner invented gramophone record 1888 German physicist Heinrich Hertz proves the existence of electromagnetic waves, including what would come to be called radio waves. 1888 Italian physicist and electrical engineer Galileo Ferraris publishes a paper on the induction motor and Serbian-American engineer Nikola Tesla gets a US patent on the same device 1890 Thomas Alva Edison invents the fuse 1893 During the Fourth International Conference of Electricians in Chicago electrical units were defined 1894 Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose introduced use of semiconductor junction 590 to detect radio waves 1894 Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose discovered extremely high frequency millimetre waves 1894 Russian physicist Alexander Stepanovich Popov finds a use for radio waves, building a radio receiver that can detect lightning strikes 1895 Discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen 1896 First successful intercontinental telegram 1897 German inventor Karl Ferdinand Braun invented cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) 1900 Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi builds first radio communication system, based on radiotelegraphy 1901 First transatlantic radio transmission by Guglielmo Marconi 1901 American engineer Peter Cooper Hewitt invented Fluorescent lamp 1904 English engineer John Ambrose Fleming invented diode 1906 American inventor Lee de Forest invented triode 1908 Scottish engineer Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton, laid the principles of Television. 1911 Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discovered Superconductivity 1912 American engineer Edwin Howard Armstrong developed Electronic oscillator 1915 French physicist Paul Langevin and Russian engineer Constantin Chilowsky invented sonar 1917 American engineer Alexander M. Nicholson invented crystal oscillator 591 1918 French physicist Henri Abraham and Eugene Bloch invented multivibrator 1919 Edwin Howard Armstrong developed standard AM radio receiver 1921 Metre Convention was extended to include the electrical units 1921 Edith Clarke invents the "Clarke calculator", a graphical calculator for solving line equations involving hyperbolic function, allowing electrical engineers to simplify calculations for inductance and capacity in power transmission lines 1924 Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi began research program on electronic television 1925 Austrian American engineer Julius Edgar Lilienfeld patented the first FET (which became popular much later) 1926 Yagi-Uda antenna was developed by the Japanese engineers Hidetsugu Yagi and Shintaro Uda 1926 Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi demonstrated CRT television with 40line resolution, the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver. 1927 Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi increased television resolution to 100 lines, unrivaled until 1931 1927 American engineer Harold Stephen Black invented negative feedback amplifier 1927 German Physicist Max Dieckmann invented Video camera tube 1928 Raman scattering discovered by C. V. Raman and Kariamanickam Srinivasa Krishnan, providing basis for later Raman laser 1928 Japanese engineer Kenjiro Takayanagi was the first to transmit human faces in half-tones on television, influencing the later work of Vladimir K. Zworykin 592 1928 First experimental Television broadcast in the US. 1929 First public TV broadcast in Germany 1931 First wind energy plant in the Soviet Union 1934 Japanese engineer Akira Nakajima's switching circuit theory lays foundations for digital electronics 1936 Dudley E. Foster and Stuart William Seeley developed FM detector circuit. 1936 Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented Printed circuit board 1936 Scottish Scientist Robert Watson-Watt developed the Radar concept which was proposed earlier. 1938 Russian American engineer Vladimir K. Zworykin developed Iconoscope 1939 Edwin Howard Armstrong developed FM radio receiver 1939 Russell and Sigurd Varian developed the first Klystron tube in the US. 1941 German engineer Konrad Zuse developed the first programmable computer in Berlin 1944 Scottish Engineer John Logie Baird developed the first color picture tube 1945 Transatlantic telephone cable 1947 American engineers John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain together with their group leader William Shockley invented transistor. 1948 Hungarian-British physicist Dennis Gabor invented Holography 1950 French physicist Alfred Kastler invented MASER 1951 First nuclear power plant in the US 593 1952 Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa invented avalanche photodiode 1953 First fully transistorized computer in the US 1954 Optical fiber invented by Indian physicist Narinder Singh Kapany 1957 Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa invented the semiconductor laser 1958 American engineer Jack Kilby invented the integrated circuit (IC) 1959 MOSFET (MOS transistor) invented by Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs 1960 American engineer Theodore Harold Maiman developed a LASER 1962 Nick Holonyak Jr. invented the LED 1963 First home Videocassette recorder (VCR) 1963 Electronic calculator 1966 Fiber optic communication by Kao and Hockham 2008 American scientist Richard Stanley Williams invented memristor which was proposed by Leon O. Chua in 1971 History of associated inventions timeline Brief History of Electronics Timeline Date 1900 Invention/Discovery Inventor(s) Old quantum theory Planck 594 1905 Theory of relativity Einstein 1918 Atomic transmutation Rutherford 1932 Neutron Chadwick 1932 Particle accelerator Crockcroft and Walton 1935 Scanning electron microscope Knoll 1937 Xerography Carlson 1937 Oscillograph 1950 Modem MIT and Bell Labs 1950 Karnaugh mapping technique (digital logic) Karnaugh 1952 Digital voltmeter Kay 1954 Solar battery Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson 1956 Transatlantic telephone cable UK and U.S. 1957 Sputnik I satellite Soviet Union 1957 Nuclear Missile Kurchatov / Soviet Union Van Ardenne, Dowling, and Bullen 595 1957 1959 1959 FORTRAN programming language Watson Scientific First one-piece plain paper photocopier (Xerox 914) Veroboard (Stripboard) Xerox Terry Fitzpatrick Vogel and Cie, patented by 1961 Electronic clock Alexander Bain, Scottish clockmaker in 1840. 1963 First commercially successful audio compact cassette Philips Corporation 1964 BASIC programming language Kemeny and Kurtz 1964 Liquid-crystal display George H. Heilmeier First digital fax machine Dacom 1969 UNIX operating system AT&T's Bell Labs 1970 First microprocessor (4004, 60,000 oper/s) Intel 1970 First commercially available DRAM memory IBM 1971 EPROM N/A late 1960s 596 1971 PASCAL programming language Wirth 1971 First microcomputer-on-a-chip Intel 1971 Laser printer Xerox 1972 8008 processor (200 kHz, 16 kB) Intel 1972 First programmable word processor Automatic Electronic Systems 1972 5¼-inch diskette N/A 1972 First modern ATM (IBM 2984) IBM 1973 Josephson junction IBM 1973 Tunable continuous-wave laser Bell Labs 1973 Ethernet Metcalfe 1973 Mobile phone 1974 C (programming language) Kernighan, Ritchie 1974 Programmable pocket calculator Hewlett-Packard 1975 BASIC for personal computers Allen John F. Mitchell and Dr. Martin Cooper of Motorola 597 1975 First personal computer (Altair 8800) 1975 Digital camera 1975 Integrated optical circuits 1975 Roberts Steven Sasson of Eastman Kodak Reinhart and Logan Omni-font optical character Nuance Communications recognition system 1975 CCD flatbed scanner Kurzweil Computer Products 1975 Text-to-speech synthesis Kurzweil Computer Products 1975 1976 First commercial reading machine for the blind (Kurzweil Reading Machine) Kurzweil Computer Products Apple I computer Wozniak, Jobs Launch of the "1977 trinity computers" Apple, Tandy Corporation, expanding home computing, the Apple Commodore Business II, Commodore PET and the TRS-80 Machines 1977 First handheld electronic game (Auto Race) Mattel 1978 WordPerfect 1.0 Satellite Software 1980 3½-inch floppy (2-sided, 875 kB) N/A 1977 598 Commodore Business 1980 VIC-20 1981 IBM Personal Computer (8088 processor) IBM 1981 MS-DOS 1.0 Microsoft 1981 "Wet" solar cell Bayer AG 1982 Commodore 64 1982 Machines Commodore Business Machines First commercially marketed large-vocabulary Kurzweil Applied Intelligence speech recognition and Dragon Systems U.S. Satellite Communications, 1983 Satellite television 1983 First built-in hard drive (IBM PC XT) IBM 1983 C++ (programming language) Stroustrup 1984 Macintosh computer (introduced) Apple Computer 1984 CD-ROM player for personal computers Philips Inc. First music synthesizer (Kurzweil K250) 1984 capable of recreating the grand piano and other orchestral instruments 599 Kurzweil Music Systems Victor Grignard had a strange start in academic life for a chemist – he took a maths degree. When he eventually switched to chemistry, it was not to the mathematical province of physical chemistry but to organic chemistry. While attempting to find an efficient catalyst for the process of methylation, he noted that Zn in diethyl ether had been used for this purpose and wondered whether the Mg/ether combination might be successful. Grignard reagents were first reported in 1900 and Grignard used this work for his doctoral thesis in 1901. In 1910, Grignard obtained a professorship at the University of Nancy and in 1912, he was awarded the Nobel prize for Chemistry which he shared with Paul Sabatier who had made advances in nickel catalyzed hydrogenation. Structure Common name IUPAC name HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid CH3CH2COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid CH3CH2CH2COOH Butyric acid Butanoic acid Amino acids The building blocks of proteins Nonessential amino acids Synthesized in the body Essential amino acids Cannot be synthesized in the body and must be obtained through diet 11 nonessential amino acids: arginine, glutamine, tyrosine, cysteine, glycine, proline, serine, ornithine, alanine, asparagine and aspartate. Gentlemen and ladies, this is ordinary alcohol, sometimes called ethanol; it is found in all fermented beverages. As you well know, it is considered by many to be poisonous, a belief in which I do not concur. If we subtract from it one CH2group we arrive at this colorless liquid, which you see in this bottle. It is sometimes called methanol or wood alcohol. It is certainly more toxic than the ethanol we have just seen. Its formula is CH3OH. If, from this, we subtract the CH2-group, we arrive at a third colorless liquid, the final member of this homologous series. This compound is hydrogen hydroxide, best known as water. It is the most poisonous of all. Alfred Werner Born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1928, Dr Watson received his Ph.D. (1950) from Indiana University in Zoology. He is best known for his discovery of the structure of DNA for which he shared with Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins the 1962 Nobel prize in Physiology and Medicine. They proposed that DNA molecule takes the shape of a double helix, an elegantly simple structure that resembles a gently twisted ladder. The rails of the ladder are made of alternating units of phosphate and the sugar deoxyribose; the rungs are each composed of a pair of purine/ pyrimidine bases. This research laid the foundation for the emerging field of molecular biology. The complementary pairing of nucleotide bases explains how identical copies of parental DNA pass on to two daughter cells. This research launched a revolution in biology that led to modern recombinant DNA techniques. Vitamins Deficiency Disease Vitamin A (Retinol) Night blindness Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Beri-beri Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Retarded growth, bad skin Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Anemia Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy Vitamin D (Calciferol) Rickets Vitamin K (Phylloquinone) Excessive bleeding due to injury Minerals Deficiency Disease Calcium Brittle bones, excessive bleeding Phosphorus Bad teeth and bones Iron Anemia Iodine Goiter, enlarged thyroid gland Copper Low appetite, retarded growth 1984 1985 Amiga computer (introduced) Commodore 300,000 simultaneous telephone conversations over single optical fiber AT&T, Bell Labs 1987 Warmer superconductivity Karl Alex Mueller 1987 80386 microprocessor (25 MHz) Intel 1989 First commercial handheld GPS Magellan Navigation Inc. receiver (Magellan NAV 1000) 1989 Silicon-germanium transistors IBM fellow Bernie Meyerson 1990 486 microprocessor (33 MHz) Intel 1993 Weather Control Device / HAARP U.S. 1994 Pentium processor, P5-based (60/90 MHz, 166.2 MIPS) Intel 1994 Bluetooth Ericsson 1994 First DVD player ever made Tatung Company 1996 Alpha 21164 processor (550 MHz) Digital Equipment 1996 P2SC processor (15 million transistors) IBM Consumer Electronics 600 1843-1923: From electromechanics to electronics  1843: Watchmaker Alexander Bain (inventor) develops the basic concept of displaying images as points with different brightness values.  1848: Frederick Collier Bakewell invents the first wirephoto machine, an early fax machine  1861: Grade school teacher Philipp Reis presents his telephone in Frankfurt, inventing the loudspeaker as a by-product.  1867: French poet and philosopher Charles Cros (1842 - 1888) presents the construction principle of a phonograph in his 'paréophone', which turned out not to be a commercial success at the time.  1867: James Clerk Maxwell (1831 - 1879) develops a theory predicting the existence of electromagnetic waves and establishes Maxwell's equations to describe their properties. Together with the Lorentz force law, these equations form the foundation for classical electrodynamics and classical optics as well as electric circuits.  1874: Ferdinand Braun discovers the rectifier effect in metal sulfides and metal oxides.  1877: Thomas Edison (1847 - 1931) invents the first phonograph, using a tin foil cylinder. For the first time sounds could be recorded and played. A phonograph horn with membrane and needle was arranged in such a way that the needle had contact to the tinfoil.  1880: the American physicist Charles Sumner Tainter discovers that many disadvantages of Edison's cylinders can be eliminated if the soundtrack is arranged in spiral form and engraved in a flat, round disk. Technical problems soon ended these experiments. Still, Tainter is regarded as the inventor of the gramophone record.  1884: Paul Nipkow obtains a patent for his Nipkow disk, an image scanning device that reads images serially, which constitutes the foundation for mechanical television. Two years later his patent runs out.  1886: Heinrich Hertz succeeds in proving the existence of electromagnetic waves for the first time - now the groundwork for wireless telegraphy and radio broadcasting in physical science is laid. 601  1887: Unaware of Charles Sumner Tainter's experiments, German-American Emil Berliner has his phonograph patented. He used a disk instead of a cylinder, primarily to avoid infringing on Edison's patent. Quickly it becomes obvious that flat Gramophone records are easier to duplicate and store.  1888: o Alexander Graham Bell (1847 - 1922) significantly reduces interfering noises by using a wax cylinder instead of tin foil. This paves the way to commercial success for the improved phonograph. o American Oberlin Smith describes a process to record audio using a cotton thread with integrated fine wire clippings. This makes reel-to-reel audio tape recording possible.  1890: o The phonograph becomes faster and more convenient due to an electric motor. The electric motor brings on the first juke box with cylinders - even before flat disk records were widely available. o Thomas Edison discovers thermionic emission. To this day, this effect forms the basis for the vacuum tube and the cathode ray tube.  approximately 1893: The invention of the selenium phototube allows the conversion of brightness values into electrical signals. The principle is applied in wirephoto and television technology for a short time. Selenium is used in light meters for the next 50 years.  1895: Auguste Lumiere's cinematograph displays moving images for the first time. In the same year, brothers Emil and Max Skladanowsky present their "Bioscop" in Berlin.  1897 o Ferdinand Braun invents the "inertialess cathode ray oscillograph tube", a principle which remained unchanged in television picture tubes. o The Italian Guglielmo Marconi transmits wireless telegraph messages by electromagnetic waves over a distance of five kilometers.  1898 602 o The Danish physicist Valdemar Poulsen creates the world's first magnetic recording and reproduction, using a 1 mm thick steel wire as a magnetizable carrier. o  Nikola Tesla demonstrated the first wireless remote control of a model ship. 1899: The dog "Nipper" is used in "His Master's Voice", the trademark for gramophones and records.  1902 o Otto von Bronk patented his "Method and apparatus for remote visualization of images and objects with temporary resolution of the images in parallel rows of dots". This patent, originally developed for phototelegraphy, impacted the development of color television, particularly the NTSC implementation. o  For the first time audio records are printed with paper labels in the middle. 1903: Guglielmo Marconi provides evidence that wireless telegraphic communication is possible over long distances, such as across the Atlantic. He used a transmitter developed by Ferdinand Braun.  1904 o For the first time, double-sided records, and those with a diameter of 30 cm are produced, increasing playing time up to 11 minutes (5.5 minutes per side). These are created by Odeon in Berlin and debuted at the Leipzig Spring Fair. o The German physicist Arthur Korn developed the first practical method for telegraphy.  1905: The Englishman Sir John Ambrose Fleming invents the first electron tube.  1906 o Robert von Lieben patented his "inertia working cathode-ray-relays". By 1910 he developed this into the first real tube amplifier, by creating a triode. His invention of the triode is almost simultaneously created by the American Lee de Forest. o Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage use the Braun tube for playback of 20-line black-and-white images. o The first jukebox with records comes on the market. 603 o American Brigadier General Henry Harrison Chase Dunwoody files for a patent for a carborundum steel detector for use in a crystal radio, an improved version of the Cat's-whisker detector. It is sometimes credited as the first semiconductor in history. The envelope detector is an important part of every radio receiver.  1907: Rosenthal puts in his image telegraph for the first time a photocell.  1911: First film studios are created in Hollywood and Potsdam- Babelsberg .  1912: The first radio receiver is created, in accordance with the Audion principle.  1913: The legal battle over the invention of the electron tube between Robert von Lieben and Lee de Forest is decided. The electron tube is replaced by a high vacuum in the glass flask with significantly improved properties. o Alexander Meissner patented his process "feedback for generating oscillations", by his development of a radio station using an electron tube . o The Englishman Arthur Berry submits a patent on the manufacture of printed circuits by etched metal.  1915: Carl Benedicks leads basic studies in Sweden on the electrical properties of silicon and germanium. Due to the emerging tube technology, however, interest in semiconductors remains low until after the Second World War.  1917 o Based on previous findings of the Englishman Oliver Lodge, the Frenchman Lucien Levy develops a radio receiver with frequency tuning using a resonant circuit.  1919: Charlie Chaplin founded the Hollywood film production and distribution company United Artists  1920: The first regularly operating radio station KDKA goes on air on 2 November 1920 in Philadelphia, USA. It is the first time electronics are used to transmit information and entertainment to the public at large. The same year in Germany an instrumental concert was broadcast on the radio from a long-wave transmitter in Wusterhausen.  1922: J. McWilliams Stone invents the first portable radio receiver. George Frost builds the first "car radio" in his Ford Model T.  1923 604 o The 15-year-old Manfred von Ardenne is granted his first patent for an electron tube having a plurality of electrodes. Siegmund Loewe (1885-1962) builds with the tube his first radio receiver "Loewe Opta-". o The Hungarian engineer Dénes Mihály patented an image scanning with line deflection, in which each point of an image is scanned ten times per second by a selenium cell. o August Karolus (1893-1972) invents the Kerr cell, an almost inertia-free conversion of electrical pulses into light signals. He was granted a patent for his method of transmitting slides. o Vladimir Kosma developed the first television camera tube, the Ikonoskop, using the Braun tube. o The German State Secretary Karl August Bredow founded the first German broadcasting organization. By lifting the ban on broadcast reception and the opening of the first private radio station, the development of radio as a mass medium begins. 1924-1959: From cathode ray tube to stereo audio and TV  1924: the first radio receivers are exhibited at the Berlin Radio Show  1925 o Brunswick Records in Dubuque, Iowa produced their first record player, the Brunswick Panatrope with a pickup, amplifier and loudspeaker o In the American Bell Laboratories, a method for recording of records obtained by microphone and tube amps for series production. Also in Germany working on it is ongoing since 1922. 1925 appear the first electrically recorded disks in both countries. o At the Leipzig Spring Fair, the first miniature camera "Leica" is presented to the public. o John Logie Baird performs the first screening of a living head with a resolution of 30 vertical lines using a Nipkow disk. 605 o August Karolus demonstrated in Germany television with 48 lines and ten image changes per second.  1926 o Edison developed the first "LP". By dense grooves (16 grooves on 1 mm) and the reduction of speed to 80 min -1 (later 78 min -1 ) increases the playing time up to 2 times 20 minutes. He carries himself with the decline of his phonograph business. o The German State Railroad offers a cordless telephone service in moving trains between Berlin and Hamburg - the idea of mobile telephony is born. o John Logie Baird developed the first commercial television set in the world. It was not until 1930, he is called a " telescreen sold "at a price of 20 pounds.  1927 o The first fully electronic music boxes ("Jukeboxes") used in the USA on the market. o German Grammophon on sale due to a license agreement with the BrunswickBalke-Collender Company. Its first fully electronic turntables. o The first industrially manufactured car radio, the "Philco Transitone" from the "Storage Battery Co." in Philadelphia, USA, comes on the market. o The first shortwave radio - Rundfunkübertragung overseas broadcast by the station PCJJ the Philips factories in Eindhoven in the Dutch colonies. o Opening of the first regular telegraphy -Dienstes between Berlin and Vienna. o First commercial sound films ("The Jazz Singer", USA) using the "Needle sound" back in sync with the film screening for LPs over loudspeakers. o First public television broadcasts in the UK by John Logie Baird between London and Glasgow and in the USA by Frederic Eugene Ives (1882-1953) between Washington and New York. o The American inventor Philo Taylor Farnsworth (1906-1971) developed in Los Angeles, the first fully electronic television system in the world. 606 o John Logie Baird developed his Phonovision, the first videodisc player. 30-line television images are stored on shellac records. At 78 RPM mechanically scanned, the images can be played back on his "telescreen". It could not play sound nor keep up with the rapidly increasing resolution of television. More than 40 years later, commercial optical disc players came onto the market.  1928: Fritz Pfleumer got the first tape recorder patent. It replaces steel wire with paper coated in iron powder. According to Valdemar Poulsen (1898) to the second crucial pioneer of magnetic sound, image and data storage o Dénes Mihály presented in Berlin a small circle, the first authentic television broadcast in Germany, having worked at least since 1923 in this field. o August Karolus and the company Telefunken put on the "fifth Great German Radio Exhibition Berlin 1928" the prototype of a television receiver, with an image size of 8 cm × 10 cm and a resolution of about 10,000 pixels, a much better picture quality than previous devices. o In New York (USA) the first regular television broadcasts of the experiment station WGY, operated by the General Electric Company (GE). Sporadic television news and dramas radiate from these stations by 1928.  The first commercially produced television receiver of the Daven Corporation in Newark is offered for $75. o John Logie Baird transmits the first television pictures internationally, and the same across the Atlantic from London to New York. He also demonstrated the world's first color television transmission in London.  1929 o Edison withdraws from the phono business - the disk has ousted the cylinder. o The company Columbia Records developed the first portable record player that can be connected to any tube radio. It also created the first radio / phonograph combinations, the precursor to the 1960s music chests.  The German physicist Curt Stille (1873-1957) records magnetic sound for film, on a perforated steel band. First, this "Magnettonverfahren" has no success. Years later it is rediscovered for amateur films, providing easy dubbing. A "Daylygraph" or 607 Magnettongerät had amplifier and equalizer, and a mature Magnettondiktiergerät called "Textophon".  Based on patents, which he had purchased of silence, brings the Englishman E. Blattner the " Blattnerphone "the first magnetic sound recording on the market. It records on a thin steel band.  The first sound film using optical sound premiers. Since the early 1920s, various people have developed this method. The same optoelectronic method also allows for the first time the post-processing of recorded music to sound recordings of it.  The director Carl Froelich (1875-1953) turns "The Night Belongs to Us", the first German sound film.  20th Century Fox presents in New York on an 8 m × 4 m big screen the first widescreen movie.  The radio station Witzleben begins in Germany with the regular broadcasting of television test broadcasts, initially on long wave with 30 lines (= 1,200 pixels) at 12.5 image changes per second. It appear first blueprints for television receiver.  John Logie Baird starts in the UK on behalf of the BBC with regular experimental television broadcasts to the public.  Frederic Eugene Ives transmits a color television from New York to Washington.  1930 o Manfred von Ardenne invented and developed the flying-spot scanner, Europe's first fully electronic television camera tube. o  In Britain, the first television advertising and the first TV interview 1931 o The British engineer and inventor Alan Dower Blumlein (1903-1942) invents "Binaural Sound", today called "Stereo". He developed the stereo record and the first three-way speaker. He makes experimental films with stereo sound. Then he becomes leader of the development team for the EMI -405-line television system. o The company RCA Victor presents to the public the first real LP record, the 35 cm diameter and 33.33 RPM give sufficient playing time for an entire 608 orchestral work. But the new turntables are initially so expensive that they are only gain broad acceptance after the Second World War - then as vinyl record. o The French physicist René Barthélemy leads in Paris the first public television with clay before. The BBC launches first Tonversuche in the UK. o Public World Premiere of electronic television - without electro-mechanical components such as the Nipkow disk - on the "eighth Great German Radio Exhibition Berlin 1931 ". Doberitz / Pomerania is the first German location for a tone-TV stations. o Manfred von Ardenne can be the principle of a color picture tube patent: Narrow strips of phosphors in the three primary colors are closely juxtaposed arranged so that they complement each other with the electron flow to white light. A separate control of the three colors has not yet provided.  1932 o The company AEG and BASF start for the magnetic tape method of Fritz Pfleumer to care (1928). They develop new devices and tapes, in which celluloid is used instead of paper as a carrier material. o In Britain, the BBC sends first radio programs time-shifted instead of live. o The company telephone and radio apparatus factory Ideal AG (today Blaupunkt) provides a car radio using Bowden cables to control it from the steering column.  1933 o After the Nazi seizure of power in Germany is broadcasting finally a political tool. Systematic censorship is to prevent opposition and spread the "Aryan culture". Series production of the " People's recipient VE 301 "starts. o Edwin Howard Armstrong demonstrates that frequency-modulated (FM) radio transmissions are less susceptible to interference than amplitude-modulated (AM). However, practical application is long delayed. o  In the USA the first opened drive-in theater. 1934: First commercial stereo recordings find little favor - the necessary playback devices are still too expensive. The term "High Fidelity" is embossed around this time.  1935 609 o AEG and BASF place at the Berlin Radio Show, the tape recorder " Magnetophon K1 "and the appropriate magnetic tapes before. In case of fire in the exhibition hall all four exhibited devices are destroyed. o In Germany the world's first regular television program operating for about 250 mostly public reception points starts in Berlin and the surrounding area. The mass production of television receivers is - probably due to the high price of 2,500 Reichsmarks - not yet started. o At the same time, the research institute of the German Post (RPF) begins with development work for a color television methods, but which are later reinstated due to the Second World War.  1936 o Olympic Games in Berlin broadcast live. o "Olympia suitcase", battery-powered portable radio receiver, introduced. o The first mobile television camera (180 lines, all-electronic) is used for live television broadcasts of the Olympic Games. o Also in the UK are first regular television broadcasts - now for the perfect electronic EMI system, which soon replaced the mechanical part Baird system broadcast. o Video telephony connections between booths in Berlin and Leipzig. Later connections from Berlin to Nuremberg and Munich added. o The Frenchman Raymond Valtat reports on a patent, which describes the principle of working with binary numbers abacus. o Konrad Zuse works on a dual electromechanical computing machine that is ready in 1937.  1937 o First sapphire needle for records of the company Siemens o The interlaced video method is introduced on TVr to reduce image flicker. The transmitter Witzleben uses the new standard with 441 lines and 25 image changes, i.e. 50 fields of 220 half-lines. Until the HDTV era the interlace method remains in use. 610 o First movie encoder make it possible not to send the TV live, but to rely on recordings.  1938 o The improved AEG tape-recorder "Magnetophon K4" is first used in radio studios. The belt speed is 77 cm / s, which at 1000 m length of tape has a playing time of 22 minutes. o Werner Flechsig invents the shadow mask method for separate control of the three primary colors in a color picture tube.  1939 o On the "16th Great German Radio and television broadcasting exhibition Berlin 1939 ", the" German Unity television receiver E1 "and announces the release of free commercial television. Due to the difficult political and economic situation, only about 50 devices are sold instead of the planned 10,000. o  In the USA the first regular television broadcasts take place. 1940 o The development of television technology for military purposes increases the resolution to 1029 lines at 25 frames per second. Commercial HDTV television reached that resolution almost half a century later. o The problem of band noise with tape devices is reduced dramatically by the invention of radio frequency bias of Walter Weber and Hans-Joachim von Braunmühl.  1942: The first all-electronic computer is used by John Vincent Atanasoff, but quickly fades into oblivion. Four years later the ENIAC completed - the beginning of the end of Electromechanics in computers and calculators.  1945-1947: American soldiers capture in Germany some tape recorders. This and the nullified German patents leads to the development of the first tape recorders in the United States. The first home device "Sound Mirror "by the Brush Development Co. is there on the market.  1948 611 o The American physicist and industrialist Edwin Herbert Land (1909-1991) launches the first instant camera, Polaroid camera Model 95 on the market. o Three American engineers at Bell Laboratories (John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley) invent the transistor. Its lesser size and power compared with electron tubes brings (from 1955) portable radio receivers starting its march through all areas of electronics. o The Hungarian-American physicist Peter Carl Goldmark (1906-1977) invents the vinyl record (first published 1952), much less noisy than their predecessors shellac. Thanks to micro-groove (100 grooves per cm) can play 23 minutes per side. The LP record is born. This one is the redemption of the claim "high fidelity one step closer" to the end of the shellac era. o The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) leads the music format with 45 RPM records, later to conquer the market for cheap players. The first publication in Germany in this format appears 1953rd o The British physicist Dennis Gabor (1900-1979) invents holography. This method of recording and reproducing image with coherent light allows three-dimensional images. It was not until 1971 when the procedure gained practical importance, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics.  1949 o In Germany, FM broadcasting starts regular program operation. o Experimentally since 1943, series production since 1949 there are for professional use stereo - Tonbandgeräte and matching ribbons. Also portable devices for reporters, initially propelled by a spring mechanism, has been around since 1949  1950 o In the USA the first prerecorded audio tapes are marketed. o Also in the USA the company Zenith markets the first TV with cable remote control for channel selection.  1951 o The CBS (Columbia Broadcasting System) broadcasts in New York the first color television program in the world, but using the field sequential standard, not 612 reaching to the resolution of the black and white television and was to be incompatible. o With the "tape recorder F15 "from AEG 's first home tape recorder appears on the German market. o RCA Electronic Music is the first synthesizer prior to the creation of artificial electronic sounds.  1952 o Reintroduction of regular television broadcasts in Germany after the Second World War. o 20th Century Fox developed with "Cinemascope" the most successful widescreen process to better compete with television. Only some 50 years later pulls the TV with the 16: 9 size screen after.  1953 o The "National Television System Committee" (Abbreviated as NTSC) normalized in the USA named after her black-and-white-compatible NTSC -Farbfernseh process. A year later, this method is introduced in the United States. o The car radio top model "Mexico" from Becker for the first time to an FM area (in mono) and an automatic tuning.  1954 o RCA developed for the first apparatus for recording video signals on magnetic tapes. 22 km magnetic tape are needed per hour. By 1956, succeeds the company Ampex through the use of multiple tracks, the tape speed to more practicable 38.1 cm / s lower.  o The European Broadcasting Union is founded "Euro Vision". o First regular television broadcasts in Japan. 1955 o The second generation "TRADIC" (Transistorized Digital Computer), first to use only transistors therefore much smaller and more powerful than its predecessor tube computers. 613 o The Briton Narinder Singh Kapany investigated the propagation of light in fine glass fibers (optical fibers). o The first wireless remote control for a television US-based Zenith consists of a better flashlight, with which one lights up in one of the four devices corners to turn the unit on or off, change the channel or mute the sound.  1956 o The company Metz introduces radio device type 409 / 3D. First mass production of printed circuit boards. This follows since the 1930s, several improvements to the manufacturing technology. o The company Ampex introduces the "VR 1000" the first video recorder. That same year, CBS uses it for the first magnetic video tape recording (VTR) from. Although other programs are produced in color since 1954, the VTR cannot record color.  1957 : The Frenchman Henri de France (1911-1986) developed the first generation of color TV system SECAM, which avoids some of the problems of the NTSC method. The weaknesses of the SECAM system be fixed in later modifications of the standard for the most part.  1958 o By merging the Edison patents and the Berliner, the Blumlein stereo recording method becomes commercially viable. The company Mercury Records launches the first stereo record on the market. o The company Ampex expands the video recorder with the Model "VR 1000 B" to give it color capability. Timeline of alcohol fuel Ethanol, an alcohol fuel, is an important fuel for the operation of internal combustion engines that are used in cars, trucks, and other kinds of machinery.  Ethanol was first isolated from wine in approximately 1100 and was found to burn shortly thereafter. These early solutions distilled from wine-salt mixtures were referred to 614 as aqua ardens (burning water) or aqua flamens (flaming water) and had such low alcohol content that they burned without producing noticeable heat. By the 13th century, the development of the cooling coil allowed the isolation of nearly pure ethanol by distillation.  Ethanol has been used for lamp oil and cooking, along with plant and animal oils. Small alcohol stoves (also called "spirit lamps") were commonly used by travelers in the 17th century to warm food and themselves.  Before the American Civil War many farmers in the United States had an alcohol still to turn crop waste into free lamp oil and stove fuel for the farmers' family use. Conflict over taxation was not unusual; one example was the Whiskey Rebellion in 1791.  In 1826, Samuel Morey uses alcohol in the first American internal combustion engine prototype.  In the 1830s, alcohol blends had replaced increasingly expensive whale oil in most parts of the country. It "easily took the lead as the illuminant" because it was "a decided improvement on other oils then in use."  By 1860, thousands of distilleries churned out at least 90 million US gallons (340,000 m3) of alcohol per year for lighting. Camphene / alcohol blends (at $.50 per gallon) were cheaper than whale oil ($1.30 to $2.50 per gallon) and lard oil (90 cents per gallon). It was about the same price as coal oil, which was the product first marketed as "kerosene."  In 1860, German inventor Nicolaus Otto uses ethyl alcohol as a fuel in an early internal combustion engine.  In 1862 and 1864, a tax on alcohol was passed in the U.S. to pay for the Civil War, increasing the price of ethanol to over $2.00 per gallon. A new product from petroleum, called kerosene, is taxed at 10 cents a gallon.  In the 19th century, spirit lamps, pigeon lamps and others used a variety of blends of alcohol and oils in Europe. Alcohol powered not only automobiles and farm machinery but also a wide variety of lamps, stoves, heaters, laundry irons, hair curlers, coffee roasters and every conceivable household appliance. By one estimate, some 95,000 615 alcohol fueled stoves and 37,000 spirit lamps had been manufactured in Germany by 1902.  By the 1890s, alcohol-fueled engines are starting to be used in farm machinery in Europe, making countries more fuel independent. Research at the Experimental Mechanical Laboratory of Paris and at the Deutsche Landwirtschaftliche Gesellschaft in Berlin in the 1890s helped pave the way for expanded use of alcohol fuel.  By 1896, horseless carriages (cars) were showing up on roads in Europe and the United States. Because gasoline is so cheap and abundant, and also because ethanol is taxed at a high level, early US automobiles are adapted to gasoline from the beginning. Racing cars, on the other hand, usually used ethanol (and other alcohols) because more power could be developed in a smaller, lighter engine. Charles Edgar Duryea builds the first U.S. gasoline powered car but is aware of Samuel Morey's ethanol fueled experimental car of 1826. Henry Ford's first car, the Quadracycle, is also built that year. The car runs on gasoline, but Ford is aware of experiments with ethanol in Germany, and subsequently backs the lifting of the U.S. tax on industrial uses of ethanol.  In 1899, the German government taxed petroleum imports and subsidized domestic ethanol. Kaiser Wilhelm II "was enraged at the Oil Trust of his country, and offered prizes to his subjects and cash assistance ... to adapt [alcohol] to use in the industries."  In 1901, the French ministry of agriculture offered prizes for the best alcohol-fueled engines and household appliances.  In 1902, the Paris alcohol fuel exposition exhibited alcohol powered cars, farm machinery, lamps, stoves, heaters, laundry irons, hair curlers, coffee roasters, and every conceivable household appliance and agricultural engine powered by alcohol. This exhibit traveled widely through Europe and was featured at the 1907 Jamestown, Virginia tricentennial celebrations.  In 1906, the Free Alcohol bill is passed. The USA repeals the alcohol tax under Teddy Roosevelt. At 14 cents per US gallon, corn ethanol was cheaper than gasoline at 22 cents per US gallon. Bills pass that exempt farm stills from government control. In backing the bill, U.S. President Teddy Roosevelt says: "The Standard Oil Company has, largely by unfair or unlawful methods, crushed out home competition... It is highly desirable that an 616 element of competition should be introduced by the passage of some such law as that which has already passed in the House, putting alcohol used in the arts and manufacturers upon the [tax] free list."  Starting in 1901, the discovery of new oil fields in Texas causes the price of gasoline to drop to between 18 and 22 cents per US gallon by 1906, undercutting farm ethanol markets  In 1908, the Ford Model T is introduced. Early models had adjustable carburetors to run on ethanol with gasoline as an option.  In 1909, the U.S. Geological Survey reports: "In regard to general cleanliness, such as absence of smoke and disagreeable odors, alcohol has many advantages over gasoline or kerosene as a fuel… The exhaust from an alcohol engine is never clouded with a black or grayish smoke." Overall, alcohol was "a more ideal fuel than gasoline."  In 1914, the Free Alcohol bill is amended again to decrease the regulatory burden and encourage alcohol fuel production in the U.S.  In 1917 Alexander Graham Bell says: "Alcohol makes a beautiful, clean and efficient fuel… Alcohol can be manufactured from corn stalks, and in fact from almost any vegetable matter capable of fermentation… We need never fear the exhaustion of our present fuel supplies so long as we can produce an annual crop of alcohol to any extent desired."  In 1918, Scientific American says it is "now definitely established that alcohol can be blended with gasoline to produce a suitable fuel …" Another article notes that the Pasteur Institute of France found it could obtain 10 US gallons (38 L) of ethanol per ton of seaweed.  In 1919, Prohibition of beverage alcohol in the U.S. leads to suggestions for more ethanol use as an anti-knock blend with gasoline. Farm belt politicians are split on ethanol as a fuel. While distillers could have a new market for their alcohol, some thought that allowing any distillery to stay open would be a "bargain with the devil."  In the 1920s and 1930s, Koolmotor, Benzalcool, Moltaco, Lattybentyl, Natelite, Alcool and Agrol are some of the gasoline-ethanol blends of fuels once found in Britain, Italy, Hungary, Sweden, South Africa, Brazil and the USA (respectively). 617  In 1920, David White, chief geologist of US Geological Survey, estimates total oil remaining in the US at 6.7 billion barrels (1.07×109 m3). "In making this estimate, which included both proved reserves and resources still remaining to be discovered, White conceded that it might well be in error by as much as 25 percent."  In 1921, leaded gasoline is developed at the General Motors research laboratories in Dayton, Ohio. GM researcher Thomas Midgley, Jr. still maintains: "The most direct route which we now know for converting energy from its source, the sun, into a material that is suitable for use in an internal combustion motor is through vegetation to alcohol… It now appears that alcohol is the only liquid from a direct vegetable source that combines relative cheapness with suitability (although other sources might be found)… Alcohol will stand very high initial compressions without knocking, and at high compressions is smooth and highly satisfactory.".  In 1921, British engineer Harry Ricardo patents racing fuels RD1 and RD2 (for Ricardo Discol) that contained methanol and ethanol, acetone and small amounts of water. These were widely used on race tracks throughout Europe and the US in the 1920s and 30s.  In 1923 leaded gasoline is marketed, and by 1924 GM and Standard Oil Co. form the Ethyl Corp. Ethyl claims it has "solved" the problem of engine knock, but public health scientists (e.g. Alice Hamilton of Harvard University) are appalled at the prospects for lead poisoning and insist that alternatives such as ethanol blends are available.  In 1923 Rolls-Royce engine designer Harry Ricardo writes: "…It is a matter of absolute necessity to find an alternative fuel. Fortunately, such a fuel is in sight in the form of alcohol; this is a vegetable product whose consumption involves no drain on the world’s storage and which, in tropical countries at all events, can ultimately be produced in quantities sufficient to meet the world’s demand, at all events at the present rate of consumption. By the use of a fuel derived from vegetation, mankind is adapting the sun’s heat to the development of motive power, as it becomes available from day to day; by using mineral fuels, he is consuming a legacy – and a limited legacy at that – of heat stored away many thousands of years ago. In the one case he is, as it were, living within his income, in the other he is squandering his capital. It is perfectly well known that alcohol is an excellent fuel, and there is little doubt but that sufficient supplies could be produced within the tropical regions of the British empire…" 618  In 1923, the price of alcohol from molasses was less than 20 cents per US gallon, while retail gasoline prices had reached an all-time high of 28 cents per gallon. Standard Oil experiments with a 10% alcohol, 90% gasoline blend for a few months to increase octane and stop engine knock.  In 1923, French assembly passes the Carburant National law requiring gasoline importers to buy alcohol for 10% blends from the State Alcohol Service. The law has a far-reaching impact as many other nations, especially Brazil and other sugar-cane growing countries, were influenced to enact similar laws based on the French and German programs.  By the mid-1920s, ethyl alcohol is blended with gasoline in every industrialized nation, and some blends are showing up as experiments in the United States, but the market is dominated by leaded gasoline.  In October of 1924, a catastrophic miscalculation in the production of leaded gasoline causes at least 17 refinery deaths and many dozens of permanently debilitating injuries. GM and Standard very nearly abandon leaded gasoline, but decide to defend it, claiming (contrary to their own prior published research) that ""So far as science knows at the present time, tetraethyl lead is the only material available which can bring about these [antiknock] results."  In 1925, Henry Ford tells The New York Times that ethyl alcohol is "the fuel of the future" which "is going to come from fruit like that sumach out by the road, or from apples, weeds, sawdust -- almost anything. There is fuel in every bit of vegetable matter that can be fermented. There's enough alcohol in one year's yield of an acre of potatoes to drive the machinery necessary to cultivate the fields for a hundred years."  In 1926, US Public Health Service allows leaded gasoline to return to the market.  In 1928 Harry Ricardo, National Distillers Co. and Shell Oil introduce an alcohol fuel blend in the United Kingdom called "Cleveland Discol." The ethanol blend is a popular unleaded gasoline brand and is sold through 1968.  In August 1930, the German government required all gasoline importers to buy 2.5% of the volume of their imports from the German Alcohol Monopoly, and the ratio was increased to 6% and then 10% by 1932. Estimates of alcohol used in 1932 vary from 44 million liters to about 175 million liters. Some 36,000 small farm alcohol stills, owned by 619 the monopoly, were in operation at this time. By 1938, Germany was producing about 267 million liters of ethanol, about two thirds from potatoes and the rest from grain, wood sulfite liquors and beets. Some 89 million liters of methanol were produced from coal, while other synthetic fuels included 550 million liters of benzene and over one billion liters of synthetic gasoline. All told, 54% of the pre-war German fuel production was derived from non-petroleum sources, of which 8% was ethanol from renewable sources  In the 1930s, the Dust bowl drought and Great Depression forced many more farmers to move to the cities looking for work, leaving their alcohol fuel stills behind. Henry Ford, a farmer himself, supported ethanol's use over gas.  In 1933, faced with the 25% unemployment of the Great Depression, the European concept of finding new markets for surplus farm products is widely discussed, with ethanol-gasoline blending among the most significant. Fuel blending experiments begin in Peoria, IL, Spokane WA, Lincoln, NE, and Ames, IA. Federal and state governments consider tax advantages to help ethanol production and increase employment among farmers. By 1935 the Chemurgy movement emerges, supported by farmers, Republicans, and Henry Ford. Along with ethanol, chemurgy research included the industrial development of agricultural raw materials such as hemp, soybeans and new products from biological materials, such as hemp & soybean plastics and inks.  In 1933, a campaign to end Prohibition in the United States emerges. Concerned about renewed interest in ethanol for fuel, the American Petroleum Institute begins a campaign against ethanol blends, claiming such "will harm the petroleum industry and the automobile industry as well as state and national treasuries by reducing [oil] consumption," the sole beneficiaries allegedly being distillers, railroads (which would transport the alcohol) and bootleggers "to whom would be opened brand new fields of fraud." Prohibition ends with the passage of the Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 5, 1933.  From 1933 to 1939, various oil companies and the American Petroleum Institute argued that tax incentives for ethanol would hurt the oil industry, reduce state treasuries, and create a bootlegger' atmosphere around fueling stations. They also claimed alcohol fuel was inferior to gasoline. 620  In 1937, the farm chemurgy movement finds backers for the Agrol ethanol fuel plant, created at Atchison, Kansas. For two years, ethanol blends were sold at around 2,000 service stations in the U.S. Midwest. Agrol plant managers complained of sabotage and bitter infighting by the oil industry, and the cheaper price of gasoline. Agrol sold for 17 cents per gallon, while leaded gasoline sold for 16 cents.  In 1939, Agrol production shuts down.  In 1942, chemists who designed the Agrol ethanol plant, especially Leo Christensen, go to work producing ethanol for aviation fuel and synthetic "Buna-S" rubber for World War II. By 1944, petroleum based synthetic rubber production lags, and three quarters of all tires, raincoats, engine gaskets and other rubber products for the war effort come from ethanol.  In 1942, a war investigating committee led by then-Senator (and future president) Harry Truman makes public evidence that the oil industry had colluded with German chemical companies, especially I.G. Farben, to prevent the development of synthetic rubber production in the United States. Standard Oil (Exxon) had entered a partnership that it described as a "full marriage" designed to "outlast the war" no matter who won.  In 1949, S. J .W. Pleeth, chemist for the Cleveland Discol company in Great Britain, writes: "The bias aroused by the use of alcohol as a motor fuel has produced [research] results that are incompatible with each other ... Countries with considerable oil deposits -such as the US -- or which control oil deposits of other lands -- such as Holland -- tend to produce reports antithetical to the use of fuels alternative to petrol; countries with little or no indigenous oil tend to produce favorable reports. The contrast ... is most marked. One can scarcely avoid the conclusion that the results arrived at are those best suited to the political or economic aims of the country concerned or the industry sponsoring the research. We deplore this partisan use of science, while admitting its existence, even in the present writer."  In 1964, a seven-car crash kills drivers Dave MacDonald and Eddie Sachs on the second lap of the Indianapolis 500, as over 150 US gallons (570 L) of gasoline burned. Johnny Rutherford, who was also involved in the crash, survived, mainly because his methanolfueled car had not ignited. The United States Auto Club bans gasoline and switches all 621 cars to methyl alcohol (methanol), a rule which would stay for 41 years before ending after the 2005 race.  During the Nigerian Civil War of 1967 to 1970, Engineers in the breakaway republic of Biafra resorted to powering vehicles with alcohol. Initially, alcohol was used to supplement the crude oil refining capacity which the fledgling state had under its control, but as the Soviet and UK backed Nigerian army seized the oil producing regions, and with the Nigerian embargo beginning to bite, alcohol became the dominant source of fuel for the economy.  In 1971, the Nebraska Agricultural Products Industrial Utilization Committee (or "Gasohol" Committee) is formed to find new uses for surplus grain. The commission tests ethanol-gasoline blends in thousands of cars over millions of miles, proving that ethanol can be used as an octane-boosting additive to replace leaded gasoline.  In 1973, the Arab oil embargo creates a worldwide energy crisis, leading to intensified search for alternative energy sources. Also, in the same year, the government of Brazil starts the program "Pró-Álcool" in order to substitute gas-powered vehicles in favor of automobiles powered by ethanol. Such program would lead to the development of the first ethanol powered automobile motor in the world.  In 1979, President Jimmy Carter's administration creates federal incentives for ethanol production. Federal and state subsidies for ethanol amount to about $11 billion between 1979 and 2000, as compared to about $150 billion in tax credits for the oil industry (from 1968–2000), according to the General Accounting Office.  By the mid-1980s, over 100 new corn alcohol production plants are built and over a billion US gallons of ethanol for fuel were sold per year. The ethanol program is controversial for several reasons, not the least of which was that the ethanol industry was dominated by one company – Archer Daniels Midland of Peoria, Ill.  In 1984, the number of ethanol plants peaked at 163 in the U.S., producing 595 million US gallons (2,250,000 m3) of ethanol that year.  In 1988, the George H. W. Bush administration proposes a cleanup of "air toxics" in gasoline, focusing on replacing benzene octane boosters with ethanol. The proposal leads to one part of the 1990 Clean Air Act. 622  In the late 1980s and 1990s, an oil surplus drives gasoline prices down as low as $12 per barrel, driving most of the ethanol industry into bankruptcy.  In 1990 and 1992, Congress passes amendments to the Clean Air Act encouraging the use of ethanol and other oxygenated fuels as replacements for benzene, toluene and xylene octane boosters. MTBE becomes the oil industry's favorite additive, but as water pollution problems were recognized, MTBE is banned in California. Ethanol production rises to the 4-billion-US-gallon (15,000,000 m3) level.  Between 1997 and 2002, three million U.S. cars and light trucks are produced which could run on E85, a blend of 85% ethanol with 15% gasoline. Almost no gas stations sell this fuel however.  In the early 2000s, the invasion of Iraq makes Americans aware of their dependence on foreign oil. This and worry over anthropogenic climate change causes leading alternative energies like biofuel, solar and wind to expand 20 to 30% yearly.  In 2003, California is the first state to ban MTBE. Several other states start switching soon afterward. California consumes 900 million US gallons (3,400,000 m3) of ethanol a year, about a third of all the ethanol produced in the United States.  In 2004, Crude oil prices rise by 80%. Gasoline prices rise 30% in the U.S. Diesel fuel rises almost 50%. These rises are caused by hurricane damage to oil rigs in the Gulf of Mexico, attacks on Iraqi oil pipelines, disruptions elsewhere, and rising demand for gasoline in Asia, as Asians buy more cars. Alcohol fuel prices are much closer to the price of gasoline. The ethanol industry in the USA makes 225,000 barrels (35,800 m3) per day in August, an all-time record. Some conventional oil fuel companies are investing in alcohol fuel. Oil reserves are forecast to last about 40 more years. Total use (demand) of ethanol is 3.53 billion US gallons (13,400,000 m3).  In 2005, E85 sells for 45 cents (or 30-75 cents wholesale) less than gasoline on average in the United States. More than 4 million flexible-fuel (capable of running on E85 as well as gasoline) vehicles exist in the United States. About 400 filling stations exist in the US that sell E85 fuel, mostly in the Midwest. Gasoline prices rise as ethanol prices stay the same, due to rapidly growing ethanol supply and federal tax subsidies for ethanol. 623 Wholesale ethanol prices drop nearly 30% between January and April, or $1.75 to $1.23 per gallon in the U.S.  In 2005, the earliest-documented test of driving a car designed solely for gasoline use, long-distance solely on 100% butanol fuel occurs as American motorist David Ramey drove from Blacklick, Ohio to San Diego, California using 100% butanol in an unmodified 1992 Buick Park Avenue.  In 2006, the Indy Racing League switches to a 10% ethanol-90% methanol fuel mixture, as part of a phase-in to an all-ethanol formula in 2007. Bill Gates buys a quarter of Pacific Ethanol Inc. for $84 million.  In 2007, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Special Rapporteur for the Right to Food urges five-year moratorium on food based biofuels, including ethanol, saying its development is a "crime against humanity." The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) calls this "regrettable," and UN secretary-general Ban Ki-Moon, called for more scientific research. "Clearly biofuels have great potential for good and, perhaps, also for harm."  In 2008, Bill Gates sells most Pacific shares held by Cascade Investment for a loss of $38.9 million. Timeline of agriculture and food technology Paleolithic  30,600 BC – Pestle used as a tool in southern Italy to grind oats. Neolithic Revolution  8,500 BC – Neolithic Revolution, the first agricultural revolution, begins in the ancient Near East  8,000 BC – was domesticated wheat at PPNA sites in the Levant. 624  7500 BC – PPNB sites across the Fertile Crescent growing wheat, barley, chickpeas, peas, beans, flax and bitter vetch. Sheep and goat domesticated.  7000 BC – agriculture had reached southern Europe with evidence of emmer and einkorn wheat, barley, sheep, goats, and pigs suggest that a food producing economy is adopted in Greece and the Aegean.  7000 BC – Cultivation of wheat, sesame, barley, and eggplant in Mehrgarh (modern day Pakistan).  7000 BC – Domestication of cattle and chicken in Mehrgarh, modern day Pakistan.  6800 BC – Rice domesticated in southeast Asia.  6500 BC – Evidence of cattle domestication in Turkey. Some sources say this happened earlier in other parts of the world.  6001 BC – Archaeological evidence from various sites on the Iberian peninsula suggest the domestication of plants and animals.  6000 BC – Granary built in Mehrgarh for storage of excess food.  5500 BC – Céide Fields in Ireland are the oldest known field systems in the world, this landscape consists of extensive tracts of land enclosed by brick walls.  5200 BC – In the heart of the Sahara Desert, several native species were domesticated, most importantly pearl millet, sorghum and cowpeas, which spread through West Africa and the Sahel. At this time the Sahara was covered in grassland that received plenty of rainfall, it was far more moist and densely populated than today.  4000 BC – In Mehrgarh, the domestication of numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as a wide range of domestic animals, including the Domestic Asian Water Buffalo, an animal that remains essential to intensive agricultural production throughout Asia today.  4000 BC – Egyptians discover how to make bread using yeast  4000 BC – Evidence for rice domestication in the Khorat Plateau area of northwestern Thailand.  4000 BC – First use of light wooden ploughs in Mesopotamia (Modern day Iraq)  3500 BC – Irrigation was being used in Mesopotamia (Modern day Iraq) 625  3500 BC – First agriculture in the Americas, around Central Amazonia or Ecuador  3000 BC – Turmeric, cardamom, pepper and mustard are harvested in the Indus Valley Civilization.  3000 BC – Fermentation of dough, grain, and fruit juices is in practice.  3000 BC – Sugar produced in India Antiquity  2600 BC – Large-scale commercial timbering of cedars in Phoenicia (Lebanon) for export to Egypt and Sumeria. Similar commercial timbering in South India.  1700 BC – Wind powered machine developed by the Babylonians  1500 BC: Seed drill in Babylonia  1300 BC – Creation of canal linking the Nile delta to the Red Sea  691 BC – First aqueduct (approx. 50 miles long) constructed to bring water to Nineveh.  530 BC – Tunnel of Eupalinos first underground aqueduct  500 BC – The moldboard iron plough is invented in China  500 BC – Row cultivation of crops using intensive hoeing to weed and conserve moisture practised in China  300 BC – Efficient trace harness for plowing invented in China  200 BC – Efficient collar harness for plowing invented in America  100 BC – Rotary winnowing fan invented in China  100 BC – The multi-tube seed drill is invented in China  AD 200 – The fishing reel invented in China  600 – The distillation of alcohol in China  607 – The Chinese begin constructing a massive canal system to connect the Yellow and Yangtze rivers Modern technological advances  1700 – British Agricultural Revolution ends 626 Green revolution The renovation of agricultural practices Rapid increase in agricultural production Maintenance of high level of agricultural production We need a new vision for agriculture … to spread happiness among farm and rural families. Bio-happiness through the conversion of our bio-resources into wealth meaningful to our rural families should be the goal of our national policy for farmers. We should look upon agriculture not just as a food-producing machine for the urban population, but as the major source of skilled and remunerative employment and a hub for global outsourcing. The importance of rice will grow in the coming decades because of potential changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea-level rise, as a result of global warming. Rice grows under a wide range of latitudes and altitudes and can become the anchor of food security in a world confronted with the challenge of climate change. M. S. Swaminathan  1804 - Vincenzo Dandolo writes several treatises of agriculture and sericulture.  1809 – French confectioner Nicolas Appert invents canning  1837 – John Deere invents steel plough  1763 – International "Potato Show" in Paris with corn varieties from different states  1866 – Gregor Mendel publishes his paper describing Mendelian inheritance  1871 – Louis Pasteur invents pasteurization  1895 – Refrigeration for domestic and commercial drink preservation introduced in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively.  1913 - The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, made it possible to produce ammonia, and thereby fertilize, on an industrial scale.  1960 – First use with aerial photos in Earth sciences and agriculture. Green Revolution  1944 – Green Revolution begins in Mexico  1974 – China creates the first hybrid rice. See Yuan Longping.  2000 – Genetically modified plants cultivated around the world.  2005 – Lasers used to replace stickers by writing on food to "track and trace" and identify individual pieces of fresh fruit. Timeline of snowflake research BC to 1900  150 BCE or 135 BCE - Han Ying (韓嬰) compiled the anthology Han shi waizhuan, which includes a passage that contrasts the pentagonal symmetry of flowers with the hexagonal symmetry of snow. This is discussed further in the Imperial Readings of the Taiping Era. 627  1250 - Albertus Magnus offers what is believed to be the oldest detailed description of snow.  1555 - Olaus Magnus publishes the earliest snowflake diagrams in Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus.  1611 - Johannes Kepler, in Strenaseu De Nive Sexangula, attempts to explain why snow crystals are hexagonal.  1637 - René Descartes' Discourse on the Method includes hexagonal diagrams and a study for the crystallization process and conditions for snowflakes.  1660 - Erasmus Bartholinus, in his De figura nivis dissertatio, includes sketches of snow crystals.  1665 - Robert Hooke observes snow crystals under magnification in Micrographia.  1675 - Friedrich Martens, a German physician, catalogues 24 types of snow crystal.  1681 - Donato Rossetti categorizes snow crystals in La figura della neve.  1778 - Dutch theologian Johannes Florentius Martinet diagrams precise sketches of snow crystals.  1796 - Shiba Kōkan publishes sketches of ice crystals under a microscope.  1820 - William Scoresby's An account of the Arteic Regions includes snow crystals by type.  1832 - Doi Toshitsura describes and diagrams 86 types of snowflake (雪華図説).  1837 - Suzuki Bokushi (鈴木牧之) publishes Hokuetsu Seppu.  1840 - Doi Toshitsura expands his categories to include 97 types.  1855 - James Glaisher publishes detailed sketches of snow crystals under a microscope.  1865 - Frances E. Chickering publishes Cloud Crystals - a Snow-Flake Album.  1870 - Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld identifies "cryoconite holes."  1872 - John Tyndall publishes The Forms of Water in Clouds and Rivers, Ice and Glaciers.  1891 - Friedrich Umlauft publishes Das Luftmeer. 628  1893 - Richard Neuhauss photographs a snowflake under a microscope, titled Schneekrystalle.  1894 - A. A. Sigson photographs snowflakes under a microscope. 1901 to 2000  1901 - Wilson Bentley publishes a series of photographs of individual snowflakes in the Monthly Weather Review.  1903 - Svante Arrhenius describes crystallization process in Lehrbuch der Kosmischen Physik.  1904 - Helge von Koch discover the fractal curves to be a mathematical description of snowflakes.  1931 - Wilson Bentley and William Jackson Humphreys publish Snow Crystals  1936 - Ukichiro Nakaya creates snow crystals and charts the relationship between temperature and water vapor saturation, later called the Nakaya Diagram.  1938 - Ukichiro Nakaya publishes Snow (雪)  1949 - Ukichiro Nakaya publishes Research of snow (雪の研究, Yuki no kenkyu)  1952 - Marcel R. de Quervain et al. define ten major types of snow crystals, including hail and graupel in IUGG for the Swiss Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research.  1954 - Harvard University Press publishes Ukichiro Nakaya's Snow Crystals: Natural and Artificial.  1960 - Teisaku Kobayashi (小林禎作, Kobayashi Teisaku), verifies and improves the Nakaya Diagram with the Kobayashi Diagram.  1962 - Cyoji Magono (孫野長治, Magono Cyōji) describes meteorological sorting of snow crystal types in clouds. 629  1979 - Toshio Kuroda (黒田登志雄, Kuroda Toshio) and Rolf Lacmann, of the Braunschweig University of Technology, publish Growth Mechanism of Ice from Vapour Phase and its Growth Forms.  1983 August - Astronauts make snow crystals in orbit on the Space Shuttle Challenger during mission STS-8.  1988 - Norihiko Fukuta (福田矩彦, Fukuta Norihiko) et al. make artificial snow crystals in an updraft, confirming the Nakaya Diagram. 2001 and after  2002 - Kazuhiko Hiramatsu (平松和彦, Hiramatsu Kazuhiko) devises a simple snow crystal growth observatory apparatus using a PET bottle cooled by dry ice in an expanded polystyrene box.  2004 September - Akio Murai (村井昭夫, Murai Akio) invented the apparatus named lit. Murai-method Artificial Snow Crystal producer (Murai式人工雪結晶生成装置) which makes various shape of artificial snow crystals per pre-setting conditions meeting to Nakaya diagram by vapor generator and its cooling Peltier effect element.  2008 December - Yoshinori Furukawa (吉川義純, FurukawaYoshinori) demonstrates conditional snow crystal growth in space, in Solution Crystallization Observation Facility (SCOF) on the JEM (Kibō), remotely controlled from Tsukuba Space Center of JAXA. Timeline of mathematical innovation in South and West Asia  3rd millennium BCE Sexagesimal system of the Sumerians:  2nd millennium BCE Babylonian Pythagorean triples. According to mathematician S. G. Dani, the Babylonian cuneiform tablet Plimpton 322 written ca. 1850 BCE "contains 630 fifteen Pythagorean triples with quite large entries, including (13500, 12709, 18541) which is a primitive triple, indicating, in particular, that there was sophisticated understanding on the topic" in Mesopotamia.  1st millennium BCE Baudhayana Śulba Sūtras Earliest statement of Pythagorean Theorem: According to (Hayashi 2005, p. 363), the Śulba Sūtras contain "the earliest extant verbal expression of the Pythagorean Theorem in the world, although it had already been known to the Old Babylonians." The diagonal rope (akṣṇayā-rajju) of an oblong (rectangle) produces both which the flank (pārśvamāni) and the horizontal (tiryaṇmānī) <ropes> produce separately. Since the statement is a sūtra, it is necessarily compressed and what the ropes produce is not elaborated on, but the context clearly implies the square areas constructed on their lengths, and would have been explained so by the teacher to the student. Timeline of geometry Before 1000 BC  ca. 2000 BC – Scotland, Carved Stone Balls exhibit a variety of symmetries including all of the symmetries of Platonic solids.  1800 BC – Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, findings volume of a frustum  1650 BC – Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, copy of a lost scroll from around 1850 BC, the scribe Ahmes presents one of the first known approximate values of π at 3.16, the first attempt at squaring the circle, earliest known use of a sort of cotangent, and knowledge of solving first order linear equations 1st millennium BC  800 BC – Baudhayana, author of the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, a Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, contains quadratic equations, and calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places 631  ca. 600 BC – the other Vedic “Sulba Sutras” (“rule of chords” in Sanskrit) use Pythagorean triples, contain of a number of geometrical proofs, and approximate π at 3.16  5th century BC – Hippocrates of Chios utilizes lunes in an attempt to square the circle  5th century BC – Apastamba, author of the Apastamba Sulba Sutra, another Vedic Sanskrit geometric text, makes an attempt at squaring the circle and also calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places  530 BC – Pythagoras studies propositional geometry and vibrating lyre strings; his group also discover the irrationality of the square root of two,  370 BC – Eudoxus states the method of exhaustion for area determination  300 BC – Euclid in his Elements studies geometry as an axiomatic system, proves the infinitude of prime numbers and presents the Euclidean algorithm; he states the law of reflection in Catoptrics, and he proves the fundamental theorem of arithmetic  260 BC – Archimedes proved that the value of π lies between 3 + 1/7 (approx. 3.1429) and 3 + 10/71 (approx. 3.1408), that the area of a circle was equal to π multiplied by the square of the radius of the circle and that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 multiplied by the area of a triangle with equal base and height. He also gave a very accurate estimate of the value of the square root of 3.  225 BC – Apollonius of Perga writes On Conic Sections and names the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola,  150 BC – Jain mathematicians in India write the “Sthananga Sutra”, which contains work on the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations  140 BC – Hipparchus develops the bases of trigonometry. 1st millennium  ca. 340 – Pappus of Alexandria states his hexagon theorem and his centroid theorem  500 – Aryabhata writes the “Aryabhata-Siddhanta”, which first introduces the trigonometric functions and methods of calculating their approximate numerical values. It 632 defines the concepts of sine and cosine, and also contains the earliest tables of sine and cosine values (in 3.75-degree intervals from 0 to 90 degrees)  7th century – Bhaskara I gives a rational approximation of the sine function  8th century – Virasena gives explicit rules for the Fibonacci sequence, gives the derivation of the volume of a frustum using an infinite procedure, and also deals with the logarithm to base 2 and knows its laws  8th century – Shridhara gives the rule for finding the volume of a sphere and also the formula for solving quadratic equations  820 – Al-Mahani conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as doubling the cube to problems in algebra.  ca. 900 – Abu Kamil of Egypt had begun to understand what we would write in symbols as xn xm = x n+ m  975 – Al-Batani – Extended the Indian concepts of sine and cosine to other trigonometrical ratios, like tangent, secant and their inverse functions. Derived the formula: sinα = 1000–1500  tanα √1+tan2α and cosα = 1 √1+tan2α . ca. 1000 – Law of sines is discovered by Muslim mathematicians, but it is uncertain who discovers it first between Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi, Abu Nasr Mansur, and Abu alWafa.  ca. 1100 – Omar Khayyám “gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections.” He became the first to find general geometric solutions of cubic equations and laid the foundations for the development of analytic geometry and non-Euclidean geometry. He also extracted roots using the decimal system (Hindu-Arabic numeral system).  1135 – Sharafeddin Tusi followed al-Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry, and wrote a treatise on cubic equations which “represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry.” 633  ca. 1250 – Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi attempts to develop a form of non-Euclidean geometry.  15th century – Nilakantha Somayaji, a Kerala school mathematician, writes the “Aryabhatiya Bhasya”, which contains work on infinite-series expansions, problems of algebra, and spherical geometry 17th century  17th century – Putumana Somayaji writes the "Paddhati", which presents a detailed discussion of various trigonometric series  1619 – Johannes Kepler discovers two of the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. 18th century  1722 – Abraham de Moivre states de Moivre's formula connecting trigonometric functions and complex numbers,  1733 – Giovanni Gerolamo Saccheri studies what geometry would be like if Euclid's fifth postulate were false,  1796 – Carl Friedrich Gauss proves that the regular 17-gon can be constructed using only a compass and straightedge  1797 – Caspar Wessel associates vectors with complex numbers and studies complex number operations in geometrical terms,  1799 – Gaspard Monge publishes Géométrie descriptive, in which he introduces descriptive geometry. 19th century  1806 – Louis Poinsot discovers the two remaining Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.  1829 – Bolyai, Gauss, and Lobachevsky invent hyperbolic non-Euclidean geometry,  1837 – Pierre Wantzel proves that doubling the cube and trisecting the angle are impossible with only a compass and straightedge, as well as the full completion of the problem of constructibility of regular polygons 634  1843 – William Hamilton discovers the calculus of quaternions and deduces that they are non-commutative,  1854 – Bernhard Riemann introduces Riemannian geometry,  1854 – Arthur Cayley shows that quaternions can be used to represent rotations in fourdimensional space,  1858 – August Ferdinand Möbius invents the Möbius strip,  1870 – Felix Klein constructs an analytic geometry for Lobachevski's geometry thereby establishing its self-consistency and the logical independence of Euclid's fifth postulate,  1873 – Charles Hermite proves that e is transcendental,  1878 – Charles Hermite solves the general quintic equation by means of elliptic and modular functions  1882 – Ferdinand von Lindemann proves that π is transcendental and that therefore the circle cannot be squared with a compass and straightedge,  1882 – Felix Klein invents the Klein bottle,  1899 – David Hilbert presents a set of self-consistent geometric axioms in Foundations of Geometry 20th century  1901 – Élie Cartan develops the exterior derivative,  1912 – Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer presents the Brouwer fixed-point theorem,  1916 – Einstein's theory of general relativity.  1930 – Casimir Kuratowski shows that the three-cottage problem has no solution,  1931 – Georges de Rham develops theorems in cohomology and characteristic classes,  1933 – Karol Borsuk and Stanislaw Ulam present the Borsuk-Ulam antipodal-point theorem,  1955 – H. S. M. Coxeter et al. publish the complete list of uniform polyhedron,  1975 – Benoit Mandelbrot, fractals theory, 635  1981 – Mikhail Gromov develops the theory of hyperbolic groups, revolutionizing both infinite group theory and global differential geometry,  1983 – the classification of finite simple groups, a collaborative work involving some hundred mathematicians and spanning thirty years, is completed,  1991 – Alain Connes and John Lott develop non-commutative geometry,  1998 – Thomas Callister Hales proves the Kepler conjecture, 21st century  2003 – Grigori Perelman proves the Poincaré conjecture,  2007 – A team of researches throughout North America and Europe used networks of computers to map E8 (mathematics). Timeline of numerals and arithmetic Before 2000 BC  c. 20,000 BC — Nile Valley, Ishango Bone: suggested, though disputed, as the earliest reference to prime numbers as also a common number.  c. 3400 BC — the Sumerians invent the first numeral system, and a system of weights and measures.  c. 3100 BC — Egypt, earliest known decimal system allows indefinite counting by way of introducing new symbols.  c. 2800 BC — Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian subcontinent, earliest use of decimal ratios in a uniform system of ancient weights and measures, the smallest unit of measurement used is 1.704 millimetres and the smallest unit of mass used is 28 grams.  c. 2000 BC — Mesopotamia, the Babylonians use a base-60 decimal system, and compute the first known approximate value of π at 3.125. 1st millennium BC 636  c. 1000 BC — Vulgar fractions used by the Egyptians.  Second half of 1st millennium BC — The Lo Shu Square, the unique normal magic square of order three, was discovered in China.  c. 400 BC — Jaina mathematicians in India write the “Surya Prajinapti”, a mathematical text which classifies all numbers into three sets: enumerable, innumerable and infinite. It also recognises five different types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually.  c. 300 BC — Brahmi numerals are conceived in India.  300 BC — Mesopotamia, the Babylonians invent the earliest calculator, the abacus.  c. 300 BC — Indian mathematician Pingala writes the “Chhandah-shastra”, which contains the first Indian use of zero as a digit (indicated by a dot) and also presents a description of a binary numeral system, along with the first use of Fibonacci numbers and Pascal's triangle.  c. 250 BC — late Olmecs had already begun to use a true zero (a shell glyph) several centuries before Ptolemy in the New World. See 0 (number).  150 BC — Jain mathematicians in India write the “Sthananga Sutra”, which contains work on the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, quartic equations, and permutations and combinations.  50 BC — Indian numerals, the first positional notation base-10 numeral system, begins developing in India. 1st millennium AD  300 — the earliest known use of zero as a decimal digit is introduced by Indian mathematicians.  c. 400 — the Bakhshali manuscript is written by Jaina mathematicians, which describes a theory of the infinite containing different levels of infinity, shows an understanding of indices, as well as logarithms to base 2, and computes square roots of numbers as large as a million correct to at least 11 decimal places. 637  550 — Hindu mathematicians give zero a numeral representation in the positional notation Indian numeral system.  628 — Brahmagupta writes the Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta, where zero is clearly explained, and where the modern place-value Indian numeral system is fully developed. It also gives rules for manipulating both negative and positive numbers, methods for computing square roots, methods of solving linear and quadratic equations, and rules for summing series, Brahmagupta's identity, and the Brahmagupta theorem.  940 — Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani extracts roots using the Indian numeral system.  953 — The arithmetic of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because “the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded.” Al-Uqlidisi modified these methods for pen and paper use. Eventually the advances enabled by the decimal system led to its standard use throughout the region and the world. 1000–1500  c. 1000 — Pope Sylvester II introduces the abacus using the Hindu-Arabic numeral system to Europe.  1030 — Ali Ahmad Nasawi writes a treatise on the decimal and sexagesimal number systems. His arithmetic explains the division of fractions and the extraction of square and cubic roots (square root of 57,342; cubic root of 3, 652, 296) in an almost modern manner.  12th century — Indian numerals have been modified by Persian mathematicians alKhwārizmī to form the modern Arabic numerals (used universally in the modern world.)  12th century — the Arabic numerals reach Europe through the Arabs.  1202 — Leonardo Fibonacci demonstrates the utility of Hindu-Arabic numeral system in his Book of the Abacus.  c. 1400 — Ghiyath al-Kashi “contributed to the development of decimal fractions not only for approximating algebraic numbers, but also for real numbers such as pi. His 638 Number Roman Numeral 0 Not defined 1 I 2 II 3 III 4 IV 5 V 6 VI 7 VII 8 VIII 9 IX 10 X 11 XI 12 XII 13 XIII 14 XIV 15 XV 16 XVI 17 XVII 18 XVIII 19 XIX 20 XX 21 XXI 22 XXII 23 XXIII 24 XXIV 25 XXV 26 XXVI 27 XXVII 28 XXVIII 29 XXIX 30 XXX 31 XXXI 32 XXXII 33 XXXIII 34 XXXIV 35 XXXV 36 XXXVI But neither thirty years, nor thirty centuries, affect the clearness, or the charm, of Geometrical truths. Such a theorem as "the square of the hypotenuse of a rightangled triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the sides" is as dazzlingly beautiful now as it was in the day when Pythagoras first discovered it, and celebrated its advent, it is said, by sacrificing a hecatomb of oxen — a method of doing honour to Science that has always seemed to me slightly exaggerated and uncalled-for. One can imagine oneself, even in these degenerate days, marking the epoch of some brilliant scientific discovery by inviting a convivial friend or two, to join one in a beefsteak and a bottle of wine. But a hecatomb of oxen! It would produce a quite inconvenient supply of beef. — Lewis Carroll 37 XXXVII 38 XXXVIII 39 XXXIX 40 XL 41 XLI 42 XLII 43 XLIII 44 XLIV 45 XLV 46 XLVI 47 XLVII 48 XLVIII 49 XLIX 50 L 51 LI 52 LII 53 LIII 54 LIV 55 LV 56 LVI 57 LVII 58 LVIII 59 LIX 60 LX 61 LXI 62 LXII 63 LXIII 64 LXIV 65 LXV 66 LXVI 67 LXVII 68 LXVIII 69 LXIX 70 LXX 71 LXXI 72 LXXII 73 LXXIII 74 LXXIV Generality of points of view and of methods, precision and elegance in presentation, have become, since Lagrange, the common property of all who would lay claim to the rank of scientific mathematicians. And, even if this generality leads at times to abstruseness at the expense of intuition and applicability, so that general theorems are formulated which fail to apply to a single special case, if furthermore precision at times degenerates into a studied brevity which makes it more difficult to read an article than it was to write it; if, finally, elegance of form has well-nigh become in our day the criterion of the worth or worthlessness of a proposition,—yet are these conditions of the highest importance to a wholesome development, in that they keep the scientific material within the limits which are necessary both intrinsically and extrinsically if mathematics is not to spend itself in trivialities or smother in profusion. — Hermann Hankel 75 LXXV 76 LXXVI 77 LXXVII 78 LXXVIII 79 LXXIX 80 LXXX 81 LXXXI 82 LXXXII 83 LXXXIII 84 LXXXIV 85 LXXXV 86 LXXXVI 87 LXXXVII 88 LXXXVIII 89 LXXXIX 90 XC 91 XCI 92 XCII 93 XCIII 94 XCIV 95 XCV 96 XCVI 97 XCVII 98 XCVIII 99 XCIX 100 C 200 CC 300 CCC 400 CD 500 D 600 DC 700 DCC 800 DCCC 900 CM 1000 M Fourier's Theorem … is not only one of the most beautiful results of modern analysis, but it may be said to furnish an indispensable instrument in the treatment of nearly every recondite question in modern physics. To mention only sonorous vibrations, the propagation of electric signals along a telegraph wire, and the conduction of heat by the earth’s crust, as subjects in their generality intractable without it, is to give but a feeble idea of its importance. — Baron William Thomson Kelvin contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Although not the first to do so, al-Kashi gave an algorithm for calculating nth roots which is a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner.” He is also the first to use the decimal point notation in arithmetic and Arabic numerals. His works include The Key of arithmetics, Discoveries in mathematics, The Decimal point, and The benefits of the zero. The contents of the Benefits of the Zero are an introduction followed by five essays: “On whole number arithmetic”, “On fractional arithmetic”, “On astrology”, “On areas”, and “On finding the unknowns [unknown variables]”. He also wrote the Thesis on the sine and the chord and Thesis on finding the first degree sine.  15th century — Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi introduced symbolic notation for algebra and for mathematics in general.  1427 — Al-Kashi completes The Key to Arithmetic containing work of great depth on decimal fractions. It applies arithmetical and algebraic methods to the solution of various problems, including several geometric ones.  1478 — An anonymous author writes the Treviso Arithmetic. All spiders produce silk 17th century  1614 - John Napier discusses Napierian logarithms in Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio,  1617 - Henry Briggs discusses decimal logarithms in Logarithmorum Chilias Prima,  1618 - John Napier publishes the first references to e in a work on logarithms. Jumping spiders can jump up to 50x their own length 18th century  1794 - Jurij Vega publishes Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus. Calculation of Pi  1706 - John Machin develops a quickly converging inverse-tangent series for π and computes π to 100 decimal places. 639  1789 - Jurij Vega improves Machin's formula and computes π to 140 decimal places.  1949 - John von Neumann computes π to 2,037 decimal places using ENIAC.  1961 - Daniel Shanks and John Wrench compute π to 100,000 decimal places using an inverse-tangent identity and an IBM-7090 computer.  1987 - Yasumasa Kanada, David Bailey, Jonathan Borwein, and Peter Borwein use iterative modular equation approximations to elliptic integrals and a NEC SX2 supercomputer to compute π to 134 million decimal places.  2002 - Yasumasa Kanada, Y. Ushiro, Hisayasu Kuroda, Makoto Kudoh and a team of nine more compute π to 1241.1 billion digits using a Hitachi 64-node supercomputer. Female spiders can lay up to 3,000 eggs at one time Timeline of computational mathematics 1940s  Monte Carlo simulation (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) invented at Los Alamos by von Neumann, Ulam and Metropolis.  Dantzig introduces the simplex algorithm (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).  First hydro simulations at Los Alamos occurred.  Ulam and von Neumann introduce the notion of cellular automata.  A routine for the Manchester Baby written to factor a large number (218), one of the first in computational number theory. The Manchester group would make several other breakthroughs in this area.  LU decomposition technique first discovered. For its weight, spider web silk is actually stronger and tougher than steel. 1950s  Hestenes, Stiefel, and Lanczos, all from the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the National Bureau of Standards, initiate the development of Krylov subspace iteration methods. Voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century. 640  Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines introduces the Metropolis– Hastings algorithm. Also, important earlier independent work by Alder and S. Frankel.  Enrico Fermi, Stanislaw Ulam, John Pasta, and Mary Tsingou, discover the Fermi–Pasta– Ulam–Tsingou problem.  In network theory, Ford & Fulkerson compute a solution to the maximum flow problem.  Householder invents his eponymous matrices and transformation method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).  Molecular dynamics invented by Alder and Wainwright  John G.F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya invent QR factorization (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century). found on every continent except Antarctica 1960s  Spiders can be one of 38,000 species and are First recorded use of the term "finite element method" by Ray Clough, to describe the methods of Courant, Hrenikoff and Zienkiewicz, among others.  Using computational investigations of the 3-body problem, Minovitch formulates the gravity assist method.  Molecular dynamics was invented independently by Aneesur Rahman.  Cooley and Tukey re-invent the Fast Fourier transform (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century), an algorithm first discovered by Gauss.  Edward Lorenz discovers the butterfly effect on a computer, attracting interest in chaos theory.  Kruskal and Zabusky follow up the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem with further numerical experiments, and coin the term "soliton".  Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture formulated through investigations on a computer.  Grobner bases and Buchberger's algorithm invented for algebra  Frenchman Verlet (re)discovers a numerical integration algorithm, (first used in 1791 by Delambre, by Cowell and Crommelin in 1909, and by Carl Fredrik Störmer in 1907, hence the alternative names Störmer's method or the Verlet-Störmer method) for dynamics. 641 The tiniest spider is Patu marplesi −  Risch invents algorithm for symbolic integration. which is so small that 10 can fit on the end of a pencil. 1970s  Computer algebra replicates and extends the work of Delaunay in lunar theory.  Mandelbrot, from studies of the Fatou, Julia and Mandelbrot sets, coined and popularized the term 'fractal' to describe these structures' self-similarity.  Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken prove the four colour theorem, the first theorem to be proved by computer. Spiders eat more insects than both birds and bats. 1980s  Fast multipole method invented by Rokhlin and Greengard (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century). Spiders lack teeth so they can't chew food. They inject digestive juices into their 1990s captured prey and then suck up the liquefied creature. The appearance of the first research grids using volunteer computing – GIMPS (1996)  and distributed.net (1997).  Kepler conjecture is almost all but certainly proved algorithmically by Thomas Hales in 1998. Wolf spiders are fast, running at speeds of up to 2 feet per second. 2000s  In computational group theory, God's number is shown to be 20.  Mathematicians completely map the E8-group. Spider webs contain Vitamin K − 2010s which is a coagulant that stops  Hales completes the proof of Kepler's conjecture. The biggest species of spider is the Goliath Birdeater which can be up to 11 inches wide. 642 bleeding. Letter from Nicolaus Copernicus to the Varmia Chapter Melsac, 22 October 1518 To the Venerable and Worshipful Officers, Canons, and Chapter of the Church of Varmia, most honorable masters Venerable and worshipful gentlemen, honorable masters: I learned from his Most Reverend Lordship [the bishop of Varmia] yesterday what your Reverences write about preparing the reception. The arrangements are virtually complete for either [contingency], whether it happens to be a fish day or a meat day. P[hilip] Greusing's letter impelled me to leave Olsztyn sooner [than I had intended]. At my invitation the burgrave 1eft with me. In Lidzbark he received more complete information, as a result of which Greusing will be unable to complain that he has been denied justice. His Most Reverend Lordship also commissioned me to advise your Reverences concerning the reply to be given to the Grand Master [of the Teutonic Knights]. If the letter has not been sent, in the copy transmitted [to you] by his Lordship the following clause is to be added: "that holy justice may not be blocked," the better to forestall their perverse and quibbling interpretation. His Lordship has also received the news that [the Grand Duke ot] Moscow has signed with the king [of Poland] a permanent peace treaty, the provisions of which his Lordship expects to learn at any moment. confidence of our neighbors has accordingly now collapsed. I commend myself to your Reverences. Melsac, 22 October 1518 I shall leave from here too as soon as I can. Thus the complete N. Coppernic Letter from Nicolaus Copernicus to Bishop Ferber Frombork, 29 February 1524 To my lord, Most Reverend Father in Christ, Maurice [Ferber], by the grace of God bishop of Varmia, my most honorable and beloved superior My lord, Most Reverend Father in Christ, my gracious lord. Some time ago, during the war, the venerable Heinrich Snellenberg received from Reinhold Feldstedt 100 marks of the money Feldstedt owed me. Not long afterward Snellenberg paid 90 of those marks. He remained obligated to me for 10 marks. I often asked him for them. Up to the present time I have not been able to recover them. But, putting me off, he always promised to pay up at the next distribution of the proceeds. Several months having passed, then, it happened that in my presence the venerable administrator counted out a certain share of the money to him. I asked him to pay me then out of that money in accordance with his promises, while I proposed to give him a receipt in full in my own handwriting. Then he again imposed on me with a new objection, and he forced me first to obtain his receipt from Reinhold Feldstedt. Now the venerable administrator arrived yesterday and distributed the bulk of the proceeds. Holding Snellenberg's receipt, I sought him out, and even so I did not succeed. He said that he wanted to keep all the money [coming to him] from the administrator. If he owed me anything, I should claim it in a legal action in the court of a judge. I therefore see that I cannot act otherwise, and that my reward for affection is to be hated, and to be mocked for my complacency. I am forced to follow his advice, the advice by which he plans to frustrate me or cheat me if he can. I have recourse to your Most Reverend Lordship, whom I ask and beseech to deign to order on my behalf the withholding of the income from his benefice until he satisfies me, or a kind provision in some other way for me to be able to obtain what is mine. I pledge my services with the utmost promptness to your Most Reverend Lordship. May divine goodness preserve you in a completely prosperous long life and happy rule. Frombork, 29 February 1524 Your Most Reverend Lordship's Nic. Coppernic Letter from Nicolaus Copernicus to Duke Albrecht of Prussia Frombork, 21 June 1541 To the serene and honorable prince, Albert, by the grace of God margrave of Brandenburg, duke of Prussia and Wendland, burgrave of Neuenburg, and prince of Rügen, my gracious lord Serene, honorable Prince, gracious lord: Just yesterday I received from Jan Benedict [Solfa], the physician of His Majesty the king of Poland, a letter and an answer to my message about the honorable George of Kunheim, commander in Tapiau etc. But since no mention is made therein of any other special or extraneous matters, I have forwarded the original letter to your Princely Grace. From it your Princely Grace will learn this doctor's opinion and advice. If I knew anything better to contribute thereto that would be helpful in restoring that good man, your Princely Grace's officer, to health, no labor, exertion, and trouble would be vexatious to me that would be beneficial to your Princely Grace, to whose service I am devoted. Frombork, 21 June 1541 Your Princely Grace's obedient servant Nicholas Copernicus Ernest Hemingway's Letter to F. Scott Fitzgerald Key West 28 May 1934 Dear Scott: I liked it and I didn’t. It started off with that marvelous description of Sara and Gerald (goddamn it Dos took it with him so I can’t refer to it. So if I make any mistakes—). Then you started fooling with them, making them come from things they didn’t come from, changing them into other people and you can’t do that, Scott. If you take real people and write about them you cannot give them other parents than they have (they are made by their parents and what happens to them) you cannot make them do anything they would not do. You can take you or me or Zelda or Pauline or Hadley or Sara or Gerald but you have to keep them the same and you can only make them do what they would do. You can’t make one be another. Invention is the finest thing but you cannot invent anything that would not actually happen. That is what we are supposed to do when we are at our best—make it all up—but make it up so truly that later it will happen that way. Goddamn it you took liberties with peoples’ pasts and futures that produced not people but damned marvellously faked case histories. You, who can write better than anybody can, who are so lousy with talent that you have to—the hell with it. Scott for gods sake write and write truly no matter who or what it hurts but do not make these silly compromises. You could write a fine book about Gerald and Sara for instance if you knew enough about them and they would not have any feeling, except passing, if it were true. There were wonderful places and nobody else nor none of the boys can write a good one half as good reading as one that doesn’t come out by you, but you cheated too damned much in this one. And you don’t need to. In the first place I’ve always claimed that you can’t think. All right, we’ll admit you can think. But say you couldn’t think; then you ought to write, invent, out of what you know and keep the people’s antecedants straight. Second place, a long time ago you stopped listening except to the answers to your own questions. You had good stuff in too that it didn’t need. That’s what dries a writer up (we all dry up. That’s no insult to you in person) not listening. That is where it all comes from. Seeing, listening. You see well enough. But you stop listening. It’s a lot better than I say. But it’s not as good as you can do. You can study Clausewitz in the field and economics and psychology and nothing else will do you any bloody good once you are writing. We are like lousy damned acrobats but we make some mighty fine jumps, bo, and they have all these other acrobats that won’t jump. For Christ sake write and don’t worry about what the boys will say nor whether it will be a masterpiece nor what. I write one page of masterpiece to ninety one pages of shit. I try to put the shit in the wastebasket. You feel you have to publish crap to make money to live and let live. All write but if you write enough and as well as you can there will be the same amount of masterpiece material (as we say at Yale). You can’t think well enough to sit down and write a deliberate masterpiece and if you could get rid of Seldes and those guys that nearly ruined you and turn them out as well as you can and let the spectators yell when it is good and hoot when it is not you would be all right. Forget your personal tragedy. We are all bitched from the start and you especially have to hurt like hell before you can write seriously. But when you get the damned hurt use it—don’t cheat with it. Be as faithful to it as a scientist—but don’t think anything is of any importance because it happens to you or anyone belonging to you. About this time I wouldn’t blame you if you gave me a burst. Jesus it’s marvellous to tell other people how to write, live, die etc. I’d like to see you and talk about things with you sober. You were so damned stinking in N.Y. we didn’t get anywhere. You see, Bo, you’re not a tragic character. Neither am I. All we are is writers and what we should do is write. Of all people on earth you needed discipline in your work and instead you marry someone who is jealous of your work, wants to compete with you and ruins you. It’s not as simple as that and I thought Zelda was crazy the first time I met her and you complicated it even more by being in love with her and, of course you’re a rummy. But you’re no more of a rummy than Joyce is and most good writers are. But Scott, good writers always come back. Always. You are twice as good now as you were at the time you think you were so marvellous. You know I never thought so much of Gatsby at the time. You can write twice as well now as you ever could. All you need to do is write truly and not care about what the fate of it is. Go on and write. Anyway I’m damned fond of you and I’d like to have a chance to talk sometimes. We had good times talking. Remember that guy we went out to see dying in Neuilly? He was down here this winter. Damned nice guy Canby Chambers. Saw a lot of Dos. He’s in good shape now and he was plenty sick this time last year. How is Scotty and Zelda? Pauline sends her love. We’re all fine. She’s going up to Piggott for a couple of weeks with Patrick. Then bring Bumby back. We have a fine boat. Am going good on a very long story. Hard one to write. Always your friend Ernest Letter from Pearl S. Buck to Helen Keller Dear Helen Keller: I am one of many thousands, I know, who are thinking of you today with especial affection and sympathy. I count meeting your Teacher as one of the great experiences of my life - one was instantly impressed with the sense of greatness together! How in her much presence. you both What a achieved glorious for the life world, you and and what she made immense strength you have given to us all! I know of no human source so full of inspiration to others as the story of your life with her. Please, then, accept my deepest admiration, my faith in you that you are able, now, as you always have been, to live triumphantly. I know what this means to you - this parting - I know a little of what this must mean, rather- but I have no fears for you. And will you count me among your friends now more than ever, and if ever I can help you, let me know - I shall be so glad. And when you feel able, I should like to come and see you. Please remember me kindly and warmly to dear Polly Thomson. Faithfully yours, Pearl S. Buck (Mrs. Richard J. Walsh) 480 Park. Ave. New York City Wednesday Letter from John Steinbeck to 20th Century Fox New York January 10, 1944 Dear Sirs: I have just seen the film Lifeboat, directed by Alfred Hitchcock and billed as written by me. While in many ways the film is excellent there are one or two complaints I would like to make. While it is certainly true that I wrote a script for Lifeboat, it is not true that in that script as in the film th ere were any slurs against organized labor nor was there a stock comedy Negro. On the contrary there was an intelligent and thoughtful seaman who knew realistically what he was about. And instead of the usual colored travesty of the half comic and half pat hetic Negro there was a Negro of dignity, purpose and personality. Since this film occurs over my name, it is painful to me that these strange, sly obliquities should be ascribed to me. John Steinbeck Letter from Alfred Nobel toVictor Hugo Victor Hugo Paris Long may the Grand Master live, to charm the world and spread his ideas of universal charity. A. Nobel Timeline of abelian varieties The word 'Geometry' is derived from an ancient Greek word 'geometron'. Early history The word 'geo' means 'Earth' and  'metron' means 'measurement'. c. 1000 Al-Karaji writes on congruent numbers Seventeenth century  Fermat studies descent for elliptic curves  1643 Fermat poses an elliptic curve Diophantine equation  1670 Fermat's son published his Diophantus with notes Eighteenth century  1718 Giulio Carlo Fagnano dei Toschi, studies the rectification of the lemniscate, addition results for elliptic integrals.  1736 Euler writes on the pendulum equation without the small-angle approximation.  1738 Euler writes on curves of genus 1 considered by Fermat and Frenicle  1750 Euler writes on elliptic integrals  23 December 1751-27 January 1752: Birth of the theory of elliptic functions, according to later remarks of Jacobi, as Euler writes on Fagnano's work.  1775 John Landen publishes Landen's transformation, an isogeny formula.  1786 Adrien-Marie Legendre begins to write on elliptic integrals  1797 C. F. Gauss discovers double periodicity of the lemniscate function  1799 Gauss finds the connection of the length of a lemniscate and a case of the arithmetic-geometric mean, giving a numerical method for a complete elliptic integral. Greeks used Geometry in making Nineteenth century  Building 1826 Niels Henrik Abel, Abel-Jacobi map 643  1827 inversion of elliptic integrals independently by Abel and Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi  1829 Jacobi, Fundamenta nova theoriae functionum ellipticarum, introduces four theta functions of one variable  1835 Jacobi points out the use of the group law for diophantine geometry, in Du usu Theoriae Integralium Ellipticorum et Integralium Abelianorum in Analysi Diophantea  1836-7 Friedrich Julius Richelot, the Richelot isogeny.  1847 Adolph Göpel gives the equation of the Kummer surface  1851 Johann Georg Rosenhain writes a prize essay on the inversion problem in genus 2.  c. 1850 Thomas Weddle - Weddle surface  1856 Weierstrass elliptic functions  1857 Bernhard Riemann lays the foundations for further work on abelian varieties in dimension > 1, introducing the Riemann bilinear relations and Riemann theta function.  1865 Carl Johannes Thomae, Theorie der ultraelliptischen Funktionen und Integrale erster und zweiter Ordnung  1866, Alfred Clebsch and Paul Gordan, Theorie der Abel'schen Functionen  1869 Weierstrass proves an abelian function satisfies an algebraic addition theorem  1879, Charles Auguste Briot, Théorie des fonctions abéliennes  1880 In a letter to Richard Dedekind, Leopold Kronecker describes his Jugendtraum, to use complex multiplication theory to generate abelian extensions of imaginary quadratic fields  1884 Sofia Kovalevskaya writes on the reduction of abelian functions to elliptic functions  1888 Friedrich Schottky finds a non-trivial condition on the theta constants for curves of genus g = 4, launching the Schottky problem.  1891 Appell–Humbert theorem of Paul Émile Appell and Georges Humbert, classifies the holomorphic line bundles on an abelian surface by cocycle data.  1894 Die Entwicklung der Theorie der algebräischen Functionen in älterer und neuerer Zeit, report by Alexander von Brill and Max Noether  1895 Wilhelm Wirtinger, Untersuchungen über Thetafunktionen, studies Prym varieties 644  1897 H. F. Baker, Abelian Functions: Abel's Theorem and the Allied Theory of Theta Functions Geometry and arithmetic were the only two subfields of mathematics Twentieth century  before algebra appeared in 16th century. c.1910 The theory of Poincaré normal functions implies that the Picard variety and Albanese variety are isogenous.  1913 Torelli's theorem  1916 Gaetano Scorza applies the term "abelian variety" to complex tori.  1921 Lefschetz shows that any complex torus with Riemann matrix satisfying the necessary conditions can be embedded in some complex projective space using thetafunctions  1922 Louis Mordell proves Mordell's theorem: the rational points on an elliptic curve over the rational numbers form a finitely-generated abelian group  1929 Arthur B. Coble, Algebraic Geometry and Theta Functions  1939 Siegel modular forms  c. 1940 Weil defines "abelian variety"  1952 André Weil defines an intermediate Jacobian  Theorem of the cube  Selmer group  Michael Atiyah classifies holomorphic vector bundles on an elliptic curve  1961 Goro Shimura and Yutaka Taniyama, Complex Multiplication of Abelian Varieties Euclid is often referred to as the "Father of Geometry" and its Applications to Number Theory  Néron model  Birch–Swinnerton–Dyer conjecture  Moduli space for abelian varieties  Duality of abelian varieties  c.1967 David Mumford develops a new theory of the equations defining abelian varieties Triangle is a polygon with 3 sides and 3 angles. 645  1968 Serre–Tate theorem on good reduction extends the results of Deuring on elliptic curves to the abelian variety case.  c. 1980 Mukai–Fourier transform: the Poincare bundle as Mukai–Fourier kernel induces an equivalence of the derived categories of coherent sheaves for an abelian variety and its dual.  1983 Takahiro Shiota proves Novikov's conjecture on the Schottky problem  1985 Jean-Marc Fontaine shows that any positive-dimensional abelian variety over the rationals has bad reduction somewhere. Twenty-first century  2001 Proof of the modularity theorem for elliptic curves is completed. A quadrilateral is a polygon with 4 sides Timeline of calculus and mathematical analysis and 4 right angles. 1000 to 1500  1020 — Abul Wáfa — Discussed the quadrature of the parabola and the volume of the paraboloid.  1021 — Ibn al-Haytham completes his Book of Optics, which formulated and solved “Alhazen's problem” geometrically, and developed and proved the earliest general formula for infinitesimal and integral calculus using mathematical induction.  12th century — Bhāskara II conceives differential calculus, and also develops Rolle's theorem, Pell's equation, a proof for the Pythagorean Theorem, computes π to 5 decimal places, and calculates the time taken for the earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places  14th century — Madhava is considered the father of mathematical analysis, who also worked on the power series for pi and for sine and cosine functions, and along with other Kerala school mathematicians, founded the important concepts of Calculus  14th century — Parameshvara, a Kerala school mathematician, presents a series form of the sine function that is equivalent to its Taylor series expansion, states the mean value 646 theorem of differential calculus, and is also the first mathematician to give the radius of circle with inscribed cyclic quadrilateral  1400 — Madhava discovers the series expansion for the inverse-tangent function, the infinite series for arctan and sin, and many methods for calculating the circumference of the circle, and uses them to compute π correct to 11 decimal places A square has 4 lines of reflectional symmetry 16th century  1501 — Nilakantha Somayaji writes the “Tantra Samgraha”, which lays the foundation for a complete system of fluxions (derivatives), and expands on concepts from his previous text, the “Aryabhatiya Bhasya”.  1550 — Jyeshtadeva, a Kerala school mathematician, writes the “Yuktibhāṣā”, the world's first calculus text, which gives detailed derivations of many calculus theorems and formulae. The internal angles of a square all add up to 360 degrees 17th century  1629 - Pierre de Fermat develops a rudimentary differential calculus,  1634 - Gilles de Roberval shows that the area under a cycloid is three times the area of its generating circle,  1656 - John Wallis publishes Arithmetica Infinitorum,  1658 - Christopher Wren shows that the length of a cycloid is four times the diameter of its generating circle,  1665 - Isaac Newton works on the fundamental theorem of calculus and develops his version of infinitesimal calculus,  1671 - James Gregory develops a series expansion for the inverse-tangent function (originally discovered by Madhava),  1673 - Gottfried Leibniz also develops his version of infinitesimal calculus,  1675 - Isaac Newton invents a Newton's method for the computation of functional roots,  1691 - Gottfried Leibniz discovers the technique of separation of variables for ordinary differential equations, 647  1696 - Guillaume de L'Hôpital states his rule for the computation of certain limits,  1696 - Jakob Bernoulli and Johann Bernoulli solve brachistochrone problem, the first result in the calculus of variations. A diamond is a good example of a rhombus (a quadrilateral with 4 sides that 18th century are the same length)  1712 - Brook Taylor develops Taylor series,  1730 - James Stirling publishes The Differential Method,  1734 - Leonhard Euler introduces the integrating factor technique for solving first-order ordinary differential equations,  1735 - Leonhard Euler solves the Basel problem, relating an infinite series to π,  1739 - Leonhard Euler solves the general homogeneous linear ordinary differential equation with constant coefficients,  1748 - Maria Gaetana Agnesi discusses analysis in Instituzioni Analitiche ad Uso della Gioventu Italiana,  1762 - Joseph Louis Lagrange discovers the divergence theorem, 19th century  A circle has the shortest perimeter of all shapes with the same area 1807 - Joseph Fourier announces his discoveries about the trigonometric decomposition of functions,  1811 - Carl Friedrich Gauss discusses the meaning of integrals with complex limits and briefly examines the dependence of such integrals on the chosen path of integration,  1815 - Siméon Denis Poisson carries out integrations along paths in the complex plane,  1817 - Bernard Bolzano presents the intermediate value theorem---a continuous function which is negative at one point and positive at another point must be zero for at least one point in between,  1822 - Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents the Cauchy integral theorem for integration around the boundary of a rectangle in the complex plane, 648  1825 - Augustin-Louis Cauchy presents the Cauchy integral theorem for general integration paths—he assumes the function being integrated has a continuous derivative, and he introduces the theory of residues in complex analysis,  1825 - André-Marie Ampère discovers Stokes' theorem,  1828 - George Green introduces Green's theorem,  1831 - Mikhail Vasilievich Ostrogradsky rediscovers and gives the first proof of the divergence theorem earlier described by Lagrange, Gauss and Green,  1841 - Karl Weierstrass discovers but does not publish the Laurent expansion theorem,  1843 - Pierre-Alphonse Laurent discovers and presents the Laurent expansion theorem,  1850 - Victor Alexandre Puiseux distinguishes between poles and branch points and introduces the concept of essential singular points,  1850 - George Gabriel Stokes rediscovers and proves Stokes' theorem,  1873 - Georg Frobenius presents his method for finding series solutions to linear differential equations with regular singular points, 20th century  1908 - Josip Plemelj solves the Riemann problem about the existence of a differential equation with a given monodromic group and uses Sokhotsky - Plemelj formulae,  1966 - Abraham Robinson presents Non-standard analysis.  1985 - Louis de Branges de Bourcia proves the Bieberbach conjecture. The longest side of a right-angle triangle in Geometry Timeline of number theory is called the hypotenuse and it is always found opposite the right angle Before 1000 BC  ca. 20,000 BC — Nile Valley, Ishango Bone: possibly the earliest reference to prime numbers and Egyptian multiplication although this is disputed. About 300 BC 649  300 BC — Euclid proves the number of prime numbers is infinite. Girolamo Cardano was an Italian physician, mathematician, and 1st millennium AD astrologer who gave the first clinical description of typhus fever  250 — Diophantus writes Arithmetica, one of the earliest treatises on algebra.  500 — Aryabhata solves the general linear diophantine equation.  ca. 650 — Mathematicians in India create the Hindu-Arabic numeral system we use, including the zero, the decimals and negative numbers. Plane Geometry is all about shapes on a flat surface 1000–1500  ca. 1000 — Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi first states a special case of Fermat's Last Theorem.  895 — Thabit ibn Qurra gives a theorem by which pairs of amicable numbers can be found, (i.e., two numbers such that each is the sum of the proper divisors of the other).  975 — The earliest triangle of binomial coefficients (Pascal triangle) occur in the 10th century in commentaries on the Chandas Shastra.  1150 — Bhaskara II gives first general method for solving Pell's equation  1260 — Al-Farisi gave a new proof of Thābit ibn Qurra's theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorization and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair of amicable numbers 17296 and 18416 which have also been jointly attributed to Fermat as well as Thabit ibn Qurra. 17th century  1637 - Pierre de Fermat claims to have proven Fermat's Last Theorem in his copy of Diophantus' Arithmetica. 18th century  1742 - Christian Goldbach conjectures that every even number greater than two can be expressed as the sum of two primes, now known as Goldbach's conjecture. 650  1770 - Joseph Louis Lagrange proves the four-square theorem, that every positive integer is the sum of four squares of integers. In the same year, Edward Waring conjectures Waring's problem, that for any positive integer k, every positive integer is the sum of a fixed number of kth powers.  1796 - Adrien-Marie Legendre conjectures the prime number theorem. 19th century  1801 - Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, Carl Friedrich Gauss's number theory treatise, is published in Latin.  1825 - Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet and Adrien-Marie Legendre prove Fermat's Last Theorem for n = 5.  1832 - Lejeune Dirichlet proves Fermat's Last Theorem for n = 14.  1835 - Lejeune Dirichlet proves Dirichlet's theorem about prime numbers in arithmetical progressions.  1859 - Bernhard Riemann formulates the Riemann hypothesis which has strong implications about the distribution of prime numbers.  1896 - Jacques Hadamard and Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin independently prove the prime number theorem.  1896 - Hermann Minkowski presents Geometry of numbers. In any circle − no matter how large or how tiny – its circumference divided 20th century  by its diameter always produces the same number, known as π. 1903 - Edmund Georg Hermann Landau gives considerably simpler proof of the prime number theorem.  1909 - David Hilbert proves Waring's problem.  1912 - Josip Plemelj publishes simplified proof for the Fermat's Last Theorem for exponent n = 5.  1913 - Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan sends a long list of complex theorems without proofs to G. H. Hardy. 651  1914 - Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan publishes Modular Equations and Approximations to π.  1910s - Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan develops over 3000 theorems, including properties of highly composite numbers, the partition function and its asymptotics, and mock theta functions. He also makes major breakthroughs and discoveries in the areas of gamma functions, modular forms, divergent series, hypergeometric series and prime number theory.  1919 - Viggo Brun defines Brun's constant B2 for twin primes.  1937 - I. M. Vinogradov proves Vinogradov's theorem that every sufficiently large odd integer is the sum of three primes, a close approach to proving Goldbach's weak conjecture.  1949 - Atle Selberg and Paul Erdős give the first elementary proof of the prime number theorem.  1966 - Chen Jingrun proves Chen's theorem, a close approach to proving the Goldbach conjecture.  1967 - Robert Langlands formulates the influential Langlands program of conjectures relating number theory and representation theory.  1983 - Gerd Faltings proves the Mordell conjecture and thereby shows that there are only finitely many whole number solutions for each exponent of Fermat's Last Theorem.  1994 - Andrew Wiles proves part of the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture and thereby proves Fermat's Last Theorem.  1999 - the full Taniyama–Shimura conjecture is proved. Al-jabr is the original of the word algebra. It is an Arabic word, which has the 21st century  literal meaning the reunion of broken parts. 2002 - Manindra Agrawal, Nitin Saxena, and Neeraj Kayal of IIT Kanpur present an unconditional deterministic polynomial time algorithm to determine whether a given number is prime.  2002 - Preda Mihăilescu proves Catalan's conjecture. 652 Digital Computer Usage-Wise Special Purpose Size-Wise General Purpose  Microcomputer  Mini computer  Mainframe computer  Super computer A multidisciplinary study group ... estimated that it would be 1980 before developments in artificial intelligence make it possible for machines alone to do much thinking or problem solving of military significance. That would leave, say, five years to develop man-computer symbiosis and 15 years to use it. The 15 may be 10 or 500, but those years should be intellectually the most creative and exciting in the history of mankind. J.C.R. Licklider Network Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Network Wide Area Network (LAN) (MAN) (LAN) Lowest in distance and Medium in distance and complexity Longest in distance and complexity complexity  2004 - Ben Green and Terence Tao prove the Green–Tao theorem, which states that the sequence of prime numbers contains arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions. Timeline of mathematical logic 19th century  1847 – George Boole proposes symbolic logic in The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, defining what is now called Boolean algebra.  1854 – George Boole perfects his ideas, with the publication of An Investigation of the Laws of Thought.  1874 – Georg Cantor proves that the set of all real numbers is uncountably infinite but the set of all real algebraic numbers is countably infinite. His proof does not use his famous diagonal argument, which he published in 1891.  1895 – Georg Cantor publishes a book about set theory containing the arithmetic of infinite cardinal numbers and the continuum hypothesis.  1899 – Georg Cantor discovers a contradiction in his set theory. 20th century  1908 – Ernst Zermelo axiomatizes set theory, thus avoiding Cantor's contradictions.  1931 – Kurt Gödel proves his incompleteness theorem which shows that every axiomatic system for mathematics is either incomplete or inconsistent.  1940 – Kurt Gödel shows that neither the continuum hypothesis nor the axiom of choice can be disproven from the standard axioms of set theory.  1961 – Abraham Robinson creates non-standard analysis.  1963 – Paul Cohen uses his technique of forcing to show that neither the continuum hypothesis nor the axiom of choice can be proven from the standard axioms of set theory. Timeline of the evolutionary history of life 653 In this timeline, Ma (for megaannum) means "million years ago," ka (for kiloannum)  means "thousand years ago," and ya means "years ago." Date Event 4600 Ma The planet Earth forms from the accretion disc revolving around the young Sun, with organic compounds (complex organic molecules) necessary for life having perhaps formed in the protoplanetary disk of cosmic dust grains surrounding it before the formation of the Earth itself. 4500 Ma According to the giant impact hypothesis, the Moon originated when the planet Earth and the hypothesized planet Theia collided, sending a very large number of moonlets into orbit around the young Earth which eventually coalesced to form the Moon. The gravitational pull of the new Moon stabilised the Earth's fluctuating axis of rotation and set up the conditions in which abiogenesis could occur. 4400 Ma First appearance of liquid water on Earth. 4280 Ma Earliest possible appearance of life on Earth. Date Event 4000 Ma Formation of a greenstone belt of the Acasta Gneiss of the Slave craton in Northwest Territories, Canada, the oldest rock belt in the world. 4100–3800 Ma Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB): extended barrage of impact events upon the inner planets by meteoroids. Thermal flux from widespread hydrothermal activity during the LHB may have been conducive to abiogenesis and life's early diversification. "Remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. This is when life most likely arose. 654 3900–2500 Ma Cells resembling prokaryotes appear. These first organisms are chemoautotrophs: they use carbon dioxide as a carbon source and oxidize inorganic materials to extract energy. Later, prokaryotes evolve glycolysis, a set of chemical reactions that free the energy of organic molecules such as glucose and store it in the chemical bonds of ATP. Glycolysis (and ATP) continue to be used in almost all organisms, unchanged, to this day. 3800 Ma Formation of a greenstone belt of the Isua complex of the western Greenland region, whose rocks show an isotope frequency suggestive of the presence of life. The earliest evidences for life on Earth are 3.8 billionyear-old biogenic hematite in a banded iron formation of the Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt in Canada, graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. 3500 Ma Lifetime of the last universal common ancestor (LUCA); the split between bacteria and archaea occurs. Bacteria develop primitive forms of photosynthesis which at first did not produce oxygen. These organisms generated Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by exploiting a proton gradient, a mechanism still used in virtually all organisms. 3200 Ma Diversification and expansion of acritarchs. 3000 Ma Photosynthesizing cyanobacteria evolved; they used water as a reducing agent, thereby producing oxygen as a waste product. 2800 Ma Oldest evidence for microbial life on land in the form of organic matterrich paleosols, ephemeral ponds and alluvial sequences, some of them bearing microfossils. Date Event 655 2500 Ma Great Oxidation Event led by cyanobacteria's oxygenic photosynthesis. Commencement of plate tectonics with old marine crust dense enough to subduct. By 1850 Ma Eukaryotic cells appear. Eukaryotes contain membrane-bound organelles with diverse functions, probably derived from prokaryotes engulfing each other via phagocytosis. (See Symbiogenesis and Endosymbiont). Bacterial viruses (bacteriophage) emerge before, or soon after, the divergence of the prokaryotic and eukaryotic lineages. The appearance of red beds show that an oxidising atmosphere had been produced. Incentives now favoured the spread of eukaryotic life. 1400 Ma Great increase in stromatolite diversity. 1300 Ma Earliest land fungi By 1200 Ma Meiosis and sexual reproduction are present in single-celled eukaryotes, and possibly in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. Sex may even have arisen earlier in the RNA world. Sexual reproduction first appears in the fossil records; it may have increased the rate of evolution. 1000 Ma The first non-marine eukaryotes move onto land. They were photosynthetic and multicellular, indicating that plants evolved much earlier than originally thought. 750 Ma First protozoa (ex: Melanocyrillium); beginning of animal evolution 850–630 Ma A global glaciation may have occurred. Opinion is divided on whether it increased or decreased biodiversity or the rate of evolution. It is believed that this was due to evolution of the first land plants, which increased the amount of oxygen and lowered the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 600 Ma The accumulation of atmospheric oxygen allows the formation of an ozone layer. Prior to this, land-based life would probably have required other chemicals 656 to attenuate ultraviolet radiation enough to permit colonisation of the land. 580–542 Ma The Ediacara biota represent the first large, complex aquatic multicellular organisms — although their affinities remain a subject of debate. 580–500 Ma Most modern phyla of animals begin to appear in the fossil record during the Cambrian explosion. 550 Ma First fossil evidence for Ctenophora (comb jellies), Porifera (sponges), Anthozoa (corals and sea anemones). Appearance of Ikaria wariootia (an early Bilaterian). Date 535 Ma Event Major diversification of living things in the oceans: chordates, arthropods (e.g. trilobites, crustaceans), echinoderms, molluscs, brachiopods, foraminifers and radi olarians, etc. 530 Ma The first known footprints on land date to 530 Ma. 525 Ma Earliest graptolites 511 Ma Earliest crustaceans 510 Ma First cephalopods (nautiloids) and chitons 505 Ma Fossilization of the Burgess Shale 500 Ma Jellyfish have existed since at least this time. 485 Ma First vertebrates with true bones (jawless fishes) 450 Ma First complete conodonts and echinoids appear 657 440 Ma First agnathan fishes: Heterostraci, Galeaspida, and Pituriaspida 420 Ma Earliest ray-finned fishes, trigonotarbid arachnids, and land scorpions 410 Ma First signs of teeth in fish. Earliest Nautilida, lycophytes, and trimerophytes. 395 Ma First lichens, stoneworts. Earliest harvestmen, mites, hexapods (springtails) and ammonoids. The first known tetrapod tracks on land. 365 Ma Acanthostega is one of the earliest vertebrates capable of walking. 363 Ma By the start of the Carboniferous Period, the Earth begins to resemble its present state. Insects roamed the land and would soon take to the skies; sharks swam the oceans as top predators, and vegetation covered the land, with seed-bearing plants and forests soon to flourish. Four-limbed tetrapods gradually gain adaptations which will help them occupy a terrestrial life-habit. 360 Ma First crabs and ferns. Land flora dominated by seed ferns. The Xinhang forest grows around this time 350 Ma First large sharks, ratfishes, and hagfish 340 Ma Diversification of amphibians 330 Ma First amniote vertebrates (Paleothyris) 320 Ma Synapsids (precursors to mammals) separate from sauropsids (reptiles) in late Carboniferous. 305 Ma Earliest diapsid reptiles (e.g. Petrolacosaurus) 296 Ma Earliest known octopus (Pohlsepia) 280 Ma Earliest beetles, seed plants and conifers diversify while lepidodendrids and sphenopsids decrease. Terrestrial temnospondyl amphibians and pelycosaurs (e.g. Dimetrodon) diversify in species. 275 Ma Therapsid synapsids separate from pelycosaur synapsids 270 Ma Gorgonopsians appear in the fossil record 658  microchips and self-driving cars  3D printing machines  calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices The next major explosion is going to be when genetics and computers come together. I'm talking about an organic computer - about biological Used in substances that can function like a semiconductor. Alvin Toffler Semiconductor The materials whose conductivity lies between insulator and conductors Intrinsic semiconductors  Pure semiconductor  Electrical conductivity is low N-Type Semiconductor Free electrons > positive holes Extrinsic semiconductors  Impure semiconductor  Electrical conductivity is high P-Type Semiconductor Free electrons < positive holes They were the largest semiconductor maker in the world up until about 1980. I'm not sure that that can be re-gained again, but their progress in the last few years has been very impressive. − Jack Kilby Lens A tool used to bring light to a fixed focal point Convex Lens (Converging) Concave Lens (Diverging) The working principle of the mirror is the The working principle of the lens is the law of reflection law of refraction Meiosis + Fertilization → Sexual Reproduction Gametes An organism's reproductive cells Male gametes Female gametes (sperm) (ova or egg cells) Pollination Biological process in which the pollen grains are transferred from an anther (male part of a flower) to the stigma (female part of a flower) Cross-Pollination Self-Pollination Transfer pollen grains from the anther to the Transfer pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the same flower stigma of a different flower causes causes External pollinating agents are required for this type of Inbreeding pollination (water, wind, insects etc) Outbreeding If the bee disappeared off the surface of the globe, then man would have only four years of life left. No more bees, no more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man. Albert Einstein We are developing all sorts of technologies based on what we have learnt from birds, animals and soils. Pollination is worth £billions. But it also highlights how nature is so interconnected. Tony Juniper 251.4 Ma The Permian–Triassic extinction event eliminates over 90-95% of marine species. Terrestrial organisms were not as seriously affected as the marine biota. This "clearing of the slate" may have led to an ensuing diversification, but life on land took 30 million years to completely recover. Date 250 Ma Event The Mesozoic Marine Revolution begins: increasingly well adapted and diverse predators pressurize sessile marine groups; the "balance of power" in the oceans shifts dramatically as some groups of prey adapt more rapidly and effectively than others. 250 Ma Triadobatrachus massinoti is the earliest known frog 248 Ma Sturgeon and paddlefish (Acipenseridae) first appear. 245 Ma Earliest ichthyosaurs 240 Ma Increase in diversity of gomphodont cynodonts and rhynchosaurs 225 Ma Earliest dinosaurs (prosauropods), first cardiid bivalves, diversity in cycads, bennettitaleans, and conifers. First teleost fishes. First mammals (Adelobasileus). 220 Ma Seed-producing Gymnosperm forests dominate the land; herbivores grow to huge sizes to accommodate the large guts necessary to digest the nutrient-poor plants. First flies and turtles (Odontochelys). First coelophysoid dinosaurs. 205 Ma The Massive extinction of Triassic/Jurassic, that wiped out most of the group of pseudosuchians and gave the opportunity of dinosaurs including the Apatosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, Perrotasaurus, and Stegosaurus to enter their golden age. 200 Ma The first accepted evidence for viruses that infect eukaryotic cells (at least, the 659 group Geminiviridae) existed. Viruses are still poorly understood and may have arisen before "life" itself, or may be a more recent phenomenon. Major extinctions in terrestrial vertebrates and large amphibians. Earliest examples of armoured dinosaurs 195 Ma First pterosaurs with specialized feeding (Dorygnathus). First sauropod dinosaurs. Diversification in small, ornithischian dinosaurs: heterodontosaurids, fabrosaurids, and scelidosaurids. 190 Ma Pliosauroids appear in the fossil record. First lepidopteran insects (Archaeolepis), hermit crabs, modern starfish, irregular echinoids, corbulid bivalves, and tubulipore bryozoans. Extensive development of sponge reefs. 176 Ma First members of the Stegosauria group of dinosaurs 170 Ma Earliest salamanders, newts, cryptoclidids, elasmosaurid plesiosaurs, and cladotherian mammals. Sauropod dinosaurs diversify. 165 Ma First rays and glycymeridid bivalves. First vampire squids 163 Ma Pterodactyloid pterosaurs first appear 161 Ma Ceratopsian dinosaurs appear in the fossil record (Yinlong) and the oldest known Eutherian Mammal appear in the fossil record: Juramaia. 160 Ma Multituberculate mammals (genus Rugosodon) appear in eastern China 155 Ma First blood-sucking insects (ceratopogonids), rudist bivalves, and cheilostome bryozoans. Archaeopteryx, a possible ancestor to the birds, appears in the fossil record, along with triconodontid and symmetrodont mammals. Diversity in stegosaurian and theropod dinosaurs. 153 Ma First pine trees 140 Ma Orb-weaver spiders appear 130 Ma The rise of the angiosperms: Some of these flowering plants bear structures that attract insects and other animals to spread pollen; other angiosperms were pollinated by wind or water. This innovation causes a major burst of animal 660 evolution through coevolution. First freshwater pelomedusid turtles. Earliest krill. 120 Ma Oldest fossils of heterokonts, including both marine diatoms and silicoflagellates 115 Ma First monotreme mammals 112 Ma Xiphactinus, a large predatory fish, appears in the fossil record 110 Ma First hesperornithes, toothed diving birds. Earliest limopsid, verticordiid, and thyasirid bivalves. 106 Ma Spinosaurus, the largest theropod dinosaur, appears in the fossil record 100 Ma Earliest bees 95 Ma First crocodilians evolve 90 Ma Extinction of ichthyosaurs. Earliest snakes and nuculanid bivalves. Large diversification in angiosperms: magnoliids, rosids, hamamelidids, monocots, and ginger. Earliest examples of ticks. Probable origins of placental mammals (earliest undisputed fossil evidence is 66 Ma). 80 Ma First ants 70 Ma Multituberculate mammals increase in diversity. First yoldiid bivalves. 68 Ma Tyrannosaurus, the largest terrestrial predator of what is now western North America appears in the fossil record. First species of Triceratops. Date Event 66 Ma The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event eradicates about half of all animal species, including mosasaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ammonites, belemnites, rudist and inoceramid bivalves, most planktic foraminifers, and all of the dinosaurs excluding the birds. 66 Ma- Rapid dominance of conifers and ginkgos in high latitudes, along with mammals becoming the dominant species. First psammobiid bivalves. Earliest rodents. Rapid diversification in ants. 63 Ma Evolution of the creodonts, an important group of meat-eating (carnivorous) mammals 661 62 Ma Evolution of the first penguins 60 Ma Diversification of large, flightless birds. Earliest true primates, 59 Ma Earliest sailfish appear 56 Ma Gastornis, a large flightless bird, appears in the fossil record 55 Ma Modern bird groups diversify (first song birds, parrots, loons, swifts, woodpeckers), first whale (Himalayacetus), earliest lagomorphs, armadillos, appearance of sirenian, proboscidean, perissodactyl and artiodactyl mammals in the fossil record. Angiosperms diversify. The ancestor (according to theory) of the species in the genus Carcharodon, the early mako shark Isurus hastalis, is alive. 52 Ma First bats appear (Onychonycteris) 50 Ma Peak diversity of dinoflagellates and nannofossils, increase in diversity of anomalodesmatan and heteroconch bivalves, brontotheres, tapirs, rhinoceroses, and camels appear in the fossil record, diversification of primates 40 Ma Modern-type butterflies and moths appear. Extinction of Gastornis. Basilosaurus, one of the first of the giant whales, appeared in the fossil record. 38 Ma Earliest bears 37 Ma First nimravid ("false saber-toothed cats") carnivores — these species are unrelated to modern-type felines. First alligators 35 Ma Grasses diversify from among the monocot angiosperms; grasslands begin to expand. Slight increase in diversity of cold-tolerant ostracods and foraminifers, along with major extinctions of gastropods, reptiles, amphibians, and multituberculate mammals. Many modern mammal groups begin to appear: first glyptodonts, ground sloths, canids, peccaries, and the first eagles and hawks. Diversity in toothed and baleen whales. 662 33 Ma Evolution of the thylacinid marsupials (Badjcinus) 30 Ma First balanids and eucalypts, extinction of embrithopod and brontothere mammals, earliest pigs and cats 28 Ma Paraceratherium appears in the fossil record, the largest terrestrial mammal that ever lived. First pelicans. 25 Ma Pelagornis sandersi appears in the fossil record, the largest flying bird that ever lived 25 Ma First deer 24 Ma First pinnipeds 23 Ma Earliest ostriches, trees representative of most major groups of oaks have appeared by now 20 Ma First giraffes, hyenas, and giant anteaters, increase in bird diversity 17 Ma First birds of the genus Corvus (crows) 15 Ma Genus Mammut appears in the fossil record, first bovids and kangaroos, diversity in Australian megafauna 10 Ma Grasslands and savannas are established, diversity in insects, especially ants and termites, horses increase in body size and develop high-crowned teeth, major diversification in grassland mammals and snakes 9.5 Ma The Great American Interchange, where various land and freshwater faunas migrated between North and South America. Armadillos, opossums, hummingbirds Phorusrhacids, Ground Sloths, Glyptodonts, and Meridiungulates traveled to North America, while horses, tapirs, saber-toothed cats, Jaguars, Bears, Coaties, Ferrets, Otters, Skunks and deer entered South America. 9 Ma First platypuses 663 6.5 Ma First hominins (Sahelanthropus) 6 Ma Australopithecines diversify (Orrorin, Ardipithecus) 5 Ma First tree sloths and hippopotami, diversification of grazing herbivores like zebras and elephants, large carnivorous mammals like lions and the genus Canis, burrowing rodents, kangaroos, birds, and small carnivores, vultures increase in size, decrease in the number of perissodactyl mammals. Extinction of nimravid carnivores. First leopard seals. 4.8 Ma Mammoths appear in the fossil record 4.5 Ma Marine iguanas diverge from land iguanas 4 Ma Evolution of Australopithecus, Stupendemys appears in the fossil record as the largest freshwater turtle, first modern elephants, giraffes, zebras, lions, rhinoceros and gazelles appear in the fossil record 3.6 Ma Blue whales grow to their modern sizes 3 Ma Earliest swordfish 2.7 Ma Evolution of Paranthropus 2.5 Ma The earliest species of Smilodon evolve 2 Ma First members of the genus Homo, Homo Habilis, appear in the fossil record. Diversification of conifers in high latitudes. The eventual ancestor of cattle, aurochs (Bos primigenus), evolves in India. 1.7 Ma Extinction of australopithecines 1.2 Ma Evolution of Homo antecessor. The last members of Paranthropus die out. 1 Ma First coyotes 664 800 Ka Short-faced bears (Arctodus simus) become abundant in North America 600 ka Evolution of Homo heidelbergensis 400 ka First polar bears 350 ka Evolution of Neanderthals 300 ka Gigantopithecus, a giant relative of the orangutan from Asia dies out 250 ka Anatomically modern humans appear in Africa. Around 50,000 years before present they start colonising the other continents, replacing the Neanderthals in Europe and other hominins in Asia. 40 ka The last of the giant monitor lizards (Varanus priscus) die out 30 ka Extinction of Neanderthals, first domestic dogs 15 ka The last woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) are believed to have gone extinct 11 ka Short-faced bears vanish from North America, with the last giant ground sloths dying out. All Equidae become extinct in North America. 10 ka The Holocene epoch starts 10,000 years ago after the Late Glacial Maximum. The last mainland species of woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenus) die out, as does the last Smilodon species. 8 ka The Giant Lemur died out Date Event 6000 ya (c. 4000 BC) Small populations of American mastodon die off in places like Utah and Michigan 665 4500 ya (c. 2500 BC) The last members of a dwarf race of woolly mammoths vanish from Wrangel Island near Alaska c. 600 ya (c. 1400) The moa and its predator, Haast's eagle, die out in New Zealand 393 ya (1627) The last recorded wild aurochs die out 332 ya (1688) The dodo goes extinct 252 ya (1768) The Steller's sea cow goes extinct 137 ya (1883) The quagga, a subspecies of zebra, goes extinct 114 ya (1905) Wolves become extinct in Japan. 106 ya (1914) Martha, last known passenger pigeon, dies 84 ya (1936) The thylacine goes extinct in a Tasmanian zoo, the last member of the family Thylacinidae 82 ya (1937) The last Bali tiger was shot. 68 ya (1952) The Caribbean monk seal goes extinct 12 ya (2008) The baiji, the Yangtze river dolphin, becomes functionally extinct, according to the IUCN Red List 9 ya (2011) The western black rhinoceros is declared extinct Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene 10th millennium BCE  c. 9950 BCE – Cuvieronius humboldti survived in Chile until about this time.  c. 9940 BCE - Fratercula dowi survived in the Channel Islands until about this time. 666  c. 9680 BCE - Euceratherium collinum survived in Utah until about this time.  c. 9650 BCE – Arctotherium tarijense survived in Uruguay until about this time.  c. 9530 BCE – The short-faced bear Arctodus simus survived in Ohio until about this time.  c. 9400 BCE – The Corsican and Sardinian canid Cynotherium sardous survived until about this time.  c. 9390 BCE – Eremotherium laurillardi survived in Brazil until about this time.  c. 9380 BCE – Stockoceros survived in New Mexico until about this time. Equus conversidens survived in Alberta until about this time.  c. 9220 BCE – The pronghorn Capromeryx survived in New Mexico until about this time. Equus scotti survived until about this time.  c. 9180 BCE - Bison antiquus survived in Alberta until about this time.  c. 9150 BCE - The woodland musk ox Symbos survived in Michigan until about this time.  c. 9135 BCE – Panthera onca mesembrina survived until about this time.  c. 9110 BCE – The flat-headed peccary Platygonus compressus survived in Ohio until about this time.  c. 9090 BCE – Scelidotherium and Stegomastodon survived in Brazil until about this time.  c. 9080 BCE – The pygmy mammoth survived on Santa Rosa Island, California until about this time.  c. 9030 BCE – Bootherium bombifrons survived in Alberta until about this time. 9th millennium BCE  c. 8920 BCE – Oreamnos harringtoni survived in Arizona until about this time.  c. 8735 BCE – Hippidion saldiasi survived in Chile until about this time.  c. 8445 BCE – The mastodont Mammut survived in Michigan until about this time.  c. 8420 BCE – Martes nobilis and Panthera leo atrox survived until about this time. 667  c. 8280 BCE – The giant beaver Castoroides and the stag-moose Cervalces survived in Ohio until about this time.  c. 8240 BCE – Equus neogeus, Glyptodon, and Toxodon survived in Argentina until about this time. 8th millennium BCE  c. 7930 BCE – The pampathere Holmesina survived in Florida until about this time, as did Glossotherium. Tapirus veroensis and Palaeolama mirifica survived until about this time.  c. 7890 BCE – Mummified skin associated with the sloth Nothrotheriops shastensis indicates that the species may have survived in New Mexico until about this time.  c. 7630 BCE – The sloth Catonyx cuvieri survived in Brazil until about this time.  c. 7490 BCE – Megalonyx jeffersonii survived until about this time.  c. 7490 BCE – The stilt-legged deer Sangamona survived in Missouri until about this time.  c. 7470 BCE – The Cyprus dwarf elephant became extinct around this time.  c. 7460 BCE – The peccary Mylohyus survived in Tennessee until about this time. Smilodon fatalis survived until about this time.  c. 7450 BCE – The dire wolf Canis dirus survived in Missouri until about this time. Its extinction was probably caused by competition with Canis lupus, the extant gray wolf.  c. 7290 BCE – The Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus became extinct at about this time.  c. 7180 BCE – Smilodon populator survived in Brazil until about this time. 7th millennium BCE  c. 6960 BCE – Scelidodon chiliensis survived in Peru until about this time.  c. 6910 BCE – The primitive bison survived in the Taymyr Peninsula until this time. 668 Plays a critical role in regulating the body temperature Water and carrying nutrients throughout human body Hard water Soft water  Contains dissolved salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+  Does not contain dissolved salts  Does not form lather with soap  Forms lather with soap Man … begins life as an ambiguous speck of matter which can in no way be distinguished from the original form of the lowest animal or plant. He next becomes a cell; his life is precisely that of the animalcule. Cells cluster round this primordial cell, and the man is so far advanced that he might be mistaken for an undeveloped oyster; he grows still more, and it is clear that he might even be a fish; he then passes into a stage which is common to all quadrupeds, and next assumes a form which can only belong to quadrupeds of the higher type. At last the hour of birth approaches; coiled within the dark womb he sits, the image of an ape; a caricature of the man that is to be. He is born, and for some time he walks only on all fours; he utters only inarticulate sounds; and even in his boyhood his fondness for climbing trees would seem to be a relic of the old arboreal life. Winwood Reade 6 main types of soil: The three main stages of soil cultivation:  Clay  Sandy  ploughing  Silty  tilling  Peaty  levelling  Chalky  Loamy Weathering Breakdown of rocks Physical Chemical Breakdown of rocks by the action of rainwater and extremes of temperature Biological Breakdown of rocks by the action of biological activity Breakdown of rocks through a series of chemical processes such as acidification, dissolution and oxidation Surely the mitochondrion that first entered another cell was not thinking about the future benefits of cooperation and integration; it was merely trying to make its own living in a tough Darwinian world — Stephen Jay Gould Essentially, all life depends upon the soil ... Causes of Soil Erosion: There can be no life without soil and no soil  Rainfall and Flooding  Deforestation and Farming  Overgrazing  Construction and Recreational Activities without life; they have evolved together. Charles Kellogg Methods to prevent soil erosion: Geological process in which earthen materials are  Crop Rotation  Conservation Tillage  Contour Farming  Strip Farming  Mulch matting  Terrace Farming  deforestation  Grass Waterways  overpopulation  Diversion Structures  pollution  Reduce watering  global warming and climate change  Social Forestry  over-harvesting and natural calamities  over-exploitation of species  genetic pollution and habitat destruction worn away and transported by natural forces such as wind or water 7 Reasons for Loss of Biodiversity: Biodiversity The richness and variety of life on earth Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecosystem diversity (Diversity within species) (Diversity between species) (Diversity between ecosystems) Antigen-Antibody Reaction: The 3 main causes of climate change:  Increased use of fossil fuels  Deforestation  Increasingly intensive agriculture Antigen + Antibody ↔ Antigen-Antibody complex Stimulate the production of antibody History is largely a record of human struggle to wrest the land from nature, because man relies for sustenance on the K= products of the soil. So direct, is the relationship between soil erosion, the [Antigen−Antibody complex] [Antigen][Antibody] The larger the K value the greater the affinity of the productivity of the land, and the antibody for the antigen. prosperity of people, that the history of mankind, to a considerable degree at least, may be interpreted in terms of the soil and what has happened to it as the result of human use. Hugh Hammond Bennett Landsteiner Rule: If an antigen is present on patient’s red blood cells (RBCs) the corresponding antibody will NOT be present in the patient’s plasma − under 'normal conditions'. The 4 main components of blood: red blood cells carry oxygen around the body white blood cells play a crucial role in the immune system plasma yellowish liquid that contains proteins and salts platelets enable clotting Research design Exploratory Conclusive Research design Research design Good marketing makes the company look smart. Great marketing makes the customer feel smart. Causal Research Descriptive Research Joe Chernov Cross-sectional design Longitudinal design Creativity is intelligence having fun. Albert Einstein Market Perfect Competition Imperfect Competition Large number of sellers selling homogeneous products  Monopoly (Single seller)  Duopoly (Two sellers)  Oligopoly (A few sellers selling homogeneous or differentiated products)  Monopolistic (Large number of sellers selling differentiated products)  c. 6730 BCE – Mammuthus columbi survived in Saskatchewan until about this time. Equus santaelenae survived in Ecuador until about this time.  c. 6720 BCE – Ochotona whartoni survived in eastern North America until about this time.  c. 6689 BCE – Mylodon survived in Chile until about this time.  c. 6577 BCE – Hemiauchenia survived in Nevada until about this time.  c. 6290 BCE – The camel Camelops survived in Arizona until about this time.  c. 6275 BCE – Bubo insularis survived until about this time.  c. 6050 BCE – Megalotragus priscus survived in South Africa until about this time. Paul Winchell holds the patent for one of the first artificial heart devices ever made 6th millennium BCE − which he developed with surgeons working at the University of Utah.  c. 5914 BCE – The Cuban pauraque survived until about this time.  c. 5620 BCE – Antidorcas bondi survived in South Africa until about this time.  c. 5370 BCE – Megatherium americanum survived in Argentina until about this time.  c. 5020 BCE – The Sardinian giant deer Praemegaceros cazioti survived until about this time. The first engineer known by name was the Egyptian pyramid builder Imhotep who built the first pyramids in Egypt and thus gained an almost godlike status. 5th millennium BCE  c. 4950 BCE – Dactylopsila kambuaya and Petauroides ayamaruensis survived in New Guinea until about this time.  c. 4866 BCE – Irish elk survived in the Urals and western Siberia until this time.  c. 4605 BCE – The glyptodont Doedicurus clavicaudatus survived in Argentina until about this time.  c. 4180 BCE – Rallus eivissensis survived on Ibiza until about this time. 4th millennium BCE  c. 3010 BCE – The sloth Parocnus browni survived in Cuba until about this time. 669 3rd millennium BCE  c. 2915 BCE - The canid Dusicyon avus survived in Argentina until about this time.  c. 2835 BCE – The Balearic cave goat became extinct around this time.  c. 2765 BCE – The North African buffalo Pelorovis antiquus survived until about this time. Its extinction may have been caused by competition for food and water with domestic cattle.  c. 2550 BCE – The Bennu heron became extinct around this time, possibly due to degradation of its wetland habitat. It was last recorded in the Arabian Peninsula.  c. 2441 BCE – The sloth Neocnus comes survived in Haiti until about this time.  c. 2240 BCE – The sloth Megalocnus rodens and the Cuban cave rail survived in Cuba until about this time. The Ferris wheel (a very large upright wheel with carriages around the edge of it which 2nd millennium BCE people can ride in) is regarded as one of the largest engineering wonders of the world.  c. 1900 BCE – Antillothrix bernensis survived on Hispaniola until about this time.  c. 1780 BCE – The last known population of woolly mammoths on Wrangel Island died out, possibly due to a combination of climate change and hunting.  c. 1520 BCE - The giant flightless megapode survived on New Caledonia until about this time.  c. 1380 BCE – Acratocnus odontrigonus, formerly inhabiting Puerto Rico and Antigua, survived until about this time.  c. 1300 BCE – Thylogale christenseni survived in New Guinea until about this time. Even though the first flight at Kitty Hawk took place on December 17, 1903, the secretive Wright 1st millennium BCE Brothers did not demonstrate the technology to the broader public until August 8, 1908.  c. 790 BCE – Megapodius alimentum survived on Tonga until about this time.  c. 530 BCE - Microgale macpheei survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 457 BCE - The rodent Elasmodontomys obliquus survived in Puerto Rico until about this time.  c. 450 BCE - Crocidura balsamifera survived in Egypt until about this time. 670  c. 341 BCE - Archaeoindris fontoynonti survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 195 BCE – Xenothrix mcgregori survived until about this time.  c. 110 BCE - Archaeolemur edwardsi survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 100 BCE - Syrian elephant becomes extinct due to overhunting for ivory.  c. 30 BCE - Coua primaeva survived in Madagascar until about this time. 1st millennium CE STS-113 was the final mission during which Russian cosmonauts flew on the Space Shuttle. 2nd century  c. 100 - The Maui highland apteribis survived on Maui until around this time. 3rd century  c. 200 – The coastal kagu, Kanaka pigeon, New Caledonian gallinule, pile-builder megapode, and powerful goshawk survived until around this time.  c. 256 – Mesopropithecus globiceps survived in Madagascar until about this time. 4th century  c. 300 – The North African Elephant lives until about this time. Paul Erdős (a renowned Hungarian mathematician) Had Extraordinary Mathematical Skills 5th century  Even at the Age of 4. c. 450 – The turtle genus Meiolania survived until this time on New Caledonia. 6th century  c. 537 - Hadropithecus stenognathus survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 540 – Mesopropithecus pithecoides survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 570 – Alopochen sirabensis survived in Madagascar until around this time. 7th century 671  c. 685 – The lava shearwater survived until around this time. 8th century  c. 730 – Pachylemur insignis survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 731 – The rodent Heteropsomys insulans survived in Puerto Rico until about this time. 9th century  c. 836 – The coastal moa survived in New Zealand until about this time.  c. 885 – Daubentonia robusta survived in Madagascar until about this time. 10th century  c. 900 – The nene-nui survived on Maui until around this time.  c. 915 – Plesiorycteropus survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 950 – Sinoto's lorikeet and the conquered lorikeet survived until about this time.  c. 996 – The New Zealand owlet-nightjar survived until about this time. 2nd millennium CE Asteroids and Lunar Lander in 1980 were the first two video games copyrighted in the U.S. 12th century  c. 1180 – The Maui Nui moa-nalo survived until around this time. The moa-nalo were large ducks and the Hawaiian Islands' major herbivores.  c. 1190 – The Hunter Island penguin survived until around this time. 14th century  c. 1320 – The lemur Megaladapis edwardsi survived in Madagascar until about this time.  c. 1322 – The upland moa survived in New Zealand's South Island until around this time.  c. 1326 – Mantell's moa survived in New Zealand's North Island until around this time. 672  c. 1360 – Nesophontes survived in Cuba until around this time. 15th century  c. 1400 – New Zealand's Haast's eagle, a giant bird of prey, becomes extinct. The eagle's main prey were various species of moa, which also went extinct.  c. 1420 – The South Island giant moa survived in New Zealand's South Island until around this time.  c. 1440 – The lemur Palaeopropithecus ingens survived in Madagascar until about this time.  The moas of New Zealand became extinct, probably due to hunting. 16th century  c. 1500–1550 – The Waitaha penguin of New Zealand's South Island became extinct. US scientist James Watson Auctioned his Nobel Prize 17th century  1627 – The last known aurochs died in Poland. This large wild cattle formerly inhabited much of Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East, central Asia, and India.  c. 1645 - Finsch's duck survived in New Zealand until around this time.  1662 - The last definite sighting of a dodo was made in Mauritius. The extinction was due to hunting, but also by the pigs, rats, dogs and cats brought to the island by settlers. The species has become an iconic symbol of animal extinction. English computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee coined the phrase "World Wide Web" in 1990. 18th century  1768 - Steller's sea cow became extinct due to overhunting for meat and leather.  1773 – The Tahiti sandpiper died out after rats were introduced to its habitat in the Society Islands. 673  1774 – The Sardinian pika became extinct due to invasive species (foxes, cats, etc.) that were introduced to Sardinia and Corsica.  1777 - The Society parakeet population dies out on the Society Islands after vessels released pests.  1790 - The Lord Howe swamphen, also known as the white gallinule, becomes extinct. 19th century  American inventor Leo Fender Manufactured Best Guitars but could not Play It 1800 - The last known bluebuck was shot, making the species the first African antelope to be hunted to extinction by European settlers.  1825 – The mysterious starling died out.  1826 - The Mauritius blue pigeon becomes extinct due to excessive hunting.  1827 - The Tonga ground skink dies out from its only home in the Tongan Islands.  1852 - The last sighting of a great auk was made off the coast of Newfoundland. The bird was driven to extinction by hunting for its fat, feathers, meat, and oil.  1860 – The string tree from the island of St Helena becomes extinct because of habitat destruction.  1860 - The sea mink becomes extinct because of hunting for its fur.  1875 - The broad-faced potoroo was last recorded.  1876 - The Falkland Islands wolf became extinct.  1878 - Labrador duck declared extinct after last appearances in Long Island three years earlier.  c. 1879 - The last known Atlas bear, Africa's only native bear, is killed by hunters in Morocco. The bear was heavily hunted and used for sport in the Roman Empire.  1880 – The eastern elk, a subspecies of elk in the US and Canada, is declared extinct.  1883 – The Quagga, a sub-species of the plains zebra, goes extinct.  1886 - The red alga known as Bennett's seaweed from Australia disappears because of the massive human activities.  1889 - The last Hokkaido wolf dies from poisoning campaign. 674  1890 - The eastern hare-wallaby was last recorded. German physicist and astronomer Karl Schwarzschild Solved the First 20th century Equation of Relativity Theory While Fighting in World War II 1900s  1902 – The last known specimens of the Rocky Mountain locust are collected near Brandon, Manitoba.  1905 – The last known Honshū wolf of Japan dies in Nara Prefecture.  1907 – The huia, a native bird of New Zealand, is last seen. Habitat loss, hunting, and disease all played a role in its extinction.  1909 - The last known tarpan, a Polish wild horse, died in captivity. Paul Dirac (who is regarded as one of the most significant physicists of the 20th 1910s century) Preferred Keeping Quiet  1911 – The last Newfoundland wolf was shot.  1914 – The last passenger pigeon, Martha, died in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo. Excessive hunting contributed to its extinction; it was formerly one of the world's most abundant birds.  1918 – The last Carolina parakeet died in captivity at the Cincinnati Zoo. The bird, formerly inhabiting the southeastern United States, was driven to extinction by exploitation, deforestation, and competition with introduced bees. French civil engineer Gustave Eiffel Designed the Structure of Statue of Liberty 1920s  1924 – The California grizzly bear is sighted for the last time.  1925 – The Kenai Peninsula wolf was driven to extinction.  1929 – Acalypha wilderi was last seen in the wild. This species may be synonymous with A. raivavensis and A. tubuaiensis, which would mean it is in fact not extinct globally. Alexander Graham Bell Silenced Every Phone in North America 1930s 675  1930 - Darwin's rice rat was last recorded in the Galápagos Islands. Its extinction was probably caused by the introduction of black rats.  1932 - "Booming Ben", the last known heath hen was seen on Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts.  1933 - The cry pansy from Europe becomes extinct due to habitat loss and overcollection in the only place where it grew, France.  1934 - The indefatigable Galapagos mouse was last recorded. Its extinction was probably caused by the introduction of black rats.  1935 - The desert rat-kangaroo was last recorded.  1935 - The Mogollon mountain wolf and the Southern Rocky Mountains wolf were hunted to extinction.  1936 – The last thylacine died in captivity. Hunting, habitat loss, disease, and competition from domestic dogs all may have contributed to the extinction of the species.  c. 1937 – The Bali tiger was last definitively seen around this time, but likely persisted into the 1940s or possibly even the early 1950s.  1939 – The toolache wallaby was last recorded. Scottish inventor, electrical engineer and innovator John Logie Baird Developed 1940s Mechanical Television from Household Items  1940 – The Cascade mountain wolf was hunted to extinction.  1942 – The Texas wolf was purposefully driven to extinction.  1942 – The last confirmed sighting of the Barbary lion, although unconfirmed reports surfaced until 1970. Horace Wells (an American dentist who pioneered the use of anesthesia in dentistry) died Without Realizing 1950s that His Invention Was Already Acknowledged  1952 - Last reliable report of the Caribbean monk seal.  1952 - The Bernard's wolf was hunted to extinction.  1956 - The crescent nail-tail wallaby and imperial woodpecker were last recorded.  1957 – The Scioto madtom, a species of fish, is last collected. 676 1960s  c. 1960 - The Mexican grizzly bear was exterminated around this time.  1962 - The red-bellied gracile opossum was last recorded in Argentina.  1964 - The Hawaii chaff flower of the Hawaiian islands becomes extinct because of habitat loss.  1965 - Last sighting of the turgid-blossom pearly mussel, an American mussel.  1966 – The last Arabian ostrich died around this time. André-Marie Ampère was the Absent-Minded Genius 1970s  c. 1970 - The Caspian tiger becomes extinct primarily due to habitat loss, hunting, and loss of prey.  1972 – The endemic to Jamaica Mason River myrtle becomes extinct.  1974 - The last known Japanese sea lion is captured off the coast of Rebun Island, Hokkaido.  Sigmund Freud (Austrian neurologist and c. 1976 – Last sightings of the Javan tiger. the founder of psychoanalysis) Considered Cocaine as a Therapeutic Substance. 1980s  1981 – The Puhielelu hibiscadelphus becomes extinct.  1981 - Last sighting of the green-blossom pearly mussel, an American mussel.  1981 – The Southern gastric-brooding frog (Rheobatrachus silus) became extinct probably due to habitat destruction and disease.  1983 - Last unconfirmed spotting of the kouprey (Bos sauveli), last absolute confirmed spotting was in 1969/70. Declared as "most likely to be extinct" by the IUCN.  1983–84 – The 24-rayed sunstar (Heliaster solaris), the Galapagos black-spotted damselfish and the Galapagos stringweed likely become extinct due to climate change.  1985 – The Northern gastric-brooding frog (Rheobatrachus vitellinus) became extinct probably due to habitat destruction and disease. 677  1987 - The last Kauaʻi ʻōʻō (Moho braccatus), a male, is recorded singing a mating call. The species was never heard from again and was declared extinct.  1989 - The golden toad of Costa Rica becomes extinct, perhaps because of climate change. 1990s  1990 - The dusky seaside sparrow was officially declared extinct in December 1990. The last definite known individual died on 17 June 1987.  1994 – Saint Croix racer, a snake native to the Virgin Islands, declared extinct.  1994 - Levuana moth from Hawaii goes extinct.  1997 - The Hainan ormosia (a species of legume) which was native to China is no longer seen. 3rd millennium CE Louis Braille Invented the Language for Blinds at the 21st century Age of 12 2000s  2000 - "Celia", the last Pyrenean ibex, was found dead in 2000. However, in 2003, a female was cloned back into existence, but died shortly after birth due to defects in the lungs.  2003 – The last individual from the Saint Helena olive, which was grown in cultivation, dies off. The last plant in the wild had died in 1994.  2006 - A technologically sophisticated survey of the Yangtze River failed to find specimens of the baiji dolphin, prompting scientists to declare it functionally extinct. 2010s  2011 – The Eastern cougar was declared extinct. Last known individual was trapped and killed in 1938. 678  2011 – The western black rhinoceros was declared extinct.  2012 – The Japanese river otter (Lutra lutra whiteneyi) declared extinct by the country's Ministry of the Environment, after not being seen for more than 30 years.  2012 – "Lonesome George", the last known specimen of the Pinta Island tortoise, died on 24 June 2012.  2013 – The Cape Verde giant skink was declared extinct.  2013 - The Formosan clouded leopard, previously endemic to the island of Taiwan, is officially declared extinct.  2014 – The Bermuda saw-whet owl was declared extinct after being described from fossils in 2012.  2017 - The Christmas Island forest skink was declared extinct, three years after the last known specimen died.  2019 - The Bramble Cay melomys was declared extinct. Louis Pasteur (a French chemist and microbiologist Timeline of chemistry renowned for his discoveries of the principles of vaccination, microbial fermentation and pasteurization) Pre-17th century Never Shook Hands with Anybody c. 3000 BC Egyptians formulate the theory of the Ogdoad, or the "primordial forces", from which all was formed. These were the elements of chaos, numbered in eight, that existed before the creation of the sun. c. 1200 BC Tapputi-Belatikallim, a perfume-maker and early chemist, was mentioned in a cuneiform tablet in Mesopotamia. c. 450 BC Empedocles asserts that all things are composed of four primal elements: earth, air, fire, and water, whereby two active and opposing forces, love and hate, or affinity and 679 antipathy, act upon these elements, combining and separating them into infinitely varied forms. Linus Pauling (the only person to receive two unshared Nobel Prize) Believed Vitamin C Can Cure Cancer c. 440 BC Leucippus and Democritus propose the idea of the atom, an indivisible particle that all matter is made of. This idea is largely rejected by natural philosophers in favor of the Aristotlean view (see below). c. 360 BC Plato coins term ‘elements’ (stoicheia) and in his dialogue Timaeus, which includes a discussion of the composition of inorganic and organic bodies and is a rudimentary treatise on chemistry, assumes that the minute particle of each element had a special geometric shape: tetrahedron (fire), octahedron (air), icosahedron (water), and cube (earth). c. 350 BC Aristotle, expanding on Empedocles, proposes idea of a substance as a combination of matter and form. Describes theory of the Five Elements, fire, water, earth, air, and aether. This theory is largely accepted throughout the western world for over 1000 years. c. 50 BC Lucretius publishes De Rerum Natura, a poetic description of the ideas of atomism. c. 300 Zosimos of Panopolis writes some of the oldest known books on alchemy, which he defines as the study of the composition of waters, movement, growth, embodying and disembodying, drawing the spirits from bodies and bonding the spirits within bodies. c. 770 Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (aka Geber), an Arab/Persian alchemist who is "considered by many to be the father of chemistry", develops an early experimental method for chemistry, and isolates numerous acids, including hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, citric acid, acetic acid, tartaric acid, and aqua regia. 