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Ars Artium: An International Peer Reviewed-cum-Refereed Research Journal
Ars Artium: An International Peer Reviewed-cum-Refereed
Research Journal of English Studies and Culture
ISSN (Online) : 2395-2423 ISSN (Print) : 2319-7889
Vol. 7, January 2019
Pp. 122-138
http://www.arsartium.org
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature
Paintings
Rekha Pande*
Neeharika Joshi**
Abstract
The present paper attempts to look at the representation of women in Garhwal
miniature paintings, an offshoot of Pahari painting, which remained in vogue from the
17th to 19 th centuries. The pictorial evidence presents pictures of a woman on
various realms like their functioning, costumes, ornaments and roles. In other words,
art becomes a visual commentary on women when there is an absence of sources.
The Garhwal School of painting is the one of the most prolific Pahari Schools of
painting. The region of Garhwal received an impetus in painting when a Mughal prince,
Suleiman Shikoh, fleeing from his uncle, Aurangzeb, had brought to Garhwal a whole
retinue, which included a Mughal artist and his son. They remained at Garhwal even
after the prince had left and were granted a substantial pension. The nayikas, or
heroines of ancient Indian writers, are typical specimens of the Garhwal School's
conception of womanly beauty. It is of utmost importance that one does not find in
particular any court scene or any marriage procession painting since painting was not
a favourite art at Garhwal but a number of paintings have been found from the
nayikabheda series such as Abhisarika nayika or Vipralabdha nayika. The feminine
figures are not robust rather seem imbued with lighter grace.
Keywords: Garhwal, Pahari, Miniature, Nayika, Women, Art.
If as historians we are working towards the recreation of a total picture moving away
from the hitherto male or elite perspective, than unless history of women is studied or
researched, our picture of past shall continue to be a partial one. There is no denying
of fact that until now our perception of past has been primarily from male
perspective. Unfortunately, our history writing has relegated women to background,
* Professor, Department of History, and HOD, Centre for Women's Studies, University
of Hyderabad, P.O. Central University, Hyderabad- 500046, Telangana, India.
Email: cws@uohyd.ac.in
* * Project Assistant, UPE Phase II Project, Department of History, University of
Hyderabad, Hyderabad, P.O. Central University, Hyderabad- 500046, Telangana,
India. Email: neeha.joshi@gmail.com
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
123
assuming that women played no important role or were just playing a secondary role
in the creation of the past. It is men's histories that have been presented universally as
human. The framework, concepts and priorities of these universal histories only
reflect male's interests, concerns and experiences and in no way do justice to the
women and their roles (Mathews, 1984). Traditional historiography has thus either
ignored the positive role of women or portrayed it as insignificant.
Art history has now been increasingly accepted as a major branch of knowledge
supplementing various other kinds of histories. Art, as a manifestation of human thought
and spirit, has valuable implications for a historian to conduct a thorough investigation
into the intricacies of past. A different perspective of women's history is gaining
currency in which the art forms like paintings are being used as tools of historical
investigation. The development of theories about the way meanings is produced,
semilogy in particular and the expanded Marxist concepts of ideology, led feminists to
a more complex appraisal of what came to be called, representations. No longer could
images be treated as discrete reflections- good, bad, false, truthful- of real women.
The use of the term representation and later significance marked the importance of
the process by which meanings are produced. The social manufacture of meaning
occurs through both technical devices and codes and conventions generally referred
to as the rhetoric of the image. For anyone to understand the image they must carry a
whole baggage of social know ledges, assumptions and values. Therefore, notions of
the image whose meanings derive from the conscious intentions of their maker gave
way to the understanding of the social and ideological networks with in which
meanings are socially produced and secured.
After almost two decades of Feminist writings about women in art, there remains
relatively a small body of work in history of women and art. There are very few
works, which identify women as subject of representation not as an object of
representation. The present paper aims to look at the representation of women in
Garhwal miniature paintings, particularly in nayika paintings, an off shoot of Pahari
painting which was in vogue from the 17th to 19th centuries. The term 'miniature' is
derived from the Latin word 'minium' that meant red lead. As the principal pigment
used by the medieval illuminators was red lead, it began to be applied to the art and
those who practiced it came to be known as 'miniatori' (The Encyclopedia Americana
-1976:170). Even though the word is applied to all works of art of 'miniature' size,
miniature paintings meant a very small portrait paintings finely executed on vellum
(skin), precared cards, copper or ivory, jewelry, boxes, lockets, palm leaves and
paper.
