History of Perspective in Painting

Indagare sugli esordi della prospettiva è possibile soltanto se si tenta di comprendere il modus operandi e la forma mentis di Brunelleschi. Ricostruendo la cornice concettuale possiamo attendibilmente azzardare quali siano state le strategie cognitive e quali le modalità operative che portarono, nella prima metà del Quattrocento a Firenze, a mettere in atto un sistema di rappresentazione spaziale che tutt’ora chiamiamo prospettiva rinascimentale. Cercheremo pertanto di dimostrare che Brunelleschi fu protagonista in un ambiente ove artisti, letterati e mercanti ritenevano i concetti di accertamento e dimostrazione, strettamente correlati all’esperienza concreta: un elogio del sapere pragmatico che anticipa, sotto l’aspetto della verificazione sperimentale, la scienza moderna. Fu proprio in seno a questo sapere pragmatico che prese corpo il concetto di verifica e dimostrazione e, nello specifico, il processo si realizzò nelle botteghe e nei cantieri degli architetti e degli artisti rinascimentali, le cui opere furono valorizzate dagli umanisti fiorentini ai fini di una glorificazione della storia cittadina. Non a caso Ernst Gombrich pose in evidenza che l’idea di progresso nacque nel quadro delle conoscenze applicative: è a partire da Brunelleschi e da Ghiberti che l’artista iniziò a lavorare come uno scienziato poiché le sue opere servivano anche a illustrare «in modo insolito e ingegnoso come il maestro risolve un problema artistico».

This article considers the devotional functions of perspective in Italian fifteenth-century tabernacle design, asking why the perspectival backdrop became such a ubiquitous motif, especially in tabernacles designed to house the Eucharist, relics or miracle-working images. It maintains that the principal function of perspective was not an attempt to represent the natural world but rather a means of revealing the heavenly one; and it identifies five devotional functions associated with perspective, namely, ‘focusing devotion’, ‘revealing the hidden’, ‘enhancing the size of the holy’, ‘distancing the heavenly’ and ‘radiating holiness’. These functions, so the article contends, were to have an impact beyond the micro-architectural world of liturgical furnishings and go on to influence perspective use in large-scale architecture as is shown through the analysis of two works by Donato Bramante, S. Maria presso San Satiro and his celebrated Tempietto.

Este capítulo está dedicado a las fuentes ópticas de Leonardo da Vinci, que pueden haber contribuido a su conocimiento y a su pericia práctica de la perspectiva.
Para estudiar las fuentes de Leonardo, aplicaré el "método de los trazadores", un refinamiento del estudio de los paralelismos textuales que consiste en: 1/ establecer la comparación en palabras de baja frecuencia léxica; 2/ extender la contraposición de los textos emparentados al mayor número de textos posible. Consideraré tres casos: las fuentes vinculadas a un nombre de autor, las fuentes no vinculadas a un nombre de autor y las fuentes sin paralelismo textual.

Das islamische Reich al-Andalus gilt schon lange als Vermittler antiken Wissens an die Höfe Italiens. Archäologische Untersuchungen einer Gartenanlage bei Córdoba lassen nun vermuten, dass das neue Menschenbild der Renaissance zudem von muslimischen Errungenschaften inspiriert war.

Resumen
Muchos creadores, a lo largo de la historia, se han sumergido en un ámbito oscuro y trasgresor; las pinturas negras y la trágica serie "Los desastres de la guerra", de Goya; los seres metamorfoseados y devorados en un violento acto sexual de Picasso; el mundo oscuro y árido dibujado por A. Kubin; Francis Bacon, a través de desnudos deformes e incoherentes, sangrientos y deshuesados; el mundo caótico y viscoso de David Lynch con criaturas que fluctúan cambiando su anatomía, amorfas y monstruosas (Eraserhead). Tod Browning, que presenta un circo repleto de seres con deformaciones espeluznantes que la misma naturaleza ha creado (Freaks). Lo extremo, lo abyecto, lo grotesco y lo monstruoso, son características que muchos artistas han izado como bandera de su trabajo. Desde los violentos desajustes picassianos a las hinchazones de Dobuffer, las mutilaciones y las laceraciones de De Kooning, el grupo Cobra y seguidores como Saura, los alargamientos de Giacometti o los sutiles desajustes entre forma y color de Léger y de Warhol, por no mencionar los hirientes trazados de Beuys, se podría establecer una catalogación de todas las violencias a las cuales el artista ha sometido a lo real en el momento de representarlo.
Dr. Adolfo Vasquez Rocca

Taunggyi is a hill town in the southern Shan State, Myanmar. The Taunggyi town plan was firstly laid out in 1892 and designated as a town on September 15, 1894 after annexation of British. Taunggyi was appeared by relocating a British fort from the old town of Mong Thauk, east of Inle Lake in Nyaungshwe.