680 Sterilization Process that removes, kills, or deactivates all forms of life (in particular referring to microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria, spores, Plasmodium etc.) Radiation Heat Dry heat Moist heat  Red heat  Temperature below 100oC  Flaming  Temperature at 100oC  Incineration  Temperature above 100oC  Hot air oven Chemical Ionizing  Liquid (Alcohols and Phenolics)  Gaseous (Formaldehyde and Ethylene oxide)   Non-ionizing   Infrared UV X rays Gamma rays Filtration Pressure (Pascalization)  Air filter  Membrane filter  Depth filter Sound (sonic) waves c. 1000 Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Avicenna, both Persian chemists, refute the practice of alchemy and the theory of the transmutation of metals. c. 1167 Magister Salernus of the School of Salerno makes the first references to the distillation of wine. c. 1220 Robert Grosseteste publishes several Aristotelian commentaries where he lays out an early framework for the scientific method. c 1250 Tadeo Alderotti develops fractional distillation, which is much more effective than its predecessors. c 1260 St Albertus Magnus discovers arsenic and silver nitrate. He also made one of the first references to sulfuric acid. c. 1267 Roger Bacon publishes Opus Maius, which among other things, proposes an early form of the scientific method, and contains results of his experiments with gunpowder. c. 1310 Pseudo-Geber, an anonymous Spanish alchemist who wrote under the name of Geber, publishes several books that establish the long-held theory that all metals were composed of various proportions of sulfur and mercury. He is one of the first to describe nitric acid, aqua regia, and aqua fortis. c. 1530 Paracelsus develops the study of iatrochemistry, a subdiscipline of alchemy dedicated to extending life, thus being the roots of the modern pharmaceutical industry. It is also claimed that he is the first to use the word "chemistry". 681 1597 Andreas Libavius publishes Alchemia, a prototype chemistry textbook. 17th and 18th centuries 1605 Sir Francis Bacon publishes The Proficience and Advancement of Learning, which contains a description of what would later be known as the scientific method. 1605 Michal Sedziwój publishes the alchemical treatise A New Light of Alchemy which proposed the existence of the "food of life" within air, much later recognized as oxygen. 1615 Jean Beguin publishes the Tyrocinium Chymicum, an early chemistry textbook, and in it draws the first-ever chemical equation. 1637 René Descartes publishes Discours de la méthode, which contains an outline of the scientific method. 1648 Posthumous publication of the book Ortus medicinae by Jan Baptist van Helmont, which is cited by some as a major transitional work between alchemy and chemistry, and as an important influence on Robert Boyle. The book contains the results of numerous experiments and establishes an early version of the law of conservation of mass. 1661 Robert Boyle publishes The Sceptical Chymist, a treatise on the distinction between chemistry and alchemy. It contains some of the earliest modern ideas of atoms, molecules, and chemical reaction, and marks the beginning of the history of modern chemistry. 682 1662 Robert Boyle proposes Boyle's law, an experimentally based description of the behavior of gases, specifically the relationship between pressure and volume. 1735 Swedish chemist Georg Brandt analyzes a dark blue pigment found in copper ore. Brandt demonstrated that the pigment contained a new element, later named cobalt. 1754 Joseph Black isolates carbon dioxide, which he called "fixed air". 1757 Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt, while investigating arsenic compounds, creates Cadet's fuming liquid, later discovered to be cacodyl oxide, considered to be the first synthetic organometallic compound. 1758 Joseph Black formulates the concept of latent heat to explain the thermochemistry of phase changes. 1766 Henry Cavendish discovers hydrogen as a colorless, odourless gas that burns and can form an explosive mixture with air. 1773–1774 Carl Wilhelm Scheele and Joseph Priestley independently isolate oxygen, called by Priestley "dephlogisticated air" and Scheele "fire air". 1778 683 Antoine Lavoisier, considered "The father of modern chemistry", recognizes and names oxygen, and recognizes its importance and role in combustion. 1787 Antoine Lavoisier publishes Méthode de nomenclature chimique, the first modern system of chemical nomenclature. 1787 Jacques Charles proposes Charles's law, a corollary of Boyle's law, describes relationship between temperature and volume of a gas. 1789 Antoine Lavoisier publishes Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, the first modern chemistry textbook. It is a complete survey of (at that time) modern chemistry, including the first concise definition of the law of conservation of mass, and thus also represents the founding of the discipline of stoichiometry or quantitative chemical analysis. 1797 Joseph Proust proposes the law of definite proportions, which states that elements always combine in small, whole number ratios to form compounds. 1800 Alessandro Volta devises the first chemical battery, thereby founding the discipline of electrochemistry. 19th century 1803 John Dalton proposes Dalton's law, which describes relationship between the components in a mixture of gases and the relative pressure each contributes to that of the overall mixture. 684 Walther Nernst was a German scientist who was one of the founders of modern physical chemistry. His theoretical and experimental work in chemistry, including his formulation of the heat theorem, known as the third law of thermodynamics, gained him the 1920 Nobel Prize for Chemistry. Nernst equation: Ecell = E0 − RT nF lnQ  Ecell = cell potential of the cell  E0 = cell potential under standard conditions  R = universal gas constant  T = temperature in Kelvin  n = number of electrons transferred in the redox reaction  F = Faraday constant  Q = reaction quotient Knowledge is the death of research. No effect that requires more than 10 percent accuracy in measurement is worth investigating. One should avoid carrying out an experiment requiring more than 10 per cent accuracy. Walther Nernst 1805 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac discovers that water is composed of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen by volume. 1808 Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac collects and discovers several chemical and physical properties of air and of other gases, including experimental proofs of Boyle's and Charles's laws, and of relationships between density and composition of gases. 1808 John Dalton publishes New System of Chemical Philosophy, which contains first modern scientific description of the atomic theory, and clear description of the law of multiple proportions. 1808 Jöns Jakob Berzelius publishes Lärbok i Kemien in which he proposes modern chemical symbols and notation, and of the concept of relative atomic weight. 1811 Amedeo Avogadro proposes Avogadro's law, that equal volumes of gases under constant temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. 1825 Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig perform the first confirmed discovery and explanation of isomers, earlier named by Berzelius. Working with cyanic acid and fulminic acid, they correctly deduce that isomerism was caused by differing arrangements of atoms within a molecular structure. 1827 William Prout classifies biomolecules into their modern groupings: carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. 685 Periodic Property Across a period Down a group Ionization energy Increases Decreases Metallic property Decreases Increases Atomic radius Decreases Increases Electron negativity Increases Decreases Electron affinity Increases Decreases Shielding effect Increases Decreases ... there is an external world which can in principle be exhaustively described in scientific language. The scientist, as both observer and language-user, can capture the external facts of the world in prepositions that are true if they correspond to the facts and false if they do not. Science is ideally a linguistic system in which true propositions are in one-to-one relation to facts, including facts that are not directly observed because they involve hidden entities or properties, or past events or far distant events. These hidden events are described in theories, and theories can be inferred from observation, that is the hidden explanatory mechnism of the world can be discovered from what is open to observation. Man as scientist is regarded as standing apart from the world and able to experiment and theorize about it objectively and dispassionately. Mary B. Hesse 1828 Friedrich Wöhler synthesizes urea, thereby establishing that organic compounds could be produced from inorganic starting materials, disproving the theory of vitalism. 1832 Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig discover and explain functional groups and radicals in relation to organic chemistry. 1840 Germain Hess proposes Hess's law, an early statement of the law of conservation of energy, which establishes that energy changes in a chemical process depend only on the states of the starting and product materials and not on the specific pathway taken between the two states. 1847 Hermann Kolbe obtains acetic acid from completely inorganic sources, further disproving vitalism. 1848 Lord Kelvin establishes concept of absolute zero, the temperature at which all molecular motion ceases. 1849 Louis Pasteur discovers that the racemic form of tartaric acid is a mixture of the levorotatory and dextrotatory forms, thus clarifying the nature of optical rotation and advancing the field of stereochemistry. 1852 August Beer proposes Beer's law, which explains the relationship between the composition of a mixture and the amount of light it will absorb. Based partly on earlier work by Pierre Bouguer and Johann Heinrich Lambert, it establishes the analytical technique known as spectrophotometry. 1855 686 Benjamin Silliman, Jr. pioneers methods of petroleum cracking, which makes the entire modern petrochemical industry possible. 1856 William Henry Perkin synthesizes Perkin's mauve, the first synthetic dye. Created as an accidental byproduct of an attempt to create quinine from coal tar. This discovery is the foundation of the dye synthesis industry, one of the earliest successful chemical industries. 1857 Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz proposes that carbon is tetravalent, or forms exactly four chemical bonds. 1859–1860 Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen lay the foundations of spectroscopy as a means of chemical analysis, which lead them to the discovery of caesium and rubidium. Other workers soon used the same technique to discover indium, thallium, and helium. 1860 Stanislao Cannizzaro, resurrecting Avogadro's ideas regarding diatomic molecules, compiles a table of atomic weights and presents it at the 1860 Karlsruhe Congress, ending decades of conflicting atomic weights and molecular formulas, and leading to Mendeleev's discovery of the periodic law. 1862 Alexander Parkes exhibits Parkesine, one of the earliest synthetic polymers, at the International Exhibition in London. This discovery formed the foundation of the modern plastics industry. 1862 Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois publishes the telluric helix, an early, threedimensional version of the periodic table of the elements. 1864 687 John Newlands proposes the law of octaves, a precursor to the periodic law. 1864 Lothar Meyer develops an early version of the periodic table, with 28 elements organized by valence. 1864 Cato Maximilian Guldberg and Peter Waage, building on Claude Louis Berthollet's ideas, proposed the law of mass action. 1865 Johann Josef Loschmidt determines exact number of molecules in a mole, later named Avogadro's number. 1865 Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, based partially on the work of Loschmidt and others, establishes structure of benzene as a six carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds. 1865 Adolf von Baeyer begins work on indigo dye, a milestone in modern industrial organic chemistry which revolutionizes the dye industry. 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev publishes the first modern periodic table, with the 66 known elements organized by atomic weights. The strength of his table was its ability to accurately predict the properties of as-yet unknown elements. 1873 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Achille Le Bel, working independently, develop a model of chemical bonding that explains the chirality experiments of Pasteur and provides a physical cause for optical activity in chiral compounds. 688 1876 Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, a compilation of his work on thermodynamics and physical chemistry which lays out the concept of free energy to explain the physical basis of chemical equilibria. 1877 Ludwig Boltzmann establishes statistical derivations of many important physical and chemical concepts, including entropy, and distributions of molecular velocities in the gas phase. 1883 Svante Arrhenius develops ion theory to explain conductivity in electrolytes. 1884 Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff publishes Études de Dynamique chimique, a seminal study on chemical kinetics. 1884 Hermann Emil Fischer proposes structure of purine, a key structure in many biomolecules, which he later synthesized in 1898. Also begins work on the chemistry of glucose and related sugars. 1884 Henry Louis Le Chatelier develops Le Chatelier's principle, which explains the response of dynamic chemical equilibria to external stresses. 1885 Eugene Goldstein names the cathode ray, later discovered to be composed of electrons, and the canal ray, later discovered to be positive hydrogen ions that had been stripped of their electrons in a cathode ray tube. These would later be named protons. 1893 Alfred Werner discovers the octahedral structure of cobalt complexes, thus establishing the field of coordination chemistry. 689 1894–1898 William Ramsay discovers the noble gases, which fill a large and unexpected gap in the periodic table and led to models of chemical bonding. 1897 J. J. Thomson discovers the electron using the cathode ray tube. 1898 Wilhelm Wien demonstrates that canal rays (streams of positive ions) can be deflected by magnetic fields, and that the amount of deflection is proportional to the mass-to-charge ratio. This discovery would lead to the analytical technique known as mass spectrometry. 1898 Maria Sklodowska-Curie and Pierre Curie isolate radium and polonium from pitchblende. c. 1900 Ernest Rutherford discovers the source of radioactivity as decaying atoms; coins terms for various types of radiation. 20th century 1903 Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet invents chromatography, an important analytic technique. 1904 Hantaro Nagaoka proposes an early nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit a dense massive nucleus. 1905 Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch develop the Haber process for making ammonia from its elements, a milestone in industrial chemistry with deep consequences in agriculture. 1905 690 Albert Einstein explains Brownian motion in a way that definitively proves atomic theory. 1907 Leo Hendrik Baekeland invents bakelite, one of the first commercially successful plastics. 1909 Robert Millikan measures the charge of individual electrons with unprecedented accuracy through the oil drop experiment, confirming that all electrons have the same charge and mass. 1909 S. P. L. Sørensen invents the pH concept and develops methods for measuring acidity. 1911 Antonius van den Broek proposes the idea that the elements on the periodic table are more properly organized by positive nuclear charge rather than atomic weight. 1911 The first Solvay Conference is held in Brussels, bringing together most of the most prominent scientists of the day. Conferences in physics and chemistry continue to be held periodically to this day. 1911 Ernest Rutherford, Hans Geiger, and Ernest Marsden perform the gold foil experiment, which proves the nuclear model of the atom, with a small, dense, positive nucleus surrounded by a diffuse electron cloud. 1912 691 William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg propose Bragg's law and establish the field of X-ray crystallography, an important tool for elucidating the crystal structure of substances. 1912 Peter Debye develops the concept of molecular dipole to describe asymmetric charge distribution in some molecules. 1913 Niels Bohr introduces concepts of quantum mechanics to atomic structure by proposing what is now known as the Bohr model of the atom, where electrons exist only in strictly defined orbitals. 1913 Henry Moseley, working from Van den Broek's earlier idea, introduces concept of atomic number to fix inadequacies of Mendeleev's periodic table, which had been based on atomic weight. 1913 Frederick Soddy proposes the concept of isotopes, that elements with the same chemical properties may have differing atomic weights. 1913 J. J. Thomson expanding on the work of Wien, shows that charged subatomic particles can be separated by their mass-to-charge ratio, a technique known as mass spectrometry. 1916 Gilbert N. Lewis publishes "The Atom and the Molecule", the foundation of valence bond theory. 1921 692 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach establish concept of quantum mechanical spin in subatomic particles. 1923 Gilbert N. Lewis and Merle Randall publish Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, first modern treatise on chemical thermodynamics. 1923 Gilbert N. Lewis develops the electron pair theory of acid/base reactions. 1924 Louis de Broglie introduces the wave-model of atomic structure, based on the ideas of wave–particle duality. 1925 Wolfgang Pauli develops the exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons around a single nucleus may have the same quantum state, as described by four quantum numbers. 1926 Erwin Schrödinger proposes the Schrödinger equation, which provides a mathematical basis for the wave model of atomic structure. 1927 Werner Heisenberg develops the uncertainty principle which, among other things, explains the mechanics of electron motion around the nucleus. 1927 Fritz London and Walter Heitler apply quantum mechanics to explain covalent bonding in the hydrogen molecule, which marked the birth of quantum chemistry. 1929 693 Linus Pauling publishes Pauling's rules, which are key principles for the use of X-ray crystallography to deduce molecular structure. 1931 Erich Hückel proposes Hückel's rule, which explains when a planar ring molecule will have aromatic properties. 1931 Harold Urey discovers deuterium by fractionally distilling liquid hydrogen. 1932 James Chadwick discovers the neutron. 1932–1934 Linus Pauling and Robert Mulliken quantify electronegativity, devising the scales that now bear their names. 1935 Wallace Carothers leads a team of chemists at DuPont who invent nylon, one of the most commercially successful synthetic polymers in history. 1937 Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segrè perform the first confirmed synthesis of technetium-97, the first artificially produced element, filling a gap in the periodic table. Though disputed, the element may have been synthesized as early as 1925 by Walter Noddack and others. 1937 Eugene Houdry develops a method of industrial scale catalytic cracking of petroleum, leading to the development of the first modern oil refinery. 1937 694 Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener produce supercooled helium-4, the first zeroviscosity superfluid, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on a macroscopic scale. 1938 Otto Hahn discovers the process of nuclear fission in uranium and thorium. 1939 Linus Pauling publishes The Nature of the Chemical Bond, a compilation of a decades worth of work on chemical bonding. It is one of the most important modern chemical texts. It explains hybridization theory, covalent bonding and ionic bonding as explained through electronegativity, and resonance as a means to explain, among other things, the structure of benzene. 1940 Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson identify neptunium, the lightest and first synthesized transuranium element, found in the products of uranium fission. McMillan would found a lab at Berkeley that would be involved in the discovery of many new elements and isotopes. 1941 Glenn T. Seaborg takes over McMillan's work creating new atomic nuclei. Pioneers method of neutron capture and later through other nuclear reactions. Would become the principal or co-discoverer of nine new chemical elements, and dozens of new isotopes of existing elements. 1945 Jacob A. Marinsky, Lawrence E. Glendenin, and Charles D. Coryell perform the first confirmed synthesis of Promethium, filling in the last "gap" in the periodic table. 1945–1946 Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell develop the process of nuclear magnetic resonance, an analytical technique important in elucidating structures of molecules, especially in organic chemistry. 695 1951 Linus Pauling uses X-ray crystallography to deduce the secondary structure of proteins. 1952 Alan Walsh pioneers the field of atomic absorption spectroscopy, an important quantitative spectroscopy method that allows one to measure specific concentrations of a material in a mixture. 1952 Robert Burns Woodward, Geoffrey Wilkinson, and Ernst Otto Fischer discover the structure of ferrocene, one of the founding discoveries of the field of organometallic chemistry. 1953 James D. Watson and Francis Crick propose the structure of DNA, opening the door to the field of molecular biology. 1957 Jens Skou discovers Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, the first ion-transporting enzyme. 1958 Max Perutz and John Kendrew use X-ray crystallography to elucidate a protein structure, specifically sperm whale myoglobin. 1962 Neil Bartlett synthesizes xenon hexafluoroplatinate, showing for the first time that the noble gases can form chemical compounds. 1962 George Olah observes carbocations via superacid reactions. 1964 696 Richard R. Ernst performs experiments that will lead to the development of the technique of Fourier transform NMR. This would greatly increase the sensitivity of the technique, and open the door for magnetic resonance imaging or MRI. 1965 Robert Burns Woodward and Roald Hoffmann propose the Woodward–Hoffmann rules, which use the symmetry of molecular orbitals to explain the stereochemistry of chemical reactions. 1966 Hitoshi Nozaki and Ryōji Noyori discovered the first example of asymmetric catalysis (hydrogenation) using a structurally well-defined chiral transition metal complex. 1970 John Pople develops the Gaussian program greatly easing computational chemistry calculations. 1971 Yves Chauvin offered an explanation of the reaction mechanism of olefin metathesis reactions. 1975 Karl Barry Sharpless and group discover a stereoselective oxidation reactions including Sharpless epoxidation, Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation, and Sharpless oxyamination. 1985 Harold Kroto, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley discover fullerenes, a class of large carbon molecules superficially resembling the geodesic dome designed by architect R. Buckminster Fuller. 697 1991 Sumio Iijima uses electron microscopy to discover a type of cylindrical fullerene known as a carbon nanotube, though earlier work had been done in the field as early as 1951. This material is an important component in the field of nanotechnology. 1994 First total synthesis of Taxol by Robert A. Holton and his group. 1995 Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman produce the first Bose–Einstein condensate, a substance that displays quantum mechanical properties on the macroscopic scale. Timeline of events related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances The timeline of events related to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) includes events related to the discovery, development, manufacture, marketing, uses, concerns, litigation, regulation, and legislation, involving the man-made PFASs, particularly perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). and about the companies, mainly DuPont and 3M that manufactured and marketed them. Perfluorinated compounds are a group of hundreds of man-made compounds collectively known" as PFAS. Fluorosurfactants (PFAS) have been produced and marketed by DuPont under its trademark Teflon—a fluorinated polymer. PFAS compounds and their derivatives are widely used in many products from water resistant textiles to fire-fighting foam. A replacement for PFOAs and PFOS—GenX chemicals and PFBS—are "man-made, fluorinated organic chemicals that are part of the larger group — per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). PFAS are commonly found in every American household, and in products as diverse as non-stick cookware, stain resistant furniture and carpets, wrinkle free and water repellant clothing, cosmetics, lubricants, paint, pizza boxes, popcorn bags, and many other everyday products. 698  1802 Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, who had emigrated from France after the French Revolution, founded a company to produce gunpowder called E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company in Brandywine Creek, near Wilmington, Delaware.  E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company was renamed DuPont.  1902 John Dwan, Hermon Cable, Henry Bryan, and William A. McGonagle cofounded Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M) in 1902 in Two Harbors, Minnesota, in 1902. as a corundum mining operation. The men did not know at that time that "corundum was really another low-grade mineral called anorthosite."  1930 General Motors and DuPont formed Kinetic Chemicals to produce Freon.  1935 On 22 January, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., formally opened the Haskell Laboratory of Industrial Toxicology on the grounds of the Experimental Station of the company. It was at that time, "one of the first in-house toxicology facilities." It was established on the advice of a DuPont in-house doctor named George Gehrmann. According to a 1935 news item in the Industrial and Engineering Chemistry journal, the purpose of the du Pont facility was to thoroughly test all du Pont products as a public health measure to determine the effects of du Pont's finished products on the "health of the ultimate consumer " and that the products "are safe" "before they are placed on the market". The Haskell Laboratory facilities were "not to be employed in the development of compounds useful in therapeutics." The laboratory was named after Harry G. Haskell, du Pont's vice president, whose son, Harry G. Haskell Jr. (b. 1921 –) was mayor of Wilmington of Wilmington, Delaware from 1969 to 1973, and served as Delaware's Congressman from 1957-1959 W. F. von Oettingen was the first director of Haskell Laboratory of Industrial Toxicology. Lammot du Pont II (1880 – 1952) was president of E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc. from 15 March 1926 until he retired at the age of 60 on 20 May 1940. He was succeeded by Walter S. Carpenter Jr..  6 April 1938 Roy J. Plunkett (1910 – 1994), who was then a 27-year old research chemist who worked at the DuPont's Jackson Laboratory in Deepwater, New Jersey, was working with gases related to DuPont's Freon refrigerants, when an experiment he was conducting produced an unexpected new product.—tetrafluoroethylene resin. He had accidentally invented polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE), a saturated fluorocarbon polymer— 699 the "first compound in the family of Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), "to be marketed commercially."(Lyons 2007) It took ten years of research before polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) was introduced under its trade name Teflon, where it became known for being "extremely heat-tolerant and stick-resistant." In 1985, Plunkett was named to the National Inventors' Hall of Fame for the invention of Teflon, which "has been of great personal benefit to people—not just indirectly, but directly to real people whom I know." Plunkett described the discovery and development at the 1986 American Chemical Society symposium on the History of High Performance Polymers. He said that he and his assistant, Jack Rebok, had opened a tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) cylinder to examine an unusual white powder that had prevented the TFE gas from flowing out. Upon opening the cylinder, they found that the white powder was "packed onto the bottom and lower sides of the cylinder." The sample of gaseous TFE in the cylinder had polymerized spontaneously into a white, waxy solid. The polymer was polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). In 1945, DuPont commercialized PTFE as Teflon. They found that PTFE was resistant to corrosion, had low surface friction, and high heat resistance. Tetrafluorethylene (TFE) can cyclize with a wide variety of compounds which led to the creation of a range of organofluorine compounds.  1950s For decades—beginning in the 1950s—3M manufactured PFAS at its plant in Cottage Grove in Washington County, Minnesota. 3M, with 10,000 employees in Maplewood in Ramsey County where it is headquartered—is the largest employer in Maplewood.  1950s According to the 2016 lawsuit brought against 3M by Lake Elmo, Minnesota, 3M had "disposed of PFCs and PFC-containing waste at a facility it owned and operated in Oakdale, Minnesota (the "Oakdale Facilities")" during the 1950s. The Environmental Protection Agency Superfund, Oakdale Dump, includes three non-contiguous properties—Abresch, Brockman, and Eberle sites—that 3M used for waste disposal "from the late 1940s until the 1950s". The Oakdale Dump contaminated residential drinking water wells with volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and heavy metals. It was converted into a city park after extensive cleanup.  1951 "The DuPont chemical plant in Washington, West Virginia, began using PFOA in its manufacturing process." 700  1954 R. A. Dickison, who was employed at DuPont, received an inquiry about C8's "possible toxicity."  1956 A study undertaken by Gordon I. Nordby and J. Murray Luck at Stanford University found that "PFAS binds to proteins in human blood."  1960s DuPont "buried about 200 drums of C8 on the banks of the Ohio River near the plant."  1963 The United States Navy scientists began to work with 3M to develop aqueous filmforming foams (AFFF). The US military began to use Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF) since its development in 1963 and patented AFFF in 1967.  1961 A DuPont in-house toxicologist said C8 was toxic and should be "handled with extreme care."  1962 3M moved its headquarters from Saint Paul, Minnesota—where it had been located since 1910, to its headquarters at 3M Center in Maplewood, Minnesota.  1965 John Zapp, who was then director of DuPont's Haskell Laboratories, "received a memo describing preliminary studies that showed that even low doses of a related surfactant could increase the size of rats’ livers, a classic response to exposure to a poison."  1967 In the wake of the 1967 USS Forrestal fire, which happened off the coast of north Vietnam—"one of the worst disasters in U.S. naval history"—in which 134 people were killed and the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier was almost destroyed, the US Navy began to make it mandatory for its vessels to carry Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF) on board. A rocket, that was accidentally launched by a power surge, caused a fire that burned all night when it hit a "fuel tank, igniting leaking fuel and causing nine bombs to explode."  October 1969 In a laboratory that he shared with his father, Bill Gore, while experimenting with ways of "stretching extruded PTFE into pipe-thread tape", and after "series of unsuccessful experiments", Robert (Bob) Gore (b. 1937), accidentally discovered that a "sudden, accelerated yank" caused the PTFE to "stretch about 800%, which resulted in the transformation of solid PTFE into a microporous structure that was about 70% air." At the time Bob Gore was working with W. L. Gore and Associates, a 701 company established by his father Wilbert (Bill) Gore (1912 – 1986), who had worked at Remington Arms DuPont plant in Ilion, New York during World War II as a chemical engineer.  early 1970s According to court documents in the lawsuit against 3M, the company had "disposed of PFCs and PFC-containing waste at the city of Lake Elmo's Washington County Landfill".  1970s The Quartz said that according to a document on file with the US Environmental Protection Agency, and discovered by The Intercept's Sharon Lerner in June 2019, reported that the document was on file with the US Environmental Protection Agency, that Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company (3M) "knew as early as the 1970s that PFAS was accumulating in human blood." 3M's own experiments on rats and monkeys concluded that PFAS compounds "should be regarded as toxic."  1970s In the 1970s researchers at 3M documented the presence of PFOS and PFOA—the "two best-known PFAS compounds"—in fish.  1970s In Australia, firefighting foams containing PFAS had been used "extensively" since the 1970s, because they were very effective in "fighting liquid fuel fires."  1978 3M scientists, Hugh J. Van Noordwyk and Michael A. Santoro published an article on 3M's hazardous waste program in the Environmental Health Perspectives (EHP) journal, which is supported by the United States Department of Health and Human Services's (DHHS) National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), an institutes of the National Institutes of Health (NIH). The authors said that 3M considered "thermal destruction of hazardous wastes" as the "best method for their disposal". By 1978, 3M had built seven incineration facilities throughout the United States on "3M manufacturing plant sites at Brownwood, Texas, Cordova, Illinois, Cottage Grove, Minnesota, Decatur, Alabama, Hartford City, Indiana, Nevada, Missouri, and White City, Oregon.":247  September 1982 3M found drums stockpiled and buried deep in the trenches of the Oakdale Dump's Abresch site.  1983 Following approval by the Federal Environmental Protection Agency and the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency in July, 3M, described by The New York Times as a 702 "diversified manufacturing concern" announced their $6 million clean up of what would become known as the Oakdale Dump.  1998 Cincinnati, Ohio-based Robert Bilott, an American environmental attorney with Taft, Stettinius & Hollister LLP, took a case representing Wilbur Tennant, a Parkersburg, West Virginia farmer, whose herd of cattle had been decimated by strange symptoms that Tennant blamed on DuPont's Washington Works facilities.  1998 The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) "was first alerted to the risks" of PFAS—man-made "forever chemicals" that "never break down once released and they build up in our bodies". The EPA's Stephen Johnson, said in Barboza's 18 May 2000 Times article that The EPA first talked to 3M in 1998 after they were first alerted to 3M's 1998 laboratory rat study in which "male and female rats were given doses of the chemical and then mated. When a pregnant rat continued to get regular doses of about 3.2 milligrams per kilogram of body weight, most of the offspring died within four days." According to Johnson, "With all that information, [the EPA] finally talked to 3M and said that raises a number of concerns. What are you going to do?"  Summer of 1999 Bilott filed a federal suit in the Southern District of West Virginia on behalf of Wilbur Tennant against DuPont. A report commissioned by the EPA and DuPont and authored by 6 veterinarians—3 chosen by the EPA and the others by DuPont—found that Tennant's cattle had died because of Tennant's "poor husbandry", which included "poor nutrition, inadequate veterinary care and lack of fly control." The report said that DuPont was not responsible for the cattle's health problems.  2000 In a highly cited 2001 article in the Environmental Science & Technology, published by the American Chemical Society, John P. Giesy and Kurunthachalam Kannan reported "for the first time, on the global distribution of perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), a fluorinated organic contaminant." Based on the findings of their 2000 study, Giesy and Kannan said that "PFOS were widely detected in wildlife throughout the world" and that "PFOS is widespread in the environment." They said that "PFOS can bioaccumulate to higher trophic levels of the food chain" and that the "concentrations of PFOS in wildlife are less than those required to cause adverse effects in laboratory animals." 703 "PFOS was measured in the tissues of wildlife, including, fish, birds, and marine mammals. Some of the species studied include bald eagles, polar bears, albatrosses, and various species of seals. Samples were collected from urbanized areas in North America, especially the Great Lakes region and coastal marine areas and rivers, and Europe. Samples were also collected from a number of more remote, less urbanized locations such as the Arctic and the North Pacific Oceans. ... Concentrations of PFOS in animals from relatively more populated and industrialized regions, such as the North American Great Lakes, Baltic Sea, and Mediterranean Sea, were greater than those in animals from remote marine locations. Fish-eating, predatory animals such as mink and bald eagles contained concentrations of PFOS that were greater than the concentrations in their diets." — John P. Giesy and Kurunthachalam Kannan. 2001.  May 17 2000 Prior to May 2000, when 3M stopped manufacturing "PFOS (perfluorooctanesulphonate)-based flurosurfactants using the electrochemical flouorination process" which is a "class of chemicals known as perfluorochemicals (PFCs) in a classification of firefighting foam called Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF). Prior to 2000, the "most common PFCs" used in Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF) were "PFOS and its derivatives." According to Robert Avsec, who was Fire Chief Robert Avsec of the Chesterfield, Virginia Fire and EMS Department for 26 years, in fires classified as Class B—which includes fires that are difficult to extinguish, such as "fires that involve petroleum or other flammable liquids"—firefighters use a classification of firefighting foam called Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF) foams. Concerns have been raised about PFCs contaminating groundwater sources.  17 May 2000 3M stopped manufacturing "PFOS (perfluorooctanesulphonate)-based flurosurfactants using the electrochemical flouorination process."  17 May 2000 Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, David Barboza reported that 3M had voluntarily agreed to stop manufacturing Scotchgard because of their "corporate responsibility" to be "environmentally friendly. Their own tests had proven that PFOS, an agent that 3M used in the fabrication of Scotchgard—was proven to linger in the environment and in humans. Barboza said that 3M's "decision to drop Scotchgard" would 704 likely affect DuPont's use of PFOAs in the manufacturing of Teflon. William E. Coyne, the head of the then St.Paul-based 3M's research and development, said that PFOS "does not "decompose, it's inert—it's persistent; it's like a rock."  18 May 2000 Barboza corrected his 2017 May report saying that 3M had not acted voluntarily to be environmentally friendly as they had claimed. E.P.A. officials said that while, "it did not see an immediate safety risk for consumers using products now on the market...if 3M had not acted they would have taken steps to remove the product from the market." EPA had become "concerned about potential long-term health risks to humans after a 3M study showed that the chemical, perfluorooctanyl sulfonate, lingered for years in human blood and animal tissue and that high doses were known to kill laboratory rats."  August 2000 In his research in preparation for the court case, Bilott found an article mentioning the "little-known substance"—a surfactant— called perfluorooctanoic acid" (PFOA) or C8—had been found in DuPont's Dry Run Creek, adjacent to Tennant farm, and Bilott requested "more information on the chemical. This concerned DuPont's lawyer, Bernard J. Reilly, who raised concerns at DuPont's Delaware headquarters.  Fall of 2000 A court order that Bilott had requested, forced DuPont to submit 110,000 pages of documents dated back to the 1950s of DuPont's "private internal correspondence, medical and health reports and confidential studies conducted by DuPont scientists".  2001 DuPont settled the lawsuit filed by Billot on behalf of Tennant for an undisclosed sum.  March 2001 After spending months poring through the DuPont's documents, attorney Bilott sent a 972-page submission to directors of all relevant regulatory authorities, including the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s Christie Whitman, and the US AG, John Ashcroft, demanding "immediate action be taken to regulate PFOA and provide clean water to those living near" [DuPont's Washington Works facilities].  June 2001 According to a June 2007 article in the Industrial Fire Journal (IFJ), the Firefighting Foam Coalition (FFC) was created by "[m]anufacturers of firefighting foams and the fluorosurfactants they contain" as a "focal point" for co-operation with "several environmental authorities" regarding "potential environmental impacts of its 705 products." The article said that there has been a heightened awareness on the part of the "fire protection industry" on its environmental impact as concerns were raised about ozone depletion in the late 1980s.  31 August 2001 A state court action was filed in West Virginia by Bilott, Harry Deitzler, an attorney with Hill, Peterson, Carper, Bee and Deitzler, and others on behalf of thirteen individuals in the "Leach case"—Jack W. Leach, William Parrish, Joseph K. Kiger, Darlene G. Kiger, Judy See, Rick See, Jack L. Cottrell, Virginia L. Cottrell, Carrie K. Allman, Roger D. Allman, Sandy Cowan, Aaron B. McConnell, and Angela D. McConnell—DuPont, Leach Case"). Tennant had settled his lawsuit privately with DuPont. In their "Amended class action complaint" attorneys for the plaintiffs, said that in October and November of 2000 and July of 2001, DuPont had sent notices to Lubeck Public Service District (LPSD) customers, informing them that there was PFOA in the LPSD's water system. In 2000, West Virginia recognized the medical-monitoring claim which allows a plaintiff to "sue retroactively for damages". Bilott filed the classaction suit in August 2001 in the West Virginia state court, "even though four of the six affected water districts lay across the Ohio border."  2002 DuPont's Fayetteville, North Carolina facility began to manufacture C8.  2002 Since 2002, when the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) first developed "Health Based Values for PFOS and PFOA", the MDH has also developed "health-based guidance values for PFOS, PFOA, PFBS, and PFBA, and uses the PFOS value as a surrogate for evaluating PFHxS (in lieu of sufficient PFHxS-specific toxicological information)." MDH had begun partnering with Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) to investigate PFAS in "drinking water investigations east of Saint Paul near the 3M Cottage Grove plant and related legacy waste disposal sites in Washington County."  2002 Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) "Public Health Laboratory developed an analytical method tailored to the PFAS found in the 3M waste disposal sites." They also "developed two other methods with longer analyte lists to evaluate AFFF and other sites." These investigations resulted in the discovery of "groundwater contamination covering over 150 square miles, affecting the drinking water supplies of over 140,000 Minnesotans. Over 2,600 private wells have been sampled and 798 drinking water advisories issued." 706  2003 Weinberg Group's then Vice-President of Product Defense, P. Terrence Gaffney wrote a 5-page letter urging DuPont to prepare a defense strategy for future litigation related to the health impacts of PFOAs in Parkersburg, West Virginia. The letter was mentioned in an Environmental Science & Technology article called "The Weinberg proposal" by Paul D. Thacker. Gaffney wrote that, "DuPont must shape the debate at all levels." He offered several strategies which included the establishment of "blue ribbon panels", the coordination of papers on PFOA and on junk science, the "publication of papers and articles dispelling the alleged nexus between PFOA and teratogenicity as well as other claimed harm."  2003 Gale D. Pearson, then a local lawyer in Cottage Grove, was one of the first people to look into contaminated ground water in Cottage Grove. In 2003, lawyers had contacted her regarding a personal injury case about contaminated water near a [DuPont/Chemouris] plant in West Virginia where they manufactured Teflon in a process that used PFOAs, a type of PFAS. She knew that 3M had manufactured PFOAs in their Cottage Grove facility. Pearson discovered through the Environmental Working Group (EWS) that PFAS were not just found in Washington County, Minnesota and West Virginia, but all over the world. 3M had dumped waste in the Cottage Grove "when it was still just farmland" and in other nearby farmlands in Washington County. Pearson and her team hired a chemist to test soil and water samples on the properties where 3M had dumped the chemicals. Blood samples from the local population in the affected area were also tested for PFAS. Pearson said that the laboratory tests revealed that there was a "hotspot of contamination in the blood of the community."  19 June 2003 Ted Schaefer, a chemist who worked for 3M in Australia patented a fire fighting foam that did not contain PFOS or any other persistent ingredients. Immediately after 3M chose to no longer manufacture PFOS in 2000, the company deployed Schaefer to develop a replacement for the Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFF). By 2002, Shaefer, who had worked for years on "foams used to put out forest fires", developed a fluorine-free foam that was able to put out jet fuel fires within 46 seconds. The International Civil Aviation Organization standard was 60-seconds.  October 2003 A report by Oregon State University's Jennifer Field which was based on "data on fluorosurfactants in groundwater at three military sites where AFFF was used to 707 train fire responders" concluded that the "perfluoroalkyl sulfonates and perfluoroalkyl carboxylates found in the groundwater came from PFOS-based AFFF agents". Field said that "the 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate was likely the primary breakdown product of the six-carbon fluorosurfactants contained in fluorotelomer-based AFFF." Field's report was presented at an October 2003 EPA workgroup, which "determined that modern AFFF agents" were "not likely to be a source of PFCAs such as PFHxA and PFOA in the environment. EPA concluded that existing data “provided no evidence that these fluorosurfactants biodegrade into PFOA or its homologs...” according to a 2007 Industrial Fire Journal (IFJ) article.  2004 PFCs were detected in the Oakdale facilities and the landfill by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) and it was "revealed that the PFCs had leached from the Oakdale Facilities and the Landfill into the groundwater aquifers serving as Lake Elmo's drinking water supply."  2004 According to 2004 report by ChemRisk—an "industry risk assessor" hired by DuPont, Dupont's Parkersburg, West Virginia-based Washington Works plant had "dumped, poured and released" over 1.7 million pounds of C8 or perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) into the environment between 1951 and 2003.  23 November 2004 The Circuit Court of Wood County, West Virginia class action lawsuit, Leach, et al v. E. I. DuPont deNemours and Co. against DuPont, on behalf of residents in the Parkersburg regional area—including Little Hocking, Ohio, Lubeck Public Service District, West Virginia, the city of Belpre, Ohio, Tuppers Plains, Ohio, Mason County Public Service District, West Virginia and the village of Pomeroy, Ohio— whose water systems were affected by C-8 water contamination was certified by Judge George W. Hill on 23 November 2004. The settlement in 2004 "established a courtapproved scientific panel to determine what types of ailments are likely linked to PFOA exposure." In a 25 November 2019, case in the District court of Ohio, the judge "rejected DuPont's claims that the court had misinterpreted the 2004 class-action settlement, and that the court should have applied Ohio’s tort reform act, which caps the amount of some types of damages plaintiffs can receive." The settlement included a requirement that DuPont "pay the costs of medical monitoring for nearly 100,000 people in the area." Over 708 "3,500 residents opted out of the class-action settlement to instead pursue individual lawsuits."  2005-2006 The C8 Health Project undertaken by the C8 Science Panel "surveyed 69,030 individuals" who had "lived, worked, or attended school for ≥ 1 year in one of six contaminated water districts near the plant between 1950 and 3 December 2004."  2005 According to a 2005 Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology article that was cited in The Intercept, "PFAS chemicals are used widely to help with the molding and extrusions of plastic".  2006 The EPA brokered a voluntary agreement with DuPont and eight other major companies to phase out the use of PFOS and PFOA in the United States.  January 2007 Dennis Paustenbach, who was the founder of ChemRisk, co-authored an article entitled "A methodology for estimating human exposure to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA): a retrospective exposure assessment of a community (1951-2003)" in the Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, in which the authors said that " The predicted historical lifetime and average daily estimates of PFOA intake by persons who lived within 5 miles of the plant over the past 50 yr were about 10,000-fold less than the intake of the chemical not considered as a health risk by an independent panel of scientists who recently studied PFOA."  2009 3M shut down their Saint Paul Plant. In 1910, 3M had moved its headquarters and manufacturing facilities from Duluth to one building on Forest Street in Dayton's Bluff, Saint Paul, one of Saint Paul's oldest communities on the east side of the Mississippi River. Over the years, it expanded into a 61-acre 3M campus. Whirlpool's factory, Hamm's/Stroh's brewery and other industries were also located along a diagonal that ran through the Dayton Bluff neighbourhood, East 7 Street. The three companies shut down in "rapid succession." when 3M closed down its Dayton's Bluff operation in phases, it was the last of the three leaving the community. These companies had provided goodpaying jobs in the neighbourhood so their closing left Dayton Bluff as a "boulevard of broken dreams"—a "once-thriving neighborhood descended into a defeating spiral of decay, witnessed by vacant lots, boarded-up storefronts and rising crime." When the St. Paul's development agency, the Port Authority, took over the campus, it was renamed 709 Beacon Bluff. then the Saint Paul Plant continued to be active until 2009. near the diagonal-running artery that connects one of the East Side's oldest communities directly to downtown St. Paul. a diagonal The East 7 Street, which ran through the Dayton Bluff neighborhood was home to For years, E. 7th Street was St. Paul's own boulevard of broken dreams.  2010 Lake Elmo, Minnesota, a city of about 8,000 people in Washington State, Minnesota—sued 3M when PFAS chemicals, known as 'forever chemicals', were found to have contaminated Lake Elmo's drinking water.  2014 The EPA's Federal Facilities Restoration and Reuse Office (FFRRO) developed and published a fact sheet which provided a "summary of the emerging contaminants perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), including physical and chemical properties, environmental and health impacts, existing federal and state guidelines, detection and treatment methods.  2016 The EPA "published a voluntary health advisory for PFOA and PFOS" which warned that "exposure to the chemicals at levels above 70 parts per trillion, total, could be dangerous."  2016 The city of Lake Elmo, Minnesota sued 3M a second time for polluting their drinking water with PFAS chemicals. 3M filed for a dismissal was refused in 2017.  2016 In a 17 October 2016 article by Robert Avsec, who was Fire Chief Robert Avsec of the Chesterfield, Virginia Fire and EMS Department for 26 years, manufacturers of the firefighting foam had "moved away from PFOS and its derivatives as a result of legislative pressure." They began to develop and market "fluorine-free...firefighting foams"—foams "that do not use fluorochemicals"  13 February 2017 The 2001 class-action suit that Bilott had filed against DuPont, on behalf of the Parkersburg area residents, resulted in DuPont agreeing to pay $671 million in cash to settle about 3,550 personal injury claims involving a leak of perfluorooctanoic acid—PFOA or C-8— used to make Teflon in its Parkersburg, West Virginia-based Washington Works facilities. DuPont denied any wrongdoing. A diamond (the hardest natural substance on earth) will not dissolve in acid. The only thing that can destroy it is intense heat. 710  2017 3M net sales for 2017 were $31.657 billion compared to $30.109 billion in 2016. On 13 February 2017 Chemours shares rose 13 percent and DuPont shares rose 1 percent.  22 May 2017 According to a 2 November 2018, Bloomberg article, the Minnesota Health Department (MHD) notified the office of the Mayor of Cottage Grove, Myron Bailey, that the MHD had "set a new, [stricter], lower level for a type of unregulated chemical found in Minnesota's drinking water" and that Cottage Grove's water "would exceed the new threshold" that was necessary to "better protect infants and young children." Bailey called a state of emergency.  2017 The Fire Fighting Foam Coalition's 2017 fact sheet said that the short-chain (C6) fluorosurfactants which are replacing the longer C8 in AFFF are "low in toxicity and not considered to be bioaccumulative based on current regulatory criteria."  Fall 2017 When abnormally high levels of PFAS were found in Belmont, Michigan, it became one of the first places where PFAS contaminations caught the attention of the media. The contamination was attributed to Wolverine Worldwide, a footwear company that had used to Scotchgard to "treat shoe leather" and had dumped their waste in that area decades ago.  late 2017 The Australian Government's established an Expert Health Panel for PFAS to "advise the Australian Government on the evidence for potential health impacts associated with PFAS exposure and recommend priority areas for future research." Their report was submitted in March 2018.  2017 PFAS are on the Government of Canada's 2019 chart of substances that are prohibited by Canadian Environmental Protection Act, 1999 (CEPA) and by Prohibition of Certain Toxic Substances Regulations, 2012. These substances are under these regulations because they are "among the most harmful" and "have been declared toxic to the environment and/or human health", are "generally persistent and bioaccumulative." The "regulations prohibit the manufacture, use, sale, offer for sale or import of the toxic substances listed below, and products containing them, with a limited number of exemptions." On 12 December 1901, Italian inventor and electrical engineer Guglielmo Marconi and his assistant, George Kemp, heard the faint clicks of Morse code for the letter "s" transmitted without wires across the Atlantic Ocean. 711  2018 The Australian National University was commissioned by the Australian Government to conduct a health study to examine patterns of PFAS contamination and potential implications for human health at Defence sites in Australia, with a focus on three sites—Williamtown in New South Wales, Oakey in Queensland and Katherine in the Northern Territory.  5 January 2017 The jury in a case against DuPont, awarded compensation of $10.5 million to the plaintiff in the U.S. District Court in Columbus, with U.S. Chief District Judge Edmund A. Sargus Jr. presiding. The attorney for the plaintiff, Gary J. Douglas urged the jury to award punitive damages that reflected DuPont's assets and income—as revealed by the witness for the plaintiff—Robert Johnson a forensic economist. Johnson said that DuPont has $18.8 billion in assets "that can be converted to cash" and "has net sales of $68 million a day." Johnson said that DuPont makes "$2 million...in 42 minutes."  10 January 2018 According to the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) website which was last reviewed on 10 January 2018, the "health effects of PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and PFNA have been more widely studied than other per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Some, but not all, studies in humans with PFAS exposure have shown that certain PFAS may affect growth, learning, and behavior of infants and older children, lower a woman’s chance of getting pregnant, interfere with the body’s natural hormones, increase cholesterol levels, affect the immune system, and increase the risk of cancer."  20 February 2018 The state of Minnesota "settled its lawsuit against the 3M Company in return for a settlement of $850 million". Their Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) interactive map indicates the location of dozens of wells under advisory because of contaminated ground water in southern Minnesota where Mississippi River winds past Saint Paul's. After the trial concluded, the Attorney General of Minnesota published some of the documents related to the case, saying that said the public had a right to know as 3M had been aware of health risks for decades.  2018 Department of Health & Human Services's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) was about to publish its assessment of PFAS chemicals, with a focus on two specific chemicals from the PFAS class—PFOA and PFOS—that have "contaminated water supplies near military bases, chemical plants and other sites from 712 New York to Michigan to West Virginia" which showed that the PFAS chemicals "endanger human health at a far lower level than EPA has previously called safe." The HHS updated ATSDR study would have warned that exposure to PFOA and PFOS at less than one-sixth of the EPAs current guideline of 70 parts per trillion, "could be dangerous for sensitive populations like infants and breastfeeding mothers."  30 January 2018 According to an article by the Center for Science and Democracy's director, Michael Halpern and posted by the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS), in early 2018, Nancy Beck, Deputy Assistant Administrator at the Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention (OCSPP), the Office of Land and Emergency Management (OLEM), Office of Research and Development (ORD)—three branches of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)—exchanged chains of emails with Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the United States Department of Defense (DoD), HHS, and the Pentagon, to put pressure on the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) to censor a report that measured the "health effects" of PFAS that are "found in drinking water and household products throughout the United States." Beck wrote to EPA staff including, Jennifer Orme-Zavaleta, Ryan Jackson, and Peter Grevatt, and Mike Flynn (EPA) in regards to "PFAS meeting with ATSDR" that the "implications for susceptible populations came as a surprise to OCSPP staff." Beck is "one of the EPA political appointees with ties to the chemical industry involved in the effort to prevent the study from being released." An email by an unidentified Trump administration aid that was forwarded by Office of Management and Budget's(OMB) James Herz, said that "The public, media, and Congressional reaction to these numbers is going to be huge. The impact to EPA and [the Defense Department] is going to be extremely painful. We (DoD and EPA) cannot seem to get ATSDR to realize the potential public relations nightmare this is going to be." one unidentified White House aide said in an email forwarded on 30 Jan. by James Herz, a political appointee who oversees environmental issues at the OMB. The email added: "The impact to EPA and [the Defense Department] is going to be extremely painful. We (DoD and EPA) cannot seem to get ATSDR to realize the potential public relations nightmare this is going to be."  March 2018 The United States Department of Defense's (DoD)'s report to Congress said that test that they conducted showed that the amount of PFAS chemicals in water supplies 713 near 126 DoD facilities, "exceeded the current safety guidelines". The DoD has "used foam containing" PFAS chemicals "in exercises at bases across the country". The DoD therefore, "risks the biggest liabilities" in relation to the use of PFAS chemicals according to Politico.  March 2018 In March 2018, the PFAS Expert Health Panel on PFAS submitted their commissioned report to the Australian government.  14 May 2018 Politico gained access to the email chains and published the story in May, saying that Scott Pruitt's EPA had worked with the Trump administration to block the publication of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) report.  21 June 2018 The Department of Health & Human Services's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) 697-page draft report for public comment, "Toxicological Profile for Perfluoroalkyls", was finally released.  November 14, 2018 According to The Guardian, a November 14, 2018 EPA draft assessment said that "animal studies showing effects on the kidneys, liver, immune system and more from GenX," the chemicals manufactured by Chemours—a corporate spin-off of DuPont, in Fayetteville, North Carolina. GenX chemicals are used PFOA (C8) for manufacturing fluoropolymers such as teflon, and in products such as firefighting foam, paints, food packaging, paints, outdoor fabrics, and cleaning products.  19 March 2019 The Concord Monitor reported that the United States Congress House Bill 494, which was to be introduced in March, would compel Department of Environmental Services (DES) of the state of New Hampshire to enact new standards that would force "polluters to stop the flow of toxins" from the Superfund Coakley landfill site in North Hampton and Greenland that threatens the drinking water of five Seacoast towns and contaminate surface water bodies in the surrounding area. The contamination represents "some of the highest levels ever found anywhere of PFNA", one of the perfluorinated chemicals.  May 2019 In May 2019, the Stockholm Convention COP "decided to eliminate production and use of two important toxic POPs, PFOA and Dicofol" as recommended by the United Nation's Stockholm Convention's Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC-15). 714  29 May 2019 The city of Lake Elmo, Minnesota and 3M reached a settlement over the drinking water contamination lawsuit. 3M will pay $2.7 million to Lake Elmo's water account and will "transfer 180 acres of farmland" to Lake Elmowhich is "valued at $1.8 million."  June 2019 In what was described as a "huge step toward cleaning up the prevalence of— and prevent further contamination from—PFAS chemicals in ground, surface and drinking water" the Department of Environmental Services of the state of New Hamsphire submitted a "final rulemaking proposal" for new, lower maximum contaminant levels (MCLs)/drinking water standards and ambient groundwater quality standards (AGQS) for four per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS): perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA) and perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS)." When implemented on 1 October, following the approval of and adoption by New Hampshire's Joint Legislative Committee on Administrative Rules (JLCAR) on 18 July, New Hampshire will be able to "compel polluters to clean up contaminated sites." One of the contaminated sites is the "Coakley landfill in North Hampton and Greenland."  2019 The state of New Hampshire filed a lawsuit against Dupont, 3M, and other companies, for their roles in the crisis in drinking water contamination in the United States. The lawsuit claims that the polluted water is the result of the manufacture and use of perfluorinated chemicals, a group of more than 4,000 compounds collectively known as PFAS.  23 September 2019 On 23 September 2019 the CDC and ATSDR announced that they had "established cooperative agreements with seven partners to study the human health effects of exposures to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) through drinking water at locations across the nation."  September 2019 Andrew R. Wheeler, EPA Administrator, met with industry lobbyists and said that "Congressional efforts to clean up legacy PFAS pollution in the National Defense Authorization Act for fiscal 2020" were "just not workable." Wheeler refuses to "designate PFAS chemicals as "hazardous substances" under the Superfund law." 715  1 October 2019 A lawsuit was filed in the Merrimack County Superior Court by 3M, Plymouth Water & Sewer District, and two others against the state Department of Environmental Services to prevent the new permitted levels for PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, and PFHxS from being implemented.  4 October 2019 At the 15th meeting of the United Nation's Stockholm Convention's Persistent Organic Pollutants Review Committee (POPRC-15) held in Rome, on 4 October, over 100 scientific experts representing many countries, "recommended that a group of hazardous chemicals"—"Perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS), its salts, and PFHxS-related compounds"—be eliminated in order to better protect human health and the environment from its harmful impacts." PFHxS and PFHxS-related salts and compounds are a "group of industrial chemicals used widely in a number of consumer goods as a surfactant and sealant including in carpets, leather, clothing, textiles, firefighting foams, papermaking, printing inks and non-stick cookware. They are known to be harmful to human health including the nervous system, brain development, endocrine system and thyroid hormone." Perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) is one of a number of common PFAS chemicals. Other common PFAS chemicals include Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), Perfluorooctanesulfonamide (PFOSA), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), Perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), Perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), Perfluorobutane sulfonic acid (PFBS), and Heptafluorobutyric acid (HFBA).  25 November 2019 Judge Edmund A. Sargus Jr. of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Ohio ruled in favor of the plaintiffs against DuPont in the court case E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. C-8 Pers. Injury Litig., S.D. Ohio, No. 2:13-md02433, 11/25/19.. Judge Sargus blocked DePont from defending against claims that were decided in the set of previous trials, involving residents of Ohio and West Virginia who say PFAS from E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.'s Washington Works manufacturing facility, which was located along the Ohio River, "contaminated their water, and caused cancer and other diseases". The company had argued that their "release of PFOA amounted to negligence". Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics 716 Early beginnings  In 6th century BCE, Acharya Kanada proposed that all matter must consist of indivisible particles and called them "anu". He proposes examples like ripening of fruit as the change in the number and types of atoms to create newer units.  430 BCE Democritus speculates about fundamental indivisible particles—calls them "atoms" The beginning of chemistry  1766 Henry Cavendish discovers and studies hydrogen  1778 Carl Scheele and Antoine Lavoisier discover that air is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen  1781 Joseph Priestley creates water by igniting hydrogen and oxygen  1800 William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle use electrolysis to separate water into hydrogen and oxygen  1803 John Dalton introduces atomic ideas into chemistry and states that matter is composed of atoms of different weights  1805 (approximate time) Thomas Young conducts the double-slit experiment with light  1811 Amedeo Avogadro claims that equal volumes of gases should contain equal numbers of molecules  1832 Michael Faraday states his laws of electrolysis  1871 Dmitri Mendeleyev systematically examines the periodic table and predicts the existence of gallium, scandium, and germanium  1873 Johannes van der Waals introduces the idea of weak attractive forces between molecules  1885 Johann Balmer finds a mathematical expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths  1887 Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect 717  1894 Lord Rayleigh and William Ramsay discover argon by spectroscopically analyzing the gas left over after nitrogen and oxygen are removed from air  1895 William Ramsay discovers terrestrial helium by spectroscopically analyzing gas produced by decaying uranium  1896 Antoine Becquerel discovers the radioactivity of uranium  1896 Pieter Zeeman studies the splitting of sodium D lines when sodium is held in a flame between strong magnetic poles  1897 Emil Wiechert, Walter Kaufmann and J.J. Thomson discover the electron  1898 Marie and Pierre Curie discovered the existence of the radioactive elements radium and polonium in their research of pitchblende  1898 William Ramsay and Morris Travers discover neon, and negatively charged beta particles Timeline of classical mechanics  4th century BC - Aristotle invents the system of Aristotelian physics, which is later largely disproved  4th century BC - Babylonian astronomers calculate Jupiter's position using the mean speed theorem  260 BC - Archimedes works out the principle of the lever and connects buoyancy to weight  60 - Hero of Alexandria writes Metrica, Mechanics (on means to lift heavy objects), and Pneumatics (on machines working on pressure)  350 - Themistius states, that static friction is larger than kinetic friction  6th century - John Philoponus says that by observation, two balls of very different weights will fall at nearly the same speed. He therefore tests the equivalence principle  1021 - Al-Biruni uses three orthogonal coordinates to describe point in space  1000-1030 - Alhazen and Avicenna develop the concepts of inertia and momentum  1100-1138 - Avempace develops the concept of a reaction force 718  1100-1165 - Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi discovers that force is proportional to acceleration rather than speed, a fundamental law in classical mechanics  1121 - Al-Khazini publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, in which he develops the concepts of gravity at-a-distance. He suggests that the gravity varies depending on its distance from the center of the universe, namely Earth  1340-1358 - Jean Buridan develops the theory of impetus  14th century - Oxford Calculators and French collaborators prove the mean speed theorem  14th century - Nicole Oresme derives the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change. Oresme, however, regarded this discovery as a purely intellectual exercise having no relevance to the description of any natural phenomena, and consequently failed to recognise any connection with the motion of accelerating bodies  1500-1528 - Al-Birjandi develops the theory of "circular inertia" to explain Earth's rotation  16th century - Francesco Beato and Luca Ghini experimentally contradict aristotelian view on free fall.  16th century - Domingo de Soto suggests that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium are uniformly accelerated. Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity  1581 - Galileo Galilei notices the timekeeping property of the pendulum  1589 - Galileo Galilei uses balls rolling on inclined planes to show that different weights fall with the same acceleration  1638 - Galileo Galilei publishes Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (which were materials science and kinematics) where he develops, amongst other things, Galilean transformation  1645 - Ismaël Bullialdus argues that "gravity" weakens as the inverse square of the distance 719  1651 - Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi discover the Coriolis effect  1658 - Christiaan Huygens experimentally discovers that balls placed anywhere inside an inverted cycloid reach the lowest point of the cycloid in the same time and thereby experimentally shows that the cycloid is the tautochrone  1668 - John Wallis suggests the law of conservation of momentum  1676-1689 - Gottfried Leibniz develops the concept of vis viva, a limited theory of conservation of energy  1687 - Isaac Newton publishes his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in which he formulates Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation  1690 - James Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone problem  1691 - Johann Bernoulli shows that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a catenary  1691 - James Bernoulli shows that the catenary curve has the lowest center of gravity of any chain hung from two fixed points  1696 - Johann Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone problem  1707 - Gottfried Leibniz probably develops the principle of least action  1710 - Jakob Hermann shows that Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector is conserved for a case of the inverse-square central force  1714 - Brook Taylor derives the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving an ordinary differential equation  1733 - Daniel Bernoulli derives the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a hanging chain by solving an ordinary differential equation  1734 - Daniel Bernoulli solves the ordinary differential equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end  1739 - Leonhard Euler solves the ordinary differential equation for a forced harmonic oscillator and notices the resonance  1742 - Colin Maclaurin discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating spheroids 720  1743 - Jean le Rond d'Alembert publishes his "Traite de Dynamique", in which he introduces the concept of generalized forces and D'Alembert's principle  1747 - d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut publish first approximate solutions to the threebody problem  1749 - Leonhard Euler derives equation for Coriolis acceleration  1759 - Leonhard Euler solves the partial differential equation for the vibration of a rectangular drum  1764 - Leonhard Euler examines the partial differential equation for the vibration of a circular drum and finds one of the Bessel function solutions  1776 - John Smeaton publishes a paper on experiments relating power, work, momentum and kinetic energy, and supporting the conservation of energy  1788 - Joseph Louis Lagrange presents Lagrange's equations of motion in the Méchanique Analitique  1789 - Antoine Lavoisier states the law of conservation of mass  1803 - Louis Poinsot develops idea of angular momentum conservation (this result was previously known only in the case of conservation of areal velocity)  1813 - Peter Ewart supports the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper On the measure of moving force  1821 - William Hamilton begins his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function and Hamilton–Jacobi equation  1829 - Carl Friedrich Gauss introduces Gauss's principle of least constraint  1834 - Carl Jacobi discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids  1834 - Louis Poinsot notes an instance of the intermediate axis theorem  1835 - William Hamilton states Hamilton's canonical equations of motion  1838 - Liouville begins work on Liouville's theorem  1841 - Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, writes a paper on the conservation of energy but his lack of academic training leads to its rejection  1847 - Hermann von Helmholtz formally states the law of conservation of energy 721  First half of XIX century - Cauchy develops his momentum equation and his stress tensor  1851 - Léon Foucault shows the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum (Foucault pendulum)  1870 - Rudolf Clausius deduces virial theorem  1902 - James Jeans finds the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium  1915 - Emmy Noether proves Noether's theorem, from which conservation laws are deduced  1952 - Parker develops a tensor form of the virial theorem  1978 - Vladimir Arnold states precise form of Liouville–Arnold theorem  1983 - Mordehai Milgrom proposes Modified Newtonian dynamics  1992 - Udwadia and Kalaba create Udwadia–Kalaba equation The age of quantum mechanics  1887 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect that will play a very important role in the development of the quantum theory with Einstein's explanation of this effect in terms of quanta of light  1896 Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers the X-rays while studying electrons in plasma; scattering X-rays—that were considered as 'waves' of highenergy electromagnetic radiation—Arthur Compton will be able to demonstrate in 1922 the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.  1900 Paul Villard discovers gamma-rays while studying uranium decay  1900 Johannes Rydberg refines the expression for observed hydrogen line wavelengths  1900 Max Planck states his quantum hypothesis and blackbody radiation law  1902 Philipp Lenard observes that maximum photoelectron energies are independent of illuminating intensity but depend on frequency  1902 Theodor Svedberg suggests that fluctuations in molecular bombardment cause the Brownian motion 722  1905 Albert Einstein explains the photoelectric effect  1906 Charles Barkla discovers that each element has a characteristic X-ray and that the degree of penetration of these X-rays is related to the atomic weight of the element  1909 Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden discover large angle deflections of alpha particles by thin metal foils  1909 Ernest Rutherford and Thomas Royds demonstrate that alpha particles are doubly ionized helium atoms  1911 Ernest Rutherford explains the Geiger–Marsden experiment by invoking a nuclear atom model and derives the Rutherford cross section  1911 Jean Perrin proves the existence of atoms and molecules with experimental work to test Einstein's theoretical explanation of Brownian motion  1911 Ștefan Procopiu measures the magnetic dipole moment of the electron  1912 Max von Laue suggests using crystal lattices to diffract X-rays  1912 Walter Friedrich and Paul Knipping diffract X-rays in zinc blende  1913 William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg work out the Bragg condition for strong X-ray reflection  1913 Henry Moseley shows that nuclear charge is the real basis for numbering the elements  1913 Niels Bohr presents his quantum model of the atom  1913 Robert Millikan measures the fundamental unit of electric charge  1913 Johannes Stark demonstrates that strong electric fields will split the Balmer spectral line series of hydrogen  1914 James Franck and Gustav Hertz observe atomic excitation  1914 Ernest Rutherford suggests that the positively charged atomic nucleus contains protons  1915 Arnold Sommerfeld develops a modified Bohr atomic model with elliptic orbits to explain relativistic fine structure  1916 Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir formulate an electron shell model of chemical bonding 723  1917 Albert Einstein introduces the idea of stimulated radiation emission  1918 Ernest Rutherford notices that, when alpha particles were shot into nitrogen gas, his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of hydrogen nuclei.  1921 Alfred Landé introduces the Landé g-factor  1922 Arthur Compton studies X-ray photon scattering by electrons demonstrating the 'particle' aspect of electromagnetic radiation.  1922 Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach show "spin quantization"  1923 Lise Meitner discovers what is now referred to as the Auger process  1924 Louis de Broglie suggests that electrons may have wavelike properties in addition to their 'particle' properties; the wave–particle duality has been later extended to all fermions and bosons.  1924 John Lennard-Jones proposes a semiempirical interatomic force law  1924 Satyendra Bose and Albert Einstein introduce Bose–Einstein statistics  1925 Wolfgang Pauli states the quantum exclusion principle for electrons  1925 George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit postulate electron spin  1925 Pierre Auger discovers the Auger process (2 years after Lise Meitner)  1925 Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan formulate quantum matrix mechanics  1926 Erwin Schrödinger states his nonrelativistic quantum wave equation and formulates quantum wave mechanics  1926 Erwin Schrödinger proves that the wave and matrix formulations of quantum theory are mathematically equivalent  1926 Oskar Klein and Walter Gordon state their relativistic quantum wave equation, now the Klein–Gordon equation  1926 Enrico Fermi discovers the spin–statistics connection, for particles that are now called 'fermions', such as the electron (of spin-1/2).  1926 Paul Dirac introduces Fermi–Dirac statistics  1926 Gilbert N. Lewis introduces the term "photon", thought by him to be "the carrier of radiant energy." 724  1927 Clinton Davisson, Lester Germer, and George Paget Thomson confirm the wavelike nature of electrons  1927 Werner Heisenberg states the quantum uncertainty principle  1927 Max Born interprets the probabilistic nature of wavefunctions  1927 Walter Heitler and Fritz London introduce the concepts of valence bond theory and apply it to the hydrogen molecule.  1927 Thomas and Fermi develop the Thomas–Fermi model  1927 Max Born and Robert Oppenheimer introduce the Born–Oppenheimer approximation  1928 Chandrasekhara Raman studies optical photon scattering by electrons  1928 Paul Dirac states his relativistic electron quantum wave equation  1928 Charles G. Darwin and Walter Gordon solve the Dirac equation for a Coulomb potential  1928 Friedrich Hund and Robert S. Mulliken introduce the concept of molecular orbital  1929 Oskar Klein discovers the Klein paradox  1929 Oskar Klein and Yoshio Nishina derive the Klein–Nishina cross section for high energy photon scattering by electrons  1929 Nevill Mott derives the Mott cross section for the Coulomb scattering of relativistic electrons  1930 Paul Dirac introduces electron hole theory  1930 Erwin Schrödinger predicts the zitterbewegung motion  1930 Fritz London explains van der Waals forces as due to the interacting fluctuating dipole moments between molecules  1931 John Lennard-Jones proposes the Lennard-Jones interatomic potential  1931 Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot observe but misinterpret neutron scattering in paraffin  1931 Wolfgang Pauli puts forth the neutrino hypothesis to explain the apparent violation of energy conservation in beta decay 725  1931 Linus Pauling discovers resonance bonding and uses it to explain the high stability of symmetric planar molecules  1931 Paul Dirac shows that charge quantization can be explained if magnetic monopoles exist  1931 Harold Urey discovers deuterium using evaporation concentration techniques and spectroscopy  1932 John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton split lithium and boron nuclei using proton bombardment  1932 James Chadwick discovers the neutron  1932 Werner Heisenberg presents the proton–neutron model of the nucleus and uses it to explain isotopes  1932 Carl D. Anderson discovers the positron  1933 Ernst Stueckelberg (1932), Lev Landau (1932), and Clarence Zener discover the Landau–Zener transition  1933 Max Delbrück suggests that quantum effects will cause photons to be scattered by an external electric field  1934 Irène Joliot-Curie and Frédéric Joliot bombard aluminium atoms with alpha particles to create artificially radioactive phosphorus-30  1934 Leó Szilárd realizes that nuclear chain reactions may be possible  1934 Enrico Fermi publishes a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced.  1934 Lev Landau tells Edward Teller that non-linear molecules may have vibrational modes which remove the degeneracy of an orbitally degenerate state (Jahn–Teller effect)  1934 Enrico Fermi suggests bombarding uranium atoms with neutrons to make a 93 proton element  1934 Pavel Cherenkov reports that light is emitted by relativistic particles traveling in a nonscintillating liquid  1935 Hideki Yukawa presents a theory of the nuclear force and predicts the scalar meson  1935 Albert Einstein, Boris Podolsky, and Nathan Rosen put forth the EPR paradox 726  1935 Henry Eyring develops the transition state theory  1935 Niels Bohr presents his analysis of the EPR paradox  1936 Alexandru Proca formulates the relativistic quantum field equations for a massive vector meson of spin-1 as a basis for nuclear forces  1936 Eugene Wigner develops the theory of neutron absorption by atomic nuclei  1936 Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller present their systematic study of the symmetry types for which the Jahn–Teller effect is expected  1937 Carl Anderson proves experimentally the existence of the pion predicted by Yukawa's theory.  1937 Hans Hellmann finds the Hellmann–Feynman theorem  1937 Seth Neddermeyer, Carl Anderson, J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson discover muons using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays  1939 Richard Feynman finds the Hellmann–Feynman theorem  1939 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombard uranium salts with thermal neutrons and discover barium among the reaction products  1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch determine that nuclear fission is taking place in the Hahn–Strassmann experiments  1942 Enrico Fermi makes the first controlled nuclear chain reaction  1942 Ernst Stueckelberg introduces the propagator to positron theory and interprets positrons as negative energy electrons moving backwards through spacetime  1943 Sin-Itiro Tomonaga publishes his paper on the basic physical principles of quantum electrodynamics  1947 Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford measure the Lamb–Retherford shift  1947 Cecil Powell, César Lattes, and Giuseppe Occhialini discover the pi meson by studying cosmic ray tracks  1947 Richard Feynman presents his propagator approach to quantum electrodynamics  1948 Hendrik Casimir predicts a rudimentary attractive Casimir force on a parallel plate capacitor  1951 Martin Deutsch discovers positronium 727  1952 David Bohm propose his interpretation of quantum mechanics  1953 Robert Wilson observes Delbruck scattering of 1.33 MeV gamma-rays by the electric fields of lead nuclei  1953 Charles H. Townes, collaborating with J. P. Gordon, and H. J. Zeiger, builds the first ammonia maser  1954 Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills investigate a theory of hadronic isospin by demanding local gauge invariance under isotopic spin space rotations, the first nonAbelian gauge theory  1955 Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis discover the antiproton  1956 Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan detect antineutrino  1956 Chen Ning Yang and Tsung Lee propose parity violation by the weak nuclear force  1956 Chien Shiung Wu discovers parity violation by the weak force in decaying cobalt  1957 Gerhart Luders proves the CPT theorem  1957 Richard Feynman, Murray Gell-Mann, Robert Marshak, and E.C.G. Sudarshan propose a vector/axial vector (VA) Lagrangian for weak interactions.  1958 Marcus Sparnaay experimentally confirms the Casimir effect  1959 Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm predict the Aharonov–Bohm effect  1960 R.G. Chambers experimentally confirms the Aharonov–Bohm effect  1961 Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman discover the Eightfold Way patterns, the SU(3) group  1961 Jeffrey Goldstone considers the breaking of global phase symmetry  1962 Leon Lederman shows that the electron neutrino is distinct from the muon neutrino  1963 Eugene Wigner discovers the fundamental roles played by quantum symmetries in atoms and molecules The formation and successes of the Standard Model  1964 Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig propose the quark/aces model 728  1964 Peter Higgs considers the breaking of local phase symmetry  1964 John Stewart Bell shows that all local hidden variable theories must satisfy Bell's inequality  1964 Val Fitch and James Cronin observe CP violation by the weak force in the decay of K mesons  1967 Steven Weinberg puts forth his electroweak model of leptons  1969 John Clauser, Michael Horne, Abner Shimony and Richard Holt propose a polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality  1970 Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos, and Luciano Maiani propose the charm quark  1971 Gerard 't Hooft shows that the Glashow-Salam-Weinberg electroweak model can be renormalized  1972 Stuart Freedman and John Clauser perform the first polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality  1973 David Politzer and Frank Anthony Wilczek propose the asymptotic freedom of quarks  1974 Burton Richter and Samuel Ting discover the J/ψ particle implying the existence of the charm quark  1974 Robert J. Buenker and Sigrid D. Peyerimhoff introduce the multireference configuration interaction method.  1975 Martin Perl discovers the tau lepton  1977 Steve Herb finds the upsilon resonance implying the existence of the beauty/bottom quark  1982 Alain Aspect, J. Dalibard, and G. Roger perform a polarization correlation test of Bell's inequality that rules out conspiratorial polarizer communication  1983 Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer, and the CERN UA-1 collaboration find the W and Z intermediate vector bosons  1989 The Z intermediate vector boson resonance width indicates three quark-lepton generations 729  1994 The CERN LEAR Crystal Barrel Experiment justifies the existence of glueballs (exotic meson).  1995 The D0 and CDF experiments at the Fermilab Tevatron discover the top quark.  1998 Super-Kamiokande (Japan) observes evidence for neutrino oscillations, implying that at least one neutrino has mass.  1999 Ahmed Zewail wins the Nobel prize in chemistry for his work on femtochemistry for atoms and molecules.  2001 The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory (Canada) confirms the existence of neutrino oscillations.  2005 At the RHIC accelerator of Brookhaven National Laboratory they have created a quark–gluon liquid of very low viscosity, perhaps the quark–gluon plasma  2010 The Large Hadron Collider at CERN begins operation with the primary goal of searching for the Higgs boson.  2012 CERN announces the discovery of a new particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson of the Standard Model after experiments at the Large Hadron Collider. Timeline of particle physics 19th century  1815 – William Prout hypothesizes that all matter is built up from hydrogen, adumbrating the proton;  1838 – Richard Laming hypothesized a subatomic particle carrying electric charge;  1858 – Julius Plücker produced cathode rays;  1874 – George Johnstone Stoney hypothesizes a minimum unit of electric charge. In 1891, he coins the word electron for it;  1886 – Eugene Goldstein produced anode rays;  1897 – J. J. Thomson discovered the electron;  1899 – Ernest Rutherford discovered the alpha and beta particles emitted by uranium;  1900 – Paul Villard discovered the gamma ray in uranium decay. 730 20th century  1905 – Albert Einstein hypothesized the photon to explain the photoelectric effect.  1911 – Hans Geiger, Ernest Marsden and Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus of an atom;  1919 – Ernest Rutherford discovered the proton;  1928 – Paul Dirac postulated the existence of positrons as a consequence of the Dirac equation;  1930 – Wolfgang Pauli postulated the neutrino to explain the energy spectrum of beta decays;  1932 – James Chadwick discovered the neutron;  1932 – Carl D. Anderson discovered the positron;  1935 – Hideki Yukawa predicted the existence of mesons as the carrier particles of the strong nuclear force;  1936 – Carl D. Anderson discovered the muon while he studied cosmic radiation;  1947 – George Dixon Rochester and Clifford Charles Butler discovered the kaon, the first strange particle;  1947 – Cecil Powell, César Lattes and Giuseppe Occhialini discovered the pion;  1955 – Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis discovered the antiproton;  1956 – Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines discovered the (electron) neutrino;  1957 – Bruno Pontecorvo postulated the flavor oscillation;  1962 – Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger discovered the muon neutrino;  1967 – Bruno Pontecorvo postulated neutrino oscillation;  1974 – Burton Richter and Samuel Ting discovered the J/ψ particle composed of charm quarks;  1977 – Upsilon particle discovered at Fermilab, demonstrating the existence of the bottom quark; 731  1977 – Martin Lewis Perl discovered the tau lepton after a series of experiments;  1979 – Gluon observed indirectly in three-jet events at DESY;  1983 – Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer discovered the W and Z bosons;  1995 – Top quark discovered at Fermilab;  2000 – Tau neutrino proved distinct from other neutrinos at Fermilab. 21st century  2012 – Higgs boson-like particle discovered at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Timeline of quantum computing 1960s  1960 o Stephen Wiesner invents conjugate coding. 1970s  1970 o  James Park articulates the no-cloning theorem 1973 o Alexander Holevo publishes a paper showing that n qubits can carry more than n classical bits of information, but at most n classical bits are accessible (a result known as "Holevo's theorem" or "Holevo's bound"). o  Charles H. Bennett shows that computation can be done reversibly. 1975 o R. P. Poplavskii publishes "Thermodynamical models of information processing" (in Russian) which showed the computational infeasibility of simulating quantum systems on classical computers, due to the superposition principle. 732  1976 o Polish mathematical physicist Roman Stanisław Ingarden publishes a seminal paper entitled "Quantum Information Theory" in Reports on Mathematical Physics, vol. 10, 43–72, 1976. (The paper was submitted in 1975.) It is one of the first attempts at creating a quantum information theory, showing that Shannon information theory cannot directly be generalized to the quantum case, but rather that it is possible to construct a quantum information theory, which is a generalization of Shannon's theory, within the formalism of a generalized quantum mechanics of open systems and a generalized concept of observables (the so-called semi-observables). 1980s  1980 o Paul Benioff describes the first quantum mechanical model of a computer. In this work, Benioff showed that a computer could operate under the laws of quantum mechanics by describing a Schrödinger equation description of Turing machines, laying a foundation for further work in quantum computing. The paper was submitted in June 1979 and published in April 1980. o Yuri Manin briefly motivates the idea of quantum computing o Tommaso Toffoli introduces the reversible Toffoli gate, which, together with the NOT and XOR gates provides a universal set for reversible classical computation.  1981 o At the First Conference on the Physics of Computation, held at MIT in May, Paul Benioff and Richard Feynman give talks on quantum computing. Benioff's built on his earlier 1980 work showing that a computer can operate under the laws of quantum mechanics. The talk was titled “Quantum mechanical Hamiltonian models of discrete processes that erase their own histories: application to Turing machines”. In Feynman's talk, he observed that it appeared to be impossible to 733 efficiently simulate an evolution of a quantum system on a classical computer, and he proposed a basic model for a quantum computer.  1982 o Paul Benioff further develops his original model of a quantum mechanical Turing machine. o William Wootters and Wojciech Zurek, and independently Dennis Dieks rediscover the no-cloning theorem.  1984 o Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard employ Wiesner's conjugate coding for distribution of cryptographic keys.  1985 o David Deutsch, at the University of Oxford, describes the first universal quantum computer. Just as a Universal Turing machine can simulate any other Turing machine efficiently (Church-Turing thesis), so the universal quantum computer is able to simulate any other quantum computer with at most a polynomial slowdown.  1988 o Yoshihisa Yamamoto (scientist) and K. Igeta propose the first physical realization of a quantum computer, including Feynman's CNOT gate. Their approach uses atoms and photons and is the progenitor of modern quantum computing and networking protocols using photons to transmit qubits and atoms to perform twoqubit operations. o  Gerard J. Milburn proposes a quantum-optical realization of a Fredkin gate. 1989 o Bikas K. Chakrabarti & collaborators from Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Kolkata, propose the idea that quantum fluctuations could help explore rough energy landscapes by escaping from local minima of glassy systems having tall but thin barriers by tunneling (instead of climbing over using thermal excitations), suggesting the effectiveness of quantum annealing over classical simulated annealing. 734 1990s  1991 o Artur Ekert at the University of Oxford, expands on the original proposal by David Deutsch, for entanglement-based secure communication.  1992 o David Deutsch and Richard Jozsa propose a computational problem that can be solved efficiently with the determinist Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm on a quantum computer, but for which no deterministic classical algorithm is possible. This was perhaps the earliest result in the computational complexity of quantum computers, proving that they were capable of performing some well-defined computational task more efficiently than any classical computer.  1993 o Dan Simon, at Université de Montréal, invents an oracle problem for which a quantum computer would be exponentially faster than a conventional computer. This algorithm introduces the main ideas which were then developed in Peter Shor's factorization algorithm.  1994 o Peter Shor, at AT&T's Bell Labs in New Jersey, discovers an important algorithm. It allows a quantum computer to factor large integers quickly. It solves both the factoring problem and the discrete log problem. Shor's algorithm can theoretically break many of the cryptosystems in use today. Its invention sparked a tremendous interest in quantum computers. o First United States Government workshop on quantum computing is organized by NIST in Gaithersburg, Maryland, in autumn. o Isaac Chuang and Yoshihisa Yamamoto (scientist) propose a quantum-optical realization of a quantum computer to implement Deutsch's algorithm. Their work introduces dual-rail encoding for photonic qubits. o In December, Ignacio Cirac, at University of Castilla-La Mancha at Ciudad Real, and Peter Zoller at the University of Innsbruck propose an experimental realization of the controlled-NOT gate with cold trapped ions. 735  1995 o The first United States Department of Defense workshop on quantum computing and quantum cryptography is organized by United States Army physicists Charles M. Bowden, Jonathan P. Dowling, and Henry O. Everitt; it takes place in February at the University of Arizona in Tucson. o Peter Shor proposes the first schemes for quantum error correction. o Christopher Monroe and David Wineland at NIST (Boulder, Colorado) experimentally realize the first quantum logic gate – the controlled-NOT gate – with trapped ions, following the Cirac-Zoller proposal.  1996 o Lov Grover, at Bell Labs, invents the quantum database search algorithm. The quadratic speedup is not as dramatic as the speedup for factoring, discrete logs, or physics simulations. However, the algorithm can be applied to a much wider variety of problems. Any problem that has to be solved by random, bruteforce search, can take advantage of this quadratic speedup (in the number of search queries). o The United States Government, particularly in a joint partnership of the Army Research Office (now part of the Army Research Laboratory) and the National Security Agency, issues the first public call for research proposals in quantum information processing. o Andrew Steane designs Steane codes for error correction. o David P. DiVincenzo, from IBM, proposes a list of minimal requirements for creating a quantum computer.  1997 o David Cory, Amr Fahmy and Timothy Havel, and at the same time Neil Gershenfeld and Isaac L. Chuang at MIT publish the first papers realizing gates for quantum computers based on bulk nuclear spin resonance, or thermal ensembles. The technology is based on a nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) machine, which is similar to the medical magnetic resonance imaging machine. 736 o Alexei Kitaev describes the principles of topological quantum computation as a method for combating decoherence. o Daniel Loss and David P. DiVincenzo propose the Loss-DiVincenzo quantum computer, using as qubits the intrinsic spin-1/2 degree of freedom of individual electrons confined to quantum dots.  1998 o First experimental demonstration of a quantum algorithm. A working 2qubit NMR quantum computer is used to solve Deutsch's problem by Jonathan A. Jones and Michele Mosca at Oxford University and shortly after by Isaac L. Chuang at IBM's Almaden Research Center and Mark Kubinec and the University of California, Berkeley together with coworkers at Stanford University and MIT. o First working 3-qubit NMR computer. o Bruce Kane proposes a silicon based nuclear spin quantum computer, using nuclear spins of individual phosphorus atoms in silicon as the qubits and donor electrons to mediate the coupling between qubits. o First execution of Grover's algorithm on an NMR computer. o Hidetoshi Nishimori & colleagues from Tokyo Institute of Technology showed that quantum annealing algorithm can perform better than classical simulated annealing. o Daniel Gottesman and Emanuel Knill independently prove that a certain subclass of quantum computations can be efficiently emulated with classical resources (Gottesman–Knill theorem).  1999 o Samuel L. Braunstein and collaborators show that none of the bulk NMR experiments performed to date contained any entanglement, the quantum states being too strongly mixed. This is seen as evidence that NMR computers would likely not yield a benefit over classical computers. It remains an open question, however, whether entanglement is necessary for quantum computational speedup. 737 o Gabriel Aeppli, Thomas Felix Rosenbaum and colleagues demonstrate experimentally the basic concepts of quantum annealing in a condensed matter system. o Yasunobu Nakamura and Jaw-Shen Tsai demonstrate that a superconducting circuit can be used as a qubit. This leads to a global effort to develop quantum computers using superconducting circuits, culminating in Google's demonstration of quantum supremacy using this technology in 2019. 2000s  2000 o Arun K. Pati and Samuel L. Braunstein proved the quantum no-deleting theorem. This is dual to the no-cloning theorem which shows that one cannot delete a copy of an unknown qubit. Together with the stronger no-cloning theorem, the nodeleting theorem has important implication, i.e., quantum information can neither be created nor be destroyed. o First working 5-qubit NMR computer demonstrated at the Technical University of Munich. o First execution of order finding (part of Shor's algorithm) at IBM's Almaden Research Center and Stanford University. o First working 7-qubit NMR computer demonstrated at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. o The standard textbook, Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, by Michael Nielsen and Isaac Chuang is published.  2001 o First execution of Shor's algorithm at IBM's Almaden Research Center and Stanford University. The number 15 was factored using 1018 identical molecules, each containing seven active nuclear spins. o Noah Linden and Sandu Popescu proved that the presence of entanglement is a necessary condition for a large class of quantum protocols. This, coupled with 738 Braunstein's result (see 1999 above), called the validity of NMR quantum computation into question. o Emanuel Knill, Raymond Laflamme, and Gerard Milburn show that optical quantum computing is possible with single photon sources, linear optical elements, and single photon detectors, launching the field of linear optical quantum computing. o Robert Raussendorf and Hans Jürgen Briegel propose measurement-based quantum computation.  2002 o The Quantum Information Science and Technology Roadmapping Project, involving some of the main participants in the field, laid out the Quantum computation roadmap. o The Institute for Quantum Computing was established at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario by Mike Lazaridis, Raymond Laflamme and Michele Mosca.  2003 o Implementation of the Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm on an ion-trap quantum computer at the University of Innsbruck o Todd D. Pittman and collaborators at Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory and independently Jeremy L. O'Brien and collaborators at the University of Queensland, demonstrate quantum controlled-not gates using only linear optical elements. o First implementation of a CNOT quantum gate according to the Cirac–Zoller proposal by a group at the University of Innsbruck led by Rainer Blatt. o DARPA Quantum Network becomes fully operational on October 23, 2003. o The Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information (IQOQI) was established in Innsbruck and Vienna, Austria, by the founding directors Rainer Blatt, Hans Jürgen Briegel, Rudolf Grimm, Anton Zeilinger and Peter Zoller.  2004 739 o First working pure state NMR quantum computer (based on parahydrogen) demonstrated at Oxford University and University of York. o Physicists at the University of Innsbruck show deterministic quantum-state teleportation between a pair of trapped calcium ions. o First five-photon entanglement demonstrated by Jian-Wei Pan's group at the University of Science and Technology of China, the minimal number of qubits required for universal quantum error correction. 2005  University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign scientists demonstrate quantum entanglement of multiple characteristics, potentially allowing multiple qubits per particle.  Two teams of physicists measured the capacitance of a Josephson junction for the first time. The methods could be used to measure the state of quantum bits in a quantum computer without disturbing the state.  In December, the first quantum byte, or qubyte, is announced to have been created by scientists at the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information and the University of Innsbruck in Austria.  Harvard University and Georgia Institute of Technology researchers succeeded in transferring quantum information between "quantum memories" – from atoms to photons and back again. 2006  Materials Science Department of Oxford University, cage a qubit in a "buckyball" (a molecule of buckminsterfullerene), and demonstrated quantum "bang-bang" error correction.  Researchers from the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign use the Zeno Effect, repeatedly measuring the properties of a photon to gradually change it without actually allowing the photon to reach the program, to search a database without actually "running" the quantum computer. 740  Vlatko Vedral of the University of Leeds and colleagues at the universities of Porto and Vienna found that the photons in ordinary laser light can be quantum mechanically entangled with the vibrations of a macroscopic mirror.  Samuel L. Braunstein at the University of York along with the University of Tokyo and the Japan Science and Technology Agency gave the first experimental demonstration of quantum telecloning.  Professors at the University of Sheffield develop a means to efficiently produce and manipulate individual photons at high efficiency at room temperature.  New error checking method theorized for Josephson junction computers.  First 12 qubit quantum computer benchmarked by researchers at the Institute for Quantum Computing and the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, as well as MIT, Cambridge.  Two dimensional ion trap developed for quantum computing.  Seven atoms placed in stable line, a step on the way to constructing a quantum gate, at the University of Bonn.  A team at Delft University of Technology in the Netherlands created a device that can manipulate the "up" or "down" spin-states of electrons on quantum dots.  University of Arkansas develops quantum dot molecules.  Spinning new theory on particle spin brings science closer to quantum computing.  University of Copenhagen develops quantum teleportation between photons and atoms.  University of Camerino scientists develop theory of macroscopic object entanglement, which has implications for the development of quantum repeaters.  Tai-Chang Chiang, at Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, finds that quantum coherence can be maintained in mixed-material systems.  Cristophe Boehme, University of Utah, demonstrates the feasibility of reading spin-data on a silicon-phosphorus quantum computer. 2007  Subwavelength waveguide developed for light. 741  Single photon emitter for optical fibers developed.  Six-photon one-way quantum computer is created in lab.  New material proposed for quantum computing.  Single atom single photon server devised.  First use of Deutsch's Algorithm in a cluster state quantum computer.  University of Cambridge develops electron quantum pump.  Superior method of qubit coupling developed.  Successful demonstration of controllably coupled qubits.  Breakthrough in applying spin-based electronics to silicon.  Scientists demonstrate quantum state exchange between light and matter.  Diamond quantum register developed.  Controlled-NOT quantum gates on a pair of superconducting quantum bits realized.  Scientists contain, study hundreds of individual atoms in 3D array.  Nitrogen in buckyball molecule used in quantum computing.  Large number of electrons quantum coupled.  Spin-orbit interaction of electrons measured.  Atoms quantum manipulated in laser light.  Light pulses used to control electron spins.  Quantum effects demonstrated across tens of nanometers.  Light pulses used to accelerate quantum computing development.  Quantum RAM blueprint unveiled.  Model of quantum transistor developed.  Long distance entanglement demonstrated.  Photonic quantum computing used to factor number by two independent labs.  Quantum bus developed by two independent labs.  Superconducting quantum cable developed.  Transmission of qubits demonstrated. 742 As computers run, they get hot. Computers have fans to keep them cool.  Superior qubit material devised.  Single electron qubit memory.  Bose-Einstein condensate quantum memory developed.  D-Wave Systems demonstrates use of a 28-qubit quantum annealing computer.  New cryonic method reduces decoherence and increases interaction distance, and thus quantum computing speed.  Photonic quantum computer demonstrated.  Graphene quantum dot spin qubits proposed. 2008  Graphene quantum dot qubits  Quantum bit stored  3D qubit-qutrit entanglement demonstrated  Analog quantum computing devised  Control of quantum tunneling  Entangled memory developed  Superior NOT gate developed  Qutrits developed  Quantum logic gate in optical fiber  Superior quantum Hall Effect discovered  Enduring spin states in quantum dots  Molecular magnets proposed for quantum RAM  Quasiparticles offer hope of stable quantum computer  Image storage may have better storage of qubits  Quantum entangled images  Quantum state intentionally altered in molecule  Electron position controlled in silicon circuit One of the first computers was an abacus. Invented in Babylon in 500 B.C., the abacus was made of string and beads. Its only purpose was to count and keep track of money and other things. 743  Superconducting electronic circuit pumps microwave photons  Amplitude spectroscopy developed  Superior quantum computer test developed  Optical frequency comb devised  Quantum Darwinism supported  Hybrid qubit memory developed  Qubit stored for over 1 second in atomic nucleus  Faster electron spin qubit switching and reading developed  Possible non-entanglement quantum computing  D-Wave Systems claims to have produced a 128 qubit computer chip, though this claim has yet to be verified. 2009  Carbon 12 purified for longer coherence times  Lifetime of qubits extended to hundreds of milliseconds  Quantum control of photons Doug Engelbart invented the first  Quantum entanglement demonstrated over 240 micrometres computer mouse in around 1964  Qubit lifetime extended by factor of 1000  First electronic quantum processor created  Six-photon graph state entanglement used to simulate the fractional statistics of anyons which was made of wood. living in artificial spin-lattice models  Single molecule optical transistor  NIST reads, writes individual qubits  NIST demonstrates multiple computing operations on qubits  First large-scale topological cluster state quantum architecture developed for atom-optics  A combination of all of the fundamental elements required to perform scalable quantum computing through the use of qubits stored in the internal states of trapped atomic ions shown 744  Researchers at University of Bristol demonstrate Shor's algorithm on a silicon photonic chip  Quantum Computing with an Electron Spin Ensemble  Scalable flux qubit demonstrated  Photon machine gun developed for quantum computing  Quantum algorithm developed for differential equation systems  First universal programmable quantum computer unveiled  Scientists electrically control quantum states of electrons  Google collaborates with D-Wave Systems on image search technology using quantum computing  A method for synchronizing the properties of multiple coupled CJJ rf-SQUID flux qubits with a small spread of device parameters due to fabrication variations was demonstrated  2010s 2010 Realization of Universal Ion Trap Quantum Computation with Decoherence Free Qubits The first 1GB hard disk drive was announced in 1980 which weighed about 550 pounds, and had a price tag of $40, 000.  Ion trapped in optical trap  Optical quantum computer with three qubits calculated the energy spectrum of molecular hydrogen to high precision  First germanium laser brings us closer to optical computers  Single electron qubit developed  Quantum state in macroscopic object  New quantum computer cooling method developed  Racetrack ion trap developed  Evidence for a Moore-Read state in the u=5/2 quantum Hall plateau, which would be suitable for topological quantum computation  Quantum interface between a single photon and a single atom demonstrated 745  LED quantum entanglement demonstrated  Multiplexed design speeds up transmission of quantum information through a quantum communications channel  Two photon optical chip  Microfabricated planar ion traps  Qubits manipulated electrically, not magnetically The first microprocessor created by Intel was the 4004. It was designed for a calculator. 2011  Entanglement in a solid-state spin ensemble  NOON photons in superconducting quantum integrated circuit  Quantum antenna  Multimode quantum interference  Magnetic Resonance applied to quantum computing  Quantum pen  Atomic "Racing Dual"  14 qubit register  D-Wave claims to have developed quantum annealing and introduces their product called D-Wave One. The company claims this is the first commercially available quantum computer  Repetitive error correction demonstrated in a quantum processor  Diamond quantum computer memory demonstrated  Qmodes developed  Decoherence suppressed  Simplification of controlled operations  Ions entangled using microwaves  Practical error rates achieved  Quantum computer employing Von Neumann architecture  Quantum spin Hall topological insulator The steam engine revolutionized construction transportation. 746  Two Diamonds Linked by Quantum Entanglement could help develop photonic processors The password for the computer controls of nuclear tipped missiles of the U.S was 00000000 for eight years. 2012  D-Wave claims a quantum computation using 84 qubits.  Physicists create a working transistor from a single atom  A method for manipulating the charge of nitrogen vacancy-centres in diamond  Reported creation of a 300 qubit/particle quantum simulator.  Demonstration of topologically protected qubits with an eight-photon entanglement, a robust approach to practical quantum computing  1QB Information Technologies (1QBit) founded. World's first dedicated quantum computing software company.  First design of a quantum repeater system without a need for quantum memories  Decoherence suppressed for 2 seconds at room temperature by manipulating Carbon-13 atoms with lasers.  Theory of Bell-based randomness expansion with reduced assumption of measurement independence.  New low overhead method for fault-tolerant quantum logic developed, called lattice surgery World War II encouraged women to enter the construction industry. 2013  Coherence time of 39 minutes at room temperature (and 3 hours at cryogenic temperatures) demonstrated for an ensemble of impurity-spin qubits in isotopically purified silicon.  Extension of time for qubit maintained in superimposed state for ten times longer than what has ever been achieved before  First resource analysis of a large-scale quantum algorithm using explicit fault-tolerant, error-correction protocols was developed for factoring 747 2014  Documents leaked by Edward Snowden confirm the Penetrating Hard Targets project, by which the National Security Agency seeks to develop a quantum computing capability for cryptography purposes.  Researchers in Japan and Austria publish the first large-scale quantum computing architecture for a diamond based system  Scientists at the University of Innsbruck do quantum computations on a topologically encoded qubit which is encoded in entangled states distributed over seven trapped-ion qubits  Scientists transfer data by quantum teleportation over a distance of 10 feet (3.048 meters) with zero percent error rate, a vital step towards a quantum Internet.  Nike Dattani & Nathan Bryans break the record for largest number factored on a quantum device: 56153 (previous record was 143). 2015  Optically addressable nuclear spins in a solid with a six-hour coherence time.  Quantum information encoded by simple electrical pulses.  Quantum error detection code using a square lattice of four superconducting qubits.  D-Wave Systems Inc. announced on June 22 that it had broken the 1000 qubit barrier.  Two qubit silicon logic gate successfully developed.  Quantum computer, along with quantum superposition and entanglement, emulated by a classical analog computer, with the result that the fully classical system behaves like a true quantum computer. 2016  Physicists led by Rainer Blatt joined forces with scientists at MIT, led by Isaac Chuang, to efficiently implement Shor's algorithm in an ion-trap based quantum computer. 748  IBM releases the Quantum Experience, an online interface to their superconducting systems. The system is immediately used to publish new protocols in quantum information processing  Google, using an array of 9 superconducting qubits developed by the Martinis group and UCSB, simulates a hydrogen molecule.  Scientists in Japan and Australia invent the quantum version of a Sneakernet communications system 2017  D-Wave Systems Inc. announces general commercial availability of the D-Wave 2000Q quantum annealer, which it claims has 2000 qubits.  Blueprint for a microwave trapped ion quantum computer published.  IBM unveils 17-qubit quantum computer—and a better way of benchmarking it.  Scientists build a microchip that generates two entangled qudits each with 10 states, for 100 dimensions total.  Microsoft reveals Q Sharp, a quantum programming language integrated with Visual Studio. Programs can be executed locally on a 32-qubit simulator, or a 40-qubit simulator on Azure.  Intel confirms development of a 17-qubit superconducting test chip.  IBM reveals a working 50-qubit quantum computer that can maintain its quantum state for 90 microseconds. 2018  MIT scientists report the discovery of a new triple-photon form of light.  Oxford researchers successfully used a trapped-ion technique where they place two charged atoms in a state of quantum entanglement, to speed up logic gates by a factor of 20 to 60 times as compared with the previous best gates, translated to 1.6 microseconds long, with 99.8% precision.  QuTech successfully tests silicon-based 2-spin-qubit processor. 749  Google announces the creation of a 72-qubit quantum chip, called "Bristlecone", achieving a new record.  Intel begins testing silicon-based spin-qubit processor, manufactured in the company's D1D Fab in Oregon.  Intel confirms development of a 49-qubit superconducting test chip, called "Tangle Lake".  Japanese researchers demonstrate universal holonomic quantum gates.  Integrated photonic platform for quantum information with continuous variables.  On December 17, 2018, the company IonQ introduced the first commercial trapped-ion quantum computer, with a program length of over 60 two-qubit gates, 11 fully connected qubits, 55 addressable pairs, one-qubit gate error <0.03% and two-qubit gate error <1.0%  On December 21, 2018, the National Quantum Initiative Act was signed into law by President Donald Trump, establishing the goals and priorities for a 10-year plan to accelerate the development of quantum information science and technology applications in the United States. 2019  IBM unveils its first commercial quantum computer, the IBM Q System One, designed by UK-based Map Project Office and Universal Design Studio and manufactured by Goppion.  Nike Dattani and co-workers de-code D-Wave's Pegasus architecture and make its description open to the public.  Austrian physicists demonstrate self-verifying, hybrid, variational quantum simulation of lattice models in condensed matter and high-energy physics using a feedback loop between a classical computer and a quantum co-processor.  A paper by Google's quantum computer research team was briefly available in late September 2019, claiming the project has reached quantum supremacy.  IBM reveals its biggest yet quantum computer, consisting of 53 qubits. The system goes online in October 2019. 750 2020  UNSW Sydney developes a way of producing 'hot qubits' – quantum devices that operate at 1.5 Kelvin.  Griffith university, UNSW and UTS in partnership with 7 USA universities develop Noise cancelling for quantum bits via machine learning, taking quantum noise in a quantum chip down to 0%.  UNSW performs electric nuclear resonance to control single atoms in electronic devices.  Bob Coecke (Oxford University) explains why NLP is quantum-native. A graphical representation of how the meanings of the words are combined to build the meaning of a sentence as a whole, was created.  Tokyo University and Australian scientists create and successfully test a solution to the quantum wiring problem, creating a 2d structure for qubits. Such structure can be built using existing integrated circuit technology and has a considerably lower cross-talk. In the 1980s, Apple introduced its first computer, Timeline of thermodynamics the Macintosh, and has dominated the computer industry ever since with laptops and tablets. Before 1800  1650 – Otto von Guericke builds the first vacuum pump  1660 – Robert Boyle experimentally discovers Boyle's Law, relating the pressure and volume of a gas (published 1662)  1665 – Robert Hooke stated: "Heat being nothing else but a very brisk and vehement agitation of the parts of a body."  1669 – J. J. Becher puts forward a theory of combustion involving combustible earth (Latin terra pinguis).  1676–1689 – Gottfried Leibniz develops the concept of vis viva, a limited version of the conservation of energy 751  1679 – Denis Papin designed a steam digester which inspired the development of the piston-and-cylinder steam engine.  1694–1734 – Georg Ernst Stahl names Becher's combustible earth as phlogiston and develops the theory  1698 – Thomas Savery patents an early steam engine  1702 – Guillaume Amontons introduces the concept of absolute zero, based on observations of gases  1738 – Daniel Bernoulli publishes Hydrodynamica, initiating the kinetic theory  1749 – Émilie du Châtelet, in her French translation and commentary on Newton's Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, derives the conservation of energy from the first principles of Newtonian mechanics.  1761 – Joseph Black discovers that ice absorbs heat without changing its temperature when melting  1772 – Black's student Daniel Rutherford discovers nitrogen, which he calls phlogisticated air, and together they explain the results in terms of the phlogiston theory  1776 – John Smeaton publishes a paper on experiments related to power, work, momentum, and kinetic energy, supporting the conservation of energy  1777 – Carl Wilhelm Scheele distinguishes heat transfer by thermal radiation from that by convection and conduction  1783 – Antoine Lavoisier discovers oxygen and develops an explanation for combustion; in his paper "Réflexions sur le phlogistique", he deprecates the phlogiston theory and proposes a caloric theory  1784 – Jan Ingenhousz describes Brownian motion of charcoal particles on water  1791 – Pierre Prévost shows that all bodies radiate heat, no matter how hot or cold they are  1798 – Count Rumford (Benjamin Thompson) performs measurements of the frictional heat generated in boring cannons and develops the idea that heat is a form 752 of kinetic energy; his measurements are inconsistent with caloric theory, but are also sufficiently imprecise as to leave room for doubt. 1800–1847  1802 – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac publishes Charles's law, discovered (but unpublished) by Jacques Charles around 1787; this shows the dependency between temperature and volume. Gay-Lussac also formulates the law relating temperature with pressure (the pressure law, or Gay-Lussac's law)  1804 – Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black-body radiation  1805 – William Hyde Wollaston defends the conservation of energy in On the Force of Percussion  1808 – John Dalton defends caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight  1810 – Sir John Leslie freezes water to ice artificially  1813 – Peter Ewart supports the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper On the measure of moving force; the paper strongly influences Dalton and his pupil, James Joule  1819 – Pierre Louis Dulong and Alexis Thérèse Petit give the Dulong-Petit law for the specific heat capacity of a crystal  1820 – John Herapath develops some ideas in the kinetic theory of gases but mistakenly associates temperature with molecular momentum rather than kinetic energy; his work receives little attention other than from Joule  1822 – Joseph Fourier formally introduces the use of dimensions for physical quantities in his Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur  1822 – Marc Seguin writes to John Herschel supporting the conservation of energy and kinetic theory  1824 – Sadi Carnot analyzes the efficiency of steam engines using caloric theory; he develops the notion of a reversible process and, in postulating that no such thing exists in 753 nature, lays the foundation for the second law of thermodynamics, and initiating the science of thermodynamics  1827 – Robert Brown discovers the Brownian motion of pollen and dye particles in water  1831 – Macedonio Melloni demonstrates that black-body radiation can be reflected, refracted, and polarised in the same way as light  1834 – Émile Clapeyron popularises Carnot's work through a graphical and analytic formulation. He also combined Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, and Gay-Lussac's Law to produce a Combined Gas Law.  PV T = kB 1841 – Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, writes a paper on the conservation of energy, but his lack of academic training leads to its rejection  1842 – Mayer makes a connection between work, heat, and the human metabolism based on his observations of blood made while a ship's surgeon; he calculates the mechanical equivalent of heat  1842 – William Robert Grove demonstrates the thermal dissociation of molecules into their constituent atoms, by showing that steam can be disassociated into oxygen and hydrogen, and the process reversed  1843 – John James Waterston fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored  1843 – James Joule experimentally finds the mechanical equivalent of heat  1845 – Henri Victor Regnault added Avogadro's Law to the Combined Gas Law to produce the Ideal Gas Law. PV = nRT  1846 – Karl-Hermann Knoblauch publishes De calore radiante disquisitiones experimentis quibusdam novis illustratae  1846 – Grove publishes an account of the general theory of the conservation of energy in On The Correlation of Physical Forces  1847 – Hermann von Helmholtz publishes a definitive statement of the conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics 1848–1899 754  1848 – William Thomson extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances  1849 – William John Macquorn Rankine calculates the correct relationship between saturated vapour pressure and temperature using his hypothesis of molecular vortices  1850 – Rankine uses his vortex theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, pressure, and density of gases, and expressions for the latent heat of evaporation of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent specific heat of saturated steam will be negative  1850 – Rudolf Clausius gives the first clear joint statement of the first and second law of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle  1851 – Thomson gives an alternative statement of the second law  1852 – Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule–Thomson effect or Joule–Kelvin effect  1854 – Helmholtz puts forward the idea of the heat death of the universe  1854 – Clausius establishes the importance of dQ/T (Clausius's theorem), but does not yet name the quantity  1854 – Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified as entropy  1856 – August Krönig publishes an account of the kinetic theory of gases, probably after reading Waterston's work  1857 – Clausius gives a modern and compelling account of the kinetic theory of gases in his On the nature of motion called heat  1859 – James Clerk Maxwell discovers the distribution law of molecular velocities  1859 – Gustav Kirchhoff shows that energy emission from a black body is a function of only temperature and frequency  1862 – "Disgregation", a precursor of entropy, was defined in 1862 by Clausius as the magnitude of the degree of separation of molecules of a body  1865 – Clausius introduces the modern macroscopic concept of entropy 755  1865 – Josef Loschmidt applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities.  1867 – Maxwell asks whether Maxwell's demon could reverse irreversible processes  1870 – Clausius proves the scalar virial theorem  1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann states the Boltzmann equation for the temporal development of distribution functions in phase space, and publishes his H-theorem  1873 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals formulates his equation of state  1874 – Thomson formally states the second law of thermodynamics  1876 – Josiah Willard Gibbs publishes the first of two papers (the second appears in 1878) which discuss phase equilibria, statistical ensembles, the free energy as the driving force behind chemical reactions, and chemical thermodynamics in general.  1876 – Loschmidt criticises Boltzmann's H theorem as being incompatible with microscopic reversibility (Loschmidt's paradox).  1877 – Boltzmann states the relationship between entropy and probability  1879 – Jožef Stefan observes that the total radiant flux from a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its temperature and states the Stefan–Boltzmann law  1884 – Boltzmann derives the Stefan–Boltzmann blackbody radiant flux law from thermodynamic considerations  1888 – Henri-Louis Le Chatelier states his principle that the response of a chemical system perturbed from equilibrium will be to counteract the perturbation  1889 – Walther Nernst relates the voltage of electrochemical cells to their chemical thermodynamics via the Nernst equation  1889 – Svante Arrhenius introduces the idea of activation energy for chemical reactions, giving the Arrhenius equation  1893 – Wilhelm Wien discovers the displacement law for a blackbody's maximum specific intensity 1900–1944 756  1900 – Max Planck suggests that light may be emitted in discrete frequencies, giving his law of black-body radiation  1905 – Albert Einstein argues that the reality of quanta would explain the photoelectric effect  1905 – Einstein mathematically analyzes Brownian motion as a result of random molecular motion  1906 – Nernst presents a formulation of the third law of thermodynamics  1907 – Einstein uses quantum theory to estimate the heat capacity of an Einstein solid  1909 – Constantin Carathéodory develops an axiomatic system of thermodynamics  1910 – Einstein and Marian Smoluchowski find the Einstein–Smoluchowski formula for the attenuation coefficient due to density fluctuations in a gas  1911 – Paul Ehrenfest and Tatjana Ehrenfest–Afanassjewa publish their classical review on the statistical mechanics of Boltzmann, Begriffliche Grundlagen der statistischen Auffassung in der Mechanik  1912 – Peter Debye gives an improved heat capacity estimate by allowing lowfrequency phonons  1916 – Sydney Chapman and David Enskog systematically develop the kinetic theory of gases.  1916 – Einstein considers the thermodynamics of atomic spectral lines and predicts stimulated emission  1919 – James Jeans discovers that the dynamical constants of motion determine the distribution function for a system of particles  1920 – Meghnad Saha states his ionization equation  1923 – Debye and Erich Hückel publish a statistical treatment of the dissociation of electrolytes  1924 – Satyendra Nath Bose introduces Bose–Einstein statistics, in a paper translated by Einstein  1926 – Enrico Fermi and Paul Dirac introduce Fermi–Dirac statistics for fermions 757 Disorders of Circulatory System: In 1673, English scientist Robert  High Blood Pressure (Hypertension)  Coronary Artery Disease  Angina (chest pain)  Heart Failure Hooke built the earliest Gregorian telescope, and observed the rotations of the planets Mars and Jupiter Cellular movements Amoeboid Ciliary Muscular Isothermal process Temperature constant Isobaric process Pressure constant Isochoric process Volume constant Adiabatic process No heat flow between the system and the surroundings Rudolf Clausius (1822−1888), born in Poland, is generally regarded as the discoverer of the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Based on the work of Carnot and erg Thomson, Clausius arrived at the important notion of electron volt entropy that led him to a fundamental version of the Second calorie Law of Thermodynamics that states that the entropy of an kilowatt hour isolated system can never decrease. Clausius also worked on the kinetic theory of gases and obtained the first reliable estimates of molecular size, speed, mean free path, etc 10−7 J 1.6 × 10−19 J 4.186 J 3.6 × 106 J Based on the principle Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection of electromagnetic waves Computers Digital logic Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation Production of ultra high magnetic fields Superconductivity Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into electrical energy Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic fields Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves Optical fibers Total internal reflection of light Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons Photocell Photoelectric effect Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) Detection of cosmic radio waves Bose-Einstein condensate Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and magnetic fields One of the things that always fascinated me about the Renaissance was that it was a time both of great scientific discovery and also of superstition and belief in magic. And so it was a period in which Galileo invented the telescope, but also a time when hundreds were burned at the stake because people thought they were witches. Marie Rutkoski  1927 – John von Neumann introduces the density matrix representation and establishes quantum statistical mechanics  1928 – John B. Johnson discovers Johnson noise in a resistor  1928 – Harry Nyquist derives the fluctuation-dissipation theorem, a relationship to explain Johnson noise in a resistor  1929 – Lars Onsager derives the Onsager reciprocal relations  1938 – Anatoly Vlasov proposes the Vlasov equation for a correct dynamical description of ensembles of particles with collective long range interaction.  1939 – Nikolay Krylov and Nikolay Bogolyubov give the first consistent microscopic derivation of the Fokker–Planck equation in the single scheme of classical and quantum mechanics.  1942 – Joseph L. Doob states his theorem on Gauss–Markov processes  1944 – Lars Onsager gives an analytic solution to the 2-dimensional Ising model, including its phase transition 1945–present  1945–1946 – Nikolay Bogoliubov develops a general method for a microscopic derivation of kinetic equations for classical statistical systems using BBGKY hierarchy  1947 – Nikolay Bogoliubov and Kirill Gurov extend this method for a microscopic derivation of kinetic equations for quantum statistical systems  1948 – Claude Elwood Shannon establishes information theory  1957 – Aleksandr Solomonovich Kompaneets derives his Compton scattering Fokker– Planck equation  1957 – Ryogo Kubo derives the first of the Green-Kubo relations for linear transport coefficients  1957 – Edwin T. Jaynes gives MaxEnt interpretation of thermodynamics from information theory. 758  1960–1965 – Dmitry Zubarev develops the method of non-equilibrium statistical operator, which becomes a classical tool in the statistical theory of non-equilibrium processes  1972 – Jacob Bekenstein suggests that black holes have an entropy proportional to their surface area  1974 – Stephen Hawking predicts that black holes will radiate particles with a black-body spectrum which can cause black hole evaporation  1977 – Ilya Prigogine wins the Nobel Prize for his work on dissipative structures in thermodynamic systems far from equilibrium. The importation and dissipation of energy could reverse the 2nd law of thermodynamics Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics Early developments  28th century BC — Ancient Egyptian texts describe electric fish. They refer to them as the "Thunderer of the Nile", and described them as the "protectors" of all other fish.  6th century BC — Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus observes that rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber, would cause an attraction between the two, which is now known to be caused by static electricity. He noted that rubbing the amber buttons could attract light objects such as hair and that if the amber was rubbed sufficiently a spark would jump.  424 BC Aristophanes "lens" is a glass globe filled with water.(Seneca says that it can be used to read letters no matter how small or dim)  4th century BC Mo Di first mentions the camera obscura, a pin-hole camera.  3rd century BC Euclid is the first to write about reflection and refraction and notes that light travels in straight lines.  3rd century BC — The Baghdad Battery is dated from this period. It resembles a galvanic cell and is believed by some to have been used for electroplating, although there is no 759 common consensus on the purpose of these devices nor whether they were, indeed, even electrical in nature.  1st century AD — Pliny in his Natural History records the story of a shepherd Magnes who discovered the magnetic properties of some iron stones, "it is said, made this discovery, when, upon taking his herds to pasture, he found that the nails of his shoes and the iron ferrel of his staff adhered to the ground."  130 AD. — Claudius Ptolemy (in his work Optics) wrote about the properties of light including: reflection, refraction, and color and tabulated angles of refraction for several media  8th century AD — Electric fish are reported by Arabic naturalists and physicians.  1021 — Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) writes the Book of Optics, studying vision.  1088 — Shen Kuo first recognizes magnetic declination.  1187 — Alexander Neckham is first in Europe to describe the magnetic compass and its use in navigation.  1269 — Pierre de Maricourt describes magnetic poles and remarks on the nonexistence of isolated magnetic poles  1305 — Dietrich von Freiberg uses crystalline spheres and flasks filled with water to study the reflection and refraction in raindrops that leads to primary and secondary rainbows  14th century AD — Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning, and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning (raad) applied to the electric ray.  1550 — Gerolamo Cardano writes about electricity in De Subtilitate distinguishing, perhaps for the first time, between electrical and magnetic forces. 17th century  1600 — William Gilbert publishes De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure ("On the Magnet and Magnetic bodies, and on that Great Magnet the 760 Earth"), Europe's then current standard on electricity and magnetism. He experimented with and noted the different character of electrical and magnetic forces. In addition to known ancient Greeks' observations of the electrical properties of rubbed amber, he experimented with a needle balanced on a pivot, and found that the needle was nondirectionally affected by many materials such as alum, arsenic, hard resin, jet, glass, gummastic, mica, rock-salt, sealing wax, slags, sulfur, and precious stones such as amethyst, beryl, diamond, opal, and sapphire. He noted that electrical charge could be stored by covering the body with a non-conducting substance such as silk. He described the method of artificially magnetizing iron. His terrella (little earth), a sphere cut from a lodestone on a metal lathe, modeled the earth as a lodestone (magnetic iron ore) and demonstrated that every lodestone has fixed poles, and how to find them. He considered that gravity was a magnetic force and noted that this mutual force increased with the size or amount of lodestone and attracted iron objects. He experimented with such physical models in an attempt to explain problems in navigation due varying properties of the magnetic compass with respect to their location on the earth, such as magnetic declination and magnetic inclination. His experiments explained the dipping of the needle by the magnetic attraction of the earth, and were used to predict where the vertical dip would be found. Such magnetic inclination was described as early as the 11th century by Shen Kuo in his Meng Xi Bi Tan and further investigated in 1581 by retired mariner and compass maker Robert Norman, as described in his pamphlet, The Newe Attractive. The gilbert, a unit of magnetomotive force or magnetic scalar potential, was named in his honor.  1604 — Johannes Kepler describes how the eye focuses light  1604 — Johannes Kepler specifies the laws of the rectilinear propagation of light  1608 — first telescopes appear in the Netherlands  1611 — Marko Dominis discusses the rainbow in De Radiis Visus et Lucis  1611 — Johannes Kepler discovers total internal reflection, a small-angle refraction law, and thin lens optics,  c1620 — the first compound microscopes appear in Europe.  1621 — Willebrord van Roijen Snell states his Snell's law of refraction 761  1630 — Cabaeus finds that there are two types of electric charges  1637 — René Descartes quantitatively derives the angles at which primary and secondary rainbows are seen with respect to the angle of the Sun's elevation  1646 — Sir Thomas Browne first uses the word electricity is in his work Pseudodoxia Epidemica.  1657 — Pierre de Fermat introduces the principle of least time into optics  1660 — Otto von Guericke invents an early electrostatic generator.  1663 — Otto von Guericke (brewer and engineer who applied the barometer to weather prediction and invented the air pump, with which he demonstrated the properties of atmospheric pressure associated with a vacuum) constructs a primitive electrostatic generating (or friction) machine via the triboelectric effect, utilizing a continuously rotating sulfur globe that could be rubbed by hand or a piece of cloth. Isaac Newton suggested the use of a glass globe instead of a sulfur one.  1665 — Francesco Maria Grimaldi highlights the phenomenon of diffraction  1673 — Ignace Pardies provides a wave explanation for refraction of light  1675 — Robert Boyle discovers that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum and do not depend upon the air as a medium. Adds resin to the known list of "electrics."  1675 — Isaac Newton delivers his theory of light  1676 — Olaus Roemer measures the speed of light by observing Jupiter's moons  1678 — Christiaan Huygens states his principle of wavefront sources and demonstrates the refraction and diffraction of light rays. 18th century  1704 — Isaac Newton publishes Opticks, a corpuscular theory of light and colour  1705 — Francis Hauksbee improves von Guericke's electrostatic generator by using a glass globe and generates the first sparks by approaching his finger to the rubbed globe.  1728 — James Bradley discovers the aberration of starlight and uses it to determine that the speed of light is about 283,000 km/s 762  1729 — Stephen Gray and the Reverend Granville Wheler experiment to discover that electrical "virtue", produced by rubbing a glass tube, could be transmitted over an extended distance (nearly 900 ft (about 270 m)) through thin iron wire using silk threads as insulators, to deflect leaves of brass. This has been described as the beginning of electrical communication. This was also the first distinction between the roles of conductors and insulators (names applied by John Desaguliers, mathematician and Royal Society member, who stated that Gray "has made greater variety of electrical experiments than all the philosophers of this and the last age.") Georges-Louis LeSage built a static electricity telegraph in 1774, based upon the same principles discovered by Gray.  1732 — C. F. du Fay Shows that all objects, except metals, animals, and liquids, can be electrified by rubbing them and that metals, animals and liquids could be electrified by means of an electrostatic generators  1734 — Charles François de Cisternay DuFay (inspired by Gray's work to perform electrical experiments) dispels the effluvia theory by his paper in Volume 38 of the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, describing his discovery of the distinction between two kinds of electricity: "resinous", produced by rubbing bodies such as amber, copal, or gum-lac with silk or paper, and "vitreous", by rubbing bodies as glass, rock crystal, or precious stones with hair or wool. He also posited the principle of mutual attraction for unlike forms and the repelling of like forms and that "from this principle one may with ease deduce the explanation of a great number of other phenomena." The terms resinous and vitreous were later replaced with the terms "positive" and "negative" by William Watson and Benjamin Franklin.  1737 — C. F. du Fay and Francis Hauksbee the younger independently discover two kinds of frictional electricity: one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin (later identified as positive and negative electrical charges).  1740 — Jean le Rond d'Alembert, in Mémoire sur la réfraction des corps solides, explains the process of refraction.  1745 — Pieter van Musschenbroek of Leiden (Leyden) independently discovers the Leyden (Leiden) jar, a primitive capacitor or "condenser" (term coined by Volta in 1782, derived from the Italian condensatore), with which the transient electrical energy 763 generated by current friction machines could now be stored. He and his student Andreas Cunaeus used a glass jar filled with water into which a brass rod had been placed. He charged the jar by touching a wire leading from the electrical machine with one hand while holding the outside of the jar with the other. The energy could be discharged by completing an external circuit between the brass rod and another conductor, originally his hand, placed in contact with the outside of the jar. He also found that if the jar were placed on a piece of metal on a table, a shock would be received by touching this piece of metal with one hand and touching the wire connected to the electrical machine with the other.  1745 — Ewald Georg von Kleist of independently invents the capacitor: a glass jar coated inside and out with metal. The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the lid and ended in a metal sphere. By having this thin layer of glass insulation (a dielectric) between two large, closely spaced plates, von Kleist found the energy density could be increased dramatically compared with the situation with no insulator. Daniel Gralath improved the design and was also the first to combine several jars to form a battery strong enough to kill birds and small animals upon discharge.  1746 — Leonhard Euler develops the wave theory of light refraction and dispersion  1747 — William Watson, while experimenting with a Leyden jar, observes that a discharge of static electricity causes electric current to flow and develops the concept of an electrical potential (voltage).  1752 — Benjamin Franklin establishes the link between lightning and electricity by the flying a kite into a thunderstorm and transferring some of the charge into a Leyden jar and showed that its properties were the same as charge produced by an electrical machine. He is credited with utilizing the concepts of positive and negative charge in the explanation of then known electrical phenomenon. He theorized that there was an electrical fluid (which he proposed could be the luminiferous ether, which was used by others before and after him, to explain the wave theory of light) that was part of all material and all intervening space. The charge of any object would be neutral if the concentration of this fluid were the same both inside and outside of the body, positive if the object contained an excess of this fluid, and negative if there were a deficit. In 1749 he had documented the similar properties of lightning and electricity, such as that both 764 an electric spark and a lightning flash produced light and sound, could kill animals, cause fires, melt metal, destroy or reverse the polarity of magnetism, and flowed through conductors and could be concentrated at sharp points. He was later able to apply the property of concentrating at sharp points by his invention of the lightning rod, for which he intentionally did not profit. He also investigated the Leyden jar, proving that the charge was stored on the glass and not in the water, as others had assumed.  1753 — C. M. (of Scotland, possibly Charles Morrison, of Greenock or Charles Marshall, of Aberdeen) proposes in the 17 February edition of Scots Magazine, an electrostatic telegraph system with 26 insulated wires, each corresponding to a letter of the alphabet and each connected to electrostatic machines. The receiving charged end was to electrostatically attract a disc of paper marked with the corresponding letter.  1767 — Joseph Priestley proposes an electrical inverse-square law  1774 — Georges-Louis LeSage builds an electrostatic telegraph system with 26 insulated wires conducting Leyden-jar charges to pith-ball electroscopes, each corresponding to a letter of the alphabet. Its range was only between rooms of his home.  1784 — Henry Cavendish defines the inductive capacity of dielectrics (insulators) and measures the specific inductive capacity of various substances by comparison with an air condenser.  1785 — Charles Coulomb introduces the inverse-square law of electrostatics  1786 — Luigi Galvani discovers "animal electricity" and postulates that animal bodies are storehouses of electricity. His invention of the voltaic cell leads to the invention the electric battery.  1791 — Luigi Galvani discovers galvanic electricity and bioelectricity through experiments following an observation that touching exposed muscles in frogs' legs with a scalpel which had been close to a static electrical machine caused them to jump. He called this "animal electricity". Years of experimentation in the 1780s eventually led him to the construction of an arc of two different metals (copper and zinc for example) by connecting the two metal pieces and then connecting their open ends across the nerve of a frog leg, producing the same muscular contractions (by completing a circuit) as originally accidentally observed. The use of different metals to produce an electrical spark is the 765 basis that led Alessandro Volta in 1799 to his invention of his voltaic pile, which eventually became the galvanic battery.  1799 — Alessandro Volta, following Galvani's discovery of galvanic electricity, creates a voltaic cell producing an electric current by the chemical action of several pairs of alternating copper (or silver) and zinc discs "piled" and separated by cloth or cardboard which had been soaked brine (salt water) or acid to increase conductivity. In 1800 he demonstrates the production of light from a glowing wire conducting electricity. This was followed in 1801 by his construction of the first electric battery, by utilizing multiple voltaic cells. Prior to his major discoveries, in a letter of praise to the Royal Society 1793, Volta reported Luigi Galvani's experiments of the 1780s as the "most beautiful and important discoveries", regarding them as the foundation of future discoveries. Volta's inventions led to revolutionary changes with this method of the production of inexpensive, controlled electric current vs. existing frictional machines and Leyden jars. The electric battery became standard equipment in every experimental laboratory and heralded an age of practical applications of electricity. The unit volt is named for his contributions.  1800 — William Herschel discovers infrared radiation from the Sun.  1800 — William Nicholson, Anthony Carlisle and Johann Ritter use electricity to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen, thereby discovering the process of electrolysis, which led to the discovery of many other elements.  1800 — Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, or "battery", specifically to disprove Galvani's animal electricity theory. 19th century 1801–1850  1801 — Johann Ritter discovers ultraviolet radiation from the Sun  1801 — Thomas Young demonstrates the wave nature of light and the principle of interference 766  1802 — Gian Domenico Romagnosi, Italian legal scholar, discovers that electricity and magnetism are related by noting that a nearby voltaic pile deflects a magnetic needle. He published his account in an Italian newspaper, but this was overlooked by the scientific community.  1803 — Thomas Young develops the Double-slit experiment and demonstrates the effect of interference.  1806 — Alessandro Volta employs a voltaic pile to decompose potash and soda, showing that they are the oxides of the previously unknown metals potassium and sodium. These experiments were the beginning of electrochemistry.  1808 — Étienne-Louis Malus discovers polarization by reflection  1809 — Étienne-Louis Malus publishes the law of Malus which predicts the light intensity transmitted by two polarizing sheets  1809 — Humphry Davy first publicly demonstrates the electric arc light.  1811 — François Jean Dominique Arago discovers that some quartz crystals continuously rotate the electric vector of light  1814 — Joseph von Fraunhofer discovered and studied the dark absorption lines in the spectrum of the sun now known as Fraunhofer lines  1816 — David Brewster discovers stress birefringence  1818 — Siméon Poisson predicts the Poisson-Arago bright spot at the center of the shadow of a circular opaque obstacle  1818 — François Jean Dominique Arago verifies the existence of the Poisson-Arago bright spot  1820 — Hans Christian Ørsted, Danish physicist and chemist, unites the separate sciences of electricity and magnetism. He develops an experiment in which he notices a compass needle is deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off, convincing him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a live wire just as light and heat do, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism. He also observes that the movement of the compass-needle to one side or the other depends upon the direction of the current. Following intensive investigations, he published his findings, proving that a changing 767 electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The oersted unit of magnetic induction is named for his contributions.  1820 — André-Marie Ampère, professor of mathematics at the École Polytechnique, a short time after learning of Ørsted's discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current, conducts experiments and publishes a paper in Annales de Chimie et de Physique attempting to give a combined theory of electricity and magnetism. He shows that a coil of wire carrying a current behaves like an ordinary magnet and suggests that electromagnetism might be used in telegraphy. He mathematically develops Ampère's law describing the magnetic force between two electric currents. His mathematical theory explains known electromagnetic phenomena and predicts new ones. His laws of electrodynamics include the facts that parallel conductors currying current in the same direction attract and those carrying currents in the opposite directions repel one another. One of the first to develop electrical measuring techniques, he built an instrument utilizing a free-moving needle to measure the flow of electricity, contributing to the development of the galvanometer. In 1821, he proposed a telegraphy system utilizing one wire per "galvanometer" to indicate each letter, and reported experimenting successfully with such a system. However, in 1824, Peter Barlow reported its maximum distance was only 200 feet, and so was impractical. In 1826 he publishes the Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience containing a mathematical derivation of the electrodynamic force law. Following Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831, Ampère agreed that Faraday deserved full credit for the discovery.  1820 — Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger, German chemist, physicist, and professor, builds the first sensitive galvanometer, wrapping a coil of wire around a graduated compass, an acceptable instrument for actual measurement as well as detection of small amounts of electric current, naming it after Luigi Galvani.  1821 — André-Marie Ampère announces his theory of electrodynamics, predicting the force that one current exerts upon another.  1821 — Thomas Johann Seebeck discovers the thermoelectric effect. 768 Adsorption The deposition of molecular species onto the surface Chemical adsorption Physical adsorption Due to weak Van der Waals forces between adsorbate and adsorbent Due to strong chemical forces of bonding between adsorbate and adsorbent  Adsorbate: Substance that is deposited on the surface of another substance  Adsorbent: Surface of a substance on which adsorbate adsorbs In 1905, a physicist measuring the thermal conductivity of copper would have faced, unknowingly, a very small systematic error due to the heating of his equipment and sample by the absorption of cosmic rays, then unknown to physics. In early 1946, an opinion poller, studying Japanese opinion as to who won the war, would have faced a very small systematic error due to the neglect of the 17 Japanese holdouts, who were discovered later north of Saipan. These cases are entirely parallel. Social, biological and physical scientists all need to remember that they have the same problems, the main difference being the decimal place in which they appear. — William Gemmell Cochran Catalysis Homogeneous Heterogeneous (The catalyst and reactants are in same phase) (The catalyst and reactants are in different phase) Enzymatic (catalyst is an enzyme) Enzyme Enzymatic reaction Invertase Sucrose → Glucose and fructose Zymase Glucose → Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide Diastase Starch → Maltose Maltase Maltose → Glucose Urease Urea → Ammonia and carbon dioxide Pepsin Proteins → Amino acids Our knowledge of stars and interstellar matter must be based primarily on the electromagnetic radiation which reaches us. Nature has thoughtfully provided us with a universe in which radiant energy of almost all wave lengths travels in straight lines over enormous distances with usually rather negligible absorption. — Lyman Spitzer, Jr. Haber’s process for the manufacture of ammonia: Noble gases being monoatomic have no interatomic forces except N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g) weak dispersion forces and therefore, they are liquefied at very low temperatures. Hence,  Finely divided iron as catalyst, molybdenum as promoter  Conditions: 200 bar pressure and 723-773K temperature they have low boiling points. The absorption of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide in the lungs take place by diffusion alone. There is no trustworthy evidence of any regulation of this process on the part of the organism. — August Krogh Colloids Any substance consisting of particles substantially larger than atoms or ordinary molecules but too small to be visible to the unaided eye Lyophobic colloids Lyophilic colloids (Solvent repelling) (Solvent attracting) Colloids in everyday life: whipped cream, mayonnaise, milk, butter, gelatin, jelly, muddy water, plaster, colored glass, and paper. Alfred Werner was born on December 12, 1866, in Mülhouse, a small community in the French province of Alsace. His study of chemistry began in Karlsruhe (Germany) and continued in Zurich (Switzerland), where in his doctoral thesis in 1890, he explained the difference in properties of certain nitrogen containing organic substances on the basis of isomerism. He extended van't Hoff 's theory of tetrahedral carbon atom and modified it for nitrogen. Werner showed optical and electrical differences between complex compounds based on physical measurements. In fact, Werner was the first to discover optical activity in certain coordination compounds. He, at the age of 29 years became a full professor at Technische Hochschule in Zurich in 1895. Alfred Werner was a chemist and educationist. His accomplishments included the development of the theory of coordination compounds. This theory, in which Werner proposed revolutionary ideas about how atoms and molecules are linked together, was formulated in a span of only three years, from 1890 to 1893. The remainder of his career was spent gathering the experimental support required to validate his new ideas. Werner became the first Swiss chemist to win the Nobel Prize in 1913 for his work on the linkage of atoms and the coordination theory. Chemistry must become the astronomy of the molecular world. — Alfred Werner Coordination number Type of hybridization Shape 4 sp3 Tetrahedral 4 dsp2 Square planar 5 sp3d Trigonal bipyramidal 6 sp3d2 Octahedral  1821 — Augustin-Jean Fresnel derives a mathematical demonstration that polarization can be explained only if light is entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever.  1825 — Augustin Fresnel phenomenologically explains optical activity by introducing circular birefringence  1825 — William Sturgeon, founder of the first English Electric Journal, Annals of Electricity, found that an iron core inside a helical coil of wire connected to a battery greatly increased the resulting magnetic field, thus making possible the more powerful electromagnets utilizing a ferromagnetic core. Sturgeon also bent the iron core into a U-shape to bring the poles closer together, thus concentrating the magnetic field lines. These discoveries followed Ampère's discovery that electricity passing through a coiled wire produced a magnetic force and that of Dominique François Jean Arago finding that an iron bar is magnetized by putting it inside the coil of currentcarrying wire, but Arago had not observed the increased strength of the resulting field while the bar was being magnetized.  1826 — Georg Simon Ohm states his Ohm's law of electrical resistance in the journals of Schweigger and Poggendorff, and also published in his landmark pamphlet Die galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet in 1827. The unit ohm (Ω) of electrical resistance has been named in his honor.  1829 & 1830 — Francesco Zantedeschi publishes papers on the production of electric currents in closed circuits by the approach and withdrawal of a magnet, thereby anticipating Michael Faraday's classical experiments of 1831.  1831 — Michael Faraday began experiments leading to his discovery of the law of electromagnetic induction, though the discovery may have been anticipated by the work of Francesco Zantedeschi. His breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around a massive iron ring, bolted to a chair, and found that upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary electric current was induced in the other coil. He then found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire, or vice versa, an electric current also flowed in the wire. He then used this principle to construct the electric dynamo, the first electric power generator. He proposed that electromagnetic forces 769 extended into the empty space around the conductor, but did not complete that work. Faraday's concept of lines of flux emanating from charged bodies and magnets provided a way to visualize electric and magnetic fields. That mental model was crucial to the successful development of electromechanical devices which were to dominate the 19th century. His demonstrations that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field, mathematically modeled by Faraday's law of induction, would subsequently become one of Maxwell's equations. These consequently evolved into the generalization of field theory.  1831 — Macedonio Melloni uses a thermopile to detect infrared radiation  1832 — Baron Pavel L'vovitch Schilling (Paul Schilling) creates the first electromagnetic telegraph, consisting of a single-needle system in which a code was used to indicate the characters. Only months later, Göttingen professors Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber constructed a telegraph that was working two years before Schilling could put his into practice. Schilling demonstrated the long-distance transmission of signals between two different rooms of his apartment and was the first to put into practice a binary system of signal transmission.  1833 — Heinrich Lenz states Lenz's law: if an increasing (or decreasing) magnetic flux induces an electromotive force (EMF), the resulting current will oppose a further increase (or decrease) in magnetic flux, i.e., that an induced current in a closed conducting loop will appear in such a direction that it opposes the change that produced it. Lenz's law is one consequence of the principle of conservation of energy. If a magnet moves towards a closed loop, then the induced current in the loop creates a field that exerts a force opposing the motion of the magnet. Lenz's law can be derived from Faraday's law of induction by noting the negative sign on the right side of the equation. He also independently discovered Joule's law in 1842; to honor his efforts, Russian physicists refer to it as the "Joule-Lenz law."  1833 — Michael Faraday announces his law of electrochemical equivalents  1834 — Heinrich Lenz determines the direction of the induced electromotive force (emf) and current resulting from electromagnetic induction. Lenz's law provides a physical 770 interpretation of the choice of sign in Faraday's law of induction (1831), indicating that the induced emf and the change in flux have opposite signs.  1834 — Jean-Charles Peltier discovers the Peltier effect: heating by an electric current at the junction of two different metals.  1835 — Joseph Henry invents the electric relay, which is an electrical switch by which the change of a weak current through the windings of an electromagnet will attract an armature to open or close the switch. Because this can control (by opening or closing) another, much higher-power, circuit, it is in a broad sense a form of electrical amplifier. This made a practical electric telegraph possible. He was the first to coil insulated wire tightly around an iron core in order to make an extremely powerful electromagnet, improving on William Sturgeon's design, which used loosely coiled, uninsulated wire. He also discovered the property of self inductance independently of Michael Faraday.  1836 — William Fothergill Cooke invents a mechanical telegraph. 1837 with Charles Wheatstone invents the Cooke and Wheatstone needle telegraph. 1838 the Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph becomes the first commercial telegraph in the world when it is installed on the Great Western Railway.  1837 — Samuel Morse develops an alternative electrical telegraph design capable of transmitting long distances over poor quality wire. He and his assistant Alfred Vail develop the Morse code signaling alphabet. In 1838 Morse successfully tested the device at the Speedwell Ironworks near Morristown, New Jersey, and publicly demonstrated it to a scientific committee at the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on 24 May, 1844 from Baltimore to Washington, D.C., bearing the message "What hath God wrought?"  1838 — Michael Faraday uses Volta's battery to discover cathode rays.  1839 — Alexandre Edmond Becquerel observes the photoelectric effect with an electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light.  1840 — James Prescott Joule formulates Joule's Law (sometimes called the Joule-Lenz law) quantifying the amount of heat produced in a circuit as proportional to the product of the time duration, the resistance, and the square of the current passing through it. 771  1845 — Michael Faraday discovers that light propagation in a material can be influenced by external magnetic fields (Faraday effect)  1849 — Hippolyte Fizeau and Jean-Bernard Foucault measure the speed of light to be about 298,000 km/s 1851–1900  1852 — George Gabriel Stokes defines the Stokes parameters of polarization  1852 — Edward Frankland develops the theory of chemical valence  1854 — Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, physicist and one of the founders of spectroscopy, publishes Kirchhoff's Laws on the conservation of electric charge and energy, which are used to determine currents in each branch of a circuit.  1855 — James Clerk Maxwell submits On Faraday's Lines of Force for publication containing a mathematical statement of Ampère's circuital law relating the curl of a magnetic field to the electrical current at a point.  