MANGIR, EI3

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM THREE Max Planck Commentaries on World Trade Law VOLUME 3 THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM THREE Edited by Kate Fleet, Gudrun Krämer, Denis Matringe, John Nawas, and Everett Rowson With Roger ALLEN, Edith AMBROS, Thomas BAUER, Johann BÜSSOW, Ruth DAVIS, Ahmed EL SHAMSY, Maribel FIERRO, Najam HAIDER, Konrad HIRSCHLER, Nico KAPTEIN, Alexander KNYSH, Corinne LEFÈVRE, Scott LEVI, Roman LOIMEIER, Daniela MENEGHINI, Negin NABAVI, M’hamed OUALDI, D. Fairchild RUGGLES, Ignacio SÁNCHEZ, and Ayman SHIHADEH LEIDEN • BOSTON 2021 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A C.I.P. record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. EI3 is published under the patronage of the international union of academies. ADVISORY BOARD Azyumardi Azra; Peri Bearman; Farhad Daftary; Geert Jan van Gelder (Chairman); R. Stephen Humphreys; Remke Kruk; Wilferd Madelung; Barbara Metcalf; Hossein Modarressi; James Montgomery; Nasrollah Pourjavady; and Jean-Louis Triaud. EI3 is copy edited by Amir Dastmalchian, Linda George, Alan H. Hartley, Brian Johnson, Alexander Khaleeli, Kate Kingsford, Eve Lacey, and Daniel Sentance ISSN: 1873-9830 ISBN: 978-90-04-43596-4 © Copyright 2021 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Sense, Hotei Publishing, mentis Verlag, Verlag Ferdinand Schöningh and Wilhelm Fink Verlag. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Requests for re-use and/or translations must be addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV via brill.com or copyright.com. This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner. list of abbreviations a . Pe riod ical s AI = Annales Islamologiques AIUON = Annali dell’ Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli AKM = Abhandlungen für die Kunde des Morgenlandes AMEL = Arabic and Middle Eastern Literatures AO = Acta Orientalia AO Hung. = Acta Orientalia (Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae) ArO = Archiv Orientální AS = Asiatische Studien ASJ = Arab Studies Journal ASP = Arabic Sciences and Philosophy ASQ = Arab Studies Quarterly BASOR = Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BEA = Bulletin des Études Arabes BEFEO = Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient BEO = Bulletin d’Études Orientales de l’Institut Français de Damas BIE = Bulletin de l’Institut d’Égypte BIFAO = Bulletin de l’Institut Français d’Archéologie Orientale du Caire BKI = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde BMGS = Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies BO = Bibliotheca Orientalis BrisMES = British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies BSOAS = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies BZ = Byzantinische Zeitschrift CAJ = Central Asiatic Journal DOP = Dumbarton Oaks Papers EW = East and West IBLA = Revue de l’Institut des Belles Lettres Arabes, Tunis IC = Islamic Culture IHQ = Indian Historical Quarterly IJAHS = International Journal of African Historical Studies IJMES = International Journal of Middle East Studies vi ILS = Islamic Law and Society IOS = Israel Oriental Studies IQ = The Islamic Quarterly JA = Journal Asiatique JAIS = Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies JAL = Journal of Arabic Literature JAOS = Journal of the American Oriental Society JARCE = Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt JAS = Journal of Asian Studies JESHO = Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient JIS = Journal of Islamic Studies JMBRAS = Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society JNES = Journal of Near Eastern Studies JOS = Journal of Ottoman Studies JQR = Jewish Quarterly Review JRAS = Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society JSAI = Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam JSEAH = Journal of Southeast Asian History JSS = Journal of Semitic Studies MEA = Middle Eastern Affairs MEJ = Middle East Journal MEL = Middle Eastern Literatures MES = Middle East Studies MFOB = Mélanges de la Faculté Orientale de l’Université St. Joseph de Beyrouth MIDEO = Mélanges de l’Institut Dominicain d’Études Orientales du Caire MME = Manuscripts of the Middle East MMIA = Majallat al-Majma al-Ilmi al-Arabi, Damascus MO = Le Monde Oriental MOG = Mitteilungen zur Osmanischen Geschichte MSR = Mamluk Studies Review MW = The Muslim World OC = Oriens Christianus OLZ = Orientalistische Literaturzeitung OM = Oriente Moderno QSA = Quaderni di Studi Arabi REI = Revue des Études Islamiques REJ = Revue des Études Juives REMMM = Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée RHR = Revue de l’Histoire des Religions RIMA = Revue de l’Institut des Manuscrits Arabes RMM = Revue du Monde Musulman RO = Rocznik