Historical Violence Database: A Collaborative Research Project on the History of Violent Crime and Violent Death Investigators Randolph Roth, Department of History, Ohio State University Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Department of History, University of Connecticut Kenneth Wheeler, Department of History, Reinhardt College James Watkinson, Research Librarian, Library of Virginia Robb Haberman, Department of History, University of Connecticut James M. Denham, Department of History, Florida Southern College Douglas L. Eckberg, Department of Sociology, Winthrop University Glenn McNair, Department of History, Kenyon College Carolyn Conley, Department of History, University of Alabama at Birmingham Roger Lane, Department of History, Haverford College Gilles Vandal, Department of History and Political Science, University of Sherbrooke Eric Monkkonen, Department of History and Policy Studies, University of California at Los Angeles Terri Snyder, Department of American Studies, California State University at Fullerton Clare McKanna, Jr., Department of History and American Indian Studies, San Diego State University Jack Marietta, Department of History, University of Arizona Gail Rowe, Department of History, University of Northern Colorado Pieter Spierenburg, Department of History, Erasmus University Project: Our goal is to create a collaborative database on the history of violent crime and violent death from medieval times to the present. Historians, social scientists, and genealogists must work together if we are to gather enough data to allow researchers to describe accurately the history of violent crime and violent death. No single researcher or group of researchers can examine enough sources in enough jurisdictions to achieve that goal. We are confident, however, that an ongoing, collaborative effort can. We envision the historical database as a complement to the computerized databases on crime and mortality that have been maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation and by the National Institute of Health since the early 1970s, and to the database that will be created by the new National Violent Death Reporting System at the Center for Disease Control in Atlanta, Georgia. In future years, the NVDRS will gather up to 200 details on each violent death in the United States (including, for instance, for each case of homicide, the length of the gun barrel if a gun was used, the level of education of the victim and perpetrator, whether drugs or alcohol were involved, etc.). Our historical database cannot be as comprehensive because of gaps in the historical record and because of omissions (sometimes deliberate) by record keepers. The historical record is more complete, however, than many people realize. People in the medieval and early modern periods, like people today, were deeply concerned about violent crimes and violent deaths. They kept abundant, if incomplete records of each. In many instances, statistical methods can estimate the number of cases that are missing from the surviving records (Eckberg 1995, 2001; Monkonnen 2001a). And the surviving records can be supplemented by the findings of forensic archaeologists, who can estimate the incidence of certain kinds of traumatic injuries from skeletal remains (Larsen 1997; Walker 1997, forthcoming; Roth 1999, 2001a). Our hope is that historical research, statistical analysis, and forensic science will enable researchers to trace the history even of such elusive crimes as child murder and spouse abuse. Purpose: The purpose of the collaborative database is to help scholars better understand violent deaths (homicides, suicides, and accidents) and serious assaults (attempted murders, sexual assaults, arsons, maimings, aggravated assaults). The database will allow social scientists to test their theories of violent crime and violent death in a variety of historical circumstances. Many theories concerning, for instance, the relationship between capital punishment and homicide rates, or the relationship between guns laws and armed robberies, fail once they are forced to confront data from 1930s and 1940s, rather than the 1980s and 1990s. The database will also allow historians to share their research so that others can build upon it. Many historians who have written on violent crime or violent death (usually on the state or county level) have failed to preserve their notes or share their research. Thus, their evidence cannot be checked for accuracy or reanalyzed. We hope that the collaborative database will help social scientists transcend the limits of contemporary data and historians the limits of irreproducible local studies, so that we can better describe and explain the history of violent crime and violent death. A Qualitative as well as Quantitative Database: Our collaborative database gathers qualitative as well as quantitative data on each suspected violent crime or death that appears in the historical record. Most databases on crime or death are quantitative. They report the bare facts: date, place, cause of death, etc. Such databases seldom report qualitative information: the details of the incident, the personal histories of victims or perpetrators, the ambiguities in the surviving evidence, etc. Without such information, scholars cannot reclassify crimes or deaths or ask new questions about them. Was the cause of death clear? Did every witness tell the same story about the incident? Was the guilt of a person convicted of a particular crime in doubt? Would a victim have survived with the benefit of modern medicine? These questions cannot be answered unless quantitative information is supplemented by qualitative information. As important, existing databases on crime or death seldom report the kinds of qualitative information that historians need to understand events in their social and cultural context or to place events in their proper sequence. What words or gestures did victims or perpetrators use in violent encounters? How did bystanders react? Did such encounters follow scripts? Were there common threads in the life stories of certain kinds of suicide victims? What were the material or emotional circumstances of their lives? Historians cannot answer such questions without qualitative information. They need qualitative information to study individual cases in detail. That is why the collaborative database will include three types of files: text files, spreadsheet files, and relational files. Text files: The text files are most important. They contain a record of each researcher's notes on each case, the sources consulted, and the interpretive decisions made. The text files will contain all the information on each case, qualitative as well as quantitative. The text files will give future researchers an opportunity to check references, correct errors, add information from new sources, and reinterpret individual cases or groups of cases. These files will be maintained in Microsoft Word and WordPerfect. Spreadsheet files: The spreadsheet files contain a record of the quantitative information on each case. They are victim-based. The spreadsheet files will allow future researchers to manipulate the data statistically and discover new patterns in the data. These files will be maintained in Microsoft Excel. Relational files: The relational files will organize the quantitative information on violent crimes in a different format. They will contain information on each victim and assailant, and will link them to a particular crime or crimes. Relational files are more flexible than victim-based spreadsheet files, because they allow researchers to study victims, assailants, or relationships between victims and assailants. Relational files can link multiple victims to a single perpetrator or multiple perpetrators to a single victim. These files will be maintained in Microsoft Access. A Living Database: Our plan is to improve the database over time. We will add data from new jurisdictions and new sources as they become available. We will change our worksheets, codebooks, and file formats as we learn from experience and from the recommendations of readers and contributors. And we will revise the data as new sources become available and as errors come to light. We encourage researchers to notify us of any mistakes or of any new cases or sources they find. We will gladly acknowledge their contributions in the database. We plan to take advantage of scanning technology as it improves, so that researchers can read, for instance, entire newspaper articles on particular cases, rather than researchers' notes on such articles. We also hope to scan any handwritten worksheets on violent crimes or deaths that researchers would like to contribute, whatever their format, so that they can be made available to other scholars. We would also like to archive any computerized historical data that researchers would like to share with the collaborative project or establish links to the websites where their data are available. The fundamental goal of the collaborative project is to encourage the sharing and preservation of data, not to impose a single format for data collection. We also hope to create a comment page where researchers can debate the interpretation of individual cases or groups of cases. Researchers will also be able to post questions concerning sources, sources, theory, etc. Multiple sources: Our goal is to consult multiple sources wherever more than a single source is available on a particular violent crime or death. Statistical procedures for estimating the number of crimes or deaths from fragmentary records require "matching lists" of crimes or deaths from two or more independent (or largely independent) sources, such as court records and newspapers. The procedures do not require that the lists be perfect--only that they be compiled from different sources. That is why the project does not rely solely on court records or vital records. Additional topics: We are interested in gathering any kinds of data relevant to the study of violent crimes and violent deaths. For example, we are