The role of tutoring in education and working with adults The ROLE of TUTORING in EDUCATION and WORKING WITH ADULTS edited by LECH KÓSCIELAK FASS Publishing Warsaw 2018 Series: “Tutor: Past and Future” Series Editors Jan Gancewski (University of Warmia & Mazury in Olsztyn) Lech Kościelak (The Maria Grzegorzewska University in Warsaw) Volume Editor Lech Kościelak Review Editors Anna Kwak (University of Warsaw) Marinela Dimitrova Porczynska (St. Cyril and St. Methodius University of Veliko Turnovo) Copy Editor Ewelina Siemianowska DTP Paweł Kucypera Cover Design Paweł Kucypera Proofreading Team © Copyright by FASS Publishing 2017 ISBN 978-83-935285-1-6 Printed in Totem.com.pl CONTENTS 9 Preface PA RT I . T U T OR I N G I N E DUC AT ION Is Growing a “Moral Agent” with Andragogic Ethics Training in Nursing Possible? An Evaluation on the Objectives, Methods and Trainer’s Qualifications in Training 13 G A M Z E N E S I P O G LU Distance Education for All Ages in Romania 35 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N DI Looking Broader: Rhetorics as Soft Skills Competence Development 55 I N G R I DA TAT OLY T Ė Meeting Spiritual Needs as a Part of Tutoring in Education for the Elderly 83 V Ě R A S UC HO M E L OVÁ Academic Tutoring in Students of Theology in Care Ethics Context. Focus on Students with Health Issues 109 MO N I K A Z AV I Š Cooperative Learning Strategy for Students’ Academic Achievement. The Case of 1 to 5 Students’ Group Discussion Strategy in Kokebetsibah Secondary School 121 E Y U E I L A BAT E DE M I S S I E Perspectives of Service Learning Strategy in Academical Education and the Position of a Teacher in its Frame Z U Z A N A BA R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ 143 CONTENTS Effectiveness of Academic Tutoring 159 O R S OLYA P Ó C S I K The Role of Tutoring in Education and Working with Adults in Malta 179 DE A N DR A C U TAJA R The Role of Tutoring in the Field of Education and Work with Adults During my Professional Experience 193 L AT I N K A K RU MOVA G E O RG I E VA PA RT I I . T U T OR I N G I N S O C I A L WOR K 201 Social Worker as Tutor E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A Nonviolent Communication in Social Work. Is it Possible? 221 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A Implementation of Tasks of a Social Worker in the Light of the Social Assistance Act of March 12, 2004 – Research Report 235 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A Social Work for the Elderly – Reflections from Practice and Observation 247 AG N I E S Z K A DR AJ KOW S K A PA RT I I I . PROJ E C T “ K E Y T U T OR S ” Project „Key Tutors” 257 I DA H A N N A KO Ś C I E L A K Project "Key Tutors" in the Perspective of a Polish Foundation 267 L E C H KO Ś C I E L A K About the authors 273 6 SP I S T R E Ś C I 10 Słowo wstępne C Z Ę Ś Ć I . T U T OR I N G W E DU K AC J I Czy możliwy jest rozwój „agenta moralnego” z andragogicznym treningiem etyki w pielęgniarstwie? Ewaluacja celów, metod i kwalifikacji trenera w szkoleniu 13 G A M Z E N E S I P O G LU Edukacja na odległość dla wszystkich osób w Rumunii 35 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N DI Szersze spojrzenie. Retoryka jako rozwój umiejętności miękkich 55 I N G R I DA TAT OLY T Ė Zaspokajanie potrzeb duchowych jako część tutoringu w edukacji osób starszych 83 V Ě R A S UC HO M E L OVÁ Tutoring akademicki u studentów teologii w kontekście etyki opieki. Koncentracja na uczniach z problemami zdrowotnymi 109 MO N I K A Z AV I Š Wspólna strategia uczenia się dla osiągnięć studentów w nauce. Przypadek 1 do 5 grup dyskusyjnych uczniów w szkole średniej w Kokebetsibah 121 E Y U E I L A BAT E DE M I S S I E Perspektívy stratégie service learning v univerzitnom vzdelávaní a pozícia učiteľa v jej rámcoch Z U Z A N A BA R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ 143 SPIS TR E ŚCI Skuteczność tutoringu akademickiego 159 O R S OLYA P Ó C S I K Rola tutoringu w edukacji i pracy z dorosłymi na Malcie 179 DE A N DR A C U TAJA R Rola tutoringu w dziedzinie edukacji i pracy z dorosłymi w trakcie mojego doświadczenia zawodowego 193 L AT I N K A K RU MOVA G E O RG I E VA C Z Ę Ś Ć I I . T U T OR I N G W PR AC Y S O C JA L N E J Pracownik socjalny jako tutor 201 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A Porozumienie bez Przemocy w pracy socjalnej. Czy możliwe? 221 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A Realizacja zadań pracownika socjalnego w świetle Ustawy o pomocy społecznej z 12 marca 2004 roku – sprawozdanie z badań 235 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A Praca socjalna dla osób starszych – refleksje z praktyk i obserwacji 247 AG N I E S Z K A DR AJ KOW S K A C Z Ę Ś Ć I I I . PROJ E K T “ K LUC Z OW I T U T OR Z Y ” Projekt „Kluczowi tutorzy” 257 I DA H A N N A KO Ś C I E L A K Projekt „Kluczowi tutorzy” w perspektywie polskiej fundacji 267 L E C H KO Ś C I E L A K O autorach 273 8 Preface The collective monograph on the role of tutoring in adult education and social work is the first publication within the series titled “Tutor: Past and Future.” The book is divided into three parts: tutoring in education, tutoring in social work and tutoring in the project “Key Tutors.” The first part consists of articles written by the international community of researchers and practitioners. The second part consists of articles by Polish authors dealing with social work. The third part contains two texts about the implemented European project “Key Tutors.” The idea of the publishing series was born during two years of work in the project of strategic partnership of several institutions from European Union countries. Tutoring takes on a new dimension in contemporary teaching and lifelong learning. A world without innovative teaching methods will stay in place with general education and will not be able to develop properly. Dear reader, I wish you an inspiring reading! Editor Słowo wstępne Monografia zbiorowa o roli tutoringu w nauczaniu dorosłych i w pracy socjalnej rozpoczyna serię wydawniczą pt. Tutor. Przeszłość i Przyszłość. Pierwsza książka dzieli się na trzy części: tutoring w edukacji, tutoring w pracy socjalnej i tutoring w projekcie „Kluczowi Tutorzy”. Część pierwsza składa się z artykułów napisanych przez środowisko międzynarodowych badaczy i praktyków. Część druga to artykuły polskich autorów, zajmujących się pracą socjalną. Część trzecia zawiera dwa teksty mówiące o wdrożonym projekcie europejskim „Kluczowi Tutorzy”. Pomysł serii wydawniczej narodził się podczas dwóch lat pracy w projekcie partnerstwa strategicznego kilku instytucji z krajów Unii Europejskiej. Tutoring nabiera nowego wymiaru we współczesnym nauczaniu i kształceniu ustawicznym. Świat bez innowacyjnych metod nauczania będzie stał w miejscu z edukacją powszechną i nie będzie mógł się prawidłowo rozwijać. Drogi Czytelniku, życzę inspirującej lektury! Redaktor PA RT I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT IO N Is Growing a “Moral Agent” with Andragogic Ethics Training in Nursing Possible? An Evaluation on the Objectives, Methods and Trainer’s Qualifications in Training G A M Z E N E S I P O G LU Istanbul A patient health, autonomy and even life or death can be affected by a nurse’s decisions and actions. Pamela F. Cipriano (President, American Nurses Association) keywords . adult training, andragogic education, teaching methods, ethics training in nursing, qualifications of trainer 1. Introduction It would be appropriate to define what the concept of “nursing” expresses, at first, to comprehend the importance of obligations and ethical behaviour in nursing with the thought that the concept is the gate of meaning. Nursing is defined as an integral part of the health care system, encompasses the promotion of health, prevention of illness, and care of physically ill, mentally ill, and disabled people of all ages, in all health care and other community settings, by the International Council of Nurses (ICN).1 There are various definitions that emphasize the goals and obligations of nursing as the definition of Turkish Nurses Association. The association defines nursing that is a health care discipline held responsible for achieving the main goals of health – to promote health, to prevent illness, to alleviate suffering and to restore/improve health-providing the well-being of an individual and correlatively a community with integration of science, training, skilled acts, organization and management.2 As is also understood from the concept defined by different organizations, nursing has a universal meaning in sense of responsibilities, by extension, professional and ethical obliga1 2 Definition of Nursing, The International Council of Nurses (ICN), http://www.icn. ch/who-we-are/icn-definition-of-nursing, accessed 10.05.2017. Turkish Nurses Association Legislation: Purpose of the Association-Article 3, Turkish Nurses Association (TNA), http://www.turkhemsirelerdernegi.org.tr/tr/thd/thdtuzuk.aspx, accessed 10.05.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tions. Moreover, it has a critical place in the health care system and society in conjunction with the patient care by her/his determinative decisions and acts. In this context, not only the medical knowledge and skills but also ethical reasoning and behaviour are expected in nursing practice. So, would a nurse be educated/trained enough to meet the expectation? The question would be answered in two aspects; first one is undergraduate education and second one graduate or postgraduate training.3 In sense of andragogic education, ethics training in graduate or postgraduate period for the nurse should be scrutinised and offered solutions to meet the needs by means of the situation analysis, primarily. The analysis could be done getting to the deep roots of the situation and comprehending the ethical phenomenon by the evaluation of the historical journey in nursing since history of thought witnessed that ethical phenomena just as scientific, cultural, social and even behavioural phenomena have been coming into existence interactively with others and in interaction with the esoteric and exoteric (scientific, cultural, social, etc.) groups. 2. The Deep Roots of Nursing Education and Ethics In the West, the base of institutional nursing, correlatively nursing ethics, was laid with Florence Nightingale’s (1820–1910) awareness about the necessity of humane and moral treatment for the patients in 1860. Since nurses were not a part of a professional discipline and also they were not educated, in professional sense, they could not cure the patients with regard to the professional, scientific and ethical standards. Therefore, there were inadequacy and incompetency that Nightingale realized in nursing practice in the context of medical, cultural and moral knowledge, and also the nurse-patient relationship. Thus, she did need to found the nursing school called as the Florence Nightingale School of Nursing and Midwifery in St. Thomas Hospital London, on 9 June 1860.4 The school was 3 4 The concepts of “education” and “training” are particularly used in separate meaning to indicate their difference: “Education” refers a learning duration emphasizing theory and knowledge, but “training” implies learning, acquiring skill and showing development in a special area and professional discipline. Therefore, the concept of education is used to point out the undergraduate period and the concept of “training” is used to remark the graduate and postgraduate period, in this study. See more: The Difference between Learning, Training and Education, http://www.callofthewild.co.uk/library/useful-articles/the-difference-between-learning-training-and-education, accessed 10.05.2017. Nightingale Review 2010 – 150th Anniversary Edition, London 2010 (King’s College London Florence Nightingale School of Nursing & Midwifery), p. 4. 14 15 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” (is) considered as one of the first nursing institutions that provided formal training in common with the schools established before such as St. John’s House, the Anglican Nursing Sisterhood, in 1848. In these schools, the main aim was to improve the care rules in professional standards.5 Despite the presence of the schools established before, Nightingale’s school survived until today and still maintains its importance. The fundamental reason of that would be based on her philosophy of care formed during the Crimean War (1853–1856). Through the warm period, she realized the significance of “holistic care” that comprised of ventilation, nutrition, personal hygiene and sanitation for the patients. It means the wholeness of environment, person (patient), health and nurse; as a matter of fact the above mentioned components were for the one, the patient. From the point of the nurse, the wholeness implies to have science and art of the nursing by means of education and display professional and moral behaviour in practice.6 Hence, Nightingale underlined not only scientific knowledge but also knowledge of ethics, communication, culture and politics that the nurse had to have and reflect them in her behaviour.7 She overemphasized that professionalism and ethics8 interdependent because she considered ethics as the “precondition” of professionalism. Indeed, the place of ethics in her philosophy of care was fundamentally formed with her moral character so she aspired to build up a moral profile for the nurse, who displayed moral behaviour as a habit in nursing practice, in her school. She laboured to achieve the goal displaying “exemplary habits of behaviour” and giving moral education.9 Thus, nursing had been transformed a moral, esteemed and professional discipline with her efforts about making nursing an occupation based on certain standards and moral values.10 It would be syllogized from her philosophy of care that ethics is the inevitable component of professionalism to present moral 5 6 7 8 9 10 History of Nursing: Major Sources at London Metropolitan Archives, Information Leaflet Number 36,, London 2010 (London Metropolitan Archives), p. 4. S.S. Ali Pirani, Application of Nightingale’s Theory in Nursing Practice, Annals of Nursing and Practice, vol. 3 (3) (2016), p. 1–3. A.T. Frello, T.E. Carraro, Florence Nightingale’s Contributions: An Integrative Review of the Literature, Escola Anna Nery, vol. 17 (2013), p. 573–579. Ethics also implies the moral responsibility for a member in a professional area, so it would be considered as a complement of professionalism. D. Sellman, The Virtues in the Moral Education of Nurses: Florence Nightingale Revisited, Nursing Ethics, vol. 4 (1997), p. 3–11. S. Hoyt, Florence Nightingale’s Contribution to Contemporary Nursing Ethics, Journal of Holistic Nursing, vol. 28 (2010), p. 331–332. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N health care since just scientific knowledge is not meaningful and humane without ethics in the discipline. Florence Nightingale’s awareness about the wholeness of science, ethics and education in nursing professionalism is the most important element that made her a precious model for nurses from 1860’s. Shortly, Nightingale as the Lady with the Lamp lighted the darkness not only for the soldiers in the Crimean War in real terms but also for the nurses laying the foundation of modern and institutional nursing having the professional standards and moral values. (Figure 1) Figure 1. Florence Nightingale as the Lady with the Lamp. During the Crimean War she walked through the wards to control the soldiers’ health situation and not to leave them alone, lamp in her hands, at nights. So, she was called as the Lady with the Lamp by the soldiers. Source: http://onedaycreative.com/lady-lamp-florence-nightingale, accessed 10.05.2017 As for the roots of nursing education and ethics in Turkey, the foundation of nursing education was laid by Besim Omer Pasha (1862–1940), who was the physician and pioneer of modern obstetrics and gynaecology in Turkey, in 1911. He decided to apply the method used for education of female caregivers in Japan and summoned the daughters of wellknown families of Istanbul to attend to the Voluntary Caregiver Course. After the six-month education, Turkish women began, for the first time, to help and cure to the wounded soldiers. These courses were also held for the commoners and about three hundred caregivers, as a nurse, went to the front lines to help the wounded soldiers and people in the Battle of Canakkale (Battle of Gallipoli) and World War I.11 Thus, the approach of 11 M.F. Ulusoy, Türkiye’de Hemşirelik Eğitiminin Tarihsel Süreci (Historical Process of Nursing Education in Turkey), CÜ Hemşirelik Yüksekokulu Dergisi, vol. 2 (1998), pp. 1–3. 16 17 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” nursing helping people voluntarily began among Turks. (Figure 2) However, the institutional nursing education could begin after the Proclamation of the Republic of Turkey (1923). Figure 2. The voluntary Turkish nurses, caregivers, were being grown in the courses began with the efforts of Besim Omer Pasha, thus the seeds of formal nursing education were spread by him in Turkey. When the nurses helped the wounded soldiers during the Battle of Canakkale (1915–1916). Source: https:// s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/69/71/f5/6971f53ef4d33ffa09913eba16f59cf2.jpg, accessed 10.05.2017 In 1925, Besim Omer Pasha established Kızılay Caregiver School, after a while, named as Kızılay Private Nursing School as the first Turkish “nursing college,” although Amiral Bristol Private Health College the first private college supported by the USA was founded before by American Hospital in Istanbul. Kızılay Caregiver School was the product of the Pasha to set up a new health system inclusive of nurses since he was deeply touched by Nightingale’s efforts and appreciated her works.12 Furthermore, effects of his vision that was formed when he took specialized training in obstetrics and gynaecology in France and worked in the West cannot be denied. He was also the pioneer to establish new schools in different levels; high school, college and finally university. The first Turkish nursing school provided to increase demand being a member of health care as a nurse for women and, in line with increasing demand, the State Nursing Colleges were opened by the Ministry of Health as from 1946. Beside the colleges, the university level education in nursing was begun in 1955 with Ege University Nursing Faculty that the first nursing school at the bachelor’s degree, in Izmir. The faculties were established following one after another; Hacettepe University Faculty of Nursing (Ankara) and Istanbul University Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing (Istan12 R. Cavusoglu, Education and Experience in Nursing: A Comparison between Vocational School and University Graduates, MA thesis, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 2013, p. 23–25. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N bul), 1961. The presence of these faculties was not based on needs, but it was the result of the aim to change the current cultural perception about nursing, which was not high esteemed occupation for highly-educated women because the numbers of educated women were not much. The aim was achieved, at the beginning, by the international foundations such as the Foundation Florence Nightingale Nursing Schools and the Agency for International Development (AID), the USA. The agency did award scholarship to 12 nurses to complete their undergraduate and postgraduate studies at Colombia University. When the nurses educated in the university came back Turkey, they designed a nursing program based on the US nursing model in university level and became the cornerstone at the establishment of nursing faculties.13 The nursing schools and faculties in college and university level had a significant role to make nursing institutional, contextually professional, in newly founded Republic under difficult economic and socio-politics conditions. However, the above-mentioned initiatives were just related to the graduate level and inherently limited to being a nurse. So, would professionalism be degraded to the graduate level in the context of science, art and ethics in nursing? The answer to the question would be given that if a professional area necessitates the wholeness of scientific, moral and cultural knowledge with skilled vocational abilities, just as underlined in Nightingale’s philosophy of care, a professional should always improve knowledge and skills for having integrity in professional sense and showing perpetual development for being a moral, competent and qualified specialist. This is the “necessary condition” of being a competent professional, and it can be provided with the postgraduate education and continuing training as well as the graduate education. Therefore, professionalism in nursing would not be degraded to the graduate level and it involves continuing training in sense of lifelong learning. Towards the “necessary condition,” masters and doctoral degree programmes were opened to provide the condition of the postgraduate education in Turkey. The first one was the master’s program in nursing opened in 1968 and four years later doctoral education began in Hacettepe University Faculty of Nursing. It is stated that the nurse’s knowledge and skills related to care in health care dimension, and also the roles of management, leadership and advocacy in the organisational dimension 13 M.F. Ulusoy, op.cit., p. 4. 18 19 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” would be improved by means of postgraduate education like masters and doctoral degree programmes in nursing.14 Although professionalism entails lifelong learning with continuing training; the postgraduate education providing to be a specialist well-equipped with knowledge of the vocational area is the preliminary step for lifelong learning. 3. Place of Ethics in Nursing and Education The place of ethics in a professional discipline is considered with the code and principles prepared for the discipline in general sense. In the discipline of nursing, the Code of Ethics for Nurses published by the International Council of Nurses (ICN) in 1953 is acknowledged as the base of nursing ethics. The code based on mental and physical well-being of the patient together with dignity and human rights highlights the main responsibilities for the nurse, and handles the nursing professionalism in four contexts as “nurses and people,” “nurses and practice,” “nurses and profession” and “nurses and co-workers.” The fundamental obligations towards people (the patients) are stated in elements of nurses and people, where respect for the rights, values and beliefs of the patient, his/her family correlatively community; justice in sense of “allocation of resources” and “equity;” being competent, and showing integrity and reliability are expected from the nurse. Professional and ethical responsibilities ascribed for the nurse are highlighted in the element of nurses and practice; protect the rights of people; respect for dignity; correspond to advance in science and technology; enhancement with “continuing training” and communications skills. The roles and duties for professional and ethical competence in research, education and management are anticipated from the nurse in the element of nurses and the profession. And, ultimately, the element of nurses and co-workers points out the importance of relationship based on respect and moral values with nurses, physicians and other health care professionals.15 The code was adapted to the profession of nursing within the scope of Ethical Principles and Responsibilities for Nurses by Turkish Nurses Association (TNA, Türk Hemsireler Dernegi – THD) in 2009, in Turkey. The principles, in parallel with the four 14 15 S. Ergol, Türkiye’de Yükseköğretimde Hemşirelik Eğitimi (Nursing Education in Higher Education in Turkey), Journal of Higher Education and Science, vol. 1 (2011), pp. 152–155. The ICN Code of Ethics for Nurses, International Council of Nurses, Geneva 2012, pp. 1–4. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N principles of (bio)medical ethics16, comprise of non-maleficence and beneficence, autonomy/respect for individual (autonomy), justice and equality, and confidentiality and privacy. The principles of nursing ethics, with differences of core principles of (bio)medical ethics, involve confidentiality and privacy as a principle and evaluate the principles of non-maleficence and beneficence together, two in one. The first principle advocates “abstain from doing harm” and being careless in all areas of nursing like practice, education and research. The second principle necessitates respect for the patient’s physical and mental integrity, and decisions on his/ her own body obtaining (oral or written) consent. The third one is about non-discrimination in patient care regarding the race, language, religion, age, and so on. It prescribes the fair and equitable distribution of resources and keeping away the relationship based on self-interest. The fourth principle fundamentally advises nurses to pay attention the confidentiality of the patient’s records and information.17 Although there are little differences between the accepted principles, for example, the American Nurses Association published the ethical principles that contain autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, fidelity, justice and paternalism for nurses; the ethical principles show great similarities in general framework.18 Presence and determinative place of the principles and the code cannot be denied to draw the general lines for making an act ethical. On the other hand, they bring some questions to mind: Are they sufficient to transform the act as a habitual behaviour and to make the nurse virtuous? They would be inherently criticised in the sense of limitations, inadequacy and inconsistency just as the principles accepted in (bio) medical ethics because they do not offer the nurse to have professional integrity conflicting with each other in particular cases and they keep emotional and social dimension of the patient out. They are also focus on the consequences and endeavour to reach just the “right action,” but not “integral good,” “internal morality” and “human moral flourishing.”19 16 17 18 19 T.L. Beauchamp, J.F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, New York 2001 (Oxford University Press), pp. 5–15. Hemşireler için Etik İlke ve Sorumluluklar (The Ethical Principles and Responsibilities for Nurses), Türk Hemsireler Dernegi, Ankara 2009, pp. 3–5. Short Definitions of Ethical Principles and Theories Familiar Words, What Do They Mean?, American Nurses Association, http://www.nursingworld.org/MainMenuCategories/EthicsStandards/Resources/Ethics-Definitions.pdf, accessed 16.05.2017. G. Nesipoglu, Reasoning on an Eclectic Approach in Medical Ethics: Synthesis of the Basic Principles with Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics, Philosophical Views (Filozofski pogledi), vol. 4 (2016), pp. 1–10; http://filozofski-pogledi.weebly.com/global-ethics-day-- 20 21 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” Moreover the principles and the code consisting of the principles are also queried in the context of their a priori essence, despite of a posteriori nature of medical practices.20 Since the nature of medicine is based on moral and epistemic relationship and practice, a priori principles cannot be sufficient to guide the nurse for ethical decision-making and establish confidential relationship with the patient. Furthermore, the principles have some limitations such as “weakness in philosophical foundations,” “abstractness,” and “poor applicability” due to lacking of moral reasoning and “uncritical acceptance.”21 Nevertheless, the principles and the code are necessary condition to determine and systematize the general framework of the “good” in nursing practice. So, how should the necessary condition be taught in the andragogic (adult) nursing training to bring up the nurses acting morally in the professional area? 4. Formation of the Objectives to Grow the Nurse as a Moral Agent To answer the question asked above scrutinizing the content, objectives and methods of the education/training will make clear whether the principles could be sufficient to interiorise and reflect as a feature of character or an obeyed and imposed rule system. At this juncture, the goal of education/training should be queried, and its objectives about growing a nurse whether as a moral agent or a professional just obeying the principles without moral reasoning and sensitivity should be clearly determined. To grow a moral agent means to bring the nurse up knowing and applying the principles as well as recognizing, discussing, reasoning and analysing an ethical dilemma or issue with moral awareness and sensitivity. So, the goal to grow a nurse as a moral agent is doubtlessly preferable, and a trainer would achieve the goal determining the content and achieving the objectives in “teaching areas” of adult ethics training for nurses. As Cipriano22 stated, the nurse’s decisions and behaviour are determinative 20 21 22 -19-october/-reasoning-on-an-eclectic-approach-in-medical-ethics-synthesis-of-the-basic-principles-with-aristotles-virtue-ethics, accessed 17.05.2017. E.D. Pellegrino, Toward a Reconstruction of Medical Morality, American Journal of Bioethics, vol. 6 (2006), pp. 65–71. O. Numminen, Nursing Ethics Education in Finland from the Perspective of Codes of Ethics, Turku 2010 (Painosalama Oy), pp. 28–30. The Year of Ethics Commences with First Revision of Code since 2001, American Nurses Association, http://www.nursingworld.org/FunctionalMenuCategories/MediaResources/PressReleases/2015-NR/The-Year-of-Ethics-Commences-with-FirstRevision-of-Code-since-2001.html, accessed 18.05.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N on the patient life and/or death, therefore, the trainer should form the objectives and teaching areas convenient to the goal. In the context of teaching area, the objectives consist of “moral philosophy,” “moral reasoning and decision-making,” “professional values,” “professional ethics,” critical reflection” and “moral sensitivity.”23 Moral philosophy includes concepts, different moral theories, and knowledge of values and principles. The nurse can choose an ethical theory like virtue ethics, deontology, etc. as a base for her/his moral behaviour with the knowledge of moral philosophy. She/he also has sensibility, interest and liability in relationships by being open, charitable and sharing responsibility. The nurse can realize what is an ethical dilemma or issue, reason on it and seek an ethical solution for the best interest of the patient by means of moral reasoning and ethical decision-making.24 Skill of moral reasoning and ethical decision-making could be obtained in light of moral philosophy, reasoning on the principles and values, justification or falsification of them and ratiocination, in time.25 The principles prepared for nurses also represent the values of the professional values of nursing due to the wholeness of ethics and professionalism, mentioned as before. Professional ethics, in conjunction with professional values, provides to understand “moral nature of nursing practice.” Ethics training including professional ethics, values and principles offers the nurse to have competence in the professional area. Critical reflection (thinking) is the core of decision-making process since the nurse can have the ability to realize an issue ethical, analyse and solve it by means of critical thinking. Ethical dilemmas and issues in medical practice are the regarding to the life and/or death of a human being, so they cannot be solved intuitively and necessitate having critical thinking skill as well as knowing moral theories, values and principles. As for moral sensitivity, it comprises moral “perception,” comprehension, “insight” and “empathy” in relationships. It is also a component of moral awareness to display moral attitude towards the patient, co-workers, cases and issues.26 These objectives in teaching area are necessary conditions to grow nurses exhibiting moral behaviour as a moral agent. If the objectives can be attained, the nurse has knowledge of moral theories, select the available one as a moral compass to her/his behaviour by means of 23 24 25 26 O. Numminen, op.cit., pp. 44–49. O. Numminen, op.cit., pp. 45–46. G. Nesipoglu, passim. O. Numminen, op.cit., pp. 47–49. 22 23 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” analytic thinking, tries to justify the selection and falsify other theories unselected, at first, and she/he can use the process to the other choices in professional area. Then, the process of reasoning and ratiocination begins by critical thinking to analyse and look for a solution to the ethical dilemma or issue encountered in professional life. In time, understanding and developing empathy to sense “the other” arise, and constitute the comprehension and perception providing to choose the “good” with moral sensitivity. And then, the nurse having moral sensitivity, moral awareness, knowledge of ethical theories, principles and values besides reasoning under favour of analytic and critical thinking skills can realize the ethical issue, then query, analyse and criticize it, and try to find the “good” for the subject, patient, of the issue with good decision-making. Furthermore, she/he makes humane and moral communication with the patients and other people around her/him by empathy, understanding, sharing responsibility, knowing the other’s values, respect dignity and having the awareness of uniqueness of each person without discrimination regarding to age, race, sexuality, language, religion, education level, socio-economic status, etc. Hence, the nurse could have internal and integral morality, professional integrity and moral insight, and display them in habitual behaviours as a moral agent. If the objectives can be achieved, trainer will be successful to reach the main goal of ethics education/training. In addition to these objectives, there are the Ethical Principles for Nursing Education prepared by the National League for Nursing (NLN), in 2012, as a guide for the nursing educator/trainer to establish an establish an environment that is based on ethical principles and “mutual development” attaining the main goal of education/training for the trainees and trainers. The principles composed of “caring,” “integrity,” “diversity” and “excellence” emphasize moral and personal “human development” in the human to human relationship for both the nurse and trainer because they ground on the uniqueness of human being, justice, honesty, competency, professional development, “respect for self and others,” empathy, respects for human rights, reciprocity principle,27 interac27 The reciprocity principle or reciprocity is the essence of Martin Buber’s (1878–1965) theory on relationships. He describes the relationships with the concepts of I-Thou and I-It; I-Thou is a “subject-subject” relationship, where two human beings are in dialogue with values of each other. It implies that “self does not exist without the other” with its democratic and symmetric nature. But the object (It) is passive and under the control in the “I-It” relationship, which is “subject-object” relationship PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tion and inter-subjectivity in relationships and “self-transform.”28 Indeed, the principles imply mutual moral enhancement by virtue of moral behaviour reflecting values mentioned in the principles in the areas like educational and medical practices on the basis of the human to human relationship. Thus, they counsel the trainer to have the principles and values as a role model to the nurse. Could the ethical principles prepared for trainers be adequate to make the trainer role model? 5. Qualifications of the Trainer as a Role Model The practice-based approaches center upon the acts turn a blind eye to the significance of theory and knowledge of moral philosophy. The practical nature of medicine and, correlatively, bioethics as a discipline of applied ethics (philosophy) cannot be denied, so the practice-based professional training gains into importance. But the key point that should not be ignored here is for discrimination of teaching methods, content and context. How could the practice lacking of theory or knowledge be accepted as moral and scientific in a professional area? If the practice could be sealed off knowledge of morality as part of philosophy, how could it be grounded, justified and verified? It could not be grounded, justified and verified without knowledge of moral philosophy, theory, because it is necessary condition for having knowledge of (moral and professional) values, autonomous choice, moral reasoning, analytic and critical thinking and finally ethical decision-making. So, the trainer primarily has to have knowledge of moral philosophy as the base of philosophical thinking skill. Why should the trainer have philosophical thinking skill? Philosophical thinking is an intellectual activity that comprises of questioning, criticizing and reasoning on theories, knowledge, truth and fact. It provides core 28 asymmetric and undemocratic. If the “reciprocity principle” is interpreted for the relationship between the patient-nurse and trainer-trainee relationship, impact of the inter-subjectivity for the subjects in relationships will be understood well in sense of empathy, dignity and human rights. See more: J.G. Scott, R.G. Scott, W.L. Miller, et al., Healing relationships and the existential philosophy of Martin Buber, Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, vol. 4 (2009), p.11; doi: 10.1186/1747–5341–4-11, accessed 20.05.2017. Ethical Principles for Nursing Education National League for Nursing January, National League for Nursing (NLN), http://www.nln.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/ethical-principles-for-nursing-education-final-final-010312. pdf?sfvrsn=2, accessed 20.05.2017. 24 25 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” component for thinking, discussing and cross-examining inclusively on concepts, arguments, ideas, etc.29 Shortly, as Paul stated Critical thought and discussion are main instruments of learning30 and also teaching! They can be obtained with philosophical thinking necessary to learn the “nature of knowledge,” “justified truth belief” (epistemology) and the “nature of being, existence, reality and world” (metaphysics) for moral reasoning and decision-making. To have the “instruments” is also compulsory for being competent in both knowledge and experience for training as part of the professional area and ethics. Although competence is comprehensive with regard to incorporate high knowledge level and skills professional and ethical, it can be composed of following qualifications and skills ethical, as de las Fuentes, et al., pointed out:31 1. To appraise and adopt or adapt one’s own ethical decision- making model and apply it with personal integrity and cultural competence in all aspects of their professional activities; 2. To recognize ethical and legal dilemmas in the course of their professional activities (including the ability to determine whether a dilemma exists through research and consultation); 3. To recognize and reconcile conflicts among relevant codes and laws and to deal with convergence, divergence, and ambiguity; 4. To raise and resolve ethical and legal issues appropriately. When competence comes into existence in trainer’s practice, acts, behaviour, he can be a role model for the trainees (nurses), in time. The trainee identifies herself/himself with the trainer, therefore, the wholeness of his knowledge and skills such as helping to learn, recognizing ethical issues, solving problem, articulation, answering the questions, giving feedback besides analytic and critical thinking, moral reasoning, respect for the rights and values of trainees (nurses), feeling empathy with them, establishing relationship based on “human to human” (I-Thou) becomes crucial.32 One of the fundamental components for rolling model is to reflect them in acts as a habitual behaviour. Thus, the contents taught would 29 30 31 32 R.W. Paul, The Contribution of Philosophy to Thinking, [in:] Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World, Tomales 1992 (Foundation for Critical Thinking), pp. 554–558. Ibidem, p. 555. C. de las Fuentes, et al., Competency Training in Ethics Education and Practice, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, vol. 36 (2005), p. 362. L. Vanlaere, Ch. Gastmans, Ethics in Nursing Education: Learning to Reflect on Care Practices, Nursing Ethics, vol. 14 (2007), p. 764. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N be made tangible transforming to practice and the nurse could identify with him and interiorise learned. Furthermore, the trainer should provide the nurse to notice, analyse, discuss, think analytically and critically, and solve the conflict of interests, ethical dilemmas and issues; also behave morally by being as a model.33 Other role of the trainer is to develop and maintain ethical perspectives, patient-nurse relationship based on trust and respect, values, moral behaviour and character.34 The role of ethics trainer is built on a trivet with three legs; first one is training and ethical competence, second one is to be a role model as a moral agent and third one is to form the trainees (nurses) having values and moral character with subject-subject relationship. All the legs could be complete by way of philosophy, so he should have philosophical knowledge and thinking skills to make the best of his role. When he tries to succeed it, he could be interaction with nurses since adult training supplies mutual development for the trainer and the trainees. Osler remarked implicitly the interaction, besides the importance of the trainer’s role and the method of teaching, with his words: The successful teacher is no longer on a height, pumping knowledge at high pressure into passive receptacles.35 So, which way should he go to achieve the objectives of training and be a role model? 6. Determining the Method(s) to Achieve the Objectives Nursing, as a part of medicine, is a discipline based on science and art of healing, and object of the discipline is “human individuality,” implicitly life of a person in biopsychosocial aspect. Therefore, the nurse’s behaviour and approach as a health care provider has determinative and critical character in medical practice like the physician’s. Since the nurse is involved in the decision-making process in the modernised medical approaches, her/his role becomes more important especially when she/he encounters with the ethical dilemma and/or issue. In this case, growing a competent and virtuous nurse in accordance with main of goals medi33 34 35 O. Numminen, op.cit., p. 48. M. Woods, Nursing Ethics Education: Are We Really Delivering the Good(s)?, Nursing Ethics, vol. 12 (2005), p. 10. Sir William Osler (1849–1919) is a Canadian physician, one of the founders of John Hopkins Hospital and pioneers of modern medical education. See more: http://patologia.medicina.ufrj.br/graduacao/images/_dep-patologia/historia_da_patologia/ historia_da_autopsia/W.Osler/William_Osler_His_Life_Through_Some_Images_and_Quotations.pdf, accessed 20.05.2017. 26 27 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” cine appears as a necessity in medical practice. So, we should determine how we teach as much as what we teach, in other words the best teaching method(s) and strategy(ies) should be carefully determined and matched to teaching program. The determined method(s) for adult ethics training (andragogic training) as should be based mainly on active learning, systematic, analytic and critical thinking with highly-structured thought, problem solving. There are different teaching methods, in parallel with above mentioned aim(s), for pedagogic education but they would be adapted to the andragogic training with developing and eclectic revision. The methods could be categorized as problem-based learning (PBL), team-based learning (TBL), the value-based enquiry model (VBE) the “Bandman model,” Socratic method, and case study, discussion, role playing, use of films and videotapes, storytelling, etc. as strategies. Some of the methods and strategies for nursing (andragogic) ethics training seem to be more convenient to the nature of nursing professional. Firstly, problem-based learning (PBL) offers the trainee with an opportunity for “self-directed learning” by means of critical thinking to solve the problem and communication skills in the group.36 The method consisted of case study and discussion (strategies) can be considered appropriate for continuing training for nurses because the nurse can learn how an ethical issue is solved by analysing cases and solving them, and the trainer corrects the mistakes made by the trainee. Thus, the trainee also learns not to make mistake when she/he solves the ethical issue or dilemma as a problem. Team-based learning (TBL) is based on the “self-managed” approach, where groups as teams defend their hypothesis with discussions and they can be involved in an interaction. The method consists of three stages; first, the trainee theoretically prepares for the class, second, the preparation of class by elucidating and third, implementation of works of groups (teams). The method offers the trainee to learn concepts, search and write and produce valid arguments about her/his hypothesis. Furthermore, the trainee learns to be a part of team, accountable in sense of quality, provide and receive feedback, and “assignment design” in a team.37 Since nursing necessitates effective team work, this model can be applied in 36 37 E.M. Aydt, Teaching Strategies for Shaping the Conversation in Nursing Ethics Education, MA thesis, St. Catherine University, St. Paul 2015, pp. 14–15. L.K. Michaelsen, M. Sweet, The Essential Elements of Team-Based Learning, New Directions for Teaching and Learning, vol. 116 (2008), pp. 7–8. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N nursing ethics training giving the nurses topics like moral theories, ethical issues encountered in general sense, conflict of interest, etc. Then the trainee would produce feedback from their works. Hence, theories with the hypothesis and its justification can be queried, and it enhances systematic, analytic and critical thinking skills. The value-based enquiry model (VBE) is based on growing moral agents having “good character,” it should be essence of ethics education/ training. The method is applied to nursing ethics education asking the questions to the trainees about their beliefs and values. Also they can reason on the values with knowledge of virtue ethics and value-based practices. Core of the model emerges from the awareness of self, care and compassion and “awareness of others.” Trainees would learn knowledge of values and interiorize them with this model.38 In nursing practice, having values and displaying them in behaviours are vital for ethical and humane care in addition to ethical decision-making, so the VBE should be essential for nursing ethics training. So, could it alone be enough like the other models? Each model alone would not be enough to achieve the objectives of training to grow the nurses having internal morality with good character and values and acting morally. Therefore, an eclectic model should be designed the integration of different models. Ethics education, due to its nature and objectives, is beyond the single teaching model because, for example, lecturing as a single model gives theory but lacks of practice. Therefore, it needs an eclectic model grounded on the integrity of PBL, TBL and VBE with case studies, discussion and reasoning.39 The eclectic training model would increase trust on the impact of ethics training to bring up the nurse acting morally, maybe, as a moral agent. Studies conducted in various countries about the influence of ethics education on moral act, awareness and reasoning promote the above argument. In the literature, most of the studies assert that the ethics education/ training provides nurses to have higher moral awareness, reasoning and confidence in decision-making. For instance, a research conducted on nurses and social workers – most of them (83%) were Caucasian-basedin the USA indicates the positive correlation between adult ethics training and confidence to decide and act morally. The confidence levelled up with ethics training about recognizing and analysing ethical issues, being 38 39 E.M. Aydt, op.cit., 16. O. Numminen, op.cit., 50–53. 28 29 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” aware of ethical values, use “ethics resources” such as (appealing) ethics committee and/or ethics consultant, and having skills for ethical decision-making.40 Another study done on the connection of moral awareness level and ethics education among nursing students in Korea alleges that moral awareness increased through education and it will be increased and maintained with continuous ethics training in professional life. Thus, it will positively affect moral judgement and decision-making.41 A research done in Turkey corroborates the theses defended in above mentioned researches. Although it primarily conducted the opinions of nursing student about content of ethics education, it demonstrates that students found ethics education based on especially case studies beneficial for analysing the ethical issues. It specifies that ethics education increased the student’s knowledge level about the principles and rights. It also asserts, parallel with the other researches, that ethics education will grow the students having skills of analysing and moral reasoning on ethical issues in nursing practice.42 The positive impact of ethics education on nursing students and training on nurses was justified and its positive correlation with moral reasoning, moral awareness and confidence to decide and act morally with the research studies conducted in various countries, this proofs its critical importance and necessity, too. At this juncture, the objectives, content, method(s) and period of education/training should be designed, and qualifications of the educator/trainer should be designated accordance with the core aim of ethics education/training. It begins with the question: What is our main goal in ethics education/training whether growing nurses acting morally as a moral agent or just obeying the ethical principles? The discrimination of that in our goal will primarily give the answer. 7. Conclusion A professional discipline like nursing based on the integrity of science, art and ethics necessitates the specialists deciding and acting morally as a moral agent, besides, well-equipped with knowledge and values. This is 40 41 42 Ch. Grady, et al., Does Ethics Education Influence the Moral Action of Practicing Nurses and Social Workers?, The American Journal of Bioethics, vol. 8 (2008), pp. 4–11. S.-W. Kang, The Influence of Ethics Education on Awareness of Nursing Students with No Clinical Experience Regarding the Code of Ethics: A Case Study, Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, vol. 7 (2017), pp. 12–18. L. Dinc, R.S. Gorgulu, Teaching Ethics in Nursing, Nursing Ethics, vol. 9 (2002), pp. 259–267. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N the necessary condition of being a competent (and moral) professional, and it would be met with andragogic (adult) ethics training as part of lifelong learning. In this context, the goal of education/training should be queried and its objectives for growing a nurse whether as a moral agent or a professional just obeying the principles without moral reasoning and sensitivity should be clearly determined. Since growing a moral agent means to bring the nurse up knowing and applying the principles as well as recognizing, analysing, discussing, reasoning on an ethical dilemma or issue with moral awareness and sensitivity; the training objectives, content and method(s) should be determined to achieve the goal. Ethics education, due to its nature and objectives, is beyond the single teaching model, so, it needs an eclectic model grounded on the integrity of PBL, TBL and VBE with case studies, discussion and reasoning to fill the gaps of a single model. As for the qualification of the trainer, he/she should be, primarily, competent having philosophical knowledge and thinking skills like questioning, criticizing and reasoning on theories, facts, knowledge, truth and issues. He/she should establish relationship with the trainees grounded in I-Thou approach, and he could be a role model having professional and ethical competence behaving morally. Although being a virtuous trainer and nurse or moral agent needs many qualifications such as moral character, inner conscience, inner morality and moral sensitivity; other qualifications like having knowledge of moral philosophy, skills of analytic and critical thinking, moral reasoning and awareness could be brought to the nurse (and trainer) in continuing ethics education prepared to achieve the main goal with a competent trainer. Growing moral agents in long term could be possible with the integrity of the mentioned objectives, an eclectic method and a competent trainer as a role model in educational and ethical sense. 8. References Ali Pirani S.S., Application of Nightingale’s Theory in Nursing Practice, Annals of Nursing and Practice, vol. 3 (3) (2016), pp. 1–3. Aydt E.M., Teaching Strategies for Shaping the Conversation in Nursing Ethics Education, MA thesis, St. Paul 2015 (St. Catherine University). Beauchamp T.L., Childress J.F., Principles of Biomedical Ethics, New York 2001 (Oxford University Press). 30 31 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” Cavusoglu R., Education and Experience in Nursing: A Comparison between Vocational School and University Graduates, MA thesis, Ankara 2013 (Middle East Technical University). Definition of Nursing, The International Council of Nurses (ICN), http://www. icn.ch/who-we-are/icn-definition-of-nursing, accessed 10.05.2017. The Difference between Learning, Training and Education, http://www.callofthewild.co.uk/library/useful-articles/the-difference-between-learning-training-and-education, accessed 10.05.2017. Dinc L., Gorgulu R.S., Teaching Ethics in Nursing, Nursing Ethics, vol. 9 (2002), pp. 259–267. Ergol S., Türkiye’de Yükseköğretimde Hemşirelik Eğitimi (Nursing Education in Higher Education in Turkey), Journal of Higher Education and Science, vol. 1 (2011), pp. 152–155. Ethical Principles for Nursing Education National League for Nursing January, National League for Nursing (NLN), http://www.nln.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/ethical-principles-for-nursing-education-final-final-010312.pdf?sfvrsn=2, accessed 20.05.2017. Frello A.T., Carraro T.E., Florence Nightingale’s Contributions: An Integrative Review of the Literature, Escola Anna Nery, vol. 17 (2013), pp. 573–579. C. de las Fuentes, et al., Competency Training in Ethics Education and Practice, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, vol. 36 (2005), p. 362–364. Grady Ch., et al., Does Ethics Education Influence the Moral Action of Practicing Nurses and Social Workers?, The American Journal of Bioethics, vol. 8 (2008), pp. 4–11. Hemşireler için Etik İlke ve Sorumluluklar (The Ethical Principles and Responsibilities for Nurses), Türk Hemsireler Dernegi, Ankara 2009. History of Nursing: Major Sources at London Metropolitan Archives, Information Leaflet Number 36, London Metropolitan Archives, London 2010. Hoyt S., Florence Nightingale’s Contribution to Contemporary Nursing Ethics, Journal of Holistic Nursing, vol. 28 (2010), pp. 331–332. The ICN Code of Ethics for Nurses, International Council of Nurses, Geneva 2012. Kang S.-W., The Influence of Ethics Education on Awareness of Nursing Students with No Clinical Experience Regarding the Code of Ethics: A Case Study, Journal of Nursing Education and Practice, vol. 7 (2017), pp. 12–18. Michaelsen L.K., Sweet M., The Essential Elements of Team-Based Learning, New Directions for Teaching and Learning, vol. 116 (2008), pp. 7–27. Nesipoglu G., Reasoning on an Eclectic Approach in Medical Ethics: Synthesis of the Basic Principles with Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics, Philosophical Views (Filozofski pogledi), vol. 4 (2016), pp. 1–10, http://filozofski-pogledi.weebly. com/global-ethics-day---19-october/-reasoning-on-an-eclectic-approach- PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N in-medical-ethics-synthesis-of-the-basic-principles-with-aristotles-virtueethics, accessed 17.05.2017. Nightingale Review 2010 – 150th Anniversary Edition, King’s College London Florence Nightingale School of Nursing & Midwifery, London 2010. Numminen O., Nursing Ethics Education in Finland from the Perspective of Codes of Ethics, Turku 2010 (Painosalama Oy). Paul R.W., The Contribution of Philosophy to Thinking, [in:] idem, Critical Thinking: What Every Person Needs to Survive in a Rapidly Changing World, Tomales 1992 (Foundation for Critical Thinking). Pellegrino E.D., Toward a Reconstruction of Medical Morality, American Journal of Bioethics, vol. 6 (2006), pp. 65–71. Scott J.G., Scott R.G., Miller W.L., et al. Healing relationships and the existential philosophy of Martin Buber, Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, vol. 4 (2009), doi: 10.1186/1747-5341-4-11, accessed 20.05.2017. Sellman D., The Virtues in the Moral Education of Nurses: Florence Nightingale Revisited, Nursing Ethics, vol. 4 (1997), pp. 3–11. Short Definitions of Ethical Principles and Theories Familiar Words, What Do They Mean?, American Nurses Association, http://www.nursingworld. org/MainMenuCategories/EthicsStandards/Resources/Ethics-Definitions. pdf, accessed 16.05.2017. Turkish Nurses Association Legislation: Purpose of the Association-Article 3, Turkish Nurses Association (TNA), http://www.turkhemsirelerdernegi.org.tr/tr/ thd/thd-tuzuk.aspx, accessed 10.05.2017. Ulusoy M.F., Türkiye’de Hemşirelik Eğitiminin Tarihsel Süreci (Historical Process of Nursing Education in Turkey), CÜ Hemşirelik Yüksekokulu Dergisi, vol. 2 (1998), pp. 1–8. Vanlaere L., Gastmans Ch., Ethics in Nursing Education: Learning to Reflect on Care Practices, Nursing Ethics, vol. 14 (2007), pp. 758–766. Woods M., Nursing Ethics Education: Are We Really Delivering the Good(s)?, Nursing Ethics, vol. 12 (2005), pp. 5–18. The Year of Ethics Commences with First Revision of Code since 2001, American Nurses Association, http://www.nursingworld.org/FunctionalMenuCategories/MediaResources/PressReleases/2015-NR/The-Year-of-Ethics-Commences-with-First-Revision-of-Code-since-2001.html, accessed 18.05.2017. Sir William Osler M.D. ((1849–1919). His Life Through Some Images & Quotations, http://patologia.medicina.ufrj.br/graduacao/images/_dep-patologia/historia_da_patologia/historia_da_autopsia/W.Osler/William_Osler_His_Life_ Through_Some_Images_and_Quotations.pdf, accessed 20.05.2017. 32 33 G A M Z E N E S I P O G L U . I S G ROW I N G A “ M O R A L AG E N T ” 9. Summary Nursing rooted in Nightingale’s philosophy of care is a professional discipline integrated science and art of healing. This is necessary condition of nursing, but it entails integrity of professionalism and ethics as a complement to have competence. To be competent necessitates deciding and acting morally, establishing good relationships with patients and co-workers besides being good in professional sense. This could be provided with ethics education and andragogic ethics training in undergraduate and post-graduate level having high awareness, at first. In this context, the question what is our main goal in ethics education/training whether growing nurses acting morally as a moral agent or just obeying the ethical principles? should be answered, at beginning. If main goal is to grow nurses as a moral agent, the objectives should be based on recognizing and analysing ethical issues/dilemma with moral reasoning and critical thinking, making ethical decision and behaving morally, primarily. Since being a moral agent involves episteme (knowledge), techne (skills) and phronesis (practical wisdom) and nursing has a holistic nature, the method should be based on the integrity of problem-based learning, team-based learning and value-based enquiry model to fill the gaps of a single model in means of theory and practice wholeness. Moreover, qualifications of the trainer should contain to have competence; philosophical knowledge and skills like systematic, analytic and critical thinking for moral reasoning and awareness to be a role model as a guide. Hence, bases of growing a moral agent could be laid with andragogic ethics education in long period. Distance Education for All Ages in Romania E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N DI Suceava keywords . adult education, long-life education, Romania, contemporary society 1. Introduction The experience of learning, either formally or informally, is meant to change something, no matter the age, context or initial aim. Our contemporary society is in a permanent and accelerate change – that of workplace nature modification. People in Romania, as everywhere, live in a fluid environment, with a hectic rhythm of renewing, which sometimes may be felt as hostile. If not very long time ago (before December 1989 revolution) a person had a job for all their life, at present, workplaces change on average every five years, with dramatic modifications. Under such circumstances, the aid is supposed to come from the educational system, which, in its turn, is expected to adapt. Only fifty years ago, the education received in schools could be enough for the rest of a person’s lifetime. However, now the situation has changed. Both society and the modern individual has to glide from the level-centred education to continous education, which has to prepare people for society. This society can be viewed as one of continuous change of knowledge. The mistakes in the approach of the modern education system can lead to consequences difficult to predict, even on short term, but after all, this is the challenge of the present. The institutions which offer education should therefore design new methods to promote students with abilities such as capacity of cooperation and dialogue, flexibility in maintaining the equilibrium; in other words, to prepare the individual for a new lifestyle and for long life learning. There are the new information technologies that come to help education. Distance education is an attempt to offer people of all ages the chance to learn in the moment, place and rhythm that best satisfy their personal needs with a view to provide them the chance of better adapting to soci- PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N ety. This does not mean that traditional forms of education are no longer trustworthy, especially for the first years of education, when the teacher is so much needed. Distance education may seem the right answer to adult education. Technology can help by eliminating time, space, accommodation costs etc. constraints. There are both advantages and disadvantages in distance learning, as beside the open access offered to everyone by this type of learning, students sometimes lack the possibility of socializing and gaining from emotional involvement. Indeed, student interaction is one of the directions in which distance education will exceed its limits. At the level of interaction, an important role is played by the tutor, who acts as a professional mediator in the process of education. The results of the research in the countries with tradition in correspondence learning show that distance education is as effective as day courses provided the educational planning is proper. For example, The Institute for Higher Education Policy initiated a study on the effectiveness of distance education, which wanted to be an analysis of what research in the field say and what it doesn’t.1 The study suggests that many of the essential questions about the way in which distance education is done received no answer. Thus, a whole range a questions arise and can be generalized to distance education elsewhere in the world: are there difficulties in Romanian distance education? Which are the aims and the also which are the adrvantages of adult education? What is specific to the Romanian tutor as compared to the international acceptation of the term? Throughout the present paper these questions will be given an answer taking into consideration the Romanian distance education, highlighting the role played by the tutor, the professional mediator whose mission is of extreme importance. The efforts of providing good quality education for adults are in line with the aims presented by UNESCO referring to the need of continuing education both for young and adult people: adults continuing learning must be developed and diversified and integrated into the national education system and strategies for reducing poverty.2 On the other hand, the European Comission put emphasis on the concept of lifelong learning, as 1 2 R. Phipps, J. Merisotis, What’s the Difference? A Review of Contemporary Research on the Effectiveness of Distance Learning in Higher Education, Washington 1999 (The Institute for Higher Education Policy). W. Hoppers, Meeting the Learning Needs of All Young People and Adults: An Exploration of Successful Policies and Strategies in Non-formal Education (Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008 and Education for 36 37 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N a modality to fulfill the goal of making the EU the most competitive and dynamic, knowledge-based economy in the world capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion.3 It is the European Comission that clarifies the concept of lifelong learning, by defining the types of activities it involves: All learning activity undertaken throughout life with the aim of improving knowledge, skills and comnpetences within a personal, civic, social and/or employment related perspective.4 Proposing a type of undiscriminating learning, distance education situates the learner in a privileged position, as a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent of his own learning process. He is not one whom things merely happen; he is the one who, by his own volition, causes things to happen. Learning is seen as the result of his own self-initiated interaction with the world.5 2. Distance Education for both Young and Adult People The concept of learning for life, which represented for a long time a major aim of the educational systems all over the world, has become redundant in the context of the huge transformations in society due to technological and economic changes. If thirty years ago, long life education could be viewed as an option for an age with more free time, nowadays it has become a necessity. The education offer has become diversified in accordance with the consumers’ demand. Thus, distance education can be viewed as a new orientation towards the consumer of the institutions providing such opportunities. Credit accumulation, organization of courses in modules – they are all parts of the same structural transformation of education system in Romania and elsewhere. Although not directedly connected to the idea of distance education, yet of vital importance for the future of education in keeping with the principle of longlife learning, 3 4 5 All by 2015: will we make it?), n. p. 2007 (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). Lisbon Strategy for Growth and Jobs, European Commission, Brussels 2000, https:// portal.cor.europa.eu/europe2020/Profiles/Pages/TheLisbonStrategyinshort.aspx, accessed 28.03.2017. A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning, European Comission, Brussels 2000, http:// pjp-eu.coe.int/documents/1017981/1668227/COM_Sec_2000_1832.pdf/f79d0e69b8d3–48a7–9d16–1a065bfe48e5, accessed 28.03.2017. Going the Distance: Teaching, Learning and Research in Distance Education, ed. N. Hedge, Sheffield 1996 (University of Sheffield Division of Education Papers in Education). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N we must mention one of the most important legislative measures undertaken in Romania: the Law of Education 1/2011. It aligns the Romanian educational system within the European view on lifelong learning as a facilitator of the emergence of the knowledge economy,6 proposing an incentivizing system, given the Romanians’ lower standard of living in comparison to that of the other Europeans’. This law advances the concept of account for continuous education, by means of which the Romanian state will give each baby at birth the sum of 500 euros in equivalent to support the right of lifelong learning.7 Parents have the possibility to participate to this account and redirect 2% of the tax paid every year on salary income. This account will be opened at State Treasury, it will bear an interest rate, and the child will be able to have access to it after graduation of the compulsory education.8 Such a measure is meant to make individuals benefit from opportunities of continuing learning and not be limited to the initial education only. This example proves that there are similarities and differences among the European different states, largely due to geographical, historical, economic or political reasons. Nevertheless, the main tenet remains that of adult or post-compulsory learning, although the former communist states view it as a means of improving their economic development, while the western European states whose economies are already strong, consider it is as a way to maintain the stability of their market economies and to solve the emerging problems of skills shortage.9 2.1. Distance Education in Romania – A Diachronic Perspective Viewed in diachrony, one can distinguish several stages in the development of distance education at the international level: the first one is represented by the correspondence education (the first course of this type is recorded in England and it dates as far back as the year 1840). It was addressed especially to the adults who didn’t manage to complete their pre-university or university studies. Letter writing with a view to teach 6 7 8 9 A.I. Popescu, Lifelong Learning in the Knowledge Economy: Considerations on the Lifelong Learning System in Romania from a European Perspective, Revista de Cercetare şi Intervenţie Socială, vol. 37 (2012), p. 49. A.I. Popescu, The Investigation of the Role of Universities in Providing Lifelong Learning in Romania, The European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, vol. 3 (2) (2011), passim. Law of National Education, Ministerul Educației, Cercetării, Tineretului și Sportului (Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sport), București 2011, p. 72, art. 356. A.I. Popescu, Lifelong Learning..., p. 63. 38 39 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N the others can be said to be as old as the art of writing itself. Thus, it has been suggested that the epistles in the New Testament may be considered an example of distance education.10 Starting with 1920 there appear radio educational programmes, addressed especially to university studies. In 1939 in France appeared the national centre for distance education, which provides correspondence courses today as well. The second generation is represented by television education and by the industrial model and developend against a context dominated by the behaviorist trend in education. The third generation is represented by the interactive distance education. The computer assisted education was the basis of the new type of intelligent tutorial systems, which offer the possibility of a dynamic generation of exercises, which adapt the difficulty level in accordance with the student’s performance, and which also include the analysis of the student’s behavior interpretation. Within this category we include the distance education, characterized by interactive educational technologies, convergence of distance and classroom learning, and also by the competition among the distance education providers at the worldwide level. Romanian education can be said to have strong roots as far as the tradition of longlife learning is concerned. It dates as far back as the year 1920,11 when the model of social pedagogy was applied, and which targeted differet categories of students, such as women, young persons, people from the rural areas, members of some disadvantaged categories etc. It is true that at present one can hardly find traces of this tradition or of the system which was effectual in those years or even in the years before the 1989 revolution. The concept of continuous education, borrowed from the French literature not only into the vocabulary but also into the law system, had been the guiding principle as far as adult education is concerned until the quite recent idea of lifelong learning. It is true that there has always been a need for unconventional learning and out of this need there might have emerged new types of learning opportunities. At the international level, starting with the nineteenth century, people who didn’t have a solid educational background tried to educate 10 11 B. Holmberg, The Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education, Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, vol. 11, Oldenburg 2008, p. 13. O. Bădina, V. Curticăpeanu, D. Muster, O. Neamțu, Pedagogie socială – concepții, preocupări și experiențe în România dintre cele două râzboaie mondiale, București 1970 (Editura Didactică și Pedagogică), pp. 34–36. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N themselves either for personal development needs of for practical purposes, needs that prepared the conditions for the creation of distance education institutions. It is an acknowledged fact that there has always been a desire to benefit from educational activities other than those implied by the formal educational system. This doesn’t mean that one lessens its value and its importance as a vital element in the development of the Romanian society. Thus, in 1921, after the first university in Salt Lake City got the licence for education through radio, the first opinions regarding the new pedagogic methods offered by educational radio appeared in Romania as well. It was then that Dimitrie Gusti, as president of the Romanian Broadcasting Society, suggested organizing conferences through radio starting with 1930. They were intended for lower and upper school and proved to be effective within the area of informal education and training. A conclusive remark regarding the function of social pedagogy within the Romanian educational system comes from Bădina et al, who remarked the fact that it appeared as a reaction to the limits of the school education, thus emphasizing the necessity to prepare the young generation with the aim of their active and creative integration in the entire social life.12 This is just another proof that there has always been a need for educational programmes and systems, other than the formal educational system. Thus, one can easily see the signs of the need for lifelong learning, known as continuous education in Romanian version, given the fact that it is natural for each part of the world to have its own charatcteristics of the educational system, generated by a wide variety of factors, such as geographical, historical, politic, economical, technological one, etc. The information technological innovations allow the reduction of the distance in time, thus intorducig an interactive dimension, which was reduced or even absent in the 1920s. The education at a distance, facilitated by technology, represents an attempt to make real a form of verbal exchange meant to be a dialogue, not just a mere conversation, given the distinction made by some experts in communication (such as that evoked by Guy Lochard and Henry Boyer, who distinguish between conversation and dialogue in terms of evoking themes versus stating and putting themes together).13 12 13 Ibidem, p. 40. G. Lochards, H. Boyer, Comunicarea mediatică, Iași 1998 (Institutul European), p. 110. 