Editors David A. Snow is a Distinguished Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Irvine, where he also serves as the Co-Director of the Center for Citizen’s Peacebuilding. He has authored numerous articles and chapters on aspects of social movements and collective action, particularly on framing processes, as well as a number of books on social movements, including: Shakubuku: A Study of the Nichiren Shoshu Buddhist Movement in America, 1960–1975 (1993), The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Social Movements (with Sarah Soule and Hanspeter Kriesi, 2004), Social Movements: Readings on Their Emergence, Mobilization, and Dynamics (with Doug McAdam, 1997, 2010), and A Primer on Social Movements (with Sarah Soule, 2010). Professor Snow was the 2008 recipient of the Society for the Study of Social Problems’ Lee Founders Award for career contributions to the study of social problems. Donatella della Porta lectures at the European University Institute, Florence, and directs the ERC project “Mobilizing for democracy: Democratization processes and the mobilization of civil society.” She is the co-author of Social Movements: An Introduction (with Mario Diani, 2006), Europeanization and Social Movements (with Manuela Caiani, 2009), and Mobilizing on the Extreme Right: Germany, Italy, and the United States (with Manuela Caiani and Claudius Wagemann, 2012), and editor of Democracy in Social Movements (2009) and Another Europe (2009). In 2011, Professor della Porta was awarded the Mattei Dogan Prize for political sociology. Bert Klandermans is Professor in Applied Social Psychology at the VU University of Amsterdam. He is Director of the research program Social Conflict and Change. He is the editor and co-author of Methods of Social Movement Research (with Suzanne Staggenborg, 2002) and Extreme Right Activists in Europe (with Nonna Mayer, 2006). He also co-edited the Handbook of Social Movements across Disciplines (with Conny Roggeband, 2007). In 2011/2012 he was President of the International Society of Political Psychology. In 2009 he received a Royal Award for his efforts to link science and society. Doug McAdam is Professor of Sociology and Director of the Program on Urban Studies at Stanford University. He is widely credited as one of the pioneers of the political process model in social movement analysis. His publications include Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970 (1982), Freedom Summer (1988), Dynamics of Contention (with Sid Tarrow and Charles Tilly, 2001), and Putting Social Movements in their Place: Explaining Opposition to Energy Projects in the United States, 2000–2005 (with Hilary Boudet, 2012). Advisory editors Aquiles Chihu Amparán Director of Political Communication Lab at Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Iztapalapa Mexico (social movements in Mexico and Latin America) Mario Diani ICREA-Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona, Spain (networks, environmental movements, ethnic and minority movements, transnational movements, movements and protest in Italy) Susan Eckstein Department of Sociology, Boston University, USA (urbanization, immigration, poverty, rights and injustices, social movements in the context of third world countries, particularly South America) Shizheng Feng Department of Sociology, Renmin University, Beijing, China (social movements in China and neighboring countries) Olivier Fillieule Political Sociology, IEPI-CRAPUL, University of Lausanne, Switzerland (collective behavior, demonstrations and riots, biographical consequences of activism, movements in France and Europe) Marco Giugni Department of Political Science and International Relations, University of Geneva, Switzerland (social movements and collective action, immigration and ethnic relations, unemployment and social exclusion) John McCarthy Department of Sociology, Pennsylvania State University, USA (collective behavior and social movements, policing the public order, mass media processes and movements in United States) Francesca Polletta Department of Sociology, University of California, Irvine, USA (culture, narrative, law and social movements, participatory democracy) Leila J. Rupp Departments of Feminist Studies, History, and Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA (women’s movements, gay/lesbian movements) Verta Taylor Department of Sociology, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA (collective behavior, social movements, women’s movements, gay/lesbian movements) Kiyoteru Tsutsui Department of Sociology, University of Michigan, USA (protest and movements in Japan, social movements, political sociology, comparative sociology) Ineke van Kessel African Studies Center, Leiden University, Netherlands (contemporary issues in South Africa, democratization processes, social movements and mass media) Dingxin Zhao Department of Sociology, University of Chicago, USA (social movements in China and East Asia, 1989 Beijing student movement, politics and movements) Contributors Eric Agrikoliansky, Université Paris Dauphine-IRISSO, France James Aho, Idaho State University, USA Robert Albro, American University, USA Javier Alcalde, International Catalan Institute for Peace, Spain Daniel P. Aldrich, Purdue University, USA Paul D. Almeida, University of California, Merced, USA Edwin Amenta, University of California, Irvine, USA Aquiles Chihu Amparán, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana, Mexico Petra Andits, Institute for Political Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Hungary Joel Andreas, Johns Hopkins University, USA Massimiliano Andretta, University of Pisa, Italy Kenneth T. Andrews, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, USA Paul Apodaca, Chapman University, USA Elizabeth A. Armstrong, University of Michigan, USA Kyle Arnone, University of California Los Angeles, USA Mikaila Mariel Lemonik