Some research has discussed the Composition Aesthetics and the layout problems of graphic design. In Lebanese higher education, graphic design students face difficulty in applying the elements of design and the principles of design in their artwork. Graphic design students are not well introduced to the Golden Ratio grids which stand as important tools for solving layout problems. Another problem is that teaching the Golden Ratio has been mildly integrated in the Lebanese higher education curriculum. The dissertation examines the effect of Golden Ratio on enhancing the composition of both Balance and Aesthetics and sheds light on the difference between the Rule of Thirds’ grid and the Golden Ratio grids in high education graphic design sophomore classes in one public and one private university along three academic years. The dissertation includes three research studies: The Experimental Design, the Randomized Design or the Correlational Design, and the Comparative Design. The first two studies included the four-group Solomon design. Sophomore graphic design students were the participants of the three studies, and three educators were the participants in both public and private universities in studies two and three. Four instruments were used to collect data: non-participant classroom observations were the instrument used in the three studies, pretest – intervention – posttest was used in study one, Evaluation Table of the principles of design and elements of abstract design (patterns, colors of black and white, lines, forms) was used in study two, Evaluation Table of the principles of design and elements of abstract or non-abstract design (patterns, color, lines, forms) was used in study three. Findings showed that the use of the Golden Ratio grid better enhanced the Aesthetic and Compositional Organization Criteria than the use of the Rule of Thirds’ grid in both public and private universities in studies one and two. Besides, the Aesthetic Criterion was performed more effectively according to the Rule of Thirds, and the Compositional Organization Criterion was more effective according to the Golden Ratio in both public and private universities in study three. The academic limitations of the findings are stated. Recommendations for continual use of the Rule of Thirds and the integration of the Golden Ration grids in the Lebanese higher education graphic design curriculum are suggested.

De l’histoire de l’art européen à la réalisation des autoportraits de Morimura Yasumasa, il n’y a qu’un pas entre ce que nous appelons communément citation et pastiche. Néanmoins, la production de l’artiste chemine entre les concepts du "mitate" et du remake à partir d’images appartenant à la mémoire collective. Cette approche de l’œuvre de Morimura donne lieu à une nouvelle version de l’image répétée à travers le corps travesti de l’artiste, vecteur d’une "japonisation" sous-entendue.

The history of European art to the achievement of self-portraits Morimura Yasumasa, there is a thin border between what we commonly call "citation/quotation" and pastiche. However, the work of the artist progresses between concepts of "mitate" and "remake" from images belonging to the collective memory. This approach Morimura's production gives rise to a new version of the image repeated through the cross-dressing of body of the artist, a vector implied "Japanisation".

La Trinité ou Le Trône de grâce, fresque monumentale (667 cm de haut sur 317 cm de large) réalisée sur la troisième travée de la nef gauche de l'église Santa Maria Novella, fut l’oeuvre du peintre florentin Tommaso di Giovanni Cassai alias Masaccio (1401 – 1428). Peinte entre 1425 et 1427, au matin du Quattrocento, siècle durant lequel les arts mécaniques – peintures, architectures, sculptures – sont réhabilités, signant ainsi les prémisses de la future Renaissance italienne, l’oeuvre s’inscrit dans un cadre spatio-temporel dans lequel l’Église et la religion catholique détiennent une place centrale dans la vie des fidèles, c’est-à-dire de la majorité des Européens. L’artiste du Bas Moyen Âge peint ainsi son œuvre dans un lieu de culte sous le contrôle des dominicains. Le commanditaire nous est cependant inconnu. Si des hypothèses à son sujet ont été avancées par les historiens de l’art, aucune n’est assez concluante pour pouvoir affirmer un quelconque semblant de vérité.
Réalisée lors d’une période complexe, véritable nœud chronologique à la croisée de deux âges – entre la pré-Renaissance des Duecento et Trencento et la Haute Renaissance –, l’œuvre nous met face à de multiples interrogations, historiques comme artistiques. Pourquoi celle-ci représente typiquement les mentalités de l’époque, lesquelles sont régies par la foi envers le Christ ? Pourquoi l’œuvre, encore grandement influencée par l’esthétique médiévale dévoile, en fait, des caractéristiques proprement modernes, à l’aune du Quattrocento ? Afin de répondre à ces interrogations, nous tâcherons d’abord de décrire et de déceler la signification iconographique de l’œuvre, avant d’analyser sa plastique et sa stylistique. Nous terminerons par une remise dans son contexte de l’œuvre par le biais de comparaisons.