40 41 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N 2.2. Nowadays Distance Learning – Main Objectives; Advantages and Barriers It is natural for the degree in which the concepts involved by the lifelong learning education policy as formulated by the European Comission to differ in their application in national policies. In Romania, in general, such concepts are associated especially with adult or post-compulsory learning.14 The Romanian educational system has been in continuous structural reform since the 1989 Revolution, aiming to improve its efficiency so that the country will undergo a faster development through the development of its human capital for the knowledge society to be achieved in the future.15 The European Comission’s plan for e-learning takes into consideration the idea of thinking tomorrow’s education, with a view to future objectives of education and training. The advantages of learning at a distance in nowadays society imply factors such as flexibility, multi-modality of learning resources and also timely distribution. Tutors’ assistance helps facilitating learning, their task being that of content providers, motivators and mentors as well. Unlike other educational systems which place the student centrally, the distance education positions the student in an equidistant relationship with its other components (expert, educational resources), thus suggesting the equal importance of the other components. If in the past such a type of education meant learning through correspondence, nowadays distance is covered by materials (either printed or in electronic form) and also by the contact with the tutor. Taking into consideration the two-way relationship between education and the quality of life, one has o mention the importance of continuing education for labour productivity growth. Experts consider that the investment in human capital involves growth at al levels, as education is the slowest, yet most powerful driver of growth.16 Therefore, one can speak of the major importance of lifelong learning at the individual level (labour market integration, work efficiency) but also at the organizational, even national level (prepared individuals area long-term investment of society). 14 15 16 A.I. Popescu, Lifelong Learning..., p. 63. Ibidem, p. 64. M.I. Aceleanu, The role of lifelong learning in the growth of employment and labour efficiency. The case of Romania, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 46 (2012), p. 4400. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N In spite of the generous advantage offered by distance education, there are present-day barriers in implementing it in Romania, such as negative attitudes (that may result from a reduced level of interaction between students and tutor and the lack of assistance services for the distance students, the level of involvement or quality of the distance students, the fear of losing autonomy, inadequate support offered to tutors for planning or redesigning the courses, potential negative effects as far as professional promotion etc), technical problems (lack of industrial standards for equipments and software, the rapid technological change which means extra money spent on upgrading the systems, difficulties in the communication through e- conferences), institutional inflexible procedures and so on. The strategies of overcoming such difficulties involve initial research with a view to acquiring new technology, preliminary discussions with the distance education providers, visits to the institutios which offer such systems, the evaluation of the internal infrastructure, of the hardware and software requirements and of the providers’ offer of services, as well as inteviews with experts in such systems of distance education.17 Therefore, the local and national policies include the development of the regional and national telecommunication network, efforts for coherent and permissive educational methods, adoption of standards for effective distance education, and, last but not least, the creation of a consortium for software and specific programs. Currently, in Romania, the limited space in institutions, as well as the difficulties encountered by the students as far as the need of lifelong learning is concerned, have led to a situation in which the traditional education institutions take into consideration the alternative offered by the distance education. The arguments for a distance education system in Romania are: the administrative structures of the conventional educational systems do not corresepond to the development and management of the distance systems, the requirements of the distance students can be better fulfilled if the institution is dedicated exclusivey to distance learning, the pedagogy of distance education differs from that of the traditional education, etc. However, there is also a mixture of the two types of educational systems, which means that within the conventional learning institutions there are deparments for distance education. The arguments 17 P.A. Marinescu, Educaţia la distanţă, https://www.academia.edu/7316986/Educatia_la_distanta, accessed 28.03.2017. 42 43 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N for this bimodal educational system are:18 the courses and the additional sources of information can be used both by the day and the distance students,the self education materials encourage the independent learning of both categories of students, students can choose one or the other system, the distance students benefit from the tradition and the reputation of the institution and they obey its standards, the teaching staff are thus encouraged to practice as interactive methods of eduction as possible. 2.3. Other Types of Educational Products for Adults on the Romanian Market Adult education used to be viewed in a narrow sense before the emergence of the lifelong learning concept: for example, it was viewed as continuing professional development,19 a sort of fringe activity. In Romania, the rate of adult participation in education differs from region to region, with an average of 1.3% of the entire number of adults who continue their education.20 As far as the courses offered by universities for adult continuing professional education, there are five types: for initiation (offering acquisition of minimum knowledge and abilities), for qualification (endowing the student with professional competences that will permit the individual to perform activities required by a specific job), for re-qualification (giving the student knowledge and competences in a different profession), for specialization (aiming at the acquisition of knowledge and abilities required by a narrow area of a job), and for improvement (with the aim of making the student benefit from the progress in professional competences). According to the study made by Alina Popescu on the types of professional education and training courses, the majority of the offered products are for improvement (35%) and for specialization (31%), only 25% of the universities offering initiation and qualification courses. As far as their subject areas is concerned, the majority of the courses provide students with skills in foreign languages (English, French, German, Italian, Greek, and Spanish), the rest of them aim to provide 18 19 20 O. Istrate, Educația la distanță. Proiectarea materialelor, București 2000 (Agata), p. 21. M. Tight, Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training, Routledge, London 1996; P. Armstrong, Rhetoric and Reification: Disconnecting Research, Teaching and Learning in the ‘Learning Society, Papers from the 28th Annual SCUTREA Conference. Research, Teaching and Learning: making connections in the education of adults July 6 – July 8 1998, University of Exeter, http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000706.htm, accessed 28.03.2017. According to A.I. Popescu, The Investigation of the Role..., p. 81. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N entreprenorial, project management skills, tourism management and guesthouse and hotel administration knowledge and abilities. There are also technical, trade, food courses, as well as courses in information technology (web design, programmer, computer assisted design).21 Last but not least, mention should be made of the participation of the adults in the programmes offered through the Lifelong Learning Programme of the European Comission, amnong which the most remarkable involvement is recorded within the Erasmus mobility programme for students and academic staff as well. Although the number of the adults involved in continuing education is not very big it is expected to increase in the future, taking into consideration the fact that boh universities and adult learners are motivated (financially – the universities and both financially and in the form of different types of benefits – the learners). Such forms of professional education are completed with qualification or graduation certificates and/or certificates of professional competences, which are nationally acknowledged. The aims of adult professional education refer to facilitating the social integration of the individuals in accordance with their professional desires and with the requirements on the work market. Other objectives are: to prepare the human resources capable of contributing to the increase in the work force competitivity, to update their knowledge and improve their the professional training in the current job as well as in connected fields of activity, to help them change qualification, because of economic reorganization, social mobility or modification of work capacity, to provide them with advanced knowledge, modern methods and techniques that will help them at work; last but not least, to promote lifelong education. The professional training for adults can be offered by physical or juridical persons, under public or private law established either in Romania or in another state from the European Union or from the European Economic Area, irrespective of their juridical form of organization. Such educational activities are to be done through programmes of professional training which include the totality of theoretical and/or practical activities with a view to achieve the competences aimed for a specific domain. There are different ways in which adult professional education can be held: through courses organized by providers of professional training, by an employer within their own organization; through traineships and 21 Ibidem, pp. 82–83. 44 45 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N internships in institutions from Romania or from abroad; through other forms of professional training (for example, through assessement centres of professional competences acquired by means of other type of education (non-formal, informal, etc). Upon written request of the beneficiaries, the courses can be delivered in a foreign language (that of an ethnic minority or of international circulation). The minimum duration of a qualification programme which ends with a qualification certificate recognized at the national level is of 360 hours for the first level of qualification (available for persons who have or have not graduated from the compulsory education programme); 720 hours for the second level of qualification (available only for persons with compulsory education graduation) and 1080 hours for the third level of qualification (condition of access: graduation from highschool or post-highschool studies). The period of the initiation, training and specialization programmes has no legal regulation; such programmes may have a duration of 40 up to 200 hours. 3. Tutoring – the Backbone of Support in Distance Classes The term tutor differs in acceptation depending on the geographical area. For example, in most American usage, it denotes an adviser who supports students. The European understanding is that of a qualified academic who teaches, some authors, avoiding the equivalent instructor for the reason that it seems to exaggerate the role of teaching in the learning process.22 In the Romanian view, the tutor is essential to consolidate learning in relation to technical issues, therefore he/she has a strategic importance. A good example that stresses this important role played by the tutor is offered by a sociological approach to distance education in Romania, which highlighted the fact that one of the drawbacks of this type of learning is represented by the costs with the fees, school supplies, technical equipment; last but not least by the supplementary individual and sustained study, generated by the group discontinuities of this type of learning.23 Specific to distance education is the study by fits and starts, which can generate the distortion of the communication message, as the volume and the dynamics of information acquisition doesn’t grant its correct understanding and utilization. Therefore, one has to underline once more the 22 23 B. Holmberg, op.cit., p. 10. S. Tomescu, Învăţământ deschis la distanţă: abordare sociologică, Elearning Romania, 2008, http://www.elearning.ro/invatamant-deschis-la-distanta-abordare-socio- PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N important mission of the tutor. It is their responsibility to fix these drawbacks and guide the learners properly, to bridge the gap between learners and their study materials. 3.1. Adult versus Child Differences in Teaching/Learning at a Distance Generally speaking, distance education in Romania is automatically associated to adult education, as hardly ever can one encounter situations when distance or geographical elements prevent children from attending normal school. Therefore, one raises the problem of the peculiarities of adult education at a distance: if children can easily be directed by educators, parents, etc, with adults things are different, as they are predominantly self-directed. Also, as opposed to children who are adaplable and open to any kind of new information, grown-ups may react differently, in that they may reject what they consider to be against their beliefs. Children seem to learn easier, while adults may resume school with different expectations due to their past experiences while at school (but they can learn just as well). Another issue to be taken into consideration when projecting distance courses is the fact that if children learn simply because they are told to and because someone else expects them to get good results at school that will help them in the future, with grown-ups it is different, as they want to reach a goal quicker, the time element being perceived differently (time is precious and the learning experience must bear fruit). Last but not least, no tutor should neglect the fact that if children at school are enrolled in similar age groups, sharing comparable backgrounds, and thus somehow sharing similar skills, no longer young learners have different ages, backgrounds, education levels and skills. Taking these differences seriously in the management of the activity with students at a distance will lead to success. 3.2. Specific Needs of the Students Related to Tutor Support and Course Design The remarkable issue regarding distance education is that one-to-one relation within which each student interacts with his/her tutor. The course materials are prepared especially for this type of learning, each of them being divided into parts of a suitable size and offering at the end of each unit self-checking exercises. The most common practice with distance logica, accessed 10.04.2017. 46 47 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N students is that after finishing studying a course, they are given a specific task which will be handed in/sent to the tutor, who will check it and then will return is to the author with the necessary comments. So, the functions of the tutor include beyond maintaining a healthy connection and collaboration between the institution and the students aspects such as: participation in students’evaluation, delivery of teaching activities, last but not least the social responsibility, viewed as the important task of democratizing and facilitating educational access.24 3.2.1. The Role of the Tutor in Romanian Acceptation The term of tutor in literature has a great variety of acceptations, experts trying to pinpoint their most important competetences. There can be distinguished several major roles of turors: administrator, facilitator, technical support provider, evaluator etc. The pedagogical and the social roles are of vital importance as well.25 The tutor has no correspondent in the classical education in Romania, he/she playing the role of counselor, adviser in a certain domain, of supporter and help for the student. Tutorial activities are intended to inform, advise and guide the students over the entire period of study, with the aim to facilitate their integration in the higher education system, their most appropriate didactic choices and to encourage training in a virtual environment. The team responsible for the tutorial activities is made up of: the tutor, the teacher who participates in the assisted activities and the subject coordinator. Among the many responsibilities of a tutor one can mention the requirement to treat all students equally, to respect the confidentiality principle referring to the students’ personal information they get within the process of counseling, to support students in every possible way by taying in touch with them and their needs, in other words to be the person most closely involved in their support. The ethical side of a tutor’s activity becomes in time mirrored in students, whose “ethical perceptions and behaviours during university education could be carried to their future careers.”26 It is a very sensitive 24 25 26 J.P.F. Borges, F.A. Coelho Junior, C. Faiad, N.F. da Rocha, Individual competences of distance education tutors, Educação e Pesquisa, vol. 40 (40) (2014), http://www. scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517–97022014000400005&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en, accessed 29.03.2017. Ch.Y. Yar, A. Asmuni, A.D. Silong, Roles and Competencies of Distance Education Tutors in a Public University, Malaysian Journal of Distance Education, vol. 10 (1) (2008), passim. H. Iberahim, N. Hussein, N. Samat, F. Noordin, N. Daud, Academic dishonesty: Why business students participate in these practices?, Procedia – Social and Behavioral PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N issue, especially if we tak into consideration “the symbolic violence that can take various forms in school-discriminatory attitudes and gestures.”27 In the traditional Romanian educational system there are two different types of learning offered to adults who cannot attend day courses: low frequency courses and courses at a distance. In both types, the tutor is the main connection between faculty and students, mediating discussions and making everything clear whenever students have questions or doubts. In both situations, the end of the courses is marked by the bachelor exam, which is held according to the same criteria as in the case of the day courses. Thus, the diploma obtained after the final exams has the same value for both day-courses and low frequency, respectively distance courses. This is so because of the specific of learning, in which the teaching activities are replaced by individual study combined with regular tutorial activities and aslo because of the compulsory character of all the didactic activities meant to develop competences and practical skills. With a view to improving the quality of the tutorial activities, every year students are asked to fill in a quationnaire in which they have to assess (A – very good, B – good, C – satisfactory, D – unsatisfactory) all the activities they took part in. For example, the assessed aspects in the questionnaire offered by the “Ștefan cel Mare” University of Suceava (Romania) are the following: 1. whether the timetable was respected; 2. if the goals of the discipline (as stated in the student’s guide, according to the syllabus) were reached through specific activities; 3. if the methods and strategies were adequate to the distance education requirements; 4. if the previous experience of the learners was used while teaching new units; 5. if the contents of the tutorial activities was in accordance with the scientific standards; whether the program of individual/group counselling (with a view to the way in which the self assessment assignments and the continuous evaluation tasks are to be done) was respected; whether th requirements in the homework were clearely formulated and correctly evaluated; whether students received a feed-back relaed to the way in which the assignments had been done; whether interested students received further bibliographical references and, last but not least, if the communication between the tutor and the sudents was effective (both face to face and in person). 27 Sciences, vol. 90 (2013), passim. D. Jeder, Teachers’ Ethic Responsiblities in the Practice of Education and Training, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 92 (2013), p. 434. 48 49 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N 3.2.2. Tutoring and the Miracle of Motivation If the functions of a tutor can be roughly classified as belonging to the cognitive (support for learning, course materials etc), affective (enhancing self-esteem, creating commitment etc) and systemic (help with the administrative aspects, information management etc) domains, mention should be made of the metacognitive and motivational support. By metacognitive help is is understood, according to O. Rourke, the ability to develop effective approaches to learning and recognize the significance of what has ben learned and how it can be applied in different contexts. In keeping with the motivational principle according to which “enthusiasm is contagious. So is boredom,”28 an important means of making students feel determined to overcome difficulties in learning is by using questions and examples. Here we have to lay the due emphasis upon the necessary behavioural competences of a tutor, who has the power to encourage the students to go on and not to give up. So, if technical comptences derive from a function’s specific knowledge and skills, the behavioural ones are based on more transversal skills as well as on attitudes. As opposed to the technical competences, considered to be position-proximal, as they are closely related to the tehnical characteristics of a hired person’s position, the behavioural ones are considered as “person-proximal (or position-distal), since they express characteristics more intrinsically related to the person occupying the position in the organization.”29 4. Conclusions It is true that the importance of learning, of education in general, has has been stressed since ancient times, but nowadays, with technology advancement and its implications, the need to update knowledge and abilities is necessary more than ever. We must be aware that the world of teaching has dramatically changed and as the world is changing rapidly and is becoming smaller, faster and more competitive, approaching education through non-formal activities is a reasonable attitude30 and that either done through non-formal, informal or formal learning, through in-service learning systems or through educational and vocational guid28 29 30 B.D. Willis, Distance Education: A Practical Guide, Englewood Cliffs 1993 (Educational Technology Publications), p. 90. J.P.F. Borges, F.A. Coelho Junior, C. Faiad. N,F. da Rocha, op.cit., p. 939. E.-M. Emandi, English Workshops for Primary School in Romania – A Privileged Didactic Activity, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Studies, vol. 203 (2015), p. 152. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N ing, lifelong education is a priority for action in nowadays Romanian society, as proved by the legal documents. In Socrate’s terms, education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel, therefore the concept, although emerged under a new name as far back as the 1960s, is not new. It was more clearly articulated, and thus brought to the fore, through the documents produced by the United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development which spoke out of the education as no longer limited to a particular age, as an attitude and dimension of life. In other words, the continuous acquiring of knowledge and skills all over an individual’s life can be viewed as the most appropriate type of education for the knowledge economy.31 As emphasized in this paper, there has always been education, either in its classical form or in other ways, but it is only recently that Romanian authorities included the principle of lifelong learning in legal documents, stressing its importance in the domain of education, permanent training and employment. Of no less importance is the recognition of the non-formal and informal education, of the educational and vocational guiding and counselling throughout life and of in-service learning systems. Specialists consider that for the progress of the Romanian educational system, it still needs the design of a strategy for its development that will contain a vision of its long-term objectives and plan for long-term and medium-termn actions necessary for their achievement.32 As emphasized by the majority of the approaches, distance education is but an open learning perspective that responds to the need of permanent adult education. Its effectiveness relies on the academic characteristics of the courses provided, on the interactivity and the quality of communication among students and between each student and the tutor. Therefore, tutors have a great responsibility, in that they need to offer academic support (and for this they must have an extensive understanding of the subject they teach); they also are to provide non-academic support, nurturing collaboration, building an atmosphere of partnership and understanding. This twofold mission is the basis of success for the students who also work and have a family/social life that doesn’t allow them to attend day courses. In this way we are in line with researchers (Lentel, Cowan) who placed emphasis on the fact that important though all the services offered in distance education are, however splendid the printed texts, and however smooth the organizational 31 32 A.I. Popescu, Lifelong Learning..., p. 50. Ibidem. 50 51 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N system, and however refined the quality measurement tools, it is the relationship between the tutor ad the learner that determines success or failure.33 5. References Aceleanu M.I., The role of lifelong learning in the growth of employment and labour efficiency. The case of Romania, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 46 (2012), pp. 4399–4403. Bădina O., Curticăpeanu V., Muster D., Neamțu O., Pedagogie socială – concepții, preocupări și experiențeîn România dintre cele două râzboaie mondiale, București 1970 (Editura Didactică și Pedagogică). Borges J.P.F., Coelho Junior F.A., Faiad C., da Rocha N.F., Individual competences of distance education tutors, Educação e Pesquisa, vol. 40 (2014), http:// www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517-97022014000400005&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en, accessed 29.03.2017. Denis B., Watland P., Pirotte S., Verday N., Roles and Competencies of the e-Tutor, Networked Learning Conference 2004, published online 30.03.2009, pp. 1–9, https://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/12722/1/DENIS_WATLAND_ PIROTTE_VERDAY_Roles_and_competencies_of_the_tutor_30_03_2009. pdf, accessed 11.04.2017. Emandi E.-M., English Workshops for Primary School in Romania – A Privileged Didactic Activity, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Studies, vol. 203 (2015), pp. 147–152. Going the Distance: Teaching, Learning and Research in Distance Education, ed. N. Hedge, University of Sheffield Division of Education Papers in Education, Sheffield 1996. Holmberg B., The Evolution, Principles and Practices of Distance Education, Studien und Berichte der Arbeitsstelle Fernstudienforschung der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, vol. 11, Oldenburg 2008. Hoppers W., Meeting the Learning Needs of All Young People and Adults: An Exploration of Successful Policies and Strategies in Non-formal Education (Background paper prepared for the Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2008 and Education for All by 2015: will we make it?), , npp. 2007 (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). Iberahim H., Hussein N., Samat N., Noordin F., Daud N., Academic dishonesty: Why business students participate in these practices?, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 90 (2013), pp. 152–156. 33 B. Denis, P. Watland, S. Pirotte, N. Verday, Roles and Competencies of the e-Tutor, Networked Learning Conference 2004, published online 30.03.2009, passim https:// orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/12722/1/DENIS_WATLAND_PIROTTE_VERDAY_ Roles_and_competencies_of_the_tutor_30_03_2009.pdf, accessed 11.04.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Istrate O., Educația la distanță. Proiectarea materialelor, București 2000 (Agata). Jeder D., Teachers’Ethic Responsiblities in the Practice of Education and Training, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 92 (2013), pp. 432–436. Law of National Education, Ministerul Educației, Cercetării, Tineretului și Sportului (Ministry of Education, Research, Youth and Sport), București 2011. Lisbon Strategy for Growth and Jobs, European Commission, Brussels 2000, https://portal.cor.europa.eu/europe2020/Profiles/Pages/TheLisbonStrategyinshort.aspx, accessed 28.03.2017. Lochards G., Boyer H., Comunicarea mediatică, Iași 1998 (Institutul European). Marinescu P.A., Educaţia la distanţă, https://www.academia.edu/7316986/Educatia_la_distanta, accessed 28.03.2017. A Memorandum on Lifelong Learning, European Comission, Brussels 2000, http://pjp-eu.coe.int/documents/1017981/1668227/COM_Sec_2000_1832. pdf/f79d0e69-b8d3-48a7-9d16-1a065bfe48e5, accessed 28.03.2017. Phipps R., Merisotis J., What’s the Difference? A Review of Contemporary Research on the Effectiveness of Distance Learning in Higher Education, Washington 1999 (The Institute for Higher Education Policy). Popescu A.I., Lifelong Learning in the Knowledge Economy: Considerations on the Lifelong Learning System in Romania from a European Perspective, Revista de Cercetare şi Intervenţie Socială, vol. 37 (2012), pp. 49–76. Popescu A.I., The Investigation of the Role of Universities in Providing Lifelong Learning in Romania, The European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, vol. 3 (2) (2011), pp. 77–86. Tight M., Key Concepts in Adult Education and Training, Routledge, London 1996; P. Armstrong, Rhetoric and Reification: Disconnecting Research, Teaching and Learning in the ‘Learning Society, Papers from the 28th Annual SCUTREA Conference. Research, Teaching and Learning: making connections in the education of adults July 6 – July 8 1998. University of Exeter, http://www.leeds. ac.uk/educol/documents/000000706.htm, accessed 28.03.2017. Willis B.D., Distance Education: A Practical Guide, Englewood Cliffs 1993 (Educational Technology Publications). Yar Ch.Y., Asmuni A., Silong A.D., Roles and Competencies of Distance Education Tutors in a Public University, Malaysian Journal of Distance Education, vol. 10 (1) (2008), pp. 21–39. 6. Summary A modern individual has to go to the level of continuous education in order to be prepared for the challenges of the present. Hence, distance education may seem the right answer in adult learning. An important role here is played by the tutor who acts as a professional mediator in the education process. So, it is worth ask- 52 53 E L E N A-M A R I A E M A N D I . D I S TA N C E E DU C AT I O N ing and considering the goals and benefits of distance education in Romania. It is only recently that the Romanian authorities have incorporated the principle of lifelong learning, stressing its importance in education. Distance education is an open perspective for learning and responds to the need for adult education. Therefore, tutors have responsibility for teaching and academic support. Looking Broader: Rhetorics as Soft Skills Competence Development I N G R I DA TAT OLY T Ė Vilnius keywords . soft skills competence, tutoring, rhetoric, translation studies, interpreting The goal of this study is to showcase Rhetorics as a discipline facilitating acquisition and enhancement of soft skills competence. It is based on my observations and experience of teaching Rhetoric for more than 12 years at 4 European universities, and on the feedback by my former students illuminating the contribution of the course on rhetoric to their professional career and social advancement. I expect that this study being far from comprehensive can shed some light on the potential of rhetorics as a discipline in relation to the intricate matter of training and assessing of soft skills. I am fully aware that it has to be supported and tested against further interviews and questionnaires. Yet complexity of both, rhetorics as a ‘method’ and soft skills as an object, invites for more in-depth, qualitative analysis of alumni’s accounts of a more informal nature. Furthermore, the very notion of soft skills, and respectively the soft skills competence, has to be rediscussed in this context. Finally, I share a few practical notes on how rhetorical training adds on the development of skills of a rather broad application.1 The course of Practical Rhetoric I taught can be treated as one case. It indicates having a small group of attendants; usually not more than 12–13 students, therefore any collected data will be relatively small. However the continuous feedback I compiled through the years in the form of assessing progress after the coursework, reiterative accounts via e-mail, interviews focusing on a particular skill or issue, and recommendations for the course results in the crystallization of certain tendencies and trac1 I sincerely thank Silvia Piccini, Jolanta Saldukaitytė and Ziyad Hayatli for all their insights, ideas and engagement into discussions on the topic, as well as Jake Robertson for making me acquainted with his approach to the subject and ongoing unpublished research. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N ing the impact of the course. The latter is ever so more valuable as it was first formulated by its former attendants as their own reflections. 1. The background for the study: lessons we learn from our students The idea of this study, as many other ideas, was inspired by my former students. In 2005, I was invited to teach a subject at the Department of Translation and Interpretation Studies at Vilnius University, Lithuania, which I decided to call Practical Rhetoric for Interpreters. The course I created underwent numerous changes and had been constantly improved throughout the years. The introduced changes and later developments were in many cases influenced by the remarks, feedback and observations given by the students of the course. Further, I made my own discoveries of certain gaps and patterns in their previous education, from which I derived the needs for insuring better performance in their future work. What I have learnt from them later was that the course allowed them to develop applicable skills in their future occupations even when they continued their careers in a different field. That is to say that not all of my students pursued an interpreter’s career. On the other hand, some of them who came from other disciplines became translators or interpreters, or otherwise clung to other guises of the craft of letters. In addition, some of the students felt encouraged to nurture their interest in rhetorical analysis, public speaking, debating and engaged in civic activities during and after their studies at university. In their feedback my former students mentioned a vast range of skills developed during the course, which they used later in their day-to-day work. Some of those skills were qualified as professional skills by them and could be treated as such; these are the skills they employ in their capacity as interpreters or translators. Other skills were identified by them as skills enhancing their performance in public and their ability to express themselves orally; those skills could be easily addressed to the very nature of the subject of Rhetoric. Yet some of the mentioned skills and competences acquired were rather of a broader nature. This broadness was also reflected in the students’ remarks about the impact of the course on the growth of their personality, the nature of the course, and methods of teaching they found likable. They adapted some of those methods within their own teaching, coaching, leadership or communication of any sort. Curiously enough, most of the skills mentioned in all three groups could be treated as partial- 56 57 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R ly belonging to the group of ‘professional skills’ crucial for the job of interpreter, skills that could be covered by the term of ‘rhetorical,’ and so called ‘soft skills’ at the same time. I will address this issue further in the article, but it is worth mentioning that this situation occurs due to the fact that in a broader sense, some ‘professional skills’ in the job of an interpreter (i. e. skills that qualify an incumbent as an interpreter) are soft skills in other professions (even though this approach might be argued by some scholars in Translation Studies, see further); such as confidence in oral communication in public, excellent analytical skills and high level of expression in mother tongue and foreign language. For instance, the ability to speak in public and a certain degree of confidence in doing it is an essential skill for an interpreter and constitutes a part of their professional competence. It follows that a person who is afraid of speaking in public and bad at interaction can not become a good interpreter because interpreting by definition implies oral communication for a certain audience. These skills partially also belong to the field of rhetoric; to be an excellent performer in oratory and rhetorical analysis one has to be able to fluently express themselves in a given language and perform in public, or have a good command of critical thinking and know how to analyse the text. But in contemporary education and a competitive market, some of these skills are treated as ‘soft skills;’ that is hard to measure, assess and train. In essence, my former students’ accounts demonstrate that the course on Practical Rhetoric enhanced their acquisition of professional and soft skills. The latter are the skills that are hard to define and measure; nevertheless such skills can be summarized by students in their feedback and reflection on their progress in relation to the course. In his recommendation for the course, my former student from Tallinn University, Mr Oscar Vilson, emphasizes that the skills obtained helped him with his overall studies and at work, and continue to contribute to his professional development2: I was very honoured to be Ingrida’s student as her course in practical rhetoric was an essential part of my postgraduate program in conference interpreting. I really appreciate the way she gives every student a chance to open up and to discover one’s strongest sides and encourages to use them. What I got from her classes really helped me with my overall studies and at work, and continues to contribute to my professional development. 2 All the former students’ accounts and excerpts from their feedback are quoted with their written permission. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to them for their enthusiasm and support in providing all the information required, their permissions and further feedback shared in the course of writing this article. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Oscar Vilson, Operations Administrator at Private Flight Global Limited, Australia; holds an MA in Conference Interpreting, and took the 6 weeks intensive course on Practical Rhetoric within the framework of his MA studies in Conference Interpreting at Tallinn University, Estonia, in 2014 (Recommendation. LinkedIn, February 1, 2017) As a teacher I was not only happy to realize that my work was appreciated and proved to contribute positively to the development of the future career of my student, but I also discovered that the aspects highlighted in Oscar’s account were the method or rather approach towards teaching, the role of the course in the overall curriculum, the impact of the course on the growth of personality and the potential of the broad application of the material received. These are the major points that summed up most of the accounts provided by my students. In one of the e-mails I exchanged with my former students from the University of Novi Sad, who took a course within their BA or MA programme in English Philology3, one of them confided in me that the course helped her to gain self-confidence and improve her communication skills: (...) It did help me a lot in overcoming some public speaking problems, gaining self-confidence and generally improving my spoken communication skills. (...) I never got to be an actual interpreter, but I had many opportunities to apply the skills I gained during the course in real life, and I often talk about it with my friends hoping that such pieces of advice could help them become better at public speaking. Bojana Dobran, senior Marketing Specialist at phoenixNAP USA, Serbia; holds an MA in English Language and Literature, and took the 5 weeks intensive course on Practical Rhetoric as an independent 3 The course was given within the Joint EU-SEE Erasmus Mundus mobility exchange programme. The Bachelor’s programme in English Language and Literature in Novi Sad lasted 4 years, and had a track of Translation on the 3rd and 4th year of the studies (the other tracks being Linguistics, Literature and Pedagogy). The subsequent MA studies in philology lasted 1 year. The students who attended the course chose it voluntarily as an independent coursework. Among the attendants there were both MA and BA students from different years of the study. Some of the alumni of the programme, who were already working as translators or interpreters at the time, found the information on the course on the university websites and joined in. The course was also attended by Erasmus students and students from other than philology studies. Therefore the audience of the course constituted a mixture of young undergraduates and experienced professionals of different backgrounds. 58 59 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R coursework during her BA studies at English Language and Literature at the University of Novi Sad, Serbia, on her 3rd year of studies in 2010 (Excerpt from the feedback via e-mail, September 26, 2014) This particular account shows that the course had a long-lasting effect in realizing the importance of certain aspects of communication, and a vast range of application of said aspects in ‘real life.’ A few years later this insight was supported by the same alumnus in her further remark: I am still interested in rhetoric and analysing people’s public speaking skills, as I am more and more aware how important this is in professional environment.4 What was stressed by Bojana, was not only the impact of the training on her character as a performer, but also her willingness to pass the knowledge on to others in need of certain public demeanour, as her following comment shows:...one of my colleagues recently has been preparing a speech in front of a large audience and I was happy to share with her some tips I learned from you.5 A couple of aspects mentioned above are worth elaborating in this chapter due to the students’ take on them. First is the way the course impacts the growth of personality and enhances certain skills and abilities. One of the character qualities mentioned by most of the students of Interpreting in their feedback is their courage to speak up. Courage and confidence in oral presentation is one of the generic qualities crucial for any job related to oral communication, presentation and interaction in a broader sense. This is the quality that is very hard to train and assess, since it implies a lot of introspection and self-assessment on behalf of the speaker. Yet the audience can have a different perception of the speaker’s performance, and can provide its own assessment of the speaker’s persona in terms of their courage and confidence in their presentation. At the same time it requires some balancing with the development of self-criticism and ability to take criticism. Overlooking one of those qualities might not achieve the desired result, since in most of the professions linked to communication both of the faculties, confidence and ability to take criticism, are crucial for a good performance. In the run of the course students usually were asked to provide their own remarks on their improvement. During the course, one of the first skills the students developed was their attention to their own utterance, in other words ‘attentive 4 5 Bojana Dobran, feedback via e-mail, 25.05.2017. Ibidem. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N listening;’ hence they provided critical remarks about their own presentations. In their later feedback they shared their impressions about how they felt about their own presentations in the final element of the course, what improvement they noticed, and what were their mistakes or imperfections in presentation. Most of them stressed how they felt seeing or hearing their own mistakes. The reactions appeared to be polar opposite; some admitted that they were still afraid of facing their own mistakes (i. e. listening to their own speeches or seeing the videos of their presentations), and by doing so getting discouraged to speak up in the future. Others, on the contrary, were excited about the opportunity to learn and overcome their shortcomings for the better future results. The case of courage, confidence and ability to take criticism is particularly interesting because even though just a few of the students literally mentioned the latter in these precise words, most of them touched upon their own self-critical approach towards their speeches and the quality of presentation (i. e. their performance in public) in general. Furthermore, they contemplated on how this approach might influence their future confidence. In contrast, their development in ability to take criticism could be clearly observed by the lecturers and outstood in comparison with the students who did not take the course or took a similar course without emphasis on the development of such a skill. However the students’ feeling of growing courage was best assessed by themselves, and only partially showed through their presentations, mainly in their confidence and stance. It shows that courage6 being a much broader, essentially inner quality, covering more than just a professional field, is harder for a teacher to assess based on skills assessment criteria. Nevertheless, again, it can be reflected on rather directly in students’ accounts or interviews. What makes this issue even more interesting is that the graduates note the link between courage and confidence on one hand and their professional performance on the other, and sometimes even stress that their 6 The virtue of courage, and the complex nature of it, occupies the thinkers and researchers for centuries, from Aristotle to contemporary educational psychology. In his Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle chooses to discuss courage first, from all the moral virtues that we can voluntarily cultivate into our character or habit (Book III.6, as in The Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, transl. F.H. Peters, London 1906 [Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Ltd.]), p. 80 onwards. A ‘fear’ of public speaking relates to the fear of disgrace in Aristotelian terms and a fear of ‘losing face’ in more modern pragmatic terms. In the context of public presentation it brings us back to the prospect of working on other qualities needed in order to avoid disgrace or losing one’s face, as well as to deliver a more preferable presentation and create a desirable public image. 60 61 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R courage and confidence in oral presentation allow them to obtain certain job positions which otherwise are hard to attain due to the tough competition, hostile environment or restricting conditions. In other words, their confidence in speaking in public becomes the crucial competence, which distinguishes them from other incumbents and guarantees them their jobs. Hence, the gained quality of courage falls into the category of the skills indicating the growth of personality and a potential of professional and broader application at the same time. It also shows the importance of the development of such skills within the university curriculum and their perceived relation to the professional competence. To illustrate it, quite a few students mentioned in their feedback that due to the very fact that they took the course in Practical Rhetoric, which implied working on their skills to perform in public, they were granted with a stipend for studies abroad or were considered as preferred applicants for a job. One particular case is that of Ms Hana El Farra, a graduate from the University of Novi Sad, who due to her unusual cultural background, personal interest in her studies and profession, as well as high level of self-assessment, became my main informant. Throughout the years she provided me with an extensive and consistent feedback, evaluations and reflections on the course in the form of in-depth interviews, comments, recommendations and shared impressions via e-mails and conversations. Consequently she became a case study to establish the impact and reception of the course, defining its long-term effect, and an awareness of its essential aspects. Simultaneously, her case illuminated the lasting outcome of the course and the ways it influenced career advancement. Even though I am aware that this is only one case study, it can be treated as at least partially representative because it is supported by the accounts of other students and provides in-depth comments into the aspects mentioned by them. Therefore, I will refer to Hana El Farra’s case a few more times further in the article. Hana El Farra took the course as an independent coursework when she studied English Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, in 2010. At the time she attended the course she was at her 4th year of BA studies, and pursued the track of Translation, which embraced both written translation and oral interpretation. Later on, she continued her studies in MA in English Philology, and took a particular interest in the ethics of interpretation and moral dilemmas an interpreter faces in particular communicational situations, which became PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N her research topic.7 At present she works as a professional translator and interpreter, and further nourishes her academic interests in the said field. In her recommendation to the course, given in 2014, Hana writes: During my undergraduate studies at the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, Serbia, I attended a course entitled ‘Practical Rhetoric to Interpreters’ (...). I would highly recommend attending that course. Thanks to Miss Ingrida’s passionate, skilled and professional approach I can honestly say that I have overcome my fear of public speaking, I feel more confident and I learned how to act when delivering a speech. I have since gone to become a professional interpreter and I believe having that course under education in my CV has helped me when applying for jobs. Hana El Farra, translator and interpreter at the Embassy of the State of Qatar in Belgrade, Serbia; holds an MA in English Philology, and took the 5 weeks intensive course on Practical Rhetoric as an independent coursework during her BA studies at English Language and Literature at the University of Novi Sad, Serbia, on her 4th year of studies in 2010 (Recommendation. LinkedIn, January 21, 2014) As it can be observed, this account suggests that the course contributed crucially to Hana’s cultivation of the faculty of courage and growing confidence in public performance. In some of her more recent interviews she elaborates that, consequently, these skills positively impacted her professional career. She notes that in some cases the determining competence governing the decision of assigning the highest rank tasks to her was in line with her possession of courage and know-how to handle speaking in public, in front of cameras and in the vicinity of VIPs: definitely – I think the approach of filming us giving our speeches helped a lot in that aspect [of building courage]... Now I can handle myself in front of cameras and next to VIP’s which is something I wouldn’t have dared in the past.8 In summary, the qualities and skills that otherwise are hard to achieve through professional subject-related training only, proved to be of a vital importance for professional advancement and were noted as trained with help of the course in rhetoric by its attendants. The nature and curriculum of the MA and BA programmes was different in different countries. Therefore the students who took the course were of different ages, had a different cultural background, range of life experience and expertise in 7 8 In 2014, she presented her paper ‘Politics and the Ethics of Interpreting’ at the 3rd IATIS Regional Workshop in Novi Sad, Serbia. Account via e-mail, 26.05.2017. 62 63 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R other fields, preferences, inclinations and developed skills, held different degrees of interest relating to a future profession in interpreting or translating, and showed differing levels of performance in their studies. For example, MA students of Translation and Interpretation at Vilnius University came from different fields; such as economics, journalism, law, political science, different philologies, and sometimes from arts or physical sciences. Some of the students at Tallinn University already had years of experience living, studying or working abroad and spoke many languages fluently; Oscar Vilson (quoted above) is one of them. The others, as Ms Hana El Farra, came from a very different cultural background and were challenged to adapt to a different discursive culture, and therefore had to work on particular skills required in it such as courage and boldness to speak in public given certain conditions. A number of the students across all the universities had had some experience of translation and interpretation, and sought improvement in their profession. These might be important characteristics for assessment of how much the course influenced them and what basis of knowledge they had already held before their studies.9 Yet the accounts which I have received in the following years show that to a certain degree, influence of the course can be observed in all the students regardless of their differences, though the skills mentioned and self-awareness of their improvement may vary. 2. Re-introducing soft skills: How soft is soft and what is their role in the university curriculum? The discussion around soft skills is tightly linked to the rise of competence- (or competency- as defined in other sources) based model of learning. The terms competence and competency are used interchangeably (sometimes even within the same study); one or another term being more preferred at different times or by speakers of British or American English respectively. Yet the neighbour9 For this reason and in order to show the spectrum of the recipients of the course, I attempt to provide as much information about the students I quote as I can. Particularly, I register their current occupation, the level of studies at which the course was given, the length of the course, the name of the programme they studied and their place of studies. I also mark the year they took the course and the year they provided their feedback to demonstrate their awareness and the duration of the impact. It needs to be noted that their occupations and positions changed in years; in some cases informants held a different position or were working at a different workplace when they provided their feedback. The positions provided above are current and are employed to show the range of occupation and, more generally, career advancement of alumni. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N hood of two terms used in the same context for a period of time led some authors to suggest that there is a distinction to be made between them.10 Nevertheless there is no consensus among academics as to which of the terms corresponds with which notion. The difference can be drawn between a more abstract use of competence as an aggregated capacity to perform, for instance at a workplace, covering various skills needed, awareness of possessing such skills, intention to use them and experience of using them. In this sense it is usually referred to as professional competence. Another notion is linked to a particular set of skills needed to perform a certain task; in this sense competence is treated as more concrete, definable aspect and acquires a countable use. Keeping those two notions in mind, the abstract professional competence comprises different particular competences (such as socio-emotional competences, cognitive competences and the like). Being examined in different fields (applied linguistics, cognitive sciences, psychology and educology among others) the notion of competence can cover slightly different aspects of professional and more generally individual performance. The studies of expert knowledge in cognitive psychology focus on expert performance which could be associated with the broader notion of professional competence, since expert performance there ‘represents the highest performance possible, given current knowledge and training methods in the domain’,11 and distinguishes expert performers from those less outstanding and other individuals. It stresses that expert knowledge ‘comprises a wide range of knowledge organized in complex structures; it may be applied to solve problems; it requires a high degree of metacognition; and it is an acquired competence’.12 The researchers in the field make a point that ‘even when scientific investigators’ ultimate goal is to describe and understand everyday skills, they are more likely to succeed by studying expert performance than by examining everyday skills because the former is acquired under much more controlled and better understood conditions and achieved at higher levels of proficiency in a specific domain’.13 In other words, such studies can shed 10 11 12 13 See, for instance, T. Teodorescu, Competence versus Competency: What is the Difference, Performance Improvement, vol. 45 (10) (2006), pp. 27–30. K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, Expert Performance: Its Structure and Acquisition, American Psychologist, vol. 49 (8) (1994), p. 744. A.H. Albir, Competence, [in:] Handbook of Translation Studies. Volume 1, eds. Y. Gambier, L. van Doorslaer, Amsterdam–Philadelphia 2010 (John Benjamins Publishing Company), p. 55. K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, op.cit., p. 745. 64 65 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R the light onto how certain characteristics and skills can be acquired, developed, and brought into fruition in the most efficient way, what training methods are most effective and what is the impact of environment on the acquisition and realization of such skills. In work psychology, and accordingly in management and human resources, similar to pedagogy which strives to prepare qualified employees, professional competence generally means to know how to do. In most of the cases it covers both: A broader notion of competence as abilities and skills in combination with knowledge used in certain situations, and more particular competences, subject-specific competences on one hand and generic competences on the other, constituting this broad competence. Even though this discussion about the term and notion of competence stretches beyond the goal and limitations of this study, it reflects on the complexity of the matters discussed. This complexity resonates with the subsequent discussion about so called soft skills. Very generally, the relation between competence in the narrower sense and skills can be put as follows: Competence is skills used with awareness and intent (in combination with knowledge and experience in using them). In education the shift to competence-based models means a shift to skills training. Furthermore, this shift indicates the need to possess certain skills that do not belong to subject-specific competence, and falls into the category of generic competence. Therefore in addition to subject-specific competence and skills, a future professional should acquire and develop such skills that are generic yet crucial for his better performance and advancement of career. Thus accordingly, skills fall into category of hard skills (those linked directly to subject-specific competences) and soft skills (generic for good performance yet not subject-related). However, this distinction between hard and soft skills is not so clear; hard skills initially being associated with the high level of technical knowledge requiring professions are usually easier to be defined when such professions are taken in mind. Yet in humanities and strangely enough in business and management, the distinction between hard and soft skills is rather a blurred than a distinct line; for instance, fluency in oral and written verbal expression, which is a generic competence in most of professions, is a subject-related competence in philology, in particular for such professions as a writer, literary reviewer and alike. Yet being a crucially professional skill it is still defined rather as a soft skill than a hard skill. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N There is not much agreement about the classification of the soft skills, too. In very general terms, they are usually grouped into cognitive skills, socio-emotional skills, communicative skills, cultural skills, etc. Some distinguish a separate group of such skills as management skills, presentation skills, and even more specific skills needed for certain professions (speed in learning political network). There were attempts to group the skills and their models to cover a different number of skills; from the 12 socio-emotional competences model by Daniel Goleman, encompassing 4 groups of competences distinguishing best performed leaders, to extensive 87 soft skills models and others. The groups split into subgroups and so on. The assignment of one or another skill to a certain model is inconsistent as well. It seems that on the market related to business training and performance there is little agreement whether some of soft skills should be seen as professional or not.14 The one thing authors seem to agree about is that the very term of soft skills indicates certain illusiveness and fluidity of the notion. That is to say, it is not quite clear which skills to be treated as soft and how many and which of them we are talking about. Furthermore, the recent discussion introduces so called softer than soft skills, also referred as core skills, touching upon the fundamental principles of human behaviour; values, beliefs, principles, concepts of transpersonal wellbeing (for instance, society) and actualization (for instance, order). The core skills are absorbed and developed from childhood and deeply enrooted within cultural, religious and societal contexts. Any elaboration on the possible development of such skills, and hence modification of those background principles, for the needs of better performance raises profound ethical questions. When do such values have to be formed and by whom? Is it correct to introduce any change of them on the higher levels of education? Does not the formatting of such skills with the view of any work or social prospects hit the margin of social engineering? These are but a few issues to be accountable for, given we follow the trend. As it follows, asides from being hard to define, another characteristic of soft skills in comparison with hard ones is a difficulty in training and assessing them. With the rise of a competence-based model of education, training of soft skills was introduced to all levels of education. Yet some of the skills in focus touch the innate qualities, temperamental dispositions 14 Cf. the skills inventory provided on the webpage https://training.simplicable.com/ training/new/87-soft-skills, among others, accessed 20.05.2017. 66 67 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R and general features of the character; their performance can depend on a broader environment and matching of those qualities with the task.15 The question remains relevant – which skills ought to be introduced on which level of education? Putting it in plain language: When is the optimal time to enhance such qualities as confidence, verbal expression, empathy and the like? With the concept of life-long learning one can argue that ‘it is never too late.’ Yet others can stress that ‘the earlier the better,’ hence development of such skills is introduced on the level of primary and pre-school education. Curiously, since development of skills to the level of obtaining certain competence implies a high level of self-awareness, it seems that many of them can be trained best (or rather in the best assessable way) on the level of a higher or vocational education as supplementary to training of professional subject-related skills. Trained in combination and in relation to subject-related skills they also could facilitate the application of subject-related skills in the most desirable way at a particular professional or civic environment. Here comes the trend to introduce the soft skills training to the university curricula. As mentioned above, this trend is not new: For instance, the case of the research commissioned by the Scottish Council for Research in Education in 198316 and the pre-existing research by Paul Pottingen, David McClelland and other American counterparts, referred to in the introduction to the study,17 could serve. Nevertheless it appears that there is a lot of excitement about (re)introducing soft skills training on the university level and more specifically for the training of leadership in business. Among all the debates, the accounts of the young people, assigning themselves to the generation Y, show up as those which recognize the discussion on soft skills as rather old-fashioned and highlight the generational gap in terms of acquisition and realization of the need for such skills at a workplace.18 This particular discussion focuses around the problem of the lack of such skills on behalf of the youth, and consequently their difficulties 15 16 17 18 Cf. K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, op.cit., passim. L.M. Spencer, Soft Skill Competencies: Their Identification, Measurement and Development for Professional, Managerial, and Human Services Jobs, Edinburgh 1983 (Scottish Council for Research in Education). See J. Raven, Introductory Note and Postscript, [in:] L.M. Spencer, Soft Skill Competencies: Their Identification, Measurement and Development for Professional, Managerial, and Human Services Jobs, Edinburgh 1983 (Scottish Council for Research in Education), pp. I–IV. See B. Tulgan, Bridging the Soft Skills Gap: How to Teach the Missing Basics to Today’s Young Talent, Hoboken–New Jersey 2015 (Jossey-Bass. ProQuest). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N to adjust at a workplace, illuminating the lack of understanding on both sides whether such skills are trained and if so what is the outcome of such training. On the other end of the argument, in recent years studies have found that focus on soft skills is overrated in terms of best performance, yet they, too, highlight our bigger trust in soft skills than in actual knowledge and expertise.19 The others claim that competence in general is only one of the elements securing best performance in addition to capability and motivation, and the actual performance might depend a lot on the physical conditions at a workplace.20 The other problem in focus is that the training of soft skills is ‘soft,’ too. There are no strict ways of inducing such skills in pupils or students. Most soft skills are acquired in the long term, and through every day practice, can be turned into a habitual behaviour in response to certain situations. The acquisition of them requires experience in applying them. The behavioural patterns should be informed and supported by the corresponding knowledge. And vice versa knowledge (know-what) should be supplemented by the means and ways (know-how) of application of it to practice to the best end. In respect of these specifics, any higher level education does not provide enough time to establish a habit due to the limited duration of any course. However it allows expecting certain level of awareness of the need of such practice on behalf of the students. Hence it relies on the guidelines from the teacher towards how to further train such qualities independently, and on the persistence of the learners. The first attempts to construct the soft skills assessment models appeared with the shift to competence-based education. The assessment refocused on measuring operant performance rather than recognition of effective performance.21 These models were developed to assess the level of a skill in possession, and were supposed to be used by teachers (to measure a final result) and by employers (to measure a desirable result). Yet they did not include self-assessment. Since these models of assessment of soft skills were proposed they have undergone extensive elab19 20 21 See M. Tarakci, L.L. Greer, P.J.F. Groenen, When Does Power Disparity Help or Hurt Group Performance?, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 101 (3) (2016), pp. 415–429; here again, competence stands for professional competence, which according to the authors does not comprise leadership skills. D.T. Tosti, J. Amarant, Energy Investment Beyond Competence, Performance Improvement, vol. 44 (1) (2005), pp. 17–22; S.L. Gander, Beyond Mere Competency: Measuring Proficiency with Outcome Proficiency Indicator Scales, Performance Improvement, vol. 45 (4) (2006), pp. 38–44. Cf. L.M. Spencer, op.cit., passim. 68 69 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R oration, and now businesses when recruiting the employees can rely on combination of parametric and non-parametric techniques.22 Yet again, these models, even when declared are not necessarily employed by Human Resources, and diverge in policies and in practice.23 But whatever models of assessment are proposed, in terms of in-action soft skills based education and its results, it seems that there is a lack of proofs that the actual input of the educators pays off, which is widely reported in OECD skills studies, and in a way noted in the mentioned book.24 The tracing of the impact of certain elements of curriculum in the higher education is secured by the attempt of maintaining long-term feedback on behalf of the former students, recurrent in-depth interviews of alumni and their employers, surveys and questionnaires to assess the enhancement of certain skills as a direct impact of a course, following an alumni’s career and other means. This particular feedback is fruitful when the awareness of the obtained and used skills, as well as the level of self-assessment are rather high, which is an expected outcome of a higher education in general terms. However, no matter how much required for the recognition of higher education curricula, the genuine, continued feedback is hard to maintain and very much depends on the established one-to-one relation between an educator and a student. Therefore any more extensive feedback provided in a less formal way, as a result of a teacher-student confidence, containing the high level of self-awareness and self-assessment, as well as the analysis of the skills obtained and their importance in further career and life (contrary to questionnaires and surveys directing towards certain preferences among the limited choice of options) is a valuable material for the qualitative study. It is also important to stress once again that this particular assessment is conducted within the boundaries, albeit blurred, of the domain of a professional education and professional field of application of skills obtained. Let me support these deliberations with the example I am most familiar with; introducing soft skills to Translation Studies. As I mentioned above, the definition of what is professional competence in the field of translation varies. The broad account on different approaches 22 23 24 Cf. Goleman and Boyatzis’s 360 degrees rating instrument. Cf. A.K. Touloumakos, Now You See It, Now You Don’t: The Gap between the Characteristics of Soft Skills in Policy and in Practice. Thesis (D. Phil.), Oxford 2011 (University of Oxford). B. Tulgan, op.cit., passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N to it is given by Albir25, who, echoing the said above, stresses that ‘the complex, diverse nature of translation competence makes it difficult to define’.26 Further on it covers a wide range of skills, diverse knowledge and, according to PACTE model, psycho-physiological mechanisms.27 First though, there should be a difference highlighted between translation and interpretation as different modes, since they require slightly different set of skills and abilities, but I will not go into it further. As Albir notes, most of these competence models are componential, i. e. comprised of subcompetences. These models, with some variations across the theories (behavioural and relevance theory among them), cover an extensive list of skills required. Even though they are grouped into subcompetences, there is no any distinction between soft and hard skills made, and they are treated as equally important components of the professional translation competence. The only non-componential model mentioned is the one by Pym, who identifies two major skills; an ability to create more than one viable target texts for the pertinent source text, and an ability to choose one of them quickly and with justified confidence.28 In a way his model could be treated as defining hard skills in translation. Beginning in the 1970s, this interest in translation competence gained its momentum in the 1990s, and most studies referred to by Albir are from recent years. This is why it is not surprising that the models discussed already attempt to cover soft skills. Subsequently the proposed models of acquisition of translation competence take them into account, too. What it means for the university curriculum in Translation Studies is that soft skills training should be included into the professional training. Furthermore, the need in training of soft skills is invoked by the changes of EPSO exams which recently turned its focus on the applicants’ softs skills possession. Yet it raises certain questions about who and how should train such skills. Here Translation and Interpretation should be treated differently (even though EPSO requirements foresee certain possession of soft skills by both, interpreters and translators), and I will concentrate only on the case of Interpretation. 25 26 27 28 A.H. Albir, op.cit., passim. Ibidem, p. 56. PACTE 2003, p. 58, cited ibidem, p. 57. A. Pym, Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age: In Defence of a Minimalist Approach, Meta, vol. 48 (4) (2003), pp. 481–497. 