OREGON TECH. CLASS REE547: IEEE RESEARCH PAPER
Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation in
Wind Turbines' Generator Control
Aaron Ponder, Student Member, IEEE. Long Pham, Student Member, IEEE.
Abstract— Three phase voltage source inverters supply
variable voltage and frequency to alternating current machines.
Pulse width modulation (PWM) is often used to transfer supply
voltage from direct current (DC) into three-phase alternating
current (AC) for operation of three-phase AC machines. Space
vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) is a computationally
controlled PWM technique applied in industry for its efficient use
of direct current voltage, low switching loss, low computational
complexity, and high flexibility. We collected information from
available sources in order to understand SVPWM and the
particular qualities this type of PWM presents. An intuitive
approach section, followed by space vector representation,
mathematical reasoning, and modulation strategy sections clearly
present information to the reader. The result is a well-rounded
understanding of the SVPWM technique. SVPWM high switching
rates lead undesirable total harmonic distortion rates. Research
into methods of reducing this total harmonic distortion is
suggested.
Index Terms— AC-DC power converters, pulse inverters,
power conversion, and space vector pulse width modulation.
I.
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Kirnnich, Heinrick and Bowes first developed PWM in the
mid 1960’s [1]. Carrier based techniques developed first,
followed by SPWM in 1964 by Schonung and Stemmler [2].
Not until the mid-1980’s was SVPWM introduced [3]. This
technique held strong advantages allowing for higher DC bus
efficiency, voltage magnitude control, low power losses, and
variable frequency control. Other advantages of SVPWM
include a wide linear modulation range, low switching loss,
easy implementation, and fewer computations due to the
reduced number of sin functions. Advances in microprocessors
decreased computation time further, leading SVPWM to
become the preferred PWM technique.
PWM aims to control duty ratio of pulsating waveforms
using an input waveform to calculate duty cycle of switches.
Waveform control is based on modulated signal information.
There are many approaches to the modulation of signal
information with none performing best for all situations. We
have chosen to focus on SVPWM due to its widespread use in
industry. In SVPWM, the three phase variables are expressed
in space vectors. Each desired voltage vector can be simulated
by an averaging effect between two adjacent active vectors and
a zero vector. Modulation strategy plays an important role in
the minimization of harmonics and the switching losses in
converters. The technique follows five set steps. First, phase
angle and voltage reference vector is calculated based on input
voltage components. Second, the modulation index is
calculated and it is determined if the system is in the over
modulation region. Third, the reference voltage vector section
is found, as are the adjacent space vectors based on sector angle.
Fourth, time intervals Ta, Tb, and To are calculated based on
Tsource and phase angle. Finally, for different switching states,
the modulation times are calculated [4]. SVPWM is applied to
output voltage and input current; the main objective being
approximation of reference voltage vector utilizing eight
switching patterns [5]. The most common application of
SVPWM is to create three-phase AC from a DC supply using
multiple class-D amplifiers for use in driving motors. This
technique generates less harmonic distortion in output voltage
and input current to AC motor, as well as provides advantages
under unbalanced motor operation conditions leading it to be
the PWM technique of choice.
One of the largest advantages of SVPWM algorithm for
PWM is the increased efficiency of DC bus voltage use.
SVPWM maximum peak fundamental magnitude of 90.6% of
inverter capacity is 15.5% over SPWM [6]. In 1991, Holtz
proposed over-modulation based SVPWM, further improving
the DC bus voltage usage to the levels of six step waves [7, 8].
Fig. 1. Doubly Fed Induction Generator configuration for WTS [9]
Fig. 2. Fully Rated Converter configuration for WTS [9]
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OREGON TECH. CLASS REE547: IEEE RESEARCH PAPER
II. SPACE VECTOR PWM – AN INTUITIVE APPROACH
Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 show typical configurations for variable
speed Wind Turbine Systems. In both cases, the generator side
converter generates a 3-phase AC voltage from a DC supply to
feed either into the stator (FSC) (Fig. 3) or into the rotor of the
generator (DFIG). By controlling the magnitude and frequency
of the output 3-phase AC voltage, the converter can control the
torque of the generator to maximize energy harvesting from the
wind. The 3-phase AC voltage can be constructed using various
techniques. A modern technique popularly used in 3-phase
inverters is Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation (SVPWM).