Feminism in the arts grew out of the contemporary women's movement. In the
1970's feminist historians and critics began to question the assumptions, which lay
behind the masculine claim for universal values of a history of heroic art and which
has systematically excluded women's productions and representations from its
mainstream and powerfully transformed the women's image into position and
consumption. The resulting re-examination of women's lives in art proceeded amidst
debates about the relationship between gender/culture and creativity (Chadwick, 1919).
It cannot be denied that in Indian art, the female form has been the most projected and
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favoured subject through the ages. Womanly forms have been represented throughout
history in various kinds of art form.
The term "representation" suggests a type of description or portrayal of someone
or something. In the visual arts this implies that the art object depicts something other
than or outside itself. A historical and critical evaluation of women in miniature art
opens up new vistas in interpretation, by providing interesting details of how the lives
of women were depicted in the socio-historical context of times. We know that
reconstructing women's history is difficult in the absence of textual evidence. Though
for the modern period, a vast reservoir of sources on women throughout the world
and across many cultures are available in the form of journals, articles, diaries,
organization records etc., while evaluating medieval period there is acute paucity of
source material regarding women. Keeping in view these problems in writing of women's
history, one has to search for new resources, which will enrich our understanding of
the historical process. In this endeavour, the miniature paintings of pre modern India
form a very important source for analysis of the role of women (Pande, et al, 2004:73).
Such pictorial evidence presents a picture of awoman on various realms like their
functioning, costumes, ornaments, roles, engagements and representations. One may
not be able to narrate events from these, but the actions or activities of women can be
observed. The medieval artists tried to paint to life, bringing out not only the physical
features and personal appearance but also even the personality of each subject like
their expressions, feelings, and activities. In particular artistic reflections like
miniatures provide a kind of diversity in the historical source material.
During the last several last decades, the study and deliberations on women's
symbol in painting has been a focal point of substantial attention in Indian art history.
Through the ages, the woman form has been variously depicted by artists in Indian
art. In early Indian paintings, woman is often equipped to evoke sensual pleasure for
the onlookers. The analysis of women through art focuses on the possible material
manifestation of various dimensions of women by interpreting art depictions. The
image of woman has had varied representations from fertility goddesses to divine
images or a sensuously articulated erotic lover. On a parallel drawn to man, the woman
is depicted only in very limited states, such as engaged in very casual routines or in the
form of a male consort/lover, being ignored from powerful display as compared to
man. The religious and literary texts from time to time also formed as a base to
provide necessary support to Indian artists to continue to represent feminine form
within these parameters.
The earliest paintings that we have in India are the rock paintings of Bhim Bhetka.
Here the artist has used the paintings to depict women's emotions through the subject
matter of the daily life. They depict human figure through simple lines. These were
merely naturalistic depictions of early humans' artistic representation of their
exploratory relationship with nature. Indian art is coupled with Indian philosophy in
which man and nature (purush-prakriti) are entwined. Nature symbolizes the woman.
After several millennia, for instance, in the seventh century AD, carved pillar of Ellora
in Maharashtra represents more detailed rock paintings with colour, mostly red and
orange, derived from minerals, and are the precursors to the famous fresco of Ajanta
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
125
caves. These murals of Ajanta and Ellora were beautified with the sensuous and
sublime figures of women. In the portrayal of womanhood, the graceful female icons
have been painted in the forms of queens, dancers, mistresses and other secondary
forms. The artists were reproducing the soft roundness of their breasts, their curvy
lips, the turn of their heads, thin shaped eyebrows, the slanting glances of their eyes
and the gestures of their hands. It is interesting to note that most of the Ajanta
heroines are depicted naked, or in near nudity, while all the others in the same scene
are fully clothed. The women are painted in repose, talking to their lovers, instructing
their handmaids, admiring themselves in mirrors, carrying offerings, or simply
standing, sitting and gossiping. During the 5th century A.D. Buddha was celebrated as
a divine king and his chambers as a divine king and his chambers in the form of caves
were beautified with all medium amusements including dancing girls.
Miniature paintings in India depict a variety of themes, from the doings of gods
and kings to important episodes in the lives of humankind. The art of miniature had
been in vogue after the coming of the Mughals and the women were particularly used
as an object of male gaze. In the era of the Mughals, miniature tradition of Indian
painting had touched the zenith of delicacy and it saw the actual and full flowering of
miniature art. There are many images of women engaged in erotic display like a man
surrounded by many women in a toilet scene. The depiction of women in Mughal
paintings had been done in manuscripts, which are very few in number. The artists
started to portray women figures with full bosoms in standard body type. Between
the Jain and Mughal periods, that is, from the 10th to 17th centuries, miniatures were
also produced to illustrate love stories, portraits and to record the doing of kings and
countries. In the period of Akbar, the Hindu epics and stories had also been illustrated
in manuscripts, for instance, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and so on. In these
stories women were portrayed as per their role in the story. The Persian artists who
flocked to his court taught the new techniques to Indian artists and themselves
benefitted by absorbing the best elements of indigenous traditions with the result that
a rare blend of a wonderful new school came into existence (Shivrammurthy, 1970:90).