1861 — the first transcontinental telegraph system spans North America by connecting an existing network in the eastern United States to a small network in California by a link between Omaha and Carson City via Salt Lake City. The slower Pony Express system ceased operation a month later.  1864 — James Clerk Maxwell publishes his papers on a dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field  1865 — James Clerk Maxwell publishes his landmark paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, in which Maxwell's equations demonstrated that electric and magnetic forces are two complementary aspects of electromagnetism. He shows that the associated complementary electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetism travel through space, in the form of waves, at a constant velocity of 3.0 × 10 8 m/s. He also proposes that light is a form of electromagnetic radiation and that waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments. Using available data, he obtains a velocity of 310,740,000 m/s and states "This velocity is so nearly that of light, that it seems we have strong reason to conclude that light itself (including radiant heat, and other radiations if 772 any) is an electromagnetic disturbance in the form of waves propagated through the electromagnetic field according to electromagnetic laws."  1866 — the first successful transatlantic telegraph system was completed. Earlier submarine cable transatlantic cables installed in 1857 and 1858 failed after operating for a few days or weeks.  1869 — William Crookes invents the Crookes tube.  1873 — Willoughby Smith discovers the photoelectric effect in metals not in solution (i.e., selenium).  1871 — Lord Rayleigh discusses the blue sky law and sunsets (Rayleigh scattering)  1873 — J. C. Maxwell publishes A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism which states that light is an electromagnetic phenomenon.  1874 — German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovers the "unilateral conduction" of crystals. Braun patents the first solid state diode, a crystal rectifier, in 1899.  1875 — John Kerr discovers the electrically induced birefringence of some liquids  1878 — Thomas Edison, following work on a "multiplex telegraph" system and the phonograph, invents an improved incandescent light bulb. This was not the first electric light bulb but the first commercially practical incandescent light. In 1879 he produces a high-resistance lamp in a very high vacuum; the lamp lasts hundreds of hours. While the earlier inventors had produced electric lighting in lab conditions, Edison concentrated on commercial application and was able to sell the concept to homes and businesses by mass-producing relatively long-lasting light bulbs and creating a complete system for the generation and distribution of electricity.  1879 — Jožef Stefan discovers the Stefan–Boltzmann radiation law of a black body and uses it to calculate the first sensible value of the temperature of the Sun's surface to be 5700 K  1880 — Edison discovers thermionic emission or the Edison effect.  1882 — Edison switches on the world's first electrical power distribution system, providing 110 volts direct current (DC) to 59 customers. 773  1884 — Oliver Heaviside reformulates Maxwell's original mathematical treatment of electromagnetic theory from twenty equations in twenty unknowns into four simple equations in four unknowns (the modern vector form of Maxwell's equations).  1886 — Oliver Heaviside coins the term inductance.  1887 — Heinrich Hertz invents a device for the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) radio waves. His receiver consists of a coil with a spark gap.  1888 — Introduction of the induction motor, an electric motor that harnesses a rotating magnetic field produced by alternating current, independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla.  1888 — Heinrich Hertz demonstrates the existence of electromagnetic waves by building an apparatus that produced and detected UHF radio waves (or microwaves in the UHF region). He also found that radio waves could be transmitted through different types of materials and were reflected by others, the key to radar. His experiments explain reflection, refraction, polarization, interference, and velocity of electromagnetic waves.  1893 — Victor Schumann discovers the vacuum ultraviolet spectrum.  1895 — Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers X-rays  1895 — Jagadis Chandra Bose gives his first public demonstration of electromagnetic waves  1896 — Arnold Sommerfeld solves the half-plane diffraction problem  1897 — J. J. Thomson discovers the electron.  1899 — Pyotr Lebedev measures the pressure of light on a solid body.  1900 — The Liénard–Wiechert potentials are introduced as time-dependent (retarded) electrodynamic potentials  1900 — Max Planck resolves the ultraviolet catastrophe by suggesting that black-body radiation consists of discrete packets, or quanta, of energy. The amount of energy in each packet is proportional to the frequency of the electromagnetic waves. The constant of proportionality is now called Planck's constant in his honor. 774 Spectroscopy Used to detect, identify and quantify information about the atoms and molecules in a sample; in particular elemental composition, chemical state and physical properties of both inorganic material and biological systems. Atomic Absorption spectroscopy Molecular Emission spectroscopy or Flame Photometry Atomic Emission Fluorimetry and phosporimetry Electronic UV and IR Magnetic NMR and electron spin resonance An attempt to study the evolution of living organisms without reference to cytology would be as futile as an account of stellar evolution which ignored spectroscopy. — J.B.S. Haldane Beer–Lambert law: Absorbance ∝ (length of light path × concentration of the absorbing species) Absorbance = molar absorptivity × (length of light path × concentration of the absorbing species) The whole subject of the X rays is opening out wonderfully, Bragg has of course got in ahead of us, and so the credit all belongs to him, but that does not make it less interesting. We find that an X ray bulb with a platinum target gives out a sharp line spectrum of five wavelengths which the crystal separates out as if it were a diffraction grating. In this way one can get pure monochromatic X rays. Tomorrow we search for the spectra of other elements. There is here a whole new branch of spectroscopy, which is sure to tell one much about the nature of an atom. Henry Moseley Moseley's Law: The frequency υ of a characteristic X-ray of an element is related to its atomic number Z by √υ = a (Z − b), where a and b are constants that depend on the type of line (that is, K, L, etc. in X-ray notation). [W]e pity our fathers for dying before steam and galvanism, sulphuric ether and ocean telegraphs, photograph and spectrograph arrived, as cheated out of their human estate. — Ralph Waldo Emerson 20th century  1904 — John Ambrose Fleming invents the thermionic diode, the first electronic vacuum tube, which had practical use in early radio receivers.  1905 — Albert Einstein proposes the Theory of Special Relativity, in which he rejects the existence of the aether as unnecessary for explaining the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Instead, Einstein asserts as a postulate that the speed of light is constant in all inertial frames of reference, and goes on to demonstrate a number of revolutionary (and highly counter-intuitive) consequences, including time dilation, length contraction, the relativity of simultaneity, the dependence of mass on velocity, and the equivalence of mass and energy.  1905 — Einstein explains the photoelectric effect by extending Planck's idea of light quanta, or photons, to the absorption and emission of photoelectrons. Einstein would later receive the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery, which launched the quantum revolution in physics.  1911 — Superconductivity is discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was studying the resistivity of solid mercury at cryogenic temperatures using the recently discovered liquid helium as a refrigerant. At the temperature of 4.2 K, he observed that the resistivity abruptly disappeared. For this discovery, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1913.  1919 — Albert A. Michelson makes the first interferometric measurements of stellar diameters at Mount Wilson Observatory (see history of astronomical interferometry)  1924 — Louis de Broglie postulates the wave nature of electrons and suggests that all matter has wave properties.  1946 — Martin Ryle and Vonberg build the first two-element astronomical radio interferometer (see history of astronomical interferometry)  1953 — Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger produce the first maser  1956 — R. Hanbury-Brown and R.Q. Twiss complete the correlation interferometer  1960 — Theodore Maiman produces the first working laser 775  1966 — Jefimenko introduces time-dependent (retarded) generalizations of Coulomb's law and the Biot–Savart law  1999 — M. Henny and others demonstrate the Fermionic Hanbury Brown and Twiss Experiment Timeline of carbon nanotubes When Medical Programs Didn't Have Enough Cadavers For Anatomy Studies, People Started Stealing Bodies From Graves - A Practice Known As "Body Snatching". 1952  Radushkevich and Lukyanovich publish a paper in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry showing hollow graphitic carbon fibers that are 50 nanometers in diameter. 1955  Hofer, Sterling and McCarney observe a growth of tubular carbon filaments, of 10– 200 nm in diameter. 1958  Hillert and Lange observe a growth of nanoscale tubular carbon filaments from n-heptane decomposition on iron at about 1000 °C. 1960  Roger Bacon grows "graphite wiskers" in an arc-discharge apparatus and use electron microscopy to show that the structure consist of rolled up graphene sheets in concentric cylinders.  Bollmann and Spreadborough discuss friction properties of carbon due to rolling sheets of graphene in Nature. Electron Microscope picture clearly shows MWCNT. 1971 776  M.L. Lieberman reports growth of three different graphitic like filaments; tubular, twisted, and balloon like. TEM images and diffraction data shows that the hollow tubes are multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT). 1976  A. Oberlin, Morinobu Endo, and T. Koyama reported CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) growth of nanometer-scale carbon fibers, and they also reported the discovery of carbon nanofibers, including that some were shaped as hollow tubes. 1979  Arthur C. Clarke's science fiction novel The Fountains of Paradise popularizes the idea of a space elevator using "a continuous pseudo-one dimensional diamond crystal". 1982  The continuous or floating-catalyst process was patented by Japanese researchers T. Koyama and Morinobu Endo. 1985  George Washington Was One Of The First People To Advocate For Widespread Fullerenes discovered. Innoculation. 1987  Howard G. Tennent of Hyperion Catalysis issued a U.S. patent for graphitic, hollow core "fibrils". 1991  Nanotubes synthesized hollow carbon molecules and determined their crystal structure for the first time in the soot of arc discharge at NEC, by Japanese researcher Sumio Iijima. 777  August — Nanotubes discovered in CVD by Al Harrington and Tom Maganas of Maganas Industries, leading to development of a method to synthesize monomolecular thin film nanotube coatings. 1992  First theoretical predictions of the electronic properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes by groups at Naval Research Laboratory, USA; Massachusetts Institute of Technology; and NEC Corporation. 1993  Groups led by Donald S. Bethune at IBM and Sumio Iijima at NEC independently discover single-wall carbon nanotubes and methods to produce them using transitionmetal catalysts. American Revolutionary War Soldier Faced A 2% Chance Of Dying In Battle, And A 25% Chance Of Dying In An Army 1995  Hospital. Swiss researchers are the first to demonstrate the electron emission properties of carbon nanotubes. German inventors Till Keesmann and Hubert Grosse-Wilde predicted this property of carbon nanotubes earlier in the year in their patent application. 1997  First carbon nanotube single-electron transistors (operating at low temperature) are demonstrated by groups at Delft University and UC Berkeley.  The first suggestion of using carbon nanotubes as optical antennas is made in the patent application of inventor Robert Crowley filed in January 1997. 1998  First carbon nanotube field-effect transistors are demonstrated by groups at Delft University and IBM. 778 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Biological oxidation process performed by Chemical oxidation process performed by aerobic organisms chemical reagents Determined by incubating sealed water for a Determined by incubating a closed water period of 5 days at 20 degree Celsius. The sample with a strong oxidant like potassium reduction in dissolved oxygen gives the amount dichromate in combination with boiling of oxygen consumed by the aerobic organisms. sulfuric acid for a specific period of time and temperature. BOD value is lower than COD COD value is always greater than BOD BOD measure the amount of oxygen that will be COD measure the amount of oxygen that will consumed by bacteria or other aerobic be consumed by the chemical breakdown, or microorganisms while decomposing organic oxidation of organic pollutants in water. matter under aerobic conditions. I have procured air [oxygen] ... between five and six times as good as the best common air that I have ever met with. — Joseph Priestley As mineralogy constitutes a part of chemistry, it is clear that this arrangement [of minerals] must derive its principles from chemistry. The most perfect mode of arrangement would certainly be to allow bodies to follow each other according to the order of their electro-chemical properties, from the most electro-negative, oxygen, to the most electro-positive, potassium; and to place every compound body according to its most electro-positive ingredient. Jöns Jacob Berzelius Natural vegetation Forests Grasslands Desertic Scrubs  Tropical Rain Forest  Tropical Grasslands  Tropical Deciduous Forest  Temperate Grasslands  Temperate Deciduous Forest  Temperate Evergreen Forest   Tropical Deserts Mediterranean Forest   Tundra Regions Coniferous Forest Lymph colorless fluid Blood reddish colored fluid Helps in body defence and is a part of the Involved in the circulation of nutrients, hormones, immune system oxygen and carbon dioxide, wastes and other toxins  A heart rate is the number of times your heart beats in the span of a minute.  A pulse rate is the number of times your arteries create a noticeable "pulse" due to increase in blood pressure as a result of your heart contracting. Category of rainfall Intensity (mm) Trace ≤3 Light rain 4.57 − 9.64 Moderate rain 9.65 − 22.34 Moderately heavy rain 22.35 − 44.19 Heavy rain 44.20 – 88.90 Very heavy rain ≥89 In every combustion there is disengagement of the matter of fire or of light. A body can burn only in pure air [oxygen]. There is no destruction or decomposition of pure air and the increase in weight of the body burnt is exactly equal to the weight of air destroyed or decomposed. The body burnt changes into an acid by addition of the substance that increases its weight. Pure air is a compound of the matter of fire or of light with a base. In combustion the burning body removes the base, which it attracts more strongly than does the matter of heat, which appears as flame, heat and light. — Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide Metal + Sulfur → Metal Sulfide Metal oxide + water → Metal Hydroxide Incandescent Bulb Fluorescent Bulb Light produced by a heating a metallic Light produced by electricity flowing through a tube filled filament with ionized gas Bodies of water Oceans Seas Lakes Nile and Amazon rivers Rivers Canals Lake Michigan  Atlantic  Pacific  Indian  Arctic  Southern Fresh water  Mediterranean  Caribbean Island Suez Canal and the Panama Canal Top 10 Most Dangerous Lakes in the World:  Boiling Lake  Lake Kivu  Lake Natron  Blue Hole  Extremely dangerous  Jacob's Well  Lake Michigan  Spending time in or by can even be fatal  Rio Tinto  Drake Passage  Horseshoe Lake  Lake Champlain 2000  First demonstration proving that bending carbon nanotubes changes their resistance 2001  April — First report on a technique for separating semiconducting and metallic nanotubes. 2002  January — Multi-walled nanotubes demonstrated to be fastest known oscillators (> 50 GHz). 2003  September — NEC announced stable fabrication technology of carbon nanotube transistors. 2004  March — Nature published a photo of an individual 4 cm long single-wall nanotube (SWNT). 2005  May — A prototype high-definition 10-centimetre flat screen made using nanotubes was exhibited.  August — University of California finds Y-shaped nanotubes to be ready-made transistors.  August — General Electric announced the development of an ideal carbon nanotube diode that operates at the "theoretical limit" (the best possible performance). A photovoltaic effect was also observed in the nanotube diode device that could lead to 779 breakthroughs in solar cells, making them more efficient and thus more economically viable.  August — Nanotube sheet synthesised with dimensions 5 × 100 cm. 2006  March — IBM announces that they have built an electronic circuit around a CNT.  March — Nanotubes used as a scaffold for damaged nerve regeneration.  May — Method of placing nanotube accurately is developed by IBM.  June — Gadget invented by Rice University that can sort nanotubes by size and electrical properties.  July — Nanotubes were alloyed into the carbon fiber bike that was ridden by Floyd Landis to win the 2006 Tour de France. 2009  April — Nanotubes incorporated in virus battery.  A single-walled carbon nanotube was grown by chemical vapor deposition across a 10micron gap in a silicon chip, then used in cold atom experiments, creating a blackhole like effect on single atoms. 2012  January — IBM creates 9 nm carbon nanotube transistors that outperforms silicon. 2013  January – Research team at Rice University announce developing a new wet-spun nanotech fiber. The new fiber is made with an industrial scalable process. The fibers reported in Science have about 10 times the tensile strength and electrical and thermal conductivity of the best previously reported wet-spun CNT fibers. 780  September – Researchers build a carbon nanotube computer. Timeline of physical chemistry Date Person Contribution 1088 Shen Kuo First person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by helping to employ the astronomical concept of True North at all times of the day, thus making the first, recorded, scientific observation of the magnetic field (as opposed to a theory grounded in superstition or mysticism). 1187 Alexander Neckham First in Europe to describe the magnetic compass and its use in navigation. 1269 Pierre de Maricourt Published the first extant treatise on the properties of magnetism and compass needles. 1550 Gerolamo Cardano Wrote about electricity in De Subtilitate distinguishing, perhaps for the first time, between electrical and magnetic forces. 1600 William Gilbert In De Magnete, expanded on Cardano's work (1550) and coined the New Latin word electricus from ἤλεκτρον (elektron), the Greek word for "amber" (from which the ancients knew an electric spark could be created by rubbing it with silk). Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many substances other than amber, such as sulphur, wax, glass, etc., were capable of 781 manifesting electrostatic properties. Gilbert also discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the electrification of all bodies, due to the now well-known fact that moisture impairs the electrical insulation of such bodies. He also noticed that electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many discoveries of this nature earned for Gilbert the title of founder of the electrical sciences. 1646 Sir Thomas Browne The first usage of the word electricity is ascribed to his work Pseudodoxia Epidemica. 1660 Otto von Guericke Invented an early electrostatic generator. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction by the use of an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies of the new science of electricity. 1667 Johann Joachim Becher Stated the now-defunct scientific theory that postulated the existence of a fire-like element called "phlogiston" that was contained within combustible bodies and released during combustion. The theory was an attempt to explain processes such as combustion and the rusting of metals, which are now understood as oxidation, and which was ultimately disproved by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789. 782 1675 Robert Boyle Discovered that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum and does not depend upon the air as a medium. He also added resin to the then-known list of "electrics." 1678 Christiaan Huygens Stated his theory to the French Academy of Sciences that light is a wave-like phenomenon. 1687 Sir Isaac Newton Published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, by itself considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific revolution. In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles of conservation of both momentum and angular momentum. (Eventually, it was determined that Newton's laws of classical mechanics were a special case of the more general theory of quantum mechanics for macroscopic objects (in the same way that Newton's laws of motion are a special case of Einstein's Theory of Relativity)). 783 1704 Sir Isaac Newton In his work Opticks, Newton contended that light was made up of numerous small particles. This hypothesis could explain such features as light's ability to travel in straight lines and reflect off surfaces. However, this proposed theory was known to have its problems: although it explained reflection well, its explanation of refraction and diffraction was less satisfactory. In order to explain refraction, Newton postulated an "Aethereal Medium" transmitting vibrations faster than light, by which light, when overtaken, is put into "Fits of easy Reflexion and easy Transmission", which he supposed caused the phenomena of refraction and diffraction. 1708 Brook Taylor Obtained a remarkable solution of the problem of the "centre of oscillation" fundamental to the development of wave mechanics which, however, remained unpublished until May 1714. 1715 Brook Taylor In Methodus Incrementorum Directa et Inversa (1715), he added a new branch to the higher mathematics, now designated the "calculus of finite differences." Among other ingenious applications, he used it to determine the form of movement of a vibrating string, first successfully reduced by him to mechanical principles. The same work contained the celebrated formula known as Taylor's theorem, the importance of which remained unrecognized until 1772, when J. L. Lagrange realized its 784 powers and termed it "le principal fondement du calcul différentiel" ("the main foundation of differential calculus"). Taylor's work thereby provided the cornerstone of the calculus of wave mechanics. 1722 René Antoine Ferchault de Demonstrated that iron was transformed into Réaumur steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon. 1729 Stephen Gray Conducted a series of experiments that demonstrated the difference between conductors and non-conductors (insulators). From these experiments he classified substances into two categories: "electrics", like glass, resin and silk, and "non-electrics", like metal and water. Although Gray was the first to discover and deduce the property of electrical conduction, he incorrectly stated that "electrics" conducted charges while "non-electrics" held the charge. 1732 C. F. du Fay Conducted several experiments and concluded that all objects, except metals, animals, and liquids, could be electrified by rubbing them and that metals, animals and liquids could be electrified by means of an "electric machine" (the name used at the time for electrostatic generators), thus discrediting Gray's "electrics" and "non-electrics" classification of substances (1729). 1737 C. F. du Fay and Francis Independently discovered what they believed to Hauksbee the younger be two kinds of frictional electricity: one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin. From this, Du Fay theorized that 785 electricity consists of two "electrical fluids": "vitreous" and "resinous", that is separated by friction, and that neutralize each other when combined. This two-fluid theory would later give rise to the concept of positive and negative electrical charges devised by Benjamin Franklin. 1740 Jean le Rond d'Alembert In Mémoire sur la réfraction des corps solides, explains the process of refraction. 1740s Leonhard Euler Disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740s papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of light proposed by Christiaan Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development of the quantum theory of light. 1745 Pieter van Musschenbroek At Leiden University, he invented the Leyden jar, a type of capacitor (also known as a "condensor") for electrical energy in large quantities. 1747 William Watson While experimenting with a Leyden jar (1745), he discovered the concept of an electrical potential (voltage) when he observed that a discharge of static electricity caused the electric current earlier observed by Stephen Gray to occur. 1752 Benjamin Franklin Identified lightning with electricity when he discovered that lightning conducted through a metal key could be used to charge a Leyden jar, thus proving that lightning was an electric 786 discharge and current (1747). He is also attributed with the convention of using "negative" and "positive" to denote an electrical charge or potential. 1766 Henry Cavendish The first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from a metalacid reaction as "flammable air" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. 1771 Luigi Galvani Invented the voltaic cell. Galvani made this discovery when he noted that two different metals (copper and zinc for example) were connected together and then both touched to different parts of a nerve of a frog leg at the same time, a spark was generated which made the leg contract. Although he incorrectly assumed that the electric current was proceeding from the frog as some kind of "animal electricity", his invention of the voltaic cell was fundamental to the development of the electric battery. 1772 Antoine Lavoisier Showed that diamonds are a form of carbon, when he burned samples of carbon and diamond then showed that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of carbon dioxide per gram. 1772 Carl Wilhelm Scheele Showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of lead, was instead a type of carbon. 1772 Daniel Rutherford Discovered and studied nitrogen, calling it noxious air or fixed air because this gas 787 constituted a fraction of air that did not support combustion. Nitrogen was also studied at about the same time by Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Joseph Priestley, who referred to it as burnt air or phlogisticated air. Nitrogen gas was inert enough that Antoine Lavoisier referred to it as "mephitic air" or azote, from the Greek word άζωτος (azotos) meaning "lifeless". Animals died in it, and it was the principal component of air in which animals had suffocated and flames had burned to extinction. 1772 Carl Wilhelm Scheele Produced oxygen gas by heating mercuric oxide and various nitrates by about 1772. Scheele called the gas 'fire air' because it was the only known supporter of combustion, and wrote an account of this discovery in a manuscript he titled Treatise on Air and Fire, which he sent to his publisher in 1775. However, that document was not published until 1777. 1778 1781 Carl Scheele and Antoine Discovered that air is composed mostly Lavoisier of nitrogen and oxygen. Joseph Priestley The first to utilize the electric spark to produce an explosion of hydrogen and oxygen, mixed in the proper proportions, to produce pure water. 1784 Henry Cavendish Discovered the inductive capacity of dielectrics (insulators) and, as early as 1778, measured the specific inductive capacity for beeswax and other substances by comparison with an air condenser. 1784 Charles-Augustin de Devised the torsion balance, by means of which Coulomb he discovered what is known as Coulomb's law: 788 the force exerted between two small electrified bodies varies inversely as the square of the distance; not as Franz Aepinus in his theory of electricity had assumed, merely inversely as the distance. 1788 Joseph-Louis Lagrange Stated a re-formulation of classical mechanics that combines conservation of momentum with conservation of energy, now called Lagrangian mechanics, and which would be critical to the later development of a quantum mechanical theory of matter and energy. 1789 Antoine Lavoisier In his text Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (often considered to be the first modern chemistry text), stated the first version of the law of conservation of mass, recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783), abolished the phlogiston theory, helped construct the metric system, wrote the first extensive list of elements, and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. 1798 Louis Nicolas Vauquelin In 1797 received samples of crocoite ore from which he produced chromium oxide (CrO3) by mixing crocoite with hydrochloric acid. In 1798, Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven. He was also able to detect traces of chromium in precious gemstones, such as ruby or emerald. 1798 Louis Nicolas Vauquelin Discovered beryllium in emerald (beryl) when he dissolved the beryl in sodium hydroxide, 789 separating the aluminium hydroxide and beryllium compound from the silicate crystals, and then dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in another alkali solution to separate it from the beryllium. 1800 William Used electricity to decompose water into Nicholson and Johann Ritter hydrogen and oxygen, thereby discovering the process of electrolysis, which led to the discovery of many other elements. 1800 Alessandro Volta Invented the voltaic pile, or "battery", specifically to disprove Galvani's animal electricity theory. 1801 Johann Wilhelm Ritter Discovered ultraviolet light. 1803 Thomas Young Double-slit experiment supports the wave theory of light and demonstrates the effect of interference. 1806 Alessandro Volta Employing a voltaic pile of approximately 250 cells, or couples, decomposed potash and soda, showing that these substances were respectively the oxides of potassium and sodium, which metals previously had been unknown. These experiments were the beginning of electrochemistry. 1807 John Dalton Published his Atomic Theory of Matter. 1807 Sir Humphry Davy First isolates sodium from caustic soda and potassium from caustic potash by the process of electrolysis. 1808 Sir Humphry Davy, Joseph Boron isolated through the reaction of boric Louis Gay-Lussac, and Louis acid and potassium. Jacques Thénard 1809 Sir Humphry Davy First publicly demonstrated the electric arc 790 light. 1811 Amedeo Avogadro Proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules, regardless of the nature of the gas—a key step in the development of the Atomic Theory of Matter. 1817 Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of Arfwedson and Jöns Jakob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new Berzelius element while analyzing petalite ore. This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline. Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name "lithos", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to sodium and potassium, which had been discovered in plant tissues. 1819 Hans Christian Oersted Discovered the deflecting effect of an electric current traversing a wire upon a suspended magnetic needle, thus deducing that magnetism and electricity were somehow related to each other. 1821 Augustin-Jean Fresnel Demonstrated via mathematical methods that polarization could be explained only if light was entirely transverse, with no longitudinal vibration whatsoever. This finding was later very important to Maxwell's equations and to Einstein's Theory of Special Relativity. His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him 791 to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi on interference. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomenon of interference in accordance with the wave theory. With François Arago he studied the laws of the interference of polarized rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as a Fresnel rhomb, having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°. 1821 André-Marie Ampère Announced his celebrated theory of electrodynamics, relating the force one current exerts upon another by way of its electromagnetic effects. 1821 Thomas Johann Seebeck Discovered the thermoelectric effect. 1827 Georg Simon Ohm Discovered the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance, making possible the development of electric circuitry and power transmission. 1831 Macedonio Melloni Used a thermopile to detect infrared radiation. 1831 Michael Faraday Discovered electromagnetic induction, making possible the invention of the electric motor and generator. 1833 William Rowan Hamilton Stated a reformulation of classical mechanics that arose from Lagrangian mechanics, a previous reformulation of classical mechanics introduced by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in 1788, but which can be formulated without recourse to Lagrangian mechanics using symplectic 792 spaces (see Mathematical Formalism). As with Lagrangian mechanics, Hamilton's equations provide a new and equivalent way of looking at classical mechanics. Generally, these equations do not provide a more convenient way of solving a particular problem. Rather, they provide deeper insights into both the general structure of classical mechanics and its connection to quantum mechanics as understood through Hamiltonian mechanics, as well as its connection to other areas of science. 1833 Michael Faraday Announced his important law of electrochemical equivalents, viz.: "The same quantity of electricity — that is, the same electric current — decomposes chemically equivalent quantities of all the bodies which it traverses; hence the weights of elements separated in these electrolytes are to each other as their chemical equivalents." 1834 Heinrich Lenz Applied an extension of the law of conservation of energy to the non-conservative forces in electromagnetic induction to give the direction of the induced electromotive force (emf) and current resulting from electromagnetic induction. The law provides a physical interpretation of the choice of sign in Faraday's law of induction (1831), indicating that the induced emf and the change in flux have opposite signs. 1834 Jean-Charles Peltier Discovered what is now called the Peltier effect: 793 the heating effect of an electric current at the junction of two different metals. 1838 Michael Faraday Using Volta's battery, Farraday discovered "cathode rays" when, during an experiment, he passed current through a rarefied air filled glass tube and noticed a strange light arc starting at the anode (positive electrode) and ending at the cathode (negative electrode). 1839 Alexandre Edmond Observed the photoelectric effect via an Becquerel electrode in a conductive solution exposed to light. 1852 Edward Frankland Initiated the theory of valency by proposing that each element has a specific "combining power", e.g. some elements such as nitrogen tend to combine with three other elements (e.g. NO3) while others may tend to combine with five (e.g. PO5), and that each element strives to fulfill its combining power (valency) quota. 1857 Heinrich Geissler Invented the Geissler tube. 1858 Julius Plücker Published the first of his classical researches on the action of magnets on the electric discharge of rarefied gases in Geissler tubes. He found that the discharge caused a fluorescent glow to form on the glass walls of the vacuum tube, and that the glow could be made to shift by applying a magnetic field to the tube. It was later shown by Johann Wilhelm Hittorf that the glow was produced by rays emitted from one of the electrodes (the cathode). 1859 Gustav Kirchhoff Stated the "black body problem", i.e. how does the intensity of the electromagnetic 794 radiation emitted by a black body depend on the frequency of the radiation and the temperature of the body? 1865 Johann Josef Loschmidt Estimated the average diameter of the molecules in air by a method that is equivalent to calculating the number of particles in a given volume of gas. This latter value, the number density of particles in an ideal gas, is now called the Loschmidt constant in his honour, and is approximately proportional to the Avogadro constant. The connection with Loschmidt is the root of the symbol L sometimes used for the Avogadro constant, and German language literature may refer to both constants by the same name, distinguished only by the units of measurement. 1868 Norman On October 20 observed a yellow line in the Lockyer and Edward solar spectrum, which he named the "D3 Frankland Fraunhofer line" because it was near the known D1 and D2 lines of sodium. He correctly concluded that it was caused by an element in the Sun unknown on Earth. Lockyer and Frankland named the element with the Greek word for the Sun, ἥλιος, "helios." 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev Devises the Periodic Table of the Elements. 1869 Johann Wilhelm Hittorf Studied discharge tubes with energy rays extending from a negative electrode, the cathode. These rays, which he discovered but were later called cathode rays by Eugen Goldstein, produced a fluorescence when they hit a tube's glass walls and, when interrupted by 795 a solid object, cast a shadow. 1869 William Crookes Invented the Crookes tube. 1873 Willoughby Smith Discovered the photoelectric effect in metals not in solution (i.e., selenium). 1873 James Clerk Maxwell Published his theory of electromagnetism in which light was determined to be an electromagnetic wave (field) that could be propagated in a vacuum. 1877 Ludwig Boltzmann Suggested that the energy states of a physical system could be discrete. 1879 William Crookes Showed that cathode rays (1838), unlike light rays, can be bent in a magnetic field. 1885 Johann Balmer Discovered that the four visible lines of the hydrogen spectrum could be assigned integers in a series 1886 Henri Moissan Isolated elemental fluorine after almost 74 years of effort by other chemists. 1886 Oliver Heaviside Coined the term "inductance." 1886 Eugen Goldstein Goldstein had undertaken his own investigations of discharge tubes and had named the light emissions studied by others "kathodenstrahlen", or cathode rays. In 1886, he discovered that discharge tubes with a perforated cathode also emit a glow at the cathode end. Goldstein concluded that in addition to the already-known cathode rays (later recognized as electrons) moving from the negatively charged cathode toward the positively charged anode, there is another ray that travels in the opposite direction. Because these latter rays passed through the holes, or 796 channels, in the cathode, Goldstein called them "kanalstrahlen", or canal rays. He determined that canal rays are composed of positive ions whose identity depends on the residual gas inside the tube. It was another of Helmholtz's students, Wilhelm Wien, who later conducted extensive studies of canal rays, and in time this work would become part of the basis for mass spectrometry. 1887 Albert A. Conducted what is now called the "Michelson- Michelson and Edward W. Morley" experiment, in which they disproved Morley the existence of a luminiferous aether and that the speed of light remained constant relative to all inertial frames of reference. The full significance of this discovery was not understood until Albert Einstein published his Theory of Special Relativity. 1887 Heinrich Hertz Discovered the production and reception of electromagnetic (EM) radio waves. His receiver consisted of a coil with a spark gap, where a spark would be seen upon detection of EM waves transmitted from another spark gap source. 1888 Johannes Rydberg Modified the Balmer formula to include the other series of lines, producing the Rydberg formula 1891 Alfred Werner Proposed a theory of affinity and valence in which affinity is an attractive force issuing from the center of the atom which acts uniformly from there towards all parts of the spherical surface of the central atom. 797 Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851) was a Danish physicist and chemist, professor at Copenhagen. He observed that a compass needle suffers a deflection when placed near a wire carrying an electric current. This discovery gave the first empirical evidence of a connection between electric and magnetic phenomena. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz (1853 – 1928) was a Dutch theoretical physicist, professor at Leiden. He investigated the relationship between electricity, magnetism, and mechanics. In order to explain the observed effect of magnetic fields on emitters of light (Zeeman Effect), he postulated the existence of electric charges in the atom, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902. He derived a set of transformation equations (known after him, as Lorentz transformation equations) by some tangled mathematical arguments, but he was not aware that these equations hinge on a new concept of space and time. Circuits Series Circuits Rtot = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... Parallel Circuits 1 Rtot = 1 R1 + 1 R2 + 1 R3 + ... 2 basic laws of magnets:  Like poles (North-North, South-South) will repel each other  Unlike poles (North-South) will attract each other The field of scientific abstraction encompasses independent kingdoms of ideas and of experiments and within these, rulers whose fame outlasts the centuries. But they are not the only kings in science. He also is a king who guides the spirit of his contemporaries by knowledge and creative work, by teaching and research in the field of applied science, and who conquers for science provinces which have only been raided by craftsmen. ― Fritz Haber 3 properties of waves:  Amplitude – The measure of the displacement of the wave from its rest position.  Frequency – The frequency of a wave is the number of times per second that the wave cycles.  Wavelength – The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two corresponding troughs or crests. Every teacher certainly should know something of non-euclidean geometry. Thus, it forms one of the few parts of mathematics which, at least in scattered catch-words, is talked about in wide circles, so that any teacher may be asked about it at any moment. … Imagine a teacher of physics who is unable to say anything about Röntgen rays, or about radium. A teacher of mathematics who could give no answer to questions about non-euclidean geometry would not make a better impression. On the other hand, I should like to advise emphatically against bringing non-euclidean into regular school instruction (i.e., beyond occasional suggestions, upon inquiry by interested pupils), as enthusiasts are always recommending. Let us be satisfied if the preceding advice is followed and if the pupils learn to really understand euclidean geometry. After all, it is in order for the teacher to know a little more than the average pupil. — Felix Klein Magnetic Materials Diamagnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Materials that are not attracted to Materials that are weakly attracted to Materials that are strongly attracted magnets magnets to magnets Mercury, water, copper, bismuth and gold Magnesium, lithium, molybdenum Iron, cobalt and nickel Joseph Henry [1797 –1878] was an American experimental physicist, professor at Princeton University and first director of the Smithsonian Institution. He made important improvements in electromagnets by winding coils of insulated wire around iron pole pieces and invented an electromagnetic motor and a new, efficient telegraph. He discovered self-induction and investigated how currents in one circuit induce currents in another. George Westinghouse (1846 – 1914) was a leading proponent of the use of alternating current over direct current. Thus, he came into conflict with Thomas Alva Edison, an advocate of direct current. Westinghouse was convinced that the technology of alternating current was the key to the electrical future. He founded the famous Company named after him and enlisted the services of Nicola Tesla and other inventors in the development of alternating current motors and apparatus for the transmission of high tension current, pioneering in large scale lighting. Crystalline solids Amorphous solids They have definite characteristic geometrical shape They have irregular shape Symmetrical and more rigid Unsymmetrical and less rigid They are true solids They are pseudo solids or super cooled liquids They have sharp melting points They do not have sharp melting points They are anisotropic in nature They are isotropic in nature They have definite heat of fusion They do not have definite heat of fusion Diamond Glass Neumann, to a physicist seeking help with a difficult problem: Simple. This can be solved by using the method of characteristics. Physicist: I'm afraid I don’t understand the method of characteristics. Neumann: In mathematics you don't understand things. You just get used to them. — John von Neumann 3 types of Solutions:  Gaseous Solutions Gas + Gas (Mixture of oxygen and nitrogen gases) Liquid + Gas (Chloroform mixed with nitrogen gas) Solid + Gas (Camphor in nitrogen gas)  Liquid Solutions Gas + Liquid (Oxygen dissolved in water) Liquid + Liquid (Ethanol dissolved in water) Solid + Liquid (Glucose dissolved in water)  Solid Solutions Gas + Solid (Solution of hydrogen in palladium) Liquid + Solid (Amalgam of mercury with sodium) Solid + Solid (Copper dissolved in gold) The Annotated Alice, of course, does tie in with math, because Lewis Carroll was, as you know, a professional mathematician. So it wasn’t really too far afield from recreational math, because the two books are filled with all kinds of mathematical jokes. I was lucky there in that I really didn’t have anything new to say in The Annotated Alice because I just looked over the literature and pulled together everything in the form of footnotes. But it was a lucky idea because that’s been the best seller of all my books. Martin Gardner OXIDATION REDUCTION Losing electrons Gaining electrons Increase in oxidation number Decrease in oxidation number Losing hydrogen Gaining hydrogen Releases energy Stores energy A general course in mathematics should be required of all officers for its practical value, but no less for its educational value in training the mind to logical forms of thought, in developing the sense of absolute truthfulness, together with a confidence in the accomplishment of definite results by definite means. — Charles Echols Electrolyte Weak Electrolyte Strong Electrolyte  The extension of ionization is more  They have high electrical conductivity Strong Acid Strong Base Salt  The extension of ionization is less  They have low electrical conductivity Weak Acid Weak Base A formal manipulator in mathematics often experiences the discomforting feeling that his pencil surpasses him in intelligence. — Howard Eves Strong Electrolytes Weak Electrolytes strong acids HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO3, HClO4 and H2SO4 strong bases NaOH, KOH, LiOH, Ba(OH)2 and Ca(OH)2 salts NaCl, KBr and MgCl2 weak acids HF, CH₃COOH, H2CO3 and H3PO4 weak bases NH3 and C5H5N 1892 Heinrich Hertz Showed that cathode rays (1838) could pass through thin sheets of gold foil and produce appreciable luminosity on glass behind them. 1893 Alfred Werner Showed that the number of atoms or groups associated with a central atom (the "coordination number") is often 4 or 6; other coordination numbers up to a maximum of 8 were known, but less frequent. 1893 Victor Schumann Discovered the vacuum ultraviolet spectrum. 1895 Sir William Ramsay Isolated helium on Earth by treating the mineral cleveite (a variety of uraninite with at least 10% rare earth elements) with mineral acids. 1895 Wilhelm Röntgen Discovered X-rays with the use of a Crookes tube. 1896 Henri Becquerel Discovered "radioactivity" a process in which, due to nuclear disintegration, certain elements or isotopes spontaneously emit one of three types of energetic entities: alpha particles (positive charge), beta particles (negative charge), and gamma particles (neutral charge). 1897 J. J. Thomson Showed that cathode rays (1838) bend under the influence of both an electric field and a magnetic field. To explain this he suggested that cathode rays are negatively charged subatomic electrical particles or "corpuscles" (electrons), stripped from the atom; and in 1904 proposed the "plum pudding model" in which atoms have a positively charged amorphous mass (pudding) as a body embedded with negatively charged electrons (raisins) scattered 798 throughout in the form of non-random rotating rings. Thomson also calculated the mass-tocharge ratio of the electron, paving the way for the precise determination of its electrical charge by Robert Andrews Millikan (1913). 1900 Max Planck To explain black-body radiation (1862), he suggested that electromagnetic energy could only be emitted in quantized form, i.e. the energy could only be a multiple of an elementary unit E = hν, where h is Planck's constant and ν is the frequency of the radiation. 1901 Frederick Soddy and Ernest Discovered nuclear transmutation when they Rutherford found that radioactive thorium was converting itself into radium through a process of nuclear decay. 1902 Gilbert N. Lewis To explain the octet rule (1893), he developed the "cubical atom" theory in which electrons in the form of dots were positioned at the corner of a cube and suggested that single, double, or triple "bonds" result when two atoms are held together by multiple pairs of electrons (one pair for each bond) located between the two atoms (1916). 1904 J. J. Thomson Articulated the "plumb-pudding" model of the atom that was later experimentally disproved by Rutherford (1907) 1904 Richard Abegg Noted the pattern that the numerical difference between the maximum positive valence, such as +6 for H2SO4, and the maximum negative valence, such as -2 for H2S, of an element tends to be eight (Abegg's rule). 799 1905 Albert Einstein Determined the equivalence of matter and energy. 1905 Albert Einstein First to explain the effects of Brownian motion as caused by the kinetic energy (i.e., movement) of atoms, which was subsequently, experimentally verified by Jean Baptiste Perrin, thereby settling the century-long dispute about the validity of John Dalton's atomic theory. 1905 Albert Einstein Published his Special Theory of Relativity. 1905 Albert Einstein Explained the photoelectric effect (1839), i.e. that shining light on certain materials can function to eject electrons from the material, he postulated as based on Planck's quantum hypothesis (1900), that light itself consists of individual quantum particles (photons). 1907 Ernest Rutherford To test the plum pudding model (1904), he fired positively charged alpha particles at gold foil and noticed that some bounced back, thus showing that atoms have a small-sized positively charged atomic nucleus at its center. 1909 Geoffrey Ingram Taylor Demonstrated that interference patterns of light were generated even when the light energy introduced consisted of only one photon. This discovery of the wave–particle duality of matter and energy was fundamental to the later development of quantum field theory. 1909 and 1916 Albert Einstein Showed that, if Planck's law of black-body radiation is accepted, the energy quanta must also carry momentum p = h / λ, making them full-fledged particles, albeit with no "rest mass." 1911 Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn Performed an experiment that showed that the 800 energies of electrons emitted by beta decay had a continuous rather than discrete spectrum. This was in apparent contradiction to the law of conservation of energy, as it appeared that energy was lost in the beta decay process. A second problem was that the spin of the Nitrogen-14 atom was 1, in contradiction to the Rutherford prediction of ½. These anomalies were later explained by the discoveries of the neutrino and the neutron. 1912 Henri Poincaré Published an influential mathematical argument in support of the essential nature of energy quanta. 1913 Robert Andrews Millikan Publishes the results of his "oil drop" experiment, in which he precisely determines the electric charge of the electron. Determination of the fundamental unit of electric charge made it possible to calculate the Avogadro constant (which is the number of atoms or molecules in one mole of any substance) and thereby to determine the atomic weight of the atoms of each element. 1913 Niels Bohr To explain the Rydberg formula (1888), which correctly modeled the light emission spectra of atomic hydrogen, Bohr hypothesized that negatively charged electrons revolve around a positively charged nucleus at certain fixed "quantum" distances and that each of these "spherical orbits" has a specific energy associated with it such that electron movements between orbits requires "quantum" emissions or 801 absorptions of energy. 1911 Ștefan Procopiu Performed experiments in which he determined the correct value of electron's magnetic dipole moment, μB = 9.27×10−21 erg·Oe−1 1916 Gilbert N. Lewis Developed the Lewis dot structures that ultimately led to a complete understanding of the electronic covalent bond that forms the fundamental basis for our understanding of chemistry at the atomic level; he also coined the term "photon" in 1926. 1916 Arnold Sommerfeld To account for the Zeeman effect (1896), i.e. that atomic absorption or emission spectral lines change when the light is first shone through a magnetic field, he suggested there might be "elliptical orbits" in atoms in addition to spherical orbits. 1918 Ernest Rutherford Noticed that, when alpha particles were shot into nitrogen gas, his scintillation detectors showed the signatures of hydrogen nuclei. Rutherford determined that the only place this hydrogen could have come from was the nitrogen, and therefore nitrogen must contain hydrogen nuclei. He thus suggested that the hydrogen nucleus, which was known to have an atomic number of 1, was an elementary particle, which he decided must be the protons hypothesized by Eugen Goldstein (1886). 1919 Irving Langmuir Building on the work of Lewis (1916), he coined the term "covalence" and postulated that coordinate covalent bonds occur when the 802 electrons of a pair come from the same atom, thus explaining the fundamental nature of chemical bonding and molecular chemistry. 1922 Arthur Compton Found that X-ray wavelengths increase due to scattering of the radiant energy by "free electrons." The scattered quanta have less energy than the quanta of the original ray. This discovery, now known as the "Compton effect" or "Compton scattering", demonstrates the "particle" concept of electromagnetic radiation. 1922 Otto Stern and Walther Stern–Gerlach experiment detects discrete Gerlach values of angular momentum for atoms in the ground state passing through an inhomogeneous magnetic field leading to the discovery of the spin of the electron. 1923 Louis de Broglie Postulated that electrons in motion are associated with waves the lengths of which are given by Planck's constant h divided by the momentum of the mv = p of the electron: λ = h / mv = h / p. 1924 Satyendra Nath Bose His work on quantum mechanics provides the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics, the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate, and the discovery of the boson. 1925 Friedrich Hund Outlined the "rule of maximum multiplicity" which states that, when electrons are added successively to an atom, as many levels or orbits are singly occupied as possible before any pairing of electrons with opposite spin occurs, and also made the distinction that the inner electrons in molecules remain in their atomic 803 orbitals and only the valence electrons need occupy the molecular orbitals involving both nuclei of the atoms participating in a covalent bond. 1925 Werner Heisenberg Developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. 1925 Wolfgang Pauli Outlined the "Pauli exclusion principle" which states that no two identical fermions may occupy the same quantum state simultaneously. 1926 Gilbert Lewis Coined the term photon, which he derived from the Greek word for light, φως (transliterated phôs). 1926 Erwin Schrödinger Used De Broglie's electron wave postulate (1924) to develop a "wave equation" that represents mathematically the distribution of a charge of an electron distributed through space, being spherically symmetric or prominent in certain directions, i.e. directed valence bonds, which gave the correct values for spectral lines of the hydrogen atom. 1927 1927 Charles Drummond Finally established clearly that the beta decay Ellis (along with James spectrum is really continuous, ending all Chadwick and colleagues) controversies. Walter Heitler Used Schrödinger's wave equation (1926) to show how two hydrogen atom wavefunctions join together, with plus, minus, and exchange terms, to form a covalent bond. 1927 Robert Mulliken In 1927 Mulliken worked, in coordination with Hund, to develop a molecular orbital theory where electrons are assigned to states that 804 extend over an entire molecule and in 1932 introduced many new molecular orbital terminologies, such as σ bond, π bond, and δ bond. 1928 Paul Dirac In the Dirac equations, Paul Dirac integrated the principle of special relativity with quantum electrodynamics and thereby hypothesized the existence of the positron. 1928 Linus Pauling Outlined the nature of the chemical bond in which he used Heitler's quantum mechanical covalent bond model (1927) to describe the quantum mechanical basis for all types of molecular structure and bonding, thereby suggesting that different types of bonds in molecules can become equalized by the rapid shifting of electrons, a process called "resonance" (1931), such that resonance hybrids contain contributions from the different possible electronic configurations. 1929 John Lennard-Jones Introduced the linear combination of atomic orbitals approximation for the calculation of molecular orbitals. 1930 Wolfgang Pauli In a famous letter written by him, Pauli suggested that, in addition to electrons and protons, atoms also contained an extremely light neutral particle which he called the "neutron". He suggested that this "neutron" was also emitted during beta decay and had simply not yet been observed. Later it was determined that this particle was actually the almost massless neutrino. 805 1931 Walther Bothe and Herbert Found that, if the very energetic alpha Becker particles emitted from polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium, boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. At first this radiation was thought to be gamma radiation, although it was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were very difficult to interpret on this basis. Some scientists began to hypothesize the possible existence of another fundamental, atomic particle. 1932 Irène Joliot- Showed that if the unknown radiation generated Curie and Frédéric Joliot by alpha particles fell on paraffin or any other hydrogen-containing compound, it ejected protons of very high energy. This was not in itself inconsistent with the proposed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but detailed quantitative analysis of the data became increasingly difficult to reconcile with such a hypothesis. 1932 James Chadwick Performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis for the unknown radiation produced by alpha particles was untenable, and that the new particles must be the neutrons hypothesized by Enrico Fermi. Chadwick suggested that, in fact, the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles of approximately the same mass as the proton, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his suggestion. 806 1932 Werner Heisenberg Applied perturbation theory to the two-electron problem and showed how resonance arising from electron exchange could explain exchange forces. 1932 Mark Oliphant Building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments of Ernest Rutherford done a few years earlier, fusion of light nuclei (hydrogen isotopes) was first observed by Oliphant in 1932. The steps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were subsequently worked out by Hans Bethe throughout the remainder of that decade. 1932 Carl D. Anderson Experimentally proves the existence of the positron. 1933 Leó Szilárd First theorized the concept of a nuclear chain reaction. He filed a patent for his idea of a simple nuclear reactor the following year. 1934 Enrico Fermi Studies the effects of bombarding uranium isotopes with neutrons. 1934 N. N. Semyonov Develops the total quantitative chain chemical reaction theory. The idea of the chain reaction, developed by Semyonov, is the basis of various high technologies using the incineration of gas mixtures. The idea was also used for the description of the nuclear reaction. 1935 Hideki Yukawa Published his hypothesis of the Yukawa Potential and predicted the existence of the pion, stating that such a potential arises from the exchange of a massive scalar field, such as would be found in the field of the pion. Prior to Yukawa's paper, it was believed that the scalar 807 fields of the fundamental forces necessitated massless particles. 1936 Carl D. Anderson Discovered muons while studying cosmic radiation. 1937 Carl Anderson Experimentally proved the existence of the pion. 1938 Charles Coulson Made the first accurate calculation of a molecular orbital wavefunction with the hydrogen molecule. 1938 Otto Hahn, Fritz Hahn and Strassmann sent a manuscript to Strassmann, Lise Meitner, Naturwissenschaften reporting they had and Otto Robert Frisch detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons. Simultaneously, they communicated these results to Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. 1939 Leó Szilárd and Enrico Discovered neutron multiplication in uranium, Fermi proving that a chain reaction was indeed possible. 1942 Kan-Chang Wang First proposed the use of beta capture to experimentally detect neutrinos. 1942 Enrico Fermi Created the first artificial self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, called Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1), in a racquets court below the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago on December 2, 1942. 1945 Manhattan Project First nuclear fission explosion. 1947 G. D. Rochester and C. C. Published two cloud chamber photographs of Butler cosmic ray-induced events, one showing what 808 appeared to be a neutral particle decaying into two charged pions, and one which appeared to be a charged particle decaying into a charged pion and something neutral. The estimated mass of the new particles was very rough, about half a proton's mass. More examples of these "Vparticles" were slow in coming, and they were soon given the name kaons. 1948 Sin-Itiro Independently introduced perturbative Tomonaga and Julian renormalization as a method of correcting the Schwinger original Lagrangian of a quantum field theory so as to eliminate an infinite series of counterterms that would otherwise result. Clemens C. J. Derived the Roothaan-Hall equations, putting Roothaan and George G. rigorous molecular orbital methods on a firm Hall basis. 1952 Manhattan Project First explosion of a thermonuclear bomb. 1952 Herbert S. Gutowsky Physical chemistry of solids investigated 1951 by NMR: structure, spectroscopy and relaxation 1952 Charles P. Slichter Introduced Chemical shifts, NQR in solids, the first NOE experiments 1952 Albert W. Overhauser First investigation of dynamic polarization in solids/NOE-Nuclear Overhauser Effect 1953 *1958—1959 Charles H. Built and reported the first ammonia maser; Townes (collaborating received a Nobel prize in 1964 for his with James P. Gordon, experimental success in producing coherent and Herbert J. Zeiger) radiation by atoms and molecules. Edward Raymond Andrew, described the technique of magic angle A. Bradbury, and R. G. spinning. Eades; and independently, I. J. Lowe 809 1956 P. Kuroda Predicted that self-sustaining nuclear chain reactions should occur in natural uranium deposits. 1956 1957 Clyde L. Experimentally proved the existence of the Cowan and Frederick Reines neutrino. William Alfred In their 1957 paper Synthesis of the Elements in Fowler, Margaret Stars, they explained how the abundances of Burbidge, Geoffrey essentially all but the lightest chemical elements Burbidge, and Fred Hoyle could be explained by the process of nucleosynthesis in stars. 1961 Claus Jönsson Performed Young's double-slit experiment (1909) for the first time with particles other than photons by using electrons and with similar results, confirming that massive particles also behaved according to the wave–particle duality that is a fundamental principle of quantum field theory. 1964 Murray Gell- Independently proposed the quark model of Mann and George Zweig hadrons, predicting the arbitrarily named up, down, and strange quarks. GellMann is credited with coining the term "quark", which he found in James Joyce's book Finnegans Wake. 1968 Stanford University Deep inelastic scattering experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) showed that the proton contained much smaller, point-like objects and was therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists at the time were reluctant to identify these objects with quarks, instead calling them "partons" — a term coined by Richard Feynman. The objects that were 810 observed at SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks. Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and gluons). The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by the SLAC's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's threequark model, but it provided an explanation for the kaon (K) and pion (π) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947. 1974 Pier Giorgio Merli Performed Young's double-slit experiment (1909) using a single electron with similar results, confirming the existence of quantum fields for massive particles. 1995 Eric Cornell, Carl The first "pure" Bose–Einstein condensate was Wieman and Wolfgang created by Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and co- Ketterle workers at JILA. They did this by cooling a dilute vapor consisting of approximately two thousand rubidium-87 atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of laser cooling and magnetic evaporative cooling. About four months later, an independent effort led by Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT created a condensate made of sodium-23. Ketterle's condensate had about a hundred times more atoms, allowing him to obtain several important results such as the observation of quantum mechanical interference between two different condensates. 2000 CERN CERN scientists published experimental results in which they claimed to have observed indirect 811 evidence of the existence of a quark–gluon plasma, which they call a "new state of matter". Timeline of nuclear fusion 1920s  1920 o Based on F.W. Aston's measurements of the masses of low-mass elements and Einstein's discovery that E=mc2, Arthur Eddington proposes that large amounts of energy released by fusing small nuclei together provides the energy source that powers the stars. o Henry Norris Russell notes that the relationship in the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram suggests a hot core rather than burning throughout the star. Eddington uses this to calculate that the core would have to be about 40 million Kelvin. This remains a matter of some debate because it appears to be much higher than what observations suggest, which is about one-third to one-half that value.  1928 o  George Gamow introduces the mathematical basis for quantum tunnelling. 1929 o Atkinson and Houtermans provide the first calculations of the rate of nuclear fusion in stars. Based on Gamow's tunnelling, they show fusion can occur at lower energies than previously believed. When used with Eddington's calculations of the required fusion rates in stars, their calculations demonstrate this would occur at the lower temperatures that Eddington had calculated. 1930s  1932 812 o Ernest Rutherford's Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge University begins nuclear experiments with a particle accelerator built by John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton. o In April, Walton produces the first man-made fission by using protons from the accelerator to split lithium into alpha particles. o Using an updated version of the equipment firing deuterium rather than hydrogen, Mark Oliphant discovered helium-3 and tritium, and that heavy hydrogen nuclei could be made to react with each other. This is the first direct demonstration of fusion in the lab.  1938 o Kantrowitz and Jacobs of the NACA Langley Research Center built a toroidal magnetic bottle and heat the plasma with a 150 W radio source. Hoping to heat the plasma to millions of degrees, the system fails to do so and they abandon it. This is the first attempt to make a working fusion reactor.  1939 o Peter Thonemann develops a detailed plan for a pinch device, but is told to do other work for his thesis. o Hans Bethe provides detailed calculations of the proton–proton chain reaction that powers stars. This work results in a Nobel Prize for Physics. 1940s  1948 o Tuck and Ware built a prototype pinch device out of old radar parts at Imperial University. 1950s  1950 o The tokamak, a type of magnetic confinement fusion device, was proposed by Soviet scientists Andrei Sakharov and Igor Tamm. 813  1951 o Edward Teller and Stanislaw Ulam at Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) develop the Teller-Ulam design for the thermonuclear weapon, allowing for the development of multi-megaton weapons. o Fusion work in the UK is classified after the Klaus Fuchs affair. o A press release from Argentina claims that their Huemul Project had produced controlled nuclear fusion. This prompted a wave of responses in other countries, especially the U.S.  Lyman Spitzer dismisses the Argentinian claims, but while thinking about it comes up with the stellarator concept. Funding is arranged under Project Matterhorn and develops into the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory.  Tuck introduces the British pinch work to LANL. He develops the Perhapsatron under the codename Project Sherwood. The project name is a play on his name via Friar Tuck.  Richard F. Post presents his magnetic mirror concept and also receives initial funding, eventually moving to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL).  In the UK, repeated requests for more funding that had previously been turned down are suddenly approved. Within a short time, three separate efforts are started, one at Harwell and two at Atomic Weapons Establishment (Aldermaston). Early planning for a much larger machine at Harwell begins.  Using the Huemul release as leverage, Soviet researchers find their funding proposals rapidly approved. Work on linear pinch machines begins that year.  1952 o Ivy Mike shot off Operation Ivy, the first detonation of a thermonuclear weapon, yields 10.4 megatons of TNT out of a fusion fuel of liquid deuterium. 814 o Cousins and Ware build a larger toroidal pinch device in England and demonstrated that the plasma in pinch devices is inherently unstable.  1953 o The Soviet RDS-6S test, code named "Joe 4", demonstrated a fission/fusion/fission ("Layercake") design for a nuclear weapon. o Linear pinch devices in the US and USSR attempted to take the reactions to fusion levels without worrying about stability. Both reported detections of neutrons, which were later explained as non-fusion in nature.  1954 o Early planning for the large ZETA device at Harwell begins. The name is a takeoff on small experimental fission reactors which often had "zero energy" in their name, ZEEP being an example. o Edward Teller gives a now-famous speech on plasma stability in magnetic bottles at the Princeton Gun Club. His work suggests that most magnetic bottles are inherently unstable, outlining what is today known as the interchange instability.  1955 o At the first Atoms for Peace meeting in Geneva, Homi J. Bhabha predicts that fusion will be in commercial use within two decades. This prompts a number of countries to begin fusion research; Japan, France and Sweden all start programs this year or the next.  1956 o Experimental research of tokamak systems started at Kurchatov Institute, Moscow by a group of Soviet scientists led by Lev Artsimovich. o Construction of ZETA begins at Harwell. o Igor Kurchatov gives a talk at Harwell on pinch devices, revealing for the first time that the USSR is also working on fusion. He details the problems they are seeing, mirroring those in the US and UK. o In August, a number of articles on plasma physics appear in various Soviet journals. 815 o In the wake of the Kurchatov's speech, the US and UK begin to consider releasing their own data. Eventually they settle on a release prior to the 2nd Atoms for Peace conference in Geneva.  1957 o In the US, at LANL, Scylla I achieved the first controlled thermonuclear plasma through the development of a θ-pinch design, a derivative of earlier Z-pinch Perhapsatron device experiments. o ZETA is completed in the summer, it will be the largest fusion machine for a decade. o Initial results in ZETA appear to suggest the machine has successfully reached basic fusion temperatures. UK researchers start pressing for public release, while the US demurs. o Scientists at the AEI Research laboratory in Harwell reported that the Sceptre III plasma column remained stable for 300 to 400 microseconds, a dramatic improvement on previous efforts. Working backward, the team calculated that the plasma had an electrical resistivity around 100 times that of copper, and was able to carry 200 kA of current for 500 microseconds in total.  1958 o In January, the US and UK release large amounts of data, with the ZETA team claiming fusion. Other researchers, notably Artsimovich and Spitzer, are skeptical. In May, the claims of fusion have to be retracted. o American, British and Soviet scientists began to share previously classified controlled fusion research as part of the Atoms for Peace conference in Geneva in September. It is the largest international scientific meeting to date. It becomes clear that basic pinch concepts are not successful. o With Scylla I, Tuck's team at Los Alamos followed up their plasma breakthrough from the prior year to demonstrate the first controlled thermonuclear fusion in any laboratory. Though it came too late to be announced at Geneva. This θpinch approach will ultimately be abandoned as calculations show it cannot scale up to produce a reactor. 816 1960s  1960 o After considering the concept for some time, John Nuckolls publishes the concept of inertial confinement fusion. The laser, introduced the same year, appears to be a suitable "driver".  1961 o The Soviet Union test the Tsar Bomba (50 megatons), the most powerful thermonuclear weapon ever.  1964 o Plasma temperatures of approximately 40 million degrees Celsius and a few billion deuteron-deuteron fusion reactions per discharge were achieved at LANL with the Scylla IV device  1965 o At an international meeting at the UK's new fusion research centre in Culham, the Soviets release early results showing greatly improved performance in toroidal pinch machines. The announcement is met by scepticism, especially by the UK team who's ZETA was largely identical. o At the same meeting, odd results from the ZETA machine are published. Studying these effects leads to the reversed field pinch concept. o By the end of the meeting, it is clear that most fusion efforts have stalled. All of the major designs, including the stellarator, pinch machines and magnetic mirrors are all losing plasma at rates that are simply too high to be useful in a reactor setting. Less-known designs like the levatron and astron are faring no better. o The 12-beam "4 pi laser" using ruby as the lasing medium is developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) includes a gas-filled target chamber of about 20 centimeters in diameter.  1967 817 o Demonstration of Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor appeared to generate neutrons in a nuclear reaction. o Hans Bethe wins the 1967 Nobel Prize in physics for his publication on how fusion powers the stars in work of 1939.  1968 o Further results from the T-3 tokamak, similar to the toroidal pinch machine mentioned in 1965, claims temperatures to be over an order of magnitude higher than any other device. The Western scientists remain highly sceptical.  1969 o The Soviets invite a UK team from ZETA to perform independent measurements on T-3, confirming their results. This leads to a "veritable stampede" of tokamak construction around the world. 1970s  1970 o The Model C stellarator is quickly converted to the Symmetrical Tokamak, matching the Soviet results. With an apparent solution to the magnetic bottle problem in-hand, plans begin for a larger machine to test the scaling. o Kapchinskii and Teplyakov introduce a particle accelerator for heavy ions that appears suitable as an ICF driver in place of lasers.  1972 o The first neodymium-doped glass (Nd:glass) laser for ICF research, the "Long Path laser" is completed at LLNL and is capable of delivering ~50 joules to a fusion target.  1973 o  Design work on JET, the Joint European Torus, begins. 1974 o J.B. Taylor re-visited ZETA results of 1958 and explained that the quiet-period was in fact very interesting. This led to the development of reversed field pinch, now generalised as "self-organising plasmas", an ongoing line of research. 818 o KMS Fusion was the only private sector company to pursue controlled thermonuclear fusion research using laser technology. Despite limited resources and numerous business problems KMS successfully demonstrated fusion from the Inertial Confinement Fusion (ICF) process. They achieved compression of a deuterium-tritium pellet from laser-energy in December 1973, and on May 1, 1974 carried out the world’s first successful laser-induced fusion. Neutronsensitive nuclear emulsion detectors, developed by Nobel Prize winner Robert Hofstadter, were used to provide evidence of this discovery. o Beams using mature high-energy accelerator technology are hailed as the elusive "brand-X" laser capable of driving fusion implosions for commercial power. The Livingston Curve, from Stanford SLAC Education Group, is modified to show the energy needed for fusion to occur. Experiments commence on the single beam LLNL Cyclops laser, testing new optical designs for future ICF lasers.  1975 o The Princeton Large Torus (PLT), the follow-on to the Symmetrical Tokamak, begins operation. It soon surpasses the best Soviet machines and sets several temperature records that are above what is needed for a commercial reactor. PLT continues to set records until it is decommissioned.  1976 o Workshop, called by the US-ERDA (now DoE) at the Claremont Hotel in Berkeley, CA for an ad-hoc two-week summer study. Fifty senior scientists from the major US ICF programs and accelerator laboratories participated, with program heads and Nobel laureates also attending. In the closing address, Dr. C. Martin Stickley, then Director of US-ERDA’s Office of Inertial Fusion, announced the conclusion was "no showstoppers" on the road to fusion energy. o The two beam Argus laser is completed at LLNL and experiments involving more advanced laser-target interactions commence. o Based on the continued success of the PLT, the DOE selects a larger Princeton design for further development. Initially designed simply to test a commercialsized tokamak, the DOE team gives them the explicit goal of running on a 819 deuterium-tritium fuel as opposed to test fuels like hydrogen or deuterium. The project is given the name Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor (TFTR).  1977 o The 20 beam Shiva laser at LLNL is completed, capable of delivering 10.2 kilojoules of infrared energy on target. At a price of $25 million and a size approaching that of a football field, the Shiva laser is the first of the "megalasers" at LLNL and brings the field of ICF research fully within the realm of "big science". o The JET project is given the go-ahead by the EC, choosing an ex-RAF airfield south east of Oxford, UK as its site.  1978 o As PLT continues to set new records, Princeton is given additional funding to adapt TFTR with the explicit goal of reaching breakeven.  1979 o LANL successfully demonstrates the radio frequency quadrupole accelerator (RFQ). o ANL and Hughes Research Laboratories demonstrate required ion source brightness with xenon beam at 1.5MeV. o Foster Panel reports to US-DoE's Energy Research and Advisory Board that High-energy heavy ion fusion (HIF) is the "conservative approach" to fusion power. Listing HIF's advantages in his report, John Foster remarked: "…now that is kind of exciting." After DoE Office of Inertial Fusion completed review of programs, Director Gregory Canavan decides to accelerate the HIF effort. 1980s  1982 820 o HIBALL study by German and US institutions, Garching uses the high repetition rate of the RF accelerator driver to serve four reactor chambers and first-wall protection using liquid lithium inside the chamber cavity. o Tore Supra construction starts at Cadarache, France. Its superconducting magnets will permit it to generate a strong permanent toroidal magnetic field. o  high-confinement mode (H-mode) discovered in tokamaks. 1983 o JET, the largest operational magnetic confinement plasma physics experiment is completed on time and on budget. First plasmas achieved. o The NOVETTE laser at LLNL comes on line and is used as a test bed for the next generation of ICF lasers, specifically the NOVA laser.  1984 o The huge 10 beam NOVA laser at LLNL is completed and switches on in December. NOVA would ultimately produce a maximum of 120 kilojoules of infrared laser light during a nanosecond pulse in a 1989 experiment.  1985 o National Academy of Sciences reviewed military ICF programs, noting HIF’s major advantages clearly but averring that HIF was "supported primarily by other [than military] programs". The review of ICF by the National Academy of Sciences marked the trend with the observation: "The energy crisis is dormant for the time being." Energy becomes the sole purpose of heavy ion fusion. o  The Japanese tokamak, JT-60 completed. First plasmas achieved. 1988 o The T-15, Soviet tokamak with superconducting helium-cooled coils completed. o The Conceptual Design Activity for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), the successor to T-15, TFTR, JET and JT-60, begins. Participants include EURATOM, Japan, the Soviet Union and United States. It ended in 1990. o  The first plasma produced at Tore Supra in April. 1989 821 o On March 23, two Utah electrochemists, Stanley Pons and Martin Fleischmann, announced that they had achieved cold fusion: fusion reactions which could occur at room temperatures. However, they made their announcements before any peer review of their work was performed, and no subsequent experiments by other researchers revealed any evidence of fusion. 1990s  1990 o Decision to construct the National Ignition Facility "beamlet" laser at LLNL is made.  1991 o The START Tokamak fusion experiment begins in Culham. The experiment would eventually achieve a record beta (plasma pressure compared to magnetic field pressure) of 40% using a neutral beam injector. It was the first design that adapted the conventional toroidal fusion experiments into a tighter spherical design.  1992 o The Engineering Design Activity for the ITER starts with participants EURATOM, Japan, Russia and United States. It ended in 2001. o The United States and the former republics of the Soviet Union cease nuclear weapons testing.  1993 o The TFTR tokamak at Princeton (PPPL) experiments with a 50% deuterium, 50% tritium mix, eventually producing as much as 10 megawatts of power from a controlled fusion reaction.  1994 o NIF Beamlet laser is completed and begins experiments validating the expected performance of NIF. o The USA declassifies information about indirectly driven (hohlraum) target design. 822 o Comprehensive European-based study of HIF driver begins, centered at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) and involving 14 laboratories, including USA and Russia. The Heavy Ion Driven Inertial Fusion (HIDIF) study will be completed in 1997.  1996 o A record is reached at Tore Supra: a plasma duration of two minutes with a current of almost 1 million amperes driven non-inductively by 2.3 MW of lower hybrid frequency waves (i.e. 280 MJ of injected and extracted energy). This result was possible due to the actively cooled plasma-facing components installed in the machine.  1997 o The JET tokamak in the UK produces 16 MW of fusion power - the current world record for fusion power. Four megawatts of alpha particle self-heating was achieved. o LLNL study compared projected costs of power from ICF and other fusion approaches to the projected future costs of existing energy sources. o  Groundbreaking ceremony held for the National Ignition Facility (NIF). 1998 o The JT-60 tokamak in Japan produced a high performance reversed shear plasma with the equivalent fusion amplification factor Qeq of 1.25 - the current world record of Q, fusion energy gain factor. o Results of European-based study of heavy ion driven fusion power system (HIDIF, GSI-98-06) incorporates telescoping beams of multiple isotopic species. This technique multiplies the 6-D phase space usable for the design of HIF drivers.  1999 o The United States withdraws from the ITER project. o The START experiment is succeeded by MAST. 2000s 823  2001 o Building construction for the immense 192-beam 500-terawatt NIF project is completed and construction of laser beam-lines and target bay diagnostics commences, expecting to take its first full system shot in 2010. o Negotiations on the Joint Implementation of ITER begin between Canada, countries represented by the European Union, Japan and Russia.  2002 o Claims and counter-claims are published regarding bubble fusion, in which a table-top apparatus was reported as producing small-scale fusion in a liquid undergoing acoustic cavitation. Like cold fusion (see 1989), it is later dismissed. o European Union proposes Cadarache in France and Vandellos in Spain as candidate sites for ITER while Japan proposes Rokkasho.  2003 o The United States rejoins the ITER project with China and Republic of Korea also joining. Canada withdraws.  o Cadarache in France is selected as the European Candidate Site for ITER. o Sandia National Laboratories begins fusion experiments in the Z machine. 2004 o The United States drops its own projects, recognising an inability to match EU progress (Fusion Ignition Research Experiment (FIRE)), and focuses resources on ITER.  2005 o Following final negotiations between the EU and Japan, ITER chooses Cadarache over Rokkasho for the site of the reactor. In concession, Japan is able to host the related materials research facility and granted rights to fill 20% of the project's research posts while providing 10% of the funding. o The NIF fires its first bundle of eight beams achieving the highest ever energy laser pulse of 152.8 kJ (infrared).  2006 824 o China's EAST test reactor is completed, the first tokamak experiment to use superconducting magnets to generate both the toroidal and poloidal fields.  2009 o Construction of the NIF reported as complete. o Ricardo Betti, the third Under Secretary, responsible for Nuclear Energy, testifies before Congress: "IFE [ICF for energy production] has no home". o Fusion Power Corporation files patent application for "Single Pass RF Driver", an RF Accelerator Driven HIF Process and Method. 2010s  2010 o HIF-2010 Symposium in Darmstadt Germany. Robert J Burke presented on Single Pass (Heavy Ion Fusion) HIF and Charles Helsley made a presentation on the commercialization of HIF within the decade.  2011 o May 23–26, Workshop for Accelerators for Heavy Ion Fusion at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, presentation by Robert J. Burke on "Single Pass Heavy Ion Fusion". The Accelerator Working Group publishes recommendations supporting moving RF accelerator driven HIF toward commercialization.  2012 o Stephen Slutz & Roger Vesey of Sandia National Labs publish a paper in Physical Review Letters presenting a computer simulation of the MagLIF concept showing it can produce high gain. According to the simulation, a 70 Mega Amp Z-pinch facility in combination with a Laser may be able to produce a spectacular energy return of 1000 times the expended energy. A 60 MA facility would produce a 100x yield. o JET announces a major breakthrough in controlling instabilities in a fusion plasma. o In August Robert J. Burke presents updates to the SPRFD HIF process and Charles Helsley presents the Economics of SPRFD at the 19th International HIF 825 Symposium at Berkeley, California. Industry was there in support of ion generation for SPRFD. o  Fusion Power Corporation SPRFD patent allowed in Russia. 2013 o China's EAST tokamak test reactor achieves a record confinement time of 30 seconds for plasma in the high-confinement mode (H-mode), thanks to improvements in heat dispersal from tokamak walls. This is an improvement of an order of magnitude with respect to state-of-the-art reactors.  2014 o US Scientists at NIF successfully generate more energy from fusion reactions than the energy absorbed by the nuclear fuel.  2015 o Germany conducts the first plasma discharge in Wendelstein 7-X, a large-scale stellarator capable of steady-state plasma confinement under fusion conditions.  2017 o China's EAST tokamak test reactor achieves a stable 101.2-second steady-state high confinement plasma, setting a world record in long-pulse H-mode operation on the night of July 3.  2018 o MIT scientists find a way to remove the excess heat from nuclear fusion reactors. Timeline of crystallography 18th Century  1723 – Moritz Anton Cappeller introduces the term ‘crystallography’.  1766 – Pierre-Joseph Macquer, in his Dictionnaire de Chymie, promotes mechanisms of crystallization based on the idea that crystals are composed of polyhedral molecules (primitive integrantes). 826  1772 – Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle develops geometrical ideas on crystal structure in his Essai de Cristallographie.  1781 – Abbé René Just Haüy (often termed the "Father of Modern Crystallography") discovers that crystals always cleave along crystallographic planes. Based on this observation, and the fact that the inter-facial angles in each crystal species always have the same value, Haüy concluded that crystals must be periodic and composed of regularly arranged rows of tiny polyhedra (molécules intégrantes). This theory explained why all crystal planes are related by small rational numbers (the law of rational indices).  1783 – Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle in the second edition of his Cristallographie uses the contact goniometer to discover the law of constant interfacial angles: angles are constant and characteristic for crystals of the same chemical substance.  1784 – René Just Haüy publishes his Law of Decrements: a crystal is composed of molecules arranged periodically in three dimensions.  1795 – René Just Haüy lectures on his Law of Symmetry: “[…] the manner in which Nature creates crystals is always obeying [...] the law of the greatest possible symmetry, in the sense that oppositely situated but corresponding parts are always equal in number, arrangement, and form of their faces”. 19th Century  1801 – René Just Haüy publishes his multi-volume Traité de Minéralogie in Paris. A second edition under the title Traité de Cristallographie was published in 1822.  1815 – René Just Haüy publishes his Law of Symmetry.  1815 – Christian Samuel Weiss, founder of the dynamist school of crystallography, develops a geometric treatment of crystals in which crystallographic axes are the basis for classification of crystals rather than Haüy’s polyhedral molecules.  1822 – Friedrich Mohs attempts to bring the molecular approach of Haüy and the geometric approach of Weiss into agreement. 827  1823 – Franz Ernst Neumann invents a system of crystal face notation, by using the reciprocals of the intercepts with crystal axes, which becomes the standard for the next 60 years.  1824 - Ludwig August Seeber conceives of the concept of using an array of discrete (molecular) points to represent a crystal.  1826 - Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim derives the 32 crystal classes by using the crystallographic restriction, consistent with Haüy’s laws, that only 2, 3, 4 and 6-fold rotational axes are permitted.  1830 - Johann F. C. Hessel publishes an independent geometrical derivation of the 32 point groups (crystal classes).  1839 - William Hallowes Miller invents zonal relations by projecting the faces of a crystal upon the surface of a circumscribed sphere. Miller indices are defined which form a notation system in crystallography for planes in crystal (Bravais) lattices.  1840 - Gabriel Delafosse, independently of Seeber, represents crystal structure as an array of discrete points generated by defined translations.  1842 - Moritz Frankenheim derives 15 different theoretical networks of points in space not dependent on molecular shape.  1848 - Louis Pasteur discovers that sodium ammonium tartrate can crystallize in left- and right-handed forms and showed that the two forms can rotate polarized light in opposite directions. This was the first demonstration of molecular chirality, and also the first explanation of isomerism.  1850 - Auguste Bravais derives the 14 space lattices.  1869 - Axel Gadolin, independently of Hessel, derives the 32 crystal classes using stereographic projection.  1879 - Leonhard Sohncke lists the 65 crystallographic point systems using rotations and reflections in addition to translations.  1891 - Derivation of the 230 space groups (by adding mirror-image symmetry to Sohncke’s work) by a collaborative effort of Evgraf Fedorov and Arthur Schoenflies. 828 Incandescent carbon particles, by the tens of millions, leap free of the log and wave like banners, as flame. Several hundred significantly different chemical reactions are now going on. For example, a carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms, coming out of the breaking cellulose, may lock together and form methane, natural gas. The methane, burning (combining with oxygen), turns into carbon dioxide and water, which also go up the flue. If two carbon atoms happen to come out of the wood with six hydrogen atoms, they are, agglomerately, ethane, which bums to become, also, carbon dioxide and water. Three carbons and eight hydrogens form propane, and propane is there, too, in the fire. Four carbons and ten hydrogens — butane. Five carbons … pentane. Six … hexane. Seven … heptane. Eight carbons and eighteen hydrogens—octane. All these compounds come away in the breaking of the cellulose molecule, and burn, and go up the chimney as carbon dioxide and water. Pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane have a collective name. Logs burning in a fireplace are making and burning gasoline. — John McPhee Change Request Software System release System update Evolution Release planning Impact analysis  1894 - William Barlow, using a sphere packing approach, independently derives the 230 space groups.  1895 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen on 8 November 1895 produced and detected electromagnetic radiation in a wavelength range now known as X-rays or Röntgen rays, an achievement that earned him the first Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. X-rays became the major mode of crystallographic research in the 20th century. 20th Century  1912 - Max von Laue discovers diffraction patterns from crystals in an x-ray beam.  1912 - Bragg diffraction, expressed through Bragg’s law, is first presented by Lawrence Bragg on 11 November 1912 to the Cambridge Philosophical Society.  1913 - Lawrence Bragg publishes the first observation of x-ray diffraction by crystals.  1914 - Max von Laue wins the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his discovery of the diffraction of X-rays by crystals."  1915 - William and Lawrence Bragg share the Nobel Prize in Physics "for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays."  1916 - Peter Debye and Paul Scherrer discover powder (polycrystalline) diffraction.  1917 - Alfred Hull independently discovers powder diffraction in researching the crystal structure of iron.  1923 - Roscoe Dickinson and Albert Raymond, and independently, H.J. Gonell and H. Mark, first show that an organic molecule, specifically hexamethylenetetramine, could be characterized by x-ray crystallography.  1923 - William H. Bragg and R.E. Gibbs elucidate the structure of quartz.  1926 - Victor Goldschmidt distinguishes between atomic and ionic radii and postulates some rules for atom substitution in crystal structures.  1928 - Felix Machatschki, working with Goldschmidt, shows that silicon can be replaced by aluminium in feldspar structures.  1928 - Kathleen Lonsdale uses x-rays to determine that the structure of benzene is a flat hexagonal ring. 829  1929 - Linus Pauling formulated a set of rules to describe the structure of complex ionic crystals.  1930 - Lawrence Bragg assembles the first classification of silicates, describing their structure in terms of grouping of SiO4 tetrahedra.  1934 - Arthur Patterson introduces the Patterson function which uses diffraction intensities to determine the interatomic distances within a crystal, setting limits to the possible phase values for the reflected x-rays.  1934 - The first volumes in the series of International Tables for Crystallography are published.  1936 - Peter Debye wins the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his contributions to our knowledge of molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and on the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases."  1937 - Clinton Joseph Davisson and George Paget Thomson share the Nobel Prize in physics "for their experimental discovery of the diffraction of electrons by crystals."  1946 - Foundation of the International Union of Crystallography.  1946 - James Batcheller Sumner shares the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized".  1949 - Clifford Shull opens a new field of magnetic crystallography based on neutron diffraction.  1950 - Karle and Hauptman introduce useful formulae for phase determination, known as Direct Methods.  1951 - Bijvoet and his colleagues, using anomalous scattering, confirm Emil Fischer’s arbitrary assignment of absolute configuration, in relation to the direction of optical rotation of polarized light, was correct in practice.  1951 - Linus Pauling determines the structure of the α-helix and the βsheet in polypeptide chains for which he won the 1954 Nobel prize in Chemistry.  1952 - David Sayre suggests that the phase problem could be more easily solved by having at least one more intensity measurement beyond those of the Bragg peaks in each dimension. This concept is understood today as oversampling. 830  1952 - Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Otto Fischer determine the structure of ferrocene, the first metallic sandwich compound, for which they win the 1973 Nobel prize in Chemistry.  1953 - Determination of the structure of DNA by 3 British teams, for which Watson, Crick and Wilkins win the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 (Franklin’s death in 1958 made her ineligible for the award).  1954 - Linus Pauling wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances", specifically the determination of the structure of the α-helix and the β-sheet in polypeptide chains.”  1960 - John Kendrew determines the structure of myoglobin for which he shares the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.  1960 - After many years of research, Max Perutz determines the structure of haemoglobin for which he shares the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.  1962 - Michael Rossmann and David Blow lay the foundation for the molecular replacement approach which provides phase information without requiring additional experimental effort.  1962 - Max Perutz and John Kendrew share the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for their studies of the structures of globular proteins", namely haemoglobin and myoglobin respectively  1962 - James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material," specifically for their determination of the structure of DNA.  1964 - Dorothy Hodgkin wins the Nobel Prize for Chemistry "for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances." The substances included penicillin and vitamin B12.  1967 - Hugo Rietveld invents the Rietveld refinement method for computation of crystal structures. 831  1968 - Aaron Klug and David DeRosier use electron microscopy to visualise the structure of the tail of bacteriophage T4, a common virus, thus signalling a breakthrough in macromolecular structure determination.  1968 - Dorothy Hodgkin, after 35 years of work, finally deciphers the structure of insulin.  1971 - Establishment of the Protein Data Bank (PDB). At PDB, Edgar Meyer develops the first general software tools for handling and visualizing protein structural data.  1973 - Alex Rich’s group publish the first report of a polynucleotide crystal structure that of the yeast transfer RNA (tRNA) for phenylalanine.  1973 - Geoffrey Wilkinson and Ernst Fischer share the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds”, specifically the structure of ferrocene.  1976 - William Lipscomb won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding.”  1978 - Stephen C. Harrison provides the first high-resolution structure of a virus: tomato bushy stunt virus which is icosahedral in form.  1980 - Jerome Karle and Wayne Hendrickson develop multi-wavelength anomalous dispersion (MAD) a technique to facilitate the determination of the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules via a solution of the phase problem.  1982 - Aaron Klug wins the Nobel Prize in Chemistry “for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes.”  1984 - Dan Shechtman discovers quasicrystals for which he receives the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011. These structures have no unit cell and no periodic translational order but have long-range bond orientational order, which generates a defined diffraction pattern.  1984 - Aaron Klug and his colleagues provide an advance in determining the structure of protein–nucleic acid complexes when they solve the structure of the 206kDa nucleosome core particle.  1985 - Jerome Karle shares the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Herbert A. Hauptman "for their outstanding achievements in the development of direct methods for the 832 determination of crystal structures". Karle developed the theoretical basis for multiplewavelength anomalous diffraction (MAD).  1985 - Hartmut Michel and his colleagues report the first high-resolution X-ray crystal structure of an integral membrane protein when they publish the structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre. Michel, Deisenhofer and Huber share the 1988 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this work.  1986 - Ernst Ruska shares the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his fundamental work in electron optics, and for the design of the first electron microscope".  1986 - Johann Deisenhofer, Robert Huber and Hartmut Michel share the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre."  1991 - Georg E. Schulz and colleagues report the structure of a bacterial porin, a membrane protein with a cylindrical shape (a ‘β-barrel’).  1992 - The International Union of Crystallography changes the IUCr’s definition of a crystal to “any solid having an essentially discrete diffraction pattern” thus formally recognizing quasicrystals.  1994 - Abrahams et al. reported the structure of an F1-ATPase which uses the protonmotive force across the inner mitochondrial membrane to facilitate the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).  1994 - Bertram Brockhouse and Clifford Shull share the Nobel Prize in Physics "for pioneering contributions to the development of neutron scattering techniques for studies of condensed matter". Specifically, Brockhouse "for the development of neutron spectroscopy" and Shull "for the development of the neutron diffraction technique."  1997 - The X-ray crystal structure of bacteriorhodopsin was the first time the lipidic cubic phase (LCP) was used to facilitate the crystallization of a membrane protein; LCP has since been used to obtain the structures of many unique membrane proteins, including G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs).  1997 - Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker share one half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)" Walker determined the crystal structure of ATP synthase, and this 833 structure confirmed a mechanism earlier proposed by Boyer, mainly on the basis of isotopic studies. 21st Century  2000 - Hadju and his colleagues calculated that they could use Sayre’s ideas from the 1950s, to implement a ‘diffraction before destruction’ concept, using an X-ray freeelectron laser (XFEL).  2001 - Harry Noller’s group publish the 5.5-Å structure of the complete Thermus thermophilus 70S ribosome. This structure revealed that the major functional regions of the ribosome were based on RNA, establishing the primordial role of RNA in translation.  2001 - Roger Kornberg’s group publish the 2.8-Å structure of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RNA polymerase. The structure allowed both transcription initiation and elongation mechanisms to be deduced. Simultaneously, this group reported the structure of free RNA polymerase II, which contributed towards the eventual visualisation of the interaction between DNA, RNA, and the ribosome.  2007 - Two X-ray crystal structures of a GPCR, the human β2 adrenergic receptor, were published. Because many drugs elicit their biological effect(s) by binding to a GPCR, the structures of these and other GPCRs may be used to develop efficacious drugs with few side effects.  2009 - Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath share the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome."  2011 - Dan Shechtman receives the Nobel Prize in chemistry "for the discovery of quasicrystals."  2017 - Jacques Dubochet, Joachim Frank and Richard Henderson share the Nobel Prize in chemistry "for developing cryo-electron microscopy for the high-resolution structure determination of biomolecules in solution." Timeline of scientific computing 18th century 834  1733 - The French naturalist Comte de Buffon poses his needle problem.  Euler comes up with a simple numerical method for integrands. 19th century  First formulation of Gram-Schmidt orthogonalisation by Laplace, to be further improved decades later.  Babbage in 1822, began work on a machine made to compute/calculate values of polynomial functions automatically by using the method of finite differences. This was eventually called the Difference engine.  Lovelace's note G on the Analytical Engine (1842) describes an algorithm for generating Bernoulli numbers. It is considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer, and thus the first-ever computer programme. The engine was never completed, however, so her code was never tested.  Adams-Bashforth method published.  In applied mathematics, Jacobi develops technique for solving numerical equations.  To help with computing tides, Harmonic Analyser is built in 1886. 1900s (decade)  1900 - Carl Runge and Martin Kutta invent the Runge-Kutta method for approximating integration for differential equations. 1910s (decade)  1910 - A-M Cholesky creates a matrix decomposition scheme.  Richardson extrapolation introduced. 1920s  1922 - Lewis Fry Richardson introduces numerical weather forecasting by manual calculation, using methods originally developed by Vilhelm Bjerknes as early as 1895. 835  1926 - Grete Hermann publishes foundational paper for computer algebra, which established the existence of algorithms (including complexity bounds) for many of the basic problems of abstract algebra, such as ideal membership for polynomial rings.  1927 - Douglas Hartree creates what is later known as the Hartree–Fock method, the first ab initio quantum chemistry methods. However, manual solutions of the Hartree– Fock equations for a medium-sized atom were laborious and small molecules required computational resources far beyond what was available before 1950. 1930s This decade marks the first major strides to a modern computer, and hence the start of the modern era.  Fermi's Rome physics research group (informal name I ragazzi di Via Panisperna) develop statistical algorithms based on Comte de Buffon's work, that would later become the foundation of the Monte Carlo method.  Shannon explains how to use electric circuits to do Boolean algebra in "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits"  John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create the first electronic non-programmable, digital computing device, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, from 1937-42.  Complex number calculator created by Stibitz. 1940s  1947 - Monte Carlo simulation (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) invented at Los Alamos by von Neumann, Ulam and Metropolis.  George Dantzig introduces the simplex method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) in 1947.  Ulam and von Neumann introduce the notion of cellular automata.  Turing formulated the LU decomposition method. 836  A. W. H. Phillips invents the MONIAC hydraulic computer at LSE, better known as "Phillips Hydraulic Computer".  First hydro simulations occurred at Los Alamos. 1950s  First successful weather predictions on a computer occurred.  Hestenes, Stiefel, and Lanczos, all from the Institute for Numerical Analysis at the National Bureau of Standards, initiate the development of Krylov subspace iteration methods. Voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century.  Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines introduces the Metropolis– Hastings algorithm.  Molecular dynamics invented by Bernie Alder and Wainwright  A S Householder invents his eponymous matrices and transformation method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).  1953 - Enrico Fermi, John Pasta, Stanislaw Ulam, and Mary Tsingou discover the Fermi– Pasta–Ulam–Tsingou problem through computer simulations of a vibrating string.  A team led by John Backus develops the FORTRAN compiler and programming language at IBM's research centre in San Jose, California. This sped the adoption of scientific programming, and is one of the oldest extant programming languages, as well as one of the most popular in science and engineering. 1960s  1960 - First recorded use of the term "finite element method" by Ray Clough to describe the earlier methods of Richard Courant, Alexander Hrennikoff and Olgierd Zienkiewicz in structural analysis.  1961 - John G.F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya invent QR factorization (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).  1963 - Edward Lorenz discovers the butterfly effect on a computer, attracting interest in chaos theory. 837 Economics Theoretical Economics Normative Economics Micro Economics Applied Economics Positive Economics Macro Economics Mathematical Economics The climate crisis is both the easiest and the hardest issue we have ever faced. The easiest because we know what we must do. We must stop the emissions of greenhouse gases. The hardest because our current economics are still totally dependent on burning fossil fuels, and thereby destroying ecosystems in order to create everlasting economic growth. Greta Thunburg Human wants Necessities Comforts Luxuries Harmless Luxuries Harmful Luxuries Necessities Necessities Conventional for existence for efficiency Necessities Gregory Mankiw's 10 Principles of Economics: Economics is the study of how society  People face trade-offs  The cost of something is what you give up to get it  Rational people think at the margin  People respond to incentives  Trade can make everyone better off  Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity  Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes  A country’s standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services  Prices rise when the government prints too much money  Society faces a short-run tradeoff between Inflation and unemployment manages its scarce resources. Greg Mankiw 4 key elements of economics:  Description  Analysis  Explanation  Prediction 4 types of population:  Finite Population (countable population)  Infinite Population (uncountable population)  Existent Population (population that exist in reality)  Hypothetical Population (what the population is expected to be) The first lesson of economics is scarcity: there is never enough of anything to fully satisfy all those who want it. The first lesson of politics is to disregard the first lesson of economics. Thomas Sowell Communication On the basis of relationship On the basis of flow  Formal  Vertical  Informal  Horizontal On the basis of expression  Verbal  Nonverbal   Oral Written   Downward Upward One-way communication process: Sender → Message → Channel → Receiver Two-way communication process: Information Receiver Sender Feedback The human world lives in a framework called global economics. We live in a system based on GDP, which drives consumption. It causes people to compete with each other through trade in a way that they all grow. John Sulston Communication channels Based on free propagation Based on guided propagation  Telephone channels  Wireless broadcast channels  Coaxial cable  Satellite channels  Optical fiber  Mobile radio channels Properties of metals:  Shiny metallic appearance  Solids at room temperature (except mercury)  High melting points if it does not exist then there is no reason for  High densities my economics course. Devoting time to the  Large atomic radii study of how people use limited resources to  Low ionization energies fulfill unlimited wants and needs should help Since scarcity is the basic economic problem, us to discover how to best utilize the resources we have at our disposal. Hydrogen gas is produced when metals Kurt Bills react with acids. For example, when zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid it produces zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. Zn + HCl → ZnCl2 + H2↑ Metal oxides are produced when metals burn in the presence of oxygen. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO List of Metals: Metal Ion Caesium (Cs) Cs+ Rubidium (Rb) Rb+ Potassium (K) K+ Sodium (Na) Na+ Lithium (Li) Li+ Barium (Ba) Ba2+ Strontium (Sr) Sr2+ Calcium (Ca) Ca2+ Magnesium (Mg) Mg2+ Reactivity Atomic Number Symbol Metal Element 3 Li Lithium 4 Be Beryllium 11 Na Sodium 12 Mg Magnesium 13 Al Aluminum 19 K Potassium 20 Ca Calcium 21 Sc Scandium 22 Ti Titanium 23 V Vanadium 24 Cr Chromium 25 Mn Manganese 26 Fe Iron 27 Co Cobalt 28 Ni Nickel 29 Cu Copper 30 Zn Zinc 31 Ga Gallium 37 Rb Rubidium 38 Sr Strontium 39 Y Yttrium 40 Zr Zirconium 41 Nb Niobium reacts with acids and 42 Mo Molybdenum steam 43 Tc Technetium 44 Ru Ruthenium 45 Rh Rhodium reacts with 46 Pd Palladium concentrated mineral 47 Ag Silver acids 48 Cd Cadmium reacts with cold water reacts very slowly with cold water, but rapidly in boiling water, and very vigorously with acids Beryllium (Be) Aluminum (Al) Titanium (Ti) Be2+ Al Ti 3+ 4+ 2+ Manganese (Mn) Mn Zinc (Zn) Iron (Fe) Cadmium (Cd) Cd2+ Cobalt (Co) Co2+ Antimony (Sb) Bismuth (Bi) Copper (Cu) Tungsten (W ) Mercury (Hg) Silver (Ag) Gold (Au) Platinum (Pt) reacts with acids; very 50 Sn Tin poor reaction with steam 55 Cs Cesium 56 Ba Barium 57 La Lanthanum 58 Ce Cerium 59 Pr Praseodymium 60 Nd Neodymium 61 Pm Promethium 62 Sm Samarium 63 Eu Europium 64 Gd Gadolinium 65 Tb Terbium 66 Dy Dysprosium 67 Ho Holmium 68 Er Erbium 69 Tm Thulium 70 Yb Ytterbium may react with some 71 Lu Lutetium strong oxidizing acids 72 Hf Hafnium 73 Ta Tantalum 74 W Tungsten 75 Re Rhenium 76 Os Osmium may react with some 77 Ir Iridium strong oxidizing acids 78 Pt Platinum 79 Au Gold 80 Hg Mercury 81 Tl Thallium 82 Pb Lead 83 Bi Bismuth 84 Po Polonium 87 Fr Francium 3+ Fe2+ Lead (Pb) Indium Zn Cr Tin (Sn) In 2+ Chromium (Cr) Nickel (Ni) 49 Ni2+ Sn2+ Pb2+ Sb3+ Bi3+ Cu2+ W 3+ Hg2+ + Ag Au3+ Pt 4+ reacts slowly with air 88 Ra Radium 89 Ac Actinium knowledge which has built itself upon methods and 90 Th Thorium instruments by which truth can presumably be 91 Pa Protactinium determined. It has survived and grown because all its 92 U Uranium precepts and principles can be re-tested at anytime and 93 Np Neptunium anywhere. So long as it remained the mysterious 94 Pu Plutonium alchemy by which a few devotees, by devious and 95 Am Americium dubious means, presumed to change baser metals into 96 Cm Curium gold, it did not flourish, but when it dealt with the fact 97 Bk Berkelium that 56 g. of fine iron, when heated with 32 g. of 98 Cf Californium flowers of sulfur, generated extra heat and gave exactly 99 Es Einsteinium 88 g. of an entirely new substance, then additional 100 Fm Fermium steps could be taken by anyone. Scientific research in 101 Md Mendelevium chemistry, since the birth of the balance and the 102 No Nobelium thermometer, has been a steady growth of test and 103 Lr Lawrencium observation. It has disclosed a finite number of 104 Rf Rutherfordium elementary reagents composing an infinite universe, 105 Db Dubnium and it is devoted to their inter-reaction for the benefit 106 Sg Seaborgium of mankind. 107 Bh Bohrium 108 Hs Hassium 109 Mt Meitnerium 110 Ds Darmstadtium 111 Rg Roentgenium 112 Cn Copernicium 113 Nh Nihonium Not all the metals react with bases and when they do 114 Fl Flerovium react, they produce metal salts and hydrogen gas. For 115 Mc Moscovium example: When zinc reacts with strong sodium 116 Lv Livermorium Chemistry is one of those branches of human Willis R. Whitney hydroxide it gives sodium zincate and hydrogen gas. Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2↑  1961 - Using computational investigations of the 3-body problem, Michael Minovitch formulates the gravity assist method.  1964 - Molecular dynamics invented independently by Aneesur Rahman.  1965 - Fast Fourier Transform developed by James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey.  1964 - Walter Kohn, with Lu Jeu Sham and Pierre Hohenberg, instigates the development of density functional theory, for which he shares the 1998 Nobel Chemistry Prize with John Pople. This contribution is arguably the earliest work to which Nobels were given for a computer program or computational technique. 1970s  1975 - Benoit Mandelbrot coins the term "fractal" to describe the self-similarity found in the Fatou, Julia and Mandelbrot sets. Fractals become the first mathematical visualization tool extensively explored with computing.  1977 - Kenneth Appel and Wolfgang Haken prove the four colour theorem, the first theorem to be proved by computer. 1980s  Fast multipole method (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century) invented by Vladimir Rokhlin and Leslie Greengard.  Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics developed by Roberto Car and Michele Parrinello 1990s  1990 - In computational genomics and sequence analysis, the Human Genome Project, an endeavour to sequence the entire human genome, begins.  1998 - Kepler conjecture is almost all but certainly proved algorithmically by Thomas Hales.  The appearance of the first research grids using volunteer computing GIMPS (1996), distributed.net (1997) and Seti@Home (1999). 838 2000s  2000 - The Human Genome Project completes a rough draft of human genome.  2003 - The Human Genome Project completed.  2002 - The BOINC architecture is launched in 2002. 2010s  Foldit players solve virus structure, one of the first cases of a game solving a scientific question. Timeline of computational physics 1930s  John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford Berry create the first electronic non-programmable, digital computing device, the Atanasoff–Berry Computer, that lasted from 1937 to 1942. 1940s  Nuclear bomb and ballistics simulations at Los Alamos and BRL, respectively.  Monte Carlo simulation (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century by Jack Dongarra and Francis Sullivan in the 2000 issue of Computing in Science and Engineering) is invented at Los Alamos by von Neumann, Ulam and Metropolis.  First hydrodynamic simulations performed at Los Alamos.  Ulam and von Neumann introduce the notion of cellular automata. 1950s  Equations of State Calculations by Fast Computing Machines introduces the Metropolis– Hastings algorithm. Also, important earlier independent work by Alder and S. Frankel. 839  Fermi, Ulam and Pasta with help from Mary Tsingou, discover the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam problem.  Research initiated into percolation theory.  Molecular dynamics is formulated by Alder and Wainwright. 1960s  Using computational investigations of the 3-body problem, Minovitch formulates the gravity assist method.  Glauber dynamics is invented for the Ising model.  Edward Lorenz discovers the butterfly effect on a computer, attracting interest in chaos theory.  Molecular dynamics is independently invented by Aneesur Rahman.  W Kohn instigates the development of density functional theory (with LJ Sham and P Hohenberg), for which he shared the Nobel Chemistry Prize (1998).  Kruskal and Zabusky follow up the Fermi–Pasta–Ulam problem with further numerical experiments, and coin the term "soliton".  Kawasaki dynamics is invented for the Ising model.  Frenchman Verlet (re)discovers a numerical integration algorithm, (first used in 1791 by Delambre, by Cowell and Crommelin in 1909, and by Carl Fredrik Störmer in 1907, hence the alternative names Störmer's method or the Verlet-Störmer method) for dynamics, and the Verlet list. 1970s  Computer algebra replicates the work of Delaunay in Lunar theory.  Veltman's calculations at CERN lead him and t'Hooft to valuable insights into Renormalizability of Electroweak theory. The computation has been cited as a key reason for the award of the Nobel prize that has been given to both. 840 Polymer A substance which has a molecular structure built up chiefly or completely from a large number of similar units bonded together Natural polymer Semi-synthetic polymer Synthetic polymer (Human-made polymers) I was working with these very long-chain … extended-chain polymers, where you had a lot of benzene rings in them. … Transforming a polymer solution from a liquid to a fiber requires a process called spinning. … We spun it and it spun beautifully. It [Kevlar] was very strong and very stiff—unlike anything we had made before. I knew that I had made a discovery. I didn’t shout “Eureka!” but I was very excited, as was the whole laboratory excited, and management was excited, because we were looking for something new. Something different. And this was it. Stephanie Kwolek Bactericidal Bacteriostatic A drug that kills bacteria A drug that prevents bacterial growth and reproduction  Penicillin  Erythromycin  Aminoglycosides  Tetracycline  Ofloxacin  Chloramphenicol Isomerism The phenomenon in which more than one compounds have the same chemical formula but different chemical structures Stereoisomerism Structural isomerism  Chain isomerism  Geometrical isomerism  Position isomerism  Optical isomerism  Functional group isomerism  Metamerism Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds: [Mitscherlich Law of Isomerism] An equal  Sublimation produce the same crystal forms, and the same crystal  Crystallization form does not depend on the nature of the atoms, but  Distillation only on their number and mode of combination.  Differential extraction  Chromatography number of atoms, combined in the same way — Eilhard Mitscherlich Hydrocarbons Aromatic compounds Unsaturated hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons in which all the carbon- Resonance structures containing Hydrocarbons in which all the carbon- carbon bonds are single bonds single and double bonds carbon bonds are double or triple bonds Saturated hydrocarbons The resulting acid rain reacts with marble, CaCO3 of Taj Mahal (CaCO3 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + H2O+ CO2) causing damage to this wonderful monument that has attracted people from around the world. Yves Chauvin, Institut Français du Pétrole, Rueil-Malmaison France, Robert H. Grubbs California Institute of Technology (Caltech), Pasadena, CA, USA and Richard R. Schrock Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA, USA won the 2005 Nobel Prize in chemistry for work that reduces hazardous waste in creating new chemicals. The trio won the award for their development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis – a way to rearrange groups of atoms within molecules that the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences likened to a dance in which couples change partners. The metathesis has tremendous commercial potential in the pharmaceuticals, biotechnology and food stuffs production industries. It is also used in the development of revolutionary environmentally-friendlier polymers. This represents a great step forward for ‘green chemistry’, reducing potentially hazardous waste through smarter production. Metathesis is an example of how important application of basic science is for the benefit of man, society and the environment. Dalton's Atomic Theory:  All matter is made of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.  All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties  Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms  A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms The Periodic Table is arguably the most important concept in chemistry, both in principle and in practice. It is the everyday support for students, it suggests new avenues of research to professionals, and it provides a succinct organization of the whole of chemistry. It is a remarkable demonstration of the fact that the chemical elements are not a random cluster of entities but instead display trends and lie together in families. An awareness of the Periodic Table is essential to anyone who wishes to disentangle the world and see how it is built up from the fundamental building blocks of the chemistry, the chemical elements. Glenn T. Seaborg  Hardy, Pomeau and de Pazzis introduce the first lattice gas model, abbreviated as the HPP model after its authors. These later evolved into lattice Boltzmann models.  Wilson shows that continuum QCD is recovered for an infinitely large lattice with its sites infinitesimally close to one another, thereby beginning lattice QCD. 1980s  Italian physicists Car and Parrinello invent the Car–Parrinello method.  Swendsen–Wang algorithm is invented in the field of Monte Carlo simulations.  Fast multipole method is invented by Rokhlin and Greengard (voted one of the top 10 algorithms of the 20th century).  U. Wolff invents the Wolff algorithm for statistical physics and Monte Carlo simulation. Timeline of the Manhattan Project 1939  August 2: Albert Einstein signs the letter (Einstein–Szilárd letter), authored by physicist Leó Szilárd and addressed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, advising him to fund research into the possibility of using nuclear fission as a weapon as Nazi Germany may also be conducting such research.  September 3: Great Britain and France declare war on Nazi Germany in response to its invasion of Poland, beginning World War II.  October 11: Economist Alexander Sachs meets with President Roosevelt and delivers the Einstein–Szilárd letter. Roosevelt authorizes the creation of the Advisory Committee on Uranium.  October 21: First meeting of the Advisory Committee on Uranium, headed by Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards; $6,000 is budgeted for neutron experiments. 1940 841  March 2: John R. Dunning's team at Columbia University verifies Niels Bohr's hypothesis that uranium 235 is responsible for fission by slow neutrons.  March: University of Birmingham-based scientists Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls author the Frisch–Peierls memorandum, calculate that an atomic bomb might need as little as 1 pound (0.45 kg) of enriched uranium to work. The memorandum is given to Mark Oliphant, who in turn hands it over to Sir Henry Tizard.  April 10: MAUD Committee established by Tizard to investigate feasibility of an atomic bomb.  May 21: George Kistiakowsky suggests using gaseous diffusion as a means of isotope separation.  June 12: Roosevelt creates the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) under Vannevar Bush, which absorbs the Uranium Committee.  September 6: Bush tells Briggs that the NDRC will provide $40,000 for the uranium project. 1941  February 25: Conclusive discovery of plutonium by Glenn Seaborg and Arthur Wahl at the University of California, Berkeley.  May 17: A report by Arthur Compton and the National Academy of Sciences is issued which finds favorable the prospects of developing nuclear power production for military use.  June 28: Roosevelt creates the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD) under Vannevar Bush with the signing of Executive Order 8807. OSRD absorbs NDRC and the Uranium Committee. James B. Conant succeeds Bush as the head of NDRC.  July 2: The MAUD Committee chooses James Chadwick to write the second (and final) draft of its report on the design and costs of developing a bomb.  July 15: The MAUD Committee issues final detailed technical report on design and costs to develop a bomb. Advance copy sent to Vannevar Bush who decides to wait for official version before taking any action. 842  August: Mark Oliphant travels to USA to urge development of a bomb rather than power production.  September 3: British Chiefs of Staff Committee approve nuclear weapons project.  October 3: Official copy of MAUD Report (written by Chadwick) reaches Bush.  October 9: Bush takes MAUD Report to Roosevelt, who approves Project to confirm MAUD's findings. Roosevelt asks Bush to draft a letter so that the British government could be approached "at the top."  December 6: Bush holds a meeting to organize an accelerated research project, still managed by Arthur Compton. Harold Urey is assigned to develop research into gaseous diffusion as a uranium enrichment method, while Ernest O. Lawrence is assigned to investigate electromagnetic separation methods which resulted in the invention of Calutron. Compton puts the case for plutonium before Bush and Conant.  December 7: The Japanese attack Pearl Harbor. The United States and Great Britain issue a formal declaration of war against Japan the next day.  December 11: The same day after Germany and Italy declares war on the United States, the United States declares war on Germany and Italy.  December 18: First meeting of the OSRD sponsored S-1 Section, dedicated to developing nuclear weapons. 1942  January 19: Roosevelt formally authorizes the atomic bomb project.  January 24: Compton decides to centralize plutonium work at the University of Chicago.  June 19: S-1 Executive Committee is formed, consisting of Bush, Conant, Compton, Lawrence and Urey.  June 25: S-1 Executive Committee selects Stone & Webster as primary contractor for construction at the Tennessee site.  July–September: Physicist Robert Oppenheimer convenes a summer conference at the University of California, Berkeley to discuss the design of a fission bomb. Edward Teller brings up the possibility of a hydrogen bomb as a major point of discussion. 843 Earthquake Tectonic Sudden tremor of the earth due to movements within the earth's crust Volcanic Occurs when the earth's crust breaks Results from tectonic forces due to geological forces on rocks which occur in conjunction and adjoining plates that cause with volcanic activity physical and chemical changes Collapse Small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines that are caused by seismic waves produced from the explosion of rock on the surface Result from the explosion of nuclear and chemical device causes  damage to buildings and infrastructure  Landslides and rockslides  Floods  Tsunamis  the soil to become saturated and lose its strength Explosion A first step in the study of civilization is to dissect it into details, and to classify these in their proper groups. Thus, in examining weapons, they are to be classed under spear, club, sling, bow and arrow, and so forth; among textile arts are to be ranged matting, netting, and several grades of making and weaving threads; myths are divided under such headings as myths of sunrise and sunset, eclipse-myths, earthquake-myths, local myths which account for the names of places by some fanciful tale, eponymic myths which account for the parentage of a tribe by turning its name into the name of an imaginary ancestor; under rites and ceremonies occur such practices as the various kinds of sacrifice to the ghosts of the dead and to other spiritual beings, the turning to the east in worship, the purification of ceremonial or moral uncleanness by means of water or fire. Such are a few miscellaneous examples from a list of hundreds … To the ethnographer, the bow and arrow is the species, the habit of flattening children’s skulls is a species, the practice of reckoning numbers by tens is a species. The geographical distribution of these things, and their transmission from region to region, have to be studied as the naturalist studies the geography of his botanical and zoological species. — Sir Edward Burnett Tylor  July 30: Sir John Anderson urges Prime Minister Winston Churchill to pursue a joint project with the United States.  August 13: The Manhattan Engineering District with James C. Marshall as District Engineer is established by the Chief of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, Major General Eugene Reybold, effective August 16.  September 17: Major General Wilhelm D. Styer and Reybold order Colonel Leslie Groves to take over the project.  September 23: Groves is promoted to brigadier general, and becomes director of the project. The Military Policy Committee, consisting of Bush (with Conant as his alternative), Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell is created to oversee the project.  September 26: The Manhattan Project is given permission to use the highest wartime priority rating by the War Production Board.  September 29: Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorizes the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) in Tennessee for Site X, which will become the Oak Ridge, Tennessee, laboratory and production site.  October 19: Groves appoints Oppenheimer to coordinate the scientific research of the project at the Site Y laboratory.  November 16: Groves and Oppenheimer visit Los Alamos, New Mexico and designate it as the location for Site Y.  December 2: Chicago Pile-1, the first nuclear reactor goes critical at the University of Chicago under the leadership and design of Enrico Fermi, achieving a self-sustaining reaction just one month after construction was started. 1943  January 16: Groves approves development of the Hanford Site.  February 9: Patterson approves acquisition of 400,000 acres (160,000 ha) at Hanford.  February 18: Construction begins for Y-12, a massive electromagnetic separation plant for enriching uranium at Oak Ridge.  April 1: Los Alamos laboratory is established. 844  April 5–14: Robert Serber delivers introductory lectures at Los Alamos, later are compiled into The Los Alamos Primer.  April 20: The University of California becomes the formal business manager of the Los Alamos laboratory.  Mid-1943: The S-1 Committee was eliminated by mid-1943, as it had been superseded by the Military Policy Committee.  June 2: Construction begins of K-25, the gaseous diffusion plant.  July: The president proclaims Los Alamos, Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) and Hanford Engineer Works (HEW) as military districts. The Governor of Tennessee Prentice Cooper was officially handed the proclamation making Oak Ridge a military district not subject to state control by a junior officer (a lieutenant) he tore it up and refused to see the MED District Engineer Lt-Col James C. Marshall. The new District Engineer Kenneth Nichols had to placate him.  July 10: First sample of plutonium arrives at Los Alamos.  August 13: First drop test of gun-type fission weapon at Dahlgren Proving Ground under the direction of Norman F. Ramsey.  August 13: Kenneth Nichols replaces Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District. One of his first tasks as district engineer is to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge, although its name did not change.  August 19: Roosevelt and Churchill sign Quebec Agreement.  September 8: First meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, established by the Quebec Agreement to coordinate the efforts of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. United States Secretary of War Henry Stimson, Bush and Conant are the American members; Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin are the British members, and C. D. Howe is the Canadian member.  October 10: Construction begins for the first reactor at the Hanford Site.  November 4: X-10 Graphite Reactor goes critical at Oak Ridge.  December 3: The British Mission, 15 scientists including Rudolf Peierls, Franz Simon and Klaus Fuchs, arrives at Newport News, Virginia. 845 1944  January 11: A special group of the Theoretical Division is created at Los Alamos under Edward Teller to study implosion.  March 11: Beta calutrons commence operation at Oak Ridge.  April 5: At Los Alamos, Emilio Segrè receives the first sample of reactor-bred plutonium from Oak Ridge, and within ten days discovers that the spontaneous fission rate is too high for use in a gun-type fission weapon (because of Pu-240 isotope present as an impurity in the Pu-239).  May 9: The world's third reactor, LOPO, the first aqueous homogeneous reactor, and the first fueled by enriched uranium, goes critical at Los Alamos.  July 4: Oppenheimer reveals Segrè's final measurements to the Los Alamos staff, and the development of the gun-type plutonium weapon "Thin Man" is abandoned. Designing a workable implosion design (Fat Man) becomes the top priority of the laboratory, and design of the uranium gun-type weapon (Little Boy) continued.  July 20: The Los Alamos organizational structure is completely changed to reflect the new priority.  September 2: Two chemists are killed, and Arnold Kramish almost killed, after being sprayed with highly corrosive hydrofluoric acid while attempting to unclog a uranium enrichment device which is part of the pilot thermal diffusion plant at the Philadelphia Navy Yard.  September 22: First RaLa test with a radioactive source performed at Los Alamos.  September 26: The largest nuclear reactor, the B reactor, goes critical at the Hanford Site.  Late November: Samuel Goudsmit, scientific head of the Alsos Mission, concludes, based on papers recovered in Strasbourg, that the Germans did not make substantial progress towards an atomic bomb or nuclear reactor, and that the programs were not even considered high priority.  December 14: Definite evidence of achievable compression obtained in a RaLa test.  December 17: 509th Composite Group formed under Colonel Paul W. Tibbets to deliver the bomb. 846 1945  January: Brigadier General Thomas Farrell is named Groves' deputy.  January 7: First RaLa test using exploding-bridgewire detonators.  January 20: First stages of K-25 are charged with uranium hexafluoride gas.  February 2: First Hanford plutonium arrives at Los Alamos.  April 22: Alsos Mission captures German experimental nuclear reactor at Haigerloch.  April 27: First meeting of the Target Committee.  May 7: Nazi Germany formally surrenders to Allied powers, marking the end of World War II in Europe; 100-ton test explosion at Alamogordo, New Mexico.  May 10: Second meeting of the Target Committee, at Los Alamos.  May 28: Third meeting which works to finalize the list of cities on which atomic bombs may be dropped: Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata and Kyoto.  May 30: Stimson drops Kyoto from the target list.  June 11: Metallurgical Laboratory scientists under James Franck issue the Franck Report arguing for a demonstration of the bomb before using it against civilian targets.  July 16: the first nuclear explosion, the Trinity nuclear test of an implosion-style plutonium-based nuclear weapon known as the gadget at Alamogordo; USS Indianapolis sails for Tinian with nuclear components on board.  July 19: Oppenheimer recommends to Groves that gun-type design be abandoned and the uranium-235 used to make composite cores.  July 24: President Harry S. Truman discloses to Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that the United States has atomic weapons. Stalin feigns little surprise; he already knows this through espionage.  July 25: General Carl Spaatz is ordered to bomb one of the targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata or Nagasaki as soon as weather permitted, some time after August 3.  July 26: Potsdam Declaration is issued, threatening Japan with "prompt and utter destruction". 847  August 6: B-29 Enola Gay drops Little Boy, a gun-type uranium-235 weapon, on the city of Hiroshima, the primary target.  August 9: B-29 Bockscar drops a Fat Man implosion-type plutonium weapon on the city of Nagasaki, the secondary target, as the primary, Kokura, is obscured by cloud and smoke.  August 12: The Smyth Report is released to the public, giving the first technical history of the development of the first atomic bombs.  August 14: Surrender of Japan to the Allied powers.  August 21: Harry Daghlian, a physicist, receives a fatal dose (510 rems) of radiation from a criticality accident when he accidentally dropped a tungsten carbide brick onto a plutonium bomb core. He dies on September 15.  September 4: Manhattan District orders shutdown of S-50 liquid thermal diffusion plant and the Y-12 Alpha plant.  September 8: Manhattan Project survey group under Farrell arrives in Nagasaki.  September 17: Survey group under Colonel Stafford L. Warren arrives in Nagasaki.  September 22: Last Y-12 alpha track ceases operating.  October 16: Oppenheimer resigns as director of Los Alamos, and is succeeded by Norris Bradbury the next day. 1946  February: News of the Russian spy ring in Canada exposed by defector Igor Gouzenko is made public, creating a mild "atomic spy" hysteria, pushing American Congressional discussions about postwar atomic regulation in a more conservative direction.  May 21: Physicist Louis Slotin receives a fatal dose of radiation (2100 rems) when the screwdriver he was using to keep two beryllium hemispheres apart slips.  July 1: Able test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads.  July 25: Underwater Baker test at Bikini.  August 1: Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 into law, ending almost a year of uncertainty about the control of atomic research in the postwar United States. 848 1947  January 1: the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (known as the McMahon Act) takes effect, and the Manhattan Project is officially turned over to the United States Atomic Energy Commission.  August 15: Manhattan District is abolished. Timeline of particle physics technology  1896 - Charles Wilson discovers that energetic particles produce droplet tracks in supersaturated gases  1897-1901 - Discovery of the Townsend discharge by John Sealy Townsend  1908 - Hans Geiger and Ernest Rutherford use the Townsend discharge principle to detect alpha particles.  1911 - Charles Wilson finishes a sophisticated cloud chamber  1928 - Hans Geiger and Walther Muller invent the Geiger Muller tube, which is based upon the gas ionisation principle used by Geiger in 1908, but is a practical device that can also detect beta and gamma radiation. This is implicitly also the invention of the Geiger Muller counter.  1934 - Ernest Lawrence and Stan Livingston invent the cyclotron  1945 - Edwin McMillan devises a synchrotron  1952 - Donald Glaser develops the bubble chamber  1968 - Georges Charpak and Roger Bouclier build the first multiwire proportional mode particle detection chamber Timeline of automobiles 1860 849 As the Director of the Theoretical Division of Los Alamos, I participated at the most senior level in the World War II Manhattan Project that produced the first atomic weapons. Now, at age 88, I am one of the few remaining such senior persons alive. Looking back at the half century since that time, I feel the most intense relief that these weapons have not been used since World War II, mixed with the horror that tens of thousands of such weapons have been built since that time—one hundred times more than any of us at Los Alamos could ever have imagined. Today we are rightly in an era of disarmament and dismantlement of nuclear weapons. But in some countries nuclear weapons development still continues. Whether and when the various Nations of the World can agree to stop this is uncertain. But individual scientists can still influence this process by withholding their skills. Accordingly, I call on all scientists in all countries to cease and desist from work creating, developing, improving and manufacturing further nuclear weapons - and, for that matter, other weapons of potential mass destruction such as chemical and biological weapons. [On the occasion of the 50th Anniversary of Hiroshima] — Hans Albrecht Bethe Each part of the project had a specific task. These tasks were carefully allocated and supervised so that the sum of their parts would result in the accomplishment of our over-all mission. I first met J. Robert Oppenheimer on October 8, 1942, at Berkeley, Calif. There we discussed the theoretical research studies he was engaged in with respect to the physics of the bomb. Our discussions confirmed my previous belief that we should bring all of the widely scattered theoretical work together. … He expressed complete agreement, and it was then that the idea of the prompt establishment of a Los Alamos was conceived. — Leslie Richard Groves I remember the spring of 1941 to this day. I realized then that a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable. … And I had then to start taking sleeping pills. It was the only remedy, I’ve never stopped since then. It’s 28 years, and I don’t think I’ve missed a single night in all those 28 years. — Sir James Chadwick Let us sum up the three possible explanations of the decision to drop the bomb and its timing. The first that it was a clever and highly successful move in the field of power politics, is almost certainly correct; the second, that the timing was coincidental, convicts the American government of a hardly credible tactlessness [towards the Soviet Union]; and the third, the Roman holiday theory [a spectacular event to justify the cost of the Manhattan Project], convicts them of an equally incredible irresponsibility. — Patrick M.S. Blackett Laser → light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation Used for  Cutting  Engraving  Drilling  Marking  Surface Modification  Surgery  Holographic Imaging  Information Processing Thomas Rickett's steam-powered car was particularly notable in the history of motor vehicle production inasmuch as several examples were made, and it was also advertised. UK. Steam: Rickett All insects hatch from eggs. The babies are called larva. 1861 US. Steam: Ware Steam Wagon 1873 The Bollée family played a significant part in the history of motor vehicle manufacture; the father with his steam car, and one of his sons, in 1895, with an internal-combustion engine design. France. Steam bus: Amédée Bollée The heaviest insect is probably the African goliath beetle (Megasoma elephas) weighing up to 3.4 oz. 1883 France. Steam: De Dion-Bouton (later internal-combustion, with a patent in 1889) 1884 Houseflies find sugar with their feet, France. Internal-combustion: Delamare-Deboutteville which are 10 million times more sensitive than human tongues. 1885 Karl Benz's vehicle was the first true automobile, entirely designed as such, rather than simply being a motorized stage coach or horse carriage. This is why he was granted his patent, and is regarded as its inventor. His wife and sons became the first true motorists, in 1889, when they took the car out for the specific task of paying a family visit. Germany. Internal-combustion: Benz Approximately 2,000 silkworm cocoons are needed to produce one pound of silk. UK. Internal-combustion: Butler 850 Austria-Hungary. Internal-combustion: Laurin & Klement (later Skoda) US. Electric: Armstrong Electric 1886 Honeybees have to make about Russian Empire. Motorcycle: Alexander Leutner & Co. ten million trips to collect enough nectar for production of one pound of honey. 1887 UK. Motorcycle: New Imperial 1889 The first Daimler car was a converted carriage, but with innovations that are still adopted today (cushioned engine mountings, fan cooling, finned-radiator water cooling). France. Steam: Peugeot (later internal-combustion, and the first to be entered in an organised race, albeit for bicycles, Paris–Brest–Paris) Germany. Internal-combustion: Daimler (DMG) To survive the cold of winter months, many insects replace their body water with a chemical called glycerol, which UK. Internal-combustion: Santler US. Internal-combustion rotary engine: Adams-Farwell acts as an "antifreeze" against the temperatures. 1890 Panhard and Levassor's design of a front-mounted engine established the layout of the majority of cars since then. About one-third of all insect species are France. Internal-combustion: Panhard-Levassor carnivorous and most hunt for their food rather than eating decaying meat or dung. 1891 US. Steam: Black; steam tractor: Avery; internal-combustion: Buckeye gasoline buggy 851 1893 France. Electric (and later internal-combustion): Jeantaud UK. Steam: Straker-Squire (also known as Brazil Straker) Insects do not breathe through their mouths. They inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide via holes called US. Internal-combustion: Elmore, Duryea spiracles in their exoskeletons. 1894 France. Internal-combustion: Audibert & Lavirotte, Berliet, Delahaye UK. Electric: Garrard & Blumfield All bugs are insects but not all insects are US. Electric: Electrobat bugs. 1895 France. Internal-combustion: Léon Bollée, Corre, Rochet-Schneider UK. Internal-combustion: Knight, Lanchester A ladybird might eat more than 5,000 US. Electric: Morris & Salom insects in its lifetime US. Internal-combustion: De La Vergne 1896 In the UK, the Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 replaced the hugely restrictive Locomotive Acts of 1861, 1865 and 1878 (the so-called Red Flag acts) thereby finally freeing up the automotive industry in the UK (and, incidentally, was also the origin of the celebrations of the first London to Brighton Veteran Car Run). Knight had been convicted under the old act, the previous year, for not having a man precede his vehicle with a red flag, and Walter Arnold was the first person to be convicted, in January 1896, for exceeding the speed limit. Meanwhile, Serpollet was issued with what was effectively the first driving licence. 852 France. Steam: Gardner-Serpollet; internal-combustion: ClémentGladiator, Dalifol, Darracq, Lorraine-Dietrich, Triouleyre; voiturette: Dalifol & Thomas, Goujon, Léon Bollée; motorcycle: Clément and Gladiator Damselflies have been on earth for more Italy. Internal-combustion: Enrico Bernardi than 300 million years. Russia. Internal-combustion: Yakovlev-Frese UK. Steam: Leyland; internal-combustion: Anglo-French, Arnold, Arrol-Johnston, Atkinson and Philipson; motorcycle: Excelsior, motor tricycle: Ariel US. Internal-combustion: Altham, Black, Electric & internal-combustion: Brewster, HaynesApperson An ant-eating assassin bug piles its victims onto its 1897 body to scare predators. France. Steam: Montier & Gillet; electric: Krieger; internal-combustion: Grivel, Juzan, Société Parisienne, Mors; voiturette: Decauville, Richard; avant-train: Amiot UK. Steam: Toward & Philipson; Electric: Bushbury Electric, Neale; electric phaeton: Electric Motive Power; internal-combustion: Belsize; bus: Thomas Harrington US. Electric: Pope; Internal-combustion: Autocar, Oldsmobile, Plass, Winton Austria-Hungary. Internal-combustion: Präsident (Tatra) The red postman butterfly develops its own 1898 poison by eating toxic plants Belgium. Internal-combustion: Delecroix, Métallurgique France. Internal-combustion: Ailloud, Astresse, Auge, David & Bourgeois, De Dietrich, Lufbery, Poron, Tourey; voiturette: Le Blon, De Riancey; trucks and tractors: Latil; avant-train: Ponsard-Ansaloni Germany. Electric: Kühlstein; internal-combustion: AWE, Wartburg 853 Italy. Internal-combustion: Ceirano GB & C; motor tricycle/quadricycle: Prinetti & Stucchi UK. Electric: Oppermann; internal-combustion: Alldays & Onions, Grose, James and Browne, Madelvic, Star; tricar: Humber; motor tricycle/quadricycle: Arsenal, Eadie, Leuchters; motorcycle: Swift, US. Steam: American Waltham; electric: Riker; internal-combustion: Rutenber, St. Louis; buggy: Stearns There are 36 species of 1899 dragonfly found in the UK. Belgium. Voiturette: Vivinus France. Electric: Bouquet, Garcin & Schivre, Monnard; internal-combustion: AllardLatour, Esculape, La Lorraine, Luc Court, Marot-Gardon, Raouval, Renault (including the first saloon car), Turcat-Méry; light car: Naptholette; voiturette: Andre Py, Cochotte, Populaire, Rouxel; alcohol fuelled: L'Alkolumine Germany. Internal-combustion: Opel Grasshoppers have special organs in their hind legs that store energy for jumping. Italy. Internal-combustion: Fiat Russia. Electric: Kukushka UK. Electric: Joel-Rosenthal; internal-combustion: Accles-Turrell, Geering; voiturette: Argyll; motor tricycle/quadricycle: Allard, Anglo-American; motorcycle: Coventry-Eagle, OKSupreme, Quadrant, Royal Enfield US. Steam: Century, Grout, Kensington, Keystone, Kidder, Leach, Liquid Air, Locomobile, Mobile (pre Stanley Steamer), Strathmore, Victor Steam, Waltham Steam; electric: American Electric, Baker, Columbia (taxi), Electric Vehicle, Quinby, Stearns, US Automobile, Van Wagoner, Woods; internal-combustion: American, Black, BramwellRobinson, Gasmobile, Gurley, Holyoke, International, Media, OakmanHertel, Packard (Ohio), Quick, Sintz Grasshoppers existed before dinosaurs. 854 Disasters Causes Natural Disasters  Geological Disasters (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)  Hydrological Disasters (flooding, tsunamis)  Climatological Disasters (tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, drought)  Meteorological Disasters (hailstorms, hurricanes)  Biological Disasters (animal plagues and insect-borne diseases)  Space Disasters (solar flares, airburst events)     Environment Degradation Environmental Pollution Terrorism Industrial, technical and transportation-related accidents  Food Insecurity and Loss of life  Epidemics and Pandemics  Displaced Populations  Extreme damage to economies and societies Human-made Disasters We need to come up with precise, deterministic ways of directly evaluating singlemolecule interactions systematically in single cells. Bradley Bernstein 3 Types of Paradox:  Veridical Paradox: contradict with our intuition but is perfectly logical  Falsidical paradox: seems true but actually is false due to a fallacy in the demonstration  Antinomy: be self-contradictive Human personality resembles a coral reef: a large hard/dead structure built and inhabited by tiny soft/live animals. The hard/dead part of our personality consists of habits, memories, and compulsions and will probably be explained someday by some sort of extended computer metaphor. The soft/live part of personality consists of moment-tomoment direct experience of being. This aspect of personality is familiar but somewhat ineffable and has eluded all attempts at physical explanation. — Nick Herbert Rehearsal Transfer Incoming information → Sensory memory Attention → Short term Long term memory memory Retrieval Displacement Displacement (Decay) (Decay) Leo Szilard was a Hungarian-American physicist and inventor. He conceived the nuclear chain reaction in 1933, patented the idea of a nuclear fission reactor in 1934, and in late 1939 wrote the letter for Albert Einstein's signature that resulted in the Manhattan Project that built the atomic bomb. Leo Szilard's Ten Commandments:  Recognize the connections of things and the laws of conduct of men, so that you may know what you are doing.  Let your acts be directed towards a worthy goal, but do not ask if they will reach it; they are to be models and examples, not means to an end.  Speak to all men as you do to yourself, with no concern for the effect you make, so that you do not shut them out from your world; lest in isolation the meaning of life slips out of sight and you lose the belief in the perfection of the creation.  Do not destroy what you cannot create.  Touch no dish, except that you are hungry.  Do not covet what you cannot have.  Do not lie without need.  Honor children. Listen reverently to their words and speak to them with infinite love.  Do your work for six years; but in the seventh, go into solitude or among strangers, so that the memory of your friends does not hinder you from being what you have become.  Lead your life with a gentle hand and be ready to leave whenever you are called. 1900 Belgium. Hybrid: Pieper; internal-combustion: Nagant, Pipe; voiturette: Antoine Canada. Electric: Canadian Motor France. Internal-combustion: Ader, Ardent, Chenard-Walcker, Maillard, Nanceene, Otto; voiturette: Chainless, Soncin; motorcycle: Buchet, Castoldi Germany. Internal-combustion: Adler, Albion; voiturette: AGG; motorcycle (later trucks): Phänomen Italy. Internal-combustion: Isotta Fraschini UK. Internal-combustion: Hewinson-Bell, Napier, Smith & Dowse; voiturette: Billings-Burns; motorcycle: Rex-Acme US. Steam: Tractobile, Kent's Pacemaker, Porter Stanhope, Skene, Steamobile; electric: HewittLindstrom, National; internalcombustion: Auburn, Canda, California, Eureka, Holley, Keystone, Knox, Lozier, Peerless, Ram bler, Stearns-Knight; tractor: Samson; truck: Detroit 1901 Canada. Light car: Queen France. Internal-combustion: Charron, Corre La Licorne; voiturette: L'Ardennais, Guerraz, Henry-Dubray, Korn et Latil, Malliary; light car: Denis de Boisse Germany. Internal-combustion: Horch, Stoewer; motorcycle: NSU UK. Electric: Electromobile; internal-combustion: Asquith, Imperial, John O'Gaunt, Sunbeam, paraffin fuelled: Ralph Lucas; cyclecar: Campion; light car: Ralph Gilbert; voiturette: Wolseley; motorcycle: Matchless, Singer 855 US. Steam: Aultman, Binney & Burnham, Covert, Desberon, Hidley, Hudson, Reading Steamer, Stearns, White; internal-combustion: Altman, Apperson, Buffalo, Buffum, De Dion, Empire, Marion, Pierce-Arrow, Schaum; touring car: Austin; runabout: Stevens-Duryea; high wheeler: Holsman; motorcycle: Indian 1902 Belgium. Internal-combustion: Minerva France. Internal-combustion: Motobloc, Richard-Brasier Germany. Internal-combustion: Aachener, AEG, Argus, Beaufort, NAG; motorised tricycle/quadricycle: Cyklon Russia. Electric: Dux Spain. Internal-combustion: Anglada UK. Steam: Vapomobile; internalcombustion: Abingdon, Armstrong, Karminski, Maudslay, Rover, Vulcan; voiturette: Esculapeus, tricar: Advance; motorcycle: Norton, Triumph US. Steam: Clipper, Hoffman, Richmond, Stanley; electric: Studebaker; internalcombustion: Blood, Brennan, Cadillac, Cameron, Cannon, Clarkmobile, Franklin (automobile), Gaeth, Hammer-Sommer, Kirk, Marmon, Reber; runabout: Glide (automobile), Smith, Standard Steel; touring car: Spaulding; light car: Greenleaf, Orient; buggy: American, Union; compound expansion: Eisenhuth; truck: Rapid 1903 Belgium. Internal-combustion: Excelsior France. Internal-combustion: Ariès, Clément-Bayard, DelaunayBelleville, Hotchkiss, Regal, Talbot; light car: Henry Bauchet Germany. Internal-combustion bus/truck: Büssing 856 UK. Electric: Lems; steam (and internal-combustion): Albany; internalcombustion: Attila, Elswick, Kyma, Lea-Francis, Lee Stroyer, Standard, Vauxhall, Whitlock; avant-train: Adams; motorcycle: Chater-Lea, New Hudson, Wilkinson Sword US. Steam: Jaxon; internal-combustion: American Chocolate (Walter), Bates, Ford, Lenawee, Marble-Swift, Matheson, Vermont, Wilson; touring car: Acme, Berg, Logan, Michigan, Iroquois, Jackson, Phelps, Premier; roadster: Buckmobile; runabout: Dingfelder, Eldredge, Marr, Mitchell, Overland, Sandusky, Tincher 1904 Canada. Internal-combustion: Russell France. Internal-combustion: Cottin & Desgouttes, Grégoire; voiturette: Lavie; motor tricycle: La Va Bon Train Germany. Internal-combustion: Alliance, Wenkelmobil Italy. Internal-combustion: Itala Spain. Internal-combustion: Hispano-Suiza UK. Electric: Imperial; internal-combustion: Arbee, Armstrong Whitworth, Ascot, Calthorpe, Chambers, Crossley, Croxted, Iden, Motor Carrier, Queen; voiturette: Achilles; light car: Gilburt; tricar: Garrard; motorcycle: Phelon & Moore, Zenith US. Steam: Empire Steamer; electric: Berwick, Marquette; internalcombustion: American, American Mercedes, American Napier, Christie, Cleveland, Corbin, Detroit Wheeler, Dolson, Lambert, Luverne, Maxwell, Moline, Orlo, Oscar Lear, PierceRacine, Queen, Sampson, Schacht, Sinclair-Scott (Maryland), Standard, StudebakerGarford, Twyford Stanhope; touring car: Brew-Hatcher, Crane-Simplex, Crestmobile, Detroit Auto, Frayer-Miller, Jeffery, Pungs Finch, Richmond, Royal, Thomas, Upton; runabout: Courier, Fredonia, Northern, Pierce, Pope-Tribune; tractor: Holt 857 1905 France. Internal-combustion: Alliance, Brasier, Charlon, Couverchel, Delage, Eudelin, RollandPilain, Sizaire-Naudin; touring car: Rebour; light car: Helbé, Urric; voiturette: Eureka; motorcycle: Herdtle & Bruneau Germany. Steam: Altmann; internal-combustion: Ehrhardt, Hansa, Hexe, Solidor Italy. Internal-combustion: Diatto, Zust UK. Electric: Alexandra, Ekstromer; internalcombustion: Adams, Austin, Edismith, Riley, Sunbeam-Talbot, Talbot; light car: One of the Best; tricar: Anglian; motorcycle: Velocette US. Electric: Rauch and Lang; internalcombustion: Aerocar, Ardsley, Ariel, Cartercar, Corwin, Crown, Harrison, Haynes, Silent Knight, Pullman, Rainier, Selden, Soules, Stoddard-Dayton; touring car: DetroitOxford, Diamond T, Gas-au-lec, Lambert, REO, USA Daimler; roadster: Walker, Western; light car: Bell, buggy: Deal, Hammer; motorcycle: Excelsior-Henderson, HarleyDavidson, Shawmobile 1906 Belgium. Internal-combustion: Imperia; hybrid: Auto-Mixte France. Internal-combustion: AM, Ampère, Antoinette, Lion-Peugeot, Unic; light car: Doriot, Flandrin & Parant; voiturette and motorcycle: Alcyon Germany. Internal-combustion: AAG Italy. Internal-combustion: Aquila Italiana, Fial, Peugeot-Croizat, SCAT, SPA, Standard UK. Internal-combustion: All-British, Ladas, Marlborough, Rolls-Royce; light car: Jowett; tricar: Addison, Armadale; dual-control car: Academy; hybrid bus: Tilling-Stevens; motorcycle: Dot 858 US. Steam: Doble, Ross; electric: Babcock; internal-combustion: ALCO, American, American Simplex, Apollo, Atlas, Bliss, Car de Luxe, Deere, Dorris, Dragon, Frontenac, HolTan, Jewell, Kissel, Model, Moore (Ball-Bearing Car); touring car: Heine-Velox, Moon; roadster: Colburn; light car: Janney; high wheeler: ABC, Black, McIntyre, Success 1907 Belgium. Internal-combustion: Springuel Canada. Internal-combustion: McLaughlin France. Internal-combustion: Ariane, Jean-Bart, Lahaussois, Lutier, Marie de Bagneux, Prod'homme, Sinpar, Sixcyl; voiturette: Couteret, Obus, La Radieuse; voiturette tricar: Guerry et Bourguignon, Lurquin-Coudert; tricar: Austral, Mototri Contal; hybrid: AL; amphibious: Ravailler; racing car: De Bazelaire UK. Internal-combustion: Dalgliesh-Gullane, Hillman; truck: Commer; motorcycle: Douglas US. Electric: American Juvenile Electric, Detroit Electric; internal-combustion: Allen Kingston, Anderson, Carter TwinEngine, Continental, Corbitt, Fuller, Griswold, Maryland, Kiblinger, Oakland, Regal, Speedwell; high wheeler: Eureka, Hatfield, Single Center, Staver; roadster: CVI; runabout: Albany, Colt Runabout, Kermath, Marvel, Nielson 1908 France. Internal-combustion: Le Pratic, X; phaeton: Siscart; voiturette: Roussel Germany. Internal-combustion: Allright, Brennabor, Fafnir, Lloyd Italy. Internal-combustion: Lancia, Marca-Tre-Spade, Temperino Russia. Internal-combustion: Russo-Balt UK. Internal-combustion: Arno, Sheffield-Simplex, Valveless; touring car: Argon; light car: Alex; motorcycle: Premier 859 US. Internal-combustion: Bendix, Coates-Goshen, Correja, Cunningham, De Luxe, General Motors, Gyroscope, Havers, Imperial, Paige, Sears, Velie; touring car: Moyer; high wheeler: Cole, De Schaum, DeWitt, Hobbie Accessible, Michigan; runabout: Simplo; cyclecar: Browniekar; buggy: Davis 1909 France. Internal-combustion: Bugatti, FL, La Ponette, Le Zèbre Italy. Racing car: Brixia-Zust; motorcycle: Della Ferrera Netherlands. Internal-combustion: Entrop UK. Internal-combustion: Pilot US. Internal-combustion: Abbott-Detroit, Anhut, Black Crow, CrowElkhart, Cutting, EMF, Everitt, Fuller, GJG, Hupmobile, Inter-State, Lion, Pilot; touring car: Crawford, Fal-Car, Piggins, Standard Six; roadster: Coyote, Hudson, Kauffman; runabout: Brush; small car: Herreshoff, Hitchcock, KRIT; light car: Courier; buggy: Paterson; raceabout: Mercer; racing car: McFarlan; truck: Chase, Sanford-Herbert 1910 Canada. Internal-combustion: Gareau France. Internal-combustion: Ageron, Damaizin & Pujos, Margaria, Mathis, Plasson; light car: Simplicia; cyclecar: Bédélia Germany. Internal-combustion: Ansbach, Apollo, Audi Italy. Internal-combustion: Alfa Romeo, Chiribiri UK. Steam: AMC; internal-combustion: Morgan, Siddeley-Deasy; cyclecar: GN US. Electric: Grinnell; internal-combustion: Alpena, Cavac, De Mot, Flanders, Great Eagle, Kline Kar, Lexington, Maytag-Mason, Parry, Spaulding, United States; touring 860 car: Carhartt, Chalmers, Detroit-Dearborn, Etnyre, Faulkner-Blanchard, Great Southern; tonneau: Henry, Midland; roadster: Ames, King-Remick, Penn; runabout: Empire; cyclecar: Autoette; high wheeler: Anchor Buggy; buggy: Aldo 1911 Canada. Internal-combustion: Clinton France. Cyclecar: Enders Germany. Internal-combustion: Excelsior-Mascot, Podeus; rotary valve: Standard Italy. Motorcycle: Benelli UK. Internal-combustion: Aberdonia, AGR, Airedale, GWK, Newton-Bennett, Roper-Corbet; cyclecar: Alvechurch, Autotrix, Lambert; motorcycle: Beardmore, CoventryVictor, Levis, Rudge-Whitworth, Villiers US. Electric: Hupp-Yeats, Century, Dayton Electric; internal-combustion: America, Ann Arbor, Chevrolet, Day, Gaylord, American Jonz (automobile) (The American), King, Komet, Marathon, Overland OctoAuto, Nyberg, Pilgrim of Providence, Rayfield, Stutz, Virginian, Willys; tractor: Mogul; fire-engine: Ahrens-Fox, 1912 Canada. Internal-combustion: Amherst France. Electric: Anderson Electric, internal-combustion: Albatros, Alda, Arista, Cognet de Seynes, Hédéa, La Roulette, SCAP; light car: Luxior, truck: Laffly, avant-train: Ponts, Hungary. Internal-combustion: Raba Italy. Internal-combustion: Storero Spain. Internal-combustion: Abadal 861 UK. Steam: Sheppee; internal-combustion: ABC; cyclecar: Adamson, Arden, Chota, Coventry Premier, Crouch, Hampton, HCE, Tiny, Tyseley; motorcycle: NUT, Sunbeam US. Electric: Argo Electric, Buffalo Electric, Church-Field; internal-combustion: Anna, BriggsDetroiter, Crane & Breed, Pathfinder, Standard; touring car: Miller, Westcott; light-car: Lad's Car, Little; tricar: American Tri-Car, motorcycle: Cyclone; truck: Brockway, Palmer-Moore 1913 Belgium. Internal-combustion: Alatac France. Internal-combustion: Ajax, Alba, Alva, Rougier; cyclecar: Jouvie Spain. Cyclecar: David UK. Internal-combustion: Morris, Perry, Woodrow, WW; light car: Ace, Lucar; cyclecar: Armstrong, Athmac, Baker & Dale, Bantam, BPD, Britannia, Broadway, Carlette, Dallison, Dewcar, LAD, Lester Solus, Vee Gee, Warne, Wilbrook, Wrigley; motocycle: Montgomery US. Electric: American Electric; internalcombustion: Allen (Ohio), Allen (Philadelphia), Chandler, Flyer, Grant, LyonsKnight, Monarch; cyclecar: Car-Nation, Coey, Detroit Cyclecar, Downing-Detroit, Dudly Bug, Gadabout, JPL, Little Detroit Speedster, Little Princess, Twombly; touring car: Keeton; roadster: Saxon, Scripps-Booth; sports car: Duesenberg; motocycle: Bi-Autogo 1914 France. Internal-combustion: Ascot, Donnet-Zedel; light car: Nardini Japan. Internal-combustion: DAT Italy. Maserati 862 UK. Internal-combustion: Trojan, Utopian; light car: Bifort, cyclecar: Bradwell, Buckingham, Carden, Hill & Stanier, Imperial, Projecta, Simplic; motocycle: ABC US. Electric: Ward; internalcombustion: Ajax, American, Benham, Dile, Keystone, Light, Monroe, MPM, Partin, WillysKnight; touring car: Alter; roadster: Metz, Vulcan; light car: Fischer, Lincoln; cyclecar: Argo, Arrow, Biesel, CAC, Cricket, Davis, Dodge, Engler, Excel, Hawk, Logan, LuLu, Malcolm Jones, Mercury, Motor Bob, O-We-Go, Xenia 1915 Canada. Internal-combustion: Gray-Dort, Regal UK. Internal-combustion: Atalanta; sports car: Aston Martin US. Electric: Menominee, hybrid electric: Owen Magnetic, internal-combustion: AllSteel, Apple, Biddle, Bour-Davis, Briscoe, Dort, Elcar, Herff-Brooks, Hollier, Ross, Smith Flyer, light car: Bell, Harvard, cyclecar: Koppin, racing car: Frontenac, 1916 Russia: AMO US. Electric: Belmont; internal-combustion: Aland, American Junior, Auto Red Bug, Bush, Daniels, Dixie Flyer, Hackett, HAL, Jordan, Liberty, Sun, Yale; touringcar: Barley, Marion-Handley, Germany: BMW 1917 Canada. Internal-combustion: Moose Jaw Standard UK. Cyclecar: Gibbons 863 US. Internalcombustion: Able, Amalgamated, American, Anderson, Columbia, Commonwealth, Piedmont, S had-Wyck, Templar; touring car: Harroun, Nelson, Olympian; light car: Gem; truck: Nash, 1918 Italy: trucks OM UK. Internal-combustion: All British Ford; motorcycle: Cotton US. Steam: Bryan, internal-combustion: Essex; motorcycle: Ner-a-Car 1919 France. Internal-combustion: Avions Voisin, Butterosi, Citroen, Leyat, Salmson; cyclecar: ASS, Soriano-Pedroso Germany. Internal-combustion: AGA, Anker UK. Internal-combustion: Alvis, Angus-Sanderson, Armstrong Siddeley, AshtonEvans, Bentley, Dawson, Eric-Campbell, Maiflower, Ruston-Hornsby, Willys Overland Crossley; cyclecar: Aero Car, Ashby, AV, Castle Three, Economic, Tamplin; motorcycle: Brough Superior, Coventry-Victor, Dunelt, Duzmo US. Internal-combustion: Amco, Argonne, Climber, Du Pont, Graham-Paige; truck: Huffman 1920 Belgium. Light car: ALP France. Electric: Electricar; internal-combustion: Janémian, Jouffret, Radior; cyclecar: Able, Ajams, Astatic, La Comfortable, De Marçay, Elfe, Kevah, Santax; sports car: Fonlupt Germany. Internal-combustion: Joswin, Selve; touring car: Steiger 864 Japan: Mazda UK. Internal-combustion: Aeroford, Cubitt, Galloway, Palmerston, Payze; light car: Albert; cyclecar: Allwyn, Archer, Baughan, Bell, Black Prince, BlériotWhippet, Bound, Cambro, CFB, Winson; sports car: Sports Junior USA: Ace, Alsace, Aluminum, Astra, Binghamton Electric, Carroll, Colonial, Colonial/Shaw, Friend, Gardner, Gray Light Car, LaFayette, Lorraine, Mason Truck, Sheridan, Standard Steam Car, Stanwood 1921 Canada: Brock Six, London Six France: Amilcar, Ballot, Bernardet, Coadou et Fleury, Colda, Le Favori, Georges Irat, Hinstin, Janoir, Madoz, Quo Vadis, Le Roitelet, Solanet Germany: Alfi, Arimofa, Atlantic, Pawi, Rumpler Tropfenwagen, Zündapp Italy: Ansaldo, Aurea, IENA, motorcycle: Moto Guzzi Japan: Ales UK: Amazon, Barnard, Scott Sociable, Skeoch US. Steam: Coats, Davis, internal combustion: Adria, Aero Car, Ajax, Automatic, Birmingham, Colonial, Davis Totem, Durant, Earl, HandleyKnight, Jacquet Flyer, Kessler, Wills Sainte Claire 1922 Canada: Colonial France: Astra, Bucciali, Induco, JG, Vaillant Germany: Juho, Komet 865 Glaciers Huge masses of ice that moves slowly over land Continental glaciers (Enormous glaciers that can cover entire continents) Alpine glaciers (Small glaciers that form valleys) 4 types of English sentence: Dream analysis stands or falls with [the  declarative sentence (statement)  interrogative sentence (question)  imperative sentence (command) nature, a meaningless conglomerate of  exclamative sentence (exclamation) memory-fragments left over from the hypothesis of the unconscious]. Without it the dream appears to be merely a freak of happenings of the day. — Carl Jung 3 Types of Mass Media:  Print media (newspapers, books, magazines)  Broadcast media (television, radio)  Digital media (internet) How many discoveries are reserved for the ages to come when our memory shall be no more, for this world of ours contains matter for investigation for all generations. — Lucius Annaeus Seneca UK: Abbey, Abingdon, Albatros, Alberford, Aster, Atomette, Autogear, Baby Blake, Bean, Bow-V-Car, Christchurch-Campbell, Clyno, Frazer Nash, Gwynne, Packman & Poppe, Wigan-Barlow, Xtra US. Steam: Alena, American Steamer, Endurance, internal combustion: ABC, Anahuac, AnstedLexington, Checker, DAC, Dagmar, Detroit, Gray, Jewett, Kess-Line 8, Rickenbacker, Star, Stewart-Coats 1923 Belgium: ADK, De Wandre, Juwel The first written communication was in the form of marks and symbols – recorded more than 9,000 years ago. Canada. Steam: Brooks France: Bell, Henou, Willème Germany: Alan, Kenter, Pilot, motorcycle: BMW UK: Astral, Urecar USA: Flint, Rugby 1924 Czech Republic: Skoda France: AEM, AS, Le Cabri, De Sanzy, Elgé, Jean Gras, Jousset Germany: Amor, Ehrhardt-Szawe, Tempo Japan: Otomo UK: HRD, Morris, Paydell US. Steam: American; internal-combustion: Chrysler, Junior R, Pennant 1925 866 Belgium: Jeecy-Vea France: Heinis, Jack Sport Germany: Hanomag, Sablatnig-Beuchelt, Seidel-Arop Italy: Amilcar Italiana, Maggiora, Moretti UK: Brocklebank, Invicta, Jappic, McEvoy, MG Ancient Egyptians used symbols called USA: Empire Steam Car, Ajax, Diana hieroglyphs over 5,200 years ago. 1926 France: Alma, Arzac, Chaigneau-Brasier, Constantinesco, Lambert, Ratier, SAFAF, Sensaud de Lavaud, Tracta Germany: Daimler-Benz, Gutbrod, Mercedes-Benz UK: Arab, HP, Marendaz, Swallow USA: Ansted, Divco, Dodgeson 1927 France: Rosengart, Silva-Coroner UK: Arrol-Aster, Avro, Streamline (Burney Car) USA: Falcon-Knight, Graham-Paige, LaSalle Sweden: Volvo 1928 Germany: BMW, DKW UK: Ascot, Vincent 867 USA: DeSoto, Plymouth 1929 Both the horse and donkey were domesticated for transportation about 4000 BC; the horse in Mesopotamia and the donkey in Egypt. France: Alphi, Michel Irat Germany: Borgward Italy: Ferrari Soviet Union. Motorcycle: Izh Spain: National Pescara UK: Alta USA: American Austin, Blackhawk, Cord, Roosevelt, Ruxton, Viking, Windsor 1930 Belgium: Astra France: AER, Virus Germany: Ardie-Ganz Soviet Union: KIM 1931 Germany: Maikäfer Soviet Union: ZIS Japan: Datsun UK: Squire 868 USA: De Vaux, Hoffman (Detroit automobile) 1932 Italy: Nardi Biodiesel was invented in the 1890s by Rudolph Diesel Poland: Polski Fiat Soviet Union: GAZ UK: Vale Special USA: Allied, De Vaux Continental, Jaeger 1933 France: Tracford Germany: Standard Superior UK: André, Railton USA: Continental During the process of becoming a butterfly, the 1934 entire caterpillar will break down into a liquid. France: Simca Germany: Auto Union, Bungartz Butz Japan: Ohta Jidosha UK: Aveling-Barford, British Salmson, Rytecraft 1935 France: Talbot-Lago 869 Germany: Henschel UK: Autovia, Batten, Jensen, Reliant USA: Stout Scarab 1936 Charles Freuhauf invented France: Darl'mat, Monocar the first tractor-trailer over 100 years ago in 1914. UK: Allard, HRG, Lammas, Lloyd, Skirrow 1937 France: Ardex, Danvignes Germany: Volkswagen UK: Atalanta 1938 As a young man, Srinivasa Ramanujan failed to get a degree, as he did not clear France: DB, Rolux his fine arts courses, although he always performed exceptionally well in UK: Nuffield mathematics. 