In SVPWM, the 3-phase inverter (Fig. 3) is treated as a state
machine. Two switches on the same leg cannot turn-on or turnoff at the same time, therefore, the state machine has eight
states. Fig. 4 shows these eight states with a simplified circuit
illustrating state one. Six of the eight states result in voltage
applied to the generator windings with two states resulting in
zero voltage. Fig. 5 illustrates directions and amplitudes of the
space vector voltages applied to the generator corresponding to
the six active states. These vectors inform us of the direction
that the inverter is attempting to establish a magnetic field
inside the generator. To control the torque output of the
generator, we need to create a smoothly rotating vector. The
inverter must have the ability to establish a vector at any angle,
not just the six vector shown in Fig. 5.
By switching between two adjacent vectors quickly, the
generator will see an average vector somewhere in-between the
two switching vectors. The filter between the inverter and the
generator (Fig. 3) will filter out the high frequency effect caused
by the switching. For example, in the space vector diagram in
Fig. 5, if we spend an equal amount of time switching between
vector V1 at 0o and V2 at 60o, the resulting average vector will
be 30o. If we spend more time with V1 activated than V2, the
average vector will closer to V1. By controlling the switching
time, we can create an average vector at any angle between V1
and V2. Similarly, switching between V2 and V3 we can create
an average vector at any angle in sector 2 (Fig. 5), and so on. In
this way we can output an average vector at any angle we want
using just the six vectors in Fig. 5, and we can rotate it
smoothly.
Fig. 5. Six voltage vectors inside the generator resulting from state 1 to 6 of
the inverter.
III. SPACE VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF 3-PHASE SYSTEM
The traditional single-phase equivalent phasor circuit model
is useful in analyzing electrical machines in sinusoidal steady
state operations. However, the model is not sufficient to
understand electrical machines in transient states, which happen
when the machine is starting up or trying to balance out external
forces. The space-vector theory was developed to remedy this
by providing a better understanding, and thus more precise
control of electrical machines.
Vector representation of 3-phase systems were first
introduced in 1929 by Park [11] and later improved by Kron in
1942 [12]. Kovacs and Racz performed a detailed mathematical
treatment and physical explanation for Space Vector theory to
help understand transient responses of electrical machines in
1959 [13]. In the early seventies Stepina and Serrano
introduced the concept of a “Space Phasor” instead of “Space
Vector” as a better tool for analyzing electrical machines
[14,15]. Nowadays, “Space Phasor” is mainly used for current
and flux analysis of electrical machines [16].
A. Space vectors representation of 3-phase systems – an
introduction.
Fig. 3. Two-Level Voltage-Source Inverter
Fig. 4. Eight useful states of the inverter with a simplified circuit illustrating
A simplified two-dimensional representation of the magnetic
axis of a two-pole three-phase machine is found in Fig. 6. Each
phase winding produces a sinusoidal flux density in the air gap.
In order to simplify calculations, we assume several things: the
air gap flux density is sinusoidal, the saturation of the
magnetizing circuit is constant, there are no core losses, and
resistance/inductances are independent of the temperature and
Fig. 6. The magnetic axes of a two-pole three-phase machine [10].
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OREGON TECH. CLASS REE547: IEEE RESEARCH PAPER
space vector is equal to 3/2 of the peak value of the sinusoidal
phase current iA, iC, iC. In order to make use of the old equivalent
phasor circuit model and machine parameters such as the
resistances, inductances, and rated power, the space vector is
scaled by the factor of 2/3 in most literatures. However, some
literatures use scale factor
Fig. 7. The magnetic axes of a two-pole three-phase machine [10].
frequency.
The magnetomotive force created by each phase can be
calculated by applying Ampere’s law to a closed path in Fig. 7:
Fa NsiA cos
2
)
3
4
Fc NsiC cos( )
3
Fb NsiB cos(
(1)
and a very few literatures do
not scale at all. This is a source of confusion.
Space vector indicates a vector in the space inside an
electrical machine. It was first developed to analyze electrical
machines, but was later generalized to the study any 3-phase
system. Although they make use of the same machine
parameters, space vectors and space phasors are very different.
Space vector is a simultaneous representation of three-phase
quantities as a function of time. This is in contrast to the space
phasor, which is not based on time. Space vector models
simplify the representation and the calculation of 3-phase
systems, especially in asymmetrical 3-phase systems.
Space vector representation of 3-phase quantities xa(t), xb(t),
xc(t) is given by a vector in the , complex plane [16]:
complex
F stator Fa Fb 120 Fc 240
x x jx
a e
Where
Fa Fb e j 2 /3 Fc e j 4 /3
Fa aFb a 2 Fc
3
B. Space vector formal definition:
The total magnetomotive force, sum of Fa , Fb , Fc , can be
represented by a space vector expressed in the ,
plane attached to the stator (Fig. 7):
2
(2)
With a e
representing the positive rotation of 120
degrees.