With the coming of Muslims into India, the large scale paintings disappear along
with the disappearance of the large kingdoms and miniature form art with the Persian
effects became popular. That time the art restricted only to the court of the kings and
the subjectmatter of that time was the court scenes. This art of painting developed as
a blending of Persian and Indian ideas. Translation of manuscripts and Indian texts
were done during the time of Mughal kings. During Jahangir reign Mughal's painting
reached its height. The art of portraiture, by its royal patron received special attention;
accurate portrait was confined to male noble and courtiers. During Akbar's period
mostly male courtiers were painted because females were not allowed to appear in the
open courts. Female becomes popular subject during Jahangir due to powerful
influence of Nur Jahan. She had very strong personality. Her creative abilities ranged
from costumes designing to hunting. The Muslim royal ladies had generally lived in
separate quarter called 'zenana' or Harem, apartments inaccessible to strangers. In
Mughal art women were presented simply as beauties - bathing women with their
attendants were repeatedly painted by this era of artists. In these paintings the status
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of women is shown in different ways like the royal ladies were normally shown
hidden behind a veil (pardha) or within four walls surrounded by attendants. After the
downfall of Mughal period the art of that time moved into different regions. These
artists trained by Persian artist now in these different regions produced painting in
new distinctive style, inspired by the royal and romantic lives of the Mughals. The
particular miniature produced by Indian artists in their own style is known as Rajput
or Rajasthani miniature. During this time several schools of painting such as Mewar,
Bundi, Kotah, Marwar, Jaipur and Kishan-garh were established. The subject matter
of those miniature paintings was the daily life-hunting scene of Radha and Krishna in
various moods, night scene, and the artist depicted the human moods or rasas through
Nayak and nayikas in their paintings. Female represents as a heroin in Rajasthani
miniature paintings. The most famous art school of that period was Kishangarh,
famous for banithani paintings. It is totally different style with highly exaggerated
feature like long neck, large almond shape eye and long fingers. It reached a peak in
the 18th century during the rule of Raja Sancar Chand who fell in love with his slave
and then the portrait of that slave is found in Kishangarh.
The Bharat Natyam Shastra classified women in three categories: goddess,
heroine and courtesan (devi, nayika, ganika). The Nayak-nayika theme was popular
with artists of the 16th -17th century. Heroes and heroines were usually taken from
popular Sanskrit poems mainly of Krishna and Radha. These paintings depict the
woman waiting for her lover or going to meet him. The whole scene, her eyes, her
body language her attention everything is focused on her lover. Hence we have a
depiction of all these in the miniature paintings along with women as royal women,
ordinary women, Yoginis, and also Raginis.
The art of miniature painting was brought to the Punjab Hill States from the
Mughal and Rajput states, and along the way, it collected the traditions of both schools
(Brijbhushan, 1979:176). What we know as the "Pahari look" is a gradual
development that cannot be said to have originated in any particular school at a special
date (Brijbhushan, 1979:173). The origins of Pahari painting are not known; we do
not know when and where beginnings were made in this field of art. A. Coomaraswamy
was the first scholar to draw world attention to this art expression and show that
there is a unity in Indian art. Coomaraswamy states that, through all Indian schools of
thought there runs like a golden thread the fundamental idealism of the Upanishads,
the Vedanta, so in all Indian art there is a unity that underlies all its be wildering variety.
This unifying principle is here also Idealism, and this must of necessity have been so,
for the synthesis of Indian thought is one, not many (Coomaraswamy, 1981:17). The
"new look" became most evident in the female form, although male figures also
underwent a change. By AD 1775, we find the emergence of a new type of female
figure: there is a fragile delicacy to the frame and a porcelain quality to the women's
faces (Brijbhushan, 1979:173). J. C. French and Laurence Binyon too entertained
similar opinions about the origins of Pahari painting. French explained that the artists
had seen in the houses of their princely patrons examples of the paintings of the
Mughal School, perhaps some Persian paintings also, and imitated the qualities they
found in these (French, 1931: VI).
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
127
The Garhwal School of painting is an off shoot of the Pahari School of painting.
