The Parthians The Forgotten Empire

1st Edition The Parthians The Forgotten Empire By Uwe Ellerbrock Copyright Year 2021 ISBN 9780367473099 Publishing date: March 25, 2021 by Routledge 362 Pages 217 B/W Illustrations Book Description This volume provides a comprehensive overview of the history and culture of the Parthian Empire, which existed for almost 500 years from 247 BC to 224 AD. The Parthians were Rome’s great opponents in the east, but comparatively little is known about them. The Parthians focuses on the rise, expansion, flowering and decline of the Parthian Empire and covers both the wars with the Romans in the west and the nomads in the east. Sources include the small amount from the Empire itself, as well as those from outside the Parthian world, such as Greek, Roman and Chinese documents. Ellerbrock also explores the Parthian military, social history, religions, art, architecture and numismatics, all supported by a great number of images and maps. The Parthians is an invaluable resource for those studying the Ancient Near East during the period of the Parthian Empire, as well as for more general readers interested in this era. Detailed table of contents 1 The Parthian Empire: a first approach 1.1 Documentary sources from within the Parthian world 1.2 Greek – Roman – Chinese literary sources 1.3 Ancient sources – historical truths or distorted images? 1.4 The Parthians: nomads – Hellenes – Iranians? 1.5 Geography of the Parthian Empire 1 4 5 7 8 10 2 History of the great empires in Iran 2.1 The empire of Elam 2.2 The Medes and Persians 2.3 The empire of the Achaemenids 2.4 Alexander the Great (356– 323 BC) – the Hellenistic period 2.5 The empire of the Seleucids 13 13 15 16 18 20 3 History of the Parthian Empire 3.1 Phase 1: Development from a Seleucid vassal state to the Parthian Empire: from Arsaces I to Phraates I (c. 247– 165 BC) 3.1.1 Arsaces I (c. 247– 211 BC) 3.1.2 Arsaces II (c. 211– 191 BC) 3.1.3 Phriapatius (c. 191– 176 BC) 3.1.3.1 Arsaces IV (c. 170– 168 BC) 3.1.4 Phraates I (c. 168– 164 BC) 22 24 27 28 28 28 28 3.2 Phase 2: Expansion of the Parthian Empire: from Mithradates I to Darius of Media Atropatene (c. 165– 70 BC) 3.2.1 Mithradates I (c. 165/ 164– 132 BC) 3.2.2 Phraates II (c. 132– 27 BC) 3.2.3 Inter- regnal Issue, c. 127 BC 3.2.4 Artabanus I (c. 127– 123 BC) – Arsaces X (122– 121 BC) 3.2.5 Mithradates II (c. 121– 91 BC) 3.2.6 Gotarzes I (c. 91– 87 BC) 3.2.7 Orodes I (c. 90– 80 BC) 3.2.8 Unknown King I (c. 80 BC) and Unknown King II (c. 80– 70 BC) 3.2.9 Sinatruces (c. 93/ 92 – c. 69/ 68 BC) 3.2.10 Darius (?) of Media Atropatene (c. 70 BC) 36 36 37 3.3 Phase 3: Parthia as great power: from Phraates III to Vonones II (c. 70 BC – c. 51 AD) 37 29 31 32 33 33 34 36 36 3.3.1 Phraates III (c. 70– 57 BC) 3.3.2 Mithradates III (c. 57– 54 BC) 3.3.3 Orodes II (c. 57– 38 BC) 3.3.4 Pacorus I (c. 39 BC) 3.3.5 Phraates IV (c. 38– 2 BC) 3.3.6 Queen Musa and Phraataces, c. 2 BC – 4 AD 3.3.7 Tiridates I (c. 29– 26 BC) 3.3.8 Orodes III (c. 6 AD) 3.3.9 Vonones I (c. 8– 12 AD) 3.3.10 Artabanus II (c. 10– 38 AD) 3.3.11 Tiridates II (c. 35– 36 AD) 3.3.12 Vardanes I (c. 40– 45 AD) and Gotarzes II (c. 40– 51 AD) 3.3.13 Gotarzes II (c. 40– 51 AD) 3.3.14 Vonones II (c. 51 AD) 3.4 Phase 4: Phases of stability – inner turmoil – decline of the Parthian Empire: from Vologases I (c. 51– 79 AD) to Artabanus IV (c. 216– 224 AD) 3.4.1 Vologases I (c. 50/ 51– 79 AD) 3.4.2 Son of Vardanes (c. 55– 58 AD) = Vardanes II (Sellwood) 3.4.3 Vologases II (listed by Sellwood, but did not exist) 3.4.4 Pacorus II (c. 75– 110 AD) 3.4.5 Artabanus III (c. 80– 80/ 81 AD) 3.4.6 Vologases III (c. 105– 147 AD) 3.4.7 Osroes I (c. 109– 129 AD) 3.4.8 Parthamaspates (c. 116 AD) 3.4.9 Mithradates IV (c. 129– 140 AD) 3.4.10 Unknown King III (c. 140 AD) 3.4.11 Vologases IV (c. 147– 191 AD) 3.4.12 Osroes II (c. 190 AD) 3.4.13 Vologases V (c. 191– 208 AD) 3.4.14 Vologases VI (c. 208– 228 AD) 3.4.15 Artabanus IV (c. 216– 224 AD) 3.4.16 Tiridates III (c. 216 – 224 