REVISTA ARKEOGAZTE / ARKEOGAZTE ALDIZKARIA
N. 11., año 2021. urtea 11.
Monográfico: Los animales en el arte prehistórico
Monografikoa: Animaliak historiaurreko artean
EDITORES DEL NUMERO/ZENBAKI HONEN EDITOREAK
Dario Sigari (Università degli Studi di Ferrara)
Sara Garcês (Instituto Politécnico de Tomar)
CONSEJO DE REDACCIÓN/ERREDAKZIO BATZORDEA
Aitor Calvo (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea y
Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg)
Cristina Camarero Arribas (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea)
Maite García Rojas (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea)
Aitziber González García (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea)
Hugo Hernández Hernández (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea)
Uxue Perez Arzak (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko
Unibertsitatea)
Arantzazu Jindriska Pérez Fernández (Universidad del País Vasco/
Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea y Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen)
Dario Sigari (Università degli Studi di Ferrara)
COMITÉ CIENTÍFICO/BATZORDE ZIENTIFIKOA
Miriam Cubas (Universidad de Alcalá)
Marta Díaz-Zorita Bonilla (Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen)
Sergio Escribano-Ruiz (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko
Unibertsitatea)
Marta Fernández Corral (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko
Unibertsitatea)
Marcos García Diez (Universidad Complutense de Madrid)
Sandra Montón Subias (Universitat Pompeu Fabra)
Margarita Sánchez Romero (Universidad de Granada)
Silvia Valenzuela Lamas (ASD-Csic-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones
Científicas)
TRADUCCIÓN/ITZULPENA
Rufus Mallim
Uxue Perez Arzak
Hugo Hernández Hernández
MAQUETACIÓN Y DISEÑO/MAKETAZIOA ETA DISEINUA
Dario Sigari
Arantzazu Jindriska Pérez Fernández
PORTADA/AZALA
“Il lungo sonno del Paleolitico” de 2501
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REVISTA ARKEOGAZTE ALDIZKARIA
N.º 11, año 2021. urtea 11. zbk.
Animals in prehistoric art: The Euro-Mediterranean region and its surroundings
Animaliak Historiaurreko Artean: Euro-Mediterranear eskualdea eta bere ingurua
Los animales en el arte prehistórico: la región euro-mediterránea y su entorno
INDEX/AURKIBIDEA/ÍNDICE
EDITORIAL...................................................................................……………………………………………................……5-9
EDITORIAL/EDITORIALA….................................................................................................................................11-18
Palaeolithic Art in Portugal and its zoomorphic figures
Arte Paleolitikoa Portugalen eta bere irudi zoomorfoak
El arte paleolítico en Portugal y sus figuras zoomorfas
MÁRIO REIS...........................................................................................................................……..…….…….…….…….……..19-46
Zoomorphic figures in the open-air Palaeolithic Rock Art of Spain
Irudi zoomorfoak Espainiako aire zabaleko arte paleolitikoan
Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte paleolítico al aire libre de España
CARLOS VÁZQUEZ MARCOS..........................................................................................................................................47-73
Animal depictions in the mobile art of Central Europe
Animalia irudiak Erdialdeko Europako arte higigarrian
Las figuras animales en el arte mueble de Europa Central
EWA DUTKIEWICZ..................................................................................................................................................75-111
Zoomorphic figures in the Post-Palaeolithic Rock Art of the Italian Peninsula and islands
Irudi zoomorfoak penintsula italiarreko Paleolito osteko labar-artean
Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolítico de la península italiana e islas
RENATA GRIFONI CREMONESI and ANNA MARIA TOSATTI..................................................................................…….113-143
Zoomorphic figures in the Post-Palaeolithic Rock Art of France or past societies as hybrid communities
Irudi zoomorfoak Frantziako Paleolito osteko labar-artean edo iraganeko gizarteak komunitate hibrido gisa
Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolítico de Francia o sociedades pasadas como comunidades híbridas
CLAUDIA DEFRASNE.................................................................................................................................................145-171
Rock Art in Central Norway - Challenges with chronology and Rock Art narratives
Labar-artea Erdialdeko Norvegian - kronologia eta labar-artearen narratibekiko erronkak
El arte rupestre en Noruega central - retos cronológicos y narrativas del arte rupestre
HEIDRUN STEBERGLØKKEN................................................................................………………………………......................173-190
Animals in Egyptian Rock Art
Animaliak Egiptoko labar-artean
Los animales en el arte ruprestre egipcio
PAWEL LECH POLKOWSKI.........................................................................................................................................191-215
Milk, meat and heavy loads: diachronich changes in camel petroglyph depictions from the Negev desert
Esnea, haragia eta zama astunak: aldaketa diakronikoak Negev basamortuko petroglifoetako gamelu-irudietan
Leche, carne y cargas pesadas: cambios diacrónicos en los petroglifos con representaciones de camellos en el desierto del
Néguev
DAVIDA EISENBERG-DEGEN, LIOR SCHWIMER, LIORA KOLSKA HORWITZ and IFAT SHAPIRA..............................217-242
Post-Paleolithic zoomorphic images in Gobustan Rock Art
Irudi zoomorfoak Gobustango Paleolito osteko labar-artean
Las representaciones zoomorfas post-paleolíticas en el arte rupestre de Gobustán
SEVINC SHIRINLI and RƎHMAN ABDULLAYEV........................................................................................................243-270
Revista ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria
Nº 11, pp. 113-143, year 2021
Received: 11-02-2019; Reviewed: 20-10-2020; Accepted: 29-07-2021
ISSN: 2174-856X
ZOOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE POST-PALAEOLITHIC ROCK ART
OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA AND ISLANDS
Irudi zoomorfoak penintsula italiarreko Paleolito osteko labar-artean
Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolitico de la peninsula italiana
Renata Grifoni Cremonesi (*)
Anna Maria Tosatti (**)
Abstract
This work examines animals’ representations of the post-Palaeolithic rock art that can be found
on walls of caves and shelters located in the Italian peninsula, along the Apennine ridge, and in
the main islands. The rare represented animals are Neolithic cervids in hunting scenes and very
schematic figures of quadrupeds, few birds and fishes, datable between Chalcolithic and Bronze
Age. Representations of anthropomorphic and abstract figures are dominant. Images of horses and
riders, dogs and cervids, depicted more realistically and in motion, can be surely related to the Iron
Age.
After an analysis of evidence identified from Liguria to Sicily and the islands, attention is directed
to the opposition of this lack of images in rock art, which are often located in places with a high
symbolic and sacral value in addition to their function of controlling routes and territories, to the
abundant frequency of domestic and wild animals’ remains observable in several cave and outdoor
sites surely related to cults and ritual offers.
The sacred significance of deers, bulls (represented with protomes), canids, horses, can be
observed too: as their presence in many mythologies and in Christian symbologies demonstrate,
their symbolic meaning has been perpetuated until historical periods.
Key words
Italian Rock Art; Italian Prehistory; Prehistoric zoomorphic figures; Neolithic engraves; Italian Chalcolithic.
Laburpena
Lan honetan, penintsula italiarreko kobazulo eta aterpeetan, Apenino mendikatean eta uharte
handienetan dauden Paleolito ondorengo labar-arteko animalien irudikapenak aztertzen dira. Oso
ohikoak ez diren animalia irudi hauek, ehizako eszenetan agertzen diren zerbido neolitikoek eta
Kalkolito eta Brontze Aroen artean kokatzen diren koadrupedo oso eskematikoek (hegazti eta arrain
gutxirekin) osatzen dituzte. Irudi antropomorfiko eta abstraktuak dira nagusi. Zaldi- eta zaldun(*) Formerly Università degli Studi di Pisa. Via Redi, 1 56124 PISA (PI) Italy. renata.grifoni@unipi.it
(**) Formerly Soprintendenza Archeologia Toscana – MIBACT. via Maternità, 12 54100 MASSA (MS) Italy. annamaria.tosatti@
gmail.com
114
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
irudiak, zein txakur eta zerbidoen irudiak, modu errealista batean eta mugimenduan margotuak,
Burdin Aroarekin erlaziona daitezke.