The foundation of Garhwal miniature paintings were laid in Garhwal (Uttarakhand),
as far back as 1658; but it was not known outside until it was discovered in 1908. The
capital of Garhwal, called Srinagar, lay deep into the hills. The region of Garhwal
received an impetus in painting when a Mughal prince, Suleiman Shikoh, fleeing from
his uncle, the emperor Aurangzeb, had brought to Garhwal a whole retinue, which
included a Mughal artist and his son. These artists had been as much goldsmiths and
courtiers as actual painters and they remained at Garhwal after the prince had left and
were granted a substantial pension (Archer, 1954:2). The founders of the Garhwal
School were Sham Das and Har Das, father and son duo, who came to the court of
Raja Prithvipat Shah (AD 1625-60). Both belonged to the Shah Jahan School of Mughal
painting (Lal, 1968:15). It was after the arrival of the two artists from the Mughal
court that the ruler of Garhwal created the office of tasbirdar (picture-maker). Suleiman
Shikoh, a nephew of Aurangzeb, fled from his uncle's wrath and found refuge at the
court of Prithvipat Shah of Garhwal. As it was usual those days, he came with a
whole retinue, including two artists, father and son, Sham Das and Har Das. After
only a year, however, the Mughal prince was handed over to the emperor by Medini
Shah, the son of Prithvipat Shah. The prince left, but the artists were allowed to stay
on and work in Garhwal and were treated with favour by the ruler and his son,
although Garhwal painting at that time was extremely elementary. Even though
painting was not a favourite art at Garhwal court, it must have possibly developed due
to the arrival of Mughal artists and later from Guler and Kangra.
This hilly region was not conducive to the formation of a large kingdom and thus
in an area of about thirty thousand square miles, there were many principalities ruled
by Rajput dynasties (Ohri, 2001:1). There were as many as 36 states, each ruled by a
separate raja, each committed to its own type of Rajput culture, each proudly jealous.
Not every state possessed painters. In fact, only when a particular ruler was keenly
interested in art painting appeared to have flourished. In this connection, the size of a
state was quite irrelevant, the smallest state sometimes possessed artists, the largest
and greatest possessed no artists at all. It was the personality of the ruler-patron
which provided the one essential element (Archer, 1957). Until the first half of the 17th
century, no painting seems to have existed in any of the Rajput states of the Punjab
Hills. Indeed it is as if the great schools of Punjab Hill painting developed in the 17th
century out of nowhere. Aurangzeb is known to have neglected the arts, and artists
working at the Mughal court had dispersed in search of patronage. (Ohri, 1991) Karl
Khandalavala suggested that the artists trained in the Mughal School of the Aurangzeb
period and familiar with the trends in Rajasthani painting were mainly responsible for
the formation and development of the Pahari style of painting. He believed that the
activity of painting started in the hills in the last quarter of the 17 th century. The
dispersal of artists from the Mughal court had, he believes, started already in Shah
Jahan's reign (Khandalavala, 1958:19-20).
Each miniature style had its own characteristics; the Mughal drawings are known
for their refinement in execution; Rajasthani drawings are known for their boldness
and fast movement, but the Pahari drawings are rhythmical, which suit their romantic
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subjects (Singh, 1982:21). What Chinese art achieved for landscape is here
accomplished for human love. Here if never and nowhere else in the world the
western gates are opened wide. The arms of lovers are about each other's necks, eye
meets eye, the whispering sakhis speak of nothing else but the course of Krishna's
courtship, the very animals are spellbound by the sound of Krishna's flute and the
elements stand still to hear the ragas and raginis. This art is only with the realities of
life; above all, with passionate love service, conceived as the means and symbol of all
union. (Goswami et al, 1997:7).
Among all the centres of Pahari painting, Garhwal was also one of the foremost to
receive the scholar's attention (Singh, 1982:152). The famous series illustrating Gita
Govinda and Bihari Satsai were discovered in Garhwal's Palace collection (Singh,
1982:152). Moreover, Garhwal's history confirms the arrival of the Mughal artists.
The work of Garhwal School bears the closest possible relation to that of Kangra.