According to eq.1, the magnetomotive forces are created by
phase currents. Similarly, we can imagine that the total force
j 2 /3
space vector F stator is created by a space vector current istator ,
j 2 /3
2
xa (t ) axb (t ) a 2 xc (t )
3
a is the positive
1 2 j 3 2
(6)
�⁄
rotation
:
The , components of the space vector can also be
achieved by Clarke transform:
1
1
x 2
2
x
x
3
3
0 2
1
xa (t )
2
xb (t )
3
xc (t )
2
which represents the total effect of the 3-phase current iA, iC, iC.
C. Space vector output of 3-phase inverter:
F stator Ns istator
The 3-phase inverter in Fig. 8 is herein considered. As
previously discussed, the inverter has eight useful switching
states. Six of the eight states result in voltages applied to the
generator windings with two states resulting in zero voltage.
(3)
From eq. 1, eq. 2 and eq. 3, we have:
istator ia aib a 2ic
(4)
In the case of sinusoidal steady state phase current, we have:
2
4
) a 2 I m sin( t
)
3
3
3
3
(5)
I m (cos(t ) j sin(t )) I me j(t )
2
2
istator I m sin( t) aI m sin( t
Fig. 8. The 3-phase inverter and the α, β complex plane.
Eq. 5 shows that the current space vector rotates with the
same angular frequency of phase currents. The amplitude of the
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OREGON TECH. CLASS REE547: IEEE RESEARCH PAPER
The voltage output of the inverter can be represent by a space
vector v in the , complex plane (Fig. 8). This vector is
calculated by phase voltages using eq. 6:
2
v (va avb a 2vc )
3
Where
(7)
va , vb , vc are the output phase voltages of the
inverter.
According to KVL, we have:
va vAN vN , vb vBN vN , vc vCN vN
Replacing these into eq. 7:
2
v [(vAN vN ) (vBN vN )a (vCN vN )a 2 ]
3
2
[vAN vBN a vCN a 2 vN (1 a a 2 )]
3
Since 1 a a 1 e
2
j 2 /3
e
j 4 /3
Fig. 10. The reference voltage vector vref is resolved by time-averaging of
the nearest two active switching vectors.
IV. SPACE VECTOR PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (SVPWM)
voltage space vector
0 , we have:
technique, the reference voltage vector
2
v (vAN vBN a vCN a 2 )
3
vref v jv
vAN Vdc Sa ; vBN Vdc Sb ; vCN Vdc Sc ;
2
v Vdc ( Sa aSb a 2 Sc )
3
vref is resolved by time-
averaging the nearest two active switching vectors:
With the state of each switch, Sa ; Sb ; Sc equal to 0 or 1, we
have:
vref v jv . Then, by SVPWM
In Vector control, the current controller calculates a reference
Tk
T
vk k 1 vk 1
Ts
Ts
with k 1...6
With:
Ts : PWM switching period. Ts = Tk + Tk+ 1 + T0,
Tk : Duration inverter output vector vk
(8)
Tk+ 1 : Duration inverter output vector vk 1
T0 : Duration inverter output zero voltage.
The output voltage space vector v corresponding to the eight
states of the inverter are depicted in Fig. 9.
Replacing
vk
from (eq. 9) and solving for Tk ,
k
sin
Tk
3Ts
3
T V
1)
k
(
k 1
dc
sin
3
With
Tk 1
k
3 v
(k 1) v
cos
3
cos
we have:
(10)
k 1...6 as the sector number.
V. MODULATION STRATEGIES
As we previously discussed, in order to create an output
Fig. 9. Voltage space vector corresponding to eight states of the inverter
This result can be generalized into:
j ( k 1)
2
3
Vdc e
vk 3
0
if k = 1..6
if k = 0, 7
(9)
voltage vector vref , the inverter needs to output
vk for
a
duration Tk, vk 1 for a duration Tk+ 1, and zero voltage for the
remaining time over one PWM switching period, Ts. The order
of applying switching space vectors is referred to as the
modulation strategy. In this section, we introduce the two most
popular modulation strategies: symmetrical PWM sequence
and discontinuous space vector PWM sequence.
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OREGON TECH. CLASS REE547: IEEE RESEARCH PAPER
Fig. 13. SVPWM generation firmware block implementation in MCU.
VI. SVPWM ALGORITHM FOR MICROCONTROLLERS
The implementation of SVPWM generation firmware block
in a microcontroller (Fig. 13) normally takes the input U , U
Fig. 11. Symmetrical PWM sequence.
done in the input ( U , U ), in the output values (taon, tbon,
A. Symmetrical PWM sequence
Symmetrical PWM Sequence (with
vref in sector 4, k=4) is
depicted in Fig. 11. The advantage of this modulation strategy
is low THD resulting from its symmetry and because both zero
vectors
v0 , v7 are used in one PWM cycle while there is only
one leg of the inverter switching at a time.