1939 Soviet Union: SMZ USA: Albatross, Crosley, truck: Peterbilt 1940 UK: DMW 1941 870 Soviet Union: UAZ; motorcycle: IMZ-Ural 1942 Brazil. Trucks: F.N.M. 1943 Soviet Union. Trucks: Ural 1945 Soviet Union. Motorcycle: Dnipro UK: Bristol, Healey USA: Kaiser-Frazer 1946 France: Chappe et Gessalin, Mochet, Rovin Germany: Messerschmitt Hungary: Csepel Italy: Bandini, Cisitalia, Stanguellini; Trucks: Astra Soviet Union: Moskvitch; motorcycle: ZiD Spain: Pegaso UK: Cooper USA: American Motors Incorporated, Frazer 1947 871 Canada: Studebaker France: Aerocarene, Alamagny Italy: Innocenti, Lambretta, Maserati, O.S.C.A. Soviet Union. Trucks: Minsk Automobile Plant UK: Ambassador, Ausfod, Buckler USA: Airscoot, Davis, Playboy Moses Maimonides is regarded by many as the greatest Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages. He lived during the 'Golden Age' of Spain in the twelfth century where Jews and Christians lived in 1948 peace under Muslim rule. Maimonides was born in Cordoba, the centre of Jewish learning and Islamic culture. France: J-P Wimille Germany: Fend Flitzer Italy: Fimer, Iso Rivolta, Siata Japan. Motorcycle: Marusho Soviet Union. Trucks: BelAZ UK: EMC, Land Rover, Rochdale, Thundersley Invacar USA: Autoette, Keller, Tucker Sedan 1949 France: Atlas India: AUTOPRD Soviet Union: RAF Japan. Motorcycle: Honda UK: Dellow, Jaguar Cars 872 USA: Aerocar, Airway, Glasspar G2; scooter: PMC 1950 France: Autobleu Germany: Fuldamobil, Kersting-Modellbauwerkstätten, Kleinschnittger, Staunau Spain: SEAT UK: Marauder, Paramount Moses Mendelssohn was a German Jewish philosopher, critic and Bible translator and commentator who greatly contributed to the USA: Muntz efforts of Jews to assimilate to the German bourgeoisie. 1951 France: Atlas, Automobiles Marathon, Le Piaf, Reyonnah Germany: Glas Poland: FSO Soviet Union. Trucks: KAZ; motorcycle: Minsk UK: Arnott, Russon, Turner USA: Nash-Healey 1952 France: Martin-Spéciale, Poinard Germany: Brütsch, Champion Soviet Union: PAZ UK: Austin-Healey, BMC, Greeves, Lotus 873 USA: Allstate, Woodill 1953 Germany: EMW USA: Eshelman, Fina-Sport 1954 France: Alpine, Facel Vega Spain: Serveta UK: Astra, Fairthorpe, Rodley, Swallow Doretti USA: AMC, Studebaker-Packard 1955 Belgium: Meeussen France: Saviem, VELAM Germany: Goggomobil, Zwickau Italy: Autobianchi Soviet Union: LAZ, LuAZ UK: Ashley, Elva USA: Tri5's 1956 France: Arista 874 Germany: Heinkel Kabine Soviet Union: ZiL, KAG; scooter: TMZ, Vyatka UK: Berkeley, Tourette Godfrey Harold Hardy brought Ramanujam USA: Auto Cub, Devin, Dual-Ghia with him to England but unfortunately the English weather didn't suit him. He also 1957 reported of mild racism towards him. France: Arbel, Atla Germany: Neckar, Trabant UK: Peerless (Warwick), Scootacar, Tornado USA: Aurora, Hackney 1958 Soviet Union: KAvZ; trucks: BAZ, KrAZ UK: Gill, Frisky USA: Edsel, Streco Turnpike Cruiser 1959 India: Vehicle Factory Jabalpur Soviet Union: LiAZ UK: Bristol Siddeley, Gilbern, Marcos USA: Argonaut, Nu-Klea Starlite 1960 875 India: Ideal Jawa UK: Ausper, Brabham, Rickman US. Replica veteran car: Gaslight 1961 Germany: Amphicar John Davison Rockefeller was an American business magnate and philanthropist. He is widely Soviet Union: ZAZ considered the wealthiest American of all time and the richest person in modern history. UK: Diva 1962 Canada: Acadian France: Automobiles René Bonnet Soviet Union: AvtoKuban Japan. Motorcycle: Kawasaki USA: Apollo 1963 Italy: ATS, Scuderia Serenissima, Lamborghini UK: Bond, Gordon-Keeble USA: Exner Revival Cars; trucks: Marmon 1964 Rockefeller donated more than $500 million to various philanthropic causes. Italy: ASA 876 Soviet Union: ErAZ USA: Fiberfab 1965 France: Matra India: Heavy Vehicles Factory Italy: Ferves Mayer Amschel Rothschild was a German-Jewish banker and the founder of the Rothschild banking dynasty. Soviet Union: IzhAvto Spain: IPV UK: Jago, Peel 1966 Bulgaria: Bulgarrenault Italy: Bizzarrini Soviet Union: Lada; trucks: MoAZ Romania: Dacia UK: Norton-Villiers, Trident, Unipower 1967 India: TATA MOTORS 1968 Italy: Autozodiaco, LMX Sirex 877 Turkey: Tofaş UK: Piper USA: Savage GT 1969 Soviet Union. Trucks: Kamaz UK: Enfield Timeline of transportation technology Antiquity  20th millennium BCE – rafts used on rivers.  7th millennium BCE – Earliest known shoes.  6th millennium BCE – Dugout canoes constructed.  4th millennium BCE – The earliest vehicles may have been ox carts.  3500 BCE – Domestication of the horse and invention of the wheel in Ancient Near East  Toys excavated from the Indus valley civilization (3010–1500 BCE) include small carts.  3000 BCE – Austronesians construct catamarans and outriggers. o In the Mediterranean, galleys were developed about 3000 BC.  2nd millennium BCE – Cart mentioned in literature, chariot and spoked wheel invented.  800 BCE – Canal for transport constructed in Ancient China.  408 BCE – Wheelbarrow referenced in Ancient Greece. Middle Ages 878  5th Century – Horse collar invented in China.  6th Century - Evidence of a horseshoe in the tomb of the Frankish King Childeric I, Tournai, Belgium.  800 – The streets of Baghdad are paved with tar.  9th century - The sine quadrant, was invented by Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi in the 9th century at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. The other types were the universal quadrant, the horary quadrant and the astrolabe quadrant.  10th Century – sea-going ships built in China.  Late 10th century – Kamal invented in Arab world.  1044 – Compass invented in China.  13th century (or before) – Rocket invented in China.  1350 – Compass dial invented by Ibn al-Shatir.  1479-1519 - Da Vinci sketches pedalo.  15th century – Jan Žižka built the precursor to the motorised tank, armoured wagons equipped with cannons.  1569 - Mercator 1569 world map published.  Late 16th century – European sailing ships become advanced enough to reliably cross oceans. 17th century  1620 – Cornelius Drebbel builds the world's first known submarine, which is propelled by oars (although there are earlier ideas for and depictions of submarines).  1662 – Blaise Pascal invents a horse-drawn public bus which has a regular route, schedule, and fare system.  1672 – Ferdinand Verbiest has built what may have been the first steam-powered scale model car. 18th century 879  1716 – Swedish scientist, Emanuel Swedenborg, creates the first concept of a hovering vehicle.  1731 - Sextant first implemented to accurately determine latitude.  1740 – Jacques de Vaucanson debuted his clockwork powered carriage.  1761 - Marine chronometer invented as a means to accurately determine longitude.  1769 – Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot demonstrates his fardier à vapeur, an experimental steamdriven artillery tractor  1776 – First submarine to be propelled by screws, and the first military submarine to attempt an attack on a ship, Turtle, is built by David Bushnell. The attack fails to sink HMS Eagle.  1783 - First parachute.  1783 – Joseph Montgolfier and Étienne Montgolfier launch the first hot air balloons.  1783 – Jacques Charles and Les Frères Robert (Anne-Jean Robert and Nicolas-Louis Robert) launch the first Hydrogen balloon.  1784 – William Murdoch built a working model of a steam locomotive carriage in Redruth, England.  1790s – Canal Mania, an intense period of canal building in England and Wales. 19th century Early 19th century  1801 – Richard Trevithick ran a full-sized steam 'road locomotive' on the road in Camborne, England.  1803 – Richard Trevithick built his 10-seater London Steam Carriage.  1803 – William Symington's Charlotte Dundas, generally considered to be the world's first practical steamboat, makes her first voyage.  1804 – Richard Trevithick built a prototype steam-powered railway locomotive and it ran on the Pen-y-Darren Line near Merthyr Tydfil Wales. 880  1804 – Oliver Evans (claimed to have) demonstrated a steam-powered amphibious vehicle.  1807 - The Swansea and Mumbles Railway ran the world's first passenger horsecar tram service.  1807 – Robert Fulton's North River Steamboat, the world's first commercially successful steamboat, makes her maiden voyage.  1807 – Nicéphore Niépce installed his Pyréolophore internal combustion engine in a boat and powered up the river Saone in France.  1807 – Isaac de Rivas made a hydrogen gas powered internal combustion engine and mounted it on a vehicle.  1812 – First commercially successful self-propelled engine on land was Mathew Murray's Salamanca on Middleton Railway using toothed wheels and rail.  1812 – Timothy Hackworth's "Puffing Billy" ran on smooth Cast Iron Rails at Wylam Colliery near Newcastle  1814 – George Stephenson built the first practical steam-powered railway locomotive "Blutcher" at Killingworth Colliery.  1816 – The most likely originator of the Bicycle is the German, Baron Karl von Drais, who rode his 1816 machine while collecting taxes from his tenants.  1819 – SS Savannah, the first vessel to cross the Atlantic Ocean partly under steam power, arrives at Liverpool, England from Savannah, Georgia.  1822 – Stevenson built a locomotive and designed the railway for Hetton Colliery which is first railway not to use any horse-traction but it did have several rope hauled sections.  1822 – First Meeting of Liverpool Manchester Railway Company Permanent Committee.  1825 - Stevenson's Locomotion No. 1 runs on Stockton & Darlington Railway which opens as first public railway and uses horses and self-propelled steam engines and stationary engines with ropes along a single track. No stations and no timetables as anyone could hire the track to use their own vehicle on it. 881  1825 – Sir Goldsworthy Gurney invented a series of steam-powered passenger carriages and by 1829 completed the 120-mile journey from London to Bath, Somerset and back.  1826 – Bill passed for Liverpool and Manchester Railway at second attempt and George Stevenson commences work on 35-mile twin track line permitting simultaneous travel in both directions between the 2 towns. Means of traction not specified to reduce opposition.  1828 – Stevenson's "Lancashire Witch" runs on Bolton and Leigh Railway line - a public goods line to connect Leeds and Liverpool Canal and Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal. Railway has rope hauled and self-propelled steam engines and single track.  1829 – Rainhill Trials to find best self-propelled engine for Liverpool Manchester line are won by Robert Stephenson's Rocket proving there is no need for horse traction or static engines on the main line. Rocket becomes basic formula for all future steam engines with boiler tubes, blast pipe, and the use of coal rather than coke.  1830 – Liverpool and Manchester Railway opens. First public transport system without animal traction, first public line with no rope hauled sections for main journey, first twin track, first railway between 2 large towns, first timetabled trains, first railway stations, first train faster than a mail coach, first tunnels under streets, first proper modern railway which formed the template for all subsequent railways.  1838 – Isambard Kingdom Brunel's SS Great Western, the first purpose-built transatlantic steamship, inaugurates the first regular transatlantic steamship service.  1839 - An early electric boat was developed by the German inventor Moritz von Jacobi in 1839 in St Petersburg, Russia. It was a 24-foot (7.3 m) boat which carried 14 passengers at 3 miles per hour (4.8 km/h). It was successfully demonstrated to Emperor Nicholas I of Russia on the Neva River.  1840s – Railway Mania sweeps UK and Ireland. 6,220 miles (10,010 km) of railway line were built  1843 - Dalkey Atmospheric railway opens. Late 19th century 882  1852 – Elisha Otis invents the safety elevator.  1853 – Sir George Cayley built and demonstrated the first heavier-than-air aircraft (a glider).  1862 – Étienne Lenoir made a gasoline engine automobile.  1863 – London's Metropolitan Railway opened to the public as the world's first underground railway.  1867 – First modern motorcycle was invented.  1868 – Safety bicycle invented.  1868 – George Westinghouse invented the compressed-air brake for railway trains.  1868 – Louis-Guillaume Perreaux's steam velocipede, a steam engine attached to a Michaux velocipede.  1874 - Midland railway introduces the first bogie.  1880 - World's first electric tram line operated in Sestroretsk near Saint Petersburg, Russia, invented and tested by Fyodor Pirotsky.  1880 – Werner von Siemens builds first electric elevator.  1881 - World's first commercially successful electric tram, the Gross-Lichterfelde tramway in Lichterfelde near Berlin in Germany built by Werner von Siemens who contacted Pirotsky. It initially drew current from the rails, with overhead wire being installed in 1883.  1882 - The trolleybus dates back to 29 April 1882, when Dr. Ernst Werner Siemens demonstrated his "Elektromote" in a Berlin suburb. This experiment continued until 13 June 1882  1884 - Thomas Parker built a practical production electric car in Wolverhampton using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries.  1885 – Karl Benz invents the first car powered by an internal combustion engine, he called it the Benz Patent Motorwagen. 883  1889 - The first interurban tram-train to emerge in the United States was the Newark and Granville Street Railway in Ohio, which opened in 1889.  1889 - First introduced in 1889, battery vehicles milk floats expanded use in 1931 and by 1967 gave Britain the largest electric vehicle fleet in the world.  1890s – Bike boom sweeps Europe and America with hundreds of bicycle manufacturers in the biggest bicycle craze to date  1890 - The City and South London Railway (C&SLR) was the first deep-level underground "tube" railway in the world, and the first major railway to use electric traction  1893 - first moving walkway debuted at the World's Columbian Exposition.  1893 - The Liverpool Overhead Railway opened on 6 March 1893 with 2-car electric multiple units, the first to operate in the world.  1894 – Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first motorcycle available to the public for purchase.  1896 – Jesse W. Reno builds first escalator at Coney Island, and then reinstalls it on the Manhattan side of the Brooklyn Bridge.  1897 – Charles Parsons' Turbinia, the first vessel to be powered by a steam turbine, makes her debut.  1897 – Most likely the first electric bicycle was built in 1897 by Hosea W. Libbey.  1899 – Ferdinand von Zeppelin builds the first successful airship. 20th century Early 20th century  1900 – Ferdinand von Zeppelin launches the first successful airship.  1903 o Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright – Fly the first motor-driven airplane. 884 o Diesel engine – Tested in a canal boat by Rudolph Diesel, Adrian Bochet and Frederic Dyckhoff. o first diesel motorship was also the first diesel–electric ship, the Russian tanker Vandal from Branobel, which was launched in 1903  1904 - The first non-experimental trolleybus system was a seasonal municipal line installed near Nantasket Beach in 1904; the first year-round commercial line was built to open a hilly property to development just outside Los Angeles in 1910.  1907 - The London Electrobus Company started running a service of battery-electric buses between London's Victoria Station and Liverpool Street on 15 July 1907.  1908 – Henry Ford develops the assembly line method of automobile manufacturing with the introduction of the Ford Model T.  1910 - Fabre Hydravion first seaplane.  1911 – Selandia launched – First ocean-going, diesel engine-driven ship.  1912 - The world's first diesel locomotive (a diesel-mechanical locomotive) was operated in the summer of 1912 on the Winterthur–Romanshorn railway in Switzerland.  1912 - Articulated trams, invented and first used by the Boston Elevated Railway.  1915 o The Luftkissengleitboot Hovercraft – First hovering vehicle was created by Dagobert Müller. It could only travel on water. o Motorized scooter invented. o A British commission was tasked with creating a vehicle able to cross a 4 ft wide trench – the tank.  1916 – First tank prototype, nicknamed "mother", was created by Britain during World War 1.  1924 - The world's first functional diesel locomotive (diesel-electric locomotive) (Eel2 original number Юэ 001/Yu-e 001) started operations, designed by a team led by Yuri Lomonosov and built 1923–1924 by Maschinenfabrik Esslingen in Germany.  1926 – Robert Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket. 885  1932 - The first electric golf cart was custom-made in 1932, but did not gain widespread acceptance.  1935 – First flight of the DC-3, one of the most significant transport aircraft in the history of aviation.  1939 – First jet engine powered aircraft, the Heinkel He 178, takes flight.  1942 – V2 rocket covers a distance of 200 kilometres (120 mi).  1947 – Chuck Yeager in the Bell X1 completes the first supersonic manned flight. Late 20th Century  1955 – First nuclear-powered vessel, USS Nautilus, a submarine, is launched.  1957  o Sputnik 1 – First artificial satellite to be launched into orbit. o Gateway City – World's first purpose-built container ship, enters service. o First flight of the Boeing 707 – First commercially successful jet airliner. 1959 - The first modern fuel cell vehicle was a modified Allis-Chalmers farm tractor, fitted with a 15 kilowatt fuel cell, around 1959.  1961 – Vostok 1, first crewed space mission, designed by Sergey Korolyov and Kerim Kerimov, makes two orbits around the Earth with Yuri Gagarin.  1966 - Caspian Sea Monster ground effect vehicle introduced.  1968 - Space hopper invented.  1969 o First flight of the Boeing 747 – First commercial widebody airliner. o NASA rocket technology, spurred on by the US/Russia Space Race – Makes the first crewed Moon landing a reality. o Lolo ball invented.  1971 – Salyut 1, first space station, launched by Soviet Union.  1975 – Morgantown PRT, first Personal Rapid Transit system to be installed. 886  1976 – Concorde makes the world's first commercial passenger-carrying supersonic flight.  1977 - The first semi-automated car was developed in 1977, by Japan's Tsukuba Mechanical Engineering Laboratory, which required specially marked streets.  1981 – Maiden flight of the Space Shuttle.  1989 - Snakeboard invented.  1990 - ADtranz low floor tram world's first completely low-floor tram introduced.  1994 – Channel Tunnel opens.  1997 – First Maglev train prototypes are tested in Japan. 21st century  2002 – Segway PT self-balancing personal transport was launched by inventor Dean Kamen.  2003 - Concorde makes last passenger flight.  2004 – First commercial high speed Maglev train starts operation between Shanghai and its airport.  2005 - Roller Buggy invented  2009 - Škoda 15 T world's first completely low-floor tram with articulated bogies introduced.  2010 – Ultra PRT, the first modern commercial Personal Rapid Transit system to be installed. Started operations at Heathrow Airport.  2013 - Self-balancing scooter invented.  2018 - Alstom Coradia iLint hydrogen-powered train entered service in Lower Saxony, Germany.  2019 - Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit opened in China. Maritime timeline 887 Prehistory  About 45,000 BC: first humans arrive in Australia, presumably by boats and land bridge. Antiquity  About 6,000 BC: Earliest evidence of dugout canoes.  5th millennium BC: Earliest known depiction of a sailing boat.  About 2,000 BC: o Hannu dispatches a fleet to the Land of Punt. o Austronesian people migrate from Taiwan to Indonesia, preceding the colonization of Polynesia.  1575–1520 BC Dover Bronze Age Boat, oldest known plank vessel, was built.  About 1175 BC: Battle of the Delta, one of the first recorded naval battles, during Ancient Egypt's war against the Sea Peoples.  1194–1174 BC: Supposed timespan for the events of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.  About 1000 BC: Nusantaran people developed tanja sail and junk sail.  Around 600 BC: According to Herodotus, Necho II sends Phoenician expedition to circumnavigate Africa.  6th century BC: Canal of the Pharaohs is built in Egypt.  542 BC: First written record of a trireme.  5th century BC: Hanno the Navigator explores the coast of West Africa.  480 BC: Battle of Salamis, arguably the largest naval battle in ancient times.  247 BC: Lighthouse of Alexandria completed.  214 BC: Lingqu Canal built.  31 BC: Battle of Actium decides the Final War of the Roman Republic.  100 AD: Large ships called K'un-lun Po sailed between China and India.  About 200 AD: Chuan (junk ships) are developed in China. Chinese people learned junk rig from Malay people visiting their southern coast. 888 Middle Ages  793: The raid of Lindisfarne, first recorded Viking raid  916: Javanese invaded Khmer, using 1000 "medium-sized" vessels, which results in Javanese victory. The head of Khmer's king then brought to Java.  945: Malay people from Srivijaya attacked coast of Tanganyika and Mozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh.  984: Pound locks used in China; See Technology of the Song Dynasty  986: Bjarni Herjolfsson crossed the Labrador Sea and saw North America.  About 1000: Leif Ericson crossed the Labrador Sea to reach North America.  1025: Chola invasion of Srivijaya  1088: Dream Pool Essays by Shen Kuo, first description of a magnetic compass.  1159: Lübeck is rebuilt, and the Hanseatic League is founded.  About 1190: Alexander Neckam writes the first European description of a magnetic compass.  13th century: Portolan charts are introduced in the Mediterranean.  About 1280: Polynesian settlers arrive at New Zealand, the last major landmass to be populated.  1274: First Mongol invasion of Japan.  1325–1354: Ibn Batuta visits much of Africa and Asia  1350: Majapahit invades Samudera Pasai, with 400 jong.  1398: Majapahit invades Kingdom of Singapura, with 300 jong and no less than 200,000 men.  1405: Zheng He's expeditions begins. Age of Discovery  1488: Bartolomeu Dias reaches the Cape of Good Hope. 889  1492: Christopher Columbus' first voyage, first recorded non-Arctic crossing of the Atlantic  1497: John Cabot reaches North American mainland, as first European since the Vikings.  1498 o Vasco da Gama completes the Cape Route from Europe to India. o Columbus reaches continental South America.  1513: Jorge Álvares completes the first voyage from Europe to China.  1522: Ferdinand Magellan's last ship arrives in Europe, first recorded circumnavigation, and crossing of the Pacific Ocean  1571: Battle of Lepanto, last major naval battle fought entirely between galleys.  1580: Francis Drake returns home from Nehalem Bay, Oregon to become the 1st circumnavigation by an Englishman.  1588: The Spanish Armada is destroyed, shifting naval superiority to England.  1602: The Dutch East India Company is founded.  1606: Willem Janszoon becomes the first European to reach Australia.  1620: Cornelis Drebbel constructs the first submarine.  1628: The Vasa sinks in Stockholm harbour on its maiden voyage.  1736: John Harrison tests the first successful marine chronometer.  1757: First sextant constructed  1771: James Cook completes the first circumnavigation without casualties to scurvy.  1790: Battle of Svensksund, the last major battle with participation of galleys. Rise of steamboats and motorships  1783: Claude de Jouffroy constructs the first recorded steamboat.  1790: Canal Mania begins in Great Britain.  1805: The battle of Trafalgar marks the rise of the Royal Navy to a century of world domination.  1807: North River Steamboat, the first commercially successful steamboat, is launched. 890  1819: SS Savannah under Capt. Moses Rogers makes first transatlantic crossing using (auxiliary) steam power.  1820: Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen discovers mainland Antarctica; the only recorded discovery of an uninhabited continent.  1839 - An early electric boat was developed by the German inventor Moritz von Jacobi in 1839 in St Petersburg, Russia. It was a 24-foot (7.3 m) boat which carried 14 passengers at 3 miles per hour (4.8 km/h). It was successfully demonstrated to Emperor Nicholas I of Russia on the Neva River.  1845: SS Great Britain becomes first iron steamer to cross the Atlantic.  1853: American commodore Matthew C. Perry arrives in Tokyo Bay, enforcing the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854.  1856: Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law outlaws privateering.  1859: The first ironclad warship, the Gloire, is launched.  1861: USS Ice Boat (1861), the first purpose-built icebreaker, is launched.  1862: The Battle of Hampton Roads becomes the first battle between ironclads.  1864: Ictineo II, the first submarine powered by an internal-combustion engine.  1869: The Suez Canal opens.  1871: Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld braves the Northeast Passage on the Vega  1880: The American passenger steamship Columbia becomes the first outside usage of Thomas Edison's incandescent light bulb.  1893: The Corinth Canal opens.  1894: The Turbinia, the world's first turbine-powered ship, is launched.  1895: The Kiel Canal opens.  1903: The Vandal, the world's first diesel-electric ship, is launched.  1906 o Roald Amundsen conquers the Northwest Passage on the Gjøa. o HMS Dreadnought launched, commencing the era of battleships. 891  1912: The Titanic sinks in the North Atlantic. The wreck could not be discovered until 1985.  1914: The Panama Canal opens.  1916: Battle of Jutland, claimed to be the largest naval battle in history, counting tonnage of engaged ships.  1918: HMS Furious (47) becomes the first aircraft carrier used in warfare.  1937: USS Leary (DD-158) becomes the first American vessel to be equipped with radar.  1941: The attack on Pearl Harbor starts the Pacific War.  1942: The battle of Midway marks the demise of battleships and the domination of aircraft carriers.  1944: Normandy landings, the largest amphibious invasion in history.  1951: The first purpose-built container ships enter operation.  1955: USS Nautilus (SSN-571), the world's first nuclear-powered vessel, is launched.  1957: Aircraft supplants shipping as the leading mode of passenger Transatlantic travel  1959: o The USS Skate (SSN-578) surfaces at the North Pole. o The SR.N1, the first practical hovercraft, is launched.  1960: The Trieste descends to the Challenger Deep.  1962: The Cuban Missile Crisis; a major naval confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union.  1977: Russian icebreaker Arktika makes the first surface voyage to the North Pole.  1982: Falklands War, one of the largest naval campaigns since World War II.  1985: The Sea Shadow (IX-529), an early stealth ship, is launched.  1987: The MV Doña Paz is lost, claiming 4,375 lives, the worst peacetime maritime disaster in history.  1994: o The Global Positioning System becomes operational. o M/S Estonia is lost in the Baltic Sea. 892  2005: Piracy in Somalia becomes an international concern.  2007: Arktika 2007 becomes the first manned expedition to the North Pole seabed.  2012:  o M/S Costa Concordia disaster. o James Cameron reaches the Challenger Deep solo with the Deepsea Challenger. 2013: MS Nordic Orion becomes the first freighter to complete the Northwest Passage. Timeline of hypertext technology 1940s  1941 o  Jorge Luis Borges' "The Garden of Forking Paths" 1945 o Memex (concept by Vannevar Bush) 1960s  1960 o  1962 o  Project Xanadu (concept) Marshall McLuhan's The Gutenberg Galaxy uses the term surfing 1967 o Hypertext Editing System (HES) by Andries van Dam and Ted Nelson at Brown University  1968 o FRESS (File Retrieval and Editing System, successor to HES) o NLS (oN-Line System) 893 1970s  1972 o  1973 o  PROMIS 1978 o  Xerox Alto desktop 1976 o  ZOG Aspen Movie Map 1979 o PERQ 1980s  1980 o   1981 o Electronic Document System (EDS, aka Document Presentation System) o Kussmaul Encyclopedia o Xerox Star desktop 1982 o   Guide 1983 o Knowledge Management System (KMS, successor to ZOG) o TIES (The Interactive Encyclopedia System, later HyperTies) 1984 o  ENQUIRE (not released) NoteCards 1985 o Intermedia (successor to FRESS and EDS) 894 o   Symbolics Document Examiner (Symbolics workstations) 1986 o TextNet (a network-based approach to text handling) o Neptune (a hypertext system for CAD applications) 1987 o Macromedia Authorware o Canon Cat ("Leap" function, interface) o HyperCard o Knowledge Navigator (concept described by former Apple Computer CEO John Sculley in his book Odyssey)  1988 o  Microcosm (hypermedia system) (University of Southampton) 1989 o Macromedia Director o Information Management: a proposal, Tim Berners-Lee, CERN 1990s    1990 o DynaText o World Wide Web o Hyperland (BBC documentary written by Douglas Adams) o ToolBook 1991 o Gopher o AmigaGuide 1995 o  Wiki 1996 895 o   Hyperwire (Kinetix) 1998 o Everything2 o XML 1999 o RSS 2000s  2001 o  Wikipedia 2014 o OpenXanadu, an implementation of Project Xanadu Timeline of medicine and medical technology Antiquity  3300 BC – During the Stone Age, early doctors used very primitive forms of herbal medicine.  3000 BC – Ayurveda The origins of Ayurveda have been traced back to around 4,000 BCE.  c. 2600 BC – Imhotep the priest-physician who was later deified as the Egyptian god of medicine.  2500 BC – Iry Egyptian inscription speaks of Iry as [eye-doctor of the palace,] [palace physician of the belly,] [guardian of the royal bowels,] and [he who prepares the important medicine (name cannot be translated) and knows the inner juices of the body.]  1900 BC – 1600 BC Akkadian clay tablets on medicine survive primarily as copies from Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh. 896  1800 BC – Code of Hammurabi sets out fees for surgeons and punishments for malpractice  1800 BC – Kahun Gynecological Papyrus  1600 BC – Hearst papyrus, coprotherapy and magic  1551 BC – Ebers Papyrus, coprotherapy and magic  1500 BC – Saffron used as a medicine on the Aegean island of Thera in ancient Greece  1500 BC – Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Egyptian medical text and the oldest known surgical treatise (no true surgery) no magic  1300 BC – Brugsch Papyrus and London Medical Papyrus  1250 BC – Asklepios  9th century – Hesiod reports an ontological conception of disease via the Pandora myth. Disease has a "life" of its own but is of divine origin.  8th century – Homer tells that Polydamna supplied the Greek forces besieging Troy with healing drugs Homer also tells about battlefield surgery Idomeneus tells Nestor after Machaon had fallen: A surgeon who can cut out an arrow and heal the wound with his ointments is worth a regiment.  700 BC – Cnidos medical school; also one at Cos  500 BC – Darius I orders the restoration of the House of Life (First record of a (much older) medical school)  500 BC – Bian Que becomes the earliest physician known to use acupuncture and pulse diagnosis  500 BC – the Sushruta Samhita is published, laying the framework for Ayurvedic medicine  c. 490 – c. 430 – Empedocles four elements  500 BC - Pills were used. They were presumably invented so that measured amounts of a medicinal substance could be delivered to a patient.  510–430 BC – Alcmaeon of Croton scientific anatomic dissections. He studied the optic nerves and the brain, arguing that the brain was the seat of the senses and intelligence. He distinguished veins from the arteries and had at least vague understanding of the 897 circulation of the blood. Variously described by modern scholars as Father of Anatomy; Father of Physiology; Father of Embryology; Father of Psychology; Creator of Psychiatry; Founder of Gynecology; and as the Father of Medicine itself. There is little evidence to support the claims but he is, nonetheless, important.  fl. 425 BC – Diogenes of Apollonia  c. 484 – 425 BC – Herodotus tells us Egyptian doctors were specialists: Medicine is practiced among them on a plan of separation; each physician treats a single disorder, and no more. Thus the country swarms with medical practitioners, some undertaking to cure diseases of the eye, others of the head, others again of the teeth, others of the intestines,and some those which are not local.  496–405 BC – Sophocles "It is not a learned physician who sings incantations over pains which should be cured by cutting."  420 BC – Hippocrates of Cos maintains that diseases have natural causes and puts forth the Hippocratic Oath. Origin of rational medicine. Medicine after Hippocrates  c. 400 BC – 1 BC – The Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine) is published, laying the framework for traditional Chinese medicine  4th century BC – Philistion of Locri Praxagoras distinguishes veins and arteries and determines only arteries pulse  375–295 BC – Diocles of Carystus  354 BC – Critobulus of Cos extracts an arrow from the eye of Phillip II, treating the loss of the eyeball without causing facial disfigurement.  3rd century BC – Philinus of Cos founder of the Empiricist school. Herophilos and Erasistratus practice androtomy. (Dissecting live and dead human beings)  280 BC – Herophilus Dissection studies the nervous system and distinguishes between sensory nerves and motor nerves and the brain. also the anatomy of the eye and medical terminology such as (in Latin translation "net like" becomes retiform/retina. 898 Vaccines Trigger human immune response to recognize and fight disease-causing organisms Conventional Purified antigen Recombinant Vaccines Vaccines Vaccines Live Vaccines Inactivated Vaccines DNA Vaccines Subunit Vaccines Although our main concern is to treat people with substance use disorder and mental health issues and to ultimately prepare them for reintegration into society, vaccination is crucial in terms of ensuring overall health and well-being. Whole protein molecule Polypeptide Susanne Bjelbo The process by which a parent cell divides into two daughter cells Making New cells | Making New DNA 3 main reasons for cell division:  Growth  Reproduction  Repair Types of cell division: Mitosis | Meiosis Mitosis Binary Fission Meiosis DNA replicates Parent cell → | DNA replicates 2 daughter cells Parent cell → 2 daughter cells 4 daughter cells Not a single visible phenomenon of cell-division gives even a remote suggestion of qualitative 3 main types of joints: division. All the facts, on the contrary, indicate that  Fibrous (immovable)  Cartilaginous (slightly moveable)  Synovial (freely moveable) the division of the chromatin is carried out with the most exact equality. Edmund Beecher Wilson Healthy cell Necrosis Apoptosis  Cell shrinkage  Plasma membrane blebbing  Formation of apoptotic bodies  Increase in cell volume Programmed cell death which  Loss of plasma membrane integrity eliminates unwanted cells from  Leakage of cell contents the body Cell death due to unfavorable stressful situations− infections, excessive heat, radiation or lack of blood supply Apoptosis No cancer risk Unfixable DNA Damage Cell continues dividing Could lead to Cancer The development of the nucleoplasm during ontogeny may be to some extent compared to an army composed of corps, which are made up of divisions, and these of brigades, and so on. The whole army may be taken to represent the nucleoplasm of the germ-cell: the earliest cell-division … may be represented by the separation of the two corps, similarly formed but with different duties: and the following cell-divisions by the successive detachment of divisions, brigades, regiments, battalions, companies, etc.; and as the groups become simpler so does their sphere of action become limited. August Weismann Fertilization of mammalian eggs is followed by successive cell divisions and progressive differentiation, first into the early embryo and subsequently into all of the cell types that make up the adult animal. Transfer of a single nucleus at a specific stage of development, to an enucleated unfertilized egg, provided an opportunity to investigate whether cellular differentiation to that stage involved irreversible genetic modification. The first offspring to develop from a differentiated cell were born after nuclear transfer from an embryo-derived cell line that had been induced to became quiescent. Using the same procedure, we now report the birth of live lambs from three new cell populations established from adult mammary gland, fetus and embryo. The fact that a lamb was derived from an adult cell confirms that differentiation of that cell did not involve the irreversible modification of genetic material required far development to term. The birth of lambs from differentiated fetal and adult cells also reinforces previous speculation that by inducing donor cells to became quiescent it will be possible to obtain normal development from a wide variety of differentiated cells. Ian Wilmut The nucleic acids, as constituents of living organisms, are comparable in importance to proteins. There is evidence that they are Involved In the processes of cell division and growth, that they participate in the transmission of hereditary characters, and that they are important constituents of viruses. An understanding of the molecular structure of the nucleic acids should be of value in the effort to understand the fundamental phenomena of life. Linus Pauling Gene Therapy Gene augmentation Autologous therapy Allogeneic therapy Introduction of new genes into patients' cells − often through adeno-associated viruses, to replace a defective gene Administered to patients' cells Administered to patients directly outside the body before being reintroduced Modification, addition or removal of patients' existing DNA Chemotherapy drugs  prevent cell division  target the cancer cells' food source (the enzymes and hormones they need to grow)  trigger the suicide of cancer cells Gene editing These facts show that mitosis is due to the co-ordinate play of an extremely complex system of forces which are as yet scarcely comprehended. Its purpose is, however, as obvious as its physiological explanation is difficult. It is the end of mitosis to divide every part of the chromatin of the mother-cell equally between the daughter-nuclei. All the other operations are tributary to this. We may therefore regard the mitotic figure as essentially an apparatus for the distribution of the hereditary substance, and in this sense as the especial instrument of inheritance. Edmund Beecher Wilson Immunity Innate immunity Passive immunity Body's ability to prevent the invasion of pathogens Active immunity Natural immunity a person Immunity acquired when Immunity produced by the is born with antibodies are introduced into the antibodies of the host in response to body from an external source direct contact of an antigen (usually through vaccines) Lasts only for a few weeks or months Long-lasting Skin prevent germs from getting into the body Mucous membranes secrete mucus and other substances which trap and fight germs White blood cells protect the human body against both infectious disease and (the cells of the immune system) foreign invaders Organs and tissues of the lymph system produce, store and carry white blood cells Naturally, immunity is a natural physician that fends off all invading bacteria and viruses; whereas, food becomes its medicine or trouble since that appears to increase or decrease your immune system. Thus, choose the right and healthy food, and adopt this proverb: Eat to be alive, not live to eat. Ehsan Sehgal White blood cells Phagocytes Lymphocytes Surround and absorb pathogens and break them Help the human body to remember previous invaders down − effectively eating them and recognize them if they come back to attack again  Neutrophils  Monocytes  Macrophages  Mast cells  B lymphocytes  T lymphocytes  270 – Huangfu Mi writes the Zhenjiu Jiayijing (The ABC Compendium of Acupuncture), the first textbook focusing solely on acupuncture  250 BC – Erasistratus studies the brain and distinguishes between the cerebrum and cerebellum physiology of the brain, heart and eyes, and in the vascular, nervous, respiratory and reproductive systems.  219 – Zhang Zhongjing publishes Shang Han Lun (On Cold Disease Damage).  200 BC – the Charaka Samhita uses a rational approach to the causes and cure of disease and uses objective methods of clinical examination  124–44 BC – Asclepiades of Bithynia  116–27 BC – Marcus Terentius Varro Germ theory of disease No one paid any attention to it.  1st century AD – Rufus of Ephesus; Marcellinus a physician of the first century AD; Numisianus  23 AD – 79 AD – Pliny the Elder writes Natural History  c. 25 BC – c. 50 AD – Aulus Cornelius Celsus Medical encyclopedia  50–70 AD – Pedanius Dioscorides writes De Materia Medica – a precursor of modern pharmacopoeias that was in use for almost 1600 years  2nd century AD Aretaeus of Cappadocia  98–138 AD – Soranus of Ephesus  129–216 AD – Galen – Clinical medicine based on observation and experience. The resulting tightly integrated and comprehensive system, offering a complete medical philosophy dominated medicine throughout the Middle Ages and until the beginning of the modern era. After Galen 200 AD  d. 260 – Gargilius Martialis, short Latin handbook on Medicines from Vegetables and Fruits  4th century Magnus of Nisibis, Alexandrian doctor and professor book on urine  325–400 – Oribasius 70 volume encyclopedia 899  362 – Julian orders xenones built, imitating Christian charity (proto hospitals)  369 – Basil of Caesarea founded at Caesarea in Cappadocia an institution (hospital) called Basilias, with several buildings for patients, nurses, physicians, workshops, and schools  375 – Ephrem the Syrian opened a hospital at Edessa They spread out and specialized nosocomia for the sick, brephotrophia for foundlings, orphanotrophia for orphans, ptochia for the poor, xenodochia for poor or infirm pilgrims, and gerontochia for the old.  400 – The first hospital in Latin Christendom was founded by Fabiola at Rome  420 – Caelius Aurelianus a doctor from Sicca Veneria (El-Kef, Tunisia) handbook On Acute and Chronic Diseases in Latin.  447 – Cassius Felix of Cirta (Constantine, Ksantina, Algeria), medical handbook drew on Greek sources, Methodist and Galenist in Latin  480–547 Benedict of Nursia founder of "monastic medicine"  484–590 – Flavius Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus  fl. 511–534 – Anthimus Greek: Ἄνθιμος  536 – Sergius of Reshaina (died 536) – A Christian theologian-physician who translated thirty-two of Galen's works into Syriac and wrote medical treatises of his own  525–605 – Alexander of Tralles Alexander Trallianus  500–550 – Aetius of Amida Encyclopedia 4 books each divided into 4 sections  second half of 6th century building of xenodocheions/bimārestāns by the Nestorians under the Sasanians, would evolve into the complex secular "Islamic hospital", which combined lay practice and Galenic teaching  550–630 Stephanus of Athens  560–636 – Isidore of Seville  c. 620 Aaron of Alexandria Syriac . He wrote 30 books on medicine, the "Pandects". He was the first author in antiquity who mentioned the diseases of smallpox and measles translated by Māsarjawaih a Syrian Jew and Physician, into Arabic about A. D. 683  c. 630 – Paul of Aegina Encyclopedia in 7 books very detailed surgery used by Albucasis 900  790–869 – Leo Itrosophist also Mathematician or Philosopher wrote "Epitome of Medicine"  c. 800–873 – Al-Kindi (Alkindus) De Gradibus  820 – Benedictine hospital founded, School of Salerno would grow around it  857d – Mesue the elder (Yūḥannā ibn Māsawayh) Syriac Christian  c. 830–870 – Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Johannitius) Syriac-speaking Christian also knew Greek and Arabic. Translator and author of several medical tracts.  c. 838–870 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, writes an encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic.  c. 910d – Ishaq ibn Hunayn  9th century – Yahya ibn Sarafyun a Syriac physician Johannes Serapion, Serapion the Elder  c. 865–925 – Rhazes pediatrics, and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his al-Hawi.  d. 955 – Isaac Judaeus Isḥāq ibn Sulaymān al-Isrāʾīlī Egyptian born Jewish physician  913–982 – Shabbethai Donnolo alleged founding father of School of Salerno wrote in Hebrew  d. 982–994 – 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi Haly Abbas  1000 – Albucasis (936–1018) surgery Kitab al-Tasrif, surgical instruments.  d. 1075 – Ibn Butlan Christian physician of Baghdad Tacuinum sanitatis the Arabic original and most of the Latin copies, are in tabular format  1018–1087 – Michael Psellos or Psellus a Byzantine monk, writer, philosopher, politician and historian. several books on medicine  c. 1030 – Avicenna The Canon of Medicine The Canon remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 18th century.  c. 1071–1078 – Simeon Seth or Symeon Seth an 11th-century Jewish Byzantine translated Arabic works into Greek  1084 – First documented hospital in England Canterbury  1087d – Constantine the African 901  1083–1153 – Anna Komnene, Latinized as Comnena  1095 – Congregation of the Antonines, was founded to treat victims of "St. Anthony's fire" a skin disease.  late 11th early 12th century – Trotula  1123 – St Bartholomew's Hospital founded by the court jester Rahere Augustine nuns originally cared for the patients. Mental patients were accepted along with others  1127 – Stephen of Antioch translated the work of Haly Abbas  1100–1161 – Avenzoar Teacher of Averroes  1170 – Rogerius Salernitanus composed his Chirurgia also known as The Surgery of Roger  1126–1198 – Averroes  c. 1161d – Matthaeus Platearius 1200–1499  1203 – Innocent III organized the hospital of Santo Spirito at Rome inspiring others all over Europe  c. 1210–1277 – William of Saliceto, also known as Guilielmus de Saliceto  1210–1295 – Taddeo Alderotti – Scholastic medicine  1240 Bartholomeus Anglicus  1242 – Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation and coronary circulation  c. 1248 – Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy, studied animal anatomy and medicine veterinary medicine.  1249 – Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness  1257 – 1316 Pietro d'Abano also known as Petrus De Apono or Aponensis  1260 – Louis IX established Les Quinze-vingt; originally a retreat for the blind, it became a hospital for eye diseases, and is now one of the most important medical centers in Paris  c. 1260–1320 Henri de Mondeville 902  1284 – Mansur hospital of Cairo  c. 1275 – c. 1328 Joannes Zacharias Actuarius a Byzantine physician wrote the last great compendium of Byzantine medicine  1275–1326 – Mondino de Luzzi "Mundinus" carried out the first systematic human dissections since Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos 1500 years earlier.  1288 – The hospital of Santa Maria Nuova founded in Florence, it was strictly medical.  1300 – concave lens spectacles to treat myopia developed in Italy.  1310 – Pietro d'Abano's Conciliator (c. 1310)  d. 1348 – Gentile da Foligno  1292–1350 – Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziya  1306–1390 – John of Arderne  d. 1368 – Guy de Chauliac  f. 1460 – Heinrich von Pfolspeundt  1443–1502 – Antonio Benivieni Pathological anatomy  1493–1541 – Paracelsus On the relationship between medicine and surgery surgery book 1500–1799  early 16th century: o Paracelsus, an alchemist by trade, rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. Burns the books of Avicenna, Galen and Hippocrates. o Hieronymus Fabricius His "Surgery" is mostly that of Celsus, Paul of Aegina, and Abulcasis citing them by name. o Caspar Stromayr or Stromayer Sixteenth Century  1500?–1561 Pierre Franco  Ambroise Paré (1510–1590) pioneered the treatment of gunshot wounds. 903 o Bartholomeo Maggi at Bologna, Felix Wurtz of Zurich, Léonard Botal in Paris, and the Englishman Thomas Gale (surgeon), (the diversity of their geographical origins attests to the widespread interest of surgeons in the problem), all published works urging similar treatment to Paré's. But it was Paré's writings which were the most influential.  1518 – College of Physicians founded now known as Royal College of Physicians of London is a British professional body of doctors of general medicine and its subspecialties. It received the royal charter in 1518  1510–1590 – Ambroise Paré surgeon  1540–1604 – William Clowes – Surgical chest for military surgeons  1543 – Andreas Vesalius publishes De Fabrica Corporis Humani which corrects Greek medical errors and revolutionizes European medicine  1546 – Girolamo Fracastoro proposes that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable seedlike entities  1550–1612 – Peter Lowe  1553 – Miguel Serveto describes the circulation of blood through the lungs. He is accused of heresy and burned at the stake  1556 – Amato Lusitano describes venous valves in the Ázigos vein  1559 – Realdo Colombo describes the circulation of blood through the lungs in detail  1563 – Garcia de Orta founds tropical medicine with his treatise on Indian diseases and treatments  1570–1643 – John Woodall Ship surgeons used lemon juice to treat scurvy wrote "The Surgions Mate"  1590 – Microscope was invented, which played a huge part in medical advancement  1596 – Li Shizhen publishes Běncǎo Gāngmù or Compendium of Materia Medica  1603 – Girolamo Fabrici studies leg veins and notices that they have valves which allow blood to flow only toward the heart  1621–1676 – Richard Wiseman 904 replication DNA Process of Transcription in Bacteria: transcription → mRNA translation → protein  Initiation  Elongation  Termination [Decoding the human genome sequence] is the most significant undertaking that we have mounted so far in an organized way in all of science. I believe that reading our blueprints, cataloguing our own instruction book, will be judged by history as more significant than even splitting the atom or going to the moon. [Locating, from scratch, the gene related to a disease is like] trying to find a burnedout light bulb in a house located somewhere between the East and West coasts without knowing the state, much less the town or street the house is on. — Francis S. Collins BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) is a measure of the organic matter present in the water. The greater the BOD of waste water, more is its polluting potential. Gene Cloning  identification of DNA with desirable genes  introduction of the identified DNA into the host  maintenance of introduced DNA in the host and transfer of the DNA to its progeny The cloning of humans is on most of the lists of things to worry about from Science, along with behaviour control, genetic engineering, transplanted heads, computer poetry and the unrestrained growth of plastic flowers. — Lewis Thomas Plant hybridization  Intravarietal hybridization → The cross between the plants of same variety  Intervarietal hybridization →The cross between the plants belonging to two different varieties of the same species  Interspecific hybridization → The cross between the plants belonging to different species belonging to the same genus  Intergeneric hybridization → The cross between the plants belonging to two different genera [Cloning] can't make you immortal because clearly the clone is a different person. If I take twins and shoot one of them, it will be faint consolation to the dead one that the other one is still running around, even though they are genetically identical. So the road to immortality is not through cloning. — Arthur L. Caplan Protozoans Eukaryotic, unicellular and heterotrophic protists Amoeboid protozoans Flagellated protozoans Ciliated protozoans Sporozoans  1628 – William Harvey explains the circulatory system in Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus The bacteria Thiomargarita namibiensis is large  1683–1758 – Lorenz Heister  1688–1752 – William Cheselden  1701 – Giacomo Pylarini gives the first smallpox inoculations in Europe. They were enough to be visible to the naked eye widely practised in the East before then.  1714–1789 – Percivall Pott  1720 – Lady Mary Wortley Montagu  1728–1793 – John Hunter  1736 – Claudius Aymand performs the first successful appendectomy  1744–1795 – Pierre-Joseph Desault First surgical periodical  1747 – James Lind discovers that citrus fruits prevent scurvy  1749–1806 – Benjamin Bell – Leading surgeon of his time and father of a surgical dynasty system of surgery The human mouth has approximately 500 bacterial species The first visual observations of microorganisms through a single-lens microscope  1752–1832 – Antonio Scarpa  1763–1820 – John Bell  1766–1842 – Dominique Jean Larrey Surgeon to Napoleon  1768–1843 – Astley Cooper surgeon lectures principles and practice  1774–1842 – Charles Bell, surgeon  1774 – Joseph Priestley discovers nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, ammonia, hydrogen were by a Dutch businessman and scientist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology Anton van Leeuwenhoek in 1676. chloride and oxygen  1777–1835 – Baron Guillaume Dupuytren – Head surgeon at Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, The age Dupuytren  1785 – William Withering publishes "An Account of the Foxglove" the first systematic description of digitalis in treating dropsy  1790 – Samuel Hahnemann rages against the prevalent practice of bloodletting as a universal cure and founds homeopathy  1796 – Edward Jenner develops a smallpox vaccination method 905  1799 – Humphry Davy discovers the anesthetic properties of nitrous oxide 1800–1899 The name virus was coined from the Latin word meaning slimy liquid or poison  1800 – Humphry Davy announces the anaesthetic properties of nitrous oxide.  1803–1805 – Morphine was first isolated by Friedrich Sertürner, this is generally believed to be the first isolation of an active ingredient from a plant.  1813–1883 – James Marion Sims vesico-vaganial surgery Father of surgical gynecology.  1816 – Rene Laennec invents the stethoscope.  1827–1912 – Joseph Lister antiseptic surgery Father of modern surgery  1818 – James Blundell performs the first successful human transfusion.  1842 – Crawford Long performs the first surgical operation using anesthesia with ether.  1845 – John Hughes Bennett first describes leukemia as a blood disorder.  1846 – First painless surgery with general anesthetic.  1847 – Ignaz Semmelweis discovers how to prevent puerperal fever.  1849 – Elizabeth Blackwell is the first woman to gain a medical degree in the United States.  1850 – Female Medical College of Pennsylvania (later Woman's Medical College), the first medical college in the world to grant degrees to women, is founded in Philadelphia.  1858 – Rudolf Carl Virchow 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902 his theories of cellular pathology spelled the end of Humoral medicine.  1867 – Lister publishes Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery, based partly on Pasteur's work.  1870 – Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch establish the germ theory of disease.  1878 – Ellis Reynolds Shipp graduates from the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania and begins practice in Utah. In 1927, yellow fever virus was the first  1879 – First vaccine for cholera.  1881 – Louis Pasteur develops an anthrax vaccine.  1882 – Louis Pasteur develops a rabies vaccine. 906 human virus to be discovered by Walter Reed.  1890 – Emil von Behring discovers antitoxins and uses them to develop tetanus and diphtheria vaccines.  1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers medical use of X-rays in medical imaging 1900–1999 The smallest known viruses are circoviruses − which are 0.00002 millimeters in diameter.  1901 – Karl Landsteiner discovers the existence of different human blood types  1901 – Alois Alzheimer identifies the first case of what becomes known as Alzheimer's disease  1903 – Willem Einthoven invents electrocardiography (ECG/EKG)  1906 – Frederick Hopkins suggests the existence of vitamins and suggests that a lack of vitamins causes scurvy and rickets  1907 – Paul Ehrlich develops a chemotherapeutic cure for sleeping sickness  1907 – Henry Stanley Plummer develops the first structured patient record and clinical number (Mayo clinic)  1908 – Victor Horsley and R. Clarke invents the stereotactic method  1909 – First intrauterine device described by Richard Richter.  1910 – Hans Christian Jacobaeus performs the first laparoscopy on humans  1917 – Julius Wagner-Jauregg discovers the malarial fever shock therapy for general paresis of the insane  1921 – Edward Mellanby discovers vitamin D and shows that its absence causes rickets  1921 – Frederick Banting and Charles Best discover insulin – important for the treatment of diabetes  1921 – Fidel Pagés pioneers epidural anesthesia  1923 – First vaccine for diphtheria  1926 – First vaccine for pertussis  1927 – First vaccine for tuberculosis  1927 – First vaccine for tetanus  1928 – Alexander Fleming discovers penicillin Fungi Can Cure Disease and Can Also Cause Disease Endophytic fungi suppress the growth of plant-parasitic nematodes that may cause harm to agricultural crops 907  1929 – Hans Berger discovers human electroencephalography  1930 - first successful sex reassignment surgery performed on lili Elbe in Dresden, Germany.  1932 – Gerhard Domagk develops a chemotherapeutic cure for streptococcus  1933 – Manfred Sakel discovers insulin shock therapy  1935 – Ladislas J. Meduna discovers metrazol shock therapy  1935 – First vaccine for yellow fever  1936 – Egas Moniz discovers prefrontal lobotomy for treating mental diseases; Enrique Finochietto develops the now ubiquitous self-retaining thoracic retractor  1938 – Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini discover electroconvulsive therapy  1938 – Howard Florey and Ernst Chain investigate Penicillin and attempted to massproduce it and tested it on the policeman Albert Alexander (police officer) who recovered but died due to a lack of Penicillin  1943 – Willem J. Kolff build the first dialysis machine  1944 – Disposable catheter – David S. Sheridan  1946 – Chemotherapy – Alfred G. Gilman and Louis S. Goodman  1947 – Defibrillator – Claude Beck  1948 – Acetaminophen – Julius Axelrod, Bernard Brodie  1949 – First implant of intraocular lens, by Sir Harold Ridley  1949 – Mechanical assistor for anesthesia – John Emerson  1952 – Jonas Salk develops the first polio vaccine (available in 1955)  1952 – Cloning – Robert Briggs and Thomas King  1953 – Heart-lung machine – John Heysham Gibbon  1953 – Medical ultrasonography – Inge Edler  1954 – Joseph Murray performs the first human kidney transplant (on identical twins)  1954 – Ventouse – Tage Malmstrom  1955 – Tetracycline – Lloyd Conover  1956 – Metered-dose inhaler – 3M A fungus known as the honey mushroom is the largest living organism on the planet There are more than 70,000 species of fungi described by mycologists 908  1957 – William Grey Walter invents the brain EEG topography (toposcope)  1958 – Pacemaker – Rune Elmqvist  1959 – In vitro fertilization – Min Chueh Chang  1960 – Invention of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)  1960 – First combined oral contraceptive approved by the FDA  1962 – Hip replacement – John Charnley  1962 – Beta blocker James W. Black  1962 – First oral polio vaccine (Sabin)  1963 – Artificial heart – Paul Winchell  1963 – Thomas Starzl performs the first human liver transplant  1963 – James Hardy performs the first human lung transplant  1963 – Valium (diazepam) – Leo H. Sternbach  1964 – First vaccine for measles  1965 – Frank Pantridge installs the first portable defibrillator  1965 – First commercial ultrasound  1966 – C. Walton Lillehei performs the first human pancreas transplant  1966 – Rubella Vaccine – Harry Martin Meyer and Paul D. Parkman  1967 – First vaccine for mumps  1967 – Christiaan Barnard performs the first human heart transplant  1968 – Powered prothesis – Samuel Alderson  1968 – Controlled drug delivery – Alejandro Zaffaron  1969 – Balloon catheter – Thomas Fogarty  1969 – Cochlear implant – William House  1970 – Cyclosporine, the first effective immunosuppressive drug is introduced in organ Fungi do not have chlorophyll in their cells. Therefore they cannot produce food and must depend upon other living or dead things for food 15% of all vaccines and therapeutic transplant practice  1971 - MMR Vaccine - developed by Maurice Hilleman  1971 – Genetically modified organisms – Ananda Chakrabart 909 proteins are made in yeast  1971 – Magnetic resonance imaging – Raymond Vahan Damadian  1971 – Computed tomography (CT or CAT Scan) – Godfrey Hounsfield  1971 – Transdermal patches – Alejandro Zaffaroni  1971 – Sir Godfrey Hounsfield invents the first commercial CT scanner  1972 – Insulin pump Dean Kamen  1973 – Laser eye surgery (LASIK) – Mani Lal Bhaumik  1974 – Liposuction – Giorgio Fischer The fungus Ophiocordyceps camponoti-floridani can infect  1976 – First commercial PET scanner ants and manipulate their behavior in a way that is beneficial  1978 – Last fatal case of smallpox  1979 – Antiviral drugs – George Hitchings and Gertrude Elion  1980 – Raymond Damadian builds first commercial MRI scanner  1980 – Lithotripter – Dornier Research Group  1980 – First vaccine for hepatitis B – Baruch Samuel Blumberg  1981 – Artificial skin – John F. Burke and Ioannis V Yannas  1981 – Bruce Reitz performs the first human heart-lung combined transplant  1982 – Human insulin – Eli Lilly  Interferon cloning – Sidney Pestka  1985 – Automated DNA sequencer – Leroy Hood and Lloyd Smith  1985 – Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) – Kary Mullis  1985 – Surgical robot – Yik San Kwoh  1985 – DNA fingerprinting – Alec Jeffreys  1985 – Capsule endoscopy – Tarun Mullick  1986 – Fluoxetine HCl – Eli Lilly and Co  1987 – Ben Carson, leading a 70-member medical team in Germany, was the first to for fungus growth and transmission. One of the big ecological roles that fungi play is as decomposers. separate occipital craniopagus twins.  1987 – commercially available Statins – Merck & Co.  1987 – Tissue engineering – Joseph Vacanti & Robert Langer 910  1988 – Intravascular stent – Julio Palmaz  1988 – Laser cataract surgery – Patricia Bath  1989 – Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) – Alan Handyside  1989 – DNA microarray – Stephen Fodor  1990 – Gamow bag – Igor Gamow  1992 – First vaccine for hepatitis A available  1992 – Electroactive polymers (artificial muscle) – SRI International  1992 – Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) – Andre van Steirteghem  1995 Adult stem cell use in regeneration of tissues and organs in vivo - B. G Matapurkar The word Fungus comes from Latin word meaning sponge. U.S . International Patent The word "gene" was not coined until early  1996 – Dolly the Sheep cloned  1998 – Stem cell therapy – James Thomson in the 20th century by the Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen (1909). 2000–present  2000 26 June – The Human Genome Project draft was completed.  2001 The first telesurgery was performed by Jacques Marescaux.  2003 – Carlo Urbani, of Doctors without Borders alerted the World Health Organization to the threat of the SARS virus, triggering the most effective response to an epidemic in history. Urbani succumbs to the disease himself in less than a month.  2005 – Jean-Michel Dubernard performs the first partial face transplant.  2006 – First HPV vaccine approved.  2006 – The second rotavirus vaccine approved (first was withdrawn).  2007 – The visual prosthetic (bionic eye) Argus II.  2008 – Laurent Lantieri performs the first full face transplant.  2011 - first successful Uterus transplant from a deceased donor in Turkey  2013 – The first kidney was grown in vitro in the U.S.  2013 – The first human liver was grown from stem cells in Japan.  2014 - A 3D printer is used for first ever skull transplant. 911  2016 - The first ever artificial pancreas was created  2019 – 3D-print heart from human patient's cells. All human beings are 99.9 percent identical in their Timeline of science and engineering in the Islamic world genetic makeup. Eighth Century Chemistry  721 – 815: Jabir ibn Hayyan (Latinized name, Geber,). First chemist known to produce sulfuric acid, as well as many other chemicals and instruments. Wrote on adding color to glass by adding small quantities of metallic oxides to the glass, such as manganese dioxide. This was a new advance in glass industry unknown in antiquity. His works include The Elaboration of the Grand Elixir; The Chest of Wisdom in which he writes on nitric acid; Kitab al-istitmam (translated to Latin later as Summa Perfectionis); and others. Mathematics  780 – 850: al-Khwarizmi Developed the "calculus of resolution and juxtaposition" (hisab al-jabr w'al-muqabala), more briefly referred to as al-jabr, or algebra. Ninth Century Genes Can Disappear Or Break As Species Evolve. Chemistry  801 – 873: Al-Kindi writes on the distillation of wine as that of rose water and gives 107 recipes for perfumes, in his book Kitab Kimia al-`otoor wa al-tas`eedat (book of the chemistry of perfumes and distillations.) 912  854 – 930: Al-Razi wrote on Naft (naphta or petroleum) and its distillates in his book "Kitab sirr al-asrar" (book of the secret of secrets.) When choosing a site to build Baghdad's hospital, he hung pieces of fresh meat in different parts of the city. The location where the meat took the longest to rot was the one he chose for building the hospital. Advocated that patients not be told their real condition so that fear or despair do not affect the healing process. Wrote on alkali, caustic soda, soap and glycerine. Gave descriptions of equipment processes and methods in his book Kitab al-Asrar (book of secrets) in 925. Elizabeth Taylor's Voluminous Eyelashes were likely caused by a Genetic Mutation. Mathematics  826 – 901: Thabit ibn Qurra (Latinized, Thebit.) Studied at Baghdad's House of Wisdom under the Banu Musa brothers. Discovered a theorem which enables pairs of amicable numbers to be found. Later, al-Baghdadi (b. 980) developed a variant of the theorem. Miscellaneous  c. 810: Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom) set up in Baghdad. There Greek and Indian mathematical and astronomy works are translated into Arabic.  810 – 887: Abbas ibn Firnas. Planetarium, artificial crystals. According to one account written seven centuries after his death, Ibn Firnas was injured during an elevated winged trial flight. A "Zombie Gene" In Elephants Might Help Protect Them From Cancer. Tenth Century By this century, three systems of counting are used in the Arab world. Finger-reckoning arithmetic, with numerals written entirely in words, used by the business community; the sexagesimal system, a remnant originating with the Babylonians, with numerals denoted by letters of the arabic alphabet and used by Arab mathematicians in astronomical work; and the Indian numeral system, which was used with various sets of symbols. Its arithmetic at first required the use of a dust board (a sort of handheld blackboard) because "the methods required moving the numbers around in the calculation and rubbing some out as the calculation proceeded." 913 Chemistry  957: Abul Hasan Ali Al-Masudi, wrote on the reaction of alkali water with zaj (vitriol) water giving sulfuric acid. Octopuses Can Edit Their Own Genes Mathematics  920: al-Uqlidisi. Modified arithmetic methods for the Indian numeral system to make it possible for pen and paper use. Hitherto, doing calculations with the Indian numerals necessitated the use of a dust board as noted earlier.  940: Born Abu'l-Wafa al-Buzjani. Wrote several treatises using the finger-counting system of arithmetic, and was also an expert on the Indian numerals system. About the Indian system he wrote: "[it] did not find application in business circles and among the population of the Eastern Caliphate for a long time." Using the Indian numeral system, abu'l Wafa was able to extract roots.  980: al-Baghdadi Studied a slight variant of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem on amicable numbers. Al-Baghdadi also wrote about and compared the three systems of counting and arithmetic used in the region during this period. Eleventh Century There are over 200 different types of cells in the human body Mathematics  1048 – 1131: Omar Khayyam. Persian mathematician and poet. "Gave a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections." Extracted roots using the decimal system (the Indian numeral system). Only about 3% of the DNA actually codes for genes; the rest is often Twelfth Century called "non-coding DNA" because its function is unknown. Cartography 914  1100–1165: Muhammad al-Idrisi, aka Idris al-Saqalli aka al-sharif al-idrissi of Andalusia and Sicily. Known for having drawn some of the most advanced ancient world maps. Chromosome abnormalities occur in one of every 180 live births Mathematics  1130–1180: Al-Samawal. An important member of al-Karaji's school of algebra. Gave this definition of algebra: "[it is concerned] with operating on unknowns using all the arithmetical tools, in the same way as the arithmetician operates on the known."  1135: Sharaf al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī. Follows al-Khayyam's application of algebra of geometry, rather than follow the general development that came through al-Karaji's school of algebra. Wrote a treatise on cubic equations which describes thus: "[the treatise] represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry." Thirteenth Century The human genome contains approximately 3 billion base pairs, which reside in the 23 pairs of chromosomes within the nucleus of all our cells. Chemistry  Al-Jawbari describes the preparation of rose water in the work "Book of Selected Disclosure of Secrets" (Kitab kashf al-Asrar).  Materials; glassmaking: Arabic manuscript on the manufacture of false gemstones and diamonds. Also describes spirits of alum, spirits of saltpetre and spirits of salts (hydrochloric acid).  An Arabic manuscript written in Syriac script gives description of various chemical materials and their properties such as sulfuric acid, sal-ammoniac, saltpetre and zaj (vitriol). Mathematics  There are approximately 20,000 −25,000 genes in the human genome. 1260: al-Farisi. Gave a new proof of Thabit ibn Qurra's theorem, introducing important new ideas concerning factorization and combinatorial methods. He also gave the pair 915 of amicable numbers 17296, 18416 which have also been joint attributed to Fermat as well as Thabit ibn Qurra. According to Moore's Law, microchips double in power every 18 to 24 months. Miscellaneous  Mechanical engineering: Ismail al-Jazari described 100 mechanical devices, some 80 of which are trick vessels of various kinds, along with instructions on how to construct them  Medicine; Scientific method: Ibn Al-Nafis (1213-1288) Damascene physician and anatomist. Discovered the lesser circulatory system (the cycle involving the ventricles of the heart and the lungs), and described the mechanism of breathing and its relation to the blood and how it nourishes on air in the lungs. Followed a "constructivist" path of the smaller circulatory system: "blood is purified in the lungs for the continuance of life and providing the body with the ability to work". During his time, the common view was that blood originates in the liver then travels to the right ventricle, then on to the organs of the body; another contemporary view was that blood is filtered through the diaphragm where it mixes with the air coming from the lungs. Ibn al-Nafis discredited all these views including ones by Galen and Avicenna (ibn Sina). At least an illustration of his manuscript is still extant. William Harvey explained the circulatory system without reference to ibn al-Nafis in 1628. Ibn al-Nafis extolled the study of comparative anatomy in his "Explaining the dissection of [Avicenna's] Al-Qanoon" which includes a prefaces, and citations of sources. Emphasized the rigours of verification by measurement, observation and experiment. Subjected conventional wisdom of his time to a critical review and verified it with experiment and observation, discarding errors. Fourteenth Century No one has received more U.S. patents than American inventor and businessman Thomas Alva Edison – 1,093 to be exact. Astronomy  1393–1449: Ulugh Beg commissions an observatory at Samarqand in presentday Uzbekistan. Mathematics The Ericsson Company first produced cellular phones in 1979. 916  1380-1429: al-Kashi. According to, "contributed to the development of decimal fractions not only for approximating algebraic numbers, but also for real numbers such as pi. His contribution to decimal fractions is so major that for many years he was considered as their inventor. Although not the first to do so, al-Kashi gave an algorithm for calculating nth roots which is a special case of the methods given many centuries later by Ruffini and Horner." Fifteenth Century Theodore Maiman made the first laser operate on 16 May 1960 at the Hughes Research Laboratory in California. Mathematics  Ibn al-Banna and al-Qalasadi used symbols for mathematics "and, although we do not know exactly when their use began, we know that symbols were used at least a century before this." Samuel Morse, the inventor of the Morse code, was a painter as well. Miscellaneous  Astronomy and mathematics: Ibn Masoud (Ghayyathuddin Jamshid ibn Mohamed ibn mas`oud, d. 1424 or 1436.) Wrote on the decimal system. Computed and observed the solar eclipses of 809AH, 810AH and 811AH, after being invited by Ulugh Beg, based in Samarqand to pursue his study of mathematics, astronomy and physics. His works include "The Key of arithmetics"; "Discoveries in mathematics"; "The Decimal point"; "the benefits of the zero". The contents of the Benefits of the Zero are an introduction followed by five essays: On whole number arithmetic; On fractional arithmetic; on astrology; on areas; on finding the unknowns [unknown variables]. He also wrote a "Thesis on the sine and the chord"; "thesis on the circumference" in which he found the ratio of the circumference to the radius of a circle to sixteen decimal places; "The garden of gardens" or "promenade of the gardens" describing an instrument he devised and used at the Samarqand observatory to compile an ephemeris, and for computing solar and lunar eclipses; The ephemeris "Zayj Al-Khaqani" which also includes mathematical tables and corrections of the ephemeresis by Al-Tusi; "Thesis on finding the first degree sine". 917 Seventeenth century Between 1971 and 1978, the first Japanese-language word processor was developed Mathematics  The Arabic mathematician Mohammed Baqir Yazdi discovered the pair of amicable numbers 9,363,584 and 9,437,056 for which he is jointly credited with Descartes. It took radio broadcasters 38 years to reach an audience of 50 million, television 13 years and the Internet just 4 years. Timeline of psychotherapy  c. 1550 BCE – Ancient Egyptians codified their knowledge of psychiatry, medicine, and surgery in the Ebers Papyrus and the Edwin Smith Papyrus. The former mentioned dementia and depression, while the latter gave detailed instructions for various neurosurgical procedures. The power of magic (suggestion) was recognized as complementary to medicine.  c. 500 BCE – Siddhartha Gautama (Lumbini, Nepal) founded the psychotherapeutic practices of Buddhism on the principle that the origin of mental suffering is ignorance, that the symptoms of ignorance are attachment and craving, and that attachment and craving can be ended by following the Eightfold Path.  c. 400 BCE – Hippocrates (Kos, Greece) taught that melancholia (depression) has a biological cause, namely an excess of black bile, one of the four humours. Ancient Greek therapy for disorders of mood involved adjustment of the humours, to bring them into balance.  c. 300 BCE – Composition of the Huangdi Neijing began in China. This medical work emphasized the relationship between organs and emotions, and formalized the theory of Qi (life-force) and the balancing of the primal forces of Yin and yang.  c. 900 – Ahmed ibn Sahl al-Balkhi (Balkh, Afghanistan) introduces the concepts of mental health or "mental hygiene". He also recognized that illnesses can have both psychological and/or physiological causes.  c. 900 – al-Razi (Rhazes) recognized the concept of "psychotherapy" and referred to it as al-‘ilaj al-nafs. 918  1025 – Avicenna (Bukhara Region, Uzbekistan) In The Canon of Medicine, he described a number of conditions, including hallucination, insomnia, mania, nightmare, melancholia, dementia, epilepsy, pa ralysis, stroke, vertigo and tremor.  c. 1150 – Ibn Zuhr, aka 'Avenzoar" (Seville, Spain), a Muslim Arab physician and surgeon, gave the first accurate descriptions on certain neurological disorders such as meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, and mediastinal germ cell tumors.  c. 1150 – Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease.  c. 1200 – Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.  1403 – The Bethlem Royal Hospital of London, (Bedlam) (established as a hospital in 1330) admitted its first mentally ill patients. The care amounted to little more than restraint.  1567 – Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, aka "Paracelsus" (Einsiedeln, Switzerland) credited as providing the first clinical/scientific mention of the unconscious in his work Von den Krankeiten. Paracelsus called for the humane treatment of the mentally ill (but was ignored for several centuries) as he saw them not to be possessed by evil spirits, but merely 'brothers' ensnared in a treatable malady.  1770 – Johann Joseph Gassner initiated a therapeutic practice using a precursor of hypnotherapy and exorcism.  1774 – Franz Mesmer described the therapeutic properties of "animal magnetism" (hypnotherapy), and began a clinical practice.  1785 – Marquis de Puységur founded the Société Harmonique des Amis Réunis to train specialists in Mesmerism (hypnotherapy).  1793 – Jean-Baptiste Pussin, working with Philippe Pinel, took over France's Bicetre Hospital and began releasing incarcerated mental patients from chains and iron shackles 919 in the first movement for the humane treatment of the mentally ill. "The Moral Treatment" included humane, non-violent, and drug-free management of mental illness.  1801 – Philippe Pinel (France) published the first psychological approach to the treatment of the insane. The work appeared in English translation in 1806, as Treatise on Insanity.  1813 – Abbé Faria identified the central role of suggestion in "animal magnetism" (hypnotherapy).  1826 – Justinus Kerner began treatment of patients with a combination of "animal magnetism" (hypnotherapy) and exorcism.  1870 – Jean-Martin Charcot began clinical research into hysteria (conversion disorder) at the Salpêtrière Hospital in Paris.  1884 – Jean-Martin Charcot explained demonic possession as a form of hysteria (conversion disorder), to be treated with hypnotherapy.  1885 – Pierre Janet began therapeutic practice and research in Le Havre.  1886 – Sigmund Freud began therapeutic practice and research in Vienna.  1892 – Foundation of the American Psychological Association (APA), headed by G. Stanley Hall.  1896 – Development of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania, marking the birth of clinical psychology.  1898 – Boris Sidis publishes The Psychology of Suggestion: A Research into the Subconscious Nature of Man and Society.  1900 – Sigmund Freud published Interpretation of Dreams, marking the beginning of Psychoanalytic Thought.  1902 - In the autumn the Wednesday Psychological Society (Psychologische MittwochsGesellschaft) started meeting in Freud's apartment in Vienna, marking the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement.  1906 – The Journal of Abnormal Psychology founded by Morton Prince for which Boris Sidis was an associate editor and significant contributor. The word "engineer" comes  1906 - The Child Guidance Movement begins in Chicago. from the Medieval Latin word  1906 - Carl Jung began correspondence with Freud. "ingeniator" (meaning clever). 920 Arthropods Insects Arachnids Crustaceans (Ticks, mites and other copepods) (Cyclops and other copepods) Winged Winged Wingless (Biting) (Non-biting) (Biting)  Flea  Mosquito  Sandfly  Blackfly  Tsetse fly  Housefly  Louse  Bedbug After the planet becomes theirs, many millions of years will have to pass before a beetle particularly loved by God, at the end of its calculations will find written on a sheet of paper in letters of fire that energy is equal to the mass multiplied by the square of the velocity of light. The new kings of the world will live tranquilly for a long time, confining themselves to devouring each other and being parasites among each other on a cottage industry scale. — Primo Levi Dietary supplements Functional foods Approved drugs All life is linked together in such a way that no part of the chain is unimportant. Frequently, upon the Prescription products to relieve specific diseases Non-prescription products to promote health action of some of these minute beings depends the material success or failure of a great commonwealth. Biotherapeutics Probiotic cultures — John Henry Comstock Prebiotics Chemical agents have the ability to Probiotics stimulate probiotics Healthful microbial living cells Microbe Paraprobiotics Postbiotics Dead or inactive probiotics Beneficial metabolites of probiotics A working definition of life … could thing in terms of a large molecule made up of carbon compounds that can replicate, or make copies of itself, and metabolize food and energy…: macromolecule, metabolism, replication. — Cyril Ponnamperuma Food  High acid foods (pH > 3.7)  Low acid foods (pH > 4.5)  Acid foods (pH of 3.7 to 4.5) Energy supplying food Body building food Repairing and (cereals, sugars, roots, tubers, fats and oils) (milk, meat, poultry, eggs, maintenance food fish, pulses and groundnuts) (vegetables, fruits, milk) Question: Explain why, in order to cook food by boiling, at the top of a high mountain, you must employ a different method from that used at the sea level. Answer: It is easy to cook food at the sea level by boiling it, but once you get above the sea level the only plan is to fry it in its own fat. It is, in fact, impossible to boil water above the sea level by any amount of heat. A different method, therefore, would have to be employed to boil food at the top of a high mountain, but what that method is has not yet been discovered. The future may reveal it to a daring experimentalist. — 19th Century Schoolboy Blunders Environmental Factors affecting Microbial Growth:  Moisture  Oxygen  Carbon Dioxide yield of protein than other types of crops. Even with conventional  Temperature food crops there is more protein in the leafy parts than in the seeds  pH  Light  Osmotic Effect  Mechanical and Sonic Stress Advocacy of leaf protein as a human food is based on the undisputed fact that forage crops (such as Lucerne) give a greater or tubs that are usually harvested. — Norman Wingate Pirie Bacterial culture Live microbes Dead microbes (Presence of a percentage of dead microbes)  Food supplement  Medical food  Drug (Microbes inactivated by heat, radiation etc.)  Drug Scalar Vector A physical quantity with only magnitude. A physical quantity with both the magnitude and direction.  Mass  Linear momentum  Speed  Acceleration  Distance  Displacement  Time  Momentum  Area  Angular velocity  Volume  Force  Density  Electric field  Temperature  Polarization As agonizing a disease as cancer is, I do not think it can be said that our civilization is threatened by it. … But a very plausible case can be made that our civilization is fundamentally threatened by the lack of adequate fertility control. Exponential increases of population will dominate any arithmetic increases, even those brought about by heroic technological initiatives, in the availability of food and resources, as Malthus long ago realized. Carl Sagan Nutraceuticals Traditional Non-traditional  Chemical Constituents  Fortified Nutraceuticals  Probiotic Microorganisms  Recombinant Nutraceuticals  Nutraceutical Enzymes Substances which have a physiological benefit or provides protection against chronic disease  1907 - Jung and his wife, Emma travelled to Vienna to meet with Freud.  1909 - Sandor Ferenczi, Freud and Jung travelled together to the United States to participate in the Clark University conference.  1910 - Freud proposes Jung as his "eldest son and heir" to his new science.  1910 – Boris Sidis opens the Sidis Psychotherapeutic Institute (a private hospital) at Maplewood Farms in Portsmouth, NH for the treatment of nervous patients using the latest scientific methods.  1911 – Alfred Adler left Freud's Psychoanalytic Group to form his own school of thought, Individual Psychology, accusing Freud of overemphasizing sexuality and basing his theory on his own childhood.  1912 - Publication of Jung's Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, (subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation), containing his dissenting view on the libido, it represented largely a "psychoanalytical Jung".  1913 – Carl Jung departed from Freudian views, a final break ensued and he developed his own theories citing Freud's inability to acknowledge religion and spirituality and his restricted view of libido. His "new school of thought" became known as Analytical Psychology.  1913 – Jacob L. Moreno applied Group Psychotherapy methods in Vienna. His methods, which emphasized spontaneity and interaction, later became known as Psychodrama and Sociometry.  1914 – Boris Sidis publishes The Foundations of Normal and Abnormal Psychology where he provides the scientific foundation for the field of psychology, and details his theory of the moment-consciousness.  1919 - The British Psychoanalytical Society established by Ernest Jones in London.  1921 – Jacob L. Moreno conducted the first large scale public Psychodrama session at the Komoedienhaus, Vienna. He moved to New York in 1925.  1922 – Boris Sidis publishes Nervous Ills: Their Cause and a Cure, a popularization of his work concerning the subconscious and the treatment of psychopathic disease. 921 Biology is a science of three dimensions. The first is the study of each species across all levels of biological organization, molecule to cell to organism to population to ecosystem. The second dimension is the diversity of all species in the biosphere. The third dimension is the history of each species in turn, comprising both its genetic evolution and the environmental change that drove the evolution. Biology, by growing in all three dimensions, is progressing toward unification and will continue to do so. Edward O. Wilson Transpiration Stomatal Transpiration Lenticular Transpiration Cuticular Transpiration  Helps in the exchange of gases  Helps in sending out excessively absorbed water by plants  Controls the temperature of the plants  Allows the movement of minerals from the soil to different parts of the plant Both biological and cultural diversity are now severely threatened and working for their preservation is a critical task. — Murray Gell-Mann Pigments Organic pigment Inorganic pigment Provide colour to materials − whether they are textiles or paints Darwin was a biological evolutionist, because he was Top 10 Most Endangered Animals:  Vaquita  Amur Leopard  Kakapo  Gharial  Tooth-billed pigeon  North Atlantic right whale  Saola  Sea turtles  Rhinos  Gorillas first a uniformitarian geologist. Biology is pre-eminent to-day among the natural sciences, because its younger sister, Geology, gave it the means. — Charles Lapworth Very likely to become extinct in the near future Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes, biology is about microscopes or chemistry is about beakers and test tubes. Science is not about tools. It is about how we use them, and what we find out when we do. Edsger W. Dijkstra  1933 – Wilhelm Reich published his influential book Character Analysis giving his view that a person's entire character, not only individual symptoms, could be looked at and treated as a neurotic phenomenon. The book also introduced his theory of body armoring.  1936 – Karen Horney began her critique of Freudian psychoanalytic theory with the publication of Feminine Psychology.  1936 – Saul Rosenzweig published his article Some Implicit Common Factors in Diverse Methods of Psychotherapy, in which he argued that common factors, rather than speific ingredients, cause change in psychotherapy.  1942 – Carl Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy, suggesting that respect and a non-judgmental approach to therapy is the foundation for effective treatment of mental health issues.  1943 – Albert Hofmann writes his first report about the hallucinogenic properties of LSD, which he first synthesized in 1938. LSD was practiced as a therapeutic drug throughout the 1950s and 1960s.  1945 - Society of Analytical Psychology incorporated in London  1945 – Orval Hobart Mowrer founded Integrity Groups therapy.  1945 – The Journal of Clinical Psychology was founded.  1949 – The Boulder Conference outlined the scientist-practitioner model of clinical psychology, looking at the master's degree versus PhD used by medical providers and researchers, respectively.  1951 – Carl Rogers published his major work, Client-Centered Therapy.  1951 – The seminal work of "Gestalt Therapy: Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality" is published, co-authored by Fritz Perls, Paul Goodman, and Ralph Hefferline.  1951 - The Association of Psychotherapists established in London.  1952 – The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) was published by The American Psychiatric Association marking the beginning of modern mental illness classification. 922  1953 – B.F. Skinner outlined behavioral therapy, lending support for behavioral psychology via research in the literature.  1953 – Code of Ethics for Psychologists developed by the American Psychological Association.  1954 – Abraham Maslow helped to found Humanistic psychology and later developed his famous Hierarchy of Needs.  1955 – Albert Ellis began teaching the methods of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy the first form of cognitive psychotherapy.  1959 – Viktor Frankl published the first English edition of Man's Search for Meaning [with a preface by Gordon Allport], which provided an existential account of his Holocaust experience and an overview of his system of existential analysis called Logotherapy.  1960 – Thomas Szasz inaugurated the anti-psychiatry movement with the publication of his book, The Myth of Mental Illness.  1960 – R. D. Laing published The Divided Self which saw mental illness as an expression or communication of the individual and so represented valid descriptions of lived experience or reality rather than as symptoms of some separate or underlying disorder.  1962 – The Esalen Institute founded at Big Sur California, acting as a focus for the development of many branches of Humanistic psychology.  1965 – William Glasser published Reality Therapy, describing his psycho-therapeutic model and introducing his concept of control theory [later renamed to Choice Theory].  1967 – Aaron Beck published a psychological model of depression, suggesting that thoughts play a significant role in the development and maintenance of depression.  1968 – DSM II published by the American Psychiatric Association.  1969 – California School of Professional Psychology established as first freestanding school of professional psychology.  1969 – Joseph Wolpe published The Practice of Behavior Therapy.  1970 – Arthur Janov published his book The Primal Scream, which outlined his theory of the trauma-based Primal therapy. 923  1971 – Vladimir Bukovsky documented the psychiatric imprisonment of political prisoners in the USSR.  1980 – DSM III is published by the American Psychiatric Association.  1987 – DSM III-R is published by the American Psychiatric Association.  1990 – Michael White and David Epston publish Narrative Means to Therapeutic Ends, the first major text in what later comes to be known as narrative therapy.  1991 – The American Psychoanalytic Association passed a resolution opposing "public or private discrimination" against homosexuals. It stopped short, however, of agreeing to open its training institutes to these individuals.  1992 – The American Psychoanalytic Association extended the provisions of its 1991 resolution (see above) to training candidates at its affiliated institutes.  1994 – DSM IV (The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) published by the American Psychiatric Association.  1997 – The American Psychoanalytic Association became the first national mental health organization to support same-sex marriage.  2000 – The DSM-IV-TR, was published in May 2000 in order to correct several errors in DSM-IV, and to update and change diagnostic codes to reflect the ICD-9-CM coding system.  2013 – The Fifth Edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) was released at the American Psychiatric Association’s Annual Meeting in May 2013, marking the end of more than a decade’s journey in revising the criteria for the diagnosis and classification of mental disorders. Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs, and surveys  c. 1800 BC — Babylonian star catalog (see Babylonian star catalogues)  c. 1370 BC — Observations for the Babylonia MUL.APIN (an astro catalog).  c. 350 BC — Shi Shen's star catalog has almost 800 entries  c. 300 BC — star catalog of Timocharis of Alexandria 924  c. 134 BC — Hipparchus makes a detailed star map  c. 140 — Ptolemy completes his Almagest, which contains a catalog of stars, observations of planetary motions, and treatises on geometry and cosmology  c. 705 — Dunhuang Star Chart, a manuscript star chart from the Mogao Caves at Dunhuang  c. 750 — The first Zij treatise, Az-Zij ‛alā Sinī al-‛Arab, written by Ibrahim alFazari and Muhammad al-Fazari  c. 777 — Yaqūb ibn Tāriq's Az-Zij al-Mahlul min as-Sindhind li-Darajat Daraja  c. 830 — Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī's Zij al-Sindhind  c. 840 — Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī's Compendium of the Science of the Stars  c. 900 — Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī's Az-Zij as-Sabi  964 — Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi)'s star catalog Book of the Fixed Stars  1031 — Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī's al-Qanun al-Mas'udi, making first use of a planisphere projection, and discussing the use of the astrolabe and the armillary sphere.  1088 — The first almanac is the Almanac of Azarqueil written by Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm alZarqālī (Azarqueil)  1115–1116 — Al-Khazini's Az-Zij as-Sanjarī (Sinjaric Tables)  c. 1150 — Gerard of Cremona publishes Tables of Toledo based on the work of Azarqueil  1252–1270 — Alfonsine tables recorded by order of Alfonso X  1272 — Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī's Zij-i Ilkhani (Ilkhanic Tables)  1395 — Cheonsang Yeolcha Bunyajido star map created at the order of King Taejo  c. 1400 — Jamshīd al-Kāshī's Khaqani Zij  1437 — Publication of Ulugh Beg's Zij-i-Sultani  1551 — Prussian Tables by Erasmus Reinhold  late 16th century — Tycho Brahe updates Ptolemy's Almagest  1577–1580 — Taqi al-Din's Unbored Pearl 925  1598 — Tycho Brahe publishes his "Thousand Star Catalog"  1603 — Johann Bayer's Uranometria  1627 — Johannes Kepler publishes his Rudolphine Tables of 1006 stars from Tycho plus 400 more  1678 — Edmund Halley publishes a catalog of 341 southern stars, the first systematic southern sky survey  1712 — Isaac Newton and Edmund Halley publish a catalog based on data from a Royal Astronomer who left all his data under seal, the official version would not be released for another decade.  1725 — Posthumous publication of John Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica  1771 — Charles Messier publishes his first list of nebulae  1824 — Urania's Mirror by Sidney Hall  1862 — Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander publishes his final edition of the Bonner Durchmusterung catalog of stars north of declination -1°.  1864 — John Herschel publishes the General Catalogue of nebulae and star clusters  1887 — Paris conference institutes Carte du Ciel project to map entire sky to 14th magnitude photographically  1890 — John Dreyer publishes the New General Catalogue of nebulae and star clusters  1932 — Harlow Shapley and Adelaide Ames publish A Survey of the External Galaxies Brighter than the Thirteenth Magnitude, later known as the Shapley-Ames Catalog  1948 — Antonín Bečvář publishes the Skalnate Pleso Atlas of the Heavens (Atlas Coeli Skalnaté Pleso 1950.0)  1950–1957 — Completion of the Palomar Observatory Sky Survey (POSS) with the Palomar 48-inch Schmidt optical reflecting telescope. Actual date quoted varies upon source.  1962 — A.S. Bennett of the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group publishes the Revised 3C Catalogue of 328 radio sources  1965 — Gerry Neugebauer and Robert Leighton begin a 2.2 micrometre sky survey with a 1.6-meter telescope on Mount Wilson 926  1982 — IRAS space observatory completes an all-sky mid-infrared survey  1990 — Publication of APM Galaxy Survey of 2+ million galaxies, to study large-scale structure of the cosmos  1991 — ROSAT space observatory begins an all-sky X-ray survey  1993 — Start of the 20 cm VLA FIRST survey  1997 — Two Micron All Sky Survey (2MASS) commences, first version of Hipparcos Catalogue published  1998 — Sloan Digital Sky Survey commences  2003 — 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey published; 2MASS completes  2012 — On March 14, 2012, a new atlas and catalog of the entire infrared sky as imaged by Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer was released. Timeline of Solar System astronomy  2nd millennium BC – earliest possible date for the composition of the Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, a 7th-century BC copy of a list of observations of the motions of the planet Venus, and the oldest planetary table currently known.  2nd millennium BC – Babylonian astronomers identify the inner planets Mercury and Venus and the outer planets Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, which would remain the only known planets until the invention of the telescope in early modern times.  late 2nd millennium BC – Chinese astronomers record a solar eclipse  late 2nd millennium BC – Chinese determine that Jupiter needs 12 years to complete one revolution of its orbit.  c. 1100 BC – Chinese first determine the spring equinox.  776 BC – Chinese make the earliest reliable record of a solar eclipse.  7th century BC – Egyptian astronomers alleged to have predicted a solar eclipse  613 BC, July – A Comet, possibly Comet Halley, is recorded in Spring and Autumn Annals by the Chinese 927  586 BC – Thales of Miletus alleged to have predicted a solar eclipse  c. 450 BC: Anaxagoras shows that the Moon shines by reflected sunlight.  350 BC – Aristotle argues for a spherical Earth using lunar eclipses and other observations  280 BC – Aristarchus of Samos offers the first definite discussion of the possibility of a heliocentric cosmos, and uses the size of the Earth's shadow on the Moon to estimate the Moon's orbital radius at 60 Earth radii, and its physical radius as one-third that of the Earth. He also makes an inaccurate attempt to measure the distance to the Sun  200 BC – Eratosthenes determines that the radius of the Earth is roughly 6,400 km  150 BC – Hipparchus uses parallax to determine that the distance to the Moon is roughly 380,000 km  134 BC – Hipparchus discovers the precession of the equinoxes  87 BC — The Antikythera mechanism, the earliest known computer, is built. It is designed to predict the movements of the Planets.  28 BC – Chinese history book Book of Han makes earliest known dated record of sunspot.  c. 150 CE – Claudius Ptolemy completes his Almagest that codifies the astronomical knowledge of his time and cements the geocentric model in the West  499 – The Indian astronomer-mathematician, Aryabhata, in his Aryabhatiya, propounds a possibly heliocentric solar system of gravitation, and an eccentric epicyclic model of the planets, where the planets follow elliptical orbits around the Sun, and the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight  500 – Aryabhata accurately computes the Earth's circumference, the solar and lunar eclipses, and the length of Earth's revolution around the Sun  620s – Indian mathematician-astronomer Brahmagupta recognizes gravity as a force of attraction, and briefly describes a law of gravitation  628 – Brahmagupta gives methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and calculations of the solar and lunar eclipses 928  687 – Chinese make earliest known record of meteor shower  9th century – The eldest Banū Mūsā brother, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir, hypothesizes that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres are subject to the same laws of physics as Earth, and proposes that there is a force of attraction between heavenly bodies  820 – the Persian astronomer, Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, composes his Zij astronomical tables, utilising Arabic numerals and the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in his calculations  850 – Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Kathīr al-Farghānī (Alfraganus) gives values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the Sun  10th century – Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī (Albatenius) discovers that the direction of the Sun's eccentricity is changing  900s (decade) – Ibn Yunus observes more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres  1019 – Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī observes and describes the solar eclipse on April 8 and the lunar eclipse on September 17 in detail, and gives the exact latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse  1031 – Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī calculates the distance between the Earth and the Sun in his Canon Mas’udicus  1150 – Indian mathematician-astronomer Bhāskara II, in the Siddhanta Shiromani, calculates the longitudes and latitudes of the planets, lunar and solar eclipses, risings and settings, the Moon's lunar crescent, syzygies, and conjunctions of the planets with each other and with the fixed stars, and explains the three problems of diurnal rotation  1150s – Bhaskara calculates the planetary mean motion, ellipses, first visibilities of the planets, the lunar crescent, the seasons, and the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun to 9 decimal places.  1150s – Gerard of Cremona translates Ptolemy's Almagest from Arabic into Latin, eventually leading to its adoption by the Catholic Church as an approved text.  c. 1200 – Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world, rejected the Aristotelian and Avicennian view of a single world, but instead 929 proposed that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has."  c. 1300 – Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya, in his criticism of astrology, recognized that the stars are much larger than the planets, and that Mercury is the smallest planet known to him.  c. 1350 – Ibn al-Shatir anticipates Copernicus by abandoning the equant of Ptolemy in his calculations of planetary motion, and he provides the first empirical model of lunar motion which accurately matches observations.  c. 1514 – Nicolaus Copernicus states his heliocentric theory in Commentariolus  1522 – First circumnavigation of the world by Magellan-Elcano expedition shows that the Earth is, in effect, a sphere.  1543 – Copernicus publishes his heliocentric theory in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium  c. 1570 – Tycho Brahe founds the first modern astronomical observatory.  1577 – Tycho Brahe uses parallax to prove that comets are distant entities and not atmospheric phenomena.  1609 – Johannes Kepler states his first two empirical laws of planetary motion, stating that the orbits of the planets are elliptical rather than circular, and thus resolving many ancient problems with planetary models.  1610 – Galileo Galilei discovers Callisto, Europa, Ganymede, and Io, sees Saturn's planetary rings (but does not recognize that they are rings), and observes the phases of Venus, disproving the Ptolemaic system, though not the geocentric model  1619 – Johannes Kepler states his third empirical law of planetary motion  1655 – Giovanni Domenico Cassini discovers Jupiter's Great Red Spot  1656 – Christiaan Huygens identifies Saturn's rings as rings and discovers Titan  1665 – Cassini determines the rotational speeds of Jupiter, Mars, and Venus  1672 – Cassini discovers Iapetus and Rhea  1672 – Jean Richer and Cassini measure the astronomical unit to be about 138,370,000 km 930 MERCURY VENUS EARTH MOON MARS JUPITER Mass (1024kg) 0.330 4.87 5.97 0.073 0.642 1898 Diameter (km) 4879 12,104 12,756 3475 6792 142,984 Density (kg/m3) 5427 5243 5514 3340 3933 1326 Gravity (m/s2) 3.7 8.9 9.8 1.6 3.7 23.1 Escape Velocity (km/s) 4.3 10.4 11.2 2.4 5.0 59.5 Rotation Period (hours) 1407.6 -5832.5 23.9 655.7 24.6 9.9 Length of Day (hours) 4222.6 2802.0 24.0 708.7 24.7 9.9 Distance from Sun (106 km) 57.9 108.2 149.6 0.384 227.9 778.6 Perihelion (106 km) 46.0 107.5 147.1 0.363 206.6 740.5 Aphelion (106 km) 69.8 108.9 152.1 0.406 249.2 816.6 Orbital Period (days) 88.0 224.7 365.2 27.3 687.0 4331 Orbital Velocity (km/s) 47.4 35.0 29.8 1.0 24.1 13.1 Orbital Inclination (degrees) 7.0 3.4 0.0 5.1 1.9 1.3 Orbital Eccentricity 0.205 0.007 0.017 0.055 0.094 0.049 Obliquity to Orbit (degrees) 0.034 177.4 23.4 6.7 25.2 3.1 Mean Temperature (C) 167 464 15 -20 -65 -110 Surface Pressure (bars) 0 92 1 0 0.01 Unknown Number of Moons 0 0 1 0 2 79 Ring System? No No No No No Yes Global Magnetic Field? Yes No Yes No No Yes About two million years ago, man appeared. He has become the dominant species on the earth. All other living things, animal and plant, live by his sufferance. He is the custodian of life on earth, and in the solar system. It’s a big responsibility. — George Wald SATURN URANUS NEPTUNE PLUTO Mass (1024kg) 568 86.8 102 0.0146 Diameter (km) 120,536 51,118 49,528 2370 Density (kg/m3) 687 1271 1638 2095 Gravity (m/s2) 9.0 8.7 11.0 0.7 Escape Velocity (km/s) 35.5 21.3 23.5 1.3 Rotation Period (hours) 10.7 -17.2 16.1 -153.3 Length of Day (hours) 10.7 17.2 16.1 153.3 Distance from Sun (106 km) 1433.5 2872.5 4495.1 5906.4 Perihelion (106 km) 1352.6 2741.3 4444.5 4436.8 Aphelion (106 km) 1514.5 3003.6 4545.7 7375.9 Orbital Period (days) 10,747 30,589 59,800 90,560 Orbital Velocity (km/s) 9.7 6.8 5.4 4.7 Orbital Inclination (degrees) 2.5 0.8 1.8 17.2 Orbital Eccentricity 0.057 0.046 0.011 0.244 Obliquity to Orbit (degrees) 26.7 97.8 28.3 122.5 Mean Temperature (C) -140 -195 -200 -225 Surface Pressure (bars) Unknown Unknown Unknown 0.00001 Number of Moons 82 27 14 5 Ring System? Yes Yes Yes No Global Magnetic Field? Yes Yes Yes Unknown Almost all of the space program's important advances in scientific knowledge have been accomplished by hundreds of robotic spacecraft in orbit about Earth and on missions to the distant planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Robotic exploration of the planets and their satellites as well as of comets and asteroids has truly revolutionized our knowledge of the solar system. — James Alfred Van Allen At the planet's very heart lies a solid rocky core, at least five times larger than Earth, seething with the appalling heat generated by the inexorable contraction of the stupendous mass of material pressing down to its centre. For more than four billion years Jupiter’s immense gravitational power has been squeezing the planet slowly, relentlessly, steadily, converting gravitational energy into heat, raising the temperature of that rocky core to thirty thousand degrees, spawning the heat flow that warms the planet from within. That hot, rocky core is the original protoplanet seed from the solar system’s primeval time, the nucleus around which those awesome layers of hydrogen and helium and ammonia, methane, sulphur compounds and water have wrapped themselves. — Ben Bova Copernicus … did not publish his book [on the nature of the solar system] until he was on his deathbed. He knew how dangerous it is to be right when the rest of the world is wrong. — Thomas Brackett Reed Chemical analysis and synthesis go no farther than to the separation of particles one from another, and to their reunion. No new creation or destruction of matter is within the reach of chemical agency. We might as well attempt to introduce a new planet into the solar system, or to annihilate one already in existence, as to create or destroy a particle of hydrogen. — John Dalton  1675 – Ole Rømer uses the orbital mechanics of Jupiter's moons to estimate that the speed of light is about 227,000 km/s  1686 – Cassini discovers Tethys and Dione  1705 – Edmond Halley publicly predicts the periodicity of Halley's Comet and computes its expected path of return in 1757  1715 – Edmond Halley calculates the shadow path of a solar eclipse  1716 – Edmond Halley suggests a high-precision measurement of the Sun-Earth distance by timing the transit of Venus  1718 – Edmond Halley discovers proper motion, dispelling the concept of the "fixed stars".  1729 – James Bradley determines the cause of the aberration of starlight, providing the first direct evidence of the Earth's motion.  1735-1739 – The French Academy of Sciences sent two expeditions in order to measure the roundness of the Earth by measuring the length of a degree of latitude at two locations, one to Lapland, close to the Arctic Circle and other to the Equator, the French Geodesic Mission, which prove that the Earth is oblate.  1755 – Immanuel Kant first formulates the nebular hypothesis of Solar System formation.  1758 – Johann Palitzsch observes the return of Halley's comet. The interference of Jupiter's orbit had slowed the return by 618 days. Parisian astronomer La Caille suggests it should be named Halley's comet.  1766 – Johann Titius finds the Titius-Bode rule for planetary distances  1772 – Johann Bode publicizes the Titius-Bode rule for planetary distances  1781 – William Herschel discovers Uranus during a telescopic survey of the northern sky  1787 – Herschel discovers Uranus's moons Titania and Oberon  1789 – Herschel discovers Saturn's moons Enceladus and Mimas  1796 – Pierre Laplace re-states the nebular hypothesis for the formation of the Solar System from a spinning nebula of gas and dust  1801 – Giuseppe Piazzi discovers the dwarf planet–asteroid Ceres  1802 – Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers discovers the asteroid Pallas 931  1821 – Alexis Bouvard detects irregularities in the orbit of Uranus  1825 – Pierre Laplace completes his study of gravitation, the stability of the Solar System, tides, the precession of the equinoxes, the libration of the Moon, and Saturn's rings in Mécanique Céleste  1838 – Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel measures the parallax of the star 61 Cygni, refuting one of the oldest arguments against heliocentrism.  1840 — John W. Draper takes a daguerreotype of the Moon, the first astronomical photograph.  1843 – John Adams predicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus  1846 – Urbain Le Verrier predicts the existence and location of Neptune from irregularities in the orbit of Uranus  1846 – Johann Galle discovers Neptune  1846 – William Lassell discovers Triton  1848 – Lassell, William Cranch Bond and George Phillips Bond discover Saturn's moon Hyperion  1849 – Édouard Roche finds the limiting radius of tidal destruction and tidal creation for a body held together only by its self gravity, called the Roche limit, and uses it to explain why Saturn's rings do not condense into a satellite  1851 – Lassell discovers Uranus's moons Ariel and Umbriel  1856 – James Clerk Maxwell demonstrates that a solid ring around Saturn would be torn apart by gravitational forces and argues that Saturn's rings consist of a multitude of tiny satellites  1862 – By analysing the spectroscopic signature of the Sun and comparing it to those of other stars, Father Angelo Secchi determines that the Sun is itself a star.  1866 – Giovanni Schiaparelli realizes that meteor streams occur when the Earth passes through the orbit of a comet that has left debris along its path  1877 – Asaph Hall discovers Mars's moons Deimos and Phobos  1892 – Edward Emerson Barnard discovers Jupiter's moon Amalthea 932  1899 – William Henry Pickering discovers Saturn's moon Phoebe  1906 – Max Wolf discovers the Trojan asteroid Achilles  1915 – Robert Innes discovers Proxima Centauri, the closest star to Earth after the Sun  1919 – Arthur Stanley Eddington uses a solar eclipse to successfully test Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity  1930 – Clyde Tombaugh discovers Pluto  1930 – Seth Nicholson measures the surface temperature of the Moon  1935 — The Explorer II balloon reached a record altitude of 22,066 m (72,395 ft), enabling its occupants to photograph the curvature of the Earth for the first time.  1944 – Gerard Kuiper discovers that the satellite Titan has a substantial atmosphere  1946 – American launch of a camera-equipped V-2 rocket provides the first image of the Earth from space  1949 – Gerard Kuiper discovers Uranus's moon Miranda and Neptune's moon Nereid  1950 – Jan Oort suggests the presence of a cometary Oort cloud  1951 – Kuiper argues for an annular reservoir of comets between 40-100 astronomical units from the Sun, the Kuiper belt  1959 — Explorer 6 sends the first image of the entire earth from Space.  1959 – Luna 3 sends the first images of another celestial body, the Moon, from space, including its unseen far side.  1962 – The Mariner 2 Venus flyby performs the first closeup observations of another planet  1964 – The Mariner 4 spacecraft provides the first detailed images of the surface of Mars  1966 – The Luna 9 Moon lander provides the first images from the surface of another celestial body  1967 – Venera 4 provides the first information on Venus's atmosphere  1968 – The Apollo 8 becomes the first manned lunar mission, providing historic images of the whole Earth. 933  1970 – The Venera 7 Venus lander sends back the first information ever successfully obtained from the surface of another planet  1971 – The Mariner 9 Mars spacecraft becomes the first to successfully orbit another planet. It provides the first detailed maps of the Martian surface, discovering much of the planet's topography, including the volcano Olympus Mons and the canyon system Valles Marineris, which is named in its honor.  1971 – Mars 3 lands on Mars, and transmits the first partial image from the surface of another planet.  1973 – Skylab astronauts discover the Sun's coronal holes.  1973 – Pioneer 10 flies by Jupiter, providing the first closeup images of the planet and revealing its intense radiation belts.  1973 — Mariner 10 provides the first closeup images of the clouds of Venus.  1974 – Mariner 10 provides the first closeup images of the surface of Mercury.  1975 – Venera 9 becomes the first probe to successfully transmit images from the surface of Venus.  1977 – James Elliot discovers the rings of Uranus during a stellar occultation experiment on the Kuiper Airborne Observatory  1977 – Charles Kowal discovers 2060 Chiron, the first Centaur  1978 – James Christy discovers Charon, the large moon of Pluto.  1978 – The Pioneer Venus probe maps the surface of Venus.  1978 – Peter Goldreich and Scott Tremaine present a Boltzmann equation model of planetary-ring dynamics for indestructible spherical ring particles that do not selfgravitate and find a stability requirement relation between ring optical depth and particle normal restitution coefficient  1979 – Pioneer 11 flies by Saturn, providing the first ever closeup images of the planet and its rings. It discovers the planet's F ring and determines that its moon Titan has a thick atmosphere.  1979 – Voyager 1 flies by Jupiter and discovers its faint ring system, as well as volcanoes on Io, the innermost of its Galilean moons. 934  1979 – Voyager 2 flies by Jupiter and discovers evidence of an ocean under the surface of its moon Europa.  1980 – Voyager 1 flies by Saturn and takes the first images of Titan. However, its atmosphere is opaque to visible light, so its surface remains obscured.  1986 – Voyager 2 provides the first ever detailed images of Uranus, its moons and rings.  1986 – The Giotto probe provides the first ever close up images of Halley's Comet.  1988 – Martin Duncan, Thomas Quinn, and Scott Tremaine demonstrate that short-period comets come primarily from the Kuiper Belt and not the Oort cloud  1989 – Voyager 2 provides the first ever detailed images of Neptune, its moons and rings.  1990 – The Hubble Space Telescope is launched  1990 – Voyager 1 is turned around to take the Portrait of the Planets of the Solar System, source of the Pale Blue Dot image of the Earth  1991 – The Magellan spacecraft maps the surface of Venus.  1992 – First planetary system beyond the Solar System detected, around the pulsar PSR B1257+12  1992 – David Jewitt and Jane Luu of the University of Hawaii discover 15760 Albion, the first object deemed to be a member of the Kuiper belt  1995 – The first planet around a Sun-like star is discovered, in orbit around the star 51 Pegasi.  1995 – The Galileo spacecraft becomes the first to orbit Jupiter. Its atmospheric entry probe provides the first data taken within the planet itself.  2000 – NEAR Shoemaker provides the first detailed images of a near-Earth asteroid.  2003 – Sedna, a large object with an unprecedented 12,000-year orbit, is discovered by Michael E. Brown, Chad Trujillo, and David L. Rabinowitz.  2004 – Voyager 1 sends back the first data ever obtained from within the Solar System's heliosheath.  2004 – The Cassini–Huygens spacecraft becomes the first to orbit Saturn. It discovers complex motions in the rings, several new small moons and cryovolcanism on the moon Enceladus and provides the first images from the surface of Titan. 935  2005 – Michael E. Brown et al. discover Eris, a trans-Neptunian object more massive than Pluto, and later also its moon, Dysnomia. Eris was first imaged in 2003, and is the most massive object discovered in the Solar System since Neptune's moon Triton in 1846.  2005 – The Mars Exploration Rovers perform the first astronomical observations ever taken from the surface of another planet, imaging an eclipse by Mars's moon Phobos.  2006 – The 26th General Assembly of the IAU voted in favor of a revised definition of a planet and officially declared Ceres, Pluto, and Eris dwarf planets.  2008 – The IAU declares Makemake and Haumea dwarf planets.  2011 – The Dawn spacecraft enters orbit around the large asteroid Vesta making detailed measurements.  2012 – Saturn's moon Methone is imaged up close by the Cassini spacecraft, revealing a remarkably smooth surface.  2012 – The Dawn spacecraft breaks orbit of Vesta and heads for Ceres.  2013 - The MESSENGER spacecraft provides the first ever complete map of the surface of Mercury  2015 – The Dawn spacecraft enters orbit around the dwarf Planet Ceres making detailed measurements.  2015 – The New Horizons spacecraft flies by Pluto, providing the first ever sharp images of its surface.  2017 – 'Oumuamua, the first known interstellar object, is identified.  2019 – 2I/Borisov, the first interstellar comet and second interstellar object, is discovered Timeline of cancer treatment development  2600 BC – Egyptian physician Imhotep recommended producing a localised infection to promote regression of tumours. According to the Ebers medical papyrus, this was done by placing a poultice near the tumour, followed by local incision. 936  BC – Ancient Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians used heat to treat masses. Healers in ancient India used regional and whole-body hyperthermia as treatments.  2 AD – Ancient Greeks describe surgical treatment of cancer.  1820s – British Dr. James Arnott, "the father of modern cryosurgery", starts to use cryotherapy to freeze tumours in the treatment of breast and uterine cancers  1866 – French Dr. Victor Despeignes, "the father of radiation therapy", starts to use Xrays to treat cancer  1880s – American Dr. William Stewart Halsted develops radical mastectomy for breast cancer  1890s – German Dr. Westermark used localized hyperthermia to produce tumour regression in patients  1891 – American Dr. William B. Coley, "the father of immunotherapy", starts to treat cancer patients by injecting them with streptococci, containing immunostimulatory CpG motifs  1896 – American Dr. Emil Grubbe starts to treat breast cancer patients with X-rays  1900 – Swedish Dr. Stenbeck cures a skin cancer with small doses of radiation  1920s – Dr. William B. Coley's immunotherapy treatment, regressed tumors in hundreds of cases, the success of Coley's Toxins attracted heavy resistance from his rival and supervisor, Dr. James Ewing, who was a fanatical supporter of radiation therapy for cancer. This rivalry and opposition to Dr. Coley leads to the disuse of immunotherapy for cancer, in favor of Dr. Ewing's preferred radiation therapy  1939 – American Dr. Charles Huggins uses synthetic hormone therapy to treat prostate cancer  1942 – First chemotherapy drug mustine used to treat cancer  1947 – American Dr. Sidney Farber induces brief remission in a patient with leukaemia with the antifolate drug aminopterin (methotrexate)  1949 – US FDA approves mechlorethamine, a nitrogen mustard compound, for treatment of cancer 937  1949 – Oncolytic viruses began human clinical trials  1951 – Dr. Jane C. Wright demonstrated the use of the antifolate, methotrexate in solid tumors, showing remission in breast cancer  1950s – Anti-cancer anthracyclines isolated from the Streptomyces peucetius bacteria. Anthracycline-based derivatives include: daunorubicin, doxorubicin, amrubicin, idarubicin  1953 – US FDA approves Mercaptopurine (6 MP), an immunosuppressive agent  1956 – Metastatic choriocarcinoma cancer is cured with the antifolate, methotrexate  1957 – Introduction of fluorouracil to treat colorectal, breast, stomach, and pancreatic cancers  1957 – Introduction of interferon to treat kidney, skin, and bladder cancer  1958 – Combination therapy consisting of 6-mercaptopurine and methotrexate results in a cure of leukaemia in a trial run in US hospitals  1958 – US FDA approves cyclophosphamide for chemotherapy of cancer  1960s – Introduction of laser therapy in treatment of cancer  1960 – Invention of tamoxifen breast cancer anti-estrogen (SERM) hormonal therapy drug  1961 – Vincristine, anti-cancer alkaloid, isolated from the Madagascar periwinkle plant  1962 – US FDA disapproves Dr. Coley's immunotherapy, making it illegal; radiation therapy remained the dominant treatment for cancer  1963 – US FDA approves vincristine (Oncovin) for chemotherapy of cancer  1964 – VAMP regimen combination therapy, consisting of: vincristine, amethopterin, 6mercaptopurine, and prednisone, induces long-term remissions in juvenile acute lymphoblastic leukemia  1965 – MOPP regimen combination therapy cures advanced Hodgkin's lymphoma, with the combination of: nitrogen mustard, vincristine, procarbazine, and prednisone  1965 – MOMP regimen combination therapy, consisting of: methotrexate, vincristine, 6MP, and prednisone, induces long-term remissions in juvenile acute lymphoblastic leukemia 938  1965 – Latvian scientist Aina Muceniece identifies echovirus as a potential agent for oncolytic virotherapy, resulting in the development of RIGVIR  1966 – Taxol, anti-cancer compound, isolated from the yew plant  1967 – Camptothecin, anti-cancer compound, isolated from the Camptotheca acuminata, the Chinese Happy Tree, which was used as a cancer treatment in traditional Chinese medicine. It is the source of chemotherapy drugs: topotecan and irinotecan.  1968 – Japanese Dr. Tanaka pioneers the treatment of metastatic breast cancer with cryoablation, resulting in prolonged survival  1972 – UK and other European countries approve tamoxifen for breast cancer  1972 – American Dr. Lawrence Einhorn cures metastatic testicular cancer with cisplatin  1975 – Invention of monoclonal antibodies  1975 – American Dr. Einhorn shows combination therapy consisting of cisplatinum, vinblastine, and bleomycin can cure 70% of advanced testicular cancer cases  1975 – C-MOPP regimen combination therapy, consisting of: methotrexate, vincristine, cyclophosphamide, and prednisone, cured advanced diffuse large B-cell lymphoma  1977 – US FDA approves tamoxifen for metastatic breast cancer only, not widely popular as chemotherapy remains first line of treatment  1981 – American Dr. Bernard Fisher proves lumpectomy is as effective as mastectomy for breast cancer  1989 – US FDA approves Carboplatin, a derivative of cisplatin, for chemotherapy  1990 – US FDA approves tamoxifen for major additional use to help prevent the recurrence of cancer in "node-negative" patients  1990 – China begins treating various cancers with photodynamic therapy  1991 – First gene therapy treatment of cancer (melanoma)  1992 – Invention of tyrosine-kinase inhibitor Imatinib  1992 – Invention of Etacstil breast cancer anti-estrogen (SERM/SERD) hormonal therapy drug that overcomes hormone-therapy resistance 939  1996 – US FDA approves antiestrogen, aromatase inhibitor Anastrozole for advanced breast cancer  1996 – Russia begins treating various cancers with photodynamic therapy  1997 – First monoclonal antibody, Rituximab, is licensed  1997 – Chinese doctors start treating uterine fibroids, liver cancer, breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, bone tumours, and renal cancer with ultrasound imaging-guided Highintensity focused ultrasound  1998 – Chinese doctors start treating breast, kidney, lung, liver, prostate and bone cancer with imaging-guided cryoablation  1998 – US FDA approves herceptin, a monoclonal antibody for HER2 metastatic breast cancer  1998 – US FDA approves cryoablation for the treatment of prostate cancer  1998 – US FDA approves Camptothecin-analogue irinotecan for chemotherapy of cancer  1998 – US FDA approves tamoxifen to reduce breast cancer risk in high-risk patients  1998 – US FDA approves monoclonal antibody, Trastuzumab for advanced HER-2 breast cancer  1998 – Imaging-guided High-intensity focused ultrasound is approved for use in Europe for treatment of cancer  2001 – UK NICE approves taxol for chemotherapy of breast, ovarian, and non-small cell lung cancers  2002 – US FDA approves imatinib  2002 – Chinese FDA approves Gendicine, gene therapy for cancer  2002 – Corporate takeover of Dupont by BMS resulted in abandoning Etacstil breast cancer anti-estrogen (SERM/SERD) hormonal therapy drug that overcomes hormonetherapy resistance  2003 – American Dr. Peter Littrup starts to treat early and metastatic breast cancer with cryoablation 940  2004 – bevacizumab, the first approved drug to inhibit blood vessel formation by tumours, is licensed  2005 – US FDA approves taxol for chemotherapy of breast, pancreatic, and non-small cell lung cancers  2006 – US FDA approves herceptin  2007 – US FDA approves sorafenib  2007 – US FDA approves camptothecin-analogue topotecan for chemotherapy of cancer  2010 – US FDA approves immunotherapy, sipuleucel-T dendritic cell vaccine for advanced prostate cancer  2010 – China advances cryoimmunotherapy to treat breast, kidney, lung, liver, prostate and bone cancer  2011 – US FDA approves monoclonal antibody, Ipilimumab for advanced melanoma  2011 – Cuba develops and releases CimaVax-EGF, the first therapeutic cancer vaccine for lung cancer  2012 – Cuba develops and releases monoclonal antibody, Racotumomab, the therapeutic cancer vaccine for lung cancer  2015 – US FDA approves anti-CDK4/6, Palbociclib for advanced breast cancer  2015 – US FDA approves imaging-guided High-intensity focused ultrasound for prostate cancer Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae  185 – Chinese astronomers become the first to record observations of a supernova, SN 185,  1006 – Ali ibn Ridwan and Chinese astronomers observe the brightest (magnitude −7.5) recorded supernova, SN 1006, which is observed in the constellation of Lupus,  1054 – Chinese, American Indian and Arab astronomers observe the SN 1054, the Crab Nebula supernova explosion, 941  1181 – Chinese astronomers observe the SN 1181 supernova,  1572 – Tycho Brahe discovers a supernova (SN 1572) in the constellation Cassiopeia,  1604 – Johannes Kepler's supernova, SN 1604, in Serpens is observed,  1862 – Alvan Graham Clark observes Sirius B,  1866 – William Huggins studies the spectrum of a nova and discovers that it is surrounded by a cloud of hydrogen,  1885 – A supernova, S Andromedae, is observed in the Andromeda Galaxy leading to recognition of supernovae as a distinct class of novae,  1910 – the spectrum of 40 Eridani B is observed, making it the first confirmed white dwarf,  1914 – Walter Sydney Adams determines an incredibly high density for Sirius B,  1926 – Ralph Fowler uses Fermi–Dirac statistics to explain white dwarf stars,  1930 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers the white dwarf maximum mass limit,  1933 – Fritz Zwicky and Walter Baade propose the neutron star idea and suggest that supernovae might be created by the collapse of normal stars to neutron stars—they also point out that such events can explain the cosmic ray background,  1939 – Robert Oppenheimer and George Volkoff calculate the first neutron star models,  1942 – J.J.L. Duyvendak, Nicholas Mayall, and Jan Oort deduce that the Crab Nebula is a remnant of the 1054 supernova observed by Chinese astronomers,  1958 – Evry Schatzman, Kent Harrison, Masami Wakano, and John Wheeler show that white dwarfs are unstable to inverse beta decay,  1962 – Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Frank Paolini, and Bruno Rossi discover Scorpius X-1,  1967 – Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discover radio pulses from a pulsar, PSR B1919+21,  1967 – J.R. Harries, Kenneth G. McCracken, R.J. Francey, and A.G. Fenton discover the first X-ray transient (Cen X-2),  1968 – Thomas Gold proposes that pulsars are rotating neutron stars, 942  1969 – David Staelin, E.C. Reifenstein, William Cocke, Mike Disney, and Donald Taylor discover the Crab Nebula pulsar thus connecting supernovae, neutron stars, and pulsars,  1971 – Riccardo Giacconi, Herbert Gursky, Ed Kellogg, R. Levinson, E. Schreier, and H. Tananbaum discover 4.8 second X-ray pulsations from Centaurus X-3,  1972 - Charles Kowal discovers the Type Ia supernova SN 1972e in NGC 5253, which would be observed for more than a year and become the basis case for the type,  1974 – Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor discover the binary pulsar PSR B1913+16,  1977 – Kip Thorne and Anna Żytkow present a detailed analysis of Thorne–Żytkow objects,  1982 – Donald Backer, Shrinivas Kulkarni, Carl Heiles, Michael Davis, and Miller Goss discover the millisecond pulsar PSR B1937+214,  1985 – Michiel van der Klis discovers 30 Hz quasi-periodic oscillations in GX 5-1,  1987 – Ian Shelton discovers SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud,  2003 – first double binary pulsar, PSR J0737-3039, discovered at Parkes Observatory,  2006 – Robert Quimby and P. Mondol discover SN 2006gy (a possible hypernova) in NGC 1260.  2017 – first observation of neutron star merger, accompanied with gravitational wave signal GW170817, short gamma-ray bursts GRB 170817A, optical transient AT 2017gfo and other electromagnetic signals. Timeline of scientific discoveries  4th century BC – Mandragora (containing atropin) was described by Theophrastus in the fourth century B.C. for treatment of wounds, gout, and sleeplessness, and as a love potion. By the first century A.D. Dioscorides recognized wine of mandrake as an anaesthetic for treatment of pain or sleeplessness, to be given prior to surgery or cautery.  323–283 BC – Euclid: wrote a series of 13 books on geometry called The Elements 943  287-212 BC – Archimedes of Syracuse: derived an accurate approximation of pi, defined and investigating the spiral bearing his name, and creating a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers.  280 BC – Aristarchus of Samos: used a heliocentric, heliostatic model  150s BC – Seleucus of Seleucia: discovery of tides being caused by the moon  50 – Pliny the Elder wrote the Natural History  150s Ptolemy: produced the geocentric model of the solar system.  200s Galen: produced big contributions to medicine.  Al-Kindi (Alkindus): refutation of the theory of the transmutation of metals  Jabir ibn Hayyan: creation of several acids  Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhazes): refutation of Aristotelian classical elements and Galenic humorism; and discovery of measles and smallpox, and kerosene and distilled petroleum  984 – Ibn Sahl accurately describes the optics which became known as Snell's law of refraction  1021 – Ibn al-Haytham's Book of Optics. First use of controlled experiments and reproducibility of its results.  1020s – Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine  1054 – Various early astronomers observe supernova (modern designation SN 1054), later correlated to the Crab Nebula.  Shen Kuo: Discovers the concepts of true north and magnetic declination. In addition, he develops the first theory of Geomorphology.  1121 – Al-Khazini: variation of gravitation and gravitational potential energy at a distance; the decrease of air density with altitude  Ibn Bajjah (Avempace): discovery of reaction (precursor to Newton's third law of motion)  Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi (Nathanel): relationship between force and acceleration (a vague foreshadowing of a fundamental law of classical mechanics and a precursor to Newton's second law of motion) 944  Averroes: relationship between force, work and kinetic energy  1220–1235 – Robert Grosseteste: rudimentals of the scientific method  1242 – Ibn al-Nafis: pulmonary circulation and circulatory system  Theodoric of Freiberg: correct explanation of rainbow phenomenon  William of Saint-Cloud: pioneering use of camera obscura to view solar eclipses  Before 1327 – William of Ockham: Occam's Razor  Oxford Calculators: the mean speed theorem  Jean Buridan: theory of impetus  Nicole Oresme: discovery of the curvature of light through atmospheric refraction  1494 – Luca Pacioli: first codification of the double-entry bookkeeping system, which slowly developed in previous centuries  1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus: heliocentric model  1543 – Vesalius: pioneering research into human anatomy  1552 – Michael Servetus: early research in Europe into pulmonary circulation  1570s – Tycho Brahe: detailed astronomical observations  1600 – William Gilbert: Earth's magnetic field  1608 – Invention of the telescope  1609 – Johannes Kepler: first two laws of planetary motion  1610 – Galileo Galilei: Sidereus Nuncius: telescopic observations  1614 – John Napier: use of logarithms for calculation  1619 – Johannes Kepler: third law of planetary motion  1628 – Willebrord Snellius: the law of refraction also known as Snell's law  1628 – William Harvey: blood circulation  1638 – Galileo Galilei: laws of falling body  1643 – Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer  1662 – Robert Boyle: Boyle's law of ideal gas  1665 – Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first peer reviewed scientific journal published. 945  1665 – Robert Hooke: discovers the cell  1668 – Francesco Redi: disproved idea of spontaneous generation  1669 – Nicholas Steno: Proposes that fossils are organic remains embedded in layers of sediment, basis of stratigraphy  1669 – Jan Swammerdam: epigenesis in insects  1672 – Sir Isaac Newton: discovers that white light is a spectrum of a mixture of distinct coloured rays  1673 – Christiaan Huygens: first study of oscillating system and design of pendulum clocks  1675 – Leibniz, Newton: infinitesimal calculus  1675 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek: observes microorganisms by microscope  1676 – Ole Rømer: first measurement of the speed of light  1687 – Sir Isaac Newton: classical mathematical description of the fundamental force of universal gravitation and the three physical laws of motion  1735 – Carl Linnaeus described a new system for classifying plants in Systema Naturae  1745 – Ewald Jürgen Georg von Kleist first capacitor, the Leyden jar  1750 – Joseph Black: describes latent heat  1751 – Benjamin Franklin: Lightning is electrical  1755 – Immanuel Kant: Gaseous Hypothesis in Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven  1761 – Mikhail Lomonosov: discovery of the atmosphere of Venus  1763 – Thomas Bayes: publishes the first version of Bayes' theorem, paving the way for Bayesian probability  1771 – Charles Messier: Publishes catalogue of astronomical objects (Messier Objects) now known to include galaxies, star clusters, and nebulae.  1778 – Antoine Lavoisier (and Joseph Priestley): discovery of oxygen leading to end of Phlogiston theory 946 Fruits True Fruit False Fruit Formed after fertilization Formed without fertilization Do not contain seeds Contain one or many seeds  Strawberry  Watermelon  Pineapple  Lemon  Mulberry  Cherry  Gourd  Blueberries  Cucumber  Mango  Apples  Kiwi  Pears  Peaches  Cashews  Plums  Banana  Pineapple  Jack fruit As soon as we touch the complex processes that go on in a living thing, be it plant or animal, we are at once forced to use the methods of this science [chemistry]. No longer will the microscope, the kymograph, the scalpel avail for the complete solution of the problem. For the further analysis of these phenomena which are in flux and flow, the investigator must associate himself with those who have labored in fields where molecules and atoms, rather than multicellular tissues or even unicellular organisms, are the units of study. — John Jacob Abel Roots Taproot Fibrous Adventitious  Absorb water and nutrients from the soil  Anchor the plant firmly  Help in storing food and nutrients  Transport water and minerals to the plant Plant tissue Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue Cells capable of cell division Mature cells incapable of cell division  Apical  Lateral  Intercalary Complex Simple Composed of more than one type of cells Composed of single type of cells  Parenchyma  Phloem (sieve tubes and companion cells)  Collenchyma  Xylem (Xylem vessels and tracheids)  Sclerenchyma Leaves Compound Simple Leaf divided into multiple leaflets attached at the stem Single undivided leaf Pinnately Compound Feather-like arrangement of leaflets from midvein Palmately Compound Leaflets radiating from a single point At the beginning of its existence as a science, biology was forced to take cognizance of the seemingly boundless variety of living things, for no exact study of life phenomena was possible until the apparent chaos of the distinct kinds of organisms had been reduced to a rational system. Systematics and morphology, two predominantly descriptive and observational disciplines, took precedence among biological sciences during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. More recently physiology has come to the foreground, accompanied by the introduction of quantitative methods and by a shift from the observationalism of the past to a predominance of experimentation. Theodosius Dobzhansky  1781 – William Herschel announces discovery of Uranus, expanding the known boundaries of the solar system for the first time in modern history  1785 – William Withering: publishes the first definitive account of the use of foxglove (digitalis) for treating dropsy  1787 – Jacques Charles: Charles's law of ideal gas  1789 – Antoine Lavoisier: law of conservation of mass, basis for chemistry, and the beginning of modern chemistry  1796 – Georges Cuvier: Establishes extinction as a fact  1796 – Edward Jenner: small pox historical accounting  1796 – Hanaoka Seishū: develops general anaesthesia  1800 – Alessandro Volta: discovers electrochemical series and invents the battery  1802 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: teleological evolution  1805 – John Dalton: Atomic Theory in (Chemistry)  1820 – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers that a current passed through a wire will deflect the needle of a compass, establishing a deep relationship between electricity and magnetism (electromagnetism).  1821 – Thomas Johann Seebeck is the first to observe a property of semiconductors  1824 – Carnot: described the Carnot cycle, the idealized heat engine  1827 – Georg Ohm: Ohm's law (Electricity)  1827 – Amedeo Avogadro: Avogadro's law (Gas law)  1828 – Friedrich Wöhler synthesized urea, destroying vitalism  1830 – Nikolai Lobachevsky created Non-Euclidean geometry  1831 – Michael Faraday discovers electromagnetic induction  1833 – Anselme Payen isolates first enzyme, diastase  1838 – Matthias Schleiden: all plants are made of cells  1838 – Friedrich Bessel: first successful measure of stellar parallax (to star 61 Cygni)  1842 – Christian Doppler: Doppler effect 947  1843 – James Prescott Joule: Law of Conservation of energy (First law of thermodynamics), also 1847 – Helmholtz, Conservation of energy  1846 – Johann Gottfried Galle and Heinrich Louis d'Arrest: discovery of Neptune  1848 – Lord Kelvin: absolute zero  1858 – Rudolf Virchow: cells can only arise from pre-existing cells  1859 – Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of evolution by natural selection  1861 – Louis Pasteur: Germ theory  1861 – John Tyndall: Experiments in Radiant Energy that reinforced the Greenhouse Effect  1864 – James Clerk Maxwell: Theory of electromagnetism  1865 – Gregor Mendel: Mendel's laws of inheritance, basis for genetics  1865 – Rudolf Clausius: Definition of Entropy  1869 – Dmitri Mendeleev: Periodic table  1871 – Lord Rayleigh: Diffuse sky radiation (Rayleigh scattering) explains why sky appears blue  1873 – Johannes Diderik van der Waals: was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force: the van der Waals force.  1873 – Frederick Guthrie discovers thermionic emission.  1873 – Willoughby Smith discovers photoconductivity.  1875 – William Crookes invented the Crookes tube and studied cathode rays  1876 – Josiah Willard Gibbs founded chemical thermodynamics, the phase rule  1877 – Ludwig Boltzmann: Statistical definition of entropy  1880 – Pierre Curie and Jacques Curie: Piezoelectricity  1884 – Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff: discovered the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions (in his work "Etudes de dynamique chimique").  1887 – Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley: lack of evidence for the aether  1888 – Friedrich Reinitzer discovers liquid crystals.  1892 – Dmitri Ivanovsky discovers for the first time a virus 948  1895 – Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers x-rays  1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity  1896 – Svante Arrhenius derives the basic principles of the greenhouse effect.  1897 – J.J. Thomson discovers the electron in cathode rays  1898 – Martinus Beijerinck: concluded a virus infectious—replicating in the host—and thus not a mere toxin and gave it the name "virus"  1898 – J.J. Thomson proposed the Plum pudding model of an atom  1905 – Albert Einstein: theory of special relativityexplanation of Brownian motion, and photoelectric effect  1906 – Walther Nernst: Third law of thermodynamics  1907 – Alfred Bertheim: Arsphenamine, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent  1909 – Fritz Haber: Haber Process for industrial production of ammonia  1909 – Robert Andrews Millikan: conducts the oil drop experiment and determines the charge on an electron  1910 – Williamina Fleming: the first white dwarf, 40 Eridani B  1911 – Ernest Rutherford: Atomic nucleus  1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: Superconductivity  1912 – Alfred Wegener: Continental drift  1912 – Max von Laue : x-ray diffraction  1912 – Vesto Slipher : galactic redshifts  1912 – Henrietta Swan Leavitt: Cepheid variable period-luminosity relation  1913 – Henry Moseley: defined atomic number  1913 – Niels Bohr: Model of the atom  1915 – Albert Einstein: theory of general relativity – also David Hilbert  1915 – Karl Schwarzschild: discovery of the Schwarzschild radius leading to the identification of black holes  1918 – Emmy Noether: Noether's theorem – conditions under which the conservation laws are valid 949  1920 – Arthur Eddington: Stellar nucleosynthesis  1922 – Frederick Banting, Charles Best, James Collip, John Macleod: isolation and production of insulin to control diabetes  1924 – Wolfgang Pauli: quantum Pauli exclusion principle  1924 – Edwin Hubble: the discovery that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies  1925 – Erwin Schrödinger: Schrödinger equation (Quantum mechanics)  1925 – Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin: Discovery of the composition of the Sun and that Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Universe  1927 – Werner Heisenberg: Uncertainty principle (Quantum mechanics)  1927 – Georges Lemaître: Theory of the Big Bang  1928 – Paul Dirac: Dirac equation (Quantum mechanics)  1929 – Edwin Hubble: Hubble's law of the expanding universe  1929 – Alexander Fleming: Penicillin, the first beta-lactam antibiotic  1929 – Lars Onsager's reciprocal relations, a potential fourth law of thermodynamics  1930 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovers his eponymous limit of the maximum mass of a white dwarf star  1931 – Kurt Gödel: incompleteness theorems prove formal axiomatic systems are incomplete  1932 – James Chadwick: Discovery of the neutron  1932 – Karl Guthe Jansky discovers the first astronomical radio source, Sagittarius A  1932 – Ernest Walton and John Cockcroft: Nuclear fission by proton bombardment  1934 – Enrico Fermi: Nuclear fission by neutron irradiation  1934 – Clive McCay: Calorie restriction extends the maximum lifespan of another species  1938 – Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann: Nuclear fission of heavy nuclei  1938 – Isidor Rabi: Nuclear magnetic resonance  1943 – Oswald Avery proves that DNA is the genetic material of the chromosome  1945 – Howard Florey Mass production of penicillin 950  1947 – William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain invent the first transistor  1948 – Claude Elwood Shannon: 'A mathematical theory of communication' a seminal paper in Information theory.  1948 – Richard Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga and Freeman Dyson: Quantum electrodynamics  1951 – George Otto Gey propagates first cancer cell line, HeLa  1952 – Jonas Salk: developed and tested first polio vaccine  1952 – Stanley Miller: demonstrated that life could arise from primeval soup in the conditions present during early earth Miller–Urey experiment  1952 – Frederick Sanger: demonstrated that proteins are sequences of amino acids  1953 – James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin: helical structure of DNA, basis for molecular biology  1962 – Riccardo Giacconi and his team discover the first cosmic x-ray source, Scorpius X-1  1963 – Lawrence Morley, Fred Vine, and Drummond Matthews: Paleomagnetic stripes in ocean crust as evidence of plate tectonics (Vine-Matthews-Morley hypothesis).  1964 – Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig: postulates quarks leading to the standard model  1964 – Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson: detection of CMBR providing experimental evidence for the Big Bang  1965 – Leonard Hayflick: normal cells divide only a certain number of times: the Hayflick limit  1967 – Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish discover first pulsar  1967 – Vela nuclear test detection satellites discover the first gamma-ray burst  1971 – Place cells in the brain are discovered by John O'Keefe  1974 – Russell Alan Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover indirect evidence for gravitational wave radiation in the Hulse–Taylor binary  1977 – Frederick Sanger sequences the first DNA genome of an organism using Sanger sequencing 951  1980 – Klaus von Klitzing discovered the Quantum Hall Effect.  1982 – Donald C. Backer et al. discover the first millisecond pulsar  1983 – Kary Mullis invents the polymerase chain reaction, a key discovery in molecular biology.  1986 – Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz: Discovery of High-temperature superconductivity.  1988 – Bart van Wees [nl] and colleagues at TU Deflt and Philips Research discovered the quantized conductance in a two-dimensional electron gas.  1992 – Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail observe the first pulsar planets (this was the first confirmed discovery of planets outside the Solar System)  1994 – Andrew Wiles proves Fermat's Last Theorem  1995 – Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz definitively observe the first extrasolar planet around a main sequence star  1995 – Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman and Wolfgang Ketterle attained the first Bose-Einstein Condensate with atomic gases, so called fifth state of matter at an extremely low temperature.  1996 – Roslin Institute: Dolly the sheep was cloned.  1997 – CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab: Top quark.  1998 – Supernova Cosmology Project and the High-Z Supernova Search Team: discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe / Dark Energy.  2000 – The Tau neutrino is discovered by the DONUT collaboration  2001 – The first draft of the Human Genome Project is published.  2003 – Grigori Perelman presents proof of the Poincaré Conjecture.  2004 – Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov isolated graphene, a monolayer of carbon atoms, and studied its quantum electrical properties.  2005 – Grid cells in the brain are discovered by Edvard Moser and May-Britt Moser.  2010 – The first Self-Replicating, Synthetic Bacterial Cells are Constructed. 952  2010 – The Neanderthal Genome Project presented preliminary genetic evidence that interbreeding did likely take place and that a small but significant portion of Neanderthal admixture is present in modern non-African populations.  2012 – Higgs boson is discovered at CERN (confirmed to 99.999% certainty)  2012 – Photonic molecules are discovered at MIT  2014 – Exotic hadrons are discovered at the LHCb  2015 – Traces of liquid water discovered on Mars (Since refuted in NASA report from 2017!)  2016 – The LIGO team detected gravitational waves from a black hole merger.  2017 – Gravitational wave signal GW170817 was observed by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration. This was the first instance of a gravitational wave event that was observed to have a simultaneous electromagnetic signal when space telescopes like Hubble observed lights coming from the event, thereby marking a significant breakthrough for multi-messenger astronomy.  2018 - The first genetically engineered babies (Lulu and Nana)  2019 – The first ever image of a black hole was captured, using eight different telescopes taking simultaneous pictures, timed with extremely precise atomic clocks. Timeline of cosmological theories  ca. 16th century BCE — Mesopotamian cosmology has a flat, circular Earth enclosed in a cosmic ocean.  ca. 12th century BCE — The Rigveda has some cosmological hymns, particularly in the late book 10, notably the Nasadiya Sukta which describes the origin of the universe, originating from the monistic Hiranyagarbha or "Golden Egg".  6th century BCE — The Babylonian world map shows the Earth surrounded by the cosmic ocean, with seven islands arranged around it so as to form a seven-pointed star. Contemporary Biblical cosmology reflects the same view of a flat, circular Earth 953 swimming on water and overarched by the solid vault of the firmament to which are fastened the stars.  4th century BCE — Aristotle proposes an Earth-centered universe in which the Earth is stationary and the cosmos (or universe) is finite in extent but infinite in time  4th century BCE — De Mundo - Five elements, situated in spheres in five regions, the less being in each case surrounded by the greater — namely, earth surrounded by water, water by air, air by fire, and fire by ether — make up the whole Universe.  3rd century BCE — Aristarchus of Samos proposes a Sun-centered universe  3rd century BCE — Archimedes in his essay The Sand Reckoner, estimates the diameter of the cosmos to be the equivalent in stadia of what we call two light years  2nd century BCE — Seleucus of Seleucia elaborates on Aristarchus' heliocentric universe, using the phenomenon of tides to explain heliocentrism  2nd century CE — Ptolemy proposes an Earth-centered universe, with the Sun, Moon, and visible planets revolving around the Earth  5th-11th centuries — Several astronomers propose a Sun-centered universe, including Aryabhata, Albumasar and Al-Sijzi  6th century — John Philoponus proposes a universe that is finite in time and argues against the ancient Greek notion of an infinite universe  Revealed in the 6th century, the Qur'an mentions Chapter 21: Verse 30 - "Have those who disbelieved not considered that the heavens and the earth were a joined entity, and We separated them ... "  ca. 8th century — Puranic Hindu cosmology, in which the Universe goes through repeated cycles of creation, destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4.32 billion years.  9th-12th centuries — Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Saadia Gaon (Saadia ben Joseph) and AlGhazali (Algazel) support a universe that has a finite past and develop two logical arguments against the notion of an infinite past, one of which is later adopted by Immanuel Kant 954  964 — Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi), a Persian astronomer, makes the first recorded observations of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Large Magellanic Cloud, the first galaxies other than the Milky Way to be observed from Earth, in his Book of Fixed Stars  12th century — Fakhr al-Din al-Razi discusses Islamic cosmology, rejects Aristotle's idea of an Earth-centered universe, and, in the context of his commentary on the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," proposes that the universe has more than "a thousand thousand worlds beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." He argued that there exists an infinite outer space beyond the known world, and that there could be an infinite number of universes.  13th century — Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī provides the first empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation on its axis  15th century — Ali Qushji provides empirical evidence for the Earth's rotation on its axis and rejects the stationary Earth theories of Aristotle and Ptolemy  15th-16th centuries — Nilakantha Somayaji and Tycho Brahe propose a universe in which the planets orbit the Sun and the Sun orbits the Earth, known as the Tychonic system  1543 — Nicolaus Copernicus publishes his heliocentric universe in his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium  1576 — Thomas Digges modifies the Copernican system by removing its outer edge and replacing the edge with a star-filled unbounded space  1584 — Giordano Bruno proposes a non-hierarchical cosmology, wherein the Copernican Solar System is not the center of the universe, but rather, a relatively insignificant star system, amongst an infinite multitude of others  1610 — Johannes Kepler uses the dark night sky to argue for a finite universe  1687 — Sir Isaac Newton's laws describe large-scale motion throughout the universe  1720 — Edmund Halley puts forth an early form of Olbers' paradox  1729 - James Bradley discovers the aberration of light, due to the Earth's motion around the Sun. 955  1744 — Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux puts forth an early form of Olbers' paradox  1755 — Immanuel Kant asserts that the nebulae are really galaxies separate from, independent of, and outside the Milky Way Galaxy; he calls them island universes.  1785 — William Herschel proposes the theory that our Sun is at or near the center of the galaxy.  1791 — Erasmus Darwin pens the first description of a cyclical expanding and contracting universe in his poem The Economy of Vegetation  1826 — Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers puts forth Olbers' paradox  1837 - Following over 100 years of unsuccessful attempts, Friedrich Bessel, Thomas Henderson and Otto Struve measure the parallax of a few nearby stars; this is the first measurement of any distances outside the Solar System.  1848 — Edgar Allan Poe offers first correct solution to Olbers' paradox in Eureka: A Prose Poem, an essay that also suggests the expansion and collapse of the universe  1860s - William Huggins develops astronomical spectroscopy; he shows that the Orion nebula is mostly made of gas, while the Andromeda nebula (later called Andromeda Galaxy) is probably dominated by stars.  1905 — Albert Einstein publishes the Special Theory of Relativity, positing that space and time are not separate continua  1912 - Henrietta Leavitt discovers the period-luminosity law for Cepheid variable stars, which becomes a crucial step in measuring distances to other galaxies.  1915 — Albert Einstein publishes the General Theory of Relativity, showing that an energy density warps spacetime  1917 — Willem de Sitter derives an isotropic static cosmology with a cosmological constant, as well as an empty expanding cosmology with a cosmological constant, termed a de Sitter universe  1920 — The Shapley-Curtis Debate, on the distances to spiral nebulae, takes place at the Smithsonian  1921 — The National Research Council (NRC) published the official transcript of the Shapley-Curtis Debate 956  1922 — Vesto Slipher summarizes his findings on the spiral nebulae's systematic redshifts  1922 — Alexander Friedmann finds a solution to the Einstein field equations which suggests a general expansion of space  1923 — Edwin Hubble measures distances to a few nearby spiral nebulae (galaxies), the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), Triangulum Galaxy (M33), and NGC 6822. The distances place them far outside our Milky Way, and implies that fainter galaxies are much more distant, and the universe is composed of many thousands of galaxies.  1927 — Georges Lemaître discusses the creation event of an expanding universe governed by the Einstein field equations. From its solutions to the Einstein equations, he predicts the distance-redshift relation.  1928 — Howard P. Robertson briefly mentions that Vesto Slipher's redshift measurements combined with brightness measurements of the same galaxies indicate a redshift-distance relation  1929 — Edwin Hubble demonstrates the linear redshift-distance relation and thus shows the expansion of the universe  1933 — Edward Milne names and formalizes the cosmological principle  1933 — Fritz Zwicky shows that the Coma cluster of galaxies contains large amounts of dark matter. This result agrees with modern measurements, but is generally ignored until the 1970s.  1934 — Georges Lemaître interprets the cosmological constant as due to a vacuum energy with an unusual perfect fluid equation of state  1938 — Paul Dirac suggests the large numbers hypothesis, that the gravitational constant may be small because it is decreasing slowly with time  1948 — Ralph Alpher, Hans Bethe ("in absentia"), and George Gamow examine element synthesis in a rapidly expanding and cooling universe, and suggest that the elements were produced by rapid neutron capture  1948 — Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle propose steady state cosmologies based on the perfect cosmological principle 957  1948 — George Gamow predicts the existence of the cosmic microwave background radiation by considering the behavior of primordial radiation in an expanding universe  1950 — Fred Hoyle coins the term "Big Bang", saying that it was not derisive; it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between that and the Steady-State model.  1961 — Robert Dicke argues that carbon-based life can only arise when the gravitational force is small, because this is when burning stars exist; first use of the weak anthropic principle  1963 — Maarten Schmidt discovers the first quasar; these soon provide a probe of the universe back to substantial redshifts.  1965 — Hannes Alfvén proposes the now-discounted concept of ambiplasma to explain baryon asymmetry and supports the idea of an infinite universe.  1965 — Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama analyze quasar source count data and discover that the quasar density increases with redshift.  1965 — Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, astronomers at Bell Labs discover the 2.7 K microwave background radiation, which earns them the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics. Robert Dicke, James Peebles, Peter Roll and David Todd Wilkinson interpret it as a relic from the big bang.  1966 — Stephen Hawking and George Ellis show that any plausible general relativistic cosmology is singular  1966 — James Peebles shows that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct helium abundance  1967 — Andrei Sakharov presents the requirements for baryogenesis, a baryonantibaryon asymmetry in the universe  1967 — John Bahcall, Wal Sargent, and Maarten Schmidt measure the fine-structure splitting of spectral lines in 3C191 and thereby show that the fine-structure constant does not vary significantly with time  1967 — Robert Wagner, William Fowler, and Fred Hoyle show that the hot Big Bang predicts the correct deuterium and lithium abundances 958  1968 — Brandon Carter speculates that perhaps the fundamental constants of nature must lie within a restricted range to allow the emergence of life; first use of the strong anthropic principle  1969 — Charles Misner formally presents the Big Bang horizon problem  1969 — Robert Dicke formally presents the Big Bang flatness problem  1970 — Vera Rubin and Kent Ford measure spiral galaxy rotation curves at large radii, showing evidence for substantial amounts of dark matter.  1973 — Edward Tryon proposes that the universe may be a large scale quantum mechanical vacuum fluctuation where positive mass-energy is balanced by negative gravitational potential energy  1976 — Alex Shlyakhter uses samarium ratios from the Oklo prehistoric natural nuclear fission reactor in Gabon to show that some laws of physics have remained unchanged for over two billion years  1977 — Gary Steigman, David Schramm, and James Gunn examine the relation between the primordial helium abundance and number of neutrinos and claim that at most five lepton families can exist.  1980 — Alan Guth and Alexei Starobinsky independently propose the inflationary Big Bang universe as a possible solution to the horizon and flatness problems.  1981 — Viacheslav Mukhanov and G. Chibisov propose that quantum fluctuations could lead to large scale structure in an inflationary universe.  1982 — The first CfA galaxy redshift survey is completed.  1982 — Several groups including James Peebles, J. Richard Bond and George Blumenthal propose that the universe is dominated by cold dark matter.  1983 - 1987 — The first large computer simulations of cosmic structure formation are run by Davis, Efstathiou, Frenk and White. The results show that cold dark matter produces a reasonable match to observations, but hot dark matter does not.  1988 — The CfA2 Great Wall is discovered in the CfA2 redshift survey.  1988 — Measurements of galaxy large-scale flows provide evidence for the Great Attractor. 959  1990 — Preliminary results from NASA's COBE mission confirm the cosmic microwave background radiation has a blackbody spectrum to an astonishing one part in 105 precision, thus eliminating the possibility of an integrated starlight model proposed for the background by steady state enthusiasts.  1992 — Further COBE measurements discover the very small anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background, providing a "baby picture" of the seeds of large-scale structure when the universe was around 1/1100th of its present size and 380,000 years old.  1996 — The first Hubble Deep Field is released, providing a clear view of very distant galaxies when the universe was around one-third of its present age.  1998 — Controversial evidence for the fine structure constant varying over the lifetime of the universe is first published.  1998 — The Supernova Cosmology Project and High-Z Supernova Search Team discover cosmic acceleration based on distances to Type Ia supernovae, providing the first direct evidence for a non-zero cosmological constant.  1999 — Measurements of the cosmic microwave background radiation with finer resolution than COBE, (most notably by the BOOMERanG experiment see Mauskopf et al., 1999, Melchiorri et al., 1999, de Bernardis et al. 2000) provide evidence for oscillations (the first acoustic peak) in the anisotropy angular spectrum, as expected in the standard model of cosmological structure formation. The angular position of this peak indicates that the geometry of the universe is close to flat.  2001 — The 2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dF) by an Australian/British team gave strong evidence that the matter density is near 25% of critical density. Together with the CMB results for a flat universe, this provides independent evidence for a cosmological constant or similar dark energy.  2002 — The Cosmic Background Imager (CBI) in Chile obtained images of the cosmic microwave background radiation with the highest angular resolution of 4 arc minutes. It also obtained the anisotropy spectrum at high-resolution not covered before up to l ~ 3000. It found a slight excess in power at high-resolution (l > 2500) not yet completely explained, the so-called "CBI-excess". 960  2003 — NASA's Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) obtained full-sky detailed pictures of the cosmic microwave background radiation. The images can be interpreted to indicate that the universe is 13.7 billion years old (within one percent error), and are very consistent with the Lambda-CDM model and the density fluctuations predicted by inflation.  2003 — The Sloan Great Wall is discovered.  2004 — The Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI) first obtained the E-mode polarization spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation.  2005 — The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) and 2dF redshift surveys both detected the baryon acoustic oscillation feature in the galaxy distribution, a key prediction of cold dark matter models.  2006 — The long-awaited three-year WMAP results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting several points, and including polarization data.  2006–2011 — Improved measurements from WMAP, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and baryon acoustic oscillations from SDSS and WiggleZ, continue to be consistent with the standard Lambda-CDM model.  2014 — On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of inflationary gravitational waves in the B-mode power spectrum, which if confirmed, would provide clear experimental evidence for the theory of inflation. However, on June 19, 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported.  2016 — On February 11, 2016, LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration announced that gravitational waves were directly detected by two LIGO detectors. The waveform matched the prediction of General relativity for a gravitational wave emanating from the inward spiral and merger of a pair of black holes of around 36 and 29 solar masses and the subsequent "ringdown" of the single resulting black hole. The second detection verified that GW150914 is not a fluke, thus opens entire new branch in astrophysics, gravitational-wave astronomy. Timeline of paleontology 961  6th century B.C. — The pre-Socratic Greek philosopher Xenophanes of Colophon argues that fossils of marine organisms show that dry land was once under water.  1027 — The Persian naturalist, Avicenna, explains the stoniness of fossils in The Book of Healing by proposing the theory of petrifying fluids (succus lapidificatus).  1031-1095 — The Chinese naturalist, Shen Kuo, uses evidence of marine fossils found in the Taihang Mountains to infer geological processes caused shifting of seashores over time, and uses petrified bamboos found underground in Yan'an, to argue for gradual climate change.  1320-1390 — Avicenna's theory of petrifying fluids (succus lapidificatus) was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony.  c. 1500 — Leonardo da Vinci uses ichnofossils to complement his hypothesis concerning the biogenic nature of body fossils.  