Arthur, Rhode Island College, USA Javier Auyero, University of Texas, Austin, USA William Avilés, University of Nebraska, Kearney, USA Justyne Balasinski, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre, France Robert W. Balch, University of Montana, Missoula, USA Steven E. Barkan, University of Maine, USA Colin Barker, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK (retired) Donna A. Barnes, University of Wyoming, USA Tim Bartley, Indiana University, USA Asef Bayat, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Colin J. Beck, Pomona College, USA Robert D. Benford, University of South Florida, USA Laure Bereni, USA Kelly Bergstrand, University of Arizona, USA Mary Bernstein, University of Connecticut, USA Joel Best, University of Delaware, USA Kraig Beyerlein, University of Notre Dame, USA Marc Blecher, Oberlin College, USA x cont r i bu tors Kathleen Blee, University of Pittsburgh, USA Joshua Bloom, University of California Los Angeles, USA Marije Boekkooi, VU University, Netherlands Julien Bonhomme, Musée du quai Branly, France Elizabeth Borland, The College of New Jersey, USA Lorenzo Bosi, European University Institute, Italy Sophie Bossy, European University Institute, Italy Vince Boudreau, The City College of the City University of New York, USA Steven A. Boutcher, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA Emanuela Bozzini, University of Trento, Italy Richard G. Braungart, Syracuse University, USA Inge Brinkman, African Studies Centre, Leiden, Netherlands Robert Brulle, Drexel University, USA William I. Brustein, Ohio State University, USA Alison Brysk, University of California, USA Steven M. Buechler, Minnesota State University, USA Gene Burns, Michigan State University, USA Scott Byrd, Murray State University, USA Antoine Cadot-Wood, Wesleyan University, USA Manuela Caiani, Institute for Advanced Studies (IHS), Austria Neal Caren, University of North Carolina, USA Victoria Carty, Chapman University, USA Daniel Cefai, EHESS-Paris, France Sean Chabot, Eastern Washington University, USA Jennifer Chan, University of British Columbia, Canada Mau-kuei Chang, Institute of Sociology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan David Chapman, University of South Australia Elizabeth Chiarello, University of California, Irvine, USA Wan-yao Chou, National Taiwan University, Taiwan Ondřej Cı́sař, Masaryk University, Czech Republic John Clammer, United Nations University, Japan Steven F. Cohn, University of Maine, USA Jean-Gabriel Contamin, University of Lille, Nord de France/CERAPS, France Catherine Corrigall-Brown, University of Western Ontario, Canada cont r i bu tors John Walton Cotman, Howard University, USA Nick Couldry, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK Patrick G. Coy, Kent State University, USA Suzanna M. Crage, University of Pittsburgh, USA Daniel M. Cress, Western State College of Colorado, USA John T. Crist, School of Foreign Service in Qatar, Georgetown University, Qatar B. Remy Cross, Webster University, St Louis, USA Alison Dahl Crossley, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Nick Crossley, Manchester University, UK Marie-Louise Damen, VU University, Netherlands Diane E. Davis, Harvard University, USA John H. Davis, Denison University, USA Mathieu Deflem, University of South Carolina, USA Donatella della Porta, European University Institute, Italy Chares Demetriou, Masaryk University, Czech Republic Graham Denyer Willis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA William Derman, Michigan State University, USA Manisha Desai, University of Connecticut, USA Faisal Devji, University of Oxford, UK Mario Diani, ICREA–Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Spain Maria K. Dillard, University of Pittsburgh, USA Nicole Doerr, Mount Holyoke College, USA Brian Doherty, Keele University, UK Adam Driscoll, North Carolina State University, USA Jennifer Earl, University of Arizona, USA Klaus Eder, Humboldt University, Germany Bob Edwards, East Carolina University, USA Barry Eidlin, University of California, Berkeley, USA Rachel L. Einwohner, Purdue University, USA Marco Estrada-Saavedra, El Colegio de México, Mexico Rick Fantasia, Smith College, USA Shizheng Feng, Renmin University, China Olivier Fillieule, University of Lausanne IEPI–CRAPUL, Switzerland Gary Alan Fine, Northwestern University, USA xi xii cont r i bu tors Richard Flacks, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Helena Flam, Leipzig University, Germany Francesca Forno, University of Bergamo, Italy Robert Futrell, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA William A. Gamson, Boston College, USA Beth Gharrity Gardner, University of California, Irvine, USA Jeffrey A. Gardner, University of Georgia, USA Heather Gautney, Fordham University, USA Patrick F. Gillham, University of Idaho, USA Stephanie Gilmore, Dickinson College, USA Marco Giugni, Université de Genève, Switzerland Pepper G. Glass, Weber State University, USA James Goodman, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia Jeff Goodwin, New York University, USA Deborah B. Gould, University of California, Santa Cruz, USA J. Tobin Grant, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, USA Kyra R. Greene, San Diego State University, USA Patrick Griffin, University of Notre Dame, USA Olivier Grojean, Université Paul Cézanne, France Ashley R. Gromis, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Oleg Gubin, Moscow State University, Russia Jeroen Gunning, Durham University, UK Devashree Gupta, Carleton College, USA Ross Haenfler, University of Mississippi, USA Herbert H. Haines, State University of New York, Cortland, USA John R. Hall, University of California, Davis, USA John L. Hammond, City University of New York, USA Michael P. Hanagan, Vassar College, USA Christoph Haug, University of Gothenburg, Sweden Michel T. Heaney, University of Michigan, USA Michael Hechter, Arizona