AD?) 3.5 Ardashir I and the newly founded Sasanian Empire 3.6 The end of the Parthian Empire – reasons for the downfall 4 The structure of the Parthian Empire 4.1 The king 4.1.1 The ruler’s image as an agent of propaganda 4.1.2 The king’s image – iconography on Parthian coins 4.1.3 Investiture of the kings 4.1.4 Ancestral cult of the Parthian kings – were kings deified as gods? 4.2 The nobility 4.3 The Parthian army – standing army – Parthian shot 4.3.1 War tactics – light cavalry – cataphracts – elephants 4.3.2 Weapons – depictions of weapons – finds of real weapons 4.3.3 Parthian legionnaires in the service of Rome – Parthian 40 41 41 43 43 46 47 48 48 49 50 51 52 52 52 56 58 58 58 59 60 60 61 61 61 61 62 62 63 63 64 64 65 71 72 73 73 78 82 83 83 85 89 soldiers on the Rhine? 4.4 Administrative structure of the empire 4.4.1 The Parthian language and the unification of administrative structures in the empire 4.5 Parthian queens and marriage policy 4.5.1 Clothing of women / of goddesses shown on coins 94 95 5 Vassal states and kingdoms under Parthian influence 5.1 The kingdom of Osrhoene 5.2 The kingdom of Commagene 5.3 Gordyene 5.4 Adiabene and Media Atropatene 5.5 Characene 5.6 Elymais 5.7 Persis 5.8 The kingdom of Hatra 103 103 105 107 107 109 110 111 112 6 The Parthian Empire and the peoples of Eurasia 6.1 Migration of peoples from China to the eastern border of Parthia – the construction of the Great Wall and its influence as far as the Parthian Empire 6.2 Saka 6.3 Sarmatians 6.4 Graeco- Bactrian kingdom 6.5 Indo- Greek kingdom 6.6 Indo- Scythian kingdom of the Saka 6.7 Indo- Parthian kingdom 6.8 Kushan 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 121 122 7 Cities and architecture in the Parthian Empire 7.1 Structure and architecture of the cities 7.1.1 Circular cities 7.1.2 Iwan 7.1.3 Dome 7.1.4 Stucco technique and stucco decoration 7.2 Cities in the homeland of the Parthians and in Iran 7.2.1 Nisa 7.2.2 Merv 7.2.3 Herat 7.2.4 Shahr- e Qumis (Hecatompylos) 7.2.5 Rhagae 7.2.6 Ecbatana 7.2.7 Susa 7.3 Cities in Syria and Mesopotamia 7.3.1 Seleucia on the Tigris 7.3.2 Ctesiphon 7.3.3 Dura- Europos 7.3.4 Hatra 7.3.5 Palmyra 125 125 125 126 126 127 128 128 136 137 137 138 138 138 139 140 141 143 146 152 8 Trade and business in the Parthian Empire 158 96 97 98 8.1 Parthian coins and the genealogy of Parthian kings – basic information 8.1.1 Cataloguing Parthian coins according to Sellwood and Assar 8.1.2 Parthian denominations 8.1.3 Value of Parthian money 8.1.4 Mints 8.1.5 Inscriptions on coins, Greek- Parthian 8.2 Mineral resources – mining 8.3 Agriculture in Parthia 8.4 Wine and trade 8.5 Water management – underground qanats in Parthia 8.6 Cattle breeding among the Parthians 8.7 Parthian markets 160 160 166 167 168 169 171 175 175 177 178 179 9 Insights into social life in Parthia 9.1 The Parthian language 9.2 Parthian literature – an epic with heroes 9.2.1 The Hymn of the Pearl 9.2.2 The story of Vis and Ramin 9.2.3 Shāhnāme – heroic legends 9.2.4 Parthian literature and Europe 9.3 Equality between men and women – women and law – property 9.4 Education 9.5 Slaves and prisoners of war 9.6 Music of the Parthians 9.7 Medical knowledge in Parthian times 9.8 Living conditions – income – salary payments 9.9 The kitchen of the Parthians: recipe for chicken in Parthian style 9.10 Clothing in Parthia: kandys – chlamys – tunic and trousers 9.11 Astronomy – calendars 9.11.1 The Seleucid calendar 9.11.2 The Parthian calendar 9.11.3 The Zoroastrian calendar 9.11.4 Year and month dates on Parthian coins 181 181 183 184 185 186 186 10 Parthian art: art in the Arsacid kingdom 10.1 Art finds in Nisa – rhyta – sculptures 10.2 Rock reliefs 10.3 Stone reliefs 10.4 Mural painting – frescoes 10.5 Sculptures 10.6 Jewellery: torque, earrings, belt buckles and other art 10.7 Parthian vessels – bowls – glass 213 215 221 221 231 233 234 235 11 The Parthian Empire and its religions 11.1 An overview of Zoroastrianism and the Avesta 11.1.1 The