1665 — In his book Micrographia Robert Hooke compares petrified wood to wood, concludes that petrified wood formed from wood soaked in mineral-rich water, and argues that fossils like Ammonite shells were produced the same way, sparking debate over the organic origin of fossils and the possibility of extinction.  1669 — Nicholas Steno writes that some kinds of rock formed from layers of sediment deposited in water, and that fossils were organic remains buried in the process.  1770 — The fossilised bones of a huge animal are found in a quarry near Maastricht in the Netherlands. In 1808 Georges Cuvier identified it as an extinct marine reptile and in 1822 William Conybeare named it Mosasaurus.  1789 — The skeleton of a large animal is unearthed in Argentina. In 1796 Cuvier reports that it had an affinity to modern tree sloths and names it Megatherium.  1796 — Cuvier presents a paper on living and fossil elephants that shows that mammoths were a different species from any living elephant. He argues that this proved the reality of extinction, which he attributes to a geological catastrophe.  1800 — Cuvier writes that a drawing of a fossil found in Bavaria shows a flying reptile; in 1809 he names it Pterodactyl. 962  1808 — Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart publish preliminary results of their survey of the geology of the Paris Basin that uses the fossils found in different strata to reconstruct the geologic history of the region.  1811 — Mary Anning and her brother Joseph discover the fossilised remains of an ichthyosaur at Lyme Regis.  1815 — William Smith published The Map that Changed the World, the first geologic map of England, Wales, and southern Scotland, using fossils to correlate rock strata.  1821 — William Buckland analyzes Kirkdale Cave in Yorkshire, containing the bones of lions, elephants and rhinoceros, and concludes it was a prehistoric hyena den.  1821-1822 — Mary Anning discovers the world's first Plesiosaur skeleton at Lyme Regis.  1822 — Mary Ann Mantell and Gideon Mantell discover fossil teeth of the dinosaur Iguanodon.  1822 — The editor of the French journal Journal de Phisique, Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, invents the word "paleontologie" for the reconstruction of ancient animals and plants from fossils.  1823 — Buckland finds a human skeleton with mammoth remains at Paviland Cave on the Gower Peninsula, but at the time it is not accepted that this showed they coexisted.  1824 — Buckland finds lower jaw of the carnivorous dinosaur Megalosaurus.  1829 — Buckland publishes paper on work he and Mary Anning had done identifying and analyzing fossilized feces found at Lyme Regis and elsewhere. Buckland coins the term coprolite for them, and uses them to analyze ancient food chains.  1830 — The Cuvier–Geoffroy debate in Paris on the determination of animal structure  1831 — Mantell publishes an influential paper entitled "The Age of Reptiles" summarizing evidence of an extended period during which large reptiles had been the dominant animals.  1832 — Mantell finds partial skeleton of the dinosaur Hylaeosaurus. 963  1836 — Edward Hitchcock describes footprints (Eubrontes and Otozoum) of giant birds from Jurassic formations in Connecticut. Later they would be recognized as dinosaur tracks.  1841 — Anatomist Richard Owen creates a new order of reptiles, dinosauria, for animals: Iguanodon, Megalosaurus, and Hylaeosaurus, found by Mantell and Buckland.  1841 — The first global geologic timescale is defined by John Phillips based on the type of fossils found in different rock layers. He coins the term Mesozoic for what Mantell had called the age of reptiles.  1856 — Fossils are found in the Neander Valley in Germany that Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen recognize as a human different from modern people. A few years later William King names Homo neanderthalensis.  1858 — The first dinosaur skeleton found in the United States, Hadrosaurus, is excavated and described by Joseph Leidy.  1859 — Charles Darwin publishes On The Origin of Species.  1861 — The first Archaeopteryx, skeleton is found in Bavaria, Germany, and recognized as a transitional form between reptiles and birds.  1869 — Joseph Lockyer starts the scientific journal Nature  1871 — Othniel Charles Marsh discovers the first American pterosaur fossils.  1874-77 — Marsh finds a series of Equid fossils in the American West that shed light on the evolution of the horse.  1877 — The first Diplodocus skeleton is found near Cañon City, Colorado.  1891 — Eugene Dubois discovers fossils of Java Man (Homo erectus) in Indonesia.  1901 — Petroleum geologist W.W. Orcutt recovers first fossils from the La Brea Tar Pits in Southern California, a rich source of ice age mammal remains.  1905 — Tyrannosaurus rex is described and named by Henry Fairfield Osborn.  1909 — Cambrian fossils in the Burgess Shale are discovered by Charles Walcott.  1912 — Continental Drift is proposed by Alfred Wegener, leading to plate tectonics, which explained many patterns of ancient biogeography revealed by the fossil record. 964 Turtle Tortoise Water-dwelling reptiles Land-dwelling reptiles Omnivores Herbivores Have lighter shells on their backs Have much heavier and robust shells on their backs Not all turtles are Tortoises All tortoises are turtles Animal Husbandry Proper feeding of Proper shelter of Proper care of animals Proper breeding of animals animals against diseases animals ... the cooperative forces are biologically the more important and vital. The balance between the cooperative and altruistic tendencies and those which are disoperative and egoistic is relatively close. Under many conditions the cooperative forces lose, In the long run, however, the group centered, more altruistic drives are slightly stronger. ... human altruistic drives are as firmly based on an animal ancestry as is man himself. Our tendencies toward goodness... are as innate as our tendencies toward intelligence; we could do well with more of both. — Warder Clyde Allee Preparation of soil Sowing Agriculture practice Storage Adding manure and fertilizers Harvesting Irrigation Protecting from weeds The idea that one can go to the fossil record and expect to empirically recover an ancestor-descendant sequence, be it of species, genera, families, or whatever, has been, and continues to be, a pernicious illusion. ― Gareth J. Nelson The study of the history of life on Paleontology Earth as based on fossils Paleozoology (Fauna) Invertebrate Paleontology Paleobotony (Flora)  Macropaleontology (Macrofossils)  Micropaleontology (Microfossils) Vertebrate Paleontology  1912 — Charles Dawson announces discovery of Piltdown Man in England, a hoax that would confuse paleoanthropology until the fossils were revealed as forgeries in 1953.  1912-15 — Spinosaurus is found in North Africa and is speculated to be the largest terrestrial predator that ever lived.  1920 — Andrew Douglass proposes dendrochronology (tree-ring dating).  1924 — Raymond Dart examines fossils of Taung Child, found by quarrymen in South Africa, and names Australopithecus africanus.  1944 — The publication of Tempo and Mode in Evolution by George Gaylord Simpson integrates paleontology into the modern evolutionary synthesis.  1946 — Reginald Sprigg discovers fossils of the Ediacaran biota in Australia. In the 1960s Martin Glaessner would show that they were pre-Cambrian.  1947 — Willard Libby introduces carbon-14 dating.  1953 — Stanley A. Tyler discovers microfossils in the gunflint chert formation of cyanobacteria that created pre-Cambrian stromatolites approximately 2 billion years ago.  1967 — Paul S. Martin proposes the overkill hypothesis, that the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna in North America resulted from over hunting by Native Americans.  1972 — Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould propose punctuated equilibrium, claiming that the evolutionary history of most species involves long intervals of stasis between relatively short periods of rapid change.  1974 — Donald Johanson and Tom Gray discover a 3.5 million-year-old female hominid fossil that is 40% complete and name it "Lucy".  1980 — Luis Alvarez, Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro, and Helen Michel propose the Alvarez hypothesis, that a comet or asteroid struck the Earth 66 million years ago causing the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, including the extinction of the nonavian dinosaurs, and enriching the iridium in the K–T boundary. 965 William B. Shockley was an American engineer and teacher, cowinner (with John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain) of the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956 for their development of the transistor, a device that largely replaced the bulkier and less-efficient vacuum tube and ushered in the age of microminiature electronics. Robert Norton Noyce was an American physicist who cofounded Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957 and Intel Corporation in 1968. He is also credited with the realization of the first monolithic integrated circuit or microchip, which fueled the personal computer revolution and gave Silicon Valley its name. Top 10 Scientists who Committed Suicide Founding father of artificial intelligence and Suicide by eating an apple laced with of modern cognitive science cyanide Wallace Carothers American chemist who developed nylon Suicide by drinking potassium cyanide George Eastman The pioneer of popular photography and Suicide by gunshot motion picture film French surgeon and chemist who discovered Suicide by gunshot Alan Turing Nicolas Leblanc how to manufacture soda from common salt Edwin Armstrong Hans Berger Valery Legasov One of the most prolific inventors of Suicide by jumping from his apartment the radio era window in New York The inventor of electroencephalography Mainly remembered for his work as Chief Suicide by hanging Suicide by hanging Scientific Advisor of the commission investigating the Chernobyl disaster Austrian physicist who is known mostly for his Ludwig Boltzmann Suicide by hanging work on statistical mechanics and the field of thermodynamics David Kelly Biological weapons scientist who was an Suicide by slashing his wrist with a employee of the United Kingdom Ministry of blunt gardening knife Defence and a former United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq Best known for inventing an apparatus for Viktor Meyer Suicide by taking cyanide determining vapor densities and for discovering thiophene Ludwig Boltzmann's grave in Vienna's Central Cemetery bears a cryptic epitaph: S = kB log W Letter from Charles Dickens to Michael Faraday May 28th, 1850 Dear Sir, It has occurred to me that it would be extremely beneficial to a large class of the public to have some account of your late lectures on the breakfast-table. . . . I should be exceedingly glad to have . . . them published in my new enterprise. . . . With great respect and esteem I am Dear Sir, Your faithful servant, Charles Dickens Letter from Albert Einstein to his wife Mileva Marić Once again a few lazy and dull days flitted past my sleepy eyes, you know, such days on which one gets up late because one cannot think of anything proper to do, then goes out until the room has been made up. . . . Then one hangs around and looks halfheartedly forward to the meal. . . . However things turn out, we are getting the most delightful life in the world. Beautiful work, and together. . . . Be cheerful, dear sweetheart. Kissing you tenderly, Your Albert Letter from Otto Hahn to Austrian-Swedish physicist Lise Meitner Monday evening in the lab Dear Lise! . . . There is something about the "radium isotopes" that is so remarkable that for now we are telling only you. . . . Perhaps you can suggest some fantastic explanation. . . . If there is anything you could propose that you could publish, then it would still in a way be work by the three of us! Otto Hahn Letter from Otto Hahn to his wife Edith Junghans as he celebrates the New Year during WWI "My Darling, Unlike last year, I did not write two letters to you yesterday. But at least we were able to talk briefly. Actually, I was about to give up, because I had tried to ring Julius’ apartment twice before, but nobody picked up. Then I thought you couldn’t possibly all be at the hospital that long, and that’s when I thought of Sonnenfeld, remembering what you had said in your telegram. Thanks to my terrific [memory] – in this case you have to have the last word – I recalled Sonnenfeld’s phone number which I have not jotted down anywhere. And so it did work out in the end. I would have loved to talk with you a little longer, but we were playing Skat in the next room, and that is important. Also, the colonel wanted to talk to you and wish you a Happy New Year, but you were already gone again and Julius was on the line. How is Julius feeling? Really proud? I have not written to Grete yet. Yesterday’s best wishes were meant for her as well. Or do you think I should write her expressly? Well, I hope I will hear more details from you soon, including about the Sonnenfelds and the quality of the roasted goose, etc. Our celebration last night was very cozy. I had a crazy amount of work during the day. In the afternoon, I could not leave my desk from 2 to 7:45. Actually, since Dec. 27 I had not gotten out of the house except for one trip to the train station and my haircut today. So we had the usual meal last night, nothing fancy, with the exception of a kind of chocolate dessert with real whipped cream (we do have a cow in the stable!). For drinks with dinner and after, we had planned for the three of us (colonel, medical director, and myself) two bottles of burgundy mixed with one bottle of champagne. There was supposed to follow a punch at midnight, made of 2 bottles of red wine ½ bottle of rum 1 bottle of tea cinnamon and sugar But we never got around to the punch because we prolonged our “Turks’ Blood,” so that in the end, between 8 p.m. and 3 a.m. we had consumed 3 bottles of champagne 2 bottles of burgundy ½ bottle of red wine, totaling about 2 bottles of alcohol each. Quite a lot, but spread over seven hours, it was tolerable. At the same time, with only short interruptions around midnight, we played wonderful Skat (for the first time in weeks). At 12, we lit the tree and interrupted the Skat. Rehfeldt and other soldiers who had not gotten leave to go to town also got wine and cigars. Today … returned, and gradually there is less work. On the 3rd, Hehr [?] is returning. Late tomorrow, the colonel is going to Namur for a 10-day course, and things will get calmer. I did not give away the rest of my cookies; I still had 1 box of berry cookies which we had after midnight (very hard!). I (and others) also enjoy the English mustard which arrived yesterday. Ohh for it! Your sweet letter of the 30th already arrived yesterday. From Mother, too, there was a long one. For some reason Heiner thought I’d come on the 28th. He called early and wanted to come in from Schlossborn. But when he called, I was already in Münster. They are staying in Schlossborn over New Year’s. Judging from your mother’s letters, they don’t appear to be starving in Plötnick, notwithstanding the milk soup every night. Even the hunt dinner seems to be well put together. I am happy that you want to throw the book at the butter and I hope enough of it will stick! When you think of it, you can send along the House on the Market. These days, I haven’t had much time for my own reading. I am still reading about the very exciting theater director, even though I find many characters in it very idealized. Do you recall that I wrote a card to Bergrat Knochenhauer in Kattnitz before Christmas? I had had goose at his place exactly one year ago, and in my note I asked him about his son who was on the front. Today, by way of an answer, I got an obituary. His son, 21, died of his injuries on Dec. 28. Isn’t that sad? Yesterday, or the day before, I sent you 100 marks. That includes your gift from Santa. Also, do not forget to buy yourself, not from this money, the taffeta before it gets more expensive. Well, this is it. The bell is ringing, I have to run and eat. A fond kiss and greetings From your Otto" Einstein's 5 Papers That Changed the Face of Physics 1. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies It reconciles Maxwell's equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. 2. Does the Inertia of a Body Depend on Its Energy Content? It sets forth that the energy of a body at rest (E) equals its mass (m) times the speed of light (c) squared, or E = mc2 3. On a Heuristic Point of View Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light In this paper, Albert Einstein challenged the wave theory of light, suggesting that light could also be regarded as a collection of particles. This helped to open the door to a whole new world—that of quantum physics. 4. On the Movement of Small Particles Suspended in Stationary Liquids Required by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat This paper demonstrated how Brownian motion offered experimentalists the possibility to prove that molecules existed, despite the fact that molecules themselves were too small to be seen directly. 5. A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions It shows how to calculate Avogadro's number and the size of molecules. Letter from Heinrich Himmler [a leading member of the Nazi Party of Germany] to Werner Heisenberg [From the office of the director of the SS] Very Esteemed Herr Professor Heisenberg! Only today can I answer your letter of July 21, 1937, in which you direct yourself to me because of the article of Professor Stark. . . . Because you were recommended by my family I have had your case investigated with special care and precision. I am glad that I can now inform you that I do not approve of the attack . . . and that I have taken measures against any further attack against you. I hope I shall see you in Berlin in the fall, in November or December, so that we may talk things over thoroughly man to man. With friendly greetings, Heil Hitler! Yours, H. Himmler P.S. I consider it, however, best if in the future you make a distinction for your audience between the results of scientific research and the personal and political attitude of the scientists involved. "If you fall towards a black hole feet first, gravity will pull harder on your feet than your head, because they are nearer the black hole. The result is that you will be stretched out lengthwise, and squashed in sideways. If the black hole has a mass of a few times our Sun, you would be torn apart and made into spaghetti before you reached the horizon." ― Stephen Hawking Letter from Har Gobind Khorana to Francis Crick May 22, 1974 Dear Francis: Thanks for your letter. I was glad that you were interested in the promoter sequence. I shall briefly bring you up-to-date with the different aspects of the work on the tyr tRNA gene and my other research interest as well. The enclosed sheets essentially summarize the status of the work. (1) Synthesis: The DNA corresponding to the transcribed part of the gene (Smith-Altman precursor) has been synthesized. The focus is now on the synthesis of the terminator and promoter regions. (2) The promoter sequence (sheets 2 and 3) looks very beautiful to me. It could hardly be without significance. Transition from the "regular" DNA to the looped out form could be aided by the enzyme without loss of the essential recognition features and strand selection and site selection could both be accomplished in the process?? (3) The terminator sequence is on sheets 4 and 5. This too is interesting. Whatever the postulates at this stage, I am discontinuing sequencing just now and, instead, we are setting up precise systems (containing the known sequences for the signals and the adjacent parts) for studies of initiation and termination of transcription. After all, we have to prove the significance and lengths of sequences in the start and stop regions by actually carrying out transcription. If necessary, we shall go back to do more sequencing. The ultimate goal is still to have a gene which is functional in in vitro transcription by virtue of its own signals. This should then provide a powerful approach to systematic alterations of the structural gene. Also, I would like to add our synthetic promoter and terminator to ends of "indifferent" DNA's to really prove what part does what. Although this work takes up much of my effort just now, I hope that I shall be done with all this in the next year or so. In the last couple of years I have also become very deeply interested in the chemistry of membranes and have had a small group working in this field. Last fall I spent some time with Racker and his group at Cornell and this was most stimulating. I am still running a minor collaboration with him on reconstitution of membrane functions. At least this much I have definitely concluded that this sort of work is a reasonable starting point with my limitations and, especially, my deficient biological background. I enjoyed your article in the 21st Anniversary issue of the DNA structure. If you have other writings in press, I would love to receive copies. I hope all goes well in Cambridge researchwise and with your family. My warm regards to them. With best wishes, H. Gobind Khorana P.S. If you had any comments or thoughts on my above DNA work, I should of course be very happy to hear about them.  1982 — Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup publish a statistical analysis of the fossil record of marine invertebrates that shows a pattern (possibly cyclical) of repeated mass extinctions.  1984 — Hou Xianguang discovers the Maotianshan Shales Cambrian fossil site in the Yunnan province of China.  1993 — Johannes G.M. Thewissen and Sayed Taseer Hussain discover fossils of the amphibious whale ancestor Ambulocetus in Pakistan.  1996 — Li Yumin discovers a fossil of the theropod dinosaur Sinosauropteryx showing evidence of feathers in the Liaoning province of China.  2004 — Tiktaalik, a transitional form between lobe-finned fish and tetrapods is discovered in Canada by Ted Daeschler, Neil H. Shubin, and Farish A. Jenkins Jr..  2009 — Fossils of Titanoboa, a giant snake, are unearthed in the coal mines of Cerrejón in La Guajira, Colombia, suggesting paleocene equatorial temperatures were higher than today. "  2016 — Tail fossils of a baby species of Coelurosaur, fully preserved in amber including soft tissue, are found in Myanmar by Lida Xing. Timeline of biotechnology  7000 BCE – Chinese discover fermentation through beer making.  6000 BCE – Yogurt and cheese made with lactic acid-producing bacteria by various people.  4000 BCE – Egyptians bake leavened bread using yeast.  500 BCE – Moldy soybean curds used as an antibiotic.  250 BCE – The Greeks practice crop rotation for maximum soil fertility.  100 CE – Chinese use chrysanthemum as a natural insecticide.  1663 – First recorded description of living cells by Robert Hooke.  1677 – Antonie van Leeuwenhoek discovers and describes bacteria and protozoa. 966  1798 – Edward Jenner uses first viral vaccine to inoculate a child from smallpox.  1802 – The first recorded use of the word biology.  1824 – Henri Dutrochet discovers that tissues are composed of living cells.  1838 – Protein discovered, named and recorded by Gerardus Johannes Mulder and Jöns Jacob Berzelius.  1862 – Louis Pasteur discovers the bacterial origin of fermentation.  1863 – Gregor Mendel discovers the laws of inheritance.  1864 – Antonin Prandtl invents first centrifuge to separate cream from milk.  1869 – Friedrich Miescher identifies DNA in the sperm of a trout.  1871 – Ernst Hoppe-Seyler discovers invertase, which is still used for making artificial sweeteners.  1877 – Robert Koch develops a technique for staining bacteria for identification.  1878 – Walther Flemming discovers chromatin leading to the discovery of chromosomes.  1881 – Louis Pasteur develops vaccines against bacteria that cause cholera and anthrax in chickens.  1885 – Louis Pasteur and Emile Roux develop the first rabies vaccine and use it on Joseph Meister.  1919 – Károly Ereky, a Hungarian agricultural engineer, first uses the word biotechnology.  1928 – Alexander Fleming notices that a certain mould could stop the duplication of bacteria, leading to the first antibiotic: penicillin.  1933 – Hybrid corn is commercialized.  1942 – Penicillin is mass-produced in microbes for the first time.  1950 – The first synthetic antibiotic is created.  1951 – Artificial insemination of livestock is accomplished using frozen semen.  1952 – L.V. Radushkevich and V.M. Lukyanovich publish clear images of 50 nanometer diameter tubes made of carbon, in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemistry.  1953 – James D. Watson and Francis Crick describe the structure of DNA. 967 Organic Compounds Cyclic organic compound Aliphatic organic compound (Closed chain) (Open chain) Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Homocyclic Compounds Alicyclic compounds Heterocyclic Compounds Aromatic compounds  Homocyclic Compounds  Benzenoid compounds  Heterocyclic Compounds  Non-benzenoid compound  Heterocyclic aromatic compounds 5 branches of modern biotechnology:  Human biotechnology  Environmental biotechnology  Industrial Biotechnology  Animal Biotechnology  Plant Biotechnology Use of living organism to produce the desired product Help us fight hunger and disease, produce more safely, cleanly and efficiently, reduce our ecological footprint and save energy We believe that biotechnology has a critical role to play in increasing agricultural productivity, particularly in light of climate change. We also believe it can help to improve the nutritional value of staple foods. Hillary Clinton Developing countries can leapfrog several stages in the development process through the application of bio-technology in agriculture. — M. S. Swaminathan We are moving rapidly into the post-Darwinian era, when species other than our own will no longer exist, and the rules of Open Source sharing will be extended from the exchange of software to the exchange of genes. Domesticated biotechnology, once it gets into the hands of housewives and children, will give us an explosion of diversity of new living creatures … New lineages will proliferate to replace those that monoculture farming and deforestation have destroyed. Designing genomes will be a personal thing, a new art form as creative as painting or sculpture. Few of the new creations will be masterpieces, but a great many will bring joy to their creators and variety to our fauna and flora. Freeman Dyson  1958 – The term bionics is coined by Jack E. Steele.  1964 – The first commercial myoelectric arm is developed by the Central Prosthetic Research Institute of the USSR, and distributed by the Hangar Limb Factory of the UK.  1972 – The DNA composition of chimpanzees and gorillas is discovered to be 99% similar to that of humans.  1973 – Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer perform the first successful recombinant DNA experiment, using bacterial genes.  1974 – Scientist invent the first biocement for industrial applications.  1975 – Method for producing monoclonal antibodies developed by Köhler and César Milstein.  1978 – North Carolina scientists Clyde Hutchison and Marshall Edgell show it is possible to introduce specific mutations at specific sites in a DNA molecule.  1980 – The U.S. patent for gene cloning is awarded to Cohen and Boyer.  1982 – Humulin, Genentech's human insulin drug produced by genetically engineered bacteria for the treatment of diabetes, is the first biotech drug to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration.  1983 – The Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) technique is conceived.  1990 – First federally approved gene therapy treatment is performed successfully on a young girl who suffered from an immune disorder.  1994 – The United States Food and Drug Administration approves the first GM food: the "Flavr Savr" tomato.  1997 – British scientists, led by Ian Wilmut from the Roslin Institute, report cloning Dolly the sheep using DNA from two adult sheep cells.  1999 – Discovery of the gene responsible for developing cystic fibrosis.  2000 – Completion of a "rough draft" of the human genome in the Human Genome Project.  2001 – Celera Genomics and the Human Genome Project create a draft of the human genome sequence. It is published by Science and Nature Magazine.  2002 – Rice becomes the first crop to have its genome decoded. 968 Plants Flowering Vascular Seed bearing Non-vascular Non-flowering Spore bearing  no roots (Mosses)  with roots (Ferns) Algae Photosynthesis: Light Angiosperms Gymnosperms Carbon dioxide + water Glucose + oxygen Chlorophyll Plants with naked seeds — such as conifers, cycads, and ginkgo Monocots Dicots ...the life of the planet began the long, slow process of modulating and regulating the physical conditions of the planet. The oxygen in today's atmosphere is almost entirely the result of photosynthetic living, which had its start with the appearance of blue-green algae among the microorganisms. Lewis Thomas Cellular Respiration: Glucose + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + energy Fossil A remnant, impression, or trace of an organism of past geologic ages that has been preserved in the earth's crust Help us decipher the history of the earth Pathogens Causes  dysentery  malaria Single-celled organisms Bacteria Viruses Fungi Protists Parasitic worms Causes Causes  Flatworms  Thorny-head worms  Roundworms Causes  lymphatic filariasis  onchocerciasis  schistosomiasi Causes s  influenza  measles  tuberculosis  mumps  meningitis  HIV  food poisoning  gonorrhea    asthma typhoid  skin and nail infections chlamydia  lung infections, such as pneumonia  bloodstream infections  meningitis Animals With backbone Without backbone Vertebrates Warm Blooded Invertebrates Cold Blooded  Mammals  Fish  Birds  Reptiles  Amphibians Without legs Worm-like Not Worm-like With jointed legs In the deepest places, where physical norms collapse under the crushing water, bodies still fall softly through the dark, days after their vessels have with 3 pairs of legs with more than 3 pairs of legs capsized. They decay on their long journey down. Nothing will hit the black sand at the bottom of the world Insects Three principles of heredity: but algae-covered bones. China Mieville  dominance  segregation  independent assortment Birds  Flightless Birds (ostrich, kiwi, rhea, cassowary and moa)  Flying Birds (Bearded vulture, Bar-tailed godwit, shorebirds, parrots and perching birds) Bats are the only Mammals The difference between humans and other Mammalia mammals is that we know how to accessorize. (Mammals) capable of Flight. Madeleine Albright Prototheria Theria Primitive egg laying mammals Metatheria Warm-bloodedness is one of the key Pouched mammals Eutheria True Placental mammals factors that have enabled mammals to conquer the Earth, and to develop the most complex bodies in the animal kingdom. In this series, we will travel the world to discover just how varied and how astonishing mammals are. David Attenborough Geologists are rapidly becoming convinced that the mammals spread from their central Asian point of origin largely because of great variations in climate. Ellsworth Huntington  2003 – The Human Genome Project is completed, providing information on the locations and sequence of human genes on all 46 chromosomes.  2008 – Japanese astronomers launch the first Medical Experiment Module called "Kibo", to be used on the International Space Station.  2009 – Cedars-Sinai Heart Institute uses modified SAN heart genes to create the first viral pacemaker in guinea pigs, now known as iSANs.  2012 – Thirty-one-year-old Zac Vawter successfully uses a nervous systemcontrolled bionic leg to climb the Chicago Willis Tower. Timeline of British botany  1538: First British flora "Libellus de Herbaria" by William Turner's published. "A new Herball, wherin are conteined the names of Herbes ... with the properties degrees and naturall places of the same, gathered and made by Wylliam Turner, Physicion unto the Duke of Somersettes Grace" is the complete name of his great work of botany. The first part was published in London, printed by Steven Myerdman in 1551), the second was published in 1562 and the third in 1568, both in exile in Germany, by Arnold Birckman of Cologne. These volumes were the first clear and systematic investigation of the plants of England. The work had admirable wood engravings (basically copied from Leonhart Fuchs' work De historia Stirpium, 1542) along with the detailed observations obtained by Turner in his field studies. At the 969 same time, Turner included a list of the "uses and virtues" of plants and in the preface admits that he may be accused of disclosing to the general public what should have been reserved for a professional audience. Thus for the first time a flora of England in the vernacular was available, so that most English plants could easily be identified.  1597: John Gerard's Herball, or general historie of plants was published in London  1636: Enlarged edition of the Herball by Thomas Johnson  1644: Thomas Johnson (botanist) and author of Mercurius botanicus died in Hampshire  1650: William How's Phytologia Britannica was published in London  1900s: Frederick Hamilton Davey's Flora of Cornwall was published in Penzance  1951: Diapensia lapponica, a new species for Britain, is found at Sgurr an Utha, Inverness-shire by C. F. Tebbutt  1965: The Concise British Flora by William Keble Martin was published in May.  1986: Red Helleborine Cephalanthera rubra is found at Hawkley Warren, Hampshire by K. Turner and Ralph Hollins Timeline of scientific experiments  430 BC - Empedocles proves that air is a material substance by submerging a clepsydra into the ocean.  240 BC - Archimedes devised a principle which he later used to solve the riddle of the suspect crown.  230 BC – Eratosthenes measures the Earth's circumference and diameter. 970  Jābir ibn Hayyān (Geber) introduces the experimental method and controlled experiment in chemistry.  Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) introduces controlled experiment into the field of medicine and carried out the first medical experiment in order to find the most hygienic place to build a hospital.  1020 – Avicenna (Ibn Sina) introduces experimentation and quantification into the study of medicine and physiology, including the introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials, in The Canon of Medicine.  1021 – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) pioneers the experimental scientific method and experimental physics in his Book of Optics, where he devises the first scientific experiments on optics, including the first use of the camera obscura to prove that light travels in straight lines and the first experimental proof that visual perception is caused by light rays travelling to the eyes, which also marks the beginning of experimental psychology and psychophysics.  1030 – Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī conducts the first elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena and introduces the experimental method into mechanics.  1121 – Al-Khazini makes extensive use of the experimental method to prove his theories on mechanics in The Book of the Balance of Wisdom.  Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) is the first physician to carry out human postmortem dissections and autopsies. He proves that the skin disease scabies is caused by a parasite, a discovery which upsets the Hippocratic and Galenic theory of humorism.  1200 – Abd-el-latif observes and examines a large number of skeletons, and he discovered that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum.  1242 – Ibn al-Nafis carries out autopsies which leads him to the discovery of pulmonary circulation and the circulatory system.  Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī provides the first correct explanation of the rainbow phenomenon and uses the experimental method to prove his theory.  Albertus Magnus documents that nitric acid can dissolve silver and the resulting silver nitrate solution will blacken skin. 971  1572 – Tycho Brahe observes the 1572 supernova, evidence against the Aristotelian notion of an immutable heavenly sphere.  1609 – Galileo Galilei observes moons of Jupiter in support of the heliocentric model.  1638 – Galileo Galilei uses rolling balls to disprove the Aristotelian theory of motion.  1665 – Robert Hooke, using a microscope, observes cells.  1672 – Isaac Newton publishes the results of his Prism experiments, demonstrating the existence in white light of a mixture of distinct coloured rays.  1676 – Ole Rømer measures the speed of light for the first time.  1687 – Isaac Newton publishes the thought experiment Newton's cannonball, hypothesizes that the force of gravity is universal and is the key force for planetary motion.  1747 – James Lind: Conducts one of the earliest European clinical trials, showing that scurvy was cured by consuming fresh oranges and lemons, but not other tested acids or drinks.  1774 – Charles Mason: Conducts an experiment near the Scottish mountain of Schiehallion that attempts to measure the mean density of the Earth for the first time. Known as the Schiehallion experiment.  1796 – Edward Jenner: tests the first vaccine.  1798 – Henry Cavendish: Torsion bar experiment to measure Newton's gravitational constant.  1801 – Thomas Young: double-slit experiment demonstrates the wave nature of light.  1820 – Hans Christian Ørsted discovers the connection between electricity and magnetism.  1843 – James Prescott Joule measures the equivalence between mechanical work and heat, resulting in the law of conservation of energy.  1845 – Christian Doppler demonstrates the Doppler shift.  1851 – Léon Foucault uses Foucault pendulum to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth.  1859 – Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species showing that evolution occurs by natural selection. 972  1861 – Louis Pasteur disproves the theory of spontaneous generation.  1863 – Gregor Mendel's pea plant experiments (Mendel's laws of inheritance).  1887 – Heinrich Hertz discovers the photoelectric effect.  1887 – Michelson and Morley: Michelson–Morley experiment, showing that the speed of light is invariant.  1896 – Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity.  1897 – J. J. Thomson discovers the electron.  1909 – Robert Millikan: oil-drop experiment which suggests that electric charge occurs as quanta (the electron).  1911 – Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment determines that atoms are mostly empty space, and that the core of each atom, which he named the atomic nucleus, is dense and positively charged  1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes: superconductivity.  1914 - James Franck and Gustav Ludwig Hertz conduct the Franck–Hertz experiment demonstrating quantization of atomic ionization energy.  1919 – Arthur Eddington: Our sun as gravitational lens, a proof of the theory of relativity.  1920 – Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach conduct the Stern–Gerlach experiment, which demonstrates particle spin.  1920 – John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conduct the Little Albert experiment.  1928 – Griffith's experiment shows that living cells can be transformed via a transforming principle, later discovered to be DNA.  1934 – Enrico Fermi splits the atom.  1935 – Lady tasting tea experiment by Ronald A. Fisher, foundational in statistical hypothesis testing.  1940 – Karl von Frisch decodes the "dance" honeybees use to communicate the location of flowers.  1944 – Barbara McClintock breeds maize plants for color, which leads to the discovery of jumping genes.  1947 – John Bardeen and Walter Brattain fabricate the first working transistor. 973  1951 – Solomon Asch shows how group pressure can persuade an individual to conform to an obviously wrong opinion.  1952 – Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase: Hershey–Chase experiment proves that DNA is the hereditary material.  1953 – Stanley L. Miller & Harold C. Urey: Miller–Urey experiment demonstrates that organic compounds can arise spontaneously from inorganic ones.  1955 – Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines confirm the existence of the neutrino in the neutrino experiment.  1958 – Meselson–Stahl experiment proves that DNA replication is semiconservative.  1960 – B. F. Skinner's demonstrations of operant conditioning.  1961 – Crick, Brenner et al. experiment.  1961 – Nirenberg and Matthaei experiment.  1964 – Nirenberg and Leder experiment.  1965 – Arno Penzias, Robert Wilson: Cosmic microwave background radiation, evidence of the Big Bang.  1967 – Kerim Kerimov launches the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188 as experiments on automatic docking eventually leading to the development of space stations.  1970 – Allan and Beatrix Gardner teach American Sign Language to the chimpanzee Washoe.  1974 – Stanley Milgram: Milgram experiment on obedience to authority.  1995 – Eric A. Cornell and Carl E. Wieman synthesize Bose–Einstein condensate. Timeline of the history of scientific method  c. 1600 BC — The Edwin Smith Papyrus, an Egyptian surgical textbook, which applies: examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis, to injuries, paralleling rudimentary empirical methodology. 974  624 - 548 BC — Thales raised the study of nature from the realm of the mythical to the level of empirical study.  610 - 547 BC — Anaximander extends the idea of "law" to the physical world and uses maps and models.  c. 400 BC — In China, Mozi and the School of Names advocate using one's senses to observe the world, and develop the "three-prong method" for testing the truth or falsehood of statements.  c. 400 BC — Democritus advocates inductive reasoning through a process of examining the causes of sensory perceptions and drawing conclusions about the outside world.  c. 400 BC — Plato first provides a detailed definitions for idea, matter, form and appearance as abstract concepts.  c. 320 BC — First comprehensive documents categorising and subdividing knowledge, dividing knowledge into different areas by Aristotle,(physics, poetry, zoology, logic, rhetoric, politics, and biology). Aristotle's Posterior Analytics defends the ideal of science as necessary demonstration from axioms known with certainty. Aristotle believes that the world is real and that we can learn the truth by experience.  c. 341-270 BC — Epicurus scientific method with multiple variables.  c. 300 BC — Euclid's Elements expound geometry as a system of theorems following logically from axioms known with certainty.  c. 240 BC — Eratosthenes best known for being the first person to calculate the circumference of the Earth, which he did by applying a measuring system using stadia, which was a standard unit of measure during that time period. His calculation was remarkably accurate.  c. 200 BC — First Cataloged library (at Alexandria)  c. 150 BC — The Book of Daniel describes a clinical trial proposed by Daniel in which he and his three companions eat vegetables and water for 10 days rather than the royal food and wine.  c. 90-168 — Claudius Ptolemy 975 Eclipse Solar Eclipse Lunar Eclipse Takes place when the Moon comes Takes place when the Earth comes between the Sun and Earth between the Sun and the Moon As the sun eclipses the stars by his brilliancy, so the man of knowledge will eclipse the fame of others in assemblies of the people if he proposes algebraic problems, and still more if he solves them. — Brahmagupta As to the position of the earth, then, this is the view which some advance, and the views advanced concerning its rest or motion are similar. For here too there is no general agreement. All who deny that the earth lies at the centre think that it revolves about the centre, and not the earth only but, as we said before, the counter-earth as well. Some of them even consider it possible that there are several bodies so moving, which are invisible to us owing to the interposition of the earth. This, they say, accounts for the fact that eclipses of the moon are more frequent than eclipses of the sun; for in addition to the earth each of these moving bodies can obstruct it. Aristotle Scattering Linear Rayleigh Non-linear Mie scattering Stimulated Brillouin Stimulated Raman Law of scattering: The intensity of scattered light is inversely proportional with the fourth power of the wavelength of the incident light when the particle (scatterer) is of smaller diameter than the wavelength of light Over the last century, physicists have used light quanta, electrons, alpha particles, Xrays, gamma-rays, protons, neutrons and exotic sub-nuclear particles for this purpose [scattering experiments]. Much important information about the target atoms or nuclei or their assemblage has been obtained in this way. In witness of this importance one can point to the unusual concentration of scattering enthusiasts among earlier Nobel Laureate physicists. One could say that physicists just love to perform or interpret scattering experiments. Clifford G. Shull  c. 721-873 — Muslim scientists used experiment and quantification to distinguish between competing scientific theories, set within a generically empirical orientation, as can be seen in the works of Jābir ibn Hayyān (721–815) and Alkindus (801–873).  1021 — Ibn al-Haytham introduces the experimental method and combines observations, experiments and rational arguments in his Book of Optics.  c. 1025 — Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, develops experimental methods for mineralogy and mechanics, and conducts elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena.  1027 — In The Book of Healing, Avicenna criticizes the Aristotelian method of induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide", and in its place, develops examination and experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry.  1220–1235 — Robert Grosseteste, an English scholastic philosopher, theologian and the bishop of Lincoln, published his Aristotelian commentaries, which laid out the framework for the proper methods of science.  1265 — Roger Bacon, an English monk, inspired by the writings of Grosseteste, described a scientific method, which he based on a repeating cycle of observation, hypothesis, experimentation, and the need for independent verification. He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results.  1327 — Ockham's razor clearly formulated (by William of Ockham) which states that among competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions should be selected.  1403 — Yongle Encyclopedia, the first collaborative encyclopedia  1581 — Francisco Sanches uses classical skeptical arguments to show that science, in the Aristotelian sense of giving necessary reasons or causes for the behavior of nature, cannot be attained.  1581 — Tycho Brahe builds large scale research facility, Stjerneborg dedicated to obtaining high precision measurements of the planets.  1595 — Microscope invented in the Netherlands  1600 — First dedicated laboratory 976 Precipitation Condensation Collection Evaporation Biogeochemical Cycle Gaseous cycle Sedimentary cycle Movement of nutrients and other elements between biotic and abiotic factors Astrobiology is the science of life in the universe. It's an attempt to scientifically deal with the question of whether or not we're alone in the universe, looking at the past of life, the present of life, and the future of life. It's an interdisciplinary study incorporating astronomy, biology, and the Earth sciences. David Grinspoon  1608 — Telescope invented in the Netherlands  1620 — Novum Organum published, (Francis Bacon)  1637 — First Scientific method (René Descartes)  1638 — Galileo's Two New Sciences published, containing two thought experiments, namely Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment and Galileo's ship, which are intended to disprove existing physical theories by showing that they have contradictory consequences.  1650 — Society of experts (the Royal Society)  1650 — Experimental evidence established as the arbiter of truth (the Royal Society)  1665 — Repeatability established (Robert Boyle)  1665 — Scholarly journals established  1675 — Peer review begun  1687 — Hypothesis/prediction (Isaac Newton)  1739 — David Hume's Treatise of Human Nature argues that the problem of induction is unsolvable.  1753 — First description of a controlled experiment using identical populations with only one variable: James Lind's research into Scurvy among sailors.  1763 — Reverend Thomas Bayes published An Essay towards solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances laying the basis for Bayesian inference, a method of inference used to update the probability estimate for a hypothesis as additional evidence is acquired.  1812 — The formulation by Hans Christian Ørsted of the Latin-German mixed term Gedankenexperiment (lit. experiment conducted in the thoughts, or thought experiment). Although the method had been in use by philosophers since antiquity.  1815 — An optimal design for polynomial regression is published by Joseph Diaz Gergonne.  1833 - William Whewell invents the term scientist. They had previously been known as natural philosophers or men of science. 977  1840 - William Whewell in Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences coins the term "consilience" the principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" to strong conclusions.  1877–1878 — Charles Sanders Peirce publishes "Illustrations of the Logic of Science", popularizing his trichotomy of Abduction, Deduction and Induction. Peirce explains randomization as a basis for statistical inference.  1885 — C. S. Peirce with Joseph Jastrow first describes blinded, randomized experiments, which become established in psychology.  1897 — Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin proposes the use of multiple hypotheses to assist in the design of experiments.  1905 — Albert Einstein proposes the Theory of Relativity  1926 — Randomized design popularized and analyzed by Ronald Fisher (following Peirce)  1934 — Falsifiability as a criterion for evaluating new hypotheses is popularized by Karl Popper's The Logic of Scientific Discovery (following Peirce)  1937 — Controlled placebo trial  1946 — First computer simulation  1950 — Double blind experiment  1962 — Meta study of scientific method (Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions)  1964 — Strong inference proposed by John R. Platt  2009 — Adam - First working prototype of a "robot scientist" able to perform independent experiments to test hypotheses and interpret findings without human guidance.  2012 — Constructor theory, a proposal for a new mode of explanation in fundamental physics, was first sketched out by David Deutsch. Timeline of Polish science and technology 978  Poland joins the European Southern Observatory ESO (2014), 16-nation intergovernmental research organisation for astronomy.  PW-Sat - the first Polish satellite launched into space (2012); other Polish satellites include Lem and Heweliusz  Krzysztof Matyjaszewski, a Polish-American chemist, discoverer of atom-transfer radical polymerization  Bohdan Paczyński; a Polish astronomer, credited with the development of a new method of detecting space objects and establishing their mass using the gravitational lenses effect; he is acknowledged for coining the term microlensing  Graphene acquisition - In 2011 the Institute of Electronic Materials Technology and Department of Physics, Warsaw University announced a joint development of acquisition technology of large pieces of graphene with the best quality so far. In April the same year, Polish scientists with support from the Polish Ministry of Economy began the procedure for granting a patent to their discovery around the world.  Blue laser - first blue laser in Poland (third in the world)  Artificial heart - an implant, program: "Polish Artificial Heart"  PSR 1257+12 - a pulsar located 2,630 light years from Earth. It is believed to be orbited by at least four planets. These were the first extrasolar planets ever discovered (by a Polish astronomer, Aleksander Wolszczan, in 1992). Polish astronomy has traditionally been among the best in the world.  Jack Tramiel, a Polish American businessman, best known for founding Commodore International; Commodore PET, Commodore VIC-20 and Commodore 64 are some home computers produced while he was running the company  Foundation For Polish Science - a non-governmental organisation aiming at supporting academics with high potential - since (1991)  PZL W-3 Sokół - a helicopter, FAA certificate in (1989)  Henryk Magnuski, a Polish telecommunications engineer who worked for Motorola in Chicago. He was the inventor of the first Walkie-Talkies and one of the authors of his company success in the fields of radio communication 979  Benoit Mandelbrot, mathematician of Polish descent; known for developing a theory of "roughness and self-similarity" and significant contributions to fractal geometry and chaos theory; Mandelbrot set  Flaris LAR01, a Polish five-seat single-engined very light jet, currently under development by Metal-Master of Jelenia Góra  Solaris Urbino 18 Hybrid, a low-floor articulated hybrid buses from the Solaris Urbino series for city communication services manufactured by Solaris Bus & Coach in Bolechowo near Poznań in Poland  PZL Kania - a helicopter, first prototype (1979), FAR-29 certificate (early 1980s)  Odra (computer) - a line of computers manufactured in Wrocław (1959/1960)  K-202- first Polish microcomputer invented by Jacek Karpiński (1971)  FB MSBS, an assault rifle developed by FB "Łucznik" Radom  FB Beryl, an assault rifle designed and produced by the Łucznik Arms Factory in the city of Radom  Polish Polar Station, Hornsund - since (1957)  PZL SW-4 Puszczyk - a Polish light single-engine multipurpose helicopter manufactured by PZL Swidnik  EP-09 - 'B0B0' Polish electric locomotive class  PT-91 - a Polish main battle tank. Designed at the Research and Development Centre of Mechanical Systems OBRUM (Ośrodek BadawczoRozwojowy Urządzeń Mechanicznych) in Gliwice  Grom (missile) - an anti-aircraft missile  206FM - class minesweeper (NATO: "Krogulec")  Meteor (rocket)- a series of sounding rockets (1963)  PZL TS-11 Iskra - a jet trainer aircraft, used by the air forces of Poland and India (1960)  Lim-6 - attack aircraft (1955)  Mizar system, a system consisting of a formal language for writing mathematical definitions and proofs, a proof assistant, which is able to mechanically check proofs written in this language, and a library of formalized mathematics, which can be used in 980 the proof of new theorems; it was designed by Polish mathematician Andrzej Trybulec in 1973  Mieczysław G. Bekker, a Polish engineer and scientist, co-authored the general idea and contributed significantly to the design and construction of the Lunar Roving Vehicle used by missions Apollo 15, Apollo 16, and Apollo 17 on the Moon  The Polish Academy of Sciences, headquartered in Warsaw, was founded in 1952.  Hilary Koprowski, Polish virologist and immunologist, inventor of the world's first effective live polio vaccine  Andrzej Udalski, initiator of the OGLE project, which led to the such significant discoveries as the detection of the first merger of a binary star, first Cepheid pulsating stars in the eclipsing binary systems, unique Nova systems, quazars and galaxies  Stefania Jabłońska, Polish physician; in 1972 Jabłońska proposed the association of the human papilloma viruses with skin cancer in epidermodysplasia verruciformis; in 1978 Jabłońska and Gerard Orth at the Pasteur Institute discovered HPV-5 in skin cancer; Jabłońska was awarded the 1985 Robert Koch Prize  Andrew Schally, Polish-American endocrinologist and Nobel Prize laureate  Tomasz Dietl, a Polish physicist; known for developing the theory, confirmed in recent years, of diluted ferromagnetic semiconductors, and for demonstrating new methods in controlling magnetization  Ryszard Horodecki, a Polish physicist; he contributed largely to the field of quantum informatics and theoretical physics; Peres-Horodecki criterion  Andrzej Szczeklik, a Polish immunologist; credited with discovering the anti-thrombotic properties of aspirin, and studies on the pathogenesis and treatment of aspirin-induced bronchial asthma  Antoni Zygmund, a Polish mathematician, considered one of the greatest analysts of the 20th century  Leonid Hurwicz, a Polish economist and mathematician; he originated incentive compatibility and mechanism design, which show how desired outcomes are achieved in economics, social science and political science 981  Artur Ekert, a Polish physicist; one of the inventors of quantum cryptography  Jacek Pałkiewicz, a Polish journalist, traveler and explorer; fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, discoverer of the sources of the Amazon River  Kazimierz Kuratowski, a Polish mathematician, a leading representatives of the Warsaw School of Mathematics; Kuratowski's theorem, Kuratowski-Zorn lemma; Kuratowski closure axioms  Tadek Marek, a Polish automobile engineer, known for his Aston Martin engines  Otto Marcin Nikodym, a Polish mathematician; Radon-Nikodym theorem  Zygmunt Bauman, a Polish sociologist and philosopher; one of the world's most eminent social theorists writing on issues as diverse as modernity and the Holocaust, postmodern consumerism as well as the concept of liquid modernity which he introduced  Kazimierz Dąbrowski, a Polish psychologist; he developed the theory of positive disintegration, which describes how a person's development grows as a result of accumulated experiences  Anna Wierzbicka, a Polish linguist; known for her work in semantics, pragmatics and cross-cultural linguistics; she's credited with formulating the theory of natural semantic metalanguage and the concept of semantic primes  Andrzej Grzegorczyk, a Polish mathematician; he introduced the Grzegorczyk hierarchy a subrecursive hierarchy that foreshadowed computational complexity theory  Stanisław Jaśkowski, a Polish mathematician; he is regarded as one of the founders of natural deduction, which he discovered independently of Gerhard Gentzen in the 1930s; he was among the first to propose a formal calculus of inconsistency-tolerant (or paraconsistent) logic; furthermore, Jaśkowski was a pioneer in the investigation of both intuitionistic logic and free logic.  Karol Borsuk, a Polish mathematician; his main area of interest was topology; he introduced the theory of absolute retracts (ARs) and absolute neighborhood retracts (ANRs), and the cohomotopy groups, later called Borsuk–Spanier cohomotopy groups; he also founded shape theory; Borsuk's conjecture, Borsuk-Ulam theorem 982  Jerzy Konorski, a Polish neurophysiologist; he discovered secondary conditioned reflexes and operant conditioning and proposed the idea of gnostic neurons - a concept similar to the grandmother cell; he also coined the term neural plasticity, and he developed theoretical ideas regarding it  Antoni Kępiński, a Polish psychiatrist; he developed the psychological theory of information metabolism which explores human social interactions based on information processing which significantly influenced the development of socionics  Zbigniew Religa, a Polish cardiac surgeon; a pioneer in human heart transplantation; in 1987 he performed the first successful heart transplant in Poland; in 1995 he was the first surgeon to graft an artificial valve created from materials taken from human corpses; in 2004 Religa and his team developed an implantable pump for a pneumatic heart assistance system  Maria Siemionow, a renowned Polish transplantation surgeon and scientist who gained world recognition when she led a team of eight surgeons through the world's first neartotal face transplant at the Cleveland Clinic in 2008  Tadeusz Krwawicz, a Polish ophthalmologist; he pioneered the use of cryosurgery in ophthalmology; he was the first to describe a method of cataract extraction by cryoadhesion in 1961, and to develop a probe by means of which cataracts can be grasped and extracted  Albert Sabin, a Polish-American medical researcher, best known for developing the oral polio vaccine which has played a key role in nearly eradicating the disease  Stefan Kudelski, a Polish audio engineer known for creating the Nagra series of professional audio recorders  Zdzisław Pawlak, a Polish mathematician and computer scientist; known for his contribution to many branches of theoretical computer science; he is credited with introducing the rough set theory and also known for his fundamental works on it; he had also introduced the Pawlak flow graphs, a graphical framework for reasoning from data  Jan Czekanowski, a Polish anthropologist, ethnographer, statistician and linguist; one of the founders of computational linguistics, he introduced the Czekanowski binary index 983  Henryk Iwaniec, mathematician, he is noted for his outstanding contributions to analytic number theory and sieve theory; Friedlander-Iwaniec theorem  Polish mine detector was a metal detector used for detecting land mines, developed during World War II (1941–42) by Polish Lieutenant Józef Stanisław Kozacki. It contributed substantially to British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's 1942 victory over German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel at El Alamein.  Cryptologic bomb was a special-purpose machine designed in 1938 by Polish mathematician-cryptologist Marian Rejewski to speed the breaking of the Enigma machine ciphers that would be used by Nazi Germany in World War II. It was a forerunner of the "Bombes" that would be used by the British at Bletchley Park, and which would be a major element in the Allied Ultra program that may have decided the outcome of World War II.  Biuro Szyfrów (Cipher Bureau) was the Polish military intelligence agency that made the first break (1932, just as Adolf Hitler was about to take power in Germany) into the German Enigma machine cipher that would be used by Nazi Germany through World War II, and kept reading Enigma ciphers at least until France's capitulation in June 1940.  Czochralski process - a method of crystal growth used to obtain single crystals of semiconductors (e.g. silicon, germanium and gallium arsenide), metals (e.g. palladium, platinum, silver, gold) and salts (1916)  Joseph Rotblat, Polish physicist who worked on the Manhattan Project, Nobel Laureate  Stanisław Ulam, a Polish-American mathematician who participated in America's, Manhattan Project, originated the Teller–Ulam design of thermonuclear weapons, discovered the concept of cellular automaton, invented the Monte Carlo methods of computation, and suggested nuclear pulse propulsion.  Wacław Struszyński, a Polish electronics engineer who made a vital contribution to the defeat of U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic, he designed a radio antenna which enabled effective high frequency (HF) radio direction finding systems to be installed on Royal Navy convoy escort ships. Such direction finding systems were referred to as HF/DF or Huff-Duff, and enabled the bearings of U-boats to be determined when the U-boats made high frequency radio transmissions. 984  Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV - the first device to allow the tank commander to have a 360-degree view from his turret, invented by engineer Rudolf Gundlach (1936)  Polish notation - also known as prefix notation, is a method of mathematical expression (1920)  Reverse Polish notation - (RPN), also known as postfix notation (1920)  Zygalski sheets, also known as "perforated sheets" (invented in 1938 by Henryk Zygalski), were one of a number of devices created by the Polish Cipher Bureau to facilitate the breaking of German Enigma ciphers.  Stefan Banach - mathematician, Banach space, Banach-Tarski paradox, Banach algebra, Functional analysis  Lwów School of Mathematics was a group of eminent Polish mathematicians that included Hugo Steinhaus, Stanisław Ulam, Mark Kac and many more.  Tadeusz Banachiewicz, a Polish astronomer, inventor of the chronocinematograph  7TP - light tank of the Second World War (1935)  FB Vis, a 9×19 mm caliber, single-action, semi-automatic pistol  PZL.23 Karaś- light bomber and reconnaissance aircraft designed in the PZL (1934)  PZL P.11, a Polish fighter aircraft, designed by Zygmunt Pulawski in the early 1930s by PZL in Warsaw;it was briefly the most advanced fighter aircraft of its kind in the world  PZL.37 Łoś - twin-engine medium bomber designed in the PZL by Jerzy Dąbrowski (mid-1930s)  LWS-6 Żubr - initially a passenger plane. Since the Polish airline LOT bought Douglas DC-2 planes instead, the project was converted to a bomber aircraft (early-1930s)  SS Sołdek - the first ship built in Poland after World War II (1948)  Mieczysław Wolfke - "one of precursors in the development of holography" (a quote from Dennis Gabor)  Hugo Steinhaus, a Polish mathematician; one of the founders of the Lwów School of Mathematics, he is regarded as one of the early founders of game theory and probability 985 theory which led to later development of more comprehensive approaches by other scholars; Banach-Steinhaus theorem  LWS - an abbreviation name used by Polish aircraft manufacturer Lubelska Wytwórnia Samolotów (1936–1939)  PZL - an abbreviation name used by Polish aerospace manufacturers (1928–present)  RWD - an abbreviation name used by Polish aircraft manufacturer (1920–1940)  TKS - a tankette (1931)  Stetysz (1929) - Polish automobile manufacture by engineer and inventor, Stefan Tyszkiewicz  RWD-1 - sports plane of 1928, constructed by the RWD  Wz. 35 anti-tank rifle, a Polish 7.9 mm anti-tank rifle used by the Polish Army during the Invasion of Poland of 1939  Marian Smoluchowski a Polish scientist, pioneer of statistical physics - *Einstein– Smoluchowski relation, Smoluchowski coagulation equation, Feynman-Smoluchowski ratchet  Kazimierz Fajans, a Polish physical chemist, the discoverer of chemical element protactinium  Kazimierz Funk, a Polish biochemist, credited with formulating the concept of vitamines  Alfred Tarski, a renowned Polish logician, mathematician and philosopher; BanachTarski paradox, Tarski's undefinability theorem, formal notion of truth  Wacław Sierpiński, known for outstanding contributions to set theory (research on the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis), number theory, theory of functions and topology; Sierpiński triangle, Sierpiński carpet, Sierpiński curve, Sierpiński number  Aleksander Jabłoński, a Polish physicist, known for Jablonski diagram  Josef Hofmann, designer of first windscreen wipers  Rudolf Weigl, a Polish biologist and inventor of the first effective vaccine against epidemic typhus 986  Ludwik Hirszfeld, a Polish microbiologist and serologist. He is considered a codiscoverer of the inheritance of ABO blood types  Stephanie Kwolek, American chemist of Polish origin, inventor of Kevlar  Andrzej Tarkowski, a Polish embryologist and Professor of Warsaw University, known for his pioneering researches on embryos and blastomeres, which have created theoretical and practical basis for achievements of biology and medicine of the twentieth century - in vitro fertilization, cloning and stem cell discovery  Michał Kalecki, a Polish economist; he has been called "one of the most distinguished economists of the 20th century", he made major theoretical and practical contributions in the areas of the business cycle, growth, full employment, income distribution, the political boom cycle, the oligopolistic economy, and risk; he offered a synthesis that integrated Marxist class analysis and the then-new literature on oligopoly theory, and his work had a significant influence on both the Neo-Marxian and Post-Keynesian schools of economic thought; he was also one of the first macroeconomists to apply mathematical models and statistical data to economic questions.  Stefan Bryła, a Polish construction engineer and welding pioneer; he designed and built the first welded road bridge in the world as well as the Prudential building in Warsaw, one of the first European skyscrapers  Ralph Modjeski, a Polish civil engineer who achieved prominence as a pre-eminent bridge designer in the United States  Wojciech Świętosławski, Polish chemist and physicist, considered the father of thermochemistry  Józef Tykociński, a Polish engineer and a pioneer of sound-on-film technology  Tadeusz Sędzimir, a Polish engineer and inventor in the field of mining and metallurgy  Mieczysław Mąkosza, a Polish chemist specializing in organic synthesis and investigation of organic mechanisms; he is credited for the discovery of the aromatic vicarious nucleophilic substitution, VNS; he also contributed to the discovery of phase transfer catalysis reactions  Bronisław Malinowski, a Polish anthropologist, often considered one of the most important 20th-century anthropologists; participatory observation 987  Mirosław Hermaszewski, a Polish Air Force officer and cosmonaut; the first Polish person in space  Henryk Arctowski, a Polish scientist, explorer and an internationally renowned meteorologist; a pioneer in the exploration of Antarctica  Józef Paczoski, a Polish botanist; he coined the term of phytosociology and was one of the founders of this branch of botany  Stefan Drzewiecki, a Polish scientist, journalist, engineer, constructor and inventor; he developed several models of propeller-driven submarines that evolved from singleperson vessels to a four-man model; he developed the theory of gliding flight, developed a method for the manufacture of ship and plane propellers (1892), and presented a general theory for screw-propeller thrust (1920); he also developed several models of early submarines for the Russian Navy, and devised a torpedo-launching system for ships and submarines that bears his name, the Drzewiecki drop collar; he also made an instrument that drew the precise routes of ships onto a nautical chart; his work Theorie générale de l'hélice (1920), was honored by the French Academy of Science as fundamental in the development of modern propellers.  Tadeusz Tański, a Polish automobile engineer and the designer of, among others, the first Polish serially-built automobile, the CWS T-1  Leonard Danilewicz, a Polish engineer, he came up with a concept for a frequencyhopping spread spectrum  Florian Znaniecki, a Polish sociologist and philosopher; he made significant contributions to sociological theory and incroduced such concepts as humanistic coefficient and culturalism; he is the co-author of The Polish Peasant in Europe and America, which is considered the foundation of modern empirical sociology  Adolf Beck, a Polish physiologist, a pioneer of electroencephalography (EEG); in 1890 he published an investigation of spontaneous electrical activity of the brain of rabbits and dogs that included rhythmic oscillations altered by light; Beck started experiments on the electrical brain activity of animals; his observation of fluctuating brain activity led to the conclusion of brain waves 988  Andrzej Schinzel, a Polish mathematician, studying mainly number theory; Schinzel's hypothesis H, Davenport–Schinzel sequence  Władysław Starewicz, a Polish-Russian pioneering film director and stopmotion animator, he is notable as the author of the first puppet-animated film i.e. The Beautiful Lukanida (1912)  Walery Jaworski, one of the pioneers of gastroenterology in Poland; he described bacteria living in the human stomach and speculated that they were responsible for stomach ulcers, gastric cancer and achylia. It was one of the first observations of Helicobacter pylori. He published those findings in 1899 in a book titled "Podręcznik chorób żołądka" ("Handbook of Gastric Diseases"). His findings were independently confirmed by Robin Warren and Barry Marshall, who received the Nobel Prize in 2005  Witold Hurewicz, a Polish mathematician; Hurewicz space, Hurewicz theorem  Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, a Polish physicist, discoverer of the phenomenon of progressive phosphorescence  Maria Skłodowska-Curie - a Polish chemist and physicist, a pioneer in the field of radioactivity, co-discoverer of the chemical elements radium and polonium  Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski - the first to liquefy oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in a stable state (not, as had been the case up to then, in a dynamic state in the transitional form as vapour) (1833)  Ignacy Łukasiewicz - a Polish pharmacist and petroleum industry pioneer who in 1856 built the world's first oil refinery; his achievements included the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp, the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe, and the construction one of the world's first modern oil well  The Polish Academy of Learning, an academy of sciences, was founded in Kraków in 1872.  Stefan Drzewiecki built in 1884 the world's first electric submarine.  Casimir Zeglen, inventor of one of the first bulletproof vests  Jan Szczepanik, a Polish inventor, with several hundred patents and over 50 discoveries to his name, many of which are still applied today, especially in the motion picture 989 industry, as well as in photography and television, which include telectroscope and colorimeter  Edmund Biernacki, a Polish pathologist, known for the Biernacki reaction used worldwide to assess erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), which is one of the major blood tests  Ludwik Gumplowicz, a Polish sociologist, "one of the founders of European sociology"  Antoni Leśniowski, a Polish surgeon, discoverer of Leśniowski-Crohn's disease  Edward Flatau, a Polish neurologist and psychiatrist, his name in medicine is linked to Redlich-Flatau syndrome, Flatau-Sterling torsion dystonia, Flatau-Schidler disease and Flatau's law. He published a human brain atlas (1894), wrote a fundamental book on migraine (1912), established the localization principle of long fibers in the spinal cord (1893), and with Sterling published an early paper (1911) on progressive torsion spasm in children and suggested that the disease has a genetic component.  Kazimierz Prószyński, a Polish inventor active in the field of cinema; he patented his first film camera, called Pleograph, before the Lumière brothers, and later went on to improve the cinema projector for the Gaumont company, as well as invent the widely used hand-held Aeroscope camera  Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, a Polish-Russian engineer and electrician; inventor of the three-phase electric power system  Joseph Babinski, a neurologist best known for his 1896 description of the Babinski sign, a pathological plantar reflex indicative of corticospinal tract damage  Jan Baudouin de Courtenay, a Polish linguist, he formulated the theory of the phoneme and phonetic alternations  Ernest Malinowski, a Polish engineer, he constructed at that time the world's highest railway Ferrocarril Central Andino in the Peruvian Andes in 1871–1876  Bruno Abakanowicz, a Polish mathematician and electrical engineer, inventor of the integraph, spirograph and parabolagraph  Stanisław Kierbedź, a Polish-Russian engineer, and military officer; he constructed the first permanent iron bridge over the Vistula River in Warsaw known as the Kierbedź 990 Bridge; he designed and supervised the construction of dozens of bridges, railway lines, ports and other objects in Central and Eastern Europe.  Felicjan Sypniewski, a Polish naturalist, botanist, entomologist and philosopher; his ground-breaking studies and scientific publications laid down the foundations of malacology  Ludwik Zamenhof, a Polish medical doctor, inventor and writer; creator of Esperanto, the most successful constructed language in the world  Napoleon Cybulski, a Polish physiologist and a pioneer of endocrinology and electroencephalography; discoverer of adrenaline  Wacław Mayzel, a Polish histologist; he described for the first time the process of mitosis  Antoni Patek, a Polish pioneer in watchmaking and a creator of Patek Philippe & Co., one of the most famous watchmaker companies in the world  Ludwik Rydygier, a Polish surgeon; in 1880, as the first in Poland and second in the world he succeeded in surgical removal of the pylorus in a patient suffering from stomach cancer, he was also the first to document this procedure; in 1881, as the first in the world, he carried out a peptic ulcer resection; in 1884 he introduced a new method of surgical peptic ulcer treatment using Gastroenterostomy; Rydygier proposed (1900) original concepts for removing prostatic adenoma and introduced many other surgical techniques that are successfully used to date  Jan Dzierżoń, a pioneering Polish apiarist who discovered the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in bees and designed the first successful movable-frame beehive; his discoveries and innovations made him world-famous in scientific and bee-keeping circles; he has been described as "the father of apiculture"  Ignacy Domeyko - geologist and mineralogist, a geological map of Chile, describing the Jurassic rock formations, and discovered deposits of a rare mineral (1846)  Paweł Strzelecki, a Polish explorer and geologist; in 1840 he climbed the highest peak on mainland Australia and named it Mount Kosciuszko; he made a geological and mineralogical survey of the Gippsland region in present-day eastern Victoria and from 991 1840 to 1842 he explored nearly every part of Tasmania; author of Physical Description of New South Wales (1845)  Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz - scholar, poet, and statesman  Ignacy Prądzyński, a Polish military commander and general; principal engineer and designer of the Augustów Canal  Wojciech Jastrzębowski, a Polish scientist, naturalist and inventor, professor of botany, physics, zoology and horticulture; considered as one of the fathers of ergonomics  Commission of National Education (Polish: Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), founded in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education.  Stanisław Staszic was an outstanding Polish philosopher, statesman, Catholic priest, geologist, translator, poet and writer — almost a one-man academy of sciences. The Polish Academy of Sciences' Staszic Palace, in Warsaw, is named after him; one of the founding fathers of the Constitution of May 3, 1791 - the world's second and Europe's first written constitution and a crowning achievement of the Polish Enlightenment  Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, a Polish Messianist philosopher, mathematician, physicist, inventor, lawyer, and economist; he is credited with formulating the Wronskian  Johannes Hevelius was an outstanding astronomer who published the earliest exact maps of the moon and the most complete star catalog of his time, containing 1,564 stars. In 1641 he built an observatory in his house; he is known as "the founder of lunar topography"  Jan Brożek (Ioannes Broscius) was the most prominent 17th-century Polish mathematician. Following his death, his collection of Nicolaus Copernicus' letters and documents, which he had borrowed 40 years earlier with the intent of writing a biography of Copernicus, was lost.  Kazimierz Siemienowicz, a Polish–Lithuanian general of artillery, gunsmith, military engineer, and pioneer of rocketry 992  Michał Boym, a Polish Jesuit missionary to China, scientist and explorer; he is notable as one of the first westerners to travel within the Chinese mainland, and the author of numerous works on Asian fauna, flora and geography  Krzysztof Arciszewski, a Polish–Lithuanian nobleman, military officer, engineer, and ethnographer. Arciszewski also served as a general of artillery for the Netherlands and Poland  Jan Jonston, a Polish scholar and physician of Scottish descent; author of Thautomatographia naturalis (1632) and Idea universae medicinae practicae (1642)  Michał Sędziwój, a Polish alchemist, philosopher, and medical doctor; a pioneer of chemistry, he developed ways of purification and creation of various acids, metals and other chemical compounds; he discovered that air is not a single substance and contains a life-giving substance-later called oxygen 170 years before similar discoveries by Scheele and Priestley; he correctly identified this 'food of life' with the gas (also oxygen) given off by heating nitre (saltpetre); this substance, the 'central nitre', had a central position in Sendivogius' schema of the universe.  Bartholomäus Keckermann - A Short Commentary on Navigation (the first one written in Poland)  Josephus Struthius - published in 1555 Sphygmicae artis iam mille ducentos perditae et desideratae libri V. in which he described five types of pulse, the diagnostic meaning of those types, and the influence of body temperature and nervous system on pulse. This was one of books used by William Harvey in his works  Sebastian Petrycy; a Polish philosopher and physician who lectured and published notable works in the field of medicine  De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres). Nicolaus Copernicus began writing De Revolutionibus in 1506, and finished in 1530.  Nicolaus Copernicus was a true Renaissance polymath — an astronomer, mathematician, physician, lawyer, clergyman, governor, diplomat, military leader, classics scholar and economist, who developed the heliocentric theory in a form detailed enough to make it scientifically useful, and described "Gresham's Law" the year (1519) that Thomas Gresham was born 993  Marcin of Urzędów, a Polish Roman Catholic priest, physician, pharmacist and botanist known especially for his Herbarz polski ("Polish Herbal")  Adam of Łowicz, a Polish physician, philosopher, and humanist; author of Fundamentum scienciae nobilissimae secretorum naturae  Albert Brudzewski, a Polish astronomer, mathematician, philosopher and diplomat; known for establishing the moon's elliptical orbit; author of Commentum planetarium in theoricas Georgii Purbachii  Kraków Academy (Akademia Krakowska) founded in 1364 by King Kazimierz the Great.  Witelo (ca. 1230 – ca. 1314) was an outstanding philosopher and a scientist who specialized in optics. His famous optical treatise, Perspectiva, which drew on the Arabic Book of Optics by Alhazen, was unique in Latin literature and helped give rise to Roger Bacon's best work. In addition to optics, Witelo's treatise made important contributions to the psychology of visual perception. Timeline of black hole physics  1640 — Ismaël Bullialdus suggests an inverse-square gravitational force law  1676 — Ole Rømer demonstrates that light has a finite speed  1684 — Isaac Newton writes down his inverse-square law of universal gravitation  1758 — Rudjer Josip Boscovich develops his theory of forces, where gravity can be repulsive on small distances. So according to him strange classical bodies, such as white holes, can exist, which won't allow other bodies to reach their surfaces  1784 — John Michell discusses classical bodies which have escape velocities greater than the speed of light  1795 — Pierre Laplace discusses classical bodies which have escape velocities greater than the speed of light  1798 — Henry Cavendish measures the gravitational constant G 994  1876 — William Kingdon Clifford suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space  1909 — Albert Einstein, together with Marcel Grossmann, starts to develop a theory which would bind metric tensor g, which defines a space geometry, with a source of gravity, that is with mass  1910 — Hans Reissner and Gunnar Nordström defines Reissner– Nordström singularity, Hermann Weyl solves special case for a point-body source  1915 — Albert Einstein presents (David Hilbert has presented this independently five days earlier in Göttingen) the complete Einstein field equations at the Prussian Academy meeting in Berlin on 25 November 1915  1916 — Karl Schwarzschild solves the Einstein vacuum field equations for uncharged spherically-symmetric non-rotating systems  1917 — Paul Ehrenfest gives conditional principle a three-dimensional space  1918 — Hans Reissner and Gunnar Nordström solve the Einstein–Maxwell field equations for charged spherically-symmetric non-rotating systems  1918 — Friedrich Kottler gets Schwarzschild solution without Einstein vacuum field equations  1923 — George David Birkhoff proves that the Schwarzschild spacetime geometry is the unique spherically symmetric solution of the Einstein vacuum field equations  1931 — Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar calculates, using special relativity, that a nonrotating body of electron-degenerate matter above a certain limiting mass (at 1.4 solar masses) has no stable solutions  1939 — Robert Oppenheimer and Hartland Snyder calculate the gravitational collapse of a pressure-free homogeneous fluid sphere into a black hole  1958 — David Finkelstein theorises that the Schwarzschild radius is a causality barrier: an event horizon of a black hole  1963 — Roy Kerr solves the Einstein vacuum field equations for uncharged symmetric rotating systems, deriving the Kerr metric for a rotating black hole 995  1963 — Maarten Schmidt discovers and analyzes the first quasar, 3C 273, as a highly red-shifted active galactic nucleus, a billion light years away  1964 — Roger Penrose proves that an imploding star will necessarily produce a singularity once it has formed an event horizon  1964 — Yakov Zel’dovich and independently Edwin Salpeter propose that accretion discs around supermassive black holes are responsible for the huge amounts of energy radiated by quasars  1964 — Hong-Yee Chiu coins the word quasar for a 'quasi-stellar radio source' in his article in Physics Today  1964 — The first recorded use of the term "black hole", by journalist Ann Ewing  1965 — Ezra T. Newman, E. Couch, K. Chinnapared, A. Exton, A. Prakash, and Robert Torrence solve the Einstein–Maxwell field equations for charged rotating systems  1966 — Yakov Zel’dovich and Igor Novikov propose searching for black hole candidates among binary systems in which one star is optically bright and X-ray dark and the other optically dark but X-ray bright (the black hole candidate)  1967 — Jocelyn Bell discovers and analyzes the first radio pulsar, direct evidence for a neutron star  1967 — Werner Israel presents the proof of the no-hair theorem at King's College London  1967 — John Wheeler introduces the term "black hole" in his lecture to the American Association for the Advancement of Science  1968 — Brandon Carter uses Hamilton–Jacobi theory to derive first-order equations of motion for a charged particle moving in the external fields of a Kerr–Newman black hole  1969 — Roger Penrose discusses the Penrose process for the extraction of the spin energy from a Kerr black hole  1969 — Roger Penrose proposes the cosmic censorship hypothesis  1972 — Identification of Cygnus X-1/HDE 226868 from dynamic observations as the first binary with a stellar black hole candidate 996  1972 — Stephen Hawking proves that the area of a classical black hole's event horizon cannot decrease  1972 — James Bardeen, Brandon Carter, and Stephen Hawking propose four laws of black hole mechanics in analogy with the laws of thermodynamics  1972 — Jacob Bekenstein suggests that black holes have an entropy proportional to their surface area due to information loss effects  1974 — Stephen Hawking applies quantum field theory to black hole spacetimes and shows that black holes will radiate particles with a black-body spectrum which can cause black hole evaporation  1975 — James Bardeen and Jacobus Petterson show that the swirl of spacetime around a spinning black hole can act as a gyroscope stabilizing the orientation of the accretion disc and jets  1989 — Identification of microquasar V404 Cygni as a binary black hole candidate system  1994 — Charles Townes and colleagues observe ionized neon gas swirling around the center of our Galaxy at such high velocities that a possible black hole mass at the very center must be approximately equal to that of 3 million suns  2002 — Astronomers at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics present evidence for the hypothesis that Sagittarius A* is a supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy  2002 — NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory identifies double galactic black holes system in merging galaxies NGC 6240  2004 — Further observations by a team from UCLA present even stronger evidence supporting Sagittarius A* as a black hole  2006 — The Event Horizon Telescope begins capturing data  2012 — First visual evidence of black-holes: Suvi Gezari's team in Johns Hopkins University, using the Hawaiian telescope Pan-STARRS 1, publish images of a supermassive black hole 2.7 million light-years away swallowing a red giant 997  2015 — LIGO Scientific Collaboration detects the distinctive gravitational waveforms from a binary black hole merging into a final black hole, yielding the basic parameters (e.g., distance, mass, and spin) of the three spinning black holes involved  2019 — Event Horizon Telescope collaboration released the first direct photo of a black hole, the supermassive M87* at the core of the Messier 87 galaxy Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity  3rd century BC - Aristarchus of Samos proposes heliocentric model, measures the distance to the Moon and its size  1543 – Nicolaus Copernicus places the Sun at the gravitational center, starting a revolution in science  1583 – Galileo Galilei induces the period relationship of a pendulum from observations (according to later biographer).  1586 – Simon Stevin demonstrates that two objects of different mass accelerate at the same rate when dropped.  1589 – Galileo Galilei describes a hydrostatic balance for measuring specific gravity.  1590 – Galileo Galilei formulates modified Aristotelean theory of motion (later retracted) based on density rather than weight of objects.  1602 – Galileo Galilei conducts experiments on pendulum motion.  1604 – Galileo Galilei conducts experiments with inclined planes and induces the law of falling objects.  1607 – Galileo Galilei arrives a mathematical formulation of the law of falling objects based on his earlier experiments.  1608 – Galileo Galilei discovers the parabolic arc of projectiles through experiment.  1609 – Johannes Kepler describes the motion of planets around the Sun, now known as Kepler's laws of planetary motion.  1640 – Ismaël Bullialdus suggests an inverse-square gravitational force law. 998  1665 – Isaac Newton introduces an inverse-square universal law of gravitation uniting terrestrial and celestial theories of motion and uses it to predict the orbit of the Moon and the parabolic arc of projectiles.  1684 – Isaac Newton proves that planets moving under an inverse-square force law will obey Kepler's laws  1686 – Isaac Newton uses a fixed length pendulum with weights of varying composition to test the weak equivalence principle to 1 part in 1000  1798 – Henry Cavendish measures the force of gravity between two masses, leading to the first accurate value for the gravitational constant  1846 – Urbain Le Verrier and John Couch Adams, studying Uranus' orbit, independently prove that another, farther planet must exist. Neptune was found at the predicted moment and position.  1855 – Le Verrier observes a 35 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit and attributes it to another planet, inside Mercury's orbit. The planet was never found. See Vulcan.  1876 – William Kingdon Clifford suggests that the motion of matter may be due to changes in the geometry of space  1882 – Simon Newcomb observes a 43 arcsecond per century excess precession of Mercury's orbit  1887 – Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley in their famous experiment do not detect the ether drift  1889 – Loránd Eötvös uses a torsion balance to test the weak equivalence principle to 1 part in one billion  1893 – Ernst Mach states Mach's principle; first constructive attack on the idea of Newtonian absolute space  1898 – Henri Poincaré states that simultaneity is relative  1899 – Hendrik Antoon Lorentz published Lorentz transformations  1904 – Henri Poincaré presents the principle of relativity for electromagnetism 999  1905 – Albert Einstein completes his theory of special relativity and states the law of mass-energy conservation: E=mc2  1907 – Albert Einstein introduces the principle of equivalence of gravitation and inertia and uses it to predict the gravitational redshift  1915 – Albert Einstein completes his theory of general relativity. The new theory explains Mercury's strange motions that baffled Urbain Le Verrier.  1915 – Karl Schwarzschild publishes the Schwarzschild metric about a month after Einstein published his general theory of relativity. This was the first solution to the Einstein field equations other than the trivial flat space solution.  1916 – Albert Einstein shows that the field equations of general relativity admit wavelike solutions  1918 – J. Lense and Hans Thirring find the gravitomagnetic precession of gyroscopes in the equations of general relativity  1919 – Arthur Eddington leads a solar eclipse expedition which claims to detect gravitational deflection of light by the Sun  1921 – Theodor Kaluza demonstrates that a five-dimensional version of Einstein's equations unifies gravitation and electromagnetism  1937 – Fritz Zwicky states that galaxies could act as gravitational lenses  1937 – Albert Einstein, Leopold Infeld, and Banesh Hoffmann show that the geodesic equations of general relativity can be deduced from its field equations  1953 – P. C. Vaidya Newtonian time in general relativity, Nature, 171, p260.  1956 – John Lighton Synge publishes the first relativity text emphasizing spacetime diagrams and geometrical methods,  1957 – Felix A. E. Pirani uses Petrov classification to understand gravitational radiation,  1957 – Richard Feynman introduces sticky bead argument,  1957 – John Wheeler discusses the breakdown of classical general relativity near singularities and the need for quantum gravity  1959 – Pound–Rebka experiment, first precision test of gravitational redshift, 1000  1959 – Lluís Bel introduces Bel–Robinson tensor and the Bel decomposition of the Riemann tensor,  1959 – Arthur Komar introduces the Komar mass,  1959 – Richard Arnowitt, Stanley Deser and Charles W. Misner developed ADM formalism.  1960 – Martin Kruskal and George Szekeres independently introduce the Kruskal– Szekeres coordinates for the Schwarzschild vacuum,  1960 – Shapiro effect confirmed,  1960 – Thomas Matthews and Allan R. Sandage associate 3C 48 with a point-like optical image, show radio source can be at most 15 light minutes in diameter,  1960 – Carl H. Brans and Robert H. Dicke introduce Brans–Dicke theory, the first viable alternative theory with a clear physical motivation,  1960 – Ivor M. Robinson and Andrzej Trautman discover the Robinson-Trautman null dust solution  1961 – Pascual Jordan and Jürgen Ehlers develop the kinematic decomposition of a timelike congruence,  1960 – Robert Pound and Glen Rebka test the gravitational redshift predicted by the equivalence principle to approximately 1%  1962 – Roger Penrose and Ezra T. Newman introduce the Newman–Penrose formalism  1962 – Ehlers and Wolfgang Kundt classify the symmetries of Pp-wave spacetimes  1962: –Joshua Goldberg and Rainer K. Sachs prove the Goldberg–Sachs theorem  1962 – Ehlers introduces Ehlers transformations, a new solution generating method  1962 – Cornelius Lanczos introduces the Lanczos potential for the Weyl tensor  1962 – Richard Arnowitt, Stanley Deser, and Charles W. Misner introduce the ADM reformulation and global hyperbolicity  1962 – Yvonne Choquet-Bruhat on Cauchy problem and global hyperbolicity  1962 – Istvan Ozsvath and Englbert Schücking rediscover the circularly polarized monochromomatic gravitational wave  1962 – Hans Adolph Buchdahl discovers Buchdahl's theorem 1001  1962 – Hermann Bondi introduces Bondi mass  1962 – Robert Dicke, Peter Roll, and R. Krotkov use a torsion fiber balance to test the weak equivalence principle to 2 parts in 100 billion  1963 – Roy Kerr discovers the Kerr vacuum solution of Einstein's field equations,  1963 – Redshifts of 3C 273 and other quasars show they are very distant; hence very luminous,  1963 – Newman, T. Unti and L.A. Tamburino introduce the NUT vacuum solution,  1963 – Roger Penrose introduces Penrose diagrams and Penrose limits,  1963 – First Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics held in Dallas, 16–18 December,  1964 – R. W. Sharp and Misner introduce the Misner–Sharp mass,  1964 – M. A. Melvin discovers the Melvin electrovacuum solution (aka the Melvin magnetic universe)  1964 – Irwin Shapiro predicts a gravitational time delay of radiation travel as a test of general relativity  1965 – Roger Penrose proves first of the singularity theorems  1965 – Newman and others discover the Kerr–Newman electrovacuum solution  1965 – Penrose discovers the structure of the light cones in gravitational plane wave spacetimes  1965 – Kerr and Alfred Schild introduce Kerr-Schild spacetime  1965 – Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar determines a stability criterion  1965 – Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson discover the cosmic microwave background radiation  1965 – Joseph Weber puts the first Weber bar gravitational wave detector into operation  1966 – Sachs and Ronald Kantowski discover the Kantowski-Sachs dust solution,  1967 – Jocelyn Bell and Antony Hewish discover pulsars,  1967 – Robert H. Boyer and R. W. Lindquist introduce Boyer–Lindquist coordinates for the Kerr vacuum 1002  1967 – Bryce DeWitt publishes on canonical quantum gravity  1967 – Werner Israel proves the no-hair theorem  1967 – Kenneth Nordtvedt develops PPN formalism  1967 – Mendel Sachs publishes factorization of Einstein's field equations  1967 – Hans Stephani discovers the Stephani dust solution  1968 – F. J. Ernst discovers the Ernst equation,  1968 – B. Kent Harrison discovers the Harrison transformation, a solution-generating method  1968 – Brandon Carter solves the geodesic equations for Kerr–Newmann electrovacuum  1968 – Hugo D. Wahlquist discovers the Wahlquist fluid  1968 – Irwin Shapiro presents the first detection of the Shapiro delay  1968 – Kenneth Nordtvedt studies a possible violation of the weak equivalence principle for self-gravitating bodies and proposes a new test of the weak equivalence principle based on observing the relative motion of the Earth and Moon in the Sun's gravitational field  1969 – William B. Bonnor introduces the Bonnor beam  1969 – Joseph Weber reports observation of gravitational waves  1969 – Penrose proposes the (weak) cosmic censorship hypothesis and the Penrose process  1969 – Stephen W. Hawking proves area theorem for black holes  1969 – Misner introduces the mixmaster universe  1970 – Frank J. Zerilli derives the Zerilli equation  1970 – Vladimir A. Belinskiǐ, Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov, and Evgeny Lifshitz introduce the BKL conjecture  1970 – Chandrasekhar pushes on to 5/2 post-Newtonian order  1970 – Hawking and Penrose prove trapped surfaces must arise in black holes  1970 – the Kinnersley-Walker photon rocket  1970 – Peter Szekeres introduces colliding plane waves 1003  1971 – Peter C. Aichelburg and Roman U. Sexl introduce the Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost  1971 – Introduction of the Khan–Penrose vacuum, a simple explicit colliding plane wave spacetime  1971 – Robert H. Gowdy introduces the Gowdy vacuum solutions (cosmological models containing circulating gravitational waves),  1971 – Cygnus X-1, the first solid black hole candidate, discovered by Uhuru satellite,  1971 – William H. Press discovers black hole ringing by numerical simulation,  1971 – Harrison and Estabrook algorithm for solving systems of PDEs  1971 – James W. York introduces conformal method generating initial data for ADM initial value formulation  1971 – Robert Geroch introduces Geroch group and a solution generating method  1972 – Jacob Bekenstein proposes that black holes have a non-decreasing entropy which can be identified with the area  1972 – Carter, Hawking and James M. Bardeen propose the four laws of black hole mechanics  1972 – Sachs introduces optical scalars and proves peeling theorem  1972 – Rainer Weiss proposes concept of interferometric gravitational wave detector  1972 – J. C. Hafele and R. E. Keating perform Hafele–Keating experiment  1972 – Richard H. Price studies gravitational collapse with numerical simulations  1972 – Saul Teukolsky derives the Teukolsky equation  1972 – Yakov B. Zel'dovich predicts the transmutation of electromagnetic and gravitational radiation  1973 – P. C. Vaidya and L. K. Patel introduce the Kerr–Vaidya null dust solution  1973 – Publication by Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne and John A. Wheeler of the treatise Gravitation, the first modern textbook on general relativity  1973 – Publication by Stephen W. Hawking and George Ellis of the monograph The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time  1973 – Geroch introduces the GHP formalism 1004  1974 – Russell Hulse and Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. discover the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar  1974 – James W. York and Niall Ó Murchadha present the analysis of the initial value formulation and examine the stability of its solutions  1974 – R. O. Hansen introduces Hansen–Geroch multipole moments  1974: –Tullio Regge introduces the Regge calculus  1974 – Hawking discovers Hawking radiation  1975 – Chandrasekhar and Steven Detweiler compute quasinormal modes  1975 – Szekeres and D. A. Szafron discover the Szekeres–Szafron dust solutions  1976 – Penrose introduces Penrose limits (every null geodesic in a Lorentzian spacetime behaves like a plane wave)  1976 – Gravity Probe A experiment confirmed slowing the flow of time caused by gravity matching the predicted effects to an accuracy of about 70 parts per million.  1976 – Robert Vessot and Martin Levine use a hydrogen maser clock on a Scout D rocket to test the gravitational redshift predicted by the equivalence principle to approximately 0.007%  1978 – Penrose introduces the notion of a thunderbolt,  1978 – Belinskiǐ and Zakharov show how to solve Einstein's field equations using the inverse scattering transform; the first gravitational solitons,  1979 – Richard Schoen and Shing-Tung Yau prove the positive mass theorem.  1979 – Dennis Walsh, Robert Carswell, and Ray Weymann discover the gravitationally lensed quasar Q0957+561  1982 – Joseph Taylor and Joel Weisberg show that the rate of energy loss from the binary pulsar PSR B1913+16 agrees with that predicted by the general relativistic quadrupole formula to within 5%  2002 – First data collection of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).  2007 – End of Gravity Probe B experiment. 1005  2015 – Advanced LIGO reports the first direct detections of gravitational waves (GW150914 and GW151226).  2017 – Advanced LIGO and Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope constrain the speed of gravity to 1 part in 1015 of the speed of light with GW170817. Timeline of knowledge about the interstellar and intergalactic medium  1848 — Lord Rosse studies M1 and names it the Crab Nebula. The telescope is much larger then the small refactors typical of this period and it also reveals the spiral nature of M51.  1864 — William Huggins studies the spectrum of the Orion Nebula and shows that it is a cloud of gas  1904 — Interstellar calcium detected on spectrograph at Potsdam  1909 — Slipher confirms Kaptyn's theory of interstellar gas  1912 — Slipher confirms interstelar dust  1927 — Ira Bowen explains unidentified spectral lines from space as forbidden transition lines  1930 — Robert Trumpler discovers absorption by interstellar dust by comparing the angular sizes and brightnesses of globular clusters  1944 — Hendrik van de Hulst predicts the 21 cm hyperfine line of neutral interstellar hydrogen  1951 — Harold I. Ewen and Edward Purcell observe the 21 cm hyperfine line of neutral interstellar hydrogen  1956 — Lyman Spitzer predicts coronal gas around the Milky Way  1965 — James Gunn and Bruce Peterson use observations of the relatively low absorption of the blue component of the Lyman-alpha line from 3C9 to strongly constrain the density and ionization state of the intergalactic medium 1006  1969 — Lewis Snyder, David Buhl, Ben Zuckerman, and Patrick Palmer find interstellar formaldehyde  1970 — Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson find interstellar carbon monoxide  1970 — George Carruthers observes molecular hydrogen in space  1977 — Christopher McKee and Jeremiah Ostriker propose a three component theory of the interstellar medium  1990 — Foreground "contamination" data from the COBE spacecraft provides the first all-sky map of the ISM in microwave bands. Timeline of cosmic microwave background astronomy  1896 – Charles Édouard Guillaume estimates the "radiation of the stars" to be 5–6K.  1926 – Sir Arthur Eddington estimates the non-thermal radiation of starlight in the galaxy "... by the formula E = σ T4 the effective temperature corresponding to this density is 3.18° absolute ... black body"  1930s – Cosmologist Erich Regener calculates that the non-thermal spectrum of cosmic rays in the galaxy has an effective temperature of 2.8 K  1931 – Term microwave first used in print: "When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm. were made known, there was undisguised surprise+that the problem of the microwave had been solved so soon." Telegraph & Telephone Journal XVII. 179/1  1934 – Richard Tolman shows that black-body radiation in an expanding universe cools but remains thermal  1938 – Nobel Prize winner (1920) Walther Nernst reestimates the cosmic ray temperature as 0.75K  1946 – Robert Dicke predicts "... radiation from cosmic matter" at <20 K, but did not refer to background radiation  1946 – George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe), commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not mention background radiation. 1007  1953 – Erwin Finlay-Freundlich in support of his tired light theory, derives a blackbody temperature for intergalactic space of 2.3K with comment from Max Born suggesting radio astronomy as the arbitrator between expanding and infinite cosmologies.  1941 – Andrew McKellar detected the cosmic microwave background as the coldest component of the interstellar medium by using the excitation of CN doublet lines measured by W. S. Adams in a B star, finding an "effective temperature of space" (the average bolometric temperature) of 2.3 K  1946 – George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe), commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not mention background radiation.  1948 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman estimate "the temperature in the universe" at 5 K. Although they do not specifically mention microwave background radiation, it may be inferred.  1949 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman re-re-estimate the temperature at 28 K.  1953 – George Gamow estimates 7 K.  1956 – George Gamow estimates 6 K.  1955 – Émile Le Roux of the Nançay Radio Observatory, in a sky survey at λ = 33 cm, reported a near-isotropic background radiation of 3 kelvins, plus or minus 2.  1957 – Tigran Shmaonov reports that "the absolute effective temperature of the radioemission background ... is 4±3 K". It is noted that the "measurements showed that radiation intensity was independent of either time or direction of observation ... it is now clear that Shmaonov did observe the cosmic microwave background at a wavelength of 3.2 cm"  1960s – Robert Dicke re-estimates a microwave background radiation temperature of 40 K  1964 – A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Dmitrievich Novikov publish a brief paper suggesting microwave searches for the black-body radiation predicted by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman, where they name the CMB radiation phenomenon as detectable. 1008  1964–65 – Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson measure the temperature to be approximately 3 K. Robert Dicke, James Peebles, P. G. Roll, and D. T. Wilkinson interpret this radiation as a signature of the big bang.  1966 – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by gravitational potential variations between observers and the last scattering surface  1968 – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes created by photons traversing time-dependent potential wells  1969 – R. A. Sunyaev and Yakov Zel'dovich study the inverse Compton scattering of microwave background photons by hot electrons  1983 – Researchers from the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group and the Owens Valley Radio Observatory first detect the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect from clusters of galaxies  1983 – RELIKT-1 Soviet CMB anisotropy experiment was launched.  1990 – FIRAS on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite measures the black body form of the CMB spectrum with exquisite precision, and shows that the microwave background has a nearly perfect black-body spectrum and thereby strongly constrains the density of the intergalactic medium.  January 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from the RELIKT-1 report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background at the Moscow astrophysical seminar.  1992 – Scientists that analysed data from COBE DMR report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic microwave background.  1995 – The Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope performs the first high resolution observations of the cosmic microwave background.  1999 – First measurements of acoustic oscillations in the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum from the TOCO, BOOMERANG, and Maxima Experiments. The BOOMERanG experiment makes higher quality maps at intermediate resolution, and confirms that the universe is "flat".  2002 – Polarization discovered by DASI. 1009  2003 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI. The CBI and the Very Small Array produces yet higher quality maps at high resolution (covering small areas of the sky).  2003 – The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe spacecraft produces an even higher quality map at low and intermediate resolution of the whole sky (WMAP provides no high-resolution data, but improves on the intermediate resolution maps from BOOMERanG).  2004 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI.  2004 – The Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver produces a higher quality map of the high resolution structure not mapped by WMAP.  2005 – The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager and the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Array begin the first surveys for very high redshift clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect.  2005 – Ralph A. Alpher is awarded the National Medal of Science for his groundbreaking work in nucleosynthesis and prediction that the universe expansion leaves behind background radiation, thus providing a model for the Big Bang theory.  2006 – The long-awaited three-year WMAP results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting several points, and including polarization data.  2006 – Two of COBE's principal investigators, George Smoot and John Mather, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2006 for their work on precision measurement of the CMBR.  2006–2011 – Improved measurements from WMAP, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and baryon acoustic oscillations from SDSS and WiggleZ, continue to be consistent with the standard Lambda-CDM model.  2010 – The first all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released.  2013 – An improved all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released, improving the measurements of WMAP and extending them to much smaller scales.  2014 – On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of inflationary gravitational waves in the B-mode power spectrum, which if confirmed, would provide clear experimental evidence for the theory of 1010 inflation. However, on 19 June 2014, lowered confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported.  2015 – On January 30, 2015, the same team of astronomers from BICEP2 withdrew the claim made on the previous year. Based on the combined data of BICEP2 and Planck, the European Space Agency announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to dust in the Milky Way.  2018 – The final data and maps from the Planck telescope is released, with improved measurements of the polarization on large scales.  2019 – Planck telescope analyses of their final 2018 data continue to be released. Timeline of stellar astronomy  2300 BC — First great period of star naming in China.  134 BC — Hipparchus creates the magnitude scale of stellar apparent luminosities  185 AD — Chinese astronomers become the first to observe a supernova, the SN 185  964 — Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) writes the Book of Fixed Stars, in which he makes the first recorded observations of the Andromeda Galaxy and the Large Magellanic Cloud, and lists numerous stars with their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour, and gives drawings for each constellation  1000s (decade) — The Persian astronomer, Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, describes the Milky Way galaxy as a collection of numerous nebulous stars  1006 — Ali ibn Ridwan and Chinese astronomers observe the SN 1006, the brightest stellar event ever recorded  1054 — Chinese and Arab astronomers observe the SN 1054, responsible for the creation of the Crab Nebula, the only nebula whose creation was observed  1181 — Chinese astronomers observe the SN 1181 supernova  1580 — Taqi al-Din measures the right ascension of the stars at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din using an "observational clock" he invented and which he 1011 described as "a mechanical clock with three dials which show the hours, the minutes, and the seconds"  1596 — David Fabricius notices that Mira's brightness varies  1672 — Geminiano Montanari notices that Algol's brightness varies  1686 — Gottfried Kirch notices that Chi Cygni's brightness varies  1718 — Edmund Halley discovers stellar proper motions by comparing his astrometric measurements with those of the Greeks  1782 — John Goodricke notices that the brightness variations of Algol are periodic and proposes that it is partially eclipsed by a body moving around it  1784 — Edward Pigott discovers the first Cepheid variable star  1838 — Thomas Henderson, Friedrich Struve, and Friedrich Bessel measure stellar parallaxes  1844 — Friedrich Bessel explains the wobbling motions of Sirius and Procyon by suggesting that these stars have dark companions  1906 — Arthur Eddington begins his statistical study of stellar motions  1908 — Henrietta Leavitt discovers the Cepheid period-luminosity relation  1910 — Ejnar Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell study the relation between magnitudes and spectral types of stars  1924 — Arthur Eddington develops the main sequence mass-luminosity relationship  1929 — George Gamow proposes hydrogen fusion as the energy source for stars  1938 — Hans Bethe and Carl von Weizsäcker detail the proton-proton chain and CNO cycle in stars  1939 — Rupert Wildt realizes the importance of the negative hydrogen ion for stellar opacity  1952 — Walter Baade distinguishes between Cepheid I and Cepheid II variable stars  1953 — Fred Hoyle predicts a carbon-12 resonance to allow stellar triple alpha reactions at reasonable stellar interior temperatures  1961 — Chūshirō Hayashi publishes his work on the Hayashi track of fully convective stars 1012  1963 — Fred Hoyle and William A. Fowler conceive the idea of supermassive stars  1964 — Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar and Richard Feynman develop a general relativistic theory of stellar pulsations and show that supermassive stars are subject to a general relativistic instability  1967 — Eric Becklin and Gerry Neugebauer discover the Becklin-Neugebauer Object at 10 micrometres  1977 — (May 25) The Star Wars film is released and became a worldwide phenomenon, boosting interests in stellar systems.  2012 — (May 2) First visual proof of existence of black-holes. Suvi Gezari's team in Johns Hopkins University, using the Hawaiian telescope Pan-STARRS 1, publish images of a supermassive black hole 2.7 million light-years away swallowing a red giant. Timeline of astronomy  3114 BC: Mayan astronomers discover an 18.6-year cycle in the rising and setting of the Moon. From this they created the first almanacs – tables of the movements of the Sun, Moon and planets for the use in astrology. In 6th century BC Greece, this knowledge is used to predict eclipses.  585 BC: Thales of Miletus predicts a solar eclipse.  467 BC: Anaxagoras produced a correct explanation for eclipses and then described the Sun as a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese , as well as attempting to explain rainbows and meteors . He was the first to explain that the Moon shines due to reflected light from the Sun.  400 BC: Around this date, Babylonians use the zodiac to divide the heavens into twelve equal segments of thirty degrees each, the better to record and communicate information about the position of celestial bodies.  387 BC: Plato, a Greek philosopher, founds a school (the Platonic Academy) that will influence the next 2000 years. It promotes the idea that everything in the universe moves in harmony and that the Sun, Moon, and planets move around Earth in perfect circles. 1013  270 BC: Aristarchus of Samos proposes heliocentrism as an alternative to the Earthcentered universe. His heliocentric model places the Sun at its center, with Earth as just one planet orbiting it. However, there were only a few people who took the theory seriously.  240 BC: The earliest recorded sighting of Halley's Comet is made by Chinese astronomers. Their records of the comet's movement allow astronomers today to predict accurately how the comet's orbit changes over the centuries.  6 BC: The Magi - probably Persian astronomers/astrologers (Astrology) - observed a planetary conjunction on Saturday (Sabbath) April 17, 6 BC that signified the birth of a great Hebrew king: Jesus.  4 BC: The astronomer Shi Shen is believed to have cataloged 809 stars in 122 constellations, and he also made the earliest known observation of sunspots.  140: Ptolemy publishes his star catalogue, listing 48 constellations and endorses the geocentric (Earth-centered) view of the universe. His views go unquestioned for nearly 1500 years in Europe, and are passed down to Arabic and medieval European astronomers in his book the Almagest.  400: The Hindu cosmological time cycles explained in the Surya Siddhanta, give the average length of the sidereal year (the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun) as 365.2563627 days, which is only 1.4 seconds longer than the modern value of 365.256363004 days. This remains the most accurate estimate for the length of the sidereal year anywhere in the world for over a thousand years.  499: Indian mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata, in his Aryabhatiya first identifies the force gravity to explain why objects do not fall when the Earth rotates, propounds a geocentric Solar System of gravitation, and an eccentric elliptical model of the planets, where the planets spin on their axis and follow elliptical orbits, the Sun and the Moon revolve around the Earth in epicycles. He also writes that the planets and the Moon do not have their own light but reflect the light of the Sun, and that the Earth rotates on its axis causing day and night and also that the Sun rotates around the Earth causing years.  628: Indian mathematician-astronomer Brahmagupta, in his Brahma-Sphuta-Siddhanta, first recognizes gravity as a force of attraction, and briefly describes the second law 1014 of Newton's law of universal gravitation. He gives methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and calculations of the solar and lunar eclipses.  773: The Sanskrit works of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta, along with the Sanskrit text Surya Siddhanta, are translated into Arabic, introducing Arabic astronomers to Indian astronomy.  777: Muhammad al-Fazari and Yaʿqūb ibn Ṭāriq translate the Surya Siddhanta and Brahmasphutasiddhanta, and compile them as the Zij al-Sindhind, the first Zij treatise.  830: The first major Arabic work of astronomy is the Zij al-Sindh by al-Khwarizimi. The work contains tables for the movements of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marks the turning point in Arabic astronomy. Hitherto, Arabic astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of nontraditional methods of study and calculations.  850: al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani ("A compendium of the science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the Sun and the Moon, and the circumference of the Earth. The books were widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.  928: The earliest surviving astrolabe is constructed by Islamic mathematician– astronomer Mohammad al-Fazari. Astrolabes are the most advanced instruments of their time. The precise measurement of the positions of stars and planets allows Islamic astronomers to compile the most detailed almanacs and star atlases yet.  1030: Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī discussed the Indian heliocentric theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varāhamihira in his Ta'rikh al-Hind (Indica in Latin). Biruni stated that the followers of Aryabhata consider the Earth to be at the center. In fact, Biruni casually stated that this does not create any mathematical problems. 1015  1031: Abu Said Sinjari, a contemporary of Abu Rayhan Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun.  1054: Chinese astronomers record the sudden appearance of a bright star. NativeAmerican rock carvings also show the brilliant star close to the Moon. This star is the Crab supernova exploding.  1070: Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani published the Tarik al-Aflak. In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model. Al-Juzjani even proposed a solution for the problem. In al-Andalus, the anonymous work al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (meaning "Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy"), included a list of objections to the Ptolemic astronomy. One of the most important works in this period was Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus ("Doubts on Ptolemy"). In this, the author summed up the inconsistencies of the Ptolemic models. Many astronomers took up the challenge posed in this work, namely to develop alternate models that evaded such errors.  1126: Islamic and Indian astronomical works (including Aryabhatiya and BrahmaSphuta-Siddhanta) are translated into Latin in Córdoba, Spain in 1126, introducing European astronomers to Islamic and Indian astronomy.  1150: Indian mathematician-astronomer Bhāskara II, in his Siddhanta Shiromani, calculates the longitudes and latitudes of the planets, lunar and solar eclipses, risings and settings, the Moon's lunar crescent, syzygies, and conjunctions of the planets with each other and with the fixed stars, and explains the three problems of diurnal rotation. He also calculates the planetary mean motion, ellipses, first visibilities of the planets, the lunar crescent, the seasons, and the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun to 9 decimal places.  1250: Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi develops the Urdi lemma, which is later used in the Copernican heliocentric model. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi resolved significant problems in the Ptolemaic system by developing the Tusi-couple as an alternative to the physically problematic equant introduced by Ptolemy. His Tusi-couple is later used in the Copernican model. Tusi's student Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, in his The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens, discusses the possibility of heliocentrism. Najm al-Din al-Qazwini al-Katibi, who also worked at 1016 the Maraghah observatory, in his Hikmat al-'Ain, wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, though he later abandoned the idea.  1350: Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), in his A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory, eliminated the need for an equant by introducing an extra epicycle, departing from the Ptolemaic system in a way very similar to what Copernicus later also did. Ibn al-Shatir proposed a system that was only approximately geocentric, rather than exactly so, having demonstrated trigonometrically that the Earth was not the exact center of the universe. His rectification is later used in the Copernican model.  1543: Nicolaus Copernicus publishes De revolutionibus orbium coelestium containing his theory that Earth travels around the Sun. However, he complicates his theory by retaining Plato's perfect circular orbits of the planets.  1572: A brilliant supernova (SN 1572 - thought, at the time, to be a comet) is observed by Tycho Brahe, who proves that it is traveling beyond Earth's atmosphere and therefore provides the first evidence that the heavens can change.  1608: Dutch eyeglass maker Hans Lippershey tries to patent a refracting telescope (the first historical record of one). The invention spreads rapidly across Europe, as scientists make their own instruments. Their discoveries begin a revolution in astronomy.  1609: Johannes Kepler publishes his New Astronomy. In this and later works, he announces his three laws of planetary motion, replacing the circular orbits of Plato with elliptical ones. Almanacs based on his laws prove to be highly accurate.  1610: Galileo Galilei publishes Sidereus Nuncius describing the findings of his observations with the telescope he built. These include spots on the Sun, craters on the Moon, and four satellites of Jupiter. Proving that not everything orbits Earth, he promotes the Copernican view of a Sun-centered universe.  1655: As the power and the quality of the telescopes increase, Christiaan Huygens studies Saturn and discovers its largest satellite, Titan. He also explains Saturn's appearance, suggesting the planet is surrounded by a thin ring.  1663: Scottish astronomer James Gregory describes his "gregorian" reflecting telescope, using parabolic mirrors instead of lenses to reduce chromatic aberration and spherical aberration, but is unable to build one. 1017  1668: Isaac Newton builds the first reflecting telescope, his Newtonian telescope.  1687: Isaac Newton publishes his first copy of the book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, establishing the theory of gravitation and laws of motion. The Principia explains Kepler's laws of planetary motion and allows astronomers to understand the forces acting between the Sun, the planets, and their moons.  1705: Edmond Halley calculates that the comets recorded at 76-year intervals from 1456 to 1682 are one and the same. He predicts that the comet will return again in 1758. When it reappears as expected, the comet is named in his honor.  1750: French astronomer Nicolas de Lacaille sails to southern oceans and begins work compiling a catalog of more than 10000 stars in the southern sky. Although Halley and others have observed from the Southern Hemisphere before, Lacaille's star catalog is the first comprehensive one of the southern sky.  1781: Amateur astronomer William Herschel discovers the planet Uranus, although he at first mistakes it for a comet. Uranus is the first planet to be discovered beyond Saturn, which was thought to be the most distant planet in ancient times.  1784: Charles Messier publishes his catalog of star clusters and nebulas. Messier draws up the list to prevent these objects from being identified as comets. However, it soon becomes a standard reference for the study of star clusters and nebulars and is still in use today.  1800: William Herschel splits sunlight through a prism and with a thermometer, measures the energy given out by different colours. He notices a sudden increase in energy beyond the red end of the spectrum, discovering invisible infrared and laying the foundations of spectroscopy.  1801: Italian astronomer Giuseppe Piazzi discovers what appears to be a new planet orbiting between Mars and Jupiter, and names it Ceres. William Herschel proves it is a very small object, calculating it to be only 320 km in diameter, and not a planet. He proposes the name asteroid, and soon other similar bodies are being found. We now know that Ceres is 932 km in diameter, and is now considered to be a dwarf planet.  1814: Joseph von Fraunhofer builds the first accurate spectrometer and uses it to study the spectrum of the Sun's light. He discovers and maps hundreds of fine dark lines 1018 crossing the solar spectrum. In 1859 these lines are linked to chemical elements in the Sun's atmosphere. Spectroscopy becomes a method for studying what stars are made of.  1838: Friedrich Bessel successfully uses the method of stellar parallax, the effect of Earth's annual movement around the Sun, to calculate the distance to 61 Cygni, the first star other than the Sun to have its distance from Earth measured. Bessel's is a truly accurate measurement of stellar positions, and the parallax technique establishes a framework for measuring the scale of the universe.  1843: German Amateur astronomer Heinrich Schwabe, who has been studying the Sun for the past 17 years, announces his discovery of a regular cycle in sunspot numbers - the first clue to the Sun's internal structure.  1845: Irish astronomer William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse completes the first of the world's great telescopes, with a 180-cm mirror. He uses it to study and draw the structure of nebulas, and within a few months discovers the spiral structure of the Whirlpool Galaxy. French physicists Jean Foucault and Armand Fizeau take the first detailed photographs of the Sun's surface through a telescope - the birth of scientific astrophotography. Within five years, astronomers produce the first detailed photographs of the Moon. Early film is not sensitive enough to image stars.  1846: A new planet, Neptune, is identified by German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle while searching in the position suggested by Urbain Le Verrier. Le Verrier has calculated the position and size of the planet from the effects of its gravitational pull on the orbit of Uranus. An English mathematician, John Couch Adams, also made a similar calculation a year earlier.  1868: Astronomers notice a new bright emission line in the spectrum of the Sun's atmosphere during an eclipse. The emission line is caused by an element's giving out light, and British astronomer Norman Lockyer concludes that it is an element unknown on Earth. He calls it helium, from the Greek word for the Sun. Nearly 30 years later, helium is found on Earth.  1872: An American astronomer Henry Draper takes the first photograph of the spectrum of a star (Vega), showing absorption lines that reveal its chemical makeup. Astronomers begin to see that spectroscopy is the key to understanding how stars evolve. William 1019 Huggins uses absorption lines to measure the redshifts of stars, which give the first indication of how fast stars are moving.  1895: Konstantin Tsiolkovsky publishes his first article on the possibility of space flight. His greatest discovery is that a rocket, unlike other forms of propulsion, will work in a vacuum. He also outlines the principle of a multistage launch vehicle.  1901: A comprehensive survey of stars, the Henry Draper Catalogue, is published. In the catalog, Annie Jump Cannon proposes a sequence of classifying stars by the absorption lines in their spectra, which is still in use today.  1906: Ejnar Hertzsprung establishes the standard for measuring the true brightness of a star. He shows that there is a relationship between color and absolute magnitude for 90% of the stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. In 1913, Henry Norris Russell publishes a diagram that shows this relationship. Although astronomers agree that the diagram shows the sequence in which stars evolve, they argue about which way the sequence progresses. Arthur Eddington finally settles the controversy in 1924.  1910: Williamina Fleming publishes her discovery of white dwarf stars.  1912: Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovers the period-luminosity relation for Cepheid variables, whereas the brightness of a star is proportional to its luminosity oscillation period. It opened a whole new branch of possibilities of measuring distances on the universe, and this discovery was the basis for the work done by Edwin Hubble on extragalactic astronomy.  1916: German physicist Karl Schwarzschild uses Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity to lay the groundwork for black hole theory. He suggests that if any star collapse to a certain size or smaller, its gravity will be so strong that no form of radiation will escape from it.  1923: Edwin Hubble discovers a Cepheid variable star in the "Andromeda Nebula" and proves that Andromeda and other nebulas are galaxies far beyond our own. By 1925, he produces a classification system for galaxies.  1925: Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin discovers that hydrogen is the most abundant element in the Sun's atmosphere, and accordingly, the most abundant element in the universe by relating the spectral classes of stars to their actual temperatures and by applying the 1020 ionization theory developed by Indian physicist Meghnad Saha. This opens the path for the study of stellar atmospheres and chemical abundances, contributing to understand the chemical evolution of the universe.  1926: Robert Goddard launches the first rocket powered by liquid fuel. He also demonstrates that a rocket can work in a vacuum. His later rockets break the sound barrier for the first time.  1929: Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe is expanding and that the farther away a galaxy is, the faster it is moving away from us. Two years later, Georges Lemaître suggests that the expansion can be traced to an initial "Big Bang".  1930: By applying new ideas from subatomic physics, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar predicts that the atoms in a white dwarf star of more than 1.44 solar masses will disintegrate, causing the star to collapse violently. In 1933, Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky describe the neutron star that results from this collapse, causing a supernova explosion. Clyde Tombaugh discovers the dwarf planet Pluto at the Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. The object is so faint and moving so slowly that he has to compare photos taken several nights apart.  1932: Karl Jansky detects the first radio waves coming from space. In 1942, radio waves from the Sun are detected. Seven years later radio astronomers identify the first distant source - the Crab Nebula, and the galaxies Centaurus A and M87.  1938: German physicist Hans Bethe explains how stars generate energy. He outlines a series of nuclear fusion reactions that turn hydrogen into helium and release enormous amounts of energy in a star's core. These reactions use the star's hydrogen very slowly, allowing it to burn for billions of years.  1944: A team of German scientists led by Wernher von Braun develops the V-2, the first rocket-powered ballistic missile. Scientists and engineers from Braun's team were captured at the end of World War II and drafted into the American and Russian rocket programs.  1948: The largest telescope in the world, with a 5.08m (200 in) mirror, is completed at Palomar Mountain in California. At the time, the telescope pushes single-mirror telescope technology to its limits - large mirrors tend to bend under their own weight. 1021  1957: Russia launches the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit, beginning the space age. The US launches its first satellite, Explorer 1, four months later.  1958: (July 29) Beginning of the NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), agency newly created by the United States to catch up with Soviet space technologies. It absorbs all research centers and staffs of the NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics), an organization founded in 1915.  1959: Russia and the US both launch probes to the Moon, but NASA's Pioneer probes all failed. The Russian Luna program was more successful. Luna 2 crash-lands on the Moon's surface in September, and Luna 3 returns the first pictures of the Moon's farside in October.  1960: Cornell University astronomer Frank Drake performed the first modern SETI experiment, named "Project Ozma", after the Queen of Oz in L. Frank Baum's fantasy books.  1961: Russia takes the lead in the space race as Yuri Gagarin becomes the first person to orbit Earth in April. NASA astronaut Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space a month later, but does not go into orbit, although he is the first person to land with himself still inside his spacecraft thus technically achieving the first complete human spaceflight by FAI definitions. John Glenn achieves orbit in early 1962.  1962: Mariner 2 becomes the first probe to reach another planet, flying past Venus in December. NASA follows this with the successful Mariner 4 mission to Mars in 1965, both the US and Russia send many more probes to planets through the rest of the 1960s and 1970s.  1963: Dutch-American astronomer Maarten Schmidt measures the spectra of quasars, the mysterious star-like radio sources discovered in 1960. He establishes that quasars are active galaxies, and among the most distant objects in the universe.  1965: Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson announce the discovery of a weak radio signal coming from all parts of the sky. Scientists figure out that this must be emitted by an object at a temperature of −270 °C. Soon it is recognized as the remnant of the very hot radiation from the Big Bang that created the universe 13 billion years ago, see Cosmic microwave background. This radio signal is emitted by the electron in hydrogen flipping 1022 from pointing up or down and is approximated to happen once in a million years for every particle. Hydrogen is present in interstellar space gas throughout the entire universe and most dense in nebulae which is where the signals originate. Even though the electron of hydrogen only flips once every million years the mere quantity of hydrogen in space gas makes the presence of these radio waves prominent.  1966: Russian Luna 9 probe makes the first successful soft landing on the Moon in January, while the US lands the far more complex Surveyor missions, which follows up to NASA's Ranger series of crash-landers, scout sites for possible manned landings.  1967: Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish detected the first pulsar, an object emitting regular pulses of radio waves. Pulsars are eventually recognized as rapidly spinning neutron stars with intense magnetic fields - the remains of a supernova explosion.  1968: NASA's Apollo 8 mission becomes the first human spaceflight mission to enter the gravitational influence of another celestial body and to orbit it.  1969: The US wins the race for the Moon, as Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin step onto the lunar surface on July 20. Apollo 11 is followed by five further landing missions, three carrying a sophisticated Lunar Roving Vehicle.  1970: The Uhuru satellite, designed to map the sky at X-ray wavelengths, is launched by NASA. The existence of X-rays from the Sun and a few other stars has already been found using rocket-launched experiments, but Uhuru charts more than 300 X-ray sources, including several possible black holes.  1971: Russia launches its first space station, Salyut 1, into orbit. It is followed by a series of stations, culminating with Mir in 1986. A permanent platform in orbit allows cosmonauts to carry out serious research and to set a series of new duration records for spaceflight.  1972: Charles Thomas Bolton was the first astronomer to present irrefutable evidence of the existence of a black hole.  1975: The Russian probe Venera 9 lands on the surface of Venus and sends back the first picture of its surface. The first probe to land on another planet, Venera 7 in 1970, had no camera. Both break down within an hour in the hostile atmosphere. 1023  1976: Two NASA probes arrive at Mars. Each Viking mission consists of an orbiter, which photographs the planet from above, and a lander, which touches down on the surface, analyzes the rocks, and searches unsuccessfully for life.  1977: On August 20 the Voyager 2 space probe launched by NASA to study the Jovian system, Saturnian system, Uranian system, Neptunian system, the Kuiper belt, the heliosphere and the interstellar space. On September 5 The Voyager 1 space probe launched by NASA to study the Jovian system, Saturnian system and the interstellar medium.  1981: Space Shuttle Columbia, the first of NASA's reusable Space Shuttles, makes its maiden flight, ten years in development, the Shuttle will make space travel routine and eventually open the path for a new International Space Station.  1983: The first infrared astronomy satellite, IRAS, is launched. It must be cooled to extremely low temperatures with liquid helium, and it operates for only 300 days before the supply of helium is exhausted. During this time it completes an infrared survey of 98% of the sky.  1986: NASA's spaceflight program comes to a halt when Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after launch. A thorough inquiry and modifications to the rest of the fleet kept the shuttles on the ground for nearly three years. The returning Halley's Comet is met by a fleet of five probes from Russia, Japan, and Europe. The most ambitious is the European Space Agency's Giotta spacecraft, which flies through the comet's coma and photographs the nucleus.  1990: The Magellan probe, launched by NASA, arrives at Venus and spends three years mapping the planet with radar. Magellan is the first in a new wave of probes that include Galileo, which arrives at Jupiter in 1995, and Cassini which arrives at Saturn in 2004. The Hubble Space Telescope, the first large optical telescope in orbit, is launched using the Space Shuttle, but astronomers soon discovered that it is crippled by a problem with its mirror. A complex repair mission in 1993 allows the telescope to start producing spectacular images of distant stars, nebulae, and galaxies.  1992: The Cosmic Background Explorer satellite produces a detailed map of the background radiation remaining from the Big Bang. The map shows "ripples", caused by 1024 slight variations in the density of the early universe – the seeds of galaxies and galaxy clusters. The 10-meter Keck telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii, is completed. The first revolutionary new wave of telescopes, the Keck's main mirror is made of 36 six-sided segments, with computers to control their alignment. New optical telescopes also make use of interferometry – improving resolution by combining images from separate telescopes.  1995: The first exoplanet, 51 Pegasi b, is discovered by Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz.  1998: Construction work on a huge new space station named ISS has begun. A joint venture between many countries, including former space rivals Russia and the US.  2005: Mike Brown and his team discovered a large body in the outer Solar System. It was temporarily named as (2003) UB313. Initially, it appeared larger than Pluto, and was called the tenth planet.  2006: International Astronomical Union (IAU) adopted a new definition of planet. A new distinct class of objects called dwarf planets was also decided. Pluto was redefined as a dwarf planet along with Ceres and Eris, formerly known as (2003) UB313. Eris was named after the IAU General Assembly in 2006.  2008: 2008 TC3 becomes the first Earth-impacting meteoroid spotted and tracked prior to impact.  2012: (May 2) First visual proof of existence of black holes is published. Suvi Gezari's team in Johns Hopkins University, using the Hawaiian telescope Pan-STARRS 1, record images of a supermassive black hole 2.7 million light-years away that is swallowing a red giant.  2013: In October 2013, the first extrasolar asteroid is detected around white dwarf star GD 61. It is also the first detected extrasolar body which contains water in liquid or solid form.  2015: On July 14, with the successful encounter of Pluto by NASA's New Horizons spacecraft, the United States became the first nation to explore all of the nine major planets recognized in 1981. Later on September 14, LIGO was the first to directly detect gravitational waves. 1025  2016: Exoplanet Proxima Centauri b is discovered around Proxima Centauri by the European Southern Observatory, making it the closest known exoplanet to the Solar System as of 2016.  2017: In August 2017, a neutron star collision that occurred in the galaxy NGC 4993 produced the gravitational wave signal GW170817, which was observed by the LIGO/Virgo collaboration. After 1.7 seconds, it was observed as the gamma-ray burst GRB 170817A by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and INTEGRAL, and its optical counterpart SSS17a was detected 11 hours later at the Las Campanas Observatory. Further optical observations e.g. by the Hubble Space Telescope and the Dark Energy Camera, ultraviolet observations by the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission, X-ray observations by the Chandra X-ray Observatory and radio observations by the Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array complemented the detection. This was the first instance of a gravitational wave event that was observed to have a simultaneous electromagnetic signal, thereby marking a significant breakthrough for multi-messenger astronomy. Non-observation of neutrinos is attributed to the jets being strongly off-axis.  2019: China's Chang'e 4 became the first spacecraft to perform a soft landing on the lunar far side. In April 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope Collaboration obtained the first image of a black hole which was at the center of galaxy M87, providing more evidence for the existence of supermassive black holes in accordance with general relativity. India launched its second lunar probe called Chandrayaan 2 with an orbiter that was successful and a lander called Vikram along with a rover called Pragyan which failed just 2.1 km above the lunar South Pole.  2020: NASA proposes to launch Mars 2020 to Mars with a brand new Mars rover. Timeline of algorithms  Before – writing about "recipes" (on cooking, rituals, agriculture and other sorts of themes like willa & Mayan)  c. 1700–2000 BC – Egyptians develop earliest known algorithms for multiplying two numbers 1026  c. 1600 BC – Babylonians develop earliest known algorithms for factorization and finding square roots  c. 300 BC – Euclid's algorithm  c. 200 BC – the Sieve of Eratosthenes  263 AD – Gaussian elimination described by Liu Hui  628 – Chakravala method described by Brahmagupta  c. 820 – Al-Khawarizmi described algorithms for solving linear equations and quadratic equations in his Algebra; the word algorithm comes from his name  825 – Al-Khawarizmi described the algorism, algorithms for using the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, in his treatise On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, which was translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero Indorum, where "Algoritmi", the translator's rendition of the author's name gave rise to the word algorithm (Latin algorithmus) with a meaning "calculation method"  c. 850 – cryptanalysis and frequency analysis algorithms developed by AlKindi (Alkindus) in A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages, which contains algorithms on breaking encryptions and ciphers  c. 1025 – Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), was the first mathematician to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers, and in turn, he develops an algorithm for determining the general formula for the sum of any integral powers, which was fundamental to the development of integral calculus  c. 1400 – Ahmad al-Qalqashandi gives a list of ciphers in his Subh al-a'sha which include both substitution and transposition, and for the first time, a cipher with multiple substitutions for each plaintext letter; he also gives an exposition on and worked example of cryptanalysis, including the use of tables of letter frequencies and sets of letters which can not occur together in one word  1540 – Lodovico Ferrari discovered a method to find the roots of a quartic polynomial  1545 – Gerolamo Cardano published Cardano's method for finding the roots of a cubic polynomial  1614 – John Napier develops method for performing calculations using logarithms 1027  1671 – Newton–Raphson method developed by Isaac Newton  1690 – Newton–Raphson method independently developed by Joseph Raphson  1706 – John Machin develops a quickly converging inverse-tangent series for π and computes π to 100 decimal places  1789 – Jurij Vega improves Machin's formula and computes π to 140 decimal places,  1805 – FFT-like algorithm known by Carl Friedrich Gauss  1842 – Ada Lovelace writes the first algorithm for a computing engine  1903 – A Fast Fourier Transform algorithm presented by Carle David Tolmé Runge  1926 – Borůvka's algorithm  1926 – Primary decomposition algorithm presented by Grete Hermann  1934 – Delaunay triangulation developed by Boris Delaunay  1936 – Turing machine, an abstract machine developed by Alan Turing, with others developed the modern notion of algorithm.  1942 – A Fast Fourier Transform algorithm developed by G.C. Danielson and Cornelius Lanczos  1945 – Merge sort developed by John von Neumann  1947 – Simplex algorithm developed by George Dantzig  1952 – Huffman coding developed by David A. Huffman  1953 – Simulated annealing introduced by Nicholas Metropolis  1954 – Radix sort computer algorithm developed by Harold H. Seward  1956 – Kruskal's algorithm developed by Joseph Kruskal  1957 – Prim's algorithm developed by Robert Prim  1957 – Bellman–Ford algorithm developed by Richard E. Bellman and L. R. Ford, Jr.  1959 – Dijkstra's algorithm developed by Edsger Dijkstra  1959 – Shell sort developed by Donald L. Shell  1959 – De Casteljau's algorithm developed by Paul de Casteljau  1959 – QR factorization algorithm developed independently by John G.F. Francis and Vera Kublanovskaya 1028  1960 – Karatsuba multiplication  1962 – AVL trees  1962 – Quicksort developed by C. A. R. Hoare  1962 – Ford–Fulkerson algorithm developed by L. R. Ford, Jr. and D. R. Fulkerson  1962 – Bresenham's line algorithm developed by Jack E. Bresenham  1962 – Gale–Shapley 'stable-marriage' algorithm developed by David Gale and Lloyd Shapley  1964 – Heapsort developed by J. W. J. Williams  1964 – multigrid methods first proposed by R. P. Fedorenko  1965 – Cooley–Tukey algorithm rediscovered by James Cooley and John Tukey  1965 – Levenshtein distance developed by Vladimir Levenshtein  1965 – Cocke–Younger–Kasami (CYK) algorithm independently developed by Tadao Kasami  1965 – Buchberger's algorithm for computing Gröbner bases developed by Bruno Buchberger  1966 – Dantzig algorithm for shortest path in a graph with negative edges  1967 – Viterbi algorithm proposed by Andrew Viterbi  1967 – Cocke–Younger–Kasami (CYK) algorithm independently developed by Daniel H. Younger  1968 – A* graph search algorithm described by Peter Hart, Nils Nilsson, and Bertram Raphael  1968 – Risch algorithm for indefinite integration developed by Robert Henry Risch  1969 – Strassen algorithm for matrix multiplication developed by Volker Strassen  1970 – Dinic's algorithm for computing maximum flow in a flow network by Yefim (Chaim) A. Dinitz  1970 – Knuth–Bendix completion algorithm developed by Donald Knuth and Peter B. Bendix  1970 – BFGS method of the quasi-Newton class 1029  1972 – Graham scan developed by Ronald Graham  1972 – Red–black trees and B-trees discovered  1973 – RSA encryption algorithm discovered by Clifford Cocks  1973 – Jarvis march algorithm developed by R. A. Jarvis  1973 – Hopcroft–Karp algorithm developed by John Hopcroft and Richard Karp  1974 – Pollard's p − 1 algorithm developed by John Pollard  1975 – Genetic algorithms popularized by John Holland  1975 – Pollard's rho algorithm developed by John Pollard  1975 – Aho–Corasick string matching algorithm developed by Alfred V. Aho and Margaret J. Corasick  1975 – Cylindrical algebraic decomposition developed by George E. Collins  1976 – Salamin–Brent algorithm independently discovered by Eugene Salamin and Richard Brent  1976 – Knuth–Morris–Pratt algorithm developed by Donald Knuth and Vaughan Pratt and independently by J. H. Morris  1977 – Boyer–Moore string search algorithm for searching the occurrence of a string into another string.  1977 – RSA encryption algorithm rediscovered by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, and Len Adleman  1977 – LZ77 algorithm developed by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv  1977 – multigrid methods developed independently by Achi Brandt and Wolfgang Hackbusch  1978 – LZ78 algorithm developed from LZ77 by Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv  1978 – Bruun's algorithm proposed for powers of two by Georg Bruun  1979 – Khachiyan's ellipsoid method developed by Leonid Khachiyan  1979 – ID3 decision tree algorithm developed by Ross Quinlan  1980 – Brent's Algorithm for cycle detection Richard P. Brendt  1981 – Quadratic sieve developed by Carl Pomerance 1030  1983 – Simulated annealing developed by S. Kirkpatrick, C. D. Gelatt and M. P. Vecchi  1983 – Classification and regression tree (CART) algorithm developed by Leo Breiman, et al.  1984 – LZW algorithm developed from LZ78 by Terry Welch  1984 – Karmarkar's interior-point algorithm developed by Narendra Karmarkar  1984 - ACORN_PRNG discovered by Roy Wikramaratna and used privately  1985 – Simulated annealing independently developed by V. Cerny  1985 - Car–Parrinello molecular dynamics developed by Roberto Car and Michele Parrinello  1985 – Splay trees discovered by Sleator and Tarjan  1986 – Blum Blum Shub proposed by L. Blum, M. Blum, and M. Shub  1986 – Push relabel maximum flow algorithm by Andrew Goldberg and Robert Tarjan  1987 – Fast multipole method developed by Leslie Greengard and Vladimir Rokhlin  1988 – Special number field sieve developed by John Pollard  1989 - ACORN_PRNG published by Roy Wikramaratna  1990 – General number field sieve developed from SNFS by Carl Pomerance, Joe Buhler, Hendrik Lenstra, and Leonard Adleman  1991 – Wait-free synchronization developed by Maurice Herlihy  1992 – Deutsch–Jozsa algorithm proposed by D. Deutsch and Richard Jozsa  1992 – C4.5 algorithm, a descendant of ID3 decision tree algorithm, was developed by Ross Quinlan  1993 – Apriori algorithm developed by Rakesh Agrawal and Ramakrishnan Srikant  1993 – Karger's algorithm to compute the minimum cut of a connected graph by David Karger  1994 – Shor's algorithm developed by Peter Shor  1994 – Burrows–Wheeler transform developed by Michael Burrows and David Wheeler  1994 – Bootstrap aggregating (bagging) developed by Leo Breiman 1031  1995 – AdaBoost algorithm, the first practical boosting algorithm, was introduced by Yoav Freund and Robert Schapire  1995 – soft-margin support vector machine algorithm was published by Vladimir Vapnik and Corinna Cortes. It adds a soft-margin idea to the 1992 algorithm by Boser, Nguyon, Vapnik, and is the algorithm that people usually refer to when saying SVM  1995 – Ukkonen's algorithm for construction of suffix trees  1996 – Bruun's algorithm generalized to arbitrary even composite sizes by H. Murakami  1996 – Grover's algorithm developed by Lov K. Grover  1996 – RIPEMD-160 developed by Hans Dobbertin, Antoon Bosselaers, and Bart Preneel  1997 – Mersenne Twister a pseudo random number generator developed by Makoto Matsumoto and Tajuki Nishimura  1998 – PageRank algorithm was published by Larry Page  1998 – rsync algorithm developed by Andrew Tridgell  1999 – gradient boosting algorithm developed by Jerome H. Friedman  1999 – Yarrow algorithm designed by Bruce Schneier, John Kelsey, and Niels Ferguson  2000 – Hyperlink-induced topic search a hyperlink analysis algorithm developed by Jon Kleinberg  2001 – Lempel–Ziv–Markov chain algorithm for compression developed by Igor Pavlov  2001 – Viola–Jones algorithm for real-time face detection was developed by Paul Viola and Michael Jones.  2002 – AKS primality test developed by Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena  2002 – Girvan–Newman algorithm to detect communities in complex systems Timeline of information theory 1032  1872 – Ludwig Boltzmann presents his H-theorem, and with it the formula for the entropy of a single gas particle  1878 – J. Willard Gibbs defines the Gibbs entropy: the probabilities in the entropy formula are now taken as probabilities of the state of the whole system  1924 – Harry Nyquist discusses quantifying "intelligence" and the speed at which it can be transmitted by a communication system  1927 – John von Neumann defines the von Neumann entropy, extending the Gibbs entropy to quantum mechanics  1928 – Ralph Hartley introduces Hartley information as the logarithm of the number of possible messages, with information being communicated when the receiver can distinguish one sequence of symbols from any other (regardless of any associated meaning)  1929 – Leó Szilárd analyses Maxwell's Demon, showing how a Szilard engine can sometimes transform information into the extraction of useful work  1940 – Alan Turing introduces the deciban as a measure of information inferred about the German Enigma machine cypher settings by the Banburismus process  1944 – Claude Shannon's theory of information is substantially complete  1947 – Richard W. Hamming invents Hamming codes for error detection and correction (to protect patent rights, the result is not published until 1950)  1948 – Claude E. Shannon publishes A Mathematical Theory of Communication  1949 – Claude E. Shannon publishes Communication in the Presence of Noise – Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem and Shannon–Hartley law  1949 – Claude E. Shannon's Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems is declassified  1949 – Robert M. Fano publishes Transmission of Information. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts – Shannon–Fano coding  1949 – Leon G. Kraft discovers Kraft's inequality, which shows the limits of prefix codes  1949 – Marcel J. E. Golay introduces Golay codes for forward error correction 1033  1951 – Solomon Kullback and Richard Leibler introduce the Kullback–Leibler divergence  1951 – David A. Huffman invents Huffman encoding, a method of finding optimal prefix codes for lossless data compression  1953 – August Albert Sardinas and George W. Patterson devise the Sardinas–Patterson algorithm, a procedure to decide whether a given variable-length code is uniquely decodable  1954 – Irving S. Reed and David E. Muller propose Reed–Muller codes  1955 – Peter Elias introduces convolutional codes  1957 – Eugene Prange first discusses cyclic codes  1959 – Alexis Hocquenghem, and independently the next year Raj Chandra Bose and Dwijendra Kumar Ray-Chaudhuri, discover BCH codes  1960 – Irving S. Reed and Gustave Solomon propose Reed–Solomon codes  1962 – Robert G. Gallager proposes low-density parity-check codes; they are unused for 30 years due to technical limitations  1965 – Dave Forney discusses concatenated codes  1966 – Fumitada Itakura (Nagoya University) and Shuzo Saito (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone) develop linear predictive coding (LPC), a form of speech coding  1967 – Andrew Viterbi reveals the Viterbi algorithm, making decoding of convolutional codes practicable  1968 – Elwyn Berlekamp invents the Berlekamp–Massey algorithm; its application to decoding BCH and Reed–Solomon codes is pointed out by James L. Massey the following year  1968 – Chris Wallace and David M. Boulton publish the first of many papers on Minimum Message Length (MML) statistical and inductive inference  1970 – Valerii Denisovich Goppa introduces Goppa codes  1972 – Jørn Justesen proposes Justesen codes, an improvement of Reed–Solomon codes  1972 – Nasir Ahmed proposes the discrete cosine transform (DCT), which he develops with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1973; the DCT later became the most widely 1034 used lossy compression algorithm, the basis for multimedia formats such as JPEG, MPEG and MP3  1973 – David Slepian and Jack Wolf discover and prove the Slepian–Wolf coding limits for distributed source coding  1976 – Gottfried Ungerboeck gives the first paper on trellis modulation; a more detailed exposition in 1982 leads to a raising of analogue modem POTS speeds from 9.6 kbit/s to 33.6 kbit/s  1976 – Richard Pasco and Jorma J. Rissanen develop effective arithmetic coding techniques  1977 – Abraham Lempel and Jacob Ziv develop Lempel–Ziv compression (LZ77)  1989 – Phil Katz publishes the .zip format including DEFLATE (LZ77 + Huffman coding); later to become the most widely used archive container  1993 – Claude Berrou, Alain Glavieux and Punya Thitimajshima introduce Turbo codes  1994 – Michael Burrows and David Wheeler publish the Burrows–Wheeler transform, later to find use in bzip2  1995 – Benjamin Schumacher coins the term qubit and proves the quantum noiseless coding theorem  2006 – first Asymmetric numeral systems entropy coding: since 2014 popular replacement of Huffman and arithmetic coding in compressors like Facebook Zstandard or Apple LZFSE  2008 – Erdal Arıkan introduces polar codes, the first practical construction of codes that achieves capacity for a wide array of channels Timeline of probability and statistics  8th century - Forms of probability and statistics were developed by Al-Khalil, an Arab mathematician studying cryptology. He wrote the Book of Cryptographic Messages which contains the first use of permutations and combinations to list all possible Arabic words with and without vowels. 1035  9th century - Al-Kindi was the first to use statistics to decipher encrypted messages and developed the first code breaking algorithm in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, based on frequency analysis. He wrote a book entitled Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages, containing detailed discussions on statistics. This text laid the foundations for statistics and cryptanalysis. Al-Kindi also made the earliest known use of statistical inference, while he and other Arab cryptologists developed the early statistical methods for decoding encrypted messages.  13th century - An important contribution of Ibn Adlan was on sample size for use of frequency analysis.  1560s (published 1663) – Cardano's Liber de ludo aleae attempts to calculate probabilities of dice throws. He demonstrates the efficacy of defining odds as the ratio of favourable to unfavourable outcomes (which implies that the probability of an event is given by the ratio of favourable outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes).  1577 – Bartolomé de Medina defends probabilism, the view that in ethics one may follow a probable opinion even if the opposite is more probable  1654 – Pascal and Fermat create the mathematical theory of probability,  1657 – Huygens's De ratiociniis in ludo aleae is the first book on mathematical probability,  1662 – Graunt's Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality makes inferences from statistical data on deaths in London,  1666 - In Le Journal des Sçavans xxxi, August 2, 1666 (359-370(=364)) appears a review of the third edition (1665) of John Graunt's Observations on the Bills of Mortality. This review gives a summary of 'plusieurs reflexions curieuses', of which the second are Graunt's data on life expectancy. This review is used by Nicolaus Bernoulli in his De Usu Artis Conjectandi in Jure (1709).  1669 - Christiaan Huygens and his brother Lodewijk discuss between August and December that year Graunts mortality table (Graunt 1662, p. 62) in letters #1755  1693 – Halley prepares the first mortality tables statistically relating death rate to age  1710 – Arbuthnot argues that the constancy of the ratio of male to female births is a sign of divine providence 1036  1713 – Posthumous publication of Jacob Bernoulli's Ars Conjectandi, containing the first derivation of a law of large numbers  1724 – Abraham de Moivre studies mortality statistics and the foundation of the theory of annuities in Annuities upon Lives  1733 – Abraham de Moivre introduces the normal distribution to approximate the binomial distribution in probability  1739 – Hume's Treatise of Human Nature argues that inductive reasoning is unjustified  1761 – Thomas Bayes proves Bayes' theorem  1786 – Playfair's Commercial and Political Atlas introduces graphs and bar charts of data  1801 – Gauss predicts the orbit of Ceres using a line of best fit  1805 – Adrien-Marie Legendre introduces the method of least squares for fitting a curve to a given set of observations,  1814 – Laplace's Essai philosophique sur les probabilités defends a definition of probabilities in terms of equally possible cases, introduces generating functions and Laplace transforms, uses conjugate priors for exponential families, proves an early version of the Bernstein–von Mises theorem on the asymptotic irrelevance of prior distributions on the limiting posterior distribution and the role of the Fisher information on asymptotically normal posterior modes.  1835 – Quetelet's Treatise on Man introduces social science statistics and the concept of the "average man"  1866 – Venn's Logic of Chance defends the frequency interpretation of probability.  1877–1883 – Charles Sanders Peirce outlines frequentist statistics, emphasizing the use of objective randomization in experiments and in sampling. Peirce also invented an optimally designed experiment for regression.  1880 – Thiele gives a mathematical analysis of Brownian motion, introduces the likelihood function, and invents cumulants.  1888 – Galton introduces the concept of correlation  1900 – Bachelier analyzes stock price movements as a stochastic process, 1037  1908 – Student's t-distribution for the mean of small samples published in English (following earlier derivations in German).  1921 – Keynes' Treatise on Probability defends a logical interpretation of probability. Wright develops path analysis.  1928 – Tippett and Fisher introduce extreme value theory  1933 – Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov publishes his book Basic notions of the calculus of probability (Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung) which contains an axiomatization of probability based on measure theory  1935 – R. A. Fisher's Design of Experiments (1st ed)  1937 – Neyman introduces the concept of confidence interval in statistical testing  1946 – Cox's theorem derives the axioms of probability from simple logical assumptions  1948 – Shannon's Mathematical Theory of Communication defines capacity of communication channels in terms of probabilities  1953 – Nicholas Metropolis introduces the idea of thermodynamic simulated annealing methods Timeline of classical mechanics  4th century BC - Aristotle invents the system of Aristotelian physics, which is later largely disproved  4th century BC - Babylonian astronomers calculate Jupiter's position using the mean speed theorem  260 BC - Archimedes works out the principle of the lever and connects buoyancy to weight  60 - Hero of Alexandria writes Metrica, Mechanics (on means to lift heavy objects), and Pneumatics (on machines working on pressure)  350 - Themistius states, that static friction is larger than kinetic friction  6th century - John Philoponus says that by observation, two balls of very different weights will fall at nearly the same speed. He therefore tests the equivalence principle  1021 - Al-Biruni uses three orthogonal coordinates to describe point in space 1038  1000-1030 - Alhazen and Avicenna develop the concepts of inertia and momentum  1100-1138 - Avempace develops the concept of a reaction force  1100-1165 - Hibat Allah Abu'l-Barakat al-Baghdaadi discovers that force is proportional to acceleration rather than speed, a fundamental law in classical mechanics  1121 - Al-Khazini publishes The Book of the Balance of Wisdom, in which he develops the concepts of gravity at-a-distance. He suggests that the gravity varies depending on its distance from the center of the universe, namely Earth  1340-1358 - Jean Buridan develops the theory of impetus  14th century - Oxford Calculators and French collaborators prove the mean speed theorem  14th century - Nicole Oresme derives the times-squared law for uniformly accelerated change. Oresme, however, regarded this discovery as a purely intellectual exercise having no relevance to the description of any natural phenomena, and consequently failed to recognise any connection with the motion of accelerating bodies  1500-1528 - Al-Birjandi develops the theory of "circular inertia" to explain Earth's rotation  16th century - Francesco Beato and Luca Ghini experimentally contradict aristotelian view on free fall.  16th century - Domingo de Soto suggests that bodies falling through a homogeneous medium are uniformly accelerated. Soto, however, did not anticipate many of the qualifications and refinements contained in Galileo's theory of falling bodies. He did not, for instance, recognise, as Galileo did, that a body would fall with a strictly uniform acceleration only in a vacuum, and that it would otherwise eventually reach a uniform terminal velocity  1581 - Galileo Galilei notices the timekeeping property of the pendulum  1589 - Galileo Galilei uses balls rolling on inclined planes to show that different weights fall with the same acceleration 1039  1638 - Galileo Galilei publishes Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences (which were materials science and kinematics) where he develops, amongst other things, Galilean transformation  1645 - Ismaël Bullialdus argues that "gravity" weakens as the inverse square of the distance  1651 - Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi discover the Coriolis effect  1658 - Christiaan Huygens experimentally discovers that balls placed anywhere inside an inverted cycloid reach the lowest point of the cycloid in the same time and thereby experimentally shows that the cycloid is the tautochrone  1668 - John Wallis suggests the law of conservation of momentum  1676-1689 - Gottfried Leibniz develops the concept of vis viva, a limited theory of conservation of energy  1687 - Isaac Newton publishes his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, in which he formulates Newton's laws of motion and Newton's law of universal gravitation  1690 - James Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone problem  1691 - Johann Bernoulli shows that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a catenary  1691 - James Bernoulli shows that the catenary curve has the lowest center of gravity of any chain hung from two fixed points  1696 - Johann Bernoulli shows that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone problem  1707 - Gottfried Leibniz probably develops the principle of least action  1710 - Jakob Hermann shows that Laplace–Runge–Lenz vector is conserved for a case of the inverse-square central force  1714 - Brook Taylor derives the fundamental frequency of a stretched vibrating string in terms of its tension and mass per unit length by solving an ordinary differential equation  1733 - Daniel Bernoulli derives the fundamental frequency and harmonics of a hanging chain by solving an ordinary differential equation 1040  1734 - Daniel Bernoulli solves the ordinary differential equation for the vibrations of an elastic bar clamped at one end  1739 - Leonhard Euler solves the ordinary differential equation for a forced harmonic oscillator and notices the resonance  1742 - Colin Maclaurin discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating spheroids  1743 - Jean le Rond d'Alembert publishes his "Traite de Dynamique", in which he introduces the concept of generalized forces and D'Alembert's principle  1747 - d'Alembert and Alexis Clairaut publish first approximate solutions to the threebody problem  1749 - Leonhard Euler derives equation for Coriolis acceleration  1759 - Leonhard Euler solves the partial differential equation for the vibration of a rectangular drum  1764 - Leonhard Euler examines the partial differential equation for the vibration of a circular drum and finds one of the Bessel function solutions  1776 - John Smeaton publishes a paper on experiments relating power, work, momentum and kinetic energy, and supporting the conservation of energy  1788 - Joseph Louis Lagrange presents Lagrange's equations of motion in the Méchanique Analitique  1789 - Antoine Lavoisier states the law of conservation of mass  1803 - Louis Poinsot develops idea of angular momentum conservation (this result was previously known only in the case of conservation of areal velocity)  1813 - Peter Ewart supports the idea of the conservation of energy in his paper On the measure of moving force  1821 - William Hamilton begins his analysis of Hamilton's characteristic function and Hamilton–Jacobi equation  1829 - Carl Friedrich Gauss introduces Gauss's principle of least constraint  1834 - Carl Jacobi discovers his uniformly rotating self-gravitating ellipsoids  1834 - Louis Poinsot notes an instance of the intermediate axis theorem 1041  1835 - William Hamilton states Hamilton's canonical equations of motion  1838 - Liouville begins work on Liouville's theorem  1841 - Julius Robert von Mayer, an amateur scientist, writes a paper on the conservation of energy but his lack of academic training leads to its rejection  1847 - Hermann von Helmholtz formally states the law of conservation of energy  First half of XIX century - Cauchy develops his momentum equation and his stress tensor  1851 - Léon Foucault shows the Earth's rotation with a huge pendulum (Foucault pendulum)  1870 - Rudolf Clausius deduces virial theorem  1902 - James Jeans finds the length scale required for gravitational perturbations to grow in a static nearly homogeneous medium  1915 - Emmy Noether proves Noether's theorem, from which conservation laws are deduced  1952 - Parker develops a tensor form of the virial theorem  1978 - Vladimir Arnold states precise form of Liouville–Arnold theorem  1983 - Mordehai Milgrom proposes Modified Newtonian dynamics  1992 - Udwadia and Kalaba create Udwadia–Kalaba equation Timeline of particle discoveries  1800: William Herschel discovers "heat rays"  1801: Johann Wilhelm Ritter made the hallmark observation that invisible rays just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum were especially effective at lightening silver chloride-soaked paper. He called them "oxidizing rays" to emphasize chemical reactivity and to distinguish them from "heat rays" at the other end of the invisible spectrum (both of which were later determined to be photons). The more general term "chemical rays" was adopted shortly thereafter to describe the oxidizing rays, and it 1042 remained popular throughout the 19th century. The terms chemical and heat rays were eventually dropped in favor of ultraviolet and infrared radiation, respectively.  