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Estimation of Compensation Due to Damage from Infringement of the Right to Autonomy
Estimation of Compensation Due to Damage from Infringement of the Right to Autonomy
nili eyal2007
בפסק-הדין בעניין עלי דעקה הכיר בית המשפט העליון בזכותו של החולה לאוטונומיה כנזק בר פיצוי, זאת אף בהיעדר נזק גוף או נזק ממשי אחר. משהכיר בית המשפט בראש הנזק של פגיעה בזכות באוטונומיה, עולה השאלה כיצד יוערך הפיצוי בגדרו. מטרת המאמר היא לבחון בחינה ביקורתית את הגישה שאומצה בעניין זה בפסק-הדין עלי דעקה, וכן את הגישות האפשריות האחרות באשר לסוגיה. בעיקר אבקש לבחון אילו מהגישות האפשריות להערכת הפיצוי עולה בקנה אחד עם עקרון האוטונומיה, עקרון הצדק המתקן, שיקולי יעילות כלכלית ושיקולי קוהרנטיות.In the Ali Daaka decision, Israel’s Supreme Court recognized that interference with a patient’s right to autonomy is a designated damage, even when there is no physical or other substantial damage. The court's decision raises the question of how compensation for this damage can be evaluated. The purpose of the following article is to critically examine the approach that was adopted in the Ali Daaka decision, as well as other alternative approaches to this issue. The article investigates which approa...
Related Papers
The right to health has long been advocated as a basic human right, Jonathon Montgomery has suggested it may be thought that, like rights to life and to liberty, the right to health care could be regarded as one of a group of basic rights which make active citizenship possible; and as with all the basic rights, the State would be required to take specific steps to recognise health rights. Before a detailed programme for implementation of health rights could be drawn up, there are a series of preliminary issues to be addressed. Conceptual difficulties exist in relation to the idea of health and the causes of ill-health. The former needs consideration to establish the content of health rights and the latter in order to address the strategies appropriate to realise them. Nobody knows how much health care will be worth to him in terms of money and pain. In addition, nobody knows if the most advantageous form of health care; whether same is obtained from medical producers or the patient’s own conception of what is medically good for him or herself. For the patients seeking relief, the statement “the requirement that a patient must give a valid consent to medical treatment and its corollary, that it is the patient’s prerogative to refuse treatment, even that which will save his life, are issues of medical law” will often be interred in their thinking. Nonetheless, the art of medical treatment is not the sole prerogative of medical law. If so conceded, then it may have its justification in the expression the economics of health is a curious discipline and factors in a lot of considerations in the art of healthcare delivery. Healthcare is subject to the legal and the ethical concerns of every legal system and these concerns share the goal of creating and maintaining social good and have a symbiotic relationship with healthcare. Most often, doctors are regarded as having a positive duty to do good which expressed in the principle of beneficence which is at work when we consider the doctrine of ‘double effect’. Imagine a gravely ill patient in the last stages of terminal cancer, the patient is in pain and only a substantial dose of morphine will relieve the pain. However, such a large dose will also hasten the patient’s death, as far as medical ethics is concerned; the principle of beneficence means here that the doctor’s only intention is to do good, that is, to relieve pain. . On the contrary, a strong argument is made for patient’s autonomy to give consent and refuse treatment. The element of consent is one of the critical issues in medical treatment. The patient has a legal right to autonomy and self-determination; he can refuse treatment except in an emergency situation where the doctor need not get consent for treatment. Any treatment against this supreme god, patient autonomy will be blasphemy against same. Consequently, the treatment without proper consent is generally considered assault which is capable of being tried in the criminal law and in tort. Two major ethical theories are vying for dominance in medical ethics. Firstly, the liberty and autonomy of the individual and second, the theory of social utility rather than individual autonomy. This requires that the physician act to maximise benefits and goods even if this might demand acting without the patient’s consent. It sanctions overriding the patient’s autonomous decision if that decision is not judged by the physician to be in the patient’s or society’s good.
The issue of compensation is an under-studied dimension of a rights-based approach to health. The emerging normative framework that allows for compensation of human rights abuses lacks a consistent and transparent methodology for valuing health losses. While methods for assigning monetary values to decreases in health have evolved through health economics, these techniques have developed outside of a human rights framework and do not adequately account for such concerns as fairness and nondiscrimination. These methods may in fact underestimate damages for poor individuals and communities, as well as for those subjected to prolonged abuses. This article will examine the normative foundations for compensation, evaluate methodological shortcomings, and propose a methodology for the valuation of health damages in group settings. Le problème de la compensation est une dimension qui n’a pas été suffisamment étudiée dans l’approche à la santé basée sur les droits. La nouvelle structure normative qui accorde une compensation pour les abus des droits de l’homme manque de méthodologie cohérente et transparente pour l’évaluation de dommages en matière de santé. Bien que les méthodes d’attribution d’une valeur monétaire à la perte de santé aient évoluées avec le régime économique de la santé, ces techniques se sont développées en dehors d’une structure des droits de l’homme et ne tiennent pas suffisamment compte des préoccupations telles que la justice ou la non-discrimination. En fait, ces méthodes sous-estiment probablement les atteintes à la santé des personnes et communautés pauvres, ainsi que des victimes d’abus prolongés. Cet article examine les bases normatives de la compensation, évalue les défauts méthodologiques, et propose une méthodologie pour l’évaluation des atteintes à la santé au sein d’un groupe. El tema de la compensación es una dimensión estudiada de manera insuficiente en los enfoques para la salud basados en los derechos. El marco normativo emergente, que permite compensación de abusos de derechos humanos carece de una metodología coherente y transparente para evaluar pérdidas de salud. Si bien los métodos para asignar valores monetarios a disminuciones de la salud han evolucionado por medio de la economía de la salud, estas técnicas se han desarrollado fuera de un marco de derechos humanos, y no toman en cuenta de manera adecuada enigmas tales como la imparcialidad y la ausencia de discriminación. De hecho, estos métodos pueden subestimar daños para personas y comunidades pobres, así como para quienes están sujetos a abusos prolongados. En este artículo se examinarán los fundamentos normativos para la indemnización, se evaluarán defectos metodológicos, y se propondrá una metodología para la valoración de daños de la salud en situaciones de grupo.
International Journal of Criminology and Sociology
Joint Functional Focus of Models of Civil Liability for Damage Inflicted on Patients2021 •
One of the key areas of legal regulation of any aspect of public life (especially when it comes to personal moral rights inalienable from a person, including those that ensure the person's physical existence and reflect the human dignity inherent in every individual) is the establishment of legal guarantees for the observance and protection of subjective rights belonging to a person. The purpose of this study is to determine the centripetal (in value and functional terms) trends in the development and application of similar legal models and means of legal regulation of relations arising from harm inflicted on patients. It was concluded on the inevitability of the intensification of the world, and European, in particular, tendencies regarding the diverse use by national legal systems of similar functional legal instruments for compensation for property and moral damage in order to ensure effective protection of personal non-property and property rights of patients and related persons. Therewith, the identity of a certain national legal mechanism will be determined mainly by the orientation of the legal policy of a particular state towards the top-priority implementation of certain characteristics of compensation and proactive, preventive (which, in the context under consideration, appears as a guarantee for the observance of the rights of patients and the performance of obligations by the providers of medical services) functions of civil liability
In an earlier article, I introduced the ‘‘restricting claims principle’’ (RCP) to explain what is right about the means principle: the idea that it is harder to justify causing or allowing someone to suffer harm if using him as a means than if causing or allowing harm as a side effect. The RCP appeals to the idea that claims not to be harmed as a side effect push to restrict an agent from doing what she would otherwise be free to do for herself or others, given an appropriate account of her baseline freedom. Claims not to be harmed as a means are not in that way ‘‘restricting.’’ The original RCP relied on a counterfactual account of the agent’s baseline freedom: What could the agent permissibly do if the patient were not present? I argue here that that counterfactual baseline fails. The revised RCP relies instead on a ‘‘toolkit baseline’’: Do the patient claims concern the property the agent needs to use? This toolkit baseline reflects the different ways that agents relate to others: as fellow agents with whom they divide up the resources of the world, and as patients who might be affected by their actions. The toolkit baseline, resting on this agent-patient divide, provides a superior account of an agent’s baseline freedom, and a better account of the moral ground for the means principle.
Festskrift till Bill W. DufwaEssays on Tort, …
Compensating and preventing damage: is there any future left for tort law?2006 •
P5 Medicine and Justice
International Juridical Overview on Personal Injury CompensationThis paper examines the legal concept of necessity in the context of compensation for a harm involving an actor, an individual who benefits from the necessary harm who wasn't the actor, and a victim.
Experts in Science and Society
Who Decides the Worth of an Arm and a Leg? Assessing the Monetary Value of Nonmonetary Damage2004 •
Singapore Journal of Legal Studies
Negligence and Autonomy2022 •
The complex relationship between negligence and autonomy is of increasing practical and theoretical interest, as is shown by recent cases such as Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board [2015] UKSC 11, Shaw v Kovac [2017] EWCA Civ 1028 and ACB v Thomson Medical Pte Ltd [2017] SGCA 20. My discussion of this relationship divides into three parts. In the first part, I make some general observations about the relationship between negligence law and autonomy. In the second part, I argue that interference with autonomy per se should not be recognised as a form of damage that grounds a negligence claim, although I acknowledge that it may be useful for the law to recognise specific forms of autonomy loss as damage in this sense. And in the third and final part, I consider the uneasy relationship between negligence doctrine and patient autonomy in the law of liability for medical non-disclosure, and argue that as a result of recent developments, this may no longer be properly described as liability for negligence. Keywords: negligence; autonomy; damage; medical non-disclosure; Montgomery v Lanarkshire Health Board
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A.D. Twerski & N.B. Cohen “Informed Decision Making and the Law of Torts: The Myth
Cohen- Twerski Ï˘ ̯ӇÓÓ .of Justiciable Causation” U. Ill. L. Rev. (1988) 607, 620
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‰ÏÂÚ Ô‡ÎÓ .(Twerski & Cohen, at pp. 654y661) ÂÈ˙ÂلډϠÂÈίÚÏ ÈÂËÈ· ˙˙Ï ˙Âӄʉ‰
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Ibid, at pp.) ÈÏÓÒ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ‡Ï ,È˙ÂÚÓ˘Ó ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï Íȯˆ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ·
J. Katz “Informed :Katz Ï˘ ¯Ӈӷ ‡ÂˆÓÏ Ô˙È ÂÊ ‰È‚ÂÒÏ ˙ÓÈÂÒÓ ˙ÂÒÁÈÈ˙‰ .(609, 652
Katz ,ÔÎ ÈÙ ÏÚ Û‡ .Consent — A Fairy Tale? Law’s Vision” 39 U. Pitt. L. Rev. (1977) 137
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Katz, :‡¯) ÈÏÓÒ ÌÂÎÒ· ‡Ï ,È˙ÂÚÓ˘Ó ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ‰Ê ˜Ê ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ ÌÈÚ·Â˙‰ ÌÈÏÂÁÏ