religious concept of Zoroastrianism 11.1.2 Magi – priests of the Medes – the wise men from the east 254 254 256 257 187 187 189 189 191 194 194 196 203 205 205 207 207 11.1.3 Zoroastrianism in Achaemenid times 11.1.4 References to the Zoroastrianism of the Parthians 11.1.5 Mithra 11.1.6 Anahita 11.1.7 Nana – Nanaia 11.1.8 Ardochscho (= Ashi) 11.1.9 Verethragna – Heracles 11.1.10 Khvarenah 11.1.11 The sacred fire of the Zoroastrians – archaeological finds 11.1.12 Fire cult: archaeological evidence in the Parthian Empire 11.1.13 Funerals performed by Zoroastrians 11.1.14 Burials in Parthian times 11.2 Iconography of Parthian coins – references to the Zoroastrian faith, Deities on Parthian coins, Gods in Hellenistic robes – Parthian deities?, Summary: Zoroastrianism among the Parthians 11.3 Manichaeism – religion with Parthian origins 11.4 Mithraism 11.5 Judaism in Parthia 11.6 Christianity in Parthia: the proselytising of the Apostle Thomas 258 259 261 263 264 265 265 269 270 271 272 274 278 289 291 291 293 FOREWORD The Parthian Empire, Rome’s enemy in the east, which the Romans could never defeat, is little known to the general reader. This book is intended to place the Parthian Empire, which in today’s language was a ‘global player’ between east and west, in the light it deserves in history. This book is based on the revised and expanded second edition of Die Parther – die vergessene Großmacht ( The Parthians – the forgotten superpower ), by archaeologist Sylvia Winkelmann and myself, published by Zabern Verlag, Germany in 2015. For the present edition, the book was revised and in parts re- edited and translated into English by the author. More than 90 new photos have been added, some of which I took on my trip to Turkmenistan, the ‘homeland of the Parthians’, in 2015, where I had the opportunity to visit and photograph archaeological finds and Parthian sites. The excavations in Old Nisa, a royal sanctuary, formerly thought to be one of the capitals of the Parthians, but also the remains of the huge Parthian city walls in Merv, impressed me greatly. It is still difficult to get a clear picture of the Parthians, as there is not enough archaeological evidence of their realm. The view of this empire is also affected by the fact that the literary testimonies of the Greeks and Romans are inadequate. In addition, either for lack of knowledge or due to the political views of Western writers, a distorted image of the Parthian Empire has been created. As a result, the Parthians were long represented as uncultivated and as barbarians. This view has now been abandoned. L. Gregoratti, an Italian historian, writes: ‘The Parthian Empire, a state lasting for five long centuries, has recently emerged slowly from the shadow of history to regain its cultural and historical identity.’ 1 This book aims to highlight the Parthian Empire and its importance in the ancient world. Parthia was not only an evenly matched opponent of Rome but also an important link in trade between Rome and China. The importance of the Empire for cultural exchange between east and west is only slowly becoming clearer. I am especially grateful to Mrs Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Curator of Middle Eastern Coins, British Museum, London, for her support when I wrote and published my first article in 2013: ‘Religious iconography on Parthian coins: The influence of political and social changes on the image of the goddess Tyche in the Parthian Empire’. 2 My thanks also go to Peter Alexander and Jonathan Hoare for reading my draft and putting it into more idiomatic English. I also thank all those who have supported me and willingly answered my questions, also giving me valuable tips or assigning me their rights to photos. Wrongly, the Parthian Empire has fallen into oblivion in general knowledge. I hope that this book, which is addressed to the wider public of learned and interested readers, will restore the memory of the Parthian Empire, ‘the forgotten superpower’.