Orientalistyczny ROC = Revue de l’Orient Chrétien RSO = Rivista degli Studi Orientali SI = Studia Islamica (France) SIk = Studia Islamika (Indonesia) SIr = Studia Iranica list of abbreviations list of abbreviations vii TBG = Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (of the Bataviaasch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen) VKI = Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land en Volkenkunde WI = Die Welt des Islams WO = Welt des Orients WZKM = Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes ZAL = Zeitschrift für Arabische Linguistik ZDMG = Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft ZGAIW = Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften ZS = Zeitschrift für Semitistik b . O the r ANRW = Aufstieg und Niedergang der Römischen Welt BGA = Bibliotheca Geographorum Arabicorum BNF = Bibliothèque nationale de France CERMOC = Centre d’Études et de Recherches sur le Moyen-Orient Contemporain CHAL = Cambridge History of Arabic Literature CHE = Cambridge History of Egypt CHIn = Cambridge History of India CHIr = Cambridge History of Iran Dozy = R. Dozy, Supplément aux dictionnaires arabes, Leiden 1881 (repr. Leiden and Paris 1927) EAL = Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature EI1 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1st ed., Leiden 1913–38 EI2 = Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Leiden 1954–2004 EI3 = Encyclopaedia of Islam Three, Leiden 2007– EIr = Encyclopaedia Iranica EJ1= Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1st ed., Jerusalem [New York 1971–92] EQ = Encyclopaedia of the Qurn ERE = Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics GAL = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, 2nd ed., Leiden 1943–49 GALS = C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Supplementbände I–III, Leiden 1937–42 GAP = Grundriss der Arabischen Philologie, Wiesbaden 1982– GAS = F. Sezgin, Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums, Leiden 1967– GMS = Gibb Memorial Series GOW = F. Babinger, Die Geschichtsschreiber der Osmanen und ihre Werke, Leipzig 1927 HO = Handbuch der Orientalistik A = slâm Ansiklopedisi IFAO = Institut Français d’Archeologie Orientale JE = Jewish Encyclopaedia Lane = E. W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon RCEA = Répertoire Chronologique d’Épigraphie Arabe TAVO = Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients TDVA = Türkiye Diyanet Vakfi slâm Ansiklopedisi UEAI = Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants van Ess, TG = J. van Ess, Theologie und Gesellschaft WKAS = Wörterbuch der Klassischen Arabischen Sprache, Wiesbaden 1957– mangr 110 ‘revivals’ and Mamlk nostalgia in Ottoman Egypt, in Michael Winter and Amalia Levanoni (eds.), The Mamlks in Egyptian and Syrian politics and society (Leiden 2004), 387–406; Yaacov Lev, Army, regime, and society in Fimid Egypt, 358–487/968–1094, IJMES 19 (1987), 337–65; Speros Vryonis, Jr., Byzantine circus factions and Islamic futuwwa organizations (neaniai, fityn, adth), Byzantinische Zeitschrift 58 (1965), 46–59; Speros Vryonis, Jr., Seljuk ghulms and Ottoman devirmes, Der Islam 41 (1965), 224–52. Jane Hathaway Mangr The mangr (mnqr) was a copper coin that was typically used as small change. The first Islamic states, the Seljuks (Saljq), and the Turkish beyliks in Anatolia also minted copper coins. Since they were not made of precious metals, such as gold or silver, mangrs circulated in the market with a nominal value that was designated by the state. The Ottoman state introduced many types of copper coin into the market, including pul (pl) and fülus (fuls). Some copper coins lacked the place and date of minting; some only featured designs. These designs were inspired by religious, regional, and artistic traditions. The mangr was minted in large cities, such as Istanbul, Edirne, Bursa, Baghdad, and Aleppo, as well as small settlements, such as Tire, Bitlis, Hizan, and provinces far from Istanbul, such as Yemen and Tripoli. There were relatively few cities in Rumeli that minted mangrs. It is generally accepted in scholarly literature that the first mangrs were minted during the reign of Sultan Murad I (Murd, r. 763–91/1362–89). It is claimed that mangrs were minted under Sultan Orhan (Orkhn, r. c.724–63/1324–62), but the authenticity of these coins is in doubt. It has also been suggested that some mangrs, which circulated with the coinage of the west Anatolian beyliks and lack both a place of minting and name of the ruler, may have been coined by Orhan. In addition to fulfilling the need for small change in the market, copper coins were also used as a means of taxation. Tax farmers minted copper coins for the state, then sarrafs (arrf, money changers) distributed