1895: Discovery of the ultraviolet radiation below 200 nm, named vacuum ultraviolet (later identified as photons) because it is strongly absorbed by air, by the German physicist Victor Schumann  1895: X-ray produced by Wilhelm Röntgen (later identified as photons)  1897: Electron discovered by J. J. Thomson  1899: Alpha particle discovered by Ernest Rutherford in uranium radiation  1900: Gamma ray (a high-energy photon) discovered by Paul Villard in uranium decay  1911: Atomic nucleus identified by Ernest Rutherford, based on scattering observed by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden  1919: Proton discovered by Ernest Rutherford  1931: Deuteron discovered by Harold Urey (predicted by Rutherford in 1920)  1932: Neutron discovered by James Chadwick (predicted by Rutherford in 1920)  1932: Antielectron (or positron), the first antiparticle, discovered by Carl D. Anderson (proposed by Paul Dirac in 1927 and by Ettore Majorana in 1928)  1937: Muon (or mu lepton) discovered by Seth Neddermeyer, Carl D. Anderson, J.C. Street, and E.C. Stevenson, using cloud chamber measurements of cosmic rays (it was mistaken for the pion until 1947)  1947: Pion (or pi meson) discovered by C. F. Powell's group, including César Lattes(first author) and Giuseppe Occhialini (predicted by Hideki Yukawa in 1935)  1947: Kaon (or K meson), the first strange particle, discovered by George Dixon Rochester and Clifford Charles Butler  1950: Lambda baryon discovered during a study of cosmic-ray interactions  1955: Antiproton discovered by Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis  1956: Electron neutrino detected by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan (proposed by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930 to explain the apparent violation of conservation of energy in 1043 beta decay)At the time it was simply referred to as neutrino since there was only one known neutrino.  1962: Muon neutrino (or mu neutrino) shown to be distinct from the electron neutrino by a group headed by Leon Lederman  1964: Xi baryon discovery at Brookhaven National Laboratory  1969: Partons (internal constituents of hadrons) observed in deep inelastic scattering experiments between protons and electrons at SLAC; this was eventually associated with the quark model (predicted by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964) and thus constitutes the discovery of the up quark, down quark, and strange quark.  1974: J/ψ meson discovered by groups headed by Burton Richter and Samuel Ting, demonstrating the existence of the charm quark (proposed by James Bjorken and Sheldon Lee Glashow in 1964)  1975: Tau discovered by a group headed by Martin Perl  1977: Upsilon meson discovered at Fermilab, demonstrating the existence of the bottom quark (proposed by Kobayashi and Maskawa in 1973)  1979: Gluon observed indirectly in three-jet events at DESY  1983: W and Z bosons discovered by Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer, and the CERN UA1 collaboration (predicted in detail by Sheldon Glashow, Mohammad Abdus Salam, and Steven Weinberg)  1995: Top quark discovered at Fermilab  1995: Antihydrogen produced and measured by the LEAR experiment at CERN  2000: Tau neutrino first observed directly at Fermilab  2011: Antihelium-4 produced and measured by the STAR detector; the first particle to be discovered by the experiment  2012: A particle exhibiting most of the predicted characteristics of the Higgs boson discovered by researchers conducting the Compact Muon Solenoid and ATLAS experiments at CERN's Large Hadron Collider 1044 Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries  250 BCE: Archimedes' principle: Archimedes  500: Theory of Impetus: John Philoponus  1514: Heliocentrism: Nicholas Copernicus  1589: Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment: Galileo Galilei  1613: Inertia: Galileo Galilei  1621: Snell's law: Willebrord Snellius  1660: Pascal's Principle: Blaise Pascal  1660: Hooke's law: Robert Hooke  1676: Rømer's determination of the speed of light traveling from the moons of Jupiter.  1687: Laws of Motion and Law of Gravitation and calculus: Isaac Newton  1782: Conservation of matter: Lavoisier  1785: Inverse square law for electric charges confirmed: Charles-Augustin de Coulomb  1801: Wave theory of light: Thomas Young  1803: Atomic theory of matter: John Dalton  1806: Kinetic energy: Thomas Young  1814: Wave theory of light, interference: Fresnel  1820: Evidence for electromagnetic interactions: André-Marie Ampère, Jean-Baptiste Biot, Félix Savart  1827: Electrical resistance, etc.: Ohm  1831: Electromagnetic induction: Michael Faraday  1838: Lines of Force, Fields: Michael Faraday  1838: Earth's magnetic field: Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Carl Friedrich Gauss  1843: Conservation of energy: Julius Robert von Mayer, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin  1845: Faraday Rotation (light and electromagnetic): Michael Faraday  1847: Conservation of energy 2: James Prescott Joule, Hermann von Helmholtz 1045  1851: Second law of thermodynamics: Rudolf Clausius, William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin  1859: Kinetic theory: James Clerk Maxwell  1861: Black body: Gustav Kirchhoff  1863: Entropy: Rudolf Clausius  1864: A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field: James Clerk Maxwell  1867: Dynamic Theory of Gases, James Clerk Maxwell  1871–89: Statistical Mechanics: Ludwig Boltzmann, Josiah Willard Gibbs  1884: Boltzmann derives Stefan's radiation law  1887: Michelson–Morley experiment  1887: Electromagnetic Waves: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz  1893: Radiation Law: Wilhelm Wien  1895: X-Rays discovered: Wilhelm Röntgen  1896: Radioactivity: Henri Becquerel  1897: Electron discovered: J. J. Thomson  1900: Formula for Black-Body Radiation: Max Planck, Quantum Hypothesis: Max Planck  1905: Special Relativity: Albert Einstein, Photoelectric Effect: Albert Einstein, Brownian Motion: Albert Einstein  1911: Equivalence Principle: Albert Einstein, Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus: Ernest Rutherford, Superconductivity: Kamerlingh Onnes  1913: Bohr Model of the atom: Niels Bohr  1916: General Relativity: Albert Einstein  1923: Stern–Gerlach experiment, Matter waves: Louis de Broglie, Galaxies: Edwin Hubble  1925: Matrix Mechanics: Werner Heisenberg  1926: Schrödinger Equation: Erwin Schrödinger  1927: Big Bang: Georges Lemaître 1046  1927: Uncertainty Principle: Werner Heisenberg  1928: Antimatter predicted: Paul Dirac  1929: Expansion of the Universe Confirmed: Edwin Hubble  1932: Antimatter discovered: Carl David Anderson, Neutron discovered: James Chadwick  1937: Muon discovered: Carl David Anderson & Seth Neddermeyer  1938: Superfluidity discovered: Pyotr Kapitsa, Nuclear Fission discovered: Otto Hahn  1947: Pion discovered: C.F. Powell, Giuseppe Occhialini, César Lattes  1948: Quantum Electrodynamics: Richard Feynman  1956: Electron neutrino discovered  1957: Parity violation discovered  1957: Theory of Superconductivity  1962: Theory of strong interactions, Muon neutrino discovered  1964: Bell's Theorem initiates quantitative study of quantum entanglement  1967: Theory of Weak interaction, Pulsars discovered  1974: Charmed quark discovered  1975: Tau lepton discovered  1977: Bottom quark discovered  1980: Quantum Hall effect discovered  1980: Richard Feynman proposes quantum computing  1981: Theory of cosmic inflation, Fractional quantum Hall effect discovered  1984: W and Z bosons directly observed  1984: First laboratory implementation of quantum cryptography  1993: Quantum teleportation of unknown states proposed  1994: Shor's algorithm discovered, initiating the serious study of quantum computation.  1995: Top quark discovered  1995: Bose-Einstein condensation observed 1047  1998: Accelerating universe discovered  1998: Atmospheric neutrino oscillation established  2000: Tau neutrino discovered  2012: Higgs Boson discovered  2015: Gravitational waves detected Timeline of microscope technology  c. 700 BCE — The "Nimrud lens" of Assyrians manufacture, a rock crystal disk with a convex shape believed to be a burning or magnifying lens.  167 BCE — The Chinese use simple microscopes made of a lens and a water-filled tube to visualize the unseen.  13th century — The increase in use of lenses in eyeglasses probably led to the wide spread use of simple microscopes (single lens magnifying glasses) with limited magnification.  1590 — earliest date of a claimed Hans Martens/Zacharias Janssen invention of the compound microscope (claim made in 1655).  After 1609 — Galileo Galilei is described as being able to close focus his telescope to view small objects close up and/or looking through the wrong end in reverse to magnify small objects. A telescope used in this fashion is the same as a compound microscope but historians debate whether Galileo was magnifying small objects or viewing near by objects with his terrestrial telescope (convex objective/concave eyepiece) reversed.  1619 — Earliest recorded description of a compound microscope, Dutch Ambassador Willem Boreel sees one in London in the possession of Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel, an instrument about eighteen inches long, two inches in diameter, and supported on 3 brass dolphins.  1621 — Cornelis Drebbel presents, in London, a compound microscope with a convex objective and a convex eyepiece (a "Keplerian" microscope).  c.1622 — Drebbel presents his invention in Rome. 1048  1624 — Galileo improves on a compound microscope he sees in Rome and presents his occhiolino to Prince Federico Cesi, founder of the Accademia dei Lincei (in English, The Linceans).  1625 — Francesco Stelluti and Federico Cesi publish Apiarium, the first account of observations using a compound microscope  1625 — Giovanni Faber of Bamberg (1574 - 1629) of the Linceans, after seeing Galileo's occhiolino, coins the word microscope by analogy with telescope.  1655 — In an investigation by Willem Boreel, Dutch spectacle-maker Johannes Zachariassen claims his father, Zacharias Janssen, invented the compound microscope in 1590. Zachariassen's claimed dates are so early it is sometimes assumed, for the claim to be true, that his grandfather, Hans Martens, must have invented it. Findings are published by writer Pierre Borel. Discrepancies in Boreel's investigation and Zachariassen's testimony (including misrepresenting his date of birth and role in the invention) has led some historians to consider this claim dubious.  1665 — Robert Hooke publishes Micrographia, a collection of biological micrographs. He coins the word cell for the structures he discovers in cork bark.  1674 — Antonie van Leeuwenhoek improves on a simple microscope for viewing biological specimens.  1825 — Joseph Jackson Lister develops combined lenses that cancelled spherical and chromatic aberration.  1846 — Carl Zeiss founded Carl Zeiss AG, to mass-produce microscopes and other optical instruments.  1850s — John Leonard Riddell, Professor of Chemistry at Tulane University, invents the first practical binocular microscope.  1863 — Henry Clifton Sorby develops a metallurgical microscope to observe structure of meteorites.  1860s — Ernst Abbe, a colleague of Carl Zeiss, discovers the Abbe sine condition, a breakthrough in microscope design, which until then was largely based on trial and error. The company of Carl Zeiss exploited this discovery and becomes the dominant microscope manufacturer of its era. 1049  1928 — Edward Hutchinson Synge publishes theory underlying the near-field scanning optical microscope  1931 — Ernst Ruska starts to build the first electron microscope. It is a transmission electron microscope (TEM)  1936 — Erwin Wilhelm Müller invents the field emission microscope.  1938 — James Hillier builds another TEM  1951 — Erwin Wilhelm Müller invents the field ion microscope and is the first to see atoms.  1953 — Frits Zernike, professor of theoretical physics, receives the Nobel Prize in Physics for his invention of the phase-contrast microscope.  1955 — George Nomarski, professor of microscopy, published the theoretical basis of differential interference contrast microscopy.  1957 — Marvin Minsky, a professor at MIT, invents the confocal microscope, an optical imaging technique for increasing optical resolution and contrast of a micrograph by means of using a spatial pinhole to block out-of-focus light in image formation. This technology is a predecessor to today's widely used confocal laser scanning microscope.  1967 — Erwin Wilhelm Müller adds time-of-flight spectroscopy to the field ion microscope, making the first atom probe and allowing the chemical identification of each individual atom.  1981 — Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer develop the scanning tunneling microscope (STM).  1986 — Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber invent the atomic force microscope (AFM)  1988 — Alfred Cerezo, Terence Godfrey, and George D. W. Smith applied a positionsensitive detector to the atom probe, making it able to resolve materials in 3-dimensions with near-atomic resolution.  1988 — Kingo Itaya invents the Electrochemical scanning tunneling microscope  1991 — Kelvin probe force microscope invented. 1050 Used for treating wounds, skin disorders, respiratory and Lichens digestive issues, and obstetric and gynecological concern A complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms − a fungus and an algae Based on their internal structure: Based on their growth:  Crustose Lichens  Foliose Lichens  Fruticose Lichens  Heteromerous lichens  Homoiomerous lichens Based on their fungal partner:  Ascolichens  Basidiolichens  Hymenolichens Based on their habitat:  Lignicolous (found growing on woods)  Corticolous (found growing on the bark of trees)  Saxicolous (found growing on stones or rocks)  Marine (found growing on the siliceous rocks, near the shores of the sea)  Freshwater (found growing on the hard siliceous rocks, especially around the freshwater)  Terricolous (found growing on the soil − terrestrial lichens) It is difficult to conceive a grander mass of vegetation:—the straight shafts of the timber-trees shooting aloft, some naked and clean, with grey, pale, or brown bark; others literally clothed for yards with a continuous garment of epiphytes, one mass of blossoms, especially the white Orchids Caelogynes, which bloom in a profuse manner, whitening their trunks like snow. More bulky trunks were masses of interlacing climbers, Araliaceae, Leguminosae, Vines, and Menispermeae, Hydrangea, and Peppers, enclosing a hollow, once filled by the now strangled supporting tree, which has long ago decayed away. From the sides and summit of these, supple branches hung forth, either leafy or naked; the latter resembling cables flung from one tree to another, swinging in the breeze, their rocking motion increased by the weight of great bunches of ferns or Orchids, which were perched aloft in the loops. Perpetual moisture nourishes this dripping forest: and pendulous mosses and lichens are met with in profusion. — Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker It is easy to overlook this thought that life just is. As humans we are inclined to feel that life must have a point. We have plans and aspirations and desires. We want to take constant advantage of the intoxicating existence we’ve been endowed with. But what’s life to a lichen? Yet its impulse to exist, to be, is every bit as strong as ours-arguably even stronger. If I were told that I had to spend decades being a furry growth on a rock in the woods, I believe I would lose the will to go on. Lichens don’t. Like virtually all living things, they will suffer any hardship; endure any insult, for a moment’s additions existence. Life, in short just wants to be. Bill Bryson Chordates Non-chordates Cold or warm-blooded Cold-blooded Respiration through gills or lungs Respiration through body surface, gills or tracheae Sexual reproduction is predominant Asexual reproduction is predominant Exoskeleton and Endoskeleton are present Only exoskeleton is present Post-anal tail is usually present Post-anal tail is absent RBC posses Hemoglobin Hemoglobin is present in plasma or absent Closed Blood vascular system Blood vascular system: Absent and if present open or closed Regeneration power is usually poor Regeneration power is usually good Central nervous system is dorsal, hollow and single Central nervous system is ventral, solid and double Hemichordata, Cyclostomata, Aves, Reptiles, Protozoa, Arthropods and Annelids Amphibia and Mammals Modifications of leaf for: support tendril protection spines storage fleshy leaves Plasmolysis occurs when water moves out of the cell and the cell membrane of a plant cell shrinks away from its cell wall. Salivary Amylase Starch Maltose pH 6.8 Timeline of telecommunication  AD 26–37 – Roman Emperor Tiberius rules the empire from the island of Capri by signaling messages with metal mirrors to reflect the sun.  1520 – Ships on Ferdinand Magellan's voyage signal to each other by firing cannon and raising flags.  1792 – Claude Chappe establishes the first long-distance semaphore telegraph line.  1831 – Joseph Henry proposes and builds an electric telegraph.  1836 – Samuel Morse develops the Morse code.  1843 – Samuel Morse builds the first long distance electric telegraph line.  1876 – Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Watson exhibit an electric telephone in Boston.  1889 – Almon Strowger patents the direct dial  1877 – Thomas Edison patents the phonograph.  1920 – Radio station KDKA based in Pittsburgh began the first broadcast.  1925 – John Logie Baird transmits the first television signal.  1942 – Hedy Lamarr and George Antheil invent frequency hopping spread spectrum communication technique.  1947 – Full-scale commercial television is first broadcast.  1963 – First geosynchronous communications satellite is launched, 17.5 years after Arthur C. Clarke's article.  1999 – Sirius satellite radio is introduced.  1843 – Patent issued for the "Electric Printing Telegraph", a very early forerunner of the fax machine  1926 – Commercial availability of the radiofax  1964 – First modern fax machine commercially available (Long Distance Xerography)  1947 – Douglas H. Ring and W. Rae Young of Bell Labs propose a cell-based approach which led to "cellular phones." 1051  1981 – Nordic Mobile Telephone, the world's first automatic mobile phone is put into operation  1991 – GSM is put into operation  1992 – Neil Papworth sends the first SMS (or text message).  1999 – 45% of Australians have a mobile phone.  1949 – Claude Elwood Shannon, the "father of information theory", mathematically proves the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem.  1965 – First email sent (at MIT).  1966 – Charles Kao realizes that silica-based optical waveguides offer a practical way to transmit light via total internal reflection.  1969 – The first hosts of ARPANET, Internet's ancestor, are connected.  1971 – Erna Schneider Hoover invent a computerized switching system for telephone traffic.  1971 – 8-inch floppy disk removable storage medium for computers is introduced.  1975 – "First list servers are introduced."  1976 – The personal computer (PC) market is born.  1977 – Donald Knuth begins work on TeX.  1981 – Hayes Smartmodem introduced.  1983 – Microsoft Word software is launched.  1985 - AOL is launched.  1989 – Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau build the prototype system which became the World Wide Web at CERN.  1989 – WordPerfect 5.1 word processing software released.  1989 – Lotus Notes software is launched.  1991 – Anders Olsson transmits solitary waves through an optical fiber with a data rate of 32 billion bits per second.  1992 – Internet2 organization is created. 1052  1992 – IBM ThinkPad 700C laptop computer created. It was lightweight compared to its predecessors.  1993 – Mosaic graphical web browser is launched.  1994 – Internet radio broadcasting is born.  1996 – Motorola StarTAC mobile phone introduced. It was significantly smaller than previous cellphones.  1997 – SixDegrees.com is launched, the first of a number of early social networking services  1999 – Napster peer-to-peer file sharing is launched.  2001 – Cyworld adds social networking features and becomes the first of a number of mass-market social networking service  2003 – Skype video calling software is launched.  2004 – Facebook is launched, becoming the largest social networking site in 2009.  2005 – YouTube, the video sharing site, is launched.  2006 – Twitter is launched.  2007 – iPhone is launched.  2009 – Whatsapp is launched.  2010 – Instagram is launched.  2011 – Snapchat is launched.  2015 – Discord is launched. Timeline of rocket and missile technology  11th century AD - The first documented record of gunpowder and the fire arrow, an early form of rocketry, appears in the Chinese text Wujing Zongyao.  1633 - Lagâri Hasan Çelebi launched a 7-winged rocket using 50 okka (140 lbs) of gunpowder from Sarayburnu, the point below Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. 1053  1650 - Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima ("Great Art of Artillery, the First Part") is printed in Amsterdam, about a year before the death of its author, Kazimierz Siemienowicz.  1664 - A "space rocket" is imagined as a future technology to be studied in France and its drawing is ordered by French finance minister Colbert; designed by Le Brun on a Gobelins tapestry  1798 - Tipu Sultan, the King of the state of Mysore in India, develops and uses iron rockets against the British Army.  1801 - The British Army develops the Congreve rocket based on weapons used against them by Tipu Sultan.  1806 - Claude Ruggieri, an Italian living in France, launched animals on rockets and recovered them using parachutes. He was prevented from launching a child by police.  1813 - "A Treatise on the Motion of Rockets" by William Moore – first appearance of the rocket equation  1818 - Henry Trengrouse demonstrates his rocket apparatus for projecting a lifeline from a wrecked ship to the shore, later widely adopted  1844 - William Hale invents the spin-stabilized rocket  1861 - William Leitch publishes an essay "A Journey Through Space" (later published in his book God to the Moon]] as a humorous science fantasy story about a space gun launching a manned spacecraft equipped with rockets for landing on the Moon, but eventually used for another orbital maneuver.  1902 - French cinema pioneer Georges Méliès directs A Trip to the Moon, the first film about space travel.  1903 - Konstantin Tsiolkovsky begins a series of papers discussing the use of rocketry to reach outer space, space suits, and colonization of the Solar System. Two key points discussed in his works are liquid fuels and staging.  1913 - Without knowing the work of Russian mathematician Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, French engineer Robert Esnault-Pelterie derived the equations for space flight, produced a paper that presented the rocket equation and calculated the energies required to reach the Moon and nearby planets. 1054  1916 - first use of rockets (with the solid fuel Le Prieur rocket) for both air-to-air attacks, and air to ground.  1922 - Hermann Oberth publishes his scientific work about rocketry and space exploration: Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("By Rocket into Planetary Space").  1924 - Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel founded in Moscow by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Friedrich Zander and 200 other space and rocket experts  1926 - Robert Goddard launches the first liquid fuel rocket. This is considered by some to be the start of the Space Age.  1927 - Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR - "Spaceflight Society") founded in Germany.  1929 - Woman in the Moon, considered to be one of the first "serious" science fiction films.  1931 - Friedrich Schmiedl attempts the first rocket mail service in Austria  1933 - Sergei Korolev and Mikhail Tikhonravov launch the first liquid-fueled rocket in the Soviet Union  1935 - Emilio Herrera Linares from Spain designed and made the first full-pressured astronaut suit, called the escafandra estratonáutica. The Russians then used a model of Herrera's suit when first flying into space of which the Americans would then later adopt when creating their own space program  1936 - Research on rockets begins at the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at the California Institute of Technology (GALCIT), the predecessor to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, under the direction of Frank Malina and Theodore von Kármán  1937 - Peenemünde Army Research Center founded in Germany  1938 - The Projectile Development Establishment founded at Fort Halstead for the United Kingdom's research into military solid-fuel rockets.  1939 - Katyusha multiple rocket launchers (Russian: Катюша) are a type of rocket artillery first built and fielded by the Soviet Union.  1941 - French rocket EA-41 is launched, being the first European liquid propellant working rocket (It was, however, preceded by the Peenemunde A5 and Soviet experiments.) 1055  1941 - Jet Assisted Take Off JATO installed on US Army Air Corp Ercoupe aircraft occurred on 12 August in March Field, California.  1942 - Wernher von Braun and Walter Dornberger launch the first V-2 rocket at Peenemünde in northern Germany.  1942 - A V-2 rocket reaches an altitude of 85 km.  1944 - The V-2 rocket MW 18014 reaches an altitude of 176 km, becoming the first manmade object in space.  1945 - Lothar Sieber dies after the first vertical take-off manned rocket flight in a Bachem Ba 349 "Natter"  1945 - Operation Paperclip takes 1,600 German rocket scientists and technicians to the United States  1945 - Operation Osoaviakhim takes 2,000 German rocket scientists and technicians to the Soviet Union  1946 - First flight of the Nike missile, later the first operational surface-to-air guided missile  1947 - Chuck Yeager achieves the first manned supersonic flight in a Bell X-1 rocketpowered aircraft  1949 - Willy Ley publishes The Conquest of Space  1952 - 22 May, French Véronique 1 rocket is launched from the Algerian desert.  1952 - Wernher von Braun discusses the technical details of a manned exploration of Mars in Das Marsprojekt.  1953 - Colliers magazine publishes a series of articles on man's future in space, igniting the interest of people around the world. The series includes numerous articles by Ley and von Braun, illustrated by Chesley Bonestell.  1956 - First launch of PGM-17 Thor, the first US ballistic missile and forerunner of the Delta space launch rockets  1957 - Launch of the first ICBM, the USSR's R-7 (8K71), known to NATO as the SS6 Sapwood.  1957 - The USSR launches Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite. 1056  1958 - The U.S. launches Explorer 1, the first American artificial satellite, on a JupiterC rocket.  1958 - US launches their first ICBM, the Atlas-B (the Atlas-A was a test article only).  1961 - the USSR launches Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin reached a height of 327 km above Earth and was the first man to orbit Earth.  1961 - US, a Mercury capsule named Freedom 7 with Alan B. Shepard, spacecraft was launched by a Redstone rocket on a ballistic trajectory suborbital flight. It was the first human space mission that landed with pilot still in spacecraft, thus the first complete human spaceflight by FAI definitions.  1962 - The US launches Mercury MA-6 (Friendship 7) on an Atlas D booster, John Glenn puts America in orbit.  1963 - The USSR launches Vostok 6, Valentina Tereshkova was the first woman (and first civilian) to orbit Earth. She remained in space for nearly three days and orbited the Earth 48 times.  1963 - US X-15 rocket-plane, the first reusable manned spacecraft (suborbital) reaches space, pioneering reusability, carried launch and glide landings.  1965 - USSR Proton rocket, highly successful launch vehicle with notable payloads, Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, Mir, and ISS components  1965 - Robert Salked investigates various single stage to orbit spaceplane concepts  1966 - USSR Luna 9, the first soft landing on the Moon  1966 - USSR launches Soyuz spacecraft, longest-running series of spacecraft, eventually serving Soviet, Russian and International space missions.  1968 - USSR Zond 5, two tortoises and smaller biological Earthlings circle the Moon and return safely to Earth.  1968 - US Apollo 8, the first men to reach and orbit the Moon.  1969 - US Apollo 11, first men on the Moon, first lunar surface extravehicular activity.  1981 - US Space Shuttle pioneers reusability and glide landings  1998 - US Deep Space 1 is first deep space mission to use an ion thruster for propulsion. 1057  1998 - Russia launch Zarya module which is the first part of the International Space Station.  2001 - Russian Soyuz spacecraft sent the first space tourist Dennis Tito to International Space Station.  2004 - US-based, first privately developed, manned (suborbital) spaceflight, SpaceShipOne demonstrates reusability.  2008 - SpaceX—with their Falcon 1 rocket—became the first private entity to successfully launch a rocket into orbit.  2012 - The SpaceX Dragon space capsule—launched aboard a Falcon 9 launch vehicle— was the first private spacecraft to successfully dock with another spacecraft, and was also the first private capsule to dock at the International Space Station.  2014 - First booster rocket returning from an orbital trajectory to achieve a zero-velocityat-zero-altitude propulsive vertical landing. The first-stage booster of Falcon 9 Flight 9 made the first successful controlled ocean soft touchdown of a liquid-rocket-engine orbital booster on April 18, 2014.  2015 - SpaceX's Falcon 9 Flight 20 was the first time that the first stage of an orbital rocket made a successful return and vertical landing.  2017 - SpaceX's Falcon 9 SES-10 was the first time a used orbital rocket made a successful return  2018 - The Electron rocket was the first New-Zealand rocket to achieve orbit. The rocket is also unique in using an electric pump-fed engine. The rocket also carried an additional satellite payload called "Humanity Star", a 1-meter-wide (3 ft) carbon fiber sphere made up of 65 panels that reflect the Sun's light. Timeline of states of matter and phase transitions  1895 – Pierre Curie discovers that induced magnetization is proportional to magnetic field strength  1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discloses his research on superconductivity 1058  1912 – Peter Debye derives the T-cubed law for the low temperature heat capacity of a nonmetallic solid  1925 – Ernst Ising presents the solution to the one-dimensional Ising model  1928 – Felix Bloch applies quantum mechanics to electrons in crystal lattices, establishing the quantum theory of solids  1929 – Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac and Werner Karl Heisenberg develop the quantum theory of ferromagnetism  1932 – Louis Eugène Félix Néel discovers antiferromagnetism  1933 – Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld discover perfect superconducting diamagnetism  1933–1937 – Lev Davidovich Landau develops the Landau theory of phase transitions  1937 – Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa and John Frank Allen discover superfluidity  1941 – Lev Davidovich Landau explains superfluidity  1942 – Hannes Alfvén predicts magnetohydrodynamic waves in plasmas  1944 – Lars Onsager publishes the exact solution to the two-dimensional Ising model  1957 – John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and Robert Schrieffer develop the BCS theory of superconductivity  End of the 50s – Lev Davidovich Landau develops the theory of Fermi liquid  1959 – Philip Warren Anderson predicts localization in disordered systems  1972 – Douglas Osheroff, Robert C. Richardson, and David Lee discover that helium-3 can become a superfluid  1974 – Kenneth G. Wilson develops the renormalization group technique for treating phase transitions  1980 – Klaus von Klitzing discovers the quantum Hall effect  1982 – Horst L. Stoermer and Daniel C. Tsui discover the fractional quantum Hall effect  1983 – Robert B. Laughlin explains the fractional quantum Hall effect  1987 – Karl Alexander Müller and Georg Bednorz discover high critical temperature ceramic superconductors 1059 Timeline of postal history  First century - Cursus publicus, the state-run courier (and transportation) service of the Roman Empire was established by Augustus.  1497 - Franz von Taxis established a postal service on behalf of Emperor Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire  1516 - Henry VIII established a "Master of the Posts"  1520 - Manuel I creates the public mail service of Portugal, the Correio Público-Public Post Office.  1558, 18 October - Sigismund II Augustus established Poczta Polska, a postal service of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.  1635, 31 July - Charles I made the Royal Mail service available to the public for the first time with postage being paid by the recipient.  1639 - The General Court of Massachusetts designates the tavern of Richard Fairbanks in Boston as the official repository of overseas mail, making it the first postal establishment in the 13 colonies.  1647, 7 January - H. Morian Granted license på have a postal monopoly "Posten Norge".  1654 - Oliver Cromwell grants monopoly over service in England to "Office of Postage".  1660 - General Post Office established in England by Charles II.  1663 - England's Imperial Post Office is established in the Colony of Barbados.  1663 - Portugal's Correio-Mor das Cartas do Mar is established in Rio de Janeiro by the 7th High-Courier of the Kingdom of Portugal, Luís Gomes da Mata.  1671 - King Louis XIV grants monopoly over service in Paris to the family Pagot and Rouillé.  1675 - Beat Fischer von Reichenbach granted permission to operate a private postal service in Bern, Switzerland.  1680 - The first penny post system, known as the London Penny Post, for local delivery was introduced by William Dockwra in London. 1060  1690 – Leon II Pajot builds a privately operated postal center on 9 rue des Déchargeurs in Paris - International Horse Carriages carry Mail from Paris to Pajot et Rouillé or Thurn und Taxis Post relais around western Europe. The building, the Hotel de Villeroy still exists, it is used today for private apartments and for the exposition center Cremerie de Paris, the private courtyard can be visited by the public certain days in the summer.  1738 – the Parisian postal family Pajot and Rouille had become one of the wealthiest families in France.The Royal French minister of finance cardinal de Fleury estimates that the postal wealth should belong to the Kings of France and nationalizes the privately run postal enterprise. The postal service also leaves the historic Pajot & Rouille buildings (formerly Hotel de Villeroy) located on rue des Dechargeurs / rue des Bourdonnais.  1775 - The Continental Congress appoints Benjamin Franklin to be the first United States Postmaster General.  1792, 20 February - The US Postal Service Act establishes the United States Post Office Department.  1825 - The US establishes a dead letter office.  1828 - Hellenic postal service established.  1830 – First mail train in United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.  1831 - Independent Irish and Scottish Post Offices united under the Postmaster General of the United Kingdom, 31 years after the Act of Union  1839, 5 December - Uniform Fourpenny Post starts throughout the UK.  1840, 10 January - Uniform Penny Post starts throughout the United Kingdom.  1840, 1 May - United Kingdom issues the Penny Black and Two Pence Blue, the world's first postage stamps.  1840, 6 May - The Penny Black and Two Pence Blue, world's first postage stamps, become valid for the pre-payment of postage.  1842, 1 February- City Despatch Post New York local post.  1843, 1 March - Zürich issue their first stamps: Zurich 4 and Zurich 6.  1843, 1 August - Bull's Eyes, first stamps of Brazil  1843, 30 September - Geneva issue their first stamps: Double Geneva. 1061  1845 - Creation of the New York Postmaster's Provisional  1845 - The US star routes begin operation.  1847, 1 July- The United States issues its first stamps.  1847, 21 September - Mauritius issues its first stamps, the Mauritius "Post Office" stamps, or the Red Penny and Blue Penny.  1848 - first use of Perot Provisionals in Bermuda  1849, 1 January - first stamps of France  1849, 1 July - first stamps of Belgium, known as the "Epaulettes" type  1849, 1 November - first stamps of Bavaria  1850, 1 January- New South Wales issues its first stamps.  1850, 1 January- Spain issues its first stamps.  1850, 3 January- Victoria issues its first stamps.  1850, 7 April- Federal Switzerland issues its first stamps.  1850, 1 June- Austria and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia issue their first stamps.  1850, 29 June- Saxony issues its first stamps.  1850, 1 July- British Guiana issues its first stamps.  1850, 15 November- Prussia issues its first stamps.  1851, 1 April- Denmark issues its first stamp.  1851, 23 April - The Province of Canada issues its first stamp, the Three-Penny Beaver, designed by Sandford Fleming.  1851 - Kingdom of Hawaii issues Hawaiian Missionaries, first stamps.  1852 - New Brunswick issues its first stamps.  1852 - The Netherlands issues its first stamps.  1852 - Scinde Dawks in India  1852 - first stamps of Barbados  1852 - US issues its first stamped envelopes.  1853 - first stamps of Portugal  1853, 1 November - first stamps of Tasmania 1062  1854 - first stamps of India  1854 - first stamps of Western Australia  1855 - first stamps of South Australia  1855 - US initiates registered mail service.  1855 - US makes prepayment of postage compulsory.  1855 - first stamps of New Zealand  1856, 1 August - first stamps of Mexico  1856, 21 August - first stamps of Corrientes  1856 - first stamps of Danish West Indies  1856 - British Guiana 1c magenta issued  1857, 1 April - Ceylon(Sri Lanka) issues its first stamp.  1857 - Newfoundland issues its first stamps.  1858, 29 April - Buenos Aires issues its first stamps.  1858, 1 May - Argentine Confederation issues its first stamps.  1858, 21 July - Moldavia issues its first stamps, just a year before the state's dissolution.  1858, 28 October - Cordoba issues its first stamps.  1858 - London is divided into postal districts, precursor of British Postcode System.  1859 - Bahamas issues its first stamps.  1860, 1 November - first stamps of Queensland  1860, 1 December - first stamps of Malta  1860 - Jamaica issues its first stamps.  1860 - The Pony Express operates in the western United States for a short time.  1860 - A stamp is issued for British Columbia and Vancouver Island.  1861 - American Civil War begins, postmasters in South make provisional issues.  1861 - first official stamps of Confederate States of America  1861, 1 October - first stamps of Greece  1862, 11 January - first stamps of Argentine Republic 1063  1862 - first stamps of Antigua  1863 - Bolivia creates a private contract for mail but rescinds it six weeks later.  1863 - First stamps issued by the Ottoman Empire.  1864 - United States establishes railroad post offices.  1865, 1 November - British Columbia issues first stamps.  1865 - Bermuda has its first regular stamp issue.  1865 - Vancouver Island issues only stamps solely for the island.  1866 - first stamps of Serbia  1866 - British Honduras issues its first stamps.  1866 - Lombardy-Venetia annexed by Italy, including postal services  1866 - first stamps of Egypt  1867, 1 July - The State of Prussia nationalizes the centuries-old private Thurn und Taxis Post.  1867, 1 July - The Province of Canada is joined by Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, creating the Dominion of Canada.  1867 - first stamps of Bolivia  1867 - first stamps of Austrian post offices in the Turkish Empire  1868 - first stamps of Persia  1868 - first stamps of Azores  1870 - Angola issues its first stamps.  1871 - Afghanistan issues its first stamps.  1871, 20 April - Japan issues its first stamps.  1871, 20 July - British Columbia joins Canada, which takes over postal services.  1873, 1 July - Prince Edward Island joins Canada, which takes over postal services.  1873 - Iceland issues its first stamps.  1874, 9 October - General Postal Union (later Universal Postal Union) is formed.  1878 - General Postal Union becomes the Universal Postal Union.  1879, 1 June - Bulgaria issues its first stamps a year after its independence. 1064  1882 - stamps of Straits Settlements overprinted at Bangkok  1883 - first stamps of Siam (Thailand)  1885 - United States initiates special delivery service.  1886 - first stamps of British Bechuanaland  1886 - first stamps of Congo Free State (Belgian Congo)  1888 - first stamps of Bechuanaland Protectorate  1890 - first stamps of the Republic of the United States of Brazil  1890 - first stamps of British East Africa  1891 - first stamps of British Central Africa  1892, January 2 - first stamps of British South Africa Company, Rhodesia  1892 - first stamps of Anjouan  1892 - first stamps of Angra  1892 - first stamps of Benin  1893 - Hawaiian monarchy overthrown, first stamps of republic  1895 - stamps of Dahomey supersede those of Benin  1894 - first stamps of French Somali Coast (today Djibouti)  1896 - United States experiments with rural free delivery, is made permanent in 1902.  1897 - Germany issues first stamps for its colony of Kamerun.  1898 - First stamps of Cuba under American military occupation  1898 - Puerto Rico stamps issued under US administration  1899 - US stamps overprinted for use in Guam  1899 - first stamps of the Philippines (overprinted US issues)  1899 - US stamps supersede those of Hawaii  1900 - first stamps of Kiautchou, German colony in China  1903 - first stamps of Aitutaki  1903 - first stamps of Austrian post offices in Crete  1904 - first stamps of Panama Canal Zone 1065  1906 - first stamps of Brunei, overprints on Labuan  1908 - first stamps of the Belgian Congo under Belgian administration  1911, January 1 - first stamps of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands.  1911 - United States creates a postal savings system.  1912 - last stamps of Anjouan, superseded by Madagascar  1913 - first stamps of Australia, superseding those of the various former colonies  1913, 5 May - first stamps of Albania  1913 - United States initiates parcel post service, using special stamps.  1915, 15 August - British forces overprint Iranian stamps in Bushire, use until 16 October.  1915 - British and French occupation forces overprint stamps for Cameroon.  1916 - United States postal inspectors solve the last known stagecoach robbery in the US.  1917- British armed forces in Palestine issue the famous EEF stamps. December 1917  1918 - United States issues its first airmail stamps; a sheet of the Inverted Jenny is discovered among them.  1918 - first stamps of the Italian occupation of Trieste and Trentino  1919 - first stamps of Armenia and Azerbaijan  1919 - first stamps of Batum  1920 - plebiscite stamps for Allenstein  1920 - largest private US postage company, Pitney Bowes formed.  1920 - first stamps of French Upper Volta  1920 - first stamps of La Aguera  1921 - East Africa and Uganda Protectorates issues stamps.  1921 - France issues first stamps for its mandate of Cameroon.  1922, 13 July - Barbuda overprints stamps of Leeward Islands.  1922 - Karelia, briefly independent, issues stamps  1922 - first stamps of British Kenya and Uganda  1922 - first stamps of Ascension Island 1066  1922 - last stamps of La Aguera  1922 - first stamps of Irish Free State  1923 - first stamps of Jordan (as a British mandate)  1923 - first stamps of Transcaucasian SFSR, superseding those of Armenia  1923 - first stamps of Iraq  1923 - first stamps of Kuwait  1924 - first stamps of French Algeria  1925 - first stamps of Alaouites  1927- First new [4]stamps for the civil administration in Palestine.  1928 - first stamps of Spanish Andorra  1931, 16 June - first stamps of French Andorra  1933, 10 August - first stamps of Bahrain, issued by Indian postal administration  1933, 1 December - first stamps of Basutoland  1935 - common issue of stamps for Silver Jubilee of King George V  1935, 15 November - first stamps of Commonwealth of the Philippines  1935 - first stamps of Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika  1935 - United States initiates Trans-Pacific airmail service.  1937, 1 April - first stamps of Aden  1937, 1 April - first stamps of Burma, overprints on India  1937, 12 May - common issue of stamps for coronation of King George VI  1938, 14 April - stamps issued for Alexandretta, last on 10 November  1938 - Austrian stamps are phased out after the Anschluss.  1939 - Postal censorship introduced in several countries, both combatants and neutrals, involved in World War II  1940 - Pitcairn Islands issue their first stamps.  1941 - United States creates highway post offices.  1942 - United States uses V-mail to handle armed forces' mail. 1067  1945 - provisional stamps issued for Austria  1946 - first stamps of independent Jordan  1947 - India gains independence from Britain  1948 - Israel issues its first stamps-The Doar Ivri set. 16 May 1948 [The new country still has no name]  1948 - Israel issues its first Israel stamps with the word ISRAEL on the stamps. 26 September 1948  1948 - British postal administration takes over in Bahrain  1948 - Pakistan issues its first stamps.  1949 - Newfoundland joins Canada and issues its last stamps.  1949, 18 July - Ryukyu Islands issues its first stamps.  1951 - Cambodia issues its first stamps.  1951 - United Nations issues its first stamps.  1955 - United States initiates certified mail service.  1957 - United States establishes Citizens' Stamp Advisory Committee to choose stamp designs  1958, 23 April - members of West Indies Federation make a joint stamp issue.  1959 - UK Postcode scheme introduced.  1959 - The Republic of Upper Volta issues its first stamps.  1959 - The USS Barbero and United States Postal Service attempt the delivery of mail via Missile Mail.  1960 - Katanga secedes from Congo, issues stamps until 1961.  1960, 1 October - UK trust territory of the Cameroons issues stamps, in use into 1961.  1961, 1 October - Independent Cameroon issues its first stamps.  1962 - Bhutan issues its first stamps.  1962, 1 July - Burundi issues its first stamps.  1963 - United States introduces the ZIP Code.  1963, 1 February - British Antarctic Territory issues its first stamps. 1068  1963, 12 December - Kenya issues its first stamps.  1964 - First stamps issued by independent Republic of Malta.  1964, 9 February - Sierra Leone issues the world's first self-adhesive stamps.  1964, 30 March - Abu Dhabi issues its first stamps.  1964, 20 June - Ajman issues its first stamps.  1966, 30 September - first stamps of Botswana  1966, 2 December - first stamps of independent Barbados  1966 - United States ends its postal savings system.  1967, 21 August - first stamps of Afars and Issas  1967, 4 September - first stamps of Anguilla  1968, 17 January - first stamps of British Indian Ocean Territory  1968, 19 November - first regular stamps of Barbuda  1968 - United States initiates priority mail as a type of first-class mail.  1970 - United States passes Postal Reorganization Act, which changed the postal service from a government department to a corporation owned by the government.  1970 - United States initiates experimental express mail service, makes it permanent in 1977.  1971 - United States Postal Service begins operation as a corporation.  1971 1 April - Canadian six-character postal codes introduced.  1971, 29 July - Bangladesh issues its first stamps.  1973, 1 June - Belize issues its first stamps.  1974 - United States ends its use of highway post offices.  1975, 11 November - first stamp of independent Angola  1975, 8 December - first stamps of renamed Benin  1976, 1 January - first stamps of Tuvalu, formerly the Ellice Islands.  1976, 1 January - first stamps of the Gilbert Islands (changed to Kiribati in 1979)  1977, 30 June - United States ends use of railroad post offices.  1978 - United States begins to copyright postage stamps and other philatelic items. 1069  1979, 12 July - first stamps of Kiribati, formerly the Gilbert Islands.  1979 - Canal Zone transferred to Panama along with postal service.  1982 - United States introduces E-COM, an electronic message service.  1983 - United States introduces ZIP + 4.  1984, 21 November - first stamps of Burkina Faso  1985 - Jackie Strange, first female Deputy US Postmaster General  1985 - United States terminates E-COM service.  1986, 1 January - first stamps of Aruba  1992, 20 March - Belarus issues its first stamps.  1992, 26 March - Azerbaijan resumes issuing stamps.  1992 - Kazakhstan issues its first stamps.  1994, 28 January - Canada issues the world's first 2 part customizable greetings stamps.  2000, 28 December - Canada issues the world's first 2 part personalized photo stamps, called "Picture Postage".  2007, 12 April - USPS issues a non-denominated stamp called the forever stamp  2011, 13 July - newly independent South Sudan issues its first postage stamps.  2015, 1 February - Megan Brennan appointed first female US Postmaster General. Timeline of lighting technology  125,000 BC: Widespread control of fire by early humans.  70,000 BC: A hollow rock, shell, or other natural found object was filled with moss or a similar material that was soaked in animal fat and ignited.  c. 4500 BC: oil lamps  c. 3000 BC: candles are invented.  1780: Aimé Argand invents the central draught fixed oil lamp.  1784: Argand adds glass chimney to central draught lamp. 1070  1792: William Murdoch begins experimenting with gas lighting and probably produced the first gas light in this year.  1800: French watchmaker Bernard Guillaume Carcel overcomes the disadvantages of the Argand-type lamps with his clockwork fed Carcel lamp.  1800-1809: Humphry Davy invents the arc lamp when using Voltaic piles (battery) for his electrolysis experiments.  1802: William Murdoch illuminates the exterior of the Soho Foundry with gas.  1805: Philips and Lee's Cotton Mill, Manchester was the first industrial factory to be fully lit by gas.  1809: Humphry Davy publicly demonstrates first electric lamp over 10,000 lumens, at the Royal Society.  1813: National Heat and Light Company formed by Fredrich Winzer (Winsor)  1815: Humphry Davy invents the miner's safety lamp.  1823: Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner invents the Döbereiner's lamp.  1835: James Bowman Lindsay demonstrates a light bulb based electric lighting system to the citizens of Dundee.  1841: Arc-lighting is used as experimental public lighting in Paris.  1853: Ignacy Lukasiewicz invents the modern kerosene lamp.  1856: glassblower Heinrich Geissler confines the electric arc in a Geissler tube.  1867: A. E. Becquerel demonstrates the first fluorescent lamp.  1874: Alexander Lodygin patents an incandescent light bulb.  1875: Henry Woodward patents an electric light bulb.  1876: Pavel Yablochkov invents the Yablochkov candle, the first practical carbon arc lamp, for public street lighting in Paris.  1879: Thomas Edison and Joseph Wilson Swan patent the carbon-thread incandescent lamp. It lasted 40 hours.  1880: Edison produced a 16-watt lightbulb that lasts 1500 hours. 1071  1882: Introduction of large scale direct current based indoor incandescent lighting and lighting utility with Edison's first Pearl Street Station  c. 1885: Incandescent gas mantle invented, revolutionises gas lighting.  1886: Great Barrington, Massachusetts demonstration project, a much more versatile (long distance transmission) transformer based alternating current based indoor incandescent lighting system introduced by William Stanley, Jr. working for George Westinghouse. Stanley lit 23 businesses along a 4000 feet length of main street stepping a 500 AC volt current at the street down to 100 volts to power incandescent lamps at each location.  1893: GE introduces first commercial fully enclosed carbon arc lamp. Sealed in glass globes, it lasts 100h and therefore 10 times longer than hitherto carbon arc lamps  1893: Nikola Tesla puts forward his ideas on high frequency and wireless electric lighting which included public demonstrations where he lit a Geissler tube wirelessly.  1894: D. McFarlan Moore creates the Moore tube, precursor of electric gasdischarge lamps.  1897: Walther Nernst invents and patents his incandescent lamp, based on solid state electrolytes.  1901: Peter Cooper Hewitt creates the first commercial mercury-vapor lamp.  1904: Alexander Just and Franjo Hanaman invent the tungsten filament for incandescent lightbulbs.  1910: Georges Claude demonstrates neon lighting at the Paris Motor Show.  1912: Charles P. Steinmetz invents the metal-halide lamp.  1913: Irving Langmuir discovers that inert gas could double the luminous efficacy of incandescent lightbulbs.  1917: Burnie Lee Benbow patents the coiled coil filament.  1920: Arthur H. Compton invents the sodium-vapor lamp.  1921: Junichi Miura creates the first incandescent lightbulb to utilize a coiled coil filament.  1925: Marvin Pipkin invents the first internal frosted lightbulb. 1072  1926: Edmund Germer patents the modern fluorescent lamp.  1927: Oleg Losev creates the first LED (light-emitting diode).  1953: Elmer Fridrich invents the halogen light bulb.  1953: André Bernanose and several colleagues observe electroluminescence in organic materials.  1960: Theodore H. Maiman creates the first laser.  1962: Nick Holonyak Jr. develops the first practical visible-spectrum (red) light-emitting diode.  1963: Kurt Schmidt invents the first high pressure sodium-vapor lamp.  1972: M. George Craford invents the first yellow light-emitting diode.  1972: Herbert Paul Maruska and Jacques Pankove create the first violet light-emitting diode.  1981: Philips sells their first Compact Fluorescent Energy Saving Lamps, with integrated conventional ballast.  1981: Thorn Lighting Group exhibits the ceramic discharge metal-halide lamp.  1985: Osram answers with the first electronic Energy Saving Lamps to be very successful  1987: Ching W. Tang and Steven Van Slyke at Eastman Kodak create the first practical organic light-emitting diode (OLED).  1990: Michael Ury, Charles Wood, and several colleagues develop the sulfur lamp.  1991: Philips invents a fluorescent lightbulb that lasts 60,000 hours using magnetic induction.  1994: T5 lamps with cool tip are introduced to become the leading fluorescent lamps with up to 117 lm/W with good color rendering. These and almost all new fluorescent lamps are to be operated on electronic ballasts only.  1994: The first commercial sulfur lamp is sold by Fusion Lighting.  1995: Shuji Nakamura at Nichia labs invents the first practical blue and with additional phosphor, white LED, starting an LED boom.  2008: Ushio Lighting demonstrates the first LED Filament. 1073  2011: Philips wins L Prize for LED screw-in lamp equivalent to 60W incandescent Alamp for general use. Timeline of time measurement technology  270 BCE - Ctesibius builds a popular water clock, called a clepsydra  46 BCE - Julius Caesar and Sosigenes develop a solar calendar with leap years  11th century - Sets of hourglasses were maintained by ship's pages to mark the progress of a ship during its voyage  11th century - Large town clocks were used in Europe to display local time, maintained by hand  1335 - First known mechanical clock, in Milan  1502 - Peter Henlein builds the first pocketwatch  1582 - Pope Gregory XIII, Aloysius Lilius, and Christopher Clavius introduce a Gregorian calendar with an improved leap year system  1655 - Cassini builds the heliometer of San Petronio in Bologna, to standardize Solar noon.  1656 - Christiaan Huygens builds the first accurate pendulum clock  1676 - Motion works and minute hand introduced by Daniel Quare  1680 - Second hand introduced  1737 - John Harrison presents the first stable marine chronometer, thereby allowing for precise longitude determination while at sea  1850 - Aaron Lufkin Dennison starts in Roxbury, Mass.U.S.A. the Waltham Watch Company and develops the American System of Watch Manufacturing.  1884 - International Meridian Conference adopts Greenwich Mean Time for consistency with Nevil Maskelyne's 18th century observations for the Method of Lunar Distances  1893 - Introduction by Webb C. Ball of the General Railroad Timepiece Standards in North America: Railroad chronometers 1074  1928 - Joseph Horton and Warren Morrison build the first quartz crystal oscillator clock  1946 - Felix Bloch and Edward Purcell develop nuclear magnetic resonance  1949 - Harold Lyons develops an atomic clock based on the quantum mechanical vibrations of the ammonia molecule  1982 - The Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH is founded by the merger of two previous organisations  1983 - Radio-controlled clocks become common place in Europe  1983 - First collection of 12 Swatch models went on sale on March 1, in Zurich - the first fashion watch  1994 - Radio-controlled clocks become common place in USA Timeline of materials technology  28,000 BC – People wear beads, bracelets, and pendants  14,500 BC – First pottery, made by the Jōmon people of Japan.  3rd millennium BC – Copper metallurgy is invented and copper is used for ornamentation  2nd millennium BC – Bronze is used for weapons and armor  16th century BC – The Hittites develop crude iron metallurgy  13th century BC – Invention of steel when iron and charcoal are combined properly  10th century BC – Glass production begins in ancient Near East  1st millennium BC – Pewter beginning to be used in China and Egypt  1000 BC – The Phoenicians introduce dyes made from the purple murex.  3rd century BC – Wootz steel, the first crucible steel, is invented in ancient India  50s BC – Glassblowing techniques flourish in Phoenicia  20s BC – Roman architect Vitruvius describes low-water-content method for mixing concret  3rd century – Cast iron widely used in Han Dynasty China 1075  300 – Greek alchemist Zomius, summarizing the work of Egyptian alchemists, describes arsenic and lead acetate  4th century – Iron pillar of Delhi is the oldest surviving example of corrosion-resistant steel  720 – Abu Masa Dshaffar discovers sulfuric acid, nitric acid, aqua regia, and silver nitrate  750 – Geber, an Arabian alchemist, describes the preparation of aluminum chloride, white lead, nitric acid, and acetic acid  8th century – Porcelain is invented in Tang Dynasty China  8th century – Tin-glazing of ceramics invented by Arabic chemists and potters in Basra, Iraq  9th century – Stonepaste ceramics invented in Iraq  900 – Al-razi, known as Rhazes, a Persian physician and alchemist, describes the preparation of plaster of Paris and metallic antimony  9th century – Lustreware appears in Mesopotamia  1000 – Gunpowder is developed in China  1340 – In Liège, Belgium, the first blast furnaces for the production of iron are developed  1448 – Johann Gutenberg develops type metal alloy  1450s – Cristallo, a clear soda-based glass, is invented by Angelo Barovier  1540 – Vannoccio Biringuccio publishes first systematic book on metallurgy  1556 – Georg Agricola's influential book on metallurgy  1590 – Glass lenses are developed in the Netherlands and used for the first time in microscopes and telescopes  1664 – In the pipes supplying water to the gardens at Versailles, cast iron is used  1717 – Abraham Darby makes iron with coke, a derivative of coal  1738 – Metallic zinc processed by distillation from calamine and charcoal patented by William Champion  1740 – Crucible steel technique developed by Benjamin Huntsman 1076  1774 – Joseph Priestley discovers oxygen, Johann Gottlieb Gahn discovers manganese, Karl Wilhelm Scheele discovers chlorine  1779 – Hydraulic cement (stucco) patented by Bryan Higgins for use as an exterior plaster  1799 – Acid battery made from copper/zinc by Alessandro Volta  1821 – Thermocouple invented by Thomas Johann Seebeck  1824 – Portland cement patent issued to Joseph Aspdin  1825 – Metallic aluminum produced by Hans Christian Ørsted  1839 – Vulcanized rubber invented by Charles Goodyear  1839 – Silver-based photographic processes invented by Louis Daguerre and William Fox Talbot  1855 – Bessemer process for mass production of steel patented by Henry Bessemer  1861 – Color photography demonstrated by James Clerk Maxwell  1883 – First solar cells using selenium waffles made by Charles Fritts  1893 – Thermite Welding developed and soon used to weld rails  1902 – Synthetic rubies created by the Verneuil process developed by Auguste Verneuil  1908 - Cellophane invented by Jacques E. Brandenberger  1909 – Bakelite hard thermosetting plastic presented by Leo Baekeland  1911 – Superconductivity discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes  1912 – Stainless steel invented by Harry Brearley  1916 – Method for growing single crystals of metals invented by Jan Czochralski  1919 – The merchant ship Fullagar has the first all welded hull.  1924 – Pyrex invented by scientists at Corning Incorporated, a glass with a very low coefficient of thermal expansion  1931 – synthetic rubber called neoprene developed by Julius Nieuwland  1931 – Nylon developed by Wallace Carothers  1938 – The process for making poly-tetrafluoroethylene, better known as Teflon discovered by Roy Plunkett 1077  1939 – Dislocations in metals confirmed by Robert W. Cahn  1947 – First germanium point-contact transistor invented  1947 – First commercial application of a piezoelectric ceramic: barium titanate used as a phonograph pickup  1951 – Individual atoms seen for the first time using the field ion microscope  1953 – Metallic catalysts which greatly improve the strength of polyethylene polymers discovered by Karl Ziegler  1954 – Silicon solar cells with 6% efficiency made at Bell Laboratories  1954 – Argon oxygen decarburization (AOD) refining invented by scientists at the Union Carbide Corporation  1959 – Float glass process patented by the Pilkington Brothers  1962 – SQUID superconducting quantum interference device invented  1968 – Liquid crystal display developed by RCA  1970 – Silica optical fibers grown by Corning Incorporated  1980 – Duplex stainless steels developed which resist oxidation in chlorides  1984 – Fold-forming system developed by Charles Lewton-Brain to produce complex three dimensional forms rapidly from sheet metal  1985 - The first fullerene molecule discovered by scientists at Rice University  1986 - The first high temperature superconductor is discovered by Georg Bednorz and K. Alex Müller Timeline of low-temperature technology  c. 2000 BC - 1387 AD – Aryan (Pagan) kingdom between Baltic and Black seas used basements filled with ice during Winter as refrigerators through Summer.  c. 1700 BC – Zimri-Lim, ruler of Mari in Syria commanded the construction of one of the first ice houses near the Euphrates.  c. 500 BC – The yakhchal (meaning "ice pit" in Persian) is an ancient Persian type of refrigerator. The structure was formed from a mortar resistant to heat transmission, in the 1078 shape of a dome. Snow and ice was stored beneath the ground, effectively allowing access to ice even in hot months and allowing for prolonged food preservation. Often a badgir was coupled with the yakhchal in order to slow the heat loss. Modern refrigerators are still called yakhchal in Persian.  c.a. 60 AD - Hero of Alexandria knew of the principle that certain substances, notably air, expand and contract and described a demonstration in which a closed tube partially filled with air had its end in a container of water. The expansion and contraction of the air caused the position of the water/air interface to move along the tube. This was the first established principle of gas behaviour vs temperature, and principle of first thermometers later on. The idea could predate him even more (Empedocles of Agrigentum in his 460 B.C. book On Nature).  1396 AD - Ice storage warehouses called "Dong-bing-go-tango" (meaning "east ice storage warehouse" in Korean) and Seo-bing-go ("west ice storage warehouse") were built in Han-Yang (currently Seoul, Korea). The buildings housed ice that was collected from the frozen Han River in January (by lunar calendar). The warehouse was wellinsulated, providing the royal families with ice into the summer months. These warehouses were closed in 1898 AD but the buildings are still intact in Seoul.  1593 – Galileo Galilei builds a first modern thermoscope. But it is possible the invention was by Santorio Santorio or independently around same time by Cornelis Drebbel. The principle of operation was known in Ancient Greece.  c.a. 1611-1613 – Francesco Sagredo or Santorio Santorio, put a numerical scale on a thermoscope.  1617 – Giuseppe Biancani publishes first clear diagram of thermoscope  1638 – Robert Fludd describes thermometer with a scale, using air thermometer principle with column of air and liquid water.  1650 – Otto von Guericke designed and built the world's first vacuum pump and created the world's first ever vacuum known as the Magdeburg hemispheres to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature abhors a vacuum'.  1656 – Robert Boyle and Robert Hooke built an air pump on this design. 1079  1662 – Boyle's law (gas law relating pressure and volume) is demonstrated using a vacuum pump  1665 – Boyle theorizes a minimum temperature in New Experiments and Observations touching Cold.  1679 – Denis Papin – safety valve  1702 – Guillaume Amontons first calculates absolute zero to be −240 °C using an air thermometer of his own invention (1702), theorizing at this point the gas would reach zero volume and zero pressure.  1714 – Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invented the first reliable thermometer, using mercury instead of alcohol and water mixtures  1724 – Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit proposes a Fahrenheit scale, which had finer scale and greater reproducibility than competitors.  1730 – René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur invented an alcohol thermometer and temperature scale ultimately proved to be less reliable than Fahrenheit's mercury thermometer.  1742 – Anders Celsius proposed a scale with zero at the boiling point and 100 degrees at the freezing point of water. It was later changed to be the other way around, on the input from Swedish academy of science.  1756 – The first documented public demonstration of artificial refrigeration by William Cullen  1782 – Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace invent the ice-calorimeter  1784 – Gaspard Monge liquefied the first gas producing liquid sulfur dioxide.  1787 – Charles's law (Gas law, relating volume and temperature)  1802 – John Dalton wrote "the reducibility of all elastic fluids of whatever kind, into liquids"  1802 – Gay-Lussac's law (Gas law, relating temperature and pressure).  1803 – Domestic ice box  1803 – Thomas Moore of Baltimore, Md. received a patent on refrigeration. 1080  1805 – Oliver Evans designed the first closed circuit refrigeration machine based on the vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.  1809 – Jacob Perkins patented the first refrigerating machine  1810 – John Leslie freezes water to ice by using an airpump.  1811 – Avogadro's law a gas law  1823 – Michael Faraday liquified ammonia to cause cooling  1824 – Sadi Carnot – the Carnot Cycle  1834 – Ideal gas law by Émile Clapeyron  1834 – Émile Clapeyron characterizes phase transitions between two phases in form of Clausius–Clapeyron relation.  1834 – Jacob Perkins obtained the first patent for a vapor-compression refrigeration system.  1834 – Jean-Charles Peltier discovers the Peltier effect  1844 – Charles Piazzi Smyth proposes comfort cooling  c.1850 – Michael Faraday makes a hypothesis that freezing substances increases their dielectric constant.  1851 – John Gorrie patented his mechanical refrigeration machine in the US to make ice to cool the air  1852 – James Prescott Joule and William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin discover Joule– Thomson effect  1856 – James Harrison patented an ether liquid-vapour compression refrigeration system and developed the first practical ice-making and refrigeration room for use in the brewing and meat-packing industries of Geelong, Victoria, Australia.  1856 – August Krönig simplistic foundation of kinetic theory of gases.  1857 – Rudolf Clausius creates a sophisticated theory of gases based including all degrees of freedom, as well derives Clausius–Clapeyron relation from basic principles.  1857 – Carl Wilhelm Siemens, the Siemens cycle 1081  1858 – Julius Plücker observed for the first time some pumping effect due to electrical discharge.  1859 – James Clerk Maxwell determines distribution of velocities and kinetic energies in a gas, and explains emergent property of temperature and heat, and creates a first law of statistical mechanics.  1859 – Ferdinand Carré – The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia")  1862 – Alexander Carnegie Kirk invents the Air cycle machine  1864 – Charles Tellier patented a refrigeration system using dimethyl ether  1867 - Thaddeus S. C. Lowe patented a refrigeration system using carbon dioxide, and in 1869 made ice making machine using dry carbon dioxide. Same year Lowe put a compressor based refrigeration device on a bough steamship for transport of frozen meat.  1869 – Charles Tellier installed a cold storage plant in France.  1869 – Thomas Andrews discovers existence of a critical point in fluids.  1871 – Carl von Linde built his first ammonia compression machine.  c.a. 1873 – Van der Waals publishes and proposes a real gas model named later a Van der Waals equation.  1875 - Raoul Pictet develops a refrigeration machine using sulphur dioxide to combat high-pressure problems of ammonia in when used in tropical climates (mainly for the purpose of shipping meat).  1876 – Carl von Linde patented equipment to liquefy air using the Joule Thomson expansion process and regenerative cooling  1877 – Raoul Pictet and Louis Paul Cailletet, working separately, develop two methods to liquefy oxygen.  1879 – Bell-Coleman machine  1882 – William Soltau Davidson fitted a compression refrigeration unit to the New Zealand vessel Dunedin  1883 – Zygmunt Wróblewski condenses experimentally useful quantities of liquid oxygen 1082  Pharmacodynamics: What the drug does to the body.  Pharmacokinetics: What the body does to the drugs. The drug is an exogenous non-nutritive chemical substance which when taken in the solid form by the mouth enter the digestive tract and there it is transformed into a solution and passed on to the liver where it is chemically altered and finally released into the blood stream. And in the blood it exists in two forms: bound and unbound. Depending on its specific affinity for proteins in the blood (albumin, globulins), a proportion of the drug may become bound to plasma proteins, with the remainder being unbound. And since the drug-protein binding is reversible, the chemical equilibrium exists between the bound and unbound states, such that: Protein + drug ↔ Protein-drug complex. And the bloodstream carries the drug (free plus bound) to the site of action. Free drug reversibly bind to the target cell surface receptors. And the Bound drug slowly dissociates from the protein and binds reversibly to the target cell surface receptors to produce its pharmacological effect. Drug + Receptor ↔ Drug - Receptor complex → pharmacological effect And the equilibrium constant for the formation of Drug - Receptor complex is given by: K= [Drug − Receptor complex] [Drug] [Receptor] And K is a measure of how tightly a drug binds to the receptor: The higher the K value the drug bind well to the receptor, the action of the drug will be longer. In general, drugs with higher K values will require lower concentrations to achieve sufficient receptor occupancy to exert an effect. And after its pharmacological effect drug slowly detaches from the receptor. And then it is sent to the liver. And there it is transformed into a more water soluble compound called metabolite and released from the body through urine, sweat, saliva, and excretory products.  1885 – Zygmunt Wróblewski published hydrogen's critical temperature as 33 K; critical pressure, 13.3 atmospheres; and boiling point, 23 K.  1888 – Loftus Perkins develops the "Arktos" cold chamber for preserving food, using an early ammonia absorption system.  1892 – James Dewar invents the vacuum-insulated, silver-plated glass Dewar flask  1895 – Carl von Linde files for patent protection of the Hampson–Linde cycle for liquefaction of atmospheric air or other gases (approved in 1903).  1898 – James Dewar condenses liquid hydrogen by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask.  1905 – Carl von Linde obtains pure liquid oxygen and nitrogen.  1906 – Willis Carrier patents the basis for modern air conditioning.  1908 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes liquifies helium.  1911 – Heike Kamerlingh Onnes discloses his research on metallic low-temperature phenomenon characterised by no electrical resistance, calling it superconductivity.  1915 – Wolfgang Gaede – the Diffusion pump  1920 – Edmund Copeland and Harry Edwards use iso-butane in small refrigerators.  1922 – Baltzar von Platen and Carl Munters invent the 3 fluids absorption chiller, exclusively driven by heat.  1924 – Fernand Holweck – the Holweck pump  1926 – Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd invent the Einstein refrigerator.  1926 – Willem Hendrik Keesom solidifies helium.  1926 – General Electric Company introduced the first hermetic compressor refrigerator  1929 - David Forbes Keith of Toronto, Ontario, Canada received a patent for the Icy Ball which helped hundreds of thousands of families through the Dirty Thirties.  1933 – William Giauque and others – Adiabatic demagnetization refrigeration  1937 – Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, John F. Allen, and Don Misener discover superfluidity using helium-4 at 2.2 K 1083  1937 – Frans Michel Penning invents a type of cold cathode vacuum gauge known as Penning gauge  1944 – Manne Siegbahn, the Siegbahn pump  1949 – S.G. Sydoriak, E.R. Grilly, E.F. Hammel, first measurements on pure 3He in the 1 K range  1951 – Heinz London invents the principle of the dilution refrigerator  1955 – Willi Becker turbomolecular pump concept  1956 – G.K. Walters, W.M. Fairbank, discovery of phase separation in 3He-4He mixtures  1957 – Lewis D. Hall, Robert L. Jepsen and John C. Helmer ion pump based on Penning discharge  1959 – Kleemenko cycle  1965 – D.O. Edwards, and others, discovery of finite solubility of 3He in 4He at 0K  1965 – P. Das, R. de Bruyn Ouboter, K.W. Taconis, one-shot dilution refrigerator  1966 – H.E. Hall, P.J. Ford, K. Thomson, continuous dilution refrigerator  1972 – David Lee, Robert Coleman Richardson and Douglas Osheroff discover superfluidity in helium-3 at 0.002 K.  1973 – Linear compressor  1978 – Laser cooling demonstrated in the groups of Wineland and Dehmelt.  1983 - Orifice-type pulse tube refrigerator invented by Mikulin, Tarasov, and Shkrebyonock  1986 – Karl Alexander Müller and J. Georg Bednorz discover high-temperature superconductivity  1995 – Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman create the first Bose–Einstein condensate, using a dilute gas of Rubidium-87 cooled to 170 nK. They won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 2001 for BEC.  1999 – D.J. Cousins and others, dilution refrigerator reaching 1.75 mK  1999 - The current world record lowest temperature was set at 100 picokelvins (pK), or 0.000 000 000 1 of a kelvin, by cooling the nuclear spins in a piece of rhodium metal. 1084  2000 - Nuclear spin temperatures below 100 pK were reported for an experiment at the Helsinki University of Technology's Low Temperature Lab in Espoo, Finland. However, this was the temperature of one particular degree of freedom – a quantum property called nuclear spin – not the overall average thermodynamic temperature for all possible degrees in freedom.  2014 - Scientists in the CUORE collaboration at the Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy cooled a copper vessel with a volume of one cubic meter to 0.006 kelvins (−273.144 °C; −459.659 °F) for 15 days, setting a record for the lowest temperature in the known universe over such a large contiguous volume  2015 - Experimental physicists at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) successfully cooled molecules in a gas of sodium potassium to a temperature of 500 nanokelvins, and it is expected to exhibit an exotic state of matter by cooling these molecules a bit further.  2017 - Cold Atom Laboratory (CAL), an experimental instrument being developed for launch to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2018. The instrument will create extremely cold conditions in the microgravity environment of the ISS leading to the formation of Bose Einstein Condensates that are a magnitude colder than those that are created in laboratories on Earth. In a space-based laboratory, up to 20 seconds interaction times and as low as 1 picokelvin (10−12 K) temperatures are achievable, and it could lead to exploration of unknown quantum mechanical phenomena and test some of the most fundamental laws of physics. Timeline of hydrogen technologies  c. 1520 – First recorded observation of hydrogen by Paracelsus through dissolution of metals (iron, zinc, and tin) in sulfuric acid.  1625 – First description of hydrogen by Johann Baptista van Helmont. First to use the word "gas". 1085  1650 – Turquet de Mayerne obtained a gas or "inflammable air" by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on iron.  1662 – Boyle's law (gas law relating pressure and volume)  1670 – Robert Boyle produced hydrogen by reacting metals with acid.  1672 – "New Experiments touching the Relation between Flame and Air" by Robert Boyle.  1679 – Denis Papin – safety valve  1700 – Nicolas Lemery showed that the gas produced in the sulfuric acid/iron reaction was explosive in air  1755 – Joseph Black confirmed that different gases exist. / Latent heat  1766 – Henry Cavendish published in "On Factitious Airs" a description of "dephlogisticated air" by reacting zinc metal with hydrochloric acid and isolated a gas 7 to 11 times lighter than air.  1774 – Joseph Priestley isolated and categorized oxygen.  1780 – Felice Fontana discovers the water-gas shift reaction  1783 – Antoine Lavoisier gave hydrogen its name (Gk: hydro = water, genes = born of)  1783 – Jacques Charles made the first flight with his hydrogen balloon "La Charlière".  1783 – Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre Laplace measured the heat of combustion of hydrogen using an ice calorimeter.  1784 – Jean-Pierre Blanchard, attempted a dirigible hydrogen balloon, but it would not steer.  1784 – The invention of the Lavoisier Meusnier iron-steam process, generating hydrogen by passing water vapor over a bed of red-hot iron at 600 °C.  1785 – Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier built the hybrid Rozière balloon.  1787 – Charles's law (gas law, relating volume and temperature)  1789 – Jan Rudolph Deiman and Adriaan Paets van Troostwijk using an electrostatic machine and a Leyden jar for the first electrolysis of water.  1800 – William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle decomposed water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis with a voltaic pile. 1086  1800 – Johann Wilhelm Ritter duplicated the experiment with a rearranged set of electrodes to collect the two gases separately.  1801 – Humphry Davy discovers the concept of the Fuel Cell.  1806 – François Isaac de Rivaz built the de Rivaz engine, the first internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen.  1809 – Thomas Forster observed with a theodolite the drift of small free pilot balloons filled with "inflammable gas"  1809 – Gay-Lussac's law (gas law, relating temperature and pressure)  1811 – Amedeo Avogadro – Avogadro's law a gas law  1819 – Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe.  1820 – W. Cecil wrote a letter "On the application of hydrogen gas to produce a moving power in machinery"  1823 – Goldsworthy Gurney demonstrated limelight.  1823 – Döbereiner's Lamp a lighter invented by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner.  1823 – Goldsworthy Gurney devised an oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.  1824 – Michael Faraday invented the rubber balloon.  1826 – Thomas Drummond built the Drummond Light.  1826 – Samuel Brown tested his internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter's Hill  1834 – Michael Faraday published Faraday's laws of electrolysis.  1834 – Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron – Ideal gas law  1836 – John Frederic Daniell invented a primary cell in which hydrogen was eliminated in the generation of the electricity.  1839 – Christian Friedrich Schönbein published the principle of the fuel cell in the "Philosophical Magazine".  1839 – William Robert Grove developed the Grove cell.  1842 – William Robert Grove developed the first fuel cell (which he called the gas voltaic battery) 1087  1849 – Eugène Bourdon – Bourdon gauge (manometer)  1863 – Etienne Lenoir made a test drive from Paris to Joinville-le-Pont with the 1cylinder, 2-stroke Hippomobile.  1866 – August Wilhelm von Hofmann invents the Hofmann voltameter for the electrolysis of water.  1873 – Thaddeus S. C. Lowe – Water gas, the process used the water gas shift reaction.  1874 – Jules Verne – The Mysterious Island, "water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen and oxygen of which it is constituted will be used"  1884 – Charles Renard and Arthur Constantin Krebs launch the airship La France.  1885 – Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski published hydrogen's critical temperature as 33 K; critical pressure, 13.3 atmospheres; and boiling point, 23 K.  1889 – Ludwig Mond and Carl Langer coined the name fuel cell and tried to build one running on air and Mond gas.  1893 – Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald experimentally determined the interconnected roles of the various components of the fuel cell.  1895 – Hydrolysis  1896 – Jackson D.D. and Ellms J.W., hydrogen production by microalgae (Anabaena)  1896 – Leon Teisserenc de Bort carries out experiments with high flying instrumental weather balloons.  1897 – Paul Sabatier facilitated the use of hydrogenation with the discovery of the Sabatier reaction.  1898 – James Dewar liquefied hydrogen by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in London.  1899 – James Dewar collected solid hydrogen for the first time.  1900 – Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin launched the first hydrogen-filled Zeppelin LZ1 airship.  1901 – Wilhelm Normann introduced the hydrogenation of fats.  1903 – Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovskii published "The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices" 1088  1907 – Lane hydrogen producer  1909 – Count Ferdinand Adolf August von Zeppelin made the first long distance flight with the Zeppelin LZ5.  1909 – Linde–Frank–Caro process  1910 – The first Zeppelin passenger flight with the Zeppelin LZ7.  1910 – Fritz Haber patented the Haber process.  1912 – The first scheduled international Zeppelin passenger flights with the Zeppelin LZ13.  1913 – Niels Bohr explains the Rydberg formula for the spectrum of hydrogen by imposing a quantization condition on classical orbits of the electron in hydrogen  1919 – The first Atlantic crossing by airship with the Beardmore HMA R34.  1920 – Hydrocracking, a plant for the commercial hydrogenation of brown coal is commissioned at Leuna in Germany.  1923 – Steam reforming, the first synthetic methanol is produced by BASF in Leuna  1923 – J. B. S. Haldane envisioned in Daedalus; or, Science and the Future "great power stations where during windy weather the surplus power will be used for the electrolytic decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen."  1926 – Wolfgang Pauli and Erwin Schrödinger show that the Rydberg formula for the spectrum of hydrogen follows from the new quantum mechanics  1926 – Partial oxidation, Vandeveer and Parr at the University of Illinois used oxygen in the place of air for the production of syngas.  1926 – Cyril Norman Hinshelwood described the phenomenon of chain reaction.  1926 – Umberto Nobile made the first flight over the north pole with the hydrogen airship Norge  1929 – Paul Harteck and Karl Friedrich Bonhoeffer achieve the first synthesis of pure parahydrogen.  1930 – Rudolf Erren – Erren engine – GB patent GB364180 – Improvements in and relating to internal combustion engines using a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen as fuel  1935 – Eugene Wigner and H.B. Huntington predicted metallic hydrogen. 1089  1937 – The Zeppelin LZ 129 Hindenburg was destroyed by fire.  1937 – The Heinkel HeS 1 experimental gaseous hydrogen fueled centrifugal jet engine is tested at Hirth in March- the first working jet engine  1937 – The first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service at Dayton, Ohio.  1938 – The first 240 km hydrogen pipeline Rhine-Ruhr.  1938 – Igor Sikorsky from Sikorsky Aircraft proposed liquid hydrogen as a fuel.  1939 – Rudolf Erren – Erren engine – US patent 2,183,674 – Internal combustion engine using hydrogen as fuel  1939 – Hans Gaffron discovered that algae can switch between producing oxygen and hydrogen.  1941 – The first mass application of hydrogen in internal combustion engines: Russian lieutenant Boris Shelishch in the besieged Leningrad has converted some hundreds cars "GAZ-AA" which served posts of barrage balloons of air defense.  1943 – Liquid hydrogen is tested as rocket fuel at Ohio State University.  1943 – Arne Zetterström describes hydrox  1947 – Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford measure the small energy shift (the Lamb shift) between the 2s1/2 and 2p1/2 levels of hydrogen, providing a great stimulus to the development of quantum electrodynamics  1949 – Hydrodesulfurization (Catalytic reforming is commercialized under the name Platforming process)  1951 – Underground hydrogen storage  1952 – Ivy Mike, the first successful test of a nuclear explosive based on hydrogen (actually, deuterium) fusion  1952 – Non-Refrigerated transport Dewar  1955 – W. Thomas Grubb modified the fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte.  1957 – Pratt & Whitney's model 304 jet engine using liquid hydrogen as fuel tested for the first time as part of the Lockheed CL-400 Suntan project. 1090  1957 – The specifications for the U-2 a double axle liquid hydrogen semi-trailer were issued.  1958 – Leonard Niedrach devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, this became known as the Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell  1958 – Allis-Chalmers demonstrated the D 12, the first 15 kW fuel cell tractor.  1959 – Francis Thomas Bacon built the Bacon Cell, the first practical 5 kW hydrogen-air fuel cell to power a welding machine.  1960 – Allis-Chalmers builds the first fuel cell forklift  1961 – RL-10 liquid hydrogen fuelled rocket engine first flight  1964 – Allis-Chalmers built a 750-watt fuel cell to power a one-man underwater research vessel.  1965 – The first commercial use of a fuel cell in Project Gemini.  1965 – Allis-Chalmers builds the first fuel cell golf carts.  1966 – General Motors presents Electrovan, the world's first fuel cell automobile.  1966 – Slush hydrogen  1966 – J-2 (rocket engine) liquid hydrogen rocket engine flies  1967 – Akira Fujishima discovers the Honda-Fujishima effect which is used for photocatalysis in the photoelectrochemical cell.  1967 – Hydride compressor  1970 – Nickel hydrogen battery  1970 – John Bockris or Lawrence W. Jones coined the term hydrogen economy  1973 – The 30 km hydrogen pipeline in Isbergues  1973 – Linear compressor  1975 – John Bockris – Energy The Solar-Hydrogen Alternative – ISBN 0-470-08429-4  1979 – HM7B rocket engine  1981 – Space Shuttle Main Engine first flight  1990 – The first solar-powered hydrogen production plant Solar-Wasserstoff-Bayern became operational. 1091  1996 – Vulcain rocket engine  1997 – Anastasios Melis discovered that the deprivation of sulfur will cause algae to switch from producing oxygen to producing hydrogen  1998 – Type 212 submarine  1999 – Hydrogen pinch  2000 – Peter Toennies demonstrates superfluidity of hydrogen at 0.15 K  2001 – The first type IV hydrogen tanks for compressed hydrogen at 700 bar (10000 PSI) were demonstrated.  2002 – Type 214 submarine  2002 – The first hydrail locomotive was demonstrated in Val-d'Or, Quebec.  2004 – DeepC is an autonomous underwater vehicle propelled by an electric motor powered by a hydrogen fuel cell.  2005 – Ionic liquid piston compressor  2013 – The first commercial 2 megawatt power to gas installation in Falkenhagen comes online for 360 cubic meters of hydrogen per hour hydrogen storage into the natural gas grid.  2014 – The Japanese fuel cell micro combined heat and power (mCHP) ENE FARM project passes 100,000 sold systems.  2016 – Toyota releases its first hydrogen fuel cell car, the Mirai  2017 – Hydrogen Council formed to expedite development and commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology  1592–1593 — Galileo Galilei builds a device showing variation of hotness known as the thermoscope using the contraction of air to draw water up a tube.  1612 — Santorio Sanctorius makes the first thermometer for medical use  1617 — Giuseppe Biancani published the first clear diagram of a thermoscope 1092  1624 — The word thermometer (in its French form) first appeared in La Récréation Mathématique by Jean Leurechon, who describes one with a scale of 8 degrees.  1629 — Joseph Solomon Delmedigo describes in a book an accurate sealed-glass thermometer that uses brandy  1638 — Robert Fludd the first thermoscope showing a scale and thus constituting a thermometer.  1643 — Evangelista Torricelli invents the mercury barometer  1654 — Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, made sealed tubes part filled with alcohol, with a bulb and stem, the first modern-style thermometer, depending on the expansion of a liquid, and independent of air pressure  1695 — Guillaume Amontons improved the thermometer  1701 — Newton publishes a method of determining the rate of heat loss of a body and introduces a scale, which had 0 degrees represent the freezing point of water, and 12 degrees for human body temperature.  1701 — Ole Christensen Rømer made one of the first practical thermometers. As a temperature indicator it used red wine. (Rømer scale), The temperature scale used for his thermometer had 0 representing the temperature of a salt and ice mixture (at about 259s).  1709 — Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit constructed alcohol thermometers which were reproducible (i.e. two would give the same temperature)  1714 — Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit invents the mercury-in-glass thermometer giving much greater precision (4 x that of Rømer). Using Rømer's zero point and an upper point of blood temperature, he adjusted the scale so the melting point of ice was 32 and the upper point 96, meaning that the difference of 64 could be got by dividing the intervals into 2 repeatedly.  1731 — René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur produced a scale in which 0 represented the freezing point of water and 80 represented the boiling point. This was chosen as his alcohol mixture expanded 80 parts per thousand. He did not consider pressure.  1738 — Daniel Bernoulli asserted in Hydrodynamica the principle that as the speed of a moving fluid increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. (Kinetic theory) 1093  1742 — Anders Celsius proposed a temperature scale in which 100 represented the temperature of melting ice and 0 represented the boiling point of water at a particular pressure.  1743 — Jean-Pierre Christin had worked independently of Celsius and developed a scale where zero represented the melting point of ice and 100 represented the boiling point but did not specify a pressure.  1744 — Carl Linnaeus suggested reversing the temperature scale of Anders Celsius so that 0 represented the freezing point of water and 100 represented the boiling point.  1782 — James Six invents the Maximum minimum thermometer  1821 — Thomas Johann Seebeck invents the thermocouple  1844 — Lucien Vidi invents the aneroid Barograph  1845 — Francis Ronalds invents the first successful Barograph based on photography  1848 — Lord Kelvin (William Thomson) – Kelvin scale, in his paper, On an Absolute Thermometric Scale  1849 — Eugène Bourdon – Bourdon_gauge (manometer)  1849 — Henri Victor Regnault – Hypsometer  1864 — Henri Becquerel suggests an optical pyrometer  1866 — Thomas Clifford Allbutt invented a clinical thermometer that produced a body temperature reading in five minutes as opposed to twenty.  1871 — William Siemens describes the Resistance thermometer at the Bakerian Lecture  1874 — Herbert McLeod invents the McLeod gauge  1885 — Calender-Van Duesen invented the platinum resistance temperature device  1887 — Richard Assmann invents the psychrometer (Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometers)  1892 — Henri-Louis Le Châtelier builds the first optical pyrometer  1896 — Samuel Siegfried Karl Ritter von Basch introduced the Sphygmomanometer to measure blood pressure  1906 — Marcello Pirani – Pirani gauge (to measure pressures in vacuum systems) 1094  1915 — J.C. Stevens — Chart recorder (first chart recorder for environmental monitoring)  1924 — Irving Langmuir — Langmuir probe (to measure plasma parameters)  1930 — Samuel Ruben invented the thermistor Timeline of heat engine technology  Prehistory - The fire piston used by tribes in southeast Asia and the Pacific islands to kindle fire.  c. 450 BC - Archytas of Tarentum used a jet of steam to propel a toy wooden bird suspended on wire.  c. 50 AD - Hero of Alexandria's Engine, also known as Aeolipile. Demonstrates rotary motion produced by the reaction from jets of steam.  c. 10th century - China develops the earliest fire lances which were spear-like weapons combining a bamboo tube containing gunpowder and shrapnel like projectiles tied to a spear.  c 12th century - China, the earliest depiction of a gun showing a metal body and a tightfitting projectile which maximises the conversion of the hot gases to forward motion.  1125 - Gerbert, a professor in the schools at Rheims designed and built an organ blown by air escaping from a vessel in which it was compressed by heated water.  1232 - First recorded use of a rocket. In a battle between the Chinese and the Mongols.  c. 1500 - Leonardo da Vinci builds the Architonnerre, a steam-powered cannon.  1543 - Blasco de Garay, a Spanish naval officer demonstrates a boat propelled without oars or sail that utilised the reaction from a jet issued from a large boiling kettle of water.  1551 - Taqi al-Din demonstrates a steam turbine, used to rotate a spit.  1629 - Giovanni Branca demonstrates a steam turbine.  1662 - Robert Boyle publishes Boyle's Law which defines the relationship between volume and pressure in a gas at a constant temperature. 1095  1665 - Edward Somerset, the Second Marquess of Worcester builds a working steam fountain.  1680 - Christiaan Huygens publishes a design for a piston engine powered by gunpowder but it is never built.  1690 - Denis Papin - produces design for the first piston steam engine.  1698 - Thomas Savery builds a pistonless steam-powered water pump for pumping water out of mines.  1707 - Denis Papin - produces design for his second piston steam engine in conjunction with Gottfried Leibniz.  1712 - Thomas Newcomen builds the first commercially successful piston-and-cylinder steam-powered water pump for pumping water out of mines. It is known as an atmospheric engine and operates by condensing steam in a cylinder to produce a vacuum which moves the piston by atmospheric pressure.  1748 - William Cullen demonstrates the first artificial refrigeration in a public lecture at the University of Glasgow in Scotland.  1759 - John Harrison uses a bimetallic strip in his third marine chronometer (H3) to compensate for temperature-induced changes in the balance spring. This converts thermal expansion and contraction in two dissimilar solids to mechanical work.  1769 - James Watt patents his first improved atmospheric steam engine, see Watt steam engine with a separate condenser outside the cylinder, doubling the efficiency of earlier engines.  1787 - Jacques Charles formulates Charles's law which describes the relationship between as gas's volume and temperature. He does not publish this however and it is not recognised until Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac develops and references it in 1802.  1791 - John Barber patents the idea of a gas turbine.  1799 - Richard Trevithick builds the first high pressure steam engine. This used the force from pressurized steam to move the piston.  1802 - Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac develops Gay-Lussac's law which describes the relationship between a gas's pressure and temperature. 1096  1807 - Nicéphore Niépce installed his 'moss, coal-dust and resin' fuelled Pyréolophore internal combustion engine in a boat and powered up the river Saone in France.  1807 - Franco/Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built the De Rivaz engine, powered by the internal combustion of hydrogen and oxygen mixture and used it to power a wheeled vehicle.  1816 - Robert Stirling invented Stirling engine, a type of hot air engine.  1824 - Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot developed the Carnot cycle and the associated hypothetical Carnot heat engine that is the basic theoretical model for all heat engines. This gives the first early insight into the second law of thermodynamics.  1834 - Jacob Perkins, obtained the first patent for a vapor-compression refrigeration system.  1850s - Rudolf Clausius sets out the concept of the thermodynamic system and positioned entropy as being that in any irreversible process a small amount of heat energy δQ is incrementally dissipated across the system boundary  1859 - Etienne Lenoir developed the first commercially successful internal combustion engine, a single-cylinder, two-stroke engine with electric ignition of illumination gas (not gasoline).  1861 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas of France originates the concept of the four-stroke internal-combustion engine by emphasizing the previously unappreciated importance of compressing the fuel–air mixture before ignition.  1861 - Nikolaus Otto patents a two-stroke internal combustion engine building on Lenoir's.  1867 - James Clerk Maxwell postulated the thought experiment that later became known as Maxwell's demon. This appeared to violate the second law of thermodynamics and was the beginning of the idea that information was part of the physics of heat.  1872 - Pulsometer steam pump, a pistonless pump, patented by Charles Henry Hall. It was inspired by the Savery steam pump.  1873 - The British chemist Sir William Crookes invents the light mill a device which turns the radiant heat of light directly into rotary motion. 1097  1877 - Theorist Ludwig Boltzmann visualized a probabilistic way to measure the entropy of an ensemble of ideal gas particles, in which he defined entropy to be proportional to the logarithm of the number of microstates such a gas could occupy.  1877 - Nikolaus Otto patents a practical four-stroke internal combustion engine  1883 - Samuel Griffin of Bath UK patents a six-stroke internal combustion engine.  1884 - Charles A. Parsons builds the first modern Steam turbine.  1886 - Herbert Akroyd Stuart builds the prototype Hot bulb engine, an oil fueled Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition engine similar to the later diesel but with a lower compression ratio and running on a fuel air mixture.  1892 - Rudolf Diesel patents the Diesel engine (U.S. Patent 608,845) where a high compression ratio generates hot gas which then ignites an injected fuel. After five years of experimenting and assistance from MAN company, he builds a working diesel engine in 1897.  1909, the Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes develops the concept of enthalpy for the measure of the "useful" work that can be obtained from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant pressure.  1913 - Nikola Tesla patents the Tesla turbine based on the Boundary layer effect.  1926 - Robert Goddard of the USA launches the first liquid fuel rocket.  1929 - Felix Wankel patents the Wankel rotary engine (U.S. Patent 2,988,008)  1929 - Leó Szilárd, in a refinement of the famous Maxwell's demon scenario conceives of a heat engine that can run on information alone, known as the Szilard engine.  1930 - Sir Frank Whittle in England patents the first design for a gas turbine for jet propulsion.  1933 - French physicist Georges J. Ranque invents the Vortex tube, a fluid flow device without moving parts, that can separate a compressed gas into hot and cold streams.  1935 - Ralph H. Fowler invents the title 'the zeroth law of thermodynamics' to summarise postulates made by earlier physicists that, thermal equilibrium between systems is a transitive relation.  1937 - Hans von Ohain builds a gas turbine 1098  1940 - Hungarian Bela Karlovitz working for the Westinghouse company in the USA files the first patent for a magnetohydrodynamic generator, which can generate electricity directly from a hot moving gas  1942 - R.S. Gaugler of General Motors patents the idea of the Heat pipe, a heat transfer mechanism that combines the principles of both thermal conductivity and phase transition to efficiently manage the transfer of heat between two solid interfaces.  1950s - The Philips company develop the Stirling-cycle Stirling Cryocooler which converts mechanical energy to a temperature difference.  1959 - Geusic, Schultz-DuBois and Scoville of Bell Telephone Laboratories USA build a Three Level Maser which runs as a quantum heat engine extracting work from the temperature difference of two heat pools.  1962 - William J. Buehler and Frederick Wang discover the Nickel titanium alloy known as Nitinol which has a shape memory dependent on its temperature.  1992 - The first practical magnetohydrodynamic generators are built in Serbia and the USA.  1996 - Quasiturbine engine patented  2011 - Shoichi Toyabe and others demonstrate a working Szilard engine using a phasecontrast microscope equipped with a high speed camera connected to a computer.  2011 - Michigan State University builds the first wave disk engine. An internal combustion engine which does away with pistons, crankshafts and valves, and replaces them with a disc-shaped shock wave generator.  2019 - A working quantum heat engine based on a spin-1/2 system and nuclear magnetic resonance techniques is demonstrated by Roberto Serra and others at the Universities of Waterloo, and the Universidade Federal do ABC and Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas. Timeline of clothing and textiles technology 1099  c. 27000 BC – Impressions of textiles and basketry and nets left on small pieces of hard clay in Europe.  c. 25000 BC – Venus figurines depicted with clothing.  c. 8000 BC – Evidence of flax cultivation in the Near East.  c. 6000 BC – Evidence of woven textiles used to wrap the dead at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia.  c. 5000 BC – Production of linen cloth in Ancient Egypt, along with other bast fibers including rush, reed, palm, and papyrus.  c. 3000 BC – Breeding of domesticated sheep with a wooly fleece rather than hair in the Near East.  c. 2500 BC – The Indus Valley Civilization cultivates cotton in the Indian subcontinent.  c. 1000 BC - Cherchen Man was laid to rest with a twill tunic and the earliest known sample of tartan fabric.  c. 200 AD – Earliest woodblock printing from China. Flowers in three colors on silk.  247 AD – Dura-Europos, a Roman outpost, is destroyed. Excavations of the city discovered early examples of naalebinding fabric.  1275 – Approximate date of a silk burial cushion knit in two colors found in the tomb of Spanish royalty.  1493 – The first available reference to lace is in a will by one of the ruling Milanese Sforza family.  1892 – Cross, Bevan & Beadle invent Viscose.  1938 – First commercial nylon fiber production by DuPont. Nylon is the first synthetic non-cellulosic fiber on the market.  1938 – First commercial PTFE fiber production by DuPont.  1953 – First commercial polyester PET fiber production by DuPont.  1958 – Spandex fiber invented by DuPont's Joseph Shivers.  1964 – Kevlar fiber invented by DuPont's Stephanie Kwolek.  c. 28000 BC – Sewing needles in use at Kostenki in Russia. 1100  c. 6500 BC – Approximate date of Naalebinding examples found in Nahal Hemar cave, Israel. This technique, which uses short separate lengths of thread, predated the invention of knitting (with its continuous lengths of thread) and requires that all of the as-yet unused thread be pulled through the loop in the sewn material. This requires much greater skill than knitting in order to create a fine product.  4200 BC – Date of Mesolithic examples of Naalebinding found in Denmark, marking spread of technology to Northern Europe.  200 BC to 200 AD – Approximate date of earliest evidence of "Needle Knitting" in Peru, a form of Naalebinding that preceded local contact with the Spanish.  298 AD – Earliest attestation of a foot-powered loom, with a hint that the invention arose at Tarsus.  500s – Handheld roller cotton gins invented in the Indian subcontinent.  500-1000 – Spinning wheel invented in the Indian subcontinent.  1000s – Finely decorated examples of cotton socks made by true knitting using continuous thread appear in Egypt.  1000s – The earliest clear illustrations of the spinning wheel come from the Islamic world.  1100s-1300s – Dual-roller cotton gins appear in India and China.  1200s-1300s – The worm gear roller cotton gin invented in the Indian subcontinent during the early Delhi Sultanate era.  1400s-1500s – The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in the Indian subcontinent some time during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.  1562 – Date of first example of use of the purl stitch, from a tomb in Toledo, Spain, which allows knitting of panels of material. Previously material had to be knitted in the round (in a tubular form) and cut open.  1589 – William Lee invents stocking frame, the first but hand-operated weft knitting machine. 1101  c. 1600 – The modern spinning wheel comes together with the addition of the treadle to the flyer wheel.  1725 – Basile Bouchon in Lyon invents punched paper data storage as a means for controlling a loom.  1733 – John Kay patents the flying shuttle.  1738 – Lewis Paul patents the draw roller.  1745 – Jacques Vaucanson in Lyon invents the first fully automated loom.  1758 – Jedediah Strutt adds a second set of needles to Lee's stocking frame thus creating the rib frame.  1764 – James Hargreaves or Thomas Highs invents the spinning jenny (patented 1770).  1767 – John Kay invents the spinning frame.  1768 – Josiah Crane invents the hand-operated warp knitting machine.  1769 – Richard Arkwright's water frame.  1769 – Samuel Wise solves the mechanization of W. Lee's stocking frame.  1779 – Samuel Crompton invents the spinning mule.  1784 – Edmund Cartwright invents the power loom.  1791 – The Englishman Dawson solves the mechanization of the warp knitting machine.  1793 – Samuel Slater of Belper establishes the first successful cotton spinning mill in the United States, at Pawtucket; beginnings of the "Rhode Island System"  1794 – Eli Whitney patents the cotton gin.  1798 – The Frenchman Decroix (or Decroise) patents the circular bearded needle knitting machine.  1801 – Joseph Marie Jacquard invents the Jacquard punched card loom.  1806 – Pierre Jeandeau patents the first latch needle (for using on knitting machine).  1808 – John Heathcoat patented the bobbin net machine  1812 – Samual Clark and James Mart constructed the pusher machine  1813 – William Horrocks improves the power loom. 1102  1814 – Paul Moody of the Boston Manufacturing Company builds the first power loom in the United States; beginnings of the "Waltham System"  1823 – Associates of the late Francis Cabot Lowell of the Boston Manufacturing Company begin operations at the Merrimack Manufacturing Company at East Chelmsford, Massachusetts. In 1826, East Chelmsford becomes incorporated as the town of Lowell, Massachusetts, the first factory city in the United States.  1828 – Paul Moody develops the leather belt and pulley power transmission system, which would become the standard for U.S. mills.  1830 – Barthélemy Thimonnier develops the first functional sewing machine.  1833 – Walter Hunt invents the lockstitch sewing machine but, dissatisfied with its function, does not patent it.  1842 – Lancashire Loom developed by Bullough and Kenworthy, a semi automatic Power loom.  1842 – John Greenough patents the first sewing machine in the United States.  1844 – John Smith of Salford granted a patent for a shuttleless rapier loom.  1846 – John Livesey adapts John Heathcoat's bobbinet machine into the curtain machine  1847 – William Mason Patents his "Mason self-acting" Mule.  1849 – Matthew Townsend patents the variant of latch needle which has been the most widely used needle in weft knitting machines.  1855 – Redgate combines a circular loom with a warp knitting machine  1856 – Thomas Jeacock of Leicester patented the tubular pipe compound needle.  1857 – Luke Barton introduces a self-acting narrowing mechanism on S. Wise's knitting machine.  1857 – Arthur Paget patents a multi-head knitting machine called "Paget-machine".  1859 – Wilhelm Barfuss improves on Redgates machine, called Raschel machines (named after the French actress Élisabeth Félice Rachel).  1864 – William Cotton patents the straight bar knitting machine named after him ("Cotton machine"). 1103  1865 – The American Isaac Wixom Lamb patents the flat knitting machine using latch needles.  1865 – Clay invents the double-headed latch needle which has enabled to create purl stitch knitting.  1866 – The American Mac Nary patents the circular knitting machine (with vertical needles) for fabrication of socks and stockings with heel and toe pouches.  1878 – Henry Griswold adds a second set of needles (horizontal needles) to the circular knitting machine enabling knitting of rib fabrics as cuff for socks.  1881 – Pierre Durand invents the tubular pipe compound needle.  1890s – Development of the Barmen machine  1889 – Northrop Loom: Draper Corporation, First automatic bobbin changing weaving loom placed in production. Over 700,000 would be sold worldwide.  1900 – Heinrich Stoll creates the flat bed purl knitting machine.  1910 – Spiers invents the circular bed purl knitting machine.  c. 1920 – Hattersley loom developed by George Hattersley and Sons.  1924 – Celanese Corporation produces the first acetate fiber.  1928 – International Bureau of Standardization of Man Made Fibers founded.  1939 – US passes Wool Products Labeling Act, requiring truthful labeling of wool products according to origin.  1940 – Spectrophotometer invented, with impact on commercial textile dye processes.  1942 – First patent for fabric Singe awarded in US.  1949 – Heinrich Mauersberger invents the sewing-knitting technique and his "Malimo" machine.  1955 – Research begins on multi-phase weft insertion. Successful examples will not exist until the 80s and late 90s.  1956 – Du Pont Introduces a process for spinning sheaf yarn, a precursor to air-jet spinning.  c. 1960s. Existing machines become outfitted with computerized numeric control (CNC) systems, enabling more accurate and efficient actuation. 1104  1960 – US passes Textile Fiber Products Identification Act, dealing with mandatory content disclosure in labelling, invoicing, and advertising of textile products.  1963 – Open-end spinning developed in Czechoslovakia.  1965 – Dunlop Rubber awarded patent for polyurethane sheets fused together using ultrasonic vibrations, a precursor to fusing of coated textiles.  1968 – Fabric pleating machine patented in Germany.  1979 – Murata manufacturing demonstrates air splicing of yarn.  c. 1981 – Air jet spinning enters the US market.  1983 – Bonas Machine Company Ltd. presents the first computer-controlled, electronic, Jacquard loom.  1988 – First US patent awarded for a "pick and place" robot.  500 AD – jia xie method for resist dyeing (usually silk) using wood blocks invented in China. An upper and a lower block is made, with carved out compartments opening to the back, fitted with plugs. The cloth, usually folded a number of times, is inserted and clamped between the two blocks. By unplugging the different compartments and filling them with dyes of different colors, a multi-colored pattern can be printed over quite a large area of folded cloth.  600s – Oldest samples of cloth printed by woodblock printing from Egypt.  1799 – Charles Tennant discovers and patents bleaching powder.  1856 – William Henry Perkin invents the first synthetic dye.  1921 – Georges Heberlein, of Switzerland, patents a treatment of cellulose with sulfuric acid to create organdy.  c. 1945-1970 – Antimicrobial research enters a "golden" period. By the 1980s, antimicrobial treatments for textiles are developed and implemented in manufacturing.  1954 – Fiber reactive dye invented, with better performance for dyeing cellulosic fiber  1961 – Du Pont assigned patent for yarn fasciation.  1967 – Dow Chemical Co patents method for treating textile materials with a fluorocarbon resin, offering offering water, oil, and stain repellency. 1105  1970 – Superwash acid treatment of wool creates a more durable material that does not shrink in laundry.  1979 – US DoD's Natick Labs grants multi-millions of dollars for research in chemical and biological protection garments. Timeline of women in library science  1890: Elizabeth Putnam Sohier and Anna Eliot Ticknor became the first women appointed to a United States state library agency--specifically, the Massachusetts Board of Library Commissioners.  1911: Theresa Elmendorf became the first woman elected president of the American Library Association.  1912: Lillian Helena Smith became the first trained children's librarian in Canada in 1912.  1923: Virginia Proctor Powell Florence became the first black woman in the United States to earn a degree in library science. She earned the degree (Bachelor of Library Science) from what is now part of the University of Pittsburgh.  1947: Freda Farrell Waldon became the first president of the Canadian Library Association, and thus, as she was female, its first female president.  1972: Zoia Horn, born in Ukraine, became the first United States librarian to be jailed for refusing to share information as a matter of conscience (and, as she was female, the first female United States librarian to do so.)  1973: Page Ackerman became University Librarian for the University of California, Los Angeles, and was the United States's first female librarian of a system as large and complex as UCLA's.  1993: Jennifer Tanfield became the first female Librarian of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom.  1999: Elisabeth Niggemann became the first female director general of the German National Library. 1106  2000: Lynne Brindley was appointed as the first female chief executive of the British Library.  2002: Inez Lynn was appointed as the first female librarian in the London Library's history.  2004: Anjana Chattopadhyay became the first Director of National Medical Library, New Delhi, India.  2012: Sonia L'Heureux became the first female Parliamentary Librarian of Canada.  2016: Laurence Engel became the first female head of the French National Library.  2016: Carla Hayden became the first female Librarian of Congress. Timeline of Artificial Intelligence Antiquity Greek myths of Hephaestus and Pygmalion incorporated the idea of intelligent robots (such as Talos) and artificial beings (such as Galatea and Pandora). Sacred mechanical statues built in Egypt and Greece were believed to be capable of wisdom and emotion. Hermes Trismegistus would write "they have sensus and spiritus ... by discovering the true nature of the gods, man has been able to reproduce it." Mosaic law prohibits the use of automatons in religion. 10th century BC Yan Shi presented King Mu of Zhou with mechanical men. 384 BC–322 BC Aristotle described the syllogism, a method of formal, mechanical thought and theory of knowledge in The Organon. 1st century Heron of Alexandria created mechanical men and other automatons. 260 Porphyry of Tyros wrote Isagogê which categorized knowledge and logic. 1107 ~800 Geber developed the Arabic alchemical theory of Takwin, the artificial creation of life in the laboratory, up to and including human life. 1206 Al-Jazari created a programmable orchestra of mechanical human beings. 1275 Ramon Llull, Spanish theologian, invents the Ars Magna, a tool for combining concepts mechanically, based on an Arabic astrological tool, the Zairja. The method would be developed further by Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century. ~1500 Paracelsus claimed to have created an artificial man out of magnetism, sperm and alchemy. ~1580 Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel of Prague is said to have invented the Golem, a clay man brought to life. Early 17th century René Descartes proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines (but that mental phenomena are of a different "substance"). 1620 Sir Francis Bacon developed empirical theory of knowledge and introduced inductive logic in his work The New Organon, a play on Aristotle's title The Organon. 1623 Wilhelm Schickard drew a calculating clock on a letter to Kepler. This will be the first of five unsuccessful attempts at designing a direct entry calculating clock in the 17th century (including the designs of Tito Burattini, Samuel Morland and René Grillet). 1641 Thomas Hobbes published Leviathan and presented a mechanical, combinatorial theory of cognition. He wrote "...for reason is nothing but reckoning". 1108 1642 Blaise Pascal invented the mechanical calculator, the first digital calculating machine. 1672 Gottfried Leibniz improved the earlier machines, making the Stepped Reckoner to do multiplication and division. He also invented the binary numeral system and envisioned a universal calculus of reasoning (alphabet of human thought) by which arguments could be decided mechanically. Leibniz worked on assigning a specific number to each and every object in the world, as a prelude to an algebraic solution to all possible problems. 1726 Jonathan Swift published Gulliver's Travels, which includes this description of the Engine, a machine on the island of Laputa: "a Project for improving speculative Knowledge by practical and mechanical Operations " by using this "Contrivance", "the most ignorant Person at a reasonable Charge, and with a little bodily Labour, may write Books in Philosophy, Poetry, Politicks, Law, Mathematicks, and Theology, with the least Assistance from Genius or study." The machine is a parody of Ars Magna, one of the inspirations of Gottfried Leibniz' mechanism. 1750 Julien Offray de La Mettrie published L'Homme Machine, which argued that human thought is strictly mechanical. 1769 Wolfgang von Kempelen built and toured with his chessplaying automaton, The Turk. The Turk was later shown to be a hoax, involving a human chess player. 1818 Mary Shelley published the story of Frankenstein; or the Modern Prometheus, a fictional consideration of the ethics of creating sentient beings. 1822–1859 Charles Babbage and Ada Lovelace worked on programmable 1109 mechanical calculating machines. 1837 The mathematician Bernard Bolzano made the first modern attempt to formalize semantics. 1854 George Boole set out to "investigate the fundamental laws of those operations of the mind by which reasoning is performed, to give expression to them in the symbolic language of a calculus", inventing Boolean algebra. 1863 Samuel Butler suggested that Darwinian evolution also applies to machines, and speculates that they will one day become conscious and eventually supplant humanity. 1913 Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead published Principia Mathematica, which revolutionized formal logic. 1915 Leonardo Torres y Quevedo built a chess automaton, El Ajedrecista, and published speculation about thinking and automata. 1923 Karel Čapek's play R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots) opened in London. This is the first use of the word "robot" in English. 1920s and 1930s Ludwig Wittgenstein and Rudolf Carnap led philosophy into logical analysis of knowledge. Alonzo Church developde Lambda Calculus to investigate computability using recursive functional notation. 1931 Kurt Gödel showed that sufficiently powerful formal systems, if consistent, permit the formulation of true theorems that are unprovable by any theorem-proving machine deriving all possible theorems from the axioms. To do this he had to build a universal, integer-based programming language, which is the reason why he is sometimes called the "father of theoretical computer science". 1110 1940 Edward Condon displays Nimatron, a digital computer that played Nim perfectly. 1941 Konrad Zuse built the first working program-controlled computers. 1943 Warren Sturgis McCulloch and Walter Pitts publish "A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity" (1943), laying foundations for artificial neural networks. Arturo Rosenblueth, Norbert Wiener and Julian Bigelow coin the term "cybernetics". Wiener's popular book by that name published in 1948. 1945 Game theory which would prove invaluable in the progress of AI was introduced with the 1944 paper, Theory of Games and Economic Behavior by mathematician John von Neumann and economist Oskar Morgenstern. Vannevar Bush published As We May Think (The Atlantic Monthly, July 1945) a prescient vision of the future in which computers assist humans in many activities. 1948 John von Neumann (quoted by E.T. Jaynes) in response to a comment at a lecture that it was impossible for a machine to think: "You insist that there is something a machine cannot do. If you will tell me precisely what it is that a machine cannot do, then I can always make a machine which will do just that!". Von Neumann was presumably alluding to the Church-Turing thesis which states that any effective procedure can be simulated by a (generalized) computer. 1950 Alan Turing proposes the Turing Test as a measure of machine 1111 intelligence. Claude Shannon published a detailed analysis of chess playing as search. Isaac Asimov published his Three Laws of Robotics. 1951 The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark 1 machine of the University of Manchester: a checkers-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chessplaying program written by Dietrich Prinz. 1952–1962 Arthur Samuel (IBM) wrote the first game-playing program, for checkers (draughts), to achieve sufficient skill to challenge a respectable amateur. His first checkers-playing program was written in 1952, and in 1955 he created a version that learned to play. 1956 The Dartmouth College summer AI conference is organized by John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathan Rochester of IBM and Claude Shannon. McCarthy coins the term artificial intelligence for the conference. The first demonstration of the Logic Theorist (LT) written by Allen Newell, J.C. Shaw and Herbert A. Simon (Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University or CMU). This is often called the first AI program, though Samuel's checkers program also has a strong claim. 1958 John McCarthy (Massachusetts Institute of Technology or MIT) invented the Lisp programming language. Herbert Gelernter and Nathan Rochester (IBM) described a theorem prover in geometry that exploits a semantic model of the domain in the 1112 form of diagrams of "typical" cases. Teddington Conference on the Mechanization of Thought Processes was held in the UK and among the papers presented were John McCarthy's Programs with Common Sense, Oliver Selfridge's Pandemonium, and Marvin Minsky's Some Methods of Heuristic Programming and Artificial Intelligence. 1959 The General Problem Solver (GPS) was created by Newell, Shaw and Simon while at CMU. John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded the MIT AI Lab. Late 1950s, early Margaret Masterman and colleagues at University of 1960s Cambridge design semantic nets for machine translation. 1960s Ray Solomonoff lays the foundations of a mathematical theory of AI, introducing universal Bayesian methods for inductive inference and prediction. 1960 Man-Computer Symbiosis by J.C.R. Licklider. 1961 James Slagle (PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote (in Lisp) the first symbolic integration program, SAINT, which solved calculus problems at the college freshman level. In Minds, Machines and Gödel, John Lucas denied the possibility of machine intelligence on logical or philosophical grounds. He referred to Kurt Gödel's result of 1931: sufficiently powerful formal systems are either inconsistent or allow for formulating true theorems unprovable by any theorem-proving AI deriving all provable theorems from the 1113 axioms. Since humans are able to "see" the truth of such theorems, machines were deemed inferior. Unimation's industrial robot Unimate worked on a General Motors automobile assembly line. 1963 Thomas Evans' program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same analogy problems as are given on IQ tests. Edward Feigenbaum and Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought, the first collection of articles about artificial intelligence. Leonard Uhr and Charles Vossler published "A Pattern Recognition Program That Generates, Evaluates, and Adjusts Its Own Operators", which described one of the first machine learning programs that could adaptively acquire and modify features and thereby overcome the limitations of simple perceptrons of Rosenblatt. 1964 Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT (technical report #1 from MIT's AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly. Bertram Raphael's MIT dissertation on the SIR program demonstrates the power of a logical representation of knowledge for questionanswering systems. 1965 Lotfi Zadeh at U.C. Berkeley publishes his first paper introducing fuzzy logic "Fuzzy Sets" (Information and Control 8: 338– 353). J. Alan Robinson invented a mechanical proof procedure, the Resolution Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with 1114 formal logic as a representation language. Joseph Weizenbaum (MIT) built ELIZA, an interactive program that carries on a dialogue in English language on any topic. It was a popular toy at AI centers on the ARPANET when a version that "simulated" the dialogue of a psychotherapist was programmed. Edward Feigenbaum initiated Dendral, a ten-year effort to develop software to deduce the molecular structure of organic compounds using scientific instrument data. It was the first expert system. 1966 Ross Quillian (PhD dissertation, Carnegie Inst. of Technology, now CMU) demonstrated semantic nets. Machine Intelligence workshop at Edinburgh – the first of an influential annual series organized by Donald Michie and others. Negative report on machine translation kills much work in Natural language processing (NLP) for many years. Dendral program (Edward Feigenbaum, Joshua Lederberg, Bruce Buchanan, Georgia Sutherland at Stanford University) demonstrated to interpret mass spectra on organic chemical compounds. First successful knowledge-based program for scientific reasoning. 1968 Joel Moses (PhD work at MIT) demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program. First successful knowledge-based program in mathematics. Richard Greenblatt (programmer) at MIT built a knowledgebased chess-playing program, MacHack, that was good enough to achieve a class-C rating in tournament play. Wallace and Boulton's program, Snob (Comp.J. 11(2) 1968), for 1115 Human memory Sensory memory Short-term memory Long-term memory < 1 second < 1 minute (Lifetime) Procedural memory Declarative memory (Unconscious) (Conscious) Semantic memory Episodic memory Autobiographical Visual memory memory A strict materialist believes that everything depends on the motion of matter. He knows the form of the laws of motion though he does not know all their consequences when applied to systems of unknown complexity. Now one thing in which the materialist (fortified with dynamical knowledge) believes is that if every motion great & small were accurately reversed, and the world left to itself again, everything would happen backwards the fresh water would collect out of the sea and run up the rivers and finally fly up to the clouds in drops which would extract heat from the air and evaporate and afterwards in condensing would shoot out rays of light to the sun and so on. Of course all living things would regrede from the grave to the cradle and we should have a memory of the future but not of the past. The reason why we do not expect anything of this kind to take place at any time is our experience of irreversible processes, all of one kind, and this leads to the doctrine of a beginning & an end instead of cyclical progression for ever. — James Clerk Maxwell Home Trade Retail Trade Large scale Wholesale Trade Small scale Merchant Agents Wholesaler 9 types of Vegetables: Stem Vegetables Asparagus, Celery, Kohlrabi, Leek Leaves Vegetables Spinach, Cabbage, Collard Leaves, Swiss Chard, Mustard Leaves Flower Vegetables Cauliflower, Broccoli, Courgette Flowers, Squash Blossoms Bulb Vegetables Onion, Garlic, Spring Onion Seed Vegetables Fava Beans, Kidney Beans, Green Peas, French Beans Root Vegetables Beet, Carrot, Radish, Horseradish, Turnip Tuber Vegetables Potato, Cassava, Sweet Potato, Taro Fruit Vegetables Tomatoes, Avocado, Bitter Gourd Fungi Vegetables Button Mushroom, Enoki, Oyster, Shitake 6 Types of Basic Emotions:  Happiness  Sadness  Fear  Disgust  Anger  Surprise Retail Non-store based Store based retailing Service retailing retailing Bank, Car rentals, Direct selling, Mail order, Real estate consultant Telemarketing Form of ownership Merchandized offered According to the conclusion of Dr. Hutton, and of many other geologists, our continents are of definite antiquity, they have been peopled we know not how, and mankind are wholly unacquainted with their origin. According to my conclusions drawn from the same source, that of facts, our continents are of such small antiquity, that the memory of the revolution which gave them birth must still be preserved among men; and thus we are led to seek in the book of Genesis the record of the history of the human race from its origin. Can any object of importance superior to this be found throughout the circle of natural science? — Jean André Deluc Trees Exogenous Endogenous (Trees with outward growth) (Trees with inward growth) Conifers Deciduous (Narrow leaves, Gymnosperms) (Broad leaves, dicot Angiosperms)         Pine Cedar Spruce Deodar Soft Wood Teak Rose Oak Maple Hard Wood  Wood is soft and light with a fine texture.  Wood is hard and heavy with a rough texture.  Wood fibers absent.  Wood fibers present.  Vessels absent.  Vessels present. Curiosity is as much the parent of attention, as attention is of memory. — Richard Whately unsupervised classification (clustering) uses the Bayesian Minimum Message Length criterion, a mathematical realisation of Occam's razor. 1969 Stanford Research Institute (SRI): Shakey the Robot, demonstrated combining animal locomotion, perception and problem solving. Roger Schank (Stanford) defined conceptual dependency model for natural language understanding. Later developed (in PhD dissertations at Yale University) for use in story understanding by Robert Wilensky and Wendy Lehnert, and for use in understanding memory by Janet Kolodner. Yorick Wilks (Stanford) developed the semantic coherence view of language called Preference Semantics, embodied in the first semanticsdriven machine translation program, and the basis of many PhD dissertations since such as Bran Boguraev and David Carter at Cambridge. First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI) held at Stanford. Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons, demonstrating previously unrecognized limits of this feed-forward twolayered structure, and This book is considered by some to mark the beginning of the AI winter of the 1970s, a failure of confidence and funding for AI. Nevertheless, significant progress in the field continued (see below). McCarthy and Hayes started the discussion about the frame problem with their essay, "Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence". 1116 Early 1970s Jane Robinson and Don Walker established an influential Natural Language Processing group at SRI. 1970 Seppo Linnainmaa publishes the reverse mode of automatic differentiation. This method became later known as backpropagation, and is heavily used to train artificial neural networks. Jaime Carbonell (Sr.) developed SCHOLAR, an interactive program for computer assisted instruction based on semantic nets as the representation of knowledge. Bill Woods described Augmented Transition Networks (ATN's) as a representation for natural language understanding. Patrick Winston's PhD program, ARCH, at MIT learned concepts from examples in the world of children's blocks. 1971 Terry Winograd's PhD thesis (MIT) demonstrated the ability of computers to understand English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks, in a coupling of his language understanding program, SHRDLU, with a robot arm that carried out instructions typed in English. Work on the Boyer-Moore theorem prover started in Edinburgh. 1972 Prolog programming language developed by Alain Colmerauer. Earl Sacerdoti developed one of the first hierarchical planning programs, ABSTRIPS. 1973 The Assembly Robotics Group at University of Edinburgh builds Freddy Robot, capable of using visual perception to locate and assemble models. (Edinburgh Freddy Assembly Robot: a versatile computer-controlled assembly system.) 1117 The Lighthill report gives a largely negative verdict on AI research in Great Britain and forms the basis for the decision by the British government to discontinue support for AI research in all but two universities. 1974 Ted Shortliffe's PhD dissertation on the MYCIN program (Stanford) demonstrated a very practical rule-based approach to medical diagnoses, even in the presence of uncertainty. While it borrowed from DENDRAL, its own contributions strongly influenced the future of expert system development, especially commercial systems. 1975 Earl Sacerdoti developed techniques of partial-order planning in his NOAH system, replacing the previous paradigm of search among state space descriptions. NOAH was applied at SRI International to interactively diagnose and repair electromechanical systems. Austin Tate developed the Nonlin hierarchical planning system able to search a space of partial plans characterised as alternative approaches to the underlying goal structure of the plan. Marvin Minsky published his widely read and influential article on Frames as a representation of knowledge, in which many ideas about schemas and semantic links are brought together. The Meta-Dendral learning program produced new results in chemistry (some rules of mass spectrometry) the first scientific discoveries by a computer to be published in a refereed journal. Mid-1970s Barbara Grosz (SRI) established limits to traditional AI approaches to discourse modeling. Subsequent work by Grosz, Bonnie Webber and Candace Sidner developed the notion of "centering", used in establishing focus of discourse and anaphoric references in Natural language processing. 1118 David Marr and MIT colleagues describe the "primal sketch" and its role in visual perception. 1976 Douglas Lenat's AM program (Stanford PhD dissertation) demonstrated the discovery model (loosely guided search for interesting conjectures). Randall Davis demonstrated the power of meta-level reasoning in his PhD dissertation at Stanford. 1978 Tom Mitchell, at Stanford, invented the concept of Version spaces for describing the search space of a concept formation program. Herbert A. Simon wins the Nobel Prize in Economics for his theory of bounded rationality, one of the cornerstones of AI known as "satisficing". The MOLGEN program, written at Stanford by Mark Stefik and Peter Friedland, demonstrated that an object-oriented programming representation of knowledge can be used to plan genecloning experiments. 1979 Bill VanMelle's PhD dissertation at Stanford demonstrated the generality of MYCIN's representation of knowledge and style of reasoning in his EMYCIN program, the model for many commercial expert system "shells". Jack Myers and Harry Pople at University of Pittsburgh developed INTERNIST, a knowledge-based medical diagnosis program based on Dr. Myers' clinical knowledge. Cordell Green, David Barstow, Elaine Kant and others at Stanford demonstrated the CHI system for automatic programming. 1119 The Stanford Cart, built by Hans Moravec, becomes the first computercontrolled, autonomous vehicle when it successfully traverses a chairfilled room and circumnavigates the Stanford AI Lab. BKG, a backgammon program written by Hans Berliner at CMU, defeats the reigning world champion (in part via luck). Drew McDermott and Jon Doyle at MIT, and John McCarthy at Stanford begin publishing work on non-monotonic logics and formal aspects of truth maintenance. Late 1970s Stanford's SUMEX-AIM resource, headed by Ed Feigenbaum and Joshua Lederberg, demonstrates the power of the ARPAnet for scientific collaboration. 1980s Lisp machines developed and marketed. First expert system shells and commercial applications. 1980 First National Conference of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) held at Stanford. 1981 Danny Hillis designs the connection machine, which utilizes Parallel computing to bring new power to AI, and to computation in general. (Later founds Thinking Machines Corporation) 1982 The Fifth Generation Computer Systems project (FGCS), an initiative by Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry, begun in 1982, to create a "fifth generation computer" (see history of computing hardware) which was supposed to perform much calculation utilizing massive parallelism. 1120 1983 John Laird and Paul Rosenbloom, working with Allen Newell, complete CMU dissertations on Soar (program). James F. Allen invents the Interval Calculus, the first widely used formalization of temporal events. Mid-1980s Neural Networks become widely used with the Backpropagation algorithm, also known as the reverse mode of automatic differentiation published by Seppo Linnainmaa in 1970 and applied to neural networks by Paul Werbos. 1985 The autonomous drawing program, AARON, created by Harold Cohen, is demonstrated at the AAAI National Conference (based on more than a decade of work, and with subsequent work showing major developments). 1986 The team of Ernst Dickmanns at Bundeswehr University of Munich builds the first robot cars, driving up to 55 mph on empty streets. Barbara Grosz and Candace Sidner create the first computation model of discourse, establishing the field of research. 1987 Marvin Minsky published The Society of Mind, a theoretical description of the mind as a collection of cooperating agents. He had been lecturing on the idea for years before the book came out (c.f. Doyle 1983). Around the same time, Rodney Brooks introduced the subsumption architecture and behavior-based robotics as a more minimalist modular model of natural intelligence; Nouvelle AI. Commercial launch of generation 2.0 of Alacrity by Alacritous Inc./Allstar Advice Inc. Toronto, the first commercial strategic and managerial advisory system. The system was based upon a forward- 1121 chaining, self-developed expert system with 3,000 rules about the evolution of markets and competitive strategies and co-authored by Alistair Davidson and Mary Chung, founders of the firm with the underlying engine developed by Paul Tarvydas. The Alacrity system also included a small financial expert system that interpreted financial statements and models. 1989 The development of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) very-largescale integration (VLSI), in the form of complementary MOS (CMOS) technology, enabled the development of practical artificial neural network (ANN) technology in the 1980s. A landmark publication in the field was the 1989 book Analog VLSI Implementation of Neural Systems by Carver A. Mead and Mohammed Ismail. Dean Pomerleau at CMU creates ALVINN (An Autonomous Land Vehicle in a Neural Network). 1990s Major advances in all areas of AI, with significant demonstrations in machine learning, intelligent tutoring, case-based reasoning, multiagent planning, scheduling, uncertain reasoning, data mining, natural language understanding and translation, vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics. Early 1990s TD-Gammon, a backgammon program written by Gerry Tesauro, demonstrates that reinforcement (learning) is powerful enough to create a championship-level game-playing program by competing favorably with world-class players. 1991 DART scheduling application deployed in the first Gulf War paid back DARPA's investment of 30 years in AI research. 1122 1992 Carol Stoker and NASA Ames robotics team explore marine life in Antarctica with an undersea robot Telepresence ROV operated from the ice near McMurdo Bay, Antarctica and remotely via satellite link from Moffett Field, California. 1993 Ian Horswill extended behavior-based robotics by creating Polly, the first robot to navigate using vision and operate at animal-like speeds (1 meter/second). Rodney Brooks, Lynn Andrea Stein and Cynthia Breazeal started the widely publicized MIT Cog project with numerous collaborators, in an attempt to build a humanoid robot child in just five years. ISX corporation wins "DARPA contractor of the year" for the Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool (DART) which reportedly repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s. 1994 Lotfi Zadeh at U.C. Berkeley creates "soft computing" and builds a world network of research with a fusion of neural science and neural net systems, fuzzy set theory and fuzzy systems, evolutionary algorithms, genetic programming, and chaos theory and chaotic systems ("Fuzzy Logic, Neural Networks, and Soft Computing," Communications of the ACM, March 1994, Vol. 37 No. 3, pages 7784). With passengers on board, the twin robot cars VaMP and VITA-2 of Ernst Dickmanns and Daimler-Benz drive more than one thousand kilometers on a Paris three-lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 130 km/h. They demonstrate autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes left and right with autonomous passing of other cars. English draughts (checkers) world champion Tinsley resigned a match 1123 against computer program Chinook. Chinook defeated 2nd highest rated player, Lafferty. Chinook won the USA National Tournament by the widest margin ever. Cindy Mason at NASA organizes the First AAAI Workshop on AI and the Environment. 1995 Cindy Mason at NASA organizes the First International IJCAI Workshop on AI and the Environment. "No Hands Across America": A semi-autonomous car drove coast-tocoast across the United States with computer-controlled steering for 2,797 miles (4,501 km) of the 2,849 miles (4,585 km). Throttle and brakes were controlled by a human driver. One of Ernst Dickmanns' robot cars (with robot-controlled throttle and brakes) drove more than 1000 miles from Munich to Copenhagen and back, in traffic, at up to 120 mph, occasionally executing maneuvers to pass other cars (only in a few critical situations a safety driver took over). Active vision was used to deal with rapidly changing street scenes. 1997 The Deep Blue chess machine (IBM) defeats the (then) world chess champion, Garry Kasparov. First official RoboCup football (soccer) match featuring table-top matches with 40 teams of interacting robots and over 5000 spectators. Computer Othello program Logistello defeated the world champion Takeshi Murakami with a score of 6–0. 1998 Tiger Electronics' Furby is released, and becomes the first successful attempt at producing a type of A.I to reach a domestic environment. 1124 Tim Berners-Lee published his Semantic Web Road map paper. Ulises Cortés and Miquel Sànchez-Marrè organize the first Environment and AI Workshop in Europe ECAI, "Binding Environmental Sciences and Artificial Intelligence." Leslie P. Kaelbling, Michael Littman, and Anthony Cassandra introduce POMDPs and a scalable method for solving them to the AI community, jumpstarting widespread use in robotics and automated planning and scheduling 1999 Sony introduces an improved domestic robot similar to a Furby, the AIBO becomes one of the first artificially intelligent "pets" that is also autonomous. Late 1990s Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs become essential in widespread use of the World Wide Web. Demonstration of an Intelligent room and Emotional Agents at MIT's AI Lab. Initiation of work on the Oxygen architecture, which connects mobile and stationary computers in an adaptive network. 2000 Interactive robopets ("smart toys") become commercially available, realizing the vision of the 18th century novelty toy makers. Cynthia Breazeal at MIT publishes her dissertation on Sociable machines, describing Kismet (robot), with a face that expresses emotions. The Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking for 1125 meteorite samples. 2002 iRobot's Roomba autonomously vacuums the floor while navigating and avoiding obstacles. 2004 OWL Web Ontology Language W3C Recommendation (10 February 2004). DARPA introduces the DARPA Grand Challenge requiring competitors to produce autonomous vehicles for prize money. NASA's robotic exploration rovers Spirit and Opportunity autonomously navigate the surface of Mars. 2005 Honda's ASIMO robot, an artificially intelligent humanoid robot, is able to walk as fast as a human, delivering trays to customers in restaurant settings. Recommendation technology based on tracking web activity or media usage brings AI to marketing. See TiVo Suggestions. Blue Brain is born, a project to simulate the brain at molecular detail. 2006 The Dartmouth Artificial Intelligence Conference: The Next 50 Years (AI@50) AI@50 (14–16 July 2006) 2007 Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, B – Biology, one of the world's oldest scientific journals, puts out a special issue on using AI to understand biological intelligence, titled Models of Natural Action Selection Checkers is solved by a team of researchers at the University of Alberta. 1126 DARPA launches the Urban Challenge for autonomous cars to obey traffic rules and operate in an urban environment. 2008 Cynthia Mason at Stanford presents her idea on Artificial Compassionate Intelligence, in her paper on "Giving Robots Compassion". 2009 Google builds autonomous car. 2010 Microsoft launched Kinect for Xbox 360, the first gaming device to track human body movement, using just a 3D camera and infra-red detection, enabling users to play their Xbox 360 wirelessly. The awardwinning machine learning for human motion capture technology for this device was developed by the Computer Vision group at Microsoft Research, Cambridge. 2011 Mary Lou Maher and Doug Fisher organize the First AAAI Workshop on AI and Sustainability. IBM's Watson computer defeated television game show Jeopardy! champions Rutter and Jennings. 2011–2014 Apple's Siri (2011), Google's Google Now (2012) and Microsoft's Cortana (2014) are smartphone apps that use natural language to answer questions, make recommendations and perform actions. 2013 Robot HRP-2 built by SCHAFT Inc of Japan, a subsidiary of Google, defeats 15 teams to win DARPA’s Robotics Challenge Trials. HRP-2 scored 27 out of 32 points in 8 tasks needed in disaster response. Tasks are drive a vehicle, walk over debris, climb a ladder, remove debris, walk through doors, cut through a wall, close valves and connect a 1127 hose. NEIL, the Never Ending Image Learner, is released at Carnegie Mellon University to constantly compare and analyze relationships between different images. 2015 An open letter to ban development and use of autonomous weapons signed by Hawking, Musk, Wozniak and 3,000 researchers in AI and robotics. Google DeepMind's AlphaGo (version: Fan) defeated 3 time European Go champion 2 dan professional Fan Hui by 5 games to 0. 2016 Google DeepMind's AlphaGo (version: Lee) defeated Lee Sedol 4–1. Lee Sedol is a 9 dan professional Korean Go champion who won 27 major tournaments from 2002 to 2016. Before the match with AlphaGo, Lee Sedol was confident in predicting an easy 5–0 or 4–1 victory. 2017 Asilomar Conference on Beneficial AI was held, to discuss AI ethics and how to bring about beneficial AI while avoiding the existential risk from artificial general intelligence. Deepstack is the first published algorithm to beat human players in imperfect information games, as shown with statistical significance on heads-up no-limit poker. Soon after, the poker AI Libratus by different research group individually defeated each of its 4 human opponents— among the best players in the world—at an exceptionally high aggregated winrate, over a statistically significant sample. In contrast to Chess and Go, Poker is an imperfect information game. Google DeepMind's AlphaGo (version: Master) won 60–0 rounds on two public Go websites including 3 wins against 1128 world Go champion Ke Jie. A propositional logic boolean satisfiability problem (SAT) solver proves a long-standing mathematical conjecture on Pythagorean triples over the set of integers. The initial proof, 200TB long, was checked by two independent certified automatic proof checkers. An OpenAI-machined learned bot played at The International 2017 Dota 2 tournament in August 2017. It won during a 1v1 demonstration game against professional Dota 2 player Dendi. Google DeepMind revealed that AlphaGo Zero—an improved version of AlphaGo—displayed significant performance gains while using far fewer tensor processing units (as compared to AlphaGo Lee; it used same amount of TPU's as AlphaGo Master). Unlike previous versions, which learned the game by observing millions of human moves, AlphaGo Zero learned by playing only against itself. The system then defeated AlphaGo Lee 100 games to zero, and defeated AlphaGo Master 89 to 11. Although unsupervised learning is a step forward, much has yet to be learned about general intelligence. AlphaZero masters chess in 4 hours, defeating the best chess engine, StockFish 8. AlphaZero won 28 out of 100 games, and the remaining 72 games ended in a draw. 2018 Alibaba language processing AI outscores top humans at a Stanford University reading and comprehension test, scoring 82.44 against 82.304 on a set of 100,000 questions. The European Lab for Learning and Intelligent Systems (aka Ellis) proposed as a pan-European competitor to American AI efforts, with the aim of staving off a brain drain of talent, along the lines of CERN after World War II. 1129 Announcement of Google Duplex, a service to allow an AI assistant to book appointments over the phone. The LA Times judges the AI's voice to be a "nearly flawless" imitation of human-sounding speech. Timeline of machine learning Decade <1950s Summary Statistical methods are discovered and refined. 1950s Pioneering machine learning research is conducted using simple algorithms. 1960s Bayesian methods are introduced for probabilistic inference in machine learning. 1970s 'AI Winter' caused by pessimism about machine learning effectiveness. 1980s Rediscovery of backpropagation causes a resurgence in machine learning research. 1990s Work on Machine learning shifts from a knowledge-driven approach to a data-driven approach. Scientists begin creating programs for computers to analyze large amounts of data and draw conclusions – or "learn" – from the results. Support vector machines (SVMs) and recurrent neural networks (RNNs) become popular. The fields of computational complexity via neural networks and super-Turing computation started. 1130 2000s Support Vector Clustering and other Kernel methods and unsupervised machine learning methods become widespread. 2010s Deep learning becomes feasible, which leads to machine learning becoming integral to many widely used software services and applications. Year 1763 Event type Discovery Caption Event The Underpinnings Thomas Bayes's work An Essay towards of Bayes' Theorem solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances is published two years after his death, having been amended and edited by a friend of Bayes, Richard Price. The essay presents work which underpins Bayes theorem. 1805 Discovery Least Square Adrien-Marie Legendre describes the "méthode des moindres carrés", known in English as the least squares method. The least squares method is used widely in data fitting. 1812 Bayes' Theorem Pierre-Simon Laplace publishes Théorie Analytique des Probabilités, in which he expands upon the work of Bayes and defines what is now known as Bayes' Theorem. 1131 Optics Geometrical Optics Physical Optics (Ray Optics) Wave Optics Quantum Optics In fiber optics, the cable is a light pipe or waveguide, into which you inject light. If a finger presses on the pipe, it disrupts that light within the waveguide. Jefferson Han Machine Learning Supervised Unsupervised Reinforcement Task driven Data driven (Algorithm learns to react (Regression / Classification) (Clustering) to an environment) We are entering a new world. The technologies of machine learning, speech recognition, and natural language understanding are reaching a nexus of capability. The end result is that we’ll soon have artificially intelligent assistants to help us in every aspect of our lives. ~Amy Stapleton Without big data, you are blind and deaf and in the middle of a freeway. – Geoffrey Moore In God we trust, all others bring data. — W Edwards Deming No great marketing decisions have ever been made on qualitative data. – John Sculley Torture the data, and it will confess to anything. – Ronald Coase With data collection, ‘the sooner the better’ is always the best answer. – Marissa Mayer Big data isn’t about bits, it’s about talent. – Douglas Merrill Without a systematic way to start and keep data clean, bad data will happen. — Donato Diorio You can have data without information, but you cannot have information without data. — Daniel Keys Moran If we have data, let’s look at data. If all we have are opinions, let’s go with mine. — Jim Barksdale Above all else, show the data. – Edward R. Tufte Big data is at the foundation of all of the megatrends that are happening today, from social to mobile to the cloud to gaming. – Chris Lynch Where there is data smoke, there is business fire. — Thomas Redman 1913 Discovery Markov Chains Andrey Markov first describes techniques he used to analyse a poem. The techniques later become known as Markov chains. 1950 Turing's Learning Alan Turing proposes a 'learning machine' Machine that could learn and become artificially intelligent. Turing's specific proposal foreshadows genetic algorithms. 1951 First Neural Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds build the Network Machine first neural network machine, able to learn, the SNARC. 1952 Machines Playing Arthur Samuel joins IBM's Poughkeepsie Checkers Laboratory and begins working on some of the very first machine learning programs, first creating programs that play checkers. 1957 Discovery Perceptron Frank Rosenblatt invents the perceptron while working at the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. The invention of the perceptron generated a great deal of excitement and was widely covered in the media. 1963 Achievement Machines Playing Donald Michie creates a 'machine' consisting Tic-Tac-Toe of 304 match boxes and beads, which uses reinforcement learning to play Tic-tactoe (also known as noughts and crosses). 1132 1967 Nearest Neighbor The nearest neighbor algorithm was created, which is the start of basic pattern recognition. The algorithm was used to map routes. 1969 Limitations of Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert publish Neural Networks their book Perceptrons, describing some of the limitations of perceptrons and neural networks. The interpretation that the book shows that neural networks are fundamentally limited is seen as a hindrance for research into neural networks. 1970 Automatic Seppo Linnainmaa publishes the general Differentiation method for automatic differentiation (AD) of (Backpropagation) discrete connected networks of nested differentiable functions. This corresponds to the modern version of backpropagation, but is not yet named as such. 1979 Stanford Cart Students at Stanford University develop a cart that can navigate and avoid obstacles in a room. 1979 Discovery Neocognitron Kunihiko Fukushima first publishes his work on the neocognitron, a type of artificial neural network (ANN). Neocognition later inspires convolutional neural networks (CNNs). 1133 1981 Explanation Based Gerald Dejong introduces Explanation Based Learning Learning, where a computer algorithm analyses data and creates a general rule it can follow and discard unimportant data. 1982 Discovery Recurrent Neural John Hopfield popularizes Hopfield Network networks, a type of recurrent neural network that can serve as contentaddressable memory systems. 1985 NetTalk A program that learns to pronounce words the same way a baby does, is developed by Terry Sejnowski. 1986 Application Backpropagation Seppo Linnainmaa's reverse mode of automatic differentiation (first applied to neural networks by Paul Werbos) is used in experiments by David Rumelhart, Geoff Hinton and Ronald J. Williams to learn internal representations. 1989 Discovery Reinforcement Christopher Watkins develops Q-learning, Learning which greatly improves the practicality and feasibility of reinforcement learning. 1989 Commercialization Commercialization Axcelis, Inc. releases Evolver, the first of Machine software package to commercialize the use Learning on of genetic algorithms on personal computers. Personal Computers 1134 1992 Achievement Machines Playing Gerald Tesauro develops TD-Gammon, a Backgammon computer backgammon program that uses an artificial neural network trained using temporal-difference learning (hence the 'TD' in the name). TD-Gammon is able to rival, but not consistently surpass, the abilities of top human backgammon players. 1995 1995 1997 1997 Discovery Discovery Achievement Discovery Random Forest Tin Kam Ho publishes a paper Algorithm describing random decision forests. Support Vector Corinna Cortes and Vladimir Vapnik publish Machines their work on support vector machines. IBM Deep Blue IBM's Deep Blue beats the world champion Beats Kasparov at chess. LSTM Sepp Hochreiter and Jürgen Schmidhuber invent long short-term memory (LSTM) recurrent neural networks, greatly improving the efficiency and practicality of recurrent neural networks. 1998 MNIST database A team led by Yann LeCun releases the MNIST database, a dataset comprising a mix of handwritten digits from American Census Bureau employees and American high school students. The MNIST database has since become a benchmark for 1135 evaluating handwriting recognition. 2002 2006 Torch Machine Torch, a software library for machine Learning Library learning, is first released. The Netflix Prize The Netflix Prize competition is launched by Netflix. The aim of the competition was to use machine learning to beat Netflix's own recommendation software's accuracy in predicting a user's rating for a film given their ratings for previous films by at least 10%. The prize was won in 2009. 2009 Achievement ImageNet ImageNet is created. ImageNet is a large visual database envisioned by Fei-Fei Li from Stanford University, who realized that the best machine learning algorithms wouldn't work well if the data didn't reflect the real world. For many, ImageNet was the catalyst for the AI boom of the 21st century. 2010 Kaggle Competition Kaggle, a website that serves as a platform for machine learning competitions, is launched. 2010 Wall Street Journal The WSJ Profiles new wave of investing and Profiles Machine focuses on RebellionResearch.com which Learning Investing would be the subject of author Scott Patterson's Novel, Dark Pools. 1136 2011 Achievement Beating Humans in Using a combination of machine Jeopardy learning, natural language processing and information retrieval techniques, IBM's Watson beats two human champions in a Jeopardy! Competition. 2012 Achievement Recognizing Cats The Google Brain team, led by Andrew on YouTube Ng and Jeff Dean, create a neural network that learns to recognize cats by watching unlabeled images taken from frames of YouTube videos. 2014 Leap in Face Facebook researchers publish their work Recognition on DeepFace, a system that uses neural networks that identifies faces with 97.35% accuracy. The results are an improvement of more than 27% over previous systems and rivals human performance. 2014 Sibyl Researchers from Google detail their work on Sibyl, a proprietary platform for massively parallel machine learning used internally by Google to make predictions about user behavior and provide recommendations. 2016 Achievement Beating Humans in Google's AlphaGo program becomes the Go first Computer Go program to beat an unhandicapped professional human 1137 player using a combination of machine learning and tree search techniques. Later improved as AlphaGo Zero and then in 2017 generalized to Chess and more two-player games with AlphaZero. Timeline of biology and organic chemistry Before 1600  c. 520 BC – Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries and discovered the optic nerve.  c. 450 BC – Sushruta wrote the Sushruta Samhita, redacted versions of which, by the third century AD, describe over 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, classify human surgery into eight categories, and introduce cosmetic surgery.  c. 450 BC – Xenophanes examined fossils and a speculated on the evolution of life.  c. 380 BC – Diocles wrote the oldest known anatomy book and was the first to use the term anatomy.  c. 350 BC – Aristotle attempted a comprehensive classification of animals. His written works include Historion Animalium, a general biology of animals, De Partibus Animalium, a comparative anatomy and physiology of animals, and De Generatione Animalium, on developmental biology.  c. 300 BC – Theophrastos (or Theophrastus) began the systematic study of botany.  c. 300 BC – Herophilos dissected the human body.  c. 50–70 AD – Historia Naturalis by Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) was published in 37 volumes.  130–200 – Claudius Galen wrote numerous treatises on human anatomy. 1138  c. 1010 – Avicenna (Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina) published The Canon of Medicine.  1543 – Andreas Vesalius publishes the anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica. 1600–99  1620s – Jan Baptist van Helmont performed his famous tree plant experiment in which he shows that the substance of a plant derives from water, a forerunner of the discovery of photosynthesis.  1628 – William Harvey published An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals  1651 – William Harvey concluded that all animals, including mammals, develop from eggs, and spontaneous generation of any animal from mud or excrement was an impossibility.  1665 – Robert Hooke saw cells in cork using a microscope.  In 1661, 1664 and 1665, the blood cells were discerned by Marcello Malpighi. In 1678, the red blood corpuscles was described by Jan Swammerdam of Amsterdam, a Dutch naturalist and physician. The first complete account of the red cells was made by Anthony van Leeuwenhoek of Delft in the last quarter of the 17th century.  1668 – Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation by showing that fly maggots only appear on pieces of meat in jars if the jars are open to the air. Jars covered with cheesecloth contained no flies.  1672 – Marcello Malpighi published the first description of chick development, including the formation of muscle somites, circulation, and nervous system.  1676 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed protozoa and calls them animalcules.  1677 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed spermatozoa.  1683 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek observed bacteria. Leeuwenhoek's discoveries renew the question of spontaneous generation in microorganisms. 1700–99 1139  1767 – Kaspar Friedrich Wolff argued that the tissues of a developing chick form from nothing and are not simply elaborations of already-present structures in the egg.  1768 – Lazzaro Spallanzani again disproved spontaneous generation by showing that no organisms grow in a rich broth if it is first heated (to kill any organisms) and allowed to cool in a stoppered flask. He also showed that fertilization in mammals requires an egg and semen.  1771 – Joseph Priestley demonstrated that plants produce a gas that animals and flames consume. Those two gases are carbon dioxide and oxygen.  1798 – Thomas Malthus discussed human population growth and food production in An Essay on the Principle of Population. 1800–99  1801 – Jean-Baptiste Lamarck began the detailed study of invertebrate taxonomy.  1802 – The term biology in its modern sense was propounded independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur) and Lamarck (Hydrogéologie). The word was coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach.  1809 – Lamarck proposed a modern theory of evolution based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics.  1817 – Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaimé Caventou isolated chlorophyll.  1820 – Christian Friedrich Nasse formulated Nasse's law: hemophilia occurs only in males and is passed on by unaffected females.  1824 – J. L Prevost and J. B. Dumas showed that the sperm in semen were not parasites, as previously thought, but, instead, the agents of fertilization.  1826 – Karl von Baer showed that the eggs of mammals are in the ovaries, ending a 200year search for the mammalian egg.  1828 – Friedrich Woehler synthesized urea; first synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic starting materials.  1836 – Theodor Schwann discovered pepsin in extracts from the stomach lining; first isolation of an animal enzyme. 1140  1837 – Theodor Schwann showeds that heating air will prevent it from causing putrefaction.  1838 – Matthias Schleiden proposed that all plants are composed of cells.  1839 – Theodor Schwann proposed that all animal tissues are composed of cells. Schwann and Schleinden argued that cells are the elementary particles of life.  1843 – Martin Barry reported the fusion of a sperm and an egg for rabbits in a 1-page paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.  1856 – Louis Pasteur stated that microorganisms produce fermentation.  1858 – Charles R. Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently proposed a theory of biological evolution ("descent through modification") by means of natural selection. Only in later editions of his works did Darwin used the term "evolution."  1858 – Rudolf Virchow proposed that cells can only arise from pre-existing cells; "Omnis cellula e celulla," all cell from cells. The Cell Theory states that all organisms are composed of cells (Schleiden and Schwann), and cells can only come from other cells (Virchow).  1864 – Louis Pasteur disproved the spontaneous generation of cellular life.  1865 – Gregor Mendel demonstrated in pea plants that inheritance follows definite rules. The Principle of Segregation states that each organism has two genes per trait, which segregate when the organism makes eggs or sperm. The Principle of Independent Assortment states that each gene in a pair is distributed independently during the formation of eggs or sperm. Mendel's trailblazing foundation for the science of genetics went unnoticed, to his lasting disappointment.  1865 – Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz realized that benzene is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a hexagonal ring.  1869 – Friedrich Miescher discovered nucleic acids in the nuclei of cells.  1874 – Jacobus van 't Hoff and Joseph-Achille Le Bel advanced a three-dimensional stereochemical representation of organic molecules and propose a tetrahedral carbon atom. 1141  1876 – Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently described (in sea urchin eggs) the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus.  1884 – Emil Fischer began his detailed analysis of the compositions and structures of sugars.  1892 – Hans Driesch separated the individual cells of a 2-cell sea urchin embryo and shows that each cell develops into a complete individual, thus disproving the theory of preformation and showing that each cell is "totipotent," containing all the hereditary information necessary to form an individual.  1898 – Martinus Beijerinck used filtering experiments to show that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by something smaller than a bacterium, which he names a virus. 1900–49  1900 – Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns and Erich von Tschermak independently rediscovered Mendel's paper on heredity.  