State University, USA Sivan Hirsch-Hoefler, Antwerp University, Belgium Mabel Ho, University of Western Ontario, Canada Ming-sho Ho, National Taiwan University, Taiwan cont r i bu tors xiii Matthew Hoffmann, Loyola University Chicago, USA Lynn Horton, Chapman University, USA Ralph I. Hosoki, University of California, Irvine, USA A-chin Hsiau, Institute of Sociology, Academia Sinica, Taiwan Ho-fung Hung, Indiana University, USA Heather McKee Hurwitz, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Thomas F. Jackson, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, USA Martin Jander, Hamburger Institut für Sozialforschung, New York University (Berlin), Germany James M. Jasper, City University of New York, USA J. Craig Jenkins, Ohio State University, USA Fabien Jobard, CNRS, Centre de recherches sociologiques sur le droit et les institutions pénales, France Hank Johnston, San Diego State University, USA Don Kalb, Central European University, Hungary Devorah Kalekin-Fishman, University of Haifa, Israel Emmanuel Karagiannis, University of Macedonia at Thessaloniki, Greece Allen J. Kim, University of California, Irvine, USA Sun-Chul Kim, Emory University, USA Marissa D. King, Yale University, USA Bert Klandermans, VU University, Netherlands Christian Klesse, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Fred Kniss, Eastern Mennonite University, USA Kostis Kornetis, Brown University, USA Kelsy Kretschmer, Southern Illinois University, USA Lester R. Kurtz, George Mason University, USA Lauren Langman, Loyola University of Chicago, USA Stéphane Latté, Université de Haute-Alsace, France Darcy K. Leach, Bradley University, USA April Lee Dove, University of South Carolina, USA Roberta G. Lessor, Chapman University, USA Paul Lichterman, University of Southern California, USA Ben Lind, National Research University-Higher School of Economics, Russia, USA Lasse Lindekilde, Aarhus University, Denmark xiv cont r i bu tors Maria Cecilia Loschiavo dos Santos, University of São Paulo, Brazil Robert Sean Mackin, Texas A&M University, USA Robert MacPherson, University of California, Irvine, USA Jane Mansbridge, Harvard University, USA William Markham, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, USA Susan E. Marshall, University of Texas, Austin, USA Salvador Martı́ i Puig, University of Salamanca, Spain Andrew Martin, Ohio State University, USA Greg Martin, University of Sydney, Australia Gary T. Marx, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA Lilian Mathieu, Ecole normale supérieure de Lyon, France Alice Mattoni, Pittsburgh University, USA Álvaro Matute, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico Doug McAdam, Stanford University, USA Holly McCammon, Vanderbilt University, USA John D. McCarthy, Penn State University, USA Cynthia McClintock, George Washington University, USA Clark McPhail, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, USA Kenneth McRoberts, York University, Canada Rebecca J. Mead, Northern Michigan University, USA David S. Meyer, University of California, Irvine, USA Stefania Milan, Central European University, Hungary Peter Miller, University of California, Irvine, USA Debra Minkoff, Columbia University, USA Gentaro Mizugaki, Nara Women’s University, Japan Pierre Monforte, Université de Montréal, Canada Kelly Moore, Loyola University of Chicago, USA Shauna A. Morimoto, University of Arkansas, USA Calvin Morrill, University of California, Berkeley, USA Yevgenyi Moschelkov, Moscow State University, Russia Dana M. Moss, University of California, Irvine, USA Cas Mudde, Antwerp University, Belgium Diego Muro, Institut Barcelona d’Estudis Internacionals (IBEI), Spain Daniel J. Myers, University of Notre Dame, USA cont r i bu tors xv Sharon Erickson Nepstad, University of New Mexico, USA Kosuke Nikaido, The Institute of Statistical Mathematics, Japan Olena Nikolayenko, Fordham University, USA Michel Offerlé, Ecole Normale Supérieure Paris, France Dina Okamoto, University of California, Davis, USA Thomas Olesen, University of Aarhus, Denmark Pamela Oliver, University of Wisconsin–Madison, USA Susan Olzak, Stanford University, USA Karl-Dieter Opp, Leipzig University, Germany; University of Washington (Seattle), USA Sharon S. Oselin, California State University, Los Angeles, USA Lynn Owens, Middlebury College, USA Peter B. Owens, University of California, Irvine, USA Agnieszka Paczynska, George Mason University, USA Chris Parker, University of Washington, USA Louisa Parks, European University Institute, Italy Misagh Parsa, Dartmouth College, USA Eleonora Pasotti, University of California, Santa Cruz, USA Florence Passy, University of Lausanne, Switzerland René Patnode, University of California, San Diego, USA Silvia Pedraza, University of Michigan, USA Abby Peterson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden David K. Peterson, University of California, Irvine, USA Grzegorz Piotrowski, European University Institute, Italy Francesca Polletta, University of California, Irvine, USA Amanda Pullum, University of California, Irvine, USA Patrick Rafail, Penn State University, USA Charles C. Ragin, University of California, Irvine, USA Sven Reichardt, University of Konstanz, Germany Matthias Reiss, University of Exeter, UK Herbert Reiter, European University Institute, Italy Hamid Rezai, Columbia University, USA Andrew J. Richards, Center for Advanced Study in the Social Sciences, Juan March Institute, Spain Patricia Richards, University of Georgia, USA xvi cont r i bu tors James T. Richardson, University of Nevada, Reno, USA Belinda Robnett, University of California, Irvine, USA Anja Röcke, Humboldt University, Germany Deana Rohlinger, Florida State University, USA Fabio Rojas, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA Rene Rojas, New York University, USA Eduardo Romanos, Universidad Pública de Navarra, Spain Christopher Rootes, University of Kent, UK