studying gun ownership, so that we can search for possible relationships between weapons and violent crime, and we are studying abortions and abortion-related deaths, so that we can search for possible relationships among fertility, contraception, illegitimacy, abortion, and violence against children. Scope of the Project to Date: To date, the project has focused on the history of violent crime and violent death in Great Britain and the United States, especially New England. Randy Roth, Nina Dayton, and Robb Haberman have worked through a variety of sources for New England (except Rhode Island) from 1630 through the Revolution. Randy Roth has done the same for Vermont and New Hampshire through 1900. We have studied court records, docket books, case files, inquests, government publications, newspapers, tracts, diaries, town histories, vital records, cemetery records, and genealogies, among other sources. The sources are discussed in Roth (2001a: 126-9) and Dayton (1995). Ken Wheeler has studied homicides in Ross County, Ohio, 1798-1880, and in Holmes County, Ohio, 1825-1880 (Wheeler 1993, 1997). Randy Roth and Ken Wheeler have gathered data on violent crimes in five counties in northern Georgia, 1779-1900 (Franklin, Gilmer, Jasper, Rabun, and Wilkes). Randy Roth and Jim Watkinson have gathered data on violent crimes and inquests in eleven counties in Virginia, 1634-1800 (Amelia, Augusta, Botetourt, Lancaster, Middlesex, Richmond, Rockbridge, Rockingham, Spotsylvania, Surry, and Sussex) and in four Virginia counties, 1800-1880 (Amelia, Lancaster, Rockbridge, and Surry). Mike Denham has studied violent crimes in Florida, 1830-1860, and Doug Eckberg is studying homicides in postReconstruction South Carolina. Glenn McNair is studying slave crimes in Georgia, 1751-1865, and Terri Snyder is studying suicides in Virginia, 1607-1830. Carolyn Conley is investigating homicide in Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales, 1867-1892, and Pieter Spierenburg has studied homicide in Amsterdam from the 1400s to 1800. Gilles Vandal is studying crime and violence in Louisiana, 1840-1885. Eric Monkkonen has completed a study of homicide in New York City, 1790-2000, and is now gathering data for a comparative study of urban homicide rates in the United States in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Bud McKanna has gathered data on homicides in a number of counties in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1850-1920, and Jack Marietta and Gail Rowe have done the same for all violent crimes in colonial and revolutionary Pennsylvania. Roger Lane has retired from writing history, but he has donated his worksheets on homicides in Philadelphia, 1839-1932. The database project plans to make his worksheets available in computerized form. The data will be posted on our website and archived with the National Institute of Justice and the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research, once our major publications from the project are completed. Until then, we will post samples of the data on our website. Codebooks, Worksheets, Sample Files: We have posted the codebooks and worksheets for our text files on violent crimes (including homicides) and violent deaths (excluding homicides). We have also posted preliminary text files and spreadsheets on homicides in Vermont, 1760-1815, and on firearms accidents in New Hampshire and Vermont, 1783-1824. We hope that these samples will give researchers an idea of how our database is organized and of the kinds of data we hope to include. Please contact us with your criticisms or suggestions for improvement. We would like to make our database as useful and accessible as possible. We appreciate your help. Codebook for text files on violent crimes and violent deaths Worksheet for text files on violent crimes (including homicides) Worksheet for text files on violent deaths (excluding homicides) Codebook for spreadsheets on violent crimes and violent deaths Text file on Vermont homicides, 1760-1815 (May 2002 version) Spreadsheet on Vermont homicides, 1760-1815 (May 2002 version) Text file on firearms accidents in New Hampshire, 1783-1824 (May 2002 version) Text file on firearms accidents in Vermont, 1783-1824 (May 2002 version) Spreadsheet on firearms accidents in New Hampshire and Vermont, 1783-1824 (November 2002 version) Personnel Investigators (in the order in which they joined the project) Randolph Roth, Department of History, Ohio State University Cornelia Hughes Dayton, Department of History, University of Connecticut Kenneth Wheeler, Department of History, Reinhardt College James Watkinson, Research Librarian, Library of Virginia Robb Haberman, Department of History, University of Connecticut James M. Denham, Department of History, Florida Southern College Douglass L. Eckberg, Department of Sociology, Winthrop University Glenn McNair, Department of History, Kenyon College Carolyn Conley, Department of History, University of Alabama at Birmingham Roger Lane, Department of History, Haverford College Gilles