Ligurian, Sizilian eta beste uharte batzuetan identifikatutako ebidentziak aztertu ondoren,
aurkakotasun bat nabarmendu da: alde batetik, labar-artean antzematen den irudi horien eskasia
(askotan, balio sinboliko eta sakratu handiko lekuetan aurkitzen direnak, bideak eta lurraldeak
kontrolatzeko eginkizunekin batera) eta, beste aldetik, kobazulo eta aire zabaleko aztarnategietan
aurkitu diren animalia basatien eta etxeko animalien aztarna ugariak, gurtzei eta erritu-eskaintzei
lotuak. Oreinen, zezen (protomoetan irudikatuak), kanidoen eta zaldien esanahi sakratu bat
ere hautematen da: hauen balio sinbolikoa garai historikoetaraino iritsi dela nabaria da, kristau
sinbologian zein mitologia askotan duten presentziak adierazten duenez.
Hitz-gakoak
Italiar labar-artea; Italiar historiaurrea; Historiaurreko irudi zoomorfoak; grabatu neolitikoak;
Kalkolito italiarra.
Resumen
Este trabajo aborda las representaciones animales del arte rupestre post-paleolítico que se
encuentran en las paredes de las cuevas y los abrigos de la península italiana, en la cordillera de
los Apeninos y en las mayores islas. Estas poco frecuentes figuras animales están compuestas
por cérvidos neolíticos de escenas de cazas y cuadrúpedos muy esquemáticos, con pocas aves y
peces, datables entre el Calcolítico y la Edad del Bronce. Las representaciones antropomórficas y
abstractas son las dominantes. Las figuras de caballos y caballeros, perros y cérvidos, pintados de
forma realista y en movimiento, pueden ser puestas en relación con la Edad del Hierro.
Después del análisis de las evidencias identificadas entre Liguria y Sicilia y otras islas, se ha puesto
atención en la oposición de la falta de estas imágenes en el arte rupestre, que frecuentemente
se encuentran en sitios con un valor simbólico y sagrado muy fuerte, junto a sus funciones de
control de los caminos y de los territorios, con la abundante frecuencia de restos de animales
salvajes y domésticos que se evidencia en muchas cavidades y sitios al aire libre, ligados a cultos y
ofrendas rituales. Se observa también un significado sagrado de los ciervos, toros (representados
en prótomos), cánidos y caballos: tal y como nos enseña su presencia en muchas mitologías y en
simbologías cristianas, su propio valor simbólico se ha mantenido hasta los periodos históricos.
Palabras Clave
Arte Rupestre italiano; Prehistoria italiana; figuras zoomorfas prehistóricas; grabados neolíticos;
Calcolítico italiano.
Italian peninsula & islands
Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143
Revista ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria
Nº 11, pp. 113-143, year 2021
ISSN: 2174-856X
ZOOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE POST-PALAEOLITHIC ROCK ART
OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA AND ISLANDS
Irudi zoomorfoak penintsula eta uharte italiarreko Paleolito osteko labar-artean
Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolitico de la peninsula italiana
Renata Grifoni Cremonesi(*) & Anna Maria Tosatti(**)
1. Introduction
T
he predominance of animal figures
in the prehistoric art, especially the Palaeolithic
expressions, decreases in successive periods:
hunting scenes representing men with bows
chasing cervids and bovids seem to begin
during the Mesolithic period and are typical of
the Spanish Levant where they are numerous
between the Neolithic and the Iron Age (BELTRAN,
1968).
During the Neolithic period, there are
very few examples of rock art, the only known
paintings are in the Western Alps. An example
includes the hunting scene with the archer and
a horned quadruped (likely an Alpine ibex) on a
little wall in the “Gias des Peintures” (Val d’Enfer,
Tende: MANO 1995; FOSSATI and ARCÀ 2012: 176,
figure 2: 4). A few other examples of Neolithic
art (engravings and paintings) can be found in
the Central-Southern Italy and in the islands. In
the most ancient phase, they are characterized
by hunting scenes. Representations of deer are
located in the Riparo Rinaldi of Tuppo dei Sassi
(Potenza) (GRAZIOSI 1973: 147, XLC; BORZATTI
von LOWENSTERN and INGLIS, 1990), in the
Apulia region. They can be found in the Grotta
dei Cervi in Porto Badisco near Otranto (LE) and
in the Grotta Cosma (Santa Cesarea Terme, LE)
GRAZIOSI, 1973: 146, figure 168;1980). The
representations of deer are chased by men with
bows. Another hunting scene can be seen in the
Grotta di Su Longu Fresu in Sardinia (GRADOLI
and MEADEN, 2011).
The anthropomorphic figures of the
Grotta Cala del Genovese in Levanzo (Egadi
Islands, TP) can be dated to the Neolithic period
too. These figures are accompanied by three
images of big fish and by other zoomorphic
figures (GRAZIOSI, 1973).
Since the late Neolithic period, a specific
style of schematic art starts to prevail. This style is
expressed with stylised symbols that now seem to
refer to a world where the dominant element has
male features. In the Alps these symbols consist
of knives, halberds, axes, taurine protomes,
ploughing scenes with yoked bovines, which
can also be found in the statue-stelae together
with necklaces and cloaks. Anthropomorphic
figures continue to be represented whilst grids,
zig zags, chains of rhombuses and five-pointed
stars abound. The comparison of these symbols
with the objects found in the Copper Age male
(*) Formerly Università degli Studi di Pisa. Via Redi, 1 56124 PISA (PI) Italy. renata.grifoni@unipi.it
(**) Formerly Soprintendenza Archeologia Toscana – MIBACT. via Maternità, 12 54100 MASSA (MS) Italy. annamaria.tosatti@
gmail.com
116
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
Figure 1. Riparo dei Buoi (Finale Ligure, SV), taurine protome (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994) (left). Arma della Moretta
(Finale Ligure, SV), long horned theriomorphic figure hunting (?) deer (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994) (right).
graves is obvious and surely indicates a change
of ideologies based on the value of weapons and
on socio-economic transformations (metallurgy,
introduction of the use of ploughs, bovines and
control of agricultural and mining areas, etc.). In
this wide panorama, zoomorphic symbols seem
to be missing or are at least very rare. Sometimes
they are difficult to recognize amidst the chaos
of overlapping signs engraved or painted onto
the walls of small shelters or on the rocks and
boulders which are always located in high visibility
points in order to control routes and territories.
Below there is a list of zoomorphic
representations identified among the engravings
and paintings on the rocks along the Apennine
ridge and the Tyrrhenian islands. These sites are
described with a geographic parameter. Regions
and provinces are presented starting from the
North with the Liguria region proceeding down
the peninsula with other regions where cases
of zoomorphic engravings have been reported
(Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Lazio,
Basilicata, Apulia) and concluding with the Sicily
and the Sardinia islands. Corsica is also included
(politically French, but geographically Italian). A
Italian peninsula & islands
small description of the environmental situation
and an essential bibliography are provided for
each site.
2. Liguria
2.1. Province of Savona - Territory of Finale Ligure
In the coastal area Finale Ligure extends
from Capo Caprazoppa to Capo Noli and it is
characterised by the “Pietra di Finale”, a dolomitic
limestone. It is rich in hydrography including caves
and shelters. It has been inhabited many times
since Prehistory. On wide stone planks (called
“ciappi”) human groups left several engravings.
Some examples are Ciappo de Cunche, Ciappo dei
Ceci, Ciappo del Sale.
•
Riparo dei Buoi: A rock shelter near
Ciappo de Cunche, partially utilized by men in
order to make it more comfortable. They created
seats, columns with pilaster strips and benches.
At the bottom there is a series of complex
linear, geometric and cruciform engravings. A
Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143
Animals in prehistoric art
zoomorphic element of the site is represented by
a taurine protome type Mount Bego (Figure1a)
(PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994:42; PRESTIPINO, 2007:
41).