1902 – Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri, independently proposed that the chromosomes carry the hereditary information.  1905 – William Bateson coined the term "genetics" to describe the study of biological inheritance.  1906 – Mikhail Tsvet discovered the chromatography technique for organic compound separation.  1907 – Ivan Pavlov demonstrated conditioned responses with salivating dogs.  1907 – Hermann Emil Fischer artificially synthesized peptide amino acid chains and thereby shows that amino acids in proteins are connected by amino group-acid group bonds.  1909 – Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word "gene."  1911 – Thomas Hunt Morgan proposed that genes are arranged in a line on the chromosomes. 1142  1922 – Aleksandr Oparin proposed that the Earth's early atmosphere contained methane, ammonia, hydrogen, and water vapor, and that these were the raw materials for the origin of life.  1926 – James B. Sumner showed that the urease enzyme is a protein.  1928 – Otto Diels and Kurt Alder discovered the Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction for forming ring molecules.  1928 – Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin  1929 – Phoebus Levene discovered the sugar deoxyribose in nucleic acids.  1929 – Edward Doisy and Adolf Butenandt independently discovered estrone.  1930 – John Howard Northrop showed that the pepsin enzyme is a protein.  1931 – Adolf Butenandt discovered androsterone.  1932 – Hans Adolf Krebs discovered the urea cycle.  1933 – Tadeus Reichstein artificially synthesized vitamin C; first vitamin synthesis.  1935 – Rudolf Schoenheimer used deuterium as a tracer to examine the fat storage system of rats.  1935 – Wendell Stanley crystallized the tobacco mosaic virus.  1935 – Konrad Lorenz described the imprinting behavior of young birds.  1937 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovered the three-dimensional structure of cholesterol.  1937 – Hans Adolf Krebs discovered the tricarboxylic acid cycle.  1937 – In Genetics and the Origin of Species, Theodosius Dobzhansky applies the chromosome theory and population genetics to natural populations in the first mature work of neo-Darwinism, also called the modern synthesis, a term coined by Julian Huxley.  1938 – Marjorie Courtenay-Latimer discovered a living coelacanth off the coast of southern Africa.  1940 – Donald Griffin and Robert Galambos announced their discovery of echolocation by bats. 1143  1942 – Max Delbrück and Salvador Luria demonstrated that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change.  1944 – Oswald Avery shows that DNA carried the hereditary information in pneumococcus bacteria.  1944 – Robert Burns Woodward and William von Eggers Doering synthesized quinine.  1945 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovered the three-dimensional structure of penicillin.  1948 – Erwin Chargaff showed that in DNA the number of guanine units equals the number of cytosine units and the number of adenine units equals the number of thymine units. 1950–89  1951 – The research group of Robert Robinson with John Cornforth (Oxford University) publishes their synthesis of cholesterol, while Robert Woodward (Harvard University) publishes his synthesis of cortisone.  1951 – Fred Sanger, Hans Tuppy, and Ted Thompson completed their chromatographic analysis of the insulin amino acid sequence.  1952 – American developmental biologists Robert Briggs and Thomas King cloned the first vertebrate by transplanting nuclei from leopard frogs embryos into enucleated eggs. More differentiated cells were the less able they are to direct development in the enucleated egg.  1952 – Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed that DNA is the genetic material in bacteriophage viruses.  1952 – Rosalind Franklin concluded that DNA is a double helix with a diameter of 2 nm and the sugar-phosphate backbones on the outside of the helix, based on x ray diffraction studies. She suspected the two sugar-phosphate backbones have a peculiar relationship to each other.  1953 – After examining Franklin's unpublished data, James D. Watson and Francis Crick published a double-helix structure for DNA, with one sugar-phosphate backbone 1144 running in the opposite direction to the other. They further suggested a mechanism by which the molecule can replicate itself and serve to transmit genetic information. Their paper, combined with the Hershey-Chase experiment and Chargaff's data on nucleotides, finally persuaded biologists that DNA is the genetic material, not protein.  1953 – Stanley Miller showed that amino acids can be formed when simulated lightning is passed through vessels containing water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen  1954 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovered the three-dimensional structure of vitamin B12.  1955 – Marianne Grunberg-Manago and Severo Ochoa discovered the first nucleic-acidsynthesizing enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase), which links nucleotides together into polynucleotides.  1955 – Arthur Kornberg discovered DNA polymerase enzymes.  1958 – John Gurdon used nuclear transplantation to clone an African Clawed Frog; first cloning of a vertebrate using a nucleus from a fully differentiated adult cell.  1958 – Matthew Stanley Meselson and Franklin W. Stahl proved that DNA replication is semiconservative in the Meselson-Stahl experiment  1959 – Max Perutz comes up with a model for the structure of oxygenated hemoglobin.  1959 – Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg received the Nobel Prize for their work.  1960 – John Kendrew described the structure of myoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in muscle.  1960 – Four separate researchers (S. Weiss, J. Hurwitz, Audrey Stevens and J. Bonner) discovered bacterial RNA polymerase, which polymerizes nucleotides under the direction of DNA.  1960 – Robert Woodward synthesized chlorophyll.  1961 – J. Heinrich Matthaei cracked the first codon of the genetic code (the codon for the amino acid phenylalanine) using Grunberg-Manago's 1955 enzyme system for making polynucleotides. 1145  1961 – Joan Oró found that concentrated solutions of ammonium cyanide in water can produce the nucleotide adenine, a discovery that opened the way for theories on the origin of life.  1962 – Max Perutz and John Kendrew shared the Nobel prize for their work on the structure of hemoglobin and myoglobin.  1966 – Genetic code fully cracked through trial-and-error experimental work.  1966 – Kimishige Ishizaka discovered a new type of immunoglobulin, IgE, that develops allergy and explains the mechanisms of allergy at molecular and cellular levels.  1966 – Lynn Margulis proposed the endosymbiotic theory, that the eukaryotic cell is a symbiotic union of primitive prokaryotic cells. Richard Dawkins called the theory "one of the great achievements of twentieth-century evolutionary biology."  1968 – Fred Sanger used radioactive phosphorus as a tracer to chromatographically decipher a 120 base long RNA sequence.  1969 – Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin deciphered the three-dimensional structure of insulin.  1970 – Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans discovered DNA restriction enzymes.  1970 – Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discovered reverse transcriptase enzymes.  1972 – Albert Eschenmoser and Robert Woodward synthesized vitamin B12.  1972 – Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed an idea they call "punctuated equilibrium", which states that the fossil record is an accurate depiction of the pace of evolution, with long periods of "stasis" (little change) punctuated by brief periods of rapid change and species formation (within a lineage).  1972 – Seymour Jonathan Singer and Garth L. Nicholson developed the fluid mosaic model, which deals with the make-up of the membrane of all cells.  1974 – Manfred Eigen and Manfred Sumper showed that mixtures of nucleotide monomers and RNA replicase will give rise to RNA molecules which replicate, mutate, and evolve.  1974 – Leslie Orgel showed that RNA can replicate without RNA-replicase and that zinc aids this replication. 1146 The food chain consists of four major parts, namely:  The Sun (initial source of energy)  Producers (green plants)  Primary consumers (herbivores)  Consumers  Secondary consumers (carnivores)  Decomposers Get energy from dead or waste organic material 2 Types of food chain:  Detritus food chain → food chain that starts with dead organic material  Grazing food chain → food chain that starts with green plants grass → grasshopper → lizard → snake → owl It was the Law of the Sea, they said. Civilization Decomposers ends at the waterline. Beyond that, we all enter Low Small the food chain, and not always right at the top. Hunter S. Thompson Tertiary Energy Population Secondary Consumers Primary Consumers Producers High Large Ecology also teaches that all life on earth can be viewed as a competition among species for the solar energy captured by green plants and stored in the form of complex carbon molecules. A food chain is a system for passing those calories on to species that lack the pant's unique ability to synthesize them from sunlight. Michael Pollan Drugs 4 main types of disease:  infectious diseases  deficiency diseases  hereditary diseases  physiological diseases Generics Ethical Drugs (Patent expired drugs offered at low prices) (Patented small molecule drugs) Drug + Molecular target → Biological response Biologics (Very expensive biotech drugs) Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food. ― Hippocrates Three phases of drug action: Drug Administration Phase Growth for the sake of growth is Any living cell carries with it the experience of a billion the ideology of the cancer cell. years of experimentation by Dosage from route of administration Edward Abbey its ancestors. Max Ludwig Henning Delbrück Pharmacokinetic Phase All cell biologists are condemned to suffer an incurable secret sorrow: the size of the objects of their passion. … But those of us  Absorption  Distribution  Metabolism  Elimination Clearance enamored of the cell must resign ourselves to the perverse, lonely fascination of a human being for Pharmacodynamic Phase things invisible to the naked human eye. Drug + Receptor L.L. Larison Cudmore Effect  Metabolism  Elimination Man is a creature composed of countless millions of cells: a microbe is composed of only one, yet throughout the ages the two have been in ceaseless conflict. — AB Christie  1977 – John Corliss and ten coauthors discovered chemosynthetically based animal communities located around submarine hydrothermal vents on the Galapagos Rift.  1977 – Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam present a rapid DNA sequencing technique which uses cloning, base destroying chemicals, and gel electrophoresis.  1977 – Frederick Sanger and Alan Coulson presented a rapid gene sequencing technique which uses dideoxynucleotides and gel electrophoresis.  1978 – Frederick Sanger presented the 5,386 base sequence for the virus PhiX174; first sequencing of an entire genome.  1982 – Stanley B. Prusiner proposed the existence of infectious proteins, or prions. His idea is widely derided in the scientific community, but he wins a Nobel Prize in 1997.  1983 – Kary Mullis invented "PCR" ( polymerase chain reaction), an automated method for rapidly copying sequences of DNA.  1984 – Alec Jeffreys devised a genetic fingerprinting method.  1985 – Harry Kroto, J.R. Heath, S.C. O'Brien, R.F. Curl, and Richard Smalley discovered the unusual stability of the buckminsterfullerene molecule and deduce its structure.  1986 – Alexander Klibanov demonstrated that enzymes can function in non-aqueous environments.  1986 – Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Nerve growth factor (NGF). 1990–present  1990 – French Anderson et al. performed the first approved gene therapy on a human patient  1990 – Napoli, Lemieux and Jorgensen discovered RNA interference (1990) during experiments aimed at the color of petunias.  1990 – Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell Lamb, Konstantinos Fostiropoulos, and Donald Huffman discovered that Buckminsterfullerene can be separated from soot because it is soluble in benzene.  1995 – Publication of the first complete genome of a free-living organism. 1147  1996 – Dolly the sheep was first clone of an adult mammal.  1999 – Researchers at the Institute for Human Gene Therapy at the University of Pennsylvania accidentally kill Jesse Gelsinger during a clinical trial of a gene therapy technique, leading the FDA to halt further gene therapy trials at the Institute.  2001 – Publication of the first drafts of the complete human genome (see Craig Venter).  2002 – First virus produced 'from scratch', an artificial polio virus that paralyzes and kills mice. Timeline of computer viruses and worms Pre-1970  John von Neumann's article on the "Theory of self-reproducing automata" is published in 1966. The article is based on lectures given by von Neumann at the University of Illinois about the "Theory and Organization of Complicated Automata" in 1949. 1971–1975 1970 (Fiction)  The first story written about a computer virus is The Scarred Man by Gregory Benford. 1971  The Creeper system, an experimental self-replicating program, is written by Bob Thomas at BBN Technologies to test John von Neumann's theory. Creeper infected DEC PDP10 computers running the TENEX operating system. Creeper gained access via the ARPANET and copied itself to the remote system where the message "I'm the creeper, catch me if you can!" was displayed. The Reaper program was later created to delete Creeper. 1148 1972 (Fiction)  The science fiction novel, When HARLIE Was One, by David Gerrold, contains one of the first fictional representations of a computer virus, as well as one of the first uses of the word "virus" to denote a program that infects a computer. 1973 (Fiction)  In fiction, the 1973 Michael Crichton movie Westworld made an early mention of the concept of a computer virus, being a central plot theme that causes androids to run amok. Alan Oppenheimer's character summarizes the problem by stating that "...there's a clear pattern here which suggests an analogy to an infectious disease process, spreading from one...area to the next." To which the replies are stated: "Perhaps there are superficial similarities to disease" and, "I must confess I find it difficult to believe in a disease of machinery." (Crichton's earlier work, the 1969 novel The Andromeda Strain and 1971 film were about an extraterrestrial biological virus-like disease that threatened the human race.) 1974  The Rabbit (or Wabbit) virus, more a fork bomb than a virus, is written. The Rabbit virus makes multiple copies of itself on a single computer (and was named "Rabbit" for the speed at which it did so) until it clogs the system, reducing system performance, before finally reaching a threshold and crashing the computer. 1975  April: ANIMAL is written by John Walker for the UNIVAC 1108. ANIMAL asked a number of questions of the user in an attempt to guess the type of animal that the user was thinking of, while the related program PERVADE would create a copy of itself and ANIMAL in every directory to which the current user had access. It spread across the multi-user UNIVACs when users with overlapping permissions discovered the game, and to other computers when tapes were shared. The program was carefully written to avoid 1149 damage to existing file or directory structures, and not to copy itself if permissions did not exist or if damage could result. Its spread was therefore halted by an OS upgrade which changed the format of the file status tables that PERVADE used for safe copying. Though non-malicious, "Pervading Animal" represents the first Trojan "in the wild".  The novel The Shockwave Rider by John Brunner is published, coining the word "worm" to describe a program that propagates itself through a computer network. 1981–1989 1981  A program called Elk Cloner, written for Apple II systems, was created by high school student Richard Skrenta, originally as a prank. The Apple II was particularly vulnerable due to the storage of its operating system computer virus outbreak in history. 1983  November: The term "virus" is re-coined by Frederick B. Cohen in describing selfreplicating computer programs. In 1984 Cohen uses the phrase "computer virus" (suggested by his teacher Leonard Adleman) to describe the operation of such programs in terms of "infection". He defines a "virus" as "a program that can 'infect' other programs by modifying them to include a possibly evolved copy of itself." Cohen demonstrates a virus-like program on a VAX11/750 system at Lehigh University. The program could install itself in, or infect, other system objects. 1984  August: Ken Thompson publishes his seminal paper, Reflections on Trusting Trust, in which he describes how he modified a C compiler so that when used to compile a specific version of the Unix operating system, it inserts a backdoor into the login command, and when used to compile a new copy of itself, it inserts the backdoor insertion code, even if 1150 neither the backdoor nor the backdoor insertion code is present in the source code of this new copy. 1986  January: The Brain boot sector virus is released. Brain is considered the first IBM PC compatible virus, and the program responsible for the first IBM PC compatible virus epidemic. The virus is also known as Lahore, Pakistani, Pakistani Brain, and Pakistani flu as it was created in Lahore, Pakistan by 19-year-old Pakistani programmer, Basit Farooq Alvi, and his brother, Amjad Farooq Alvi.  December: Ralf Burger presented the Virdem model of programs at a meeting of the underground Chaos Computer Club in Germany. The Virdem model represented the first programs that could replicate themselves via addition of their code to executable DOS files in COM format. 1987  Appearance of the Vienna virus, which was subsequently neutralized – the first time this had happened on the IBM platform.  Appearance of Lehigh virus (discovered at its namesake university), boot sector viruses such as Yale from US, Stoned from New Zealand, Ping Pong from Italy, and appearance of first self-encrypting file virus, Cascade. Lehigh was stopped on campus before it spread to the "wild" (to computers beyond the university), and has never been found elsewhere as a result. A subsequent infection of Cascade in the offices of IBM Belgium led to IBM responding with its own antivirus product development. Prior to this, antivirus solutions developed at IBM were intended for staff use only.  October: The Jerusalem virus, part of the (at that time unknown) Suriv family, is detected in the city of Jerusalem. The virus destroys all executable files on infected machines upon every occurrence of Friday the 13th (except Friday 13 November 1987 making its first trigger date May 13, 1988). Jerusalem caused a worldwide epidemic in 1988. 1151  November: The SCA virus, a boot sector virus for Amiga computers, appears. It immediately creates a pandemic virus-writer storm. A short time later, SCA releases another, considerably more destructive virus, the Byte Bandit.  December: Christmas Tree EXEC was the first widely disruptive replicating network program, which paralyzed several international computer networks in December 1987. It was written in Rexx on the VM/CMS operating system and originated in what was then West Germany. It re-emerged in 1990. 1988  March 1: The Ping-Pong virus (also called Boot, Bouncing Ball, Bouncing Dot, Italian, Italian-A or VeraCruz), an MS-DOS boot sector virus, is discovered at the University of Turin in Italy.  June: The CyberAIDS and Festering Hate Apple ProDOS viruses spreads from underground pirate BBS systems and starts infecting mainstream networks. Festering Hate was the last iteration of the CyberAIDS series extending back to 1985 and 1986. Unlike the few Apple viruses that had come before which were essentially annoying, but did no damage, the Festering Hate series of viruses was extremely destructive, spreading to all system files it could find on the host computer (hard drive, floppy, and system memory) and then destroying everything when it could no longer find any uninfected files.  November 2: The Morris worm, created by Robert Tappan Morris, infects DEC VAX and Sun machines running BSD UNIX that are connected to the Internet, and becomes the first worm to spread extensively "in the wild", and one of the first well-known programs exploiting buffer overrun vulnerabilities.  December: The Father Christmas worm attacks DEC VAX machines running VAX/VMS that are connected to the DECnet Internet (an international scientific research network using DECnet protocols), affecting NASA and other research centers. Its purpose was to deliver a Christmas greeting to all affected users. 1989 1152  October: Ghostball, the first multipartite virus, is discovered by Friðrik Skúlason. It infects both executable .COM-files and boot sectors on MS-DOS systems.  December: Several thousand floppy disks containing the AIDS Trojan, the first known ransomware, are mailed to subscribers of PC Business World magazine and a WHO AIDS conference mailing list. This DOS Trojan lies dormant for 90 boot cycles, then encrypts all filenames on the system, displaying a notice asking for $189 to be sent to a post office box in Panama in order to receive a decryption program. 1990–1999 1990  Mark Washburn, working on an analysis of the Vienna and Cascade viruses with Ralf Burger, develops the first family of polymorphic viruses, the Chameleon family. Chameleon series debuted with the release of 1260.  June: The Form computer virus is isolated in Switzerland. It would remain in the wild for almost 20 years and reappear afterwards; during the 1990s it tended to be the most common virus in the wild with 20 to more than 50 percent of reported infections. 1992  March: The Michelangelo virus was expected to create a digital apocalypse on March 6, with millions of computers having their information wiped, according to mass media hysteria surrounding the virus. Later assessments of the damage showed the aftermath to be minimal. John McAfee had been quoted by the media as saying that 5 million computers would be affected. He later said that, pressed by the interviewer to come up with a number, he had estimated a range from 5 thousand to 5 million, but the media naturally went with just the higher number. 1993 1153  "Leandro" or "Leandro & Kelly" and "Freddy Krueger" spread quickly due to popularity of BBS and shareware distribution. 1994  April: OneHalf is a DOS-based polymorphic computer virus. 1995  The first Macro virus, called "Concept", is created. It attacked Microsoft Word documents. 1996  "Ply" – DOS 16-bit based complicated polymorphic virus appeared with built-in permutation engine.  Boza, the first virus designed specifically for Windows 95 files arrives.  Laroux, the first Excel macro virus appears.  Staog, the first Linux virus attacks Linux machines 1998  June 2: The first version of the CIH virus appears. It is the first known virus able to erase flash ROM BIOS content. 1999  January 20: The Happy99 worm first appeared. It invisibly attaches itself to emails, displays fireworks to hide the changes being made, and wishes the user a happy New Year. It modifies system files related to Outlook Express and Internet Explorer (IE) on Windows 95 and Windows 98.  March 26: The Melissa worm was released, targeting Microsoft Word and Outlook-based systems, and creating considerable network traffic. 1154  June 6: The ExploreZip worm, which destroys Microsoft Office documents, was first detected.  September: the CTX virus is isolated  December 30: The Kak worm is a JavaScript computer worm that spread itself by exploiting a bug in Outlook Express. 2000–2009 2000  May 5: The ILOVEYOU worm (also known as the Love Letter, VBS, or Love Bug worm), a computer worm written in VBScript and using social engineering techniques, infects millions of Windows computers worldwide within a few hours of its release.  June 28: The Pikachu virus is believed to be the first computer virus geared at children. It contains the character "Pikachu" from the Pokémon series. The operating systems affected by this worm are Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows ME. 2001  February 11: The Anna Kournikova virus hits e-mail servers hard by sending e-mail to contacts in the Microsoft Outlook addressbook. Its creator, Jan de Wit, was sentenced to 150 hours of community service.  May 8: The Sadmind worm spreads by exploiting holes in both Sun Solaris and Microsoft IIS.  July: The Sircam worm is released, spreading through Microsoft systems via e-mail and unprotected network shares.  July 13: The Code Red worm attacking the Index Server ISAPI Extension in Microsoft Internet Information Services is released.  August 4: A complete re-write of the Code Red worm, Code Red II begins aggressively spreading onto Microsoft systems, primarily in China. 1155  September 18: The Nimda worm is discovered and spreads through a variety of means including vulnerabilities in Microsoft Windows and backdoors left by Code Red II and Sadmind worm.  October 26: The Klez worm is first identified. It exploits a vulnerability in Microsoft Internet Explorer and Microsoft Outlook and Outlook Express. 2002  February 11: The Simile virus is a metamorphic computer virus written in assembly.  Beast is a Windows-based backdoor Trojan horse, more commonly known as a RAT (Remote Administration Tool). It is capable of infecting almost all versions of Windows. Written in Delphi and released first by its author Tataye in 2002, its most current version was released October 3, 2004.  March 7: Mylife is a computer worm that spread itself by sending malicious emails to all the contacts in Microsoft Outlook. 2003  January 24: The SQL Slammer worm, aka Sapphire worm, Helkern and other names, attacks vulnerabilities in Microsoft SQL Server and MSDE becomes the fastest spreading worm of all time (measured by doubling time at the peak rate of growth), causing massive Internet access disruptions worldwide just fifteen minutes after infecting its first victim.  April 2: Graybird is a trojan horse also known as Backdoor.Graybird.  June 13: ProRat is a Turkish-made Microsoft Windows based backdoor trojan horse, more commonly known as a RAT (Remote Administration Tool).  August 12: The Blaster worm, aka the Lovesan worm, rapidly spreads by exploiting a vulnerability in system services present on Windows computers.  August 18: The Welchia (Nachi) worm is discovered. The worm tries to remove the Blaster worm and patch Windows. 1156  August 19: The Sobig worm (technically the Sobig.F worm) spreads rapidly through Microsoft systems via mail and network shares.  September 18: Swen is a computer worm written in C++.  October 24: The Sober worm is first seen on Microsoft systems and maintains its presence until 2005 with many new variants. The simultaneous attacks on network weakpoints by the Blaster and Sobig worms cause massive damage.  November 10: Agobot is a computer worm that can spread itself by exploiting vulnerabilities on Microsoft Windows. Some of the vulnerabilities are MS03-026 and MS05-039.  November 20: Bolgimo is a computer worm that spread itself by exploiting a buffer overflow vulnerability at Microsoft Windows DCOM RPC Interface. 2004  January 18: Bagle is a mass-mailing worm affecting all versions of Microsoft Windows. There were 2 variants of Bagle worm, Bagle.A and Bagle.B. Bagle.B was discovered on February 17, 2004.  Late January: The MyDoom worm emerges, and currently holds the record for the fastest-spreading mass mailer worm. The worm was most notable for performing a distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attack on www.sco.com, which belonged to The SCO Group.  February 16: The Netsky worm is discovered. The worm spreads by email and by copying itself to folders on the local hard drive as well as on mapped network drives if available. Many variants of the Netsky worm appeared.  March 19: The Witty worm is a record-breaking worm in many regards. It exploited holes in several Internet Security Systems (ISS) products. It was the fastest computer issue to be categorized as a worm, and it was the first internet worm to carry a destructive payload. It spread rapidly using a pre-populated list of ground-zero hosts. 1157  May 1: The Sasser worm emerges by exploiting a vulnerability in the Microsoft Windows LSASS service and causes problems in networks, while removing MyDoom and Bagle variants, even interrupting business.  June 15: Caribe or Cabir is a computer worm that is designed to infect mobile phones that run Symbian OS. It is the first computer worm that can infect mobile phones. It spread itself through Bluetooth. More information can be found on F-Secure and Symantec.  August 16: Nuclear RAT (short for Nuclear Remote Administration Tool) is a backdoor trojan that infects Windows NT family systems (Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows 2003).  August 20: Vundo, or the Vundo Trojan (also known as Virtumonde or Virtumondo and sometimes referred to as MS Juan) is a trojan known to cause popups and advertising for rogue antispyware programs, and sporadically other misbehaviour including performance degradation and denial of service with some websites including Google and Facebook.  October 12: Bifrost, also known as Bifrose, is a backdoor trojan which can infect Windows 95 through Vista. Bifrost uses the typical server, server builder, and client backdoor program configuration to allow a remote attack.  December: Santy, the first known "webworm" is launched. It exploited a vulnerability in phpBB and used Google in order to find new targets. It infected around 40000 sites before Google filtered the search query used by the worm, preventing it from spreading. 2005  August 2005: Zotob  October 2005: The copy protection rootkit deliberately and surreptitiously included on music CDs sold by Sony BMG is exposed. The rootkit creates vulnerabilities on affected computers, making them susceptible to infection by worms and viruses.  Late 2005: The Zlob Trojan, is a Trojan horse program that masquerades as a required video codec in the form of the Microsoft Windows ActiveX component. It was first detected in late 2005. 2006 1158  January 20: The Nyxem worm was discovered. It spread by mass-mailing. Its payload, which activates on the third of every month, starting on February 3, attempts to disable security-related and file sharing software, and destroy files of certain types, such as Microsoft Office files.  February 16: discovery of the first-ever malware for Mac OS X, a low-threat trojan-horse known as OSX/Leap-A or OSX/Oompa-A, is announced.  Late March: Brontok variant N was found in late March. Brontok was a mass-email worm and the origin for the worm was from Indonesia.  June: Starbucks is a virus that infects StarOffice and OpenOffice.  Late September: Stration or Warezov worm first discovered.  Stuxnet 2007  January 17: Storm Worm identified as a fast spreading email spamming threat to Microsoft systems. It begins gathering infected computers into the Storm botnet. By around June 30 it had infected 1.7 million computers, and it had compromised between 1 and 10 million computers by September. Thought to have originated from Russia, it disguises itself as a news email containing a film about bogus news stories asking you to download the attachment which it claims is a film.  July: Zeus is a trojan that targets Microsoft Windows to steal banking information by keystroke logging. 2008  February 17: Mocmex is a trojan, which was found in a digital photo frame in February 2008. It was the first serious computer virus on a digital photo frame. The virus was traced back to a group in China.  March 3: Torpig, also known as Sinowal and Mebroot, is a Trojan horse that affects Windows, turning off anti-virus applications. It allows others to access the computer, 1159 modifies data, steals confidential information (such as user passwords and other sensitive data) and installs more malware on the victim's computer.  May 6: Rustock.C, a hitherto-rumoured spambot-type malware with advanced rootkit capabilities, was announced to have been detected on Microsoft systems and analyzed, having been in the wild and undetected since October 2007 at the very least.  July 6: Bohmini.A is a configurable remote access tool or trojan that exploits security flaws in Adobe Flash 9.0.115 with Internet Explorer 7.0 and Firefox 2.0 under Windows XP SP2.  July 31: The Koobface computer worm targets users of Facebook and Myspace. New variants constantly appear.  November 21: Computer worm Conficker infects anywhere from 9 to 15 million Microsoft server systems running everything from Windows 2000 to the Windows 7 Beta. The French Navy, UK Ministry of Defence (including Royal Navy warships and submarines), Sheffield Hospital network, German Bundeswehr and Norwegian Police were all affected. Microsoft sets a bounty of US$250,000 for information leading to the capture of the worm's author(s). Five main variants of the Conficker worm are known and have been dubbed Conficker A, B, C, D and E. They were discovered 21 November 2008, 29 December 2008, 20 February 2009, 4 March 2009 and 7 April 2009, respectively. On December 16, 2008, Microsoft releases KB958644 patching the server service vulnerability responsible for the spread of Conficker. 2009  July 4: The July 2009 cyber attacks occur and the emergence of the W32.Dozer attack the United States and South Korea.  July 15: Symantec discovered Daprosy Worm. Said trojan worm is intended to steal online-game passwords in internet cafes. It could, in fact, intercept all keystrokes and send them to its author which makes it potentially a very dangerous worm to infect B2B (business-to-business) systems.  August 24: Source code for MegaPanzer is released by its author under GPLv3. and appears to have been apparently detected in the wild. 1160  November 27: The virus called Kenzero is a virus that spreads online from peer-topeer networks (P2P) taking browsing history. 2010–present 2010  January: The Waledac botnet sent spam emails. In February 2010, an international group of security researchers and Microsoft took Waledac down.  January: The Psyb0t worm is discovered. It is thought to be unique in that it can infect routers and high-speed modems.  February 18: Microsoft announced that a BSoD problem on some Windows machines which was triggered by a batch of Patch Tuesday updates was caused by the Alureon Trojan.  June 17: Stuxnet, a Windows Trojan, was detected. It is the first worm to attack SCADA systems. There are suggestions that it was designed to target Iranian nuclear facilities. It uses a valid certificate from Realtek.  September 9: The virus, called "here you have" or "VBMania", is a simple Trojan horse that arrives in the inbox with the odd-but-suggestive subject line "here you have". The body reads "This is The Document I told you about, you can find it Here" or "This is The Free Download Sex Movies, you can find it Here". 2011  SpyEye and Zeus merged code is seen. New variants attack mobile phone banking information.  Anti-Spyware 2011, a Trojan horse that attacks Windows 9x, 2000, XP, Vista, and Windows 7, posing as an anti-spyware program. It disables security-related processes of anti-virus programs, while also blocking access to the Internet, which prevents updates.  Summer 2011: The Morto worm attempts to propagate itself to additional computers via the Microsoft Windows Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP). Morto spreads by forcing 1161 infected systems to scan for Windows servers allowing RDP login. Once Morto finds an RDP-accessible system, it attempts to log into a domain or local system account named 'Administrator' using a number of common passwords. A detailed overview of how the worm works – along with the password dictionary Morto uses – was done by Imperva.  July 13: the ZeroAccess rootkit (also known as Sirefef or max++) was discovered.  September 1: Duqu is a worm thought to be related to the Stuxnet worm. The Laboratory of Cryptography and System Security (CrySyS Lab) of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics in Hungary discovered the threat, analysed the malware, and wrote a 60-page report naming the threat Duqu. Duqu gets its name from the prefix "~DQ" it gives to the names of files it creates. 2012  May: Flame – also known as Flamer, sKyWIper, and Skywiper – a modular computer malware that attacks computers running Microsoft Windows. Used for targeted cyber espionage in Middle Eastern countries. Its discovery was announced on 28 May 2012 by MAHER Center of Iranian National Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT), Kaspersky Lab and CrySyS Lab of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics. CrySyS stated in their report that "sKyWIper is certainly the most sophisticated malware we encountered during our practice; arguably, it is the most complex malware ever found".  August 16: Shamoon is a computer virus designed to target computers running Microsoft Windows in the energy sector. Symantec, Kaspersky Lab, and Seculert announced its discovery on August 16, 2012.  September 20: NGRBot is a worm that uses the IRC network for file transfer, sending and receiving commands between zombie network machines and the attacker's IRC server, and monitoring and controlling network connectivity and intercept. It employs a user-mode rootkit technique to hide and steal its victim's information. This family of bot is also designed to infect HTML pages with inline frames (iframes), causing redirections, blocking victims from getting updates from security/antimalware products, and killing 1162 those services. The bot is designed to connect via a predefined IRC channel and communicate with a remote botnet. 2013  September: The CryptoLocker Trojan horse is discovered. CryptoLocker encrypts the files on a user's hard drive, then prompts them to pay a ransom to the developer in order to receive the decryption key. In the following months, a number of copycat ransomware Trojans were also discovered.  December: The Gameover ZeuS Trojan is discovered. This type of virus steals one's login details on popular Web sites that involve monetary transactions. It works by detecting a login page, then proceeds to inject a malicious code into the page, keystroke logging the computer user's details.  December: Linux.Darlloz targets the Internet of things and infects routers, security cameras, set-top boxes by exploiting a PHP vulnerability. 2014  November: The Regin Trojan horse is discovered. Regin is a dropper that is primarily spread via spoofed Web pages. Once downloaded, Regin quietly downloads extensions of itself, making it difficult to be detected via anti-virus signatures. It is suspected to have been created by the United States and United Kingdom over a period of months or years, as a tool for espionage and mass surveillance. 2015  The BASHLITE malware is leaked leading to a massive spike in DDoS attacks.  Linux.Wifatch is revealed to the general public. It is found to attempt to secure devices from other more malicious malware. 2016 1163  January: A trojan named "MEMZ" is created. The creator, Leurak, explained that the trojan was intended merely as a joke. The trojan alerts the user to the fact that it is a trojan and warns them that if they proceed, the computer may no longer be usable. It contains complex payloads that corrupt the system, displaying artifacts on the screen as it runs. Once run, the application cannot be closed without causing further damage to the computer, which will stop functioning properly regardless. When the computer is restarted, in place of the bootsplash is a message that reads "Your computer has been trashed by the MEMZ Trojan. Now enjoy the Nyan cat…", which follows with an animation of the Nyan Cat.  February: Ransomware Locky with its over 60 derivatives spread throughout Europe and infected several million computers. At the height of the spread over five thousand computers per hour were infected in Germany alone. Although ransomware was not a new thing at the time, insufficient cyber security as well as a lack of standards in IT was responsible for the high number of infections. Unfortunately, even up to date antivirus and internet security software was unable to protect systems from early versions of Locky.  February: Tiny Banker Trojan (Tinba) makes headlines. Since its discovery, it has been found to have infected more than two dozen major banking institutions in the United States, including TD Bank, Chase, HSBC, Wells Fargo, PNC and Bank of America. Tiny Banker Trojan uses HTTP injection to force the user's computer to believe that it is on the bank's website. This spoof page will look and function just as the real one. The user then enters their information to log on, at which point Tinba can launch the bank webpage's "incorrect login information" return, and redirect the user to the real website. This is to trick the user into thinking they had entered the wrong information and proceed as normal, although now Tinba has captured the credentials and sent them to its host.  September: Mirai creates headlines by launching some of the most powerful and disruptive DDoS attacks seen to date by infecting the Internet of Things. Mirai ends up being used in the DDoS attack on 20 September 2016 on the Krebs on Security site which reached 620 Gbit/s. Ars Technica also reported a 1 Tbit/s attack on French web host OVH. On 21 October 2016 multiple major DDoS attacks in DNS services of DNS service provider Dyn occurred using Mirai malware installed on a large number of IoT 1164 Science of extracting metals from their Metallurgy Concentration of ore ores and modifying the metals for use Conversion of Refining of metals concentrate to oxide Liquation Physical Chemical methods methods Roasting Calcination Electrolysis Reduction of Magnetic oxide to metal Leaching separation Distillation Hydraulic washing Reducing agents: Biochemistry is the science of life. All our life processes - walking, talking, Froth floatation  Heat  Carbon  Carbon monoxide  Aluminum  Electrolysis moving, feeding - are essentially chemical reactions. So biochemistry is actually the chemistry of life, and it's supremely interesting. Aaron Ciechanover Matter  Elements (contains only one kind of atom)  Compounds (contains two or more kind of atoms)  Mixtures (made up of two or more different substances which are not chemically combined) Chemistry is not a primitive science like geometry and astronomy; it is constructed from the debris of a previous scientific formation; a formation half chimerical and half positive, itself found on the treasure slowly amassed by the practical discoveries of metallurgy, medicine, industry and domestic economy. It has to do with alchemy, which pretended to enrich its adepts by teaching them to manufacture gold and silver, to shield them from diseases by the preparation of the panacea, and, finally, to obtain for them perfect felicity by identifying them with the soul of the world and the universal spirit. Marcellin Berthelot Ores of Metals: Important Alloys: Metal Ore Aluminium Bauxite Beryllium Beryl Chromium Chromite Cobalt Cobaltite Copper Bornite, Chalcocite Gold Quartz Iron Magnetite Lead Galena Manganese Pyrolusite Mercury Cinnabar Nickel Pentlandite Tin Alloy Combination of Duralumin Aluminium and Copper Brass Copper and Zinc Bronze Copper and Tin Invar Iron and Nickel Stainless steel Iron, Chromium and Nickel German Silver Copper, Nickel and Zinc Gunmetal Copper, Tin and Zinc Casseterite Solder Lead and Tin Tungsten Wolframite, Scheelite Electrum Gold and Silver Silver Argentite Uranium Uraninite Constantan Copper and Nickel Zinc Sphalerite Manganin Copper, Manganese and Nickel Radiation Ionizing Radiation Non-ionizing Radiation can ionize matter cannot ionize matter  X rays   Ultraviolet light Gamma rays   Infrared Alpha   Visible light Beta   Microwaves Neutron  Radio waves  Very low frequency  Extremely low Waves Longitudinal waves frequency  Thermal radiation  Black body radiation Transverse waves Need a medium for Do not need a medium for propagation propagation Hazardous waste Waste Non-hazardous waste Municipal waste: Radioactive waste  Industrial waste  Organic waste Other non-hazardous  Electronic waste  Packing waste industrial waste  Medical waste  Glass, plastic and metal Major Dangers of Nuclear Waste disposal: The nuclear waste has long half lives, which means that it will continue to be radioactive – and therefore hazardous- for many thousands of years Issue of storage of nuclear waste The nuclear waste is well stored inside huge steel and concrete containers − sometimes accidents can happen and leaks can occur. Nuclear waste can have drastically bad effects on life causing  Cancerous tumor growths  genetic problems for many generations of animal and plants … just as the astronomer, the physicist, the geologist, or other student of objective science looks about in the world of sense, so, not metaphorically speaking but literally, the mind of the mathematician goes forth in the universe of logic in quest of the things that are there; exploring the heights and depths for facts—ideas, classes, relationships, implications, and the rest; observing the minute and elusive with the powerful microscope of his Infinitesimal Analysis; observing the elusive and vast with the limitless telescope of his Calculus of the Infinite; making guesses regarding the order and internal harmony of the data observed and collocated; testing the hypotheses, not merely by the complete induction peculiar to mathematics, but, like his colleagues of the outer world, resorting also to experimental tests and incomplete induction; frequently finding it necessary, in view of unforeseen disclosures, to abandon one hopeful hypothesis or to transform it by retrenchment or by enlargement:—thus, in his own domain, matching, point for point, the processes, methods and experience familiar to the devotee of natural science. Cassius Jackson Keyser Normal Cells Tumor Cells Normal cells stop growing when enough cells Tumor cells continue to grow after enough cells are are present present Normal cells respond to the signals from other Tumor cells do not respond to the signals from other cells warning overgrowth and stop growing cells warning overgrowth Normal cells do repair themselves or may even Tumor cells don't repair themselves when they are die off if they are not healthy old or damaged [On the practical applications of particle physics research with the Large Hadron Collider.] Sometimes the public says, "What's in it for Numero Uno? Am I going to get better television reception? Am I going to get better Internet reception? " Well, in some sense, yeah. … All the wonders of quantum physics were learned basically from looking at atom-smasher technology. … But let me let you in on a secret: We physicists are not driven to do this because of better color television. … That's a spin-off. We do this because we want to understand our role and our place in the universe. — Michio Kaku Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion The nucleus of an atom splits into lighter nuclei Two or more light nuclei collide with each other to form a heavier nucleus Tremendous amount of energy is released The energy released is 3 to 4 times greater than the energy released by fission. do not occur in nature naturally occur in stars and the sun Little energy is needed to split an atom High energy is needed to bring and fuse two or more atoms together Atomic bomb works on the principle of nuclear Hydrogen bomb works on the principle of nuclear fission reaction fusion reaction devices, resulting in the inaccessibility of several high-profile websites such as GitHub, Twitter, Reddit, Netflix, Airbnb and many others. The attribution of the attack to the Mirai botnet was originally reported by BackConnect Inc., a security firm. 2017  May: The WannaCry ransomware attack spreads globally. Exploits revealed in the NSA hacking toolkit leak of late 2016 were used to enable the propagation of the malware. Shortly after the news of the infections broke online, a UK cybersecurity researcher in collaboration with others found and activated a "kill switch" hidden within the ransomware, effectively halting the initial wave of its global propagation. The next day, researchers announced that they had found new variants of the malware without the kill switch.  June: The Petya (malware) attack spreads globally affecting Windows systems. Researchers at Symantec reveal that this ransomware uses the EternalBlue exploit, similar to the one used in the WannaCry ransomware attack.  September: The Xafecopy Trojan attacks 47 countries, affecting only Android operating systems. Kaspersky Lab identified it as a malware from the Ubsod family, stealing money through click based WAP billing systems.  September: A new variety of Remote Access Trojan (RAT), Kedi RAT, is distributed in a Spear Phishing Campaign. The attack targeted Citrix users. The Trojan was able to evade usual system scanners. Kedi Trojan had all the characteristics of a common Remote Access Trojan and it could communicate to its Command and Control center via Gmail using common HTML, HTTP protocols. 2018  February: Thanatos, a ransomware, becomes the first ransomware program to accept ransom payment in Bitcoin Cash. 2019 1165  November: Titanium is an advanced and insidious backdoor malware APT, developed by PLATINUM. Timeline of HIV/AIDS Pre-1980s 1900s  Researchers estimate that some time in the early 1900s a form of simian immunodeficiency virus, SIV, was transmitted to humans in Central Africa. This particular virus, group M of HIV-1, went on to become the pandemic strain of HIV, though others have been identified. 1920s  Scientists estimate that HIV was circulating in Léopoldville (modern-day Kinshasa) by the 1920s. 1959  The first known case of HIV in a human occurs in a man who died in the Congo, later (from his preserved blood samples) confirmed as having HIV infection.  June 28, in New York City, Ardouin Antonio, a 49-year-old Haitian shipping clerk dies of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia, a disease closely associated with AIDS. Gordon Hennigar, who performed the postmortem examination of the man's body, found "the first reported instance of unassociated Pneumocystis carinii disease in an adult" to be so unusual that he preserved Ardouin's lungs for later study. The case was published in two medical journals at the time, and Hennigar has been quoted in numerous publications saying that he believes Ardouin probably had AIDS. 1960s 1166  HIV-2, a viral variant found in West Africa, is thought to have transferred to people from sooty mangabey monkeys in Guinea-Bissau. 1964  Jerome Horwitz of Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute and Wayne State University School of Medicine synthesize AZT under a grant from the US National Institutes of Health (NIH). AZT was originally intended as an anticancer drug. 1966  Genetic studies of the virus indicate that, in or about 1966, HIV first arrived in the Americas, infecting one person in Haiti. At this time, many Haitians were working in Congo, providing the opportunity for infection. 1968  A 2003 analysis of HIV types found in the United States, compared to known mutation rates, suggests that the virus may have first arrived in the United States in this year. The disease spread from the 1966 American strain, but remained unrecognized for another 12 years. This is, however, contradicted by the estimated area of time of initial infection of Robert Rayford who was most likely infected around 1959. 1969  A St. Louis teenager, identified as Robert Rayford, dies of an illness that baffles his doctors. Eighteen years later, molecular biologists at Tulane University in New Orleans test samples of his remains and find evidence of HIV. 1976  The 9-year-old daughter of Arvid Noe dies in January. Noe, a Norwegian sailor, dies in April; his wife dies in December. Later it is determined that Noe contracted HIV/AIDS in Africa during the early 1960s. 1167 causes HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) → AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome) Symptoms Transferred from person to person through  Fever  Headache  Muscle aches and joint pain  Rash labor (the delivery process)  Sore throat and painful mouth sores Breastfeeding  Swollen lymph glands, mainly on the  Sexual contact  IV drug abuse (through sharing needles)  Mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy,  neck Did you Know?  Diarrhea  Weight loss  Cough  Night sweats Nearly 38 million people are living with HIV worldwide. Many of them do not know they are infected and may be spreading the virus to others. In the U.S., 1.1 million people are living with HIV, and almost 39,000 Americans become newly infected with the virus each year. 1977  Danish physician Grethe Rask dies of AIDS contracted in Africa.  A San Francisco woman, believed to be a sex-worker, gives birth to the first of three children who were later diagnosed with AIDS. The children's blood was tested after their deaths and revealed an HIV infection. The mother died of AIDS in May 1987. Test results show she was infected no later than 1977.  French-Canadian flight attendant Gaëtan Dugas, a relatively early HIV patient, gets legally married in Los Angeles in order to get citizenship. He stays in Silver Lake, a section of Los Angeles, whenever he is in town. 1978  A Portuguese man known as Senhor José (English: Mr. Joseph) dies; he will later be confirmed as the first known infection of HIV-2. It is believed that he was exposed to the disease in Guinea-Bissau in 1966. 1979  An early case of AIDS in the United States was of a female baby born in New Jersey in 1973 or 1974. She was born to a sixteen-year-old girl, an identified drug-injector, who had previously had multiple male sexual partners. The baby died in 1979 at the age of five. Subsequent testing on her stored tissues confirmed that she had contracted HIV-1.  A thirty-year-old woman from the Dominican Republic dies at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York City from CMV infection. 1980s 1980  April 24, San Francisco resident Ken Horne is reported to the Center for Disease Control with Kaposi's sarcoma (KS). Later in 1981, the CDC would retroactively identify him as 1168 the first patient of the AIDS epidemic in the US. He was also suffering from Cryptococcus.  A 36-year-old Danish homosexual male passes away in the Rigshospitalet in Copenhagen from Pneumocystis pneumonia.  October 31, Gaëtan Dugas pays his first known visit to New York City bathhouses.  December 23, Rick Wellikoff, a Brooklyn schoolteacher, dies of AIDS in New York City. He is the 4th US citizen known to die from the illness.  A Zairian woman and a French woman die in late 1980 of Pneumocystis Pneumonia in the Claude Bernard Hospital in Paris. 1981  May 18, Lawrence Mass becomes the first journalist in the world to write about the epidemic, in the New York Native, a gay newspaper. A gay tipster overheard his physician mention that some gay men were being treated in intensive-care units in New York City for a strange pneumonia. "Disease Rumors Largely Unfounded" was the headline of Mass's article. Mass repeated a New York City public-health official's claims that there was no wave of disease sweeping through the gay community. At this point, however, the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) had been gathering information for about a month on the outbreak that Mass's source dismissed.  June 5, The CDC reports a cluster of Pneumocystis pneumonia in five gay men in Los Angeles.  July 3, An article in The New York Times carries the headline: "Rare Cancer Seen in 41 Homosexuals". The article describes cases of Kaposi's sarcoma found in forty-one gay men in New York City and San Francisco. The CDC reports clusters of Kaposi's sarcoma and Pneumocystis pneumonia among gay men in California and New York City.  December, self proclaimed "AIDS poster boy" Bobbi Campbell is San Francisco diagnosed with Kaposi's sarcoma.  October, first reported case in Spain, a 35-year-old gay man. Died shortly after. 1169  December 12, First known case reported in the United Kingdom.  One of the first reported patients to have died of AIDS (presumptive diagnosis) in the US is reported in the journal Gastroentereology. Louis Weinstein, the treating physician, wrote that "Immunologic incompetence, related to either disease or therapy, or both ... although suspected, could not be proved..."  By the end of the year December 31st, 337 people are known to have had the disease, 321 adults, and 16 children under the age of 13 and of those 130 had died from the disease. 1982  January, the service organization Gay Men's Health Crisis is founded by Larry Kramer and others in New York City.  June 18, "Exposure to some substance (rather than an infectious agent) may eventually lead to immunodeficiency among a subset of the homosexual male population that shares a particular style of life." For example, Marmor et al. recently reported that exposure to amyl nitrite was associated with an increased risk of KS in New York City. Exposure to inhalant sexual stimulants, central-nervous-system stimulants, and a variety of other "street" drugs was common among males belonging to the cluster of cases of KS and PCP in Los Angeles and Orange counties."  July 4, Terry Higgins becomes one of the first people to die of AIDS-related illnesses in the United Kingdom, prompting the foundation in November of what was to become the Terrence Higgins Trust.  July 9, The CDC reports a cluster of opportunistic infections (OI) and Kaposi's sarcoma among Haitians recently entering the United States.  July 27, The term AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is proposed at a meeting in Washington, D.C. of gay-community leaders, federal bureaucrats and the CDC to replace GRID (gay-related immune deficiency) as evidence showed it was not gay specific.  Summer, First known case in Italy.  September 24, The CDC defines a case of AIDS as a disease, at least moderately predictive of a defect in cell-mediated immunity, occurring in a person with no known 1170 cause for diminished resistance to that disease. Such diseases include KS, PCP, and serious OI. Diagnoses are considered to fit the case definition only if based on sufficiently reliable methods (generally histology or culture). Some patients who are considered AIDS cases on the basis of diseases only moderately predictive of cellular immunodeficiency may not actually be immunodeficient and may not be part of the current epidemic.  December 10, a baby in California becomes ill in the first known case of contracting AIDS from a blood transfusion.  First known case in Brazil.  First known case in Canada.  First known case in Australia, diagnosed at St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney. 1983  January, Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, isolates a retrovirus that kills T-cells from the lymph system of a gay AIDS patient. In the following months, she would find it in additional gay and hemophiliac sufferers. This retrovirus would be called by several names, including LAV and HTLV-III before being named HIV in 1986.  CDC National AIDS Hotline is established.  March, United States Public Health Service (PHS or USPHS) issues donor screening guidelines. AIDS high-risk groups should not donate blood/plasma products.  In March, AIDS Project Los Angeles is founded by Nancy Cole Sawaya, Matt Redman, Ervin Munro, and Max Drew  First known case in Colombia, A female sexual worker from Cali was diagnosed with HIV in the Hospital Universitario de Cartagena  First AIDS-related death occurs in Australia, in the city of Melbourne. The Hawke Labor government invests in a significant campaign that has been credited with ensuring Australia has one of the lowest HIV infection rates in the world.  AIDS is diagnosed in Mexico for the first time. HIV can be traced in the country to 1981. 1171  The PCR (polymerase chain reaction) technique is developed by Kary Mullis; it is widely used in AIDS research.  Within a few days of each other, the musicians Jobriath and Klaus Nomi become the first internationally known recording artists to die from AIDS-related illnesses.  First known case in Portugal. 1984  Around January, the first case of HIV infection in the Philippines was reported.  Gaëtan Dugas passes away due to AIDS-related illnesses. He was a French-Canadian flight attendant who was falsely identified as patient 0 due to his central location and labeling as "patient O," as in the letter O, in a scientific study of 40 infected Americans from multiple U.S. cities.  Roy Cohn is diagnosed with AIDS, but attempts to keep his condition secret while receiving experimental drug treatment.  April 23, U.S. Health and Human Services Secretary Margaret Heckler announces at a press conference that an American scientist, Robert Gallo, has discovered the probable cause of AIDS: the retrovirus is subsequently named human immunodeficiency virus or HIV in 1986. She also declares that a vaccine will be available within two years.  June 25, French philosopher Michel Foucault dies of AIDS in Paris.  September 6, First performance at Theatre Rhinoceros in San Francisco of The AIDS Show which runs for two years and is the subject of a 1986 documentary film of the same name.  December 17, Ryan White was diagnosed with AIDS by a doctor performing a partial lung removal. White became infected with HIV from a blood products that were administered to him on a regular basis as part of his treatment for hemophilia. When the public school that he attended, Western Middle School in Russiaville, Indiana, learned of his disease in 1985 there was enormous pressure from parents and faculty to bar him from school premises. Due to the widespread fear of AIDS and lack of medical knowledge, principal Ron Colby and the school board assented. His family filed a lawsuit, seeking to overturn the ban. 1172 1985  March 2, the FDA approves an ELISA test as the first commercially available test for detecting HIV in blood. It detects antibodies which the body makes in response to exposure to HIV and is first intended for use on all donated blood and plasma intended for transfusion and product manufacture.  April 21, the play The Normal Heart by Larry Kramer premieres in New York City.  July 28, AIDS Project Los Angeles hosts the world's first AIDS Walk at Paramount Studios in Hollywood. More than 4,500 people helped the Walk surpass its $100,000 goal, raising $673,000.  September 17, during his second term in office, President Ronald Reagan publicly mentions AIDS for the first time when asked about the lack of medical research funding by an AP reporter during a press conference.  September 19, The first Commitment to Life is held in Los Angeles. Elizabeth Taylor hosted the event and honored former First Lady Betty Ford. Taylor said at the event "Tonight is the start of my personal war on this disease, AIDS." The event raised more than $1 million for AIDS Project Los Angeles.  October 2, Rock Hudson dies of AIDS. On July 25, 1985, he was the first American celebrity to publicly admit having AIDS; he had been diagnosed with it on June 5, 1984.  October 12, Ricky Wilson, guitarist of American rock band The B-52's dies from an AIDS related illness. The album Bouncing Off The Satellites, which he was working on when he died, is dedicated to him when it is released the next year. The band is devastated by the loss and do not tour or promote the album. Wilson is eventually replaced on guitar by his former writing partner Keith Strickland, the B52's former drummer.  October, a conference of public health officials including representatives of the Centers for Disease Control and World Health Organization meet in Bangui and define AIDS in Africa as "prolonged fevers for a month or more, weight loss of over 10% and prolonged diarrhea".  First officially reported cases in China. 1173  November 11, An Early Frost, the first film to cover the topic of HIV/AIDS is broadcast in the U.S. on prime time TV by NBC. 1986  HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) is adopted as name of the retrovirus that was first proposed as the cause of AIDS by Luc Montagnier of France, who named it LAV (lymphadenopathy associated virus) and Robert Gallo of the United States, who named it HTLV-III (human T-lymphotropic virus type III)  January 14, "one million Americans have already been infected with the virus and that this number will jump to at least 2 million or 3 million within 5 to 10 years..." – NIAID Director Anthony Fauci, New York Times.  February, President Reagan instructs his Surgeon General C. Everett Koop to prepare a report on AIDS. (Koop was excluded from the Executive Task Force on AIDS established in 1983 by his immediate superior, Assistant Secretary of Health Edward Brandt.) Without allowing Reagan's domestic policy advisers to review the report, Koop released the report at a press conference on October 22, 1986.  May 30, fashion designer Perry Ellis dies of AIDS-related illness.  Attorney Geoffrey Bowers is fired from the firm of Baker & McKenzie after AIDSrelated Kaposi's sarcoma lesions appeared on his face. The firm maintained that he was fired purely for his performance. He sued the firm, in one of the first AIDS discrimination cases to go to a public hearing. These events were the inspiration for the 1993 film Philadelphia.  August 2, Roy Cohn dies of complications from AIDS at the age of 59. He insists to the end that his disease was liver cancer.  November 18, model Gia Carangi dies of AIDS-related illness.  First officially known cases in the Soviet Union and India. 1987 1174  AZT (zidovudine), the first antiretroviral drug, becomes available to treat HIV.  On February 4, popular performing musician Liberace dies from AIDS related illness.  In April the FDA approves a Western blot test as a more precise test for the presence of HIV antibodies than the ELISA test.  In March, the direct action advocacy group ACT UP is founded by Larry Kramer in New York City.  On May 28, playwright and performer Charles Ludlam dies of AIDS-related PCP pneumonia.  On July 11, Tom Waddell, founder of the Gay Games, dies of AIDS.  Randy Shilts's investigative journalism book And the Band Played On published chronicling the 1980–1985 discovery and spread of HIV/AIDS, government indifference, and political infighting in the United States to what was initially perceived as a gay disease. (Shilts died of the disease on February 17, 1994.)  On August 18 the FDA sanctioned the first clinical trial to test an HIV vaccine candidate in a research participant. 1988  May, C. Everett Koop sends an eight-page, condensed version of his Surgeon General's Report on Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome report named Understanding AIDS to all 107,000,000 households in the United States, becoming the first federal authority to provide explicit advice to US citizens on how to protect themselves from AIDS.  March 3, John Holmes dies from AIDS-related complications.  November 11, The fact-based AIDS-themed film Go Toward the Light is broadcast on CBS.  December 1, The first World AIDS Day takes place.  In Buenos Aires, Argentina, the rock musicians Miguel Abuelo (March 26) and Federico Moura (December 21), die from AIDS-related complications.  American disco singer Sylvester dies of AIDS in San Francisco. 1175 1989  The television movie The Ryan White Story airs. It stars Judith Light as Jeanne, Lukas Haas as Ryan and Nikki Cox as sister Andrea. Ryan White had a small cameo appearance as Chad, a young patient with AIDS. Another AIDS-themed film, The Littlest Victims, debuted in 1989, biopicing James Oleske, the first U.S. physician to discover AIDS in newborns during AIDS' early years, when many thought it was only spread through maleto-male sexual activity.  "Covering the Plague" by James Kinsella is published, providing a scathing look into how the media fumbled the AIDS story.  British travel writer Bruce Chatwin dies from AIDS-related complications.  NASCAR driver Tim Richmond dies from AIDS-related complications.  Amanda Blake best known for her portrayal of saloon owner Miss Kitty on the television show Gunsmoke becomes the first actress of note in the United States to die of AIDSrelated illness. The cause of death was cardiac arrest stemming from CMV hepatitis, an AIDS-related hepatitis. 1990s 1990  January 6, British actor Ian Charleson dies from AIDS at the age of 40 — the first showbusiness death in the United Kingdom openly attributed to complications from AIDS.  February 16, New York artist and social activist Keith Haring dies from AIDS-related illness.  April 8, Ryan White dies at the age of 18 from pneumonia caused by complications associated with AIDS.  Congress enacted The Ryan White Comprehensive AIDS Resources Emergency (CARE) Act or Ryan White Care Act, the United States' largest federally funded health related program (excluding Medicaid and Medicare). 1176  July 7, Brazilian singer Cazuza dies in Rio de Janeiro at the age of 32 from an AIDSrelated illness.  November 9, American singer-songwriter Tom Fogerty, rhythm guitarist of Creedence Clearwater Revival and older brother of John Fogerty, dies in Berkeley, California of AIDS-related tuberculosis. 1991  May, the play Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes by Tony Kushner premieres in San Francisco.  September 28, jazz legend Miles Davis dies at the age of 65. The official cause of death is bronchial pneumonia. He was taking Zidovudine (AZT) when hospitalized; at the time, Zidovudine (AZT) was a treatment for HIV and AIDS.  November 7, NBA star Magic Johnson publicly announces that he is HIV-positive.  November 24, A little over 24 hours after issuing a statement confirming that he had been tested HIV positive and had AIDS, Freddie Mercury (singer of the British band Queen) dies at the age of 45. The official cause of death is bronchial pneumonia resulting from AIDS. 1992  The first combination drug therapies for HIV are introduced.  April 6, popular science fiction writer Isaac Asimov dies. Ten years later, his wife revealed that his death was due to AIDS-related complications. The writer was infected during a blood transfusion in 1983.  June 18, Australian singer Peter Allen dies from complications due to AIDS.  September 12, American actor Anthony Perkins, known for his role as Norman Bates in the Psycho movies, dies from AIDS.  At the Royal Free Hospital in London, an out-patients' centre for HIV and AIDS is opened by Ian McKellen. It is named the Ian Charleson Day Centre after actor Ian Charleson. 1177  Robert Reed, best known as Mike Brady on the sitcom The Brady Bunch dies of AIDS on May 12.  Denholm Elliott, best known as Marcus Brody on the Indiana Jones film series dies of AIDS related tuberculosis on 22 October 1992. 1993  Rudolf Nureyev, one of the world's greatest ballet dancers, dies from AIDS on January 6.  Tennis star Arthur Ashe dies from AIDS-related complications 1994  Randy Shilts author of And the Band Played On: Politics, People, and the AIDS Epidemic, dies at his home of AIDS related complications.  Elizabeth Glaser, wife of Starsky & Hutch's Paul Michael Glaser, dies from AIDS-related complications almost 10 years after receiving an infected blood transfusion while giving birth. She unknowingly passes HIV on to her daughter Ariel and son Jake. Ariel died in 1988, Jake is living with HIV, while Paul Michael remains negative.  Sarah Jane Salazar, a 19-year-old Filipino AIDS activist and educator, publicly admits she contracted HIV from a foreign customer while working as a club entertainer in the early 1990s. She was the second Filipino to do so. The first was Dolzura Cortez. 1995  Saquinavir, a new type of protease inhibitor drug, becomes available to treat HIV. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) becomes possible. Within two years, death rates due to AIDS will have plummeted in the developed world.  March 26, Rapper Eazy-E dies from AIDS-related pneumonia.  April 4, British DJ and entertainer Kenny Everett dies from AIDS.  Oakland, California resident Jeff Getty becomes the first person to receive a bone marrow transplant from a Baboon as an experimental procedure to treat his HIV infection. The 1178 graft did not take, but Getty experienced some reduction in symptoms before dying of heart failure after cancer treatment in 2006. 1996  Robert Gallo's discovery that some natural compounds known as chemokines can block HIV and halt the progression of AIDS is hailed by Science as one of that year's most important scientific breakthroughs.  HIV resistance due to the CCR5-Δ32 discovered. CCR5-Δ32 (or CCR5-D32 or CCR5 delta 32) is an allele of CCR5.  Brazilian Law No. 9313, enacted on November 13, 1996, provided every Brazilian with HIV virus the right to free medication. 1997  September 2, The Washington Post carries an article stating, "The most recent estimate of the number of Americans infected (with HIV), 750,000, is only half the total that government officials used to cite over a decade ago, at a time when experts believed that as many as 1.5 million people carried the virus."  Based on the Bangui definition the WHO's cumulative number of reported AIDS cases from 1980 through 1997 for all of Africa is 620,000. For comparison, the cumulative total of AIDS cases in the USA through 1997 is 641,087.  December 7, "French President Jacques Chirac addressed Africa's top AIDS conference on Sunday and called on the world's richest nations to create an AIDS therapy support fund to help Africa. According to Chirac, Africa struggles to care for two-thirds of the world's persons with AIDS without the benefit of expensive AIDS therapies. Chirac invited other countries, especially European nations, to create a fund that would help increase the number of AIDS studies and experiments. AIDS workers welcomed Chirac's speech and said they hoped France would promote the idea to the Group of Eight summit of the world's richest nations." 1998 1179  December 10, International Human Rights Day, Treatment Action Campaign (TAC) is launched to campaign for greater access to HIV treatment for all South Africans, by raising public awareness and understanding about issues surrounding the availability, affordability and use of HIV treatments. TAC campaigns against the view that AIDS is a death sentence. 1999  January 31, Studies suggest that a retrovirus, SIVcpz (simian immunodeficiency virus) from the common chimpanzee Pan troglodytes, may have passed to human populations in west equatorial Africa during the twentieth century and developed into various types of HIV.  Edward Hooper releases a book titled The River, which accuses doctors who developed and administered the oral polio vaccine in 1950s Africa of unintentionally starting the AIDS epidemic. The OPV AIDS hypothesis receives a great deal of publicity. It was later refuted by studies demonstrating the origins of HIV as a mutated variant of a simian immunodeficiency virus that is lethal to humans. Hooper's hypothesis should not be confused with the Heart of Darkness origin theory. 2000s 2000  World Health Organization estimates between 15% and 20% of new HIV infections worldwide are the result of blood transfusions, where the donors were not screened or inadequately screened for HIV.  February 23, Israeli singer Ofra Haza died in Tel Aviv of AIDS-related pneumonia.  June 11, Sarah Jane Salazar died at the age of 25 from AIDS complications. Before her death, Salazar was confined at the National Center for Mental Health after being diagnosed with manic depression which doctors said may have been related to anti-AIDS drugs she was taking. 2001 1180  September 21, FDA licenses the first nucleic acid test (NAT) systems intended for screening of blood and plasma donations. 2002  The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves the first rapid diagnostic HIV test kit for use in the United States. The kit has a 99.6% accuracy and can provide results in as little as twenty minutes. The test kit can be used at room temperature, did not require specialized equipment, and can be used outside of clinics and doctor's offices. The mobility and speed of the test allowed a wider spread use of HIV testing. 2003  President George W Bush initiates the President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. By the time he leaves office it provides medicine for 2 million Africans. 2004  January 5, "Individual risk of acquiring HIV and experiencing rapid disease progression is not uniform within populations", says Anthony S. Fauci, the director of NIAID. 2005  January 21, The CDC recommends anti-retroviral post-exposure prophylaxis for people exposed to HIV from rapes, accidents or occasional unsafe sex or drug use. This treatment should start no more than 72 hours after a person has been exposed to the virus, and the drugs should be used by patients for 28 days. This emergency drug treatment has been recommended since 1996 for health-care workers accidentally stuck with a needle, splashed in their eyes with blood, or exposed in some other work-related way.  A highly resistant strain of HIV linked to rapid progression to AIDS is identified in New York City. 2006 1181  November 9, SIV found in gorillas. 2007  The first case of someone being cured of HIV is reported. A San Francisco man, Timothy Ray Brown, suffering from leukemia and HIV, is cured of HIV through a bone marrow transplant in Germany from a homozygous CCR5-Δ32 donor. Other similar cases are being studied to confirm similar results.  Maraviroc, the first available CCR5 receptor antagonist, is approved by the FDA as an antiviral drug for the treatment of AIDS. 2010s 2010  Confirmation is published that the first patient cured of HIV, Timothy Ray Brown, still has a negative HIV status, 4 years after treatment. 2012  The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approves Truvada for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). The drug can be taken by adults who do not have HIV, but are at risk for the disease. People can now take this medication to reduce their risk for contracting the virus through sexual activity. 2013  Confirmation is published that a toddler has been "functionally cured" of HIV infection. However, in 2014, it was announced that the child had relapsed and that the virus had re-appeared.  A New York Times Article says that 12 people of 75 who began combination antiretroviral therapy soon after becoming infected may have been "functionally cured" of HIV according to a French study. A functionally cured person will not experience an 1182 increase of the virus in the bloodstream despite stopping antiretroviral therapy, and therefore not progress to AIDS. 2014  Former International AIDS Society president Joep Lange and other HIV/AIDS researchers were killed in the Malaysia Airlines Flight 17 in July. 2015  New, aggressive strain of HIV discovered in Cuba Researchers at the University of Leuven in Belgium say the HIV strain CRF19 can progress to AIDS within two to three years of exposure to virus. Typically, HIV takes approximately 10 years to develop into AIDS. The researchers found that patients with the CRF19 variant had more virus in their blood than patients who had more common strains. Patients with CRF19 may start getting sick before they even know they've been infected, which ultimately means there's a significantly shorter time span to stop the disease's progression. The researchers suspect that fragments of other subsets of the virus fasten to each other through an enzyme which makes the virus more powerful and more easily replicated in the body, thus the faster progression. 2016  Researchers have found that an international study found that almost 2,000 patients with HIV failed to respond to the antiviral drug known as Tenofovir disoproxil. Tenofovir is the main HIV drug treatment. The failure to respond to treatment indicates that the virus' resistance to the medication is becoming increasingly common.  The United Nations holds its 2016 High-Level Meeting on Ending AIDS. The countries involved, the member states of the United Nations, pledge to end the AIDS epidemic by 2030. There was significant controversy surrounding the event as over 50 countries blocked the access of LGBTQ+ groups from participating in the meeting. At the conclusion of the meetings, which ran from June 8–10, 2016, the final resolution barely 1183 mentioned several groups that are most affected by HIV/AIDS, men who have sex with men, transgender people, people who inject drugs, and sex workers. Timeline of Norse colonization of the Americas Prehistoric settlement  16,000 years before present: In the 20th century it was generally believed that humans had crossed a land bridge from Eurasia perhaps 12,000 years ago — the 'Clovis First / Single origin hypothesis' — but modern scientific belief is that settlers arrived by boat at least 14,000-16,000 years before present. Norse colonization  c. 1000: Erik the Red and Leif Ericson, Viking navigators, discovered and settled Greenland, Helluland (possibly Baffin Island), Markland (now called Labrador), and Vinland (now called Newfoundland). The Greenland colony lasted until the 15th century.  c. 1350: The Norse Western Settlement in Greenland was abandoned.  1354: King Magnus of Sweden and Norway authorised Paul Knutson to lead an expedition to Greenland which may never have taken place.  c.1450–1480s: The Norse Eastern Settlement in Greenland was abandoned during the opening stages of the Little Ice Age. Timeline of the BBC 1920s  1922 o 18 October – The British Broadcasting Company is formed. 1184 o 14 November – First BBC broadcasts from London (station 2LO). o 15 November – First broadcasts from Birmingham (station 5IT) and Manchester (station 2ZY). o  24 December – First broadcast from Newcastle upon Tyne (station 5NO). 1923 o 8 January – First outside broadcast, the British National Opera Company's production of The Magic Flute from Covent Garden. o 18 January – The UK Postmaster General grants the BBC a licence to broadcast. o 13 February – First broadcast from Cardiff (station 5WA). o 6 March – First broadcast from Glasgow (station 5SC). o 6 June – Edgar Wallace makes a report on The Derby, thus becoming the first British radio sports reporter.  o 28 September – First publication of the Radio Times listings magazine (price 2d). o 10 October – First broadcast from Aberdeen (station 2BD). o 17 October – First broadcast from Bournemouth (station 6BM). o 16 November – First broadcast from Sheffield (relay station 2FL). 1924 o 28 March – First broadcast from Plymouth (relay station 5PY). o 23 April – First broadcast by King George V, opening the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Stadium. o 1 May – First broadcast from Edinburgh (relay station 2EH). o 11 June – First broadcast from Liverpool (relay station 6LV). o 8 July – First broadcast from Leeds and Bradford (relay station 2LS). o 21 July – An experimental long-wave station (5XX) is established at the Chelmsford works of the Marconi Company. o 15 August – First broadcast from Kingston upon Hull (relay station 6KH). o 14 September – First broadcast from Belfast (station 2BE). 1185 Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision The total kinetic energy is conserved The total kinetic energy is not conserved Momentum does not change Momentum changes A person who is religiously enlightened appears to me to be one who has, to the best of his ability, liberated himself from the fetters of his selfish desires and is preoccupied with thoughts, feelings, and aspirations to which he clings because of their superpersonal value. It seems to me that what is important is the force of this superpersonal content and the depth of the conviction concerning its overpowering meaningfulness, regardless of whether any attempt is made to unite this content with a divine Being, for otherwise it would not be possible to count Buddha and Spinoza as religious personalities. Accordingly, a religious person is devout in the sense that he has no doubt of the significance and loftiness of those superpersonal objects and goals which neither require nor are capable of rational foundation. They exist with the same necessity and matter-of-factness as he himself. In this sense religion is the age-old endeavor of mankind to become clearly and completely conscious of these values and goals and constantly to strengthen and extend their effect. If one conceives of religion and science according to these definitions then a conflict between them appears impossible. For science can only ascertain what is, but not what should be, and outside of its domain value judgments of all kinds remain necessary. — Albert Einstein Fraction Written in the form of a b , where a and b are whole Rational Numbers Written in the form of p q , where p and q are numbers and b ≠ 0 integers and q ≠ 0 All fractional numbers are rational All rational numbers are not fractions. All revolutionary advances in science may consist less of sudden and dramatic revelations than a series of transformations, of which the revolutionary significance may not be seen (except afterwards, by historians) until the last great step. In many cases the full potentiality and force of a most radical step in such a sequence of transformations may not even be manifest to its author. — I. Bernard Cohen Osmosis Diffusion The movement of solvent particles across a The movement of particles from an area of higher semipermeable membrane from a dilute solution concentration to lower concentration into a concentrated solution Example: Plant root hairs taking up water The movement of small molecules across a cell membrane All things on the earth are the result of chemical combination. The operation by which the commingling of molecules and the interchange of atoms take place we can imitate in our laboratories; but in nature they proceed by slow degrees, and, in general, in our hands they are distinguished by suddenness of action. In nature chemical power is distributed over a long period of time, and the process of change is scarcely to be observed. By acts we concentrate chemical force, and expend it in producing a change which occupies but a few hours at most. — Robert Hunt Data doesn't depend on information. Information depends on data. Although gravity is by far the weakest force of nature, its insidious and cumulative action serves to determine the ultimate fate not only of individual astronomical objects but of the entire cosmos. The same remorseless attraction that crushes a star operates on a much grander scale on the universe as a whole. P.C.W. Davies Heat Temperature The amount of energy present in a body The measure of the heat's intensity Flows from a hotter object to a cooler object Rises when we heat and falls when we cool James Prescott Joule (an English physicist and inventor) studied the nature of heat and established its relationship to mechanical work. He laid the foundation for the theory of conservation of energy, which later influenced the First Law of Thermodynamics (which states that Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it can only be transferred from one form to another). He also formulated the Joule's law which deals with the transfer of energy.  o 16 September – First broadcast from Nottingham (relay station 5NG). o 21 October – First broadcast from Stoke-on-Trent (relay station 6ST). o 12 November – First broadcast from Dundee (relay station 2DE). o 12 December – First broadcast from Swansea (relay station 5SX). 1925 o 27 July – Long-wave station 5XX moves from Chelmsford to Daventry transmitting station and becomes the first British radio station to achieve near national coverage: the first step in the establishment of the BBC National Programme.  1926 o 4 May – The General strike begins. The BBC broadcasts five news bulletins a day as no newspapers or Radio Times are published.  1927 o 1 January – The British Broadcasting Company becomes the British Broadcasting Corporation, when it is granted a Royal Charter. Sir John Reith becomes the first Director-General. o 15 January – First live sports broadcast on the BBC. The rugby union international England v Wales is commented on by Teddy Wakelam. o 22 January – First live football match broadcast, featuring Arsenal's home league fixture against Sheffield United from Highbury. o January – First BBC reference library established by Florence Milnes. o March – The BBC coat of arms is adopted. o 7 July – Christopher Stone presents a record programme, becoming the first British disc-jockey. o 21 August – The first high-powered regional station (5GB), forerunner of the Midland Regional Programme, opens at Daventry.  1928 1186 5 Major causes of American Civil War:  The moral issue of slavery  Territorial expansion of the United States  The abolitionist movement (the movement to end slavery)  Election of Abraham Lincoln as the President of United States  Kansas Nebraska Act (the controversial bill raised the possibility that slavery could be extended into territories where it had once been banned)  Agricultural economy that depended on the labor of enslaved people − the Southern states viewed enslavement as essential to their very survival Without the firing of a gun, without drawing a sword, should they [Northerners] make war upon us [Southerners], we could bring the whole world to our feet. What would happen if no cotton was furnished for three years? England would topple headlong and carry the whole civilized world with her. No, you dare not make war on cotton! No power on earth dares make war upon it. Cotton is King James Henry Hammond War is cruelty. There is no use trying to reform it. The crueler it is, the sooner it will be over. − William Tecumseh Sherman 5 Major causes of the Russian Revolution  Autocratic Rule of the Czars  The Policy of Russification  The Social System and Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1905)  The Rise of Nihilism  Poor working conditions, low wages and hazards of industrialization o 2 January – The first edition of The Daily Service is broadcast. It was originally called A Short Religious Service but was renamed The Daily Service in July.  1929 o 20 August – First transmissions of John Logie Baird's experimental 30-line television system. Public health is defined as the science of protecting the safety and improving the 1930s health of communities through education, policy making and research for disease and injury prevention.  1930 o 9 March – The majority of the BBC's existing radio stations are regrouped to form the BBC National Programme and the BBC Regional Programme. o 14 July – Transmission of the first experimental television play, The Man With the Flower in His Mouth. o 30 September – Number of radio licences reaches 12 million "or roughly every second home in the country".  The Jews Were Public Health Pioneers 1931 o 2 June – First live television outside broadcast with transmission of the Epsom Derby.  1932 o 15 March – The first radio broadcast is made from Broadcasting House. o 15 May – Broadcasting House, the BBC's headquarters and home to its main radio studios, is officially opened. o 22 August – The first, experimental television broadcast is made from Broadcasting House. o 19 December – The Empire Service (precursor of the World Service) launches, broadcasting on shortwave from Daventry's Borough Hill. o 25 December – King George V becomes the first monarch to deliver a Christmas Day message by radio, on the Empire Service. 1187 Magic and religion played a large  1933 o  part in the medicine of prehistoric or No events. early human society. 1934 o 7 October – The new high-power long-wave transmitter at Droitwich takes over from Daventry 5XX as the main station radiating the BBC National Programme.  o  Merit-Ptah was thought to be a female chief physician of the pharaoh's court during the 1935 Second Dynasty of Egypt, c. 2700 BCE; she is purportedly referred as such on an No events. inscription left on her grave at Saqqara by her son. 1936 o 2 November – The BBC opens the world's first regular high-definition television service, from Alexandra Palace.  1937 o 24 April – The very first children's television show For the Children. o 12 May – First use of TV outside broadcast van, to cover the procession that followed the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth. o 21 June – The BBC broadcasts television coverage of the Wimbledon Tennis Championships for the first time. o 16 September – The BBC makes the world's first live television broadcast of a football match, a specially arranged local mirror match derby fixture between Arsenal and Arsenal reserves.  1938 o 3 January – The BBC begins broadcasting its first foreign-language radio service, in Arabic. o 30 April – The BBC broadcasts television coverage of the FA Cup for the first time. o 27 September – Start of the European Service on radio, broadcasting in French, German and Italian. Portuguese and Spanish are added before the start of the Second World War. The early apologists never apologized for their Christian faith. 1188  1939 o Creation of BBC Monitoring o 1 September – The BBC Television Service is suspended, about 20 minutes after the conclusion of a Mickey Mouse cartoon (Mickey's Gala Premiere), owing to the imminent outbreak of the Second World War and amid fears that the VHF transmissions would act as perfect guidance beams for enemy bombers attempting to locate central London. Additionally, the service's technicians and engineers will be needed for such war efforts as the development of radar. On radio, the National and Regional Programmes are combined to form a single Home Service. Persecution among early Christians helped spread the gospel 1940s throughout the world.  1940 o 7 January – Start of the BBC Forces Programme on radio, precursor of the postwar Light Programme. o  1941 o  11 May – The BBC starts a news service in Hindi. The BBC European Service moves to Bush House in Central London. 1942 o 29 January – The first edition of Desert Island Discs is broadcast on the BBC Forces Programme. The fall of Rome  1943 o  No events. strengthened the church in the Middle Ages. 1944 o 27 February – BBC General Forces Programme replaces the BBC Forces Programme (also broadcast on shortwave).  1945 The goal of the first Crusade was to save the Byzantine Empire, to reunite the church in the East and West, and to reconquer the Holy Land. 1189 o 29 July – Regional radio programming resumes on the Home Service (on the same medium-wave frequencies as used pre-war by the Regional Programme), while on the same day a new Light Programme begins, using the long-wave frequency of the pre-war National Programme. o  9 October – The first edition of Today in Parliament is broadcast. 1946 o 7 June – BBC Television broadcasts (405 lines) resume after the war including the coverages of cricket and Wimbledon Tennis. One of the first programmes shown is the Mickey Mouse cartoon from 1939. o  29 September – The Third Programme starts broadcasting on radio. 1947 o 7 October – Adelaide Hall singing at a RadiOlympia variety show is the oldest surviving telerecorded programme in Britain. o 9 November – First use of telerecording of an outside broadcast: the Service of Remembrance from the Cenotaph is televised live, and a telerecording shown that evening. o 20 November – The wedding of Princess Elizabeth and Philip Mountbatten, Duke of Edinburgh is televised by the BBC. It is watched by an estimated 400,000 viewers.   1948 o 29 July – The London Olympic Games is televised. o 26 December – The first Reith Lecture is broadcast on radio. 1949 o "Briefe ohne Unterschrift" begins broadcast (1949 – 1974) Austin Harrison reads and comments letters by East Germans. The Didache − a document from the first century, gave these guidelines for Christians 1190 o 17 December – For the first time television extends beyond London when the Sutton Coldfield transmitter starts broadcasting, providing television reception across the Midlands. Under Emperor Marcus Aurelius, Christians were "barred from public 1950s buildings. Their homes were vandalized, and they were subject to mocking, beatings, draggings, robberies, stoning, imprisonment…"  1950 o 21 May – Lime Grove television studios open. o 27 August – First live television from the European continent, using BBC outside broadcast equipment.  1951 o 1 January – First broadcast of The Archers, now the world's longest-running soap opera. o 12 October – Television extends to the north of England following the switching on of the Holme Moss transmitting station.  1952 o 14 March – Television becomes available in Scotland for the first time following the switching on of the Kirk o'Shotts transmitting station. o 15 August – Television becomes available in Wales for the first time following the switching on of the Wenvoe transmitting station.  1953 o 1 May – Television becomes available in Northern Ireland for the first time although initially from a temporary transmitter, brought into service in time for the Queen's Coronation. A permanent mast at Divis is brought into service in 1955. o 2 June – The coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in Westminster Abbey is televised by the BBC and watched live by an estimated audience of 20 million people in the United Kingdom. 1191 o 11 November – The first edition of Panorama is presented by Daily Mail reporter Pat Murphy. Panorama is the world's longest-running current affairs programme and retains a peak-time slot to this day. o Watch With Mother, the iconic pre-schoolers strand, debuts. It was replaced with the see saw branding in 1975.  1954 o 11 January – The very first in-vision weather forecast is broadcast, presented by George Cowling. Previously, weather forecasts had been read by an off-screen announcer with a weather map filling the entire screen. o 5 July – BBC newsreader Richard Baker reads the first televised BBC News bulletin. o  30 December – The first BBC Sports Personality of the Year award takes place. 1955 o 2 May – The BBC begins broadcasting its radio service on VHF (FM), using the Wrotham transmitter. o September – Kenneth Kendall becomes the BBC's first in-vision newsreader, followed by Richard Baker and Robert Dougall. o 10 October – Alexandra Palace begins test transmissions of a 405-line colour television service.  1956 o 28 March – Television transmissions begin from the new Crystal Palace site in south London. o  The BBC broadcasts a trade test colour film for the first time. 1957 o 16 February - Six-Five Special first Rock and Roll programme first broadcast (16/2/57 - 27/12/58) 1192 o The first broadcast of Test Match Special takes place, providing listeners with ball-by-ball cricket commentary for the first time. o 24 April – The Sky at Night, a monthly astronomy programme presented by Sir Patrick Moore, is first broadcast. o 24 September– The first programmes for schools are broadcast. o September – The first broadcasts of regional news bulletins took place. o 30 September – Launch of Network Three, a strand of adult-education broadcasts transmitted on the frequencies of the Third Programme in the early part of weekday evenings. o  25 December – First TV broadcast of the Queen's Christmas Day message. 1958 o The BBC introduces a new 3 box system logo. The logo featured slanted lettering within upright boxes. o 14 April — The newly magnetic videotape machine Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus or VERA for short, was given a live demonstration on-air in Panorama where Richard Dimbleby seated by a clock, talked for a couple of minutes about the new method of vision recording with an instant playback, and then the tape was wound back and replayed. The picture was slightly watery, but reasonably watchable, and instant playback was something completely new. o 5 May – First experimental transmissions of a 625-line television service. o 10 October – First broadcast of the United Kingdom's multi-sport television show Grandstand. o 16 October – First broadcast of the United Kingdom's longest-running children's television show Blue Peter.  1959 o The BBC North East and Cumbria region is created with localised bulletins from Newcastle-upon-Tyne aired for the first time. Previously, the area was part of a pan-Northern region based in Manchester. 1193 1960s   1960 o 26 March – BBC Television televises the Grand National for the first time. o 19 June – Nan Winton becomes the BBC's first national female newsreader. o 29 June – BBC Television Centre opens. o 8 October – The BBC Television Service is renamed as BBC TV. 1961 o  Early Christians EXPECTED to be persecuted and they counted it an honor. The struggle No events. was actually in what to do with the Christians who denied Christ when persecuted and then wanted to be let back into the church. 1962 o 4 January – Popular sitcom Steptoe and Son begins. o 27 June – The Pilkington Committee on Broadcasting publishes its report into the future of UK broadcasting. Long its recommendations are the introduction of colour television licenses, that Britain's third national television channel should be awarded to the BBC and that the BBC should extend its activities to the creation of local radio stations in order to prevent the introduction of commercial radio. o 28 August – Experimental stereo radio broadcasts begin. o The BBC runs a series of closed circuit experiments in local radio from a variety of locations across England.  1963 o The BBC Logo had to improve to slant the boxes with the lettering. o 30 September – A globe is used as the BBC Television Service's logo for the first time. o 23 November – First broadcast of the world's longest-running science fiction television programme, Doctor Who.  1964 o 1 January – First broadcast of Top of the Pops pop and rock music television show. 1194 Intellectual Property Industrial Property Inventions (Patent) Copyright Trademark Industrial design Trade secrets Creativity The act of turning new and imaginative ideas into reality Invention The creation of a new idea or concept Innovation The process of turning a new concept into commercial success or widespread use 4 Types of Intellectual Property:  Trade secrets: Protects secret information  Trademarks: Protects brands  Copyrights: Protects works of authorship  Patents: Protects functional aspects and ornamental features Some sustaining innovations are the incremental year-by-year improvements that all good companies grind out. Other sustaining innovations are breakthrough, leapfrog-beyond-thecompetition products. It doesn’t matter how technologically difficult the innovation is, however: The established competitors almost always win the battles of sustaining technology. Because this strategy entails making a better product that they can sell for higher profit margins to their best customers, the established competitors have powerful motivations to fight sustaining battles. And they have the resources to win. – Clayton Christensen 4 types of Innovation  Incremental Innovation → utilizing your existing technology and increasing value to the customer within your existing market  Disruptive Innovation → applying new technology or processes to your company's current market  Architectural Innovation → taking the lessons, skills and overall technology and applying them within a different market  Radical innovation → giving birth to new industries (or swallowing existing ones) and involving creating revolutionary technology o 20 April – BBC2 starts broadcasting (on 625 lines). The existing BBC Television Service is renamed BBC1. o 22 August – First broadcast of top flight football television show Match of the Day.  1965 o 22 March – Launch of the daytime BBC Music Programme on the frequencies of Network Three / the Third Programme. o 1 May – The General Overseas Service is renamed the BBC World Service. o 10 October – A new service for Asian immigrants begins broadcasting. The programming consists of a weekly television and radio programme broadcast on Sunday mornings.  1966 o 17 April – The first regular stereo radio transmissions begin, from the Wrotham transmitter. o A government White Paper paves the way for the launch of a small number (eight) of two-year experimental BBC Local Radio stations.  1967 o 25 June – The first worldwide live satellite programme, Our World, featuring the Pop band, the Beatles, is televised. o 1 July – Regular colour TV transmissions (625 lines) begin on BBC2, starting with the Wimbledon tennis championships. o 30 September – BBC Radio 1 is launched, as a response to the threat from pirate radio station broadcasts of popular music. At the same time, the Light Programme, the third network (Network Three / the Third Programme), and the Home Service are renamed Radios 2, 3 and 4 respectively. o 23 October – Service Information is broadcast for the first time. o 8 November – The BBC launches its first local radio station when BBC Radio Leicester launches. 1195 o 15 November – BBC Radio Sheffield launches. o 22 November – BBC Radio Merseyside launches. o 2 December – BBC2 becomes the first television channel in Britain to broadcast in colour.  1968 o 31 January – BBC Radio Nottingham launches. o 14 February – BBC Radio Brighton launches. o 14 March – BBC Radio Stoke launches. o 25 March – BBC regional television from Leeds began and the first edition of Look North is broadcast. Previously, the Yorkshire area had been part of a wider North region based in Manchester.  o 24 June – BBC Radio Leeds launches. o 3 July – BBC Radio Durham launches. o 31 July –  The first episode of Dad's Army is broadcast.  BBC Radio Durham launches. 1969 o 10 July – The BBC publishes a report called "Broadcasting in the Seventies" proposing the reorganisation of programmes on the national networks and replacing regional broadcasting on BBC Radio 4 with BBC Local Radio. o 9 September – The first edition of Nationwide is broadcast. o 19–20 September – BBC News relocates from Alexandra Palace in North London to BBC Television Centre in West London. o 15 November – BBC1 starts broadcasting in colour (simultaneous with rival ITV). First appearance of the Mirror Globe, coloured blue on black. o BBC Local Radio is made permanent after the two-year experiment is judged to have been a success. 1196 1970s  1970 o Nine BBC Local Radio stations launch – BBC Radio Newcastle (2 Jan), BBC Radio Manchester (10 Sept), BBC Radio Bristol (4 Sept), BBC Radio London (6 Oct), BBC Radio Oxford (29 October), BBC Radio Birmingham (9 Nov), BBC Radio Medway (18 December), BBC Radio Solent (31 Dec) and BBC Radio Teesside (31 December). o 4 April – BBC Radio's sports coverage transfers from BBC Radio 3 to BBC Radio 2. o 14 September – Robert Dougall presents the first edition of the BBC Nine O'Clock News. The programme, launched in response to ITN's News at Ten, was controversially moved to 10 pm in 2000.   1971 o The BBC logo's boxes rounds off the corners and increases the spaces. o The first programmes for the Open University are broadcast. o 26 January – BBC Radio Blackburn launches. o 25 February – BBC Radio Humberside launches. o 29 April – BBC Radio Derby launches. 1972 o 4 April – The first edition of Newsround is broadcast. o 25 August – When the government restricted the BBC to twenty local radio stations, the corporation responds by closing BBC Radio Durham. Its resources are transferred to Carlisle where BBC Radio Carlisle, now BBC Radio Cumbria, was formed. o 2 October – Following a recent law change, BBC1 and ITV are allowed to begin broadcasting a full afternoon schedule with both broadcasters now broadcasting non-stop from lunchtime. BBC1's afternoon schedule launches with the first edition of a new lunchtime magazine programme Pebble Mill at One. 1197 o 4 November – Radios 2 and 4 begin broadcasting in stereo in South East England. Stereo was rolled out to the rest of the country over subsequent years.  1973 o 4 January – The pilot episode of Last of the Summer Wine airs. The regular series, which begins on 12 November, becomes the longest-running sitcom in the world, running for 37 years. o 24 August – BBC2 broadcasts a trade test colour film for the final time, having done so during daytime closedowns to provide colour broadcasting in these intervals for use by television shops and engineers (the 'trade') to adjust their television sets. o 10 September – Newsbeat bulletins air on BBC Radio 1 for the first time. o 24 November – BBC Radio Carlisle launches. o 17 December - The British government imposes early close downs of all three television channels in the UK from 17 December 1973 in order to save electricity during the Three Day Week crisis. The early close downs forced BBC1 and BBC2 to end their broadcasting day at 10.30pm. The restrictions were lifted temporarily on Christmas Eve to allow the public to enjoy festive programming. The restrictions recommenced on Monday 7 January 1974. The restrictions ended on 8 February 1974.  1974 o 7 January – A two-minute mid-afternoon regional news summary is broadcast on BBC1 for the first time. It is transmitted immediately before the start of the afternoon's children's programmes. o 1 April – BBC Radio Teesside is renamed BBC Radio Cleveland. o 23 September – Teletext service Ceefax goes live. o December – The BBC1 Mirror globe changes colour from blue on black to yellow on blue.  1975 1198 o 1 January – BBC Radio Ulster is launched. o 4 January - Due to cutbacks at the BBC, BBC Radio 2's broadcasting hours are cut back, with the station now starting their day at 6.00am instead of 5.00am, and their broadcasting day concluding at around 12.33am instead of 2.02am. Later in the autumn of 1975, BBC Radio 2 would end their day slightly earlier at around 12.10am, except on Saturdays and Sundays when the station would continue until around 12.33am. These cutbacks would remain until 1978, however at Christmas 1975, 1976 and 1977 BBC Radio 2 hours were extended over the festive season. o 6 January – Due to these cutbacks, BBC1 stops broadcasting programmes on weekday early afternoons. Consequently, apart from schools programmes and live sport, the channel now shows a trade test transmission between 2pm and the start of children's programmes, and when not broadcasting actual programmes, BBC2 begins fully closing down on weekdays between 11.30am and 4pm.  1976 o September – The credits of each programme produced by the BBC reveals the copyrighted years in roman numerals for the first time.  1977 o 3 January – BBC Radio Cymru is launched. o 9 May – BBC Radio Orkney and BBC Radio Shetland launch as opt-out stations from BBC Radio Scotland. o 19 October – The first edition of a new weekly magazine programme for Asian women, Gharbar, is broadcast. The programme had only been intended to run for 26 weeks but continued for around 500 weeks, finally ending in April 1987. o 25 December – The Morecambe & Wise Christmas Show on BBC1 attracts an audience of more than 28 million, one of the highest ever in UK television history.  1978 o The BBC organises its first Young Musician of the Year competition. 1199 o 24 May – Nationwide airs the famous Skateboarding duck report. o 23 November –  All BBC national radio stations change their medium or long wave transmission wavelength as part of a plan for BBC AM broadcasting in order to improve national AM reception, and to conform with the Geneva Frequency Plan of 1975. Radio 1's transmission wavelength is moved from 247m (1214 kHz) to 275 & 285m (1053 & 1089 kHz) medium wave. Radio 2's wavelength is moved from 1500m (200 kHz) long wave to 433 & 330m (693 & 909 kHz) medium wave. Radio 3 is moved from 464m (647 kHz) to 247m (1215 kHz) medium wave. Radio 4 is moved from various medium wavelengths to 1500m (200 kHz) long wave.  The shipping forecast transfers from BBC Radio 2 to BBC Radio 4 so that the forecast can continue to be broadcast on long wave.  The Radio 4 UK Theme is used for the first time to coincide with the network becoming a fully national service for the first time and to underline this the station officially becomes known as Radio 4 UK, a title that remains until mid 1984. o November – Due to Radio 4's transfer from medium wave to long wave, BBC Radio Scotland and BBC Radio Wales launch as full-time stations on Radio 4's former Scottish and Welsh medium wave opt-out wavelengths of 370m (810 kHz) and 340m (882 kHz) respectively, albeit initially with very limited broadcast hours due to very limited coverage of BBC Radio 4 on FM in both countries. o 21–22 December – The BBC is crippled by its most famous 24-hour strike, which leads to record viewing figures for ITV. BBC1 and BBC2 television are off the air on 21 and 22 December. On 22 December the unions called out their radio colleagues on strike, meaning BBC Radio 1, 2, 3 and 4 were "collapsed" into one emergency "All Network Service" from 4.00pm until the end of their broadcasting day at 2.05am. The strike was settled by 10.00pm on 22 December with a pay increased awarded to BBC staff. BBC Television and Radio stations resumed normal broadcasting on 23 December. 1200  1979 o 27 January – BBC Radio 2 closes down for the last time. o 1 March – BBC2 unveils its computer generated ident, the first computergenerated ident in the world. The second such ident is unveiled by US broadcaster NBC. o 27 August – The murder of Lord Mountbatten by the IRA sets a record audience of 26 million for a news bulletin. Strike action at ITN led to the record viewing figures. o 11 September – BBC Radio Foyle launches as an opt-out station from BBC Radio Ulster. o 25 September – The first edition of Question Time is broadcast. 1980s  1980 o 28 January – Newsnight is launched. o February – BBC Radio Deeside is launched as an opt-out service from BBC Radio Wales. o March – The very first in-vision Ceefax transmissions are broadcast. Three 30minute transmissions are aired at various points during weekday daytime downtime. o Summer – Due to the continued expansion of BBC Local Radio, regional opt-out programming on BBC Radio 4 ends, apart from in the south west as this is now the only part of England still without any BBC local station. o 8 September – Watchdog is launched as a weekly slot on BBC1's news magazine programme Nationwide. o 11 September – BBC Radio Norfolk launches. o September – Regional peaktime continuity on BBC1 ends and with it the weeknight closedown regional news bulletin. o 11 November – BBC Radio Lincolnshire launches. 1201 o  21 November – The charity appeal Children in Need is launched. 1981 o 17 May – Sunday Grandstand launches. It broadcasts during the summer months on BBC2. o 4 July – BBC Radio Blackburn expands to cover all of Lancashire and is renamed accordingly. o 29 July – The Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer is produced by BBC Television & Radio with an audience of 750 million viewers and listeners in over 60 countries. Welsh Actor Richard Burton and Scottish writer, actor & royal expert Tom Fleming are among the commentators. o Autumn – BBC Micro is produced for BBC Computer Literacy Project. o 4 September – The final edition of the Midday News is broadcast. o 5 September – The BBC1 Mirror globe changes colour from yellow on blue to green on blue. o 7 September – News After Noon is launched as a 30-minute lunchtime news programme, replacing the much shorter Midday News. o October – BBC Radio Deeside is expanded to cover all of north east Wales and is renamed BBC Radio Clwyd. o 23 October – The last ever teatime block of Open University programmes are transmitted. From the 1982 season, only a single Open University programme is aired at 5.10pm, ahead of the start of the channel's evening programmes. o 23 November – BBC Radio Birmingham expands to cover the West Midlands, South Staffordshire, north Worcestershire and north Warwickshire and is relaunched as BBC WM.  1982 o March – The BBC proposes to launch a satellite television service following the Corporation being awarded two of the five DBS satellite channels. 1202 o 15 and 16 March – BBC Local Radio starts broadcasting to the Channel Islands when BBC Radio Guernsey and BBC Radio Jersey launch. o 1 May – BBC Radio Cambridgeshire launches. o 25 May – BBC Radio Carlisle expands to cover all of Cumbria and is renamed accordingly and as part of the expansion, BBC Radio Furness launches as an optout service. o 20 June – The BBC relaunches its Sunday morning programme for the Asian community when Asian Magazine replaces Apna Hi Ghar Samajhiye which had been on air since 1968. o September – The BBC World Service becomes available to UK listeners for the first time, albeit only in south east England. o 10 September – After 32 years on air, Listen with Mother is broadcast on BBC Radio 4 for the final time. o 1 November – BBC-produced Welsh-language programming is transferred from BBC1 to the new S4C channel. o 23 December – Service Information is broadcast for the final time. o 31 December – The last remaining opt-out regional programming on BBC Radio 4 ends when the final edition of Morning Sou'West is broadcast, ahead of the launches of BBC Radio Devon and BBC Radio Cornwall.  1983 o January – BBC1 starts broadcasting a full afternoon service, consisting of regional programmes, repeats and old feature films. o 17 January –  Breakfast Time, the UK's first national breakfast television service, is launched, ahead of the ITV franchise TV-am, which follows on 1 February.  BBC Radio Devon and BBC Radio Cornwall launch. 1203 Sound Infrasonics Audible Ultrasonics < 50 Hz 20 Hz to 20 kHz > 50 Hz Noise Music Divine sound is the cause of all manifestation. The knower of the mystery of sound knows the mystery of the whole universe. ― Hazrat Inayat Khan Music Noise It has a pleasing effect on the ears It has a displeasing effect on the ears It is produced by regular periodic vibrations of a It is produced by irregular vibrations in a body material The amplitude of vibration and its frequency do The amplitude and frequency of vibration not change suddenly may change suddenly 12 major constellations: Constellations are Star Patterns in the Night Sky  Aries  Taurus  Gemini  Cancer  Leo  Virgo  Libra  Scorpio  Sagittarius small and dark. There are also numberless earths  Capricorn circling around their suns, no worse and no less  Aquarius than this globe of ours. For no reasonable mind  Pisces In space there are countless constellations, suns and planets; we see only the suns because they give light; the planets remain invisible, for they are can assume that heavenly bodies that may be far more magnificent than ours would not bear upon them creatures similar or even superior to those upon our human earth. — Giordano Bruno The word “universe” means the general assemblage of all nature, and it also means the heaven that is made up of the constellations and the courses of the stars. — Vitruvius Type of bond Difference in Electronegativity Pure Covalent < 0.4 Polar Covalent Between 0.4 and 1.8 Ionic > 1.8 In the next twenty centuries … humanity may begin to understand its most baffling mystery—where are we going? The earth is, in fact, traveling many thousands of miles per hour in the direction of the constellation Hercules—to some unknown destination in the cosmos. Man must understand his universe in order to understand his destiny. Mystery, however, is a very necessary ingredient in our lives. Mystery creates wonder and wonder is the basis for man’s desire to understand. Who knows what mysteries will be solved in our lifetime, and what new riddles will become the challenge of the new generation? Science has not mastered prophesy. We predict too much for the next year yet far too little for the next ten. Responding to challenges is one of democracy’s great strengths. Our successes in space can be used in the next decade in the solution of many of our planet’s problems. — Neil Armstrong Polar Molecule Non-polar Molecule Molecule in which one end of the molecule is Do not possess regions of positive and slightly positive while the other end is slightly negative charge negative  Water (H2O)  Carbon dioxide (CO2) Combustion Spontaneous Rapid Combustion Combustion is on its own Combustion is very fast (Coal dust in Coal Mines) (Matchstick near stove) Explosion Combustion causes large amount of heat, light and sound (Firecrackers) Coal + Oxygen (From air) Combustion → Carbon dioxide + Heat + Light We see a universe marvelously arranged and obeying certain laws, but only dimly understand these laws. Our limited minds cannot grasp the mysterious force that moves the constellations. I am fascinated by Spinoza’s pantheism, but admire even more his contributions to modern thought because he is the first philosopher to deal with the soul and the body as one, not two separate things. — Albert Einstein o late February/early March – BBC1 begins broadcasting a 30-minute Ceefax slot prior to the start of Breakfast Time. It is called Ceefax AM. It is first mentioned in the Radio Times on 21 March. o 18 April – BBC Radio Gwent launches as an opt-out service from BBC Radio Wales. o 2 May – From today Pages from Ceefax is broadcast during all daytime downtime although BBC2 continues to fully close down for four hours after Play School. The broadcasts are still known as Ceefax in Vision and were not listed in the Radio Times until 7 January 1984 when they became known as Pages from Ceefax. o 2 July – BBC Radio Medway is expanded to cover all of the county of Kent and is renamed accordingly. o 4 July – BBC Radio York launches on a permanent basis – the station had been on air briefly the previous May to cover the visit to York of Pope John Paul II. o 5 August – The final edition of Nationwide is broadcast. o 16 September – BBC2 closes down during the day for the final time – all future daytime downtime is filled by Pages from Ceefax. o 19 September – Programmes for schools and colleges are transferred to BBC2 and an all-day educational strand called Daytime on Two is launched. Consequently, the morning broadcast of Play School transfers to BBC1. o 22 October – BBC Radio Brighton expands to cover all of Sussex and is renamed accordingly. o 24 October – Sixty Minutes launches as the new evening news programme to replace Nationwide. o Autumn – Shortly after the Home Secretary announced that the three remaining satellite channels would be given to the Independent Broadcasting Authority (IBA) to allow the private sector to compete against the BBC, the BBC starts talking with the IBA about a joint project to help cover the cost. The Government subsequently gives permission and a consortium emerges consisting of the BBC, Granada, Anglia Television, Virgin, Thorn-EMI, Pearson 1204 Longman and Consolidated Satellite Broadcasting. The BBC holds a 50% stake in the consortium.  1984 o The BBC conducts five trials of citywide community stations in Greater Manchester. Each trial lasts for a few weeks and was on air for a few hours each day, opting out of BBC Radio Manchester. The experiment has not been repeated. o 27 July – The final edition of Sixty Minutes is broadcast. o 3 September – First broadcast of the Six O'Clock News on BBC1. The programme continues to this day. o 5 October – The last ever teatime Open University programme is broadcast on BBC2. However Open University programmes continue to be shown on BBC2 on weekday lunchtimes on an ad-hoc basis until 1988. o 8 October – BBC2 launches a full afternoon service, consisting of repeats of Dallas and old feature films. o 18 November – The BBC launches its first Sunday lunchtime political interview show, called This Week, Next Week. It is replaced in 1988 by On the Record. o  December – BBC1 stops broadcasting a late night news summary. 1985 o 3 January – The last day of transmission using the 405 lines system. o 7 January – The BBC ends its experiment with afternoon broadcasting and from this date afternoon Pages from Ceefax is shown on BBC1 between the end of lunchtime programmes and the start of children's programmes, and on BBC2 Ceefax pages are shown continuously between 9am and 5.25pm apart from when Daytime on Two is in season and when sporting events are being shown. o 23 January – Television coverage of proceedings in the House of Lords begins. o 18 February – BBC1 is given a major relaunch, along with the introduction of a new ident, the COW (Computer Originated World). Also, computerised weather 1205 maps were used for the first time for all weather forecasts – prior to this date computerised maps had only been used during Breakfast Time. o 19 February – EastEnders premieres on BBC1. o March – The charity appeal Comic Relief is launched. o 23 April – BBC Radio Shropshire launches. o May – The consortium which has been planning to launch satellite television in the UK, of which the BBC is part, collapses on costs grounds. o 24 June – BBC Radio Bedfordshire launches. o 13 July – Live Aid is broadcast to the world on BBC1 and BBC Radio 1, the first broadcast of its kind. o 2 September – A regional news bulletin following the Nine O'Clock News is launched. o 9 September – The weekday afternoon block of children's programming is rebranded as Children's BBC, and for the first time the children's block has dedicated idents and an in-vision presenter. Previously children's programming had been introduced by BBC1's team of regular duty announcers. o  1 October – BBC Radio nan Gàidheal launches. 1986 o 30 March – BBC2 receives a new look with the word TWO. o 1 April – All commercial activities of the BBC are now handled by BBC Enterprises Ltd. o 24 October – The final edition of News After Noon is broadcast. o 27 October – BBC1 starts a full daytime television service. Among the new programmes is a new lunchtime news bulletin – the One O'Clock News. The programme continues to this day. Before today, excluding sport and special events coverage, BBC1 had closed down at times during weekday daytime, broadcasting trade test transmissions and, from May 1983, Pages from Ceefax. BBC2 also expands its programming hours, providing a full afternoon 1206 service but it wasn't until the end of the decade that BBC2 was on air all day every day. o 5 November – BBC Essex launches. o 8 December – Six weeks after launching its daytime service, BBC TV starts broadcasting hourly news summaries. Morning bulletins are shown on BBC1 and early afternoon summaries (at 2 pm, 3 pm and 3:50 pm) are shown on BBC2. Each bulletin is followed by a weather forecast. o 28 December – After more than 20 years, BBC radio's national programme for the Asian community, Apna Hi Ghar Samajhiye (Make Yourself at Home), and broadcast on Sunday morning on BBC Radio 4, ends.  1987 o The BBC World Service launches BBC 648 from the Orfordness transmitting station. The service provides a tailor-made service for northern Europe featuring some French and German programming programmes interwoven with the main output in English. o 28 April – BBC television programming in Hindi and Urdu ends after more than 20 years. Three months later, on 25 July, a new English language programme for the Asian community launches. o 22 June – The BBC's lunchtime children's programme moves from BBC1 to BBC2. It is shown slightly earlier, at 1:20 pm. o  31 October – BBC Radio 1 starts broadcasting on VHF in London. 1988 o 11 April – BBC Somerset Sound launches as an opt-out station from BBC Radio Bristol. o 9 May – The BBC launches a youth strand on BBC2 called DEF II.** 1 September –  BBC External Services is renamed the World Service.  Radio 1 starts regular broadcasts on VHF/FM in Scotland, northern England, the Midlands, and south Wales, Avon and Somerset. FM 1207 coverage is rolled out across the rest of the UK in stages over the next few years. o 20 September – The Radio Data System (RDS) launches, allowing car radios to automatically retune, display station identifiers and switch to local travel news. o 3 October – BBC Radio Gloucestershire launches. o 7 October – BBC Radio London stops broadcasting and is replaced on 25 October by BBC GLR. o 30 October –  The Asian Network launches as a 70 hours-a-week service on the MW transmitters of BBC Radio Leicester and BBC WM.  o BBC Radio Manchester is relaunched as BBC GMR. Autumn – The BBC takes its first tentative steps into later closedowns – previously weekday programmes ended no later than 12:15 am and weekend broadcasting had finished by 1:30 am. o Regular late evening weeknight programming starts to appear on BBC Local Radio. The programming tends to be regional rather than local with the same programme networked on several local stations. Consequently, stations are now starting to provide local/regional programming on weeknights until midnight. Previously stations had ended local programming by mid-evening, handing over to BBC Radio 2 until the following morning.  1989 o 14 February – BBC Hereford and Worcester launches. o 4 March – BBC Wiltshire Sound launches. o 1 April – The BBC launches BBC TV Europe, a subscription-based pan-European television station. o May – The BBC Night Network is launched on the BBC's six local radio stations in Yorkshire and north east England. The service broadcasts seven nights a week from 6.05pm (6pm at the weekend) until 12midnight. Two years later the service is expanded to include the BBC's four stations in the north west. 1208 o 19 June – For the first time, BBC2 broadcasts during the morning when not showing Daytime on 2. Programmes begin at 10 am, as opposed to lunchtime. o 29 September – The final edition of Breakfast Time is broadcast. o 2 October – The first edition of BBC Breakfast News is broadcast. o 21 November – Television coverage of proceedings in the House of Commons begins. 1990s  1990 o 17 January – BBC CWR launches. o 25 March – At 7 pm BBC Radio 2 becomes available on FM 24/7 for the first time after the final ever ‘borrow’ of its FM frequencies by BBC Radio 1. o 12 April – BBC Radio Suffolk launches. o 27 August – BBC Radio 5 begins broadcasting on BBC Radio 2's MW frequencies. BBC Radio's sports coverage transfers to the new station from Radio 2 and educational and children's programmes transfer from Radio 4 FM. Consequently, BBC Radio 2 becomes the first national BBC station to broadcast exclusively on FM and the full BBC Radio 4 schedule becomes available on FM for the first time. o  5 September – The new BBC building at White City opens. 1991 o 7 January – The BBC East Midlands region is created and the first edition of East Midlands Today is broadcast. o 16 January – Radio 4 News FM starts Gulf War broadcasts on BBC Radio 4 FM frequencies. o 16 February – BBC1 and BBC2 receive new idents generated from laserdisc, BBC1 with a '1' encased in a swirling globe, and BBC2 with eleven idents based around the numeral '2'. 1209 o 2 March – Radio 4 News FM closes and BBC Radio 4 returns to FM. o 11 March – The BBC launches its first global television station – BBC World Service Television. In Europe it replaces BBC TV Europe. o March – After nearly eight years on air, BBC Radio Gwent closes. o 1 April – The BBC becomes the statutory authority for issuing television licences, assuming the responsibility of licence fee collection and enforcement. o 15 April – The World Service Television News service is launched. Unlike World Service radio which is funded by direct grant from the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, WSTV is commercially funded and carries advertising, which means that it cannot be broadcast in the UK. o 1 May – BBC Radio 1 begins 24-hour transmission, but only on FM – Radio 1's MW transmitters still close down overnight, between 12 midnight and 6 am. o 31 July – The BBC's Lime Grove Studios close. o 31 August – BBC television starts officially broadcasting in stereo using the NICAM system. (Some transmitters had been broadcasting in stereo since 1986, but these were classified as tests.) o 16 September – The main BBC Radio 4 service moves from long wave to FM as FM coverage has now been extended to cover almost all of the UK – Radio 4 didn't become available on FM in much of Scotland and Wales until the start of the 1990s. Opt-outs are transferred from FM to long wave.  o 14 October – World Service TV launches its Asian service. o 14 November – BBC Radio Surrey launches. 1992 o 21 January – BBC Select is launched as an overnight subscription service and BBC Radio Berkshire launches. o 29 February – BBC Radio 3 ceases broadcasting on medium wave (AM). o 17 April – BBC Radio Nottingham ends transmissions on one of its MW transmitters. BBC Radio Cleveland, BBC Radio Northampton and BBC Radio Oxford also stop broadcasting on MW. 1210 o 1 November – The satellite TV channel UK Gold, run by the BBC with Thames Television, starts broadcasting. o BBC Local Radio stations start broadcasting the BBC World Service rather than BBC Radio 2 when not on air.  1993 o 5 April – BBC Radio Bedfordshire expands to cover the counties of Buckinghamshire and Hertfordshire and is renamed BBC Three Counties Radio. o 13 April – For the first time all BBC News programmes have the same look following a relaunch of all of the main news bulletins. o 26 April – BBC Dorset FM launches as an opt-out service from BBC Radio Devon. o Autumn – BBC GLR stops broadcasting on MW. Also, BBC GMR stops broadcasting on MW. o  October – BBC Radio Clwyd closes, although news opt-outs continue until 2002. 1994 o 27 March – BBC Radio 5 ends transmission. o 28 March – BBC Radio 5 Live, a dedicated news and sport network, starts roundthe-clock broadcasts. o 13 April – First BBC website created for the BBC2 series The Net. This is followed a month later by the launch of the subscription-based BBC Networking Club. o 23 May – The BBC2 youth strand DEF II comes to an end after six years. o 1 July – BBC Radio 1 ceases broadcasting on medium wave (AM) at 9 am. o July – Arabic Television television service launched with funding from the Saudi Arabian Mawarid Group. o 1 August – BBC Radio Surrey and BBC Radio Sussex merge to form BBC Southern Counties Radio. 1211 o 19 September – The BBC launches a weekday lunchtime business, personal finance and consumer news programme. Called Working Lunch, the programme is broadcast on BBC2 for 42 weeks each year.  1995 o 16 January – BBC World Service Television was renamed as BBC World it was launched as an international free-to-air news channel on 26 January at 19:00 GMT. o 30 January – BBC Prime launches as a local encrypted variety and light entertainment channel by BBC Enterprises. o May – BBC Radio CWR closes as a stand-alone station and becomes an opt-out of BBC Radio WM. o 27 September – The BBC begins regular Digital Audio Broadcasting, from the Crystal Palace transmitting station. o 9 October – BBC Learning Zone is launched. o BBC Enterprises, the BBC's commercial arm, is restructured as BBC Worldwide Ltd.  1996 o March – BBC Dorset FM closes and is replaced by a rebroadcast of BBC Radio Solent with localised news bulletins. o 9 April – BBC Radio Oxford and BBC Radio Berkshire merge to form BBC Thames Valley FM. o 21 April – Arabic Television closes down when the Saudi backer pulls out following a row over coverage of the execution of a princess accused of adultery. o June – Radio 1 starts live streaming on the internet. o 7 June – The BBC is restructured by the Director-General, John Birt. In the new structure BBC Broadcast will commission programmes, and BBC Production will make them. 1212 o 13 October – BBC Television'a long standing coverage of Formula One ends following ITV's acquisition of the rights from 1997 onwards (Formula One returns to the BBC in 2009). This is one of several high profile sports rights that the BBC loses at around this time. These include losing the rights to the FA Cup and England football internationals to ITV and England rugby union internationals to Sky. o 4 November – The Asian Network expands into a full-time station when it increases the number of hours on air from 80 hours a week to 126 hours a week (18 hours a day). The station, which broadcasts on the MW frequencies of BBC Radio Leicester and BBC WM, is renamed BBC Asian Network. Consequently, Radios Leicester and WM become FM only stations. o 29 December – What was billed as the last ever episode of Only Fools and Horses before the new millennium is watched by 24.35 million viewers, the largest ever TV audience for a sitcom. o During 1996, www.bbc.co.uk becomes the home of the Corporation's online activities.  1997 o The BBC broadcasts the much praised "Perfect Day" corporate advertisement, featuring 27 artists singing lines of Lou Reed's original. The song later becomes a fund-raising single for Children in Need. o 28 February – The BBC sells its transmitters and transmission services to Castle Transmission Services for £244 million, to help fund its plans for the digital age. o March – The BBC and Flextech agree on a deal to provide several BBC-branded channels – BBC Showcase, for entertainment; BBC Horizon, for documentaries; BBC Style, for lifestyle; BBC Learning, for schools, and BBC Arena, for the arts – plus three other channels: BBC Catch-Up, for repeats of popular programmes within days of their original transmission, a dedicated BBC Sport channel and a TV version of Radio 1. o 6 September – The funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales is broadcast on BBC Radio & Television and aired to over 200 countries worldwide. Nearly 3 billion 1213 viewers and listeners watch the ceremonies. In the US, BBC's coverage is aired on A&E and CSPAN Cable Networks. David Dimbleby hosts the coverage with Tom Fleming narrating the service inside Westminster Abbey. o 4 October – Current corporate identity adopted. At a reported cost of £5m the new logo was introduced due to the increase in digital services, as it is designed to be more visible at small size it is better suited for use in websites and on screen "DOGs." On Screen Identities changed, with BBC One adopting the Balloon Idents, and BBC Two retaining their 2's used from 1991, with new legend. o 4 November – BBC News Online, a web-based news service, launches. o 8 November – BBC One closes down for the very last time as from the following day, BBC News 24 broadcasts during the channel's overnight hours. o 9 November – BBC News 24, the Corporation's UK television news service, launches at 17.30. o  December – BBC Online is officially launched. 1998 o February – Sunday Grandstand becomes a year-round programme. Previously it had only broadcast between May and September. o August – The BBC's domestic TV channels become available on Sky Digital's satellite service. An unintended consequence of this is that people in the rest of Europe can now watch BBC One and Two, using viewing cards from the UK, as the signal is encrypted for rights reasons. This applies even within the UK: people in England can now watch BBC channels from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and vice versa. o 23 September –  The BBC launches BBC Choice, its first new TV channel since 1964, available only on digital TV services.  Following its purchase of the cable-only Parliamentary Channel, the BBC launches BBC Parliament on digital satellite and analogue cable with an audio feed of the channel on DAB. 1214 o 15 November – Public launch of digital terrestrial TV in the UK. o BBC Radio 5 Live replaces the BBC World Service as BBC Local Radio's overnight downtime filler.  1999 o BBC 648, which provided French and German language content for northern Europe from the Orfordness transmitting station, ends with the closure of the BBC's German service. – the French for Europe service had closed in 1995. Consequently, all programming from this transmitter was in English only. o 10 May – BBC network news relaunched with new music, titles and a red and ivory set. This design was used for the 25 October relaunch of News 24, enhancing cross-channel promotion of the service. o 20 May – The BBC's digital teletext service starts. o 1 June – BBC Knowledge starts broadcasting on digital services. o 20 June – The BBC broadcasts live cricket for the final time when it shows live coverage of the 1999 Cricket World Cup Final, bringing to an end of sixty years of continuous cricket coverage on the BBC. The terrestrial rights transfer to Channel 4. 2000s  2000 o 14 February – BBC Thames Valley FM closes and BBC Radio Oxford and BBC Radio Berkshire relaunch as separate stations although Radio Berkshire operates as an opt-out service of Radio Oxford. o 25 March – BBC GLR closes and is relaunched as BBC London Live 94.9. o 20 May – Due to the loss of many major sports rights in recent years, the BBC does not broadcast this week's edition of Grandstand – ITV was showing the FA Cup Final. Apart from when Christmas Day fell on a Saturday or a major national event taking place, this had been the first time that Grandstand had not been broadcast on a Saturday afternoon since the programme's inception in 1958. 1215 o 15 September – Final edition of Breakfast News on BBC One and BBC News 24, the last conventional news broadcast in the morning. o 2 October – The first edition of BBC Breakfast is broadcast, the new morning show on BBC One and News 24 from 6:00–9:30. (9:00 on BBC News 24). o 13 October – Final edition of the BBC Nine O'Clock News on BBC One. o 16 October – The BBC Ten O'Clock News launches on BBC One amid controversy, having been moved from 9 pm to cash in on the axing of ITN's News at Ten the previous year. o 16 October – Oxfordshire, once part of the South East, becomes part of South Today.  2001 o 3 March – A bomb explodes outside Television Centre. The blast was later attributed to dissident Irish Republican terrorists and it is suggested the BBC Panorama programme which named individuals as participants in the Omagh bomb was the motive. o 3 September – As part of a major reorganisation of the BBC's south east region, Kent and Sussex get their own news programme, South East Today, replacing Newsroom South East. o 1 October – BBC London News is launched as a London-only news programme. o October – BBC Three Counties Radio launches opt-out programming for the county of Buckinghamshire. o 5 November – BBC 2W is launched, broadcasting on digital services in Wales on weekday evenings. o 19 November – Last showing of the then-current BBC Two idents. These set of idents would have ended in 1997 with BBC One's ident change but due to popularity the 1991 idents continued only with a new BBC logo and some newer ident sets. The new idents were Ivory 2's, interacting in a yellow world, with Purple box logo, the first BBC Channel to have one. 1216  2002 o 2 February – BBC Radio 5 Live Sports Extra is launched. o 11 February – The CBBC and CBeebies channels begin broadcasting. o 2 March – BBC Four is launched at 19:00 in a simulcast with BBC Two. It replaces BBC Knowledge. o 11 March – BBC 6 Music is launched. o 29 March – BBC One rebrands with the controversial Rhythm and Movement Idents, including dancers in red dancing in different locations. The red box logo was also used for these idents. For the first time in 39 years, a globe is not included in the presentation. o 16 August – BBC Radio 1Xtra is launched. o 28 October – BBC Asian Network launches as a national station. o 30 October – BBC Parliament launches on digital terrestrial television, having previously only been available as an audio-only service. However capacity limitations mean that the picture is squeezed into just one quarter of the screen. o 11 November –  The first edition of East Yorkshire and Lincolnshire edition of BBC Look North is broadcast, while the Leeds-based Look North programme now covers West, North and South Yorkshire and the North Midlands.  BBC Radio Swindon outputs from the renamed BBC Radio Wiltshire begin. o  15 December – BBC Radio 4 Extra is launched as BBC7. 2003 o 9 February – BBC Three is launched at 19:00 in a simulcast with BBC Two. It replaces BBC Choice. o 8 December – BBC News 24 is relaunched with a new set and titles, as well as a new Breaking News sting. Networked news on BBC One and Two remains with the same titles though the set was redesigned in a similar style to that of the new News 24. 1217  2004 o 28 January – Publication of the Hutton Inquiry, and subsequent resignation of the Chairman Gavyn Davies. o 30 January – Resignation of the Director General, Greg Dyke. Mark Byford takes over as acting Director General. o 16 February – Network news titles are relaunched in the style of BBC News 24, introduced two months earlier. o 17 May – Appointment of Michael Grade as new Chairman. o 21 May – Appointment of Mark Thompson as new Director General. o 1 October – BBC Technology, incorporating the BBC's Broadcast Engineering division, is sold to Siemens AG Business Services for approximately £200m, and a £2bn, 10-year outsourcing contract.  2005 o 20 March – Mark Thompson announces staff of 27,000 to be cut by 3,780. o 26 March – Doctor Who returns to the air, sixteen years after the last full series was broadcast. o 23 May – Over one third of staff join strike in response to job cuts, dropping programmes. o 1 August – BBC Broadcast, formerly Broadcasting & Presentation and responsible for the playout and branding of all BBC Channels, is sold to Creative Broadcast Services, owned by the Macquarie Capital Alliance Group and Macquarie Bank. It is renamed Red Bee Media on 31 October. o 3 November – BBC Coventry & Warwickshire returns as a stand-alone station. o December – The Czech and Polish sections of the BBC World Service cease to exist. Eight other sections are to follow soon.  2006 o 3 April – BBC GMR changes its name back to BBC Radio Manchester. 1218 o 23 April – The "Radio 4 UK Theme" is used for the final time. It is replaced by a news bulletin. o 27 May – The BBC's first scheduled HDTV broadcast on BBC HD o 14 August – The One Show is first broadcast on BBC One, initially as a four-week trial. It is seen as a modern-day version of highly popular series Nationwide with the programme resulting in popular journalism returning to BBC One's early evening schedule. The programme returned on a permanent basis the following July. o 1 September – BBC Entertainment replaces BBC Prime in global markets. o 7 October – BBC One rebrands from the Rhythm and Movement idents to the current "Circle" Idents, which acts as a link to the classic globe icon used for almost 40 years and as a symbol of unity. o 13 November – BBC Parliament broadcasts in full screen format for the first time on the Freeview service, having previously only been available in quarter screen format. The BBC eventually found the bandwidth to make the channel full-screen after receiving "thousands of angry and perplexed e-mails and letters", not to mention questions asked by MPs in the Houses of Parliament itself o 28 November – Resignation of Chairman Michael Grade, to join ITV. o 1 December – BBC HD channel is officially launched after around eighteen months of trial broadcasts. o 16 December – After more than 35 years, BBC Two airs the final Open University course-related television broadcast. With Open University course content now available through media such as podcasts and DVDs it is deemed no longer necessary for the programmes to be aired on television. However, the Open University continues to make programming for a broader audience, with series including Coast and Child of Our Time. o  31 December – The BBC's then-current Royal Charter and Agreement expires. 2007 o 22 January – BBC News 24 is relaunched with new titles and new Astons. 1219 o 28 January – The final edition of Grandstand is broadcast. o 18 February – BBC Two rebrands from the yellow 2's, to the Window on the World 2's. o July – BBC Knowledge launched as a global channel by BBC Worldwide. o 11 August – BBC Radio Cleveland is rebranded as BBC Tees due to its broadcasting area no longer being associated with the name Cleveland. o 3 September – CBBC identity relaunched, with its third marketing campaign since the launch of the CBBC Channel. o 20 October – BBC Switch, a teenage block of shows is launched to cater for the under-served 12- to 16-year-olds, launches. o 3 December - BBC Somerset Sound is rebranded as BBC Somerset and becomes available on FM for the first time. o 25 December – BBC iPlayer, an online service for watching previously aired shows, is launched.  2008 o 22 January – BBC Three has its identity relaunched, showcasing new shows such as Lily Allen and Friends. o 11 March – BBC Arabic Television launches. o 21 April – BBC News 24 and BBC World are renamed BBC News and BBC World News respectfully. o 19 September – BBC Alba, a Scottish Gaelic language digital television channel, launched through a partnership between BBC and MG Alba.  General anaesthesia helped cancer patients at the 2009 beginning of the 19th century o 2 January – BBC 2W closes. o 14 January – The BBC's Persian language TV channel is launched. o 30 March – BBC Southern Counties Radio closes resulting in the return of BBC Surrey and BBC Sussex as stand-alone separate stations. 1220 o 4 April – BBC Radio Swindon, which had opted out of BBC Radio Wiltshire, is closed. The two stations are merged as BBC Wiltshire. The leech has been in use for thousands of years, and is even today considered to be 2010s a way of restoring venous circulation after reconstructive surgery.  2010 o 19 February – EastEnders celebrates 25 years with a special live edition, where the murderer of Archie Mitchell is revealed. Over 16 million viewers tuned in to find Stacey Slater to be the killer. o 30 July – BBC Two broadcasts its final Working Lunch. o 3 November – BBC One HD; a high-definition simulcast of a national version of BBC One is launched across all digital platforms. o 18 December – BBC Switch is switched off. Trepanation is a treatment used for epidural and subdural hematomas, and surgical access for certain other neurosurgical procedures, such as intracranial pressure monitoring.  2011 o 27 March – Due to budget cuts, transmission of the BBC World Service on 648 kHz MW ends. The transmissions, from the Orfordness transmitting station in Suffolk, had been on air since 1982 and had provided coverage of the World Service to much of northern Europe. o  2 April – BBC7 is relaunched as BBC Radio 4 Extra. 2012 o 7 March – Brighton moves from South region, to South-East region, after the Meridian digital switch-over. o May – BBC Somerset launches as a full-time station. o 12 July – The BBC World Service relocates to Broadcasting House after 70 years at Bush House. o 27 July-12 August – The 2012 Summer Olympics take place and with the exception of news programming BBC One is devoted entirely to live coverage of the Games and BBC Radio 5 Live operates a temporary station – 5 Live Olympics Extra – to provide additional coverage of the Games. 1221 o 17 August – BBC Radio Kent, BBC Radio Lincolnshire, BBC Radio Merseyside and BBC Radio Nottingham stop broadcasting regular programmes on medium wave. It's part of a five-week trial to find out if listeners will miss or complain about the lack of AM services. At the end of the trial, the BBC decides that BBC Radio Nottingham's MW transmitter and Radio Kent's relay at Rusthall near Tunbridge Wells, will remain off-air. o 17 September – George Entwistle is appointed as Director-General. o 3 October – Broadcast of Exposure:The Other Side of Jimmy Saville which uncovered allegations of sexual abuse by Jimmy Savile. o 23 October –  The BBC's teletext service Ceefax is switched off following all regions switching to digital broadcasting. The very last Pages from Ceefax transmission had taken place two days earlier.  o BBC One Northern Ireland commences broadcasting in HD. 10 November – George Entwhistle resigns as Director-General, to be replaced temporarily by Tim Davie. Entwistle's 54-day tenure as Director-General is the shortest in the Corporation's history. o 14 November – 90th anniversary broadcast at 17:33. o 22 November – Tony Hall is announced as the new Director-General, taking the post in March 2013. o 21 December – CBBC and CBeebies both air on BBC One for the last time. o At the end of 2012 the BBC loses the rights to show horse racing. This brings to an end a relationship between the BBC and televised horse racing which dates back to the 1950s.  2013 Bloodletting — the practice of withdrawing blood from a person's veins for therapeutic reasons — was common for thousands of years. o 4 January – CBBC and CBeebies both air on BBC Two for the last time. o 7 January – The debut of a national networked evening programme on BBC Local Radio, hosted by former Classic FM presenter Mark Forrest. The show, 1222 introduced as part of cost-cutting measures, replaces all local programming, apart from local sport coverage. o 14 January – BBC One Scotland commences broadcasts in HD. o 29 January – BBC One Wales commences broadcasts in HD. o 26 March – BBC Two commences broadcasting in HD following the closure of BBC HD. o 31 March – BBC Television Centre closes in Shepherd's Bush with the majority of TV services moved to Broadcasting House in central London. o 5 April – BBC Monitoring moves to Licence Fee funding. o 8 July – After eight years, BBC Local Radio returns to Dorset when a breakfast show for the county, as an opt-out from BBC Radio Solent, is launched. o 25 October – The BBC hosts 100 Women, a day of debate and discussion across radio, television and online featuring a hundred women from around the world. o 10 December – HD broadcasts begin for BBC Three, BBC Four, BBC News, CBBC and CBeebies.  Mercury poisoning refers to toxicity from mercury consumption 2014 o The BBC broadcasts the much praised "God Only Knows" corporate advertisement, featuring 21 artists singing lines of The Beach Boys' original. The song also became a fund-raising single and an advertisement for BBC Music for the first time since "Perfect Day" in 1997 for Children In Need. o 6 March – The BBC announce that BBC Three will become internet-only from February 2016, in an effort to save £90m. Their plans were approved on 26 November 2015 o 30 August – Rona Fairhead becomes the first woman to be appointed as Chair of the BBC Trust.  2015 o 6 October – After 27 years, the name BBC Radio London returns to the airwaves following a name change from BBC London 94.9. 1223  2016 o 16 February – BBC Three closes as a linear channel and becomes an over-thetop Internet television service although all of the long-form programmes commissioned for BBC Three are to be shown at a later date on BBC One. o 19 February – BBC Radio Bristol stops broadcasting on MW following the sale of the land on which the transmitter was located, to developers. o 31 March – BBC Three fully closes down on all digital television platforms – it had carried promotional information regarding the BBC Three internet service since 16 February. o 11 April – CBBC extends its broadcast hours from 7 pm to 9 pm, using capacity which had previously been used by BBC Three.  2017 o 2 April – The BBC Trust is closed at the expiry of the 2007 Royal Charter, which had a 10-year lifespan. The Trust is replaced by the BBC Board.  2018 o 15 January – The MW transmissions of BBC Radios Sussex, Surrey, Humberside, Wiltshire, Nottingham, Kent and Lincolnshire end and MW coverage for BBC Devon, Lancashire and Essex is reduced. Altogether a total of 13 MW transmitters are switched off. o 28 January – After nearly 78 years on air, The Sunday Hour is broadcast on BBC Radio 2 for the final time. o 8 May – Another long running BBC Radio 2 programme ends when, ahead of schedule changes, The Organist Entertains is broadcast for the final time after 49 years on air. o 24 October – The FM frequency of BBC Radio 3 at more than 30 relay transmitters in Wales is reallocated to BBC Radio Wales. Consequently, the reach of Radio Wales on FM increases from 79% to 91% but Radio 3's FM availability in Wales falls to 92%. o 1 November – BBC Sounds is launched. 1224 o 29 November – HD versions of BBC Two Wales and BBC Two Northern Ireland start broadcasting.  2019 o 17 February – Ahead of the launch of BBC Scotland, BBC Two Scotland closes. o 19 February – Virgin Media becomes the first platform to stop broadcasting some BBC channels in standard definition when it removes the standard definition feeds of BBC Four, BBC News, CBBC and CBeebies. o 24 February – BBC Scotland launches. It broadcasts between 7:00 p.m. and midnight and includes an hour-long 9:00 p.m. newscast called The Nine. Between noon and 7:00 p.m., the channel simulcasts BBC Two but with BBC Scotland continuity, thereby accommodating the daytime sport and politics programming opt-outs which had been displaced following the closure of BBC Two Scotland. o 18 November – The BBC announces plans to close its red button text service by the end of 30 January 2020. Lizard blood, dead mice, mud and moldy bread were all used as topical ointments and dressings, and women were sometimes dosed with horse saliva as a cure for an 2020s impaired libido.  2020 o 15 January – The BBC announces a further switching off of MW transmitters. The switch-offs, being done as a cost-cutting measure, will see the end of MW transmissions of Radios Cornwall, Newcastle, Merseyside, Solent, Solent for Dorset, BBC Three Counties Radio and BBC Radio York. Also, BBC Radio Cumbria will stop broadcasting on MW in Whitehaven and BBC Radio Norfolk's Norwich MW transmitter will go silent. In addition, BBC Radio Scotland will stop broadcasting on MW in Aberdeen and BBC Radio Wales will lose some MW coverage in central Wales. A total of 18 MW transmitters are to go. The transmitters will broadcast a retune advice loop prior to full switch-off in early April. o 29 January – The BBC announces that it has suspended its plan to switch-off the BBC Red Button service, one day before the service was due to have started 1225 being phased out. The announcement comes following a petition, organised by the National Federation of the Blind of the UK (NFBUK), which was submitted to the BBC and Downing Street. Following protests. Judaism is the world's oldest monotheistic religion − dating back Timeline of Jewish history nearly 4,000 years. c. 1312 BCE the Exodus from Egypt (Moses) c. 1250 BCE–c. 1025 BCE Biblical judges lead the people c. 1025 BCE–c. 1010 BCE Shabbat is the Jewish King Saul holy day c. 1010 BCE–c. 970 BCE King David c. 970 BCE–c. 931 BCE King Solomon c. 960 BCE Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem completed c. 931 BCE Split between Kingdom of Israel (Samaria) and the Kingdom of Judah c. 931 BCE–c. 913 BCE King Rehoboam of Judah The Torah is the holy book of Judaism c. 931 BCE–c. 910 BCE King Jeroboam of Israel 840 BCE 1226 Mesha inscription describes Moabite victory over a son of King Omri of Israel. c. 740 BCE–c. 700 BCE prophesy of Isaiah Judaism is one of the 3 c. 740 BCE–c. 722 BCE Kingdom of Israel falls to Neo-Assyrian Empire Abrahamic religions − the other two are Christianity and Islam − c. 715 BCE–c. 687 BCE which all share the same origin. King Hezekiah of Judah c. 649 BCE–c. 609 BCE King Josiah of Judah institutes major reforms c. 626 BCЕ – c. 587 BCE prophecy of Jeremiah The Temple Mount is the holiest site for Jews 597 BCE first deportation to Babylon 586 BCE Jerusalem falls to Nebuchadnezzar and Solomon's Temple destroyed 539 BCE Jews allowed to return to Jerusalem, by permission of Cyrus 520 BCE The Jewish people began as slaves according to the book of Exodus Prophecy of Zechariah c. 520 BCE Zerubbabel leads the first group of Jews from captivity back to Jerusalem 516 BCE Second Temple consecrated c. 475 BCE 1227 Often associated with Xerxes I of Persia, Queen Esther revealed her identity to the king and began to plead for her people, pointing to Haman as the evil schemer plotting to destroy them. There are 613 Commandments in the Law of Moses c. 460 BCE Seeing anarchy breaking out in Judea, Xerxes' successor Persian King Artaxerxes sent Ezra to restore order. * The Exodus (which we know of from Jewish sources) took place in the Jewish year 2448, and the CE begins in the Jewish year 3760. Between 2448 and 3760 are 1312 years. 332 BCE Alexander the Great conquers Phoenicia and Gaza, probably passing by Judea without entering the Jewish dominated hill country on his way into Egypt. 200 BCE–100 CE At some point during this era the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible) is canonized. Jewish religious works that were explicitly written after the time of Ezra were not canonized, although many became popular among many groups of Jews. Those works that made it into the Greek translation of the Bible (the Septuagint) became known as the deuterocanonical books. The spiritual leader of Judaism is known as Rabbi 167–161 BCE The Maccabean Revolt against the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire, led by Judas Maccabeus, resulting in victory and installation of the Hanukkah holiday. 157–129 BCE Hasmonean dynasty establishes its royal dominance in Judea during renewed war with the Seleucid Empire. 63 BCE Pompey lay siege to and entered the Temple, Judea became a client kingdom of Rome. 40 BCE–4 BCE 1228 Herod the Great, appointed King of the Jews by the Roman Senate. The religious symbol of Judaism is the Star of David 6 CE Province of Roman Judea created by merging Judea proper, Samaria and Idumea. 10 CE Hillel the Elder, considered the greatest Torah sage, dies, leading to the dominance of Shammai till 30 CE. Moses freed the people from slavery in 26–36 CE Trial and crucifixion of Jesus by the Romans. Egypt 30 CE Helena of Adiabene, a vassal Parthian kingdom in Mesopotamia, converts to Judaism. Significant numbers of Adiabene population follow her, later also providing limited support for Jews during Jewish-Roman wars. In the following centuries the community mostly converts to Christianity. 30–70 CE Schism within Judaism during the Second Temple era. A sect within Hellenised Jewish society starts Jewish Christianity. 66–70 The First Jewish–Roman War ended with destruction of the Second Temple and the fall of Jerusalem. 1,100,000 people are killed by the Romans during the siege, and 97,000 captured and enslaved. The Sanhedrin was relocated to Yavne by Yochanan ben Zakai. Fiscus Judaicus levied on all Jews of the Roman Empire whether they aided the revolt or not. 70–200 Period of the Tannaim, rabbis who organized and elucidated the Oral Torah. The decisions of the Tannaim are contained in the Mishnah, Beraita, Tosefta, and various Midrash compilations. 73 1229 Final events of the First Jewish–Roman War – the fall of Masada. Christianity starts off as a Jewish sect and then develops its own texts and ideology and branches off from Judaism to become a distinct religion. 115–117 Kitos War (Revolt against Trajan) – a second Jewish-Roman War initiated in large Jewish communities of Cyprus, Cyrene (modern Libya), Aegipta (modern Egypt) and Mesopotamia (modern Syria and Iraq). It led to mutual killing of hundreds of thousands Jews, Greeks and Romans, ending with a total defeat of Jewish rebels and complete extermination of Jews in Cyprus and Cyrene by the newly installed Emperor Hadrian. 131–136 The Roman emperor Hadrian, among other provocations, renames Jerusalem "Aelia Capitolina" and prohibits circumcision. Simon bar Kokhba (Bar Kosiba) leads a large Jewish revolt against Rome in response to Hadrian's actions. In the aftermath, most Jewish population is annihilated (about 580,000 killed) and Hadrian renames the province of Judea to Syria Palaestina, and attempts to root out Judaism. Judaism is the 10th largest religion in the 136 Rabbi Akiva is martyred. world today. 138 With Emperor Hadrian's death, the persecution of Jews within the Roman Empire is eased and Jews are allowed to visit Jerusalem on Tisha B'av. In the following centuries the Jewish center moves to Galilee. 200 The Mishnah, the standardization of the Jewish oral law as it stands today, is redacted by Judah haNasi in the land of Israel. 259 Nehardea in Babylonia destroyed by the Palmyrenes, which destruction caused the widespread dispersion of Jews in the region. 1230 220–500 Period of the Amoraim, the rabbis of the Talmud. 315–337 Roman Emperor Constantine I enacts new restrictive legislation. Conversion of Christians to Judaism is outlawed, congregations for religious services are curtailed, but Jews are also allowed to enter Jerusalem on the anniversary of the Temple's destruction. 351–352 Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus is put down. Sepphoris is razed to the ground. 358 Because of the increasing danger of Roman persecution, Hillel II creates a mathematical calendar for calculating the Jewish month. After adopting the calendar, the Sanhedrin in Tiberias is dissolved. Jews, Israelites, and Hebrews Are the Same People 361–363 The last pagan Roman Emperor, Julian, allows the Jews to return to "holy Jerusalem which you have for many years longed to see rebuilt" and to rebuild the Second Temple. Shortly after, the Emperor is assassinated, and the plan is dissolved. 363 Galilee earthquake of 363 The Torah and the Pentateuch are one and the same. 379 In India, the Hindu king Sira Primal, also known as Iru Brahman, issued what was engraved on a tablet of brass, his permission to Jews to live freely, build synagogue, own property without conditions attached and as long as the world and moon exist. 438 The Empress Eudocia removes the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site and the heads of the Community in Galilee issue a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews": "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come"! 450 1231 Redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud To Be Jewish Is to Learn Torah 500–523 Yosef Dhu Nuwas, King of Himyarite Kingdom (Modern Yemen) converting to Judaism, upgrading existing Yemenese Jewish center. His kingdom falls in a war against Axum and the Christians. The Land of Israel Is the Beating Heart of the Jewish People 550 The main redaction of Babylonian Talmud is completed under Rabbis Ravina and Ashi. To a lesser degree, the text continues to be modified for the next 200 years. 550–700 Period of the Savoraim, the sages in Persia who put the Talmud in its final form. 555–572 The Fourth Samaritan Revolt against Byzantium results in great reduction of the Samaritan community, their Israelite faith is outlawed. Neighbouring Jews, who mostly reside in Galilee, are also affected by the oppressive rule of the Byzantines. 610–628 Jews of Galilee led by Benjamin of Tiberias gain autonomy in Jerusalem after revolting against Heraclius as a joint military campaign with ally Sassanid Empire under Khosrau II and Jewish militias from Persia, but are subsequently massacred. 612 Sisebut, king of the Visigoths, forces his Jewish subjects to convert to Christianity. 7th century The rise and domination of Islam among largely pagan Arabs in the Arabian peninsula results in the almost complete removal and conversion of the ancient Jewish communities there, and sack of Levant from the hands of Byzantines. 700–1250 Period of the Gaonim (the Gaonic era). Jews in southern Europe and Asia Minor lived under the often intolerant rule of Christian kings and clerics. Most Jews lived in 1232 the Muslim Arab realm (Andalusia, North Africa, Palestine, Iraq and Yemen). Despite sporadic periods of persecution, Jewish communal and cultural life flowered in this period. The universally recognized centers of Jewish life were in Jerusalem and Tiberias (Syria), Sura and Pumbeditha (Iraq). The heads of these law schools were the Gaonim, who were consulted on matters of law by Jews throughout the world. During this time, the Niqqud is invented in Tiberias. 711 Muslim armies invade and occupy most of Spain (At this time Jews made up about 8% of Spain's population). Under Christian rule, Jews had been subject to frequent and intense persecution, which was formalized under Muslim rule due to the dhimmi rules in Islam. Jews and Christians had to pay the jizya. Some sources mark this as the beginning of the Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, though most mention 912. 740 The Khazar (a Turkic semi-nomadic people from Central Asia) King and members of the upper class adopt Judaism. The Khazarate lasts until 10th century, being overrun by Russians, and finally conquered by Russian and Byzantian forces in 1016. 760 The Karaites reject the authority of the oral law, and split off from rabbinic Judaism. 807 Abbassid Caliph Harun al-Rashid orders all Jews in the Caliphate to wear a yellow belt, with Christians to wear a blue one. The Jewish place of worship is called a synagogue. 846 In Sura, Iraq, Rav Amram Gaon compiles his siddur (Jewish prayer book.) 850 al-Mutawakkil made a decree ordering dhimmi Jews and Christians to wear garments distinguishing them from Muslims, their places of worship to be destroyed, and allowing them little involvement in government or official matters. 1233 871 An incomplete marriage contract dated to October 6 of this year is the earliest dated document found in the papers of the Cairo Geniza. 912–1013 The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain. Abd-ar-Rahman III becomes Caliph of Spain in 912, ushering in the height of tolerance. Muslims granted Jews and Christians exemptions from military service, the right to their own courts of law, and a guarantee of safety of their property. Jewish poets, scholars, scientists, statesmen and philosophers flourished in and were an integral part of the extensive Arab civilization. This period ended with the Cordoba massacre in 1013. Abraham, father of Isaac, 940 is the traditional founding In Iraq, Saadia Gaon compiles his siddur (Jewish prayer book). father of Judaism. 945 In the Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia, the Senate forbids sea captains from accepting Jewish passengers. 1008–1013 Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ("the Mad") issues severe restrictions against Jews in the Fatimid Empire. All Jews are forced to wear a heavy wooden "golden calf" around their necks. Christians had to wear a large wooden cross and members of both groups had to wear black hats. Jewish followers refer to God as 'Yahweh' 1013 During the fall of the city, Sulayman's troops looted Córdoba and massacred citizens of the city, including many Jews. Prominent Jews in Córdoba, such as Samuel ibn Naghrela were forced to flee to the city in 1013. 1013–1073 Rabbi Yitchaki Alfassi (from Morocco, later Spain) writes the Rif, an important work of Jewish law. 1234 1016 The Jewish community of Kairouan, Tunisia is forced to choose between conversion and expulsion. 1033 Following their conquest of the city from the Maghrawa tribe, the forces of Tamim, chief of the Zenata Berber Banu Ifran tribe, perpetrated a massacre of Jews in Fez. 1040–1105 Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaki (Rashi) writes important commentaries on almost the entire Tanakh and Talmud. The seventh day of the week is the Sabbath. Jews are commanded to keep the Sabbath as a day of rest, as God rested after six days of creating the world. 1066 December 30 Granada massacre: Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day." 1090 Granada was captured by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, King of the Almoravides. The Jewish community, believed to have sided with the Christians, was destroyed. Many fled, penniless, to Christian Toledo. 1095–1291 Christian Crusades begin, sparking warfare with Islam in Palestine. Crusaders temporarily capture Jerusalem in 1099. Tens of thousands of Jews are killed by European crusaders throughout Europe and in the Middle East. 1100–1275 Time of the tosafot, Talmudic commentators who carried on Rashi's work. They include some of his descendants. 1107 The word Jew means people of the Jewish faith 1235 Moroccan Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashfin expels Moroccan Jews who do not convert to Islam. 1135–1204 Rabbi Moses ben Maimon, aka Maimonides or the Rambam is the leading rabbi of Sephardic Jewry. Among his many accomplishments, he writes one of the most influential codes of law (The Mishneh Torah) in Jewish History as well as, in Arabic, many philosophical works including the (Guide for the Perplexed). 1141 Yehuda Halevi issues a call to the Jews to emigrate to Palestine. He is buried in Jerusalem. Anti-Semitism is a word used to describe hatred and discrimination against people of the Jewish faith. 1148 Berbers oblige Jews to convert in Cordoba. Maimonides leaves Cordoba 1176 Maimonides completed his Introduction to the Mishneh Torah. 1187 Upon the capture of Jerusalem, Saladin summons the Jews and permits them to resettle in the city. In particular, the residents of Ashkelon, a large Jewish settlement, respond to his request. 1189 Jacob of Orléans slain in antisemitic riots that swept through London during the coronation of King Richard I. The king later punished the perpetrators of the crime. 1190 150 Jews of York, England, killed in a pogrom, known as the York Massacre. 