70 71 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R Interpreters’ training is conducted within small groups of students, with substantial attention to each individual case. Most of the skills required are well covered due to this personal approach of a trainer and extensive training with the focus on obtaining a habit-level skill to perform certain tasks. To be more precise they are developed simultaneously while subject-related training is provided. However, the primary task of a trainer in interpretation is to train what could be considered hard skills whilst not necessarily raising awareness towards obtaining soft skills; in order to reach the best results in their step by step training trainers keep their students’ focus elsewhere. This encourages the quest for professionals. For that reason, the Department of Translation and Interpretation Studies of Vilnius University decided to introduce the subject of Practical Rhetoric. To my knowledge, a few more universities recognized a need for Rhetoric in the form of a course or manual for interpreters for the same reason (Comenius University, Slovakia; the University of Westminster, JK; Tallinn University, Estonia, and the University of Novi Sad, Serbia, among them). First proposed as an experimental course, Practical Rhetoric has stayed on Vilnius University curriculum for more than a decade, proving to be efficient and supplementing professional training. As the interview with Ms Hana El Farra shows, rather than being a hard line the distinction between hard and soft skills in Interpreting is associated with complimenting disciplines, and the progress in acquisition of both skills is attributed to the efforts of tutors teaching them: Two things (actually two people) influenced me greatly (...). I am very passionate about interpreting and Terry’s [Terence McEneny’s29] lectures helped me develop my skills and taught me the basics of the profession, while (...) your course in Rhetoric helped me get the confidence to be able to execute my job and opened my mind to different approaches (...) to the profession itself. So if Terry taught me how to act while working and how to take notes, you in turn helped me find the courage to stand in front of a crowd, but also made me think about the values behind what is being said or delivered at that moment.30 29 30 Terence McEneny, professional translator and interpreter, now a sworn court interpreter in the USA, was a lecturer of Interpreting on the Translation track at the University of Novi Sad in 2010. Interview via e-mail, 26.05.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N 3. Why Rhetoric? Rhetoric as a technique and discipline of persuasion, argumentation and public speaking emerged with Athenian and Syracusan democracies, and in a way cements their foundation. It assigns a lot of power to verbal expression and it has been criticized for this from its very occurrence. It also associates the power of a word with directly resulting action: For good or for bad, ‘good’ persuasion is the one which reaches its ends. The confidence placed on verbal manipulation and juggling arguments instead of a quest for truth has been seen as a threat from the very beginning. Paradoxically, due to this immediately attracted critique, rhetoric bears a huge potential of critical thinking and self-scrutiny. Being criticized for digression from morals and truths, it consequently raises awareness of values and stances behind statements. More over the very technique of argumentation, which lies at the heart of any public argument, represents the general model of human thinking; constant movement between logoi and anti-logoi, argument and counterargument, particularization and generalization mirrors the process of thought. Rhetoric is exteriorisation of this process through the vehicle of language. Hence, as an intrinsic movement between opposing sides (within one’s thinking process, structuring of an argument or an open debate with the other party), rhetoric is essentially dialogical. For this study particularly, it is crucially important that rhetoric, apart from being linked to democracy and politics, is also intertwined with pedagogy. The very term of rhetoric is coined to embrace all the existing techniques of teaching and exploiting of effective public (political or judicial) speaking practices.31 As a teaching technique, being popularized by sophists, travelling teachers of culture, rhetoric and politics, it lies at the ground of the first ever general education, as we understand it now. It also serves the all embracing pedagogical project of Athenian democracy; with the legislative and executive power delivered to the citizens of polis instead of mere professionals in the field, citizens had to be educated towards how to execute this power through public debates, i. e. they had to be trained in rhetoric. One can say that, in the modern terms, rhetorical competence was seen as generic; an underlying qualification necessary for any participation in public life. 31 More on the probable origin of the term see G.A. Kennedy, A New History of Classical Rhetoric. Princeton–New Jersey 1994 (Princeton University Press), p. 7. 72 73 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R There were different techniques employed for teaching and learning rhetoric (and most of them are still used by contemporary educators), as well as there were schools of rhetoric established, yet the most preferable way of teaching for sophists, same as their critics, was a direct teacher-to-student communication. This is another aspect of a dialogical root of rhetoric. Initially, rhetoric, same as dialectics, was being taught through the dialogue between a teacher and a student. Even though rhetoric was criticized by Socrates and Plato for not leading to the truth, it rested in the same paradigm and its teaching very much relied on the Socratic method of guiding a student to let him to ‘arrive at’ the knowledge through a dialogue of a dialectical nature with a teacher. Socrates and Plato see a problem of rhetoric, which addresses big audiences and is dominated by a speaker without another party equally participating, in being unable to satisfy a need for the conversation between two souls. However, their main critique is particularly addressed to the discipline of rhetoric as it was practised by some of the sophists at the time: Relativity of truth and justice in their approach, and new teaching tendencies. Yet, as I briefly mentioned above, the very core of rhetorical structure and its inherent dialogic nature is rather provoking to open a dialogue with another on all the levels. As Aristotelian defence of Rhetoric shows, its tools can be employed on both sides of an argument. More recent studies of the exercise of rhetoric in the context of social psychology showcase its capacity in particularising social context through inviting an exception to generalization, a counterproposal and an emphatic listening, in this way instigating social dynamism and a dialogue.32 The highlighted aspects of rhetoric illuminate its vitality and versatility in terms of a platform for teaching quite a wide range of skills, including those which are attributed to the category of soft skills. Its inherited ties to politics, democracy and pedagogy, as societal mechanisms operating together, on one hand, and a profound association to culture and philosophy on the other, showcases rhetorical competence as embracing many other competences. Those competences can be seen as generic for operation in society, adjusting to social environment, collaboration, interaction, and performance in the professional domain. Rhetorical compe32 See M. Billig, Arguing and Thinking: A Rhetorical Approach to Social Psychology, 2nd ed., Cambridge 1996 (Cambridge University Press); for particular application of his ideas in practice for teaching rhetorical analysis see R. Cockcroft, S. Cockcroft, Persuading People: An Introduction to Rhetoric, 2nd ed., Basingstoke–New York 2005 (Palgrave Macmillan). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tence encompasses such skills as critical thinking, verbal communication (including its pragmatic aspects and eloquence in expression), cultural skills, confidence in performance, ability to take criticism, and a skill referred to by some authors as an accurate empathy, i. e. ability to ‘accurately hear the content, meaning and feeling of what another person is saying’33, among others. Teaching rhetoric through both recognizing the argument and actively structuring it implies continuous, insisting practicing of these skills by a student and suggests quite an individual approach to every student by a teacher. The progress of accumulating such skills very much depends on a dialogue between a student and a teacher. It requires from a student to place certain trust into their teacher as an encouraging and guiding party. Each student’s inclinations, preferences, accumulated knowledge and expertise have to be kept in mind; since the journey begins here. Therefore no matter on which level of education we introduce rhetoric, it will always direct us to the approach by Socrates, and in more modern terms, will include a deal of tutoring as a personal, individual instruction adjusted to the needs of the instructed and purposes in mind. In relation to softer than soft skills mentioned above, rhetoric can provide means to recognize and support or revoke certain values, beliefs, principle and concepts behind statements; those by others or our own. The recognition of those core skills on both sides (a speaker and a listener, a proposer and an opponent) is crucial for our social cohabitation. It also allows us to test ourselves against different ideas, and in formatting a judgement or comprehending the one given by the other party to strengthen those principle core skills, or open up for a change, but in an informative, justified way. Certainly, rhetoric as a discipline is not a heal-all salvation, but a mere tool, which nevertheless can be used quite widely and adjusted to needs in hand, keeping in mind its potential. There are different ways of possible application of rhetoric for acquisition and enhancement of soft skills, in particular. For one, I would like to address the ongoing research by Jake Robertson (Utah, USA), who applies Burke’s ideas on identification and social role for developing students’ skills in reading the rhetorical situation in order to craft and perform a situationally appropriate self. From the perspective of his study, self is seen as an aggregated core of accumulated strategies that a person has acquired over time for performing 33 L.M. Spencer, op.cit., p. 14. 74 75 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R in various rhetorical situations. Consequently soft skills can be seen as rhetorical strategies, which can be mastered and added to constantly developing core self to be later deployed for different purposes. My approach adopted a different focus, in that it relied on learning through operant models. I will briefly elaborate on it with the example of my course on Practical Rhetoric for Interpreters described in the outline. For this I highlight just a few aspects: Approach, method, some features of its design and techniques of exercising rhetoric in the classroom suited for soft skills development. 3.1. Practical Rhetoric: Approach, method, design and techniques The course I proposed was designed especially for interpreters and had to supplement their professional training, and therefore emphasized certain practical skills required. Initially intended as practical training, the course in my design encompassed both theory of rhetoric (as metarhetoric) and its practice, with slightly stronger emphasis, yet not exclusively, on operant elements, i. e. structuring an argument and enhancing elocution, than recognition of rhetorical patterns, as in rhetorical or discourse analysis. Nevertheless theory and practice were treated as equally important components and were incorporated into one another34: So when teaching theory, practice was used to reinforce the theoretical models behind it. And when practical exercises were carried out, reference to theory was made when relevant. The integrated method of instruction was seen as most efficient; lecturing, seminars and training were one another supplementing parts of instruction even within one class. Interaction was essentially regarded as a way of practicing speaking and argumentation. Another important emphasis was on learning rather than teaching; to reiterate said above, rhetorical skills as well as soft skills can not be induced as in lecturing and have to be trained and practiced. For this, a teacher is rather guiding a student towards certain knowledge (of know-what or know-how is of no much importance in this case) than actually lecturing, even if the instruction includes some parts of a classical lecture. To follow this path or not, depends on students’ disposition as well. Therefore the stress is on facilitating their process of learning rather than teaching. This method requires individual approach to each student and to be considered as tutoring on university level. 34 This is one of the reasons among those mentioned further why this course was persistently called Practical Rhetoric rather than Public Speaking. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N From a theoretical point of view, rhetoric was approached from the phenomenological perspective. Further, following Perelman and neo-Aristotelian approach, it was being treated as a theory of argumentation and persuasive communication. Eventually it is important to stress that even tough we did work on persuasion, the ethical premise was seen as crucial for the exercise of rhetoric in society, therefore rhetorical practice was approached from the ethical perspective. The course encompassed the journey from learning to hear the argument to speaking in public to defend your own. The final element of the course was giving the speech in public and defending one’s position by replying to questions and counterarguments from the audience. Those events were advertised, moderated by a teacher, and filmed for further needs of learning. The course covered all major elements of rhetorical situation and three main Aristotelian forms of persuasion – logos, ethos and pathos – concentrating on reasoning, presenting one’s stance and evoking as well as recognizing emotions in the speech. The practical part was focused on two major aspects; development of spontaneous speech and learning to recognize and structure an argument. Independently from the length of the course it required a lot of everyday practicing in reading into rhetoric (that of politicians, managers, advertisers, journalist, etc.) and using language for expressing one’s own position, with some extra emphasis on expression. As students’ feedback shows, these lessons, beside professional growth, contributed to the development of their skills potentially used in a broader way than just within the domain of a particular profession. These skills which constitute rhetorical competence can be discussed as soft skills as well. Below I mention a few of them with additionally pointed techniques that might help to develop them. Skills • Critical thinking; rhetoric as the practice of reasoning is one of the best tools to develop this faculty to the level of habit and competence. The stages of invention and disposition of an argument or a speech are involved for this purpose. By the very movement between a thought and counterthought, logoi and anti-logoi, argument and counterargument we are practicing critical thinking. When selecting the arguments, clarifying our position, searching for supporting arguments and counterarguments, and try- 76 77 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R • • • • 35 ing to understand counterpositions we work out our reasoning. We do so by generalizing, and then supporting our statements with examples, and again searching for exceptions from the general rule. Therefore the very combination of theory and practice contributes to learning to generalize, abstract, recapitulate, and test our assumptions against examples, particularities and practices. Furthermore, it teaches of self-awareness and metacognition. Developing stance and expression of one’s position are closely related to the mentioned above skill. The argumentative approach to rhetorics concentrates a lot on a deliberative speech. For giving it, a speaker has to clarify their position and form a certain stance on issues in question. Argumentation as the skill to form the judgement, test the arguments pro and con, structure an argument is in the hart of rhetorical training. Confidence in speaking, courage to speak up and know-how to deal with stress are based on practice informed by understanding of the processes happening to us in challenging situations. Training of confidence took a three-pronged approach: Focus on the importance of content knowledge in forming one’s judgement or structuring a speech; persistent practice with an assessment of the reception of one’s utterances by a listener, and taking critique; understanding certain components of communicational situation, such as the goal of a message, audience, kairos of the speech, relevance and urgency to raise the voice, etc. The latter was especially important for cultivating a quality of courage. For dealing with stress and its consequences the exercises on breathing, articulation and stress reduce were employed. Developing certain positive outlook to the audience, as ‘a strong belief in the underlying dignity and worth of others different from oneself,’35 was seen important as well, and the ability to maintain this positive outlook under stress was addressed. Attentive listening, comprehension and ability to take criticism, although separate, are interconnected. Comprehension is developed through attentive listening and reading. Attentive reading first of all is based on recognition and separation of levels of information, and analysis of the reception of an utterance. Attentive listening is an application of the same sort of analysis to an oral text. It is L.M. Spencer, op.cit., p. 3. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tightly linked to critical thinking because it requires certain swift analysis of the uttered text and can be applied as a reflexive tool directed towards our own utterances. In this way it raises the awareness of the shortcomings of our own speech and can be used in order to get accustomed with hearing and recognizing mistakes. Supported with the interactive feedback of the group while doing exercises, with the constructive remarks on how to overcome such shortcomings, it develops a certain resistance to the negative effect of critical remarks; given a teacher also provides a possible way to channel this critique to positive outcomes. The ability to take criticism is also closely connected to skills of critical thinking and empathy; by learning to hear the argument by another we open up to accepting that others hear us in a different way. Hearing their position we create a chance for ourselves to clarify on our stands and express ourselves in a more comprehensible way. • Nonverbal empathy is trained with aid of working on such skills as attentive listening and critical thinking, as well as requires some cultural competence, since it means ‘hearing’ what another person, including the one from another culture, actually means.36 It also implies positive outlook towards the partner of communication. • Verbal expression and fluency in spontaneous speech is first of all developed as a result of practicing argumentation, and learning from it to what the audience adhere most. The enhancement of verbal expression is tightly linked to the necessity to discuss more complex matters on the higher level; therefore the need for more polished, sophisticated speech occurs. Brushing it up as via exercises on attentive listening or spontaneous speech, by picking up mistakes and showcasing the shortcomings, is although most visible yet secondary means. Even though I do not name here many particular skills from the previously mentioned lists, it is notable that those mentioned above include or relate to many more skills traditionally referred to as soft; be it those from the Goleman’s model, or others, such as dispute or conflict resolution, persuasion, resilience and giving feedback. During training of verbal communication some attention is drawn to body language, voice management and presentational skills. 36 Cf. ibidem. 78 79 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R Techniques • Voice recording was introduced in the early stages of the course as a tool for individual homework, adapting to hearing one’s own voice, as well as mistakes, imitating the bigger audiences and creating a simulated stressor in order to learn to deal with stress by public speaking. Filming usually was introduced in the later stages for improving on body language. • Individual practice at home. All of those skills require being exercised continuously. The course can provide just the background, with guidelines and instructions on enhancing performance. But from there on this is a student’s business to apply it to their everyday speech, expression of position, putting an argument, or in a broader sense, civic engagement. Voice recordings and filmed material can help a lot, sometimes even imitating a listener, another party, audience or partner of a dialogue. • Working with peers creates a real dialogue and allows drawing attention to one’s shortcomings as well as to their strong points. Also, a real partner in a conversation aids in the preparation of a public speech; they raise questions, propose counterarguments, reflect on how we succeed in rendering our stands, and most importantly represent the target audience and purpose of a speech, since it is always dedicated to someone and has its own ends. • Training in the classroom; working in groups provides us with real, versatile audience and possible reactions. The exercises employed for rhetorical training include those on attentive reading and listening; rhetorical analysis of the text; BBC radio exercise; News exercise; exercises on argumentation, among them the devil’s advocate; the range of exercises on breathing, articulation, posture and alike. But most importantly, they are summed up by the final element: Preparing, giving in public and defending a speech on the matters of societal importance. This is a real opportunity to put oneself into the speaker’s shoes in order to argue one’s own opinion; to engage into an operant model in order to better understand what lies behind the utterances and behaviours of others. For the best results, all of those skills should be supported by the content knowledge and constant practicing. A close eye on the applied rhetoric also implies following the events that take place around us; it broadens our cultural and social knowledge and understanding. Furthermore, Bil- PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N lig’s and respectively Cockcrofts’ approach shifts the focus from a rhetorical skill as a subjective property to its interactive value, highlighting its role in social communication; any skill is used with certain purpose, in a certain situation, and which evokes response. 4. Inconclusive matter of Rhetoric and Soft Skills The case discussed in this study is just one sample of an application of the discipline of rhetorics for training largely interlinked professional, rhetorical subject-related and soft skills. For this discussion I focused on its instrumental capacity in Translation Studies, particularly in training interpreters. Yet it is worth keeping in mind that striving for an interpreter’s profession implies a certain predisposition towards exercising such skills as verbal communication, interaction and the like by applicants. Most of them possess qualities and character patterns matching the requirements for completing their future professional tasks. Therefore, some of the skills discussed might be easier to be trained in them than in students of other specialties. Other professions might invite a different application of rhetorics. It follows that effectiveness of rhetorics in development of each mentioned skill should be tested in other domains of professional training. The awareness of obtaining each of the skills should be tested further, too. There are more specific issues related to the very method of instruction to be considered. The success of individual the teacher-to-student approach rests on established contact and a common atmosphere in the class. Contrary to tutoring in the private sector, both teachers and students have limited choice and are assigned to each other on the university level. That minimizes chances of developing necessary confidence in a teacher by students. Without it, the outcome of the training might be different. Yet any educator knows that, with all the best efforts, some classes are better bound than others, which depends on many variables. Strikingly, the good contact can also become a debatable factor in developing certain skills; for instance, in training the ability to take criticism. Given the high level of confidence of a student in a teacher, one can ‘learn’ to take criticism given by that particular person (the teacher) and not necessarily transmit this ability to other parties (other colleagues, members of a broader audience or other types of audiences). Thus the obtained skill might prove being unsustainable. 80 81 I N G R I DA TAT O LY T Ė . L O O K I N G B ROA D E R These are but a few factors to be taken into consideration in further studies. This article aspires to merely introduce Rhetoric as a platform to teach soft skills and highlight its potential to both, teachers and researchers of rhetoric and those who attempt developing soft skills competence in various professional domains. 5. References Albir A.H., Competence, [in:] Handbook of Translation Studies. Volume 1, eds. Y. Gambier, L. van Doorslaer, Amsterdam–Philadelphia 2010 (John Benjamins Publishing Company), pp. 55–59. Billig M., Arguing and Thinking: A Rhetorical Approach to Social Psychology, 2nd ed., Cambridge 1996 (Cambridge University Press). Cockcroft R., Cockcroft S., Persuading People: An Introduction to Rhetoric, 2nd ed., Basingstoke–New York 2005 (Palgrave Macmillan). Ericsson K.A., Charness N., Expert Performance: Its Structure and Acquisition, American Psychologist, vol. 49 (8) (1994), pp. 725–747. Gander S.L., Beyond Mere Competency: Measuring Proficiency with Outcome Proficiency Indicator Scales, Performance Improvement, vol. 45 (4) (2006), pp. 38–44. Kennedy G.A., A New History of Classical Rhetoric, Princeton–New Jersey 1994 (Princeton University Press). Mar A., 87 Soft Skills (The Big List), https://training.simplicable.com/training/ new/87-soft-skills, accessed 20.05.2017. Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle, The, transl. F.H. Peters, London 1906 (Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co., Ltd.), https://www.stmarys-ca.edu/sites/default/files/attachments/files/Nicomachean_Ethics_0.pdf (). Pym A., Redefining Translation Competence in an Electronic Age: In Defence of a Minimalist Approach, Meta, vol. 48 (4) (2003), pp. 481–497. Raven J., Introductory Note and Postscript, [in:] L.M. Spencer, Soft Skill Competencies: Their Identification, Measurement and Development for Professional, Managerial, and Human Services Jobs, Edinburgh 1983 (Scottish Council for Research in Education), pp. (I-IV). Spencer L.M., Soft Skill Competencies: Their Identification, Measurement and Development for Professional, Managerial, and Human Services Jobs, Edinburgh 1983 (Scottish Council for Research in Education). Tarakci M., Greer L.L., Groenen P.J.F., When Does Power Disparity Help or Hurt Group Performance?, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 101 (3) (2016), pp. 415–429. Teodorescu T., Competence versus Competency: What is the Difference, Performance Improvement, vol. 45 (10) (2006), pp. 27–30. Tosti D.T., Amarant J., Energy Investment Beyond Competence, Performance Improvement, vol. 44 (1) (2005), pp. 17–22. Touloumakos A.K., Now You See It, Now You Don’t: The Gap between the Characteristics of Soft Skills in Policy and in Practice, thesis (D. Phil.), Oxford 2011 (University of Oxford). Tulgan B., Bridging the Soft Skills Gap: How to Teach the Missing Basics to Today’s Young Talent, Hoboken–New Jersey 2015 (Jossey-Bass–ProQuest). 6. Summary Striving to develop soft skills competence on the university level reopens discussions on the notions of competence and soft skills in relation to professional training. It raises the questions of by what means and methods to train and assess the progress in acquiring such skills that are generic and not subject-related, yet crucial for the most adequate performance in a professional domain. It also questions the boundaries of soft and hard skills in such fields as humanities, business and management. The article introduces the discipline of Rhetoric as a platform for the development of such skills in relation to a professional competence and showcases its potential. It utilises a course on Practical Rhetoric for Interpreters as a part of a university curriculum in Translation Studies. This study sums up the experience of teaching the course for 12 years in 4 European universities. It examines the durative feedback provided by the alumni of the course in different forms; the main aspects highlighted by them includes the impact of the course on the growth of personality, the role of the course in the overall curriculum, the approach towards teaching, and the potential of the broad application of the material received. The importance of the instruction in the form of tutoring is emphasized as a key element for success in the best application of the course. Rhetoric, due to its nature and broad field of application, is seen as instrumental in the acquisition and enhancement of soft skills competence. However, the article invites further study regarding the application of Rhetoric in other domains of professional studies, and subsequently testing these findings against questionnaires about the level of acquisition and assessment of a certain soft skill by the aid of the course on Rhetoric. Meeting Spiritual Needs as a Part of Tutoring in Education for the Elderly V Ě R A S UC HO M E L OVÁ České Budějovice In the education of the old-aged, it must be taught in the way the elderly could, be able to and want. To use wisely the current work, live the rest of one’s life in a right way, to conclude the whole mortal life and joyfully enter into the life everlasting. J.A. Comenius, Pampaedia keywords . old age, elderly, tutoring, education, spirituality, spiritual needs In the current developmental models, just as in Pampaedia of J.A. Comenius, the right conclusion of the mortal life is considered to be the key task of old age. Palouš continues on from Comenius’ Pampaedia by defining the tasks of geragogy as “the theory of education in the school of old age.”1 According to him, geragogy should seek the ways to prepare man for his old age (pre-elderly education), to reveal the dignity of old age (education of the public by professionals as well as by the elderly themselves), to prepare the elderly for a just judgement of their lifetime, and, finally, to lead the aging person from the superficial “have” to the uplifting “be” (the education of the elderly per se). On the journey to fulfil all of these tasks, the key role is played by the development and cultivation of the spiritual side of man, his spirituality. At the time when physical finiteness gains increasingly specific shape, mental strength decreases, and the social network becomes thinner, fundamental challenges and tasks lay precisely in the area of spiritual development. The older person seeks answers for questions connected with the sense and acceptance of his life, with reconciliation on many levels, with the nature of his dignity and value, and with his own mortality. With regards to the bio-psycho-socio-spiritual unity of man it is apparent that spirituality is projected into all areas of human life. The conclusions of many contemporary studies have confirmed the positive influence of spirituality or religiosity on physical as well as mental health and the related quality of life.2 1 2 J. Jesenský, Andragogika a gerontagogika handicapovaných, Praha 2000 (Karolinum). E.g. L. Vidovićová, V. Suchomelová, Otázka příspěvku religiozity/spirituality ke kvalitě života českých seniorů, Kontakt, vol. 15 (4) (2013), passim; H. Koenig, D. King, PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N The theme of spirituality might be included in the education of the elderly explicitly – in the learning content of a particular course or study programme – and also implicitly in fulfilling the principal spiritual needs of older students during the educational process. Creating such an environment is determined by a number of factors. First, it is in using educational targets, educational forms, and methods adapted to the developmental specifics and tasks of old age (ideally, working in smaller, safer groups). Second, a sensitive and competent approach of the tutor should be founded on mutual respect and understanding. It is important especially for young tutors, who cannot rely on similar generation and life experience in their interaction with older students, to understand the developmental tasks of old age and its principal psycho-spiritual needs. Thus, the aim of this chapter is to enlighten the specifics of spirituality and the spiritual needs of the elderly. In the first part, I focus on the spiritual nature of the principal developmental tasks of old age and spiritual development in older age. Then, I characterise in detail the selected spiritual needs of the elderly and possible sources for their fulfilment. Founded on the results of the qualitative study Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly, realised within my dissertation and published in the monograph The elderly and spirituality: spiritual needs in everyday life3, it is possible to define five needs that appear to be primary in the life of an older person. It is the need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value, the need for meaning and continuity of life’s story, the need for faith and trust, the need for hope and purpose, and the need for love and support. At the end, I define a number of recommendations on how to take these needs into account in (not only) the ecclesiastical education of the elderly. 1. Old age as a spiritual task In Anglo-American literature, we often encounter the term “successful aging.” Although the term “success” can evoke the life orientation towards “having” rather than “being,” to spend one’s old age well is indisputably a fundamental life success and gain. Scherlein characterises the attributes of such a successful and fulfilled old age as the maximum har- 3 V.B. Carson, Handbook of Religion and Health, Oxford 2012 (Oxford University Press). V. Suchomelová, Senioři a spiritualita: duchovní potřeby v každodenním životě, Praha 2016 (Návrat domů). 84 85 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S mony of the physical, spiritual, and mental.4 Amongst significant factors is the positive acceptance of the state in which the person is situated, the subjective feeling of good health, satisfaction, mental balance, and reconciliation with one’s self, with God, people and the world. The principle of such an attitude is, according to authors, successfully managed cognitively-emotional rebuilding.5 Specialist sources describe almost identically the tasks connected with the cognitively-emotional rebuilding. Grün counts among these the art of accepting one’s own self, self-giving both in the spiritual and material dimension and coming out of one’s self in the sense of preserving a distance from life events and focusing on transcendence (whether on a religious or non-religious level).6 The aging person must learn to be reconciled with his own past, to accept the limits of his own abilities, and gradually part himself from what he valued, what brought him joy, and that to which he was often intensively attached (good health, performance, power, social relationships, sexuality, property, full autonomy, etc.) He must learn to be alone with his own self in peace, to work with memories, and to forgive. Kruse identified a number of abilities that might (but not necessarily do) arrive with cognitively-emotional rebuilding in older people.7 It is the ability to make a compromise between expectations and achievements, the ability to accept the limits of life and at the same time new possibilities in life; and the ability to order past life events and experiences and to re-evaluate them in a new way. Further, it is the ability to approach life challenges in a mature manner and with wisdom, and the ability to redirect one’s own needs for the benefit of others. Finally, it is the ability to direct future expectations, hopes, and plans not towards a far-off time but to the near future. We can summarise that the tasks connected with the “right conclusion of mortal life” have a predominantly spiritual nature. The tutor in the education of the elderly should possess not only the necessary com4 5 6 7 R. Scherlein, Älter werden lernen: Pastoral in der dritten Lebensphase, Mainz 2001 (Matthias-Grünewald Verlag), pp. 348–368. P.B. Baltes, Stáří a stárnutí jako oslava rovnováhy: mezi pokrokem a důstojností, [in:] Perspektivy stárnutí z pohledu celoživotního vývoje, ed. P. Gruss, Praha 2009 (Portál); A. Grün, Umění stárnout, Kostelní Vydří 2009 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství); R. Ruhland, Spiritualität in der Altersbildung: Einführung in die transpersonale Geragogik, Eschborn bei Frankfurt 2008 (Verlag Dietmar Klotz). A. Grün, passim. A. Kruse, Alter in Lebenslauf, [in:] Zukunft des Alterns und gesellschaftliche Entwicklung, eds. P.B. Baltes, J. Mittelstrass, New York 1992 (de Gruyter), pp. 333–335. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N munication and professional competency but also be well informed in the area of the specifics of spirituality and spiritual needs in old age. 2. Specifics of spirituality in old age The definition of the term spirituality is nowhere near as straightforward as its etymology (spirare – spiritus – spiritualis). In this sense, Sheldrake considers spirituality to be one of the areas about which everyone claims that the meaning is clear to them, however only to the moment when they are supposed to define it.8 Perhaps even for this difficulty to be grasped, the care for spiritual development (at least in the Czech Republic as the most atheistic European country) is in the context of education of the elderly and of social care rather on the margin of social interest. In principle, spirituality can be understood in two ways. In the wider approach, it is an anthropological constant and a dimension of human experience,9 as searching and experiencing the sacred and as relating to something which transcends and fulfils man.10 In the narrower religious approach, it is understood as a personal relationship to God realised within a particular religion. Key elements of both approaches are relationship, communication, and awareness of something higher than “here and now.” We can summarise that spirituality is for its bearer a source of meaningful life framework and life-giving strength of a religious or non-religious nature, a safe inner place, and a source of a kind of inner autonomy, independent of external conditions.11 As man’s personality changes during his life, his spirituality changes as well. Models of religiously-spiritual development in older age, drawn up in recent decades, suggest basically two possible directions. First, it is the development as, in principle, a linear direction of gradual “spiritualisation” parallel with increasing age.12 Tornstam’s approach of gero8 9 10 11 12 P. Sheldrake, Spiritualita a historie: úvod do studia dějin a interpretace křesťanského duchovního života, Brno 2003 (Centrum pro studium demokracie a kultury), p. 41. A.H. Maslow, O psychologii bytí, Praha 2014 (Portál), passim; R.C. Atchley, Spirituality and Aging, Baltimore 2009 (John Hopkins University Press); V.E. Frankl, A přesto říci životu ano: psycholog prožívá koncentrační tábor, Kostelní Vydří 2006 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství). K.I. Pargament, Spiritually Integrated Psychotherapy: Understanding and Addressing the Sacred, New York 2011 (Guilford Press). V. Suchomelová, Senioři a spiritualita..., p. 118. E.g. J.W. Fowler, Stufen des Glaubens: die Psychologie der menschlichen Entwicklung und die Suche nach Sinn, Gütersloh 1991 (Gütersloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn). 86 87 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S transcendence proceeds from this perception, where old age is perceived as a naturally transcendent life period.13 Second, it is the development as a continual interaction of the specific person’s spiritual potential, social anchorage, and life history – a model “life span.”14 Thus, at any time during life, developmental stagnation or regression might take place. In this process, an important role is played by difficult life moments and crises as well as by meeting specific people in the elderly’s surroundings.15 Both approaches to religiously-spiritual development indicate different dynamics. However, in principal, they are not mutually exclusive. As personal spirituality develops in interaction with the specific person’s biological, mental and social side, also spiritual needs must be perceived in their interaction with needs in other areas. Although these are often erroneously reduced in the awareness of the general public to the need for the religious practice of explicitly religious (or dying) people, spiritual needs reflect the whole complex of values common for religious and non-religious people.16 Generally speaking, these can be defined as needs reacting to fundamental existential issues (although the sources for their fulfilment might be fully practical and “common”). An awareness of life areas connected with these needs and the sources fulfilling these needs helps the tutor (especially during tutoring) in choosing an appropriate approach. 3. Spiritual needs of the elderly Specialist literature does not offer some kind of “universal” definition of spiritual needs. Perhaps the most comprehensive characteristics of the elderly’s principal spiritual needs is offered by Koenig.17 Founded on research in the environment of oncologically sick religious elderly, he spec13 14 15 16 17 L. Tornstam, Maturing into Gerotranscendence, Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, vol. 43 (2) (2011), pp. 166–180. E.g. “Selbst die Senioren sind nicht mehr die alten...”. Praktisch-theologische Beiträge zu einer Kultur des Alterns, eds. W. Fürst, A. Witthram, U. Feeser-Lichterfeld, T. Kläden, Theologie und Praxis, vol. 17, Münster 2003 (LIT Verlag). A. Witthram, B.M. Leicht, Gestalten und Gestaltwandeln erwachsener Religiosität. Von der Pilotstudie zum Forschungprojekt “Religiöse Entwicklung im Erwachsenenalter”, [in:] “Selbst die Senioren sind nicht mehr die alten...”. Praktisch-theologische Beiträge zu einer Kultur des Alterns, eds. W. Fürst, A. Witthram, U. Feeser-Lichterfeld, T. Kläden, Theologie und Praxis, vol. 17, Münster 2003 (LIT Verlag), pp. 39–40. A.H. Maslow, passim; R. Ruhland, passim. H.G. Koenig, Aging and God: Spiritual Pathways to Mental Health in Midlife and Later Years, New York 1994 (The Haworth Pastoral Press), pp. 285–293. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N ified 14 principal needs. These are the need for meaning, life purpose and hope, the need to see the overlap of situations in life, the need for continuity, support at the time of loss, the need for acceptance and validation of religious behaviour, the need for spiritual expression, the need for one’s own dignity and value, the need for unconditional love, the need to express anger and doubts, the need to know that God is on one’s own side, the need to love and be useful, the need for gratitude, the need to forgive and experience forgiveness, and the need for preparation for dying and death. Koenig later developed this basic typology, emphasising the interconnection between the mental and the spiritual dimensions of personality, thus defining 25 psycho-spiritual needs of middle and older age.18 The following text is founded upon the qualitative study Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly.19 The data for this study was obtained through in-depth interviews with twenty elderly people aged 75 or higher, living either in their own home or in a residential care home. The aim of the first part of the study was to discover what form the spirituality/religiosity of South Bohemian elderly takes and how it has changed throughout their lives. The aim of the second part of the study was first to verify the relevance of the needs as defined by Koenig in the Czech environment with elderly who are not suffering from a fatal disease. Then, it was to define the principal spiritual needs of Czech elderly and how they are fulfilled in daily life. Based on the results, it was possible to create a typology of five basic needs. It is possible to understand them also as more general categories, permeated by the wide spectrum of needs defined by Koenig: • the need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value • the need for meaning and continuity of life’s story • the need for faith and trust • the need for hope and purpose • the need to give and receive love.20 In fact, the need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value seems to be superior to the others. For fulfilling any spiritual need somehow strengthens the awareness of one’s own dignity and value, and at the same time the intensity of the awareness of one’s own dignity and value influences the experience and fulfilment of all the other needs. 18 19 20 H.G. Koenig, T. Lamar, B. Lamar, A Gospel for the Mature Years: Finding Fulfillment by Knowing and Using Your Gifts, New York 1997 (Haworth Pastoral Press). V. Suchomelová, Senioři a spiritualita..., pp. 216–231. H.G. Koenig, passim. 88 89 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S For working with the elderly (not only in the educational process but also in health-social and pastoral areas), it is absolutely essential to understand how the fulfilment (or on the other hand non-respecting) of spiritual needs influences the older person’s awareness of his own dignity and value. 4. The need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value One has never thought about expecting to get something for it. It was done for the nation, for the land, and for all. Matěj, 87 The current social view on dignity in old age can be characterised by the model defined on the basis of the results of the study Dignity and older Europeans.21 This model distinguishes at least four types of dignity: the dignity of merits, the dignity of moral strength, the dignity of personal identity, and a complex approach named “Menschenwürde.” Already from the terminology, it is apparent that the first three types of dignity depend upon external conditions, or the elderly person’s current state. The fourth type defined within the above-mentioned study is called by the German term Menschenwürde. It springs from a general conception of humanity. It perceives man as a person having inalienable rights and is the source of the “moral imperative of respect to people.”22 This approach is the closest to the theological-anthropological approach of indisputable and inalienable dignity that comes primarily from the creation of man by God, and in God’s image (Gen 1:27). Such human dignity is independent of any external or internal, and advantageous or disadvantageous conditions. With regards to the dialogical, relational character of the creation of a man and a woman (Gen 1:27), man in the core of his nature is a social being. Without a relationship to others, he cannot develop his humanity and thus live with dignity.23 It was possible to identify the above-mentioned approached to one’s own dignity and value in the statements of the research participants. The 21 22 23 Respektování lidské důstojnosti Příručka pro odbornou výuku, výchovu a výcvik studentů lékařských, zdravotnických a zdravotně – sociálních oborů, eds. J. Prokopová, Z. Kalvach, transl. L. Kellnerová-Kalvachová, L. Kalvachová, Praha 2004 (Cesta domů), p. 15. Ibidem, p. 14. M. Buber, Já a ty, Praha 2016 (Portál), p. 80. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N elderly emphasised the past and current life merits, successes, abilities, and social contacts to be a significant part of their identity. It was as if at the same time they admitted an undeclared, but all the stronger a need for an awareness of their own dignity and value, which is not dependent on these conditions. It is as if the following questions were in the background of drawing attention to the external sources of dignity and value: who would I be without these “merits” and “successes”? How, and by whom would I be accepted and loved without them? Upon what can I found my dignity when, in my life balance sheet, losses prevail? These questions, albeit speculative, directly point to the great potential of caring for spiritual development in geragogy. 5. The need for meaning and continuity of life’s story Also, that, what I went through in those younger years of mine, not nice things... so ... I think it was for my own good... and that it for example brought me to there where I am now and that without those bad actions I kind of would not have today the faith so strong. Jana, 77 The aging person needs to experience that his current life continues on from the past and is based upon it, especially if he had found himself in a new environment or in a new life situation. Atchley perceives the need to preserve the continuity of life’s story as crucial, especially in connection with the radical life changes that can take place in old age. 24 The older person, more than before, needs to preserve the structure of his life both in the internal sphere (thinking, reactions, feelings) and in the external (social and life environment).25 In palliative care, this need is reflected in, for example, Dignity Therapy,26 which can be paraphrased as a therapy of dignity through constructing the legacy of life for those close to him. The construction and reconstruction of one’s own life story helps the elderly to be reassured: “I am still here and it is still me.” The (re)construction of a life story leads the person to the recognition of new links, and to the re-evaluation of some decisions and conclusions. It helps him 24 25 26 R.C. Atchley, op.cit., p. 51. H.G. Koenig, T. Lamar, B. Lamar, op.cit., p. 41. H.M. Chochinov, Dignity Therapy: Final Words for Final Days, Oxford 2014 (Oxford University Press). 90 91 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S to understand and accept the uniqueness of his life’s story as well as the fact that “in the given situation he did what he was able to and what he could.” Through the repeated rebuilding and sharing of sections of his life history, the person reaches a form of the life story which is acceptable and comprehensible for him.27 The purpose of tutoring, spiritual accompanying, and psychotherapy should be at this time especially a support for one’s own sources and practical steps which enable the elderly person to finish writing, or to rewrite his life story as best as possible. In the interpretations of the research participants’ life stories, it was possible to identify recurring themes that seem to be especially important in constructing a life story. The first theme is the awareness of a good origin, that is, in the relationships of one’s original family. The elderly mentioned in detail the rituals, norms, and moral principles of the family in which they grew up. It seems that the role of the original family gains importance in old age again, when the social environment of the elderly person narrows and hardly any changes lead to improvement. Through the distance of many years, and other family ties, it is once again the parents and the closest relatives, albeit deceased long before, who are ready to support and caress, who remind the elderly person about the rules that are good to follow in life. On the other hand, if the relationship to the original family was negative, or if the family was fully absent, the elderly person can in old age feel “again lonely.” The second theme is the awareness of inner truthfulness, that is, that one’s life was lived in conformity with the conscience. The participants highlighted especially the values of honesty and selflessness in connection with work (whether in the sense of a vocation or in general work activities), to other people, to one’s self, and also to God. Another emphasised value was the willingness to help others, even at the cost of having one’s own difficulties as well as an awareness of certain life success, and all the more when it was achieved despite adverse circumstances and in conformity with moral beliefs. A religious foundation is undoubtedly an important filter in the evaluation of one’s own life. Guardini perceives a way of becoming conscious of God’s existence in creating a life story.28 Experiencing the holy origin of life’s order gives to the older person the hope that even the negative and painful 27 28 J. Křivohlavý, Pozitivní psychologie. Radost, naděje, odpouštění, smiřování, překonávání negativních emocí, Praha 2004 (Portál), p. 130. R. Guardini, D. Pohunková, O živém Bohu, Praha 2002 (Vyšehrad), p. 56. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N conditions of his life are part of some higher meaning (which will be revealed to him one day). The believing elderly person can see a path through which God brings him to salvation by accepting his own past with all its negative experiences. This aspect was apparent also in the participants’ statements. However, the data confirmed the conclusions of Fürst and his colleagues, that the lifelong religious practice presented is certainly not a kind of “automatic” guarantee of a mature propitiatory Christian attitude in old age.29 Education carries great potential for helping the older person to find new combinations and meanings, not only in relationship to the past and the present but also to the future. A suitable educational content and, especially, the approach of a competent tutor can support the hope that – metaphorically speaking – it is possible to finish writing the final pages of a life story in a conciliatory tone. A popular activity of the partakers of the University of the Third Age at the Faculty of Theology in České Budějovice (Czech Republic) is working through a specific part of a life story. This task is preceded by a seminar focussing on seeking positive life connections. This can be, for example, the theme of Frankl’s logotherapy as a spiritual approach to a mental experience. It has been repeatedly shown that it is precisely Frankl’s concept of searching for and finding the sense of life and life’s challenges that resonates with solving current developmental tasks that the elderly are facing. 6. The need for faith and trust Well, I sometimes think, say to myself, whether that God, if, whether he really is just. I don’t know whether he can be looking at it all the time like this. Kornelie, 75 The third principal spiritual need identified is the need for faith (trust): the South Bohemian participants need to trust God, the people around them, and also themselves. If we return to Koening’s terminology,30 this principle need (or, more precisely, category of needs) includes many others: a need to transcend difficult life moments and to see reality from the perspective of higher connections, a need for meaningfulness in a life story, the support and validation of personal religiosity/spirituality, a need for hope and for gratitude, a need to know that God is on my side, a need 29 30 “Selbst die Senioren...”, passim. H.G. Koenig, passim. 92 93 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S for spiritual behaviour and conduct and, just as with all the other categories, a need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value. It is especially a relationship with God that creates the religious form of faith and trust. The participants expressed the need to believe in a good God and to trust a good God, a need to believe that God is on “their” side, that they can turn to him anytime with trust. Through the relationship to God, the Good Shepherd, they fulfil not only the need for faith but also the need for love and support. Both of these spiritual needs converge in the belief in an unconditional acceptance by God, in forgiveness and a loving accompanying on their journey through life. In the statements of the religious participants, God appeared, even though transcendent, as a living personal partner, as a helper and a consoler, a protector, a life compass, and as a source of life strength, forgiveness and justice. This aspect is described also by Sudbrack (2002,), according to whom, in the personal relationship, which enables one to somehow “grasp,” recognise and interpret God (albeit perhaps erroneously), it is necessary for God not to become ineffable and unknowable to the extent that he stops existing for the person.31 Faith in the non-religious sense of the word reflected two basic spheres. It was a need for faith in relationship to others, faith in that the world around them is essentially a good and safe place. Also, it was a need for self-confidence and faith in one’s own abilities. The participants expressed the need to experience a close relationship to someone in their surroundings, to have their own foothold in the other person whom they can trust and to whom they can confide life’s difficulties. Koening emphasises the importance of active listening and sharing, which aids the older person to process and understand his own life situation, to dull the edge of pain, to gain distance, and thus to strengthen his will towards life and gives the strength to resist sadness and depression.32 This aspect points to the great potential of spiritual and therapeutic care as well as tutoring within education. However, the tutor (or any other helping worker) should not create and support the dependency of the older person being accompanied but, on the contrary, should support the searching for one’s own abilities and resources to process and cope with life. 31 32 J. Sudbrack, Náboženská zkušenost a lidská duše: o hraničních otázkách náboženství a psychologie, svatost a nemoc, Bůh a satan, Kostelní Vydří 2002 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství), pp. 71–72. H.G. Koenig, T. Lamar, B. Lamar, op.cit., p. 38. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N The need for self-confidence and faith in one’s own abilities appeared in a number of areas. Firstly, it was as the need for faith in one’s own good life strategy. Many authors consider a positive life motto and the faith of being able to manage life difficulties to be crucial aspects in creating one’s identity.33 The religious elderly defined the personal relationship to God as a source of life strategy. Secondly, it was as the need to believe that, despite physical weakness and mental limitations, “I am still a person worthy of respect.” Self-respect is not only a necessary part of inner comfort but also central to a healthily lived religious faith. A source of self-respect of the particular elderly is the acceptance of the fact that God created him in the way that he wanted and needed.34 Such an attitude can motivate even a person with many limitations to develop the inner potential and multiply the “talents” that he received from God. Third, it is the need to believe that my life situation is still, in principle, good, at least in comparison with other particular peers. The participants often vividly commented on the “worse” situation of other peers, whether in the area of health, relationships or in their approach to life. This reality points to the positive effect of comparison as one of life’s strategies of managing old age as declared by Baltes.35 The belief that I am not in such a bad state – in comparison to others – is at the same time a great source of humility, gratitude and self-acceptance. 7. The need for hope and purpose I would only be glad if I could be here for a few more years or a few more months to enjoy life. At least now I think that at least I have peace and quiet and I am satisfied with life. So I would like to enjoy it for some time. Kateřina 88 It seems that the fourth principle need is the need for hope and life purpose. It is the old person’s hope that his current and future dwelling in the world has its own purpose and sense, just as the past life had. The hope that something nice might still come, that it is still pos33 34 35 Küng H., V co věřím, Praha 2012 (Vyšehrad); J. Zvěřina, J. Poláková, Pět cest k radosti. Výbor z díla, Praha 1995 (Zvon – České katolické nakladatelství). A. Grün, passim. P.B. Baltes, Stáří a stárnutí jako oslava rovnováhy: mezi pokrokem a důstojností, [in:] Perspektivy stárnutí z pohledu celoživotního vývoje, ed. P. Gruss, Praha 2009 (Portál), pp. 11–27. 94 95 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S sible to fulfil some purpose, that the final life review will turn out – at least in some things – “in credit.” It is the hope that it is possible to manage current life difficulties just as those past ones, that it is still good to wake up in the morning. This is the hope that at least some wounds will be healed and wrongs remedied, that good deeds and life sacrifices will be somehow rewarded. It is possible to observe that hope in old age leads from the past to the future: on the foundation of positive management of the past life period it is possible to form future expectations. The need for hope and purpose as a beacon, to which one can attach oneself and aim towards, was apparent especially with the participants who evaluated their current life situation negatively and in whose life review losses prevailed. These conclusions correspond to Czech’s reflection that the need for hope is manifested in the strongest way when the person keeps becoming lost in his life story, not seeing its continuity and the meaning of his future.36 The source of hope is closely interconnected with the spiritual setting of the particular person. Religious elderly repeatedly expressed the hope for God’s help and the hope that one day they would be able to glimpse the meaning of the past as well as present difficulties and tragedies. It seems that a realisable target is one of the non-religious sources of hope. The participants usually proposed “small targets” with a shorter timescale. The art of defining such targets seems to be closely related to the attitude towards life. The elderly whose storytelling line was rather positive presented small specific targets that they could fulfil in the near future. On the contrary, the elderly whose testimonies carried a strong negative emphasis expressed a desire to reach distant and blurry targets (such as to live to see an increase in the social conditions in China). While it is possible to draw self-confidence and hope regarding future challenges from the fulfilment of small targets, overly unspecific and unreachable “general” targets can confirm the older person in a futility of effort and a feeling of unfulfillment. Another source of the “common hope” of the participants was in small daily delights. Hope came from well carried-out work, visits by family or friends, a terrace being made available where one can sit in the sun, looking at natural beauty, a smile from others, and spiritual meetings with close ones in prayer. 36 J. Czech, Psychoterapie a víra: základy duchovní psychoterapie, Ostrava 2003 (JUPOS). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N The elderly expressed their need for hope and purpose also through their expectations with regards to life after death. The religious elderly expressed a comforting and strengthening hope of meeting deceased close ones, and a hope for being rewarded for good deeds and also for the difficulties suffered in the earthly life. It is as if the non-religious elderly somewhat projected their idea of eternity into a reflection on what would remain in the world after them, and what would live longer than them. Both the need for hope and purpose and the need for faith are undoubtedly closely connected with experiencing gratitude. The awareness that nothing which one has gained in life is a sure thing helps emotional relaxation to take place, as well as a change in the angle of view and the uncovering of remaining possibilities. The need for gratitude is often expressed through a simple “Thank you, God,” and this takes place with the non-religious elderly also. 8. The need for love and support So, and if I don’t come for a while, she always says: you forgot about me. So we came close like this, walk in the corridor together, sit somewhere and chat, sometimes another lady comes as well. Hana, 83 The final identified spiritual need is the need for love and support, both in the sense of receiving and in the sense of giving. We can describe the human need to give love and be useful as a desire for community.37 Into this category, we can classify a wide spectrum of needs as defined by Koenig: the need for unconditional love and support, the need to forgive and experience forgiveness, the need to know that God is on my side, and the need for the support and validation of spiritual/religious behaviour. The need to receive, and especially to give love is the only one of the defined principle needs of the elderly where there are apparent significant differences between people living in their own home and the those living in a residential institution. Based on analysis, it was possible to define a number of areas where the need to love and be loved is reflected. The need to give love to others is manifested as the desire to be needed by someone, to be useful for someone. South Bohemian elderly not only need to experience that they are part of a human community, but 37 X. Léon-Dufour, P. Kolář, Slovník biblické teologie, Řím 1981 (Velehrad – Křestanská akademie), p. 197. 96 97 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S also that within this community they are necessary. Those living in an elderly people care home expressed the need to be useful for someone in a way significantly stronger, more explicit, and especially more often than those living in the environment of their own home. This reality puts into a negative light various creative (ergotherapeutical) workshops for the elderly, where the activity does not lead to a clear, practical usage. If the elderly do not see the meaningfulness and the final usefulness of their work, the value of this work, and subsequently one’s value and dignity per se, are diminished. Both the elderly living in a care home and those elderly living in their own home environment need to experience that someone else needs their love. The possibility to give love reinforces the awareness of the value and dignity of the person who is important and irreplaceable for others. The participants, with clear pride, mentioned their close ones who are sick or disabled in another way, who are “waiting” precisely for them, whether for minor assistance or a chat. However, this help can have also a spiritual character. The elderly emphasised that they pray for their close ones, whether living or deceased. All participants expressed the need for firm anchoring in a loving relationship. Awareness of their dignity and value was clearly nourished by the fact that they are loved and accepted by someone: by God, family, friends, surroundings. In moments of sadness, pain, confusion and fear, man essentially needs human understanding and comfort (even expressed non-verbally). He needs to feel that someone likes him regardless of his “usefulness.” One’s own family and the relationship with children and grandchildren is a natural source of love and support for the participants. Well-functioning family relationships were highly evaluated both by the elderly from home environments as well as those in residential care. We can consider that a good family with healthy relationships is a source of dignity and value for the person who can in old age rightfully reap the fruits of his good upbringing and who is still expected to participate in family life (this need was somehow expressed especially by the inhabitants of elderly care homes). Strong relationships outside the family were for the absolute majority established in childhood or at working age. In the interviews, there never was mentioned a strong relationship established in old age. Older people establish new, truly strong relationships only with great difficulty. They need more time to establish trust, being easier to sink into PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N a feeling of insecurity and embarrassment.38 A course or an activisation group where the structure and management does not respect the psycho-spiritual specifics of old age will hardly lead to establishing valuable relationships. The atmosphere in an unprofessionally-led course strengthens rather the comfort and activity of naturally “go-getting” extroverts rather than motivating the introvert and shy elderly to activity. The dignity and value of an old person is directly attacked by an atmosphere of impatience and pressure to perform, and also by not respecting the potential sensual and cognitive limitations that embarrass the person. A significant source of love and comfort for the religious participants is undoubtedly God (or the Virgin Mary) as the transcendent partner who is permanently present, always ready to listen, to whom it is possible, without limit, to direct requests, complaints and disappointments, as well as feelings of joy and gratitude. The elderly expressed the need to experience God’s love and the certainty that God will protect and support them when in a difficult situation – all the more if they did not feel loved and accepted by people. The need for healthy relationships is not restricted only to relationships with living people but also to relationships with the deceased, which can be burdened with many current and past conflicts, misunderstandings and wounds. Thus, the need to forgive and experience forgiveness, as defined by Koenig, is shown to be an element in the need for love and support also in the case of the South Bohemian participants. Statements by the elderly confirm the difficulty to forgive, especially one’s own self, as reflected, for example, by Grün, even in the case of traditionally religious, believing elderly.39 With regards to this need, the accompanying of the religious and – perhaps even more pressingly – non-religious elderly appears as an extremely necessary and indispensable help on the journey not only to spiritual maturity but also to the quality of life in old age in general. We can summarise that both the religious and non-religious person will perceive his own value and dignity the more strongly, the more immediate the acceptance he experiences from people accompanying him on the journey through old age. 38 39 E.H. Erikson, Životní cyklus rozšířený a dokončený, Praha 1999 (Nakladatelství Lidové noviny). A. Grün, passim. 98 99 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S 9. Catechesis as accompanying: the example of ecclesiastical (re-)education of the elderly The significance of individual interaction can be demonstrated by the example of catechesis of the elderly, being a form of ecclesiastical education in the Catholic Church. Unlike pastoral care, which is aimed at a person independently of his religious (non-) anchoring, catechesis approaches Christians. Catechesis, as understood by the Second Vatican Council and subsequent documents, aims at being a life-long formation, strengthening (or bringing) life experience with God, as with a merciful father, and with Christ suffering and resurrected (GS). This means accompanying the person on the journey towards understanding the sense of his life story in the context of Christian hope and God’s love, and helping the person mature in a human and also a spiritual way. A mature Christian’s attitude to aim towards is the unconditional acceptance of one’s own life with all its absurdity and incomprehensibility through internalised faith and trust.40 However, being mature in age does not automatically equate with being mature in one’s own faith. Referring to Fürst and colleagues (2003), let us remark that the ability for a “Christian – constructive” approach is connected with the person’s complete attitude to life, past and present life experiences, and also the way of early religious socialisation (which was confirmed by the data in the study Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly).41 The attributes of a believing Christian’s mature spirituality directly correspond to the spiritual tasks of old age as described at the beginning of this chapter. Ondok perceives Christian spirituality as an organic and creative process, integral in the sense of intermingling with all aspects of life, and for which gentleness and voluntariness in the relationship with God are characteristic.42 Soberness is important, being the ability to break illusions (also about one’s own self) and inner truthfulness, which is the conformity between the form of spiritual or religious manifestation and its sacral content. Christian spirituality results in the development of the person, to the fullness and fruitfulness of his life and to harmony with all 40 41 42 K. Rahner, Základy křesťanské víry = Grundkurs des Glaubens, Svitavy 2002 (Trinitas), p. 183. “Selbst die Senioren...”, passim. J.P. Ondok, Čmelák asketický = Bombus asceticus: úvahy o křesťanské spiritualitě, Svitavy 2004 (Trinitas). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N created. At the same time, these attributes reveal the problematic areas that a traditionally religious elderly person might face. The root cause of difficulties in the area of current personal religiosity may lie in incorrectly led religious education in childhood. Catecheses supporting a fear of sinfulness and the removal of God’s love, often reinforced by parental education founded on strictness and punishments, often leads to an over-focus on guilt and punishment also in older age. The authors of the document The Dignity of Older People and their Mission in the Church and in the World draw attention to the tendency of such socialised Christians to fatalism: all-suffering, restriction, pain, illness, and loss connected with old age are perceived either directly as God’s punishments or as God’s warning signs.43 The difficulties in the area of spirituality in older age are increased also by a lack of spiritual guidance during life. This is typical, for example, for Czech elderly who spent a significant part of their lives in an anti-religious political regime.44 Another task for catechesis, being a form of religious (re-)education of elderly, follows from this: to lessen the impact of potential unsuitable religious socialisation and clarify years-long misunderstandings in the doctrinal matters of Roman Catholic religion. A false image of God as a judge or avenger and supposed unforgivable sins and wounds of self or others fundamentally disrupt the awareness of the dignity and value of the older person.45 The challenges of catechesis in older age in the context of psycho-spiritual needs directly point to an individual approach. A condition for meaningful catechesis (more than any other form of education) is establishing a safe relationship where the older person can share his uncertainty and concerns without fear of shame or condemnation. As became apparent from the data from the qualitative study Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly, the older person is shy in seeking spiritual help. Often, he hesitates to “bother the ecclesiastical authority” with his problems, and he can have difficulties in admitting his breakup from the Church under the influence of life events. Thus, the 43 44 45 The Dignity of Older People and their Mission in the Church and in the World, Pontifical Council for the Laity, http://www.laici.va/content/dam/laici/documenti/archivio/dignita-anziano-eng.pdf, accessed 17.05.2017. V. Suchomelová V., Senioři a spiritualita: duchovní potřeby v každodenním životě, Praha 2016 (Návrat domů). K. Frielingsdorf, A. Sirovátková, Falešné představy o Bohu, Kostelní Vydří 2010 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství). 