•
Roccia dell’Altare (Val di Nava): Roughly
a 20 smq wide rocky outcrop, located on a cliff
with, at its center, a big quadrangular basin
featuring many gutters, cup marks and crosses.
An engraved “bucranio” (bull’s skull) can also
be found too (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 50;
PRESTIPINO, 2007:44).
•
Arma della Moretta: A small cave, which
is known for the linear and thin engravings
covering its floor and ceiling. Among several
figures including cruciforms and geometric lines
are a linear zoomorphic quadruped with five lines
originating from its head (most likely a deer) and
an armed (potentially a spear?) anthropomorphic
figure with a horned head are worth considering.
This is because the quadruped figure has a
particular stylistic comparison with the engravings
from Southern Italy (cf. Riparo Il Cavone in
the territory of Bari. ASTUTI, et al., 2008) and
Southern France (Figure 1b) (GIUGGIOLA, 1979;
PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 53 figure 137).
•
Rocca Carpanea: A little hill in the Aquila
Valley with linear engravings. Between these
engravings there are schematic anthropomorphic
figures similar to Ciappo de Cunche’s ones.
Nearby, there are non-ancient engravings as an
image of the game of “tris” (merels) can be found
near to an empty outline of a fish (PRIULI and
PUCCI, 1994: 48-49).
2.2. Territory of the Massiccio of Mount Beigua
(now Geopark)
This area features a complex of boulders
engraved with various symbols such as cruciforms,
“polissoir” engravings or sharpeners. Engraved
surfaces are generally pointed towards SouthEast.
•
Complex of the “Roccia del dolmen”:
This site is composed of several engraved rocks
117
located next to a perennial stream. The most
significant rock has a wide surface area and is
explicitly pointed towards North. It is covered
with linear motifs such as filiforms, cruciforms,
ladder-shaped figures, crosses (maybe for
Christianization), sharpeners, a grid with micro
cup marks and an anthropomorphic figure. A
figure of a deer is also reported to have been
found (PRESTIPINO, 2007: 43; COIMBRA, 2014:9,
footnote n° 9).
•
Pietra Scritta: This site is located beyond
the watershed, in the North-West area of Mount
Beigua, near the source of the Rio Traversa.
This great outcropping stone (measuring 7m x
3,50m) is characterized by a sloped surface and
it is one of the richest sites for engravings in the
Ligurian region. These engravings are created
with the “repeated scratch” technique (“a graffito
ripetuto” T.N.) by pecking and with the schematic
linear technique. There are both aniconic and
figurative elements. These can be shaped
geometrically, five-pointed star-shaped, vulvar,
solar, comb-shaped, tree-shaped, cruciform, phishaped, anthropomorphic figures, games of “tris”,
Christian figures, modern acronyms and dates.
Among these signs, some bull’s skull figure can be
maybe recognized (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 7275, figure 204).
3. Tuscany
3.1. Province of Massa Carrara
•
Grotta di Diana (Canossa, municipality
of Mulazzo): This site is in a little shelter on the
cliff. It is fully engraved and has several aniconic
signs similar to cup marks and grooved lines as
well as figurative ones such as handprints and
anthropomorphic figures. There are two taurine
protomes type Mount Bego. At the bottom of the
cave, next to a grid pattern (this could potentially
be interpreted as a fence or trap?) there is an
anthropomorphic figure with triangular body
near an adult deer’s antler, ramified with several
tines (CARRERA and TOSATTI, 2015: 6, figure 1B2).
There is also a likely snake figure on the western
ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or.
118
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
Figure 2a. Grotta di Diana (Mulazzo, MS), scene with
an anthropomorphic figure, antler of adult deer and
grids (TOSATTI and CARRERA p.p.).
Figure 2b. Grotta di Diana (Mulazzo, MS): snake (courtesy Stefano Pucci).
Figure 2c. Masso di Terrinca (Stazzema, LU), taurine protomes (courtesy Giorgio Citton).
Italian peninsula & islands
Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143
Animals in prehistoric art
wall positioned vertically. A pair of long horns
maybe belong to a caprin. The cave overlooks the
valley floor of Magra River, where several statuestelae were found (Figure 2a,b).
•
Masso di Ciampa del Diavolo.2 (Monte
Brugiana, municipality of Massa): This site can be
found at the entrance of the Frigido River Valley.
It is upstream from the city of Massa, above the
chalcopyrite mines, along the mountainside path
that heads towards a Northernly direction where
many boulders are located. These boulders are
engraved with encircled cup marks and small
cup marks. On one of these boulders next to a
conical cup mark is a filiform anthropomorphic
119
figure with scissor-shaped limbs and slightly bent
open arms with “brush-like” hands. Above this
figure can be found a complex sign that has been
renewed over time. This first sign/figure was a
taurine protome, with long horizontal horns and
an underlying triangular element (TOSATTI, 2010;
2011; 2017: 81, figure 14).
3.2. Province of Lucca
•
Masso di Terrinca (Stazzema): This site
is a petroglyph located on a mountainside path
of the Giardino Channel Valley. It features fully
engraved cruciform figures and other almost
indistinguishable figures. One of these figures,
probably two taurine protomes with long falcate
horns, are engraved with a very thin line and are
difficult to see (Figure 2c) (CITTON& PASTORELLI,
2000; TOSATTI, 2010: 144, 145, figure 10; 2017:
86, figure 23).
•
Greppolungo (Camaiore): This site is
located near the Roccia dei Pennati at 580 m a.s.l.
on a calcareous vertical boulder. The engraving
seems to represent a small fish (15cm x 2,5cm).
The second engraving which is very close to
the first one, illustrates a near indistinguishable
shape, but may be a much bigger fish that is similar
to the former (80cm x 15cm) (https://www.
versiliatoday.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/
IMG-20150124-WA0000-1024x768.jpg).
4. Umbria
4.1. Province of Terni
Figure 3. Mattioli 2007, plate 9: n° 251, 267, Riparo
delle Mummie (Ferentillo, Terni); n° 252 Riparo Santo
Spirito III (Roccamorice, Pescara); n° 253-54, 258-63,
266, 268-271 Riparo Roberto (Sezze, Latina); n° 256
Riparo San Bartolomeo II (Roccamorice, Pescara);
n° 257 Grotta dell’Eremo di Nerone (Carpineto della
Nora, Pescara); n° 264-265 Riparo Santo Spirito I
(Roccamorice, Pescara); n° 272 Riparo di Pacentro
(Sulmona, L’Aquila).
•
Riparo delle Mummie (Ferentillo): This
site is a small shelter located at 375 m a.s.l.. It
features paintings and engravings on the walls
of the site which are covered by concretions.
On these concretions a one-meter-high red strip
was obtained with a layer of ochre. In addition
to anthropomorphic and tree-shaped figures,
a quadruped (potentially equid?) figure can
be seen, both painted in black on the red layer
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120
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
Figure 4. Parete Manzi and Riparo di Cicco II (Civitaluparella, Montelapiano, CH): Fishes (courtesy DI FRAIA).
(Figure 3)1 (MATTIOLI, 2007:28, figure 19 e tav. 9
n. 251 e 267).
5. Lazio
5.1. Province of Latina
•
Riparo Roberto (Sezze Romano): This
site is a wide rock shelter above the Pontine
1
In the volume MATTIOLI 2007, several images of straddling men are illustrated in the plate n. 7 and almost all of them
belong to a recent age. As the Author specifies on page 189, they
consist of figures related to straddling Carabinieri which fought,
during the 19th century, brigandage and the resistance of groups
loyal to the Bourbons after the Italian Unification in 1870. The figure
of the straddling Carabiniere is widespread still today in the folklore
of Southern Italy, as is shown by several whistles made of terracotta
especially in Apulia.