1240 Jews living in England, under King Henry III, were blamed for counterfeiting the money and when the local citizens began to exact revenge on them, the king expelled his Jewish subjects in order to save them from harm. 1236 1250–1300 The life of Moses de Leon, of Spain. He publishes to the public the Zohar the 2nd century CE esoteric interpretations of the Torah by Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai and his disciples. This begins the modern form of Kabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism). 1250–1550 Period of the Rishonim, the medieval rabbinic sages. Most Jews at this time lived in lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea or in Western Europe under feudal systems. With the decline of Muslim and Jewish centers of power in Iraq, there was no single place in the world which was a recognized authority for deciding matters of Jewish law and practice. Consequently, the rabbis recognized the need for writing commentaries on the Torah and Talmud and for writing law codes that would allow Jews anywhere in the world to be able to continue living in the Jewish tradition. The word Torah means teaching or instruction in Hebrew. 1267 Nahmanides (Ramban) settles in Jerusalem and builds the Ramban Synagogue. 1270–1343 Rabbi Jacob ben Asher of Spain writes the Arba'ah Turim (Four Rows of Jewish Law). 1276 Massacre in Fez to kill all Jews stopped by intervention of the Emir. 1290 Jews are expelled from England by Edward I after the banning of usury in the 1275 Statute of Jewry. Judaism believes in Heaven and Hell 1300 Rabbi Levi ben Gershom, aka Gersonides. A 14th-century French Jewish philosopher best known for his Sefer Milhamot Adonai ("The Book of the Wars of the Lord") as well as for his philosophical commentaries. 1304–1394 Jews are repeatedly expelled from France and readmitted, for a price. 1237 1343 Jews persecuted in Western Europe are invited to Poland by Casimir the Great. 1346–1353 Jews scapegoated as the cause of the growing Black Death. 1348 Pope Clement VI issued two papal bulls in 1348 (6 July and 26 September), the latter named Quamvis Perfidiam, which condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil." He urged clergy to take action to protect Jews as he had done. In the World War II, more than 6 million Jewish people 1349 The Strasbourg massacre were executed by the Nazis in an attempt to eradicate the race. It is referred to as the Holocaust. 1350s Genetic testing conducted on Ashkenazi Jews has pointed to a bottleneck in the 1300s in the Ashkenazi Jewish population where it dwindled down to as few as 250–420 people. 1369–70 Civil war in Spain, between brothers Peter of Castile (Pedro) and Henry II of Castile (Enrico), leads to the deaths of 38,000 Jews, embroiled in the conflict 1478 King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain institute the Spanish Inquisition. 1486 The Jerusalem Talmud says that God will take us First Jewish prayer book published in Italy. to task for not partaking in permissible pleasures of this world 1488–1575 Rabbi Yosef Karo spends 20 years compiling the Beit Yosef, an enormous guide to Jewish law. He then writes a more concise guide, the Shulkhan Arukh, that becomes the 1238 Agonists Antagonists Drugs that have the ability to produce a desired Drugs that bind well to the receptor but produce no therapeutic effect when bound to the to the target therapeutic effect. They prevent other drugs from cell surface receptors. binding to the target cell surface receptors, thus they act as blockers. Phases of Clinical trail  Preclinical research: In this phase, researchers test the investigational product in the laboratory or in animals before it can be tested in humans. Preclinical results frame the basis for applying an investigational new drug (IND) application to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to seek permission to use the investigational product in a Phase I trial.  Phase I: In this phase, the investigational product is tested in a 20 to 100 of healthy volunteers who are not at risk for disease to determine the safety and a safe dosage range (maximum concentration of the investigational product above which the investigational product can produce harmful effects in the body), and identify side effects.  Phase II: In this phase, the investigational product is tested in a 20 to 300 of unhealthy volunteers with the disease to determine the efficacy [how well the investigational product works compared to a comparator (marketed product or placebo)]. (Placebo: a substance that has no therapeutic effect but used as a control in testing investigational product).  Phase III: In this phase, the investigational product is tested in a 1,000 − 3,000 unhealthy volunteers with the disease (at multiple centers) to confirm the safety, efficacy and side effects of the investigational product. This is the final phase prior to seek marketing approval (or to apply an new drug (ND) application to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to seek permission to market the product confirming that the investigational product is safe, effective, have anticipated benefits that outweigh the foreseeable risks, producible in a consistent quality and purity).  Phase IV: post marketing surveillance to understand the risks, benefits, and optimal use of the marketed product. Potency Efficacy The amount of a drug that is needed to produce a The maximum effect that a drug can produce after given effect. binding to the receptor.  Dose: The amount of drug prescribed to be taken at one time.  Dosage: The amount of drug to be taken.  Dosage form: means by which the drug reach the target cell to give its actions. During the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials, 23 German doctors were charged with crimes against humanity for "performing medical experiments upon prisoners and other living human subjects, without their consent, in the course of which experiments they committed the murders, brutalities, cruelties, tortures, and other inhuman acts." As part of the verdict, the Court enforced some rules for "Permissible Medical Experiments", now known as the "Nuremberg Code". These rules include:  Voluntary consent.  Anticipated benefits should outweigh foreseeable risks.  Ability of the subject to terminate participation. standard law guide for the next 400 years. Born in Spain, Yosef Karo lives and dies in Safed. 1488 Obadiah ben Abraham, commentator on the Mishnah, arrives in Jerusalem and marks a new epoch for the Jewish community. 1492 The Alhambra Decree: Approximately 200,000 Jews are expelled from Spain, The expelled Jews relocate to the Netherlands, Turkey, Arab lands, and Judea; some eventually go to South and Central America. However, most emigrate to Poland. In later centuries, more than 50% of Jewish world population lived in Poland. Many Jews remain in Spain after publicly converting to Christianity, becoming Crypto-Jews. 1492 Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire issued a formal invitation to the Jews expelled from Spain and Portugal and sent out ships to safely bring Jews to his empire. 1493 Jews expelled from Sicily. As many as 137,000 exiled. 1496 Jews expelled from Portugal and from many German cities. 1501 King Alexander of Poland readmits Jews to Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1511 Printing of Jewish books by mechanical press began by Daniel Bomberg. 1516 Ghetto of Venice established, the first Jewish ghetto in Europe. Many others follow. 1525–1572 1239 Rabbi Moshe Isserles (The Rema) of Kraków writes an extensive commentary to the Shulkhan Arukh called the Mappah, extending its application to Ashkenazi Jewry. 1534 King Sigismund I of Poland abolishes the law that required Jews to wear special clothes. 1534 First Yiddish book published, in Poland. 1534–1572 Isaac Luria ("the Arizal") teaches Kabbalah in Jerusalem and (mainly) Safed to select disciples. Some of those, such as Ibn Tebul, Israel Sarug and mostly Chaim Vital, put his teachings into writing. While the Sarugian versions are published shortly afterwards in Italy and Holland, the Vitalian texts remain in manuscripti for as long as three centuries. 1547 First Hebrew Jewish printing house in Lublin. 1550 Jews expelled from Genoa, Italy. 1550 Moses ben Jacob Cordovero founds a Kabbalah academy in Safed. 1567 First Jewish university Jeshiva was founded in Poland. 1577 A Hebrew printing press is established in Safed, the first press in Palestine and the first in Asia. 1580–1764 First session of the Council of Four Lands (Va'ad Arba' Aratzot) in Lublin, Poland. 70 delegates from local Jewish kehillot meet to discuss taxation and other issues important to the Jewish community. 1240 1621–1630 Shelah HaKadosh writes his most famous work after emigrating to the Land of Israel. 1623 First time separate (Va'ad) Jewish Sejm for Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1626–1676 False Messiah Sabbatai Zevi. 1627 Kingdom of Beta Israel in what is now modern day Ethiopia collapses and loses autonomy. 1633 Jews of Poznań granted a privilege of forbidding Christians to enter into their city. 1648 Jewish population of Poland reached 450,000 (i.e., 4% of the 1,1000,000 population of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth is Jewish), Bohemia 40,000 and Moravia 25,000. Worldwide population of Jewry is estimated at 750,000. 1648–1655 The Ukrainian Cossack Bohdan Chmielnicki leads a massacre of Polish gentry and Jewry that leaves an estimated 65,000 Jews dead and a similar number of gentry. The total decrease in the number of Jews is estimated at 100,000. 1655 Jews readmitted to England by Oliver Cromwell. 1660 1660 destruction of Safed. 1679 Jews of Yemen expelled to Mawza 1241 Barney Barnato was a British Jewish financier, diamond magnate, gold baron, one of the entrepreneurs who gained control of diamond mining, and later gold mining, in South Africa from the 1870s. He is perhaps best remembered as being a rival of Cecil Rhodes in struggling for control in the development of the Southern African mining industry. Mosses Maimonides was a medieval Jewish philosopher with considerable influence on Jewish thought, and on philosophy in general. Maimonides also was an important codifier of Jewish law. His views and writings hold a prominent place in Jewish intellectual history. Moses Mendelssohn was a German Jewish philosopher, critic, and Bible translator and commentator who greatly contributed to the efforts of Jews to assimilate to the German bourgeoisie. He argued that what makes Judaism unique is its divine revelation of a code of law. He wrote many philosophical treatises and is considered the father of the Jewish Enlightenment. 1700–1760 Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov, founds Hasidic Judaism, a way to approach God through meditation and fervent joy. He and his disciples attract many followers, and establish numerous Hasidic sects. The European Jewish opponents of Hasidim (known as Misnagdim) argue that one should follow a more scholarly approach to Judaism. Some of the more well-known Hasidic sects today include Bobover, Breslover, Gerer, Lubavitch (Chabad) and Satmar Hasidim. 1700 Rabbi Judah HeHasid makes aliyah to Palestine accompanied by hundreds of his followers. A few days after his arrival, Rabbi Yehuda dies suddenly. 1700 Sir Solomon de Medina is knighted by William III, making him the first Jew in England to receive that honour. 1720 Unpaid Arab creditors burn the synagogue unfinished by immigrants of Rabbi Yehuda and expel all Ashkenazi Jews from Jerusalem. 1720–1797 Rabbi Elijah of Vilna, the Vilna Gaon. 1729–1786 Moses Mendelssohn and the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement. He strove to bring an end to the isolation of the Jews so that they would be able to embrace the culture of the Western world, and in turn be embraced by gentiles as equals. The Haskalah opened the door for the development of all the modern Jewish denominations and the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language, but it also paved the way for many who, wishing to be fully accepted into Christian society, converted to Christianity or chose to assimilate to emulate it. 1740 1242 Parliament of Great Britain passes a general act permitting Jews to be naturalized in the American colonies. Previously, several colonies had also permitted Jews to be naturalized without taking the standard oath "upon the true faith of a Christian." 1740 Ottoman authorities invite Rabbi Haim Abulafia (1660–1744), renowned Kabbalist and Rabbi of Izmir, to come to the Holy Land. Rabbi Abulafia is to rebuild the city of Tiberias, which has lain desolate for some 70 years. The city's revival is seen by many as a sign of the coming of the Messiah. 1740–1750 Thousands immigrate to Palestine under the influence of Messianic predictions. The large immigration greatly increases the size and strength of the Jewish Settlement in Palestine. 1747 Rabbi Abraham Gershon of Kitov (Kuty) (1701–1761) is the first immigrant of the Hasidic Aliyah. He is a respected Talmudic scholar, mystic, and brother-in-law of Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov (founder of the Hasidic movement). Rabbi Abraham first settles in Hebron. Later, he relocates to Jerusalem at the behest of its residents. 1759 Followers of Jacob Frank joined ranks of Polish szlachta (gentry) of Jewish origins. 1772–1795 Partitions of Poland between Russia, Kingdom of Prussia and Austria. Main bulk of World Jewry lives now in those 3 countries. Old privileges of Jewish communities are denounced. 1775–1781 American Revolution; guaranteed the freedom of religion. 1775 Mob violence against the Jews of Hebron. 1789 1243 The French Revolution. In 1791 France grants full right to Jews and allows them to become citizens, under certain conditions. 1790 In the US, President George Washington sends a letter to the Jewish community in Rhode Island. He writes that he envisions a country "which gives bigotry no sanction...persecution no assistance". Despite the fact that the US was a predominantly Protestant country, theoretically Jews are given full rights. In addition, the mentality of Jewish immigrants shaped by their role as merchants in Eastern Europe meant they were well-prepared to compete in American society. 1791 Russia creates the Pale of Settlement that includes land acquired from Poland with a huge Jewish population and in the same year Crimea. The Jewish population of the Pale was 750,000. 450,000 Jews lived in the Prussian and Austrian parts of Poland. 1798 Rabbi Nachman of Breslov travels to Palestine. 1799 While French troops were in Palestine besieging the city of Acre, Napoleon prepared a Proclamation requesting Asian and African Jews to help him conquer Jerusalem, but his unsuccessful attempt to capture Acre prevented it from being issued. 1799 Mob violence on Jews in Safed. 1800–1900 The Golden Age of Yiddish literature, the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language, and the revival of Hebrew literature. 1808–1840 Large-scale aliyah in hope of Hastening Redemption in anticipation of the arrival of the Messiah in 1840. 1244 1820–1860 The development of Orthodox Judaism, a set of traditionalist movements that resisted the influences of modernization that arose in response to the European emancipation and Enlightenment movements; characterized by continued strict adherence to Halakha. 1830 Greece grants citizenship to Jews. 1831 Jewish militias take part in the defense of Warsaw against Russians. 1834–1835 Muslims, Druze attack Jews in Safed, Hebron & in Jerusalem. 1837 Moses Haim Montefiore is knighted by Queen Victoria 1837 Galilee earthquake of 1837 devastates Jewish communities of Safed and Tiberias. 1838–1933 Rabbi Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen (Chofetz Chaim) opens an important yeshiva. He writes an authoritative Halakhic work, Mishnah Berurah. Mid-19th century Beginning of the rise of classical Reform Judaism. Mid-19th century Rabbi Israel Salanter develops the Mussar Movement. While teaching that Jewish law is binding, he dismisses current philosophical debate and advocates the ethical teachings as the essence of Judaism. Mid-19th century Positive-Historical Judaism, later known as Conservative Judaism, is developed. 1245 1841 David Levy Yulee of Florida is elected to the United States Senate, becoming the first Jew elected to Congress. 1851 Norway allows Jews to enter the country. They are not emancipated until 1891. 1858 Jews emancipated in England. 1860 Alliance Israelite Universelle, an international Jewish organization is founded in Paris with the goal to protect Jewish rights as citizens. 1860–1875 Moshe Montefiori builds Jewish neighbourhoods outside the Old City of Jerusalem starting with Mishkenot Sha'ananim. 1860–1864 Jews are taking part in Polish national movement, that was followed by January rising. 1860–1943 Henrietta Szold: educator, author, social worker and founder of Hadassah. 1861 The Zion Society is formed in Frankfurt am Main, Germany. 1862 Jews are given equal rights in Russian-controlled Congress Poland. The privileges of some towns regarding prohibition of Jewish settlement are revoked. In Leipzig, Moses Hess publishes the book Rome and Jerusalem, the first book to call for the establishment of a Jewish socialist commonwealth in Palestine. The book is also notable for giving the impetus for the Labor Zionist movement. 1867 1246 Jews emancipated in Hungary. 1868 Benjamin Disraeli becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Though converted to Christianity as a child, he is the first person of Jewish descent to become a leader of government in Europe. 1870–1890 Russian Zionist group Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion) and Bilu (est. 1882) set up a series of Jewish settlements in the Land of Israel, financially aided by Baron Edmond James de Rothschild. In Rishon LeZion Eliezer ben Yehuda revives Hebrew as spoken modern language. 1870 Jews emancipated in Italy. 1871 Jews emancipated in Germany. 1875 Reform Judaism's Hebrew Union College is founded in Cincinnati. Its founder was Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise, the architect of American Reform Judaism. 1877 New Hampshire becomes the last state to give Jews equal political rights. 1878 Petah Tikva is founded by religious pioneers from Jerusalem, led by Yehoshua Stampfer. 1880 World Jewish population around 7.7 million, 90% in Europe, mostly Eastern Europe; around 3.5 million in the former Polish provinces. 1881–1884, 1903–1906, 1918–1920 1247 Three major waves of pogroms kill tens of thousands of Jews in Russia and Ukraine. More than two million Russian Jews emigrate in the period 1881–1920. 1881 On December 30–31, the First Congress of all Zionist Unions for the colonization of Palestine was held at Focşani, Romania. 1882–1903 The First Aliyah, a major wave of Jewish immigrants to build a homeland in Palestine. 1886 Rabbi Sabato Morais and Alexander Kohut begin to champion the Conservative Jewish reaction to American Reform, and establish The Jewish Theological Seminary of America as a school of 'enlightened Orthodoxy'. 1890 The term "Zionism" is coined by an Austrian Jewish publicist Nathan Birnbaum in his journal Self Emancipation and was defined as the national movement for the return of the Jewish people to their homeland and the resumption of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel. 1895 First published book by Sigmund Freud. 1897 In response to the Dreyfus affair, Theodore Herzl writes Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State), advocating the creation of a free and independent Jewish state in Israel. 1897 The Bund (General Jewish Labour Bund) is formed in Russia. 1897 First Russian Empire Census: 5,200,000 of Jews, 4,900,000 in the Pale. The lands of former Poland have 1,300,000 Jews or 14% of population. 1248 1897 The First Zionist Congress was held at Basel, which brought the World Zionist Organization (WZO) into being. 1902 Rabbi Dr. Solomon Schechter reorganizes the Jewish Theological Seminary of America and makes it into the flagship institution of Conservative Judaism. 1903 St. Petersburg's Znamya newspaper publishes a literary hoax The Protocols of the Elders of Zion. Kishinev Pogrom caused by accusations that Jews practice cannibalism. 1905 1905 Russian Revolution accompanied by pogroms. 1915 Yeshiva College (later University) and its Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Rabbinical Seminary is established in New York City for training in a Modern Orthodox milieu. 1916 Louis Brandeis, on the first of June, is confirmed as the United States' first Jewish Supreme Court justice. Brandeis was nominated by American President Woodrow Wilson. 1917 The British defeat the Turks and gain control of Palestine. The British issue the Balfour Declaration which gives official British support for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people ... it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine". Many Jews interpret this to mean that all of Palestine was to become a Jewish state. 1917 February 1249 The Pale of Settlement is abolished, and Jews get equal rights. The Russian civil war leads to over 2,000 pogroms with tens of thousands murdered and hundreds of thousand made homeless. 1918–1939 The period between the two World Wars is often referred to as the "golden age" of hazzanut (cantors). Some of the great Jewish cantors of this era include Abraham Davis, Moshe Koussevitzky, Zavel Kwartin (1874–1953), Jan Peerce, Josef "Yossele" Rosenblatt (1882–1933), Gershon Sirota (1874–1943), and Laibale Waldman. 1919 February 15: Over 1,200 Jews killed in Khmelnitsky pogrom. March 25: Around 4,000 Jews killed by Cossack troops in Tetiev. June 17: 800 Jews decapitated in assembly-line fashion in Dubova [uk]. 1920 At the San Remo conference Britain receives the League of Nations' British Mandate of Palestine. April 4–7: Five Jews killed and 216 wounded in the Jerusalem riots 1920s–present A variety of Jewish authors, including Gertrude Stein, Allen Ginsberg, Saul Bellow, Adrienne Rich and Philip Roth, sometimes drawing on Jewish culture and history, flourish and become highly influential on the Anglophone literary scene. 1921 British military administration of the Mandate is replaced by civilian rule. 1921 Britain proclaims that all of Palestine east of the Jordan River is forever closed to Jewish settlement, but not to Arab settlement. 1250 1921 Polish–Soviet peace treaty in Riga. Citizens of both sides are given rights to choose the country. Hundred thousands of Jews, especially small businesses forbidden in the Soviets, move to Poland. 1922 Reform Rabbi Stephen S. Wise established the Jewish Institute of Religion in New York. (It merged with Hebrew Union College in 1950.) 1923 Britain gives the Golan Heights to the French Mandate of Syria. Arab immigration is allowed; Jewish immigration is not. The First World Congress of Jewish Women is held 6–11 May in Vienna. 1924 2,989,000 Jews according to religion poll in Poland (10.5% of total). Jewish youth consisted 23% of students of high schools and 26% of students of universities. 1926 Prior to World War I, there were few Hasidic yeshivas in Europe. On Lag BaOmer 1926, Rabbi Shlomo Chanoch Hacohen Rabinowicz, the fourth Radomsker Rebbe, declared, "The time has come to found yeshivas where the younger generation will be able to learn and toil in Torah", leading to the founding of the Keser Torah network of 36 yeshivas in pre-war Poland. 1929 A long-running dispute between Muslims and Jews over access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem escalates into the 1929 Palestine riots. The riots took the form in the most part of attacks by Arabs on Jews resulting in the 1929 Hebron massacre, the 1929 Safed pogrom and violence against Jews in Jerusalem. 1930 1251 World Jewry: 15,000,000. Main countries USA(4,000,000), Poland (3,500,000 11% of total), Soviet Union (2,700,000 2% of total), Romania (1,000,000 6% of total). Palestine 175,000 or 17% of total 1,036,000. 1933 Hitler takes over Germany; his anti-Semitic sentiments are well-known, prompting numerous Jews to emigrate. 1935 Regina Jonas became the first woman to be ordained as a rabbi. 1937 Adin Steinsaltz born, author of the first comprehensive Babylonian Talmud commentary since Rashi in the 11th century. 1939 The British government issues the 'White Paper'. The paper proposed a limit of 10,000 Jewish immigrants for each year between 1940–1944, plus 25,000 refugees for any emergency arising during that period. 1938–1945 The Holocaust (Ha Shoah), resulting in the methodical extermination of nearly 6 million Jews across Europe. 1940s–present Various Jewish filmmakers, including Billy Wilder, Woody Allen, Mel Brooks and the Coen Brothers, frequently draw on Jewish philosophy and humor, and become some of the most artistically and popularly successful in the history of the medium. 1941 The Muslim residents of Baghdad carried out a savage pogrom against their Jewish compatriots. In this pogrom, known by its Arabic name al-Farhud, about 200 Jews were murdered and thousands wounded, on June 1–2. Jewish property was plundered and many homes set ablaze. 1252 1945–1948 Post-Holocaust refugee crisis. British attempts to detain Jews attempting to enter Palestine illegally. 1946–1948 The violent struggle for the creation of a Jewish state in the British mandate of Palestine is intensified by Jewish defense groups: Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi (group). November 29, 1947 The United Nations approves the creation of a Jewish State and an Arab State in the British mandate of Palestine. May 14, 1948 The State of Israel declares itself as an independent Jewish state hours before the British Mandate is due to expire. Within eleven minutes, it is de facto recognized by the United States. Andrei Gromyko, the Soviet Union's UN ambassador, calls for the UN to accept Israel as a member state. The UN approves. May 15, 1948 1948 Arab–Israeli War: Syria, Iraq, Transjordan, Lebanon and Egypt invade Israel hours after its creation. The attack is repulsed, and Israel conquers more territory. A Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands results, as up to a million Jews flee or are expelled from Arab and Muslim nations. Most settle in Israel. 1948–1949 Almost 250,000 Holocaust survivors make their way to Israel. "Operation Magic Carpet" brings thousands of Yemenite Jews to Israel. 1956 The 1956 Suez War Egypt blockades the Gulf of Aqaba, and closes the Suez canal to Israeli shipping. Egypt's President Nasser calls for the destruction of Israel. Israel, England, and France go to war and force Egypt to end the blockade of Aqaba, and open the canal to all nations. 1253 1964 Jewish-Christian relations are revolutionized by the Roman Catholic Church's Vatican II. 1966 Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970) becomes the first Hebrew writer to win the Nobel Prize in literature. May 16, 1967 Egyptian President Nasser demands that the UN dismantle the UN Emergency Force I (UNEF I) between Israel and Egypt. The UN complies and the last UN peacekeeper is out of Sinai and Gaza by May 19. 1967 May Egyptian PresidentGamal Abdel Nasser closes the strategic Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and states that Egypt is in a state of war with Israel. Egyptian troops begin massing in the Sinai. June 5–10, 1967 The Six-Day War. Israel launches a pre-emptive strike against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. Israeli aircraft destroy the bulk of the Arab air forces on the ground in a surprise attack, followed by Israeli ground offensives which see Israel decisively defeat the Arab forces and capture the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights. September 1, 1967 The Arab Leaders meet in Khartoum, Sudan. The Three No's of Khartoum: No recognition of Israel. No negotiations with Israel. No peace with Israel. 1968 Rabbi Mordechai Kaplan formally creates a separate Reconstructionist Judaism movement by setting up the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College in Philadelphia. 1969 1254 First group of African Hebrew Israelites begin to migrate to Israel under the leadership of Ben Ammi Ben Israel. Mid-1970s to present Growing revival of Klezmer music (The folk music of European Jews). 1972 Sally Priesand became the first female rabbi ordained in America, and is believed to be only the second woman ever to be formally ordained in the history of Judaism. 1972 Mark Spitz sets the record for most gold medals won in a single Olympic Games (seven) in the 1972 Summer Olympics. The Munich massacre occurs when Israeli athletes are taken hostage by Black September terrorists. The hostages are killed during a failed rescue attempt. October 6–24, 1973 The Yom Kippur War. Egypt and Syria, backed up by expeditionary forces from other Arab nations, launch a surprise attack against Israel on Yom Kippur. After absorbing the initial attacks, Israel recaptures lost ground and then pushes into Egypt and Syria. Subsequently, OPEC reduces oil production, driving up oil prices and triggering a global economic crisis. 1975 President Gerald Ford signs legislation including the Jackson-Vanik amendment, which ties U.S. trade benefits to the Soviet Union to freedom of emigration for Jews. 1975 United Nations adopts resolution equating Zionism with racism. Rescinded in 1991. 1976 Israel rescues hostages taken to Entebbe, Uganda. September 18, 1978 1255 At Camp David, near Washington D.C., Israel and Egypt sign a comprehensive peace treaty, The Camp David Accord, which included the withdrawal of Israel from the Sinai. 1978 Yiddish writer Isaac Bashevis Singer receives Nobel Prize 1979 Prime Minister Menachem Begin and President Anwar Sadat are awarded Nobel Peace Prize. 1979–1983 Operation Elijah: Rescue of Ethiopian Jewry. 1982 June–December The Lebanon War. Israel invades Southern Lebanon to drive out the PLO. 1983 American Reform Jews formally accept patrilineal descent, creating a new definition of who is a Jew. 1984–1985 Operations Moses, Joshua: Rescue of Ethiopian Jewry by Israel. 1986 Elie Wiesel wins the Nobel Peace Prize 1986 Nathan Sharansky, Soviet Jewish dissident, is freed from prison. 1987 Beginning of the First Intifada against Israel. 1989 1256 Epic Literary Epic Folk Epic Oral literature about a traditional or historical hero Oral Epic Poetry Written literature about a Poetry that is not written but traditional or historical hero passed by word of mouth Language as a communication tool is the primary element from which literature is created. Even in preliterate societies, it exists as songs, riddles, or epics that are chanted. F. Sionil Jose Inquiries Conceptual inquiries Normative inquiries Descriptive inquiries LAW ETHICS Refers to a systematic body of rules that governs the Branch of moral philosophy that guides people whole society and the actions of its individual about the basic human conduct. members. Teleological Ethics Ethical Egoism Utilitarianism Eudaimonism The view that people ought to Prescribe actions that maximize Ethical theory which maintains pursue their own self-interest and happiness and well-being for all that happiness is reached no one has any obligation to affected individuals through virtue promote anyone else's interests The main issues that surround Cyber ethics are:  Copyright / Downloading  Hacking  Cyber harassment Business ethics Encryption Decryption The process of The process of converting normal converting meaningless message (Plaintext) message (Ciphertext) into meaningless into its original form message (Ciphertext) (Plaintext)  Social responsibility  Trust  Connection  Honesty  Integrity Replace cyber-bullying with cyber-believing.  Commitment Let us build each other up instead of bringing  Transparency others down. BELIEVE & BUILD  Core values  Reliability ― Janna Cachola Water harvesting 3 Harvesting Methods:  Hand Harvesting  Harvesting with Hand Tools  Harvesting with Machinery Flood water harvesting Rainwater harvesting The collection and storage of The collection and rain water, rather than allowing storage of creek flow for it to run off irrigation use  Reduces erosion and flooding around buildings  An adequate means for Irrigation purpose  Conserves water and reduces demand on Ground Water With every drop of water you drink, every Disadvantages  High Investment  High Maintenance  Not Suitable For All Areas Water Harvesting breath you take, you're connected to the sea. No matter where on Earth you live. Most of the oxygen in the atmosphere is generated by the sea. Sylvia Earle  Water in Air (Fog and Dew harvesting)  Overland Flow (Rainwater harvesting and Flood water harvesting)  Ground water (Ground water harvesting) Fall of the Berlin Wall between East and West Germany, collapse of the communist East German government, and the beginning of Germany's reunification (which formally began in October 1990). 1990 The Soviet Union opens its borders for the three million Soviet Jews who had been held as virtual prisoners within their own country. Hundreds of thousands of Soviet Jews choose to leave the Soviet Union and move to Israel. 1990–1991 Iraq invades Kuwait, triggering a war between Iraq and Allied United Nations forces. Israel is hit by 39 Scud missiles from Iraq. 1991 Operation Solomon: Rescue of the remainder of Ethiopian Jewry in a twenty-four-hour airlift. October 30, 1991 The Madrid Peace Conference opens in Spain, sponsored by the United States and the Soviet Union. A Jewish doctor could April 22, 1993 The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum dedicated. attend only a Jewish patient according to 1 of the anti-Jewish laws September 13, 1993 Israel and PLO sign the Oslo Accords. issued by the Nazis. 1994 The Lubavitcher (Chabad) Rebbe, Menachem Mendel Schneerson, dies. October 26, 1994 Israel and Jordan sign an official peace treaty. Israel cedes a small amount of contested land to Jordan, and the countries open official diplomatic relations, with open borders and free trade. 1257 December 10, 1994 Arafat, Rabin and Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres share the Nobel Peace Prize. November 4, 1995 Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated. 1996 Peres loses election to Benyamin (Bibi) Netanyahu (Likud party). 1999 Ehud Barak elected Prime Minister of Israel. May 24, 2000 Israel unilaterally withdraws its remaining forces from its security zone in southern Lebanon to the international border, fully complying with the UN Security Council Res. 425. Extermination camps served solely to murder 2000 July large amounts of Jewish, Slavic, Roma and Camp David Summit. disabled peoples. 2000, Summer Senator Joseph Lieberman becomes the first Jewish-American to be nominated for a national office (Vice President of the United States) by a major political party (the Democratic Party). September 29, 2000 The al-Aqsa Intifada begins. 100,000 mentally and 2001 physically disabled Germans Election of Ariel Sharon as Israel's Prime Minister. were murdered between the start of the war and August 2001 Jewish Museum of Turkey is founded by Turkish Jewry 2004 1258 1941 Avram Hershko and Aaron Ciechanover of the Technion win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast builds its first synagogue, Birobidzhan Synagogue, in accordance with halakha. Uriyahu Butler became the first member of the African Hebrew Israelite community to enlist in the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) March 31, 2005 The Government of Israel officially recognizes the Bnei Menashe people of North-East India as one of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, opening the door for thousands of people to immigrate to Israel. 2005 August The Government of Israel withdraws its military forces and settlers from the Gaza Strip. 2005 December Prime Minister Ariel Sharon falls into a coma; Deputy Premier Ehud Olmert takes over as Acting Prime Minister 2006 March Ehud Olmert leads the Kadima party to victory in Israeli elections, becomes Prime Minister of Israel. 2006 July–August A military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel started on July 12, after a Hezbollah cross-border raid into Israel. The war ended with the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701 after 34 days of fighting. About 2,000 Lebanese and 159 Israelis were killed, and civilian infrastructure on both sides heavily damaged. 2008 December The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) launches Operation Cast Lead (‫)יצוקה עופרת מבצע‬ against Hamas in the Gaza Strip. 2009 March The Nazi Hunger Plan led to the deaths of over 2,000,000 Soviet prisoners in 1941 1259 Benjamin Netanyahu becomes Prime Minister of Israel (also, continues as the Chairman of the Likud Party). 2014 January Ariel Sharon dies, after undergoing a sudden decline in health, having suffered renal failure and other complications, after spending 8 years in a deep coma due to his January 2006 stroke, on January 11, 2014. 2016 March The Jewish Agency declares an end to immigration from Yemen, following the successful conclusion of a covert operation that brought 19 people to Israel over several days. The last 50 Yemenite Jews refuse to leave Yemen. 2017 December President Donald Trump announces formal United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. 2019 March The United States became the first country to recognize Israeli sovereignty over the Golan Heights territory which it held since 1967. Timeline of Zionism In July 1944 Majdanek became the first camp to be liberated as the Soviets progressed Early modern period 1561 Joseph Nasi encourages Jewish settlement in Tiberias, having fled the Spanish Inquisition fourteen years previously in 1547 1615 Thomas Brightman's Shall they return to Jerusalem again? is published posthumously. 1621 1260 Sir Henry Finch publishes The World's Great Restauration, or Calling of the Jews, and with them of all Nations and Kingdoms of the Earth to the Faith of Christ 1649 Ebenezer and Joanna Cartwright dispatch a petition to the British Government calling for the ban on Jews settling in England to be lifted and for assistance to be provided to enable them to be repatriated to Palestine. 1670 Baruch Spinoza's Theologico-Political Treatise is the first work to consider the Jewish Question in Europe 1700 Judah he-Hasid leads some 1,500 Jewish immigrants to the Land of Israel and settles in Jerusalem. Three days after the group's arrival their leader dies (on October 17, 1700). In 1720 their synagogue was burned down and all Ashkenazi Jews were banned by the Ottomans. 1771 Joseph Eyre publishes a scholarly essay entitled Observations Upon The Prophecies Relating To The Restoration Of The Jews 1777 Menachem Mendel of Vitebsk along with a large group of followers emigrates and settles in Safed. In 1783 they were forced out of Safed, and moved to Tiberias. 1794 Richard Brothers, a millenarianist, Christian restorationist, a false prophet and the founder of British Israelism, writes A revealed knowledge of the prophecies & times, predicting the return of the Jews to Jerusalem in 1798 where they will be converted to Christianity. 1805 1261 The systematic killing of 6,000,000 Jews in Europe by the Nazis Causes of Holocaust:  Historic anti-Semitism  The rise of eugenics and nationalism  Rise of the Nazis and Adolf Hitler after World War I (People of Germany believed Adolf Hitler could save the economy)  Extensive radicalisation of the Nazis' antisemitic policy.  Poor Economy of Germany after World War I- Germany looking for scapegoat…blamed on the Jews. According to Treaty of Versailles, Germany had to pay 33 million dollars in  reparations for the war. Only the Jew knew that by an able and persistent Jews and other persons: use of propaganda heaven itself can be presented to the people as if it were hell and, vice versa, the o Gypsies most miserable kind of life can be presented as if it o Poles were paradise. The Jew knew this and acted o Slavs accordingly. But the German, or rather his o Blacks Government, did not have the slightest suspicion o People with physical or mental disabilities o The Elderly of it. During the War the heaviest of penalties had to be paid for that ignorance. o Homosexuals o Mentally or Physically Handicapped Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf were viewed as a threat to the Nazi regime of establishing the Master Aryan race.  Widespread Propaganda by the Nazi Party: "The Jews are our misfortune" - This line was written on the front page of each edition of the Nazi Newspaper Der Sturmer "The destruction of Poland is our primary task. The aim is not the arrival at a certain line but the annihilation of living forces...." − Adolph Hitler Persecution of the Jews:  Form of Anti-Semitism (hatred towards Jews)  Burning of books written by Jews  Jews were prohibited from holding public office and were deprived of German citizenship  Removing Jews from public schooling  Confiscating Jewish property and businesses  Excluding Jews from public events "The Aryan race is tall, long legged, slim. The race is narrow-faced, with a narrow forehead, a narrow high built nose and a lower jaw and prominent chin, the skin is rosy bright and the blood shines through .... the hair is smooth, straight or wavy possibly curly in childhood. The colour is blond." The Nazi Race, 1929 Concentration Camps  Constant torture and starvation  Experimentation on Victims: Dr. Josef Mengele "Angel of Death"  Mass killings through gas chambers  Women had to have hair cut off − hair was used for making of stockings and other products  Extracted gold teeth before sentenced to death  Lined up Jews and shot them on the spot –Death Marches The scream of the twelve-inch shrapnel is more penetrating than the hiss from a thousand Jewish newspaper vipers. Therefore let them go on with their hissing Instruction in world history in the so-called high schools is even today in a very sorry condition. Few teachers understand that the study of history can never be to learn historical dates and events by heart and recite them by rote; that what matters is not whether the child knows exactly when this battle or that was fought, when a general was born, or even when a monarch (usually a very insignificant one) came into the crown of his forefathers. No, by the living God, this is very unimportant. To 'learn' history means to seek and find the forces which are the causes leading to those effects which we subsequently perceive as historical events. While the Zionists try to make the rest of the World believe that the national consciousness of the Jew finds its satisfaction in the creation of a Palestinian state, the Jews again slyly dupe the dumb Goyim. It doesn't even enter their heads to build up a Jewish state in Palestine for the purpose of living there; all they want is a central organisation for their international world swindler, endowed with its own sovereign rights and removed from the intervention of other states: a haven for convicted scoundrels and a university for budding crooks. It is a sign of their rising confidence and sense of security that at a time when one section is still playing the German, French-man, or Englishman, the other with open effrontery comes out as the Jewish race. ― Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf Foundation of the Palestine Association, stating amongst other goals that "we hope to establish relative to the history, the manners, and the country of the Jewish nation" 1808 The first group of Perushim, influenced by the teachings of the Vilna Gaon, leaves Shklov and after a 15-month journey settles in Jerusalem and Safed. 1809 Foundation of the London Society for Promoting Christianity amongst the Jews 1811 François-René de Chateaubriand, the founder of Romanticism in French literature, published Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem, in which he wrote of the Jews of Jerusalem as "rightful masters of Judea living as slaves and strangers in their own country" 1815 English poet Lord Byron publishes his Hebrew Melodies. The poem does not refer to a return to Palestine, but is one of the first literary works of Jewish nationalism. 1819 Wissenschaft des Judentums ("Jewish Studies") began to build a secular Jewish identity in the German Confederation 1827 John Nelson Darby's Plymouth Brethren is founded to propagate the Christian eschatological movement of dispensationalism, which teaches that God looks upon Jews as the chosen people (rejecting supersessionism), and that the nation of Israel will be born again and brought to realize they crucified their Messiah at his second coming 1821–30 The Greek War of Independence legitimized the concept of small ethnically-based nation-states among other subject peoples of the Ottoman Empire After the Egyptian–Ottoman War Many English words borrowed from Hebrew are related to religion 1262 1833 Benjamin Disraeli, then 28 years old, writes The Wondrous Tale of Alroy about David Alroy's messainic mission to Jerusalem 1837 Lord Lindsay travels to Palestine. In 1838 he wrote Letters on Egypt, Edom and the Holy Land in which he stated "Many I believe entertain the idea that an actual curse rests on the soil of Palestine, and may be startled therefore at the testimony I have borne to its actual richness. Let me not be misunderstood: richly as the valleys wave with corn, and beautiful as is the general aspect of modern Palestine, vestiges of the ancient cultivation are every where visible... proofs far more than sufficient that the land still enjoys her Sabbaths, and only waits the return of her banished children, and the application of industry commensurate with her agricultural capabilities, to burst once more into universal luxuriance— all that she ever was in the days of Solomon." 1839 The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland passes an Act on the Conversion of the Jews, and sends four Church of Scotland ministers, Andrew Bonar, Robert Murray M'Cheyne, Alexander Keith and Alexander Black to Palestine. They publish the popular book Narrative of a Visit to the Holy Land; And, Mission of Inquiry to the Jews in 1842 1839 Judah Alkalai publishes his pamphlet Darhei No'am (The Pleasant Paths) advocating the restoration of the Jews in the Land of Israel as a precursor to the coming of the Messiah, followed in 1840 by Shalom Yerushalayim (The Peace of Jerusalem). 1839 Lord Shaftesbury takes out a full-page advert in The Times addressed to the Protestant monarchs of Europe and entitled "The State and the rebirth of the Jews", which included the suggestion for the Jews to return to Palestine to seize the lands of Galilee and Judea, as well as the phrase "Earth without people – people without land". 1840 1263 Lord Shaftesbury presents a paper to British Foreign Minister Lord Palmerston calling for the 'recall of the Jews to their ancient land'. 1840 (August 11) Lord Palmerston writes to Lord Ponsonby, British Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire: "There exists at the present time among the Jews dispersed over Europe, a strong notion that the time is approaching when their nation is to return to Palestine... It would be of manifest importance to the Sultan to encourage the Jews to return and settle in Palestine because the wealth which they would bring with them would increase the resources of the Sultan's dominions; and the Jewish people, if returning under the sanction and protection, and at the invitation of the Sultan, would be a check upon any future evil designs of Mehemet Ali (of Egypt) or his successor... I have to instruct Your Excellency strongly to re-commend (to the Turkish Government) to hold out every just encouragement to the Jews of Europe to return to Palestine." More than half the landmass of Israel is desert, but it still has an Olympic bobsled and skeleton team. 1841 George Gawler, previously the governor of South Australia, starts to encourage Jewish settlements in the land of Israel. 1842 Nadir Baxter, of the Church Pastoral Aid Society, died in 1842 and donated £1,000 in his will, stating that it be paid "towards the political restoration of the Jews to Jerusalem and to their own land; and as I conscientiously believe also that the institution by the Anglican Church of the bishopric of Jerusalem is the actual commencement of the great and merciful work of Jehovah towards Zion". The gift was declared void in 1851 in the case of Habershon v Vardon by Sir James Lewis Knight-Bruce, Chancellor of the High Court, who stated "If it can be understood to mean any thing, it is to create a revolution in the dominions of an ally of her Majesty". 1841–42 Correspondence between Moses Montefiore, the President of the Board of Deputies of British Jews and Charles Henry Churchill, the British consul in Damascus, is seen as the first recorded plan proposed for political Zionism. 1264 1844 Mordecai Noah publishes Discourse on the Restoration of the Jews. 1844 According to one source, the Old Yishuv Jews constitute the largest of several ethnoreligious groups in Jerusalem – however estimates approximately 20 years before and 20 years after this date suggest otherwise. See Demographics of Jerusalem. 1844 Rev. Samuel Bradshaw, in his Tract for the Times, Being a Plea for the Jews calls for Parliament to allot 4 million pounds for the Restoration of Israel, with another 1 million to be collected by the Church. 1844 Pastor T. Tully Crybace convenes a committee in London for the purpose of founding a 'British and Foreign Society for Promoting the Restoration of the Jewish Nation to Palestine.' He urges that England secure from Turkey Palestine 'from the Euphrates to the Nile, and from the Mediterranean to the Desert'. 1845 George Gawler publishes "Tranquilization of Syria and the East: Observations and Practical Suggestions, in Furtherance of the Establishment of Jewish Colonies in Palestine, the Most Sober and Sensible Remedy for the Miseries of Asiatic Turkey." 1849 George Gawler accompanies Sir Moses Montefiori on a trip to Palestine, persuading him to invest in and initiate Jewish settlements in the country. c.1850 James Finn and his wife found the "British Society for the Promotion of Jewish Agricultural Labour in the Holy Land" Israel recycles 90% of the waste water it creates, making it the leading nation in the world for 1851 water recycling. In the United States, only 1% of wastewater is recycled. 1265 Correspondence between Lord Stanley, whose father became British Prime Minister the following year, and Benjamin Disraeli, who became Chancellor of the Exchequer alongside him, records Disraeli's proto-Zionist views: "He then unfolded a plan of restoring the nation to Palestine – said the country was admirably suited for them – the financiers all over Europe might help – the Porte is weak – the Turks/holders of property could be bought out – this, he said, was the object of his life ...."Coningsby was merely a feeler – my views were not fully developed at that time – since then all I have written has been for one purpose. The man who should restore the Hebrew race to their country would be the Messiah – the real saviour of prophecy!" He did not add formally that he aspired to play this part, but it was evidently implied. He thought very highly of the capabilities of the country, and hinted that his chief object in acquiring power here would be to promote the return". 1852 George Gawler founds the Association for Promoting Jewish Settlement in Palestine 1853–75 Heinrich Graetz publishes History of the Jews (Geschichte der Juden), the first academic work portraying the Jews as a historical nation. Graetz's work became more nationalistic as the volumes progressed, culminating with Volumes I and II in 1873–75 after he had returned from a trip to Palestine. Israel is roughly half the size of Lake Michigan. 1853 Abraham Mapu publishes Ahabat Zion, the first Hebrew novel, a romance of the time of King Hezekiah and Isaiah 1857 James Finn, the second British Consul in Jerusalem, writes to Foreign Secretary the Earl of Clarendon regarding his proposal "to persuade Jews in a large body to settle here as agriculturalists on the soil ... in partnership with the Arab peasantry" 1860 The Alliance Israélite Universelle is founded in Paris 1266 Syrian hamsters were first domesticated as pets by a zoologist 1861 The Zion Society is formed in Frankfurt, Germany. at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 1930. 1861 Mishkenot Sha'ananim — first neighborhood of the New Yishuv outside the Old City of Jerusalem, built by Sir Moses Montefiore. 1862 Moses Hess writes Rome and Jerusalem. The Last National Question (text) arguing for the Jews to return to the Land of Israel, and proposes a socialist country in which the Jews would become agrarianised through a process of "redemption of the soil". His ideas later evolved into the Labor Zionism movement. 1862 Zvi Hirsch Kalischer publishes Derishat Zion, maintains that the salvation of the Jews, promised by the Prophets, can come about only by self-help. His ideas contributed to the Religious Zionism movement. 1867 Mark Twain visits Palestine as part of a tour of what westerners call the Holy Land. 1869 Twain publishes The Innocents Abroad, or The New Pilgrims' Progress documenting his observations through his travels. He indicated he observed that Palestine was primarily an uninhabited desert. His account was widely circulated and remains a controversial snapshot of the area in the late 19th century. 1870 Mikveh Israel, the first modern Jewish agricultural school and settlement was established in the Land of Israel by Charles Netter of the Alliance Israélite Universelle. 1870–1890 The group Hovevei Zion (Lovers of Zion) sets up 30 Jewish farming communities in the Land of Israel. 1267 1876 The English novelist George Eliot publishes the widely read novel Daniel Deronda, later cited by Henrietta Szold, Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, and Emma Lazarus as having been highly influential in their decision to become Zionists. 1878 (June) A German-language memorandum addressed to Disraeli and Bismarck is submitted to the Congress of Berlin by an anonymous Jewish group advocating the establishment of a Jewish constitutional monarchy in Palestine. It was originally thought to have been written by Disraeli himself, but later thought to be by Judah Leib Gordon. The memorandum was not discussed at the Congress, although Bismarck called it "a crazy idea". 1878 Galician poet Naphtali Herz Imber writes a poem Tikvatenu (Our Hope), later adopted as the Zionist hymn Hatikvah. 1878 Petah Tikva is founded by Jerusalem Jews, but abandoned after difficulties. Resettled in 1882 with help from first aliyah. 1878 The first Hovevei Zion ("Lovers of Zion") groups were founded in Eastern Europe 1880 Laurence Oliphant publishes The land of Gilead, with excursions in the Lebanon which proposes a settlement under British protection while respecting Ottoman sovereignty. He proposes that the 'warlike' Bedouins be driven out, and the Palestinians be placed in reservations like the native Indians of America. 1881–1884 Pogroms in the Russian Empire kill several Jews and injure large numbers, destroy thousands of Jewish homes, and motivate hundreds of thousands of Jews to flee. 1268 1881–1920 Over two million of the Russian Jews emigrate. Most go to the U.S., others elsewhere, some to the Land of Israel. The first group of Biluim organize in Kharkov. 1881 Eliezer ben Yehuda makes aliyah and leads efforts to revive Hebrew as a common spoken language. 1882 January 1 Leon Pinsker publishes pamphlet Autoemancipation (text) urging the Jewish people to strive for independence and national consciousness. 1882 Baron Edmond James de Rothschild begins buying land in the region of Palestine and financing Jewish agricultural settlements and industrial enterprises. 1882–1903 The First Aliyah, major wave (estimated at 25,000–35,000) of Jewish immigration to Ottoman-occupied Palestine. 1882 Rishon LeZion, Rosh Pinna, Zikhron Ya'akov are founded. 1883 Rabbi Isaac Rülf publishes Aruchas Bas-Ammi, calling for a Hebrew-speaking Jewish homeland in Palestine. The oldest-ever cave tool, dating back 1884 Katowice Conference headed by Leon Pinsker 350,000 years, was found in Israel. 1890 Austrian publisher Nathan Birnbaum coins the term Zionism for Jewish nationalism in his journal Self Emancipation. 1890 1269 The Russian Tsarist government approves the establishment of "The Society for the Support of Jewish Farmers and Artisans in Syria and Palestine", a charity organization which came to be known as "The Odessa Committee." 1891 Publication of the Blackstone Memorial petition 1894 The Dreyfus affair makes the problem of antisemitism prominent in Western Europe. 1896 After covering the trial and aftermath of Captain Dreyfus and witnessing the associated mass anti-semitic rallies in Paris, which included chants, "Death to Jews", Jewish-AustroHungarian journalist Theodor Herzl writes Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State) advocating the creation of a Jewish state. 1896–1904 Herzl, with the help of William Hechler, unsuccessfully approaches world leaders for assistance in the creation of a Jewish National Home but creates political legitimacy for the movement. After the First Zionist Congress In Israel, people are taught from an early age to turn off the tap while they brush their teeth, to save precious water. 1897 The First Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, urges "a publicly and legally assured home in Palestine" for Jews and establishes the World Zionist Organization (WZO). 1897 The Zionist Organization of America (ZOA) is founded under the name Federation of American Zionists. 1898 January 13 The French writer Émile Zola exposed the Dreyfus affair to the general public in a famously incendiary open letter to President Félix Faure to which the French journalist 1270 and politician Georges Clemenceau affixed the headline "J'accuse!" (I accuse!). Zola's world fame and internationally respected reputation brought international attention to Dreyfus' unjust treatment. 1898 Sholom Aleichem writes a Yiddish language pamphlet Why Do the Jews Need a Land of Their Own? 1899 Henry Pereira Mendes publishes Looking Ahead: twentieth century happenings, the premise of which is that the restoration of Jewish sovereignty over historic Israel is essential to the world's peace and prosperity. Israel was the first country to 1901 ban underweight models from Fifth Zionist Congress establishes the Jewish National Fund. participating in fashion shows. 1902 Herzl publishes the novel Altneuland (The Old New Land), which takes place in Palestine. 1903–1906 More pogroms in Russian Empire. Unlike the 1881 pogroms, which focused primarily on property damage, these pogroms resulted in the deaths of at least 2,000 Jews and an even higher number of non-Jews. 1903 Uganda Proposal for settlement in East Africa splits the 6th Zionist Congress. A committee is created to look into it. 1904–1914 The Second Aliyah occurs. Approximately 40,000 Jews immigrated into Ottomanoccupied Palestine, mostly from Russia. The prime cause for the aliyah was mounting anti-Semitism in Russia and pogroms in the Pale of Settlement. Nearly half of these immigrants left Palestine by the time World War I started. 1271 1909 Tel Aviv is founded on sand dunes near Jaffa. Young Judaea, a zionist youth movement, is founded. 1910–1916 Antisemitic Zionist conspiracy theories regarding the Ottoman Young Turk ruling elite are fuelled within the British government through diplomatic correspondence from Gerard Lowther (British Ambassador to Constantinople) and Gilbert Clayton (Chief of British intelligence in Egypt) 1915 January Two months after the British declaration of war against the Ottomans, Herbert Samuel presents a detailed memorandum entitled s:The Future of Palestine to the British Cabinet on the benefits of a British protectorate over Palestine to support Jewish immigration In Hebrew, Happy Christmas is 'Chag Molad Sameach' which means Happy festival of the Birth 1915 October–1916 January McMahon-Hussein Correspondence, agreeing to give Arabia to Arabs, if Arabs will fight the Turks. The Arab Revolt began in June 1916. 1916 May 16 Britain and France sign the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement which details the proposed division of Arabia at the conclusion of World War I into French and British spheres of influence. 1917 August The formation of the Jewish Legion (Zion Mule Corps), initiated in 1914 by Joseph Trumpeldor and Zeev Jabotinsky. 1917 T.E. Lawrence leads Arab militias to defeat various Turkish Garrisons in Arabia. 1917 November 2 In Israel, a meal without a salad is not a meal. Even breakfast. 1272 The British Government issues the Balfour Declaration which documented three main ideas:  First, it declared official support from the British Government for "the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people", and promised that the British Government would actively aid in these efforts.  Second, it documented that the British Government would not support actions that would prejudice the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jewish residents of Palestine.  Finally, it confirmed that Jews living in any other country would, similarly, not be prejudiced. After the Balfour Declaration Hebrew was originally spoken by the Israelites. The oldest records of written Hebrew date between 1200BC and 587BC, including the Bible. 1917 November 23 Bolsheviks release the full text of the previously secret Sykes-Picot Agreement in Izvestia and Pravda; it is subsequently printed in the Manchester Guardian on November 26. 1917 December The British Army gains control of Palestine with military occupation, as the Ottoman Empire collapses in World War I. 1918–1920 Massive pogroms accompanied the Russian Revolution of 1917 (the Russian Civil War), resulting in the death of an estimated 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews throughout the former Russian Empire; the number of Jewish orphans exceeded 300,000. 1919–1923 The Third Aliyah was triggered by the October Revolution in Russia, the ensuing pogroms there and in Poland and Hungary, the British conquest of Palestine and the Balfour Declaration. Approximately 40,000 Jews arrived in Palestine during this time. 1273 1920 The San Remo conference of the Allied Supreme Council in Italy resulted in an agreement that a Mandate for Palestine to Great Britain would be reviewed and then issued by the League of Nations. The mandate would contain similar content to the Balfour Declaration, which indicates that Palestine will be a homeland for Jews, and that the existing non-Jews would not have their rights infringed. In anticipation of this forthcoming mandate, the British military occupation shifts to a civil rule. 1920 Histadrut, Haganah, Vaad Leumi are founded. 1921 Chaim Weizmann becomes new President of the WZO at the 12th Zionist Congress (the first since World War I). 1921 Britain grants autonomy to Transjordan under Crown Prince Abdullah. 1922 July The offer of a Mandate for Palestine to Great Britain from the San Remo conference is confirmed by the League of Nations. Many words in Arabic are used by Hebrew speakers as slang words. 1923 September Mandate for Palestine to Great Britain comes into effect. For example, sababa (great) and mabsut (satisfied). 1923 Britain cedes the Golan Heights to the French Mandate of Syria. 1923 Jabotinsky establishes the revisionist party Hatzohar and its youth movement, Betar. 1924 Palestine Jewish Colonization Association established by Edmond James de Rothschild 1924–1928 1274 The Fourth Aliyah was a direct result of the economic crisis and anti-Jewish policies in Poland, along with the introduction of stiff immigration quotas by the United States. The Fourth Aliyah brought 82,000 Jews to British-occupied Palestine, of whom 23,000 left. 1927 The Zionist Federation of Australia is established in Melbourne. 1932–1939 The Fifth Aliyah was primarily a result of the Nazi accession to power in Germany (1933) and later throughout Europe. Persecution and the Jews' worsening situation caused immigration from Germany to increase and from Eastern Europe to continue. Nearly 250,000 Jews arrived in British-occupied Palestine during the Fifth Aliyah (20,000 of them left later). From this time on, the practice of "numbering" the waves of immigration was discontinued. 1933 Assassination of Haim Arlosoroff, a left-wing Zionist leader, thought to have been killed by right-wing Zionists 1933–1948 Aliyah Bet: Jewish refugees flee Germany because of persecution under the Nazi government with many turned away as illegal because of the British-imposed immigration limit. 1937 The British propose a partition between Jewish and Arab areas. It is rejected by both parties. 1936–1939 Great Uprising by Arabs against British rule and Jewish immigration. 1939 One Hebrew Word = 5 English Words 1275 The British government issues the White Paper of 1939, which sets a limit of 75,000 on Jewish immigration to Palestine for the next five years and increases Zionist opposition to British rule. 1942 May The Biltmore Conference makes a fundamental departure from traditional Zionist policy and demands "that Palestine be established as a Jewish Commonwealth" (state), rather than a "homeland." This sets the ultimate aim of the movement. Shalom Means More than Just 1944 Peace in Hebrew The One Million Plan becomes official Zionist policy 1947 November 29 The United Nations approves partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. It is accepted by the Jews, but rejected by the Arab leaders. 1947 November 30 The 1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine starts between Jewish forces, centered around the Haganah and Palestinians supported by the Arab Liberation Army. 1948 May 14 Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel Hebrew is very close to Arabic – they After the Declaration of Israel are both Semitic languages. 1948 May 15 Five neighboring Arab countries invade, and the 1948 Arab-Israeli war ensues. 1949 January 7 The 1948 Arab-Israeli war ends. 1956 October 29 – 1956 November 7 Suez Crisis between Egypt on one side, and Britain, France and Israel on the other. 1967 June 5 – 1967 June 10 1276 Six-Day War with Egypt, Jordan and Syria, assisted by forces from Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, Sudan and the Palestine Liberation Organization against Israel. Hebrew survived as the liturgical language of 1967 July – 1970 August 7 Judaism in the middle Ages. It was only during War of Attrition between Egypt and Israel. the 19th century that Hebrew was revived as an everyday language. 1973 October 4 – 1973 October 25 Yom Kippur War with Egypt, Syria, Jordan and Iraq against Israel. 1975 The United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 equates Zionism with racism. 1979 March 26 Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty is signed by Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. 1982 June – 1982 September 1982 Lebanon War with Syria and Lebanon against Israel. 1991 The UN GA resolution 3379 is revoked by Resolution 4686. 1993 August 20 The Oslo Accords are signed by Mahmoud Abbas of the Palestine Liberation Organization, Israeli Foreign Minister Shimon Peres, U.S. Secretary of State Warren Christopher and Russian Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev. 1994 October 26 Israel–Jordan peace treaty is signed by King Hussein I of Jordan and Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin. Most scholars agree that the 1995 November 4 Bible was originally written in Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin is assassinated. three languages: Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. 1277 2006 July 12 — 2006 August 14 2006 Lebanon War between Lebanon and Israel. Timeline of Israeli history 19th century Year 1882 Date 15 May Event The Russian emperor Alexander III issued the May Laws, severely restricting the rights of Jews in the Pale of Settlement. 31 July First Aliyah: Ten Hovevei Zion pioneers from Kharkiv established the city of Rishon LeZion in the Ottoman Empire. 1896 February Theodor Herzl published Der Judenstaat, arguing for the establishment of an independent Jewish state. 1897 29 August First Zionist Congress: A congress of some two hundred delegates of zionist organizations, most from Eastern Europe, convened in Basel. 30 August First Zionist Congress: The Congress adopted the Basel Program, setting out as the goal of the zionist movement the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. 20th century Year 1948 Date 14 May Event David Ben-Gurion, executive head of the World Zionist Organization and chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel, issued the Israeli Declaration of Independence which declared the 1278 establishment of a Jewish state in the land of Israel to be known as the State of Israel. 15 May 1948 Arab–Israeli War: Iraq, Egypt, Jordan and Syria invaded Israel. 1949 25 January 1949 Israeli legislative election: Elections were held to a constituent assembly. Ben-Gurion's center-left Mapai won a plurality of seats. 24 February 1948 Arab–Israeli War: The first of the 1949 Armistice Agreements ending the war was signed between Israel and Egypt. An armistice line was agreed along the prewar border with the exception that Egypt remained in control of the Gaza Strip. 8 March The first government of Israel, in which Mapai, the Jewish United Religious Front, the liberal Progressive Party, the Sephardim and Oriental Communities and the Arab Democratic List of Nazareth ruled in coalition with Ben-Gurion as prime minister, was established. 11 May The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted United Nations General Assembly Resolution 273, according to which Israel was admitted to membership. 1950 13 December Ben-Gurion proclaimed Jerusalem the capital of Israel. 5 July The Israeli legislature the Knesset passed the Law of Return, which granted all Jews the right to migrate to and settle in Israel and obtain citizenship. 1956 26 July Suez Crisis: In a broadcast speech, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser gave a codeword order for the occupation and nationalization of the Suez Canal and the closure of the Straits of 1279 Tiran to Israeli shipping. 29 October Suez Crisis: The Israeli air force began bombing Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula. 1960 11 May Eight agents of the Israeli internal security service Shin Bet and its foreign intelligence service Mossad abducted Adolf Eichmann, the Nazi officer primarily responsible for the actual implementation of the Holocaust, near his home in San Fernando, Buenos Aires. 1966 The martial law imposed on Israeli Arabs from the founding of the State of Israel was lifted completely. 1967 5 June Six-Day War: The Israeli air force destroyed the Egyptian air force on the ground over a period of three hours. 11 June Six-Day War: Israel signed a ceasefire with its enemies Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq. It remained in control of the formerly Egyptian Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, the Syrian Golan Heights and the Jordanian West Bank and East Jerusalem. 30 June Mayor Teddy Kollek of Jerusalem announced that the city had been fully reunified. 1973 21 February A Boeing 727-200 serving as Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114 from Tripoli to Cairo was shot down over the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli fighter aircraft, killing over one hundred passengers and crew. 21 July Lillehammer affair: A team of fifteen Mossad agents assassinated a Moroccan waiter in Lillehammer in a case of mistaken identity. 1280 6 October Yom Kippur War: Egyptian and Syrian forces simultaneously attacked Israeli positions in the Sinai Peninsula and the Golan Heights, respectively, on the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur. 14 October Operation Nickel Grass: The United States began an airlift of tanks, artillery, ammunition and supplies to Israel. 25 October Yom Kippur War: Israel, Egypt and Syria agreed to a ceasefire. Israel remained in control of new territory north of the Golan Heights and west of the Suez Canal in the south. 1976 4 July Operation Entebbe: Sayeret Matkal freed some hundred hostages held at Entebbe International Airport by hijackers belonging to the Palestinian nationalist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – External Operations and the far-left Revolutionary Cells. 1977 10 May 1977 Israeli Air Force Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion crash: An Israeli Air Force Sikorsky CH-53 Sea Stallion crashed in the Jordan Valley, killing some fifty soldiers. 1978 17 September Israel and Egypt signed the Camp David Accords at the White House. The framework agreement provided for the establishment of an autonomous authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and for withdrawal of Israeli forces from the Sinai Peninsula in exchange for the establishment of full diplomatic relations with Egypt. 1979 26 March Egypt and Israel signed the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty under the framework of the Camp David Accords at the White House. 1980 24 February The old Israeli shekel replaced the Israeli pound as the currency of Israel. 1281 Top 10 Causes of World War I:  Russian Growth  The rise of Germany  Arms Race in Europe  Franco-German War And Annexation of Alsace And Lorraine  Decline of the Ottoman Empire  Imperialism and the Scramble for Africa  Balkan Wars  Fierce Nationalism  Mutual Defense Alliances  Lack of International Laws  Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria The Great Depression of the 1930s saw more American unmarried women working from nine to five, mostly in repetitive, boring, subordinate, dead-end jobs. But the number of working women doubled between 1870 and 1940. During World War II it doubled once again. Helen Fisher Top 10 Causes of World War II:  Rise of Nazism in Germany and German Aggression in Europe  Rise of Fascism in Italy  Emergence of Militarism and Expansionism in Japan  Problem of National Minorities  Failure of efforts towards Disarmament  The Harmful Politics of Secret Alliances  Failure of the League of Nations to act as an International Peace Keeper  Economic Depression of 1930 and the Failure of Peace Efforts  Ideological Conflict (Dictatorship vs. Democracy)  Policy of appeasement adopted by Britain and France towards Germany and Italy Pearl Harbor caused our Nation to wholeheartedly commit to winning World War II, changing the course of our Nation's history and the world's future. Joe Baca European nations began World War I with a glamorous vision of war, only to be psychologically shattered by the realities of the trenches. The experience changed the way people referred to the glamour of battle; they treated it no longer as a positive quality but as a dangerous illusion. Virginia Postrel The United Nations was founded in the aftermath of World War II, just as the world was beginning to learn the full horrors of history's worst genocide, the Holocaust that consumed 6 million Jews and 3 million others in Europe. Linda Chavez 30 July The Knesset passed the Jerusalem Law, asserting that Jerusalem was and would remain the undivided capital of Israel. 1981 7 June Operation Opera: Israel carried out a surprise air strike on an Iraqi nuclear reactor some ten miles southwest of Baghdad. 1982 23 April The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) forcibly evacuated Yamit per the terms of the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty. 3 June Shlomo Argov, the Israeli ambassador to the United Kingdom, was shot in the head in London in an attempted assassination organized by Iraq's Iraqi Intelligence Service and carried out by the Palestinian nationalist Abu Nidal Organization. 6 June 1982 Lebanon War: The IDF invaded southern Lebanon in response to repeated attacks by the Palestinian nationalist Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), whose militants were sheltered there, on Israeli civilians. 1984 12 April Bus 300 affair: Four Palestinian nationalists hijacked a bus from Tel Aviv to Ashkelon and took its forty passengers hostage. 13 April Bus 300 affair: Sayeret Matkal forces stormed the bus. Two hijackers and one hostage were killed. The two surviving hijackers were taken to a nearby field and shot. 21 November Operation Moses: The first of some eight thousand Ethiopian Jews were covertly evacuated to Israel from refugee camps in Sudan. 1985 5 January Operation Moses: Prime minister Shimon Peres confirmed the existence of the airlift. Sudan immediately halted flights. 1282 1987 30 August The Cabinet voted to cancel development of the IAI Lavi. 9 December First Intifada: Protests began in the Jabalia Camp in response to the death of four Palestinian civilians in a car crash with an IDF truck. 1989 19 September Mount Carmel Forest Fire: A forest fire began on Mount Carmel which would burn over two square miles over the next three days. 1991 22 January Gulf War: An Iraqi Scud missile landed in Ramat Gan, killing three and injuring nearly a hundred. 24 May Operation Solomon: An airlift began which would transport some fourteen thousand Ethiopian Jews from Ethiopia to Israel over a thirty-six-hour period. 30 October Madrid Conference of 1991: A conference opened in Madrid with the goal of reviving the Israeli–Palestinian peace process. 1992 17 December Israel deported some four hundred Palestinians to Lebanon. 1993 13 September Israel and the PLO signed the Oslo I Accord in Washington, D.C. The accords provided for the withdrawal of some IDF forces from the West Bank and Gaza Strip and for the establishment of a selfgoverning authority for the Palestinians, the Palestinian National Authority. 1994 26 October Israel and Jordan signed the Israel–Jordan peace treaty in the Arabah. The treaty clarified the borders of the two countries and their water rights; each pledged that neither would allow a third country to use its territory to stage an attack on the other. 1995 4 November Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin: The radical nationalist Yigal 1283 Amir, an opponent of the Oslo Accords, shot and killed prime minister Yitzhak Rabin after a rally in Tel Aviv. 1997 4 February 1997 Israeli helicopter disaster: Two transport helicopters en route to southern Lebanon collided in midair above She'ar Yashuv, killing all on board. 14 July Maccabiah bridge collapse: A pedestrian bridge collapsed over the Yarkon River in Tel Aviv, killing four. 2000 24 May Israel withdrew the last of its forces from southern Lebanon. 1 October October 2000 events: The first of a series of riots began in which thirteen Arabs and one Jew would be killed over nine days. 7 October 2000 Hezbollah cross-border raid: The Lebanese Shia Islamist militant group and political party Hezbollah abducted three Israeli soldiers from the Israeli administered side of the Blue Line, the internationally recognized border. 21st century Year 2001 Date 17 October Event Assassination of Rehavam Ze'evi: Tourism minister Rehavam Ze'evi was shot at a Jerusalem hotel by Hamdi Quran of the Palestinian nationalist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine. He died of his injuries that night in hospital. 2002 23 June Construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier began. 2004 29 January Some four hundred prisoners, the remains of sixty Lebanese militants and civilians, and maps showing the locations of Israeli mines in southern Lebanon, were transferred to Hezbollah in exchange for the bodies of the three soldiers abducted in 2000, as well as the abducted Israeli reservist Elhanan Tannenbaum. 1284 2005 12 September Israeli disengagement from Gaza: The last Israeli settlers and security personnel were withdrawn from the Gaza Strip. 2006 4 January Prime minister Ariel Sharon suffered a severe hemorrhagic stroke and fell into a coma. The designated acting prime minister Ehud Olmert became acting prime minister. 12 July 2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid: Hezbollah forces crossed into Israel and ambushed two IDF vehicles, killing three soldiers and capturing two others. 2006 Lebanon War: Israeli forces began shelling Lebanese territory in response to the Hezbollah attack of earlier that morning. 2007 6 September Operation Orchard: Israel carried out a surprise air strike on a suspected nuclear reactor in Syria's Deir ez-Zor Governorate. 2008 27 December Gaza War: Israel began conducting a series of airstrikes on assets of the Palestinian Sunni Islamist organization Hamas in the Gaza Strip in response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev. 2009 18 January Gaza War (2008–09): The war ended with a unilateral Israeli ceasefire. 2010 31 May Gaza flotilla raid: The navy boarded a flotilla organized by the Free Gaza Movement and the Turkish Foundation for Human Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief, which was attempting to break an Israeli and Egyptian blockade of the Gaza Strip, in international waters. During the takeover, a violent confrontation erupted on board the MV Mavi Marmara in which nine activists were killed. 2 December Mount Carmel Forest Fire: A forest fire began on Mount Carmel which would kill forty and burn nearly twenty square miles over the next three days. 2011 14 July 2011 Israeli social justice protests: Filmmaker Daphni Leef set up a tent in Habima Square and invited others to join a protest over the absence of affordable housing. 1285 10 September 2011 attack on the Israeli Embassy in Egypt: A crowd of thousands of Egyptian protestors breached the Israeli embassy in Cairo. 18 October Gilad Shalit prisoner exchange: Hamas released the Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit to Egypt in exchange for one thousand Palestinian other Arab prisoners held in Israel, including some three hundred serving life sentences for planning and perpetrating terror attacks. 2012 14 November Operation Pillar of Defense: The IDF began an eight-day antiHamas operation in the Gaza Strip, a response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev, with an airstrike on the senior officer Ahmed Jabari. 2014 8 July 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict: The IDF launched a series of airstrikes against Hamas targets in the Gaza Strip. 2017 6 December United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel: U.S. President Donald Trump formally announces the United States recognition of Jerusalem as the capital of Israel. 2019 25 March United States recognition of Israel's sovereignty over the Golan Heights: U.S. President Donald Trump signed a presidential proclamation to officially recognize Israel's sovereignty over the Golan Heights. Timeline of antisemitism Antiquity 740 BCE The Assyrian captivity (or the Assyrian exile) is the period in the history of Ancient Israel and Judah during which several thousand Israelites of ancient Samaria were resettled as captives by Assyria. The Northern Kingdom of Israel was conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. 586 BCE 1286 During the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II, the Neo-Babylonian Empire destroys the temple in Jerusalem, and captures the Kingdom of Judah and 10,000 Jewish families. 475 BCE Haman attempts genocide against the Jews. (Purim). 175 BCE–165 BCE The Deuterocanonical First and Second Books of the Maccabees record that Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempts to erect a statue of Zeus in Jerusalem. The festival of Hanukkah commemorates the uprising of the Maccabees against this attempt. 139 BCE Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Hispanus expels all Jews from the city of Rome. 124 BCE The woman with seven sons was a Jewish martyr, described in 2 Maccabees 7 (2 Maccabees was written c. 124 BCE) and other sources. Although unnamed in 2 Maccabees, she is known variously as Hannah, Miriam, and Solomonia. 2 Maccabees states that shortly before the revolt of Judas Maccabeus (2 Maccabees 8), Antiochus IV Epiphanes arrested a mother and her seven sons, and tried to force them to eat pork. When they refused, he tortured and killed the sons one by one. The narrator mentions that the mother "was the most remarkable of all, and deserves to be remembered with special honour. She watched her seven sons die in the space of a single day, yet she bore it bravely because she put her trust in the Lord." Each of the sons makes a speech as he dies, and the last one says that his brothers are "dead under God's covenant of everlasting life". The narrator ends by saying that the mother died, without saying whether she was executed, or died in some other way. The Talmud tells a similar story, but with the refusal to worship an idol replacing the refusal to eat pork. Tractate Gittin 57b cites Rabbi Judah saying that "this refers to the woman and her seven sons" and the unnamed king is referred to as the "Emperor" and "Caesar". The woman commits suicide in this rendition of the story: she "also went up on to a roof and threw herself down and was killed". Other versions of the story are found in 4 Maccabees (which suggests that the woman might have thrown herself into the flames) and Josippon (which says she fell dead on her sons' corpses). 63 BCE 12,000 Jews die and many more are sent into the diaspora as a result of Pompey's conquest of the East. 59 BCE Cicero criticizes Jews for being too influential in public assemblies. He also refers to Jews and Syrians as "races born to be slaves." 38 BCE Anti-Jewish riots erupt in Alexandria, Egypt. Countless Jews are killed, synagogues are defiled, Jewish leaders are publicly scourged, and the Jewish population is confined to one quarter of the city. First century 19 CE 1287 Roman Emperor Tiberius expels Jews from Rome. Their expulsion is recorded by the Roman historical writers Suetonius, Josephus, and Cassius Dio. 37–41 CE Thousands of Jews killed by mobs in the Alexandrian pogrom, as recounted by Philo of Alexandria in Flaccus. 50 CE Jews are ordered by Roman Emperor Claudius "not to hold meetings", in the words of Cassius Dio (Roman History, 60.6.6). Claudius later expelled Jews from Rome, according to both Suetonius ("Lives of the Twelve Caesars", Claudius, Section 25.4) and Acts 18:2. 66–73 CE The First Jewish–Roman War against the Romans is crushed by Vespasian and Titus. Titus refuses to accept a wreath of victory, because there is "no merit in vanquishing people forsaken by their own God." (Philostratus, Vita Apollonii). The events of this period were recorded in detail by the Jewish–Roman historian Josephus. His record is largely sympathetic to the Roman point of view and it was written in Rome under Roman protection; hence it is considered a controversial source. Josephus describes the Jewish revolt as being led by "tyrants," to the detriment of the city, and he describes Titus as having "moderation" in his escalation of the Siege of Jerusalem (70). 70 CE Over 1,000,000 Jews perish and 97,000 are taken as slaves following the destruction of the Second Temple. 73 CE Almost all historical information on Masada is from first-century Jewish Roman historian Josephus. A Roman governor had a legion lay siege to Masada, a mountain fortress. They built a 114 m (375 ft) high assault ramp, during probably two to three months of siege, and then breached the fortress with a battering ram on 16 April. According to Josephus, presumably based upon Roman commander commentaries accessible to him, when Romans entered the fortress they found its defendants had set all buildings but food storerooms ablaze and committed mass suicide or killed each other, 960 men, women, and children in total. Israel Defense Forces (IDF) Chief of staff, Moshe Dayan, began having the swearing-in ceremony of Armoured Corps soldiers on top of Masada, ending with, "Masada shall not fall again.". 94 CE Fabrications of Apion in Alexandria, Egypt, including the first recorded case of blood libel. Juvenal writes anti-Jewish poetry. Josephus picks apart contemporary and old antisemitic myths in his work Against Apion. 96 CE Titus Flavius Clemens, nephew of the Roman Emperor Vespasian and supposed convert to Judaism is put to death on charges of atheism. 100 CE Tacitus writes anti-Jewish polemic in his Histories (book 5). He reports on several old myths of ancient antisemitism (including that of the donkey's head in the Holy of Holies), but the key to his view that Jews "regard the rest of mankind with all the hatred of enemies" is his analysis of the extreme differences between monotheistic Judaism and the polytheism common throughout the Roman world. 1288 [F]or me, being a Jew means feeling the tragedy of yesterday as an inner oppression. On my left forearm I bear the Auschwitz number; it reads more briefly than the Pentateuch or the Talmud and yet provides more thorough information. It is also more binding than basic formulas of Jewish existence. If to myself and the world, including the religious and nationally minded Jews, who do not regard me as one of their own, I say: I am a Jew, then I mean by that those realities and possibilities that are summed up in the Auschwitz number. Jean Amery But then what is the alternative to trying to tell the truth about the Holocaust, the Famine, the Armenian genocide, the injustice of dispossession in the Americas and Australia? That everyone should be reduced to silence? To pretend that the Holocaust was the work merely of a well-armed minority who didn’t do as much harm as is claimed-and likewise, to argue that the Irish Famine was either an inevitability or the fault of the Irish-is to say that both were mere unreliable rumors, and not the great motors of history they so obviously proved to be. It suited me to think so at the time, but still I believe it to be true, that if there are going to be areas of history which are off-bounds, then in principle we are reduced to fudging, to cosmetic narrative. Thomas Keneally 1289 Second century 115–117 Thousands of Jews are killed during civil unrest in Egypt, Cyprus, and Cyrenaica, as recounted by Cassius Dio. 119 Roman Emperor Hadrian bans circumcision, making Judaism de facto illegal. 132–135 Crushing of the Bar Kokhba revolt. According to Cassius Dio 580,000 Jews are killed. Hadrian orders the expulsion of Jews from Judea, which is merged with Galilee in order to form the province of Syria Palaestina. The purpose of this name change was to suppress the Jewish people's connection to their historic homeland (Judea / Land of Israel). (For other antisemitic actions resulting from this name change, see events of 1967 below) Although large Jewish populations remain in Samaria and Galilee, with Tiberias as the headquarters of exiled Jewish patriarchs, this is the start of the Jewish diaspora. Hadrian constructs a pagan temple to Jupiter at the site of the Temple in Jerusalem, builds Aelia Capitolina among the ruins of Jerusalem. 136 Hadrian renames Jerusalem to Aelia Capitolina and builds a Roman monument over the site of the Temple Mount. Jews are banned from visiting. Judea is renamed Palestine to suppress the Jewish connection with the land. 167 Earliest known accusation of Jewish deicide (the notion that Jews were held responsible for the death of Jesus), made in a sermon On the Passover, attributed to Melito of Sardis. 175 Apollinaris the Apologist writes two books against the Jews. Third century 212 Emperor Caracalla allows all Jewish men within the Roman Empire to become full Roman citizens. 259 The Jewish community of Nehardea is destroyed. Fourth century 306 The Synod of Elvira bans intermarriage between Christians and Jews. Other social intercourses, such as eating together, are also forbidden. 315 1290 Constantine I enacts various laws regarding the Jews: Jews are not allowed to own Christian slaves or to circumcise their slaves. Conversion of Christians to Judaism is outlawed. Congregations for religious services are restricted, but Jews are also allowed to enter the restituted Jerusalem on the anniversary of the Temple's destruction. 325 Jews are expelled and banned from Jerusalem. 325 First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea. The Christian Church separates the calculation of the date of Easter from the Jewish Passover: "It was ... declared improper to follow the custom of the Jews in the celebration of this holy festival, because, their hands having been stained with crime, the minds of these wretched men are necessarily blinded.... Let us, then, have nothing in common with the Jews, who are our adversaries. ... avoiding all contact with that evil way. ... who, after having compassed the death of the Lord, being out of their minds, are guided not by sound reason, but by an unrestrained passion, wherever their innate madness carries them. ... a people so utterly depraved. ... Therefore, this irregularity must be corrected, in order that we may no more have any thing in common with those parricides and the murderers of our Lord. ... no single point in common with the perjury of the Jews." 330 Rabbah bar Nahmani is forced to flee to the forest where he dies. 339 Intermarriage between Christians and Jews is banned in the Roman Empire, declaring the punishment death. 351 Book burning of Jewish texts in Persia. 351–352 Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus. Jews rise up against the corrupt rule of Gallus. Many towns are destroyed, thousands are killed. 353 Constantius II institutes a law stating that any Christian who converts to Judaism will have their property confiscated. 361 Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate, allows the Jews to return to "Holy Jerusalem which you have for many years longed to see rebuilt" and to rebuild the Temple. 380 St. Gregory of Nysa calls Jews "murders of the Lord, assassins of the prophets, rebels and detesters of God, companions of the devils, a race of vipers." 361–363 Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate, allows the Jews to return to "holy Jerusalem which you have for many years longed to see rebuilt" and to rebuild the Temple. 386 1291 John Chrysostom of Antioch writes eight homilies called Adversus Judaeos (lit: Against the Judaizers). 388 1 August: A Christian mob incited by the local bishop plunders and burns down a synagogue in Callinicum. Theodosius I orders that those responsible be punished, and the synagogue is rebuilt at the Christians' expense. Ambrose of Milan insists in his letter that the whole case be dropped. He interrupts the liturgy in the emperor's presence with an ultimatum that he will not continue until the case is dropped. Theodosius complies. 399 The Western Roman Emperor Honorius calls Judaism superstitio indigna and confiscates gold and silver collected by the synagogues for Jerusalem. Fifth century 408 Roman laws pass which prohibit Jews from setting fire to Haman, stating that they are mocking Christianity. 415 A Jewish uprising in Alexandria claims the lives of many Christians. Bishop Cyril forces his way into the synagogue, expels the Jews (some authors estimate the numbers of Jews expelled up to 100 thousand) and gives their property to the mob. Later, near Antioch, Jews are accused of ritual murder during Purim. Christians confiscate the synagogue. Jews call it "415 C.E. Alexandria Expulsion". 415 An edict issued by the Emperors Honorius and Theodosius II ban building new Synagogues and converting non-Jews to Judaism. 418 The first record of Jews being forced to convert or face expulsion. Bishop Severus of Menorca, claimed to have forced 540 Jews to accept Christianity upon conquering the island. The synagogue in Magona, now Port Mahon the capital of Menorca, is burned. 419 The monk Barsauma (not to be confused with the famous Bishop of Nisibis) gathers a group of followers and for the next three years, he destroys synagogues throughout the province of Palestine. 425 The final nasi of the ancient Sanhedrin Gamliel VI is executed by the Roman Empire. This subsequently ended the Jewish patriarchate. 429 The East Roman Emperor Theodosius II orders that all funds raised by Jews to support their schools be turned over to his treasury. 438 1292 Theodosius II's wife visits Jerusalem, and arranges for Jews to visit and pray at the ruins of the Temple Mount. This leads to Jews emigrating to Jerusalem, where some are killed after being stabbed and stoned by local monks. At the trial for the deaths the monks claimed that the stones fell from heaven and thus they were acquitted. 439 The Codex Theodosianus, the first imperial compilation of laws. Jews are prohibited from holding important positions involving money, including judicial and executive offices. The ban against building new synagogues is reinstated. The anti-Jewish statutes also apply to the Samaritans. The Code is also accepted by Western Roman Emperor, Valentinian III. 451 Sassanid ruler Yazdegerd II of Persia's decree abolishes the Sabbath and orders executions of Jewish leaders, including the Exilarch Mar Nuna. 465 Council of Vannes, Gaul prohibited the Christian clergy from participating in Jewish feasts. 469 Half of the Jewish population of Isfahan is put to death and their children are brought up as 'fireworshippers' over the alleged killing of two Magi Priests. 470 Exilarch Huna V is executed as a result of persecution under King Peroz (Firuz) of Persia. Sixth century 502 After the Jews of Babylon revolt and gain a short period of independence, the Persian King Kobad crucifies the Exilarch Mar-Zutra II on the bridge of Mahoza. 506 Synagogue of Daphne is destroyed and its inhabitants are massacred by a Christian mob celebrating the result of a chariot race. 517 Christians are banned from participating in Jewish feasts as a result of the Council of Epaone. 519 Ravenna, Italy. After the local synagogues were burned down by the local mob, the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great orders the town to rebuild them at its own expense. 529–559 Byzantine Emperor Justinian the Great publishes Corpus Juris Civilis. New laws restrict citizenship to Christians. These regulations determined the status of Jews throughout the Empire for hundreds of years: Jewish civil rights restricted: "they shall enjoy no honors". The principle of Servitus Judaeorum (Servitude of the Jews) is established: the Jews cannot testify against Christians. The emperor becomes an arbiter in internal Jewish matters. The use of the Hebrew language in worship is forbidden. Shema Yisrael ("Hear, O 1293 Israel, the Lord is one"), sometimes considered the most important prayer in Judaism, is banned as a denial of the Trinity. Some Jewish communities are converted by force, their synagogues turned into churches. 531 Emperor Justinian rules that Jews cannot testify against Christians. Jewish liturgy is censored for being "anti-trinitarian." 535 Synagogue of Borion is closed and all Jewish practices are prohibited by order of Justinian. 535 The First Council of Clermont (of Gaul) prohibits Jews from holding public office. 538 The Third Council of Orléans (of Gaul) forbids Jews to employ Christian servants or possess Christian slaves. Jews are prohibited from appearing in the streets during Easter: "their appearance is an insult to Christianity". A Merovingian king Childebert approves the measure. 547 Jews and Samaritans of Caesarea are massacred after revolting. 576 Clermont, Gaul. Bishop Avitus offers Jews a choice: accept Christianity or leave Clermont. Most emigrate to Marseilles. 582 The Merovingians order that all Jews of the Kingdom are to be baptized. 589 The Council of Narbonne, Septimania, forbids Jews from chanting psalms while burying their dead. Anyone violating this law is fined 6 ounces of gold. The third Council of Toledo, held under Visigothic King Reccared, bans Jews from slave ownership and holding positions of authority, and reiterates the mutual ban on intermarriage. Reccared also rules children out of such marriages to be raised as Christians. 590 Pope Gregory I defends the Jews against forced conversion. 590–591 The Exilarch Haninai is executed by Khosrau II for supporting Mihrevandak. This halted all forms of Jewish self-governance for over 50 years. 592 The entire Jewish population of Antioch is punished because a Jew violated a law. 598 Bishop Victor of Palermo seizes the local synagogues and repurposes them into churches. Seventh century 1294 608–610 Massacres of Jews all across the Byzantine Empire. 610–620 After many of his anti-Jewish edicts were ignored, king Sisebur prohibits Judaism. Those not baptized fled. This was the first incidence where a prohibition of Judaism affected an entire country. 614 Fifth Council of Paris decrees that all Jews holding military or civil positions must accept baptism, together with their families. 614–617 The Jewish revolt against Heraclius. The last serious attempt to gain Jewish autonomy in the Land of Israel prior to modern times. 615 Italy. The earliest referral to the Juramentum Judaeorum (the Jewish Oath): the concept that no heretic could be believed in court against a Christian. The oath became standardized throughout Europe in 1555. 617 After breaking their promise of Jewish autonomy in Jerusalem, the Persians forbid Jews from settling within three miles of the city. 624 Mohammed watches as 600 Jews are decapitated in Medina in one day. 626–627 The Council of Clichy declared that any Jew who accepts public office must convert. 627 93 Jews are killed in the Battle of Khaybar. 629 Byzantine Emperor Heraclius with his army marches into Jerusalem. Jewish inhabitants support him after his promise of amnesty. Upon his entry into Jerusalem the local priests convince him that killing Jews is a good deed. The only Jews that survived were the ones who fled to Egypt or the mountains. 629 Frankish King Dagobert I, encouraged by Byzantine Emperor Heraclius, expels all Jews from the kingdom. 632 The first case of officially sanctioned forced baptism. Emperor Heraclius violates the Codex Theodosianus, which protected them from forced conversions. 634–641 Jews living in the Levant are forced to pay the Jizya as a result of the Muslim conquest of the Levant 640 Jews expelled from Arabia. 1295 642 The Jizya is imposed on the native Jews of Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania and Fezzan. 653 The Jews of Toledo are forced to convert or be expelled. 681 The Twelfth Council of Toledo enacts antisemitic laws. 682 Visigothic king Erwig begins his reign by enacting 28 anti-Jewish laws. He presses for the "utter extirpation of the pest of the Jews" and decrees that all converts must be registered by a parish priest, who must issue travel permits. All holidays, Christian and Jewish, must be spent in the presence of a priest to ensure piety and to prevent the backsliding. 692 Quinisext Council in Constantinople forbids Christians on pain of excommunication to bathe in public baths with Jews, employ a Jewish doctor or socialize with Jews. 694 17th Council of Toledo. King Ergica believes rumors that the Jews had conspired to ally themselves with the Muslim invaders and forces Jews to give all land, slaves and buildings bought from Christians, to his treasury. He declares that all Jewish children over the age of seven should be taken from their homes and raised as Christians. Eighth century 717 Possible date for the Pact of Umar, a document that specified restrictions on Jews and Christians (dhimmi) living under Muslim rule. However, academic historians believe that this document was actually compiled at a much later date. 720 Caliph Omar II bans Jewish worship on the Temple Mount. 722 Byzantine emperor Leo III forcibly converts all Jews and Montanists in the empire into mainstream Byzantine Christianity. 740 First Archbishop of York Ecgbert bans Christians from eating with Jews. 787 Empress Irena decries the practice of forced conversion against Jews. 788 Idriss I attacks Jewish communities, imposes high per capita taxes, and forces them to provide annual virgins for his harem for refusing to attack other Jewish communities. According to Maghrebi tradition, the Jewish tribe Ubaid Allah left and settled in Djerba. 1296 Ninth century 807 Abbassid Caliph Harun al-Rashid orders all Jews in the Caliphate to wear a yellow belt, with Christians to wear a blue one. 820 Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons, declares in his essays that Jews are accursed and demands a complete segregation of Christians and Jews. In 826 he issues a series of pamphlets to convince Emperor Louis the Pious to attack "Jewish insolence", but fails to convince the Emperor. 850 al-Mutawakkil made a decree ordering Dhimmi, Jews and Christians, wear garments to distinguish them from Muslims, their places of worship destroyed, demonic effigies nailed to the door, and that they be allowed little involvement government or official matters. 870 Ahmad ibn Tulun flattens Jewish cemeteries and replaces them with Muslim tombs. 874 Basil I decrees that all Byzantine Jews are to be baptized, by force if necessary. 884 Basil I reinforces law that prohibits Jews from holding any civil or military position in Epanagoge. 888 Church council in Metz forbids Christians and Jews from eating together. 897 Charles the Simple donates all Jewish owned land to the Bishop of Narbonne. There is no recourse against the action. Tenth century 900–929 French king Charles the Simple confiscates Jewish-owned property in Narbonne and donates it to the Church. 925 Jews of Oria are raided by a Muslim mob during a series of attacks on Italy. At least ten rabbinical leaders and many more are taken as captives. Among those captured is 12-year-old Shabbetai Donnolo, who would go on later to be a famous physician and astronomer. 931 Bishop Ratherius of Verona begs the town elders to expel the Jews from the city until they agree to temporarily expel them. 931–942 1297 Romanos I Lekapenos decreed that all Jews should be forced to convert and subjugated if they refuse. This leads to the death of hundreds of Jews and the destruction of numerous synagogues. 932 The Jewish quarter of Bari, Italy is destroyed by a mob and a number of Jews are killed. 943–944 Byzantine Jews from all over the Empire flee from persecution into Khazaria. The King of Khazaria at the time, who was Jewish, subsequently cut ties with the Byzantine Empire. 945 Venice bans Jews from using Venetian vessels. 985 Entire Jewish population of Sparta is expelled after Nikon the Metanoeite says it will rid the city of a plague. 985 A number of Jewish residents in Barcelona are killed by the Muslim leader Almanzor. All Jewish owned land is handed over to the Count of Barcelona. Eleventh century 1008 Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ("the Mad") issues severe restrictions against Jews in the Fatimid Empire. All Jews are forced to wear a heavy wooden "golden calf" around their necks. Christians had to wear a large wooden cross and members of both groups had to wear black hats. 1009 Caliph Abu Ali-Mansur orders the destruction of synagogues, Torah scrolls and Jewish artifacts among other non-Muslim buildings. 1010 The Jews of Ligomes are given the choice of baptism or exile. 1011 The Abbasid Caliph Al-Qadir publishes the Baghdad Manifesto, which accuses the Fatimids of being descended from Jews, instead of being "family of the prophet." 1011 A Muslim mob attacks a Jewish funeral procession, resulting in the arrest of 23 Jews. 1011 Pogrom against Sephardic Jews in Córdoba by a Muslim mob. 1012 One of the first known persecutions of Jews in Germany: Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor expels Jews from Mainz. 1298 1013 During the fall of the city, Sulayman's troops looted Córdoba and massacred citizens of the city, including many Jews. Prominent Jews in Córdoba, such as Samuel ibn Naghrela were forced to flee to the city in 1013. 1016 The Jewish community of Kairouan, Tunisia is forced to choose between conversion and expulsion. 1021 A violent earthquake occurs, which some Greeks maintain is caused by a desecration of Jesus by the Jews. For this a number of Roman Jews are burnt at the stake. 1026 Probable date of the chronicle of Raoul Glaber. The French chronicler blamed the Jews for the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which was destroyed in 1009 by (Muslim) Caliph Al-Hakim. As a result, Jews were expelled from Limoges and other French towns. 1032 Abul Kamal Tumin conquers Fez, Morocco and decimates the Jewish community, killing 6,000 Jews. 1033 Following their conquest of the city from the Maghrawa tribe, the forces of Tamim, chief of the Zenata Berber Banu Ifran tribe, perpetrated a massacre of Jews in Fez. Fez massacre 1035 Sixty Jews are put to death in Castrojeriz during a revolt, because the Jews were considered "property" of the kingdom by the locals. 1039 A Muslim mob raids the palace of the Jewish vizier and kills him after the ruler al-Mondhir is assassinated. 1040 Exilarch Hezekiah Gaon is imprisoned and tortured to death by the Buyyids. The death of Hezekiah ended the line of the Geonim, which had begun four centuries earlier. 1050 Council of Narbonne, France forbids Christians to live in Jewish homes. 1066 Granada massacre: Muslim mob stormed the royal palace in Granada, crucified Jewish vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred most of the Jewish population of the city. "More than 1,500 Jewish families, numbering 4,000 persons, fell in one day." 1071 Jerusalem falls to the Seljuk Turks, lots of synagogues are destroyed and life for Jews in Jerusalem becomes much more restricted. 1078 Council of Girona decrees Jews to pay taxes for support of the Catholic Church to the same extent as Christians. 1299 Secularism Causes of the rise of Fascism in Italy:  Discontentment after the Treaty of Versailles  Economic Crisis  Political Instability  Class Conflicts  Leadership Provided by Mussolini The principle of separation of the government from religious institutions Marxism Communism A political ideology focusing on the struggles between A political system based upon the ideas of common ownership and capitalists and the working class the absence of social classes, money and the state Globalization Economic globalization Political globalization Cultural globalization Globalization Liberalization The process by which ideas, goods and The practice of making laws, systems, or opinions less severe, usually services spread throughout the world in the sense of eliminating government regulations and restrictions on some private individual activities to make room for economic expansion Nazism was derived from the German language name of the National Socialist German Workers' Party Emphasized on racism and believed in the superiority of a state ruled by a Aryan race 1090 The Jewish community of Granada, which had recovered after the attacks of 1066, attacked again at the hands of the Almoravides led by Yusuf ibn Tashfin, bringing the golden age of Jewish culture in Spain to end. 1092 Jews are prohibited from working on Sunday or marrying Christians as a result of the Synod of Szabolcs. 1096 The First Crusade. Three hosts of crusaders pass through several Central European cities. The third, unofficial host, led by Count Emicho, decides to attack the Jewish communities, most notably in the Rhineland, under the slogan: "Why fight Christ's enemies abroad when they are living among us?" Eimicho's host attacks the synagogue at Speyer and kills all the defenders. 800 are killed in Worms. Another 1,200 Jews commit suicide in Mainz to escape his attempt to forcibly convert them; see German Crusade, 1096, and 600 are massacred in Mainz on 27 May. Attempts by the local bishops remained fruitless. All in all, 5,000 Jews were murdered. 1099 Jews fight side-by-side with Muslim soldiers to defend Jerusalem against the Crusaders and face massacres when it falls. According to the Muslim chronicle of Ibn al-Qalanisi, "The Jews assembled in their synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads." However, a contemporary Jewish communication does not corroborate the report that Jews were actually inside of the Synagogue when it was set on fire. This letter was discovered among the Cairo Geniza collection in 1975 by historian Shelomo Dov Goitein. Historians believe that it was written just two weeks after the siege, making it "the earliest account on the conquest in any language." However, all sources agree that a synagogue was indeed burned during the siege. Benito Mussolini was a socialist before Twelfth century becoming a fascist. 1106 Son of Yusuf ibn Tashfin decrees the death penalty for any Jews living in Marrakesh. 1107 Moroccan Almoravid ruler Yusuf ibn Tashfin ordered all Moroccan Jews to convert or leave. 1108 Many Jews are massacred and their houses and synagogues are burned following a Muslim victory at the Battle of Uclés (1108). Of those murdered is Solomon ibn Farissol, the leader of the Castile community. This incident greatly impacted the Hebrew poet Judah HaLevi, and completely shifted the focus of his poetry. 1113 Upon the death of Sviatopolk II, leader of the Kievan Rus', widespread riots and plundering of Jewish homes commenced. 1124 The Jewish Quarter of Kiev is destroyed by arson. 1300 1135 A Muslim mob in Córdoba storms into Jewish homes, takes their possessions and kills a number of them. 1141 During the fight for succession between Matilde and Stephen (The Anarchy), the Jews of Oxford are forced to pay ransom to both sides of the conflict or their houses are to be burned. Benito Mussolini did not become a true 1143 150 Jews are killed in Ham, France. dictator until 1925. 1144 The case of William of Norwich, a contrived accusation of murder by Jews in Norwich, England. 1145 Abd al-Mu'min gives the Jewish population of Sijilmasa the choice of converting to Islam or death. At least 150 Jews who refuse to convert are massacred. 1146 100,000 Jews are massacred by the Almohads in Fez, Morocco and 120,000 in Marrakesh. 1147 Jews are expelled from Muslim Spain. 1148 The mostly-Jewish town Lucena is captured by the Almohads. The local Jews are given the choice of Islam or death. This was the end of the Jewish community of Lucena. 1148–1212 The rule of the Almohads in al-Andalus. Only Jews who had converted to Christianity or Islam were allowed to live in Granada. One of the refugees was Maimonides, who settled in Fez and later in Fustat near Cairo. 1160 Appalled by the annual practice of beating Jews during Palm Sunday, Bishop William issues an order which would excommunicate any priest who continues the practice. Mussolini sought to establish an Italian empire and Italy's 1165 Forced mass conversions in Yemen. army performed disastrously during World War II. 1165 New Almohad ruler decrees that all Jews in Fez must convert to Islam or face death. Judah ha-Kohen ibn Shushan is burnt alive for refusing, and famous Rabbi Maimonides is displaced and permanently leaves for Egypt. 1168 Harold of Gloucester is found floating in a river. The local Benedictine monks use the discovery to claim that "the child had been spirited away by the Jews on the 21st February for them to torture him to death on the night of 16th March". It established that the mythology created around William's death could be used as a template for explaining later deaths. 1301 Data Analysis Descriptive Diagnostic What happened? Why did it happen? Predictive What is likely to happen in the future? Perspective What’s the best course of action? Machine learning modeling and testing on sample data and going through the business user acceptance test can surprise you! And it will definitely make you to rethink on your feature selection and data sampling methods. Shitalkumar R. Sukhdeve  Facts are stubborn things, but statistics are Provides a better understanding and accurate description of nature's phenomena. pliable.  Assists in the proper and efficient planning of a statistical inquiry in any field of study. ― Mark Twain  Assists in collecting appropriate quantitative data. Statistics Descriptive statistics Measure of central tendency Inferential statistics Measure of variability  Mean  Range  Mode  Variance  Median  Dispersion Nature has established patterns originating in the return of events, but only for the most part. New illnesses flood the human race, so that no matter how many experiments you have done on corpses, you have not thereby imposed a limit on the nature of events so that in the future they could not vary. ― Gottfried Leibniz 1171 In Blois, France 31 Jews were burned at the stake for blood libel. Most Jewish victims of the Holocaust were not 1171 Jews of Bologna are expelled for no known reason. from Germany but from Eastern Europe. 1173 Following multiple church-inspired riots against the Jews of Poland, Mieszko III forbids all kinds of violence against the Jews. 1177 King Alfonso II, Spain, creates a charter which defines the status of Jews in Teruel. Jews are defined as "slaves of the king, belonging entirely to the royal treasury." The fee for killing a Jew is half of what the fee is for killing a Christian, and is to be paid directly to the king (since Jews are considered property of the crown). 1179 The Third Lateran Council, Canon 26: Jews are forbidden to be plaintiffs or witnesses against Christians in the courts. Jews are forbidden to withhold inheritance from descendants who had accepted Christianity. 1179 The body of a Christian girl is found near the shore. The Jews of Boppard are blamed for her death, resulting in 13 Jews being murdered. 1180 Philip Augustus of France after four months in power, imprisons all the Jews in his lands and demands a ransom for their release. 1181 Philip Augustus annuls all loans made by Jews to Christians and takes a percentage for himself. A year later, he confiscates all Jewish property and expels the Jews from Paris. 1181 The Assize of Arms of 1181 orders that all weapons held by Jews must be confiscated, claiming they have no use for them. This led to the Jewish community of England being a lot more vulnerable during AntiJewish riots. Over 1.1 million children died during the Holocaust 1182 Jews are expelled from Orléans. 1184 Jewish martyr Elhanan, the son of Ri is murdered for refusing to convert. 1188 The Saladin tithe. Jews are taxed 25% of their income and personal worth, while Christians are taxed 10%. 1189 Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa orders priests not to preach against Jews. 1189 1302 A Jewish deputation attending coronation of Richard the Lionheart was attacked by the crowd. Pogroms in London followed and spread around England. 1190 All the Jews of Norwich, England found in their houses were slaughtered, except a few who found refuge in the castle. The Jewish Resistance Was Present 1190 57 Jews in St. Edmunds are killed in a massacre on Palm Sunday. throughout the Holocaust 1190 500 Jews of York were massacred after a six-day siege by departing Crusaders, backed by a number of people indebted to Jewish money-lenders. 1190 Saladdin takes over Jerusalem from Crusaders and lifts the ban for Jews to live there. 1191 More than 80 Jews in Bray-sur-Seine are burned at the stake after trying to execute a murderer who had killed an Israelite. 1195 After falsely being accused of ritual murder with no evidence, the daughter of Rabbi Isaac bar Asher haLevi is murdered, dismembered and her body parts are hung around the market place for days. Ha-Levi was killed the following day along with 8 other Jews after trying to recover what was left of his daughter's body from the mob. 1197 In an attempt to isolate the Jewish population economically, Christians were barred from buying food from Jews or having conversations with them under the threat of excommunication. 1198 Philip Augustus readmits Jews to Paris, only after another ransom was paid and a taxation scheme was set up to procure funds for himself. August: Saladdin's nephew al-Malik, caliph of Yemen, summons all the Jews and forcibly converts them. Thirteenth century The Holocaust Was Most Intense during World War II 1203 Jewish quarter of Constantinople is burned down by crusaders during the Siege of Constantinople (1203). 1204 In 1204 the papacy required Jews to segregate themselves from Christians and to wear distinctive clothing. 1205 Jews are expelled from villages and towns all around Spain by Muslims. 1206 Himmler, who was among the prime people behind the Holocaust, was captured at the end of the war by the British but he committed suicide before reaching the trials. 1303 Jewish homes are burned, looted, Israelites are killed and the remaining Jewish population of Halle is expelled. 1209 Béziers is stormed and its inhabitants are massacred. Among those were 200 Jews. All Jewish children who survived and didn't flee were forcibly baptized. 1209 Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, humiliated and forced to swear that he would implement social restrictions against Jews. 1210 King John of England imprisoned much of the Jewish population until they paid up 66,000 marks. 1212 Forced conversions and mass murder of the Jewish community of Toledo. 1215 The Fourth Lateran Council headed by Pope Innocent III declares: "Jews and Saracens of both sexes in every Christian province and at all times shall be marked off in the eyes of the public from other peoples through the character of their dress." The Fourth Lateran Council also noted thatthe Jews' own law required the wearing of identifying symbols. Pope Innocent III also reiterated papal injunctions against forcible conversions, and added: "No Christian shall do the Jews any personal injury...ordeprive them of their possessions...or disturb them during the celebration of their festivals...or extort moneyfrom them by threatening to exhume their dead." 1217 French noblewoman Alix de Montmorency imprisons the Jewish population of Toulouse for refusing to convert. She eventually released them all except for children under six, who were taken and adopted by Christians. 1221 An anti-Jewish riot erupts in Erfurt, where the Jewish quarter is destroyed along with two synagogues. Around 26 Jews are killed, and others throw themselves into fire rather than be forcibly converted. Samuel of Speyer was among those martyred. 1222 Council of Oxford: Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton forbids Jews from building new synagogues, owning slaves or mixing with Christians. 1223 Louis VIII of France prohibits his officials from recording debts owed to Jews, reversing his father's policy of seeking such debts. 1227 The Synod of Narbonne reaffirms the anti-Semitic decrees of the Fourth Lateran Council. 1229 Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse, heir of Raymond VI, also forced to swear that he would implement social restrictions against Jews. 1304 1229 Treaty of Jaffa is signed between Frederick II and the Sultan Al-Kamil of Egypt. Jews are once again banned from residing in Jerusalem. 1230 Theodore Komnenos Doukas is defeated. Since Theodore decreed many anti-Jewish laws and seized Jewish property, he was handed over to two Jews by John Asen II to personally kill him. After having pity on him and refusing to kill Theodore, the Czar had the Jews thrown off a cliff. 1232 Forced mass conversions in Marrakesh, over 1,000 Moroccan Jews are killed. 1235 The Jews of Fulda, Germany were accused of ritual murder. To investigate the blood libel, Emperor Frederick II held a special conference of Jewish converts to Christianity at which the converts were questioned about Jewish ritual practice. Letters inviting prominent individuals to the conference still survive. At the conference, the converts stated unequivocally that Jews do not harm Christian children or require blood for any rituals. In 1236 the Emperor published these findings and in 1247 Pope Innocent IV, the Emperor's enemy, also denounced accusations of the ritual murder of Christian children by Jews. In 1272, the papal repudiation of the blood libel was repeated by Pope Gregory X, who also ruled that thereafter any such testimony of a Christian against a Jew could not be accepted unless it is confirmed by another Jew. Unfortunately, these proclamations from the highest sources were not effective in altering the beliefs of the Christian majority and the libels continued. 1236 Crusaders attack Jewish communities of Anjou and Poitou and attempt to baptize all the Jews. Those who resisted (est. 3,000) were slaughtered. 1236 A Jew and a Christian fisherman get into a heated argument about prices, which turns physical. It ends when the Jew deals a devastating blow to the Gentile's head which leads to his death. This enrages the local Christian population, who attack the Jewish quarter of Narbonne. Don Aymeric, the governor of Narbonne prevents a massacre and restores all stolen Jewish property to their rightful owner. Adolf Hitler Never Visited a Single 1240 Duke Jean le Roux expels Jews from Brittany. Concentration Camp 1240 Disputation of Paris. Pope Gregory IX puts Talmud on trial on the charges that it contains blasphemy against Jesus and Mary and attacks on the Church. 1241 A pogrom against the Jews of Frankfurt takes place after conflicts over Jewish-Christian marriages and the enforced baptism of interfaith couples. 180 Jews are killed as a result and 24 agree to be baptized. This became known as the Judenschlacht (German for Slaughter of the Jews). 1241 In England, first of a series of royal levies against Jewish finances, which forced the Jews to sell their debts to non-Jews at cut prices. 1305 1242 24 cart-loads of hand-written Talmudic manuscripts burned in the streets of Paris. 1242 James I of Aragon orders Jews to listen to conversion sermons and to attend churches. Friars are given power to enter synagogues uninvited. 1243 The first ever accusation of Host Desecration. The entire Jewish population of Beelitz was burned at the stake after being accused of torturing Jesus and the spot it happened was named "Judenberg." 1243 11 Jews are tortured to death following a blood libel in Kitzingen Germany. The Roman term for Holocaust is Porrajmos 1244 Pope Innocent IV orders Louis IX of France to burn all Talmud copies. and it means devouring 1249 Alphonse of Poitiers orders the expulsion of all Jews in Poitou. 1250 Saragossa Spain: death of a choirboy Saint Dominguito del Val prompts ritual murder accusation. His sainthood was revoked in the 20th century but reportedly a chapel dedicated to him still exists in the Cathedral of Saragossa. Mass Shootings and Gas Chambers Claimed 1253 Henry III of England introduces harsh anti-Jewish laws. the Majority of Holocaust Victims 1254 Louis IX expels the Jews from France, their property and synagogues confiscated. Most move to Germany and further east, however, after a couple of years, some were readmitted back. 1255 Henry III of England sells his rights to the Jews (regarded as royal "chattels") to his brother Richard for 5,000 marks. 1257 The Badge of shame is imposed locally on the Italian Jews. 1260 Mongols are defeated and Syria is brought under Mamluk rule. Anti-Jewish laws are once again decreed, and Jewish life becomes a lot more restricted in the Levant. 1260 Jews are banned from ascending above the 7th step on the Cave of the Patriarchs. This ban would last 700 years. 1260 Dachau Was the First Concentration Camp in Germany 1306 Thomas Aquinas publishes Summa Contra Gentiles, a summary of Christian faith to be presented to those who reject it. The Jews who refuse to convert are regarded as "deliberately defiant" rather than "invincibly ignorant". Anne Frank Died in a Concentration Camp Shortly 1263 Disputation of Barcelona. before the End of the War 1264 Pope Clement IV assigns Talmud censorship committee. 1264 Simon de Montfort inspires massacre of Jews in London. 1265 German-Jewish convert Abraham of Augsburg publicly assails Christianity, severs the heads of crucifix figurines and is sentenced to torture and death by burning. 1267 In a special session, the Vienna city council forces Jews to wear Pileum cornutum (a cone-shaped headdress, prevalent in many medieval illustrations of Jews). This distinctive dress is an addition to Yellow badge Jews were already forced to wear. Christians are not permitted to attend Jewish ceremonies. 1267 Synod of Breslau orders Jews to live in a segregated quarter. 1267 After an accusation from an old woman that the Jews had bought a Christian child from her to kill, the entire Jewish community of Pforzheim face massacres and expulsion. Rabbi Samuel ben Yaḳar ha-Levi, Rabbi Isaac ben Eliezer and Rabbi Abraham ben Gershom commit suicide to escape the cruel torture they feared. 1275 King Edward I of England passes the Statute of the Jewry forcing Jews over the age of seven to wear an identifying yellow badge, and making usury illegal, in order to seize their assets. Scores of English Jews are arrested, 300 hanged and their property goes to the Crown. In 1280 he orders Jews to be present as Dominicans preach conversion. In 1287 he arrests heads of Jewish families and demands their communities pay ransom of 12,000 pounds. Different experiments were regularly done on newborn babies in the 1276 Massacre in Fez to kill all Jews stopped by intervention of the Emir concentration camps by separating them from their mothers. 1278 The Edict of Pope Nicholas III requires compulsory attendance of Jews at conversion sermons. 1279 Synod of Ofen: Christians are forbidden to sell or rent real estate to or from Jews. 1282 John Pectin, Archbishop of Canterbury, orders all London synagogues to close and prohibits Jewish physicians from practicing on Christians. 1307 1283 Philip III of France causes mass migration of Jews by forbidding them to live in the small rural localities. 1283 10 Jews are slain in Mainz after claims of blood libel. 1285 Blood libel in Munich, Germany results in the death of 68 Jews. 180 more Jews are burned alive at the synagogue. 1287 A 16-year-old boy is found dead in the Rhine. Immediately the Jews of Oberwesel are accused of killing the boy. Over 40 men, women and children were killed by rioters as a response. 1287 Jews are arrested and accused of coin clippage. Even without evidence, the whole community is convicted and expelled. 1288 The Jewish population of Troyes is accused of ritual murder. 13 Jewish martyrs are burned at the stake, sacrificing themselves to spare the rest of the community. 1288 104 Jews in Bonn, Germany are killed during a pogrom. Most Jewish Victims of the Holocaust Were 1289 Women Jews are expelled from Gascony and Anjou. 1290 Edict of Expulsion: Edward I expels all Jews from England, allowing them to take only what they could carry, all the other property became the Crown's. Official reason: continued practice of usury. 1290 A Jewish man named Jonathan and his wife are accused of stabbing the wafer to torture Jesus. They are both burned at the stake, their house is destroyed and replaced with a chapel. 1290 The Jews of Baghdad are massacred. 1290 18 July Edward I of England issues Edict of Expulsion, decreeing all Jews to be expelled from England. 1291 Philip the Fair publishes an ordinance prohibiting the Jews to settle in France. 1291 Jewish physician and grand vizier Sa'ad al-Dawla is killed by Muslims who felt it a degradation to have a Jew placed over them. Persian Jews suffer a long-period of violent persecution by the Muslim population. 1292 1308 Forced conversion and expulsion of the Italian Jewish community. 1298 Accusations of Host desecration against the German Jews. More than 140 Jewish communities face forced conversions. 1298 During the civil war between Adolph of Nassau and Albrecht of Austria, German knight Rintfleisch claims to have received a mission from heaven to exterminate "the accursed race of the Jews". Under his leadership, the mob goes from town to town destroying Jewish communities and massacring about 100,000 Jews, often by mass burning at stake. Among 146 localities in Franconia, Bavaria and Austria are Röttingen (20 April), Würzburg (24 July), Nuremberg (1 August). Fourteenth century Many Camp Prisoners Tragically Died in the Days after Liberation 1301 Riots break out in Egypt, which are encouraged by the Mamluks. Many Jews are forcibly converted to Islam, including the entire Jewish population of Bilbeis. Many synagogues are appropriated into mosques. 1305 Philip IV of France seizes all Jewish property (except the clothes they wear) and expels them from France (approx. 100,000). His successor Louis X of France allows French Jews to return in 1315. 1306 Jews of Sens are expelled. 3.4 Million Former Nazis Were Punished in 1306 the Years after the Holocaust Jews expelled from Castelsarrasin, France. 1310 Frederick II of Aragon adopts anti-Jewish laws, which require them to mark their clothes and shops with the yellow badge. Jews were also forbidden from having any relationship with Catholics. 1318 Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, a Persian Jewish convert to Islam was executed on fake charges of poisoning Öljeitü and for several days crowds carried his head around his native city of Tabriz, chanting "This is the head of the Jew who abused the name of God; may God's curse be upon him!" 1319 Marrying the Jews or Jews are expelled from Breslau. having sex with them 1320 Jews are expelled from Milan during a persecution of so-called heretics. 1320 was made illegal by Hitler in 1935 under the 152 Jews massacred in Castelsarrasin, France. Nuremberg law. 1320 Shepherds' Crusade attacks the Jews of 120 localities in southwest France. 1309 The fragments of human bones changed the color of the mud from brown to Grey 1321 King Henry II of Castile forces Jews to wear Yellow badge. 1321 Jews in central France accused of ordering lepers to poison wells. After massacre of est. 5,000 Jews, King Philip V admits they were innocent. Jews were forcibly made to leave their 1321 A Muslim mob destroys a synagogue in Damascus. homes and moved into much smaller 1322 apartments. King Charles IV expels Jews from France. 1328 5,000 Jews are massacred and their houses are burned down following anti-Jewish preaching by a Franciscan friar. 1328 Jewish martyr Aaron ben Zerah, along with his wife and four of his sons are executed. 1333 Forced mass conversions in Baghdad 1336 Persecutions against Jews in Franconia and Alsace led by lawless German bands, the Armleder under the highwayman Arnold von Uissigheim. Roughly 1500 Jews are killed. Only 150 people in Treblinka killed more than 1336 The Aleinu prayer is banned in Castile. 870,000 Jews. 1337 Host desecration accusations. Violence spreads to over 51 Jewish communities. 1338 Pogroms over host desecration in Wolfsberg. The Jews are accused of stealing the bread of the Eucharist and trying to burn it. Over 70 Jews are burned at the stake and the entire Jewish community is destroyed. 1343 Pre-Easter massacres spread from Germany across Western Europe. Jews fleeing persecution are welcomed in Poland by Casimir the Great. 1344 The citizens ask the King's permission to confiscate the houses of the Jews for the cities benefit – he grants their request. 1348 European Jews are blamed for the plague in the Black Death persecutions. Charge laid to the Jews that they poisoned the wells. Massacres spread throughout Spain, France, Germany and Austria. More than 200 1310 Jewish communities destroyed by violence. Many communities have been expelled and settle down in Poland. 1349 Basel: 600 Jews burned at the stake, 140 children forcibly baptized, the remaining city's Jews expelled. The city synagogue is turned into a church and the Jewish cemetery is destroyed. 1349 burning of Jews (from a European chronicle written on the Black Death between 1349 and 1352) 1349 The Erfurt massacre was a massacre of around 3,000 Jews as a result of Black Death Jewish persecutions 1349 The entire Jewish population of Speyer is destroyed. All Jews are either killed, converted, or fled. All their property and assets was confiscated. Part of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. 1349 600 Jews are burned at the stake and the entire Jewish community of Zurich is annihilated as a part of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. 1349 The Jewish community of Worms is completely destroyed as a result of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. Hundreds of Jews set fire to their homes to avoid the oncoming torture. Their property was seized by the locals. Even before recording their births, thousands of babies were killed by the Nazis 1349 Jews of Berlin are expelled and many are killed as a part of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. 1349 Jews of Breslau are expelled as part of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. 1349 60 Jews are murdered in Breslau. The city claims all property and synagogues, while the Emperor was given the cemetery and all Jewish debts. 1349 The Jewish quarter of Cologne is destroyed by an angry mob, and the most of the community is killed. All of their property was split up between the ransackers. It was part of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. 1349 The Strasbourg massacre was a part of the Black Death persecutions, where several hundred Jews were publicly burned to death, and the rest of them were expelled. It was one of the first and worst pogroms in pre-modern history. 24 August 1349 6,000 Jews are burned to death in Mainz as a part of the Black Death Jewish persecutions. When the angry mob charged, the Jews initially fought back, killing around 200 of their attackers. 1311 Who has inflicted this upon us? Who has made us Jews different from all other people? Who has allowed us to suffer so terribly up till now? It is God that has made us as we are, but it will be God, too, who will raise us up again. If we bear all this suffering and if there are still Jews left, when it is over, then Jews, instead of being doomed, will be held up as an example. Who knows, it might even be our religion from which the world and all peoples learn good, and for that reason and that reason alone do we have to suffer now. We can never become just Netherlanders, or just English, or representatives of any country for that matter; we will always remain Jews, but we want to, too. Anne Frank 1312 1350 Brussels Jewish community is decimated after they are blamed for the Plague. 1352 Church officials order the expulsion of Jews from Bulgaria for "heretical activity." 1354 12,000 Jews are massacred throughout Spain following a bloody civil war. 1359 Charles V of France allows Jews to return for a period of 20 years in order to pay ransom for his father John II of France, imprisoned in England. The period is later extended beyond the 20 years. 1360 Jews are expelled from Breslau. Hitler was Austrian and He was a frustrated artist 1360 Furious with a pogrom against Castilian Jews in Miranda de Ebro, Peter of Castile publicly boils one of the perpetrators, roasts another, and executes others with an axe. 1360 Sephardic Jew Samuel ben Meir Abulafia is arrested and tortured to death in prison for no apparent reason. His lands are confiscated by the king. 1365 Jews of Lorraine are expelled after their presence is cited as the cause of lightning strikes which destroyed twenty-two houses. 1367 Host desecration trials are held against the Jews of Barcelona. They were initiated by the crown prince Don Juan of Aragon. Hitler once lived in a homeless shelter 1368 Some 6,000 Jews are killed during a siege in Toledo. 1370 The entire Jewish population of Brussels is massacred over allegations of host desecration. It was an end of the Hebrew community in Brussels. The event was commemorated by local Christians as the Sacrament of Miracle. 1376 Jews from expelled from Hungary. Most of them flee south into Greece and neighboring areas. 1377 Another Host desecration trial is held against Jews in Teruel and Huesca. The person behind it, as with the previous trial, is the crown prince Don Juan of Aragon. Many Jews are tortured and burned alive publicly. 1382 16 Jews are murdered in the Mailotin Riots. 1313 1384 200 Jews are killed in Noerdlingen and the community ceases to exist. 1386 Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor, expels the Jews from the Swabian League and Strasbourg and confiscates their property. Hitler was wounded in the First World War 1385 John of Castile reinforces previous anti-Jewish legislation. and He never personally won an election 1385 All Jews in the Swabian League are arrested, and their books are confiscated. 1389 18 March, a Jewish boy is accused of plotting against a priest. The mob slaughters approx. 3,000 of Prague's Jews, destroys the city's synagogue and Jewish cemetery. Wenceslaus insists that the responsibility lay with the Jews for going outside during Holy Week. 1391 Anti-Jewish riots led by Ferrand Martinez erupt in Seville. 1391 Led by Ferrand Martinez, countless massacres devastate the Sephardic Jewish community, especially in Castile, Valencia, Catalonia and Aragon. The Jewish quarter in Barcelona is completely destroyed. By the end of the pogroms, at least 10,000 Jews are murdered and thousands more are forcibly converted. 1391 Pogrom against the Jews of Toledo on the Seventeenth of Tammuz. Jewish martyrs Israel Alnaqua and Judah ben Asher died at the stake together. 1391 Over 250 Jews are massacred by a mob in Valencia. Hitler was Time's "Man of the 1391 All Jewish inhabitants of Palma, Majorca are either converted or killed. Year" in 1938 1391 More than 400 Jews are massacred in Barcelona. 1392 The Jews of Damascus are accused by Muslims of setting fire to the central mosque. Although there was no evidence presented, one Jew was burned alive, the leaders of the community were tortured, and the local synagogue was appropriated into a mosque. 1392 Sicilian Jews are forced to live in Ghettos and severe persecution breaks out in Erice, Catania and Syracuse. 1394 3 November, Charles VI of France expels all Jews from France. 1314 1397 Jewish ghettos across Slovenia are set on fire by an anonymous mob. 1399 A Christian woman is accused of stealing hosts and giving them to Jews for the purpose of desecration. Thirteen members of the Jewish community of Posen, along with the woman are all tortured and burned alive slowly. The community is then forced to pay a special tax every year until the 18th century. 1399 80 Jews are murdered in Prague after a converted Jew named Peter accuses them of denigrating Christianity. A number of Jews are also jailed, including Yom-Tov Lipmann-Muhlhausen. Hitler championed animal Fifteenth century welfare causes and He never 1401 visited an extermination camp Two Jews are burned to death for an alleged host desecration in Glogau. 1404 Many members of the Jewish community of Salzburg and Hallein is burned alive on charged of host desecration. 1407 Blood libel accusations against the Jews of Kraków led by a fanatic priest result in anti-Jewish riots. 1411 Oppressive legislation against Jews in Spain as an outcome of the preaching of the Dominican friar Vicente Ferrer. 1413 Disputation of Tortosa, Spain, staged by the Avignon Pope Benedict XIII, is followed by forced mass conversions. Hitler suffered with a number of health issues 1418 All Jews living in Trier are expelled. and He survived numerous assassination 1420 attempts All Jews are expelled from Lyons. 1421 Persecutions of Jews in Vienna, known as Wiener Gesera (Vienna Edict), confiscation of their possessions, and forced conversion of Jewish children. 270 Jews burned at stake. 1421 All Viennese Jews are expelled following persecution. 1422 Pope Martin V issues a Bull reminding Christians that Christianity was derived from Judaism and warns the friars not to incite against the Jews. The Bull was withdrawn the following year on allegations that the Jews of Rome attained it by fraud. 1315 1424 Hitler Loved Iconic German Artists and He The Jewish population of Zurich is exiled. Loved Disney 1424 Jews are expelled and banned from Cologne. 1426 Jews are expelled from Iglau after they are accused of being in league with the Hussites. 1427 All Jews living in Bern are expelled and their property is seized. 1428 Jews are expelled from Fribourg. 1430 Pogrom in Aix-en-Provence breaks out in which 9 Jews are killed, many more are injured and 74 are forcibly converted. 1434 Council of Basel, Sessio XIX: Jews are forbidden to obtain academic degrees and to act as agents in the conclusion of contracts between Christians. Baruch Spinoza Came from a family of 1435 Massacre and forced conversion of Majorcan Jews. Portuguese immigrants 1435 Jews are expelled from Speyer "forever." 1436 Jews of Zurich are expelled. 1438 Jewish inhabitants of Augsburg and Düsseldorf are expelled. 1438 Establishment of mellahs (ghettos) in Morocco. 1442 Synagogues and other Jewish buildings are destroyed by a riot of Glogau. 1442 Jews are expelled from Upper Bavaria. 1444 Jewish population of Utrecht are expelled. 1447 Casimir IV renews all the rights of Jews of Poland and makes his charter one of the most liberal in Europe. He revokes it in 1454 at the insistence of Bishop Zbigniew. 1316 1449 The Statute of Toledo introduces the rule of purity of blood discriminating Conversos. Pope Nicholas V condemns it. 1450 Louis IX, Duke of Bavaria expels all Jews who reject baptism. 1453 Around 40 Jews in Breslau are burned at the stake on charges of host desecration, while the head Rabbi hung himself to avoid the torture. Jewish children under 7 were stolen and forcibly baptized. The few Jews remaining were banished from Breslau. 1456 Pope Caliextus III issues a papal bull which prohibits Jews from testifying against Christians, but permits Christians to testify against a Jew. Baruch Spinoza was expelled from 1458 The city council of Erfurt, Germany votes to expel the Jews. Amsterdam's Jewish community 1463 Pope Nicholas V authorizes the establishment of the Inquisition to investigate heresy among the Marranos. 1465 The Moroccan revolt against the Marinid dynasty, accusations against one Jewish Vizier lead to a massacre of the entire Jewish population of Fes. 1465 Over 30 Jews in Cracow are killed by an angry mob. 1468 Many Jewish homes and plundered and a number are killed during anti-Jewish in Posen. 1468 Sultan Qaitbay forces Jews of Cairo to pay 75,000 gold pieces or be expelled. This severely impoverished the local Jewish community. Baruch Spinoza believed 1470 The Jewish community of Bavaria are expelled, many migrate into Bulgaria. that suffering was caused by misunderstanding 1473 Massacres of Marranos of Valladolid, Cordova, Segovia, Ciudad Real, Spain 1474 On Assumption day 15 August 1474, Christians wreaked brutal havoc on the Jewish dwellers of the Cartellone area of Modica. It was the first and most horrible massacre of Sicilian Jews. During the evening a number of Christians slaughtered about 360 Jews causing a total and fierce devastation in La Giudecca. They ran through the streets chanting: "Hurrah for Mary! Death to the Jews!" (Viva Maria! Morte ai Giudei!). 1317 1475 A student of the preacher Giovanni da Capistrano, Franciscan Bernardine of Feltre, accuses the Jews in murdering an infant, Simon. The entire community is arrested, 15 leaders are burned at the stake, the rest are expelled. In 1588, Pope Sixtus V confirmed Simon's cultus. Saint Simon was considered a martyr and patron of kidnap and torture victims for almost 500 years. In 1965, Pope Paul VI declared the episode a fraud, and decanonized Simon's sainthood. 1478 Jews of Passau are expelled. Baruch Spinoza worked as a lens grinder for most of his life 1481 The Spanish Inquisition is instituted. 1484 Pogrom against the Jewish section of Arles. A number of Jews are killed and 50 men are forced to convert. 1487–1504 Bishop Gennady exposes the heresy of Zhidovstvuyushchiye (Judaizers) in Eastern Orthodoxy of Muscovy. 1490 Tomás de Torquemada burns 6,000 volumes of Jewish manuscripts in Salamanca. 1490 Jews are expelled from Geneva and not allowed to return for over 300 years. 1491 The blood libel in La Guardia, Spain, where the alleged victim Holy Child of La Guardia became revered as a saint. 1491 Muhammad al-Maghili orders the expulsion and murder of the Jewish community in Tlemcen. 1492 The Jewish population of Tuat is massacred in a pogrom inspired by the preacher al-Maghili. 1492 Ferdinand II and Isabella issue General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain: approx. 200,000. Some return to the Land of Israel. As many localities and entire countries expel their Jewish citizens (after robbing them), and others deny them entrance, the legend of the Wandering Jew, a condemned harbinger of calamity, gains popularity. 1492 Jews of Mecklenburg, Germany are accused of stabbing a consecrated wafer. 27 Jews are burned, including two women. The spot is still called the Judenberg. All the Jews are expelled from the Duchy. 1492 Askia Mohammad I decrees that all Jews must convert to Islam, leave or be killed. Judaism becomes illegal in Mali. This was based on the advice of Muhammad al-Maghili. The region of Timbuktu had previously been tolerant of other religions before Askia got into power. 1318 1493 John II of Portugal deports several hundred Jewish children to the colony of São Tomé, where most of them die. Paul Anthony Samuelson was an American 1493 Jewish economist, who was the first Expulsion from Sicily: approx. 37,000. American to win the Nobel Memorial Prize 1494 in Economic Sciences. 16 Jews are burned at the stake after a blood libel in Trnava. 1494 After a fire destroys the Jewish quarter of Cracow, the Polish king Jan I Olbracht transfers the Jews to Kazimierz, which would become the first Polish ghetto. Jews were confined to the ghetto until 1868. 1495 Jews in Lithuania are expelled and their property is seized. They were allowed to return 8 years later. 1495 The Jews of Lecce are massacred and the Jewish quarter is burned to the ground. 1495 The French conquer Naples and persecute the local Jews. 1496 Jews living in Styria are expelled and all their property is confiscated. Paul Anthony Samuelson 1496 Forced conversion and expulsion of Jews from Portugal. This included many who fled Spain four years earlier. 1497 Entire Jewish community of Graz is expelled. 1497 Manuel I of Portugal decrees that all Jews must convert or leave Portugal without their children. 1498 Prince Alexander of Lithuania forces most of the Jews to forfeit their property or convert. The main motivation is to cancel the debts the nobles owe to the Jews. Within a short time trade grinds to a halt and the Prince invites the Jews back in. 1498 Before he became known as one of the major figures of 20th- French Jews are expelled from most of France. century literature, Franz Kafka lived in obscurity, working as an insurance clerk in his native Prague. 1499 Jews of Nuremberg are expelled. 1499 Jews are banished from Verona. The Jews who were money lenders were replaced with Christian usurers who oppressed the poor so bad that the Jews were very shortly called to return. 1319 1499 All New Christians are prohibited from leaving Portugal, even those who were forcibly baptized. Sixteenth century Franz Kafka Always Had a Passion for Literature and His Life Was Sadly Plagued 1501 By Illness French Jews living in Provence are expelled. 1504 Jews living in Pilsen are expelled on charges of host desecration. 1504 Several Jewish scholars are burned at the stake for proselytizing in Moscow. 1505 Ten České Budějovice Jews are tortured and executed after being accused of killing a Christian girl; later, on his deathbed, a shepherd confesses to fabricating the accusation. 1506 A marrano expresses his doubts about miracle visions at St. Dominics Church in Lisbon, Portugal. The crowd, led by Dominican friars, kills him, then ransacks Jewish houses and slaughters any Jew they could find. The countrymen hear about the massacre and join in. Over 2,000 marranos killed in three days. 1509 A converted Jew Johannes Pfefferkorn receives authority of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor to destroy the Talmud and other Jewish religious books, except the Hebrew Bible, in Frankfurt. 1510 Forty Jews are executed in Brandenburg, Germany for allegedly desecrating the host; remainder expelled. 23 November. Less-wealthy Jews expelled from Naples; remainder heavily taxed. 38 Jews burned at the stake in Berlin. 1510 Spanish gain control of Calabria and expel all Jews and New Christians. 1510 Spain gains control of Naples and expels the Jewish population. 1511 The officials of Conegliano try to expel the Jewish population but are unsuccessful. 1511 Eight Roman Catholic converts from Judaism burned at the stake for allegedly reverting. 1511 Most Apulian Jews are either expelled or are tortured to death. Jewish property is seized and Synagogues are replaced with Catholic Churches. 1320 1514 The Jewish population of Mittelberg is accused of host desecration. 1515 Jews are expelled from Laibach. 1515 Jews are expelled from the city of Genoa, but are allowed back in a year later. 1515 The Book of Jeremiah is one of the Emperor Maximillian expels Jews from Ljubljana. longest books in the Old Testament. It 1516 The first ghetto is established, on one of the islands in Venice. mixes history, biography and prophecy. 1517 1517 Hebron attacks: Jews are beaten, raped and killed in Hebron, as their homes and businesses are looted and pillaged. 1517 1517 Safed attacks: The Jews of Safed is attacked by Mamluk forces and local Arabs. Many Jews are killed and their homes are plundered. 1519 The Jewish community of Ratisbon is expelled. The synagogue is destroyed and replaced with a chapel. Thousands of Jewish gravestones are taken and used for buildings. 1519 Martin Luther leads Protestant Reformation and challenges the doctrine of Servitus Judaeorum "... to deal kindly with the Jews and to instruct them to come over to us". 21 February. All Jews expelled from Ratisbon/Regensburg. 1520 Pope Leo X allows the Jews to print the Talmud in Venice. 1523 The conquest of Cranganore by the Portuguese leads to the complete destruction of the local Jewish community. Most refugees fled to Cochin. 1523 Mexico bans immigration from those who can't prove four generations of Catholic ancestry. 1526 Jews are expelled from Hungary, Croatia, and Slovakia following the Battle of Mohács. 1527 Jews are ordered to leave Florence, but the edict is soon rescinded. 1528 Three judaizers are burned at the stake in Mexico City's first auto da fe. 1321 1529 30 Jewish men, women, and children are burned at the stake in Pezinok. 1532 Solomon Molcho is burned at the stake for refusing to return to Catholicism after reverting to Judaism. 1535 After Spanish troops capture Tunis all the local Jews are sold into slavery. 1539 Jews are expelled from Nauheim. 1539 Katarzyna Weiglowa, a Roman Catholic woman from the Kingdom of Poland who converted to Judaism is burned at the stake in Kraków under the charge of apostasy for refusing to call Jesus Christ the Son of God. She is regarded by Jews (among others) as a martyr. 1540 In Judaism, the story of Jonah All Jews are banished from Prague. represents the teaching of teshuva 1542 (Repentance), which is the ability to Moses Fishel of Cracow is accused of proselytizing and dies a martyr. repent and be forgiven by God. 1543 Jews are exiled from Basel. 1543 Jeronimo Diaz, a New Christian physician, is burned at the stake for holding heretical opinions in Goa, India. Martin Luther was a German lecturer of religion, composer, priest, monk and an influential figure in the Protestant Reformation. 1543 In his pamphlet On the Jews and Their Lies Martin Luther advocates an eight-point plan to get rid of theJews as a distinct group either by religious conversion or by expulsion: "...set fire to their synagogues or schools..." "...their houses also be razed and destroyed..." "...their prayer books and Talmudic writings... be taken from them..." "...their rabbis be forbidden to teach henceforth on pain of loss of life and limb..." "...safe-conduct on the highways be abolished completely for the Jews..." "...usury be prohibited to them, and that all cash and treasure of silver and gold be taken from them..." and "Such money should now be used in ... the following [way]... Whenever a Jew is sincerely converted, he should be handed [certain amount]..." 1322 "...young, strong Jews and Jewesses [should]... earn their bread in the sweat of their brow..." "If we wish to wash our hands of the Jews' blasphemy and not share in their guilt, we have to part company with them. They must be driven from our country" and "we must drive them out like mad dogs." Luther "got the Jews expelled from Saxony in 1537, and in the 1540s he drove them from many German towns; he tried unsuccessfully to get the elector to expel them from Brandenburg in 1543. His followers continued to agitate against the Jews there: they sacked the Berlin synagogue in 1572 and the following year finally got their way, the Jews being banned from the entire country." 1546 Martin Luther's sermon Admonition against the Jews contains accusations of ritual murder, black magic, and poisoning of wells. Luther recognizes no obligation to protect the Jews. 1547 Ivan the Terrible becomes ruler of Russia and refuses to allow Jews to live in or even enter his kingdom because they "bring about great evil" (quoting his response to request by Polish king Sigismund II). 1547 10 out of the 30 Jews living in Asolo are killed and their houses are robbed. 1550 Dr. Joseph Hacohen is chased out of Genoa for practicing medicine; soon all Jews are expelled. 1553 Pope Julius III forbids Talmud printing and orders burning of any copy found. Rome's Inquisitor-General, Cardinal Carafa (later Pope Paul IV) has Talmud publicly burnt in Rome on Rosh Hashanah, starting a wave of Talmud burning throughout Italy. About 12,000 copies were destroyed. 1554 Cornelio da Montalcino, a Franciscan Friar who converted to Judaism, is burned alive in Rome. 1555 In Papal Bull Cum nimis absurdum, Pope Paul IV writes: "It appears utterly absurd and impermissible that the Jews, whom God has condemned to eternal slavery for their guilt, should enjoy our Christian love." He renews anti-Jewish legislation and installs a locked nightly ghetto in Rome. The Bull also forces Jewish males to wear a yellow hat, females – yellow kerchief. Owning real estate or practicing medicine on Christians is forbidden. It also limits Jewish communities to only one synagogue. 1555 The Martyrs of 1555. 25 Jews in Ancona are hung or burned at the stake for refusing to convert to Christianity as a result of Pope Paul IV's Bull of 1555. 1556 A rumor is sent around that a poor woman in Sokhachev named Dorothy sold Jews the holy wafer received by her during communion, and that it was stabbed until it bled. The Bishop of Khelm accuses the local Jews, and eventually three Jews along with Dorothy Lazhentzka are arrested, put on the rack, and sentenced to death on charges of host desecration. They were burned at the stake. Before their death, the martyred Jews made a declaration: 1323 "We have never stabbed the host, because we do not believe that the host is the Divine body, knowing that God has no body nor blood. We believe, as did our forefathers, that the Messiah is not God, but His messenger. We also know from experience that there can be no blood in flour." Martin Luther translated the New Testament 1557 into German and He married a nun Jews are temporarily banished from Prague. 1558 Recanati, Italy: a baptized Jew Joseph Paul More enters synagogue on Yom Kippur under the protection of Pope Paul IV and tries to preach a conversion sermon. The congregation evicts him. Soon after, the Jews are expelled from Recanati. 1559 Pope Pius IV allows Talmud on conditions that it is printed by a Christian and the text is censored. 1560 The Goa Inquisition begins. 1561 Ferdinand I takes an oath to expel the Jews. Mordechai Zemach runs to Rome and convinces Pope Pius IV to cancel the decree. 1563 Russian troops take Polotsk from Lithuania, Jews are given ultimatum: embrace Russian Orthodox Church or die. Around 300 Jewish men, women and children were thrown into ice holes of Dvina river. 1564 Brest-Litovsk: the son of a wealthy Jewish tax collector is accused of killing the family's Christian servant for ritual purposes. He is tortured and executed in line with the law. King Sigismund II of Poland forbids future charges of ritual murder, calling them groundless. 1565 Jews are temporarily banished from Prague. 1566 Antonio Ghislieri elected and, as Pope Pius V, reinstates the harsh anti-Jewish laws of Pope Paul IV. In 1569 he expels Jews dwelling outside of the ghettos of Rome, Ancona, and Avignon from the Papal States, thus ensuring that they remain city-dwellers. Martin Luther is the founder of Lutheranism 1567 and He Developed Catechism Jews are allowed to live in France. 1569 Pope Pius V expels all the Jews of Bologna. He then gave their cemetery away and commended all Jewish gravestones to be destroyed. 1569 Pope Pius V issues the Bull Hebraeorum gens sola which orders the expulsion of all Jews who refuse to convert. 1324 1571 Jews in Berlin are forced to leave and their property is confiscated. 1571 The Mexican Inquisition begins. The Second Temple was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE. It is also known as Herod's Temple. During this time, it was the center of Jewish worship. The Romans destroyed Jerusalem and its 1574 Second Temple on August 4, 70 CE. First auto-da-fé in Mexico. 1581 Pope Gregory XIII issues a Bull which prohibits the use of Jewish doctors. 1583 Three Portuguese conversos are burned at the stake in Rome. 1586 Pope Sixtus V forbids printing of the Talmud. 1590 Jewish quarter of Mikulov (Nikolsburg) burns to ground and 15 people die while Christians watch or pillage. King Philip II of Spain orders expulsion of Jews from Lombardy. His order is ignored by local authorities until 1597, when 72 Jewish families are forced into exile. 1591 Philip II, King of Spain, banished all Jews from the duchy of Milan. 1592 Esther Chiera is executed with one of her sons by the Sultan Murad III's calvary. 1593 Pope Clement VIII confirms the Papal bull of Paul III that expels Jews from Papal states except ghettos in Rome and Ancona and issues Caeca et obdurata ("Blind Obstinacy"): "All the world suffers from the usury of the Jews, their monopolies and deceit ..... Then as now Jews have to be reminded intermittently anew that they were enjoying rights in any country since they left Palestine and the Arabian desert, and subsequently their ethical and moral doctrines as well as their deeds rightly deserve to be exposed to criticism in whatever country they happen to live." 1593 At least 900 are expelled from Bologna. 1595 10 people are accused of practicing Judaism in Lima, Peru. Four of them are released and one named Francisco Rodríguez, is burned alive. 1596 Francisca Nuñez de Carabajal was a Marrana (Jewish convert to Christianity) in New Spain executed by the Inquisition for "judaizing" in 1596. One of her children, Isabel, in her twenties at the time, was tortured until she implicated the whole of the Carabajal family. The whole family was forced to confess and abjure at a public auto-da-fé, celebrated on Saturday, 24 February 1590. Luis de Carabajal the younger (one of Francisca's sons), along with Francisca and four of her daughters, was condemned to perpetual 1325 imprisonment, and another one of Francisca's sons, Baltasar, who had fled upon the first warning of danger, was, along with his deceased father Francisco Rodriguez de Matos, burnt in effigy. In January 1595, Francisca and her children were accused of a relapse into Judaism and convicted. During their imprisonment they were tempted to communicate with one another on Spanish pear seeds, on which they wrote touching messages of encouragement to remain true to their faith. At the resulting auto-da-fé, Francisca and her children Isabel, Catalina, Leonor, and Luis, died at the stake, together with Manuel Diaz, Beatriz Enriquez, Diego Enriquez, and Manuel de Lucena. Of her other children, Mariana, who lost her reason for a time, was tried and put to death at an auto-da-fé held in Mexico City on 25 March 1601; Anica, the youngest child, being "reconciled" at the same time. 1598 3 Jews in Lublin are brutally tortured and executed by quartering, after a Christian boy is found in a nearby swamp. Seventeenth century Moshiach Will Be a Human Being and The Torah is Rife With References to Moshiach 1600 14 Judaizers are punished in Lima, Peru. 1603 Frei Diogo da Assumpcão, a partly Jewish friar who embraced Judaism, burned alive in Lisbon. 1605 16 Judaizers are arrested in Lima, Peru. 1608 The Jesuit order forbids admission to anyone descended from Jews to the fifth generation, a restriction lifted in the 20th century. Three years later Pope Paul V applies the rule throughout the Church, but his successor revokes it. 1612 The Hamburg Senate decides to officially allow Jews to live in Hamburg on the condition there is no public worship. 1614 Vincent Fettmilch, who called himself the "new Haman of the Jews", leads a raid on Frankfurt synagogue that turned into an attack which destroyed the whole community. 1615 King Louis XIII of France decrees that all Jews must leave the country within one month on pain of death. 1615 The Guild led by Dr. Chemnitz, "non-violently" forced the Jews from Worms. 1616 Jesuits arrive in Grodno and accuse the Jews of host desecration and blood libel. 1326 1618 Anti-semitic pamphlet Mirror of the Polish Crown is published by professor Sebastian Miczyński. It accuses the Jews of murder, sacrileges, witchcraft, and urges their expulsion. It would go on to inspire antiJewish riots across Poland. 1619 Shah Abbasi of the Persian Sufi Dynasty increases persecution against the Jews, forcing many to outwardly practice Islam. Many keep practicing Judaism in secret. Amnon was the oldest son of King David and his second wife, Ahinoam of Jezreel. He was born in Hebron 1622 King Christian IV invites Jews to come and live in Denmark. during his father's reign in Judah. He was the heir apparent to the throne of Israel until he was assassinated by his half-brother Absalom to avenge the 1624 Ghetto established in Ferrara, Italy. rape of Absalom's sister Tamar. 1624 Christian theologian Antonio Homem is burned at the stake for pursuing Judaism. 1625 Jews of Vienna forced to live in a ghetto in Leopoldstadt. 1628 Roman Jewish mistress of the son of the duke of Parma is burned alive. 1630 Jewish merchant Moses the Braider is burned alive after being accused of host desecration. 1631 Due to awful conditions in the Jewish Ghetto of Padua, 421 out of the 721 Jews living in the ghetto perish. 1632 King Ladislaus IV of Poland forbids antisemitic books and printings. 1632 Shortly after Miguel Rodriguez is discovered holding onto Jewish rites, an Auto-da-fé is held in the presence of the King and Queen. Miguel and his wife Isabel Alvarez, and 5 others are burned alive publicly. Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the 1632, 20 April Jewish-convert and martyr Nicolas Antoine is burned at the stake for heresy. 1633 Jews are banned from Radom. 1635 Anti-Jewish riots take place in Vilna. 1637 Four Jews are publicly tortured and executed in Kraków. 1327 Romans (1850 painting by David Roberts). 1639 Over 60 Judaizers are burned at the stake at an Auto-da-fé in Lima, Peru. Among those martyred was physician Francisco Maldonado de Silva. 1639 Two Roman Jewish children are forcibly baptized by Pope Urban VIII. 1639 Jews of Lenchitza are accused of ritual murder after a young child is found dead in the woods. The blame falls on the Jews after a local gentile named Foma confesses to the crime then says he had been coerced into doing it by the Jews. Despite the lack of evidence, two Jewish elders named Meyer and Lazar are arrested and tortured, and eventually quartered publicly. 1644 Jewish martyr Judah the Believer is burned at the stake as he recites prayers in Hebrew. 1647 Jewish martyr Isaac de Castro Tartas is burned at the stake while he recites the Shema along with 6 other Jews. 1648–1655 The Ukrainian Cossacks led by Bohdan Chmielnicki massacre about 100,000 Jews and similar number of Polish nobles, 300 Jewish communities destroyed. 1649 Largest Auto-da-fé in the New World. 109 victims, 13 were burned alive and 57 in effigy. 1655 Oliver Cromwell readmits Jews to England. 1656 All Jews are expelled from Isfahan because of the common belief of their impurity. The ones who don't are forced to convert to Islam. 1657–1662 Jews throughout Iran (including 7,000 in Kashan alone) are forced to convert to Islam as a result of persecutions by Abbas II of Persia. 1661 Sephardic poet Antonio Enríquez Gómez is publicly burned in effigy in Seville. 1663 Two Christian Janissaries accuse the Jews of Istanbul of killing a child who had actually been killed by his own father. After killing his own son, he threw his body onto the Jewish quarter in order to implicate the Jews in the crime. Once the Grand Vizier learned the facts of the case from his spies stationed in the Greek quarter, he informed the Sultan and the Janissaries were put to death. 20 Jews were killed in total by the Greek mobs. 1664 May 1328 Jews of Lemberg (now Lvov) ghetto organize self-defense against impending assault by students of Jesuit seminary and Cathedral school. The militia sent by the officials to restore order, instead joined the attackers. About 100 Jews killed. The 13th principle in Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faith states: "I 1669 The majority of Jews in Oran are expelled. believe with complete faith that there will be Resurrection of the Dead at the time when it will be the will of the Creator, blessed be 1670 His Name and exalted be His remembrance forever and ever." Jews expelled from Vienna. 1670 Raphael Levy is burned at the stake over blood libel. After being offered a chance to convert and live, he declared that he had lived a Jew and would die a Jew. 1679 The Exile of Mawza. It is considered the single most traumatic event experienced collectively by the Jews of Yemen. All Jews living in nearly all cities and towns throughout Yemen were banished by decree of the king, Imām al-Mahdi Ahmad, and sent to a dry and barren region of the country named Mawza to withstand their fate or to die. Only a few communities who lived in the far eastern quarters of Yemen were spared this fate by virtue of their Arab patrons who refused to obey the King's orders. Many would die along the route and while confined to the hot and arid conditions of this forbidding terrain. 1680 Auto-da-fé in Madrid. 1681 Mob attacks against Jews in Vilna. It was condemned by King John Sobieski, who ordered the punishment of the guilty. 1682 Largest trial against alleged Judaizers in Lisbon, Portugal. 117 were tried in 3 days. 1683 Hungarian rebels known as Kuruc rushes into the town of Uherský Brod, massacring the majority of its Jewish inhabitants. Most of the victims were recent refugees who were expelled from Vienna in 1670. One of the Hebrews killed by the mob was Jewish historian Nathan ben Moses Hannover, who was a survivor of the Chmielnicki massacres. Most of the survivors fled to Upper Hungary. 1684 Attack on the Jewish ghetto of Buda. 1686 Only 500 Jews survive after Austrian sieged the city of Buda. Half of them are sold into slavery. 1689 Worms is invaded by the French and the Jewish quarter is reduced to ashes. 1689 The Jewish Ghetto of Prague is destroyed by French troops. After it was over 318 houses, 11 synagogues, and 150 Jews were dead. 1329 The Jewish view of God:  God exists  There is only one God  There are no other gods  God is above and beyond all earthly things  God is neither female nor male  God created the universe without help  God is everywhere, all the time  God is omnipotent  God has always existed  God will always exist  God punishes the bad  God rewards the good  God is forgiving towards those who mess things up  God is interested in each individual  God listens to each individual  God sometimes speaks to individuals, but in unexpected ways 1330 1691 219 people are convicted of being Jewish in Palma, Majorca. 37 of them are burned to death. Among those martyred is Raphael and his sister Catalina Benito, who although declaring she wanted to live, jumped right into the flames rather than to be baptized. 1696 A number of Converso Jews are burned alive in Évora, Portugal. 1698 A female child is found dead at a church in Sandomierz. The mother of the child first said she placed her body in the church because she could not afford a burial, but after torture accused the Jewish leader Aaron Berek of the local community of murdering her daughter. The mother and Berek were sentenced the death. 1699 A mob attacks the Jewish Quarter of Bamberg but runs away after one Jew stops them by pouring baskets of ripe plums on the attackers. The event is still commemorated on the 29th of Nisan as the ZwetschgenTa’anit (Prune-Fest). King David began his career as a humble shepherd boy, scorned and Eighteenth century rejected by his siblings. Even when Samuel anointed him and he displayed his bravery by slaying the giant Goliath, he still faced rejection from many — 1703 including Saul. The Aleinu prayer is prohibited in most of Germany. 1706 After a plague hits Algeria which pushes the Jewish community into poverty, the loca