Federico M. Rossi, European University Institute, Italy Paul Routledge, University of Glasgow, UK William G. Roy, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Wolfgang Rüdig, University of Strathclyde, UK Leila J. Rupp, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Carlo Ruzza, University of Leicester, UK J. Michael Ryan, University of Maryland, USA Rottem Sagi, University of California, Irvine, USA Clare Saunders, University of Southampton, UK Robert K. Schaeffer, Kansas State University, USA Marc Schneiberg, Reed College, USA Kurt Schock, Rutgers University, USA Alesia Alexandrovna Sedziaka, University of Arizona, USA Miriam Sessions, Florida State University, USA Benjamin Shepard, New York College of Technology/CUNY, USA Gi-Wook Shin, Stanford University, USA Johanna Siméant, Université Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne (CESSP), France Pete Simi, University of Nebraska, Omaha, USA Debal K. SinghaRoy, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India John D. Skrentny, University of California, San Diego, USA Jackie Smith, University of Pittsburgh, USA David A. Snow, University of California, Irvine, USA Jaesok Sonn, University of Chicago, USA Nikos Sotirakopoulos, University of Kent, UK Sarah A. Soule, Stanford University, USA Suzanne Staggenborg, University of Pittsburgh, USA cont r i bu tors Jason Stanley, New York University, USA Judith Stepan-Norris, University of California, Irvine, USA Joel Stillerman, Grand Valley State University, USA James E. Stobaugh, St Norbert College, USA Brett C. Stockdill, Northeastern Illinois University, USA Amy L. Stone, Trinity University, USA Yang Su, University of California, Irvine, USA Yanfei Sun, Columbia University, USA Heidi Swarts, Rutgers University, USA Sergio Tamayo, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-México, Mexico Sidney Tarrow, Cornell University, USA Verta Taylor, University of California, Santa Barbara, USA Claudia Tazreiter, University of New South Wales, Australia Sara Tescione, European University Institute, Italy Simon Teune, Social Science Research Center, Berlin, Germany Monica Threlfall, London Metropolitan University, UK Geng Tian, University of Chicago, USA Amber C. Tierney, University of California, Irvine, USA Pamela S. Tolbert, ILR/Cornell University, USA C. Traı̈ni, Institut d’Études Politiques d’Aix-en-Provence, France Dolores Trevizo, Occidental College, USA Aili Mari Tripp, University of Wisconsin, USA Danny Trom, EHESS-Paris, France Kiyoteru Tsutsui, University of Michigan, USA Fredrik Uggla, Uppsala University, Sweden Christian Vaccaro, Florida State University, USA Stephen Valocchi, Trinity College, USA Nella van Dyke, University of California, Merced, USA Ineke van Kessel, African Studies Centre, Leiden, Netherlands Anouk van Leeuwen, VU University, Netherlands Jacquelien van Stekelenburg, VU University, Netherlands René van Swaaningen, Erasmus University, Netherlands Dunya M.M. van Troost, VU University, Netherlands Rens Vliegenthart, University of Amsterdam, Netherlands xvii xviii cont r i bu tors Kim Voss, University of California, Berkeley, USA Kateřina Vráblı́ková, Institute of Sociology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Czech Republic David P. Waddington, Sheffield Hallam University, UK Stefaan Walgrave, University of Antwerp, Belgium Edward T. Walker, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Maggie Walter, University of Tasmania, Australia Fu-chang Wang, Academia Sinica, Taiwan Simon Weffer, University of California, Merced, USA Daniel Wehrenfennig, University of California, Irvine, USA Andrew Wernick, Trent University, Canada (retired) Åsa Wettergren, University of Gothenburg, Sweden L. Frank Weyher, Kansas State University, USA Francis K. White, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA Robert W. White, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, USA Nancy Whittier, Smith College, USA Timothy P. Wickham-Crowley, Georgetown University, USA Rima Wilkes, University of British Columbia, Canada Rhys H. Williams, Loyola University of Chicago, USA Lesley J. Wood, York University, Canada Steven Worden, University of Arkansas, USA Lili Wu, University of Chicago, USA Jin Xu, University of Chicago, USA Gary Yeritsian, University of California, Los Angeles, USA Michael P. Young, University of Texas, Austin, USA Mayer Zald, University of Michigan, USA Carla Beatriz Zamora Lomelı́, Colegio de México, Mexico Leon Zamosc, University of California, San Diego, USA Lorenzo Zamponi, European University Institute, Italy Yang Zhang, University of Chicago, USA Dingxin Zhao, University of Chicago, USA Annika Zorn, European University Institute, Italy Timeline This timeline provides a listing of some of the most influential events, figures, and publications in the history and study of social movements beginning in the eighteenth century, which has been referred to as the “Age of Reason and Change.” Understandably, the listing is not comprehensive; many important social movements and scholarly works from around the world during this period are missing. However, in indicating many of the major events, movements, and influential scholarly publications across this period, 1715 & 1745 1773 1773 1775 1780 1780–1782 1789 1791–1804 1792 1794 1818–1883 1820–1895 1848 1848 1848 1850–1864 1861 the timeline underscores the centrality and salience of social movements and related phenomena in the flow of history over the past 300+ years. In order to facilitate identification of the three different clusters of listings, they are keyed accordingly: events and movements are in bold; selected figures/leaders are underlined; and publications are in regular font style and italics. Not all of the listings of events and figures have associated entries in the encyclopedia, but many do. Jacobite rebellions in Great Britain and Ireland Peasant uprisings in Russia Boston Tea Party