Italian peninsula & islands
plain featuring many figures painted in black on
its walls. Among them several key figures can
be identified. These include two canids, five
running deer, two equids, three undeterminable
zoomorphic figures, a probable flying animal,
six or seven anthropomorphic figures, gridded
figures, wavy lines and a tree-shaped figure. The
heavy degradation of the paintings and the acts of
vandalism at the site make it difficult to properly
identify the possible overlaps. Inside the shelter
there are also cup marks and linear grooves.
Due to the stylistic features found here, it seems
possible to attribute the zoomorphic figures to
the late Bronze Age/Iron Age (Figure 3) (PRIULI
and SGABUSSI, 1992 figures 2-6; MATTIOLI, 2007:
30-33, tav. 9).
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121
Figure 5a. Morricone del Pesco (Isernia), equids (courtesy SIGARI).
6. Abruzzo
6.1. Province of L’Aquila
•
Riparo di Pacentro: This site can be found
in a little rock shelter. Below the red painted
anthropomorphic figures there is a black painted
fish (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1969 figure 26) (Figure
3).
6.2. Province of Pescara
•
Grotta dell’Eremo di Nerone (Carpineto
della Nora): This site features a complex of walls
in the Grotta di Nerone-Eremo di Sant’Anna, on
which there are eight anthropomorphic figures
painted in black and one zoomorphic figure (a
flying animal) (Figure 3) (DE POMPEIS, 1992:541;
MATTIOLI, 2007: 96, figure 82: 517/6).
•
Riparo
di
San
Bartolomeo
II
(Roccamorice): This site is a big shelter with walls
where stalagmitic concretions have covered
the paintings. These paintings consist of several
anthropomorphic figures represented in scenic
compositions. A lengthened figure surrounded
by short segments could be interpreted as a fish
(Figure 3) (DE POMPEIS, 1993: figure 7; MATTIOLI,
2007: 71, figure 54: 503-522).
Figure 5b. Riparo Ranaldi (Castel Lagopesole, Potenza): complex red scene with globiforms, reeds and
anthropomorphic figures.
6.3. Province of Chieti
•
Parete Manzi (Montelapiano): This site
is located at 550m a.s.l. on the wall made of
yellowish rock that overlooks the Sangro river
valley. There are various anthropomorphic figures
painted in red, as well as crosses and a knife
dagger. In addition to other thinly engraved figures
several fishes can be identified with underlined
fishbones or fins (similar to the one found in San
Bartolomeo, seen above). Some of them have
been interpreted as cetaceans. Next to these
figures are other figurative images interpreted
as probable harpoons (Figure 4) (CUOMO et al.,
2018: 70-72, tables 62-65).
•
Parete di Cicco II (Civitaluparella): iThis
site is an isolated rock formation, partially
covered by a greyish patina . It site has pecked
representations of an anthropomorphic figure
and a fish, sometimes interpreted as a dolphin
(Figure 4) (CUOMO et al., 2018: 57, tav. 19).
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R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
122
Figure 6a. Grotta Pazienza (Rignano Garganico, FG): two serpentiform figures painted in red ochre.
Figure 6b. Grotta B di valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni
Rotondo, FG): red painted archers and an equid
(GRAVINA, 2017).
Italian peninsula & islands
Figure 6c. Grotta A di valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni
Rotondo, FG): red painted taurine protome (GRAVINA, 2017).
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Animals in prehistoric art
7. Molise
7.1. Province of Isernia
•
Morricone del Pesco: This site is
composed of three areas of a steep shelter. There
are black engraved and painted figures:
Sector a): This sector features engraved
figurative and aniconic figures. There are also
zoomorphic quadrupeds painted with a black
profile line. If they were considered to be equines,
they would be referred to the Early Iron Age;
Sector b): This sector features a probable
zoomorphic figure painted in black, presumably
dated to the upper Palaeolithic (bovid);
Sector c): features There are figurative and
geometric elements along with anthropomorphic
ones. These anthropomorphic figures feature a
grid pattern and heads with a double profile line
(cf. types from Pacentro: GRIFONI CREMONESI,
1979). There is a schematic zoomorphic upon
a floral motif and higher above it is a meander
(Figure 5a) (SIGARI et al., 2014: 36 figures 4-5).
8. Basilicata
8.1. Province of Potenza
•
Riparo Ranaldi (Tuppo dei Sassi – Castel
Lagopesole): This site is an arcuate rock shelter.
On the vertical wall it presents a complex scene
painted in red ochre with anthropomorphic
figures. On the left, one of these figures is
composed by three globes (tree-shaped,
polilobated or “hyper-anthropic” figure). On the
right there is an anthropomorphic figure with
rod-shaped head and potentially scissors-like
arms. This figure is not easily visible because it
overlaps an underlying zoomorphic figure; cervids
and comb-shaped figures are present as well.
Potentially two different chronological phases
can be distinguished: Neolithic and Eneolithic
123
phases (GRAZIOSI, 1973: 147 tav. XVC; BORZATTI
VON LOWENSTERN and INGLIS, 1990: figure 2;
ARCÀ and BOZZARELLI) (Figure 5b).
9. Apulia
9.1. Province of Foggia
•
Grotta Pazienza (Grignano Garganico):
This site features two zig-zag-shaped or
serpentiform figures (interpreted as lightning
bolts) painted in red ochre. These are seen among
anthropomorphic figures of various typologies.
Such typologies include “prayer” type figures,
a rod-shaped figure with a T-shaped head, a
figure with an empty oval-shaped head and
triangular chest (with the vertex pointing down).
For the authors it could be a scene with two big
characters, a male and a female (GRAVINA, 2008:
figure 4; GRAVINA and MATTIOLI, 2010: 109,
figure 7: 10-11) (Figure 6).
•
Grotta A di Valle del Sorbo (San
Giovanni Rotondo): This site features a red
painted wall with various figures among
which a T-shaped taurine protome (Figure 6c).
•
Grotta B di Valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni
Rotondo): This site features red painted images
featuring an archer and a quadruped, potentially
an equid (Figure 6b).
9.2. Province of Bari
•
Riparo Il Cavone (Spinazzola, BA): This
shelter is located on the first hill chain of the
Murge plateau. At this site, a flat and intensely
smoothed (maybe intentionally done) surface has
been identified. This surface has a dense series of
thin engravings forming organized and complex
patterns.
The position of the spur on which this
shelter is located overlooks the landscape,
representing an excellent observation point in
ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or.
124
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
Figure 7a.: Riparo Il Cavone (Spinazzola, Bari): schematic anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures in traps or
fences (ASTUTI et al., 2008).
Italian peninsula & islands
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Animals in prehistoric art
Figure 7b. Riparo Il Cavone (Spinazzola, Bari) (ASTUTI
et al., 2008).
the general valley area. This develops in a SENW direction along the trajectory connecting the
Ionian Sea with the Ofanto River.
This site seems as though it was part of a
connection network for territorial control of the
main valley.
On the smoothed surface there is a scene
composed of many types of anthropomorphic
figures. They are nearly organized in a circle
around other anthropomorphic figures that are
lying down. These figures are surrounded by
five-pointed stars, hourglasses and zigzags. There
are also four schematizations of traps or fences
which have two extremely schematic zoomorphic
figures inside these designs. The identifiable ones
are:
125
Figure 8a-c Grotta dei Cervi, Porto Badisco (LE): red
and black painted hunting scenes, deers, various
figures, “pettiniformi” (GRAZIOSI, 1980).
A quadruped with paws ending in small
circles and another very small quadruped. Both
of which are both enclosed in fences;
A deer antler drawn with parallel lines;
A little ornithomorphic figure (?) (ASTUTI
et al., 2008: figure 11, 14) (Figure 7 a, b).
9.3. Province of Lecce
•
Grotta dei Cervi (Porto Badisco): This
site features a cave with two entrances and
it is organized in to three corridors. In one of
them there is a small lake with dripping water
and two burials have been discovered with the
fictile materials dated between Neolithic and
Bronze Age. The white calcareous walls highlight
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126
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
Figure 9a-b. Grotta dei Cervi (Porto Badisco, LE):
several hunting scenes with archers and deers; a dog.