them to the esnaf (enf, artisans) and collected gold and silver coins in payment. The weight of mangrs was not standardised until the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (Memed r. 848–50/1444–6 and 855–86/1451–81). During his reign, large mangrs were minted at the weight of one dirhem (dirhem) and eight were equal to one akçe (aqçe). Three small mangrs were equivalent to the weight of one dirhem and twenty-four were equal to one akçe. A large volume of mangrs was produced in Ottoman darphanes (arbkhne, mints) up to the end of the tenth/sixteenth century. The copper coins were minted regularly until the introduction of American silver into the world market and the debased value of the akçe. The minting of the copper coin decreased when the akçe started to replace the mangr as small change. Nevertheless, the minting of copper coins continued, despite the decrease in quantity and occasional interruptions. The mangr was assigned a new role in the monetary system in 1099/1688 (Sahilliolu), when it became the main coin in circulation to gain additional revenue for the treasury, which was overwhelmed by the costs of war. New mangrs of half a dirhem began to be minted and introduced to the market; two of these new mangrs were equal to one akçe. The initiative proved successful marwn b. ab afa and mangrs circulated without complication. However, encouraged by such success, the Ottoman government increased the value of the mangr and declared that one mangr was to equal one akçe. This high value in copper soon resulted in major problems, such as high inflation and forgery, which forced the state to stop minting the mangr and prohibit its circulation in 1103/1691. However, the minting of mangr only stopped for a short period of time. It restarted and the coins continued to circulate as small change from the early twelfth/beginning of eighteenth century until the currency reform in 1260/1844. After this currency reform, mangrs circulated with the gold lira and the silver guru (kuru, ghuru) and continued to be used as small change. Mangrs of forty, twenty, ten, five, and one para (pre) pieces were introduced into the market. The highest value mangr, at forty paras, was equal to one guru. Between 1259/1844 and 1297/1879, 4,714,290,000 mangrs were minted, with a value of 117,857,250 guru. In the final years of the Ottoman Empire, nickel and nickel bronze coins circulated as small change and replaced copper coins. Bibliography Hüseyin Al, Tanzimat döneminde ufaklk para sorunu (1839–1879), Ekonomi Bilimleri Dergisi 3/1 (2011), 69–78; Niyazi Asm, Türkiye cumhuriyeti darbhane-i milli müdiri tarafndan 1337, 1338, 1339, 1340 sene-i maliyyeleri darbiyat ve muâmelat hakknda maliye vekâlet-i celilesine takdim olunan üçüncü rapor, Istanbul 1925; Atom Damal, Osmanl sikkeleri tarihi (Istanbul 2010), 93–129; Ömerül Faruk Bölükba, Osmanl tara darphaneleri (1697–1758), Türk Kültürü ncelemeleri Dergisi 29 (2013), 27–76; Halil nalck and Robert Anhegger, nnnme-i Suln ber-mceb-i örf-i Osmni, Ankara 1956; Necdet Kabaklarl, “Mangr” copper coins of Ottoman Empire, 1299–1808, Istanbul 1998; Kazm Karakoç, Orhan 111 Gazi’nin bugüne kadar bilinmeyen esiz bir mangr, Anadolu Numismatik Dernei Bülteni 8 (2008), 3–6; Cüneyt Ölçer, Nakl osmanl mangrlar, Istanbul 1975; evket Pamuk, A monetary history of the Ottoman Empire, Cambridge 2000; Halil Sahilliolu, Fatih’in son yllarnda bakr para baslmas ve datlmas ile ilgili belgeler, Belgelerle Türk Tarihi Dergisi 6 (1968), 72–5; Halil Sahilliolu, Süleyman II ve Ahmed II dönemi bakr paraya dayanan enflasyon denemesi (1687–1691/1099–1103 H.), Türk Numismatik Dernei Bülteni 10 (1982), 7–40; Nikolaus Schindel, The earliest ottoman copper coin?, Numismatic Circular 120/4 (2014) 137–9; The interview with numismatist Garo Kürkman by the author in 2019. Ömerül Faruk Bölükba Marwn b. Ab afa Ab l-Sim Marwn b. Sulaymn b. Ab afa (b. c.105/723, d. 182/798), called Marwn al-Akbar (the older Marwn), was one of the most influential poets of the late Umayyad and early Abbsid periods. Much of his poetic work was devoted to praising the Abbsids and supporting their claim to the caliphate. Marwn was born in al-Yamma (eastern Arabia), to a non-Arab family that was, depending on the view one finds credible, either originally Jewish or originally Persian (Ibn Khallikn, 5:189). His grandfather, Ab afa, was a client (mawl) of the caliph Marwn b. al-akam (r. 64–5/ 684–5) (Ibn Khallikn, 5:189). Marwn’s family gained fame for reciting poetry in praise of the Umayyad and Abbsid caliphs, and his grandson Marwn b. Ab l-Janb (d. 240/855), called Marwn al-Aghar (the younger Marwn), was the last poet of the family to be bound to an Abbsid caliph. Marwn began his public career at a young age by joining his uncles in praising