American Revolution begins Gordon Riots in London Tupac Amaru indigenous uprising against Spanish colonial rule in Peruvian and Bolivian highlands (culminating a century of indigenous rebellions in the Andes against colonial rule in the region) French Revolution begins Haitian Revolution (defining moment in the history of Africans in the New World) Reign of Terror in France (ends in 1794) The Whiskey Rebellion tax revolt challenges federal authority in the fledgling United States Marx, Karl Engels, Frederick Marx and Engels inspire the masses and call for revolution with the Communist Manifesto First Women’s Rights Convention at Seneca Falls, NY Revolutions break out across Europe Taiping Rebellion of China Fourteen Southern states secede from the United States, marking the onset of the Civil War xxxii timeline 1866–1925 1867 1868 1869–1948 1870–1924 1871 1874 1886 1887–1975 1888–1896 1890 1891–1937 1893–1976 1895 1896–1898 1898–1976 1901–1945 1902 1904 1904–1997 1905 1905 Sun Zhongshan (Sun Yat-sen) Marx publishes his critical analysis of capitalism with Capital, Vol. 1: A Critique of Political Economy Meiji Restoration. The top-down political reform movement led mostly by former lower-ranking samurais topples the Tokugawa Shogunate and establishes the foundation of modern bureaucratic state in Japan. Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand Lenin (Ylianov), V.I. Paris Commune The Women’s Trade Union League established in Great Britain, followed by the US organization of the same name (1903–1950), which organized women to support women’s labor union organizing efforts and to eliminate sweatshop conditions. May Day (International Workers’ Day). The Haymarket Riot and massacre in Chicago, IL is the origin of international May Day, which is a national holiday in more than 80 nations Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek) Ghost Dance Movement among Native American Indians in the West, especially the Lakota Sioux Formation of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) out of the union of National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association Antonio Gramsci Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) Initial publication of Gustave Le Bon’s The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind Philippine Revolution Zhou Enlai International Federation of Trade Unions (then International Secretariat of National Trade Union Centers) V.I. Lenin’s What Is To Be Done is published Robert Park’s The Crowd and the Public is an early contribution to the study of collective behavior Deng Xiaoping Revolution in Russia (albeit abortive) and other countries dependent on the Russian Empire Beginning of the sequence of pro-democracy movements known as the Taisho Democracy in Japan (exact dates for its beginning and end still subject of debate, though often said to have begun in 1905 and ended sometime in the mid-1920s) timeline 1906 1909–1972 1910–1920 1911 1912 1912 1916 1917 1917–1947 1918– 1919 1919 1919 1919 1919 1919–1921 1920 1921 1921 1921–2006 1922 1926– 1927 1927–1993 1928–1967 1928–1968 1930 1932 1934–1935 1935 1936 1936 xxxiii Gandhi develops the principle of Satyagraha, which he elaborated and applied to the Indian Independence Movement Alinsky, Saul Mexican Revolution China’s Republican Revolution that ends Machu rule Founding of the South African Native National Congress (SANNC), which marks the beginning of the antiapartheid movement in South Africa. SANNC changed its name to the African National Congress (ANC) in 1923 Bread and Roses strike by immigrant women in Lawrence, MA Irish Republican Army (IRA) established Russian Revolution begins Indian Independence Movement Mandela, Nelson Anti-Japanese May 4th Movement in China March First Movement in Korea against Japanese colonial occupation Establishment of prohibition in the United States with the ratification of the 18th amendment to the US Constitution. It followed on the heels of prohibition movements in other countries, and was repealed in 1933 NSDAP German National Socialist Party established International Labor Organization Irish revolution/War of Independence Passage of the US Women’s Suffrage Amendment Chinese Communist Party (CCP) established Hitler seizes leadership of the NSDAP Friedan, Betty Mussolini seizes leadership of Italian fascists Fidel Castro CCP split with Chinese Nationalist Party and communist revolution begins Chávez, César Estrada Guevara, Ernesto “Che” King, Martin Luther Gandhi-led Salt March, also known as the Salt Satyagraha Leon Trotsky’s History of the Russian Revolution published in English The long march of the CCP Red Army from south to north China December 9th student movement in China Publication of the English version of Karl Mannheim’s Ideology and Utopia Spanish Civil War xxxiv 1939 timeline Herbert Blumer’s “The Field of Collective Behavior” published (Reprinted in 1951) 1943–1945 Partisan movements emerged during WWII all over Europe, fighting Nazism and Nazi occupation 1945 World Federation of Trade Unions 1946 Postwar strike wave in United States 1946–1949 Greek Civil War 1946–1949 Chinese Civil War leading to the rise of communist China 1949 International Confederation of Free Trade Unions; merged with the World Confederation of Labor to form the International Trade Union Confederation in 2006 1952 Bolivian Revolution begins 1952–1955 The Mau Mau rebellion erupts in Kenya 1953 July 17 protest in Eastern Germany repressed 1953–1959 Cuban Revolution, culminating in Fidel Castro’s rise to power 1954/1955–1965 Civil rights movement in the United States 1954–1962 Algerian FLN War of Independence 1955 Montgomery bus boycott in United States 1956 The Hungarian Revolution challenges Soviet authority in Hungary 1957 Southern Christian Leadership Conference founded 1957 Anti-Rightist Campaign in China 1959 Euskadi Ta Askatasune (Free Basque Country) ETA established 