(GRAZIOSI, 1980).
Figure 10a-c. Grotta dei Cervi, Porto Badisco (LE):
tables (GRAZIOSI, 1980).
Figure 11. Grotta Cosma (Santa Cesarea Terme, LE):
hunting scene with archer near a dog pointing to a
snake.
Figure 12. Grotta Mirabella (San Giuseppe Jato, Palermo): red painted cervid and dog (?) in motion.
Italian peninsula & islands
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Animals in prehistoric art
127
paintings made with red pigments or with a
mixture of bat guano.
The figurative paintings: These can
be found on a small wall, some red figures
(potentially even older than the aforementioned)
show the presence of a hunting scene with
archers and cervids. The other figures painted in
black are found in the innermost corridors, where
guano was used. The figurative paintings consist
of anthropomorphic figures (some with and some
without bows) and quadrupeds.
Figure 13. Grotta dell’Ucceria (Favignana, TP): survey
of black painted anthropomorphic and zoomorphic
(bovids? ovines?) figures (MANNINO, 2017).
The non-figurative paintings: These
include theriomorphic elements and nonfigurative elements with a zoomorphic origin.
These paintings are simple or speculatory combshaped figures possessing many abstracted and
geometric elements. These were identified and
interpreted by prof. Graziosi as an increasingly
marked abstraction of the human body turning
Figure 14. Grotta del Genovese (Levanzo, TP): survey of the painted figures (GRAZIOSI, 1973).
ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or.
128
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
into geometric figures. In the first corridor
there are deer hunting scenes with dogs and a
shepherding scene. This shepherding scene is the
only one in the whole cave. In this painting the
anthropomorphic figure can be seen holding a
probable cane and it is possible to see quadrupeds
(caprines) and a dog. More hunting scenes are
found in the second and third corridors where
there are schematic animals and comb-shaped
figures organized in columns (GRAZIOSI, 1973:
figure 166a).
The total amount of representations
consists of twenty hunting scenes (including
complex ones) alternating with symbolic images,
interpreted as extreme abstractions of human
figures. These are organized in geometric patterns,
in overlaps of spiral elements and in probable
representations of objects such as horned hats,
wineskins, potentially axes, semicircles with a
hunter holding a ring. Animals represented in
the art (except for a boar and a dog) are always
schematic and culminate in comb-shaped figures
(GRAZIOSI, 1973, 1980) (Figure 8-10).
Figure 15a-b. Grotta del Genovese (Levanzo, TP):
photoes of the black painted figures.
•
Grotta Cosma (Santa Cesarea Terme): This
site consists of various chambers and corridors.
In one of these corridors there are paintings
in black and red. These paintings feature two
anthropomorphic figures, one with bow (a
hunting scene) next to a small quadruped (dog?)
pointing towards a serpentiform. Next to this
painting are abstracted-symbolic figures, similar
to the one of the contiguous Grotta dei Cervi in
Porto Badisco (Figure 11) (GRAZIOSI, 1973: 146,
figure 168; 1980).
10.
Sicily
10.1. Province of Palermo
Figure 16. Grotta di Su Longu Fresu o del cranio (Cagliari): black painted hunting scene.
Italian peninsula & islands
•
Grotta Tonnara: This site is a little cave in
the district of Carini in a hemicycle of sea cliffs.
In 1947 two taurine protomes with long horns
of the Mount Bego type were photographed by
Giovanni Mannino. Mannino described it as “two
frontal taurine heads, one almost twice the size of
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Animals in prehistoric art
Figure 17a-b. Grotta Scritta (Olmeta di Capocorso,
Bastia): complex scene with anthropomorphic and
zoomorphic figures (t-shaped corniform) (WEISS
1998).
the other”, it was created with deep engravings.
Now they no longer exist due to the construction
work for a military storehouse (MANNINO, 2017 :
112, figure 23.1).
•
Grotta Mirabella (San Giuseppe Jato):
This site is a naturally illuminated funnel-shaped
cave. The figures painted in red are located at eye
level to the left of the entranceway. Among the
ten figures there are three zoomorphic figures
(one of which is faded), a probable female cervid
and a dog turned to the left with the front paws
bowed as if running. Each one measures about
ten centimeters. The other seven figures consist
of frontal anthropomorphic designs. Each of
these designs is related to a particular typology
129
Figure 18a-c. Gias des Peintures (Tende, France): a External area of the cave (courtesy Musée de Tende,
Dr. S. Sandrone, ph. André Soriano (Monaco); b – The
red painted hunting scene (courtesy J.M. Strangi CD06
- Musée départemental des Merveilles); c– survey
of the painted scene (VICINO, BERNARDINI in MANO
1995).
(MANNINO, 2017: 113-118, Figures 26.1, 26)
(Figure 12).
10.2. Province of Trapani
•
Grotta dell’Ucceria o del Cervo,
(Favignana, Isole Egadi): This site is a small
cave that belongs to a complex of three caves
(called “del Faraglione”). It is positioned around
twenty meters from the sea. Two scenes with
anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures can
be found here and are painted in black. The first
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130
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
scene is a potential bovid facing left and found
between three different anthropomorphic figures
(One frontal with a truncated-conical hairstyle
or mask. One on the right and possibly a part of
another cruciform anthropomorphic figure. One
below with an idoliform representation of about
12 cm). The second scene represents a rural
context: two zoomorphic figures (probably two
bovids), can be seen from the top and a frontal
anthropomorphic figure (the shepherd) that is
crouched and potentially holding a cane (Figure.
13) (MANNINO, 2017: 248-51, Figures 65.1-3).
•
Grotta del Genovese (Levanzo, Isole
Egadi): This site features a rich set of animal
representations that were engraved during the
upper Palaeolithic and three anthropomorphic
figures. One of these anthropomorphic figures
are sumptuously dressed and possess a mask.
Isolated from the rest of these figures is a female
figure painted in red ochre half-lying on a sinuous
line and is just below a quadruped with enlarged
body (this may be a bovid or an ovine). At the
bottom of the cave there is a long frieze with
black paintings divided into three areas, two on
Figure 19a-b. Domus de Janas (Sardinia): taurine protomes (TANDA 2012).
Italian peninsula & islands
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Animals in prehistoric art
the walls and one on the stalactitical wall hanging
from the ceiling. From these can be identified:
Schematic anthropomorphic figures with
stocky bodies and thin arms, that are often
ithyphallic;
Some painted zoomorphic figures: A deer,
three fish (tuna or dolphins), a canid (turned to the
left, and appears to look at the anthropomorphic
figure next to it), bovids, two swine, a caprine
and, potentially two taurine protomes;
A selection of idoliforms (Figures 14, 15 a, b)
(GRAZIOSI, 1973, 1980; TUSA, 2003; MANNINO,
2017:251-260, figures 66.8b-66.13).
11.
Sardinia
11.1. Province of Nuoro
•
Grotta di Su Longu Fresu o del Cranio
(Cagliari): This site is a narrow and long cave inside
a system of nine “ritual” caves in the territory
of central Sardinia in the Barbagia area. It has
eight lateral recesses in which water flows. There
were human and animal bones with prestigious
obsidian goods and a small greenstone axe have
been found. A cranium attached to the bottom
wall was dated by the Oxford Laboratories to the
V millennium BC. Next to it, on a small vertical
wall is a scene painted in black featuring an
anthropomorphic figure with the head adorned
with long horns (could this be a theriomorphic
figure?) hunting a horned zoomorphic figure
(GRADOLI& MEADEN, 2011: 224, figure 6) (Figure
16).
12.
Corsica
•
Grotta Scritta (Olmeta di Capocorso,
Bastia): This site is a rock shelter with signs and
stylized figures painted in red ochre. These include
ithyphallic anthropomorphic figures with arms up
or down, a horned element, T-shaped corniforms
with descending sides, one of which is covered
by one of the two quadrupeds (potentially with
131
a rider). Two potential phases can be identified,
a prehistoric phase (potentially Neolithic) and the
other phase is dated to the Iron Age due to the
presence of probable riders (GROSJEAN, 1959;
1969; WEISS, 1998: figure 15, phase IV (Iron Age?)