Publikation der Dissertation "Fotografie und das Dispositiv Perspektive". Link zum Verlag: https://www.kulturverlag-kadmos.de/buch/perspektive-in-der-fotografie.html


Perspective in photography.
Studies on the naturalisation of the camera image, Berlin: Kadmos 2018. Publication of my Dissertation "Fotografie und das Dispositiv Perspektive" in German with an english summary and table of contents.


This book explores the significance of the tradition of linear perspective for the medium of photography. As a paradigmatic apparatus (in French: dispositif), perspective plays a central role in Western cultural traditions. In the pictorial tradition, perspective defines the iconic representation of a picture as a symbolic gaze through a window that confronts a reality. In perspective, the flat two-dimensional surface of a picture symbolizes a three-dimensional space, as well as a subject, in the form of a ‘natural’ gaze as the organizing instance of the pictorial space. It is here that the symbolic function of the perspectival apparatus emerges: The subject inside this structure claims a true and autonomous representation and interpretation of the world. Through such a claim, the holistic, theocratic world view was brought into question and multiple anthropocentric views with universal validity came into being. These formal and symbolic functions of perspective can also be traced within the medium of photography. Because of the special realism of photography, perspective was often understood as a natural and obvious effect of the camera. This belief strengthened confidence in the mechanical objectivity of photographic images. By contrast, this study does not take the neutrality and obviousness of perspective in photography for granted; instead, it tries to show that, in the medium of photography, perspective functions as a cultural substructure. On this basis, there were two questions that oriented the work. The first asks how perspective functions as an apparatus in photography, the second how perspective determines the iconic structure of the photographic index.
Prehistories of photography usually understood perspective as a fundamental historical origin of photography. Through the invention of linear perspective during the Renaissance, in around 1420, a long causal history was set in motion. As Heinrich Schwarz proposed, the realism that perspective introduced to painting was to culminate in the invention of photography in the 1830s. The first chapter of my work is a critical examination of such macro-historical interpretations of perspective. Through this I develop a different working method, one which was implied by some remarks of the scholars of perspective Erwin Panofsky and Hubert Damisch. The core of these remarks bears the idea that perspective was incorporated in the internal geometry of the photographic camera, or to put it in other words: The projection of light that takes place inside the camera works according to the system of perspective.

The manner in which mathematical perspective was deployed in Florentine painting during the second quarter of the quattrocento both clarifies and confuses our idea of how this innovation was viewed. Presented with a system in which the creation of convincing space was an attainable object, painters nevertheless continued to produce work in which perspective was not slavishly constructed but subtly skewed, manipulated and adjusted. Paolo Uccello's panels of The Battle of San Romano and Andrea del Castagno's Last Supper and Passion frescoes at Sant' Apollonia exemplify this, sharing the quirk of serially exploiting and abandoning perspective and consequently of assembling wortds marked by deliberate spatial ambiguity. This article examines how these artists, celebrated for their skill as perspectivists, subordinated mathematical precision to other compositional and didactic ends, and discusses their patronally-driven reasons for doing so.

In 1702, the second emperor of the Qing dynasty ordered construction of a new summer palace in Rehe (now Chengde, Hebei) to support his annual tours north among the court's Inner Mongolian allies. The Mountain Estate to Escape the Heat (Bishu Shanzhuang) was strategically located at the node of mountain "veins" through which the Qing empire's geomantic energy was said to flow. At this site, from late spring through early autumn, the Kangxi emperor presided over rituals of intimacy and exchange that celebrated his rule: garden tours, banquets, entertainments, and gift giving.