There was a considerable movement of both art and artists between these states, and
paintings formed part of the dowries of princesses. One may assume in this regard
that as conditions in Kangra became more and more unsettled, the painters sought
elsewhere a patronage that could no longer be extended to them at home. It was also
highly probable that some accompanied the two sisters of Raja Anirudh of Kangra
(son of Sansar Chand) who were married to the Raja of Garhwal, Sudarshan Shah
(Coomaraswamy, 1972:132). The Kangra princesses brought with them to Tehri the
paintings from the collection of Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra, who was the greatest
connoisseur of painting in the Punjab hills, in the form of dowry. The collection in
Garhwal created interest in Raja Sudarshan Shah and he preserved it. His successors
made additions to the collection. Raja Bhawani Shah (AD 1859-72) married a princess
of Mandi. She also brought Pahari paintings with her. Raja Pratap Shah's (AD 187296) consort, Rani Guleria was also interested in painting. She carefully preserved the
entire collection after the death of her husband and during the minority of her son,
Raja Kirti Shah (AD 1892-1913). She ruled for six years as Rajmata and gave to her
favourite son, Kunwar Vichitra Shah, a good number of paintings from the collection
which she had been preserving (Lal, 1968:29).
The fame of Garhwal painting is mainly based on Molaram, a painter, poet, and
diplomat, born in the fourth generation of the Mughal painters who had arrived earlier
at the Garhwal court. He developed painting as his career and evolved a distinct style
of his own imbibing stylistic influences from different schools of paintings that he
observed and assimilated into his own diction (Jain and Handa, 2009:19). Mola Ram
states this in his Garh Rajvansh ka Itihas that the reigning king of Garhwal, Prithvi
Shah employed the painter-duo in his court as tasbirdar, i.e., the picture-maker. W.G.
Archer writes that the sudden development can only be explained on one as
sumption-that outside artists had reached the court, including Mola Ram's ancestors
(Archer, 1954:2). He is also believed to have visited Kangra in his early years and that
is when a certain change in his paintings is noticed. His work was freer in expression,
says Chandramani Singh. He adds that it has more graceful forms and the fluttering
ends of the girl's dupatta are shown with greater freedom. Faces, although they show
the common Pahari type, are smaller, with raised eyebrows and narrower eyes. The
lips are curved in the suggestion of a smile.
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
129
Miniature paintings in India depict a variety of themes, from the doings of gods
and kings to important episodes in the lives of men (Brijbhushan, 1979:33). Scenes of
valour and heroism, worship and devotion, lovers' trysts and partings, the holdings of
courts and the building of cities, all formed useful subjects of the painters. As painting
moved out by the imperial ateliers to the courts of Rajasthan and the hill states, the
innately hierarchical concept of Indian art asserted itself and the artist imbued each
canvas he painted with a significance extending beyond the purely visual content
(Brijbhushan, 1979:34). Love, music, and religion all combined to give earthly beings
a supernatural aspect and to bring the gods down to earth for the edification of
mortals (Brijbhushan, 1979:34).
The depiction of women according to their characteristics, feelings and erotic
sentiments as given in nayikabheda were very popular with painters of the Pahari
schools just as pictures of Baramasa (The Twelve Months) and Ragamala (garland
of melodies) were popular themes of the Rajasthani painters (Lal, 1968:23). The
foundation of the literary tradition of analyzing and classifying the emotional states of
men and women in love with zest and precision who are referred to as nayaka and
nayika were laid down by Bharat Muni and was continued by his descendants. The
nayikas are typical specimens of the Garhwal School's conception of womanly beauty.
The nayika, or heroines of the ancient Indian writers, were young women
preoccupied with love in its different forms. The term nayika is not used in the literal
sense meaning heroine, but for passionate and devoted lover in Indian art who
represents various shades of love, love in union and love in separation. Mukandi Lal
states that the Pahari artists drew inspiration for painting lovely women as nayikas
from the Hindi poets of the 17th and 18th centuries, such as Keshav Das, Bihari, Mati
Ram, Rahim, Rakhsan and Nagari Das (Lal, 1968:23). Sanskrit scholars like Bharata,
Dhanamjaya and many more have classified nayikas according to love situations into
eight types (ashtanayika). The ashtanayika classifications of Bhanudatta, elaborated
by Keshavdas, need special mention here.
Svandhinapatika, the heroine, is the one who dominates her beloved. The hero is
depicted as massaging her feet or putting avermilion mark on her forehead. She is the
one swollen with pride of her beloved's love and devotion. Utkanthita, heroine, is
alone and yearns for her lover, who has been inadvertently delayed from keeping the
tryst. She is distressed because the beloved has not turned up. Basakasayya awaits
her lover by her bed, and is depicted either welcoming him or waiting for him at the
door while her maids prepare the bed. She is the one who embellishes herself for the
union and her surroundings for her lover's arrival to create an enjoyable environment
around him. Abhisandhita or Kalahantarita is separated from her lover owing to her
own ill temper or lack of consideration. She is the one who is regretful for
impulsiveness in conflict with her lover. Khandita is offended and is usually seen
reproaching her lover for his lack of faithfulness. She is the one whose lover had
disappointed her which made her upset. Prositapatika sits and mourns the departure
of her lover surrounded by her maids, and refuses to be consoled. She is the one who
is missing her beloved as he is far away on a long journey. Vipralabdhika is shown
throwing away her jewels because her lover has failed to keep the tryst. She is
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depicted to be frustrated that her lover has not turned up at the meeting place as he
assured her for the reunion. Abhisarika braves the storm and lightning, snakes and
other dangers of the forest to meet her lover. She is usually shown at the door of her
house or on the way to the tryst. (Brijbhushan, 1979:39) She is the one who
courageously goes out to meet the lover.