1959 Crane Brinton’s The Anatomy of Revolution published 1959 Publication of William Kornhauser’s The Politics of Mass Society 1959 First edition of Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian’s Collective Behavior. Subsequent editions published in 1972 and 1987 1960 April Revolution in Korea ousted the dictator who ruled for 12 years 1960 The Anti US–Japan Security Treaty movement, one of the largest leftist political mobilizations ever in modern Japanese history 1960 The student sit-in movement in the southern United States revives the moribund civil rights movement 1960–1969 Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) founded at the University of Michigan in 1960, spread to other campuses in the mid-1960s, and dissolved in 1969 1960s–1970s Emergence of liberation theology across Latin America 1962 César Chávez co-founded, with Dolores Huerta, in the United States, the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) which later became the United Farm Workers (UFW) 1962 Publication of Neil Smelser’s Theory of Collective Behavior 1963 Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique marks the beginning of the second wave of feminism timeline 1963 1963/1964 1963–1975 1964 1964 1964 1964/1965 1965 1965–1975 1966 1966 1966 1966–1976 1968 1968 1968 1968 1968/1969 1969 1969 1969 1970 1970 1970 1970 1972 xxxv Publication of Joseph Gusfield’s Symbolic Crusades Vietnam War protests occur in London and Denmark, and then New York Vietnam War is target of worldwide protest and peace activism Freedom Summer in United States US Congress passes the Civil Rights Act Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia (FARC) emerges Free Speech Movement on University of California, Berkeley campus, led informally by Mario Savio and others Publication of Mancur Olson’s The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups Italian protest cycle that Sidney Tarrow analyzed in Democracy and Disorder (1989) Publication of Tamotsu Shibutani’s Improvised News: The Sociological Study of Rumor Publication of John Lofland’s Doomsday Cult: A Study of Conversion, Missionizing and Faith Maintenance Founding of National Organization for Women Chinese Cultural Revolution American Indian Movement (AIM) founded in Minneapolis, Minnesota by urban Native Americans “Prague Spring” is crushed by the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia Student revolts begin in Paris and spread throughout Europe and Mexico Student and New Left movements begin to mobilize on a widespread scale in Japan Beginning of the “Troubles” in Northern Ireland Provisional Irish Republican Army emerges The gay rights movement is launched during the Stonewall riots in New York City A large wave of strikes marks the beginning of the so-called “long autumn” in Italy Students protesting the American invasion of Cambodia are shot by National Guardsmen at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, setting off a wave of student strikes across the United States Red Army Faction/Baader-Meinhof Group founded in Germany Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse in Italian) emerged in Italy Ted Gurr’s Why Men Rebel is published Bloody Sunday (Derry, Northern Ireland), nonviolent protest repressed by the British Army xxxvi timeline 1973 1973 1973–1975 1974 1974 1975 1976–1985 1977 1977 1977 1977 1978 1978 1978 1978–1979 1979 1979 1979 1980 1980 1980 1980 Publication of Seymour Martin Lipset and Earl Raab’s The Politics of Unreason: Right-Wing Extremism in America, 1790–1970 Anthony Oberschall’s Social Conflict and Social Movements published Helsinki Conference on Human Rights Robert Grant founds the American Christian Cause as an effort to institutionalize the Christian Right as a politically active social movement in the United States Carnation Revolution in Portugal William Gamson’s The Strategy of Social Protest provides the first major systematic examination of social movement outcomes United Nations Decade for Women Publication of Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward’s Poor People’s Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail John McCarthy and Mayer Zald’s seminal essay on resource mobilization and social movements Charles Tilly coins the concept of “Repertoires of Contention” Alain Touraine publishes The Self-Production of the Society, devoted to the role of social movements in producing social changes Barrington Moore Jr’s Injustice: The Social Basis of Obedience and Revolt is published Publication of Charles Tilly’s seminal book on collective action and social movements, From Mobilization to Revolution Mass suicide and murder of 913 Jim Jones communal movement members in Jonestown, Guyana Xidan Democracy Movement in Beijing Iranian Islamic Revolution The Sandinista Movement (FSLN), which emerged in 1961, overthrows the Somoza regime in Nicaragua Theda Skocpol’s States and Social Revolutions makes the case for the importance of the state in social revolutions Solidarity movement formed at Gdansk Shipyard, Poland, to challenge the communist regime Frente Farabundo Martı́ para la Liberación Nacional (FMLN) officially emerges in El Salvador Founding of the Collective Behavior and Social Movement (CBSM) section of the American Sociological Association with the initial leadership of John Lofland Publication of Todd Gitlin’s The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media and the Making and Unmaking of the New Left timeline 1980 1980 1980s 1981 1982 1983 1984 1984 1984 1986 1986 1986 1987 1987 1987 1987–1993 1989 1989 1990 1990 1991 1991 1992 1992 1994 xxxvii David Snow, Louis Zurcher, and Sheldon Ekland-Olson provide the first major network account of differential recruitment Nuclear Freeze initiated by Randall Forsberg Nuclear disarmament movements around the world, especially in Europe Hunger strikes of IRA prisoners Doug McAdam formalizes a “political