Stephen Whiteman draws on resources and methods from art and architectural history, garden and landscape history, early modern global history, and historical geography to reconstruct the Mountain Estate as it evolved under Kangxi, illustrating the importance of landscape as a medium for ideological expression during the early Qing and in the early modern world more broadly. Examination of paintings, prints, historical maps, newly created maps informed by GIS-based research, and personal accounts reveals the significance of geographic space and its representation in the negotiation of Qing imperial ideology. The first monograph in any language to focus solely on the art and architecture of the Kangxi court, Where Dragon Veins Meet illuminates the court's production and deployment of landscape as a reflection of contemporary concerns and offers new insight into the sources and forms of Qing power through material expressions.

Unos años antes de que Cesare Beccaria publicara su tratado «De los delitos y las penas» (1764), donde proponía la abolición del tormento como procedimiento de prueba y castigo, Piranesi realizó dieciséis grabados de lugares imposibles, densos y oscuros, en los que enormes cadenas, escaleras,instrumentos de tortura, ruedas y puentes levadizos se entrecruzan con pequeñas figuras gesticulantes, que acentúan la inmensidad de los espacios espectrales.

In the Quattrocento and Cinquecento the rise of linear perspective caused many polemics which opposed the supporters of an artificial geometrisation of sight to those who were praising the qualities of the drawing according to nature, or were invoking some arguments on a physiological basis. These debates can be grouped according to the four alternatives that form their central concerns: restricted vs. broad field of vision; ocular immobility vs. mobility; curvilinear vs. planar picture; monocular vs. binocular vision. By retaining the first terms of these four alternatives, the history of perspective eliminated many heterodox constructions. From the viewpoint of mathematisation the interest of these debates is that they succeeded, rather than preceded, the adoption of a perspective system defined by the intersection of the visual pyramid. Tus the history of linear perspective constitutes a genuine case of a posteriori justification, or, put differently, it gives us a case of upside down mathematisation.

Resumen: Entre 1416 y 1424 aproximadamente, el arquitecto, escultor e ingeniero florentino, Filippo Brunelleschi, hizo la primera demostración de la que se tiene noticia de una pintura en correcta perspectiva matemática. Si bien estos datos son recogidos por distintas fuentes, ninguna de ellas aclara el medio por el cual llega a la deducción de los principios de este sistema. En el presente artículo argu-mentaremos que la óptica, cuya autonomía como ciencia es alcanzada de manera defi-nitiva hacia mediados del siglo XIII, tuvo un rol crucial en el desarrollo del método pers-pectivo de Brunelleschi. Intentaremos esclare-cer también el rol que el espejo cumplió en su demostración así como los principios básicos de la catóptrica aplicados en la misma. Abstract: Between 1416 y 1424, Filippo Brunel-leschi, Florentine architect sculptor and engineer , was responsible for the first picture in linear perspective for which we have notice. Although this information is transmitted by several sources, none of them tell us exactly the process by which the principles of the perspective method were deduced. In this article I argue that optics, whose status as autonomous science has definitely been achieved in the second half of the thirteenth century, had a crucial role in the development of Brunelleschi's perspective method. I will also try to unveil the role played by the mirror and the basic principles of catoptrics in his public demonstration.

In a previous issue of this magazine [Tijdschrift voor Historische Geografie, 2/ 2017], Gert Eijkelboom and Gerrit Vermeer criticized the claim of professor of art history Frans Grijzenhout, who indicated Vlamingstraat 40-42 in Delft as the location of the famous painting The Little Street (ca. 1658) by Johannes Vermeer. Eijkelboom and Vermeer doubt his discovery, considering the lack of measurable evidence. In her contribution, art historian Heidi de Mare points out that in this debate the wrong questions are asked. Based on the 19th century modern-romantic concept of art, the discussion is about the extent to which a 17th century artistic painting can document contemporary reality in an exact way. More fruitful is to investigate this visual artifact in its own formal and conceptual context – in the light of the early modern Dutch art of painting. Three early modern Dutch concepts, by chance mentioned by Grijzenhout – ‘vrije plaets’ (free courtyard), ‘perspectives’, ‘schilderachtige’ (picturesque) – present unforeseen findings to look at the issue in a different way and offer new answers in understanding the painting as a historical source.