These themes have numerous pictorial versions from the Pahari artists and it is on
these lines that the heroines of Garhwal paintings have also been depicted. The heroine
in these paintings occupies a prominent place and the hero is mostly relegated to a
secondary position. Nayakas do appear on the scene as her companions but are not
given much significance. Mukandi Lal writes that the Garhwal School excels other
Pahari schools in the treatment of women. Here they stand out more slender and
charming; there is more detail in the depiction of ornaments; the drapery is often
transparent and attractive (Lal, 1968:23). Jamila Brijbhushan, however, writes that the
women's faces lack the extreme delicacy in comparison to Kangra art (Brijbhushan,
1979:178).
We now look at a few examples of these nayikas in Garhwal paintings from the
Nayikabheda series.
Molaram himself described the Abhisarika nayika (see Annexure 1) he painted, in
a verse, which he has written on the top of the painting. "The heroine is going to meet
her lover. She turns back to look at a golden anklet, which has just fallen off. There
are also snakes below and lightning above. In Indian poetry, a girl's face was often
described as 'lovely as the lightning' while the play of lightning on the cloud was a
common symbol for the union of lovers" (Archer, 1954:5). W.G. Archer states that,
all the images in this picture are drawn from poetry and are inserted for precise
symbolic ends. Frail lightning echoes the girl's beauty. Flowering creepers repeat the
droop and pattern of her dress while birds, motionless in the rainy darkness, parallel
her poise and calm. It is the pouring rain and the twin cobras, however, which sustain
the vital roles. The rain is a discomfort which the girl must silently endure and a
symbol of her goal-the passionate encounter with her lover to whom she speeds
(Archer, 1954:12).
The next painting (Annexure 2) portrays an utka/utkanthitanayika. There is
lightning, flickering in the sky, which gives warning of thestorm. However, the
lightning also has other meanings, which invest the picture with poetic charm.
Echoing the girl's grave beauty, the lightning also reflects her agitation, its restless
presence hinting at the frenzy beneath her tranquil poise" (Archer, 1954:6). The
heroine is decked up in a pale brown bodice, dark red skirt, and blue veil and with all
kinds of jewellery, be it an ecklace, nose ring, bangles, bracelet, armlet or anklets. She
is even seen to have applied red paint on her hands and toes. But her face depicts that
she is troubled and upset by the fact that her lover has not turned up as promised.
A painting of Vipralabdha nayika (Annexure 3) has also been discovered. The
heroine stands on a bed of green leaves under a beautiful green tree. In front is another
green tree adorned with spikes of pinkish flowers of the mandar, a favourite motif of
Mola Ram and of the Garhwal School as a whole. The nayika wears an orange dupatta
studded with golden stars and with a golden border. All her features, her lovely arms
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
131
and hands, her arched, swan-like neck and heaving bosom are drawn exquisitely. The
ornaments are drawn so realistically that they can easily be identified. But the painting
indicates that she did not care for her ornaments since her lover had not arrived at the
rendezvous to admire them. She is depicted as throwing off her ornaments in disgust
and disappointment.
It is in a painting of the great lovers of Rajput legend, Baz Bahadur and Rupmati,
that Garhwal painting achieves perhaps its most poetic expression (Annexure 4). In
the middle of the 16th century, the last Muhammadan ruler of Malwa in central India
became enamoured of Rupmati, a Hindu courtesan. There were times when they
would ride together at nights. Their love lasted for seven years- to be ended with the
defeat of Baz Bahadur by a Mughal army and the subsequent capture and suicide of
Rupmati (Archer, 1954:10). In the painting "the two lovers are shown resting on a
hillside, their horses tethered in a corpse while a young moon shows amid the stars.