,‰¯Ù‰ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ˘ ˜ÂÊÈ È‡ÎÊ ÂÏ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙ÈÈ‚ÂÒ· ‰„˘ Shultz Ì‚ .(at p. 161 n. 76
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M.M. Shultz “From :‡¯) ¯˙ÂÈ ‰Â·‚ ÌÂÎÒ· ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈÏÏΠȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ ,‰ÈÈ˘‰ .ÈÏÈÓÂ
Informed Consent to Patient Choice: A New Protected interest” 95 Yale L.J. (1985) 219,
¯ÈÎ‰Ï ÔÂÈÚ¯‰ ˙‡ ‰ÏÚ‰ ‰Ê .Meisel ψ‡ ‡ÂˆÓÏ Ô˙È ‰È‚ÂÒÏ ‰ÙÈ˜Ú ˙ÂÒÁÈÈ˙‰ .(290y291
˙Óȯ‚ Ï˘ ‰ÚÈ·˙‰ ˙ÏÈÚ ˙¯‚ÒÓ· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙÏ Ú·Â˙‰ Ï˘ Â˙‡ÎÊ·
˜¯ ȈÈÙÏ È‡ÎÊ ‰È‰È ˜ÂÊȉ ÈÎ ‰Ê ÔÂÈÚ¯Ó ‰ÏÂÚ ‡ÏÈÓÓ .Ì„‡Ï ÈÏ˘¯ ‡ ÔÂÂÎÓ È˘Ù ˜Ê
‰˘Ú˙ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÈΠ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ¯ÂÓÁ È˘Ù ˜Ê Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ÁÈÎÂÈ Ì‡
A. Meisel “A ‘Dignitary Tort’ as a Bridge :‡¯) ‰Ê È˘Ù ˜Ê Ï˘ ÂÈ˙‡ˆÂ˙· ·˘Á˙‰·
Between the Idea of Informed Consent and the Law of Informed Consent” Medicine and
.(the Law (New York, B.M. Dickens ed., 1993) 157, 160
268
Electronic copy available at: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1922078
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‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡ Ï˘ ‰È‚ÂÒ· È˙¯Â˜È·‰ ÔÂÈ„‰
̘ÏÁ ÌÈÈ‚ÂÏ¡Ȅ ̘ÏÁ ,ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘ ‰ÓÎ ÏÚ ÒÒ·˙‰· ͯÚÈÈ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ·
ÈÏÂ˜È˘Â ˙ÈÏÎÏÎ ˙ÂÏÈÚÈ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ,Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ,‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú :ÌÈÈ˙‡ˆÂ˙
‰˜„ˆ‰‰ ˙χ˘ Ì‚ ÂÓÎ ,Â‡Ï Ì‡ ÌÈȇ¯ ‰Ï‡ ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘ ̇ ‰Ï‡˘‰ .˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜
Ì‰Ó „Á‡ ÏÎÏ˘ ÁÈ Â‡Â ,‰Ê ¯Ó‡Ó Ï˘ ÂÈÈÚ ÔÈÓÓ Ôȇ ,ÌÒÈÒ·· ˙„ÓÂÚ‰
ÂÊȇ ‡Â‰ ÔÂÈ„‰ Ï˘ ÂÈÈÚ .ȇ¯Ï ̉· ˘ÂÓÈ˘‰ ˙‡ ‰˘ÂÚ‰ ˜ˆÂÓ È˯‡˙ ÒÈÒ·
.‰Ï‡ ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰Ó
Z ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡ .·
‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ‰ˆÓ‡˘ ‰˘È‚‰
˙˜ÒÓ‰ ÏÏÎÏ ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ ˙·ÈÒ ÏÏÎÏ ˘È˘ ˙Â·È˘Á‰ ˙‡ÙÓ
̉˘ ÏÎÎ ,ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ Ï˘ Âȯ˜ÈÚ ˙‡ ‰¯ˆ˜· ‚Ȉ ÌÈ„˜ ,ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÚÈ‚‰ Ô‰Èχ˘
ÁÂ˙È Úˆȷ Í¯ÂˆÏ ‰ÊÙ˘Â‡˘ ˙Ú·Â˙· ˜ÒÚ ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ .‰Â„‰ ‰È‚ÂÒÏ ÌÈ¯Â˘˜
Û˙η ÁÂ˙ÈÏ ˙Ú·Â˙‰ ˙ÓÎÒ‰ .˙ÈÓȉ ‰Ù˙η ,¯·„ Ï˘ ÂÙÂÒ· ,‰Á˙ ͇ ,‰Ï‚¯·
‡Ï .˙¢ˢËÓ ˙ÂÙ¯˙ ˙ÚÙ˘‰ ˙Á˙ ,ÁÂ˙ȉ ¯„Á· ‰˙Âȉ· ,ÁÂ˙ȉ ÌÂÈ· ‰˙È
˙Ú·Â˙Ï .ÁÂ˙È· ÌÈÂÓˉ ÌÈÂÎÈÒ‰ ÏÚ Ú„ÈÓ ¯ÒÓ ‡Ï ˙Ú·Â˙Ï˘ ‡Ï‡ ,˙‡Ê ˜¯
ÒÒ·˙‰· ‰· ÂÏÙÈˢ ÌȇÙ¯‰ „‚ ‰ÚÈ·˙ ‰˘È‚‰ ‡È‰Â ,ÁÂ˙ȉ ·˜Ú ˙ÂÎ ‰Ó¯‚
˙·ÈÒ· ˙Ú·Â˙‰ Ï˘ ‰˙ÓÎÒ‰ ˙Ï·˜ ÈÎ Ú·˜ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· .˙ÂÏ˘¯‰ ˙ÏÂÂÚ ÏÚ
˙ÂÏ˘¯˙‰ ‰ÂÂ‰Ó ,ÁÂ˙È· ÌÈÂÓˉ ÌÈÂÎÈÒ‰ ÏÚ Ú„ÈÓ ‰Ï ¯ÒÓ˘ ÈÏ·Ó ,‰Ï‡
ȯ·Á ·Â¯ Âٯˈ‰ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙÏ ¯˘‡ ,¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ ¯·Ò ,ÔÎ ÈÙ ÏÚ Û‡ .6 ÌÈÚ·˙‰ „ˆÓ
˜ÊÏ ÌÈÚ·˙‰ ˙ÂÏ˘¯˙‰ ÔÈ· È˙·ÈÒ ¯˘˜ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ‰ÁÈΉ ‡Ï ˙Ú·Â˙‰ ÈÎ ,·Î¯‰‰
̯‚˘ Û‚‰ ˜Ê ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙÏ ˙ȇÎÊ ‰È‡ ˙Ú·Â˙‰ ÈÎ ‡ˆÓ ÍÎÈÙÏ .ÂÏ ‰Úˢ Û‚‰
ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ ˙Ú·Â˙Ï ˜ÂÒÙÏ ÌÂ˜Ó ˘È ̇ ‰Ï‡˘‰ ÔÂÈ„Ï ‰˙ÏÚ ,Ú·˜ ÍÎ˘Ó .7 ‰Ï
˯ÂÙÓ ÔÂÈ„ ¯Á‡Ï .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú ‰Ï ̯‚˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ˜Ê‰
.8 ÂÊ ‰Ï‡˘ ÏÚ ·ÂÈÁ· ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ ·È˘‰ ,˜ÈÓÚÓÂ
¯È‰·‰ ,ȈÈÙ-¯· ˜Ê ‰ÂÂ‰Ó ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ÈÎ Â˙˜ÒÓÏ Í˘Ó‰·
̯‚˘ Û‚‰ ˜Ê ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙÏ ÛÈÏÁ˙ ˘Ó˘Ï ‡· Âȇ ‰Ê ȈÈÙ ÈÎ ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰
‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ÈÎ Ú·˜ ËÙ¢‰ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ‰ÏÂÁÏ
ÂÈ‚· ȈÈى ,ÈÊÈÙ‰ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯Ó „¯Ù ÔÁ·ÂÓ ˜Ê ˘‡¯ ‰ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙ÈÈÓ¡·
.9 ÂÙÈÏÁ‰Ï ‡Ï ,ÂÏ Ì¯‚˘ ÈÊÈÙ‰ ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ‚· ‰ÏÂÁÏ Ô˙ȉ ȈÈÙ‰ ÏÚ ÛÈÒÂ‰Ï ‡·
ȈÈÙÏ ˙ȇÎÊ ˙Ú·Â˙‰ ÈÎ ‰˜ÒÓÏ ËÙ¢‰ ˙‡ ÂÏȷ‰ ‰Ï‡ ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘ ,¯ÂÓ‡Î
˙‡ Íȯډ˘ ¯Á‡Ï .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÏÚ
.‰¯ÂÓ‡‰ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· Á"˘ 15,000 ÍÒ· ȈÈÙ ‰Ï ˜ÒÙ ,‰Ï·Ò˘ ˜Ê‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘
.587 ,563 ,550 'Ú· ,1 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ
.570y564 'Ú· ,Ì˘
.581y574 'Ú· ,Ì˘ ‡¯ ,¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ ÂȘÂÓÈÏ .581 'Ú· ,Ì˘
.582y581 'Ú· ,Ì˘
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6
7
8
9
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ÂÊ ‰È‚ÂÒ· ‰„ ¯˘‡ ,Ô‰Î-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘ ˙ËÙ¢‰ ‰Ê ÏÏη ,·Î¯‰‰ ȯ·Á ·Â¯ ˙ÎÈÓ˙Ï
.11 ‰È„ ˜ÒÙ· ˯ÈÙ·
ÏÎÎ ÈÎ „ÓÏÓ Ô‰Î-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘ ˙ËÙ¢‰Â ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ ÌÈ„ ˜ÒÙ· ¯È‰Ê ÔÂÈÚ
ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÈÎ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ‰Ï‡ ˆÓȇ ,ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡ ˙χ˘Ï Ú‚Â ¯·„‰˘
˙ÂÈ˘ÓÓ-˙ÂÈ·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ˘È ‰ÏÂÁÏ ˜ÒÙ‰
.12 ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ÂÈ˙¢ÂÁ˙·Â ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÂÈȉ„ ,ÂÊ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘
,Ô‰Î-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘ ˙ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ ‰È„ ˜ÒÙÓ ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙÓ ‰ÏÂÚ˘ ÈÙÎ
Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙¢ÂÁ˙·Â ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ·
Ï·˜Ï ‰·ÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ‰¯Ù‰‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ (1) :ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘ ‰ÓÎ Ô·˘Á· ‡·ÂÈ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
‰ÏÂÁÏ ¯ÒÓ ‡Ï˘ Ú„ÈÓ‰˘ ÏÎÎ ,Ï˘ÓÏ .13 ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ˙Ú„ÂÓ‰ Â˙ÓÎÒ‰ ˙‡
‰¯ÂÓÁ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÓˆÚ˘ ÔÙ‡· ,¯˙ÂÈ È˙ÂÚÓ˘Ó
.ÌÈÈÈÚ È˘· ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙ ÏÚ ‰˜ÏÁ ˘ÈÈ· ˙ËÙ¢‰ .560y559 'Ú· ,Ì˘
˙ÂÏ˘¯˙‰ ÔÈ· È˙·ÈÒ ¯˘˜ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï ÏË· ‰„ÓÚ ˙Ú·Â˙‰ ÈÎ ‰¯·Ò ‡È‰ ,˙È˘‡¯
¯ÈÎ‰Ï È‡¯ Ô¯˜ÈÚÎ ÈÎ ‰¯·Ò˘ Û‡ ,˙È˘ .(556y550 'Ú· ,Ì˘) ‰Ï·Ò˘ Û‚‰ ˜ÊÏ ÌÈÚ·˙‰
ÏÂÏÎÏ ÔÂÎÏ ‰‡ˆÓ ‡Ï ,ÌÈÓÈÂÒÓ Ìȯ˜Ó· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ Ï˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡·
˙·˜Ú· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ‰Ú‚٠̉·˘ ˙ÂÈ¢Á¯˙‰ ÂÊ Ìȯ˜Ó ˙ˆÂ·˜ ¯„‚·
Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù· ¯ÈÎ‰Ï È‡¯‰ ÔÓ ‰Ê Ôȇ ÈÎ ‰˙˘È‚ „ÂÒÈ· „ÓÚ˘ ÌȘÂÓÈÏ .Ú„ÈÓ ˙¯ÈÒÓ-ȇ
.559y556 'Ú· ,Ì˘ ‡¯ ȈÈÙ-¯· ˜ÊÎ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ÌÈÏÂÁ Ï˘
ÏË· ‰„ÓÚ ˙Ú·Â˙‰ ÈÎ Ô‰Î-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘ ˙ËÙ¢‰ ‰¯·Ò ,¯Â‡ ËÙÂ˘Ï „‚ȷ .618y607 'Ú· ,Ì˘
˙ίډ" ÔÁ·Ó ÈÙ ÏÚ ,‰Ï·Ò˘ Û‚‰ ˜ÊÏ ÌÈÚ·˙‰ ˙ÂÏ˘¯˙‰ ÔÈ· È˙·ÈÒ ¯˘˜ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ÁÈΉÏ
,Ì˘) ‰Ï ̯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ˙ȈÁÓ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙÏ ˙ȇÎÊ ÂÊ ÈÎ ‰˜ÒÙ ,ÍÎÏ Ì‡˙‰· ."ÌÈÈÂÎÈÒ‰
,‰˙ˆÙÏ È‡¯‰ ÔÓ Ì‡ ‰Ï‡˘· ‰„ ԉÎ-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘ ˙ËÙ¢‰ ‰ÙÈÒ‰ ,ÔÎ ÈÙ ÏÚ Û‡ .(607 'Ú·
„ÓÚ˘ ÌȘÂÓÈÏ .·ÂÈÁ· ÂÊ ‰Ï‡˘ ÏÚ ‰˙Ú ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ,ÍÎÏ ÛÒ·
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Ô‰Î-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘ ˙ËÙ¢‰ ‰Ú·˜Â ‰ÙÈÒ‰ ,¯Â‡ ËÙÂ˘Ï ‰Ó„· .619y618 ,616y608 'Ú· ,Ì˘
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.618y617 'Ú· ,Ì˘ .ÛÈÏÁ˙ ÂÏ ˘Ó˘Ó Âȇ ,ÏÙÂËÓÏ Ì¯‚˘ Û‚‰ ˜Ê ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙÏ
Ï˘ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙÓ ‰ÏÂÚ‰ ‰˜ÒÓ‰ .583 ,574 'Ú· ,Ì˘ ‡¯ ,‰È‚ÂÒ· ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ Â˙˘È‚Ï
Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙÏ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ȇÎÊ Â˙˘È‚Ï˘ ‰„·ÂÚ‰ ÁΠ‰˙˘Ó ‰È‡ ¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰
.(584 'Ú· ,Ì˘) ÂÏ Ì¯‚˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ˜Ê‰ ÏÚ ˙Â˯ÂÙÓ ˙Âȇ¯ ‡È·‰ ‡Ï ̇ Ì‚ ‰ÈÓ¡Ï
‡È‰ Â˙˘È‚˘ ÍÎÓ ˜ÈÒ‰Ï Ôȇ ÈÎ ,Â„È ÏÚ ˙‚ˆÂÓ‰ ˙‡·ÂÓ‰Ó ÔÈ„‰ ȘÒÙÓ ,Âȯ·„Ó ¯Â¯·
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‡ È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ˘È ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡˘
˜ÒÙÓ ‰ÏÂÚ‰ ‰˜ÒÓ‰ .ÂÊ ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ Â‡ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
,ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï ˜Ê Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ÁÈ‰Ï ‰È‰È Ô˙È ÂÁÂÎÓ˘ ÏÏÎ Ú·˜Ï ‰È‰ Â˙ÂÂη ÈÎ ‡È‰ ÂÈ„
˙ËÙ¢‰ Ï˘ ‰˙˘È‚Ï .ÂÓÂȘ ÏÚ ˙Â˯ÂÙÓ ˙Âȇ¯ ¯„Úȉ· Û‡ ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„·
˘È˘ ÌÓ‡ ‰¯·Ò ‰„·Î‰ ˙ËÙ¢‰ .623 ,621 ,618 'Ú· ,Ì˘ ‡¯ ,‰È‚ÂÒ· Ô‰Î-‚¯·Ò¯Ë˘
˙ÓÈ˘ ÍÂ˙ ¯È·Ò‰ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ÂË·Ó ˙„Â˜Ó Ì¯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ÔÁ·ÈÈ ÂÈÙÏ˘ ,·ÏÂ˘Ó ÔÁ·Ó ıÓ‡Ï
˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ˘È ‰˙˘È‚Ï Û‡˘ ˜ÏÂÁ Ôȇ ͇ ,ÌÈÂÒÓ‰ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ˙„ÁÂÈÓ‰ ÂÈ˙·ÈÒÏ ·Ï
˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ˘ÓÓ-˙ÂÈ·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘
.619 'Ú· ,Ì˘ .‰ÈÓ¡Ï
.620 ,583 'Ú· ,Ì˘
10
11
12
13
270
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
‰ËÏÁ‰‰ ˙Â·È˘Á ˙„ÈÓ (2) ;14 ¯˙ÂÈ ‰Â·‚ ȈÈÙ ‰ÏÂÁÏ ˜ÂÒÙÏ È‡¯‰ ÔÓ ÍÎ ,¯˙ÂÈ
,¯˙ÂÈ ‰Ï„‚ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙ÈÁ·Ó ‰ËÏÁ‰‰ ˙Â·È˘Á˘ ÏÎÎ ,‰Ê ÔÙ‡· .‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙ÈÁ·Ó
Â˙ÂÎÊ· ¯˙ÂÈ ‰·¯ ‰„ÈÓ· Ú‚ÂÙ ˙ÂËÏÁ‰‰ ˙Ï·˜ ÍÈω˙· ˙·¯ÂÚÓÓ ÂÏÂ˘È˘ ÍÎ
ÏÚ ‰¯Ù‰‰ ˙ÚÙ˘‰ (3) ;15 ¯˙ÂÈ Ï„‚ ȈÈÙÏ È‡ÎÊ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ‡Â‰ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
Â˙„ÓÚ ˙‡ ˙Â˘Ï ‰È‰ ÈÂ˘Ú ‰ÏÂÁÏ ¯ÒÓ ‡Ï˘ Ú„ÈÓ‰ ̇ ÍÎÈÙÏ .‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙ËÏÁ‰
‰È‰È ‡Â‰ ,¯˙ÂÈ Ï„‚ Â˜Ê˘ ÁÈ‰Ï Ô˙È˘ ÍÎ ,ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ÚÂˆÈ·Ï ¯˘‡·
ȇÂÙ¯‰ Ú„ÈÓ‰ ˙¯ÈÒÓÏ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ÂÒÁÈ Â˙„ÓÚ (4) ;16 ¯˙ÂÈ ‰Â·‚ ȈÈÙÏ È‡ÎÊ
ۇ ,„·Ï· ‡ÙÂ¯Ï ‰ËÏÁ‰‰ ˙Ï·˜ ˙‡ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ¯È˙‰ ̇ ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,ÍÎ .· ¯Â˘˜‰
(5) ;17 ˜Ê ÏÎ Ï·Ò ‡Ï˘ ÁÈ‰Ï Ô˙È ,ȇÂÙ¯‰ ·ˆÓ ÏÚ ¯·„ ˙Ú„Ï ‡Ï˘ ˘˜È·
ÁÈψ‰ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ˘ ‰„·ÂÚ‰ ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,ÍÎÏ Ì‡˙‰· .ڈ·˘ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙‡ˆÂ˙
‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ˜Ê‰ ˙‡ ÍÂÙ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ˙Ú„Ó Â˙ÓÎÒ‰ ‡ÏÏ ÚˆÂ·˘ Û‡
.18 „ÁÂÈÓ· ÍÂÓ Â¯Â·Ú ÈˆÈÙ‰˘ ÁÈÊ ˜ÊÏ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ·
‰ÈÁ‰ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÛÈÒ‰ ,19 ‰¯Â‚Ò ‰ÓÈ˘¯ ÌÈÂÂ‰Ó Ìȇ˘ ,‰Ï‡ ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘Ï
ËÂ˜Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÏÚ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,‰Ê ˜Ê ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙Î¯Ú‰Ï ¯˘‡· ˙ÈÏÏÎ
˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù· ¯·Â„Ó˘ ÍÎÏ È‡¯‰ Ϙ˘Ó‰ ˙‡ Ô˙ÈÏ ÂÈÏÚ ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ .˙ÊÂ‡Ó ‰˘È‚
˙È· ÏÚ ,‡ÒÈ‚ Í„È‡Ó .ÈÏÓÒ ÈˆÈÙÓ ÏÈ„·‰Ï ,Ìω ȈÈÙ ˙ÚÈ·˜ ˙·ÈÈÁÓ ¯˘‡ ,„ÂÒÈ
.20 ʯÙÂÓ ¯ÂÚÈ˘· ȈÈÙ ˜ÂÒÙÏ ‡Ï ÂÓˆÚ ÔÒ¯Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰
ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡˘ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ıÓȇ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·˘ Û‡ ÈÎ ,·Ï ÌÈ˘Ï ÔÈÈÚÓ ,ÛÂÒ·Ï
˙ÂÈ˘ÓÓ-˙ÂÈ·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ˘È ‰ÏÂÁÏ ˜ÒÙ‰
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ÏÏη ·˘Á˙‰· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÏÂÎÈ ÔÎÏ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰
.21 ÂÏ ˙ÂÚ„ȉ ‰¯˜Ó‰ ˙·ÈÒ
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23 :‰Ê ÔÂÈ„Ï ˙Â·È˘Á ˙ÂÏÚ· Ô‰ ¯˘‡ ,˙Âȯ˜ÈÚ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰ È˙˘ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚Ï
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.24 „·Ï· ÈÏÓÒ ÌÂÎÒ·
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙÏ ˙ÂÎʉ ˙‡ ˙ÏÏ¢ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ,˙È˘
Ìȇ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ Ìȇ ˙¯Á‡ ‡ ÂÊ ‰·ÈÒÓ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ
ÌȘÂÊÈ :ÌÈÓ ‰Ï‡ ÌÚ .ÂÊ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ˘‚¯‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ
Ì˙ÂÎÊ ÈΠ„ÓÏ˘ ÈÏ·Ó ÂȯÁ‡Ï „ÈÓ Â‡ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ Íωӷ Ì˙ÂÓ ˙‡ ‡ˆÓ˘
ÌÈÈÂÙˆ Ìȇ˘ ,ÏÂÙÈˉ ¯Á‡Ï ‰¯Î‰ ȯÒÁ ¯˙¢ ÌȘÂÊÈ ;‰Ú‚Ù ‰ÈÓ¡Ï