process” theory of social movements in his book, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–70 Concept of “cycles of protest” developed by Sidney Tarrow Bert Klandermans provides a social psychological expansion of resource mobilization theory Aldon Morris’s The Origins of the Civil Right Movements published Founding of the Landless Workers Movement (MST) in Brazil First major European/US cross-Atlantic conference on social movements in Amsterdam, organized by Bert Klandermans and Sidney Tarrow David Snow, Burke Rochford, Steve Worden, and Rob Benford introduce the concept of “frame alignment” and its various forms, which serves as the springboard for the development of social movement framing theory The “Yellow Revolution” succeeds in deposing Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines Publication of Leila Rupp and Verta Taylor’s Survival in the Doldrums: The American Women’s Rights Movement, 1945 to the 1960s. Concept of abeyance is developed Pat Robertson founds the Christian Coalition, which later becomes the most prominent voice in the Christian Right in the United States Founding of ACT UP (Aids Coalition to Unleash Power) First Palestinian Intifada Student-led pro-democracy movement in Beijing (called “Beijing Spring”) associated with Tiananmen Square protest and massacre Berlin Wall falls after a wave of protests in Eastern Germany, as well as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and elsewhere. Founding of Queer Nation and rise of queer politics and activism Americans with Disabilities Act Clark McPhail’s The Myth of the Madding Crowd is published Suzanne Staggenborg’s The Pro-Choice Movement is published Aldon Morris and Carol Mueller publish Frontiers in Social Movement Theory China’s massive market-oriented reform begins, leading to China’s prosperity and new social problems and grievances Zapatista uprising in the Mexican state of Chiapas xxxviii timeline 1994 1994 1995 1995 1995 1995 1996 1996–1997 1997 1997 1997 1998 1999 1999 1999 2000 2000–2004 2001 2001 2001 2001 2001 2002 Following nearly four decades of struggle, apartheid ends in South Africa with Nelson Mandela taking over as president Publication of first edition of Sidney Tarrow’s Power in Movement: Social Movements, Collective Action, and Politics First issue of Mobilization, the international journal of social movement research Beginning of University of Minnesota Press book series on social movements, protest, and contention Publication of Hanspeter Kriesi, Rudd Koopmans, Jan Willem Duyvendak, and Marco Guigni’s New Social Movements in Western Europe: A Comparative Analysis Publication of Donatella della Porta’s Political Violence and the State Alberto Melucci publishes Challenging Codes Piqueteros (unemployed workers’ movement) emerges in Argentina Publication of Bert Klandermans’ The Social Psychology of Protest Publication of James Jasper’s The Art of Moral Protest: Culture, Biography and Creativity in Social Movements Publication of Leila Rupp’s Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women’s Movement The Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century is edited and published by David Meyer and Sidney Tarrow Publication of the first edition of Social Movements, a broad introduction to the topic by Donatella della Porta and Mario Diani Battle of Seattle – massive protest of the WTO Ministerial Conference in Seattle Emergence of the Global Justice Movement The influential “electoral revolution” takes place in Yugoslavia, spurring a succession of “color revolutions” in other Eastern European and Central Asian countries Second Palestinian Intifada Dingxin Zhao’s The Power of Tiananmen: State-Society Relations and the 1989 Beijing Student Movement is published Emotion and passion are reintroduced to the study of social movements with the publication of Passionate Politics, edited by Jeff Goodwin, James Jasper, and Francesca Polletta Publication of Doug McAdam, Sidney Tarrow, and Charles Tilly’s Dynamics of Contention G8 Summit Genoa protest, with one protestor killed First World Social Forum in Porto Alegre, Brazil, the largest gathering of social movement organizations from all over the world First European Social Forum is held in Florence timeline 2002 2002 2003 2004 2004 2005 2005 2006 2009 2009–2010 2011 2011 2011 2011 xxxix Myra Ferree, William Gamson, Jürgen Gerhards, and Diether Rucht publish their study of abortion discourse in Germany and the United States, titled Shaping Abortion Discourse First issue of Social Movement Studies, an international journal of social movement research published in the United Kingdom Worldwide Global Day of Action against the second Iraq War is the largest peace protest ever “Orange revolution” in Ukraine Publication of the Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, co-edited by David Snow, Sarah Soule, and Hanspeter Kriesi Cedar Revolution in Lebanon Evo Morales, former head of the Bolivian coca growers’ union, is elected president with the support of an alliance of social movements The role of narrative in studying social movements is highlighted in Francesca Polletta’s It Was Like a Fever: Storytelling in Protest and Politics Emergence of the Tea Party movement in the United States Iranian Green Movement Publication of Steven Buechler’s Understanding Social Movements: Theories from the Classical Era to the Present Arab Spring The movement of the Indignados, involving the occupation of city squares, emerges in Spain, spreading to Greece, Italy, among other places The Occupy Wall Street movement emerges in the United States in New York City and quickly diffuses across the country and around the world to hundreds of other cities Introduction This encyclopedia is based, in part, on the premise that an understanding of many of the most significant social and political developments and changes throughout much of human history – such as the