Rupmati is sleeping on a red coverlet, while Baz Bahadur gazes at her eyes. Above her,
stretch the triple trunks of a tree-the leafless branches echoing with their sinuous
curves her graceful lines. Beyond the hillside are two leopards, suggesting by their
close encounter the ferocious nature of the lovers' feeling. Over the entire scene
broods the entranced stillness of a summer night" (Archer, 1954:10). Yet once again it
is a woman, the supreme object of romantic poetry, whose beauty is the picture's
chief concern. A young moon hanging in the sky, a tree with frail and leafless branches
parallels the innocent freshness of Rupmati's lovely form (Archer, 1957:918).
Often the nayaka is depicted as Krishna himself and the nayika as Radha. The
legend of Krishna and Radha and their love sport (lila) provided rich material to Pahari
painters in general and to the artists of Garhwal in particular. While Radha, Krishna's
principal love, is not mentioned in the Bhagvata Purana, a Sanskrit text of about the
10th century A.D., she is the leading figure in the Gita Govinda, a Sanskrit poem by
Jayadev two centuries later. It is a well-accepted fact that the artists of Pahari schools
were influenced by the romantic literature and painted pictures in terms of Krishna
and Radha to provide, as it were, divine sanction for the lapses and love affairs of their
patrons, the Pahari Rajas (Lal, 1968:25).
Again, there are many paintings focusing on the legend of Krishna and Radha. In
this painting (Annexure 5), illustration to a Bihari Satsai series, Radha is bathing while
Krishna watches her in rapture. The painting shows, Radha, naked from her bath, is
seated on a brown stool clasping her black hair which shields her like a mantle. A maid
in mauve and orange-brown skirt holds a dish before her. Behind her, a second maid
screens her with a mauve cloth. In the bottom left-hand corner, Krishna in yellow
cloak gazed intently at her. Terrace floor and pavilion walls stark white. Brass pots
and a lota spout beside the stool. To the rear, flows a swirling river (Alaknanda) with
twin hills (Archer, 1973: 112-13).
We observe women in various locations and poses in many of these paintings.
Here women are portrayed completing their toilet, watching a storm, dressing the
hair, riding with maids, hurrying through the night to meet her lover, or waiting for her
lover on a bed of leaves in a secluded glade. In many cases, the picture was a simple
evocation of feminine charm. The characteristics of the Garhwal paintings include
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beautiful women with fully developed breasts, thin waist line, delicate brow and thin
nose with definite nose bridge. A delicacy in nature echoes delicacy in women and
whether the subject is lovers in a moon-lit retreat or a lady hastening through the
night, the images of nature are all employed to interpret and enhance a passionate
scene (Archer, 1954: 5). The outer landscape she passes through is a metaphor of the
inner emotions of the nayika. In Garhwal paintings, the passionate romance was
treated with innocent grace while line itself was used to express a sense of musical
rhythm.
The female costume usually includes a Rajput style tight bodice, full skirt and
scarf, the sash being optional. The bodice is considered abbreviated, in other words,
the women's clothes covered the entire form, with only the suggestion of a bosom.
The head is decorously covered and the hair falls in soft lines on the shoulders
(Brijbhushan, 1979:173). One end of the scarf is tucked in at the waist and taken
around the back, across the bosom, and draped over the shoulders and head, with the
other end trailing at the back (Brijbhushan, 1979:170). The ladies of position wear
fine, patterned fabrics, with gold or decorated edges, while attendants wear outfits in
coarser materials. The only class difference noticed was in the material of their
clothing, number/types of jewelry worn or their placement.
The paintings of the Garhwal School also bear an unmistakable hallmark which is
invariably found in the paintings of Mola Ram. The horizontal, curved chandan tika
(sandal paste mark) on the forehead of women of high status is peculiar to paintings
of the Garhwal School (Lal, 1968: 22). Jamila Brijbhushan asserted that the
sandalwood paste mark in the shape of a crescent on the forehead, if not exclusive to
Garhwal, was much favoured here (Brijbhushan, 1979: 178).