This article refutes today's widely accepted theory of using the optical devices such as camera obscura or lucida in the art of the old masters. The analysis reveals that the painters used a sophisticated geometrical system to create the precise three-dimensional space in their artworks.

The present paper discusses some new findings on the topic of Masaccio's Trinity fresco pers- pective reconstruction. Some scholars have tried to reduce the fresco's anomalies with the help of photogramme- trical reproductions and computer analysis. On this basis, it has been argued that Masaccio used the normal case of costruzione legittima. It is very likely that Masaccio took the lines of the plane joining the abaci of the capi- tals as a guide for drawing the vanishing lines of the coffered vault. However, in doing so, he followed an erro- neous method of construction disregarded till now. The aberrations thus discovered strongly support the view that Masaccio's Trinity fresco is not a model of linear perspective. The thesis that Masaccio designed the fresco with the help of a ground plan and elevations is dubious, and the search for the distance point is condemned to remain an unending problem.

In his contribution to the 1995 exhibition catalogue 'Johannes Vermeer ', Jorgen Wadum, then chief paintings conservator at the Mauritshuis, has provided a study on the artist's use of perspective in which he reveals new evidence of Vermeer's working methods, the direct result of his examination of the paintings exhibited.

La “prospettiva”, come sistema di rappresentazione, deriva il suo nome dalla parola perspectiva che designava l’ottica nel Medioevo latino. Questo collegamento dipende dal fatto che alcuni dei princìpi della prospettiva provengono dalle teorie della visione. Tra i due insiemi, esistono sia rapporti di continuità che di discontinuità. La continuità è stabilita dallo studio dei parallelismi testuali. Tuttavia due biforcazioni notevoli hanno segnato l’evoluzione successiva della perspectiva artificialis. Oltre il rapporto fra scienza e tecnica che le caratterizza, la perspectiva medievale era tricefala (optica, catoptrica, dioptrica), mentre la prospettiva sarà uno studio della visione diretta; la perspectiva presupponeva la visione binoculare, mentre la prospettiva lineare adotterà la visione monoculare.

Uno dei possibili approcci al tema della prospettiva parietale è quello di partire con il porsi la domanda: perché nasce la quadratura? Chi decide per questo tipo di decorazione parietale? Come avviene la scelta del pittore di quadro? E, infine, come si muove l’artista dal momento in cui il lavoro gli viene proposto fino a quando la sua opera viene “collaudata”?
Si tratta di indagare le motivazioni del committente e quelle del progetto decorativo, di entrare nel meccanismo che porta dall’esigenza (parete da decorare e volontà del committente) all’opera realizzata (progetto dell’illusione e sua realizzazione in situ). Queste dicotomie committente-artista, ambiente reale-ambiente illusorio, tecnica prospettica-risultato artistico rappresentano la caratteristica prima delle opere che rientrano nel grande capitolo della decorazione quadraturista e implicano la difficoltà, spesso riconosciuta dagli studiosi, di scindere progetto iconografico e progetto prospettico. Se però l’indagine della componente figurativa è stata ampiamente discussa nell’ambito storico-artistico cui naturalmente compete, dove inizia la pertinenza degli studiosi di Storia della Rappresentazione e di costruzione prospettica?
Il testo ipotizza che si possa a ragione affermare che è proprio nel momento in cui la commessa è partita e il committente ha temporaneamente alienato le sue necessità affidandole all’artista che inizia quel capitolo che riguarda da vicino l’approccio degli architetti. È in questo momento, infatti, che entra in ballo la questione progettuale: l’artista comincia a lavorare al “progetto di illusione” che coinvolge l’interpretazione stessa dello spazio architettonico in cui l’opera sarà realizzata, che implica una sua trasformazione, sia pure con i soli mezzi dell’illusione, una astuta interpretazione della fruizione dello spazio reale che prelude al coinvolgimento guidato dell’osservatore e delle sue percezioni attenuto atraverso lo strumento prospettico utilizzato nel pieno della sua espressione.

KEY WORDS: Quadratura, Quadratrurismo, Scienza della Rappresentazione, prospettiva, restituzione, superfici, Vallombrosa, Abbazia, raddrizzamento

L’étude archéologique d’un parc privé d’époque califale de la région de Cordoue suggère que le jardin oriental et la conception de l’homme qu’il convie ont eu une influence sur
la concrétisation des idées humanistes dans les jardins d’agrément de la toute première Renaissance italienne.