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D.J. Gabler “Conscious Pain and Suffering is Not A Metter of Degree” ;(ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ
74 Marqouette Law Rev. (1991) 289, 293; A.I. Ogus “Damages for Lost of Amenities: For a
Foot, a Feeling or a Function?” 35 Modern L. Rev. (1972) 1, 3; D. Benedek “Non-Pecuniary
.Damages: Defined, Assessed and Capped” 32 R.J.T. (1998) 607, 619, 622
ȘÒÙ Ï˘ ‰¯Â˘ ·˜Ú ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· Ï˘ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ Â˙˘È‚ ¯Á‡ 23
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:ÔωÏ) ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙÏ 89 ‰˜ÒÙ· ,143 ÁÈ ÌÂÏ˘ ÌÈÈ„ ,(ÌÒ¯ÂÙ ‡Ï) ¯˜˘ ' ÏÂÓÈ˘ Ô· 7126/95
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;(Ô˘ ÔÈÈÚ :ÔωÏ) ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙÏ 29 ‰˜ÒÙ· 306 ,289 (3)ˢ˙ ,ÔÏ‚ ' Ô˘ 4687/97 (Ì-È
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.(Ԣ¢ Ô· ÔÈÈÚ :ÔωÏ) ÔÈ„‰
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272
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˘ÂÁÏ ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ Ìȇ˘Â ,‰Ú‚Ù ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ ÈÎ „ÂÓÏÏ ‰¯Î‰Ï ·Â˘Ï
ÌÈÏ·ÂÒ È‡ÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ·˜Ú˘ ÌȘÂÊÈ ;˘Ù ˙Ó‚Ú ¯Úˆ Ô‚Π˙ÂÈ˘‚¯ ˙¢ÂÁ˙
.25 ÌÓÚ ˘Á¯˙ÓÏ ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ Ìȇ ̉ ÂÏ˘·˘ È·ÈËȂ˜ ȘÈÏ
ÌȇÎÊ ‰Ï‡ ÌȘÂÊÈ ÂÈ‰È ‡Ï ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ‰ˆÓ‡˘ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ ,¯ÂÓ‡Î
ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ È˙Ï· Ì˙Âȉ·˘ ¯Á‡Ó ˙‡Ê ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙÏ
Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ ‰È‰˙ ‡Ï ,˙ÂÈ˘‚¯‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ È˙Ï·Â ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ
.̉È˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ˙¯Âˆ· ÈÂËÈ· ‰ÈÓ¡Ï
ÔÂÈÏÚ‰ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ‰Á„ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰ˆÂÓȇ ÌÚ
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ‰ ˙Î¯Ú‰Ï ˙¯Á‡ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡ ˙Â˘È‚ ‰ÓÎ
:26 ‰ÈÓ¡Ï
Â˙ÏÂÎÈ ,ÂÙ‚ ˙ÂÓÏ˘ ,Ú‚Ù‰ ÈÈÁ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ .˙ÈÈȘ-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡ ‰˘È‚ .‡
̉ ‰Ï‡ ÏÎ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ Ì‚ ÍΠ,Ï·ÒÓ ·‡ÎÓ Â˙¯ÈÁ ,ÂÈÈÁÓ ˙‰ÈÏ
ÔÈÓÓ "ÒÎ" ÂÓÓ ÏÂÏ˘Ï .ÂÈÏËÏËÈÓÏ Â˙È·Ï ‰Ó„· ,Í¯Ú ÈÏÚ· ,ÌÈÈ˘È‡ ÌÈÒÎ
˘È ‰ÊÎ "ÒÎ" ÏÎÏ ."˙ÈÈȘ ˙ÂÎÊ" · ÂÏ ˘È˘ ‰˘Ó ÂÓÓ ÏÂÏ˘Ï ,ÚÓ˘Ó ,‰Ê
¯Ú Ú‚Ù‰ Ôȇ ̇ ÂÏÈÙ‡ ,˜Êȉ ‡ Ô„·‡ Ï˘ ‰¯˜Ó· ÂÈ‚· ˙ˆÙÏ Ô˙È˘ "ͯÚ"
·‡Î ‡ Ï·Ò ˘Á ‡Â‰ Ôȇ ̇ ÂÏÈه ,‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ ÔÙ‡·
.27 ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú
˙ÂËÈ˘‰ È˙˘Ó ˙Á‡· ˙¢ÚÈ‰Ï ‰ÏÂÎÈ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ˙¯‚ÒÓ· ,ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ
:˙‡·‰
È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯Ú ˙‡ ‡Ë·Ó‰ ÌÂÎÒ· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú ˙ÚÈ·˜ .1
:ÔωÏ) ‡ÒÈ‚ Í„È‡Ó ,˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ ‰¯·Á‰ ÈÈÚ· ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘
.28 ("‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰"
È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú ˙‡ ‡Ë·Ó‰ ÌÂÎÒ· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú ˙ÚÈ·˜ .2
,˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ ˙ίډ ,„ÁÓ ˜ÂÊÈ˘ ˯ى ¯Â·Ú ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘
È˙˘· ͯÚÂ˙ ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ .("˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰" :ÔωÏ) ‡ÒÈ‚ ̈́ȇÓ
ÏÙÂËÓ‰Ó ¯˙Ò‰˘ Ú„ÈÓ‰ ‚ÂÒ Z ‰Ê ÏÏη ,‰¯˜Ó‰ ˙·ÈÒ ÏÏÎ ÈÙ ÏÚ ˙ÂËÈ˘‰
G. Mew “Damages Personal Injuries ;829y828 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ
pecuniary Damages Unaware Plaintiff and the Functional Approach” 64 The Canadian
.Bar Rev. (1986) 562, 564; Benedek, supra note 23, at p. 622
25
,˙Â˘È‚‰Ó ˜ÏÁ ÔÈ· ÌÈÂÒÓ ·ÂÏÈ˘ ÔÎ˙ÈÈ˘ Ô·ÂÓ .‰¯Â‰Ë‰ Ô˙¯Âˆ· ˙‚ˆÂÓ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰ 26
-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ÔÈ· ˙·Ï˘Ó‰ ˙ÙÒ ˙ȯ˘Ù‡ ‰˘È‚Ï .˙ÂÙÒ ˙Â˘È‚ ¯ÂˆÈÈ˘ ÔÙ‡·
.ÔÏ‰Ï ,¯Ó‡Ó‰ ÛÂÒ· ÔÂÈ„ ‡¯ ,˙ÈÈȘ-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ
;829 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ ,˙ÈÈȘ-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ¯Â‡È˙Ï 27
“Nonpecuniary Damages for Comatose Tort Victims” (1973) 61 Georget. L.J. 1547y1549
Mew, supra note 26, at p. 563; Ogus, supra note 23, at .(Comatose Tort Victims :ÔωÏ)
.p. 2; Benedek, supra note 23, at pp. 619y620
Ïη ,Ìȯ·„‰ Ú·ËÓ ,‰‰Ê ‰È‰È ‰Ê Í¯Ú .Ogus, supra note 23, at pp. 2y3 :‡¯ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚Ï
28
‡ÂÙ‡ ‰È‰È ‰¯˜ÓÏ ‰¯˜Ó ÔÈ· ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒ· Ï„·‰‰ .ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÈÙ· ‡·ÂÈ˘ Ìȯ˜Ó‰
.‰¯˜Ó ÏÎ Ï˘ ˙„ÁÂÈÓ‰ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙·ÈÒ Ï˘ ˙¯Ê‚
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.˜ÒÙÈÈ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ÌÂÎÒ· ‰˙ÁÙ‰Ï ‡È·‰Ï
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˙¢ÂÁ˙ ˘ÂÁÏ Â˙ÏÂÎÈ· ‡ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ Â˙ÂÚ„ÂÓ·
ÈÙ ÏÚ˘ Ô‡ÎÓ .32 Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú ¯˘Â‡ Ô„·‡Â ,˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ,Ô·ÏÚ ,¯Úˆ
¯Á‡Ï „ÈÓ Â˙ÂÓ ˙‡ ‡ˆÓ ̇ Ì‚ ȈÈÙÏ È‡ÎÊ ˜ÂÊȉ ‰È‰È ‰Ï‡ ˙Â˘È‚Ó ˙Á‡ ÏÎ
ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ·˜Ú ̇ Ì‚Â ÏÂÙÈˉ ¯Á‡Ï ‰¯Î‰ ¯ÒÁ ¯˙ ̇ Ì‚ ,ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ
.ÂÓÚ ˘Á¯˙ÓÏ Ú„ÂÓ Âȇ ‡Â‰ ÂÏ˘·˘ È·ÈËȂ˜ ȘÈÏ ÌÚ ¯˙Â
Í¯Ú Ô˙ÈÏ ˙¢˜·Ó‰ ˙¯Á‡‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰Ó ÏÈ„·‰Ï .˙ÈÙȯÚ˙-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡ ‰˘È‚ .·
Ú·˜Â „ÈÁ‡ ÈÙÒÎ Í¯Ú ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ‰˜ÈÚÓ ,ÂÙÂ‚Ï ‰¯˜Ó Ïη ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ „·‡Ï ÈÙÒÎ
‰¯ÈÁÓ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ ,ÍÎÈÙÏ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ÌÈÏÂÁ Ï˘ Ì˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ ˙¯ى‰ ÏÎÏ
‡ È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯Ú· ÌÈÈÂÏ˙ Ìȇ ˜ÂÊȉ ȇÎÊ ÂÏ˘ ȈÈى ˜ÈÊÓÏ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘
.˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙· ‡ ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ· ,ÂÊ ˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ ˙¯Ù‰Ï Ú·˜ "¯ÈÁÓ" Ú·˜ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ ,˙¯Á‡ ÌÈÏÈÓ·
Ï˘ ‡ ‰Ú‚Ù˘ ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú‰ ˘¯Â„ Âȇ˘ ÔÙ‡· ,˘‡¯Ó Ú„È ÌÈÂÒÓ ÌÂÎÒ·
.33 ("˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰" :ÔωÏ) ‰¯˜Ó Ïη ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· È„È ÏÚ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙
Ï˘ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï ˙Â‰Ê ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙˘ ‰˜ÒÓ‰ ‰ÏÂÚ ‰Ï‡ Ìȯ·„Ó
‡ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙Áψ‰Ï ÂÈȉ„ .ÏÈÚÏ Â‚ˆÂ‰˘ ˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰Â ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰
.ÂÏ ˜ÒÙÈÈ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ÏÚ ‰ÚÙ˘‰ ÏÎ Ôȇ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÚ„ÂÓÏ
¯˙ÂÈ ‰¯ÂÓÁ ,‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙Ï·˜Ï ¯˙ÂÈ È˙‰Ó ¯˙ÂÈ ·¯ ÏÙÂËÓ‰Ó ¯˙Ò‰˘ Ú„ÈÓ‰˘ ÏÎÎ ,ÍÎ
.‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰
˙ÂÈ˙Â‰Ó ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰ ˙ÏÚ· ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂو ÏÙÂËÓÏ ¯˙ÂÈ ‰·¯ ˙Â·È˘Á ˙ÏÚ· ‰ËÏÁ‰‰˘ ÏÎÎ ,ÍÎ
.‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯˙ÂÈ ‰¯ÂÓÁ ,ÂÈÈÁ ÏÚ ¯˙ÂÈ
ÌÈÓÈȘ˘ ÏÎΠ,¯˙ÂÈ ˙·¯ ‰ÏÂÁÏ ˙ÂÂ˙‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙ÂÙÂÏÁ ¯ÙÒÓ˘ ÏÎÎ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ‰˘È‚Ï
,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ‰Ï„‚ ÍÎ ,‰Ï‡ ˙ÂÙÂÏÁ ÔÈ· ¯˙ÂÈ ÌÈ·¯ ÌÈÏ„·‰
È·ȯ˘ ‰ÚË‰Ó ÌÈÓÏÚ˙Ó Âȇ .Twerski & Cohen, supra note 6, at pp. 658y659 :‡¯
,Ï˘Î ÏÂÙÈˉ ·˘ ‰¯˜Ó· ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ‰Ë¯Á‰ ˙˘ÂÁ˙ ˙‡ ¯È·‚‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ‰¯ÈÁ·‰ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡
ÍÂÒÁÏ ÌÈÈÂÙˆ ÏÙÂËÓ‰Ó Âχ Ìȯ˜Ó· ‰¯ÈÁ·‰ ˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ ‰Óˆӈ ‡ ‰˙ÏÈÏ˘ ‡˜Â„˘ Ô‡ÎÓÂ
‡Ï ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙¯‚ÒÓ· ˙Â·È˘Á ÂÊ ‰ÚËÏ ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .¯˙ÂÈÓ Ï·Ò ÂÓÓ
˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï Ï˜˘Ó ÏÎ ˙˙ ‰È‡ ‰Â¯Á‡‰ ÂÊ È¯‰˘ ,˙ÈÈȘ-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙¯‚ÒÓ·
.‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ˘‚¯‰
.Mew, supra note 26, at p. 564 ;830 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ
A.J. Weisbard “Informed Consent: The Law’s Uneasy Compromise With :‡¯ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚Ï
.Ethical Theory” 65 Neb. L. Rev. (1986) 749, 763
29
30
31
32
33
274
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ „ÂÒȉ ˙Á‰ ˙‡ ˙ˆÓ‡Ó ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ .˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ ‰˘È‚ .‚
‡ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ¯˘Â‡ ‡Â‰ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· Ï˘ „ÈÁȉ ÂÈÈÚ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ
.ȈÈÙ‰ ˙Î¯Ú‰Ï ‰Â˘ ‰„ÈÓ ˙Ó‡ ˙ˆÓ‡Ó ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .Â˙‡‰
˘ÂÎ¯Ï ÏÎÂÈ Â˙ÂÚˆÓ‡· ¯˘‡ ÛÒÎ ÌÂÎÒ ˜ÂÊȉ ˙¢¯Ï „ÈÓÚ‰Ï ˘È ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ
¯Á‡ ‡ ‰Ê ÔÙ‡· ÂÏ˜È˘ ÌÈÚˆÓ‡ ‡ ,‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú „·È‡˘ ‰Ï‡Ï ˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ ˙‡‰
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ‰¯˜Ó· .("˙È˘ÈÓÁ‰ ‰˘È‚‰" :ÔωÏ) 34 ÂÏ·Ò ÏÚ
¯˘Ù‡È˘ ÛÒÎ ÌÂÎÒ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˜ÂÒÙÏ ˘È˘ ‡È‰ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰˙ÂÚÓ˘Ó ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ ÌÚ „·‡˘ ‰ÊÏ ÈÙÂÏÁ ¯˘Â‡ ˜ÈÙÈ Ô‰Ó˘ ,˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ ˙‡‰ ˘ÂÎ¯Ï ÂÏ
.˙Ú„ÂÓ ˙È˘ÙÂÁ ‰ËÏÁ‰ Ï·˜Ï
,‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï ˙Â‰Ê ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙
ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙Áψ‰ ÏÈ·Â˙ ‰˙¯‚ÒÓ· Ì‚ ,˙È˘‡¯ .˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ȯ˜
ÈÙ ÏÚ Ì‚˘ ‰„·ÂÚ· ıÂÚ ÍÎÏ ÌÚˉ .˜ÂÊÈÏ ÍÂÓ ¯ÂÚÈ˘· ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ È‡ÂÙ¯‰
ÔÎÏ .˜ÂÊȉ „·È‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ ˙„ÈÓ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ˙ÒÒÂ·Ó ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰
˙¢ÂÁ˙ ˙ÂÂÁÏ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ÈÂÙˆ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ÁÈψ‰˘Ó ÈÎ ‡È‰ ‰Á‰‰˘ ¯Á‡Ó
ÍÂÓ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈˆÈÙ‰ ÈÂÙˆ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ¯˘Â‡ Ô„·‡ Ï˘ ˙Â˙ÁÙÂÓ
.ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ Ì‚
˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ì‚ ÏÈ·Â˙ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„· ,˙È˘
ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ¯Á‡Ï „ÈÓ Ì˙ÂÓ ˙‡ ‡ˆÓ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙ÏÈÏ˘Ï
˜Ê ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙÏ ˜ÂÊȉ ȇÎÊ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ˘ ‡Â‰ ÍÎÏ ÌÚˉ .‰¯Î‰ ȯÒÁ
̇ ,ÔÎÏ .˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ ˙‡‰ ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÙÒη ˘ÂÎ¯Ï Ô˙È Â·˘ ÌÂ˜Ó ,Ï·Ò˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï
ȈÈÙ ÂÏ ˜ÂÒÙÏ ÌÂ˜Ó ÏÎ Ôȇ ,˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ ˙‡‰ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˜ÈÚ‰Ï ˙¯˘Ù‡ ÏÎ Ôȇ
.35 Ï·Ò˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ˜Ê‰ ¯Â·Ú
‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙÂ‡Ï ¯˘‡· ‰È‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ .‚
‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ‰˜ÒÙ˘ ‰Îω‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙¯Â˜È· ‰ÈÁ· Z ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ·
ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· È„È ÏÚ ‰ˆÓ‡˘ ‡È‰ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰˘ Û‡
.ÂÊ ‰ÚË· ÌÈÎÓÂ˙ ÌÈÓÚË ‰˘ÈÓÁ .‰È‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ,Â˙Ú„Ï ,‡È‰ Ôȇ ,‰˜Ú„
Ô¢‡¯ ÌÚË
ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ Ìȇ ,˙¯Á‡ ‡ ÂÊ ‰·ÈÒÓ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈ ÈˆÈÙ ‡ÏÏ ¯È˙Â‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚
Mew, supra note 26, at p. 563; ;827 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ Â‡¯ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚Ï
Gabler, supra note 23, at pp. 292y293; Ogus, supra note 23, at p. 3; Benedek, supra note
.23, at p. 622
Mew, supra note 26, at p. 563; Benedek, supra ;828 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ
.note 23, at p. 631
275
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34
35