100 101 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S catechist’s own initiative in establishing contact is fitting here, as a simple offer to “be with the person” and a service to his neighbour. The point of departure of meaningful catechesis is love in the sense of Jesus’ “Love your neighbour as yourself” (Mt 22:39). Such catechesis leads the person to a loving reconciliation with self, others, and God. It helps him process and accept painful events and losses that cannot be remedied and leads to forgiveness and a plea for forgiveness. Loving spiritual intervention brings the most persuasive testimony about God’s love to man. To understand the religiosity of a particular person, the catechist must be well informed about his life story. This does not mean some kind of deep analysis of the life history, but rather a willingness to give the older person time and space for self-expression. In a conversation with an old person with a strong desire to share his life story, the biblical... there is a time to be silent and a time to speak (Ecc 3:7) is especially pertinent. Active listening opens the door to the old person’s soul, fulfilling many of his spiritual needs. Respectfully and lovingly carried-out active listening can detect some difficulties of a religious nature preventing the old person from experiencing a living relationship with God. Undoubtedly, respect for the personal story of religiosity or spirituality is the nature of meaningful catechesis. The elderly have passed the majority of their lives and reached the current form of faith through many life experiences, difficult moments in life, and decisions. Ambros (2002, 117) points out that the life story of a man and the history of his faith is one, indivisible reality.46 An elderly person’s way of experiencing religiosity or spirituality is individual precisely because it is a reflection of their life’s story. Also, the results of the Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly study revealed a significant variety of forms of religiosity/ spirituality of older Christians (i.e., those baptised): for the majority, God was somehow “present” in their lives; however, none of them preserved continual religious practice throughout their life.47 Catechesis (being the same as tutoring) certainly cannot be a oneway flow of “good life advice and instructions.” It must lead to the older person’s uncovering and strengthening their own spiritual resources. A stereotypical image of dependent and lonely old age in combination 46 47 P. Ambros, Fundamentální pastorální teologie, Olomouc 2002 (Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci), p. 117. V. Suchomelová, Pastoral Care in Homes for the Elderly: Selected Issues, Caritas et Veritas 5 (2) (2015), pp. 112–121, http://www.caritasetveritas.cz/index-en.php?action=openfile&pkey=181, accessed 17.05.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N with a great willingness to serve one’s neighbour, can sometimes obscure the old person’s potential: his inner strength, resilience, experience, strategy, strong relationship with God, and the ability to seek and see connections and the meaning of his life story, as well as the ability to sacrifice one’s own afflictions for others. The participants of the Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly qualitative study were also endowed with these gifts. Finally, we can refer to Fürst and colleagues again.48 According to them, amongst the most significant triggers of changes in spiritual development is overcoming life crises and meeting specific people. While a catechist competent in professional and human matters can enlighten the life of an old person in a human and spiritual way, insensitive catechesis (albeit motivated by the good intentions of the catechist or pastoral worker) might confuse the old person, wound him, and rather harm him in his spiritual development. 10. Conclusion The theme of spiritual needs and spiritual development in old age usually (at least in Czech society) does not belong amongst the strong pillars in education of those who work, or might work, with the elderly. For awareness of specifics within the spirituality and spiritual needs in old age is an essential part of our holistic view of a person in his bio-psycho-sociospiritual unity. It enables the tutor and workers in the helping profession to understand the principal tasks of older people, as well as the great potential for spiritual development connected with these tasks. In this chapter, I have focused on the theme of spiritual needs and sources for their fulfilment in the elderly person’s daily life. Based on the results of the Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly study, I have presented five spiritual needs that appear to be primary. It is the need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value, the need for meaning and continuity of life story, the need for faith and trust, the need for hope and purpose, and the need to receive and to give love. I have defined some points of life stories that appear to be the key for both becoming aware of one’s own dignity and value as well as for fulfilling other needs (both in the positive and the negative aspect). With regards to these links, I have demarcated possible aspects of communication within individu48 “Selbst die Senioren...”, passim. 102 103 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S al catechesis, being the ecclesiastical (re)education of older Christians. These aspects can be generalised for the needs of tutoring, which is intensive work with a small group of elderly or an individual. Thus, the aspects also broaden the general rules of geragogical communication, described by, for example, Špatenková and Smékalová.49 The tutor should offer time and a safe environment to the older learners not only for sharing their life stories but also for any issues that might help with their self-development. A condition of tutoring is respect for the elderly person’s life experiences. A positive relationship with the tutor, based on mutual understanding, is for the elderly a crucial factor for motivation to continue with learning,50 and also is a source for fulfilling many principal needs. The tutor should always respect the uniqueness of a specific person’s life story and his psycho-spiritual development. He should be able to listen actively thus increasing his understanding in the areas that might be difficult for the elderly and at the same time his understanding of sources of energy and strength that helps them to manage these difficulties. Active listening enables the tutor to detect the needs that the elderly wants to fulfil through education. The tutor should never develop a relationship based on dependence but, on the contrary, should support the elderly in developing their own sources and potential for managing old age and its key tasks. Intervention should be directed towards strengthening and developing the abilities connected with cognitively-emotional rebuilding described by Kruse,51 towards reinforcing positive stances and values, and towards increasing the awareness of dignity and self-confidence. The tutor should motivate the participants to incorporate the findings into their life stories and, finally, should support the elderly in their own roles of tutor-guides of the younger generations on their own path of aging. A strong spiritual foundation contributes towards the awareness of one’s own dignity and is an important source of some inner safe haven independent of external circumstances. It is a kind of filter through which the person evaluates himself. For religious elderly, this can be the trust in God’s plan with man, love for God, and awareness of God’s love for man. 49 50 51 N. Špatenková, L. Smékalová, Edukace seniorů: geragogika a gerontodidaktika, Praha 2015 (Grada), pp. 195–207. N. Špatenková, L. Smékalová, op.cit., p. 201. A. Kruse, passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N For non-religious elderly, this can be a simple faith in a higher sense of life and a higher reality of which they are part. The five principle spiritual needs evoke the image of five fingers on a hand. Its touch is an important component of non-verbal expression of faith and trust, hope and love, compassion, and support. It can bring support, empathy, calming, forgiveness, and respect, but especially human closeness and sharing. Therefore, with reference to the title of the monograph, we can summarise that the role of tutoring in the education of the elderly can be encapsulated by those very words. 11. References Ambros P., Fundamentální pastorální teologie, Olomouc 2002 (Univerzita Palackého v Olomouci). Atchley R.C., Spirituality and Aging, Baltimore 2009 (John Hopkins University Press). Baltes P.B., Stáří a stárnutí jako oslava rovnováhy: mezi pokrokem a důstojností, [in:] Perspektivy stárnutí z pohledu celoživotního vývoje, ed. P. Gruss, Praha 2009 (Portál), pp. 11–27. Buber M., Já a ty, Praha 2016 (Portál). Chochinov H.M., Dignity Therapy: Final Words for Final Days, Oxford 2014 (Oxford University Press). Czech J., Psychoterapie a víra: základy duchovní psychoterapie, Ostrava 2003 (JUPOS). The Dignity of Older People and their Mission in the Church and in the World, Pontifical Council for the Laity, http://www.laici.va/content/dam/laici/documenti/archivio/dignita-anziano-eng.pdf, accessed 17.05.2017. Erikson E.H., Životní cyklus rozšířený a dokončený, Praha 1999 (Nakladatelství Lidové noviny). Fowler J.W., Stufen des Glaubens: die Psychologie der menschlichen Entwicklung und die Suche nach Sinn, Gütersloh 1991 (Gütersloher Verlagshaus Gerd Mohn). Frankl V.E., A přesto říci životu ano: psycholog prožívá koncentrační tábor, Kostelní Vydří 2006 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství). Frielingsdorf K., Sirovátková A., Falešné představy o Bohu, Kostelní Vydří 2010 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství). Grün A., Umění stárnout, Kostelní Vydří 2009 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství). Guardini R., Pohunková D., O živém Bohu, Praha 2002 (Vyšehrad). Jesenský J., Andragogika a gerontagogika handicapovaných, Praha 2000 (Karolinum). 104 105 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S Koenig H.G., Aging and God: Spiritual Pathways to Mental Health in Midlife and Later Years, New York 1994 (The Haworth Pastoral Press). Koenig H.G., Lamar T., Lamar B., A Gospel for the Mature Years: Finding Fulfillment by Knowing and Using Your Gifts, New York 1997 (Haworth Pastoral Press). Koenig H., King D., Carson V.B., Handbook of Religion and Health, Oxford 2012 (Oxford University Press). Komenský J.A., Hendrich J., Vševýchova = Pampaedia, Praha 1948 (Státní nakladatelství). Křivohlavý J., Pozitivní psychologie. Radost, naděje, odpouštění, smiřování, překonávání negativních emocí, Praha 2004 (Portál). Kruse A., Alter in Lebenslauf, [in:] Zukunft des Alterns und gesellschaftliche Entwicklung, eds. P.B. Baltes, J. Mittelstrass, New York 1992 (de Gruyter), pp. 331–335. Küng H., V co věřím, Praha 2012 (Vyšehrad). Léon-Dufour X., Kolář P., Slovník biblické teologie, Řím 1981 (Velehrad – Křestanská akademie). Maslow A.H., O psychologii bytí, Praha 2014 (Portál). Ondok J.P., Čmelák asketický = Bombus asceticus: úvahy o křesťanské spiritualitě, Svitavy 2004 (Trinitas). Pargament K.I., Spiritually Integrated Psychotherapy: Understanding and Addressing the Sacred, New York 2011 (Guilford Press). Rahner K., Základy křesťanské víry = Grundkurs des Glaubens, Svitavy 2002 (Trinitas). Respektování lidské důstojnosti Příručka pro odbornou výuku, výchovu a výcvik studentů lékařských, zdravotnických a zdravotně – sociálních oborů, eds. J. Prokopová, Z. Kalvach, transl. L. Kellnerová-Kalvachová, L. Kalvachová Praha 2004 (Cesta domů). Ruhland R., Spiritualität in der Altersbildung: Einführung in die transpersonale Geragogik, Eschborn bei Frankfurt 2008 (Verlag Dietmar Klotz). Scherlein R., Älter werden lernen: Pastoral in der dritten Lebensphase, Mainz 2001 (Matthias-Grünewald Verlag). “Selbst die Senioren sind nicht mehr die alten...”. Praktisch-theologische Beiträge zu einer Kultur des Alterns, eds. W. Fürst, A. Witthram, U. Feeser-Lichterfeld, T. Kläden, Theologie und Praxis, vol. 17, Münster 2003 (LIT Verlag). Sheldrake P., Spiritualita a historie: úvod do studia dějin a interpretace křesťanského duchovního života, Brno 2003 (Centrum pro studium demokracie a kultury). Špatenková N., Smékalová L., Edukace seniorů: geragogika a gerontodidaktika, Praha 2015 (Grada). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Suchomelová V., Pastoral Care in Homes for the Elderly: Selected Issues, Caritas et Veritas 5 (2) (2015), pp. 112–121, http://www.caritasetveritas.cz/index-en. php?action=openfile&pkey=181, accessed 17.05.2017. Suchomelová V., Senioři a spiritualita: duchovní potřeby v každodenním životě, Praha 2016 (Návrat domů). Sudbrack J., Náboženská zkušenost a lidská duše: o hraničních otázkách náboženství a psychologie, svatost a nemoc, Bůh a satan, Kostelní Vydří 2002 (Karmelitánské nakladatelství). Tornstam L., Maturing into Gerotranscendence, Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, vol. 43 (2) (2011), pp. 166–180. Tomášek F., Vančura B., Bič M., Bible: písmo svaté Starého a Nového zákona (včetně deuterokanonických knih, Praha 1991 (Zvon – České katolické nakladatelství). Vidovićová L., Suchomelová V., Otázka příspěvku religiozity/spirituality ke kvalitě života českých seniorů, Kontakt, vol. 15 (4) (2013), pp. 445–455. Witthram A., Leicht B.M., Gestalten und Gestaltwandeln erwachsener Religiosität. Von der Pilotstudie zum Forschungprojekt “Religiöse Entwicklung im Erwachsenenalter”, [in:] “Selbst die Senioren sind nicht mehr die alten...”. Praktisch-theologische Beiträge zu einer Kultur des Alterns, eds. W. Fürst, A. Witthram, U. Feeser-Lichterfeld, T. Kläden, Theologie und Praxis, vol. 17, Münster 2003 (LIT Verlag), pp. 21–40. Zvěřina J., Poláková J., Pět cest k radosti. Výbor z díla, Praha 1995 (Zvon – České katolické nakladatelství). 12. Summary This chapter focuses on the theme of spiritual needs and sources for their fulfilment in the elderly person’s daily life. Based on the results of the Spiritual Needs in the Life of South Bohemian Elderly study, there are presented five spiritual needs that appear to be primary. They are the need for an awareness of one’s own dignity and value, the need for meaning and continuity of life story, the need for faith and trust, the need for hope and purpose, and the need to receive and to give love. With regard to these links, it is possible to demarcate some aspects of communication in a small group of elderly or an individual. A condition of tutoring is respect for the elderly person’s life experiences. The tutor should offer time and a safe environment to the older learners, not only for sharing their life stories but also for any issues that might help with their self-development. Active listening enables the tutor to detect the needs that the elderly wants to fulfill through education. The tutor should always respect the uniqueness of a specific person’s life story and his psycho-spiritual development, to listen actively, thus increasing his understanding in the areas that might be difficult for the elderly 106 107 V Ě R A S U C H O M E L OVÁ . M E E T I N G S P I R I T UA L N E E D S and at the same time his understanding of sources of energy and strength that helps them to manage these difficulties. A positive relationship with the tutor, based on mutual understanding, is for the elderly a crucial factor for motivation to continue with learning and also is a source for fulfilling many principal needs. However, the tutor should never develop a relationship based on dependence but, on the contrary, should support the elderly in developing their own sources and potential for managing old age and its key tasks, motivate the participants to incorporate the findings into their life stories and, finally, should support the elderly in their own roles of tutor-guides of the younger generations on their own path of aging. Academic Tutoring in Students of Theology in Care Ethics Context. Focus on Students with Health Issues MO N I K A Z AV I Š Žilina keywords . care ethics, communication, Nel Noddings, personality, student, tutor 1. Introduction Overall attitude of teacher towards students of any age can not bear optimal fruits of study endeavor. Individual approach with special accent on givnesses and already acquired knowledge of student has a potential to move forward both student and teacher, who acts like an tutor. Next to wisdom, knowledge and skills of leading tutor, ethical frame of his work has to be strongly considered: Any good professional performance is also a moral performance, because without distinction of good and bad work, without moral effort, discipline of will, without hard work and patience in the pursuit of good, this kind of performance is not possible at all.1 Our study is dealing with tutoring in students of theology in context of care ethics, notably in context of care ethic applied to the practice of moral education according to Nel Noddings. Before we access analysis of contemporary situation, we will take a short survey on the historical perspective of tutoring in two Abrahamic religions. The reason is to notice the continuity of natural authority and qualities of tutor that remain through centuries the same. An case study will help us to objectify the theoretical scopes and then proceed to discussion with conclusion. 2. Historical perspective of tutoring in Judaism and Christianity As our analysis, discussion and conclusions are happening on the background of educational and cultural scene with the Judeo-Christian tradi1 W. Brezinka, Filozofické základy výchovy, Praha 1996 (České katolické nakladatelství Zvon), p. 156. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tion and values, we consider it necessary to give at least an outline of tutoring in Judaism and Christianity. What they share, is individual approch, symbiotic uderstanding of practical and theoretical wisdom, as same as the requirement of strong personality of tutor, who is an example in knowledge, moral behaviour and wise living based on requirements of God´s law. The primary teacher and tutor of child in Judaism was a father. A love to God in Judaism is not implemented only by feeling, but by living according to teaching.2 Father thus led the child through teaching to the way of the implementation of the love of God in everyday life. The formation of the child’s personality is seen as the result of the interplay of the three partners in his person: Holy God, the biological father and mother. When the child started to talk, it was father´s duty to talk to him in the holy language and teach him Torah3 according to direction in Deuteronomy 11:19: Teach them to your children. Talk about them all the time – whether you’re at home or walking along the road or going to bed at night, or getting up in the morning.4 The biblical dimension of wisdom is manifested mainly in the practical sphere of life. Old Testament combines wisdom with fear before the Lord. His words and guidelines should be constantly present in the thoughts of man, and then he will have success, whether it is the victory over the enemy, a greater degree of wisdom than in his teachers, or a larger dose of balance sheet than in elders (Psalm 119:97–100). For religious education of a child in contemporary Orthodox Jewish family the mother is responsible from the time of the child’s birth. Teaching authority of Jesus was based on power (Matthew 7:28–29), what could not be unnoticed by teachers of the Law: Achievements that Jesus reached in his action as a teacher, were an eyesore of Pharisees and priests who were considered the only eligible spiritual and religious leaders of the nation and were afraid that the increase of numbers of Jesus’ followers will lead to loss of their influence on the popular masses.5 Jesus has acted as one who teaches the absolute truth. He addressed the same words of the Law of Moses to all as of a universally valid law of God: That, what he has 2 3 4 5 G. Maier, Lukas-Evangelium, Neuhausen-Stuttgart 1991 (Hänssler), p. 113. A. Hertzberg, Der Judaismus. Aus dem Englischen übertragen von Eleonore Meyer-Grünewald, New York 1973 (George Braziller, Inc.), pp. 131–134. Contemporary English Version Bible (CEV), trans. B.M. Newman, Philadelphia 1995 (The American Bible Society), https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy+11&version=CEV, accessed 12.03. 2017 (further CEV online). H. von Glasenapp, Päť svetových náboženstiev, Veľký Meder 2009 (Talentum), p. 487. 110 111 M O N I K A Z AV I Š . AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G I N S T U D E N T S said was not culturally conditioned in the sense that it would be assigned just for some people, the Jews, or a particular region, Palestine.6 Denney saw in Jesus the bond of royal and legislative power; Calvin said, that Christ was filled with ineffable dignity, which attracted people to him. Jesus has spoken vividly, simply, clearly7 and with authority which he identified with the God´s one. (John 14:8–11). Jesus was teaching in that way that he was saying those things which Father taught him (John 8:28). His teaching activities also included verbal and non-verbal plane, which was manifested especially in healing (Mark 4:2; Mark 8:31; Matthew 4:23). He sent those who were taught by him to teach others (Matthew 28:20) knowing that there is a no disciple above the teacher, but will be perfect if he manages to be like his teacher (Luke 6:40). Jesus will send to his disciples an Counselor (John 14:26)., who will teach them the things that they did not manage during his living among them.8 In John the Spirit acts as an inner teacher of truth.9 Lofty designation Master Jesus perceived with great respect and he advised Pharisees not to refer to this title (Matthew 23:8). He did not consider himself worthy marking good Teacher (Mark 10:17–18): As Jesus was walking down a road, a man ran up to him. He knelt down, and asked,“‘Good teacher, what can I do to have eternal life?“ 10 Jesus replied, Why do you call me good? Only God is good.11 On this experience Jesus has showed his followers-tutors the need for humility, self-criticism and the recognition of the sovereignty of God´s tutoring. 3. Care ethics approach in education Moral connexion between people is defined by mutual cultivating the virtues like knowing, altering rhytms, patience, honesty, trust, humility, hope and courage. Milton Mayeroff speaks in his book On Caring about the relationship, which causes mutual growth, development, moving forward and is 6 7 8 9 10 11 J.R.W. Stott, Kázání na hoře. Poselství Bible pro dnešní svět, Praha 1992 (Návrat domů), p. 164. R. France, Ježiš, [in:] Viery a vyznania. Nový sprievodca náboženstvami sveta, ed. Ch. Partridge, Bratislava 2006 (Slovart), pp. 317–323. Idem, Isus, [in:] Enciklopedijski priručnik, Zagreb 1991 (Grafički zavod Hrvatske, Kršćanska sadašnjost), pp. 340–346. D. Iskrová, Exegeticko-teologický komentár k Prvému Jánovmu listu, Ružomberok 2008 (Katolícka univerzita v Ružomberku, Filozofická fakulta), p. 180. Benedikt XIV. 2010, online is it Posolstvo Svätého Otca Benedikta XVI. k 25. svetovému dňu mládeže 28. marca 2010, https://www.kbs.sk/obsah/sekcia/h/dokumenty-a-vyhlasenia/p/dokumenty-papezov/c/posolstvo-mladez-2010, accessed 08.08. 2011. CEV, online. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N kind of ongoing process.12 The well-being of care-givers and care-recievers is a inseparable part of all social relations. Human dimensions of ethical dillemas or decisions are based on social interdependency. Mayeroff´s essentialism yet has been criticized by Nel Noddings, who proposes to comprehend every relationship as unique and in unique situation. This context means a special constellation of conditions: it means, that it is not possible to previously assume, how we will be able to apply the „prescribed components” in specific situation which requires care.13 In this statement and approach we see a strong coherence with situational ethics of Joseph Fletcher.14 However, care ethics is, according to Frederic G. Reamer, not here to produce easy and quick answers to complex ethical dillemas. It serves us as an reminder, that we must always approach ethical choices with deep awareness of the impact they have on the people we serve and the relationships that are important to them.15 Psychologist Carol Gilligan, to whose works is the emergence of care ethics attributed, identifies the ethics of care as „different voice“ which joined self with relationship and reason with emotion. Having a voice and listening to voice of every human must be done carefully. Possible conflicts may be addressed in relationships: Different voices then become integral to the vitality of a democratic society.16 4. Case study This case study comes out of my long time educational practice that was always tightly connected to character building in my students. Since I was working with lutheran theology students in Slovakia for 14 years, choosen case study will be from this background, too. Certainly, we can not generally assume, that all theology students will be believers and obedient to requirements of the Bible; nonetheless, our case study is dealing with such a student figure that shows existential dimensions of spirituality and features of intrinsic religiousness according to G. Allport;17 12 13 14 15 16 17 M. Mayeroff, On Caring, New York 1971 (Harper & Row), pp. 1–63. A. Jesenková, Etika starostlivosti, Košice 2016 (Univerzita Pavla Jozefa Šafárika v Košiciach), p. 22. J. Fletcher, Situační etika. Nová morálka, Praha 2009 (Kalich), pp. 33–39. F.G. Reamer, The Ethics of Care, SocialWorkToday.com, September 2016, http:// www.socialworktoday.com/news/eoe_0916.shtml, accessed 02.02.2017. Interview with Carol Gilligan done by webteam, http://ethicsofcare.org/carol-gilligan/#more-5766, accessed 18.02.2017. G.W. Allport, J.M. Ross, Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 5 (1967) (4), passim; R.S. Titov, Gordon All- 112 113 M O N I K A Z AV I Š . AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G I N S T U D E N T S a close relationship with God as with an ultimate reality and the highest authority in life. The aim of presentation of this case study is to demostrate the need of individual approch to university students with special needs resulting from their psychic and complicated, multidiagnostic health condition. This student attended my Latin language course and had some problems with following my lecture and also with making the notes what was the result of his motoric problems. I saw his reactions, facial mimicry and the way he was looking at me, and I realized when exactly he stopped to follow up. The problem was, that I could not afford myself to slow down so much to catch his attention again, but to loose attention of all other students. During our individual dialogue I saw, that there are some psychiatric problems in this student, too, but I found out, that he refused psychiatric treatment. These problems yet did not disrupt his cognitive abilities. What I see as a fantastic is, that in my student there was a great will to study and a will to make some extra time and work with me individually next to ordinary lectures. Paradoxically, faith in God was the crucial argument, why he refused psychiatric treatment at the one hand, and on the second hand, it was a main reason for him to believe, that with our common effort he will be able to finish the course succesfully. Inadequate behaviour of some students attending my course towards this student irked him, but in the same time it pushed him forward and gave him a motivation to overcome his limits. Underlying problem of this embarrassing position of some students is a lack of undestanding and empathy, which we see in connection with their extrinsic religiosity. One of the possibilities for my student to manage was to cooperate with some other student, what has proved to be unsustainable because of discrepancy between the extent of necessary and conducted tolerance and patience while working with this student. I knew, that tolerance and peaceful attitude is a problem for my student, too, so I prehended the relational context of working with this student as an difficult task taht I have to overcome to help him with the teaching material. Another option for this student was to pay some extra classes to a private tutor, what was for him financially unrealistic. The second problem of this solution may be the absence of deeper knowing each other and relationship between tutor and the student. While I had a nice relationship with the student and port: The Concept of Personal Religious Orientations, Kul’turno-istoricheskaya psikhologiya (Cultural-Historical Psychology), vol. 1 (2003), passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N I knew his main personality features, I agreed to give him every week two extra classes of Latin at my university office as an unofficial tutor without any financial compensation. Of course, it was time-consuming, but I considered it as right decision. Next to different psychological methods I decided to apply the ephases of education according to Skinner´s programmed learning theory,18 where we work on small, but logically closed sections and where a a student acts operatively... Basic principles [of this approach are]: 1. principle of small steps, 2. principle of active response, 3. principle of immediate fixation, 4. principle of own pace, 5. principle of evaluation of achievement.19 The result was, that the student has finished the couse as one of the best students in Latin in current academic year. 5. Discussion and conclusion The core of succesful cooperation between university student and his tutor is their constructive communication. Tutor has to be an good listener, observer, responsibly prepared rhetor and stimulating student´s performance based on his potential. Reputable professor of education M. Zelina warns, that egoistic nature of the listener has to be surpassed: Man often acts in dialogues as an egoist – he thinks on his own problems, promotes himself, the closest and the most important for him are his own thoughts, feelings. Then he does not listen to the other, does not react on other´s suggestions, he is preoccupied just with himself and an paradoxical situation occurs, that an dialogue changes into two monologues.20 Focusing on speaker, active listening with affirmation of understanding, refraining from judging and giving advices, lead to better knowing the student who needs help. It requires a vital interest and care of student. If student has to struggle with his bad health, family or financial condition next to his study difficulties, it is even harder for his tutor to grasp right methods and pace of tutoring him. Tutor is supposed to have an strong and joyful awareness 18 19 20 B.F. Skinner, The Technology of Teaching. Cambridge 2003 (B.F. Skinner Foundation), passim. Malacká Z., Pohľad do dejín didaktiky, [in:] História, súčasnosť a perspektívy vzdelávania na Pedagogickej fakulte Prešovskej univerzity v Prešove: zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou organizovanej Pedagogickou fakultou PU pri príležitosti 65. výročia založenia Pedagogickej fakulty v Prešove, eds. A. Prídavková, M. Klimovič, Prešov 2014 (Vydavateľstvo Prešovskej Univerzity), p. 105. M. Zelina, Stratégie a metódy rozvoja osobnosti dieťaťa, Bratislava 2011 (Iris), p. 155. 114 115 M O N I K A Z AV I Š . AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G I N S T U D E N T S of his/her mission to teach and educate; self-reflection and self-correction ability. Flexibility, promptness of change making, awareness of the need of incessant personal and professional growth are very important qualities of an good tutor, too.21 Tutoring of students of theology has its own specific features stemming from the nature of the specialization, but in the case of students with physical and especially mental health difficulties is getting a tutor in an extremely challenging position. In Slovakia, many theologians, pastors and theology students yet could not even cope with the fact that even theology has its constraints and is not a science of mental processes and disorders. Feelings of shame, inferiority or dishonor are associated with the following minded people with each mention of whether the suggestion that they needed to seek psychiatric help as in the case of lung problems they visit pulmonologist. When we see, that the arguments of biblical or rational context about the need to seek for professional psychiatric or psychological help are not accepted, we can still hope to rely on trivial examples, analogies, as we have mentioned above with the lungs. Unfortunately, we have to note, that usually this way of communication is not effective either. Of course, we agree with the statement by Larson et al., that the mild symptoms of depression, anxiety or reconciliation with the new and difficult circumstances in life can be successfully mastered with the help of pastoral care;22 yet it is necesarry to recognize the existence of limits beyond which theologians – tutors can not responsibly and competently accompany the student, and they have to work as a team and collaborate with their colleagues in psychiatry. This cession has repetitively proved in our practice to be an optimal one, because it brings excellent results and qualitative life changes in students that are willing to cooperate on their healing process. After many sessions in the form of confessional cenversations with students of lutheran theology who reject professional psychological help, we are gradually taking shape of some of the personal characteristics of these students, that are being hidden beneath the surface of their pseudobiblical motivated opinions. For their most typical personality trait we consider stubbornness, tough-mindedness. This feature was described 21 22 M. Zaviš, Paradigma osobnosti kresťanského učiteľa v minulosti a dnes, Bratislava 2013 (Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave), pp. 63–95. J.K. Boehnlein, Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatric Care: Looking Back, Looking Ahead, Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 43 (4) (2007), p. 642. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N in detail by psychologist H. Eysenck and we list some of his findings that we have observed in students belonging to our focus group: retiringness, indifference to people, maladjustment, making difficulties, emotional flatness, sometimes inhumanity and cruelty, hostility towards people, aggression, ignorance of dangerous things, impetuous boldness, taunting, strong excitability, neighborhood sedition and penchant for unusual things.23 We have to add to all these atributes also very strong egocentricity, emotional blackmail to achieve their goals, verbal presentation of the facts based on their highly subjective and arty point of view. We agree with Fischer and Škoda in the statement, that stubborn people (in our case students) are uncritical on their behaviour and way of life, are hypersensitive and extremly vulnerable, when it comes to their person; they are emotionally unstable, have frequent leaks into fantasy and are constantly justifying their actions.24 In the context of care ethics we access to our students as mothers, who care of their child. Sarah Ruddick would say, that typical maternal ways of thinking and acting can be also inherent to man, because we all have to learn how to accomplish maternal care. However, if we want to pay a specific attention to care ethics in education, we need to make provision of work of Nel Noddings. She states, that according to J. Macmurray is teaching one of the foremost of personal relations. She analyses this relation in the context of care ethics and which involves a discussion of the central elements in establishing and maintaining relations of care and trust. In her analysis listening, dialogue, critical thinking, reflective response, making thoughtful connections among the disciplines and to life itself are included.25 Caring relationships are according to N. Noddings basic to human existence and consciousness. Every relationship includes two parties: 1. one-caring, and 2. cared-for. They both have the obligation to care reciprocally and to meet the other morally, though in different manner. Caring comes out of the right motivation: Our motivation on caring is directed toward the welfare, protection, or enhancement of the cared-for. When we care, we should, ideally, be able to present reasons for our action/ inaction which would persuade a reasonable, disinterested observer that 23 24 25 S. Fischer, J. Škoda, Sociální patologie. Analýza příčin a možností ovlivňování závažných sociálně patologických jevů, Praha 2009 (Grada Publishing, a. s.), p. 165. M. Zaviš, Prieniky teológie a psychiatrie, [in:] V službe evanjelia, eds. M. Krivda, J.Bándy, R. Keller, Liptovský Mikuláš 2013 (Tranoscius), passim. N. Noddings, The Caring Relation in Teaching, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 38 (6) (2012), passim. 116 117 M O N I K A Z AV I Š . AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G I N S T U D E N T S we have acted in behalf of the cared-for.26 The origin of ethical action sees N. Noddings in two motives: • the human affective response that is a natural caring sentiment, • the memory of being cared-for that gives rise to an ideal self: Because we (lucky ones) have been immersed in relations of care since birth, we often naturally respond as carers to others. When we need to draw on ethical caring, we turn to an ethical ideal constituted from memories of caring and being cared for.27 In the process of caring there can be identified two stages: caring-for and caring-about. The first stage means actual hands-on application of caring services. The second one means the state of being whereby one nurtures caring ideas or intentions. One-caring has to care-for proximate humans aned animals to the extent that they are needy and are able to respond to offerings of care. Caring-about is according to N. Noddings an important motivational stage for inspiring local and global justice.28 In the abstract dialogue between M. Zelina and N. Noddings of personnel barriers to communication within the meaning of selfishness and its overcoming, M. Zelina has focused on the negative elements of unsurpassability of own person in communication with the other, which is giving rise to two monologues (see above); N. Noddings but specifies this phenomenon from its positive side: Caring involves stepping out of one´s personal frame of reference into the other´s. When we care, we consider the other´s point of view, his objective needs, and what he expacts of us. Our attention, our mental engrossment is on the cared-for, not on ourselves.29 V.V. Vasquez has examined the attitudes and works of N. Noddings and came to this conclusions on her asset: The school must respond to real situations and give educational sense which helps the student; to take care of his/her moral, intellectual, physical and emotional growth. In curricular design Noddings proposes for students to learn to care of others, of people with those they keep intimate relationship, of colleagues and wellknown, care of animals, of plants and physical enviromnent, objects and 26 27 28 29 Eadem, Caring. A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, Berkeley–Los Angeles–London 2003 (University of California Press) (2nd edition), p. 23. Eadem, Care and Moral Education, [in:] Critical Conversations in Philosophy of Education, ed. W. Kohli, New York 1995 (Routledge), p. 139. M. Sander-Staudt, Care Ethics, [in:] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource (IEP), eds. J. Fieser, B. Dowden, http://www.iep.utm.edu/ care-eth, accessed 04.02.2017. N. Noddings, Caring. A Feminine Approach..., p. 24. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tools, and ideas. She proposes to design curricula with more varied and attractive offer of courses; support the transition of students to different courses. Curriculum should be designed for a heterogeneous group of students. To offer such training that meets the needs of students. Teachers need to take seriously the fact that students need a broad curriculum that will be closely linked to the existential dimension of their lives and their own interests. In addition, she claims that the school curriculum must be more in line with current realities and ideals, and include content related to cultural factors traditionally considered feminine. She argues, that in all courses can be made links to private life, prepare for parenting and home life. Value institualization is required. These values help to build more livable world, e.g. learning some skills necessary for domestic operation.30 Under the current conditions in Slovak education, we believe that the ideals of the care ethics can be the best applied in the context of unofficial tutoring. This step, since it depends on tutor alone, can be done quickly and effectively. Changes in education system in Slovakia happen very lengthily, and therefore we can not expect erelong some official improvements in the question of tutoring in university students, although they are extremely urgent and necessary. Academic tutoring in students of theology with health issues is an hard task and deserves wider and deeper debate on interdisciplinary platform. It should be of interest of several ministries of the Slovak Republic, chiefly Ministry of Education, Science and Sport, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family, and relevant churches depending on theology (catholic, ortodox, lutheran). Churches should think in the way, that tutoring is kind of pastoral care of students linked both to knowledge and faith, and has a great impact on improvement of study results and overall life quality in students. Care should be, after all, the „loudest“ manifestation of churches that claim to teach and spread Christ´s love. 6. References Allport G.W., Ross J.M., Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 5 (1967) (4), pp. 432–443. Boehnlein J.K., Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatric Care: Looking Back, Looking Ahead, Transcultural Psychiatry, vol. 43 (4) (2007), pp. 634–651. Fischer S., Škoda J., Sociální patologie. Analýza příčin a možností ovlivňování závažných sociálně patologických jevů, Praha 2009 (Grada Publishing, a.s.). 30 V. Verdera Vasquez, La educación y la ética del cuidado en el pensamiento de Nel Noddings, PhD dissertation, Universitat de Valéncia, Valéncia 2009, p.p 259–260. 118 119 M O N I K A Z AV I Š . AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G I N S T U D E N T S Glasenapp Von H., Päť svetových náboženstiev, Veľký Meder 2009 (Talentum). Hertzberg A., Der Judaismus. Aus dem Englischen übertragen von Eleonore Meyer-Grünewald, New York 1973 (George Braziller, Inc.). Https://www.kbs.sk/obsah/sekcia/h/dokumenty-a-vyhlasenia/p/dokumenty-papezov/c/posolstvo-mladez-2010, accessed 08.08.2011. Malacká Z., Pohľad do dejín didaktiky, [in:] História, súčasnosť a perspektívy vzdelávania na Pedagogickej fakulte Prešovskej univerzity v Prešove: zborník príspevkov z vedeckej konferencie s medzinárodnou účasťou organizovanej Pedagogickou fakultou PU pri príležitosti 65. výročia založenia Pedagogickej fakulty v Prešove, eds. A. Prídavková, M. Klimovič, Prešov 2014 (Vydavateľstvo Prešovskej Univerzity), pp. 98–106. Mayeroff M., On Caring, New York 1971 (Harper & Row). Noddings N., Caring. A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education, Berkeley–Los Angeles–London 2003 (University of California Press) (2nd edition). Noddings N., The Caring Relation in Teaching, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 38 (6) (2012), pp. 771–781. Reamer F.G., The Ethics of Care, SocialWorkToday.com, September 2016, http:// www.socialworktoday.com/news/eoe_0916.shtml, accessed 02.02.2017. Sander-Staudt M., Care Ethics, [in:] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. A Peer-Reviewed Academic Resource (IEP), eds. J. Fieser, B. Dowden, http:// www.iep.utm.edu/care-eth, accessed 04.02.2017. Titov R.S., Gordon Allport: The Concept of Personal Religious Orientations, Kul’turno-istoricheskaya psikhologiya (Cultural-Historical Psychology), vol. 1 (2003), pp. 2–12. Vasquez Verdera V., La educación y la ética del cuidado en el pensamiento de Nel Noddings, PhD dissertation, Universitat de Valéncia, Valéncia 2009. Zaviš M., Paradigma osobnosti kresťanského učiteľa v minulosti a dnes, Bratislava 2013 (Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave). Zaviš M., Prieniky teológie a psychiatrie, [in:] V službe evanjelia, eds. M. Krivda, J.Bándy, R. Keller, Liptovský Mikuláš 2013 (Tranoscius), pp. 247–256. Zelina M., Stratégie a metódy rozvoja osobnosti dieťaťa, Bratislava 2011 (Iris). Brezinka W., Filozofické základy výchovy, Praha 1996 (České katolické nakladatelství Zvon). Contemporary English Version Bible (CEV), trans. B.M. Newman, Philadelphia 1995 (The American Bible Society), https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deuteronomy+11&version=CEV, accessed 12.03. 2017. Fletcher J., Situační etika. Nová morálka, Praha 2009 (Kalich). France R., Isus, [in:] Enciklopedijski priručnik, Zagreb 1991 (Grafički zavod Hrvatske, Kršćanska sadašnjost), pp. 340–346. France R., Ježiš, [in:] Viery a vyznania. Nový sprievodca náboženstvami sveta, ed. Ch. Partridge, Bratislava 2006 (Slovart), pp. 317–323. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Interview with Carol Gilligan done by webteam, http://ethicsofcare.org/carol-gilligan/#more-5766, accessed 18.02.2017. Iskrová D., Exegeticko-teologický komentár k Prvému Jánovmu listu, Ružomberok 2008 (Katolícka univerzita v Ružomberku, Filozofická fakulta). Jesenková A., Etika starostlivosti, Košice 2016 (Univerzita Pavla Jozefa Šafárika v Košiciach). Maier G., Lukas-Evangelium, Neuhausen–Stuttgart 1991 (Hänssler). Noddings N., Care and Moral Education, [in:] Critical Conversations in Philosophy of Education, ed. W. Kohli, New York 1995 (Routledge), pp. 137–148. Posolstvo Svätého Otca Benedikta XVI. k 25. svetovému dňu mládeže 28. marca 2010, https://www.kbs.sk/obsah/sekcia/h/dokumenty-a-vyhlasenia/p/dokumenty-papezov/c/posolstvo-mladez-2010, accessed 08.08.2017. Skinner B.F., The Technology of Teaching, Cambridge 2003 (B.F. Skinner Foundation). Stott J.R.W., Kázání na hoře. Poselství Bible pro dnešní svět, Praha 1992 (Návrat domů). Titov R.S., Gordon Allport: The Concept of Personal Religious Orientations, Kul'turno-istoricheskaya psikhologiya (Cultural-Historical Psychology), vol. 1 (2003), pp. 2–12. Vasquez Verdera V., La educación y la ética del cuidado en el pensamiento de Nel Noddings, PhD dissertation, Valéncia 2009 (Universitat de Valéncia). Zaviš M., Prieniky teológie a psychiatrie, [in:] V službe evanjelia, ed. M. Krivda, J. Bándy, R. Keller, Liptovský Mikuláš 2013 (Tranoscius), pp. 247–256. Zaviš M., Paradigma osobnosti kresťanského učiteľa v minulosti a dnes, Bratislava 2013 (Univerzita Komenského v Bratislave). Zelina M., Stratégie a metódy rozvoja osobnosti dieťaťa, Bratislava 2011 (Iris). 7. Summary Tutoring in students of theology is not in Slovakia common. It happens on unofficial plane and results from natural and spontaneus agreement between the student and his/her choosen tutor. Our educational practice yet repeatedly showed the need of the official institution of turor in theology students. We are reffering mainly to study issues which need to be solved in context of student´s physical and psychical health problems. Adult tutoring contains also confrontation and efforts of harmonization between tutor´s and student´s personality. Care ethics describes it as relationship of one-caring and cared-for. We assume, that the attitudes and recomendations of Nel Noddings could be very helpful and yielding good results in education and individual tutoring both in children and adults. 120 Cooperative Learning Strategy for Students’ Academic Achievement. The Case of 1 to 5 Students’ Group Discussion Strategy in Kokebetsibah Secondary School E Y U E I L A BAT E DE M I S S I E Addis Ababa To my wonderful Wife, Eden Tilahun and my Parennts Abate and Demekech keywords . cooperative learning, group discussion, peer support, academic achievement 1. Introduction 1.1. Background of the study Students’ academic achievement is one of the pillars in each educational institution, as a result various theories and strategies are brought out from day to day practice assuming the possibility of its enhancing. In regard to this, cooperative learning is one of the strategies believed to be best in terms of improving student’s academic achievement. The major assumptions of this strategy is that it is possible to develop students’ academic achievement by enabling them to help each other. Thus the culture of peer learning will be promoted creating a possibility for an exchange helping students to learn better from their friends. In regard to this, 1 cooperative learning will be defined as students working together in a group small enough to allow everyone to participate on a clearly assigned collective task. Moreover, students are expected to carry out their task without direct and immediate supervision of the teacher. The authors stated that the study of cooperative learning should not be confused with small groups that teachers often compose for the purpose of intense, direct instruction – for example, reading groups. It is believed that students can understand better when it is per learning. But this strategy has its own advantages and challenges. 1 N. Davidson, C.H. Major, Boundary Crossings: Cooperative Learning, Collaborative Learning, and Problem-Based Learning, Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, vol. 25 (3–4) (2014), p. 12. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N The aim, implementation and group formations are decisive for its success. In regard to this, according to A.S. Goodsell and others, 2 challenges to collaborative learning at the classroom level are compounded by the traditional structures and culture of the academy, which continue to perpetuate the teacher-centered, transmission-of-information model of teaching and learning. The political economy of the academy is set up to front load the curriculum with large lower division classes in rooms immutably arranged for lectures, usually in classes limited to fifty-minute “hours.” Student-student interaction; extended, careful examination of ideas; the hearing-out of multiple perspectives; the development of an intellectual community – all these are hard to accomplish under the physical and time constraints. On the contrary Cooperative learning is supported by one of the strongest research traditions in education, with thousands of studies conducted across a wide range of subject areas, age groups, ability levels and cultural backgrounds. The result, in general, suggest that cooperative learning develops high-order thinking skills, enhances motivation and improve interpersonal relations as well as enhancing motivation and peer relations.3 According to these authors, cooperative learning structures can be used to develop constructive and supportive peer relations. It has been implemented in many countries under various names. Peer learning, group discussion, cooperative learning etc. Ethiopia also implemented this peer learning and support strategy since 2009/2010 calling it a 1 to 5 student’s group discussion program. The concept of this program is drafted around mid 2007 under the critical mass building strategy. Its assumption is in one group there is a group leader who is responsible for coordinating the discussion between group members. In addition to this group leader, the group is composed of one high learner two medium learners and two slow learners. Group leaders will be students with best academic achievement from the respected class.4 And it is assumed that there will be exchange of ideas among students and it creates opportunity 2 3 4 Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education, eds. A.S. Goodsell, M.R. Maher, V. Tinto, B.L. Smith, J. MacGregor, University Park 1992 (National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment), passim. M.P. Li, B.H. Lam, Cooperative learning, Hong Kong 2005 (The Hong Kong Institute of Education), p. 10. 1 to 5 Group Organization Manual, Addis Ababa 2011 (Addis Ababa Education Bureau), passim. 122 123 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y for them to support each other. But there are students who complain of the process of implementation. This strategy is implemented throughout primary and secondary schools in the country. Ethiopia is organized with 9 regions and 2 city administrations, and from the respected two city administrations one is Addis Ababa City administration. Similarly 1 to 5 group discussion strategy is implemented in all schools that are found in this city, but level of implementation varies from one school to the other. From all secondary schools that are found in Addis Ababa in work efficiency the top governmental secondary school based on the rank given by the city administration education bureau by the year 2014/2015 academic calendar is Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school. Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school is found in Yeka sub city Woreda 5 the place specifically known as Kebena. The school is founded in 1924 ec. 1 to 5 cooperative learning strategies is also implemented in this school in all sections. 1.2. Statement of the problem Cooperative learning (called a 1 to 5 study program in Ethiopia) is believed to have many benefits for student’s better academic achievement. But if it is not managed properly it is less likely to get the intended outcome. The main challenges faced in cooperative and collaborative learning is conflicts that arise between group members, some teachers may also feel that cooperative learning takes too much time and requires great effort. In addition to that, various governmental documents and government officials in different position comment that 1 to 5 cooperative learning strategy is not bringing the intended change as it is expected. A manual prepared by the city administration education bureau5 describes that the implementation of 1 to 5 group discussion is not implemented in a way as it is intended to be, according to this manual it is because of absence of appropriate regulatory system among the respected bodies, as a result the manual aims to fill this regulatory and coordination gap. There are also complains heard in various meetings that the discussion program is facing many obstacles to achieve its intended goal. As a result this research is conducted to examine and asses the current status of the implementation of one to five group discussion (cooperative learning) program in Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school. 5 Ibidem, p. 2. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Research question 1. What is the current status of 1 to 5 group discussion in Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school grade 913 1.1. How is it going on/What is its progress 1.2. What are its purposes 1.3. How are groups formed 1.4. What do the regulatory system looks like 1.5. What is its significance looks like towards improving student’s academic achievement. 1.3. Objective of the study This research has general and specific objectives. The General objective of this study is to assess the implementation of 1 to 5 group discussion (cooperative learning) program among students and its tendency to enhance student’s academic achievement focusing on 913 students who are found in Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school. The specific objectives that are relevant for achieving this general objective are: • Identifying how and by whom is the study program managed • Examining its tendency of bringing the intended outcome among students • Reviling students attitude towards the group study program • Assessing the relation between what is written on the documents and the real situation in the classroom about 1 to 5 group discussions. 1.4. Significance of the study This research will contribute a lot to those parties who have similar objectives and seek information on issues related to this study. The possible significance of the research are: a. It gives information about the outlook of 1 to 5 group discussion among students, b. it provides information on the gap between the theory and practice towards students cooperative learning program and c. It will be used as a source of information for researchers who wish to carry out future study on similar issues. 1.5. Delimitation of the study The focus of this research is assessing the implementation of 1 to 5 group discussion (cooperative learning) program among students and its tendency to enhance student’s academic achievement focusing on 913 students who are found in Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school. 124 125 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y In regard to these students who are found in grade 913, the school principal, and the respected government official from the ministry of education will be included on this research. 1.6. Operational definitions On this section the researcher tries to give operational definitions for terms that are frequently used throughout this research. Group discussion: is a systematic and purposeful interactive oral process. It includes the exchange of ideas, thoughts and feelings taking place through oral communication. Cooperative learning: according to M.P. Li & B.H. Lam cooperative learning is a student-centered, instructor-facilitated instructional strategy in which a small group of students is responsible for its own learning and the learning of all group members.6 Students interact with each other in the same group to acquire and practice the elements of a subject matter in order to solve a problem, complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaborative learning according to B.L. Smith and J.T. MacGregor it is an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teachers together.7 Usually, students are working in groups of two or more, mutually searching for understanding, solutions, meanings, or creating a product. Collaborative learning activities vary widely, but most center on students’ exploration or application of the course material, not simply the teacher’s presentation or explication of it. Academic achievement: is a combination of two words. According to the oxford dictionary the term academic, relating to education and scholarship. And achievement refers to be a thing that is achieved. As a result academic achievement is a tendency of grasping educational knowledge on its intended level. Group leader: refers to an individual who is responsible for the overall leading activity of small number of individuals who work towards achieving a common goal. Student’s participation: is a combination of two independent words, which are student and participation. According to oxford dictionary student refers to be a person who takes a particular interest in a subject. And 6 7 M.P. Li, B.H. Lam, passim. B.L. Smith, J.T. MacGregor, What is Collaborative Learning?, [in:] Collaborative Learning, passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N participation is taking part in something. From these two words according to the researcher, contextual definition of student participation is active involvement of individuals who comes to schools to learn. 2. Literature On this section the researcher tries to present related literature with this study and documents related to the implementation of 1 to 5 cooperative learning programs in Ethiopia. In regard to this the concept of cooperative learning and group discussion will be presented on section one. And in section two the benefits and limitation of cooperative learning will be discussed. Finally, in section three, the general concepts about 1 to 5 study program and its guidelines on the implementation prepared by the Ministry of Education and Addis Ababa City Administration Education Bureau. 2.1. The concept of cooperative learning, collaborative learning and group discussion 2.1.1. Cooperative learning Cooperative learning believed to be the oldest from group learning strategies8 can be defined as students working together in a group small enough that everyone can participate on a clearly assigned collective task. Moreover, students are expected to carry out their task without direct and immediate supervision of the teacher. The study of cooperative learning should not be confused with small groups that teachers often compose for the purpose of intense, direct instruction – for example, reading groups.9 Collaborative learning began to interest American college teachers widely only in the 1980’s, but the term was coined and the basic idea first developed in the 1950’s and1960’s by a group of British secondary schoolteachers and by a biologist studying British post-graduate education--specifically, medical education.10 According to Johnson and Johnson model cooperative learning is instruction that involves students working in teams to accomplish a common goal, under conditions that include the following elements: 8 9 10 N. Davidson, C.H. Major, op.cit., p. 11. Ibidem, p. 12. K.A. Bruffee, Collaborative Learning and the “Conversation of Mankind”, [in:] Collaborative Learning, p. 30. 126 127 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y 1. Positive interdependence. Team members are obliged to rely on one another to achieve the goal. If any team members fail to do their part, everyone suffers consequences. 2. Individual accountability. All students in a group are held accountable for doing their share of the work and for mastery of all of the material to be learned. 3. Face-to-face promotive interaction. Although some of the group work may be parceled out and done individually, some must be done interactively, with group members providing one another with feedback, challenging reasoning and conclusions, and perhaps most importantly, teaching and encouraging one another. 4. Appropriate usage of collaborative skills. Students are encouraged and helped to develop and practice trust-building, leadership, decision-making, communication, and conflict management skills. 5. Group processing. Team members set group goals, periodically assess what they are doing well as a team and identify changes they will make to function more effectively in the future. Cooperative learning is not simply a synonym for students working in groups. A learning exercise only qualifies as cooperative learning to the extent that the five listed elements are present. Cooperative learning procedures are designed to engage students actively in the learning process through inquiry and discussion with their peers in small groups. The group work is carefully organized and structured so as to promote the participation and learning of all group members in a cooperatively shared undertaking. 2.1.2. Collaboration learning According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term “collaborate” comes from the late 19th century: from the Latin collaborat (“worked with”), from the verb collaborare (from col “together” + laborare “to work”); thus, it means to labor with each other towards the same end, but not necessarily cooperatively on the same tasks. Interdependence is a fundamental construct in cooperative learning, collaborative learning and problem-based learning. It is variously called interdependence, positive interdependence, or mutual interdependence.11 Some of the main contrasts between cooperative and collaborative learning, presented by N. Davidson and C.H. Major and their comparisons 11 N. Davidson, C.H. Major, op.cit., p. 29. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N are cooperative learning fosters interdependence through a combination of goals, tasks, resources, roles, and rewards, while collaborative learning employs only goals, tasks, and, occasionally, limited resources to foster interdependence. Collaborative learning never uses assigned group roles, but some cooperative learning approaches do this. Similarly, collaborative learning does not teach group interaction skills or group reflection/processing of those skills, while some cooperative approaches do so. Most models of cooperative learning employ intentional grouping stipulated by the instructor, or random assignment, while collaborative learning more often employs student choice of group members. 12 The main features of a group are collection, perception, needs, shared aims, interdependence, social organization, interaction, cohesiveness, and membership. 2.2. The benefits and limitation of cooperative learning According to proponents of collaborative learning, the fact that students are actively exchanging, debating and negotiating ideas within their groups increases students’ interest in learning. Importantly, by engaging in discussion and taking responsibility for their learning, students are encouraged to become critical thinkers. In order to be effective collaborative learning should include both “group goals” and “individual accountability.” This means the collaborative learning task must ensure that every group member has learnt something. Ideally, a collaborative learning task would allow for each member to be responsible for some concept necessary to complete the task. This implies that every group member will learn their assigned concept and will be responsible for explaining/teaching this to other members of the group. In regard to the limitation of cooperative learning, if the implementer has limited knowledge about cooperative learning various challenges.13 Creating a collaborative classroom can be a wonderfully rewarding opportunity but it is also full of challenges and dilemmas. 2.3. The general concepts about 1 to 5 study program and its guidelines on the implementation prepared by the MOE and Addis Ababa City administration Education bureau (AAEB) According to Critical mass manual published by Ministry of Education, 1 to 5 at the ministry of education on general education is organized com12 13 Ibidem, p. 34. B.L. Smith, J.T. MacGregor, passim. 128 129 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y posed from various institutions.14 The deputy minister of the Ministry of Education will be the chair person. This committee works towards assuring educational quality, infrastructure good governance and presence of peace and stability in general education across the country. This manual describes that regions would prepare their own critical mass building manual according to their perspective using this manual as a guide line. In regard to the guideline prepared to give directions about organizing 1 to 5 groups in schools that are found in Addis Ababa, according to a manual prepared by the City Administration Education Bureau on 2011, the achievements got on 1 to 5 is not as it is expected to be. This manual defines three objectives of the one to five group. The objectives are: first of all, enabling students to work together cooperatively by supporting each other, secondly maximizing students’ knowledge construction skills, and thirdly, bringing the intended knowledge skills and mental development to place the expected behavioral change. According to the manual prepared by the city administration education bureau on 2011, the school 1 to 5 group discussion is led by the school one to five committee. The chairperson of this committee is the school director. Representative from the students’ union will be secretary of this committee. Members of this committee are teaching learning deputy director, the school guidance and councilor, selected students with good behavior, model civic and ethical education teacher, cluster supervisor, and secondary school supervisors. This committee is responsible for, leading, following, and supporting the school 1 to 5 study program. In addition to this it is the responsibility of this committee providing the necessary facilities and seeking a solution for emerging problems. It is also responsible to communicate the activities done through reports with the respected administration office. The higher archy of the 1 to 5 discussion strategy is the school 1 to 5 group discussion committee reports to the Woreda education office, this office reports to the sub city education office, and the sub city education office reports to the city administration education bureau. The city administration education bureau binds all the activities done in one to five group discussions throughout primary and secondary schools that are found in this city and disseminate the information for interested bodies. One to five group compositions among students holds 1 high achiever 2, middle in academic achievement and 3 low achiever students. According 14 Critical Mass Manual, Addis Ababa 2013 (Ministry of Education), passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N to this manual the time for discussion depending on student’s interest it should have to be from 3:30–5:00 PM. 3. Method of the research 3.1. Research Design This study is sought to asses the implementation of 1 to 5 members’ group discussion (cooperative learning) program among students and its tendency to enhance student’s academic achievement in focusing on 913 students in Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school. Qualitative research method was employed in this study. Case study approach will be basically used for this study, because it provides a unique example of real people in real situations, enabling readers to understand ideas more clearly than simply by presenting them with abstract theories or principles. Indeed, a case study can enable readers to understand how ideas and abstract principles can fit together (Nisbet and Watt 1984, 72–3). Case studies can penetrate situations in ways that are not always susceptible to numerical analysis. Specifically, the researcher deploys exploratory case study method, because it used for a pilot study and other studies or research questions. The researcher focuses on descriptive ways. 3.2. Population of the study The target population that are expected to be included in this research is all the 53 students who studying in grade 913, 1 homeroom teacher in grade 913, 1 school deputy principal whose work is directly related to monitoring the discussion program and 1 government official from the ministry of education whose job is directly related to the implementation of 1 to 5 cooperative learning program. 3.3. Sampling technique The sampling technique used for this study is purposive sampling technique. Because it helps to select samples purposively rather than selecting randomly and to observe analyze and asses the implementation of 1 to 5 group study in depth. 3.4. Determining Sample Frame The study focuses mainly in the Addis Ababa city administration Yeka subcity, Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school. The reason of choosing the respected school is because it is a model school and one of 130 131 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y the best achievers in the rank given by Addis Ababa education bureau and Yeka subcity education office on 2014/2015 academic year from all schools. And the reason why grade 9 is chosen is because during the beginning of the research grade 10 and 12 are about to end class. And the remaining students are grade 11 and 9. From these two grade levels due to level of implementing 1 to 5 properly the researcher chose Grade 9. Additionally, due to level of implementing 1 to 5 properly and availability of vast experience the researcher to choose section 13 students. 3.5. Source of Data To undertake the research study and address its objectives, both primary and secondary data sources were used. Observation, interview, and document analysis were used as a primary data source. Internet, web sites, journal articles, books and annual reports related to the issue are referred as secondary data. 3.6. Data Collection Instrument The data collecting instruments for this study are observation, interview and document analysis. Through observation the researcher observes behaviours related to student’s level of participation in the group discussion, tendency of using the time allocated for discussion effectively, way of regulatory system by the respected governing body, activities conducted during group discussion time. In order to do this, the researcher uses a check list helping to narrate and compare behaviours. Semi structured interview is used to explore the real status of implementing 1 to 5 group study in the respected school, grade and section. The researcher prepared interview questions and based on those questions as guidelines interview is conducted with the respected students, homeroom teacher, the school deputy director and the an official from the ministry of education. Document analysis have been used to check how students are assigned in each group, and what their results look like before & after the implementation of cooperative learning program. 3.7. Procedures The final version of the instrument would be administered to fifty-three students, one homeroom teacher, one school deputy director, and one government official from ministry of education. During administering the interview, all the eight representatives of 1 to 5 members groups were interviewed within eight days which means one day will be used for each PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N group. The respondents would be informed on the purpose of the study and they would be told that their answer would be kept confidentially so they have to give answer wisely and gently. In order to avoid biases the researcher conducts the interview in Amharic language with plain and clear words. The interviews with the teacher, deputy director and Ministry of Education official take place in three different days. 3.8. Ethical Consideration After selecting the respected respondents the researcher explains the purpose of the study and confidentiality of their response and requests permission of the school administration and respondent students. All the three respondents (homeroom teacher, school deputy director, and the respected government official) have been requested for permission 3.9. Data Analysis and Presentation After the data is collected, it would be presented and analyzed in a way to produce relevant information that can answer basic questions of this research, can meet the objectives of the study and show its future implications. Descriptive data would be used to describe the responses of the participants from the data collected by using the respected data collecting tools. The research tries to uncover the real situation of the implementation of 1 to 5 group discussion. 4. Results 4.1. The concepts about 1 to 5 members’ group discussion, and group discussion schedule, regulatory system and group formation in Kokebetsibah secondary school grade 913 Short description about one to five (Cooperative learning) strategy in Ethiopia. The concept of the word 1 to 5 comes from the idea that one high achiever student is responsible to upgrade academic status of 5 students. According to the official from MoE the concept of one two five strategy is drafted on the meeting held in 2007 by the ruling party. It has been implemented almost in all sectors. In regard with the education sector it has been started to be implemented starting from 2009/2010. It has been 132 133 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y implemented among teachers, administrative workers and students. The aim of one to five group discussion strategies among students is to bring quality in education, to maximize student’s academic achievement through cooperative learning and to fill each other’s gap by themselves. According to the official even if there are many obstacles that hinder the successful implementation of one to five there are also promising changes brought by this strategy. 