RESUMEN
Tras el creciente interés concitado por la pintura de Edward Hopper -quien ha sido elevado a la categoría del artista norteamericano más representativo del siglo XX- cabe preguntarse por las causas de este fenómeno, más aún cuando Hopper como artista no fue nunca un revolucionario: ni en su técnica pictórica, ni en su lenguaje artístico, ni, tampoco, en la elaboración intelectual que se hallaba tras sus telas. Hopper 2 fue más bien un conservador, incluso un reaccionario 3; el concepto aplicado a su pintura, american scene painting , refleja a la perfección su mundo: un universo en el que no tenían cabida las rupturas de la abstracción y las inquietudes vanguardistas de la pintura europea. Sin embargo, aunque Hopper no lo supiese, lo que pintaba era un mundo sin salida, donde sus habitantes estaban atrapados. Todos sus cuadros parecen encerrarse en una impotencia tranquila, resignada, que fluye desde el rostro de las figuras solitarias o se disemina por las escenas urbanas."
Dr. ADOLFO VÁSQUEZ ROCCA

Disegno e Design sono termini coestensivi perché ogni teoria del progetto presuppone una teoria dell’immaginazione progettuale e, in definitiva, una teoria delle immagini. Questo libro cerca di circoscrivere una teoria del Disegno partendo da tre classi pratiche di oggetti-immagine che si producono progettando, quelli che genericamente chiamiamo rappresentazioni tecniche, prefigurazioni euristiche ed elaborati di autonomo valore artistico (raffigurazioni evocative, simboliche, suggestive, …). Ma questi “oggetti-immagine” trovano senso solo in rapporto a immagini e immaginari che possono essere colti solo attraverso una cornice teorica composita che cerca di sussumere coerentemente (tradurre tra loro) teorie epistemologicamente assai lontane tra loro: la tradizione morfologica che culmina specialmente nella Semiofisica di René Thom (1988), l’antropologia delle immagini (Belting), la fenomenologia delle immagini (Piana, Spinicci, …), la semiotica del visibile di tradizione greimassiana (Fontanille, Bordron, Floch, …).
Il libro cerca appunto di tradurre tra loro questi diversi punti di vista soprattutto attraverso la visione molto comprensiva della tecno-estetica di Gilbert Simondon, specialmente della teoria delle immagini che il filosofo francese offriva nel del 1965-66 col suo corso (di psicologia) sull’immaginazione. Muovendo dal pensiero di Simondon il libro cerca di delineare un modo di intendere la disciplina del Disegno inteso come morfologia degli artefatti allo scopo (etico) di farne uno studio della (reale) responsabilità dell’immaginazione, intendendo le immagini anzitutto come “oggetti sociali” e come materiale primario delle pratiche progettuali.

The authentically traditional Ottoman painting found in book reproductions and wall decorative compositions gained its own uniqueness after the second half of the 16th century. Bearing such a legacy of almost five hundred years, a complete transformation to European style painting was arduous. The endeavour of such Ottoman sultans as Sultan Selim III, Sultan Mahmut II, Sultan Abdülmecid I, Sultan Abdülaziz and Sultan Abdülhamid II in the engagement of all the possible means to educate the new generation of artists was outstanding. Development of Turkish painting reflects the whole process of transformation that the Ottoman Empire had to deal with during second half of the 19th century. Despite the encouragements of Ottoman Palace circles, some Turkish artists did not have difficulty in adopting the main rules of the western style painting techniques. However, they remained devoted to the dominant believes of the eastern society, performing entirely figureless landscapes or still life compositions. The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of the Ottoman painters who received their education in Europe. More importantly, in 1914, women were given opportunity to enrol for studies to the Sanai-i Nefise Mektebi. The caliph Abdülmecid Efendi (1868-1944) was renowned for his professional painting. He was also the founder and the chairman of Turkish prime painters organization –The Ottoman Painters Association (1908–1919). Abdülmecid painted portraits of his wives and children as well as still life and landscapes, alongside some of the most significant moments of the Ottoman history. One can be easily intrigued by the variety of the subjects he chose, his ways of depiction, his manner of naming the paintings and even the diversity of his brush strokes. The legacy of Abdülmecid Efendi has multiple significant aspects which still comprise a broad field for detailed studies.