(Figures 17 a, b).
13.
Observation
The collected data illustrates that during
the Neolithic period in the Italian peninsula
the parietal representations are few and are
restricted to hunting scenes with deer or horned
quadrupeds. Some feature the presence of dogs,
some other non-well identifiable quadrupeds,
a few snakes and extremely rare fish. On the
contrary, in the same period, the archaeological
data shows a lot of artistic manifestations
documented by both small fictile or stone
statuary (BAGOLINI and CREMONESI, 1992;
GRIFONI CREMONESI and PEDROTTI, 2012) and
painted and plastic decorations on pottery, surely
provided with a symbolic value (GIMBUTAS,
1974, 1991; COPPOLA, 1999-2000; GRAZIOSI,
1980; GRIFONI CREMONESI, 2004; OTTE 2012;
WASILEWSKA, 1994). However, the use of artistic
manifestation in caves seems to disappear, or at
least became a rarer phenomenon. There is less
evidence that can be attributed to the Neolithic
period not only in Italy, but also in the rest of the
Mediterranean, the European world and in the
Near East.
Painted deer hunting scenes dated to
the early Neolithic period are also located in the
Anatolian site of Çatal Hüyük where there are
representations of other animals (bulls, leopards,
vultures), all painted or carved inside domestic
spaces, interpreted as sanctuaries (MELLAART,
1967). As reported above, there are three deer
hunting scenes in the previously mentioned red
paintings of Grotta Cosma, Grotta dei Cervi of
Porto Badisco in Apulia, and in Grotta del Cranio
in Sardinia. An Alpine ibex hunting scene can be
found in the small shelter of “Gias des Peintures”
in the Mount Bego region (France) (Figure 18). In
the Riparo Rinaldi of Tuppo dei Sassi in Basilicata,
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R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
there are anthropomorphic figures among the
deer. A larger one of these figures is located in the
center of the scene, which may refer to hunting.
The deer hunting is part of a larger scope
of figurative manifestation that, since the earliest
prehistory, gives this animal a special value. This
can be observed from the remains of antlers that
are located in many Epi-gravettian and Mesolithic
burials as well as in the atrophic canines used
for personal decorations and in their stone or
bone imitations made by Neolithic people2 .
The symbolic connotation also continues into
the late Neolithic, with crania found at the
Manfredi hypogeum next to a selection of refined
vases of the Serra d’Alto culture (GENIOLA and
SANSEVERINO, 2014) and in successive periods,
with sacrificial depositions in many sites (MIARI,
1995; MANFREDINI, 2011-2013, GRIFONI
CREMONESI, p.p.).
This high symbolic value of the deer
continues even in successive periods, maybe in
relation to a warrior aristocracy in the Bronze and
Iron Ages. It then appears in the Greek and Roman
myths and continues up until the Middle Ages
when this animal is the main character of magical
hunts and legends about various Saints (GRIFONI
CREMONESI, p.p.). As an example, the church of
St. Eustache in Rome features a deer head with a
cross between its horns on the church itself, but
more importantly, the legends about St. Humbert,
who saw the Cross between golden deer horns,
and the legend about the King Theodoric of the
Ostrogoths (sung by Heinrich Heine and then by
Giosuè Carducci) supply an interesting context.
Theodoric, as a punishment for his political acts
that ran contrary to the Church, rode a black
horse (a symbol of the devil) and had to chase a
deer with golden horns along the whole Italian
peninsula until it pushed him into the Stromboli,
a volcano considered the entrance of hell.
2
This phenomenon continues even later as evidence can
be observed in the bone imitation found in the burials of Laterza
Chalcolithic culture in the Mound 7 of Salve near Lecce (APRILE et
al., 2018).
Italian peninsula & islands
Regarding the stricter aspects of the postPaleolithic art, the progressive transition from a
veristic art to an abstract art through schematic
forms can be observed. This is pointed out by
many authors and, above all, by Paolo Graziosi
(1980) for Porto Badisco. These schematic forms
gradually became completely abstracted symbols.
For example: in the hunting scenes, these
symbols alternate with anthropomorphic figures,
armed with bows and zigzags, grids, five-pointed
star-shaped elements, pentacles, or spirals. Even
animals are more schematic, often reduced to
comb-shaped elements, i.e., sketched out with
horizontal lines and orthogonal segments, parallel
to each other.
In successive periods, from Chalcolithic to
the Bronze Age, shelter and cave representations
along the Apennine ridge feature more
anthropomorphic figures. The more recurring
signs refer to anthropomorphic figures often
in “narrative” compositions whilst animals are
almost absent, except for some rare examples.
The more interesting examples are the hunting
scenes with a probable theriomorphic figure as a
main character in Arma della Moretta in Liguria
and the zoomorphic figures of the further Riparo
Il Cavone in Apulia. In both cases the animals are
extremely stylized, and, in the Riparo Il Cavone,
they seem to be enclosed in cages or traps. Such
stylistic comparisons bring us, for both sites, to
the sites of Southern France, e.g., in the Grotte
des Oiseaux in Herault (ABELANET, 1986: figure
73 n. 9; ASTUTI et al., 2008: figures 11, 14).
Many scenes with painted deers, alpine,
ibex and snakes are known in Southern France’s
caves and shelters (GARIDEL and HAMEAU, 1997;
HAMEAU, 2018).
In Northern Italy, mostly in the region of
Valcamonica and also in the exceptional figurative
representations of Mount Bego, recurring animal
figures can be found. Here in particular, during
the Copper Age, the figure of a bull (symbolized
by a bucranium with long horns) is represented
in many ways. It is predominant and associated
with the dagger and zig-zags (symbol of water or
lightning) (DE LUMLEY, 1995).
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Animals in prehistoric art
In the Valcamonica area, from the
Neolithic period to the beginning of the historical
era, several various animals appear in the
engravings. In addition to deer examples include
Alpine ibexes, canids, wolves, swine and, in the
later phases, birds and fish can be found beside
horses and horsemen (ANATI, 1979; FOSSATI,
1991, 2004). Bovids, with rod-shaped bodies
and long horns, when present on menhirs and in
the rock art of the Copper Age, are represented
ploughing while yoked.
The bull cult (of which a lot has been
written about) seems to already appear at the end
of the IV millennium BC in Western Europe. This
is especially the case if considering the images
on Gavrinis’ dolmen. It assumes importance
especially in the Mount Bego complex, where half
of the engravings consist of its symbol and, besides
ploughing scenes, it appears in compositions
with very schematic anthropomorphic figures,
bucrania and knives daggers3. So much repetitive
and symbolic manifestations are not present
along the Apennine ridge and on the Alps,
and we have just few bucrania in Liguria, High
Tuscany and Sicily. However, they are abundant
in Sardinia, where, during Prehistory, the bull
had great importance. Here figurative depictions
present long horns and bucrania which are carved
in a remarkable number on the walls of artificial
sepulchral little caves (domus de janas) and on
some menhirs (TANDA, 2012) (Figure 19).
Moreover, during the Bronze Age there
are a lot of horned handles on vases, interpreted
as bull’s symbols as well. They are also associated
with solar or lunar cults but are considered to be
astronomical symbols in any case.
Any reference to other animals seems
to be absent in Sardinia, except for the Grotta
di Su Longu Fresu (or the Grotta del Cranio). At
3
According to some authors, compositions with ploughs
and oxen suggest a farming world where daggers and halberds
wouldn’t be warrior symbols, but instead be agricultural tools
(knives and sickles) and the bull wouldn’t have an astronomical
meaning in this context (ABELANET 1986). See also the Horned God
in the Bronze Age of Cyprus.
133
these sites a zoomorphic figure is painted with
long horns in a hunting scene where the archer is
adorned with the same long horns. As in the Arma
della Moretta, it seems possible to hypothesize
the presence of a horned theriomorphic figure
(this could be a bovine or perhaps an Alpine ibex)
(GRADOLI and MEADEN, 2011).