4.2. Group formation, group discussion schedule, and regulatory system in Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school grade 913 According to respondent teachers and the deputy director, study groups are placed and organized in grade 9 and 11 based on students regional and national examination results, while grade 10 and 12 students are assigned by the classroom result in the previous academic year. According to a manual prepared by the City Administration Education Bureau,15 the groups were composed of 1 high achiever 2, middle level students and 3 students with low achievment. However, students had doubts about this composition. The respected respondent students’ opinion was that an imbalance may appear between those groups. Some of them believed that the grouping system is not revised in a way that can answer the change in students’ academic achievement observed in the first semester. These students believed that the regional exam result in grade 8 could not be a guarantee for confirming their level of academic achievement. They expressed doubts regarding the result of the exams concidering the risk that it could be based on cheating. Therefore, they requested assigning group leaders need to be based on classroom participation and grade 9 as a test result. Scheduled discussion, according to a manual prepared by the city administration education bureau on 2011 depending on student’s interest, had to take place between from 3:30 – 5:00 PM. The deputy head of the school, however, advised that, the survey should take place in a different time and day allowing to discuss the results with the respected committee called “command post” and the discussion schedule should be pointed by the school. And he expresses that the discussion schedule on 2015/2016 is, on Tuesday each week from 3:00 – 4:00 Pm. But most of the respected respondent students seem to complain on the schedule, since it is conducted after the regular class time ends, they 15 Critical Mass Manual, passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N explain that they become tired and hungry. As result they could lose interest to study cooperatively. But as the school deputy chair explained in previous years they tried to make it in the morning before the regular class time, but he was forced to change the schedule and make the meeting after classes due to the fact that most students were coming late because some of them lived far away from the school and couldn’t reach it at appointed time. In regard to regulatory system, according to a manual prepared by the City Administration Education Bureau,16 the school 1 to 5 group discussion is led by the school 1 to 5 committee. The chairperson of this committee is the school director. A representative from the students’ union is taking the secretary function of the committee. The members of the committee are teaching learning deputy director, the school guidance and councilor, selected students with good behavior, model civic and ethical education teacher, cluster supervisor, and secondary school supervisors. As the school deputy director explains there is one deputy director who is responsible for this program and he closely works with all homeroom teachers, because all homeroom teachers are responsible for organizing and managing 1 to 5 study program in the respected classroom. Those homeroom teachers closely work with group leaders and each group leader is responsible for his/her group. He added that, in addition to home room teachers non-homeroom teachers will be assigned to facilitate students in their discussion day providing support to the homeroom teacher. Therefore, attendance will be taken among students by the respected teacher and among teachers by the respected deputy director on each discussion day. But the deputy director believes that there will be some interruptions in the schedules due to holidays, meetings, examinations and various occasions. The students also added that possible interruption due to the group study program. Some respondent students explain that there is a problem on the regulatory system resulting in repetitive interruption of the study program. 16 Ibidem. 134 135 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y 5. The activities conducted by students during study session, student’s role and commitment through hard work with understanding its objective According to the school deputy director, in the group discussion day students are expected to work with worksheets provided by the school, while studying the subject they wish and get peer elaboration on the points which are not clear for them. In addition to this the deputy director mentioned that each group works on assignments that are given by subject teachers which is confirm with the respected students. The majority of respondents, however, believies that the study session is highly interrupted by side talks out of the topic and most of them mentioned that there are many students who disturb during study session. Especially the leaders group which admits that they lose interest to lead and spend time in the discussion program, due to misbehaving students. Most group leaders believe that engaging in 1 to 5 study sessions for them, is a waste of time. The researcher observed the discussion for three consecutive weeks. As per the respected observation the average discussion takes less than half of the allocated time. Varying one to the other most groups turn to personal discussion, chat and laughing when the assigned teacher moves to the other groups. Teacher’s role is very limited especially when he/she is a teacher of another subject from the worksheet that students are working with. There is a problem among students that should follow their group leader’s instructions. Additionally, some of the group leaders seem to be less interested in the group discussion program. This is expressed by the tendency of becoming part of the disturbing students while forgetting their role of creating a conducive atmosphere for cooperative learning. As per the researcher observations on the other side there are group leaders who are devoted to attain the intended goal in the group discussion. The researcher observes that these group leaders try to get the attention of their group members and by discouraging misbehaving activity and focusing on their activity on the respected session, they try to help their group members. On the respected observation days the respected assigned teacher comes with a worksheet prepared by the school and each group supposes to spend the allocated time discussing on it and trying to give answers cooperatively. As the deputy director explains the feedback from the common worksheets will be posted on the worksheet which is a part of students’ educational program, as a result the participants will have chance to check how PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N much of the respected topic concept they have got. But he admitted that there is a problem in related to consistency. According to the manual prepared by the City Administration Education Bureau,17 the objectives of 1 to 5 cooperative learning group is, by working cooperatively and supporting each other developing students’ initiation to learn, know and develop their self-confidence, by developing students understanding of the lesson maximizing students potential and enabling students to acquire knowledge, skills, thinking and bringing effect on behavioral change. As a result, according to the above manual and the school deputy director, the role of each student is extended to mentioned objectives. The roles pointed by the school deputy director are fulfilled by students by cooperating and supporting each other filling the academic gap between group members. In addition to this, students are expected to work together by their groups when group assignments are given. But as we noticed above, the real situation does not fit with this assumption due to the mentioned destructing activities that affect conducting the study program effectively. In regard to commitment the researcher observes diversified situations. As per the observation made by the researcher there are committed students who wish to benefit from the study program, these students try to work attentively on the given worksheet, they try to share what they understood during the lessons. They seem angry when misbehaving students try to interfere the discussion. But there are also other groups of students who seem to lack interest and commitment to attain the intended outcome from the discussion; that they are busy of diverting the attention of group members. They try to make fun on their friends, laugh, and chat on issues that are out of the intended lesson, and reserve themselves from being part of the discussion. 6. The outlook of changes in student’s academic achievement by the group discussion, factors affecting the discussion program and recommended solutions by respondents As mentioned above the main target of 1 to 5 group discussion is by working cooperatively and supporting each other filling the academic gap among group members. The result in of the successful implementation of the group discussion program is expected to bring positive effect on 17 Ibidem. 136 137 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y student’s academic achievement. Therefore the researcher tries to cross check whether there is a tangible academic change before and after the study program. Based on the documentation collected from the school the following results are recorded by the respected students on the first and second semester mid examinations. The researcher chooses to compare mid exams because of the possibility to observe students independent test results clearly. The comparison of students summarized result out of hundred it could be affected by inflation of points due to inappropriate grading system under the name of continuous assessment by misunderstanding the concept. The second reason is that it is fair to compare same type of assessments. In regard to this even if there is a first semester final exam result, the second semester final exam is not administered so far. Therefore, the best result to compare is the first and second semester respected respondent students’ mid examination results. The test scores presented from the first and second mid semester grade 913 are presented in the following table. Table 1. Grade 913 student’s first vs second semester test result comparison subject Number of students with score below 50% 1st semester Amharic 1 % 1.88 2nd semester 5 % Number of students with score above 50% 1st semester % 2nd semester % 9.80 52 98.11 46 90.17 English 21 39.62 10 18.86 32 60.37 43 81.13 Mathematics 22 42.30 6 11.76 30 57.69 45 88.23 Civics 21 40.38 2 3.92 31 59.61 49 96.07 Physics 19 36.53 1 1.96 33 63.46 50 98.03 Chemistry 18 33.96 3 5.88 35 66.03 48 94.11 Biology 19 35.84 3 5.88 34 64.15 48 94.11 geography 11 20.75 12 23.52 42 79.24 39 76.47 History 19 35.84 19 37.25 34 64.15 32 62.74 NB: in the table of some subjects the total number of students is less than 53. This is because there are students who did not attend the exam due to various reasons (illness, being late more than the regulated time, etc.) Source: 2016 pilot study. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N According to the above table, in many subjects there is improvement of the results from the first in comparison to the second semester. In three of the subjects (Amharic, Geography and History) students test score in the first semester is better than in the second semester. Even if the above test score shows that there is improvement on results it is necessary to check whether this change is due to the respected 1 to 5 group discussions or not. Because as most of respondent students, believes that they did not benefit from the applied 1 to 5 study program. The major factors affecting the cooperative learning program as indicated by respondent students are: • Inappropriateness of the study time • Irregularities on the program • Lack of commitment among teachers to support students appropriately • Misbehaving activities and lack of interest among students • Lack of adequate awareness among students on the discussion program • Lack of effective regulatory system rising repeatedly. The school teachers and educational leadership development deputy director accepts most of the comments given by the participants. But explains that the point raised by the students in related to lack of commitment among teachers, does not represent all the teachers who took part in the program, but rather admitted that this behavior may refer to particular group of teachers. The deputy director highlighted that they are working towards creating awareness among students about the objective and purpose of the group study program. The next question to the students is regarding possible solutions of the above problems listed by them. The summary of their responses is the following: • Adjusting the study schedule • Instead of spending most of the time working with the worksheet prepared by the school they comment that they should have to get a time for elaboration by subject teachers on topics that is not clear for them • Additional awareness about the purpose and objective of 1 to 5 study program should be created among the students and teachers. 138 139 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y • Placing strong regulatory system, especially in terms of misbehaving students control. • Avoiding irregularities during the study sessions • Placement of students in each group should be based on the actual classroom test scores and after considering the changes that may occur from time to time. Therefore, groups need to be revised. 7. Conclusion and recommendation 7.1. Conclusion Cooperative learning strategy is believed to be a very important tool for maximizing student’s academic achievement. Most of the research literature suggests that such kind of groups need to follow “a swim or sink together” approach18 putting stress on the group reward. However, the above work refers to the assessment system based on individual basis. The points given for group effort are not fully compatible with the above statement. The results of my analysis also support the idea that the group reward is more essential than individual based assessment in terms of enhancing the effectiveness of cooperative learning. Regarding the number of group members, according to B.A. Ward, the groups of four to six students are more effective than larger groups. In a real situation number of members in a given 1 to 5 group is 6. The research outcome confirms that small group sizes are more manageable by group leaders. But there should be also an adequate transmission of information regarding the objective and purpose of the study program. In regard to this, the research reveals the necessity of awareness creation and confirms the idea of B.A. Ward. She stated that the teacher must specify subtasks and assign responsibility for completion of them. The result of the study also supports the concept of heterogeneity during group formation. As stated above those groups who discuss in a better way are groups that are composed of varied ability groups. The thesis that the expectation of additional information is growing with the level of task content variations was confirmed. Another point of the research findings refers to the group conflict as a major challenge that can diminish team spirit. In the groups that misbehaving activities were noticed 18 B.A.Ward, Instructional Grouping in the Classroom, School Improvement Research Series Close-Up #2, Portland 1987 (The School Improvement Program of the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N by the observer, the main problem for the discussion was the conflict of interests. The conflict of interests is caused most often by disagreement on the subject, the topic on which the group should focus, the way of studding, etc. The idea of positive interdependence also has the potential to create a tangible difference. Those with positive interdependence discuss genuinely in a “give and take” manner while in groups with totally dependent students found, there is narrow room for exchange of ideas and the rest accepts the word of the dominant student. This research also confirms that the 1 to 5 group discussion strategy is based on scientific ground, but the observations and conclusion of our study uncovered also the limitations on the implementation of this strategy. The inconvenience of the schedule towards students interest, lack of awareness among students and teachers about the program, lack of placing and mechanism to control misbehaving students are among the major limitations that were noticed. 7.2. Recommendations Taking into consideration the results presented and discussed in the previous chapters we can conclude that the implementation of the 1 to 5 cooperative learning strategies brings changes, but not always does work the way it was intended to work. The data collected during the research shows that the change is not as expected to be. After analyzing the results of the experiment we can recommend: all respected participants need to work together in order to assure strength of regulatory system and implementing this strategy by conducting students’ assessment in each school analyzing actual situation and engaging students’ attention. Researcher believes that that the real change in students’ academic achievement can function only with the idea of positive interdependence and group rewarding system. On top of all there should be a room for further researches in regards to the issues related with the results of 1 to 5 group discussion towards actual students’ academic achievement, method of conducting the discussion and its effectiveness, the cause and solution for misbehaving activities during group discussion and related issues. 8. References 1 to 5 Group Organization Manual, Addis Ababa 2011 (Addis Ababa Education Bureau). 140 141 E Y U E I L A . D E M I S S I E . C O O P E R AT I V E L E A R N I N G S T R AT E G Y Bruffee K.A., Collaborative Learning and the “Conversation of Mankind”, [in:] Collaborative Learning, pp. 30–46. Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education, eds. A.S. Goodsell, M.R., Maher, V. Tinto, B.L. Smith, J. MacGregor, University Park 1992 (National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment). Critical Mass Manual, Addis Ababa 2013 (Ministry of Education). Davidson N., Major C.H., Boundary Crossings: Cooperative Learning, Collaborative Learning, and Problem-Based Learning, Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, vol. 25 (3–4) (2014), pp. 7–55. Li M.P., Lam B.H., Cooperative learning, Hong Kong 2005 (The Hong Kong Institute of Education). Smith B.L., MacGregor J.T., What is Collaborative Learning?, [in:] Collaborative Learning, pp. 10–30. Ward B.A., Instructional Grouping in the Classroom, School Improvement Research Series Close-Up #2, Portland 1987 (The School Improvement Program of the Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory). 9. Summary The aim of this research is to assess the implementation of 1 to 5 group discussion (Cooperative learning) study program among students and its tendency to enhance academic achievement. The study mainly focuses on the case of Kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school, grade 913 students. Participation as respondents in the study take 53 students, 1 deputy director and 1 government official from the ministry of education. The data is collected through observation, interview and document analysis. The groups are formed on the basis of their abilities assuring also their heterogeneity. There is lack of awareness among group members regarding the objective and purpose of the discussion program and also about their role in their respected group. This method left a room for misbehaving activity. In regard to creating a sense of positive interdependence some students managed to practice it, while others seem to be totally dependent on the group leader. Hot discussions and wider exchange of ideas could be observed in some of the groups, while in other groups passive listeners spent all the session by listening what the group leader says. Therefore, further studies are still need to be performed in order to narrow this gap. Perspektívy stratégie service learning v univerzitnom vzdelávaní a pozícia učiteľa v jej rámcoch Z U Z A N A BA R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ Banská Bystrica keywords . service learning strategy, universities, education, teacher, tutor 1. Učiace sa Slovensko1 Tlaky pracovného trhu na vysoké školy sú v súčasnosti na Slovensku každodennou realitou. Zamestnávatelia očakávajú, že dostanú absolventov, ktorí majú dostatok odborných poznatkov, praktických skúseností a tzv. „mäkkých zručností“ (soft skills), že dokážu viesť tím, komunikovať so svojimi partnermi, vyjednávať a riešiť konflikty, nadväzovať kontakty, strategicky a kreatívne myslieť, budú odolní voči stresu, asertívni, ale aj empatickí, samostatní, so schopnosťou sebareflexie. Chcú zasahovať aj do štruktúry študijných odborov a počtov študujúcich2. Ako sa však ti1 2 Názov používame vo všeobecnej rovine, ale aj konkrétnej, odkazujúcej na Národný program rozvoja výchovy a vzdelávania, Burjan V. et al., Učiace sa Slovensko. Národný program rozvoja výchovy a vzdelávania. Návrh na verejnú diskusiu, (Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu Slovenskej republiky), Bratislava 2017, https://www.minedu.sk/data/files/6987_uciace_sa_slovensko.pdf, dostupné 20.05.2017 (further as Učiace sa Slovensko). V riadení vysokých škôl sa to prejavuje ako nevyváženosť medzi samosprávnymi akademickými mechanizmami, ktoré sú vlastné tradičným modelom, a manažérskym prístupom, ktorý je vlastný súčasným neoliberálnym trendom. Preto je potrebné hľadať model riadenia, ktorý dokáže zladiť aspekty tradičnej akademickej samosprávy so samostatným manažérskym rozhodovaním. Základnou otázkou je, či (a ako) je možné riadiť vysokú školu ako každú inú korporáciu v trhovom prostredí alebo sú tu špecifiká akademického prostredia, ktoré ani jeho manažment nemôže obísť, ak nechce stroskotať. Ďalším problémom sú oblasti kompetencií vnútorných orgánov vysokých škôl, v ktorých sa nedostatočne rozlišuje medzi „zákonodarnou“ funkciou akademických „parlamentov“ (senátov) a výkonnou funkciou vrcholového manažmentu. K problému rozdelenia kompetencií však patrí aj otázka, do akej miery majú vstupovať do riadenia vysokých škôl aktéri z externého prostredia, akými cestami a s akým cieľom (napr. členovia správnej rady). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N eto tendencie premietajú do problémov, ale aj perspektív súčasného vzdelávacieho systému na Slovensku reflektuje najaktuálnejšie dokument Učiace sa Slovensko, ktorý predstavuje základ pre formuláciu národného programu rozvoja výchovy a vzdelávania v 10-ročnom výhľade. Znenie jedného z cieľov Bude sa viac ako doteraz podporovať tvorba profesijne orientovaných bakalárskych študijných programov v spolupráci s podnikateľskou sférou, ako aj celková spôsobilosť vysokých škôl reagovať na potreby zabezpečenia dostatočnej kapacity kvalifikovanej pracovnej sily na pozície...3. dokladá úzku prepojenosť na primárne hospodársku prax, ako aj tlak podnikateľských subjektov na posilnenie tých študijných programov, ktoré k hospodárskej či výrobnej praxi môžu prispieť. Vytváranie neustáleho nátlaku na vysoké školy, aby dostatočne pružne reagovali na potreby zabezpečenia dostatočnej kapacity kvalifikovanej pracovnej sily na pozície, znamená hlboké nepochopenie ich významu, pretože hlavná hodnota vzdelania nespočíva vo zvyšovaní ekonomickej produktivity. Napríklad anglický filozof Robert Scruton sa pokúša rehabilitovať klasickú hodnotu neužitočnosti univerzitného vzdelávania, keď píše, že kedysi univerzita budovala posvätný obranný val okolo spoločenských hodnôt a tradícií. Zvyšky týchto „neužitočných znalostí“, ktoré sa nakoniec v živote ukážu ako najnosnejšie, rozvíjajú odbory, ktoré dokážu pestovať zdravý rozum, kritickú myseľ schopnú chápať stále meniaci sa vonkajší svet4. Je to skoro až neuveriteľné, ak si uvedomíme, že ešte pomerne nedávno tvorili univerzity samosprávne spoločenstvá a neboli súčasťou štátom riadeného vzdelávacieho systému. V polovici 19. storočia sa univerzity síce chápali ako centrá spoločenskej moci, ale okrem verejných zastávali aj čisto vnútorné ciele. Okrem návyku na systematickú intelektuálnu prácu a pestovanie úcty k duchovnému životu mala univerzita každému vštepovať vedomie dôležitosti hodnôt spolu s poznaním ich spoločenskej funkcie5. Vyššie vzdelanie prestalo byť výsadou, stalo sa samozrejmosťou. O zložitosti a nie celkom zrozumiteľnej situácii, v ktorej sa slovenské univerzity ocitli, vypovedajú často značne protichodné postrehy. Masifikácia vysokoškolského štúdia spôsobila, že sa v praxi často o pracovné miesta uchádzajú nadmieru kvalifikovaní a nedostatočne flexibilní uchádzači. V súčasnosti máme na Slovensku približne 30 fakúlt pripravujúcich 3 4 5 Učiace sa Slovensko, s. 163. Porovnaj R. Scruton, Idea univerzity, trans. J. Žegklitz, Praha 2002, http://www.obcinst.cz/idea-university, dostupné 20.05.2017. Porovnaj J.H. Newman, Idea univerzity, Praha 2014 (Krystal OP), passim. 144 145 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y učiteľov, na ktorých každoročne začína štúdium 6–8 tisíc maturantov. V rovnako veľkom Fínsku prijímajú na 8 fakúlt pripravujúcich učiteľov asi 2 000 študentov ročne, pričom ich vyberajú až z desaťnásobného počtu uchádzačov. Extenzívny rast počtu vysokých škôl na Slovensku je dôsledkom dlhodobej nekoncepčnej politiky slovenských politických garnitúr, ktoré ho v nedávnej minulosti iniciovali a schválením vzniku jednotlivých univerzít v NR SR aj politicky zastrešili. Verejnosti je pritom presýtenosť vysokoškolského priestoru prezentovaná ako problém spôsobený výlučne samotnými univerzitami. Neustále poukazovanie na nízku kvalitu a tlačenie univerzít do čoraz extrémnejších kvantitatívnych výkonov paralyzujú slovenské vysoké školstvo, ktoré je v súčasnosti nastavené len na prežívanie, nie na rozvoj. Málokedy sa však v týchto kritických výpadoch objaví konštruktívny nápad, ktorý by rozvinul ideu univerzitného vzdelávania v prospech ďalších generácií. Takéto nezdravé prostredie založené na umelej vnútrouniverzitnej aj medziuniverzitnej konkurencii sa potom premieta do prakticky neexistujúceho spoločného hlasu slovenských vysokých škôl smerom k vláde, ministerstvám a verejnosti. Podriadenie rozpočtovej politiky výlučne kvantifikačným kritériám doviedlo vysoké školy k celoplošnému obmedzovaniu prijímacích pohovorov aj pri takej špecifickej profesii, akou je učiteľstvo. Hľadanie inšpirácií, ako skvalitniť naše vysokoškolské vzdelávanie učiteľov vo vybraných krajinách EÚ, nemôže zohľadňovať len kritérium vzájomnej podobnosti na základe počtu obyvateľstva, ale aj investícií do vzdelávacieho procesu. Napríklad nástupný plat slovenského učiteľa je takmer päťnásobne nižší ako mzda učiteľa z Fínska. Preto aj navrhovaná redukcia počtu fakúlt pripravujúcich učiteľov nebude automaticky zárukou skvalitnenia prijatých adeptov na štúdium učiteľstva, ak nepôjde ruka v ruke s redukciou finančnej diskriminácie učiteľskej profesie. 2. Vzdelávanie v tekutom svete Základná filozofia, ktorá sa premieta do obsahu Učiaceho sa Slovenska, akcentuje celoživotný proces učenia sa človeka ako jadro jeho ľudskej prirodzenosti a kľúč k úspešnému životu6. Vychádza z predpokladu, že človek sa učí od svojho príchodu na svet v inštitúciách alebo mimo nich. V súčasnosti ale jedinec nie je vzdelaný, je celoživotne vzdelávaný a vzdelávajúci sa. Je preto nevyhnutné nanovo definovať vzdelaného človeka: za vzdelaného sa pova6 https://www.minedu.sk/data/files/6987_uciace_sa_slovensko.pdf, čtení 25.12.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N žuje ten, kto sa naučil, ako sa učiť, a bude sa učiť po celý život. Rakúsky filozof Konrad P. Liessmann zastáva názor, že myšlienka celoživotného vzdelávania pripomína doživotné odsúdenie, odkiaľ únikom je len smrť7. Podľa neho sa celoživotné učenie stalo nevyhnutnosťou, pri ktorej nikto presne nevie, čo sa má učiť a prečo sa učiť. Antika považovala múdrosť za výslednicu dosiahnutých vedomostí, schopností a skúseností, ktoré až po dlhom čase bolo možné zlúčiť do skutočnej jednoty. Lenže takéto chápanie múdrosti nie je cieľom celoživotného vzdelávania, pretože je bez cieľa, keďže ten sa zredukoval na prostriedok vzťahu. Sociológ Zygmunt Bauman popísal náhly rozpad modernej ilúzie, že cesta, po ktorej kráčame, má nejaký dosiahnuteľný koniec, že stav dokonalosti existuje8. Tým zároveň podal charakteristiky celoživotného vzdelávania. Dôraz sa kladie na sebauplatnenie jedinca, ktorý sám preberá plnú zodpovednosť za dôsledky svojho konania. On sám má zistiť, aké má dispozície, maximálne ich využiť k dosiahnutiu určených cieľov, ktoré bude ďalej aktualizovať. Relatívne stabilný koncept vzdelávania už neexistuje, človek vzdelávaný sa ocitá na maratónskej edukačnej trati. Liessmann tvrdí, že vzdelanie sa začína zvedavosťou, ktorá, ak je odnímaná, odoberá sa spolu s ňou aj šanca na vzdelávanie sa. Zvedavosťou sa zakúša, aký svet okolo je9. Túžba po poznaní neurčuje v jej priebehu, aké ciele dosahuje alebo má dosahovať. V súčasnosti sa má jedinec vyznačovať schopnosťou byť celoživotne zamestnateľný, čo znamená funkčne10 použiteľný. Preto sa enormné úsilie kladie na také kompetencie, ktoré sa dajú využiť vo viacerých povolaniach – a označujeme ich ako kľúčové kompetencie. Vďaka nim sa má človek úspešne vyrovnávať so zmenami v pracovnom, spoločenskom a aj osobnom živote. Liessmann ale tvrdí, že nahliadanie na človeka ako na stroj disponujúci kompetenciami, po ktorých môže siahnuť práve vtedy, keď to potrebuje, predstavuje nielen isté ochudobnenie, ale tiež neuznáva možnosti, ktoré spočívajú vo vzdelávateľnosti človeka. Zámena všeobecného cieľa vzdelávania za dosiahnutie určitých kompetencií preto vedie ešte k ďalšiemu problému, nie je totiž zárukou, že ľudské konanie bude tvorivé. Ukazuje sa, že pojem kompetencie nie je dostatočne objasnený11. 7 8 9 10 11 K.P. Liessmann, Teorie nevzdělanosti. Omyly společnosti vědění, Praha 2008 (Academia), passim. Z. Bauman, Úvahy o postmoderní době, Praha 2002 (Slon), passim. Porovnaj K.P. Liessmann, Hodina duchů, Praha 2015 (Academia), passim. To znamená, že aj umenie a vedy smú byť nárokované a sprostredkovávané výlučne z perspektívy, podľa ktorej sa nejakým spôsobom využijú v živote. V mnohých prípadoch nie je zďaleka jasné, akými postupmi a metódami majú vyučujúci reálne dospieť k formovaniu kompetencií u svojich žiakov. Vyčleňovanie jed- 146 147 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y 3. Service learning ako možnosť a rola učiteľa v ňom Pri takto rámcovaných úvahách o súčasnom ponímaní vzdelania, vzdelávania (sa) a univerzít na Slovensku by sme mohli pomenovať aj krajné póly prístupov k procesu edukácie. Na jednej strane je to prísne kvantifikovaný ekonomický prístup, ktorý nazerá na absolventa vzdelávacieho procesu ako na ľudský zdroj a očakáva od neho absolútnu pripravenosť (odbornú aj osobnostnú) už pri vstupe do pracovného sveta. Kvalita školského systému je potom posudzovaná podľa efektivity účelnosti a hospodárnosti a sleduje sa najmä jej akontabilita – zúčtovateľná zodpovednosť vzdelávacej inštitúcie za kvalitu služieb a výsledkov vzdelávania, aby sa bilančne preukázala adekvátnosť poskytnutých prostriedkov na kontrolovateľné cieľové výkony12. Na druhej strane je prístup chrániaci tradičné ponímanie univerzity opierajúci sa o Platónovu akadémiu a tradíciu humboldtovskej univerzity ako ideál jednoty čistého bádania a vyučovania, pri ktorom je vzdelávanie oddelené od praktických potrieb spoločnosti a na absolventa nazerá ako na v procese vzdelávania rozvinutú tvorivú mysliacu bytosť. Je zrejmé, že ani jedna z týchto krajných polôh nepredstavuje (nielen) pre slovenské univerzitné prostredie konštruktívny prvok. Reformisti hrozia tradičným vysokým školám, ktoré sa neprispôsobia meniacim sa podmienkam, zánikom. Tradicionalisti sa kŕčovito držia hĺbkových princípov, čo ich nutne izoluje, ale model uzavretej školy už zrejme dohral svoju historickú rolu (odkazuje na to aj koncept tzv. tretieho poslania univerzít13). Akokoľvek je autorkám príspevku blízky práve tradičný mo- 12 13 notlivých kompetencií skôr vyvoláva zdanie merateľnosti, čo však predznamenáva ďalší problém, či je vôbec možné všetky požadované kompetencie merať. Porovnaj Š. Švec, Základné pojmy v pedagogike a andragogike, Bratislava 1995 (IRIS), passim. Dnešné univerzity uvažujú o svojej úlohe pre spoločnosť a vzťahoch s jej zložkami, inštitúciami a komunitami. Táto väzba medzi vysokoškolským vzdelávaním a spoločnosťou sa považuje za tretie poslanie univerzít. Koncept tretieho poslania vo všeobecnosti zahŕňa mnohé z novovznikajúcich požiadaviek vo vzťahu k univerzitám, najmä požiadavku zastať viditeľnejšiu rolu pri stimulovaní využívania vedomostí na dosiahnutie sociálneho, kultúrneho a ekonomického rozvoja. V roku 2000 Európska rada predstavila Lisabonskú agendu (2000), v ktorej sa utilitárna produkcia vzdelania a transfer univerzitných vedomostí stali dôležitou politickou agendou. Tento vzťah k „vonkajšiemu svetu“ by mal byť zameraný na tri súvisiace oblasti: vzdelávanie, výskum a sociálnu angažovanosť v súlade s regionálnym/národným rozvojom. Tretie poslanie nie je teda izolovanou (alebo reziduálnou) funkciou, ale je komplementárne k prvým dvom poslaniam univerzít; Lisabonská agenda https:// euractiv.sk/fokus/veda-a-inovacie/lisabonska-agenda, dostupné 20.05.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N del vzdelávania a odmietajú podľahnúť hrozbám o jeho zániku či tlakom hospodárskej praxe, sú nútené hľadať v oblasti pedagogických prístupov k vzdelávaniu také stratégie, ktoré nepoprú tradíciu v zmysle hodnoty vzdelania a myslenia, no súčasne prispejú aj explicitne k rozvoju, jazykom reformistov povedané, kľúčových kompetencií. Ak však takéto chápanie označíme ako dobovú nevyhnutnosť, potom je povinnosťou vzdelávacích inštitúcií hľadať možnosti, ako vrátiť vzdelávaniu aj orientáciu na kontextové (hlbšie) poznanie a jeho trvácnosť. V tejto súvislosti je zaujímavý koncept vzdelávania založený na stratégii service learning14, ktorá predstavuje plne etablovanú vyučovaciu stratégiu známu takmer na celom svete. Jej podstatou je zmysluplné prepojenie kurikula s prácou s komunitou, teda učenie (sa) prostredníctvom služby v komunite. Service learning sa v tomto smere ukazuje ako vhodná stratégia, ako dosiahnuť oboje. Na jednej strane sú jeho piliere postavené na spolupráci študentstva, školy a komunity, čím vzdelávanie otvára praxi, dáva možnosť uvedomiť si reálny rozmer dosahovaného poznania aj osobnostného rozvoja, ich využiteľnosť aj limity. Tým cielene podporuje otvorenosť školského prostredia súdobej realite a snaží sa špecificky volenými aktivitami podporovať prípravu na úspešné nielen začlenenie sa, ale aj uplatnenie sa. Na strane druhej môže uspokojivo aktivizovať zúčastnené strany, najmä však pre nás kľúčové študentstvo, keď aktívna participácia na service learningových projektoch (od vymyslenia idey cez prieskum situácie, plánovanie, organizáciu, realizáciu až vyhodnotenie) robí študentov priamo účastných, škola, ktorá takto realizuje časť svojho kurikula, vytvára ďalšie príležitosti na sebarealizáciu, podporuje u študentov a žiakov to, čo ich zaujíma a čo chcú robiť, umožňuje im dotknúť sa reality, pričom kontextovo využívajú vedomosti a zručnosti nadobudnuté formálnym aj neformálnym vzdelávaním. Tak sa popri formách 14 V 60. rokoch 20. storočia sa v Spojených štátoch amerických začal používať termín service learning aj na označenie učebnej stratégie a postupne sa aplikoval na všetkých stupňoch a typoch škôl. Následne prenikol do vzdelávacieho systému viacerých európskych stredných škôl a univerzít, rozvinul sa tiež v Južnej Amerike, Austrálii a Japonsku a v súčasnosti aj na niektorých slovenských univerzitách. Na Univerzite Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici sú aplikované štyri modely service learningu vymedzené Barbarou Jacoby: kurz, v ktorom je service learning možnosťou (predmet tretí sektor a mimovládne organizácie); service learning ako alternatíva ku klasickému kurzu (predmet práca s rómskou komunitou); výskum uskutočňovaný v komunite (predmet metodológia vied o človeku); kurz service learningu (predmet service learning 1 a 2); B. Jacoby et al., Service-Learning in Higher Education. Concepts and Practices, San Francisco 1996 (Jossey Bass), passim. 148 149 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y štúdia sústredených na rozvoj odbornosti začínajú formovať študentské tímy neraz tvorené naprieč viacerými študijnými programami, ktoré časť svojho vysokoškolského štúdia realizujú v komunite. Spoznávajú jej problémy a potreby a spolu s ňou vytvárajú projekty, prostredníctvom ktorých sa učia aj pomáhajú. Preto service learningové projekty možno vnímať ako jeden z vyučovacích nástrojov, ktorý prispieva k rozvoju odborného aj osobnostného potenciálu vysokoškolského študentstva. Významný potenciál tejto stratégie je aj v tom, že je založená na interdisciplinárnom a prierezovom prístupe. Reálne potreby komunít, ktoré študenti a študentky v procese učenia (sa) riešia, totiž nie sú štruktúrované do predmetov, ale vyžadujú vnímanie širokých súvislostí a interdisciplinárnu spoluprácu. Základnou myšlienkou stratégie service learning sa tak stáva téza o prieniku potrieb študentstva, komunity a organizácie (školy). To implikuje jej zameranie nielen na proces učenia, ale aj na proces učenia sa, z čoho vyplýva základná definícia vytvorená výskumným kolektívom z Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici15. Podľa nej je service learning stratégiou aktívneho učenia a učenia sa založenou na službe v prospech iných s cieľom formovania občianskej zodpovednosti a rozvoja osobnosti študentov a študentiek. Pri takto vymedzenom chápaní je nevyhnutné vždy nanovo definovať potreby študentstva, potreby komunity a potreby organizácie. Na ich prienik sa potom reaguje cielene zvolenou aktivitou, ktorá pri dodržaní všetkých stanovených zásad16 môže vyústiť do úspešného naplnenia zistených potrieb. Vďaka tejto stratégii univerzity plnia komplexne svoje základné poslanie a pripravujú novú generáciu odborníkov, ktorá dokáže integrovať nadobudnuté akademické kvality so spoločenskou zodpovednosťou a občianskou angažovanosťou. Ako uvádza Clayss, Latinsko-americké centrum pre service learning so sídlom v Buenos Aires,17 myšlienka service 15 16 17 A. Brozmanová Gregorová et al., Service learning. Inovatívna stratégia učenia (sa), Banská Bystrica 2014 (Vydavateľstvo Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici – Belianum), passim. M. Cooper, The Big Dummy’s Guide to Service-learning: 27 Simple Answers to Good Questions on: Faculty, Programmatic, Student, Administrative, Non Profit Issues, Miami 2005, http://www.fiu.edu/-time4chg/Library/bigdummy.html, dostupné 20.05.2017; E. Fiske, Learning in Deed. The Power of Service-Learning for American Schools. A Report from National Commission on Service Learning, Battle Creek 2002 (W.K. Kellogg Foundation), passim. CLAYSS. A Service-learning proposal for universities. [Complementary text 1 for participants in CLAYSS service-learning capacity building program for universities], PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N learningu sa zameriava na odstránenie priepasti medzi sociálnou angažovanosťou a akademickým životom a zároveň na budovanie mostov medzi „serióznymi vedcami“ a spoločensky angažovanými univerzitami, na vytváranie synergie medzi tromi poslaniami univerzít. Domnievame sa však, že aj napriek novodobým trendom v ponímaní roly učiteľa, úspešnosť realizovaného service learningového vzdelávania závisí značne práve od jeho kompetentnosti. Do súčasnej edukácie čoraz viac preniká dôraz na samostatnosť žiakov a študentov, ktoré sú často identifikované v odpovediach typu konečne sa nás niekto pýta na náš názor a na to, čo chceme a reálne potrebujeme. Treba si však uvedomiť mieru osobnostnej kompetencie žiaka či študenta relevantne pomenovať reálnu potrebu, ako aj s nadhľadom vnímať študentský kritický postoj voči rozsahu priestoru ponechaného na vyslovenie vlastného názoru. Z praxe totiž vieme, že neraz tento priestor nie je študentmi využitý nie preto, že by neexistoval, ale preto, že ich schopnosť verbalizovať názor je znížená vplyvom práve nízkej vedomostnej úrovne o diskutovanej téme18. Podľa paragrafu 13 zákona č. 317/2009 Z. z. o pedagogických zamestnancoch a odborných zamestnancoch a o zmene a doplnení niektorých zákonov učiteľ vykonáva pedagogickú činnosť pri uskutočňovaní školského vzdelávacieho programu19 alebo pri poskytovaní kontinuálneho vzdelávania, pričom pedagogickou činnosťou sa rozumie „súbor pracovných činností vykonávaných priamou výchovno-vzdelávacou činnosťou a ostatnými činnosťami s ňou súvisiacimi, ktoré zamestnávateľ ustanoví v pracovnom poriadku“ (paragraf 3 odsek 2 zákona č. 317/2009)20. Bez toho, aby sme zachádzali do etymológie a vývoja významov dvoch kľúčových slov výchova a vzdelávanie, bežné slovníkové definície (napríklad Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka, 2003) chápu učiteľa ako toho, kto vyučuje, teda systematicky vzdeláva vo vyučovacom procese, pričom vy- 18 19 20 Buenos Aires 2013 (CLAYSS), www.clayss.org, dostupné 20.05.2017. Tu sa nám otvára ďalší problém, ako súčasná spoločnosť rozumie slovu vzdelanosť, ako vníma hodnotu vzdelanosti a v akých významoch s pojmom vzdelanosť narába. Nadradeným termínom je štátny vzdelávací program, ktorý určuje okrem iného ciele vzdelávania a vzdelávacie štandardy pre jednotlivé stupne a typy škôl. Pre úvahy, ktoré rozvinieme neskôr, je zaujímavým aj paragraf 15 zákona č. 317/2009, ktorý definuje vychovávateľa ako osobu vykonávajúcu pedagogickú činnosť v rámci výchovného programu a cieľom jej činnosti je rozvíjať vedomosti, zručnosti a postoje žiakov získané vo výchovno-vzdelávacej činnosti. Výchovným programom podľa paragrafu 8 zákona č. 245/2008 rozumieme základný dokument školského zariadenia (podľa ministerských odporučení si ho vytvára každá škola sama), podľa ktorého sa uskutočňuje výchovno-vzdelávacia činnosť. 150 151 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y chovávateľ je ten, kto vychováva, kde vychovávať znamená zabezpečiť, poskytnúť výchovu, výchovou formovať a výchova je 1. sústavné cieľavedomé pôsobenie na (mladého) človeka zabezpečujúce jeho všestranný rozvoj, 2. systematické vzdelávanie v istej oblasti. Prax, základné legislatívne rámce Slovenskej republiky, ale aj mnohé definície pedagogických vied tieto činnosti kombinujú. Napríklad Mariana Sirotová21 konštatuje, že definície pojmu učiteľ sa zhodujú v tom, že učiteľ je kvalifikovaný profesionál, ktorého úlohou je vychovávať a vzdelávať svojich žiakov či študentov s cieľom čo najoptimálnejšieho rozvoja ich osobností, či už prostredníctvom prezentovania (odovzdávania) informácií, postojov a schopností, alebo usmerňovania činnosti žiakov a študentov, počas ktorej si osvojujú poznatky, vytvárajú postoje a schopnosti. Najaktuálnejším cieľom ministerstva školstva SR, vychádzajúc z dokumentu Učiace sa Slovenskoje nové poňatie profesie učiteľa a funkcie školy, kde učiteľ je sprievodcom žiakov v procese učenia sa, nie sprostredkovateľom poznatkov. Škola je miestom individuálneho rozvoja žiakov, tímovej spolupráce a komunikácie všetkých aktérov vzdelávania a širšej verejnosti (zvýraznili autorky)22. Autori dokumentu sa odvolávajú na krízu učiteľskej profesie a fakt, že „škola stratila vzdelávací monopol“, pričom nové poňatie profesie učiteľa sa pokúsia premietnuť aj do zmeny znenia legislatívnych noriem. Podľa tejto novej koncepcie má byť poslanie učiteľa definované tak, aby v procese vzdelávania rozvíjal múdrosť žiakov, ich sebaúctu a úctu voči všetkým a všetkému. Aby podporoval ich zodpovednosť za seba a voči ľuďom aj prostrediu okolo seba, ich autonómnosť pri prijímaní svojich rozhodnutí a preberaní zodpovednosti za tieto rozhodnutia. Aby stimuloval ich iniciatívu, kreativitu a samostatnosť, odhaľoval a rozvíjal ich špecifické talenty a nadania. Aby bol uvedomelým lídrom žiakov. Aby svojím pôsobením napomáhal rodičom pri výchove a vzdelávaní ich detí a podporoval dobré vzťahy vo vzťahovom trojuholníku žiak – učiteľ – rodič. Aby bol aktívnym a spolupracujúcim členom tímu školy, aby pôsobenie všetkých učiteľov smerom k žiakovi bolo komplexné a synergizujúce (zvýraznili autorky)23. Takto nastolené predstavy iba potvrdzujú realitu posledných desaťročí. Učitelia sú pod enormným tlakom požiadaviek neustálych inovácií a kreatívnych riešení, neutíchajúceho zdôrazňovania výkonnosti a očakávania úspechov (zo strany nadriadených štruktúr aj rodičov). 21 22 23 M. Sirotová, Vysokoškolský učiteľ v edukačnom procese, Trnava 2014 (UCM), s. 9. Učiace sa Slovensko, s. 92. Ibidem, s. 93. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Je snáď poslaním učiteľa rozoznať v každom žiakovi jeho jedinečnosť, zmysel pre istý typ činnosti a následne pomáhať pri jej rozvíjaní? Alebo má pomáhať rozvoju individualít či dokonca slúžiť potrebám pracovného trhu? Samozrejme, všetky tieto otázky smerujúce k povahe a poslaniu učiteľského povolania majú svoje opodstatnenie, ale chceme upozorniť najmä na ohrozenia, ktoré sa skrývajú v prehnanom dôraze na jednu zo zvolených perspektív (sociálnu, individuálnu, ekonomickú atď.) a v zabudnutí na ostatné, čo sme sa snažili aj explicitne zvýrazniť. Už v Platónovom dialógu Prótagoras sa objavuje otázka, kto je dobrý učiteľ. Prótagoras Sokratovi odpovedá, že dobrý učiteľ je ten, ktorý spôsobí, že po jeho lekciách sa vrátíš domů lepší, než jsi byl, a následující den právě tak; a každý den že vždycky učiníš pokrok ve směru k lepšímu24. Daná jednoznačnosť sa však v pokračujúcom dialógu spochybňuje, ukáže sa, že neexistuje zhoda v predstavách o tom, čo je dobré či lepšie, ani o metódach, ktoré majú viesť k dosiahnutiu onoho dobra. Samozrejme, medzi Platónom a dokumentom Učiace sa Slovensko existuje široké spektrum definícií, kto je to učiteľ, čo je to škola a v závislosti od preferencií doby sa vymedzuje aj hodnota vzdelanosti. Ak by sme prijali v oblasti vzdelávania dospelých tézu Jaroslava Balvína25 rozhýbat mysl člověka, aby v modelových, ale i reálných situacích nacházel a našel optimální řešení svého životního úkolu, aby se dobře rozhodoval a potom také moudře volil ako východiskovú, mohli by sme ju azda bez väčšej ujmy rozšíriť na celé ľudské bytie s tým, že prostriedky volené na rozhýbavanie mysle (a vedúce k výchove a vzdelávaniu) sú špecifické v závislosti od veku, no uplatniteľné v každom veku. Nejdeme sa púšťať do rekonštrukcie diskusie o možnosti socializácie/výchovy a vzdelávania dospelých ani do sumarizácie špecifík v prístupoch k dospelým, tomu sa venuje rad andragogických štúdií a monografií,26 vychádzame z predpokladu, že ak aj možno človeka vnímať ako autonómnu bytosť, jeho „dotvorenosť“ sa končí až smrťou, t. j. či už zámerne, alebo nezámerne proces výchovy a vzdelávania prebieha v každej fáze života človeka. 24 25 26 Platón, Prótagoras, Praha 2015 (OIKOYMENH), 318a. J. Balvín, Andragogika jako teorie výchovy a vzdělávání dospělých, Praha 2011 (Hnutí R), s. 5. Napríklad J. Balvín, op.cit., passim; M. Beneš, Andragogika, Praha 2008 (Grada), passim; G. Porubská, Ľ. Ďurdiak, Manažment vzdelávania dospelých, Nitra 2005 (SLOVDIDAC), passim; V. Prusáková, Základy andragogiky I, Bratislava 2005 (Gerlach Print), passim; V. Prusáková, et al., Analýza vzdelávacích potrieb dospelých. Teoretické východiská, Banská Bystrica 2010 (UMB), passim. 152 153 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y Do uvažovania o výchove a vzdelávaní necháme preniknúť sériu anglicizmov, teaching, training, coaching, mentoring ako rôzne typy štýlu vodcovstva (leadership styles), teda vzťah učiteľ – školiteľ – kouč/tréner – mentor – a pridajme ešte – tútor. Ich základné podobnosti a odlišnosti možno zhrnúť takto: vyučovanie a školenie (training) je rozvíjanie špecifických zručností priamou interakciou, teda vo vopred určenom časovom rámci a zvyčajne podľa učebného plánu, koučing a mentoring sú založené na nepriamej interakcii. Učiteľ pôsobí v procese vyučovania a jeho hlavnou úlohou je poskytovať poznatky (žiakom, študentom, atropogonom – edukantom) prostredníctvom vyučovania, vysvetľovať ich tak, aby došlo k ich porozumeniu, a rozlišovať mieru vedomostí, teda hlavnou úlohou učiteľa je šíriť vedomosti, čím rozvíja akademické vedomosti edukanta formou pokynu, od učiteľa sa preto očakávajú hĺbkové akademické vedomosti. Na analogickom princípe pôsobí školiteľ v procese školenia, pričom však jeho hĺbkové vedomosti nie sú nutne akademické, ale sú špecifické pre oblasť, v ktorej poskytuje školenie. Podľa OECD je učiteľ osoba, ktorej profesionálna činnosť zahŕňa plánovanie, organizovanie a vedenie skupinových aktivít s cieľom rozvíjať vedomosti, zručnosti a postoje študentov podľa vzdelávacích programov(zvýraznili autorky)27. V procese koučingu/trénovania pôsobí kouč/tréner, jeho úlohou je podporovať jednotlivca v dosahovaní konkrétneho, často okamžitého cieľa, pričom sám tréner nemusí mať v tejto oblasti osobné skúsenosti. Je však pokladaný za experta na odhaľovanie potenciálu jednotlivcov a prostredníctvom otázok (nie rád) podnecuje jednotlivca k hľadaniu vlastných riešení. Koučing je teda proaktívny, zameraný na budúcnosť a zlepšenie konkrétnych zručností a výkonu28. Mentora možno chápať ako poradcu, usmerňovateľa, ktorý neposudzuje vedecké/odborné poznatky jednotlivca (to robí učiteľ), nedáva priamu inštrukciu jednotlivcovi (v anglickej terminológii je partnerom mentora tzv. mentee, mentorovaná osoba/mentorovaný/zverenec), ale umožňuje mu nájsť vlastnú cestu k poznatku, teda hlavnou úlohou mentora je poradenstvo (prostredníctvom vedenia a rád či vlastného príkladu), čím rozvíja profesionálne schopnosti formou odporučenia, od men27 28 OECD (2018), „Teachers” (indicator), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/93af1f9d-en, dostupné 20.05.2017. Aj autori Učiaceho sa Slovenska na strane 92 konštatujú, že od učiteľov sa očakáva, že budú „inovátormi, tvorivými pracovníkmi, koučami“, nie je však celkom zrejmé, v akom význame používajú tento pojem. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N tora sa preto očakávajú (na rozdiel od trénera) bohaté skúsenosti v oblasti, ktorú používa na to, aby viedol jednotlivca. Potom tútoring možno chápať ako hybnú silu vyučovania, trénovania aj poradenstva, pretože zahŕňa rozširovanie poznatkov edukantov, ich trénovanie na dosiahnutie ich plného potenciálu a v procese poradenstva im odovzdáva špecifické osobné skúsenosti na to, aby mohli rásť ako ľudia. Týmto termínom sa označuje celé spektrum akademickej a sociálnej podpory a rolu tútora by sme potom umiestnili v prieniku učiteľ, tréner a mentor. Každý, kto akceptuje zložitosť problematiky vzdelania a vzdelávania, rozumie tomu, že učiteľ nemôže byť chápaný ako nejaká bezodná zásobáreň poznatkov, dát, informácií či ako tlmočník odborných vedomostí a zručností. Zároveň si myslíme, že ideál učiteľa reprezentuje vízia všestranne kultivovanej osobnosti s rozvinutou schopnosťou reflexie a sebareflexie, osobnosti, ktorá dokáže nazerať na učebné obsahy z čo najkomplexnejšej perspektívy a uvažovať o nich. Preto sa prikláňame k chápaniu učiteľa ako osoby, ktorá rozvíja vedomosti, zručnosti a postoje študentov prostredníctvom poskytovania informácií, rozvíjania schopnosti selektovať a verifikovať prijímané informácie a zaujímať k nim vlastný názor, ktorá zvláda techniky kladenia otázok a tvorivého usmerňovania (na čom je založená práca mentora) a ktorá sa v špecifických edukačných formách, akou je napríklad service learningový projekt, môže ocitnúť aj v role tútora, byť sprievodcom žiakov v procese učenia sa29. Zároveň nestrácame zo zreteľa ani celkový náhľad na hlboko ľudský zmysel tejto profesie a už z princípu nedefinovateľnosť jadra učiteľstva – jeho poslania. Prehlbujúca sa inštrumentalizácia učiteľskej profesie, rozvoj e-learningových a dištančných foriem vzdelávania môžu dokonca viesť až k absurdnej otázke, či sa učiteľ nestáva prežitou figúrou. V súčasnej digitálnej dobe sa zároveň prevracia vzťah generácií a povinnosti starších. Ak sa aj všetci zhodneme na tom, že jednou z najdôležitejších povinností dospelých v spoločnosti je oboznámiť mladú generáciu s občianskym a kultúrnym dedičstvom, musíme konštatovať, že mladých to nezaujíma. Starajú sa o to, čo sa deje tu a teraz, sociálne siete toto fungovanie podporujú30. 29 30 V ideálnom stave sa na výchove a vzdelávaní žiaka/študenta podieľa viacero osôb naraz – rodičia, vychovávateľ, učiteľ, mentor a tútor. Tak ako predpovedal francúzsky filozof Jean-François Lyotard, všetko, čo nie je možné pretransformovať do jazyka počítačov, je z kategórie „poznanie“ vylúčené (porovnaj J.-F. Lyotard, The postmodern condition. A report on knowledge, Manchester 1984 (Manchester University Press), passim). 154 155 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y A čím viac sa kontaktujú navzájom, tým menej si všímajú výchovu zo strany dospelých. Aby z nich však mohli vyrásť všímaví občania, musia už v mladosti prelomiť spoločenský okruh a začať myslieť mimo hraníc svojej rovesníckej skupiny. Service learning sa práve tu stáva vhodnou možnosťou, učitelia môžu viesť žiakov k hlbším vedomostiam aj k porozumeniu svetu prostredníctvom problémov najbližšieho okolia. Mark Bauerlein31 ale pripomína, že sa nesmie udiať zmena v zmysle poklesu učiteľov z pozície „mudrcov na scéne“ na pozíciu „obyčajných sprievodcov“ so všetkými nežiaducimi sprievodnými okolnosťami, ako sú popieranie vlastnej autority alebo nevyžadovanie disciplíny, žiaci sa prekvapia, čo sa deje, a prestanú mať motiváciu, aby sa samostatne učili. Veľa zástancov voľného prístupu sa však domnieva, že učenie pod vedením autoritatívnych učiteľov žiakov nudí alebo sa ukazuje ako príliš náročné. A učenie, pri ktorom sú v centre pozornosti žiaci, bude inšpiratívne aj pre menej úspešných žiakov32. Výsledky výskumov však ukázali niečo iné33. Učitelia by mali trvať na hodnote poznania a tradície, vytyčovať cesty k vedomostiam a vkusu, chrániť ich pred nízkou úrovňou, spochybňovaním histórie, vulgárnosťou a poplatnosťou. Bauerlein upozorňuje aj na to, že človek do osemnásteho roku života strávi v škole približne 9 percent času. Aký vplyv môže mať na neho teda formálne vzdelanie, ak väčšina z toho, čo sa deje počas zvyšných 91 percent, je v rozpore s tým, na čom sa bazíruje v škole. Ukazuje sa, že väčšina prípravnej práce, ktorá je potrebná na akademický úspech, sa neudeje na školskej pôde, ale v neformálnom prostredí. A práve service learningové vzdelávanie je vhodnou príležitosťou, ako korektne a zmysluplne prepojiť školské vzdelávanie so vzdelávaním (sa) v neformálnom prostredí. 4. Literatúra Balvín J., Andragogika jako teorie výchovy a vzdělávání dospělých, Praha 2011 (Hnutí R). Bauerlein M., Najhlúpejšia generácia, Bratislava 2010 (VSSP). Bauman Z., Úvahy o postmoderní době, Praha 2002 (Slon). Beneš M., Andragogika, Praha 2008 (Grada). 31 32 33 M. Bauerlein, Najhlúpejšia generácia, Bratislava 2010 (VSSP), passim. Porovnaj ibidem. National Governors Association. Rate your future 2005. High school students say that school is too easy, http://www.docstoc.com/docs/26283487/Rate-Your-Future---National-Governors-Association, dostupné 20.05.2017. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Brozmanová Gregorová A. et al., Service learning. Inovatívna stratégia učenia (sa), Banská Bystrica 2014 (Vydavateľstvo Univerzity Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici – Belianum). Burjan V. et al., Učiace sa Slovensko. Národný program rozvoja výchovy a vzdelávania. Návrh na verejnú diskusiu, Bratislava 2017 (Ministerstvo školstva, vedy, výskumu a športu Slovenskej republiky), https://www.minedu.sk/data/ files/6987_uciace_sa_slovensko.pdf dostupné 20.05.2017. CLAYSS. A Service-learning proposal for universities. [Complementary text 1 for participants in CLAYSS service-learning capacity building program for universities], Buenos Aires 2013 (CLAYSS), http://www.clayss.org, dostupné 20.05.2017. Cooper M., The Big Dummy’s Guide to Service-learning: 27 Simple Answers to Good Questions on: Faculty, Programmatic, Student, Administrative, Non Profit Issues, Miami 2005, http://www.fiu.edu/-time4chg/Library/bigdummy.html dostupné 20.05.2017. Fiske E., Learning in Deed. The Power of Service-Learning for American Schools. A Report from National Commission on Service Learning, Battle Creek 2002 (W.K. Kellogg Foundation). Http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/lyotard.htm dostupné 20.05.2017. Jacoby B. et al., Service-Learning in Higher Education. Concepts and Practices, San Francisco 1996 (Jossey Bass). Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka, eds. J. Kačala, M. Pisárčiková, M. Považaj, Bratislava 2003 (Veda). Liessmann K.P., Hodina duchů, Praha 2015 (Academia). Liessmann K.P., Teorie nevzdělanosti. Omyly společnosti vědění, Praha 2008 (Academia). Lisabonská agenda, https://euractiv.sk/fokus/veda-a-inovacie/lisabonska-agenda, dostupné 20.05.2017. Lyotard J.-F., The postmodern condition. A report on knowledge, Manchester 1984 (Manchester University Press). Newman J.H., Idea univerzity, Praha 2014 (Krystal OP). OECD (2018), „Teachers” (indicator), http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/93af1f9d-en, dostupné 20.05.2017. Platón, Prótagoras, Praha 2015 (OIKOYMENH). Porubská G., Ďurdiak Ľ., 2005. Manažment vzdelávania dospelých, Nitra 2005 (SLOVDIDAC). Prusáková V., Základy andragogiky I, Bratislava 2005 (Gerlach Print). Prusáková V. et al., Analýza vzdelávacích potrieb dospelých. Teoretické východiská, Banská Bystrica 2010 (UMB). 156 157 Z U Z A N A B A R I A KOVÁ , M A R T I N A K U B E A L A KOVÁ . P E R S P E K T Í V Y Rate your future 2005. High school students say that school is too easy, (National Governors Association), http://www.docstoc.com/docs/26283487/Rate-Your-Future---National-Governors-Association, dostupné 20.05.2017. Scruton R., Idea univerzity, trans. J. Žegklitz, Praha 2002, http://www.obcinst. cz/idea-university/dostupné 20.05.2017. Sirotová M., Vysokoškolský učiteľ v edukačnom procese, Trnava 2014 (UCM). Švec Š., Základné pojmy v pedagogike a andragogike, Bratislava 1995 (IRIS). Zákon č. 245/2008 Z. z. o výchove a vzdelávaní (školský zákon) a o zmene a doplnení niektorých zákonov. Zákon č. 317/2009 Z. z. o pedagogických zamestnancoch a odborných zamestnancoch a o zmene a doplnení niektorých zákonov. 5. Summary This paper deals with perspectives of service learning strategies in context of contemporary academical education in Slovakia. It describes given situation through The Learning Slovakia – national programme of development of pedagogy and education – while it closely deals with understanding and metamorphosis of the role of a teacher. Effectiveness of Academic Tutoring O R S OLYA P Ó C S I K Debrecen keywords . tutoring, roles, Higher Education, tutor, tutorial There are a number of methods of Higher Education, the dissemination and consolidation of which has resulted in success in given educational culture. Among these, I would like to highlight the tutor method in my study, which, with its many advantages, also results in student and educator success. Effective in the sense of having a successful exam that has its earnings. Perhaps the tutor’s existence can be considered to be a pedagogical training, as some of his pedagogical abilities are used by the individual. The attitudes, knowledge and skills learned here determine the status of individuals later on in the cathedra. The formal tutoring community becomes dominant in the student during the university years. Changes in students’ learning-to-learn relationship change clearly and unambiguously. In this article, I attempt to compare two types of pedagogical approaches, presenting domestic and foreign practices and the relationship between these forms of learning and Higher Education in the digital world. This is the basic insight of the theoretical concept that the author seeks to be thought-provoking. 1. Pedagogical point of view in Higher Education Nowadays, we need to know if our Higher Education is good enough, what are the ways to transform and translate the knowledge into understandable one. There are proven methods and educational models apllied by schools in the field of Higher Education as well. In a medium that is increasingly based on service, and which has to break the socialization synergies of the age. Individuals carry values, which also change, and Higher Education, even if individuals are transformed. The great figure of Hungarian education Apáczai pointed out the functions of the modern school highlighting the fact that the school PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N is responsible for the transfer of knowledge. The complexity and systemic nature of the school is analized and emphasized by Tamás Kozma.1 In my reading, the university, the everlasting apple mascot, a community of groups of people who want to learn from people with different knowledge, aiming at self-dissemination, which means they can be more assured of existence. The academic context in my case is the didactics, where I study my study. The old and new method of adult education is answered in the study, which by mass paradigm shifting the cathedra pedagogue would understand the material to be learned. Of course, the idea is international and the idea lies ahead of us. The question is pedagogical; its implications are sociological, psychological and economic. Hungarian Higher Education is participatory, and many focus on compiling the curriculum, but the method chosen is at least as important. Gábor Halász makes an interesting statement about the pedagogy of Higher Education and the fact that he sees that in more and more decades in the past decade. The fact that the classical functions of Higher Education – that is, research, teaching and service – are directed towards the teaching-learning function, which has several reasons. Two of them are raised separately. One is that in the previous decades, mainly as a result of national innovation or research and technology policies, Higher Education policy. Its attention turned to the research function to a great extent. The other process, which has attracted attention to teaching and teaching, The strengthening of the vocational training function of Higher Education and the Reforms that have put learning outcomes in the forefront. Furthermore, it is interesting to point to learning outcomes, but also to new forms of skill development that are no longer in the classroom learning environment – such as lectures, seminars – but on real-world terrain, in real-life situations where students can learn them The capabilities that the world of economy or work requires. This raises important questions about the quality of the learning environment and the organization of learning. 2 1 2 T. Kozma, Bevezetés a nevelésszociológiába, Budapest 1999 (Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó), passim. O. Kálmán, A felsőoktatási- műhely pedagógiai trendjei- Interjú Halász Gábor professzorral, Felsőoktási műhely, 02.07.2013, pp. 7–14. 160 161 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G 2. What is the tutorial system or Anglo-Saxon/American model of studying in Higher Education? A system, whose elements are also used by Hungarian Higher Education, is merely care for talents, more words, and its results and other applications are worth considering. The tutorial system is the foundation of the Anglo-Saxon education model. According to Collins English Dictionary: tutorial system in British is a noun, means a system, mainly in universities, in which students receive guidance in academic or personal matters from tutors.3 According to Collins English dictionary: tutorial system in American way, a system of instruction, as in some universities, in which a tutor directs the studies of each of the small group of students assigned to him or her. According to further dictionary, the tutorial group in British way is a noun in education, a small grouping of students given intensive tuition by a tutor.4 Countless authors call on Carl Rogers, who says learning is an equal self-realization. Here, the experiences and the interpretation of the curriculum should also be considered. The tutorial system is best illustrated by the approach based on this approach. The learning group is where they discuss experiences, draw conclusions, create new schemes, or create new models for the existing one. It is important for the teacher to recognize discovery learning pleasure, remember it. Another important aspect is to allow the students to unfold, as performance dissipation or anxiety reduces the student’s chances of learning. 3. How does it deviate from the traditional Hungarian model, or what about all the Higher Education methods taught in Hungary? What are the main differences between the 2 models? The participants in the education process are teachers and students in Higher Education. (They have now disowned other actors who are part of the university, education process.) By narrowing down the actors of the education as subjects, I will examine and compare them as a role played. These actors 3 4 Collins English Dictionary, https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english, accessed 22.08.2017. Ibidem. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N may be deterministically the individuals who have the highest or lowest level of Higher Education. I would like to give an interesting point of schedule, what is this: How call the Hungarian Higher Education teacher? Table 1. Role of teacher in 2 models Tutor in Anglo-Saxon countries Hungarian Higher Education Teacher, Instructor, Lecturer Keynoter Performer/Lecturer Person, who discuss problems Person, who give task for students Knowledge transformator Knowledge transformator Question posing Speaker Interpret the material – focus: understandability Interpret the material – focus: explainability for the material Source: own elaboration. It is worth examining the names of Higher Education students according to the domestic and foreign terminology. The Hungarian term is not translated into English. In fact, since the tutor is not an addict or a teacher, it is the most talented student who knows the lesson, knows the lecture, understands it and has the ability to transfer pedagogical skills. The tutor will explain in the afternoon a job interview when students ask questions and answer questions. Table 2. Role of student in 2 models Student in Anglo-Saxon countries Student in Hungarian Higher Education Reader Listener Arguer Observer Source: own elaboration. Iván Falus – a well-known Hungarian didactic professor – explains the following about the lecture, a monologists teaching method that serves a logical, detailed, long-term expression of a topic. Simplifies 162 163 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G elements of narrative, explanation, and illustration. The length of the lecture varies from 15 to 20 minutes to 1.5–2 hours, depending on the age of the students... However, regular lectures on long-term lectures are only justified in upper or adult education. 5 3.1. The performance has a condition system: • • • • • • • • • • The student’s attention; The teacher is an active participant; The student is a passive host; The method is economical; The student’s active receptivity; Starts the student’s constructive imagination; Thinking about your mind; Motivates good performance; Synthesizes the student’s knowledge; The instructor expresses his expressiveness.6 3.2. The use of the lecture is justified if: • • • • • • The goal will be to convey new knowledge; The curriculum is not available in such short form; In a specific structure for a given study group; There is a need to raise interest; Briefly memorize the information; It is used to introduce a curriculum part and then follow/follow other methods.7 Traditionally, the structure of the lecture consists of three main parts: introduction, discussion and synthesis. 8 Seminar: It is a small group work where the teacher prepares a topic for students to understand the topic. The seminar method is one of the interactive cooperative techniques. Discussion, discussion, individual opinion as a form of work and a working phase in the form of seminar education. 5 6 7 8 Falus I., Az oktatás stratégiái és módszerei, [in:] Didaktika-Elméleti alapok a tanítás tanulásához, ed. I. Falus, Budapest 2003 (Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó), p. 216. Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Table 3. Differences of the 2 model: Seminars &Tutorial model Didactic step of Traditional seminar lesson Didactic step of Tutorials Introducing: Discussion of topic and individual problems Introducing: Discussion of topic and individual problems Knowledge of responsibility Knowledge of responsibility Practicing ---- Systematization Discussion Source: comparison of traditional seminars vs. tutorials. As I am a pedagogical teacher, I have learned that the seminary lesson is composed of blocks and parts. The well-held seminar follows 4–5 didactic steps: • Introduction; • Knowledge of responsibility; • Practicing; • Systematization; • (Possible answer to questions at the end of the lesson). The didactic steps of tutorials are as follows: • Introduction; • Knowledge of responsibility; • Discussion. Basic differences: • Cultural perception (graduation requirements, size of study groups, depth of secondary school curriculum, etc.); • A form of class; • A lesson time frame; • Volunteering or faculty; • Method of financing: payable by the state or student. From the point of view of teaching material, each method is effective. In my view, the two forms of Higher Education are mainly based on a change in cultural perceptions and attitudes. In other words, cultural differences and teacher-tutors appear in different roles. Other is the method of processing the curriculum and the purpose of the formal and informal classroom. 164 165 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G 4. Special case in Hungarian Elite High School Practice, in a way our talent became professionals in Hungarian Grammar Schools The teaching of the elite Hungarian grammar schools is similar to the tutor education, in the sense that most of the students attend a private lesson, where they are conversing with a school teacher but not with a teacher in the classroom, receiving the teaching material. Tutor system is this, albeit not in the traditional sense. The tutor here is the teacher, the student is the host person who tries to understand the curriculum and prepare the teacher for the lesson. The tutor here is the teacher, the student is the host person who tries to understand the curriculum and prepare the teacher for the lesson. Elite training is also because students are selected on the basis of study results in the institution, which usually have family support. Their teacher teaches a lecture, explains the curriculum, and the students ask questions only at the end of the day. The tutorial role will be the afternoon, corrective, preparatory teacher. However, the success of the student is shared by the teacher of the subject, tutor (explaining, correcting) teacher, and last but not least the student. Whatever the elite Hungarian grammar school does, the model works. Parents are eager to pay extra spending, which means investing in their children’s human capital. At the teaching hour, the salary of the teacher in the Hungarian system is paid by the state, the payment of the tutor; correction fee is the responsibility of the parent. Here is time to understand the curriculum, because the tutor usually only increases the student’s mental capacity, develops his/her knowledge and expressive ability. It is a very effective way to retrieve the learned material in “quasi-answer” and then evaluate it. Thus, the student acquires knowledge of the subject, requirement, and abilities of his/her own skills. He is able to acquire skills in the discipline of his or her ability to secure his later university degree. 5. Foreign tutoring practice University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial program 5.1. Tutor Goals • Your primary aim the tutor is to assist the student to become a confident, independent learner. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N • The tutor helps the student understand the course material. • The tutor helps the student develop skills for studying, organization, and managing time. Source: University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial Handbook, 2011. 5.2. Tutor’s requirements – this is the keynotes for tutor’s behavior • • • • • • • • • • Be Professional; Punctuality; Clothing; Personal Hygiene; Credibility; Confidentiality; Be Positive; Speak with good purpose; Build rapport; Be Prepared. Source: University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial Handbook, 2011. 5.3. Encouraged Tutor Behavior: Tutors perform their work independently and without a supervisor present. Because you work in an autonomous setting, it is especially important that you maintain professional standards of behavior including: • Reinforce key concepts; • Teach new material; • Teach study skills and strategies; • Model the behavior and habits of a good student; • Build a positive attitude toward learning and Higher Education. Source: University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial Handbook, 2011. 5.4. Tutor–tutored together study goals: • Main goal to develop a Study Plan and Schedule. • Sub-goals: e.g., study a certain number of hours per week, learn the material in a particular chapter, develop a system for taking notes, attend review sessions with professor, etc. • Write Schedule: Have the student write out a weekly study and tutoring schedule. 166 167 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G • Let the student know that having a written plan, following the plan, and assessing accomplishments each week is a proven method for organizing time and meeting goals. Source: University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial Handbook, 2011. 5.5. Tutor procedures – detail of University of Wyoming process • All tutoring sessions must take place on the campus. • The Coordinators will primarily communicate with you via your campus email address. Tutors check your email regularly. • Complete a Tutor Re-Cap form for each session, and turn it in to your Coordinator within 24 hours following the session. • You must sign your time card by the 25th of each month. Checks are available on the 15th of the following month in the Business Office. You are paid at the current minimum wage rate. Procedure for tutored absence • If you know in advance that you will be unable to make it to a scheduled session, let your student know as soon as possible, and no later than 5pm the day before the session. • Check your email for a message from the student. • Wait 15 minutes for the student, unless you have had prior notification of the absence. • Fill out and submit the online No Show Forms soon as possible within 24 hours of the absence. • Cancellation and No Show Policy: Maximum two no-shows per semester, per student. • Excessive number of cancellations may lead to termination of tutoring partnership. Source: University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial Handbook, 2011. 5.6. Tutors’ levels • • • • Beginning Tutor; Advanced Tutor (Level 1, 2, 3); Online-only Tutor; Tutor Supervisor. 5.7. Tutors’ selection criteria: • A-grade (excellent student); PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N • Mastered face-to-face tutoring technique; • Hold a Bachelor degree. Source: Writing Center Brochure for Tutors, accessed 22.08.2017. 5.8. What are the tutors’ flexibilities & helps? • Choose their own teaching hours; • Plan their own timetable (when it is possible); • The tutor can get advice and help from the lecturing staff. Source: Tutoring and Demonstrating: A Handbook. 5.9. Essential Criteria • Completed mandatory training for postgraduates who teach (or registered to do so at next opportunity). • Experience in teaching. • Excellent communication skills. • Friendly and approachable manner. • Ability to work with a diverse range of students. • An appreciation of different approaches to learning and teaching. Source: https://www.st.andrews.ac.uk/capod/students/studyskillsandadvice/tutors/#d.en.354382, accessed 22.08.2017. 