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Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ Ìȇ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰Ï
:˙¯ÒÁ ‰Óη ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ‰˜ÂÏ ÂÊÎÎ .‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰
È„ÈÏ ‡Â·Ï ÈÂÙˆ ˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜‰ ¯ÒÂÁ .˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜ ¯ÒÂÁ ¯ÂˆÈÏ È„Î ‰· ˘È .‡
˙Ú„Ó ‰ÓÎÒ‰‰ ˙ȯ˘„ ÔÈ· ˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜ ¯ÒÂÁ ,Ô¢‡¯‰ .ÌÈ¯Â˘ÈÓ È˘· ÈÂËÈ·
‡Ï˘ ‰Ó„ .36 ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ÂÈȉ„ ,‰È¯Ë˜Â„Ï È˯‡˙‰ ÒÈÒ·Ï
˙ÒÁÈÈÓ˘ ˙Â·È˘Á‰ ˙‡ ˙Ù˜˘Ó ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ˘ ‰„·ÂÚÏ ˘ÁÎ˙‰Ï Ô˙È
‰ÚÈ‚Ù ÂÏ·Ò˘ ÌÈÓÈÂÒÓ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ÈˆÈÙÏ ˙ÂÎʉ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ .37 Ú‚Ù‰ Ò¯ËÈ‡Ï ‰¯·Á‰
„ÂÒÈ· „ÓÂÚ‰ È˯‡˙‰ ÒÈÒ·‰ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‡ÂÙ‡ ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ·
˙¯˘Ù‡· ·˘Á˙‰· Û˜Â˙ ‰˘Ó ÌÈÏ·˜Ó ‰Ï‡ Ìȯ·„ .˙Ú„Ó ‰ÓÎÒ‰‰ ˙ȯ˘„
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰Ï Ú„ÂÓ Âȇ˘ ˜ÂÊÈ· ÔȘÒÚ Ì‰·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ‡˜Â„˘
˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ‰ÏÂÏÚ ,ÍÎ ·˜Ú ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ˘Á Âȇ˘Â
.¯˙ÂÈ· ‰¯ÂÓÁ‰
˙¯ÈˆÈ· ‰ÈÂËÈ·˘ ,ÌÓˆÚ ÔÈ·Â ÌÈÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ÌÈÏÏΉ ÔÈ· ˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜ ¯ÒÂÁ ,È˘‰
˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ‰ ÌȘÂÊÈ ÔÈ· ,‰È‡¯ ‰È‡˘ ‰Á·‰
ÂÊ ˙ÏÂÎÈ ÌȯÒÁ‰ ‰Ï‡Ï ,ȈÈÙÏ ÌȇÎʉ Z ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘
ÌȘÂÊÈ˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡· ·˘Á˙‰· ‰È‡¯ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰Á·‰ .ȈÈÙÏ ÌȇÎÊ Ìȇ˘ Z
Ô˙È ,‰˘ÚÓÏ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰˙¯ÓÂÁ·Â ‰ÈÈÙ‡· ‰‰Ê ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ÂÏ·Ò ‰Ï‡
˘ÂÁÏ ÏÂÎȉ ͇ ,˙ÈÂÈ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ‰Ï·Ò ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ¯˘‡ ˜ÂÊÈ˘ ·ˆÓ ¯‡˙Ï
‰Ï·Ò ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ˘ ˜ÂÊÈ ÂÏȇ ,ȈÈÙÏ ‰ÎÊÈ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡
.39 38 ȈÈÙ ÏÎÏ ‰ÎÊÈ ‡Ï ‰˘˜ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù
ÌÈÏÈÓ ‰ÓÎ ÌÈ„˜ ÔÂÚÈˉ ˙¯‰·‰ Ì˘Ï .¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ‡È·‰Ï ÂÊ ‰˘È‚· ˘È .·
‰¯Âˆ‰ ˙‡ ˙˘·ÂÏ ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„ ˙ÂÚˆÓ‡· ˙È˘Ú‰ ‰Ú˙¯‰ .‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰Ú˙¯‰ ÏÚ
Ìȇ˙Ï ÌÈÂÚ‰ ˙˜ÈÊÓ ˙ÂÈÂÏÈÚÙ· ÌȘÒÂÚ‰ ‰Ï‡ ÏÚ ˙ȘÈÊ ˙ÂȯÁ‡ ˙Ïˉ Ï˘
˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘ ˙ÂȈÈÁ ˙ÂÚÙ˘‰ ˙ÓÙ‰Ï ÌÊÈÎÓÎ ˙ÏÚÂÙ ˙ÂȯÁ‡‰ ˙Ïˉ .ÌÈÓÈÂÒÓ
.˙ÈÙ¯ˆÓ ˙ÈÏÎÏÎ ˙ÂÏÈÚÈ ‚È˘‰Ï ˙„ÚÂÈÓ ‰Ê ÔÙ‡·Â ,("˙˜ÈÊÓ ˙ˆÁ‰" :ÔωÏ)
Â˙ÂÎÊ ÏÚ ˙ÒÒ·Ӣ ÈÓÎ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ˙Ú„Ó Â˙ÓÎÒ‰ ˙‡ Ï·˜Ï ‰·ÂÁ‰ ˙‡ ‚Ȉ‰˘ ÔÈ„ ȘÒÙÏ 36
„"Ù ,„ÚÏ‚ ' ̯Î-ÔÈÚ ‰Ò„‰ ˙ÈÈˆÈ„Ó ˙¯„˙Ò‰ 1412/94 ‡"Ú¯ Ï˘ÓÏ Â‡¯ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
È·Èȯ 3108/91 ‡"Ú ;180 ,87 (1)ÁÓ „"Ù ,È"Ó ' ¯Ù˘ 506/88 ‡"Ú ;526y525 ,516 (2)ËÓ
.509 ,497 (2)ÊÓ „"Ù ,Ï‚ÈÈÂ '
.Benedek, supra note 23, at p. 615 :‡¯ 37
K.R. Crowe “The Semantical :‡¯ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ „‚ ‰Ó„ Á¯· ÔÂÚÈËÏ 38
Bifurcation of Noneconomic Loss: Should Hedonic Damage Be Recognized Independently
.of Pain and Suffering Damage?” 75 Iowa L. Rev. (1990) 1275, 1290y1291
˘ÂÁÏ ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ Ì‰È˙·¯˜˘ ÌȘÈÊÓ ÔÈ· ‰È‡¯ ‰È‡˘ ‰Á·‰ ¯ˆÂÂÈ˙ ÍÎÏ ÏÈ·˜Ó· 39
‰Ï‡Â ,ȈÈÙ· ÌÈ·ÈÈÁ‰ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡
‰È‡¯ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰Á·‰ .ȈÈÙ‰ ˙·ÂÁÓ ÌȯÂËÙ ÂÈ‰È˘ ,ÂÊ ˙ÏÂÎÈ ÌȯÒÁ ̉È˙·¯˜˘
ÌÈÏÂÁ Ï˘ Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰˙¯ÓÂÁ·Â ‰ÈÈÙ‡· ‰‰Ê ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ ÂÓ¯‚ ‰Ï‡ ÌȘÈÊÓ˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡· ·˘Á˙‰·
‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ .ÌÈÏ„ÁÓ Ì˙‡ ÂÏ„Á ÌÈ˘ÚÓ Ì˙‡ Â˘Ú ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
.‰ÏÂÙÎ ˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜ ¯ÒÂÁÏ Ì¯‚Ï
276
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
Ì˙ÂÏÈÚÙ˘ ˜Ê· ÌÈ·˘Á˙Ó Ìȇ ÌȘÈÊÓ˘ ˙Óȇ ÏÎ ˙¢Á¯˙Ó ˙˜ÈÊÓ ˙ˆÁ‰
Ìȇ¯ ,ÌȯÁ‡Ï ˙ӯ‚ Ì˙ÂÏÈÚÙ˘ ˜Ê· ·˘Á˙‰Ï ͯˆ ¯„Úȉ· .ÌȯÁ‡Ï ˙ӯ‚
˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰Ó ‰ÎÂÓ ˙È˯٠˙ÂÏÚ ,‰ÏÂÚÙ‰ Úˆȷ Ì¯Ë ,̉ÈÈÚ „‚Ï ÌȘÈÊÓ
ÌÈÏÈÚÈ Ìȇ˘ ۘȉ·Â ÔÙ‡· ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Úˆȷ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰‡ˆÂ˙‰ .Ì˙ÂÏÈÚÙ Ï˘
˙ÓÂÚÏ ,‰Ï ˙ӯ‚ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰˘ ‰‰Â·‚‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ Ï˘· ˙‡Ê ,˙ÈÏÎÏÎ
.‰ÓÓ ˙˜ÙÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÏÚÂ˙‰
˙È˯ى ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ‰ ˙‡ ¯Â‚ÒÏ ˙„ÚÂÈÓ ÌȘÈÊÓ ÏÚ ˙ÏËÂÓ‰ ˙ȘÈÊ ˙ÂȯÁ‡
Ï˘ ‰¯ÈÁÓ· ÌÂÏÈ‚ ˙ÂÚˆÓ‡· ,˙‡Ê .˙È˙¯·Á‰ ‰˙ÂÏÚ ÔÈ·Â ˜ÈÊÓÏ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘
˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˯ى ˙ÂÏÚ· ‰ÈÂÙˆ‰ ‰ÈÈÏÚ‰ .ÂÏ ˙ӯ‚ ‡È‰˘ ˜Ê‰ ˙‡ ‰ÏÂÚÙ‰
ÈÂÈ˘ È„È ÏÚ˘ ÔÈ· ,˜Ê‰ ˙ÚÈÓ ˙¯˘Ù‡ ˙‡ Ϙ˘Ï ÌȘÈÊÓ „„ÂÚÏ ‰ÈÂÙˆ ,˜ÈÊÓÏ
˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰‡ˆÂ˙‰ .‰Úˆȷ ۘȉ ÈÂÈ˘ È„È ÏÚ˘ ÔÈ·Â ‰ÏÂÚÙ‰ Úˆȷ ÔÙ‡
‰Ë˜ Ì˙ÚÈÓ ˙ÂÏÚ˘ ÌÈ˜Ê ˙ÚÈÓ Ï˘ ‡ˆÂÈ ÏÚÂÙ ,˙ÈÙ¯ˆÓ ˙ÈÏÎÏÎ ˙ÂÏÈÚÈ ˙‚˘‰
.40 ˙È˙¯·Á‰ Ì˙ÂÏÚÓ
ȯ˜ ,‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ „ˆÈÎ ˙‡¯Ï Ϙ ,‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰Ú˙¯‰Ï Ìȇ˙‰ ÏÚ Â„ÓÚ˘Ó
Ï˘ Ì˙‡ÎÊ ˙Ï·‚‰ .¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ‡È·‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰
˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÂÏ·Ò ÈÎ ÂÁÈΉ ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜ÓÏ ÈˆÈÙÏ ÌȘÂÊÈ
Ìȯ˜Ó· ˙ÂȯÁ‡Ó ÌÈÏÙËÓ ¯ËÂÙ‰ ÏÏÎ Ï˘ ˆÂÓȇ ‰ÚÓ˘Ó ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ
‡ÏÈÓÓ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ Û‡ ÏÚ ,ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï ˜Ê ˜ÂÊȉ Ï·Ò ‡Ï ̉·˘
Û˜˘È ‡Ï ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ‰¯ÈÁÓ˘ ‡È‰ ‰Ê ÏÏÎ Ï˘ Â˙‡ˆÂ˙˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ
˙‚˘‰ Ì˘Ï˘ ¯Á‡Ó .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ˙‡ ÂÈȉ„ ,‰˙ÂÏÚ ˙‡
˙˜È„Ӊ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ˙‡ ÂÈÈÚ „‚Ï ˙‡¯Ï ÁÂη ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ÏÚ ,‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰Ú˙¯‰
.¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ‰Ê ÔÈÚÓ ÏÏÎ ÈÂÙˆ ,Â˙ÂÏÈÚÙ Ï˘
‰¯Î‰ ¯ÒÁ ‰È‰˘ ˜ÂÊÈ˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡‰ È„È ÏÚ Ì‚ ÍÓ˙ ¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ˘˘Á‰
Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ Ú„ÂÓ ‰È‰È˘ ÍÎ ,Â˙¯Î‰Ï ·Â˘È ˘˘Â‡˙È ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ Ô˙Ó „ÚÂÓ·
,ÂÊ ˙¯˘Ù‡ .Íη ˙ÂίΉ Ô·Ïډ ¯Úˆ‰ ˙¢ÂÁ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ ÏÎÂÈ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
‡È·‰Ï ‰ÈÂ˘Ú ,ÈÓÚÙ-„Á ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ‰ Ô˙È Ìȯ˜Ó‰ ˙È·¯Ó·˘ ‰„·ÂÚ‰ ÌÚ „ÁÈ
˜ÈÊÓ‰˘Â ,ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„· ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ Â˜Ê ÏÚ ‰ˆÂÙÈ ‡Ï ˜ÂÊȉ˘ ÍÎÏ
Û‡ ÏÚ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ Û‡ ÏÚ ,‰Ê ˜Ê ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ· ·ÈÂÁÈ ‡Ï
‡ÏÈÓÓ .¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ԇΠ̂ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰‡ˆÂ˙‰ .˙ÂÈ˘ÓÓ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ Âȉ ÂÊÏ˘
˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ ˙ÂÚ„ÂÓ ¯„Úȉ· ÈÎ ÌÈÚÂˉ ‰Ï‡ ˙˘È‚Ï Û‡˘ ‰˜ÒÓ‰ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ
.¯ÒÁ· ‰˜ÂÏ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ,41 ˜Ê ÏÎÏ ÂÏ Ì¯‚ ‡Ï ˜ÈÊӉ ,˜Ê ÏÎ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï·Ò ‡Ï
ȇ¯‰ ÔÓ Ô‡Î Ì‚ .Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ .‚
I. Gilad “Reconstructing American Law — Bruce A. Ackerman” 20 Isr. L. Rev. :‡¯
(1985) 581, 589y590; R. Cooter & T. Ulen Law and Economics (Reading, Mass, 2nd ed.,
,421 (‚"˘˙) ·Î ÌÈËÙ˘Ó "ÔȘÈÊ ÈÈ„· ‰ÏÈÚȉ ‰Ú˙¯‰‰ ˙ÂÏ·‚ ÏÚ" „ÚÏ‚ 'È ;1997) 262
40
.456y454 ,431y429
.Mew, supra note 26, at pp. 570, 573 :‡¯ ,‰Ó„ Á¯· ÔÂÚÈËÏ 41
277
Ê"Ò˘˙
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
,Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ .Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜ÚÏ ¯˘‡· ÌÈÏÈÓ ‰ÓÎ ÌÈ„˜˘
˜ÂÁ‰ ÏÚ .‰„ȯÂÓ Â‡ ‰ÏÚÓ ‰È‡ ˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÈ˘È‡ ,ÂËÒȯ‡ È„È ÏÚ ‚ˆÂ‰˘ ÈÙÎ
‰˘Ú ¯Á‡Ï ÏÂÂÚ ‰˘Ú „Á‡ ̇ ,̯‚˘ ˜Ê‰Â ÏÂÂÚ‰ ˙‡ ˜¯ ÂÈÈÚ „‚Ï ˙¢Ï
ÏÚ ,¯Ù‰ ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ÔÈ· ÔÂÈ¢‰ ÔÎ ÏÚ ,˜Ê ̯‚ ¯Á‡Ï ˜Ê ̯‚ „Á‡ ̇ ,ÏÂÂÚ
˙È˘Ú Â˙ÂÓ„˜Ï ·ˆÓ‰ ˙·˘‰ ÈÎ Ú·˜ ÂËÒȯ‡ .ÂÎ ÏÚ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ˙‡ ·È˘‰Ï ËÙ¢‰
ÌÈÁÂÓ .˜Ê Ï·Ò˘ ‰ÊÏ "„ÒÙ‰"‰ ˙¯ÊÁ‰Â ,ÏÂÂÚÓ‰Ó "Á¯"‰ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ È„È ÏÚ
Ìȯ˜Ó· Ì‚ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ˙¯Ù‰ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ¯Â‡È˙Ï ,ÂËÒȯ‡ ¯È·Ò‰˘ ÈÙÎ ,ÌÈ˘Ó˘Ó ‰Ï‡
ÚˆÙ „Á‡ Ì„‡ ¯˘‡Î ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,ÌÈÓȇ˙Ó Ìȇ "„ÒÙ‰" "Á¯" ÌÈÈÂÈΉ ̉·˘
.42 ¯Á‡ Ì„‡
:ÂËÒȯ‡ È„È ÏÚ ˙‚ˆÂÓ‰ Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ‰ÒÈÙ˙‰ ˙‡ ÌÈÈÈÙ‡Ó ÌȘ ‰ÓÎ
ÒÂÒÈ· ,˙È˘ ;‡ˆÂÓ ˙„˜ΠÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ÔÈ· ËÏÁÂÓ ÔÂÈ¢ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ˙Á‰ ,˙È˘‡¯
ÏÂÂÚÓ‰ .˜Ê ÏÂÂÚ ‰˘ÚÓ Ï˘ Û¯Ȉ‰ ÏÚ ÂÎ ÏÚ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ˙‡ ·È˘‰Ï ‰·ÂÁ‰
Ì‚ ÂÓÎ ÏÂÂÚ Ï·Ò˘ ‰ÊÎ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ·ÈÈÁ Ô·¯˜‰Â ,˜Ê Ì‚ ÂÓÎ ÏÂÂÚ ‰˘ÚÓ Úˆ·Ï ·ÈÈÁ
˙·˘‰Â ÏÂÂÚÓ‰Ó "Á¯"‰ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ ÂÚÓ˘Ó ,¯Ù‰˘ ÔÂÈ¢‰ Ô˜È˙ ,˙È˘ÈÏ˘ ;˜Ê
˙ÂÓÏÚ˙‰Â ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ È„ÂÁÈȉ ÈÙ‡· ˙·˙‰ ,˙ÈÚÈ·¯ ;˜ÂÊÈÏ "„ÒÙ‰"‰
ÏÚ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ˙‡ ·È˘‰Ï ‰·ÂÁ Ï˘ ‰ÓÂȘ ˙χ˘· ‰Ú¯Î‰ Ì˘Ï ,ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ˙ÂÂÎ˙Ó
ÔÈ·Ï ‰˘Ú˘ ÏÂÂÚ‰ ÔÈ· ˙ÂÈ·ÈËϯ˜ Ï˘ ÈÊÎ¯Ó ·Èί Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ,ÛÂÒ·Ï ;ÂÎ
ÔÈ·Ï ÏÂÂÚÓ‰Ó Á¯‰ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ ÔÈ·Â ,Ï·Ò˘ ‰Ê ÔÈ·Ï Ì¯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ· ,Ï·Ò˘ ‰Ê
È· ÌÈ„ÓÂÏÓ Ïˆ‡ ‰¯¯ÂÚ ‰Ï‡ ÌÈÈÈÙ‡Ó ÌȘ· ˙·˙‰ .˜ÂÊÈÏ „ÒÙ‰‰ ˙·˘‰
,ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ÔÈ· ËÏÁÂÓ ÔÂÈ¢ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ˙Á‰Ï ˙ÒÁÈÈ˙Ó ˙Á‡‰ .˙Âχ˘ ‰ÓÎ ÂÓÊ
.ÌÈ¢ ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ Ô·ÂÓ ‰Êȇ· Z ‰ÈÈÚÂ
ÔÂÈ¢‰ ,ÌÈ„„ˆ ÔÈ· ˙‡˜ÒÚ ÂÈÈÚ˘ ,Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ˙ÓÂÚÏ ,˙Á‡ ‰Ù˜˘‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ
,ÂÊ ‰Ù˜˘‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ ,ÍÎÈÙÏ .˜ÏÁÓ ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ÈÒÁȉ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ‡Â‰ ÔÂÂÎÓ ‡Â‰ ÂÈχ˘
.43 ¯˘ÂÚ Ï˘ ‰Â˙ ‰˜ÂÏÁ ÏÚ ¯ÂÓ˘Ï ‡È‰ Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ‰Èˆ˜ÂÙ‰
Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÔÂÂÎÓ ÂÈχ˘ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ,¯˙ÂÈ ˙Ï·Â˜Ó ,˙¯Á‡ ‰Ù˜˘‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ
ËÏÁÂÓ‰ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ,ÂÊ ‰Ù˜˘‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ .ˇ˜ Ï˘ ˙ȯÒÂÓ‰ ‰È¯Â‡˙‰Ó ÂÎÂ˙ ˙‡ Ï·˜Ó
Èίډ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ‡Â‰ ,Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÏÚ Â¯·„· ÂËÒȯ‡ ÔÂÂÎ˙Ó ÂÈχ˘ ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ Ï˘
,È˘ÙÂÁ‰ Ôˆ¯‰ Ï˘ ÈÓÈÙ‰ ˷ȉ‰ ÏÚ ÒÒ·Ӊ ,ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ Ï˘ ËÏÁÂÓ‰ ȯÒÂÓ‰
.44 ˇ˜ ÔÂÂÎ˙Ó ÂÈχ˘
,ÌÂÈÎ ,ÌÈÓÈÎÒÓ ,ÂËÒȯ‡ È„È ÏÚ ‰‚ˆÂ‰˘ Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ‰ÒÈÙ˙Ï ·Â¯˜ ¯˘˜·
.121y118 (‰"Ó˘˙ ,Ò·ÈÏ '‚ 'È :˙ÈÂÂÈÓ Ì‚¯˙) Ò·ÓÂ˜È ˙¯Â„‰Ó Z ‰˜È˙‡ Z ÂËÒȯ‡ 42
E.J. Weinrib The Idea of Private Law (Cambridge, :‡¯ ,‰ÈÏÚ ˙¯Â˜È·Ï ÂÊ ‰Ù˜˘‰ ˙‚ˆ‰Ï 43
Mass., 1995) 78y79; R.W. Wright “Substantive Corrective Justice” 77 Iowa L. Rev. (1992)
.625, 705y706
:‡¯ ,Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ ˙Èȯ‡˙ ÔÈ·Â ‰È· ¯˘˜· ÛÈ˜Ó ÔÂÈ„Ï ,˙ȇÈˇ˜‰ ‰ÒÈÙ˙‰ ıÂÓÈ‡Ï 44
R.W. Wright “Right, Justice and Tort Law” Philosophical Foundation of Tort Law (Sydney,
D. Owen ed., 1995) 159, 162y167; Weinrib, supra note 44, at pp. 80y83, 88y92, 94y98,
.104
278
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
‡Â‰ Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘Â ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„ Ï˘ ÈÊÎ¯Ó ÔÈÈÙ‡Ó ÈÎ Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ÌȘÈ˯‡˙
ÔÈÈÙ‡ÓÎ ˙ÂÈ·ÈËϯ˜‰ ˙ÂÎ˙ ‰˙ÏÚ ÂËÒȯ‡ Ï˘ Âȯ·„Ó ¯·Î .˙ÂÈ·ÈËϯ˜‰ ˙ÂÎ˙
˙Âȯ‡˙· ,ÚÓ˙˘Ó ‡ ˘¯ÂÙÓ ÔÙ‡· ,ÚÈÙÂÓ ‰Ê ÔÂÈÚ¯ .Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ÈÊίÓ
,˙ÂÈ·ÈËϯ˜ Ï˘ ‰ÓÂÈ˜Ï ÌÈÚÂË ÂÓÊ È· ÌÈ„ÓÂÏÓ .Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ¢ÎÚ
˙ÂȯÁ‡ „ÈÓ˙ ‡È‰ Ú·˙‰ ÏÚ ˙ÏËÂÓ‰ ˙ÂȯÁ‡‰ :ÌÈ¯Â˘ÈÓ ‰Óη ÈÂËÈ· È„ÈÏ ‰‡·‰
‰Î¯ΠڷÂ˙‰ Ï˘ ÂȘÊÏ È‡¯Á‡ Ú·˙‰ ˙‡ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ˙‡ÈˆÓ ;Ú·Â˙‰ ÈÙÏÎ
;˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÏÂÂÚ‰ Â˙ÏÂÚÙ È„È ÏÚ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˜Ê ˙Óȯ‚ Ï˘ È·ÈËϯ˜‰ ‰·Ó·
Ú·˙Ï ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ È„È ÏÚ Ô˜Â˙Ó ,Ú·˙‰ Ï·Ò˘Â ,Ú·Â˙‰ ̯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ,ÛÂÒ·ÏÂ
.45 ‰Ê ÌÂÎÒ· ˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ ·ÂÈÁ ,Â˜Ê ¯ÂÚÈ˘Î
¯ÂËÙ ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ ,¯ÂӇΠ.ÂÈ„È ÏÚ ‚ˆÂÓ‰ ÔÂÚÈËÏ ‰˙Ú ¯ÂÊÁ
Ú„ÂÓ Âȇ ‰Ê ̇ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ Û‡ ÏÚ ,˙ÂȯÁ‡Ó ˜ÈÊÓ‰
‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰‡ˆÂ˙ .˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ Ï‚ÂÒÓ Âȇ ÍÎÏ
¯Ù‰ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ÌÚ .Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡
Ï·ÂÒ Âȇ ÍÎÏ Ú„ÂÓ Âȇ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ̇ Ì‚ ,ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ÔÈ· ȯÒÂÓ-Èίډ ÔÂÈ¢‰
˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú ˜ÒÂÚ Â·˘ ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ Ï˘ ËÏÁÂÓ‰ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ,¯ÂӇΠ.ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù
Ï˘ ÈÓÈÙ‰ ˷ȉ‰ ÏÚ ÒÒ·Ӊ ,ÌÈË¯Ù Ï˘ ȯÒÂÓ-Èίډ ÔÂÈ¢‰ ‡Â‰ Ô˜˙Ó‰
,ÂÓˆÚÏ ÌÈÈÏÏÎ ÌȘÂÁ ˜˜ÂÁÏ Ë¯Ù‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÏÂÎÈ .ˇ˜ ˜ÒÂÚ Â·˘ È˘ÙÂÁ‰ Ôˆ¯‰
ͯډ ˙‡ ˯ÙÏ ‰˜ÈÚÓ˘ ‡È‰ ,Ôˆ¯‰ Ï˘ ‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ÏÂÚÙÏ ÂÈȉ„
˙˘Á¯˙Ó ‡È‰ ̇ Ì‚ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ .46 ËÏÁÂÓ‰ ȯÒÂÓ‰
ÔÈ· ÔÂÈ¢‰ ˙‡ ‰¯ÙÓ ËÏÁÂÓ‰ ȯÒÂÓ‰ ÂÎ¯Ú ÌˆÚ· ˙Ú‚ÂÙ ,ÂÈÈÁ Ï˘ ¯ˆ ÌÁ˙Ó·
¯Ù‰˘Ó .ÍÎ ·˜Ú ÂÈ˙¢ÂÁ˙· ‡ ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ˘Á ‡Ï ‰Ê ̇ Ì‚ ,ÌÈ„„ˆ‰
ÈÎ ,·˘ ˙ÂÈ·ÈËϯ˜‰ ÔÈÈÙ‡Ó ÏÚ ,Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú ·ÈÈÁÓ ,ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ÔÈ· ÔÂÈ¢‰
‡˘ÈÈ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„· ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ˜ÊÏ È‡¯Á‡ ‡ˆÓÈÈ ˜ÈÊÓ‰
‰ˆÂÓȇ ÈÎ ‰˜ÒÓ‰ Ô‡ÎÓ ˙˘˜·˙Ó ‡ÏÈÓÓ .Â˜Ê ¯ÂÚÈ˘Î ÈˆÈÙ ÂÏ ÌÏ˘Ï ‰·ÂÁ·
,ȈÈÙ ‡ÏÏ ÌȘÂÊÈ ¯È˙‰Ï ˙ÂȯÁ‡Ó ÌȘÈÊÓ ¯ÂËÙÏ ‰ÈÂÙˆ‰ ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘
.Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ,˙ÂÈ˘ÁÂÓ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ¯„Úȉ·
È˘ ÌÚË
ÂÏ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· Ï˘ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙÓ ‰ÏÂÚ˘ ÈÙÎ
,˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÈÙ ÏÚ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ˜ÂÊȉ ȇÎÊ
ÁÈψ‰ ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó :Ìȯ˜Ó È˘· „ÁÂÈÓ· ÍÂÓ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ
J.L. Coleman “The Practice of Corrective Justice” 37 Ariz. L. Rev. (1995) 15, 26y27; :‡¯
E.J. Weinrib “Correlativity, Personality, and the Emerging Consensus on Corrective
.Justice” 2 Theoretical Inq. L. (2001) 107, 110, 116
45
,Ì‚¯˙ ÈÙ˘ 'Ó ,ͯÂÚ ÔÈÈˢ '˘ ,‰ÈÈ˘ ‰¯Â„‰Ó) ˙„ÈÓ‰ Ï˘ ‰˜ÈÒÈÙËÓÏ „ÂÒÈ ˙Á‰ ˇ˜ 'Ú 46
.111y107 (È"˘˙
279
Ê"Ò˘˙
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" ‰ÁΉ ‡Ï ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó 47 Û‚ ˜Ê ‰ÏÂÁÏ Ì¯‚ ‡Ï ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ
,‰Ï˜ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰˘ ÁÈ‰Ï ‰È‰È Ô˙È Ìȯ˜Ó‰ È˘· .48 "‰ËÏÁ‰
‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰˘ ÌÂ˘Ó ÔÈ·Â ,Û‚ ˜Ê ÏÎ Ï·Ò ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰Â ÁÈψ‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ˘ ÌÂ˘Ó ÔÈ·
.Â˙ÂÎÊ ‰¯Ù‰ ‡ÏÓχ Ì‚ ‰Â˘ ‰ËÏÁ‰ Úˆ·Ó ‰È‰
ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ
Ï·˜Ï Ì˙‡ÎÊÏ ˙Â·È˘Á ˙ÓÈȘ ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó Ì˙‡· ˜ÂÈ„· ,ÌÈÏÂÁÏ ÍÂÓ ÌÂÎÒ·
‡ Û‚ ˜Ê ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï Ì˙ÏÂÎÈ ¯ÒÂÁ ÁΠ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ
ÈÎ ÏÏη ¢٠‰„ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù (‡) :˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰ ‰ÓÎ ÍÎÏ ."‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ"
Ï˘ ̉ȈȯÓ˙· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù (·) ;‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙÏ ÌȇÎÊ ÌÈÏÂÁ
Ï˘ ¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ¯ÂˆÈ˙˘ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ Ï˘· ˙ÂÚÈ·˙ ˘È‚‰Ï ÌÈÏÂÁ
¯ÂÚÈ˘Ó ,¯‡˘‰ ÔÈ· ,ÌÈÚÙ˘ÂÓ ˙ÂÚÈ·˙ ˙˘‚‰Ï ÌȘÂÊÈ Ï˘ ̉ȈȯÓ˙ .ÌȇÙ¯
‡ÂÙ‡ ÈÂÙˆ ÌȯÂÓ‡‰ Ìȯ˜Ó· ÍÂÓ ¯ÂÚÈ˘· ȈÈÙ .Ì˙ÚÈ·˙· ÂÎÊÈ Ì‡ ÈÂÙˆ‰ ȈÈÙ‰
ÌÈÚˆÓ‡‰ „Á‡ ÌÈÂÂ‰Ó ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„˘ ¯Á‡Ó .49 ˙ÂÚÈ·˙ ˘È‚‰Ï ̉ȈȯÓ˙· Ú‚ÙÏ
;¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ̯‚Ï ¯·„‰ ÈÂÙˆ ,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ȈÈÁ‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ˙ÓÙ‰Ï
‰„ ¯ÂËÙ ˜ÈÚ˙ ,ÌȇÙ¯ „‚ ˙ÂÚÈ·˙ ˘È‚‰Ï ÌȘÂÊÈ Ï˘ ̉ȈȯÓ˙· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù (‚)
¯·„‰Â ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÏÚ ÌÈÏÂÁ ˙ˆÙÏ ‰·ÂÁ‰Ó ÌȇÙÂ¯Ï Â˘Ù
Ï˘ ·ÂÈÁ ,Âȇ¯˘ ÈÙÎ ,ÌÈ·ÈÈÁÓ ‰Ï‡ .Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ Âȇ
.˙È˙ÏÂÂÚ‰ Â˙ÏÂÚÙ ·˜Ú ˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ· ˜ÈÊÓ‰
È˘ÈÏ˘ ÌÚË
ÏÚ ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰ÈÈÈÙ‡Ó· ÔÂÈ„‰Ó ‰ÏÂÚ˘ ÈÙÎ
‰˙ÓÎÏ ˙ȘÈʉ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú ˜ÂÊȉ „·È‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ ˙„ÈÓ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·
¯·„‰ ˙ÂÚÓ˘Ó ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ‰¯˜Ó· .ÈÙÒÎ Í¯Ú È„ÎÏ
‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÏÚ˘
.‰Ï‡ ˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï ÈÙÒÎ Í¯Ú Ô˙ÈÏ ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„· ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ·
„„ÓÏ Ô˙È Â˙ÂÚˆÓ‡·˘ È·È˘Èȷ‡ ‰„ÈÓ ‰˜ Ï˘ ¯„Úȉ Ï˘· ‰˘˜ ÂÊ ‰ÓÈ˘Ó
.50 ÈÙÒÎ Í¯Ú È„ÎÏ Â˙ÓÎÏ ,„·È‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ ˙„ÈÓ ˙‡ ÂÈȉ„ ,ÏÙÂËÓ‰ Ï˘ Â˜Ê ˙‡
.621 'Ú· ,1 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ Ï˘ÓÏ
.620 'Ú· ,Ì˘
Û‡ Â˘È‚È È‡ÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ·˜Ú È˘ÓÓ ˜Ê ÂÏ·Ò˘ ÌÈÏÂÁ˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡‰Ó ÌÏÚ˙‰Ï Ôȇ ÌÓ‡
˙„Â˜Ó ÌȇˆÂÈ Â‡ ͇ ,"‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" Ï˘ ‰ÓÂȘ ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï ÔÂÈÒÈ· ‰ÚÈ·˙ ‰Ï‡ Ìȯ˜Ó·
ͯÂÚ ‰È‰È "‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" Ï˘ ‰ÓÂȘ ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï È˘ÓÓ È˘Â˜ ÌÈȘ ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó·˘ ‰Á‰
‰Á‰‰ .‰Â·‚ ȈÈÙ· ˙ÂÎÊÏ ÌÈÎÂÓ‰ ÂÈÈÂÎÈÒ ÏÚ Ì‡˙‰· ÂÏ ıÚÈÈ ÍÎÏ Ú„ÂÓ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ÂÈ„
‰ÚÈ·˙ ˙˘‚‰· ÌÈίΉ ÔÓÊ·Â ‰Á¯Ë· ,˙ÂÈÂÏÚ· ·˘Á˙‰·Â ,‰Ê Ú„ÈÓ ˙Ï·˜ ÌÚ˘ ‡È‰
.‰ÚÈ·˙‰ ˙˘‚‰Ó ˜ÂÊȉ ÚÓÈÈ ,‰Ï‰ȷÂ
'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ Â‡¯ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚· ÔÂÓˉ ‰Ê È˘Â˜Ï
Comatose Tort Victims, supra note 28, at p. 1553; J.H. King “Pain and ;829y828
47
48
49
50
Suffering, Noneconomic Damages, and the Goals of Tort Law” 57 SMU L. Rev. (2004)
,ÌȯÁ‡‰ ·Î¯‰‰ ȯ·Á Âٯˈ‰ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙÏ ¯˘‡ ,¯Â‡ ËÙ¢‰ ÈÎ ÔÈÈˆÏ È‡¯ .163, 178y179
280
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
Ô¯Â˜Ó .˙‰·‚ ˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ (‡) :˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰ ‰ÓÎ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ˙ÂÈÂÙˆ ÍÎÏ
ÏÙÂËÓ‰ Ï·Ò Ô˙‡ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ˙‡ˆÂ˙‰ ¯·„· ˙ÂÈÂ„Ú ÚÂÓ˘Ï Í¯Âˆ· ‰Ï‡ Ï˘
,‰Ï‡ ˙ÂÈÂ„Ú ¯Â‡Ï ˜Ê‰ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï Í¯Âˆ· ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú
‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ ‡ÏÈÓÓ .ÈÙÒÎ Í¯Ú È„ÎÏ Â˙ÓÎÏ Í¯Âˆ·Â
‰È‡˘ ‰Ú˙¯‰ (·) ;51 ˙ÈÙ¯ˆÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ‰Á¯‰ ˙‡ ÌÒ˜ÓÏ ‰Ùȇ˘‰ ÌÚ „Á‡
ÌȯˆÂÈ ˙ÂȯÁ‡ ÈÏÏÎ ,Âȇ¯˘ ÈÙÎ ,˙È˘‡¯ :ÌÈÈ˘· ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ÂÊ Ï˘ ‰¯Â˜Ó .‰ÏÈÚÈ
˙ÂÏÈÚÙ· ˜ÒÂÚ‰ Ì¯Â‚Ï ‰Â‡˙‰ ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ Ï˘ ‰ÓÙ‰ ˙ÚˆÂ·Ó ¯˘‡Î ÌÈÏÈÚÈ ÌȈȯÓ˙
¯„‚· „ÁÂÈÓ· ÈÂËÈ· È„ÈÏ ‡·‰ ,ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· Ï˘ È˘Â˜ .‰˜ÈÊÓ‰
Û˜˘Ó Âȇ˘ ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ,Ìȯ·„‰ Ú·ËÓ ,ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ,ÌÈÈÂÓÓ Ìȇ˘ ÌȘÊ
˙‡¯Ï ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ÈÂÙˆ ÍÎ ·˜Ú .‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÈÓ‡‰ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ‰˙ÂÏÚ ˙‡
.Â˙ÂÏÈÚÙ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰Ó ‰ÎÂÓ Â‡ ‰‰Â·‚ ˙È˯٠˙ÂÏÚ ÂÈÈÚ „‚Ï
,¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ‡ ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ ÂÈȉ„ .‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰È‡˘ ‰Ú˙¯‰ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰‡ˆÂ˙‰
.52 ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÈÓ‡‰ ‰˙ÂÏÚÓ ‰ÈÈËÒ‰ ÔÂÂÈÎÏ Ì‡˙‰·
ÁÂη ÌȘÈÊÓ Ïˆ‡ ˙‡„ ¯ÒÂÁÏ Ì¯‚Ï ÈÂÙˆ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· È˘Â˜ ,˙È˘
ȘÒÙ· ÔÂÈÚ ,Ô· .ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· È„È ÏÚ ˜ÒÙÈ‰Ï ÌÈ„È˙Ú‰ ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒÏ ¯˘‡·
ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒ ÌÓ‡ ÈÎ ‰Ï‚Ó ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ ¯Á‡Ï Â˙È˘ ÔÈ„‰
‡Â‰˘ ÍÂ˙ ,‰ÙÈ„Ú‰ ˙‡Ê Û‡ ÏÚ Í‡ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚· ÔÂÓˉ ‰Ê È˘Â˜Ï Ú„ÂÓ ‰È‰
'Ú· ,1 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ) ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ˙Ú„ ÏÂ˜È˘Ï ÈˆÈÙ‰ ‰·Â‚ ˙ÚÈ·˜ ˙‡ ¯È˙ÂÓ
˙ίډ· Ì‚ ‰Ê È˘Â˜· Ϙ˙ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·˘ ‰„·ÂÚ‰ ÈÎ ˜ÈÒ‰Ï Ô˙È ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙ· ÔÂÈÚÓ .(583
Û‡ ÏÚ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ıÓ‡Ï ËÙ¢‰ ˙‡ ‰Úȉ˘ ‡È‰ ,ÌȯÁ‡ ÌÈÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï ˜Ê È˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰
ËÙ¢‰ ˙‡ Úȉ ˜Ê‰ ˙ίډ ÍÈω˙· ÔÂÓˉ È˘Â˜‰ ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .(Ì˘ ,Ì˘) ‰· ÌÈÂÓˉ ÌÈÈ˘˜‰
.(Ì˘ ,Ì˘) ‰Ê ˜Ê ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· ÂÓˆÚ ÔÒ¯Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÏÚ˘ Ú·˜Ï „·Î‰
ÍÒ ˙˙ÁÙ‰Ï ÌÈί„‰ ˙Á‡ ‰ÂÂ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ ˙˙ÁÙ‰ ,˙ÂÈÏÎÏÎ ˙Âȯ‡˙ ÈÙ ÏÚ 51
G. Calabresi The Costs of :‡¯ .˙ÈÙ¯ˆÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ‰Á¯‰ ÌÂÒ˜ÓÏ ÍΠ,‰Â‡˙‰ ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ
Accidents: A Legal and Economic Perspective (New Haven, 1970) 286y287; Cooter &
.Ulen, supra note 41, at p. 289
.King, supra note 51, at p. 192 :‡¯ ,Ï·Ò ·‡Î ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ „‚ ‰Ó„ Á¯· ‰ÚËÏ
52
ÏÏÎ ÂÈȉ„ ,ıÓ‡Ӊ ˙ÂȯÁ‡‰ ÏÏÎ ˙‰ӷ ‰ÈÂÏ˙ ÂÊ ‰ÚÙÂ˙Ï ˘È˘ ‰ÚÙ˘‰‰ ÈÎ ÔÈÈˆÏ È‡¯
ÂÊ ‰ÚÙÂ˙ ‰ÈÂÙˆ ,‰¯ÂÓÁ ˙ÂȯÁ‡ Ï˘ ÏÏÎ ˙¯‚ÒÓ· .˙ÂÏ˘¯ Ï˘ ÏÏΠ‡ ‰¯ÂÓÁ ˙ÂȯÁ‡ Ï˘
.‰ÈÈËÒ‰ ÔÂÂÈÎÏ Ì‡˙‰· ,ËÂ˜È˘ ˙¯ȉʉ ÈÚˆÓ‡Ï Ú‚Â ¯·„‰˘ ÏÎÎ ,·È‚‰Ï ˜ÈÊÓÏ Ì¯‚Ï
‰Ó¯‚ ‰Ï˘ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰Ó ‰‰Â·‚ ˙È˯٠˙ÂÏÚ ÂÈÈÚ „‚Ï ‰‡Â¯ ÁÂη ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ̇ ,ÍÎ
.ÍىϠ,(¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰) Ìȯ·‚ÂÓ ˙Â¯È‰Ê ÈÚˆÓ‡ ËÂ˜Ï ıȯÓ˙ ÏÚ· ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ‰È‰È ,Â˙ÂÏÈÚÙ
ÂË˜È˘ ˙¯ȉʉ ÈÚˆÓ‡ ,Ô¯˜ÈÚÎ .˙ÂÏ˘¯ Ï˘ ÏÏÎ ˙Á˙ ,˙‡Ê ˙ÓÂÚÏ ,‰Â˘ Ìȯ·„‰ ·ˆÓ
Ìȇ¯ ̉˘ ˙ÂÈÂÏÚÏ ¯˘‡· ˙ÂÚˆ ˙ÂÈËÒÓ ÌÈÚÙ˘ÂÓ Ìȇ ,˙ÂÏ˘¯ Ï˘ ÏÏÎ ˙Á˙ ÌÈ„„ˆ‰
ÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙¯ȉʉ ˯„ËÒ· ‰„ÈÓÚ ,˙ÂÏ˘¯ Ï˘ ÏÏÎ ˙Á˙˘ ‡Â‰ ÍÎÏ ÌÚˉ .̉ÈÈÚ „‚Ï
˙Ó‡˙‰· ,˙ÂÚˆ ˙ÂÈËÒ Ï˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ‡ÂÙ‡ ˜Ù˙ÒÈ ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ .˙ÂȯÁ‡Ó ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ ˙‡ ˙¯ËÂÙ
¯˘‡Î ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .‰ÈÈËÒ Ï˘ ‰ÓÂÈ˜Ï ¯˘˜ ‡ÏÏ ,ÈËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙¯ȉʉ ˯„ËÒÏ ˙¯ȉʉ ÈÚˆÓ‡
ÌÈ„„ˆ‰ Â·È‚È ,„ÁÂÈÓ· ‰Ï„‚ ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰Ó ‰ÈÈËÒ‰
G. Calabresi & A.K. :‡¯ .‰ÈÈËÒ‰ ÔÂÂÈÎÏ Ì‡˙‰· ,Ì˙˙ÁÙ‰· ‡ ˙¯ȉʉ ÈÚˆÓ‡ ˙¯·‚‰·
Klevorick “Four Tests for Liability in Torts” 14 J. Leg. Stud. (1985) 585, 617; Cooter &
.Ulen, supra note 41, at pp. 284y285
281
Ê"Ò˘˙
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
Ìȯ˜Ó ÔÈ· ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒ· È¢ ˘È ͇ ,53 Á"˘ 35,000-Ï Á"˘ 15,000 ÔÈ· ÌÈÚ
.54 ˙¢ ̉È˙·ÈÒ˘ Ìȯ˜Ó ÔÈ· ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒ· ÔÂÈÓ„ ,ÍىϠ,˙ÂÓ„ ̉È˙·ÈÒ˘
·˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘· ·˘Á˙‰· ‰Èˆ¯‰ ‰ÏÂÚÙ‰ ͯ„ ˙‡ Ï˜Â˘ ÁÂη ˜ÈÊÓ‰˘ ¯Á‡Ó
‡È·‰Ï ÌÈȯ˘Ù‡‰ ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒÏ ¯˘‡· ˙‡„ ¯ÒÂÁ ÈÂÙˆ ,˙‡˘Ï ÏÂÏÚ ‡Â‰
·˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ˙‡ ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙Î¯Ú‰Ï Ì‡˙‰· ‰˙˘˙ ÂÊ .‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰È‡˘ ‰Ú˙¯‰Ï
.‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÈÓ‡‰ ‰˙ÂÏÚÓ ‰ÈÈËÒ‰ ÔÂÂÈÎÏ Ì‡˙‰·Â ,˙‡˘Ï ÏÂÏÚ ‡Â‰
˙È· Ï˘ È˘Â˜ ,¯ÂӇΠ.Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ˙ÂÏÂÚ Ôȇ˘ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ (‚)
·Â¯È˜· Û˜˘Ó‰ ÔÙ‡· ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· ËÙ˘Ó‰
Â˜Ê ÈÙÎÓ ÍÂÓ Â‡ ‰Â·‚ ‡ÂÙ‡ ‰È‰È ,Ìȯ˜Ó‰ ˙È·¯Ó· ,ȈÈÙ‰ .Â˜Ê ˙‡ „·Ï·