Vandal, Department of History and Political Science, University of Sherbrooke Eric Monkkonen, Department of History and Policy Studies, University of California at Los Angeles Terri Snyder, Department of American Studies, California State University at Fullerton Clare McKanna, Jr., Department of History and American Indian Studies, San Diego State University Jack Marietta, Department of History, University of Arizona Gail Rowe, Department of History, University of Northern Colorado Pieter Spierenburg, Department of History, Erasmus University Research Assistants Alexis Antracoli, Ross Bagby, John Callery, Brian Carroll, Eliza Clark, Keegan Dwyer, Ashley Snead, Albert Wolf Investigators Randy Roth is a member of the History Department at the Ohio State University and of the Editorial Board of Historical Methods. He received his Ph.D. in History from Yale University and is the author of The Democratic Dilemma. Randy is now completing an interregional history of violent crime and violent death in the United States from colonial times to 1900, titled American Homicide. E-mail: roth.5@osu.edu Nina Dayton is a member of the History Department at the University of Connecticut and of the Editorial Board of the William and Mary Quarterly. She received her Ph.D. in History from Princeton University and is the author of Women before the Bar. She is writing a history of mental illness and of attitudes toward the mentally ill in New England, 1620-1830. Nina is also conducting research for a history of suicide in early New England. E-mail: dayton@sp.uconn.edu Ken Wheeler is a member of the History Department at Reinhardt College. He received his Ph.D. in History from Ohio State University. Ken is writing a history of higher education in the Old Northwest in the nineteenth century and its role in the creation of Midwestern culture. E-mail: khw@mail.reinhardt.edu Jim Watkinson is a research librarian at the Library of Virginia and has been an adjunct member of the History Department at Randolph-Macon College. He received his Ph.D. in History from the University of Virginia. Jim is writing a history of poverty in antebellum Virginia, titled Fit Objects of Charity: Attitudes toward and Treatment of the Poor in Rural Antebellum Virginia. E-mail: JWatkinson@lva.lib.va.us Robb Haberman is a graduate student in the History Department at the University of Connecticut. Robb is conducting research for his doctoral dissertation on the development of magazine publishing in the United States, 1800-1860. E-mail: rosob@yahoo.com Mike Denham is a member of the History Department at Florida Southern College and the director of the Florida History Center (http://www.flsouthern.edu/flhistory). He received his Ph.D. in History from Florida State University. He is the author of “A Rogue’s Paradise”: Crime and Punishment in Antebellum Florida and co-author with William W. Rogers of Florida Sheriffs: A History. Mike is continuing his work on the history of crime and criminal justice in Florida. E-mail: jdenham@flsouthern.edu Doug Eckberg is Chair of the Sociology Department at Winthrop University. He received his Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Texas at Austin. He is the author of Intelligence and Race: The Origins and Dimensions of the IQ Controversy and of numerous articles on social movements, sociological methods, and homicide. He has just completed an essay on crime and criminal justice for the forthcoming edition of Historical Statistics of the United States. Doug is now working on a history of homicide in post-Reconstruction South Carolina. E-mail: eckbergd@winthrop.edu Glenn McNair is a member of the History Department at Kenyon College. He received his Ph.D. in History from Emory University. Glenn is currently writing a history of slave crimes and the criminal justice system in Georgia from colonial times through the Civil War. E-mail: mcnairg@kenyon.edu Carolyn Conley is a member of the History Department at the University of Alabama at Birmingham. She received her Ph.D. in History from Duke University. She is the author of The Unwritten Law: Criminal Justice in Victorian Kent and of Melancholy Accidents: The Meaning of Violence in Post-Famine Ireland. Carolyn is now working on a comparative study of homicide in Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales. E-mail: cconley@uab.edu Roger Lane is an emeritus member of the History Department at Haverford College. He received his Ph.D. in History from Harvard University. He is the author of many books, including Murder in America, a study of homicide in the United States from colonial times to the present, Violence in the City, a study of suicides, homicides, and accidents in nineteenth-century Philadelphia, and Roots of Violence in Black Philadelphia, 18601900, which won the Bancroft Prize of the Society of American Historians. Now retired, Roger is writing novels, but he is still keenly interested in the history of violence. Email: rlane@haverford.edu Gilles Vandal is a member of the Departments of History and Political Science at