On the Island of Corsica, there is just
one painted scene with quadrupeds from Grotta
Scritta that is potentially older because it seems
to be partially overlapped by other figures
appearing as taurine protomes (or caprins?)
(WEISS, 1998). This is believed to be the only
evidence of taurine presence among the island’s
symbologies. The existence of a bull cult in
the Mediterranean West has been thoroughly
discussed in order to find connections with the
great Mediterranean and Eastern manifestations
of this cult which dates back to the Minoan Bronze
Age (Minotaur’s Myth and bullfighting), Greek
mythology (Abduction of Europa), the AssyrianBabylonian world and in Egypt (sacred bull Apis).
Even in the Bible there is a reference to this cult
in relation to the golden calf which was destroyed
and cursed by Moses. However, the cults of the
bull are an ancient phenomenon developed in
different ways and times in various cultural areas,
the origins and manners of which are lost to
the distant past. There are traces of this ancient
practice even today (besides the corrida) in the
use of decorating the red oxen and cows during
some celebrations and the apotropaic use of the
red horn as a lucky charm.
Other cases of engravings with
zoomorphic figures must be attributed to later
periods, probably the late Bronze Age – Iron Age,
as the animals of the Riparo Roberto of Sezze in
the Lazio region (PRIULI and SGARBUSSI, 1992),
while some fish engraved in the shelters of the
Abruzzo and Molise regions are hardly datable
(CUOMO et al., 2018).
14.
The archaeological data
It is evident how during the Copper
and Bronze Ages rock representations along
ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or.
134
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
the Apennine ridge do not exclusively consist
of animals, but these are present in the votive
depositions of caves and burials. It seems
appropriate therefore to analyze this with a
short paragraph on the topic by which another
discussion may start.
a hare metatarsal. All of which were found with
little balls made of clay and red ochre at one
extremity in the XI and II circles. The ritual and
symbolic value of the hare is more than evident
(CREMONESI, 1976). Inside the circle there were
also domestic and wild fauna remains.
Since the ancient Neolithic period there
are already depositions of sheep, pigs and dogs
in cave burials (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 2007; DI
FRAIA and GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1996; WILKENS,
1995) and some offerings associated with specific
burials are known too. This parting between rock
art and archaeological data could mean a lot for a
possible reading as a symbol related to a religious,
ritual and/or magical superstructure.
Other animals with a strong symbolic
value include dogs which can be found in the
burials of some Neolithic females and, more
frequently, in those of Copper Age warriors (DE
GROSSI MAZZORIN, 2001:393). Few cases of little
domestic animals’ ritual depositions are wellknown in the funerary contexts of the prehistoric
age. This is a practice documented since the
Neolithic period up until the Roman period4.
The case of Grotta Patrizi in the Lazio
region (GRIFONI CREMONESI and RADMILLI, 20002001) is interesting for the purpose of observing
the symbolic value of some animals. Besides deer
there are semi-carbonized remains of ox, sheep,
pig, dog, hare, wolf and roe deer which were
found together with millstones. These were found
in the Neolithic funerary context dating to 4100
circa BC and consist of the front and rear quarters
of the animals which have cuts to their shoulders
and thighs. These cuts are in slightly different
positions for the different animals such as the
shoulder for sheep and pigs, the front hooves for
the ox, rear paws for wolf and rear hooves for
roe deer and the thigh in the case of the hare.
Three hare tibiae were furthermore placed under
an individual with a drilled cranium. They were
buried with a rich supply of decorated vases,
millstones and bone assegais, in a small isolated
chamber of the cave. We remember that in many
cultures until the present day, the hare paw has
always had a strong value as talisman. The hare
(and in many places around the world, the rabbit
too) is linked to the moon and considered as
mediator with the chthonian world.
Some animal bones were treated and
butchered in caves where human bones have also
been found. These are dated to the early Neolithic
period (BARRA et al., 1989; WILKENS, 1995, a
dog was at the feet of a woman in Ripoli’s village
in Abruzzo). Whilst those in the late Neolithic
period (CREMONESI, 1965) can be connected to
the ones in the important necropolis of Chiozza
di Scandiano in Emilia (MARTINI, 2006 with
bibliography).
It must also be remembered that the
singular and well-known case found in the
circles of the Grotta dei Piccioni of Bolognano in
Abruzzo, inside late Ripoli cultural layers dated
to 2900/2800 BC consist of humeri of Anas
boscas, Fulica atra, Columba palumbus and of
Italian peninsula & islands
In the case of the Copper Age,
depositions of dog are found in burials of armed
males with rich supplies and belong to diversified
cultural aspects during the III millennium in the
Italian peninsula (cultures of Rinaldone, Gaudo,
Ortucchio, Laterza) (NEGRONI CATACCHIO and
ASPESI, 2016; DE GROSSI MAZZORIN, 2001).
In the so-called burial “della Vedovella”
(the widow) in Ponte San Pietro (VT) (MIARI,
1993), a dog was located on the external slab
of a burial containing a man with weapons,
jewelry, high quality pottery, and a woman with
fractured cranium. Another example can be
seen in the necropolis of Fontenoce (Recanati)
where two animals were located (SILVESTRINI
and PIGNOCCHI, 1997): an adult male dog (with
4
For a very interesting documentation about the meaning
of animals in the Middle Age’s art and religion see FRUGONI 2018
Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143
Animals in prehistoric art
135
its cranium disjointed) was found in a recess
that was separated from the human burials.
It was hypothesized that this animal was a sort
of “guardian” of the necropolis with evident
connection with the chthonian world and infernal
forces. The other animal is a young swine found
without head and with a hoof bent on the ribs, it is
believed to have probably had a “food” function,
making it a ritual offering (WILKENS, 1995).
as well as in the small fictile statuary of the
terramare. Horses appear frequently in engraved
scenes of war or hunting in the Valcamonica
area and are moreover painted on the walls of:
Riparo Roberto of Sezze Romano (Latina), Riparo
Morricone del Pesco in Molise and in the Grotta
Scritta in Corsica. They demonstrate the concept
of the chariot of the sun which was drawn by
horses.
In the burial of Mirabella Eclano in
Campania (BAILO MODESTI and SALERNO, 1988
with bibliography) and in the burial of Tursi in
Basilicata (CREMONESI, 1978) the inhumed
were buried with vases, weapons (daggers and
arrowheads), a sandstone shaft (interpreted as
symbol of command) and a dog. In the Mirabella
Eclano site, the dog was buried next to the
inhumed, while in Tursi it was buried upon the
lithic case with the human burial. In this case
the presence of the dog in these burials could be
interpreted as guardians too.
In the same ideological sphere, during
the Late Bronze Age and at the beginning of
the Iron Age, water birds (anatids, swans) are
very important. They link to the cult of the sun,
whose boat was drawn by them (BETTELLI, 1997).
These animals are often represented on pendants
which are found, along the whole Adriatic Sea,
from Apulia to Veneto, connected in particular
with one female figure (a theriomorphic one),
potentially the Reitia goddess.
Other dogs in burials can be found in
Casa del Dolce near Rome and in the caves of
Mount Cetona in Tuscany next to a human crania
(DE GROSSI MAZZORIN, 2001).
The dog is also related in many myths
with the chthonian world and therefore assumes
a strong symbolic value too, in addition to the one
of man’s companions.
There is further evidence for other
animals that are dangerous but connected to the
chthonian world anyway. Examples include: two
snakes found in burial 20 in Guidorossi Street in
Parma, the remains of a bear and a wolf (among
which penis bones can be found in the Romita
of Asciano near Pisa), (PERONI, 1962-63) are
present in many sites as well (BERNABÒ BREA
and MAZZIERI, 2011-2013; GRIFONI CREMONESI,
p.p.; MANFREDINI, 2011-2013).