ÌÂÎÒ· ˜ÂÊȉ ȈÈÙ ,Ô˜˙Ó‰ ˜„ˆ‰ Ô¯˜Ú· ÔÂÈ„‰Ó ‰ÏÂÚ˘ ÈÙÎ .˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ È˙ÈÓ‡‰
ÌÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ Âȇ ˜ÈÊÓ‰ È„È ÏÚ ÂÏ Ì¯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ÈÙÎÓ ÍÂÓ Â‡ ‰Â·‚
˜Ê‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘· ȈÈÙ· ˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ ·ÂÈÁ ˙‡ ,Âȇ¯˘ ÈÙÎ ,ÌÈ·ÈÈÁÓ‰ ,Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ Ï˘
.˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘
ÈÚÈ·¯ ÌÚË
‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰¯„‚· ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰ÈÈÈÙ‡Ó· ÔÂÈ„‰Ó ‰ÏÂÚ˘ ÈÙÎ
˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘ È˯ى ˜Ê‰ Ï˘ ‰„ÈÓ‰ ‰˜ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÍȯÚÓ ÂÊ
‰Ê ÔÈÈÙ‡Ó .ÂÈ˙¢ÂÁ˙·Â ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„· ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú
.‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰È‡˘ ‰Ú˙¯‰Ï ̯‚Ï ‡Â‰ Û‡ È¢Ú
Û˜˘Ó‰ ,˜ÈÊÓ‰ ÏÚ ÈÏÎÏÎ ÏË ˙Ïˉ ˙·ÈÈÁÓ ‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰Ú˙¯‰ ˙‚˘‰ ,¯ÂÓ‡Î
È˯ى ˜Ê‰ ˙ÓÙ‰˘ ¯Á‡Ó .‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ Â˙ÂÏÈÚÙ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ˙‡
,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ˙ÓÙ‰Ï ‰‰Ê ‰È‡ ˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘
È˯ى ˜Ê‰ Ï˘ ‰„ÈÓ‰ ‰˜· ˘ÂÓÈ˘ ‰˘ÂÚ‰ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ‰ÏÂÏÚ
.55 ‰ÏÈÚÈ ‰È‡˘ ‰Ú˙¯‰Ï ̯‚Ï ,˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘
˙ÂÏÚ‰ ÔÈ·Â ˜ÂÊȉ Ï·Ò˘ È˯ى ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ Ï˘ ÂÓÂÈ˜Ï ÌÈӯ‚‰ „Á‡
,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .¯˙ÂÈ ‰Â·‚ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˜Ò٠̉·˘ ÔÈ„ ȘÒÙ È˘ ÌȇˆÂÈ ÔÈ„‰ ȘÒÙ ÏÏÎÓ 53
ÍÎ ,ÂÏ·Ò˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ˜Ê‰ ÏÏÎ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ ‰È‰ ‰Ï‡ Ìȯ˜Ó· ÌȘÂÊÈÏ ˜ÒÙ˘ ȈÈÙ‰
˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯Â·Ú ˜ÒÙ˘ ˜Ê‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ˙‡ ˜ÈÂ„Ó ÔÙ‡· „ÂÓ‡Ï Ô˙È ‡Ï˘
„Î ÌÂÏ˘ ÌÈÈ„ ,(ÌÒ¯Â٠̯Ë) ‚¯Â'‚ ' ‰ÓÈÒ 8139/01 (ˆ"Ï˘‡¯) ‡"˙ ‡¯ .‰ÈÓ¡Ï
.ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙÏ Á"Ï ‰˜ÒÙ· ,24 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,Ԣ¢ Ô· ÔÈÈÚ ;ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙÏ 5.3 ‰˜ÒÙ· ,307
,ı¯Â¢ ÔÈÈÚ Â‡¯ ̉· ÂÚ·˜˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒ ÔÈ·Â ÔÈ„‰ ȘÒÙ Ï˘ ̉È˙·ÈÒ ÔÈ· ‰‡Â¢‰Ï 54
ÏÈÚÏ ,Ô˘ ÔÈÈÚ ÌÂÈ· ÔÈÈÚ ,ÚÈÓ˘ ÔÈÈÚ ,ÏÂÓÈ˘ Ô· ÔÈÈÚ ,ȇ·¯Á ÔÈÈÚ ,̯·ÈÈ˘ ÔÈÈÚ
ÈÂ˘Ï ÈÂËÈ· „ÈÓ˙ Ô˙ Âȇ ˜ÒÙ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ,‰Ï‡ ÔÈ„ ȘÒÙ· ÔÂÈÚÓ ‰ÏÂÚ˘ ÈÙÎ .24 ‰¯Ú‰
ÁÈΉ ̇ ‰Ï‡˘‰Â ,‰¯Ù‰‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,Ú·Â˙‰ ˙ÈÁ·Ó ‰ËÏÁ‰‰ ˙Â·È˘Á :Ô‚Π,Ìȯ˜Ó‰ ÔÈ·
.Â‡Ï Ì‡ È˙·ÈÒ ¯˘˜ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ Ú·Â˙‰
˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏډ ÌÙÂÓ‰ È˯ى ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ·˘ ÔÙ‡· ˯ÂÙÓ ÔÂÈ„Ï 55
:‡¯ ,ÌȘÂÊÈ Ï˘ ¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ,ÌȘÈÊÓ Ï˘ ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ‡È·Ó ,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘
.Gilad, supra note 41, at pp. 596y599
282
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
˙ˆÁ‰ ˙ÏÚ· ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ ˙Âȉ ‡Â‰ ,˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰
.56 ‰„È ÏÚ ˙ÂÓ¯‚‰ ˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘‰ ‰Ï‡Ï ÛÒ· ,˙ÂÈ·ÂÈÁ
‰È˙ÂÚÙ˘‰ Ï˘ ¯ˆÂ˙ ‰‰ ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ È„È ÏÚ ˙Ó¯‚‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰
È˯ى Â˜Ê ˙ÓÙ‰ .˙ÂÈ·ÂÈÁ‰ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ‰È˙ÂÚÙ˘‰ ÊÂÊȘ· ˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘‰ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰
˙ӯ‚ ,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ·ÂÈÁ‰ ˙ˆÁ‰· ·˘Á˙‰Ï ÈÏ·Ó ,˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘
˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ÏÚ ‰¯ÂÚÈ˘· ‰ÏÂÚ‰ ˙ÂÏÚ ˙ÓÙ‰Ï
.57 ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰‡ˆÂ˙‰ .‰˜ÈÊÓ‰
Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚÏ ÌÙÂÓ‰ È˯ى ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ˘ Û‡
ÏÚ Â˙ÚÙ˘‰ ,58 ˙ÓÈȘ‰ ˙ȘÈʉ ‰ÓÙ‰‰ ˙ίÚÓ Ï˘ ÔÈÈÙ‡Ó Â‰ ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰
̇˙‰· ‰˙˘Ó ‡È‰Â ,‰¯˜Ó Ïη ‰‰Ê ‰È‡ ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„ ˙ÂÚˆÓ‡· ˙‚˘ÂÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚȉ
˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ÔÈ·Â ÌÙÂÓ‰ È˯ى ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ :ÌÈӯ‚ ‰˘ÂÏ˘Ï
˙ÓÙ‰ ˙‡ ÌÈÏÈ·‚Ó ÌÈÈ˜Ê ÌÈÏÏÎ ÂÏ˘ ¯ÂÚÈ˘‰ ;‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰
,¯ÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ·˜Ú ˙Ó¯‚‰ ,ÌȘÈÊÓ Ï˘ ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ ÊÂÊȘ ÛÂÒ·Ï ;¯ÂÓ‡‰ ¯ÚÙ‰
ÌÈ˙˘Ó ‰Ï‡ ÌÈӯ‚ .59 ÌÈ¢ ÌÈӯ‚ ·˜Ú ˙Ó¯‚‰ ,ÌȘÈÊÓ Ï˘ ¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ È„È ÏÚ
Ì˘Ï ,ȘÏÁ ÔÙ‡· ˙ÂÁÙÏ ,ÈÂÈ˘Ï ÌÈ˙È ,‰˘ÓÏ „Á‡ ˙ÂȯÁ‡Â ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ ÌÂÁ˙ ÔÈ·
‡ÂÙ‡ ˙·ÈÈÁÓ ÌÈȘÈÊ ˙ÂȯÁ‡ ÈÏÏÎ Ï˘ Ì˙ÚÈ·˜ .¯˙ÂÈ ‰·¯ ˙ÈÏÎÏÎ ˙ÂÏÈÚÈ ˙‚˘‰
.60 ÂÓÂˆÓˆÏ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡‰ ÌÈί„·Â ‰Ê ¯ÚÙ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ· ˙·˘Á˙‰Â ˙¯ȉÊ
ÈÂËÈ· Ô˙Ó ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ‰È‡ ÂÊ˘ ‡Â‰ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚· ÔÂÓˉ È˘Â˜‰
Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ,‰Ê ‰¯˜Ó·Â ,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ·ÂÈÁ‰ ˙ÂȈÈÁ‰ ˙ÂÚÙ˘‰Ï
˙¯Ù‰Ï ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó ÂÎ˙ÈÈ˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡‰Ó ÌÏÚ˙‰Ï Ôȇ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘
,‰Ê .Íη ˙ÂίΉ ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ‰ ˙‡ ˙Â˙ÈÁÙÓ‰ ,˙·ˉ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ
˙ÂÈÂÏÚ ÍÂÒÁÏ È„Î ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ ˙¯Ù‰· ˘È ¯˘‡Î ·ˆÓ‰ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ,Ï˘ÓÏ
¯˘‡Î ‡ ,61 ‰ÏÂÁÏ Ú„ÈÓ ˙¯ÈÒÓ· ͯΉ ÔÓʉ ˙ÂÓ„· ,˙ȇÂÙ¯‰ ˙ίÚÓÏ ˙Â¯È˘È
˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘‰ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰· Ô¯Â˜Ó˘ ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ ÚÂÓÏ È„Î ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ ˙¯Ù‰· ˘È
È˙˘Ó ˙Á‡ ˙‡ ˙¢·ÂÏ ÌÈÈ˘ÈÏ˘ ÌÈ„„ˆ ÏÚ ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈ·ÂÈÁ ˙ÂȈÈÁ ˙ÂÚÙ˘‰
Ï·Ò˘ ÌȘÊÏ ¯È˘È Âȇ˘ ÔÙ‡· ÌÈ¯Â˘˜‰ ÌÈÈ˘ÈÏ˘ ÌÈ„„ˆ Ï˘ ÌÈÁ¯ :˙‡·‰ ˙¯ˆ‰
‰È‚ÂÒ· ÛÈ˜Ó ÔÂÈ„Ï .‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰Ó ÌÈÈ˘ÈÏ˘ ÌÈ„„ˆ ÌȘÈÙÓ˘ ˙Â¯È˘È ˙·ˉ ,˜ÂÊȉ
.Ibid, at pp. 595y593 :‡¯ ,ÂÊ
.Ibid, at p. 592
.461y460 'Ú· ,41 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,„ÚÏ‚
˘Á¯˙‰Ï ‰ÏÂÎÈ ,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰Ó Ô˘ È˯٠˜Ê Ï˘ ‰ÓÙ‰
ÌȘÂÊÈ Ï˘ Ì˙‡ÎÊ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ È„È ÏÚ ˙ȘÈʉ ˙ÂȯÁ‡‰ ÌÁ˙Ó ˙Ï·‚‰ :ÌÈӯ‚ ‰ÓÎÓ ‡ˆÂÈ ÏÚÂÙ
ÌÈ˜Ê Ï˘ÓÏ) ÌÈÓÈÂÒÓ ÌÈÈ˯٠ÌÈ˜Ê Ï˘ ¯ÒÁ· ‰Î¯Ú‰ ,ÌÈÓÈÂÒÓ ÌÈ˜Ê ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ Ï·˜Ï
Gilad, supra note 41, :‡¯ .'ÂΠÌȘÂÊÈ È„È ÏÚ ˙ÂÈËÙ˘Ó ˙ÂÚÈ·˙ ˙˘‚‰-ȇ ,(ÌÈÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï
.at p. 607
.Ibid, at pp. 607y608 :‡¯
.‰·‰Ï ‰˘˜Â ·Î¯ÂÓ Ú„ÈÓ ‰È‰ ¯˙Ò‰˘ Ú„ÈÓ‰ ¯˘‡Î ·ˆÓ‰ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,‰Ê
283
Ê"Ò˘˙
56
57
58
59
60
61
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
‰‡ˆÂ˙‰ .62 Ìȇ ¯ÒÂÁ ˙˘ÂÁ˙ Ï·Ϸ ,‰„¯Á Ô‚Π,ÌÈÏÂÁ ÏÚ Ú„ÈÓ ˙¯ÈÒÓÏ ˘È˘
,˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ È˯ى Â˜Ê ÈÙÎÓ ‰ÎÂÓ ˙È˙¯·Á ˙ÂÏÚ ‰Ï‡ Ìȯ˜Ó· ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÏÂÏÚ
‡ÏÈÓÓ ‰ÏÂÚ Ô‡ÎÓ .Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙· ÈÂËÈ· È„ÈÏ ‡·‰
˙Ú˙¯‰Ï ‰Ê ‚ÂÒÓ Ìȯ˜Ó· ̯‚Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰˘ ‰˜ÒÓ‰
.¯˙È
È˯ى Â˜Ê ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ ÂÈȉ„ .ȯ˘Ù‡ ÍÂÙ‰‰ Ìȯ·„‰ ·ˆÓ Ì‚˘ Ô·ÂÓ
Ô¢‡¯‰ Ï˘ ¯ÂÚÈ˘˘ ÍÎ ,˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ ˙ӯ‚ ‰Ï˘ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚÏ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘
̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ·ˆÓ‰ ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ‰Ê .‰Â¯Á‡‰ Ï˘ ‰¯ÂÚÈ˘Ó ÍÂÓ
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ÍȯÚÓ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·
˙ÂÈÂÏÚÏ ‰Ó¯‚ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ÂÏȇ ,˙ÂÎÂÓÎ ‰ÈÓ¡Ï
˙ȯ˘„ Ï˘ ‰È˙Â˘È¯„ ÌÂÈ˜Ï ˘È˘ ˙·ˉ Ô„·‡· Ô¯Â˜Ó˘ ,˙‰·‚ ˙ÂÈ˙¯·Á
˙¢‚ÂÓ‰ ˙ÂÚÈ·˙‰ ¯ÙÒÓ· ‰˙ÁÙ‰ ,‡Ù¯-‰ÏÂÁ ÈÒÁÈ· ¯ÂÙÈ˘ Ô‚Π,˙Ú„Ó ‰ÓÎÒ‰‰
‰˘È‚‰ ‰ÏÂÏÚ Ô‡Î .63 'ÂΠ̷ˆÓÏ Ï‚˙Ò‰Ï ÌÈÏÂÁ Ï˘ Ì˙ÏÂÎÈ· ¯ÂÙÈ˘ ,ÌȇÙ¯ „‚
̯‚Ï ,‰Ï‡ ˙ÂÈ˙¯·Á ˙Â·Ë‰Ï ÈÂËÈ· Ô˙Ó ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ‰È‡˘ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰
.¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰Ï
È˘ÈÓÁ ÌÚË
Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ê‚ ÂÓÓ˘ ,‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚
˙Ù˜˘Ó ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ ,¯ÂӇΠ.˙ÂÈÓ¡ ˙ÂËÏÁ‰ Úˆ·Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘
Ô˙È ÈˆÈÙ‰ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ‰˘È‚ .Ú‚Ù˘ Ò¯ËÈ‡Ï ‰¯·Á‰ ‰˜ÈÚÓ˘ ˙Â·È˘Á‰ ˙‡
Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ‰ ÈÎ ¯ÒÓ ‰·ÂÁ· ˙ÓÂË ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙¢ÂÁ˙·Â ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÏÚ
.‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊÓ ÏÈ„·‰Ï ,˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˘Ù ˙ÂÓÏ˘ ‡Â‰ ‰Ê ‚ÂÒÓ Ìȯ˜Ó·
‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰ˆÂÓȇ ˙·ÈÈÁÓ Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯ËȇΠ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰¯Î‰
Ï˘ ÂÈ„ ˜ÒÙ· ÔÂÈÚ ÌÓ‡ .ÂÊ ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÌˆÚ ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ ¯˘Ù‡˙˘
‰ˆÂÓȇ ͇ ,˙ȯ˜Ӊ Â˙„ÓÚ ‰˙Èȉ ÂÊ ÈÎ „ÓÏÓ ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·
‰˘È‚Ï ‰¯ÊÁ ÂÊ ‰„ÓÚÓ ‰‚ÈÒ ,‰˘ÚÓÏ ,‰ÂÂ‰Ó ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘
È˘ÓÓ ˜Ê ÏÚ Ô˙È ÈˆÈÙ‰ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,˙ÂËÒÏ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ˘˜È· ‰ÓÓ˘ ˙È¯Ó˘‰
.˜ÂÊȉ Ï·Ò˘
‰˘È‚‰˘ ‰„·ÂÚ‰ Ô·˘Á· ˙‡·ÂÓ ¯˘‡Î Û˜Â˙ ‰˘Ó ˙Ï·˜Ó ÂÊ ‰ÚË
ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ Ìȇ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ÈˆÈÙÏ ˙ÂÎʉ ˙‡ ÏÂÏ˘Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰
ÁÈψ‰ ·˘ ÌÂ˜Ó ÍÂÓ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ Ïȷ‰Ï ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰Ï
˙¯˘Â˜‰ ‰˘È‚ ."‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" ÁÈΉÏÓ Ï˘Î ˜ÂÊȉ˘ ‡ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ
Â˙ÂÚ„ÂÓÏ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ˜ÂÊȉ ȇÎÊ ÂÏ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ˙‡
Ï˘ ‰Ê‚¯ÙÏ ¯˘‡· ‰˘˜ ˙ÈÊÁ˙ ÏÏÎ ¯˙Ò‰˘ Ú„ÈÓ‰ ¯˘‡Î ·ˆÓ‰ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,‰Ê 62
.‰ÏÂÁ‰
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ Â˜Ê˘ ÍÎ ,ÁÈψ‰ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ˘Î ·ˆÓ‰ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,‰Ê 63
.ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙‡ˆÂ˙Ó ˜˙ÂÓ· ˙ÂÈ˙¯·Á ˙·ˉ Ï˘ ‰¯Â˘ Âȉ ‰ÏÂÁÏ Ú„ÈÓ‰ ˙¯ÈÒÓÏ Í‡ ,ÁÈÊ
284
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ,"‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" ˙ÁÎÂ‰Ï Â‡ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï ,‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ
‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ‰˙¯ÓÂÁ ‰ÓÂȘ ÌˆÚ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜·
Ï˘ ‡Ï ,‰Ù˜È‰Â ‰¯Ù‰‰ ‚ÂÒ ,˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙‚‰˙‰ Ï˘ ˙¯Ê‚ ‰‰ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ·
˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" Ï˘ ‰ÓÂȘ ‡ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ È·ÈËȂ˜‰ ·ˆÓ
È˙ÂÚÓ˘Ó ÔÂÎÈÒ ¯·„· Ú„ÈÓ ‰ÏÂÁÏ ¯ÒÓ ‡Ï ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,ÍÎ ."‰ËÏÁ‰
‰ÏÂÁ‰˘ ÔÈ· ‰‰Ê ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,ÁÂ˙È· ÔÂÓˉ ˜Â˙È˘Ï
,˜Â˙È˘· ÌÈÈ˙Ò‰ ÁÂ˙ȉ˘ ÔÈ· ,Â‡Ï˘ ÔÈ· ,ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ¯Á‡Ï ‰¯Î‰ ¯ÒÁ ¯˙Â
ȯ˘Ù‡‰ Ï„·‰‰ .Â‡Ï˘ ÔÈ·Â ‰Â˘ ‰ËÏÁ‰Ï ÚÈ‚Ó ‰È‰ ‰ÏÂÁ‰˘ ÔÈ·Â ,64 Â‡Ï˘ ÔÈ·
Û‡ .‰¯Ù‰‰ ¯·„ Ú„ÂÂȉ ¯Á‡Ï ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ÂÈ˙¢ÂÁ˙ ‡Â‰ ‰Ï‡ Ìȯ˜Ó ÔÈ· „ÈÁȉ
˙ÂÈ˘‚¯ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÂÏ·Ò˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÏ ¯˙ÂÈ ‰Â·‚ ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ ˜È„ˆ‰Ï ÈÂ˘Ú ‰Ê Ï„·‰˘
‡ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ ˙‡ ˜È„ˆ‰Ï ȄΠ· Ôȇ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Ì˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ˙¯ÂÓÁ
‰˜ÒÓ‰ .‰Ï‡ ÔÈÚÓ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÂÏ·Ò ‡Ï˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÏ „ÁÂÈÓ· ÍÂÓ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ
È„È ÏÚ ‰ˆÓ‡˘ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰˘ ‡È‰ ‰Ê ÔÂÈ„Ó ,Â˙Ú„Ï ,˙˘˜·˙Ó‰