the University of Sherbrooke. He received his Ph.D. in History from the College of William and Mary. He is the author of The New Orleans Riot of 1866: The Anatomy of a Tragedy and of Rethinking Southern Violence: Homicides in Post-Civil War Louisiana, 18661884. Gilles has just completed a manuscript for a study of crime and justice in New Orleans, 1840-1885, and he has begun a study of crime and justice in rural Louisiana, 1840-1885. E-mail : gvandal@courrier.usherb.ca Eric Monkkonen is a member of the Departments of History and Policy Studies at the University of California at Los Angeles and is past president of the Social Science History Association. He received his Ph.D. in History from the University of Minnesota. He is the author of many books, including The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus, Ohio, 1860-1885, and Murder in New York City, a study of homicide in that city from 1790 to the present. Eric is currently working on a comparative study of urban homicide rates in the United States in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. E-mail: emonkkon@ucla.edu Terri Snyder is a member of the Department of American Studies at the California State University at Fullerton. She received her Ph.D. in American Studies from the University of Iowa. She is the author of Brabbling Women: Disorderly Speech and the Law in Early Virginia and of several articles on domestic violence and sexual coercion. Terri is currently researching the history of suicide in early Virginia. E-mail: snyder@fullerton.edu Bud McKanna is an emeritus member of the Departments of History and American Indian Studies at San Diego State University. He received his Ph.D. in History from the University of Nebraska at Lincoln. He is the author of a number of books and essays, including Homicide, Race, and Justice in the American West, 1880-1920, and Race and Homicide in Nineteenth-Century California. E-mail: cmckanna@mail.sdsu.edu Jack Marietta is a member of the Department of History at the University of Arizona. He received his Ph.D. in History from Stanford University. A noted historian of Quakerism, he is currently collaborating with Gail Rowe on a history of violent crime and criminal justice in colonial Pennsylvania. E-mail: jack-marietta@ns.arizona.edu Gail Rowe is an emeritus member of the Department of History at the University of Northern Colorado. He received his Ph.D. in History from Stanford University. He is currently writing mystery novels and collaborating with Jack Marietta on a history of violent crime and criminal justice in colonial Pennsylvania. E-mail: growes36@attbi.com Pieter Spierenburg is a member of the Department of History at Erasmus University in Rotterdam. He received his Ph.D. in History from the University of Amsterdam. He has published widely on capital punishment, the history of homicide, and the culture of honor in Europe. He is the author of numerous books and articles, including The Spectacle of Suffering: Executions and the Evolution of Repression. E-mail: spierenburg@fhk.eur.nl Funding for the Collaborative Database Randy Roth and Nina Dayton would like to thank the following institutions for supporting our research: The Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation for the Study of Dominance, Violence, and Human Aggression Ohio State University, College of Humanities Ohio State University, Criminal Justice Research Center National Endowment for the Humanities: Fellowships for University Teachers National Science Foundation, Law and Society Program, Social and Behavioral Sciences (SBR-9808050) University of Connecticut, Department of History Publications and Theses by Principal Investigators Conley, Carolyn A. (1986) “Rape and Justice in Victorian England.” Victorian Studies 29: 519-34. Conley, Carolyn A. (1991) The Unwritten Law: Criminal Justice in Victorian Kent. New York: Oxford University Press. Conley, Carolyn A. (1999) Melancholy Accidents: The Meaning of Violence in PostFamine Ireland. Lanham: Lexington Books. Dayton, Cornelia Hughes (1991) "Taking the Trade: Abortion and Gender Relations in an Eighteenth-Century New England Village." William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd ser. 48: 1949. Dayton, Cornelia Hughes (1995) Women before the Bar: Gender, Law, and Society in Connecticut, 1639-1789. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Denham, James M. (1997) “A Rogue’s Paradise”: Crime and Punishment in Antebellum Florida, 1821-1861. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. Denham, James M. (2001) Florida Sheriffs: A History, 1821-1945. Tallahassee: Sentry Press. Eckberg, Douglas (1995) "Estimates of Early-Twentieth Century U.S. Homicide Rates: An Econometric Forecasting Approach." Demography 32: 1-16. Eckberg, Douglas (2000) “H. V. Redfield and the Study of Southern Homicide,” in H. V. Redfield, Homicide, North and South. Facsimile reprint of 1880 edition. Columbus: Ohio State University Press: vii-xxiv. Eckberg, Douglas (2001) "Stalking the Elusive Homicide: A Capture-Recapture Approach to the Estimation of Post-Reconstruction South Carolina Killings." Social Science History 25: 67-91. Eckberg, Douglas (forthcoming) “Crime, Victimization, and the Criminal Justice System,” in Susan Carter, Scott Gartner, Michael Haines, Alan Olmstead, Richard Sutch, and Gavin Wright, eds., Historical Statistics of the United States. New York: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, Eric A. and Eric H. Monkkonen, eds. (1996) The Civilization of Crime: Violence in Town and Country since the Middle Ages. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Lane, Roger (1967) Policing the City: Boston, 1822-1885. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Lane, Roger (1979) Violent Death in the City: Suicide, Accident, and Murder in Nineteenth-Century Philadelphia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Lane, Roger (1986) Roots of Violence in Black Philadelphia, 1860-1900. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Lane, Roger (1991) William Dorsey’s Philadelphia and Ours: On the Past and Future of the Black City in America. New York: Oxford University Press. Lane, Roger (1997) Murder in America: A History. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. Marietta, Jack and G. S. Rowe (1999) “Personal Violence in ‘A Peaceable Kingdom'” in Christine Daniels and Michael V. Kennedy, ed., Over the Threshold: Intimate Violence in Early America: 22-44. New York: Routledge. Marietta, Jack D. and G. S. Rowe (1999) “Violent Crime, Victims, and Society in Pennsylvania, 1682-1800,” Explorations in Early American Culture, 66: 24-54. Marietta, Jack D. and G. S. Rowe (2001) "Rape, Law, Courts, and Custom in Pennsylvania, 1682-1800," in Merril Smith, ed., Sex without Consent: Rape and Sexual Coercion in America. New York: New York University Press: 81-102. McKanna, Clare V. (1997) Homicide, Race, and Justice in the American West, 18801920. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. McKanna, Clare V. (2002) Race and Homicide in Nineteenth-Century California. Reno and Las Vegas: University of Nevada Press. McKanna, Clare V. (2003) The Trial of “Indian Joe”: Race and Justice in the NineteenthCentury West. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. McKanna, Clare V. (2003) “Black Enclaves of Violence: Race and Homicide in Great Plains Cities, 1890-1920,” Great Plains Quarterly 23: 147-59. McNair, Glenn (1999) "The Elijah Burritt Affair: David Walker's Appeal and Partisan Journalism in Antebellum Milledgeville." Georgia Historical Quarterly. McNair, Glenn (2001) “Justice Bound: Aframericans, Crime and Criminal Justice in Georgia, 1751-1865.” Ph.D. disseration, Emory University. Monkkonen, Eric H. (1975) The Dangerous Class: Crime and Poverty in Columbus, Ohio, 1860-1885. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Monkkonen, Eric H. (1981) Police in Urban America, 1860-1920. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Monkkonen, Eric H. (1995a) "New York City Homicides: A Research Note," Social Science History, 19: 201-14. Monkkonen, Eric H. (1995b) "Racial Factors in New York City Homicide, 1800-1874," in Darnell Hawkins, ed., Ethnicity, Race, and Crime: Perspectives Across Time and Space. Albany: 99-120. Reprinted in Weis and Keppel (1999) Murder: A Multidisciplinary Anthology of Readings. New York: Harcourt Brace. Monkkonen, Eric H. (1999) “New York City Homicide Offender Ages: How Variable? A Research Note.” Homicide Studies, 3: 256-270. Monkkonen, Eric H. (2001a) "Estimating the Accuracy of Historic Homicide Rates: New York City and Los Angeles." Social Science History 25: 53-66. Monkkonen, Eric H. (2001b) Murder in New York City. Berkeley: University of California Press. Monkkonen, Eric H. (2001c) “New Standards for Historical Violence Research.” Crime, History, Society (Switzerland), 5: 5-26. Monkkonen, Eric H. (2003) “Homicide in New York, Los Angeles and Chicago.” Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 92: 101-14. Roth, Randolph (1994) "The Other Masonic Outrage: The Death and Transfiguration of Joseph Burnham." Journal of the Early Republic 14: 35-69. Roth, Randolph (1997) "'Blood Calls for Vengeance!' The History of Capital Punishment in Vermont." Vermont History 65: 10-25. Roth, Randolph (1999) "Spousal Murder in Northern New England, 1776-1865," in C. Daniels and M. V. Kennedy, eds., Over the Threshold: Intimate Violence in Early America. New York: Routledge. Roth, Randolph (2001a) "Child Murder in New England." Social Science History 25: 101-47. Roth, Randolph (2001b) "Homicide in early modern England, 1550-1800: The need for a quantitative synthesis," Crime, History, and Societies 5: 2: 33-67. Roth, Randolph (2002) "Guns, Gun Culture, and Homicide: The Relationship between Firearms, the Uses of Firearms, and Interpersonal Violence." William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 59: 223-40. Roth, Randolph (2003) “Counting Guns: What Social Science Historians Know and Could Learn about Gun Ownership, Gun Culture, and Gun Violence in the United States.” Social Science