The Garhwal paintings also include the Rukmini-Mangal collection, illustrations
of Sudama Charita. Apart from the mythological depictions, the miniature also
featured portraits or pictures of girls playing ball or musical instruments or amusing
themselves with birds and animals. Not only have the artists created charming women
but also ornaments, trees, and flowers. Chakorpriya and Morpriya are also common
themes in Garhwal paintings. Mola Ram painted several pictures of girls playing with
the chakor (the Greek partridge) and mor (peacock), all in the same pose. Morpriya
(Annexure 6), Chakorpriya and Balakpriya (fond of children) and Mayanmukhi (the
beautiful one, literally the moon-faced one) demonstrate the development of Mola
Ram's style. The artists of Garhwal have thus painted and drawn animals, birds and
flowers in various contexts: subjectively; in the paintings of men and women for
purely decorative purposes; and also objectively in landscapes and in individual
studies. The depiction of leafless branches, with the spikes of pinkish exuberance of
the mandar blooms in the foreground, and the globular dark trees on the horizon are
some of the characterizing features of the Garhwal painting (Jain and Handa, 2009:
31). There are few depictions of women as ragas. During the 16th century in the
courts of Deccani Kingdoms, several conventional systems of music ragas and raginis
were apostrophized as ladies and pictures were made to indicate their themes (Archer,
1960). It was observed that the Sultans of the time developed a routine of pleasure
and work in the provincial capitals of their kingdoms. In periods of peace they
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
133
cultivated the arts especially music which seems to have supplied abiding consolation
with a depth and mastery beyond the superficial connoisseur. It is not surprising
therefore to find that among the themes which the Sultanate courts preferred the
artists to take up were the rendering in paintings raga raginis or musical modes. We
have the same kind of depiction in the Garwal paintings (Annexure 7). Sindhuri Ragini,
a lady of Hindola Raga (the 'swinging' music) is suggested by a party of girls
swimming in a lotus-pond. The floats which sustain them are empty upturned
pitchers, plugged with straw-a device still used in Northern India.
Hence to conclude, Garhwal painting, even though it could not attain the same
fame as its counterparts, presents some of the greatest works. In many of their
paintings the Krishna lila scenes were basic subject for pahari paintings, however
some other themes were also painted by artists, but majorly the gopi with Krishna,
women with Krishna, god and goddesses, fight scene, dance by gopies and women,
love scene were dominantly painted by Indian artists. Ras lila can be seen in most of
the paintings, Krishna playing with women called gopi and Radha. Bathing scenes of
women (gopies) in the lake of village are famous in which Krishna steals the clothes
and climbs up the tree and gopies without clothes come out from the water pond and
ask Krishna to give their clothes back. The romance was highly celebrated and the
themes were filled with colours of love-making, waiting for the lover, parting and so
on. These paintings were filled with emotions in romantic premises with naturalistic
beauty. The artist had equipped the love-depicted fables of Radha and Krishna with
detailed ornamentation. We find beautiful depictions of women in different scenes and
situations. The brilliant looks of the female figures, their natural gestures, their bodice
and veil give completeness to the paintings, where grace of women is revealed. It
shows us the culture and living practices of people during that period and helps us in
the reconstruction of Women's history for the Garhwal region.
Acknowledgement: We would like to acknowledge the Financial assistance
received from the University of Hyderabad, under UPE, Phase II, (University with a
Potential for Excellence, Phase II), to carry out this Project.
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� French, J. C. Himalayan Art. London: Oxford UP, 1931.
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Web Resources:
� Garhwal Paintings. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/. Accessed 15 March 2017.
� Garhwal Painting. http://www.indianart.ru/eng/garhwal/index.php. Accessed 20
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Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
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Annexure 1: A night of storm, a lady, abhisarika nayika, going through the dark
to meet her lover.
(Source: Archer, W.G. Garhwal Painting. London: Faber and Faber, 1954, p.13. Also http://
www.indianart.ru/eng/garhwal/5.php.)
Annexure 2: A lady at the tryst, utka nayika, waiting for her lover to arrive.
(Source: Archer, W.G. Garhwal Painting. London: Faber and Faber, 1954, p.7. Also http://
www.indianart.ru/eng/garhwal/2.php.)
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Annexure 3: Vipralabdha nayika: The heroine stands on a bed of green leaves
under a beautiful green tree.
(Source: Lal, Mukandi. Garhwal Painting. Delhi: Publications Division (Government of India),
1968, p. 60)
Annexure 4: Lovers in a moon-lit retreat, Baz Bahadur and Rupmati, resting on a
hillside.
(Source: Archer, W.G. Garhwal Painting. London: Faber and Faber, 1954, p.11. Also http://
www.indianart.ru/eng/garhwal/4.php.)http://www.indianart.ru/eng/garhwal/4.php.)
Representation of Women in Garhwal Miniature Paintings
137
Annexure 5: Radha bathing, while Krishna watching her in rapture.
(Source: http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O72908/krishna-and-radha-painting-unknown/)
Annexure 6: A painting depicting mor priya, a lady with a peacock on terrace.
(Source: Victoria & Albert Museum.http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O432885/painting- rammola/.)
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Annexure 7: Illustration to the Indian musical mode, Sindhuri Ragini. Garhwal, c.
1790. Ram Gopal Collection, London.
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