,‰È‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ‰È‡ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡ ÔÈÈÚÏ ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·
.‰˙ÂÁ„Ï ˘ÈÂ
‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙÂ‡Ï ¯˘‡· ‰È‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ .„
˙¯Á‡‰ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙¯Â˜È· ‰ÈÁ· Z ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ·
,‰˙ÂÁ„Ï ˘È ÈΠ‰È‡¯ ‰È‡ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÎ ‰˜ÒÓÏ ÂÚ‚‰˘Ó
Á˙Ù .˙¯Á‡‰ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ˙È˙¯Â˜È· ‰ÈÁ· ÔÂÁ·Ï ‰˙Ú ¯Â·Ú
‰˘È‚‰ ÔÈ· ·¯‰ ÔÂÈÓ„‰ .˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ‡È‰ ,˙È˘ÈÓÁ‰ ‰˘È‚· ‡˜Â„
˙ÂÁ„Ï ˘È˘ Ì˘Î˘ ‰˜ÒÓÏ ÏÈ·ÂÓ ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰
Ì˙‡Ó ,˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ˙ÂÁ„Ï ˘È ÍÎ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡
.ÌÈÓÚË
ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÏÂÏ˘Ï ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ‰ÈÂÙˆ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„· .‡
‡ ,‰¯Î‰ ȯÒÁ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ,ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ¯Á‡Ï Ì˙ÂÓ ˙‡ ‡ˆÓ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ
¯ÒÂÁ Ï˘· ˙‡Ê ,¯Á‡ ‡ ‰Ê ÌÚËÓ Ì˙‡ ··ÂÒÏ ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ Ìȇ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ
.65 ˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ ˙‡‰ Ì‰Ï ˜ÙÒÏ ˙¯˘Ù‡‰
‰ÈÂÙˆ ,˜ÂÊÈÏ „·‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ÒÒÂ·Ó ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ˘ ¯Á‡Ó .·
ÏÂÙÈˉ ÁÈψ‰ ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ÍÂÓ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ì‚
."‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" ÁÈΉÏÓ Ú·Â˙‰ Ï˘Î Ì‰·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ‡ ȇÂÙ¯‰
È˘Â˜· ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ‰˜ÂÏ ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„· .‚
„·È‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÏÚ ‰˙¯‚ÒÓ· Ì‚ .ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÍȯډÏ
.Twerski & Cohen, supra note 6, at p. 621 :‡¯ ,ÂÊ ‰ÚËÏ 64
.Benedek, supra note 23, at p. 628 :‡¯ 65
285
Ê"Ò˘˙
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
˙ÏËÂÓ ‡Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ÏÚ ‰˙Ú ÌÓ‡ .66 Âȇ¯ ¯·Î˘ ÈÙÎ ‰˘˜ ‰ÓÈ˘Ó ,˜ÂÊȉ
‰ÓÈ˘Ó ÂÈÙ· ˙„ÓÂÚ ‰˙Ú Í‡ ,ÈÙÒÎ Í¯Ú È„ÎÏ „·‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ ˙ÂÓÈÎ Ï˘ ‰Î‡ÏÓ‰
˘ÂÎ¯Ï ˜ÂÊȉ ÏÎÂÈ Â˙ÂÚˆÓ‡·˘ ÛÒΉ ÌÂÎÒ Â‰Ó ‰Î¯Ú‰ ‡È‰Â ,˙ÂÁÙ ‡Ï ‰˘˜
˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚÏ ‡È·‰Ï ‡ÂÙ‡ ‰ÈÂÙˆ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ .„·‡˘ ‰Ï‡Ï ˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ ˙‡‰
.67 ˙È·È˘ȷÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„· ,˙‰·‚
˙„ÈÓ ÏÚ ˙ÒÒÂ·Ó ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ˘ ¯Á‡Ó .„
Í„È‡Ó ,˘ÂÎ¯Ï ÏÎÂÈ˘ ˙ÂÈÙÂÏÁ‰ ˙‡‰‰Â ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ ,˜ÂÊȉ „·È‡˘ ¯˘Â‡‰
ÔÈ·Â ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ È˯ى Â˜Ê ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ‰ ˙¯È‚Ò ˙‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ì‚ ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ‡Ï ,‡ÒÈ‚
.‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙ˆÁÂÓ‰ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰
‰ÏÂÚ ‡Ï ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ȯ˜ ,‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„· .‰
¯˘Â‡‰ ÏÚ ˘‚„ ‰ÓÈ˘· ,‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰
.‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ÏÚ ‡Ï ,˘ÂÎ¯Ï ÏÎÂÈ˘ ÈÙÂÏÁ‰ ‰Ê ÏÚ ˜ÂÊȉ „·È‡˘
Z ˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰Â ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Z ˙¯Á‡ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡ ˙Â˘È‚ È˙˘ ,¯ÂÓ‡Î
‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ Ô‰
Í„È‡Ó ,‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ ,ÂÊ ˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‡ È·È˘Èȷ‡‰
.‡ÒÈ‚
È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰È˙¯˙È
.Ìȯ¯· ,‡ÒÈ‚ Í„È‡Ó ,‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘
,‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ ‡Ï ‰˙¯‚ÒÓ·˘ ¯Á‡Ó ,˙È˘‡¯
ÌÈÏ‚ÂÒÓ Ìȇ ˙¯Á‡ ‡ ÂÊ ‰·ÈÒÓ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ÈˆÈÙÏ ˙ÂÎʉ ˙‡ ÏÂÏ˘Ï È„Î ‰· Ôȇ
˙¯ÒÁ‰ ÏÚ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ˘ÂÁÏ
ÏÚ Í¯ÚÂÓ Âȇ ȈÈÙ‰ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ¯„‚·˘ ¯Á‡Ó ,˙È˘ .„ÓÚ Ì‰ÈÏÚ˘ ,ÍÎÏ ˘È˘
‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ‡Ï‡ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÈÙ
Ô˙È‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ,‡ÒÈ‚ Í„È‡Ó ,‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ ,˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰
Ú·Â˙‰ ̇ ,˙ÂÁψÂÓ Âȉ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ̇ ‰Ï‡˘Ï ‰˙¯‚ÒÓ· ¯˙ÂÈ ÍÂÓ Ï˜˘Ó
ÚÂÓÏ ÈÂÙˆ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰ˆÂÓȇ˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ."‰ËÏÁ‰ ˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï ÏË· „ÓÚ
ÌÈÎÒÓ ‰È‰˘ ÁÈ‰Ï ˘È˘ ‡ ÁÈψ‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ˘ ÌÚË‰Ó ˜¯ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÍÂÓ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ
˙„ÈÓ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ˘ ¯Á‡Ó ,˙È˘ÈÏ˘ .ÚˆÂÓ‰ ÏÂÙÈËÏ
˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ ÈÙ ÏÚ ‡Ï ,È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯ÚÎ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ‡Â‰ ȈÈÙ Ô˙È ÂÈ‚·˘ Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ‰ ÈÎ ÁÈË·‰Ï ‰· ˘È ,‰ÏÂÁ‰
.‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ‰ÏÂÚ ˙‡ÊÎÎ .‰ÈÓ¡Ï
È˘Â˜‰ ‡Â‰Â ,˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚· ÔÂÓˉ ÈÊÎ¯Ó È˘Â˜Ó ÌÏÚ˙‰Ï Ô˙È ‡Ï ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ
‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÈÎ ˜ÏÂÁ Ôȇ .ÂÏ È‡ÎÊ ˜ÂÊȉ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÍȯډÏ
˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú· ÈÂÏ˙‰ ÔÙ‡· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ·
.Ogus, supra note 23, at pp. 16y17 :‡¯ ,˙ÈÏÂȈ˜ÂÙ‰ ‰˘È‚‰ „‚ ÂÊ ‰ÚËÏ 66
.Benedek, supra note 23, at p. 628 :‡¯ 67
286
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú ˙‡ Ú·˜Ï ¯Îȉ È˘Â˜‰ ÁΠ˙‡Ê ,˙È˙ÈÈÚ· ‰‰ ˜ÂÊȉ ¯Â·Ú
¯Â·Ú ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú ˙ÚÈ·˜ .ÌÈÂÒÓ‰ ˜ÂÊȉ ¯Â·Ú ‰ÈÓ¡Ï
ÂÈÈÁ Á¯Â‡ ¯·„· ÂÏ Ìȷ¯˜‰ Ï˘Â ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂ„Ú ˙‚ˆ‰ ˙˘¯Â„ ˜ÂÊÈ˘ ˯ى
Ô˙ ¯È˜ÂÓ ‰Ê˘ ¯ÂÚÈ˘‰ ÏÚ „ÓÏÏ ˙ÂÈÂ˘Ú ¯˘‡ ˙ÂÈÂ„Ú ,ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈˉ ̯Ë
.‰È‚ÂÒ· ÂÈ˙Â˘È‚Â ÂÈ˙ÂÚ„ ¯·„·Â ÂÈÈÁ· ‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜ÚÏ ÈÂËÈ·
‡Ï‡ ,˙‰·‚ ˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ· ‰Î¯Π˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ˘ ˜¯ ‡Ï ‰Ï‡ ˙ÂÈÂ„Ú ˙‚ˆ‰
È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú ¯·„· ˙˜ÒÓ Ô‰Ó ¯ÂÊ‚Ï È˘Â˜· Ϙ˙È‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·˘
˘˘Á Ï˘ ÂÓÂȘ Á΢ ‡Ï‡ ,˙‡Ê ˜¯ ‡Ï .˜ÂÊȉ ¯Â·Ú ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘
Ò¯Ëȇ‰ È„È ÏÚ ‰ÚÙ˘Â˙ ÂÏ Ìȷ¯˜‰ Ï˘Â ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ̉È˙ÂÈ„ڢ ÏËÂ·Ó È˙Ï·
˙‡ Ô‰ÈÏÚ ÒÒ·Ï È˘Â˜ ÌÈȘ ,ȈÈÙ‰ ÌÂÎÒ·Â ‰ÚÈ·˙‰ ˙Áψ‰· ‰ÊÏ ˘È˘ È˘È‡‰
.˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘ ˜Ê‰ ˙ίډ
.‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰È˙¯ÒÁÓ ˘ÂÏ˘· ‰˜ÂÏ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ ‡ÏÈÓÓ
ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· È˘Â˜‰ ,˙È˘ .˙‰·‚ ˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ· ‰Î¯Π‡È‰ ,˙È˘‡¯
‰˙ÂÏÚ ˙‡ Û˜˘Ó Âȇ˘ ȈÈÙ ˜ÂÒÙÏ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ˙‡ ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ÏÈÚÏ ¯‡Â˙ÓÎ
ÏÈ·ÂÈ ¯˘‡ ¯·„ ,ÌȘÈÊÓ „ˆÓ ˙‡„ ¯ÒÂÁÏ ‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÈÓ‡‰
ÈÂÙˆ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· È˘Â˜‰ ,˙È˘ÈÏ˘ .¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ‡ ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ Ï˘ ‰‡ˆÂ˙Ï
‰‡ˆÂ˙ ,Ú·Â˙‰ Ï˘ Â˜Ê ˙‡ „·Ï· ·Â¯È˜· Û˜˘Ó‰ ÔÙ‡· ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ Ïȷ‰Ï
.Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡˘
ÛÒ Ô¯ÒÁ ÛÒÂÂ˙Ó ,ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· È˘Â˜· Ì¯Â˜Ó˘ ‰Ï‡ ˙¯ÒÁ ˙˘ÂÏ˘Ï
ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰¯„‚·˘ ¯Á‡Ó .ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡· Â¯Â˜Ó˘
˙¯ÓÂÁ ÈÙ ÏÚ ˜ÂÊȉ ˯ى ¯Â·Ú ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ
È˯ى ˜Ê‰ ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ‰ ˙‡ ÔÈ˘‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·Ï ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ‰È‡ ‡È‰ ,‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰
˙Ï·˜˙Ó Í΢Ó ,‰˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ÔÈ·Â ˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘
Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ ‡ÏÈÓÓ .ÏÈÚÏ ¯‡Â˙˘ ÈÙÎ ,¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ‡ ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ Ï˘ ‰‡ˆÂ˙
‰È‡˘ ‰Ú˙¯‰Ï ÏÈ·Â‰Ï ˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ì‚ ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„·˘
.‰Ê ÌÚËÓ ‰ÏÈÚÈ
.˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ Ì‚ ˙ÂÁ„Ï È‡¯‰ ÔÓ ÈÎ ‡ÂÙ‡ ‰‡¯
˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ˘È ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ‡È‰ ˙¯Á‡ ˙ȯ˘Ù‡ ‰˘È‚ ,¯ÂÓ‡Î
È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰
.‡ÒÈ‚ Í„È‡Ó ,‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,‡ÒÈ‚ „ÁÓ ,ÂÊ ˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘
ÌÈÚ„ÂÓ Ìȇ˘ ÌȘÂÊÈÓ ÈˆÈÙ ˙ÏÈÏ˘ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ˙ÚÂÓ ˙È˘ÈÏ˘‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰Ó„·
Ϙ˘Ó Ô˙È‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ‡Ï ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰¯„‚· ,ÍÎÏ ÛÒ· .‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙Ï ‰ÚÈ‚ÙÏ
˙ÂÈ˙·ÈÒ" ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˙ÏÂÎÈ ¯ÒÂÁÏ Â‡ ÏÂÙÈˉ ˙Áψ‰ ˙„·ÂÚÏ ÚȯÎÓ
ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ˙‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ˙ÒÒ·Ó ‰˙Ó„Â˜Ï ‰Ó„· ,ÍÎÓ ‰¯˙È ."‰ËÏÁ‰
˘È ÍΠ,‰ÏÂÁ‰ ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ ÏÚ ‡Ï ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ
.‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ‰È‰È Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ‰˘ ÁÈË·‰Ï ‰·
287
Ê"Ò˘˙
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
‰˘È‚‰ ‰˜ÂÏ ‡Ï ,ÌÈ·È˘Èȷ‡ ÌÈÁ·Ó ÏÚ ˙ÒÒÂ·Ó ‰˙Âȉ·˘ ‡Ï‡ ,˙‡Ê ˜¯ ‡Ï
˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï Í¯Âˆ· Â¯Â˜Ó˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï È˘Â˜· ,‰È˙ÂÓ„Â˜Ï „‚ȷ ,‰ÈÈ˘‰
Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú ˙‡ Ú·˜Ï ͯˆ· ‡ ,˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ¯˘Â‡· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙„ÈÓ
¯Á‡Ó ,ÍÎÏ ÛÒ· .ÍÎÏ ˘È˘ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰‰ ÏÚ ,˜ÂÊȉ ˯ى ¯Â·Ú ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ
‰Î¯Ú ˙‡ Û˜˘Ó‰ ÔÙ‡· ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú Ú·˜ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙ ÏÚ˘
‰È˙·ˉ·Â ‰È˙ÂÈÂÏÚ· ·˘Á˙‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ È˙·Ï ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ,‰¯·Á‰ ÈÈÚ·
˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ È˯ى Â˜Ê ÔÈ· ¯ÚÙ‰ ˙‡ ÔÈ˘‰Ï ÍΠ,˙Ú„Ó ‰ÓÎÒ‰‰ ˙ȯ˘„ Ï˘
.˜ÈÊÓ‰ ˙ÂÏÈÚÙ ‰Ó¯‚ ‰Ï˘ ˙È˙¯·Á‰ ˙ÂÏÚ‰ ÔÈ·Â
‰Úˉ .‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ „‚ ˙Âȯ˘Ù‡ ˙ÂÚË ‰ÓÎÓ ÌÏÚ˙‰Ï Ô˙È ‡Ï ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ
ÈÈ„· ˙Ϸ˜Ӊ ‰˘È‚Ï „‚ȷ ˙„ÓÂÚ ÂÊ˘ ‡È‰ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ „‚ ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ˙ȯ˘Ù‡‰
¯˘ÂÎ Ô„·‡ ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ Ô˙È Ì˙¯‚ÒÓ· ¯˘‡ ,ÔȘÈʉ
.Ï‚¯ ˙˙ȯΠ,Ï˘ÓÏ ,‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÌˆÚ ÏÚ ‡Ï ,Ï·Ò ·‡Î ˙ÂȇÂÙ¯ ˙‡ˆÂ‰ ,˙¯Î˙˘‰
˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÌˆÚ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ ,ÔÂÚËÏ Ô˙È ÍÎ ,˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰
˙¢ÂÁ˙·Â ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„· ,‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÏÚ ¯˘‡Ó ÏÈ„·‰Ï ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
˙È˘ÚӉ ˙È˯‡˙‰ ‰Á·‰Ï ÈÂËÈ· ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ˙˙ ‡Ï ‰Ê ÔÙ‡· .‰ÏÂÁ‰
˜ÂÊȉ Ï·Ò˘ ÌȘÊÏ ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ȇ¯Á‡ ‰¯Â·Ú˘ ,Ú·Â˙Ï ‰Ó¯‚˘ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ· ˙ÓÈȘ‰
ÏÚ ,‰ÚÈ·˙ ˙ÏÈÚ Ï˘ ‰ÓÂȘ ÒÒ·Ï ˙Ó ÏÚ .ȈÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ Ì‰ÈÙÏ ‰È˙·˜Ú·
ÌȘʉ ÒÈÒ· ÏÚ ÌȘÒÙ ,˙‡Ê ˙ÓÂÚÏ ,ÌÈȈÈÙ .‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ‰ÓÂȘ ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï Ú·Â˙‰
˙ÒÒ·Ó ,ÔÂÚËÏ Ô˙È ÍÎ ,‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ .‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú Ï·Ò ˜ÂÊȉ˘ ÌÈÈ˙‡ˆÂ˙‰