The horse is also a symbolic animal used
during the late Bronze Age. This appears, with
a cult value already in the Bronze Age village of
Maccarese (Rome). Here a horse was buried in a
pit with two dog puppies (MANFREDINI, 2005),
An important example of the cult value
of various animals is provided by the Alpine site
of Pigloner Kopf in the Eastern Alps (OBERRAUCH,
2014). At this site copper objects and remains of
burned animals and birch resin (that is believed
to be a type of incense) were found in a shelter
dated to the mid III millennium BC and was also
frequented in the successive periods afterwards.
Fauna remains indicate both domestic species
(goat/sheep, pig, ox, dog) and wild species (deer,
boar, roe deer, chamois, brown bear, wolf, beaver,
otter, testudo). Among the remains included
edible animals but also other animals with a
symbolic value (in addition to fur animals or
dangerous creatures such as the bear or the wolf)
found in many other funerary or cult contexts.
The place was surely sacred, in relation to both
its position on the top of the mountain and
the geothermal manifestations of steam that,
in several sites, have shown evidence of cults
(GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1999, 2005).
Wild fauna seems therefore to have had a
specific meaning in contexts related to agricultural
or funerary cults or to ceremonies with religious
meaning where sheep and pigs have great
importance, and which are located in many ritual
pits. There is no trace of these animals in rock art
ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or.
136
R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti
however, where prevalent figurative elements
include the human figure and abstracted symbols
with a difficult meaning except for the deer, the
bull and the snake5.
15.
Conclusions
In this case it is not necessary to focus
too much on the possible meanings of symbols
recurring in the large area that comprises
the Italian peninsula, France, and the Iberian
Peninsula. What we are trying to show is that
they represent a great cultural and ideological
koine extending through a large part of Europe.
They express with symbols and signs that are
incomprehensible to us or just intelligible in
their various forms, from the simplest forms
using only colour (black, red, but also white in
pottery) to the more complex forms (paintings,
sculptures, engravings, etc.) (WASILEWSKA, 1994;
WHITEHOUSE, 1992; GIMBUTAS, 1974, 1991;
GRIFONI CREMONESI, 2004; COPPOLA, 19992001). Some of these symbols are present in the
whole Italian peninsula and on the islands. They
are represented by typologies which become
increasingly similar even if interpreted with
different techniques such as engravings which
are often very thin and paintings which can be
coloured red or black. The black style of painting
continues into even the most recent times. Many
sites have evident traces of medieval or modern
frequentations, with crosses and other Christian
symbols.
Unfortunately, we don’t have enough
data regarding dating except for a few pigments.
The few dates that are available to us allow us to
visualize a part of the known artistic production
in a chronological range from the late Neolithic
to the Bronze Age. Regarding the recent Neolithic
period, the presence of some abstracted symbols
painted on the walls of Grotta dei Cervi at Porto
Badisco can be helpful. These symbols are identical
5
Oxen are known in many burials of the Bronze and Iron
Age in continental Europe (TECCHIATI 2018). An ox is also buried
in the Beakers village of Semitella near Florence (SARTI &MARTINI
1993, table 41).
Italian peninsula & islands
to the ones on the ceramics of Serra d’Alto
culture, dated between 5740-5330 BC cal.2σand
3969-3710 BC cal. 2σ. These symbols express,
in an extremely abstract way, the human figure
in artistic compositions with several individuals
(GRAZIOSI, 1980). Based on stylistic comparisons
with Malta Island, the paintings of Grotta Cala
del Genovese at Levanzo are attributed to a
chronological period roughly between the late
Neolithic and the beginning of the Copper Age.
Most of the artistic representations in the Italian
peninsula can be dated back to the Chalcolithic
period and to the Bronze Age in relation to several
comparisons with Western Mediterranean sites.
For example, the pigments of the Riparo di Pale
site in Umbra are dated to 5661±36 - 1569±4 BC
and the pigments of Grotta la Pileta (Malaga) to
2394 -1975 BC (MATTIOLI, 2006, 2008).
In some sites and near to some shelters
ceramic fragments were discovered and were
dated to the early and middle Bronze Age, as
in Civitaluparella in Abruzzo and in the Riparo Il
Cavone in Apulia.
The wider problem about the meaning of
the choice of these sites in relation to territory
and landscape is discussed in many recent
studies. In the first place, the choice of the space is
presented in the following features: little shelters,
singular natural formations, dominant position,
orientation, rock colours and the presence of
water. The evidence of artistic manifestations in
sites that are often almost unreachable but where
there are even overlapping symbols of many
periods (from the Calcholithic-Bronze Age to the
Christian era, with crosses and mostrances) let us
hypothesize a strong sacredness to these places,
but this does not exclude a use for controlling
economic activities. The concept of sacredness
found in these particular places is well-known and
concerns particularly mountains, most of which
believed to be abodes for deities (Olympus, Sinai,
and probably also Mount Bego and other peaks
with a particular appearance) but also cliffs,
sources, woods, rivers and lakes (OTTO, 1917).
These are sites with a meaning incomprehensible
to us but have continued to be frequented in
historical periods until the present day. This is the
Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143
Animals in prehistoric art
case of some caves which became sanctuaries
or collapsed shelters that had seen continuous
votive depositions even after they had lost every
other functionality (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1969b;
1996,1996b).
The decorated sites of the Bronze and Iron
Age are usually far from inhabited and farming
areas, so it can be hypothesized that there is a
need for controlling grazing lands or mining areas.
In some research it has been the importance of
visual angles has been highlighted along with
route crossings and fluvial valleys which are
useful positions for controlling territory and roads
(CHIARENZA et al., 2010; CARRERA, TONARELLI
and TOSATTI, 2021). Connections with rocks
decorated with cup marks are also important, as
well as their distribution in relation to routes and
areas of exploitable resources (CAVULLI, 2005;
TOSATTI, 2013, 2014; ARCÀ and RUBAT BOREL,
2017). In some cases there are signs of the
presence of dripping water such as in the Riparo
di Pale and especially in the Grotta dell’Arco di
Bellegra. Red and black anthropomorphic figures
located inside Grotta dell’Arco di Bellegra are
almost exactly the same as the figures in Levanzo
but are partially covered by concretions. Due to
these concretions the art can be related to cults
of dripping or galactofore waters (BERNABEI and
GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1996). The relation with
water running off the walls along fissures is also
reported in many shelters in Southern France
and in the Mount Bego site. In Liguria, the Pietra
Scritta and the complex site around the Roccia
del Dolmen in the Geoparco del Beigua, are near
or next to perennial streams or water sources.
The Masso di Zingola, was located directly on the
flowing water of the Giardina stream in the Versilia
area (Stazzema, Lucca) and has an engraved spiral
with six double spins (twelve coils) (CITTON and
PASTORELLI, 2000; TOSATTI, 2005).
In this quite complex panorama, that sees
a strict correlation with animals as an economic
resource, regarding rearing, pastoralism and
hunting, their presence is not so evident in the
symbols. Instead they highlight the importance of
the human figure and sometimes, the connection
with the uranic world too. The symbolic and, in a
137
certain way, religious value of animals shows up
in the offers to entities connected with natural
phenomena (water, geothermal energy, plants),
in an ostentatious manner but it doesn’t benefit,
at least for a certain period, the association with
other manifestations of artistic expressions.
The fact that representations in
the peninsula’s shelters are mostly about
anthropomorphic figures and abstracted symbols,
while animals are well documented in cave burials
and votive offerings is very impressive.
The absence or rarity of zoomorphic
figures in some periods does not mean the loss
of consciousness of their importance in human
life, but a change of meaning in rock art. This new
artistic medium expresses with symbols regarding
mostly the human figure and others, connected
with beliefs or myths controlled and worshipped
by the communities that inhabited them but in a
different manner from the previous use of these
natural places.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Dr. Silvia
Sandrone and Jean-Marie Strangi (CD06 - Musée
Départemental des Merveilles), André Soriano
(Monaco), Gianni Giusti (Massa) for providing
photos; Dr. Mariarita Foti for the support for the
translation.
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