B. Discontinuous Space Vector PWM sequence:
Discontinuous Space Vector PWM sequence is depicted in
Fig. 12 (with
components of the reference voltage vector and outputs ta,on,
tb,on, and tc,on. These three output numbers represent the on time
of the three switches (a, b, c). If the calculation is done in
floating point the values normally range from 0 to 1, but if the
calculation is done in integer form the values will be scaled to
a specific global maximum. In integer form, saturation can be
vref in sector 1, k=1). This modulation strategy
keeps one of the three legs off during the entire 120 degree. The
advantage of this modulation strategy is low switching loss due
to fewer switchings per PWM cycle. The drawback of this
modulation strategy is high harmonic output.
tcon), or both.
The SVPWM generation block can be divided into 2 steps
(Fig. 13): (a) finding the reference voltage vector sector (b)
Calculate PWM values (or t_on).
A. Determine sector for
vref
The determination of location sector of vref can be done in
many ways. We found the easiest way is to look at the sign of
the voltage in phase a, b, c of the reference votage vector vref .
This method is found in Texas Instruments’s reference code for
C2000 MCU [17]:
uint16_t Sector = 0; // Sector
// 60 degree Sector determination
if (Va > 0) Sector = 1;
if (Vb > 0) Sector = Sector+2;
if (Vc > 0) Sector = Sector+4;
v ; v and vz v 3v . This method is found is
Other
method
is
to
look
at
the
sign
of
Freescale’s reference code for Kinetis MCU [18]:
The method from Freescale require less computation and
memory than the Texas Instruments method. In the first method
we need to do inverse Clarke transform to obtain Va, Vb, Vc
from vref , while the second method only requires us to
calculate vz v 3v . This value can also be used later in
Fig. 12. Discontinue PWM sequence.
PWM value calculation, further reducing total computational
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OREGON TECH. CLASS REE547: IEEE RESEARCH PAPER
requirement.
representation of this increasingly common and important
PWM technique. The phasor and vector sections provide the
reader with the background to assist in the comprehension of
SVPWM theory and mathematics comprising thereof. This
technique continues to be one of the most popular in industry
for its increased current bus utilization, frequency control,
and low switching loss. Total harmonic distortion problems
with SVPWM technique remain. To increase the future field
of applications for this technique, further research into
reducing total harmonic distortion is suggested.
B. Calculate PWM values for switches
The PWM values for the three switch Sa, Sb, Sc can be
calculated in various ways. We are presenting the most popular
method found in reference codes from: Texas Instruments,
Freescale, Microchip, Atmel, Infineon, etc.
The reference vector
vref is scaled to
3 Vdc before
sending it to the SVPWM block.
U ref
3
vref
Vdc
U
3 v
U
Vdc v
REFERENCES
[1]
To simplify calculation, we call X, Y, Z:
X U
;
(U 3U ) ;
(U 3U )
Y
Z
2
2
[2]
Use eq. 10 to calculate Tk and Tk+1 for six active sectors.
We have:
k
1
2
3
4
5
6
Tk
Z *Ts
Y *Ts
X *Ts
Z *Ts
Y *Ts
X *Ts
Tk+1
X *Ts
Z *Ts
Y *Ts
X *Ts
Z *Ts
Y *Ts
ta=Tk/Ts
-Z
Y
X
Z
-Y
-X
tb=Tk+1/Ts
X
Z
-Y
-X
-Z
Y
Particularly, using symmetrical PWM sequence strategy, in
sector 4, (Fig. 11) (with k=4) we have:
taon
T0 Ts Tk Tk 1 1 ta tb
2Ts
2Ts
2
tbon taon ta
tcon tbon tb
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
The calculation is similar for other sectors. From this
calculation, the code for sector 4 can be written:
switch(Sector){
case 4: //Sector 4: ta=Z and tb=-X
ta = Z;
tb = -X;
taon = ((1-ta-tb) * 0.5f);//taon= (1-ta-tb)/2
tbon= taon + ta;
//tbon=taon+ta
tcon = tbon + tb;
// tcon= on+tb
break;
}
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
VII. CONCLUSION
This paper has gathered the SVPWM knowledge from
inception to current day in order to provide an accurate
[18]
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http://www.academia.edu/3077823/A_Critical_Review_of_Modulation_
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Texas Instrument’ reference code for motor control:
http://www.ti.com/tool/motorware
Freescale Embedded Software Motor Control Libraries:
http://www.freescale.com/webapp/sps/site/prod_summary.jsp?code=FS
LESL
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