.68 ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ÏÚ ¯˘‡Ó ÏÈ„·‰Ï ‰ÓˆÚ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ˙‡
‰˘È‚‰ ˙ÈÈÁ„ ˙‡ ˜È„ˆ‰Ï È„Î ,Â˙Ú„Ï ,· Ôȇ ,‰Ê ÔÂÚÈË· ˘ÓÓ ˘È ̇ Ì‚
,Ú‚Ù˘ Ò¯Ëȇ‰ ˙‡ È·È˘Èȷ‡ ÔÙ‡· ‰ÎȯÚÓ‰ ‰˘È‚˘ ‡Â‰ ÍÎÏ ÌÚˉ .‰ÈÈ˘‰
ÔÈ· ˙Â‰Ê ˙¯ˆÂ˘ ÍÎ ‰Ê Ò¯Ëȇ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁÏ Ì‡˙‰· ȈÈÙ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˙˜ÒÂÙÂ
‡ÂˆÓÏ Ô˙È ÂÊ ‰˘È‚Ï .Èχ¯˘È‰ ËÙ˘ÓÏ ‰¯Ê ‰È‡ ,ȈÈÙ‰ ‡Â˘Ï ˙ÂȯÁ‡‰ ‡Â˘
‰˘È‚‰ ‰ˆÓ‡ ‰Ê ˜Ê ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· .ÌÈÈÁ ˙ÏÁÂ˙ ¯ÂˆÈ˜ Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯· ÌÈ„˜˙
̉· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù˘ ,È·È˘Èȷ‡ Í¯Ú ÈÏÚ· ̉ ÌÈÈÁ‰ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,˙ÈÈȘ-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡‰
‰Ï‡˘· ÈÂÏ˙ Âȇ˘ ÔÙ‡· ,„·‡˘ ÌÈÈÁ‰ Í¯Â‡Ï Ì‡˙‰· ȈÈÙ· Ú·Â˙‰ ˙‡ ‰ÎÊÓ
·˜Ú ˙¯Á‡ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï ˙‡ˆÂ˙· ˘Á ‡ ,ÂÈÈÁ ˙ÏÁÂ˙ ¯ÂˆÈ˜Ï Ú„ÂÓ Ú·Â˙‰ ̇
ȈÈÙÏ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ÌȯÈÎÓ ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„˘ ‰Úˉ ˙‡ ‰ÎȯÙÓ ÂÊ ‰Îω .69 ÍÎ
ÌˆÚ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙÏ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‡Ï ͇ ,Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙‡ˆÂ˙ ¯Â·Ú
Â˙ÂÓ· ˜ÂÊÈ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÈÂËÈ· È„ÈÏ ‰‡· ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· ȯ‰ .Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰
‰È‚·˘ Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ÔÈ· ˙ËÏÁÂÓ ˙Â‰Ê ˙ÓÈȘ ,‰ÏÂÂÚ‰ ‰˘ÚÓ ·˜Ú
Z ȈÈÙ‰ ˜ÒÙ ÂÈ‚·˘ ˜ÊÏ ,˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ÂÈÈÁ ˙ÏÈË Z ˜ÈÊÓ‰ ÏÚ ˙ÂȯÁ‡ ˙ÏËÂÓ
.Ogus, supra note 23, at p. 11 :‡¯ ,ÂÊ ‰ÚËÏ 68
,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ ; 464 ,460 ,455 (2)Î „"Ù ,„ȯ٠' ¯Ú˘ 15/66 ‡"Ú Â‡¯ 69
.1068 ,1060 (‚"Ò˘˙ ,˙È˘ÈÓÁ ‰¯Â„‰Ó) Û‚ ˜Ê Ï˘· ÌÈȈÈÙ ¯Èˆ˜ '„ ;832 'Ú·
288
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
ÍÂÓ˙Ï Â· ˘È Í΢Ó ,‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ,‰˘ÚÓÏ ,‰‰Ê ‰Ê Ìȯ·„ ·ˆÓ .ÌÈÈÁ‰ Ô„·‡
.‰ˆÂÓȇ·
˙˜ÈÒÙ ¯˘Ù‡Ï ‰· ˘È˘ ¯Á‡Ó˘ ‡È‰ ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ „‚ ˙ÙÒ ˙ȯ˘Ù‡ ‰ÚË
¯˘Â‡ Ô„·‡ Ï˘ ‰˘ÂÁ˙ ÏÎ ‰ÂÂÁ ‡Ï ‰Ê ÈÎ ¯Â¯· ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· Ì‚ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ
ÏÎ ˙¢ÚÏ ÏÎÂÈ ‡Ï ‰Ê ÈÎ ¯Â¯· ̉·˘ Ìȯ˜Ó· Ì‚Â ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ·˜Ú
¯˘Â‡· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù ¯„Úȉ· .È˙Ù¯˙ ‡ÏÂ È˘ÂÚ Ô‚ ˙ÏÚ· ‰‰ ,ÂÏ ˜ÒÙÈÈ˘ ȈÈÙ· ˘ÂÓÈ˘
?70 ˜ÂÊȉ ‰ˆÂÙÈ ‰Ó ÏÚ ,˙ÈÙÂÏÁ ‰‡‰ ÂÏ ˜ÙÒÏ ˙¯˘Ù‡ ¯„Úȉ·Â ,Ì„‡ Ï˘
,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚Ï ÌÈ„‚˙Ó‰ ÌÈÚÂË ÌÈÎÈ˘ÓÓ ÍÎ ,‰Ï‡ ˙·ÈÒ· ˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ
‰Úˢ Û‡ .ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„· ÔÓÂ˜Ó Ôȇ˘ ˙ÂÈ˘ÂÚ ˙¯ËÓ ˙ÏÚ· ‡Ï‡ ‡ÂÙ‡ ‰È‡
‰˘È‚‰ ˙ÈÈÁ„ ˙‡ ,Â˙Ú„Ï ,˜È„ˆ‰Ï È„Î ‰· Ôȇ ,‰ÏÈÁ˙· ˙΢ÂÓ ˙ȇ¯ ÂÊ
˙ÏÈÏ˘ .˙ÈÚËÂÓ ,˜Ê ̯‚ ‡Ï ¯˘Â‡ Ô„·‡ Ï˘ ‰˘ÂÁ˙ ¯„Úȉ· ÈÎ ‰Á‰‰ .‰ÈÈ˘‰
Ô˙ÈÈ˘ ȇÂÙ¯‰ ÏÂÙÈËÏ ¯˘‡· ˙Ú„ÂÓ ˙È˘ÙÂÁ ‰ËÏÁ‰ Úˆ·Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰Ó ˙Âӄʉ‰
,˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÏÂÂÚ‰ Â˙ÂÏÈÚÙÏ ˘‚„ ˙˙ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÌÓ‡ .Ï·Ò˘ ˜Ê‰ ‡È‰ ‡È‰ ÂÏ
‡Ï ˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ ˙È˙ÏÂÂÚ‰ Â˙ÂÏÈÚÙ· ˙„˜Ó˙‰ .‰Â¯ÒÁ ‡Ï ‰Â¯˙È ıÂÚ Íη ͇
˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ÈÎ ÔÂÈÚ¯Ï ÈÂËÈ· Ô˙Ó ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó‰ ‡È‰ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ ˜ʷ ˜¯
.71 ˙È˙Ú˙¯‰ ‰¯ËÓ Ì‚ ̇ ÈÎ ,˙È˙Ù¯˙ ‰¯ËÓ ˜¯ ‡Ï ÏÏη ÔȘÈʉ ÈÈ„Ï ˯ٷ
È˘Â˜ ÌÈȘ ‰˙¯‚ÒÓ· Û‡˘ ‡È‰ ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ „‚ ˙È˘ÈÏ˘ ˙ȯ˘Ù‡ ‰ÚË
‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ" ‡¯˜‰ "ÒÎ"‰˘ ‡Â‰ ÍÎÏ ÌÚˉ .ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÍȯډÏ
Ô˙È ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ˙¯Á‡ ‰„ÈÓ ˙Ó‡ ÏÎ ¯„Úȉ·Â ÔÎ ÏÚ .˜Â˘ Í¯Ú ¯„Ú "‰ÈÓ¡Ï
˜ÒÙÈÈ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÂÙˆ ,72 · ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ˙‡Â ‰Ê ÒÎ Ï˘ ÂÎ¯Ú ˙‡ Ú·˜Ï
ÂÊ ‰ÚË· ˘È˘ Û‡ .ÍÎÏ ˘È˘ ˙ÂÈÏÈÏ˘‰ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰‰ ÏÚ ,È˙¯ȯ˘ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ˜ÂÊÈÏ
‡Â‰ ÍÎÏ ÌÚˉ .ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ Ï˘ ‰˙ÈÈÁ„ ˙‡ ,Â˙Ú„Ï ,˜È„ˆ‰Ï È„Î ‰· Ôȇ ,˘ÓÓ
‰˘È‚‰ ȯ˜ ,‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙¯‚ÒÓ· Ì‚ ÌÈȘ ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· ‰Ó„ È˘Â˜˘
Ï˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ Â˜Ê ˙Î¯Ú‰Ï ‰„ÈÓ ‰˜ Ï˘ ¯„Úȉ .˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰-˙È˘È‡‰
,‰Ê ˜Ê Ï˘ Â˙ÂÓÈÎÏ ‰„ÈÓ ‰˜ Ï˘ ¯„Úȉ ,Ï·Ò˘ ¯˘Â‡‰ Ô„·‡ ˙ÂÓ„· ,˜ÂÊȉ
ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ÚÈ·˜· ˙ÂÈ˙¯ȯ˘ Ï˘ ‰·¯ ‰„ÈÓ ˙ÓÈȘ ,‰„ÈÓ ‰˜ ¯„Úȉ· .ԇΠ̂ ËÏ·
Û˜Â˙ ‰˘Ó Ï·˜Ó ‰Ê ÔÂÚÈË ÈÎ ÛÈÒÂ‰Ï È‡¯‰ ÔÓ .73 ‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙¯‚ÒÓ· Ì‚
˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈˆÈÙ ˜ÂÒÙÏ Ô˙È ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· Ï˘ Â˙ÈÈÁ‰ ÁÎÂ
˙˜ÈÒÙ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·Ï ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó‰ ÂÊ ‰ÈÈÁ‰ .Â˜Ê ˙ÁÎÂ‰Ï ˙Âȇ¯ ‡È·‰ ‡Ï ̇ Ì‚
Û‡ ,ÌÈÈ˙¯ȯ˘ ȈÈÙ ÈÓÂÎÒ ˙˜ÈÒÙÏ ‡È·‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ,˜ÂÊÈÏ ÈÏ·ÂÏ‚ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ
C.J.J.M. Stolker “The ;831y830 ,829 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ Â‡¯ ,ÂÊ ‰ÚËÏ
UnconsciousPlaintiff: Consciousnessas a Prerequisitefor Compensationfor Non-Pecuniary
.Loss” 39 Int. Comp. Law Q. (1990) 82, 88
.Crowe, supra note 39, at p. 1292 :‡¯ ,˙È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰Ó„ Á¯· ÔÂÚÈËÏ
70
71
.830 'Ú· ,23 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,ÍÈÏÈȯ٠ÔÈÈÚ Â‡¯ ,‰Ó„ Á¯· ‰ÚËÏ 72
,˜ÂÊȉ Ï·Ò˘ ÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï ˜Ê ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ· È˯‰È‡ ÔÙ‡· ‰ÂÓˉ ˙ÂÈ˙¯ȯ˘Ï 73
P. Cane Atiyah’s Accidents, Compensation and the Law (1993), 5th ed.( 139; King, :‡¯
.supra note 51, at pp. 179y180
289
Ê"Ò˘˙
‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
ÏÈȇ-˜¯˜ ÈÏÈ
ÔÈÈÚ· ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ ¯Á‡Ï Â˙È˘ ÔÈ„‰ ȘÒÙ· ÔÂÈÚ ,Ô· .‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙¯‚ÒÓ·
ÈÎ ‰Ï‚Ó ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˜Ò٠̉· ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ
Ï˘ ¯˘Â‡· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘Ï Ì‡˙‰· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï ÌÈË Ìȇ ËÙ˘Ó‰ È˙·
ÔÙ‡· ȈÈÙ‰ ÌÂÎÒ ˙ÚÈ·˜· ÌȘÙ˙ÒÓ ‡Ï‡ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú ˜ÂÊȉ
.È„ÓÏ È˙¯ȯ˘
̇‰ ‰Ï‡˘‰ ‰ÏÂÚ ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .‰Èˆ¯‰ ‰˘È‚Î ‡ÂÙ‡ ˙ȇ¯ ‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰
.˙ÈÙȯÚ˙-˙È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ȯ˜ ,˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ‰ÈÙ ÏÚ ÛÈ„Ú‰Ï Ôȇ
,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰¯Ù‰ ÏÎ ÔÈ‚· Ú·˜ ȈÈÙ ÌÂÎÒ Ú·˜ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÈÙÏ ,¯ÂÓ‡Î
˙¯ÓÂÁ· ,ÂÊ ˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‡ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰Î¯Ú· ÈÂÏ˙ Âȇ˘ ÔÙ‡·
.‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙· ‡ ,˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰
˘¯„ ‡Ï ‰¯„‚· .‰˙ÂË˘Ù· ÔÂÓË ‡Â‰Â ,¯Â¯· ˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ Ï˘ ‰Â¯˙È
˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ˙‡ ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ ‰Î¯Ú ˙‡ Ú·˜Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È·
˙ίډ ÍÈω˙ .ÂÊ ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˙ÂÈÂÓÓ-‡Ï‰ ‰È˙‡ˆÂ˙ ˙‡ ÍÈ¯Ú‰Ï Â‡ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
Ô‡ÎÓ .˜ÂÁ· Ú·˜ ¯ÂÚÈ˘˘ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ ˙˜ÈÒÙ· ,ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ¯„‚· ,‰ˆÓ˙Ó ˜Ê‰
˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ· ÔÂÎÒÁ ,˙È˘‡¯ :ÌÈ·Â˘Á ˙¯˙È È˘ ˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ÈÎ ‰ÏÂÚ
,˙È˘ .74 ȈÈى ˜Ê‰ ˙ίډ·Â ˙ÁΉ· ÌÈίΉ ˙‡ˆÂ‰·Â ÔÓÊ· ÔÂÎÒÁ ·˜Ú
ÔÂÎÒÁ ԇΠ̂ ˙ÂÈ‰Ï ‰ÈÂÙˆ ‰‡ˆÂ˙‰ .ÌÈÈÂÙˆ‰ ȈÈÙ‰ ÈÓÂÎÒÏ ¯˘‡· ˙‡„ ˙¯ÈˆÈ
.75 ˙ÂÚÈ·˙‰ ¯ÙÒÓ ˙˙ÁÙ‰· ÍΠ,¯˙ÂÈ ˙·¯ ˙¯˘Ù· Â¯Â˜Ó˘ ,˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ·
ÌÚˉ .‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ÛÈ„Ú‰Ï Ôȇ ÈÎ ‰‡¯ ‰Ï‡ ˙¯˙È Û‡ ÏÚ
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ Ï˘ ‰¯Ù‰ ÏÎ ˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ˘ ‡Â‰ ÍÎÏ
,ÌÈ¢ ÌȘÈÊÓ ÌȘÂÊÈ ÔÈ· ‰Á·‰ ‡ÏÏ ,˜ÂÁ· Ú·˜‰ ÌÂÎÒ· ȈÈÙ· Â˙‡ ‰ÎÊ˙
‰ÓÎ Ï˘· ,Ȉ¯ Âȇ ‰Ê Ìȯ·„ ·ˆÓ .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ÈÙ ÏÚ
ÈÙÎÓ ˙ÂÎÂÓ Â‡ ˙‰·‚ ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ ÌȘÈÊÓ ÏÚ ÏÈË‰Ï ÈÂÙˆ ¯·„‰ ,˙È˘‡¯ :ÌÈÓÚË
˜Â„‰ ¯˘˜· ,˙È˘ .¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ‡ ¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ Ï˘ ‰‡ˆÂ˙· ,ÏÚÂÙ· ÂÓ¯‚˘
ÌȯÁ‡Â ,Ì˜Ê ÈÙÎÓ ‰Â·‚ ȈÈÙ· ÌȘÂÊÈ‰Ó ˜ÏÁ ˙ÂÎÊÏ ‰ÈÂ˘Ú ÂÊ ‰˘È‚˘ ‰„·ÂÚÏ
˙˘‚‰Ï ÌÈÏÂÁ Ï˘ ̉ȈȯÓ˙ ˙‡ ˙ÂÂÚÏ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ‰ÈÂÙˆ ,Ì˜Ê ÈÙÎÓ ÍÂÓ ÈˆÈÙ·
,¯˙È ˙Ú˙¯‰ ‡ ¯ÒÁ ˙Ú˙¯‰ ÂÈȉ„ ,ÍÎÏ ˘È˘ ˙ÂÎÏ˘‰‰ ÏÚ ,˙ÂȘÈÊ ˙ÂÚÈ·˙
ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ,˙È˘ÈÏ˘ .˙ÂÈÏ‰Ó ˙ÂÈÂÏÚ· ‰ÈÏÚÂ
˜Ê‰ ˙‡ Û˜˘Ó‰ ȈÈÙ· ,˜ÈÊÓ‰ Ï˘ ·ÂÈÁ ,Âȇ¯˘ ÈÙÎ ,ÌÈ·ÈÈÁÓ‰ ,Ô˜˙Ó ˜„ˆ
ÈÈ„· Ϸ˜Ӊ ÏÏΉ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ,˙ÈÚÈ·¯ .˜ÂÊÈÏ Ì¯‚˘
Èχ„ȷȄȇ‰ Â˜Ê ÈÙ ÏÚ Í¯ÚÂÓ ˜ÂÊȉ ȇÎÊ ÂÏ˘ ȈÈÙ‰ ¯ÂÚÈ˘ ÂÈÙÏ˘ ,ÔȘÈʉ
ÂÈ˙·ÈÒÏ ÈÂËÈ· Ô˙Ó ˙¯˘Ù‡Ó‰ ,‚ˆÂ‰˘ ˙¯Á‡‰ ˙Â˘È‚‰ ˙ÓÂÚÏ .76 ˜ÂÊÈ ÏÎ Ï˘
.Ogus, supra note 23, at pp. 12y13 :‡¯ 74
.Cane, supra note 74, at p. 141; King, supra note 51, at pp. 196y197 :‡¯ 75
Ï˘ ‰ˆÂÓȇ „ÂÒÈ· „ÓÚ ‰Ê ÏÂ˜È˘ ,Ô· .775 ,762 (3)ÂÏ „"Ù ,‰„¯· ' ÌÈÚ 357/80 ‡"Ú 76
Benedek, supra note ;583 'Ú· ,1 ‰¯Ú‰ ÏÈÚÏ ,‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ Â‡¯ .˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ‰ ‰˘È‚‰
.23, at p. 630
290
‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù Ï˘ ˜Ê‰ ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰ ˙ίډ ÔÙ‡
˙¯˘Ù‡Ó ‰È‡ ˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ,¯Á‡ ‡ ‰Ê ۘȉ· ,‰¯˜Ó ÏÎ Ï˘ ˙ÂÈχ„ȷȄȇ‰
ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‰È‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚˘ Ô‡ÎÓ ‰ÏÂÚ .‰Ï‡ ˙·ÈÒÏ ÈÂËÈ· Ô˙Ó
ÈÙ ÏÚ ˙ÈÚÈ·¯‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ÛÈ„Ú‰Ï Ôȇ˘ ‡È‰ ˙˘˜·˙Ó‰ ‰˜ÒÓ‰ .˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜
.‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰
ÌÂÎÈÒ .‰
‰ÚÈ‚Ù ÈÎ ÂÚ·˜· ,Èχ¯˘È‰ ËÙ˘Ó· ‰˘„Á ͯ„ ‰ÂÂ˙‰ ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ
‰ÓÈ˘ ‰˙‡· ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .ȈÈÙ-¯· ˜Ê ‰ÂÂ‰Ó ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ·
˙Î¯Ú‰Ï ˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-˙È˘È‡ ‰˘È‚ ıÓȇ˘Ó ,ÂÈ˙·˜Ú ÏÚ ËÙ˘Ó‰ ˙È· ·˘ ˘ÓÓ
Â˜Ê ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ ‰˙¯‚ÒÓ· ¯˘‡ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ .‰Ê ˜Ê ˘‡¯ ¯„‚· ȈÈÙ‰
,‰·¯ ‰„ÈÓ· ,‰ÂÂ‰Ó ,ÂÈ˙¢ÂÁ˙·Â ÂÈ˙¢‚¯· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙ÂÓ„· ,˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ È˘ÓÓ‰
,ÔÈ„‰ ˜ÒÙ Ô˙È˘ Ì¯Ë Èχ¯˘È‰ ËÙ˘Ó· ‰¯¯˘˘ ˙È¯Ó˘‰ ‰˘È‚Ï ‰¯ÊÁ Ì¢Ó
Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰ ·˜Ú È˘ÓÓ ˜Ê Ï·Ò ÈÎ ÁÈÎÂÈ Ì‡ ˜¯ ȈÈÙÏ È‡ÎÊ ‰ÏÂÁ‰ ‰ÈÙÏ˘
ÌÚ ,‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ ‰ÏÂÚ ‡Ï ˙‡ÊÎÎ .‰ÈÓ¡Ï
˘È ÔÎ ÏÚ ,˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ Ԙ˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ ,˙ÈÏÎÏÎ ˙ÂÏÈÚÈ ÈÏÂ˜È˘
.‰˙ÂÁ„Ï
,‰ÈÈ˘‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ˙‡ ÛÈ„Ú‰Ï ˘È ‰˜Ú„ ÈÏÚ ÔÈÈÚ· ‰ˆÓ‡˘ ‰˘È‚‰ ÈÙ ÏÚ
˙ÂÎʉ Ï˘ È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯Ú ÈÙ ÏÚ ÈˆÈÙ‰ ͯÚÂÓ ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ,ÏÈÚÏ ‰‚ˆÂ‰˘
ÔÂÈÚ¯Ï ÈÂËÈ· ˙˙ ÂÊ ‰˘È‚ .Í„È‡Ó ,‰· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ˙¯ÓÂÁ ,„ÁÓ ,‰ÈÓ¡Ï
˙‡ÊÎΠ,‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ‰ÏÂÁ‰ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ ‡Â‰ ‰Ê ‚ÂÒÓ Ìȯ˜Ó· Ô‚ÂÓ‰ Ò¯Ëȇ‰˘
ÌÚ ,˙ÈÏÎÏÎ ˙ÂÏÈÚÈ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ ,‰ÈÓ¡‰ Ô¯˜Ú ÌÚ „Á‡ ‰˜· ‰ÏÂÚ ‡È‰
.˙ÂÈ˯‰Â˜ ÈÏÂ˜È˘ ÌÚ Ԙ˙Ó ˜„ˆ ÈÏÂ˜È˘
ȈÈÙ‰ „ˆ· ‰ÈÙÏ˘ ˙¯˘Ù‡‰ ˙‡ ÌÈÏÏ¢ ‡Ï ‡˘ ˘È‚„‰Ï ȇ¯‰ ÔÓ ,ÌÂÈÒÏ
¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ ˜ÂÊÈÏ ˜ÒÙÈÈ ,È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯ÚÎ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï ˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯Â·Ú
ȈÈÙÏ ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘ Â˙ÂÎÊ˘ ȇ¯‰ ÔÓ˘ ‡Ï‡ .ÍÎ ·˜Ú Ï·Ò˘ È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ-È˘ÓÓ ˜Ê
·˜Ú È˘ÓÓ È˘Ù ˜Ê ÁÈÎÂ‰Ï Â„È· ‰ÏÚÈ Ì‰·˘ Ìȯ˜ÓÏ Ï·‚Â˙ ,‰Ê ÔÈÓÓ ÌÈ˜Ê ¯Â·Ú
,‰Â˘‡¯‰ ‰˘È‚· ÌÈÂÓˉ ˙¯ÒÁ‰ ¯ÚÊÂÓÈ ÂÊ Í¯„· .‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ ˙¯Ù‰
˜Ê‰ ÏÚ ÌȘÂÊÈÏ È‡¯ ȈÈÙ ÁË·ÂÈ ,„ÁÓ ,˙È·È˘ÈÈ·ÂÒ Z˙È˘È‡‰ ‰˘È‚‰ ȯ˜
Â˙‡ÎÊ· ,‰Â˘‡¯·Â ˘‡¯· ,¯ÈÎ‰Ï ËÙ˘Ó‰ ÏÚ ,˙‡Ê ÌÚ .Í„È‡Ó ,ÂÏ·Ò˘ È˘ÓÓ‰
.È·È˘Èȷ‡‰ ‰Î¯ÚÎ ‰ÈÓÂÂËÂ‡Ï Â˙ÂÎÊ· ‰ÚÈ‚Ù‰ ¯Â·Ú ȈÈÙ Ï·˜Ï ˜ÂÊȉ Ï˘
291
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‡"È ËÙ˘Ó‰
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