5.10. Desirable Criteria • Experienced in tutoring and assessment at the University of St Andrews. • Experience working with students 1:1. Source: https://www.st.andrews.ac.uk/capod/students/studyskillsandadvice/tutors/#d.en.354382, accessed 22.08.2017. 5.11. Didactic way of tutoring Tutorials must integrate with and give coherence the structure, content and aims of the course of which they are a part, and so in the most basic sense all tutors must, In developing their tutorial program, • ‘Follow the course’; • Discuss the course leader; • He/she can get discussion and negotiation between course leader and tutor before the course begins. 168 169 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G Way of the method: It is an important part of the responsibilities of tutors to ensure that they have identified, understood and accepted the constraints what he/she will work. Source: Tutoring and Demonstrating: A Handbook, eds. F. Foster, D. Hounsell, S. Thompson, Edinburg 1995 (The University of Edinburg), http://www.ed.ac.uk/institute-academicdevelopment/learning-teaching/staff/tutors-demonstrators/resources/handbook, accessed 22.08.2017. 5.12. What is the basic aim of tutorials? • Deepening knowledge; • Problem-solving; • Facilitating open-ended exploration of themes and issues; • Developing skills in argumentation and communication. • To create a good learning environment for the students. Responsible for identifying the aim of a tutorial and for their own style in fulfilling that is the basic aim • How tutors will approach their teaching duties from the departments; • Not responsible for the students’ learning: the students are responsible for that Source: Tutoring and Demonstrating: A Handbook, eds. F. Foster, D. Hounsell, S. Thompson, Edinburg 1995 (The University of Edinburg), http://www.ed.ac.uk/institute-academic-development/learningteaching/staff/tutors-demonstrators/resources/handbook, accessed 22.08.2017. 5.13. Classroom management-only organizational tutors will • Assist student in identifying and organizing a study area. • Assist student in prioritizing tasks. • Assist student in mapping out and/or taking steps to complete academic tasks in a timely manner. • Demonstrate organized note-taking skills. • Encourage students to obtain a subject specific tutor or set up a study group when appropriate. Source: Peer Tutoring Handbook. 5.14. Responsibilities of a Peer Tutor: • • • • Keep appointments Help the students to become independent learners/thinkers Be positive – even when discussing a student’s mistakes Don’t engage in negative talk about a professor PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N • • • • • • • • Treat all students with respect Be knowledgeable about your content area Establish mutual expectations with your students Maintain confidentiality Be accepting of a variety of learning styles Student Responsibilities Have Work Completed (as much as possible) Review and understand material to best of ability Come prepared – have all materials, instruction sheets, syllabus for the course • Communicate needs to Peer Tutor Source: Peer Tutoring Handbook. 5.15. Student-Tutored Responsibilities • I will be on time. If I am 15 minutes late, the tutor is not obligated to wait for me and I will be considered a No-Show. • I will be prepared. Assignments will be completed as fully as possible, readings will be completed, and I will have questions ready to ask. I will bring my text, notebook, syllabus, and assignment prompt to my appointment. • I will attend class regularly. • I will not expect the tutor to “know everything.” • When my tutor refers me to my professor, I will follow through. • I will approach learning with an open mind, listening to suggestions. • If I must miss a session, I will call the ASC. Source: Peer Tutoring Handbook. 5.16. Tutor responsibilities • I will be on time. If I am going to be late, I will notify the ASC staff to have a message relayed to my student. • If I must cancel a session, I will contact the student as far in advance as possible. • I will be prepared to answer “most” student questions. • I will admit when I don’t know a solution or an answer. I will try to find the information. I may also inform your professor about the situation. Source: Peer Tutoring Handbook. 170 171 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G 5.17. Tutoring will be stopped for the following reasons • When the student misses 3 tutoring sessions without reasonable notification. • When tutoring is not helping the student progress. • When the tutor and the student agree that the student is able to make satisfactory progress working independently. Source: Peer Tutoring Handbook. According to Mária Kraiciné Szokoly, practice orientation is an indispensable requirement in adult education, – it is enough to mention only the official documents of the European Union or the best practices and the wider propagation of these, and that author is already in theory of the theory and You talk about inseparable interconnectivity, believe it.9 6. “Cathedra pedagogy” in the Hungarian Higher Education In traditional terms, Hungarian Higher Education is divided into two types of lessons: lectures and seminars. The lecture is a lecture in tertiary education in the world where the lecturer is explaining. Ask questions at the end of the lecture or at the end of the presentation if the students have questions or courage. The seminar is a world-wide small-scale occupation, usually working knowledge-based, or reconsidering case studies and tasks. The role of the tutor is in the background here, it is more of a help, motivation, and the role of the coach. You can understand the curriculum in both these forms or not. However, the best method, model, is to be found in the tutoring system common in the Anglo-Saxon countries. Why do I consider this method to be the best? Perhaps this was one of the Higher Education models that best resulted in the success of the students, it was the source of understanding, and resulted in effective and stable knowledge. According to János Ollé, the answer to the development of didactics is the experiment itself.10 9 10 E. Feketéné Szakos, Miért legyen gyakorlatorientált a felnőttképzés?, [in:] Felnőttképzésről három generáció nézőpontjából a Magyar Pedagógiai Társaság Felnőttképzési Szakosztály műterméből (1891–2016), ed. M.Sz. Kraiciné, Budapest 2016 (Magyar Pedagógai Társaság és ELTE Pedagógiai és Pszichológai Kar), passim. J. Ollé, Didaktika az ezredfordulón, [in:] Felnőttképzésről három generáció nézőpontjából a Magyar Pedagógiai Társaság Felnőttképzési Szakosztály műterméből (1891– 2016), ed. M.Sz. Kraiciné, Budapest 2016 (Magyar Pedagógai Társaság és ELTE Pedagógiai és Pszichológai Kar), passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N 6.1. General requirements for students in every university or collage • • • • • • • • • Adult personality is capable of self-learning or learning to advance; Motivated to learn; To be able to ask questions to your instructor; To be able to count on his or her own ability; Satisfying expectations, rules and norms; Being able to get involved in education-learning; It is able to develop in an institutional environment; Outbound as a more experienced, more educated, crippled student; Know the key terminology technicians of your chosen science. 6.2. General requirements for educators in every university or collage • Independent personality; • Provide your ability to pass; • Conduct a lecture with a capable explanatory method; • He can independently count his students within ethics; • Satisfying expectations, rules and norms; • Being able to get involved in education-learning; • It is able to develop in an institutional environment; • Can educate in a non-formal and informal manner; • It is able to pass the LLL approach; • Simultaneously facilitator, consul, student of knowledge transfer; • Finding skills for developing skills for your students; • Being able to change your attitudes in your students. According to Andrea Kukoda Győrfyné, teacher-student relations are complicated by the generation problems, the appearance of which is the difference in lifestyle and work style; Differences in different values, preferences, goals of life, and differences in tastes, dressing or wear. Today, however, the biggest problem lies in the differences in view (view) of the use of electronic media in the learning and teaching process.11 7. Taught learning- to teach learning, to learning teach Teaching the best to learn, and vica versa. In rehearsal, in providing assistance to others, you may have been taught knowledge, intensive understanding, and much more thorough preparation from the tutor and learn11 Győrfyné Kukoda A., A pedagógiai tevékenység feltételrendszerének és módszereinek alakulása a közigazgatási egyetemi képzésben, unpublished PhD dissertation, Budapest 2014 (Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem), passim. 172 173 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G er when you are preparing for a presentation or teaching a classroom. It is quite obvious that in order to acquire knowledge to somebody else, I have to have a very reliable, thorough knowledge of myself. However, it is possible to apply taught learning in a classroom, in a seminar group, to the benefit of multiple learners, for example using in the tutor method. In such a case, in the case of small group work, a student is a leader, a teacher of the group, receives this task in advance, needs to be prepared and has a specific responsibility to make learning successful for members of his group. A learning process is divided into different areas; others can be tutors, so everyone can benefit from the teaching experience.12 8. Tutor System and Web 2.0 Education System Relationships Addition to the modern age, and the spread of online courses, students are digital natives, it is necessary to examine how these two systems can be combined. Most educators can keep their interest in digital content and search. Digital education is also a prerequisite for universities in the universities. Tutorial System must have been digitally? How? This is a new challenge. It is worth examining. In the spirit of the evolution of ICT technology, the transformation of classical teaching-learning methods and the redefinition of the learning environment, and the change of the various roles, can be found. The new types of modern technology and generation models help the learning process and the growing need for a number of examples to be found at home13 and international (digital teachers, Forum for innovative teachers, etc.).14 Universities have begun to adapt to new generation student attitudes, habits, norms, learning styles, and e-learning systems have become educational systems. With these systems, many years of Higher 12 13 14 I. Nahalka, Tanulási tevékenységtípusok, [in:] A gyakorlati pedagógia néhány alapkérdése. Hatékony tanulás, ed. I. Nahalka, A gyakorlati pedagógia néhány alapkérdése, vol. 3, Budapest 2006 (Bölcsész Konzorcium), passim. Digitális Pedagógia 2.0, ed. A. Benedek, Budapest 2013 (Typotex), passim; Cz.J. Horváth, G. Molnár, Tapasztalatatok elektronikus tanulási környezetről- A Moodle oktatási keretrendszer leírása, használata, Híradástechnika, vol. 65 (5–6) (2010), passim. P. Kommers, ICT as explicit factor in the evolution of life-long learning, International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning, vol. 20 (1) (2010), passim; G. Molnár, IKT alapú módszertani megoldások alkalmazása a tanítási- tanulási gykorlatban, [in:] Felnőttképzésről három generáció nézőpontjából a Magyar Pedagógiai Társaság Felnőttképzési Szakosztály műterméből (1891–2016), ed. M.Sz. Kraiciné, Budapest 2016 (Magyar Pedagógai Társaság és ELTE Pedagógiai és Pszichológai Kar), passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Education experience shows that teaching activity is applicable to daytime activities, while student activities typically take night and night classes.15 A good example in Hungary is the BME GTK Technical Pedagogical Department, where they recognized this practice, and teacher training has thus undergone a paradigm shift, ie, it has become discouraged from curriculum-centered, educational-oriented traditional learning theories and methods and has moved to an ICT-based atypical learning format. In this learning environment, smartphones, iPads, Kinect interactive units and web based services (shared documents, groups, electronic questionnaires, mobile applications, shared calendars, shared storage sites, social networking sites, virtual environments, etc. For this, the changed learning environment is supported by the Web2.0-based virtual framework that supports Learning Management System (learning organization), both the Content Management System.16 8.1. Features of the web 2.0 device system17 • Web 2.0 is an IT medium where users collectively organize and manage content. • The host of the portal only provides the IT framework and avoids content constraints. • It is characterized by bottom-up organization (from user to group, eg. blog community, forum). • It is characterized by service-oriented, service development. The relative nature of personal data management, data privacy anomalies, business, public and personal information are disclosed to users. Below, I list the list of 100 most popular web-based websites that are available for web-based services that are essential for independent learning (Including but not limited to Benedek, Horváth Cz., Molnár, Nagy, Nyíri, Szabó, Tóth, Verebics 2012): • Twitter (micro blogging tool); • YouTube (video sharing); • Google Documents (Office Workgroup Tool); • Delicious (social bookmarking tool); 15 16 17 G. Molnár, passim. Ibidem. A. Benedek, Cz.J. Horváth, G. Molnár, G.Z. Nagy, K. Nyíri, E.M. Szabó, P. Tóth, J. Verebics, Digitális pedagógia 2.0, 2012, https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/ tamop412A/2011-0023_DP/adatok.html, accessed 25.12.2017. 174 175 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G • • • • • • • • Slide Share (Presentation Hosting; Skype (instant messaging/VoIP); Google Reader (RSS/feed reader); Wordpress (blog tool); Facebook (social network); Moodle (LMS system); Prezi (presentation software); Google (web search engine, Benedek, Horváth Cz., Molnár, Nagy, Nyíri, Szabó, Tóth, Verebics 2012). After the second-generation web portals, the web 3.0 family has to be noted, which is no longer a new one even though we have not fully learned all the functions of the 2nd generation. Web 3.0 generates a combination of content, commerce, community and community contexts with personalization and vertical search.18 This modern education system leads to the world of online courses, which I think will soon fundamentally change the framework of traditional seminar and tutorial forms. 9. Conclusion I believe in four Higher Education teachers in Hungarian Higher Education. I also believe that the adaptive educational model of any successful university is the tutoring system, complemented by the possibilities offered by modern technology. The winner of the method is, of course, a student who can safely examine the subject he understands. The lecturer and the afternoon tutor, who is lecturing, will win because the student will surely understand the material, and the successful exam will be their success. In didactics, as in the field of pedagogical science there is continuous path search. After a deeper understanding of the Higher Education situation, I first engaged in teaching methods and comparison of learning outcomes. Then we studied how traditional pedagogy works, along with the lecture and seminar, and how much more effective solution is the tutorial education in the afternoon understanding. In the latter part, good practices have been mentioned, which is an evidence of an effective teaching method. Pedagogy as a discipline is one of the most 18 Ibidem. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N valuable sciences because without a deeper knowledge, no segment of education exists19. 10. References Benedek A., Horváth Cz.J., Molnár G., Nagy G.Z., Nyíri K., Szabó E.M., Tóth P., Verebics J., Digitális pedagógia 2.0, 2012, https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/ tartalom/tamop412A/2011-0023_DP/adatok.html, accessed 22.8.2017. Collins English Dictionary, https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english, accessed 22.08.2017. Didaktika – Elméleti alapok a tanítás tanulásához, ed. I. Falus, Budapest 2003 (Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó). Digitális Pedagógia 2.0, ed. A. Benedek, Budapest 2013 (Typotex). Falus I., Az oktatás stratégiái és módszerei, [in:] Didaktika- Elméleti alapok a tanítás tanulásához, ed. I. Falus, Budapest 2003 (Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó). Feketéné Szakos E., Miért legyen gyakorlatorientált a felnőttképzés?, [in:] Felnőttképzésről három generáció nézőpontjából a Magyar Pedagógiai Társaság Felnőttképzési Szakosztály műterméből (1891–2016), ed. M.Sz. Kraiciné, Budapest 2016 (Magyar Pedagógai Társaság és ELTE Pedagógiai és Pszichológai Kar). Győrfyné Kukoda A., A pedagógiai tevékenység feltételrendszerének és módszereinek alakulása a közigazgatási egyetemi képzésben, unpublished PhD dissertation, Budapest 2014 (Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem). Horváth Cz.J., Molnár G., Tapasztalatatok elektronikus tanulási környezetrőlA Moodle oktatási keretrendszer leírása, használata, Híradástechnika, vol. 65 (5–6) (2010), pp. 31- 36. Https://www.standrews.ac.uk/capod/students/studyskillsandadvice/tutors/#d. en.354382 accessed 22.08.2017. Kálmán O., A felsőoktatási- műhely pedagógiai trendjei- Interjú Halász Gábor professzorral, Felsőoktási műhely, 02.07.2013, pp. 7–14. Kommers P., ICT as explicit factor in the evolution of life-long learning, International Journal of Continuing Engineering Education and Life-Long Learning, vol. 20 (1) (2010), pp. 127–144. Kozma T., Bevezetés a nevelésszociológiába, Budapest 1999 (Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó). Molnár G., IKT alapú módszertani megoldások alkalmazása a tanítási- tanulási gykorlatban, [in:] Felnőttképzésről három generáció nézőpontjából a Magyar Pedagógiai Társaság Felnőttképzési Szakosztály műterméből (1891–2016), ed. 19 I would like to say thank you to Dr. András Benedek, my mentor, who always gave good advices for this study. 176 177 O R S O LYA P Ó C S I K . E F F E C T I V E N E S S O F AC A D E M I C T U T O R I N G M.Sz. Kraiciné, Budapest 2016 (Magyar Pedagógai Társaság és ELTE Pedagógiai és Pszichológai Kar). Nahalka I., Tanulási tevékenységtípusok, [in:] A gyakorlati pedagógia néhány alapkérdése. Hatékony tanulás, ed, I. Nahalka, A gyakorlati pedagógia néhány alapkérdése, vol. 3, Budapest 2006, pp. 93–110 (Bölcsész Konzorcium). Ollé J., Didaktika az ezredfordulón, [in:] Felnőttképzésről három generáció nézőpontjából a Magyar Pedagógiai Társaság Felnőttképzési Szakosztály műterméből (1891–2016), ed. M.Sz. Kraiciné, Budapest 2016 (Magyar Pedagógai Társaság és ELTE Pedagógiai és Pszichológai Kar). Tutoring and Demonstrating: A Handbook, eds. F. Foster, D. Hounsell, S. Thompson, Edinburgh 1995 (The University of Edinburgh), https://www.ed.ac.uk/ institute-academic-development/learning-teaching/staff/tutors-demonstrators/resources/handbook, accessed 22.08.2017. University of Wyoming Multicultural Affairs MA Tutorial Handbook, 2011 accessed 22.08.2017. Writing Center Brochure For Tutors accessed 22.08.2017. 11. Summary I have long wanted to write that in addition to talent management, why is English-Saxon tutorial system is useful and how become easily to apply in Practice of Hungarian Higher Education. The topic is not new, but the use of the method can lead to major learning (pedagogy), group dynamics, psychology, training and other interdisciplinary methodological changes. For all actors in this stage, this method can be fruitful and spectacular, both for lecturers and students. The study also points out: • how does the curriculum understand the tutored, • what are the requirements for a tutor, • what levels do the tutorial system have, • what results are expected, • what is the link between the tutorial system and the web 2.0 application, etc. I give an understandable way of the method of Academic Tutoring, what is a good practice in Westend Europe and in the USA. I tried to find differences in one hand a Frontal form and in another hand, a Tutoring system. The higher aspect is what is good for the student, who spends years in the Higher Education. The Role of Tutoring in Education and Working with Adults in Malta DE A N DR A C U TAJA R Malta keywords . postgraduate student, tutor, undergraduate tutoring, lab demonstrator, postgraduate tutoring, tutoring in Malta, science Education system evolved throughout the centuries and universities across the world recently have noticed an increase in the number of students aspiring to continue their studies at Tertiary level. While many departments have grown and hired lecturers to distribute the students amongst academics, other Universities such as that in Malta1 still have a lecture room of a hundred students in certain Faculties. Classes falling under this category are divided into groups for tutorial sessions. They have the form of a lecture, where problems encountered by the students are addressed during their revision. Diversely to a lecturer delivering the syllabus material, a tutor has an ample time to give each student the required individual attention. Before sharing my experience, I would first provide a brief outline of the courses offered by the Faculty of Science at the University of Malta. In doing so, the reader will relate to the tutoring scenarios depicted in the article. Undergraduate courses are joint, and by the end of the course, the students graduate with double honours. The departments include Physics, Mathematics, Statistics and Operations Research, Chemistry, Biology and Geosciences. While the entry pre-requisite qualifications vary, the Faculty may have a considerable number of students enrolled in any of the courses that are unevenly distributed amongst the departments. Therefore, the number of students registered for a particular subject is not large unless two courses have a common compulsory subject, or students 1 M. Mifsud, Environmental Education Development in Malta: A Contextual Study of the Events That Have Shaped the Development of Environmental Education in Malta, Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, vol. 14 (2) (2012), pp. 52–66; Ch. Farrugia, Malta: A Small University in a Small Country, International Higher Education, vol. 32 (2003), pp. 22–23. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N enrolled in a different degree attend the lectures. In light of this, the Lectures and Tutorials comprise the same students and very rarely does the lecturer split the class into smaller groups.2 In fact, most of the time, tutorials are essentially lectures where the students come into a class. Diversely to a lecturer, the tutor asks the students about any difficulties they might have had with the material delivered. In other words, a tutorial evolves in the direction the students want it to. They ask the tutor about a certain topic that they have not fully comprehended and they are those who lead the tutorial. At the University of Malta, the hours of lectures take into fact a number of tutorials. The subject coordinator typically prepares a worksheet with different applications of the theory and by the end of each topic, the students are encouraged to attempt the exercise. After giving ample time for students to revise the material, a date is agreed upon between the tutor and the class for a tutorial session. Instead of spending an hour or two learning new material about the topic, the tutorial focuses on addressing the difficulties that individuals have encountered during their revision and worksheet. Sometimes the students ask to revisit a certain topic and other times we go through the tutorial sheet one problem at a time. Some lecturers deliver the tutorials themselves, where they meet the students and ask for problems to be discussed. It is quite common in several Universities around the world to assign a postgraduate student as a tutor of a particular subject. Of course, the postgraduate student has to be well acquainted with the assigned subject. A similar procedure is carried out for lab sessions. While a full-time lecturer within a specific department coordinates the experiments, a postgraduate student is appointed as a `lab demonstrator.’ The role entails attending each session and guiding undergraduate students to complete the experiment assigned to them by the coordinator. In my four-year experience, I found that the role adapts to the audience, according to their age, motivation and drive to get to the bottom of each subject. The challenge that a postgraduate student faces as a tu2 B. Davey, A. Tatnall, Educational Management Systems and the Tutorial Class, [in:] Information Technology and Educational Management in the Knowledge Society. IFIP TC3 WG3.7, 6th International Working Conference on Information Technology in Educational Management (ITEM) July 11–15, 2004, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain, eds. A. Tatnall, J. Osorio, A. Visscher, IFIP International Federation for Information Processing, vol. 170, Boston 2005, pp. 131–140 (Springer Science & Business Media). 180 181 D E A N D R A C U TA J A R . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G tor, revolves around the simple fact that the audience is also students. While a lecturer portrays some authority over the students, duly to the different status, postgraduates are often considered friendlier which may stem from the point that most of us are more or less the same age as the class we tutor. Over the past three years, I believe that my role of a tutor changed with the different audience as well as with the subject into consideration. As such, the role of a tutor is not just one but several. A year after completing my Bachelor’s degree, I was appointed as a tutor for final year students enrolled for Nuclear Physics. Approximately nine students were registered for this course and I had already made acquaintances with most of them during my final undergraduate year. As with the ‘first time’ for everything, my tutoring endeavor was a challenge. Having sat on the opposite side of the big table for my entire life, it was overwhelming to be in the tutor’s shoes facing students and aspiring to teach them what I had learned just the previous year. Throughout the journey as a postgraduate tutor, I would categorize the challenges into two major sections: • learning the technique to transfer your knowledge on to the students; • building a pleasant yet respectful environment between the tutor and students. Some students expected me to simply hand out the solutions to the set problems, instead of encouraging them to try and tackle the tutorial sheet. Nuclear physics is a kind of subject which one either understands its concept or not. It, therefore, requires a joint effort from both students and tutor to get the best results. The tutorials were challenging, I knew the subject but I was still learning about the best technique to provide the optimal explanation. Initially, I thought that the best way to go around this would be to take the role of an ideal tutor, according to my expectations back when I was an undergraduate student. I soon realized that different students have different expectations from a tutor and drawing a line on the role of a tutor is difficult.3 A year later, I had a completely different experience with second year Bachelor students, and postgraduate students reading for Masters in Astroinformatics at the Institute of Space Sciences and Astronomy. The experience left its mark, and whilst I still can not merely state in one word 3 T. Schofield, Student and Tutor Perceptions of the Role of the Tutor in a Sixth Form College, Pastoral Care in Education, vol. 25 (1) (2007), pp. 26–32. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N what the role of a tutor is, I think that the best comparison would be a bridge between the students and the lecturers – The Bridge of a Tutor. The tutor is continuously moving on that bridge where at times the role is closely related to a lecturer and other times the tutor is more of a friend to the students than an academic. I reached that conclusion after three years of tutoring a wide spectrum of students, from first years to Masters students. Each class comprises a different audience. Some required discipline, others needed guidance and with Masters’ students tutorials took on an entirely different dimension whereby the session evolved into a whole new level of discussions. Before I delve into comparing the different audiences, it is perhaps necessary to stipulate how education system works in Malta. Maltese citizens are provided free education by the State and are given monthly stipend during their post-secondary and tertiary education. Nonetheless, those who aspire to further their studies after completion of an undergraduate degree, are required to pay an enrollment fee depending on the course and research of interest. Furthermore, due to the small geographical size of Malta, students do not necessitate accommodation and the majority of students live with their parents until they finish their studies, which depends on whether they further their education to postgraduate degrees or not. Therefore, the environment in which I tutored may differ from other universities across the globe. It also may explain the different roles that as a tutor I had to take in the face of certain challenges where other universities may not encounter duly to their diverse educational system. My experience will be divided into three sections: tutoring undergraduate students, lab demonstrator and postgraduate tutoring. Each experience is different but closely related. 1. Tutoring Undergraduate Students A tutor with a vast experience may have gotten well acquainted with the broad spectrum of characters that may or may not attend the class. However, I assume that during the first tutorials, each lecturer and tutor would have learned that the technique utilized to help and guide the students towards a full comprehension of the curriculum is not straightforward. First, the tutor has to explain the same phenomenon to a number of students whose commitment to the course varies. Some students simply aim to get a degree while others aspire to learn and further their knowledge 182 183 D E A N D R A C U TA J A R . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G in a specific area. I will not go into the pros and consequences that the education system has on the students, but as I describe my experience, it should become evident why certain problems arise. As I explained in the beginning of this article, the courses in the Faculty of Science are joint. A student can take a combination of any two subjects each carrying half the weight of a degree. Different lecturers teach in different ways and furthermore assess the student diversely.4 While most of the examination questions are about the theory taught in class and applications that students have not encountered before but closely related to the tutorial sheet, other lecturers base their assessment on the student’s ability to reproduce the proof or state the theorem. In other words, a student might as well have not understood anything of the context but remembers the proof and will do extremely well in the exam. This type of assessment pushes individuals into a comfort zone that is difficult to remain into while studying certain fields of physics, especially astronomy, strophysics and cosmology. When students cross in between the two different assessments, they tend to be more adamant in staying in the aforementioned comfort zone. A tutor of a subject in which memory will only work if one grasps the fundamentals of the topic, will be faced with a resistance from students who refuse to make an effort. Instead of enthusiasm, these students show reluctance against attempting to solve a problem and demand a solution to memorize right away. Seems obvious that in physics you can memorize equations or laws, but you cannot remember each and every numerical answer tackled in the tutorial. What they would want to memorize, instead of understanding, is the method towards the solution versus apprehending the principles. As a tutor on the aforementioned bridge, I walk towards the lecturer end to enforce discipline and encourage students to do their part. In Physics and Astronomy, there is little to remember but a lot to apprehend. One may argue that there are laws and equations, and variables such as ‘λ’ representing wavelength or ‘ℓ’ referring to length. However, these are details that students can easily get acquainted with continuous application of the theory. The Faculty of Science provides a booklet with equations for Physics and Mathematics exams, so students do not have to remember anything and focus on the principles of the problem. 4 Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment, National Research Council, Washington, DC 1993 (The National Academies Press), passim. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N On the other hand, the concept is something to be apprehended. It is of no use to memorize an equation without knowing how it can be applied to output a result or another. The explanation has to be such that, in part, the students can identify certain problems to certain methods but at the same time be able to adapt the technique to several other applications. Over the years I learned that the best way to overcome this problem is to ask each and every student to solve parts of the problem in front of the whole class. In this way, the students make an effort, spend the time to think about the problem and at the same time understand the theory taught in class. I encourage this technique as it has shown to push the students out of their comfort zone and attempt a solution to the problem. If they succeed, then their confidence in the subject grows, whereas if they get stuck, I guide them towards a solution but never give it to the students on a silver plate. I had a very positive feedback. During the course of tutorials, I witness their confidence growing with every problem they managed to tackle. The students themselves then understand more of the theory and essentially end up explaining the technique to the fellow classmates. During the three years that I have been giving Nuclear physics in the final semester of the last year, I find that in between submission of final year project dissertation, paper reviews assignment and exams, final year students very rarely keep up with tutorials. A handful of students manages to look at the tutorial sheet, even fewer actually try to solve it. However, when they are asked to work out a few steps into the problem, they engage in the challenge and the entire class participates. Discussing tutorials with fellow tutors demonstrated the different environments that tutors expect the class to be. Perhaps a more conventional tutorial would entail a more prepared class where the student would have already studied the theory, tried to tackle the tutorial sheet and then attend the tutorials with problems. However, this occurs very rarely. While it is up to the students to manage their time and optimally work on the academic assignment, it may get out of hand at times. Having been a recent graduate myself, I try to meet them halfway right in the middle of the previously described bridge of tutor. At the centre of the bridge, things get more complicated where you have erased the thick line between tutor and student and draw a thinner line. A tutor can never take one role even for a specific class. Tutorials 184 185 D E A N D R A C U TA J A R . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G are designed to fill in the blanks between the lectures and the exams, therefore a tutor has to make sure that the explanation is delivered in such a way that each and every student understands, in their own different way. Even if a class comprises two students, each individual may require an entirely different approach and it is up to the tutor to be comfortable enough to be able to deliver. I spoke a lot about the effort that students have to make but the tutor has to work equally as hard in transferring the knowledge as clearly as possible. The theoretical material of the syllabus is delivered during the lecture, where the lecturer is tight with time to finish the curriculum pre-defined for the course. It is therefore very improbable for the lecturer to stop and address any misunderstandings that certain students may have, and thus it is up to the tutor to ensure that any confusion and doubts are smoothed out before the exam. The lecturer may have designed the notes in such a way that they follow through the details of the theory but individual attention to students is not practical during lectures. When a student needs to inquire about the theory, they usually contact the lecturer and set a meeting. These are referred to as ‘contact hour’ where the student sits down with the lecturer and addresses the problem. However, other students feel more comfortable with a tutor, for several reasons, and the tutor has to be prepared to provide different ways of explaining the problem other than that given by the lecturer. While, for example, drawing graphs will prove to be sufficient for one or two students, many times there will be others who require a different form of explanation. The tutor has to ensure that each and every student attending the class walks out with a better grasp of the subject than they would have walked in. Therefore, the explanation has to take different forms. In a way, the tutor has to understand the concept from various angles and be prepared to explain the same concept using different techniques. Time is of the essence so the choice of technique should be optimal and efficient. If a tutor is not capable of explaining the concept verbally, then attempting to do so will most probably confuse the students further. On the other hand, the technique utilized should be the one which the tutor feels most comfortable to use. The assertiveness will be evident in the tutor’s behavior since each stone related to the argument is turned thus displaying the concept as simply as possible and the students will be able to follow the argument through. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N So, whilst the students have to make their part and put effort into the work, the tutor has to learn which technique5 would enhance the explanation most and therefore would optimize the time reserved for the tutorial. Someone who has been tutoring for a number of years would not think about this because the skills come out naturally. Nonetheless, a postgraduate whose position shifted from a student attending tutorials to a tutor needs time. Initially, I adopted my role based on what I expected a tutor to do in class, but soon I realized the explanation I required may have been different to someone else’s and the tutor’s role is to comprehend the kind of student in the audience asking a question. Furthermore, there are students who do not understand the first two approaches of the explanation. Ideally, they would speak up and insist that something is still not clear. This could stem from an incorrect wording of the question or not fully understand what the students’ question was. Others feel intimidated to keep asking in front of the whole class and nod at your explanation just the same. I tend to observe their behavior and learned to pick on certain signals that demonstrate whether they have grasped the concept or not. It was and still is a challenge. I am addressing this by looking up several applications of the same concept. Some students prefer words and tend to understand almost immediately as long as the tutor chooses the right words. Nevertheless, most physics and mathematics students prefer an application that they can understand and visualize. Tutoring astronomy is similar. Explaining the occurrence of phenomena using astronomical pictures captured by renowned telescopes always draws the student’s attention. The keen interest portrayed by students attending the course is quite impressive, and tutorials are more about the mathematics behind astronomy. It is evident that students who select Astronomy units as part of their course make an exceptional effort to do really well because what they are interested in is an explanation to what they find fascinating. Having an audience who attends a class with that goal eases the tutor’s role. This is a perfect opportunity for us educators to share our own research with students and give them a glimpse of the work behind astronomy photos. 5 D. McArthur, C. Stasz, M. Zmuidzinas, Tutoring Techniques in Algebra, Cognition and Instruction, vol. 7 (3) (1990), pp. 197–244; T.-W. Chan, Some Techniques for Building Mathematical Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Intelligent Tutoring Media, vol. 2 (3–4) (1991), pp. 137–148. 186 187 D E A N D R A C U TA J A R . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G Most students find applications to be more apt to explain certain phenomena, which leads me to the second part of my tutoring experience during laboratory sessions. 2. Lab Demonstrator The students are split into two groups so each individual will conduct the experiment on their own. The groups alternate weekly and a lab demonstrator will attend the session. On average, every lab demonstrator will have eight students per group. The lab sessions are very different from the tutorials described earlier on. Each student is assigned an experiment and neither students have the same experiment at once. This means that they are expected to conduct it alone with some guidance from the lab demonstrator. Sometimes there would be two demonstrators, but one person was appointed per academic year for the last two years. A higher level of preparation is expected from the students. As a lab demonstrator, a crucial part of my role is to ensure that all safety precautions are followed to avoid health hazards and damaging of apparatus. These include safety specs, lab coats, and some precautionary advice before commencing the experiment. These rules have recently been enforced, but when students are indoctrinated with certain norms, they tend to be imprinted in their protocol employed for experiments. At the beginning of the scholastic year, the coordinator gives an induction course, during which they are given a brief introduction to the lab session (first years) or a reminder of certain protocols. Second year students are expected to conduct the assigned experiment with minimal supervision possible in preparation for the third year practicals. Therefore, the students are forewarned to read the procedure thoroughly and then smooth out any misunderstanding with the lab demonstrator. As with tutorials, dedicated students read the lab sheet back to front but others do not. My role adapts with the student and therefore, throughout the session, I will be walking the `bridge of a tutor’ back and forth. During a lab session, students can not help each other since each has their own experiment to understand and conduct in the allowed timeframe. Thus, a tutor has to conform the explanation according to the experiment. In contrast to a tutorial on a particular subject where, two students might have encountered the same problem, in physics experiment differ- PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N ent student will have distinct difficulties. Therefore, the role of the tutor during physics experiment hinges upon the motivation of a student. Some would be enthusiastic towards the task at hand, and therefore my role would be friendlier in the sense that the interactions would consist checking and ensuring that they understand the principles of the experiments. Most importantly I ask questions that the student should think about during the session and if they grasped the objective of the task, then they would be able to answer it. Others, however, drag their feet. Upon walking to the other end of the Bridge of Tutor, a lab demonstrator can not do the experiment for the student, nor should the solution be handed on a silver plate. At this point, I begin to ask the student whether they read the procedure, and if their reply is negative, I sit and wait for them to do so until the concept is understood. Somewhere in between, one finds those who read but not understood and in those cases I ask guided questions that would aid the student towards a better apprehension of the experiment. After the students complete their task, they are required to hand in a report where they are expected to follow a certain writing protocol including sections, format, and presentation. The lab demonstrator marks the report, and as has been in the last two years, deduction of marks has to be clearly stated so the student has a valid reason for being awarded a mark and not another. It is thought to be a measure to enhance their writing skills in science,6 and most students tend to take the remarks very seriously. Some students do not, and upon deducting the same marks I ask the student to speak to me should the remarks be unclear. However, such students would be aspiring for a pass rather than a skill, and as a tutor, there is nothing much to do except try and get them more interested in the subject. More importantly, motivate them to push their boundaries. Sometimes it is difficult for a tutor to try and understand the source of the problem. Especially when the student is showing to be indifferent towards the subject. It does help to speak to students and identify whether the indifference is a consequence of not understanding. Naturally, a lack of enthusiasm towards the topic grows but it could be the case that their attendance depends on the requisite of the course they have enrolled into. 6 D. McArthur, C. Stasz, M. Zmuidzinas, passim; T.-W. Chan, passim; Academic Reading, Second Edition: Reading and Writing Across the Disciplines, ed. J. Giltrow, Peterborough 2002 (Broadview Press), passim; J. Schimel, Writing Science: How to Write Papers That Get Cited and Proposals That Get Funded, New York 2011 (Oxford University Press), passim. 188 189 D E A N D R A C U TA J A R . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G Occasionally, since most of the time I meet the students during hours allocated to tutorials or sessions, I make time to speak to the students about their other courses and the work assigned to them. During the conversation, I relate their experience with mine to encourage them that others have made it through. Most of them speak up about it, and they share their struggles. Upon sharing the experience, they empathize and when they relate their troubles with someone who had graduated, it helps them believe that they can overcome the difficulties as well. Essentially, they tend to be more motivated and determined to work harder. The University of Malta assigns an academic advisor to each student for the duration of the course. It is thought to give students the opportunity to speak to someone in academia in relation to the problems encountered throughout the course. Many times students face difficulties where the easy way out would appear as the only solution. While many individuals turn to their relatives others opt to speak with an unrelated person for an unbiased advice. When I was a postgraduate student, I could not be appointed as an ‘academic tutor’, but I did hear positive remarks with regards to the scheme. I can only relate to this topic from a student’s point of view who sought academic advice. These academic tutors encourage students and help them understand the difficulties they would be experiencing. Sometimes they speak of the course and other times about a life-changing decision, like for example whether they should further their studies or not. It is more common for these meetings to occur during the first year or before the final year when the student is either contemplating whether it is the right course or which final year project they should take. Nonetheless, there has been other instances where students feel overwhelmed by the amount of work and they simply would like to speak to someone not related. Most of the difficulties that undergraduate students encounter are related to the amount of work that they need to conduct in a certain period of time. Other universities allocate certain weeks for the students to do revision and at the end of those weeks, they are assessed. It is very easy to feel overwhelmed and certain students fall behind. They attend tutorials to try and make up for the poor time management and as a young tutor, I understand their struggle and yet work hard to help them overcome it. Sometimes I share the tricks I used when I was an undergraduate, and while I was never an academic advisor, being a student myself, I feel obligated to share the traits of a student. Students who PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N register for a part-time job in conjunction with the course struggle more. Their time is allocated to academic work decrements and these are the ones who write assignments at the last minute, who tackle tutorial sheets on the day. 3. Postgraduate Tutoring Most undergraduate courses are offered on a full-time basis where the students are expected to attend lectures during the day. Some opt for a part-time basis but this is more common amongst postgraduates. The lectures take place in the evening, and students attend after their daily job. The role of a tutor with postgraduate students is very different and tutorials take on a different dimension. Part-time students enroll against a fee which may explain the motivation and determination in comparison to undergraduate students. Postgraduate students are more mature, they have completed an undergraduate course and went out into the world. Their experience in industry leaves a mark on their character, and as a tutor, I found myself on the student end of the bridge. In spite of their time constraints, the two Masters students I tutored were always present for the tutorials and attempted to tackle the sheet provided after the end of a topic. While there were times where as a tutor, I was asked to revisit a certain theory covered during the lecture, most of the time we tackled issues related to the application of said theoretical principles. In contrast to undergraduates, where students might feel intimidated to ask again or to acknowledge that the explanation was not clear, postgraduate students felt very confident to ask, even multiple times. This level of interaction made it easier for me as a tutor to do my job. When a matter is raised in relation to a particular subject, such as statistics, we could discuss the issue in depth down to the fundamental principles of the theorem in question. We were able to discuss each problem, since they would have managed to work out relatively easier ones, thus allowing us to spend time on more complex applications. Many times the students would come up with a counterargument that opens up a whole new challenge which we would solve. Their enthusiasm allows for further applications of the theorem. What struck me most is their ability to manage their time. On one hand, I meet undergraduate students who are continuously trying to keep up with the amount of work, while on the other hand, I meet postgraduates who, although they also find the amount of work 190 191 D E A N D R A C U TA J A R . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G to be overwhelming, they still manage to get things done and submit the assignments on time. Observing such commitment encourages the tutor to work harder since the goal is one and the same. After every tutorial with postgraduate students, I learned a bit more and their questions were not elementary but rather applicable to the industry. Tutoring postgraduate students is an excellent exercise where a tutor engages into a learning experience. Additionally, the same argument can be presented in an undergraduate class where a more intriguing application can be utilized that might draw the attention of certain students. All in all, I think that the role of a tutor is very important and crucial at every stage. The student’s path may as well hinge on the ability of a tutor to deliver or explain a certain concept. Sometimes the students do not comprehend the material and attribute that to lack of intellect, whereas a dedicated tutor would ensure that each student is given the individual attention required. My experience as a tutor has taught me a different lesson each day and every year. Generations are different and the educational system leaves a mark on the student’s character, aspiration, self-confidence and motivation. Achieving the required balance between discipline and informalities is quite a challenging task that a tutor will only hope to acquire over the years. Nevertheless, it is my opinion, that no matter how much time passes, the tutor will always be crossing that bridge, back and forth pushing students to achieve their goals. 4. References Academic Reading. Second Edition: Reading and Writing Across the Disciplines, ed. J. Giltrow, Peterborough 2002 (Broadview Press). Chan T.-W., Some Techniques for Building Mathematical Intelligent Tutoring Systems, Intelligent Tutoring Media, vol. 2 (3–4) (1991), pp. 137–148. Davey B., Tatnall A., Educational Management Systems and the Tutorial Class, [in:] Information Technology and Educational Management in the Knowledge Society. IFIP TC3 WG3.7, 6th International Working Conference on Information Technology in Educational Management (ITEM) July 11–15, 2004, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain, eds. A. Tatnall, J. Osorio, A. Visscher, IFIP International Federation for Information Processing, vol. 170, Boston 2005, pp. 131–140 (Springer Science & Business Media). Farrugia Ch., Malta: A Small University in a Small Country, International Higher Education, vol. 32 (2003), pp. 22–23. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N McArthur D., Stasz C., Zmuidzinas M., Tutoring Techniques in Algebra, Cognition and Instruction, vol. 7 (3) (1990), pp. 197–244. Measuring What Counts: A Conceptual Guide for Mathematics Assessment, National Research Council, Washington, DC 1993 (The National Academies Press). Mifsud M., Environmental Education Development in Malta: A Contextual Study of the Events That Have Shaped the Development of Environmental Education in Malta, Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, vol. 14 (2) (2012), pp. 52–66. Schimel J., Writing Science: How to Write Papers That Get Cited and Proposals That Get Funded, New York 2011 (Oxford University Press). Schofield T., Student and Tutor Perceptions of the Role of the Tutor in a Sixth Form College, Pastoral Care in Education, vol. 25 (1) (2007), pp. 26–32. 5. Summary Tutors around the world have, first and foremost, been students. At one point, a student transitioned into a tutor and this change can happen as soon as an individual enrolls into a postgraduate program. Whilst being a student provides a sense of comfort zone, this is far removed from that experienced by a postgraduate student appointed as a tutor. For the first time, the postgraduate student has to become the Tutor, the lecturer. The syllabus is not delivered by someone else, but by the postgraduate student who learned such material in the previous years. Additionally, the postgraduate student tutors other students, where in spite of the different levels, many times the age gap is minimal especially during the first few years. Other tutors may have grasped the role of a tutor, but being a postgraduate student myself for the last three years. I am still in the process of understanding what the holistic role of a tutor should be, one that lies halfway between a student and a lecturer. 192 The Role of Tutoring in the Field of Education and Work with Adults During my Professional Experience L AT I N K A K RU MOVA G E O RG I E VA Sofia keywords . tutor-home teacher, educator, family counseling, helping, social pedagogy Thinking about the chronology of my professional experience (about 18 years) and the topics I am going to present in this article, I find touch points with the term tutor – home teacher, educator, mentor, guardian, tutor, instructor, student manager, lecturer. I learned from personal experience that I have been in all these roles: educating, directing, preparing, mentoring, settling, restrainting, giving private lessons outside the mass education system. I am a graduate in Pedagogy, specialty: Social Pedagogy. During the course of my studies, I helped out in a hospice for elderly people, some of whom were verbally aggressive in their loneliness and illness, and taught me patience. Others were grateful for the warm food and the sweet words in helping and taking care of them. Those people wanted attention. In the same way as all the elderly people who initiate a chat on the bus and for hours can talk about the story of their past, the loss of their professional role after their retirement. They speak about their contacts, friendships and lost family members. Right after the graduation from Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski” and completing regular training practice, we as the graduates were offered to apply for a job in Sofia Prison. Taking into acount my fragile age, the lack of experience and authority, I considered myself uncompetant to teach people serving a sentence. People housed in penalty institutions, who should pass a tutorial in which should be thought how to be restraint, how to control their emotions, and be prepared for joining the society without committing crimes. I think all these factors are important in teaching (therefore I refused to join this program?). PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N My first job was in a social housing for children with mental retardation at age between 3 to 18. Working with such a group of children is a real challenge for a young specialist. Most of them were parentless, another part with episodic and formal contacts with their parents who haven’t lost their parental rights. Children that have spentyears in social housing, institutions... Being their teacher I experienced different emotions varying between strong determination and sadness. Sometimes I felt incompetet, discouraged, a had a sense of weakness because oft he fact that I was not able to help them all... Moreover, the children can start seeing you as their parent, can call you “Mom” and become strongly attached. Of course, the classes were basic, according to the age of the children and their condition. But the role of a teacher was more about repetition, reinforcement and was naturally combined with the role of educator, guardian. On the playgrounds, children play happily and learn while having fun. In the family counseling of children in the local community center weh had skillfully, using methods like drawing and sharing, giving love as parents, to target appropriate treatment points and to help children in solving problems such as night-time drinking, peer/kindergarten/aggression problems, etc. My further experience is related to Metropolitan Prophylactic and Treatment Center on the Problems of Drug Addiction. The main tasks are related to ambulatory patients – informing and referring to an appropriate treatment program, motivational path for detoxification and ongoing therapy. My role in the National Center for Drug Addiction is connected with training and mentoring. The group teaching, individual and family counselimg are the main methods we use in the State Psychiatric Hospital for the Treatment of Drug Addiction and Alcoholism – Suhodol Clinic, day center. We provide the participants of the program with a trainign that allows them to become part of the team after a two-year remission and completing a course for a collaborator social activities. Addiction is a disease in which people have remissions. They may stop using addictive substances for a different period of time, and have relapses after that... The chronic and recurrent nature of the disease is what discourages us as therapists, trainers, and the families who is trying to help their addicted relatives, too. The Day Center, providing a rehabilitation program is joined by people dependent on psychoactive substances. When the pa- 194 195 L AT I N K A K . G E O RG I E VA . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G tients stop using substances, we therapists face the challenge of predisposing them to share their problems and to encourage them to see the the opportunity to develop all their positive qualities. It is important to respect them as individuals with their own value system, but with difficulties in learnign how to overcome their personal situation. We train them on social skills to cope with and solve their problems without usinf substances. Our efforts ultimately help them to become more confident. As a training base at the State Psychiatric Hospital for the treatment of addiction and alcoholism, we work with students in the fields of medicine, social activities, pedagogy, psychology and other specialties. We teach them empathy, humanity, listening skills, respect for the sick as personalities. We teach skills helping them to cope with difficulties and show personal examples, as well as a correlation between theory and practice, words and deeds. Replacement and maintenance treatment with methadone and substilol – in these programs the role of the teams has a longterm haracter – term information, training and therapy. In re-socialization programs, patients are quickly learning right after detoxification. In pure states, without drugs, they reinforce for years what they have learned. They receive support in the period of active treatment – full format in therapy and in health when they start studying or finding a job. They make contacts with non-users, and tracking turns out to be a great social deal. Patients addicted to methadone and substilol, along with the positive fact that they do not use drugs, we can observe a reduction of the harm to themselves and others... and a hard wok. There is a slow escort process in which we try to overcome fear. It is important to throw the crutch and to be assured that with the help of the family, friends, team, teachers, employers, classmates and colleagues in the long run, they will be able to learn a lot and to live happily, without the support of methadone, substitel and psychoactive substances. With a good therapeutic bond, we could teach patients to share and seek contact in a different form of tracking, in difficult and joyful moments. Unfortunately, patients from these programs in my impressions quickly collapse and do not keep in touch with the team, even less longterm than the rehabilitated. In my opinion, learning, motivation, trust and cleanliness – without substances, medicines – is important for the learning process. Then one can socialize and live satisfactorily without drugs and alcohol. PA R T I . T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N As elderly people and teachers, our task is to observe the theory as the prerequisites for effective learning as described by Tony Busan. That is, to know what we are doing, why we do it and what we want to achieve, the goal, dressed in an image that creates pleasant associations. And also the secondary ambient influences – light, position of the body, comfortable chair and desk, prepared and collected teaching materials, individual study of the learning ability. Additionally, keeping in ming to folow the rule – a healthy mind in a healthy body – exercising, consuming healthy food and keeping concentration – without interruption, without telephones and televisions. All this can be summed up with a comprehensive useful concept applicable both to children and adults in formal and informal learning. I dare to say that these principles will survive among the challenges of today‘s world, lifelong learning as well as our overwhelming technologies resulting in increasingly requirements for holding online lessons. We should not forget the principles of memory – senses, exaggeration, rhythm and movement, color, numbers, arrangement, symbols, attraction, laughter, positive thinking. All of them stimulate imagination and memory, through the senses: images, smells, sounds, touch, regular breaks and revision. Helping others as a profession taught me that whether we work with children giving them our support and care, educating and teach students, adults, people with deficiencies that the process of learning and educating and re-educating/correcting institutions/always require warm eye contact, care, empathy, respect and humanity. In any case, for me, the role of teaching, traingn in support both children and adults is a mission based on giving and receiving. In the process of teaching others I also teach and learn more about myself! 1. References Buzan T., The Buzan Study Skills Handbook: The Shortcut to Success in your Studies with Mind Mapping, Speed Reading and Winning Memory Techniques (Mind Set), London 2006 (The BBC Active). 196 197 L AT I N K A K . G E O RG I E VA . T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G 2. Summary Help for another person is associated with social pedagogy. The real challenge is to work with children in social housing. The role of a teacher also consists of being an educator. Group counseling, individual and family counseling are important tools in combating addictions. Addiction remissions are very dangerous. Therefore, helping others as a profession requires a warm contact with an addict. Thus, support-based teaching is a mission relying on giving and receiving. PA RT I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C IA L WO R K Pracownik socjalny jako tutor E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A Płock keywords . social work, social worker, social work axiology, tutoring, tutor 1. Wprowadzenie Tutoring to niezwykła metoda, szczególnie skuteczna jeśli chodzi o rozwijanie potencjału ludzi i motywowanie ich do samodzielnej pacy. Tutoring opiera się na założeniach, że człowiek ma duży, często ukryty i nie w pełni wykorzystany potencjał, który w odpowiednich warunkach może się ujawnić. Siła tutoringu jest jego osobowy charakter wynikający przede wszystkim z relacji. Jego skuteczność jest bowiem rezultatem jakości spotkania i dialogu między tutorem a podopiecznym. Nie zależy jednak jedynie od osoby tutora, lecz powstaje pomiędzy dwiema osobami i przez nie jest kształtowana. Tutoring może być z powodzeniem stosowany również w pracy socjalnej. Przemawia za tym stwierdzenie, że praca socjalna nie może być wyłącznie interwencją w ludzkie życie w celu jego polepszenia. Praca socjalna musi się starać też o odnalezienie sensu ludzkiej rzeczywistości, dlatego powinna zachęcać ludzi do ponownego oceniania i odkrywania sposobów interpretacji własnej sytuacji. Współczesne założenia pracy socjalnej postrzegają zatem klienta w nowej roli, jako podmiot zmiany, a nie jako biernego odbiorcę „opieki” społecznej, co powoduje, że modele pracy socjalno-wychowawczej bazują na potrzebie poszukiwania rozwiązań, które go aktywizują, skoncentrowanych na jego potencjale, na dialogowej relacji z nim. Tutoring niewątpliwie wpisuje się w powyższe założenia. 2. Aksjologiczny wymiar pracy socjalnej Na temat pracy socjalnej wiele już powiedziano i napisano w literaturze przedmiotu, wielokrotnie definiując wielość działań kryjących się pod tym pojęciem. Termin „praca socjalna” pojawił się w Stanach Zjedno- PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K czonych w 1917 roku i był definiowany wtedy jako działalność służąca niesieniu pomocy ludziom potrzebującym. Do przełomu XIX i XX wieku nie była to jednak działalność ściśle zawodowa. Według B. Szatur-Jaworskiej pojęcie pracy socjalnej jest wieloznaczne. Stanowi zarówno nazwę specyficznej ze względu na swe cele i metody działalności, jak i używane jest dla nazwania profesji, która – między innymi – polega na wykonywaniu owych działań. Z praktyki i teorii pracy socjalnej wynika, że może być ona realizowana także przez nieprofesjonalistów. Zatem praca socjalna – działalność i praca socjalna – zawód są pojęciami przyjmującymi niejednakowy zakres1. Na gruncie polskim pracę socjalną definiowała Helena Radlińska2, która twierdziła, że Praca społeczna polega na wydobywaniu i pomnażaniu sił ludzkich, na ich usprawnianiu i organizacji wspólnego działania dla dobra ludzi3. Obecnie funkcjonująca w Polsce, definicja pracy socjalnej została zapisana w ustawie o pomocy społecznej w 2004 roku (z późn. zm). W art. 6 tej ustawy czytamy, że przez pracę socjalną rozumie się działalność zawodową mającą na celu pomoc osobom i rodzinom we wzmacnianiu lub odzyskiwaniu zdolności do funkcjonowania w społeczeństwie poprzez pełnienie odpowiednich ról społecznych oraz tworzenie warunków sprzyjających temu celowi4. Praca socjalna świadczona jest na rzecz poprawy funkcjonowania osób i rodzin w ich środowisku społecznym. Praca socjalna prowadzona jest zatem: z osobami i rodzinami w celu rozwinięcia lub wzmocnienia ich aktywności i samodzielności życiowej oraz ze społecznością lokalną w celu zapewnienia współpracy i koordynacji działań instytucji i organizacji istotnych dla zaspokojenia potrzeb członków społeczności5. W praktyce zawodowej pracy socjalnej mamy głównie do czynienia z osobami (klientami), które odczuwają i rozumieją życie swoje i swoich bliskich na swój indywidualny sposób. W definicji międzynarodowej pracy socjalnej stwierdza się natomiast, że jest to „zawód, który dla zwiększania dobrostanu (well-being) promuje 1 2 3 4 5 B. Szatur-Jaworska, Teoretyczne podstawy pracy socjalnej, [w:] Pedagogika społeczna: człowiek w zmieniającym się świecie, red. T. Pilch, I. Lepalczyk, Warszawa 1995 (Wydawnictwo Akademickie Żak), s.108. W pracach Heleny Radlińskiej synonimem pracy socjalnej jest praca społeczna; H. Radlińska, Szkoła pracy społecznej w Polsce, Warszawa 1928 (Ministerstwo Pracy i Opieki Społecznej), passim. H. Radlińska, Pedagogika społeczna, Wrocław 1961(Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich), s. 354–356. Ustawa z dnia 12 marca 2004 r. o pomocy społecznej, Dz.U. z 2016 r., poz. 930. Ibidem. 202 203 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R społeczne zmiany, rozwiązywanie problemów we wzajemnych ludzkich relacjach oraz upodmiotowienie/wzmocnienie (empowerment) i wyzwolenie ludzi. Korzystając z teorii ludzkich zachowań i systemów społecznych, praca socjalna oddziałuje dokładnie tam, gdzie dochodzi do wzajemnego oddziaływania ludzi i środowiska. Podstawowymi zasadami pracy socjalnej są prawa człowieka i sprawiedliwość społeczna6. Aktualnie globalna definicja pracy socjalnej, która została zaakceptowana przez Zgromadzenia Ogólne Międzynarodowej Federacji Pracowników Socjalnych i Międzynarodowego Stowarzyszenia Szkół Pracy Socjalnej w lipcu 2014 r. mówi, że „jest [ona] profesją opartą na praktyce i akademicką dyscypliną, która promuje zmianę społeczną i rozwój, społeczną spójność oraz empowerment i wyzwolenie ludzi. Głównymi zasadami pracy socjalnej są prawa człowieka, wspólnotowe poczucie odpowiedzialności i poszanowanie dla różnic. Praca socjalna oparta na własnych teoriach, naukach społecznych i humanistycznych oraz na rdzennej wiedzy angażuje ludzi i struktury społeczne do występowania przeciwko życiowym trudnościom i na rzecz poprawy ludzkiego bytu”7. Kategoria empowerment obejmuje koncepcje mieszczące się pomiędzy skrajnymi orientacjami: uczenia ludzi osiągania poprawy ich sytuacji społeczno-ekonomicznej przez walkę o zmianę systemu społecznej redystrybucji dóbr oraz uczenia ludzi poprawy sytuacji przez indywidualną zaradność8. Obecnie pojęcie empowerment znajduje zastosowanie w znaczeniu procesualnym i rezultatowym. W znaczeniu procesualnym w odniesieniu do edukacji i pracy socjalnej może oznaczać metodyczne zorientowanie na spożytkowanie kontekstu społecznego, zwłaszcza politycznego, „do obrony i samodzielnego zabiegania o swoje potrzeby”, 9dla wzmocnienia sił jednostek znajdujących się w trudnej sytuacji. W znaczeniu rezultatowym empowerment określa rezultat oddziaływań. Według Jerzego Szmagalskiego najlepszym określeniem, na wyrażenie tego zakresu znaczeniowego w języku polskim jest pojęcie budzenie sił ludzkich. 10 Podsumowując empowerment jako upodmiotowienie/wzmocnie6 7 8 9 10 D. Wolska-Prylińska, Projekt socjalny w kształceniu i działaniu społecznym, Katowice 2010 (Wydawnictwo Naukowe Śląsk), s. 22. Globalna definicja pracy socjalnej w polskiej wersji językowej, http://cdn.ifsw.org/ assets/ifsw_102423–10.pdf, 18.12.2016. J. Szmagalski, O „budzeniu sił ludzkich” nie po polsku: Koncepcje „empowerment” w anglojęzycznej literaturze z zakresu edukacji i pracy socjalnej, Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, t. 39 (3) (1994), s. 122. Ibidem, s. 116. Ibidem. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K nie można scharakteryzować jako proces przyrostu osobistej, interpersonalnej władzy umożliwiający jednostkom podjęcie działań na rzecz poprawy swojej sytuacji. Poprzez to ludzie odzyskują poczucie kontroli nad własnym życiem oraz autentyczną możliwość wpływu na kształt i treść społeczno-politycznego życia zbiorowego. Praca socjalna, jak każda profesja polegająca na pracy z ludźmi, musi być prowadzona zgodnie z wartościami moralno-etycznymi i wynikającymi z nich zasadami wykonywania zawodu. Na aspekt ten zwraca uwagę Rezolucja nr 16 (67) Komitetu Rady Europy, w której czytamy: Praca socjalna jest specyficzną działalnością zawodową mającą na celu lepszą adaptację wzajemną osób, rodzin, grup i środowiska społecznego, w jakim żyją, oraz rozwijanie poczucia godności osobistej i odpowiedzialności jednostek na drodze odwoływania się do potencjalnych możliwości poszczególnych osób, do powiązań międzyprofesjonalnych, a także sił i środków społecznych11. Praca socjalna jest systemem wzajemnie na siebie oddziałujących wartości, teorii i praktyki. Wyrosła z humanistycznych i demokratycznych ideałów i opiera się na szacunku wobec równości, wartości i godności wszystkich ludzi. Od samego początku praktyka pracy socjalnej skupia się na wychodzeniu naprzeciw potrzebom ludzi i rozwijaniu ich potencjału. Założeniem ontologicznym pracy socjalnej jest między innymi uznanie, że człowiek jest aktywnym podmiotem kształtującym losy swoje i otoczenia społecznego, a nie przedmiotem, o którego życiu decyduje przeznaczenie lub siły nadprzyrodzone. Wynika stąd oczekiwanie aktywności ze strony jednostki, a jeśli jej nie przejawia – dążenie do rozbudzenia w człowieku odpowiedzialności, poczucia obowiązku przy równoczesnym poszanowaniu jego praw. Jednostka jest podatna na wpływy środowiska społecznego, ale nie jest jego mechanicznym wytworem dzięki swej podmiotowości i zdolności do zachowań kreatywnych. Również z obszernej listy założeń i zasad praktycznych pracy socjalnej można wskazać te mówiące o podmiotowej roli jednostki i postrzeganiu jej w kontekście środowiska społecznego. Dyrektywa o wydobywaniu i uruchamianiu sił społecznych, tzn. wartości i możliwości tkwiących w podopiecznym i w jego otoczeniu mówi, że tych sił należy przede wszystkim szukać w emocjonalnych, fizycznych i intelektualnych 11 B. Szatur-Jaworska, op.cit., s. 108. 