History 26: 699-708 Snyder, Terri L. (1999) "'As if there was not master or woman in the land': Gender, Dependency, and Household Violence Virginia, 1646-1720," in Christine Daniels and Michael V. Kennedy eds., Over the Threshold: Intimate Violence in Early America. New York: Routledge, 219-236. Snyder, Terri L. (2000) “Sexual Consent and Sexual Coercion in Seventeenth-Century Virginia,” in Merril D. Smith, ed., Sex Without Consent: Sexual Coercion in Early America. New York: 46-60. Snyder, Terri L. (2003) Brabbling Women: Disorderly Speech and the Law in Early Virginia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Spierenburg, Pieter (1984) The Spectacle of Suffering: Executions and the Evolution of Repression: From a Preindustrial Metropolis to the European Experience. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Spierenburg, Pieter (1991) The Prison Experience: Disciplinary Institutions and their Inmates in Early Modern Europe. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Spierenburg, Pieter (1994) “Faces of Violence: Homicide Trends and Cultural Meanings. Amsterdam, 1431-1816.” Journal of Social History 27: no. 4: 701-16. Spierenburg, Pieter (1996) “Long-Term Trends in Homicide: Theoretical Reflections and Dutch Evidence, Fifteenth to Twentieth Centuries,” in: Eric A. Johnson and Eric H. Monkkonen, eds., The Civilization of Crime: Violence in Town and Country since the Middle Ages. Urbana: University of Illinois Press: 63-105. Spierenburg, Pieter, ed. (1998) Men and Violence: Gender, Honor and Rituals in Modern Europe and America. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. Spierenburg, Pieter (2001) “Violence and the Civilizing Process: Does it Work?” Crime, Histoire & Sociétés/ Crime, History & Societies 5: no. 2: 87-105. Vandal, Gilles (1983) The New Orleans Riot of 1866: The Anatomy of a Tragedy. Lafayette: The Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana. Vandal, Gilles (2000) Rethinking Southern Violence: Homicides in Post-Civil War Louisiana, 1866-1884. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. Watkinson, James D. (2000) "Rogues, Vagabonds, and Fit Objects: The Poor in Antebellum Virginia." Virginia Cavalcade (Winter 2000). Watkinson, James D. (2001) "'Fit Objects of Charity': Community, Race, Faith, and Welfare in Antebellum Lancaster County, Virginia." Journal of the Early Republic 21: 41-70. Wheeler, Kenneth H. (1993) 'My God What Did You Do It For?' Homicide and Society in Ross and Holmes Counties, Ohio, 1796-1880. M.A. thesis: Ohio State University. Wheeler, Kenneth H. (1997) "Infanticide in Nineteenth-Century Ohio." Journal of Social History 31: 407-18. Wheeler, Kenneth H. (1999) "Local Autonomy and Civil War Draft Resistance: Holmes County, Ohio." Civil War History 45: 147-59. Related Publications by Historians and Social Scientists Adler, Jeffrey S. (1997) “’My Mother-in-Law is to Blame, But I’ll Walk on Her Neck Yet’: Homicide in Late Nineteenth-Century Chicago.” Journal of Social History 31: 25376. Adler, Jeffrey S. (1999) “’If We Can’t Live in Peace, We Might as Well Die’: HomicideSuicide in Chicago, 1875-1910.” Journal of Urban History 26: 3-21. Adler, Jeffrey S. (1999) "'The Negro Would Be More than an Angel to Withstand Such Treatment': African-American Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1910," in Michael A. Bellesiles, ed., Lethal Imagination: Violence and Brutality in American History. New York: New York University Press: 294-315. Adler, Jeffrey S. (2001) "'Halting the Slaughter of the Innocents': The Civilizing Process and the Surge in Violence in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago." Social Science History 25: 29-52. Adler, Jeffrey S. (2002) “’I Loved Joe, But I Had to Shoot Him’: Homicide by Women in Turn-of-the-Century Chicago.” Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. Adler, Jeffrey S. (2003) “’On the Border of Snakeland’: Evolutionary Psychology and Plebeian Violence in Industrial Chicago, 1875-1920.” Journal of Social History 36: 54160. Azrael, Deborah, Catherine Barber, David Hemenway, and Matthew Miller (2003) “Data on Violent Injury,” in Jens Ludwig and Philip J. Cook, eds., Evaluating Gun Policy: Effects on Crime and Violence. Washington, D. C.: Brookings Institution Press, 412-38. Schwarz, Philip J. (1988) Twice Condemned: Slaves and the Criminal Laws of Virginia, 1705-1865. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. Related Publications by Forensic Archaeologists Larsen, Clark S. (1997) Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton. New York: Cambridge University Press. Walker, Philip L. (1997) "Wife beating, boxing, and broken noses: Skeletal evidence for the cultural patterning of interpersonal violence," in D. Martin and D. Frayer, eds., Troubled Times: Violence and Warfare in the Past. Amsterdam: Gordon and Beach, 145-79. Walker, Philip L. (forthcoming) "Is the battered-child syndrome a modern phenomena?" Proceedings of the Xth European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, Goettingen, Germany.