204 205 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R możliwościach oraz praktycznych umiejętnościach jednostki, w środowisku społecznym zaś szukać należy więzi społecznych wzmacniających podopiecznego. W relacji miedzy pracownikiem socjalnym a podopiecznym należy dążyć do partnerstwa. Pracownik socjalny winien spoglądać na problemy podopiecznego z jego punktu widzenia, przyjmując postawę zrozumienia i życzliwości. Nie powinien występować w roli wypominającego winy sędziego, lecz partnera, który jedynie pomaga jednostce w znalezieniu przez nią popełnionych błędów. Taka praca socjalna nie odwołuje się do przymusu jako środka oddziaływania, ale oddziałuje poprzez perswazję, prezentację pozytywnych wzorów zachowań i dróg życiowych12. Założenia koncepcji pracy socjalnej determinują podstawowe wartości pracy socjalnej, do których należy zaliczyć: • godność; • wolność; • podmiotowość; • równość wszystkich klientów i ich rodzin. Wartości te, szczegółowo wyrażane w profesjonalnych narodowych i międzynarodowych kodeksach etycznych, w praktyce są realizowane, gdy pracownicy socjalni przestrzegają następujących zasad: 1. Zasady akceptacji podopiecznego opartej na tolerancji, poszanowaniu godności, swobodzie wyboru wartości i celów życiowych; 2. Zasady indywidualizacji, czyli podmiotowego podejścia do klienta jako niepowtarzalnej osobowości, z jej prawami i potrzebami; 3. Zasady poufności wyrażającej się w respektowaniu prywatności i nieujawnianiu informacji uzyskanych od klienta bez jego wiedzy i zgody osobom trzecim; 4. Zasady prawa do samostanowienia rozumianej jako prawo klienta do wolności i odpowiedzialności za swoje życie; 5. Zasady współodpowiedzialności za proces zmiany w myśl której odpowiedzialność ponosi zarówno pracownik służby społecznej oraz rodzina i poszczególni jej członkowie; 6. Zasady solidarności wynikającej z faktu, że jednostka jest zbyt słaba, aby samodzielnie rozwiązywać problemy społeczne; 7. Zasady wzmacniania kompetencji i możliwości rozwojowych klienta poprzez wyposażenie go w wiedzę i umiejętności niezbędne do samodzielnego funkcjonowania. 12 Ibidem, s. 115–116. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K 8. Zasady udostępniania zasobów jako zobowiązania pracownika do poszukiwania możliwości zaspokojenia uzasadnionych potrzeb klientów; 9. Zasady neutralności czyli poszukiwania przyczyn i sposobów rozwiązań niezależnie od poglądów i postaw przyjmowanych przez osoby pomagające i użytkowników tych usług. 10. Zasady obiektywizmu rozumianej jako wszechstronne, oparte na profesjonalnej wiedzy rozpatrywanie każdej sytuacji; 11. Zasady nieoceniania czyli nie dokonywania osądów podczas analizy sytuacji, która jest przyczyną korzystania przez osoby/rodziny z usług pomocy i integracji społecznej 12. Zasady dobra rodziny i poszczególnych jej członków realizowanej poprzez uwzględnienie w postępowaniu pomocowym korzyści poszczególnych członków środowiska rodzinnego13. Przestrzeganie tych zasad w pracy socjalnej sprawia, że dokonuje się proces upodmiotowienia, a gdy są one łamane mamy do czynienia z uprzedmiotowieniem. W jego wyniku człowiek traci poczucie kontroli nad własnym życiem i jest wykluczany ze społeczeństwa, nie uczestniczy w nim, nie ma władzy i wpływu. 3. Osobowy wymiar tutoringu socjalnego Tutoring wywodzi się ze świata akademickiego (Oxford i Cambridge) gdzie jest metodą pracy nauczyciela akademickiego ze studentem, której celem jest wspomaganie studenta w rozwoju intelektualnym i moralnym. To metoda edukacji zindywidualizowanej, polegająca na długotrwałej, systematycznej i indywidualnej pracy, której celem jest wspieranie podopiecznego w rozwoju zgodnie z jego zainteresowaniami, predyspozycjami i możliwościami. Tutoring cechuje podejście do uczestnika jako osoby, która działa w wielu środowiskach. Celem tutoringu jest: po pierwsze – odkrycie i pełne wykorzystanie potencjału uczestnika, po drugie – rozwój umiejętności samodzielnego planowania rozwoju. Dlatego tutoring wpisuje się w nurt edukacji spersonalizowanej. W słowniku łacińsko polskim słowo tutus oznacza bezpieczeństwo i pewność, a tutor – opiekuna i obrońcę, czyli tego kto to bezpieczeństwo zapewnia. Znaczenie słowa tutoring jest bardzo szerokie. Można go 13 B. Dubois, K. Krosgrud-Miley, Praca socjalna, zawód który dodaje sił, t. 2, Katowice 1999 (Wydawnictwo Interart), s. 120‒133. 206 207 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R rozróżniać ze względu na cel, do jakiego prowadzi, środowisko w jakim jest realizowany oraz na styl pracy. Przykładowe określenia tutoringu ze względu na cel to: tutoring szkolny, społeczny, socjalny, rodzinny. Podstawową definicję tutoringu można określić jako: indywidualną pracę z klientem, podopiecznym, wychowankiem – długotrwałą i systematyczną oraz wykorzystującą jego mocne strony. Ze względu na styl postępowania pedagogicznego na pewno można wyróżnić: – styl tradycyjny, w którym tutor jest ekspertem i kieruje podopiecznym wskazując mu cele, kierunki działania i sposoby realizacji oraz – styl dialogowy, gdzie podopieczny jest partnerem w działaniu i ekspertem w sprawach własnego rozwoju, a tutor poprzez stawiane pytania pomaga określać kierunki, podejmować decyzje jego wyboru i strategii realizacji oraz wzmacnia w działaniu. Oczywiście, w praktyce każdy z tutorów określa własny styl oddziaływania. Tutoring to niezwykła metoda, szczególnie skuteczna jeśli chodzi o rozwijanie potencjału ludzi i motywowanie ich do samodzielnej pacy. Tutor potrafi trafnie rozpoznać potencjał podopiecznego, odkryć i wzmocnić jego mocne strony i talenty, wspólnie wyznaczyć ścieżkę rozwoju (zawodowego, osobistego, społecznego), potrafi zmotywować go do samodzielnej pracy i znajdować w niej obopólną radość. Dzięki bliskiej relacji podopiecznego i tutora, tutoring pozwala na osiąganie lepszych rezultatów edukacyjnych, wychowawczych, zawodowych. Tutor daje to, czego zwykle nie mogą zapewnić masowe systemy: uważność na konkretnego klienta/podopiecznego i możliwość dostosowania ścieżki rozwojowej do jego jednostkowych potrzeb. Jednym z najważniejszych celów tutoringu jest wzmacnianie samodzielności, zarówno w wymiarze myślenia, jak działania. Spotkania jeden na jeden pozwalają na budowanie specjalnej więzi między tutorem a podopiecznym. Tutor, ze swoją wiedzą i doświadczeniem, jest dla podopiecznego przewodnikiem, mądrym doradcą i człowiekiem godnym zaufania. Jest tym, kto inspiruje i zachęca do myślenia. Stara się być także wzorem osobowym. Niezbędnym warunkiem, jaki powinien spełniać tutor, jest wiara w możliwości podopiecznego. Tutoring jest długofalowym procesem, ponieważ daje możliwość pracy z klientem nawet na przestrzeni kilku lat. W tym czasie klient i tutor mogą lepiej poznać się w różnych sytuacjach. Tutor to ktoś, kto może wzbudzić szczególny rodzaj zaufania i pomóc uporządkować stosunki międzyludzkie. Schemat działań tutoringowych opiera się PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K na systematycznych spotkaniach (tutoriale) podopiecznego z tutorem (pracownikiem socjalnym wybranym przez klienta) i omówieniu problemów podopiecznego czy też zadanych wcześniej zadań, które podopieczny wykonuje samodzielnie w określonym czasie. Tematy tutoriali powinny pogłębiać ogólną wiedzę klienta oraz nawiązywać do jego pasji i zainteresowań. Tutor natomiast pomaga, wspiera, stawia wyzwania, towarzyszy w osobistym rozwoju, a więc kreuje i podtrzymuje relację mistrz–uczeń. Tutoring to metoda czerpiąca z założeń psychologii pozytywnej, którą charakteryzują cztery wspólne cechy budzące pozytywne nastawienie do pracy, czyli: autonomia, akceptacja, autentyczność i aktywność. W tutoringu zbiegają się założenia i doświadczenia m.in.: filozofii dialogu Martina Bubera, szkoły skoncentrowanej na uczniu oraz terapii skoncentrowanej na kliencie Carla Rogersa, wywiadu motywującego W.R. Rollnick’a i S. Mullera oraz doświadczenia w zakresie pracy socjalnej z indywidualnym przypadkiem14. Tutoring jest możliwy wyłącznie poprzez specyficzny rodzaj relacji pomiędzy osobami, relacji, która zainicjuje proces zmian, proces rozwoju. Relacja taka może mieć miejsce jeśli tutor spełnia pewne warunki, a mianowicie: • jest osobą zintegrowaną, spójną, dba o to by zachowywać się kongruentnie w relacji ze swoim podopiecznym, potrafi na bieżąco wychwycić własną niespójność i pracować nad nią co sprawia, że jest postrzegany jako osoba autentyczna, • doświadcza prawdziwego, bezwarunkowego, pozytywnego nastawienia, akceptacji wobec swojego podopiecznego, • jest zdolny do empatycznego zrozumienia podopiecznego, potrafi doświadczać rzeczywistość z uwzględnieniem jego perspektywy i potrafi swoje empatyczne zrozumienie przekazać swojemu klientowi. Te trzy warunki: kongruencja, bezwarunkowa akceptacja i empatia nazywane triadą Rogersa, pozwalają na stworzenie autentycznej relacji pomiędzy tutorem i podopiecznym, tak by podopieczny mógł doświadczyć i rozwinąć te części siebie, których rozwój jest aktualnie potrzebny. 14 M. Buber, O Ja i Ty, [w:] Filozofia dialogu, wybrał, oprac. i przedmową opatrzył B. Baran, Kraków 1991 (Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak), passim; C.R. Rogers, Terapia nastawiona na klienta: grupy spotkaniowe, Wrocław 1991 (Thesaurus Press), passim; W.R. Miller, S. Rollnick, Dialog motywujący. Jak pomoc ludziom w zmianie, Kraków 2014 (Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego), passim. 208 209 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R Stawianie przez opiekunów wygórowanych warunków akceptacji często blokuje możliwość rozwoju. Współpraca z tutorem pomaga uczestnikowi/podopiecznemu odkryć i świadomie wykorzystywać swój potencjał oraz skuteczniej realizować zamierzone cele. Podopieczny/uczestnik umacnia się w swojej roli – zyskuje lub rozwija kompetencje; upewnia się, że jest na właściwym miejscu, poszerza możliwości działania i wpływu w społeczności. Odkrywa własne talenty i mocne strony. W ramach relacji tutorskiej, podopieczny zyskuje doświadczenie w zakresie planowania i świadomego kształtowania swojego rozwoju. Tutoring jest dostosowany do potrzeb, możliwości i zasobów podopiecznego. Nie ma dwóch takich samych relacji między tutorem a podopiecznym. Są jednak pewne ramy, w których ta relacja zawsze się mieści. Wyróżnikiem jest połączenie kilku cech, które różną ją od innych działań. Te cechy to15: • Indywidualny charakter, który wyraża się w podążaniu za podopiecznym, jako szczególną i niepowtarzalną osobą, za jego planem, za jego celami. To on, jego specyficzna sytuacja, szczególny potencjał, talenty i słabe strony wyznaczają indywidualny wzorzec rozwoju. Zadaniem tutora jest go odkryć i wspólnie realizować. • Sytuacyjność oznacza dostosowywanie formy rozwijania do indywidualnego stylu uczenia się podopiecznego i sytuacji, w której to uczenie następuje. Tutor pomaga mu w pełnym i specyficznym dla niego wykorzystaniu metod rozwojowych tak, by tworzyły spójny, dostosowany do jego potrzeb rozwojowych plan doskonalenia. • Czas i kompleksowość narzędzi. Tutoring wymaga czasu. To nie jest jednorazowe, spotkanie z wybitnym trenerem czy konsultantem, lecz trwający kilka, kilkanaście miesięcy proces, w którym wiele się dzieje: wspólne doświadczenia, rozmowy, zadania. • Podejście całościowe (holistyczne). Tutoring jest metodą całościową i kompleksową. Tutor wspierając podopiecznego tworzy szerszy, całościowy kontekst tej pracy. • Doświadczenie. Istotą tutoringu jest uczenie się poprzez doświadczenie. Przedmiotem pracy są bowiem konkretne działania podopiecznego, a więc jego praktyczne doświadczenia. Stanowią one przedmiot wspólnej analizy i informacji zwrotnej ze strony tutora. 15 Http://www.liderzy.pl/znaki_szczególne_tutoringu.php, dostęp 10.12.2016. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K • Osobista relacja. Tutoring opiera się na spotkaniu dwóch osób – doświadczonej i mniej doświadczonej. Jego podstawą jest więc partnerska relacja tutora z jego podopiecznym, oparta na zaufaniu, szacunku, obustronnym zaangażowaniu i autorytecie tutora. Tutoring w pracy socjalnej, jako metoda pracy z klientem, jest możliwy ponieważ praktyka pracy socjalnej w Polsce (ale i na świecie) prowadzona jest przede wszystkim metodą indywidualną. Jest tak między innymi ze względu na ścisłe powiązanie czynności pracownika socjalnego z procedurą podejmowania decyzji administracyjnych a decyzje te podejmuje się przecież w indywidualnych sprawach konkretnych osób, a nie grup czy całych społeczności lokalnych. Definicja indywidualnej metody pracy socjalnej mówi, że „poprzez systematyczne i celowe doświadczenia współpracy z pracownikiem socjalnym pomaga jednostkom wzbogacić ich funkcjonowanie społeczne i lepiej radzić sobie z ich osobistymi, rodzinnymi, grupowymi, czy społecznymi problemami”16. W tej definicji wyraźnie wskazano pracę z osobą na rzecz osoby jako charakterystyczną dla metody indywidualnej. Także w ustawie o pomocy społecznej pracę socjalną zdefiniowano w kategoriach, charakterystycznego dla metody indywidualnej, systemu klienckiego: „Działalność zawodowa mająca na celu pomoc osobom i rodzinom we wzmacnianiu lub odzyskiwaniu zdolności do funkcjonowania w społeczeństwie poprzez pełnienie odpowiednich ról społecznych oraz tworzenie warunków sprzyjających temu celowi”17. Powyższe ujęcie może skłaniać do wyboru podejść i metod charakterystycznych dla terapii. Ale tutoring, choć korzysta z narzędzi terapii skoncentrowanej na kliencie, sam w sobie terapią nie jest. Co odróżnia tutoring socjalny od terapii? Celem jednego i drugiego jest podniesienie jakości życia podopiecznego, terapia jednak ma perspektywę przeszłości, tutoring zaś przyszłości. Uwaga terapeuty koncentruje się na problemach i słabościach, tutor współpracując z podopiecznym eksponuje jego mocne strony zabiegając o ich dalszy rozwój. Tutor prowadząc rozmowę powinien uważać, żeby nie wejść w rolę terapeuty, do której nie jest przygotowany. Dostrzegając problem wymagający postępowania terapeutycznego, tutor-wychowawca zabiega o zorganizowanie dla podopiecznego pomocy 16 17 J. Pauli, A. Włoch, Podręcznik instruktażowy. Standardy Usług, bmw, brw, http:// www.wrzos.org.pl/projekt1.18/download/Podrecznik%20 standardy%20uslug%20 23%2005%20212.pdf, dostęp 10.12.2016r. Ustawa z dnia 12 marca 2004 r., passim. 210 211 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R specjalistycznej. Mimo tego podkreślić należy, że tutoring często przynosi efekty terapeutyczne. Znaczenie ma tutaj, moim zdaniem, formuła kontaktu, jaką jest empatyczna rozmowa skoncentrowana na kliencie/podopiecznym, która pozwala uwierzyć mu we własne siły i buduje poczucie jego wartości. Ważne jest też to, że tutoring w dużym stopniu odformalizowuje relacje, tworząc przyjazną atmosferę. We współczesnej literaturze podaje się co najmniej klika modeli indywidualnego pomagania. W Polsce, od niedawna, jest upowszechniany jeden z nich, a mianowicie praca socjalna skoncentrowana na rozwiązaniach18. Podstawowe założenia tego podejścia opierają się, jak wspomniano już wcześniej, na założeniach psychologii pozytywnej, osadzonej w rogersowskim humanizmie. Po przełożeniu na warunki tutoringu socjalnego ich założenia można wyrazić w kilku obszarach. Pierwsze założenie determinujące tutoring socjalny to przekonanie, że wszyscy klienci są OK, czyli nie ma złych lub dobrych. Jeśli w ogóle można mówić o podziale klientów, to nie zero-jedynkowym, ale analogowym, gdzie widzimy ich jako punkty na spektrum: temperamentu, sposobu widzenia rzeczywistości, stylów uczenia się, inteligencji emocjonalnej, preferowanego tempa pracy. Zatem nic, w ich sytuacji nie jest w pełni negatywne. Każdy klient jest jedyny w swoim rodzaju dlatego jest w stanie znaleźć własne rozwiązania i indywidualne sposoby dochodzenia do nich. Każdy z klientów działa bowiem w danym momencie w możliwie najlepszy dla siebie sposób, zgodnie ze swoimi zasobami, zdolnościami i umiejętnościami. Wszyscy klienci mają wewnętrzne siły i zasoby, przy pomocy których mogą pomóc sami sobie. Praca socjalna oparta na rozwiązaniach to powolny proces. Zmiana jest stała i nieunikniona, małe zmiany prowadzą do większych zmian. Emocje są częścią każdej zmiany, każdego problemu i każdego rozwiązania. Tutor socjalny powinien być świadomy, że nie można zmienić przeszłości, dlatego należy koncentrować się na przyszłości i że nie może zmieniać klientów, tylko oni mogą zmienić jego. Działania metodyczne pracownika socjalnego jako tutora mające bezpośredni indywidualny charakter to: 18 L. Miś, Praca socjalna skoncentrowana na rozwiązaniach i jej realizacja w USA, Europie i w Polsce, [w:] Kierunki zmian w pedagogice opiekuńczej i pracy socjalnej, red. K. Duraj-Nowakowa, U. Gruca-Miąsik, Rzeszów 2010 (Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego), passim. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K 1. Wyjaśnianie – wspieranie, rozumienie siebie. 2. Informowanie – edukacja, pomoc materialna, działania wychowawcze. 3. Perswazja – wpływanie; porada, konfrontacja. 4. Nadzorowanie – wpływanie za pomocą autorytetu, kontynuowanie pracy, wymaganie i ograniczanie. 5. Rozszerzanie kontaktów – tworzenie nowych możliwości. 6. Strukturyzacja relacji pracy z podopiecznym, strukturyzacja w czasie, spożytkowanie przestrzeni, skoncentrowanie się na celach ogólnych pracy19. Podkreślenia wymaga fakt, że tutoring socjalny daleki jest od terapeutyzowania, „naprawiania”, czy wręcz leczenia podopiecznych. 4. Pracownik socjalny w roli tutora Praca socjalna jest jednym z wielu rodzajów zachowań prospołecznych, występujących równolegle z innymi tego rodzaju zachowaniami podejmowanymi z pobudek altruistycznych, religijnych czy humanitarnych. Jest ona działalnością mającą na celu pomoc jednostkom i grupom społecznym w identyfikacji ich problemów oraz ułatwienie i wsparcie w ich rozwiązywaniu przez działania edukacyjne, wspierające i korekcyjne. Praca socjalna, rozumiana jako proces rozwiązywania problemu, jest profesjonalnym pomaganiem, a więc procesem świadomym i celowym, który przywraca zdolność do prawidłowego funkcjonowania bądź poprawę tego funkcjonowania. Celem pracy socjalnej jest więc działanie na rzecz wzmocnienia klienta. Pracownik socjalny to osoba, która organizuje pomoc osobom indywidualnym, rodzinom, grupom społecznym w odzyskiwaniu lub wzmacnianiu zdolności do funkcjonowania w społeczeństwie; prowadzi poradnictwo w sprawach socjalnych i pokrewnych umożliwiających znalezienie i spożytkowanie środków do przezwyciężania trudności w osiąganiu indywidualnych celów; wzmacnia zdolności grup i społeczności lokalnych do samodzielnego rozwiązywania własnych problemów oraz rozwoju; efektywnie organizuje zróżnicowane formy pomocy i zarządza nimi. Pracownik socjalny pracuje wspólnie z klientem nad dokonaniem zmiany w jego sytuacji życiowej, wykorzystując wzajemną wiedzę i do19 C. de Robertis, Metodyka działania w pracy socjalnej, Katowice 1998 (Wydawnictwo Interart), s. 171. 212 213 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R świadczenie. Do współpracy w rozwiązaniu problemu pracownik socjalny wnosi fachową wiedzę, umiejętność zachowań ludzkich (interpersonalnych), dysponowanie środkami danego ośrodka pomocy społecznej i metody działania zawodowego. Klienci natomiast wnoszą własne doświadczenie, wzory relacji rodzinnej i środowiskowej oraz inicjatywę rozwiązania swoich problemów. Pracownik socjalny jako tutor przyjmuje kilka ról: przewodnika (superwizor/opiekun towarzyszący), informatora, obserwatora, pomocnika, eksperta, animatora, aktywnego słuchacza i doradcy oraz ewaluatora. Uznając jednak przede wszystkim, zdefiniowanie przez klienta jego problemu, powinien brać pod uwagę możliwości samodzielnego jego rozwiązania, tym samym respektować zadania klienta co do rozwiązania problemu oraz prawo do samostanowienia. Relacja między nimi polega zatem na współpracy i partnerstwie oraz dostrzeganiu przez pracownika socjalnego, że klient jest kompetentną osobą i potrafi stawić czoło problemom. Tutor socjalny pamięta zatem o prawach klienta w procesie interwencji: klient ma prawo wiedzieć, jak wygląda problem; ma prawo wiedzieć, że sam jest zdolny do rozwiązania problemu. Szczególnie istotną w pracy tutora z klientami jest wspominana już wcześniej zasada wzmacniania (empowerment). Tradycyjna praca socjalna oznacza dla profesjonalnie pomagającego przede wszystkim koncentrowanie się na deficytach podopiecznego. Jest to proces kilkuetapowy obejmujący: rozeznanie słabych punktów klienta, opracowanie strategii ich złagodzenia i zlikwidowania, wprowadzanie planów w czyn, krytyczna analiza wyników, kontrolowanie, czy wywołane zmiany mają szanse długo utrzymać się. Klient choć zachęcany jest do aktywnej współpracy, to jednak tylko podąża za pracownikiem socjalnym, zdając się na niego. Negatywną konsekwencją takiego działania jest jednak fakt, że klient może wpaść w schemat pomagania jako jego odbiorca, w wyuczoną bezradność oraz uzależnić się od pomocy. Wzmacnianie natomiast to przywracanie podopiecznemu/klientowi sił i kontroli nad własnym życiem przez odnajdywanie i wspieranie jego zasobów, energii i kompetencji. Zaczyna się ono od etapu odkrycia u klienta mocnych stron i zdolności, a następnie umiejętne zapoczątkowanie procesu odzyskiwania przez niego ponownej kontroli nad kształtowaniem własnego świata. Niewątpliwie takie zadanie realizuje pracownik socjalny przyjmując rolę tutora, gdyż realizując tę usługę zapoczątkowuje proces odzyskiwania sił przez klienta i obserwuje ten proces. W konse- PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K kwencji u podopiecznego ma dojść do wzrostu kompetencji socjalnych, interaktywnych, poznawczych i emocjonalnych. To powinno skutkować poprawą jego samoświadomości i pojawieniem się innego, świeżego spojrzenia na otaczającą rzeczywistość. Tutor pozwala podopiecznemu rozpoznać swoje mocne punkty, posiadane zdolności i umiejętności, które nawet jeśli są niewielkie to istnieją i mogą stać się początkiem lepszego. W wyniku powyższego klient pozbywa się pasywności. Jego zachowanie zaczyna być aktywne. Pracownik socjalny, realizując tak rozumianą usługę pracy socjalnej, staje się nosicielem zmian. I co najistotniejsze w tutoringu, wspólnie z klientem oceniają sytuację i tworzą projekty działania, czyli określają cele zmian i środki do ich realizacji. Pracownik socjalny uczy klienta pracy w oparciu o strategię, czyli sztukę planowego zaangażowania całego zbioru środków na rzecz osiągnięcia celów20. To co wyróżnia postawę tutorską pracownika socjalnego to: 1. Porozumienie – komunikacja. 2. Zbliżenie – aspekt emocjonalny. 3. Współdziałanie. Z takim procesem mamy do czynienia realnie tylko wtedy, kiedy między tutorem a klientem zaistnieje proces współpracy prowadzący do współdziałania. Ale żeby osiągnąć poziom współdziałania trzeba najpierw zbudować poziom porozumienia uwarunkowany wzajemnym szacunkiem. Kolejnym etapem, a właściwie warunkiem, jest zaangażowanie prowadzące do zbliżenia emocjonalnego, które wyrazić można słowami – Zależy mi na Tobie; Zależy mi na Twojej radości z osiągniętego celu; Twoja radość jest moją radością. Jaka jest zatem różnica między współpracą, a współdziałaniem? Współpraca to zdolność do zgodnego wykonywania działań prowadzących do osiągnięcia ustalonego celu. Natomiast współdziałanie to także zdolność do zgodnego wykonywania działań, ale prowadzących do osiągnięcia wspólnie wykreowanego celu. Współdziałanie cechuje emocjonalne zaangażowanie, wysoki poziom wzajemnego zaufania, poczucie tożsamości, synergia – pozwala np. na pominięcie etapu jakim jest „uzgadnianie” ponieważ „zgoda” jest już cechą zespołu. Współdziałanie zatem to wyższy poziom współpracy, dla osiągnięcia poziomu współpracy potrzebna jest bowiem zgodna wola, wspólny cel (interes), natomiast żeby osiągnąć współdziałanie, potrzebne jest zaangażowanie emocjonal20 I. Krasiejko, Metodyka pracy socjalnej z indywidualnym klientem, „Praca Socjalna” nr 1/2005, s. 29–30. 214 215 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R ne. Takie zaangażowanie emocjonalne pozwala osiągnąć wyższy stan porozumienia, który pozwala na zaoszczędzenie czasu i energii, ponieważ wiele uzgodnień staje się prostsze lub nawet niepotrzebne. Warunkiem skutecznego działania jest też poczucie satysfakcji. We współpracy jej źródłem jest najczęściej: ocena, pochwała, wynagrodzenie itp., natomiast we współdziałaniu źródłami gratyfikacji są: pragnienie kontaktu z osobą współdziałającą oraz zadowolenie z wykonywanego zadania. Podstawowym zadaniem pracownika socjalnego jako tutora jest aktywna współpraca z każdym ze swoich podopiecznych. Współpraca ta może być realizowana według planu będącego swoistą procedurą i standardem postępowania tutorskiego. Taki plan może obejmować następujące etapy współpracy z podopiecznym: 1. Poznanie podopiecznego (jego osobowości, zainteresowań, warunków życia, talentów, mocnych i słabych stron, preferowanych stylów uczenia się, systemu wartości oraz planów życiowych), 2. Wspólne wyznaczenie celów, 3. Wspólne określenie planu działań zmierzających do ich osiągnięcia – indywidualny plan rozwoju 4. Realizacja przyjętego planu pracy i współpracy, 5. Ewaluacja i podsumowanie efektów współpracy tutorskiej, 6. Świętowanie – wyrażenie radości z osiągniętego celu. Znane przysłowie mówi żeby nauczyć Johna matematyki, trzeba znać matematykę i Johna. Pierwszym i niezwykle ważnym, bo stanowiącym podstawę dalszych działań jest więc poznanie podopiecznego. Tutor staje przed zadaniem uzyskania możliwie wszystkich informacji, które pomogą mu rozpoznać dyspozycje psychofizyczne, aktualne zainteresowania, warunki życia, w tym sytuację rodzinną, style uczenia się, plany życiowe. Narzędziem wspomagającym na tym etapie pracy może być Studium Osoby – notatka, którą tutor sporządzi wg własnej koncepcji. To działanie pomaga określić zasoby i deficyty klienta. Zasoby to specyficzny dla każdego klienta zespół uwarunkowań, na których możliwe jest budowanie jego przyszłości. Na tych zasobach i ich pomnażaniu i rozwijaniu możemy pomóc zaplanować plan pracy możliwy do realizacji. Ten plan będzie odnosił się do realizacji zadań określając poziom wymagań w poszczególnych dziedzinach. Będzie też wyposażony w odpowiednią strategię w pracy nad ich osiąganiem, uwzględniając realizowanie zainteresowań klienta. Istotnym elementem procesu poznania klienta jest określenie kierunku jego motywacji. Świadomość taka pomoże tutorowi PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K na wspieranie go w budowaniu planów możliwych do spełnienia i wspierania we ewentualnym wprowadzaniu zmiany kierunku motywacji. Każdy z podopiecznych ma zgromadzony specyficzny dla swojej osoby zasób materiałów do zbudowania swojej przyszłości i tylko z tego zasobu można skorzystać. Drugi etap polega na spójnym z poznanymi możliwościami klienta wyznaczeniu kierunku rozwoju. Kierunku, który będzie uwzględniał osobiste uwarunkowania, oczekiwania wyznaczone indywidualnym planem rozwoju oraz zainteresowania. W miarę poznawania klienta możemy odkrywać nie zauważone zasoby i przeszkody, które mogą wywołać zmianę. Natomiast zdecydowanie określone w czasie są cele, których osiągnięcie stanowi zamknięcie tego odcinka pracy/rozwoju, a osiągnięty stan pozwala na przejście do kolejnego i wyznaczenie nowego celu. Trzeci etap, następujący zaraz po drugim, to zbudowanie planu działań prowadzących do osiągnięcia wyznaczonego celu. Tutorskim narzędziem na tym etapie może być Indywidualny Plan Rozwoju napisany wspólnie z podopiecznym. Najczęściej taki plan składa się z trzech elementów: 1. Celu, który klient w tym czasie chce, i/lub powinien osiągnąć; 2. Wzmocnienie silnych stron; 3. Ograniczenie słabych stron. Plan ten powinien mieć charakter niedyrektywny. Oznacza to, że tutor w tworzeniu planu będzie postępował za klientem, będzie mu towarzyszył i zadając inspirujące pytania kierował procesem planowania. Taka praca tutora w dużej mierze przypominać będzie pracę coacha. Jeżeli jednak, sporządzone wcześniej, Studium Osoby pokaże, że podopieczny jest na przykład zmotywowany i ukierunkowany na działania nie pożądane, w budowanym planie tutor powinien sugerować osiągniecie zmiany, która umożliwi większe zaangażowanie się w realizację określonych zadań. Oczywiście cel ten zostanie osiągnięty, jeżeli tutor potrafi w jakiś sposób pomóc klientowi w zmianie myślenia, wartości i podjęcia decyzji o zmianie sposobu życia. Pracę tutora socjalnego charakteryzuje również inny styl komunikowania się. Polega on na prowadzeniu rozmowy metodą jaką przyjął Carl Rogers formułując terapię skoncentrowaną na kliencie21. Istotą takiej empatycznej rozmowy jest jej tok polegający na zadawaniu pytań, które powodują, że rozmówca poszukuje sam rozwiązania problemu i podejmuje decyzje. Jej empatyczność polega również na tym, że tutor odzwierciedla wypowiedzi podopiecznego przez co powoduje powtórny jego namysł 21 C.R. Rogers, op.cit., passim. 216 217 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R nad sprawą, a jednocześnie sprawdza skuteczność komunikowania się, czyli czy dobrze rozumie te odpowiedzi. Niezbędna jest też postawa zaangażowania emocjonalnego tutora, która powoduje uważność na stan emocji rozmówcy i odpowiednie – empatyczne odnoszenie się do tych emocji. Oczywiście problem pozostawiania rozwiązywania problemów i podejmowania decyzji klientowi jest w znacznym stopniu uzależniony od wieku i jego dojrzałości. Pamiętajmy jednak, że takie rozmowy mają taką dojrzałość rozwijać i prowadzić do wzięcia przez klienta odpowiedzialności za własną pracę, naukę, a przede wszystkim za własne życie. W rozmowie tutorskiej ważną rolę odgrywa uważność i wrażliwość na rozróżnianie sytuacji kiedy podopieczny jest w stanie sam rozwiązać problem i wtedy można inspirować go rozmową, wspierać i postępować za jego tokiem myślowym, a kiedy tutor musi włączyć swoją wiedzę i doświadczenie i jeżeli jest taka konieczność, rozmową (pytaniami) naprowadzać klienta na możliwe rozwiązanie. Ważne jest jednak, żeby zawsze pamiętać, że zadaniem tutora jest prowadzić podopiecznego do takiego rozwoju jego roztropności i rozważności, że stanie się ekspertem w sprawach własnego życia. Lepiej bowiem poświęcić nieco czasu i doprowadzić klienta do podjęcia zadania, poprzez ukierunkowanie pytaniami i radą samodzielnej, własnej propozycji podopiecznego podobnej do tej, którą tutor chciałby zaproponować. Takie działanie to wyraz szacunku tutora dla autonomii, otwierający drogę do współdziałania i generujące szanse na samodzielne wykonanie zadania. 5. Podsumowanie Tutoring opiera się na założeniach, że człowiek ma duży, często ukryty i nie w pełni wykorzystany potencjał, który w odpowiednich warunkach może się ujawnić a rozwój nie polega jedynie na zdobywaniu wiedzy czy umiejętności, lecz ujawnianiu tych właśnie ukrytych, niewykorzystanych możliwości. Proces rozwojowy w ramach tutoringu polega na ich odkrywaniu i na efektywniejszym wykorzystaniu. Kierunek pracy, jej przedmiot, cele, plan, są wyznaczane przez podopiecznego. Podopieczny pracuje po to, aby osiągnąć te cele, które chce osiągnąć a tutor jedynie za nim podąża, towarzyszy mu. Siła tutoringu wynika przede wszytkim z relacji. Jego skuteczność jest bowiem rezultatem jakości spotkania i dialogu między tutorem a podopiecznym. Nie zależy jednak jedynie od osoby tutora, lecz powstaje pomiędzy dwiema osobami, i przez nie jest kształtowana. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K Aby poopieczny mógł się rzeczywiście rozwijać, musi wejść w tę relację jako autentyczna osoba. Z drugiej strony tutor także musi ujawnić swoją osobowość, zapewniając wzajemność i partnerstwo. Współczesne założenia pracy socjalnej postrzegają klienta jako podmiot zmiany, a nie jako biernego odbiorcę „opieki” społecznej, co powoduje, że modele pracy socjalno-wychowawczej bazują na potrzebie poszukiwania rozwiązań, które go aktywizują, skoncentrowanych na jego potencjale, na dialogowej relacji z nim. Tutoring, wpisując się w powyższe założenia i przy zachowaniu osobowej atmosfery opartej na szacunku, autonomii, akceptacji, autentyczności, otwartości, zaufaniu, zaangażowaniu, współpracy-współdziałaniu, partnerstwie, odpowiedzialności, może być zatem z powodzeniem stosowany w pracy socjalnej. 6. Literatura Buber M., O Ja i Ty, [w:] Filozofia dialogu, wybrał, oprac. i przedmową opatrzył B. Baran, Kraków 1991 (Społeczny Instytut Wydawniczy Znak). Dubois B., Krosgrud-Miley K., Praca socjalna, zawód który dodaje sił, t. 2, Katowice 1999 (Wydawnictwo Interart). Http://cdn.ifsw.org/assets/ifsw_102423-10.pdf, dostęp 18.12.2016. Http://www.liderzy.pl/znaki_szczególne_tutoringu.php, dostęp 10.12.2016. Http://www.wrzos.org.pl/projekt1.18/download/Podrecznik%20standardy%20 uslug%2023%2005%20212.pdf, dostęp 10.12.2016. Krasiejko I., Metodyka pracy socjalnej z indywidualnym klientem, Praca Socjalna, t. 20 (1) (2005). Krasiejko I., Praca socjalna w praktyce asystenta rodziny. Przykład Podejścia Skoncentrowanego na Rozwiązaniach, Katowice 2011 (Wydawnictwo Naukowe Śląsk). Marynowicz-Hetka E., Pedagogika społeczna, t. 1, Warszawa 2006 (Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN). Miller W.R., Rollnick S., Dialog motywujący. Jak pomoc ludziom w zmianie, Kraków 2014 (Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego). Miś L., Praca socjalna skoncentrowana na rozwiązaniach i jej realizacja w USA, Europie i w Polsce, [w:] Kierunki zmian w pedagogice opiekuńczej i pracy socjalnej, red. K. Duraj-Nowakowa, U. Gruca-Miąsik, Rzeszów 2010 (Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego). Pauli J., Włoch A., Podręcznik instruktażowy. Standardy Usług, bmw, brw. Radlińska H., Pedagogika społeczna, Wrocław 1961 (Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich). 218 219 E WA W I Ś N I E W S K A . P R AC OW N I K S O C J A L N Y J A KO T U T O R Radlińska H., Szkoła pracy społecznej w Polsce, Warszawa 1928 (Ministerstwo Pracy i Opieki Społecznej). Robertis de C., Metodyka działania w pracy socjalnej, Katowice 1998 (Wydawnictwo Interart). Rogers C.R., Terapia nastawiona na klienta: grupy spotkaniowe, Wrocław 1991 (Thesaurus Press). Szatur-Jaworska B., Teoretyczne podstawy pracy socjalnej, [w:] Pedagogika społeczna: człowiek w zmieniającym się świecie, red. T. Pilch, I. Lepalczyk, Warszawa 1995 (Wydawnictwo Akademickie Żak). Szczepkowski J., Praca socjalna. Podejście skoncentrowane na rozwiązaniach, Toruń 2010 (Wydawnictwo Edukacyjne Akapit). Szmagalski J., O „budzeniu sił ludzkich” nie po polsku. Koncepcje „empowerment” w anglojęzycznej literaturze z zakresu edukacji i pracy socjalnej, Kwartalnik Pedagogiczny, t. 39 (3) (1994). Tułodziecka E., Couching i tutoring – nowoczesne metody pracy we współczesnej dydaktyce, [w:] Couching i tutoring. W stronę nowoczesnej pracy dydaktycznej, red. J.A. Malinowski, A. Wesołowska, Toruń 2015 (Wydawnictwo Edukacyjne Akapit). Ustawa z dnia 12 marca 2004 r. o pomocy społecznej, Dz.U. z 2016. Wolska-Prylińska D., Projekt socjalny w kształceniu i działaniu społecznym, Katowice 2010 (Wydawnictwo Naukowe Śląsk). 7. Summary The present paper considers applying tutoring in social work. The paper is based on a thesis that social workers, whose profession is value- and rule-orientated, should be ethically involved in facilitating their clients’ personal development. This can be achieved by social workers acting as tutors. The strength of social tutoring lies in its relationship-based personal nature. Its effectiveness results from the quality of tutor-client meetings and dialogues. The present study discusses the following: problems connected with valueand rule-orientated social work; tutoring as a method of individual social work and its features; selected aspects of the methodological work of a social worker acting as a tutor. Porozumienie bez Przemocy w pracy socjalnej. Czy możliwe? M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A Warszawa keywords . social workers, client, Nonviolent Communication, feeling, needs, request 1. Wprowadzenie W pracy socjalnej istotne znaczenia ma relacja pracownika socjalnego z klientem. Zauważa się nawet, że nawiązanie relacji jest kluczowe dla procesu pomocowego i ma decydujący wpływ jeśli chodzi o skuteczność pracy socjalnej1. Nawiązaniu relacji z klientem służy wiele metod i technik komunikacyjnych, które opisywane są w podręcznikach dla pracowników socjalnych. Jednym z podejść dotyczących komunikacji interpersonalnej i rozwiązywania konfliktów, które od kliku lat zyskuje na popularności w Polsce w odniesieniu do relacji z dziećmi, z partnerami, relacji biznesowych, ale również relacji pomocowych jest Porozumienie bez Przemocy (ang. Nonviolent Communication, w skrócie NVC). Autorstwo koncepcji Porozumienie bez Przemocy (czasem określanej też jako Porozumienie Współczujące, czy Porozumienie Serca) przypisuje się M.B. Rosenbergowi (1935–2015), który był doktorem filozofii, mediatorem pośredniczącym w rozwiązywaniu konfliktów na całym świecie, edukatorem prowadzącym warsztaty dotyczące stosowania w praktyce metody Porozumienie bez Przemocy, choć należy zauważyć, że sam Rosenberg był zdania, iż: nie ma w tej metodzie niczego nowego, wszystkie jej składniki znane są od stuleci. Celem artykułu jest przedstawienie założeń Porozumienia bez Przemocy (PBP) oraz refleksja nad zastosowaniem tej metody w pracy socjalnej. 1 K. Kodela K., J. Kowalczyk, Standardy Pracy Socjalnej. Rekomendacje metodyczne i organizacyjne,, Warszawa 2014 (WRZOS), s. 12. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K 2. Założenia Porozumienia bez Przemocy Metoda Porozumienia bez Przemocy (PBP) zaproponowana przez Rosenberga składa się z czterech etapów, które w skrócie można określić: spostrzeżenia, uczucia, potrzeby i prośba. W przypadku pierwszego elementu – spostrzeżeń, należy je oddzielić od osądów i ocen. Istotne jest to, że: „PBP jest językiem dynamicznym i nie zaleca statycznych uogólnień; oceny winne być oparte na spostrzeżeniach wyraźnie odniesionych do konkretnej chwili i kontekstu”2. Zatem w relacji z partnerem interakcji nie należy wypominać niewłaściwych zachowań z przeszłości, a koncentrować się na tym, co „tu i teraz”. Rosenberg dostrzega, że nie jest możliwe zachowanie całkowitego obiektywizmu i powstrzymywanie się od ocen w każdej sytuacji, jednak niezbędne w procesie komunikacji jest rozgraniczenie spostrzeżeń i ocen. Drugi etap tej metody polega na rozpoznawaniu i wyrażaniu uczuć. M. Rosenberg w pracy „Porozumienie bez przemocy. O języku serca” prezentuje cały katalog uczuć, grupując je w dwie kategorie – te, które odczuwa jednostka, kiedy jej potrzeby są zaspokojone i te, które odczuwa, gdy jej potrzeby nie są zaspokojone i wymienia blisko 250 uczuć3. Celowo unika dzielenia uczuć na pozytywne i negatywne, bowiem nie ma złych czy negatywnych uczuć. Rosenberg kładzie nacisk na to, że każde z uczuć jest darem i twierdzi, że: „dążenie do bycia wiecznie szczęśliwym nie jest celem życia; celem życia jest wy-śmianie całej naszej radości i wy-płakanie wszystkich naszych łez”4. Zasadniczym na tym etapie jest odpowiedź na pytanie jakie uczucia wywołuje w jednostce zachowanie innej osoby. Trzeci element metody PBP polega na odkrywaniu i wyrażaniu potrzeb, które kryją się za konkretnymi uczuciami. Rosenberg, podobnie jak w przypadku uczuć, tworzy katalog potrzeb i wyróżnia 7 grup potrzeb: autonomia, potrzeba świętowania, integralność, wzajemna zależność, zabawa, wspólnota duchowa, troska o ciało i siły fizyczne. W każdej z tych grup wymienia od kilku do kilkunastu potrzeb (np. w przypadku wspólnoty duchowej – potrzeba piękna, harmonii, natchnienia, porządku, ładu i pokoju)5. Zdaniem Rosenberga do negatywnego komunikatu 2 3 4 5 M.B. Rosenberg, Porozumienie bez przemocy. O języku serca, Warszawa 2009 (Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca), s. 40. Ibidem, s. 58–60. M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, Rozwiązywanie konfliktów poprzez porozumienie bez przemocy, Warszawa 2016 (Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca), s. 23. M.B. Rosenberg, op.cit., s. 68–70. 222 223 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A . P O RO Z U M I E N I E B E Z P R Z E M O C Y jednostka może się odnieść na cztery różne sposoby: obwiniając siebie, zrzucając winę na innych, wczuwając się we własne uczucia i potrzeby oraz wczuwając się w uczucia i potrzeby innych, ale: „im bardziej bezpośrednio potrafimy skojarzyć swoje uczucia z potrzebami, tym łatwiej jest innym ludziom odnieść się do nich ze współczuciem”6. Rosenberg zauważa, że ludzi nie nauczono rozumować w kategorii potrzeb i zwłaszcza kobiety mają skłonność do ignorowania własnych potrzeb, koncentrując się na trosce i opiece nad innymi7. Potrzeby jednostki nie dotyczą konkretnych osób czy konkretnych zachowań. Każda z potrzeb może być zaspokojona w różnoraki sposób i jednostka może również sama zaspokajać swoje potrzeby, zamiast oczekiwać, że zaspokoi je ktoś inny8. Zanim osoba osiągnie stan odpowiedzialności emocjonalnej przechodzi na ogół przez trzy etapy: zniewolenia emocjonalnego, kiedy twierdzi, że jest odpowiedzialna za uczucia innych, tzw. „tupetu”, czyli nie liczenia się z potrzebami innych i „wyzwolenia emocjonalnego”, kiedy bierze odpowiedzialność za własne uczucia, ale nie za uczucia innych. Czwarty etap M. Rosenberg nazywa prośbą o gest wzbogacający życie. Ważne jest, aby prośba była sformułowana w sposób twierdzący, a nie przeczący (to czego jednostka chce, a nie to, czego nie chce) oraz żeby była konkretna. Musi być wyrażona w sposób jak najbardziej precyzyjny, ale z uwzględnieniem uczuć i potrzeb, bo inaczej zostanie odebrana jako żądanie. Precyzja w wyrażaniu prośby zwiększa prawdopodobieństwo zaspokojenia potrzeb. Zdaniem Rosenberga potrzeby ludzkie nie są spełniane przede wszystkim dlatego, że ludzie nie potrafią ich wyrażać w jasny sposób, wiele osób ma w sobie zakodowany lęk przed proszeniem9. M. Rosenberg jednak nie koncentruje się w PBP tylko na tym, aby jednostka zdobyła umiejętność wyrażania własnych spostrzeżeń uczuć, potrzeb i próśb. Jest to tylko jeden z dwóch aspektów procesu komunikacji. Drugi M. Rosenberg określa mianem empatycznego odbioru, czyli umiejętnego słuchania tego, jakie spostrzeżenia, uczucia i potrzeby mają inni10. Empatia jest to pełne szacunku zrozumienie cudzych przeżyć. Jest nawiązaniem więzi z uczuciami innej osoby11. Partnerzy interakcji pragną empatii, a nie doradzania, dodawania otuchy, objaśniania wła6 7 8 9 10 11 Ibidem, s. 75. Ibidem. M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, op.cit., s. 39. Ibidem, s. 20. M.B. Rosenberg, op.cit., s. 105. M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, op.cit., s. 58–60. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K snych stanowisk czy też przedstawiania własnych uczuć12. W swoich pracach i wystąpieniach M.B. Rosenberg często przywołuje dwie metafory i mówi/pisze o języku żyrafy, który charakterystyczny jest dla Porozumienia bez Przemocy oraz o przeciwstawnym wobec języka żyrafy języku szakala. Język żyrafy cechuje myślenie, w odniesieniu do uczuć i potrzeb, w kategoriach wygrany/wygrany, związków pomiędzy jednostkami, partnerstwa, tego co łączy, a nie dzieli i w kategorii teraźniejszości (aktualnego momentu). Natomiast dla języka szakala bliskie są pojęcia posłuszeństwa, dominacji, myślenia w kategoriach wygrany-przegrany, w odniesieniu do przeszłości i przyszłości13. 3. Możliwości zastosowania Porozumienia bez Przemocy w zawodzie pracownika socjalnego M. Rosenberg twierdzi, że Porozumienie bez Przemocy można wykorzystać w różnych interakcjach – w związkach intymnych, rodzinie, w szkole, organizacjach i instytucjach, terapii i poradnictwie czy w relacjach biznesowych14. K. Mudyń jest zdanie że: „koncepcja „komunikacji bez przemocy” jest na tyle uniwersalnym zestawem reguł i postulatów, że jej praktyczna znajomość potrzebna jest każdemu, kto nie przyswoił ich sobie intuicyjnie, w drodze prób i błędów lub poprzez naśladownictwo najlepszych wzorców”15. Z. Wieczorek nie ma wątpliwości, że model Porozumienia bez Przemocy jest użyteczny w pracy pracownika socjalnego, twierdząc, że: „pracownik socjalny pomoże swojemu klientowi jeśli go zrozumie, a zrozumieć może go tylko wtedy, jeśli zrezygnuje ze swojej racji i przyjmie rację klienta. Model PBP jest tu nieoceniony”16. Sam Rosenberg prowadził szkolenia m.in. dla pracowników socjalnych, ale też pracował m.in. z więźniami oskarżonymi o zabójstwa i gwałty, opiekował się tzw. „trudną” młodzieżą, a więc miał styczność z podobny12 13 14 15 16 M.B. Rosenberg, op.cit., s. 119. The Centre for Nonviolent Communication, An Introduction to Nonviolent Communication (NVC), http://www.schooltransformation.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Kendrick_NVC_Materials.pdf, dostęp 6.04.2017. M.B. Rosenberg, op.cit., s. 21. K. Mudyń, „Komunikacji bez przemocy” jako metoda przezwyciężania i zapobiegania konfliktom, [w:] Kryzys, interwencja i pomoc psychologiczna, red. D. Kubacka-Jasiecka, K. Mudyń, Toruń 2003 (Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek), s. 319. Z. Wieczorek, Porozumienie bez przemocy Marshalla Rosenberga jako sposób na redukowanie barier komunikacyjnych, Przegląd Naukowo-Metodyczny. Edukacja dla bezpieczeństwa, t. 5 (3) (2012), s. 112. 224 225 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A . P O RO Z U M I E N I E B E Z P R Z E M O C Y mi sytuacjami i osobami, jakie może spotkać w swojej pracy pracownik socjalny. M. Rosenberg zachęca, aby na każdą osobę, również na uzależnionych czy skazanych, spojrzeć poprzez pryzmat ich niezaspokojonych potrzeb, które próbują zaspokoić zachowując się w konkretny sposób17. Na przykład osoba uzależniona od alkoholu spotykając się po pracy z kolegami w pubie zaspokaja potrzebę przynależności, towarzystwa, bycia zrozumianym18. Sprawcy gwałtów prawie zawsze sami byli ofiarami nadużyć seksualnych i poprzez gwałt szukają empatii, realizują potrzebę połączenia19. Rosenberg jest przeciwnikiem zamykania sprawców przestępstw w więzieniach i twierdzi, że: „osiąga się doskonałe rezultaty jeżeli stronom konfliktu udaje się wczuć w emocje strony przeciwnej i podejść do niej z empatią20”. W jaki zatem konkretny sposób w pracy socjalnej można wykorzystać założenia Porozumienia bez Przemocy? Czy jest to w ogóle możliwe? Odwołując się do tekstu Ustawy z dnia 12 marca 2004 roku o pomocy społecznej można zauważyć, że już w art. 3. napisano: „Pomoc społeczna wspiera osoby i rodziny w wysiłkach zmierzających do zaspokojenia niezbędnych potrzeb i umożliwia im życie w warunkach odpowiadających godności człowieka”. Zatem w samym tekście Ustawy można znaleźć określenia, które są kluczowe dla koncepcji Porozumienia bez Przemocy (wspieranie, zaspokajanie potrzeb). Oczywiście w tekście Ustawy można znaleźć też sformułowania, które są sprzeczne z koncepcją PBP (np. w artykule 107. ust 5. zapisano „Pracownik socjalny przeprowadzający rodzinny wywiad środowiskowy może domagać się od osoby lub rodziny ubiegającej się o pomoc złożenia oświadczenia o dochodach i stanie majątkowym”. Używając języka PBP należałoby w tym wypadku słowo domagać zastąpić słowem prosić. Z kolei w artykule 3, ust. 4 sformułowano zapis: „Potrzeby osób i rodzin korzystających z pomocy powinny zostać uwzględnione, jeżeli odpowiadają celom i mieszczą się w możliwościach pomocy społecznej”. Stosując terminologię i założenia PBP należałoby zrezygnować z drugiego członu zdania, które to zakłada pewną warunkowość udzielanej pomocy. Również w Ustawie z dnia 9 czerwca 2011 roku wspieraniu rodziny i systemie pieczy zastępczej można znaleźć odniesienia do zaspokajania potrzeb, przede wszystkim w odniesieniu do dzieci, również 17 18 19 20 M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, op.cit., s. 95. M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, op.cit., s. 94. Ibidem, s. 101. Ibidem, s. 98. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K tych przebywających w pieczy zastępczej czy w placówkach opiekuńczo-wychowawczych. Mowa jest tu m.in. o potrzebach ochrony, potrzebach emocjonalnych, bytowych, zdrowotnych, religijnych, społecznych, edukacyjnych i kulturalno-rekreacyjnych21. Odniesienie do potrzeb dziecka pojawia się w tekście Ustawy aż 18 razy. W celu udzielenia odpowiedzi na pytania dotyczące możliwości zastosowania Porozumienia bez Przemocy w pracy socjalnej warto raz jeszcze prześledzić cztery etapy procesu PBP w odniesieniu do relacji pracownik socjalny – klient. Pierwszym z elementów PBP jest umiejętność sformułowania spostrzeżenia i powstrzymywania się od osądu i oceny. W relacjach interpersonalnych, również tych pomiędzy pracownikiem socjalnym a klientem, istotne znaczenie odgrywa pierwsze wrażenie, jakie wywierają na sobie nowo poznani partnerzy interakcji. W psychologii mówi się o tzw. efekcie aureoli, który polega na tym, że: „korzystne lub niekorzystne wrażenie, jakie wywiera dana osoba, wpływa na nasze wnioski i oczekiwania jej dotyczące”22. Innymi słowy to jakie pierwsze wrażenie wywrze nowo poznana osoba na partnerze interakcji, będzie miało wpływ na to, jak będzie ona postrzegana i jakie cechy zostaną jej przypisane w dalszych etapach relacji. Jeśli będzie to wrażenie pozytywne, to osoba ta będzie ogólnie postrzegana w bardziej pozytywnym świetle, jeśli negatywne – w bardziej negatywnym. Można przypuszczać, że w przypadku klientów pomocy społecznej częściej to pierwsze wrażenie może być negatywnym. Stosując założenia Porozumienia bez Przemocy pracownik socjalny stara się nie uprzedzać w stosunku do klientów tylko dlatego, że mają nie najnowsze ubrania, czy też mieszkają w skromnych warunkach. Formułuje spostrzeżenia, które odnoszą się do konkretnej chwili, unikając uogólnień i pewnych zwrotów np. zawsze, nigdy. Obiektywizm, (nieocenianie) jest wymieniany w literaturze jako jedna z podstawowych zasad prowadzenia pracy socjalnej23. Istotą drugiego etapu PBZ jest próba nazwania i zrozumienia uczuć. Pracownik socjalny może w relacji z klientem mówić o swoich uczuciach, które odnoszą się do jego kontaktów z klientem, czyli zamiast oskarżać klienta i krytykować za pewne nieodpowiednie postępowania, pracownik socjalny mówi, jakie odczucia wywołała w nim dana sytuacja (np. jakieś 21 22 23 Ustawa z dnia 9 czerwca 2011 r. o wspieraniu rodziny i systemie pieczy zastępczej, Preambuła, art. 40 ust 5, art. 33 ust 3. E. Aronson, Człowiek istota społeczna, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 2004, s. 134. K. Kodela, J. Kowalczyk, op.cit., s. 11. 226 227 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A . P O RO Z U M I E N I E B E Z P R Z E M O C Y zachowanie klienta spowodowało, że czuje się zawiedziony, zdezorientowany, zmartwiony). Ale też może próbować nazywać uczucia klienta, dając sobie możliwość popełnienia błędu czyli pytając klienta, czy jego spostrzeżenia odnośnie uczuć są trafne albo zachęcając klienta, aby on sam spróbował określić uczucia, które mu towarzyszą bądź towarzyszyły w przeszłości w określonej sytuacji. Trzeci etap polega na byciu świadomym genezy własnych uczuć i wzięciu odpowiedzialności za własne potrzeby. Wydaje się, ze w relacji pracownik socjalny – klient szczególnie często może mieć miejsce zaspokojenie bądź też niezaspokojenie potrzeb z grupy potrzeb, które M. Rosenberg określa grupą wzajemnej zależności, gdzie wymienia m.in. potrzeby akceptacji, wspólnoty, szacunku, wsparcia, zrozumienia, zaufania, uczciwości, empatii24. F. Biestek wyróżnił 7 potrzeb klientów w relacji z pracownikiem socjalnym: potrzeba bycia traktowanym bardziej jako niepowtarzalna osoba, potrzeba wyrażania uczuć, potrzeba akceptacji, potrzeba bycia życzliwie zrozumianym, potrzeba bycia nieocenianym za przyczyny trudności, w jakich jednostka się znalazła, potrzeba podejmowania własnych decyzji i wyborów, potrzeba poufności. Oprócz potrzeb w relacji z pracownikiem socjalnym w przypadku klienta często można mówić o wielości niezaspokojonych potrzeb życiowych niezwiązanych z relacją z pracownikiem socjalnym (np. jedna osoba może mieć w momencie kontaktu z pracownikiem socjalnym niezaspokojoną potrzebę pożywienia, dachu nad głową, odpoczynku, bliskości, wspólnoty, akceptacji, szacunku, wsparcia i sensu). Zastosowanie PBP, z racji tego, że jego celem jest docieranie do potrzeb, stwarza możliwości ku temu, aby te potrzeby zostały najpierw zidentyfikowana i nazwane, a później zaspokojone. Pracownik socjalny, który kieruje się w swojej pracy założeniami PBP traktuje swoich klientów indywidualnie, a nie jako przedstawicieli danej grupy, powstrzymuje się od ocen, stwarza okazję do wyrażenia uczuć przez klientów, ale też twierdzi, że klienci mają prawo do podejmowanie własnych wyborów, które służą zaspokojeniu ich potrzeb. Czwarty etap – wyrażenie prośby może być szczególnie trudne w odniesieniu do relacji pracownik socjalny-klient. Prośba ze strony pracownika socjalnego skierowana do klienta może być postrzegana jako niestandardowe zachowanie. Pracownik socjalny, który na ogół jest postrzegany jako ten, który wymaga, oczekuje, nawet żąda, prosząc klienta może być odebrany jako „dziwny”, co z kolei może zrodzić opór w klien24 M.B. Rosenberg, op.cit., s. 69. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K cie. Jednak istnieje większe prawdopodobieństwo, że klient wykona pewne działania, gdy jest o nie proszony niż wtedy gdy ktoś czegoś od niego wymaga czy żąda. Rosenberg twierdzi, że aby okazać komuś empatię, trzeba używać tego samego języka co on25. W relacji pracownik socjalny-klient ważne jest posługiwanie się językiem zrozumiałym dla klienta, nie stosowanie zbyt skomplikowanego, urzędniczego, czy też naukowego języka. M. Rosenberg pisze o tzw. „komunikatach odcinających od życia” – osądach moralnych, porównywaniu i wyrażaniu pragnień w formie żądań jako o tych, które ranią innych i blokują współczucie zarówno wobec innych, jak i siebie. K. Łęcki i A. Szóstak w pracy „Komunikacja interpersonalna w pracy socjalnej” wyróżnili m.in. następujące bariery komunikacyjne, które popełniają pracownicy socjalni w stosunku do klientów: protekcjonalizm i urzędowa wyższość, atmosfera przesłuchiwania w trakcie wywiadu, przerywanie klientowi, zaniechanie uważnego, aktywnego słuchania, brak odwołań do przemyśleń klienta, przekręcanie lub nieużywanie nazwisk i imion klientów, szybkie wydawanie osądów, oceniające i krytyczne komentarze, niedostosowanie tonu i stylu komunikacyjnego do stanu emocjonalnego klienta26. Stosując założenia Porozumienia bez Przemocy pracownik socjalny może uniknąć tych wszystkich błędów. Pracownik socjalny może nie tylko stosować założenia Porozumienia bez Przemocy w relacji z klientem, ale również zachęcać go do tego, aby klient w relacjach z osobami z jego otoczenia stosował tę metodę. Model ten klienci mogą wykorzystać w życiu rodzinnym, relacjach sąsiedzkich czy też w środowisku pracy. Ale aby go zastosować, niezbędne jest zaznajomienie się z koncepcją M. Rosenberga. W jaki sposób klienci mogą poznać tę koncepcję? Pracownik socjalny stosując założenia PBP w rozmowie z klientem nie tylko ma szansę na zidentyfikowanie potrzeb klienta, jakie zaspokaja on działając w taki a nie inny sposób, ale też daje przykład, wzór tego, w jaki sposób może przebiegać dialog pomiędzy osobami. Samo przebywanie z pracownikiem socjalnym, który jest pełen empatii, zrozumienia i ma gotowość do wsłuchania się w potrzeby klienta, może być dla klienta tak pozytywnym doświadczeniem, że wywoła pewne zmiany w jego zachowaniu. Zwłaszcza, że pracownik socjalny stosujący założenia PBP może być pierwszą osobą, która w pełni wsłuchuje 25 26 M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, op.cit., s. 70. K. Łęcki, A. Szóstak, Komunikacja interpersonalna w pracy socjalnej, Warszawa 1996 (Wydawnictwo Interart), s. 87–88. 228 229 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A . P O RO Z U M I E N I E B E Z P R Z E M O C Y się w potrzeby klienta, nie osądza go i nie krytykuje. Zatem stosując założenia PBP w relacji z klientem pracownik socjalny przekazuje pewien wzór komunikowania się, który klient może przenieść na jego relacje z innymi osobami (członkami rodziny, sąsiadami czy współpracownikami). Pracownik socjalny może pełnić wobec klienta rolę tutora w zakresie stosowania metody Porozumienia bez Przemocy. Najpierw przekazać mu podstawową wiedzę na temat PBP, a potem poprzez regularne spotkania z klientem ma możliwość towarzyszenia mu i wpierania go w procesie zmiany w zakresie jego umiejętności komunikacyjnych. Jednym ze sposobów służącym zaznajomieniu się klientów z założeniami Porozumienia bez Przemocy jest polecanie publikacji na ten temat, książkowych czy w wersji elektronicznej, możliwe jest też przygotowanie broszur informacyjnych. Mogą być one użyteczne zwłaszcza dla tych klientów, którzy mają trudności w komunikacji ze współmałżonkiem, partnerem czy dziećmi. Już sama nazwa Porozumienie bez Przemocy może się wydać zachęcająca dla tych klientów, którzy są świadomi tego że stosują przemoc, fizyczną bądź też werbalną np. w stosunku do dzieci i chcą zmienić swoje zachowania w tym względzie. Akty przemocy wobec członków rodziny nie są wyrazem siły, a bezsilności i braku umiejętności w radzeniu sobie z trudnościami i w zaspokajaniu własnych potrzeb (np. matka, która jest głodna, niewyspana i zmęczona znacznie częściej będzie podnosić głos na dzieci czy nawet stosować przemoc fizyczną niż ta kobieta, która ma zaspokojone własne potrzeby). Kolejnym z rozwiązań jest zaproponowanie klientom udziału w szkoleniu, które może zorganizować np. ośrodek pomocy społecznej, jeśli ma takie możliwości, bądź też poszukać np. organizacji pozarządowych, czy innych instytucji, które organizują szkolenia w tym zakresie. Uczestnictwo w szkoleniu w zakresie PBP jest o tyle istotne, że klienci mają możliwość nie tylko poznania teoretycznych postaw PBP, ale też przećwiczenia ich pod okiem trenera. Niezwykle istotnym elementem tego procesu jest stworzenie klientowi możliwości podzielenia się doświadczeniem zmiany, jaka wynika z zastosowania PBP w relacjach rodzinnych czy zawodowych na bieżąco, wtedy, kiedy skończy się szkolenie lub klient zdobędzie wiedzę książkową na temat PBP i próbuje zastosować tę wiedzę w życiu codziennym. Pracownik socjalny może być w otoczeniu klienta jedyną osobą, która zna założenia PBP stosuje je w praktyce, dlatego może stanowić dla klienta wsparcie, być osobą, z którą klient omawia i konsultuje konkretne sytuacje z własnego życia, PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K zanim podejmie jakieś działania, albo post factum, kiedy pewne wydarzenia miały już miejsce. Pracownicy socjalni mogą nie tylko pracować z osobami dorosłymi, ale również z dziećmi i młodzieżą, wykorzystując założenia PBP. Sam Rosenberg oprócz tego, że był mediatorem, to prowadził warsztaty dla rodziców, szkolił również nauczycieli. Wychowanie, które M. Rosenberg określa wychowaniem w duchu empatii może być praktykowane nie tylko przez rodziców, ale również przez opiekunów pracujących np. w placówkach wsparcia dziennego czy w placówkach opiekuńczo-wychowawczych. Relacje z dziećmi zgodne z założeniami Porozumienia bez Przemocy, to relacje, w których rezygnuje się ze stosowania nagród i kar27. Jak zauważa M. Rosenberg dzieci są bardziej świadome swoich potrzeb niż osoby dorosłe28. Model Porozumienia bez Przemocy rekomendowany jest m.in. przez Gdańską Fundację Innowacji Społecznej w pracy z dziećmi w Kameralnych Domach dla Dzieci29. Wdrożenie idei Porozumienia bez Przemocy w pracy socjalnej na pewno nie jest zadaniem łatwym i wymagałoby szeregu zmian, zarówno w rozwiązaniach instytucjonalnych dotyczących pomocy społecznej (np. zmniejszenie liczby klientów, z którymi pracuje pracownik socjalny w jednym momencie, aby miał więcej czasu dla każdej z osób, czy też ograniczenie czynności administracyjnych, jakie ma do wykonania pracownik socjalny), jak i zmian które można określić mianem mentalnościowych, a które związane by były ze zmianami w samych poglądach pracowników socjalnych. Badania przeprowadzone w 2013 roku na reprezentatywnej grupie pracowników socjalnych wykazały, że co czwarty przedstawiciel tej profesji (24%) zgadza się ze stwierdzeniem, że nie należy wierzyć ludziom, ufać można tylko samemu sobie, prawie 18% poparło pogląd, że ludzie są na ogół bezinteresownie nieżyczliwi, wręcz złośliwi, a 45% jest zdania, że kto całkowicie ufa innym, naraża się na kłopoty. Wszystkie te stwierdzenia pozostają w sprzeczności z ideą PBP. Rosenberg jest zdania, że karanie ludzi nie ma sensu, natomiast wśród polskich pracowników socjalnych 83% zgodziło się ze stwierdzeniem, że w Polsce kary dla przestępców są zbyt łagodne, 45% ze zdaniem, że przestępców należy przede wszystkim karać, a nie marnować czasu na ich wycho27 28 29 M.B. Rosenberg, Wychowanie w duchu empatii. Rodzicielstwo według Porozumienia bez Przemocy, Warszawa 2012 (Wydawnictwo MiND), s. 15. M.B. Rosenberg, G. Seils, op.cit., s. 130. O samodzielności. Innowacyjny model pracy wychowawczej w kameralnych Domach dla Dzieci, Gdańsk 2014 (Gdańska Fundacja Innowacji Społecznej), s. 46–47. 230 231 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A . P O RO Z U M I E N I E B E Z P R Z E M O C Y wywanie, a 51% twierdzi, że kara śmierci powinna być stosowana, aby utrzymać w ryzach najgorszych przestępców30. Gdy pracownicy socjalni zostali poproszeni o to, aby sami zdefiniowali pojęcie pracy socjalnej, tylko nieliczni w podawanej definicji odwołali się do specyfiki relacji pracownik socjalny- klient31. Zastosowanie Porozumienia bez Przemocy w praktyce pracownika socjalnego wymagałoby także zmiany postrzegania klientów. Według wyników badań z 2013 roku, gdy zadano zapytano pracowników socjalnych o to, do czego/kogo mogą porównać klientów, to jedynie 11% spośród wszystkich wskazań przedstawiało klienta jako osobę potrzebującą pomocy, partnera, którego warto poznać. Częściej klient porównywany był do pasożyta (12% wskazań), do dziecka – np. rozwydrzone, krnąbrne, uparte, trudne (24% wskazań) czy też traktowany był jako „roszczeniowiec” (32% wskazań)32. 4. Refleksje końcowe Metoda Porozumienia bez Przemocy autorstwa M.B. Rosenberga może stanowić użyteczne narzędzie w pracy pracownika socjalnego. Stosując ją w relacji zarówno w odniesieniu do osób dorosłych, jak i do dzieci pracownik socjalny ma szansę nawiązać bliską relację, która jest kluczowa dla skuteczności działań pomocowych. Może się zdarzyć, że pracownik socjalny będzie pierwszą osobą, która w dialogu z klientem stara się go zrozumieć, a nie doradzać, osądzać czy krytykować. Wiedza na temat Porozumienia bez Przemocy jest już wykorzystywana w Polsce w trakcie szkoleń, zarówno dla pracowników socjalnych, jak i dla ich klientów. Porozumienie bez Przemocy znajduje się w programie szkoleń dla sprawców przemocy domowej, które organizuje Niebieska Linia33, jak również w programie szkolenia Studium Pracy z Osobami Stosującymi Przemoc SPOSP 2017, które jest adresowane do osób pracujących ze sprawcami przemocy domowej (m.in. do pracowników socjalnych, kuratorów, policjantów)34. Choć np. w ofercie studiów podyplomowych Porozu30 31 32 33 34 A. Olech, M. Łuczyńska, Pracownicy socjalni w Polsce – portret zbiorowy 2013, Warszawa 2013 (Instytut Rozwoju Służb Społecznych), s. 68. Ibidem, s. 95. Ibidem, s. 137–150. Program dla osób stosujących przemoc, http://www.niebieskalinia.org/oferta-pomocy/programy-dla-osob-stosujacych-przemoc dostęp 25.12.2017. TRWA REKRUTACJA na Studium Pracy z Osobami Stosującymi Przemoc SPOSP, 2017, http://www.niebieskalinia.org/o-nas/aktualnosci/studium-pracy-z-osobami-stosujacymi-przemoc-sposp-20162017/, dostęp 28.03.2017. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K mienie bez Przemocy wg Marshalla B. Rosenberga, jakie oferuje jedna z uczelni pracownicy socjalni, w przeciwieństwie m.in. do nauczycieli, coachów, mediatorów, psychologów, terapeutów nie zostali wymienieni jako osoby, do których adresowane są studia. Jednak studia adresowane są do wszystkich osób, którzy na co dzień pracują z ludźmi, a więc również do pracowników socjalnych35. Pewne przekazy zgodne z założeniami PBP można odnaleźć w podręcznikach dla pracowników socjalnych np. w podręczniku „Komunikacja interpersonalna w pracy socjalnej” autorstwa K. Łęckiego i A. Szóstaka znajduje się następujący przekaz, zgodny z założeniami PBP: „Komunikacja między ludźmi jest nieustannie podtrzymywanym stanem zrozumienia, okazywania szczerości i zaufania, stymulowania emocji, wnikania w uczucia i respektowania ich – jest związkiem psychicznym, który wytwarza się podczas wzajemnego kontaktu”. Należy zauważyć, że zastosowanie założeń PBP w relacji pracownika socjalnego z klientem nie jest proste. Dzieje się tak z kilku powodów. Sama te metoda nie jest łatwa, do zastosowania w praktyce (choć w teorii nie jest skomplikowana) i wymaga zrezygnowania z pewnych wcześniejszych schematów postępowania, co może się wiązać z poświęceniem czasu i środków finansowych na szkolenia w zakresie Porozumienia Bez Przemocy oraz energii i czasu pracowników socjalnych w procesie zmiany. Komunikacja empatyczna, wyrażanie uczuć, docieranie do potrzeb wymaga odpowiedniej ilości czasu poświęconego konkretnemu klientowi, którego często pracownicy socjalni nie mają. Poza tym niektórzy klienci traktują pracownika socjalnego jak każdego innego urzędnika i nie chcą się przed nim „otworzyć” w obawie, że zostanie to wykorzystane przeciwko nim. Mimo, że artykuł koncentrował się na aktywności zawodowej pracownika socjalnego, to warto zauważyć, że PBP może być wykorzystywane w życiu rodzinnym pracownika socjalnego i w jego relacjach pozazawodowych, co może mieć istotne znaczenie dla jego pracy. Po pierwsze życie prywatne może stanowić miejsce, w którym pracownik socjalny uczy się stosować w praktyce PBP i ma na to więcej czasu niż w pracy. Po drugie dzięki tej metodzie jest świadomy i dąży do zaspokojenia swoich potrzeb, 35 Porozumienie bez przemocy wg Marshalla B. Rosenberga, https://www.civitas.edu.pl/ collegium/oferta-edukacyjna/po-polsku/studia-podyplomowe-po-polsku/kierunki-studiow-podyplomowych/kierunki-studiow-podyplomowych-obszar-psychologia-i-coaching/porozumienie-bez-przemocy-wg-marshalla-b-rosenberga, dostęp 28.03.2017. 232 233 M AG DA L E N A S TA N KOW S K A . P O RO Z U M I E N I E B E Z P R Z E M O C Y a więc m.in. potrzeby odpoczynku, wsparcia czy empatii, dzięki czemu ma więcej energii, aby wspierać swoich klientów w pracy, bowiem niezwykle trudne jest niesienie pomocy innym w przypadku braku zaspokojenia własnych potrzeb, a oczekiwanie, że wszystkie potrzeby pracownika socjalnego zostaną zaspokojone w pracy jest nierealne (choć np. potrzeby uznania, sensu czy znaczenia mogą być zaspokojone poprzez aktywność zawodową). Po trzecie wykorzystując tę metodę w relacjach z najbliższymi osobami, buduje z nimi pozytywne relacje, co może się przekładać na to, że będą oni dla niego stanowić większe źródło wsparcia, również w życiu zawodowym niż wtedy, gdy w tych relacjach byłyby nierozwiązane konflikty, wrogość, czy agresja. 5. Literatura Aronson E., Człowiek istota społeczna, Warszawa 2004 (Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe). Kodela K., Kowalczyk J., Standardy Pracy Socjalnej. Rekomendacje metodyczne i organizacyjne, Warszawa 2014 (WRZOS). Łęcki K., Szóstak A., Komunikacja interpersonalna w pracy socjalnej, Warszawa 1996 (Wydawnictwo Interart). Mudyń K., „Komunikacji bez przemocy” jako metoda przezwyciężania i zapobiegania konfliktom, [w:] Kryzys, interwencja i pomoc psychologiczna, red. D. Kubacka-Jasiecka, K. Mudyń, Toruń 2003 (Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek), s. 303–319. Olech A., Łuczyńska M., Pracownicy socjalni w Polsce – portret zbiorowy 2013, Warszawa 2013 (Instytut Rozwoju Służb Społecznych). O samodzielności. Innowacyjny model pracy wychowawczej w kameralnych Domach dla Dzieci, Gdańsk 2014 (Gdańska Fundacja Innowacji Społecznej). Porozumienie bez przemocy wg Marshalla B. Rosenberga, https://www.civitas. edu.pl/collegium/oferta-edukacyjna/po-polsku/studia-podyplomowe-po-polsku/kierunki-studiow-podyplomowych/kierunki-studiow-podyplomowych-obszar-psychologia-i-coaching/porozumienie-bez-przemocy-wg-marshalla-b-rosenberga, dostęp 28.03.2017. Program dla osób stosujących przemoc, http://www.niebieskalinia.org/oferta-pomocy/programy-dla-osob-stosujacych-przemoc, dostęp 6.04.2017. Rosenberg M.B., Seils G., Rozwiązywanie konfliktów poprzez porozumienie bez przemocy, Warszawa 2016 (Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca). Rosenberg M.B., Porozumienie bez przemocy. O języku serca, Warszawa 2009 (Wydawnictwo Czarna Owca). Rosenberg M.B., Wychowanie w duchu empatii. Rodzicielstwo według Porozumienia bez Przemocy, Warszawa 2012 (Wydawnictwo MiND). PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K Sokołowska M., Dylematy etyczne pracowników socjalnych, Warszawa 2013 (Centrum Rozwoju Zasobów Ludzkich). The Centre for Nonviolent Communication, An Introduction to Nonviolent Communication (NVC), http://www.schooltransformation.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/06/Kendrick_NVC_Materials.pdf, dostęp 06.04.2017. TRWA REKRUTACJA na Studium Pracy z Osobami Stosującymi Przemoc SPOSP, 2017, http://www.niebieskalinia.org/o-nas/aktualnosci/studium-pracy-z-osobami-stosujacymi-przemoc-sposp-20162017, dostęp 06.04.2017. Ustawa z dnia 12 marca 2004 o pomocy społecznej z późn. zm. Ustawa z dnia 9 czerwca 2011 r. o wspieraniu rodziny i systemie pieczy zastępczej z późn. zm. Wieczorek Z., Porozumienie bez przemocy Marshalla Rosenberga jako sposób na redukowanie barier komunikacyjnych, Przegląd Naukowo-Metodyczny. Edukacja dla bezpieczeństwa, t. 5 (3) (2012), s. 103–116. 6. Summary The aim of these article is to present the assumptions of the method used in interpersonal relationships, named Nonviolent Communication (NVC) by M.B. Rosenberg and the reflection on the application of this method in social work. The article presents the basic assumptions of NVC, four steps of NVC (observations, feelings, needs and requests) and the issue of empathic reception, as well as reflections on the possibility of applying this method in relations between social worker and client and in client relations with the environment. Legal regulations on social work and family support and the results of research among social workers have been introduced. 234 Realizacja zadań pracownika socjalnego w świetle Ustawy o pomocy społecznej z 12 marca 2004 roku – sprawozdanie z badań S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A Płock keywords . social problems, hospital, social worker, random events, crisis situations 1. Wprowadzenie Głównym źródłem w poszukiwaniu odpowiedzi na pytanie: „W jakim zakresie oraz w jakiej formie, współczesny pracownik socjalny spełnia powierzone mu zadania zawarte w Ustawie o pomocy społecznej z dnia 12 marca 2004 roku?” stały się badania przeprowadzone na przełomie 2014/2015 roku w szpitalach północnego Mazowsza: w Płocku, Ciechanowie, Mławie oraz Przasnyszu. Próba odpowiedzi na postawione pytanie została podjęta na podstawie wnikliwej analizy uzyskanych wyników z przeprowadzonej ankiety, wypełnionej przez dyrektorów ankietowanych szpitali1, tj.: • Specjalistycznego Szpitala Wojewódzkiego w Ciechanowie2. • Samodzielnego Publicznego Zakładu Opieki Zdrowotnej w Mławie3. • Samodzielnego Publicznego Zespołu Zakładów Opieki Zdrowotnej Przasnyszu4. 1 2 3 4 Autorka zwróciła się ze specjalnym pismem do dyrektorów szpitali o wypełnienie ankiety zawierającej 14 pytań ściśle związanych z pracą pracownika socjalnego w jednostce przez nich zarządzanej; zob. prywatne zbiory autorki. S. Pazyra., Dzieje Ciechanowa i ziemi ciechanowskiej, Ciechanów 1976, s. 237; Małowiecki R., Księga Rocznicowa. Lecznictwo Ciechanowskie, Ciechanów 1995 (maszynopis z prywatnego zbioru ks. A. Gretkowskiego), passim. A. Gretkowski [ks.], Dobroczynno-społeczna działalność Zgromadzenia Sióstr oraz Stowarzyszenia Pań Miłosierdzia św. Wincentego a Paulo na terenie diecezji płockiej w latach 1727–2000, Płock 2002 (Wydawnictwo Naukowe NOVUM), s. 134–140; L. Zygner, Historia parafii mławskiej. Struktura społeczno-zawodowa i wyznaniowa mieszkańców Mlawy i okolicznych wsi okresu Królestwa Polskiego (1815–1864). Klęski elementarne w Mławie, Toruń 1976 (wydanie II), s. 35. A. Gretkowski [ks.], op.cit., s. 122–130. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K • Szpitala św. Trójcy w Płocku5. • Wojewódzkiego Szpitala Zespolonego im. Marcina Kacprzaka w Płocku6. Zakres i formy szpitalnej pomocy w świetle Ustawy z dnia 12 marca 2004 r. początkami sięgają reformy administracyjnej w Polsce z 1999 roku. Wtedy, wraz z nowym podziałem administracyjnym kraju, weszły w życie ustawy regulujące pracę nie tylko pracowników socjalnych, ale i innych instytucji, takich jak: • Gminny Ośrodek Pomocy Społecznej (GOPS); • Miejski Ośrodek Pomocy Społecznej (MOPS); • Zakład Opiekuńczo-Leczniczy (ZOL); • Różne placówki wychowawcze i ośrodki pomocowe, np. Dom Małego Dziecka czy też Dom Samotnej Matki. Są one niezbędnymi jednostkami pomocy społecznej i socjalnej dla osób uzależnionych, bezdomnych, sierot, kalek, ubogich, samotnych matek i innych osób potrzebujących pomocy i wsparcia w różnych sytuacjach losowych. Instytucje te usprawniają pracę i pomagają pracownikowi socjalnemu zatrudnionego w szpitalu. Umożliwiają osobom i ich rodzinom przezwyciężenie trudnych sytuacji życiowych, których nie są w stanie sami pokonać, wykorzystując własne uprawnienia, zasady i możliwości. Kontakt z tymi ośrodkami pomocy jest jedną z form i metod pracy pracowników społecznych i socjalnych zatrudnionych w różnych filarach ochrony zdrowia. W świetle ustawy z dnia 12 marca 2004 roku główną formą pomocy, jaką niesie szpitalny pracownik socjalny, jest rozwiązywanie problemów socjalno-bytowych pacjenta, mających znaczący wpływ na poprawę stanu jego zdrowia, a tym samym skracających okres jego hospitalizacji. Dla pacjenta oraz jego rodziny ważne jest: • poczucie bycia rozumianym; • wsparcie ze strony osoby niosącej pomoc; • zachęcanie do wspólnego zastanowienia się nad możliwościami rozwiązywania problemów; • uczciwość pomagającego, jego troska i życzliwe zainteresowanie7. 5 6 7 Ibidem, s. 104–119. M. Dymek, L. Koper, J.B. Nycek, INWESTYCJE Wojewódzkiego Szpitala Zespolonego w latach 2004–2015 współfinansowane z funduszy Unii Europejskiej, Płock 2016 (Wydawnictwo Marow -Jan Bolesław Nycek), s. 7–9; S. Kwiatkowska, Wojewódzki Szpital im. Marcina Kacprzaka 40 lat w służbie regionu 1973–2013, Płock 2013 (Wydawnictwo Marow – Jan Bolesław Nycek), passim. Zob. Dz.U. 2004, Nr 64, poz. 593, art. 7, 118–119. 236 237 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A . R E A L I Z AC J A Z A DA Ń P R AC OW N I K A Pracownik socjalny zatrudniony w szpitalu pomaga nie tylko w rozwiązywaniu problemów zaistniałych w czasie leczenia szpitalnego, ale również w kwestiach dotyczących codziennego życia pacjentów i ich rodzin. Najczęściej są to sprawy związane z: ubóstwem, bezrobociem, niepełnosprawnością, sieroctwem, przemocą, bezdomnością, trudnymi warunkami materialnymi, wielodzietnością, starością, uzależnieniem8. 2. Wnioski z przeprowadzonych badań W strukturę każdego szpitala wchodzą oddziały oraz liczba przeznaczonych łóżek dla chorych. Liczba ta pociąga za sobą potrzebę odpowiedniej ilości zatrudnianych specjalistów, m.in. pracowników socjalnych. Szpitale (Ciechanów, Mława, Przasnysz, Płock) posiadają ogólnie 75 oddziałów liczących 2379 łóżek. W każdym z nich zatrudniony jest na czas nieokreślony pracownik socjalny (po jednym pracowniku w każdym szpitalu, z wyjątkiem Specjalistycznego Szpitala Wojewódzkiego w Ciechanowie, który zatrudnia trzech pracowników socjalnych) posiadający wykształcenie wyższe lub przystosowanie do wykonywania takiego charakteru pracy. We wszystkich przypadkach są to osoby płci żeńskiej w wieku 33–60 lat. Pierwsze pytanie zadane dyrektorom szpitali brzmiało: „Czy w szpitalu, w którym jest Pan/Pani Dyrektorem udzielana była w latach 2004/2013 pomoc ze względu na ubóstwo pacjenta?”. Analiza odpowiedzi pozwala stwierdzić, że z przypadkiem ubóstwa wśród pacjentów w latach 2004–2013 spotkało się większość szpitali: Specjalistyczny Szpital Wojewódzki w Ciechanowie, szpital Św. Trójcy w Płocku oraz Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony im. M. Kacprzaka w Płocku. Na to pytanie nie uzyskałam odpowiedzi ze szpitala w Mławie oraz z Przasnysza. Z łatwością można zauważyć, że przypadków ubóstwa spośród wszystkich szpitali najwięcej odnotował w okresie jesiennym i zimowym Specjalistyczny Szpital Wojewódzki w Ciechanowie (49). Najwięcej przypadków było w roku 2012 – trzynaście, a najmniej w roku 2008 – 0. Szpital Św. Trójcy w Płocku odnotował – 36 przypadków potrzebujących pomocy ze względu na ubóstwo. Najwięcej było w 2010 roku – jedenaście osób (sześć kobiet i pięciu mężczyzn) w wieku 21–81 lat. Były to osoby pochodzące zarówno ze wsi, jak i z Płocka (kawalerowie, bez8 Ibidem. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K domni, wdowy i wdowcy.) Najmniejszą ilość przypadków ubóstwa szpital zanotował w roku 2004 – tylko jeden przypadek (kobieta w wieku 21 lat – panna). W latach 2004/2005 i 2008/2009 roku nie odnotowano żadnego takiego przypadku. Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony im. M. Kacprzaka w Płocku, od roku 2004 do roku 2013 odnotował łącznie 34 przypadki ubóstwa wśród pacjentów przyjętych na oddział. Zarejestrował bardzo podobny wynik przypadków ubóstwa do szpitala Św. Trójcy. Najwięcej odnotowano w roku 2006 – pięć, a najmniej w latach 2004, 2007 oraz 2012 – po dwa przypadki. Wszyscy pacjenci, to głównie mężczyźni stanu wolnego i w różnym wieku. W dwóch przypadkach były to kobiety o statusie panny i rozwódki. Z danych zawartych w ankiecie wynika, że wszystkim potrzebującym została udzielona pomoc przez szpitalnego pracownika socjalnego w formie: • przekazania odzieży i środków higieny; • przekazania wniosku do Miejskiego Ośrodka Pomocy Społecznej (MOPS) lub Gminnego Ośrodka Pomocy Społecznej (GOPS) o przyznanie zasiłku celowego na zakup leków lub sprzętu rehabilitacyjnego oraz zakup wyprawki dla noworodka, odzieży, środków czystości. Nie są to pełne dane, gdyż nie od wszystkich szpitali otrzymałam potrzebne wiadomości. Kolejne pytanie zawarte w ankiecie dotyczyło sieroctwa. Ze zdziwieniem należy przyjąć wiadomość, że tylko jeden – Specjalistyczny Szpital Wojewódzki w Ciechanowie spotkał się w latach 2004–2013 z przypadkiem sieroctwa. Ogólnie, w badanym okresie, tj. w latach 2004–2013, w szpitalu wystąpiło 29 przypadków sieroctwa. Z największą liczbą przypadków sieroctwa spotkał się szpital w roku 2011 – sześć przypadków. Nie odnotowano zaś żadnego przypadku w roku 2005. Najczęściej było to sieroctwo społeczne. Niestety, szpital nie podał bliższych informacji dotyczących pacjentów, m.in.: wieku, płci. Wszyscy pacjenci (noworodki, dzieci) u których stwierdzono sieroctwo, poprzez wywiad i obserwacje przeprowadzone przez pracownika socjalnego, uzyskali pomoc w formie zgłoszenia do Wydziału Rodzinnego Sądu Rejonowego i do Ośrodka Adopcyjnego (noworodki zostawione w szpitalu). Wszystkim sporządzono akt urodzenia. Brak przesłanych danych z pozostałych badanych szpitali świadczyć może o braku wystąpienia przypadków sieroctwa wśród przebywających tam pacjentów. 238 239 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A . R E A L I Z AC J A Z A DA Ń P R AC OW N I K A Bezdomność to kolejna sytuacja w jakiej może znaleźć się pacjent. Jak wynika z ankiety, z największą liczbą bezdomnych pacjentów spotkał się Specjalistyczny Wojewódzki Szpital w Ciechanowie – 170 przypadków. Najwięcej było ich w roku 2010 – dwadzieścia pięć przypadków, najmniej w roku 2009 – dziesięć przypadków. Niestety, nie otrzymałam bliższych danych, np. dotyczących wieku oraz statusu osób bezdomnych. Obok szpitala w Ciechanowie, duża ilość pacjentów bezdomnych pojawiła się w Wojewódzkim Szpitalu Zespolonym im. M. Kacprzaka w Płocku – 149 przypadków. Głównie byli to mężczyźni w wieku od 22 do 58 lat. Najwięcej przypadków szpital zarejestrował w roku 2005 – dwadzieścia siedem, a najmniej w roku 2008 – osiem. Główne formy pomocy, jakie zostały udzielone bezdomnym przez szpitalnego pracownika socjalnego – to umieszczenie ich w Zakładzie Opiekuńczo-Leczniczym (ZOL-u). Najwięcej w roku 2012 – 80 pacjentów, zaś w roku 2004 – tylko trzech. Drugi płocki szpital Św. Trójcy zarejestrował 25 przypadków bezdomności (szczególnie w okresie jesienno-zimowym). Były to kobiety i mężczyźni w wieku od 22 do 59 lat, o różnym statusie społecznym: panna, wdowa, kawaler, żonaty, rozwiedziony. Najwięcej przypadków było w roku 2013 – siedem. Byli to głównie mężczyźni rozwiedzeni w wieku od 38 do 58 lat, mieszkańcy miasta. Najmniejszą liczbę przypadków bezdomności odnotowano w roku 2012 – jeden mężczyzna w wieku 42 lat, kawaler. Z interpretacji danych otrzymanych ze szpitala Św. Trójcy w Płocku wynika, że problem bezdomności dotyczył osób zamieszkujących zarówno w Płocku, jak i w okolicznych wsiach, różnej płci i wieku. Najwięcej bezdomnych pacjentów zostało umieszczonych w Zakładzie Opiekuńczo-Leczniczym w okresie jesienno-zimowym ze szpitala Św. Trójcy – sześć przypadków, z czego większość, to kobiety w wieku od 37 do 63 lat samotne, zamieszkujące na terenie miasta Płocka. W noclegowni umieszczonych zostało zaledwie pięć osób (lata 2005, 2006, 2010 i 2011). Byli to głównie samotni mężczyźni w wieku od 22 do 60 lat, zamieszkujący w obszarze wsi i Płocka. Do Domu Pomocy Społecznej trafiły trzy osoby (lata 2005 i 2013; 1 kobieta i 2 mężczyzn)9. Najmniej przypadków bezdomności odnotował szpital w Przasnyszu w latach 2007–2013 – osiemnaście osób, w tym: 9 Brak odnotowanej działalności na rok 2004. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K • Rok 2007 – trzy przypadki bezdomności (mężczyźni w wieku od 50 do 61 lat). • Rok 2008 – dwa przypadki bezdomności (mężczyźni w wieku około 55 lat). • Rok 2009 – trzy przypadki bezdomności (mężczyźni)10. Kolejne pytanie zawarte w ankiecie dotyczyło pomocy udzielonej pacjentom przez pracownika socjalnego ze względu na TRUDNOŚCI MATERIALNE. Jak wynika z analizy otrzymanych danych ankietowych, z trudnościami materialnymi wśród pacjentów szpitala w Przasnyszu zarejestrowano pojedyncze osoby – głównie mężczyźni w wieku od 27 do 60 lat. Szpital nie podał danych od roku 2004, co uniemożliwia dalszą analizę przypadków pacjentów z trudnościami bytowymi. Szpital św. Trójcy w Płocku, począwszy od 2004 roku, odnotował około 30 przypadków rocznie. Wynika z tego, że od 2004 do 2013 roku zarejestrowano około 270 pacjentów z problemami materialnymi11. Kolejnym szpitalem, który odnotował problemy związane z trudną sytuacją materialną u swoich pacjentów jest Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony w Płocku – około dwadzieścia osób rocznie12. „Czy w szpitalu, w którym jest Pani/Pan Dyrektorem udzielana była w latach 2004–2013 pomoc ze względu na bezrobocie?” – to kolejne pytanie, jakie zostało skierowane do kierowników szpitali. Najbardziej szczegółowe informacje otrzymałam ze szpitala w Przasnyszu. Z danych wynika, że w badanym okresie, w szpitalu w Przasnyszu odnotowano 33 przypadki pacjentów bezrobotnych. Byli to głównie mężczyźni w przedziale wiekowym od 40 do 60 lat. Najwięcej przypadków bezrobotnych pacjentów szpital odnotował w roku 2013 – 15 przypadków, natomiast najmniej w latach 2009 i 2012 – po jednym. W szpitalu w Mławie odnotowano 12 przypadków bezrobotnych pacjentów w samym tylko roku 2013. Również w szpitalu Św. Trójcy i Wojewódzkim Szpitalu Zespolonym im. M. Kacprzaka w Płocku zarejestrowano przypadki bezrobotnych pacjentów przebywających na oddziale. Były to kobiety i mężczyźni w wieku od 20 do 63 roku życia, zamieszkujący obszar miasta lub okolicę. Niestety, brak podania szczegółowszych 10 11 12 Brak relacji z działalności od roku 2004. Brak dodatkowych danych. W przeliczeniu od roku 2004 do roku 2013 – szpital powinien zarejestrować ok. 180 takich przypadków. Niestety, szpital nie podał żadnych dodatkowych danych, co powoduje brak szczegółowej wiedzy o pracy pracownika socjalnego w szpitalu. 240 241 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A . R E A L I Z AC J A Z A DA Ń P R AC OW N I K A danych uniemożliwił bliższą analizę i charakterystykę bezrobotnych pacjentów tamtego okresu. Zaznaczyć należy, że pacjenci nie posiadali aktualnego numeru ubezpieczenia, przez co nie podlegali ubezpieczeniu zdrowotnemu. Wobec takiej sytuacji, pracownicy socjalni podejmowali działania mające na celu sporządzenie wniosku do burmistrzów i wójtów z prośbą o objęcie ubezpieczeniem zdrowotnym pacjentów hospitalizowanych. Niepełnosprawność – wszystkie objęte ankietą szpitale spotkały się z potrzebą udzielenia takiej pomocy. Związana była ta pomoc ściśle z zaopatrzeniem w środki ortopedyczne, środki pomocnicze oraz w sprzęt rehabilitacyjny. Najwięcej przypadków pacjentów niepełnosprawnych odnotował szpital w Ciechanowie w roku 2012 – sto pięć przypadków, zaś w roku 2013 – sto trzydzieści przypadków. Nie odnotowano żadnego pacjenta w roku 2004. Niestety z braku dodatkowych i szczegółowszych danych nie można dokonać głębszej analizy. Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony im. M. Kacprzaka w Płocku, w latach 2004–2013 odnotował 435 przypadków swoich pacjentów, którzy ze względu na niepełnosprawność potrzebowali dodatkowej pomocy pracownika socjalnego. Najwięcej pacjentów otrzymało pomoc w roku 2012 – 84 osoby, z czego 41 kobiet i 43 mężczyzn w wieku od 26 do 95 lat. Najmniej pacjentów niepełnosprawnych szpital odnotował w roku 2004 – trzy przypadki: dwie kobiety ok. 72 lat oraz jeden mężczyzna ok. 80 lat. Samodzielny Publiczny Zespół Zakładów Opieki Zdrowotnej w Przasnyszu, w latach 2007–2013 zarejestrował 43 przypadki osób niepełnosprawnych, którym udzielona była przez pracownika socjalnego dodatkowa pomoc. Najwięcej przypadków było w roku 2012 – trzynaście, w tym: dwunastu mężczyzn w wieku od 26 do 71 lat i jedna kobieta. Najmniej w roku 2009 – dwóch mężczyzn w wieku 26 lat i 71 lat. Z otrzymanych danych wynika, że pomoc w większości dotyczyła mężczyzn. Szpital Św. Trójcy w Płocku odnotował tylko dwa przypadki udzielenia dodatkowej pomocy osobom z problemami niepełnosprawności. W obu wypadkach były to samotne kobiety ze średnią wieku ok. 60 lat, zamieszkujące teren Płocka. Pacjentki otrzymały pomoc socjalną w formie przygotowania dokumentacji i wszczęcia procedury umieszczenia w ZOL i w DPS. Pozostali pacjenci przewlekle chorzy, leczeni respiratorem, chorzy umysłowo otrzymali pomoc przy załatwieniu spraw urzędowych oraz podczas pobytu w szpitalu. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K Analizowana Ustawa o pomocy społecznej z roku 2004 przewiduje również udzielenie dodatkowej pomocy i wsparcia przez pracownika socjalnego osobom starszym. Z otrzymanych danych wynika, że w szpitalu w Ciechanowie odnotowano łącznie 370 pacjentów w wieku starczym. Najwięcej pacjentów, wymagających wsparcia ze strony szpitalnego pracownika socjalnego było w roku 2011 – pięćdziesiąt pięć osób, a najmniej w roku 2007 – osiemnaście osób13. W Samodzielnym Publicznym Zespole Zakładów Opieki Zdrowotnej w Przasnyszu odnotowano 14 przypadków interwencji pracownika socjalnego w latach 2007–2013. Z ankiety wynika, że były to przeważnie kobiety w wieku od 70 do 90 lat oraz mężczyźni w wieku od 80 do 90 lat14. Główną rolą pracownika socjalnego, w przypadku pacjentów ze względu na wiek jest przeprowadzenie wywiadu środowiskowego i ocena wydolności rodziny. W momencie, kiedy rodzina nie jest w stanie zaopiekować się swoim członkiem rodziny, w rolę opiekuna wciela się pracownik socjalny szpitala. Przygotowuje on odpowiednio dokumentację medyczną, ocenia stan zdrowia pacjenta i wszczyna procedury umieszczenia osoby starszej-schorowanej w odpowiednim ośrodku opiekuńczo-leczniczym. Z danych podanych w ankietach wynika, że pracownicy socjalni kontaktowali się również z MOPS-em i GOPS-em. Najwięcej takich czynności wykonał pracownik socjalny szpitala w Ciechanowie – ok. 370 takich przypadków (od roku 2004 do roku 2013). Samotność pacjenta – to kolejna przyczyna udzielania pomocy przez pracownika socjalnego. Z problemem tym spotkali się wszyscy pracownicy socjalni badanych szpitali. Najbardziej wnikliwe dane posiadamy ze szpitala w Ciechanowie, gdzie ogólnie odnotowano 638 przypadków. Najwięcej w roku 2004 – 100 osób, najmniej w 2012 roku – 37 przypadków15. W Wojewódzkim Szpitalu Zespolonym w Płocku, zarejestrowano ok. 200 pacjentów w latach 2004–2013 (ok. 22 osoby rocznie), w wywiadach pracownik wykazał nie tylko problem natury zdrowotnej, ale też i socjalnej, polegający głównie na: braku opiekuna prawnego, ułomności, zaawansowanego wieku, braku środków do życia, a nawet braku lokalu do zamieszkania. 13 14 15 Niestety z braku danych nie można określić ani wieku, ani płci pacjentów. Nie otrzymałam informacji ze szpitala od roku 2004. Z braku dodatkowych informacji dotyczących wieku, płci i statusu – nie można dokonać dogłębnej analizy. 242 243 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A . R E A L I Z AC J A Z A DA Ń P R AC OW N I K A Szpital w Przasnyszu w latach 2007–2013 zarejestrował 6 przypadków samotności u swoich pacjentów. Byli to głównie mężczyźni w wieku od 51 do 65 lat. Niestety z braku dodatkowych informacji nie można dokonać głębszej analizy przypadków samotności na terenie szpitala w Przasnyszu. Najmniejszą ilość tej grupy pacjentów odnajdujemy w szpitalu Św. Trójcy w których zarejestrowano w okresie jesiennym i na przełomie lat 2007/2013 tylko sporadyczne przypadki. Z danych otrzymanych wynika, że odnotowano tylko trzy przypadki (dwie samotne kobiety w wieku od 37 do 58 lat oraz mężczyznę – kawalera w wieku 42 lat). Problemem współczesności staje się zjawisko PRZEMOCY W RODZINIE. Z badań ankietowanych szpitali wynika, że ludzie niechętnie przyznają się do przemocy wewnątrz rodziny. Trudno jest określić dokładnie skalę tego zjawiska. Do szpitali coraz częściej przywożone są ofiary przemocy domowej, kobiety a nawet dzieci, z urazami ciała, są zastraszone i wycieńczone terrorem psychicznym i fizycznym. Pocieszającym staje się fakt, że jak wynika z analizy danych zawartych w ankietach, zjawisko przemocy na badanym terenie jest o wiele rzadsze niż, np.: sieroctwo poprzez porzucenie, bezrobocie czy ubóstwo. Tylko dwa z pięciu szpitali północnego Mazowsza (Ciechanów oraz Płock) spotkały się z problemem przemocy wśród członków rodziny, wskutek czego nastąpiły poważne urazy ciała u kobiet i dzieci. Ze wszystkich badanych szpitali, najwięcej epizodów tego typu, odnotował Specjalistyczny Szpital Wojewódzki w Ciechanowie – 28 przypadków, w tym najwięcej w roku 2013 – 11 przypadków. Niestety z braku bliższych danych nic nie wiadomo na temat wieku, pochodzenia i statusu rodzinnym. Oba szpitale w Płocku zarejestrowały tylko po dwa przypadki. W szpitalu im. M. Kacprzaka w Płocku była to kobieta w wieku 35 lat, zamieszkująca wieś oraz 74-letnia wdowa z Płocka maltretowana przez synów. Oba przypadki były wynikiem zaniedbania, braku troski i opieki, co mogło prowadzić do utraty zdrowia i życia. Była to głównie przemoc fizyczna i psychiczna na członkach rodziny. Do szpitala Św. Trójcy przywieziono w latach 2006 i 2013 – dwie kobiety, panny z dzieckiem w wieku od 28 do 35 lat zamieszkałe w powiecie płockim. W jednym przypadku wystąpiło zjawisko rodzinnej patologii, w postaci wyrzucenia kobiety wraz z dzieckiem z domu przez partnera alkoholika. Kobieta otrzymała pomoc od pracownika socjalnego zatrud- PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K nionego w szpitalu w postaci: powiadomienia opieki społecznej, załatwienia procedur związanych z uzyskaniem tzw. Niebieskiej karty, oraz umieszczenia matki z dzieckiem w noclegowni dla kobiet. Analizowana Ustawa o pomocy społecznej z roku 2004 przewiduje również konieczność udzielenia pomocy i wsparcia przez pracownika socjalnego pacjentom przebywającym w szpitalu, którzy wymagają dodatkowego wsparcia ze względu na potrzebę ochrony macierzyństwa oraz wielodzietność. Niestety, nie otrzymałam od kierowników szpitali żadnych danych świadczących o takiej formie pomocy socjalnej i społecznej. Analizowana ustawa przewiduje również konieczność pomocy socjalnego pracownika szpitalnego tym, którzy wymagają dodatkowego wsparcia ze względu na uzależnienie od narkotów. Jak wynika z danych zawartych w ankiecie, cieszyć może fakt, że tylko jeden z pięciu badanych szpitali, tj. Specjalistyczny Szpital w Ciechanowie zetknął się z problemem narkomanii pacjenta na swoim terenie i to w zaledwie czterech przypadkach. Z danych zawartych w ankiecie wynika, że byli to głównie młodzi ludzie. Niestety z braku dodatkowych informacji, nie można stwierdzić stopnia uzależnienia, czy też wieku pacjenta (w ankiecie jest bowiem stwierdzenie: młody człowiek). Dokonując analizy udzielanej pomocy i wsparcia pacjentom przebywającym w szpitalu nie sposób nie dostrzec potrzeby pomocy ze względu na zdarzenia losowe i sytuacje kryzysowe. Poprzez zdarzenie losowe i sytuację kryzysową w przypadku pacjenta skierowanego na oddział rozumiemy nagłe i niespodziewane zdarzenie, którego nie można było wcześniej przewidzieć lub mu zapobiec. Spowodowało ono nagłe pogorszenie sytuacji życiowej lub rodzinnej pacjenta. Dobrym przykładem są osoby po wypadkach komunikacyjnych i katastrofach budowlanych. Analiza badań wybranych mazowieckich szpitali pozwala tylko w dwóch szpitalach, w Płocku i Ciechanowie (na pięć szpitali badanych) odnotować przypadki pacjentów dotkniętych różnymi zdarzeniami losowymi i sytuacjami kryzysowymi. Jak wynika z uzyskanych danych, Wojewódzki Szpital Zespolony w Płocku, odnotował w latach 2004–2013 ponad 1010 takich pacjentów. Najwięcej takich przypadków było w roku 2013, w którym odnotowano 157 przypadków zdarzeń losowych lub sytuacji kryzysowej dotyczących pacjenta przebywającego na oddziale. W roku 2006, szpital odnotował najmniejsza liczbę takich pacjentów – czterdzieści osób. Wśród głównych 244 245 S Y LW I A K W I AT KOW S K A . R E A L I Z AC J A Z A DA Ń P R AC OW N I K A przyczyn zdarzeń losowych wymienia się, m.in.: zaczadzenie, powódź, nagłe osierocenie, pochówek martwo urodzonego dziecka oraz wypadek drogowy. Specjalistyczny Szpital w Ciechanowie zarejestrował ok. 240 podobnych przypadków (lata 2006–2013), co rocznie daje to ok. 30 osób. Najwięcej pomocy zostało udzielonej przez pracownika socjalnego pacjentom w roku 2013 – 73 osobom, a najmniej w latach 2006–2007 – po pięć osób. Niestety, z braku danych nie można więcej powiedzieć o osobach, którym została udzielona pomoc. Końcową prośbą skierowaną do dyrektorów szpitali było wystawienie OCENY swojemu pracownikowi socjalnemu. Dyrektorzy mieli możliwość wystawienia oceny w skali od 1 do 6. Dość zaskakującym jest fakt, że wszyscy dyrektorzy szpitali nie mieli zastrzeżeń do wykonywanych obowiązków przez podwładnych im pracowników socjalnych i ocenili ich pracę na ocenę celującą. Czy wystawiona ocena jest wiarygodna? Wydaje się, że analiza przedstawionego materiału stanowi dobrą podstawę do weryfikacji wystawionej oceny i pozwala szerzej spojrzeć na praktyczną realizację zadań szpitalnego pracownika socjalnego. 3. Zakończenie Analiza danych z przeprowadzonej ankiety, w pięciu głównych szpitalach północnego Mazowsza, tj.: z Płocka (dwa szpitale), Mławy, Przasnysza i Ciechanowa pozwala na wysnucie podstawowego wniosku, że w szpitalach tych pacjent otrzymał pomoc i wsparcie od pracownika socjalnego. Jednakże pomoc ta była niezadawalająca i nie w pełni realizowała założenia zawarte w Ustawie o pomocy społecznej z dnia 12 marca 2004 roku. 4. Literatura Dymek M., Koper L., Nycek J.B., INWESTYCJE Wojewódzkiego Szpitala Zespolonego w latach 2004–2015 współfinansowane z funduszy Unii Europejskiej, Płock 2016 (Wydawnictwo Marow -Jan Bolesław Nycek). Gretkowski A. [ks.], Dobroczynno-społeczna działalność Zgromadzenia Sióstr oraz Stowarzyszenia Pań Miłosierdzia św. Wincentego a Paulo na terenie diecezji płockiej w latach 1727–2000, Płock 2002 (Wydawnictwo Naukowe NOVUM). Kwiatkowska S., Wojewódzki Szpital im. Marcina Kacprzaka 40 lat w służbie regionu 1973–2013, Płock 2013 (Wydawnictwo Marow – Jan Bolesław Nycek). PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K Małowiecki R., Księga Rocznicowa. Lecznictwo Ciechanowskie, Ciechanów 1995 (maszynopis z prywatnego zbioru ks. A. Gretkowskiego). Pazyra S., Dzieje Ciechanowa i ziemi ciechanowskiej, Ciechanów 1976. Ustawa o pomocy społecznej z dnia 12 marca 2004 roku, Dz.U. 2004, Nr 64, poz. 593. Zygner L., Historia parafii mławskiej. Struktura społeczno-zawodowa i wyznaniowa mieszkańców Mlawy i okolicznych wsi okresu Królestwa Polskiego (1815–1864). Klęski elementarne w Mławie, wyd. 2, Toruń 1976. 5. Summary Nowadays everyone faces not just health issues, but also issues with our own existence as well as our functioning in the World. No matter our age, status or origin, we all face the same issues. For ages polish society has faced such social issues as poverty, orphanhood, alcoholism, addiction, violence, random events and many others, which can even today be called modern social issues. Thanks to facilities offering social care, we can not only obtain materialistic and financial care, but advice, support, as well as in many cases other life and health saving chance of a person in need. The Social Assistance Act effective date March 12th 2004, since there has appeared an office of a social worker in different helpful institutions. The Act has the guidelines for responsibilities forms and methods of a social worker, as a tutor. That brings a question: what are the responsibilities and methods of a modern social worker according to The Social Assistance Act of March 12, 2004. 246 Praca socjalna dla osób starszych – refleksje z praktyk i obserwacji AG N I E S Z K A DR AJ KOW S K A Płock keywords . elderly persons, poverty, helplessness, elderly people care, poor material conditions, social worker 1. Opis sytuacyjny Wszystko czego uczymy się na zajęciach, cała wiedza, którą przekazują nam wykładowcy, o tym jakich narzędzi może używać pracownik socjalny, o tym z jakimi ludźmi ma się do czynienia, o tym co robić jeśli wydarzyłoby się coś złego, nie odzwierciedla jednak tego z czym pracownicy socjalni muszą mierzyć się na co dzień. Każdy ze studentów PWSZ, mógł sobie wyobrażać to i owo, jednak wyobrażenia są dalekie od tego, w jak bardzo złych warunkach człowiek może żyć. Prawdziwy ogląd sytuacji dają dopiero praktyki. Pokazały nam, że ów zawód to nie tylko praca biurowa i kontakty z różnymi ośrodkami pomocowymi, ale też prawdziwe zderzenie z rzeczywistością, która postawiła nas w osłupienie, a widok warunków w jakich ludzie żyją i to, jak sobie radzą z życiem, wywołało u mnie łzę współczucia. Pragnę więc podzielić się moimi spostrzeżeniami i emocjami. Pracownik socjalny musi zmagać się z różnymi przeciwnościami losu w swojej pracy. Oczywiście, pomaga ludziom, którzy tego potrzebują, ale również musi użerać się z oszustami i leserami, którzy chcą tylko wyłudzić od państwa pieniądze, a tak naprawdę nie potrzebują takiej pomocy. Pracownik socjalny musi też pomagać osobom, które nie chcą pomocy, osobom, które zgłosili do Miejskiego Ośrodka Pomocy Społecznej na przykład sąsiedzi czy członkowie rodziny. Są to osoby często z przeszłością kryminalną, są alkoholikami bądź narkomanami, to co, że pracownik socjalny może wziąć ze sobą strażnika miejskiego, skoro on nie może wejść do domu, a w tym czasie osoba nietrzeźwa, której przeszkadza pracownik socjalny może wyrządzić mu krzywdę. PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K Pracownicy socjalni muszą zmagać się z niebezpieczeństwem i obelgami pod swoim adresem. Całkiem niedawno byliśmy w płockim bloku, który zamieszkuje tak zwana patologia, miejscowi ludzie nazywają to miejsce Pałacem Cudów1. Na zewnątrz nie wygląda jeszcze dramatycznie, choć zwraca uwagę wybitymi szybami i lasem anten satelitarnych. Otacza go mit pałacu cudów – wszyscy bowiem wiedzą, że po zmierzchu tam się nie wchodzi. Kiedy położę się wieczorem do łóżka, kiedy wszystko już wyłączę i kiedy robi się cicho... Nie, u mnie nie robi się cicho. Jak ma się robić, skoro słyszę nad głową odgłos jak tętent końskich kopyt. To szczury. Biegają stadami – opowiada mieszkanka osławionego pałacu cudów. Zapraszamy na spacer po budynku socjalnym przy Otolińskiej 23. Wysmarowane wulgaryzmami wejście do pałacu cudów2. To co się tam znajduje, jest trudne do opisania: stare zniszczone sanitariaty, odpadająca glazura, podsufitka, pełno zacieków i grzyb na ścianach. Nikt tego nie odnawia i nikt o to nie dba, nawet sami mieszkańcy (patrz ryciny 1 i 2). Rycina 1. Budynek przy ul. Otolińskiej w Płocku, tzw. Pałac Cudów. Źródło: zbiór fotograficzny autorki Mieszkają tam ludzie z marginesu społecznego, panie z którymi mamy praktyki kazały nam uważać na głowę, bo podobno wszystko co jest niepotrzebne tym ludziom na oślep wyrzucają przez okno, i mało brakuje, 1 2 Charakterystyczny niebieski lipsk ze szklaną elewacją. Budynek znajduje się przy ulicy Otolińskiej w Płocku. Rozmowa z mieszkanką budynku, kobietą w średnim wieku, która marzy, aby zamieszkać gdzieś indziej. 248 249 AG N I E S Z K A D R A J KOW S K A . P R AC A S O C J A L N A Rycina 2. Budynek przy ul. Otolińskiej w Płocku, wnętrze. Źródło: zbiór fotograficzny autorki żeby doszło do tragedii, bo w końcu komuś coś cięższego spadnie na głowę i może go poturbować. Odwiedziliśmy tam Pana który był po 50., ale był tak zaniedbany, że wyglądał co najmniej na 65 lat, przeżyłam wtedy szok, nie zdawałam sobie sprawy z tego, że tak może żyć człowiek w XXI wieku. Ów Pan mieszka w małym pokoiku, a ma taki bałagan i tyle śmieci w tym pokoju, że aż trudno to opisać. Do tej pory nie mogę uwierzyć w to, że człowiek tak żyje na własne życzenie. I ten człowiek nie chce żadnej pomocy, 3 miesiące przed naszą wizytą, u tego Pana była ekipa, która wysprzątała cały jego pokój. Podobno, to co my zobaczyliśmy, to była połowa tego, co zostało sprzątnięte i taki człowiek dostał to za darmo, a zamiast „dziękuję” pracownik socjalny usłyszał, że podczas sprzątania został okradziony. Osoby, które naprawdę potrzebują pomocy, np. osoby starsze, muszą płacić za godziny opiekuńcze i jeszcze bardzo dziękują pracownikom, że tak mało muszą płacić. Od października ja i moja grupa odwiedziliśmy 4 starsze Panie, dwie po 90. i dwie po 80. Uważam, że starsze osoby najbardziej potrzebują pomocy pracowników socjalnych, gdyż są to osoby bezbronne, które bądź co bądź jednak przez wiele lat zarabiały na ten kraj. A poza tym trzeba pomyśleć o tym, że każdy z nas będzie kiedyś stary i również będzie chciał mieć opiekę. Uważam, że państwo jest w ogóle nie przygotowane na starość. Pracownicy socjalni nie mają zbyt dużo narzędzi do pomagania starszym i schorowanym osobom. Pewna Pani mieszka sama z ciężko chorym mężem, który wymaga codziennej rehabilitacji. A za godziny opiekuńcze musi płacić dzien- PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K nie 8 zł, jest to niewyobrażalne, takie stawki mają studenci na umowy o dzieło. Tej starszej kobiecie przez to, że gospodarstwo domowe prowadzi z ciężko chorym mężem, wychodzi za dużo cyferek przychodu i musi tyle płacić, a państwo nie zwraca uwagi na to, że prawie cała ich emerytura idzie na leczenie męża. Uważam, że godziny opiekuńcze powinny być darmowe dla starszych osób, gdyż przez większość życia pracowali na nasz kraj, żyli w nim, głosowali, utrzymywali go. Chciałabym przedstawić teraz przykład, który poruszył mnie najbardziej. Ta historia będzie o bezduszności ludzi i o związanych rękach pracowników socjalnych. Przyjechaliśmy z szybką interwencją do 94 letniej kobiety, która noc wcześniej wracając w nocy z łazienki do łóżka przewróciła się i połamała. W szpitalu od razu po „zagipsowaniu” wypuścili ją do domu, bo przecież jest stara i może szybko umrzeć, a w szpitalu nie mogą już nic więcej zrobić. Kobieta mieszka sama, nie ma dzieci, a swoje mieszkanie przepisała na siostrzeńca. Z rozmowy z opiekunką, która przychodzi zajmować się starszą panią od 8 do 13 wynika, że siostrzeniec się w ogóle nią nie zajmuje, gdyż kobieta przed upadkiem była jeszcze dobrze funkcjonującą i sama sobie radziła. Siostrzeniec jakiś czas temu chciał ciotkę oddać do domu pomocy społecznej, jednak ona się na to nie zgodziła. Ponadto, kobieta była osobą bardzo dobrą, życzliwą, byłą nauczycielką i bardzo dużo w swoim życiu przeszła. Obecnie starsza pani leży w łóżku, nie rusza się, nie może nawet unieść szklanki z wodą, która stoi obok jej łóżka, żeby się napić. Każdy choćby najmniejszy ruch sprawia kobiecie dużo bólu i cierpienia, a opiekunka jest tylko na 5 godzin dziennie, i co dalej robić? Przecież człowiek musi pić i jeść również później, a pani trzeba zmieniać pampersy... Pracownik socjalny wniósł o zwiększenie godzin opiekuńczych, i o umieszczenie kobiety w domu pomocy społecznej, teraz już się na to zgodziła, ale niestety chce tylko w Kutnie, pewnie siostrzeniec jej wcześniej naopowiadał o tym. Ale przecież jakiś czas będzie musiała tak leżeć sama, a więc pracownik socjalny zapytał siostrzeńca, czy nie mógłby zająć się przez pewien czas ciotką a on jedynie powiedział to co cytuję: Wie pani jakie ja mam gadanie od żony, że ja tu w ogóle na chwilę przyjeżdżam? Moja żona nienawidzi ciotki, a ja nie chcę się z nią ciągle o to kłócić, w te słowa w pierwszym momencie nie wierzyłam, w to, że takie słowa padły i że stało się to przy łóżku chorej. W tym człowieku było zero miłości do bliźniego, zero współczucia, zero człowieczeństwa, a przede wszystkim zero szacunku. Żona ciotki nienawidzi, ale mieszkanie z pew- 250 251 AG N I E S Z K A D R A J KOW S K A . P R AC A S O C J A L N A nością pokocha i pewnie tylko czyha na śmierć ciotki. Jakim trzeba być „potworem”, żeby się tak zachować? Oczywiście, dyrektor dodał tylko godzinę dziennie pani, a do domu pomocy społecznej jest czwarta w kolejce. Podobno sąsiedzi dzwonią do administracji, że po nocach starsza pani bardzo krzyczy. Pomyślcie ludzie co się teraz dzieje z tą panią, pije, je i ma zmienianego pampersa tylko od 8 do 14, a co potem? Uważam, że państwo powinno się tym zająć. Powinno zmienić się przepisy. Pracownicy socjalni mają za mało narzędzi do pracy. Pamiętajcie, każdy z nas, niezależnie od płci, rasy, wierzeń, czy wykształcenia będzie kiedyś stary, każdy z nas może być w takiej sytuacji, a może nawet i gorszej. Proszę, zapobiegajmy takim sytuacjom. Ostatnio czytałam artykuł, że amerykańscy naukowcy przeprowadzili badania na temat osób starszych. Wyniki pokazują, że od 1900 r. nauka przyczyniła się do przedłużenia średniej długości życia o 27 lat, ale społeczeństwo nie wykształciło zadowalających sposobów wypełniania tych dodatkowych lat pożyteczną treścią. Liczba Amerykanów w wieku powyżej 65 lat stale rośnie od 3 milionów, tj. 5% społeczeństwa w 1900 r. nawet do około 24,5 miliona czyli 11% w 1980 r. Przewiduje się, że w 2030 r. w Ameryce, w tej grupie wiekowej będzie 30,5 miliona ludzi, tj. około 17% ludności. W Polsce również można zaobserwować zjawisko starzenia się społeczeństwa, gdyż w 1989 r. liczba osób po 65 roku życia wynosiła około 14,7% społeczeństwa polskiego, natomiast już w 2014 r. było to 22,2%. Starsi Amerykanie to matki, ojcowie, dziadkowie, a nawet pradziadkowie, niektórzy są bardziej zamożni, inni mniej. Ci bardziej zamożni mogą sobie pozwolić na finansowanie spokojnej starości, a ci, którzy mają mniej pieniędzy żyją na minimum socjalnym, lub poniżej go. Tych biedniejszych jest około 30%-35%3. W 1961 r. odbyła się w Ameryce konferencja na której delegaci zgłosili wiele postulatów na temat badań naukowych o osobach starszych, które to przygotowały teren pod Ustawę Publiczną 89–73 zwaną Ustawą o starszych Amerykanach z 1965 r. Ustawa ta i jej późniejsze poprawki zapewniły nowe bądź poszerzone programy pomocy osobom starszym przez przydział środków na cele planowania i świadczeń społecznych, kształcenia i badań naukowych oraz nowego urzędu nazwanego „Administracją do spraw wieku starszego”. W ustawie postawiono dziesięć celów do realizacji: 3 R.A Skidmore, M.G. Thackeray, Wprowadzenie do pracy socjalnej, Biblioteka Pracownika Socjalnego, Katowice 1998 (Śląsk Sp. z o.o. Wydawnictwo Naukowe). PA R T I I . T U T O R I N G I N S O C I A L WO R K 1. 2. 3. 4. Dochody zgodne z potrzebami. Możliwie najlepsze warunki zdrowia psychicznego i fizycznego. Odpowiednie warunki mieszkaniowe. Świadczenia przywracające dla osób wymagających opieki instytucjonalnej. 5. Możliwość zatrudnienia. 6. Przejście na emeryturę w dobrym zdrowiu, z honorem i godnością. 7. Usprawnienia godziwych zajęć. 8. Sprawne świadczenia społeczności. 9. Natychmiastowa korzyść z wiedzy naukowej dla podtrzymania i wydłużenia życia oraz zapewnienia szczęścia. 10. Wolność, niezależność i nieskrępowane korzystanie z prawa do planowania i kierowania własnym życiem4. Społeczeństwo starzeje się, a Polska nie jest do końca na to przygotowana. Pracownicy socjalni osobom starszym mogą zapewnić dofinansowanie na leki, jedzenie, ogrzewanie budynku poprzez dofinansowanie na węgiel w sezonie zimowym. Mogą także zapewnić godziny opiekuńcze. Jeśli osoba starsza mieszka sama i jest w stanie funkcjonować samodzielnie, tj. poruszać się po domu, pracownik socjalny może przydzielić takiej osobie opiekunkę na kilka godzin dziennie, w zależności od potrzeb klienta. Opiekunka ma za zadanie pomagać osobie starszej, np. robić zakupy, pomagać się myć itp. Jednak klient musi opłacać taką pomoc, państwo dofinansowuje to przedsięwzięcie, a opłata którą musi uiścić klient jest zależna od jego dochodów. Jeżeli ktoś ma małą emeryturę może płacić np. około 1,5 zł za godzinę usług opiekuńczych, ale jeżeli dochód na osobę wynosi więcej, to są nawet stawki po 7 zł za godzinę. W przypadkach kryzysowych takich jak podawałam wcześniej nie ma wyjścia odpowiedniego z danej sytuacji. Z jednej strony mamy dużo możliwości, na przykład umieszczenie samotnej osoby starszej i bardzo chorej w hospicjum. Terminem hospicjum określa się jednak różne formy organizacyjne opieki hospicyjnej, takie jak: • specjalistyczne ośrodki typu szpitalnego (stacjonarne i pobytu dziennego), opiekujące się chorymi w stanach terminalnych, • oddziały szpitalne opieki hospicyjnej, • zespoły opieki terminalnej pracujące w zwykłych oddziałach szpitalnych 4 Ibidem. 252 253 AG N I E S Z K A D R A J KOW S K A . P R AC A S O C J A L N A • hospicja domowe (zespoły opieki terminalnej organizujące leczenie paliatywne i ciągłą pielęgnację pacjentów w domach). Jednak nie każda osoba chora może zakwalifikować się do hospicjum, a do domu opieki społecznej trzeba czekać, aż zwolni się miejsce. I właśnie na takie sytuacje Polska nie jest przygotowana. 2. Zakończenie Nigdy nie jesteśmy tak biedni, aby nie stać nas było na udzielenie pomocy bliźniemu... Mikołaj Gogol Tym cytatem chciałabym zakończyć swoje refleksje. Mam nadzieję, że kiedyś nadejdzie taki czas na ziemi, że nikomu nie zabraknie chleba, ciepłych i rodzinnych rąk, wsparcia i współczucia w ludzkich sercach. Aby każdy z nas nigdy nie umierał w samotności, pozbawiony miłości, rodzinnego ciepła i bezpiecznego rodzinnego domu. 3. Summary Deciding to study Social Work at the Faculty of humanities and Social Sciences at the PWSZ in Płock I have realized that I could help people in their hard times also that it would be a pleasant experience and work that I would be doing with a great pleasure, especially that I do think that there is nothing more pleasant in this world than make someone else smile. However, as it comes to the lecturers, they presented and told during the classes information that aroused great curiosity especially that I could not believe that today people can live in such terrible conditions and experience so much suffering from others and that life is so unfair, some have so much and others have nothing. The young man doesn`t realize how much suffering is hidden in the walls of apartments of elderly people, the poor, the loneliness and lacking of family support. In the further part of the article I described what I have experienced in practice, what I saw and how it affected me. PA RT I I I . P R OJ E C T “K EY T U T O R S” Projekt „Key Tutors” I DA H A N N A KO Ś C I E L A K Warszawa keywords . European partnership, labor market, adult education, key competences, key tutors Kluczowi tutorzy to zarówno narzędzie, jak i proces, mające służyć do identyfikacji i oceny kluczowych kompetencji u osób uczących się, osób pochodzących ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami na awans zawodowy. 1. Wprowadzenie Zgodnie z Europejskim raportem o wolnych stanowiskach pracy i rekrutacji pracownicy o niskich kwalifikacjach mają coraz większe problemy ze znalezieniem pracy, mają też mniejszą stabilność zatrudnienia i przegrywają konkurencję na rynku pracy z pracownikami średnio wykwalifikowanymi, nawet w przypadku stanowisk nie wymagających kwalifikacji1. Zgodnie z tym raportem rośnie zdecydowanie liczba stanowisk pracy w zawodach wymagających wyższych kwalifikacji. Stąd wyraźnie została podkreślona potrzeba większego wsparcia dla procesu wchodzenia na rynek pracy po zakończeniu edukacji oraz potrzeba zmniejszenia segmentacji rynku pracy, a także podniesienia kwalifikacji osób poszukujących pracy. Dlatego tak ważne są działania osób pracujących zawodowo z osobami uczącymi się, a pochodzącymi ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami na awans zawodowy. Profile zawodowe takich osób stają się coraz bardziej zróżnicowane wraz ze zwiększającym się w ostatnich latach wsparciem zatrudnienia przez państwo ze względu na trudny kontekst społeczny i gospodarczy. Takie osoby pracują głównie w stowarzyszeniach, ale także we władzach lokalnych albo w małych i średnich przedsiębiorstwach. 1 European Vacancy and Recruitment Report 2014, Brussels 2014 (European Commission). PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” Niestety nie wszystkie osoby zostały bezpośrednio przeszkolone w zakresie wspierania osób uczących się, a pochodzących ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami na awans zawodowy. Taka edukacja to konieczność, gdyż odpowiednie wsparcie społeczne i edukacyjne jest niezwykle ważne dla utrzymania długoterminowego zatrudnienia pracowników o niskich kwalifikacjach. Dlatego projekt „Kluczowi Tutorzy” został skierowany do osób, które zawodowo zajmują się wspieraniem osób mających trudności z wejściem na rynek pracy lub uzyskaniem odpowiedniego szkolenia. W pierwszej kolejności partnerzy projektu mieli na celu zaprojektowanie narzędzia i procesu służącego do identyfikacji i oceny kluczowych kompetencji u osób uczących się ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami na awans zawodowy. Każdy kraj partnerski skupił się na połączeniu jednej kompetencji podstawowej z jedną kompetencją złożoną na podstawie europejskich ram odniesienia dla ośmiu kompetencji kluczowych2. 2. Cele projektu „Kluczowi Tutorzy” Po pierwsze, promowanie opracowania, po drugie jego testowanie, po trzecie wdrażanie innowacyjnych praktyk w edukacji dorosłych. Opracowanie narzędzia dla osób pracujących zawodowo w obszarze ”Edukacja dla wszystkich” (tutorów i osób prowadzących szkolenia), ma umożliwić tym osobom rozwijanie kompetencji podstawowych i przekrojowych u osób uczących się, a pochodzących ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami zawodowymi (osoby w procesie integracji, osoby pozostające bez pracy od dłuższego czasu, osoby niepełnosprawne oraz imigranci). Ważne jest także wspieranie procesu przechodzenia tutorów i osób prowadzących szkolenia z etapu edukacji na rynek pracy, a konkretnie do pracy w stowarzyszeniach, władzach lokalnych lub małych i średnich przedsiębiorstwach. 3. Adresaci projektu Projekt „Kluczowi Tutorzy” był adresowany do dwóch grup odbiorców, tj. odbiorców bezpośrednich i odbiorców pośrednich. Odbiorcami bez2 Zalecenie Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 18 grudnia 2006 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia się przez całe życie (2006/962/WE), Dz.U. UE z 30.12.2006, L 394/10. 258 259 I DA H . KO Ś C I E L A K . P RO J E K T „ K E Y T U T O R S ” pośrednimi były osoby zawodowo zajmujące się osobami uczącymi się w stowarzyszeniach, władzach lokalnych oraz małych i średnich przedsiębiorstwach. Odbiorcy bezpośredni to właśnie „tutorzy” lub osoby prowadzące szkolenia. Odbiorcy pośredni to osoby uczące się, pochodzące ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami. Osoby te to „adresaci” albo słuchacze tutorów. W ramach projektu utworzony został zespół europejski, do którego weszło sześć instytucji z pięciu krajów. Na mapce zaznaczono kraje i pochodzące z nich instytucje. Poniżej są krótkie charakterystyki poszczególnych partnerów europejskich. Rycina 1. Mapa instytucji z krajów europejskich w projekcie „Key Tutors”. Źródło: http://www.keytutors.eu 4. Fédération Familles Rurales (Francja) Federacja Rodzin Wiejskich reprezentuje 42000 rodzin (członków), 500 lokalnych stowarzyszeń (należących do tej samej sieci), 10000 wolontariuszy oraz 5 oddziałów w departamentach. Federacja istniejąca od 1982 r. prowadzi przedsięwzięcia regionalne, opracowuje szkolenia dla dorosłych, współpracuje z innymi krajami europejskimi oraz dba o interesy rodzin na szczeblu regionalnym. PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” 5. Iriv Conseil (Francja) Iriv został założony w 2000 r. przez Instytut Badań i Informacji o Wolontariacie. Jest to prywatny podmiot non-profit, niezależny od administracji publicznej i niezależny finansowo, którego celem jest zwiększanie wiedzy i ulepszanie praktyk w sektorze działalności non-profit. Instytucja jak dotąd uczestniczyła w ponad 50 projektach na szczeblu regionalnym, krajowym i europejskim jako partner, koordynator lub lider. 6. Infodef (Hiszpania) Organizacja założona w celu świadczenia usług i opracowywania projektów wspierania rozwoju lokalnego poprzez edukację i kulturę. Współpracuje ze szkołami, centrami kształcenia i szkolenia zawodowego, organizacjami edukacji dorosłych, administracją publiczną oraz organizacjami społecznymi i działającymi na zasadzie wolontariatu w celu kształcenia dorosłych i uczenia umiejętności będących odpowiedzią na potrzeby lokalne. W ciągu ostatnich 10 lat organizacja uczestniczyła w wielu projektach unijnych. 7. Skudutiškio Akademija (Litwa) Organizacja pozarządowa typu non-profit, założona w 1995 r. Jej cele to rozwijanie uczenia się przez całe życie, poprawianie sytuacji rodzin poprzez przekazywanie wiedzy o kulturze, gospodarce i życiu społecznym, a także budowanie potencjału jednostek, aby wspomóc ich integrację na rynku pracy. 8. JAMK (Finlandia) Międzynarodowa uczelnia, na której kształci się 8000 studentów, a jej personel liczy 650 osób. Podstawowe zadania instytucji to kształcenie dyplomowe, badania, rozwój i innowacje oraz kształcenie ustawiczne. W 2013 r. JAMK otrzymał Nagrodę Erasmusa za doskonałość w dziedzinie międzynarodowej mobilności. Jednym z głównych obszarów zainteresowania JAMK są innowacje w uczeniu się. 9. Innowacyjność i wartość dodana projektu „Kluczowi Tutorzy” Główną innowacją projektu było opracowanie standardowego narzędzia i metody do identyfikacji i oceny kompetencji kluczowych osób uczących 260 261 I DA H . KO Ś C I E L A K . P RO J E K T „ K E Y T U T O R S ” się, pochodzących ze środowisk z mniejszymi szansami tak, aby móc je przystosować do konkretnych kontekstów narodowych i zawodowych. Oryginalność projektu polegała na połączeniu jednej kompetencji podstawowej z jedną kompetencją złożoną, w odniesieniu do ośmiu kompetencji kluczowych3. Projekt miał na celu praktyczne zastosowanie narzędzi i metod przez osoby zawodowo zajmujące się edukacją dorosłych. W założeniu tym połączone zostało podejście oparte na kompetencjach kluczowych (podejście teoretyczne) z jego wdrożeniem w praktyce z uwzględnieniem kontekstu zawodowego (podejście praktyczne). 10. Rozumienie podejścia kompetencyjnego Każdy obywatel będzie potrzebował szerokiego zakresu kompetencji kluczowych, aby być w stanie dopasować się do szybko zmieniającego się świata o wysokim stopniu wzajemnych połączeń. Edukacja w obu swoich wymiarach, zarówno społecznym, jak i gospodarczym, ma kluczową rolę do odegrania w zapewnieniu obywatelom Europy zdobycia kompetencji kluczowych potrzebnych do dostosowania się do takich zmian. W tym kontekście kompetencje są zdefiniowane jako połączenie wiedzy, umiejętności i postaw odpowiednich do danego kontekstu krajowego. Kompetencje kluczowe to takie kompetencje, które są konieczne do osobistej samorealizacji, do bycia aktywnym obywatelem, do spójności społecznej i zatrudnienia. Źródłem do określenia ośmiu kompetencji kluczowych jest Zalecenie Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady Europy z dnia 18 grudnia 2006 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia się przez całe życie4. Kompetencje kluczowe zostały podzielone na cztery podstawowe i cztery złożone. 11. Kompetencje kluczowe podstawowe Porozumiewanie się w języku ojczystym to zdolność wyrażania i interpretowania pojęć, myśli, uczuć, faktów i opinii w mowie i piśmie (rozumienie ze słuchu, mówienie, czytanie i pisanie) oraz językowa interakcja w odpowiedniej i kreatywnej formie w pełnym zakresie kontekstów społecznych i kulturowych – w edukacji i szkoleniu, w pracy, w domu i w czasie wolnym. 3 4 Ibidem. Ibidem. PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” Porozumiewanie się w językach obcych to zdolność do rozumienia, wyrażania i interpretowania pojęć, myśli, uczuć, faktów i opinii w mowie i piśmie (rozumienie ze słuchu, mówienie, czytanie i pisanie) w odpowiednim zakresie kontekstów społecznych i kulturalnych (w edukacji i szkoleniu, w pracy, w domu i w czasie wolnym) w zależności od chęci lub potrzeb danej osoby. Kompetencje matematyczne i podstawowe kompetencje naukowo-techniczne to umiejętność rozwijania i wykorzystywania myślenia matematycznego w celu rozwiązywania problemów wynikających z codziennych sytuacji. Istotne są zarówno proces i czynność, jak i wiedza, przy czym podstawę stanowi należyte opanowanie umiejętności liczenia. Kompetencje matematyczne obejmują – w różnym stopniu – zdolność i chęć wykorzystywania matematycznych sposobów myślenia (myślenie logiczne i przestrzenne) oraz ich prezentacji (wzory, modele, konstrukty, wykresy, tabele). Kompetencje cyfrowe to umiejętne i krytyczne wykorzystywanie technologii społeczeństwa informacyjnego (TSI) w pracy, rozrywce i porozumiewaniu się. Opierają się one na podstawowych umiejętnościach w zakresie TIK: wykorzystywania komputerów do uzyskiwania, oceny, przechowywania, tworzenia, prezentowania i wymiany informacji oraz do porozumiewania się i uczestnictwa w sieciach współpracy za pośrednictwem Internetu. 12. Kompetencje kluczowe przekrojowe/złożone Umiejętność uczenia się to zdolność konsekwentnego i wytrwałego uczenia się, organizowania własnego procesu uczenia się, w tym poprzez efektywne zarządzanie czasem i informacjami, zarówno indywidualnie, jak i w grupach. Kompetencje społeczne i obywatelskie to kompetencje osobowe, interpersonalne i międzykulturowe obejmujące pełny zakres zachowań przygotowujących osoby do skutecznego i konstruktywnego uczestnictwa w życiu społecznym i zawodowym, szczególnie w społeczeństwach charakteryzujących się coraz większą różnorodnością, a także rozwiązywania konfliktów w razie potrzeby. Zmysł inicjatywy i przedsiębiorczość to zdolność osoby do wcielania pomysłów w czyn. Obejmują one kreatywność, innowacyjność i podejmowanie ryzyka, a także zdolność do planowania przedsięwzięć i prowadzenia ich dla osiągnięcia zamierzonych celów. 262 263 I DA H . KO Ś C I E L A K . P RO J E K T „ K E Y T U T O R S ” Świadomość i ekspresja kulturalna to docenianie znaczenia twórczego wyrażania idei, doświadczeń i uczuć za pośrednictwem szeregu środków wyrazu, w tym muzyki, sztuk teatralnych, literatury i sztuk wizualnych. W ramach projektu „Kluczowi Tutorzy” partnerom przydzielono połączenie jednej podstawowej i jednej złożonej kompetencji kluczowej w zależności od kontekstu zawodowego. Fédération Familles Rurales łączy KK1, porozumiewanie się w języku ojczystym oraz KK6, kompetencje społeczne i obywatelskie. Infodef łączy KK2, porozumiewanie się w obcym języku oraz KK8, świadomość i ekspresja kulturalna. SA łączy KK3, kompetencje matematyczne i podstawowe kompetencje naukowo-techniczne oraz KK5, umiejętność uczenia się. JAMK łączy KK4, kompetencje cyfrowe oraz KK7, zmysł inicjatywy i przedsiębiorczość. FASS łączy KK1, porozumiewanie się w języku ojczystym oraz KK5, umiejętność uczenia się. Iriv Conseil sprawdziło wszystkie połączenia w Cité des Métiers w praktyce tutorów/osób prowadzących szkolenia/osób pracujących z imigrantami. Narzędzie i proces służące do identyfikacji i oceny kompetencji kluczowych zaprezentowano w pięciostopniowym podejściu cyklicznym. Rycina 2. Pięć kroków do identyfikacji i oceny kompetencji kluczowych. Źródło: An Educational Guide for the Assessment of Key Competences Among Disadvantaged Learners PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” 13. Podsumowanie Narzędzie i proces służące do identyfikacji i oceny kompetencji kluczowych opracowane w ramach projektu „Kluczowi Tutorzy” stanowią innowację z tego względu, iż łączą specjalistów o zróżnicowanych profilach zawodowych. Jednocześnie projekt skierowany był do osób uczących w różnych obszarach działalności oraz z różnych regionów Europy. Każdy partner, na podstawie swoich wytycznych edukacyjnych i zawodowych, wybrał profil działań idealny dla swoich odbiorców. Ponadto narzędzie i proces zostały przetestowane w pięciu krajach Unii Europejskiej, o różnych kontekstach społecznych i edukacyjnych, ale z podobnie wysokim poziomem bezrobocia wśród osób o niskich umiejętnościach zawodowych, co ilustrowało różne podejścia: z zachodu Europy (Francja), z południa (Hiszpania), z krajów nordyckich (Finlandia) oraz ze wschodu (Polska i Litwa). Strategia opracowywania narzędzia i procesu była w bardzo dużym stopniu oparta na współpracy. Każdy kraj łączył jedną umiejętność podstawową z jedną umiejętnością złożoną, żeby w ten sposób wzmocnić różnorodność wewnątrz partnerstwa. Kompetencje kluczowe zostały przydzielone według środowiska zawodowego każdego partnera. Np. partner z Hiszpanii, pracujący z imigrantami, wybrał porozumiewanie się w języku obcym, a partner z Finlandii, pracujący w grupach roboczych na odległość, wybrał dla siebie kompetencje cyfrowe. Takie podejście zindywidualizowane do konkretnych partnerów zaowocowało barwną gamą doświadczeń europejskich. W efekcie wspólnej pracy powstał przewodnik metodologiczny pod tytułem: Przewodnik edukacyjny do oceny kluczowych kompetencji wśród dorosłych uczniów pozostających w niekorzystnej sytuacji. Lekcje z 5 krajów europejskich 5. 14. Literatura An Educational Guide for the Assessment of Key Competences Among Disadvantaged Learners: Lessons from 5 EU Countries, Paris–Jyvaskyla–Valladolid– –Warszawa–Vilnius 2017 (keytutors.eu). 5 Zob. wersję angielską: An Educational Guide for the Assessment of Key Competences Among Disadvantaged Learners: Lessons from 5 EU Countries, Paris–Jyvaskyla– –Valladolid–Warszawa–Vilnius 2017 (keytutors.eu). 264 265 I DA H . KO Ś C I E L A K . P RO J E K T „ K E Y T U T O R S ” European Vacancy and Recruitment Report 2014, Brussels 2014 (European Commission). Zalecenie Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 18 grudnia 2006 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia się przez całe życie (2006/962/ WE), Dz.U. UE z 30.12.2006, L 394/10. 15. Summary European Vacancy and Recruitment Report shows that low-skilled workers have problems finding a job. Therefore, the need to support the process of entering the labor market. The “Key Tutors” project has been targeted at people who professionally facilitate their start on the labor market. Project partners prepared a tool along with a process to identify and assess key competences for people with low career advancement opportunities. The direct recipients of the project were tutors, conducting trainings. As part of the project, a European team was created, which included six institutions from five European Union countries. Each partner chose from key competences one basic and complex competence. The tool and process used to identify and assess key competences are included in five steps. The strategy of developing the tool and the process has been based on close cooperation. Projekt „Key Tutors” w perspektywie polskiej fundacji L E C H KO Ś C I E L A K Warszawa keywords . European project, care services, adult education, key competences, key tutors Zakres działania Fundacji Agencji Służby Społecznej to wspieranie, organizowanie i promowanie działań społecznych, kulturalnych, naukowych i edukacyjnych, a także wsparcie dla osób słabszych i poprawa jakości życia lokalnych społeczności. Obszary wiedzy specjalistycznej Fundacji obejmują pomoc społeczną i pracę socjalną; edukację dorosłych i rozwój kształcenia ustawicznego oraz programy badawcze w dziedzinie pedagogiki specjalnej i nauk społecznych. 1. Udział w projekcie Specyficzny kontekst społeczny działania FASS dotyczy działalności na rzecz osób potrzebujących pomocy w lepszej organizacji ich życia poprzez świadczenie usług socjalnych. Kontekst ten obejmuje również szkolenia dla osób podnoszących i zmieniających swoje kwalifikacje zawodowe. Fundacja organizuje szkolenia dla tych, którzy świadczą pomoc dla grup defaworyzowanych, a także realizuje usługi społeczne zgodnie ze standardami usług społecznych dla osób potrzebujących pomocy. Na mapie Polski zostały zaznaczone miasta, w których działa Fundacja Agencji Służby Społecznej (rycina 1). Z kluczowych kompetencji Zarząd Fundacji wybrał dwie, a mianowicie komunikację w języku macierzystym i umiejętność uczenia się1. W pierwszym przypadku to zdolność wyrażania i interpretowania pojęć, myśli, uczuć, faktów i opinii w mowie i piśmie; także rozumienie, mówienie, czytanie i pisanie we właściwej językowo formie, w pełnym 1 Por. Zalecenie Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 18 grudnia 2006 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia się przez całe życie (2006/962/WE), Dz.U. UE z 30.12.2006, L 394/10. PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” Rycina 1. Miasta aktywności fundacji. Źródło: archiwum FASS zakresie kontekstów społecznych i kulturowych oraz edukacja w pracy, w domu i podczas wypoczynku. Umiejętność uczenia się to zdolność konsekwentnego i wytrwałego uczenia się oraz umiejętność organizowania własnego procesu uczenia się, w tym poprzez efektywne zarządzanie czasem i informacjami. Poziomy aktywności Fundacji w projekcie „Kluczowi tutorzy” dotyczyły czterech grup beneficjentów. Pierwsza grupa to trenerzy (wykwalifikowani specjaliści). Druga to tutorzy (organizatorzy opieki w miastach i dzielnicach). Trzecia grupa to osoby uczące się (realizatorzy świadczeń opiekuńczych). Czwarta grupa to klienci (każda osoba potrzebująca pomocy, chorzy, ludzie starsi, osoby z niepełnosprawnością) (rycina 2). Dlaczego Fundacja uczestniczyła w projekcie dotyczącym kluczowych kompetencji? Fundamentem procesu edukacyjnego Fundacji jest strategia przetrwania i oporu. Bez takiego działania żadnej osobie uczącej się nie uda się pozostać w środowisku domowym klienta. Tak się dzieje, gdyż klient jest trudny, wymagający, zazwyczaj chory, często z niepełnosprawnością, niecierpliwy i ukierunkowany na swoje potrzeby. W takim środowisku, trzeba mieć „nerwy ze stali”, odporność na stres, a jednocześnie być profesjonalnie przygotowanym do zapewnienia koniecznej opieki. 268 269 L E C H KO Ś C I E L A K . P RO J E K T „ K E Y T U T O R S ” W P E R S P E K T Y W I E Rycina 2. Szkolenie z pierwszej pomocy. Źródło: archiwum FASS Wybór komunikacji w języku macierzystym był podyktowany problemami występującymi między beneficjentami projektu i podjęciem prób ich rozwiązania. Napotykane problemy to słaba komunikacja interpersonalna (między tutorami i opiekunami oraz pomiędzy opiekunami i klientami), to używanie języka wulgaryzmów w komunikacji interpersonalnej, również ataki słowne. Wreszcie problemy z nieumiejętnością odpowiedzi na trudne pytania, czy wręcz z traktowaniem osób uczących się przez klientów w sposób budzący kontrowersje w codziennym porozumiewaniu się. Zaproponowane rozwiązania wiążą się z budowaniem właściwej komunikacji interpersonalnej (szkolenia, kursy, panele), z używaniem stosownego języka w komunikacji interpersonalnej, z odpowiednim doborem słownictwa w języku polskim. Ważna jest przy tym umiejętność słuchania oraz odpowiadania na pytania w sposób konstruktywny. Nie mniej istotna jest asertywność w zachowaniu. Wybór umiejętności uczenia się również wiązał się z problemami i ich rozwiązywaniem. Napotykane problemy to słabe kompetencje zawodowe, niedostateczne umiejętności w zakresie opieki, a także brak motywacji do nauki wśród opiekunów (brak czasu, niskie płace, brak perspektyw awansu). Trudne do zwalczenia jest przekonanie osób uczących się, że nowe kwalifikacje niewiele zmienią w ich życiu. Proponowane rozwiązania to ustawiczne doskonalenie umiejętności zawodowych, ciągłe uczenie się nowych umiejętności w obrębie zakre- PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” sów opieki. Ważne jest też motywowanie przez tutorów osób uczących się do nieustannej poprawy ich kwalifikacji zawodowych. Odpowiednia argumentacja tutorów o potrzebie zwiększania kompetencji zawodowych, pozwoli osobom uczącym się utrzymać zatrudnienie. 2. Podstawowe konkluzje Główne bariery w edukacji osób dorosłych to brak motywacji do ciągłego uczenia się, frustracja i wypalenie zawodowe, często rutynizacja działań opiekuńczych i brak nowych wyzwań. Natomiast szanse wypływające z edukacji wiążą się ze zdobywaniem nowych umiejętności i z profesjonalizacją pracy. Takie działania powinny skutkować większym prestiżem zawodowym oraz uzyskaniem kompetencji w zakresie nowych technik opiekuńczych. Celowość tych działań potwierdziło przedstawienie systematycznego podejścia do identyfikacji i oceny kompetencji kluczowych u osób uczących się. Zaowocowało to zaproponowaniem „modelu diagnozy kluczowych kompetencji” w procesie kształcenia ustawicznego. W uzyskaniu oczekiwanego modelu szczególnie użyteczne były narzędzia pedagogiczne. Pierwsze narzędzie to trening komunikacji interpersonalnej. Przekazywanie i przyjmowanie konstruktywnej informacji zwrotnej wzmocniło adekwatność stosowania różnych narzędzi komunikacji, takich jak parafraza, wyjaśnienia itp. Istotne było jasne, jednoznaczne i niezawodne wyrażanie opinii, uczuć i myśli. Asertywna komunikacja w ramach świadczenia usług opiekuńczych pomaga eliminować czynniki, które stymulują i blokują dobrą komunikację. Drugie narzędzie pedagogiczne to doskonalenie umiejętności opiekuńczych. Najważniejsze jest szkolenie umiejętności opiekuńczych wśród dorosłych, którzy pomagają osobom z trudnościami w życiu codziennym. Ćwiczenie umiejętności opiekuńczych służy poprawie współpracy z klientami indywidualnymi, wzmacnia pracę zgodną z zasadami profesjonalnej opieki. Takie ćwiczenia uczą też nauki samokontroli, zrozumienia i kontrolowania emocji oraz pracy nad rozwiązywaniem konfliktów w środowisku domowym. Tylko taka droga prowadzi do dobrych rezultatów. Bardzo pomocne jest tutaj przestrzeganie zasad etyki zawodowej (rycina 3). Osiągnięcie modelu diagnozy kluczowych kompetencji wiedzie przez identyfikację kluczowych kompetencji oraz ocenę tych kompetencji. Identyfikacja kluczowych kompetencji odbywa się poprzez opis i wyja- 270 271 L E C H KO Ś C I E L A K . P RO J E K T „ K E Y T U T O R S ” W P E R S P E K T Y W I E Rycina 3. Follow-up tutorów z osobami uczącymi się. Źródło: archiwum FASS śnienia, analizę zachowań indywidualnych i zbiorowych, a także definiowanie standardów działań zawodowych. Podział zachowań na pozytywne i negatywne pozwala na akceptację lub odrzucenie postawy osób, które się ze sobą komunikują. Oceny kluczowych kompetencji dokonuje się poprzez działania ewaluacyjne i kontrolę społeczną. Decyzja o tym, co jest właściwe, a co nie jest właściwe, sprowadza się do przeciwstawienia zachowań zdrowych zachowaniom patologicznym. Po części dochodzi do stygmatyzacji zachowań osób uczących się, jak i osób korzystających z ich opieki. Zwieńczeniem procesu jest autoewaluacja relacji tutor – osoba ucząca się. Dla tutora najważniejsze są odpowiedzi na dwa pytania. Po pierwsze, w jakim stopniu w procesie edukacji należy wykorzystać własne kluczowe kompetencje? Po drugie, czy w procesie edukacji można poprawić umiejętności zawodowe opiekunów? Dla osób uczących się ważne są odpowiedzi na pytanie, czy dokształcenie spełniło ich oczekiwania w poszerzeniu wiedzy? Druga odpowiedź związana jest z uzupełniającym pytaniem, czy dokształcenie spełniło ich oczekiwania w zakresie komunikacji interpersonalnej? Tylko wzajemna współpraca i zrozumienie między tutorem i osobą uczącą się może dać oczekiwane przez obie strony rezultaty. Tak też było w przypadku realizacji projektu „Kluczowi tutorzy”. Praktyczne zaangażowanie i wkład intelektualny ze strony FASS zaowocował – wespół z pozostałymi partnerami – przygotowaniem przewodnika metodologicznego2. 2 Zob. An Educational Guide for the Assessment of Key Competences Among Disadvantaged Learners: Lessons from 5 EU Countries, Paris–Jyvaskyla–Valladolid–Warszawa–Vilnius 2017 (keytutors.eu). PA R T I I I . P RO J E C T “ K E Y T U T O R S ” 3. Literatura An Educational Guide for the Assessment of Key Competences Among Disadvantaged Learners: Lessons from 5 EU Countries, Paris–Jyvaskyla–Valladolid– –Warszawa–Vilnius 2017 (keytutors.eu). Zalecenie Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady z dnia 18 grudnia 2006 r. w sprawie kompetencji kluczowych w procesie uczenia się przez całe życie (2006/962/ WE), Dz.U. UE z 30.12.2006, L 394/10. 4. Summary In the “Key Tutors” project, the Foundation's Management chose two key competences. Basic competences - communication in the mother language. Comprehensive competences - learning to learn. The levels of the Foundation's activity in the project concerned four groups of beneficiaries. The proposed key competences have definitely helped in the process of improving the professional skills of learners. The Key Tutors project also facilitated the identification and assessment of key competences of these people. 272 A B O U T T H E AU T HO R S Gamze Nesipoglu Researcher at Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine, Department of History of Medicine and Ethics (Istanbul University), MSc, Phil, Associate Editor of Journal Socrates, National Delegate and Member of Editorial Board of Filozofski pogledi (Philosophical views). I am a researcher having degree in philosophy and history of medicine and ethics with experience of researching about bioethics, medical ethics education and medical law alone and with a team of professors and instructors at Istanbul University, Cerrahpasa Faculty of Medicine, Department of History of Medicine and Ethics. My expertise focuses on bio(ethics), clinical ethics, ethics education in medicine and nursing, efficient communication techniques and moral behaviour patterns, philosophy of science and medicine, history of medicine, medical law, medical sociology, and psychology. Since I think that being a bioethicist and ethics educator necessitates having high knowledge level and skilled abilities in philosophy, applied ethics, psychology law and communication, I try to be well equipped in mentioned disciplines. I have skills of editing, medical and academic translation, academic and medical case writing, academic research and research analysis, research methodology, reporting and assistant teaching. I am associate editor of the international, multilingual and multidisciplinary journal entitled “Journal Socrates.” I am also national delegate for Turkey and member of editorial board in of the journal devoted to culture, philosophy, bioethics, literature and art titled “Filozofski pogledi (Philosophical views).” Istanbul Universitesi Cerrahpasa Tıp Fakultesi Tıp Tarihi ve Etik Anabilim Dalı Kocamustafapasa-Fatih, 34098, Istanbul, Turkiye +90 (212) 414 30 36/21575 +90 (536) 397 06 97 gamze.nesipoglu@istanbul.edu.tr gamze.nesipoglu@gmail.com T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Elena-Maria Emandi Elena-Maria Emandi is a lecturer at the Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava. After an M.A. in Media Studies, she completed the doctoral studies in the field of applied linguistics. Her doctoral thesis is entitled The Style of the Gothic Novel and her scientific preoccupations include literary stylistics, semiotic studies, gender studies, advertising, communication, education and Gothic literature. Ștefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Romania http://www.usv.ro/index.php/en Romania, Suceava 720176, 6 Profesor Leca Morariu Street http://atlas.usv.ro/www/geografie/usv/emandi_maria.php +40 0740073864 maria.emandi@gmail.com Ingrida Tatolytė Ingrida Tatolytė is a translator, editor and educator, with 15 years of experience in tutoring children and adults. In 2005–2014, she had been teaching students of the MA programme in Translation and Interpretation at Vilnius University, Lithuania. She has been invited as a visiting lecturer to the University of Novi Sad (Serbia), Tallinn University and Tallinn University of Technology (Estonia). In 2014, Vilnius University published her book on Practical Rhetoric for Interpreters, based on the course of her design. As a lecturer of Practical Rhetoric, she introduced tutoring as part of an integrated method of instruction for her university students. Her current research interests lie in an intersection of rhetoric and translation, cultural aspects of translation, political discourse and an issue of implicitness. At present she is an independent lecturer and PhD Candidate at Vilnius University. Vilnius University, Lithuania Tuskulėnų 50–24, Vilnius 09209, Lithuania +37061093716 ingridtato@yahoo.com 276 277 A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S Věra Suchomelová Mgr. Věra Suchomelová, Th.D. graduated from the Faculty of Theology at the University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice (Czech Republic). In 2015, she finished her doctoral studies in the field of Theology, specializing in Pastoral Theology. As a Th.D. student she attended a twomonth internship in Linz (Austria), aimed at understanding the system of spiritual care in nursing homes. In the Faculty of Theology she currently works as a lecturer in the Department of Pedagogy. She teaches both theoretical and practical subjects related to well-being in old age and adult education for those in the working and “post-working” age groups. She mentors and administers the intergenerational course called University for Grandparents and Grandchildren, and is one of the lecturers on that course. She also gives lectures on seniors’ education in the programme Care for the Spiritual Dimension of Man, offered at the University of the Third Age. Since 2012, she has been a certified memory coach, focusing on training the cognitive functions of the senior public and awareness-raising activities. Additionally, she participates in the further education of those working in social services. The topic of spirituality in old age from the point of view of geragogical and social pastoral practice was the focus of her doctoral theses and several expert articles. In 2016, she published the monograph Seniors and Spirituality: Spiritual Needs in Everyday Life. Teologická fakulta Jihočeské univerzity v Českých Budějovicích University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice Kněžská 8, 370 01 České Budějovice, Česká Republika +420728050173 suchomelova@tf.jcu.cz Monika Zaviš Monika Zaviš, doc. PaedDr. ThDr. PhD. is researcher and associate professor at the Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Žilina, Slovakia. She earned her habilitation (Dozentur) in Lutheran Theology with the specialization in Psychology of Religion at Comenius University in Bratislava; her PhD. in Lutheran Theology with the speciali- T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N zation in Religious Studies. She has published three monographs (2012, 2013, 2013), one university textbook (2008) and many scientific articles. She has participated in numerous international conferences, projects and works as an expert reviewer of articles in international scientific journals. Her research is based on interdisciplinarity, focused on contemporary bioethics (interruption and assisted reproduction technologies) in world religions, especially in Islam, and educational questions in the context of migrations and interreligious dialogue between Islam and Christianity. She cooperates academically with numerous religious officials of registrated and nonregistrated churches and religious communities in Slovakia. She was also the head of the study program History of Religions and nowadays World Religions at the University of the Third Age at Comenius University in Bratislava, where she is teaching for 15 years. She worked as a voluntary pastoral worker at retirement home for 8 years. Next to academic work she addresses individual needs of students dealing with study, personal, health, family or different kinds of problems. Associate Professor in Lutheran Theology Žilinská univerzita v Žiline Fakulta humanitných vied Katedra filozofie a religionistiky Univerzitná 8215/1 010 26 Žilina, Slovakia +421904180481 0liliom0@gmail.com Eyueil Abate Demissie Eyueil is a PhD. Student specializing Curriculum and instruction in Addis Ababa University, he is a teacher in kokebetsibah secondary and preparatory school and thought for more than eleven years in primary and secondary schools also in teacher training institute. The Author engages in researches related to curriculum, general and higher education, teacher education & teacher’s professional development, student’s academic achievement and refugee education, especially he is highly interested in research areas that are related to refugee education and teacher education. The author advocates for prevalence of an education system that is culturally mediated and that has its basis from the society, as a result he believes Placing various research 278 279 A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S backed strategies to enhance student’s academic achievement is very important but before trying to implement the newly introduced strategy as it is, it is important to conduct a research on how to negotiate what is in the theory with the existing situation, cultural orientation of the society and availability of competent and trained man power. The author campaigns for a slogan “teacher researcher” in this day’s school we need teachers who engage in researches for the betterment of the teaching learning process, professional development and student’s wholesome development. Therefore he is interested to engage in various research activities related to the above topics with educational institutions governmental and nongovernmental organization. Teacher in preparatory secondary school Po.Box: 23 code 1034 Addis Ababa Ethiopia +251912041282 abateeyueil@gmail.com abatedemissie1948@yahoo.com Zuzana Bariaková PaedDr. Zuzana Bariaková, PhD. works at the University of Matej Bel in Banská Bystrica since 2003. She is a member of the Department of Slovak literature and Literary Science, Faculty of Arts. Her research interests, pedagogical and writing activities concern Slovak children’s literature, Slovak literature of the 20th and 21st century with emphasis on chosen authors, and didactics of literature. She is a co-organizer and coordinator of several popularizing events which focus on spreading the knowledge of contemporary Slovak literature and supporting reading literacy. Since 2013 she focuses on implementation of service learning strategy into academical educational system and on publishing outcomes concerning possibility of using service learning in teaching literature. Katedra slovenskej literatúry a literárnej vedy Filozofická fakulta Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici 974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovensko zuzana.bariakova@umb.sk T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Martina Kubealaková Mgr. Martina Kubealaková, PhD., Assistant Professor at Department of Slovak Literature and Literary Science Faculty of Arts Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica, Slovakia (2005). Editor-in-chief and Scientific Council member of Motus in verbo: Young Scientist Journal (2012), editorial staff member of European Journal of Social and Human Sciences (2014), member of Committee for the Recognition of Competences Acquired through Volunteering at the Pedagogy Faculty of Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica (2014), co-organizer of the University Literary Night (2014) and tutor of Reading as a Therapy (2015), both as the service learning project. Her research interests, pedagogical and writing activities concern on Slovak and European literature of 9th–18th century and interpretation and translation of popular reading books. She is a co-organizer and coordinator of several popularizing events which focus on supporting reading literacy and expanding literary/cultural awareness. Since 2013 she focuses on implementation of service learning strategy into academic educational system and on publishing outcomes concerning possibility of using service learning in teaching literature. Katedra slovenskej literatúry a literárnej vedy Filozofická fakulta Univerzita Mateja Bela v Banskej Bystrici 974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovensko martina.kubealakova@umb.sk Orsolya Pócsik Orsolya is an experienced high school teacher with more than 10 years teaching. She is an Individual researcher, practical high school teacher. She has engaged by teaching in medium & upper level. Orsolya is passionately researching the relationship between teaching-education-student-teacher knowledge. She is open learning is a cooperative, frontal, lexical, and expressive skills. The principle is to “teach something new every day” – you will understand this new knowledge and learner’s experiences. Teacher’s work is characterized by highly innovative pedagogical experiments, as he creates his own alternative pedagogical methods, since every group of students has unique, unique problems. 280 281 A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S Orsolya believes in the development of the teaching career as well as the fact that there are no two forms of instruction and two groups of forms. At the beginning of her carrier she got a bachelor degree in Teacher Training Collage in Collage of Nyiregyhaza as grade school teacher, English Grammar and literature teacher. She made her second degree as an English-Hungarian Master of Business Administration Manager at University of Miskolc, and she reached another teaching degree an MA-degree as Educational Science Teacher at the University of Debrecen. As her daily practice, she must-had got an brand-new degree from Budapest Business School Teacher of Economics, Tourism & Catering. Her private interests include traveling, writing. Individual researcher, Practical High School Teacher (vocational), MBA Debrecen, Hungary + 36 30 451 0928 orsolya.pocsik@gmail.com Deandra Cutajar Dr Deandra Cutajar was raised in Malta. She attended state schools throughout her education. In 2009, she enrolled for a Bachelor Double Honour degree offered by the Faculty of Science at the University of Malta. Upon graduating in Physics and Mathematics with honours in 2013, she started a Ph.D. in Bayesian Data Analysis with applications in Astrophysics at the Institute of Space Sciences and Astronomy, University of Malta. Deandra completed her studies and was awarded the Doctor of Philosophy in 2017. Her research interests are statistical Bayesian methods and theoretica astrophysics related to gravity, dark matter and dark energy. She was appointed as a tutor during her first post-graduate year back in 2014 for Physics and Astronomy study units. Currently she is an Affiliate Lecturer with the Institute of Space Sciences and Astronomy at the University of Malta, whilst also working in the gaming industry as a Data Scientist. Institute of Space Sciences and Astronomy University of Malta Msida, Malta MSD 2080 + 356 99172366 deandraoct@gmail.com T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Latinka Krumova Georgieva During the years 1993–1998 she studied at the Sofia University ”St. Kliment Ohridski“, where she received the title of a Master of Pedagogy. She has 18 years of professional experience as a volunteer, educator, social worker and consultant for children, families, dependent and elderly people. Bulgaria, Sofia + 359879877718 latinka_krumova@mail.bg Ewa Wiśniewska Ewa Wiśniewska, dr hab. nauk społecznych w dyscyplinie pedagogika, prof. nadzw. Wydziału Nauk Humanistycznych i Społecznych Państwowej Wyższej Szkoły Zawodowej w Płocku. Wydział Nauk Humanistycznych i Społecznych PWSZ w Płocku ul. Gałczyńskiego 28 09-400 Płock e.wisniewska@pwszplock.pl Magdalena Stankowska Adiunkt w Instytucie Profilaktyki Społecznej i Pracy Socjalnej (Zakład Nauk o Rodzinie) Akademii Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej, uzyskała doktorat nauk społecznych w zakresie socjologii, Instytut Stosowanych Nauk Społecznych (Uniwersytet Warszawski). Akademia Pedagogiki Specjalnej im. Marii Grzegorzewskiej ul. Szczęśliwicka 40 02-353 Warszawa stankowska.magdalena@gmail.com 282 283 A B O U T T H E AU T H O R S Sylwia Kwiatkowska Doktor nauk społecznych, wykładowca i lektor w Państwowej Wyższej Szkole Zawodowej w Płocku. Autorka kilku artykułów, rozpraw i recenzji. Głównym przedmiotem badań naukowych jest pomoc społeczna oraz praca socjalna na terenie Mazowsza. Organizatorka wielu akcji charytatywnych, uczestniczka wielu konferencji oraz sympozjów naukowych. Wydział Nauk Humanistycznych i Społecznych PWSZ w Płocku ul. Gałczyńskiego 28 09-400 Płock sylakk88@wp.pl Agnieszka Drajkowska Absolwentka pracy socjalnej w Państwowej Wyższej Szkole Zawodowej w Płocku. Wydział Nauk Humanistycznych i Społecznych PWSZ w Płocku ul. Gałczyńskiego 28 09-400 Płock Ida Hanna Kościelak Współzałożyciel i prezes Fundacji Agencji Służby Społecznej, specjalizuje się w psychologii społecznej. FASS Prochowa 24/26, lok. 1 04-360 Warszawa ida.kosc@gmail.com T H E RO L E O F T U T O R I N G I N E DU C AT I O N Lech Kościelak Historyk i socjolog, doktor nauk humanistycznych, autor Historii Słowacji, redaktor monografii zbiorowych, redaktor czasopisma Studia Humanitatis Mrongoviensis, członek Kapituły Medalu Mrongowiusza, członek Zarządu FASS. FASS Prochowa 24/26, lok. 1 04-360 Warszawa lechkoscielak@gmail.com 284