ascendance of Christianity and Islam, the Reformation, and the American, French, Russian and Chinese revolutions, for example – is partly dependent on an understanding of the workings and influence of social movements. If anything, this observation seems even more relevant in the past two to three centuries, as well as in the last few years. Looking back at the various social and cultural landscapes across the world over the past 200 years, it is reasonable to wonder how very different things might be in the absence of the international antislavery movement, which led to the abolishment of slavery, the suffrage movement, which sought to enfranchise women, the labor movement, which sought to reduce the exploitation of workers of all ages, and the various civil and human rights movements, which sought, and continue to seek, to guarantee for all citizens of all countries the range of human rights that too many citizens have been and still are denied. All of these movements played an important role in the establishment and deepening of democracy and citizenship rights in some countries, and are still operative in other countries that have yet to guarantee such rights. Needless to say, the importance of social movements and protest is strikingly evident in the contemporary world, with the welling up of the politically consequential Tea Party movement in 2009 in the United States, the protest movements and attempted revolutions rolling across the Arab world in 2011 and 2012, the antiausterity protests in Greece and other European countries in 2011, widespread protest over contested elections in a host of countries – including Iran in 2009 and Russia in 2011, and the Occupy Wall Street movement surfacing in New York City in 2011, and spreading rapidly across US and European cities. The importance of these and other movements is recognized not just by social movement scholars within the academy but also by other chroniclers of the flow of history. Time magazine’s final issue of the twentieth century, for example, included among its three major candidates for the person of the century the inspirational leader of one of the more consequential movements of the past century, Mohandas Gandhi. Why Gandhi? Because, in Time’s words, He stamped his ideas on history, igniting three of the century’s great revolutions – against colonialism, racism, and violence. His concept of nonviolent resistance liberated one nation and sped the end of colonial empires around the world. His marches and fasts fired the imagination of oppressed people everywhere. (Time, Dec. 31, 1999: 123) As Time added “his strategy of nonviolence . . . spawned generations of spiritual heirs around the world,” including Martin Luther King Jr, César Chávez, Lech Walesa, Benigno Aquino Jr, and Nelson Mandela – all prominent leaders of major, consequential social movements in their respective homelands of the United States, xlii i n t ro d u c t i o n Poland, the Philippines, and South Africa. And more recently, Time named as its 2011 Person of the Year “The PROTESTOR from the Arab Spring to Athens, From Occupy Wall Street to Moscow” (Dec. 26, 2011). The aforementioned movements and names highlight the fact that some of the major events and figures of the past century, as well as before, are bound up with social movements and protest. Thus, the study of social movements is not only warranted in its own right, but it can also lead to a better and deeper understanding of the social worlds in which they emerge and operate; hence, the core rationale for this encyclopedia on social and political movements. Even though social movements have been an important actor in the flow of human history, it would have been well-nigh impossible to compile an encyclopedia of this magnitude 50 years ago, say in the early 1960s. The reasons are twofold. First, it is arguable that social movements, as one of the principle forms through which collectivities give voice to their shared grievances and claims by engaging in various kinds of collection action or behavior, such as protesting in the streets, have escalated with the spread of democracy and the corresponding growth of civil society (see entry titled “Social movements” for conceptual elaboration). Indeed, it is arguable, to enlarge upon a claim of one set of scholars, that the societies in which a significant proportion of the world’s population live are, among other things, movement societies. It is also the case that social and political movements tend to cluster across time in “waves” or “cycles,” and that the events associated with the Arab Spring and the Occupy protests spreading across US and European cities at the time of this writing suggest that we may well be in the midst of such a cycle. Yet, a cycle of social movement protest was clearly evident in the 1960s, perhaps even more so then than now, so why not an encyclopedia like this back in the 1960s? The answer to this question takes us to the second reason for the compilation of an encyclopedia on social and political movements now rather than in the 1960s or the 1970s or even the 1980s. Aside from the fact that the publication of various academic, discipline-based encyclopedias has been in fashion within the publishing industry over the past decade or so, the scholarly literature on social movements that existed in the 1950s and 1960s was relatively scant and limited conceptually and theoretically. Moreover, most scholarship was of the armchair variety, with little attention given to the collection of systematic empirical evidence regarding movement dynamics. What the social movements and protests of the 1960s did, among other things, was to jumpstart a more focused, empirical study of various aspects and dimensions of social movements, which has continued to the present. One of the consequences has been the proliferation of conceptual and theoretical advances, which is reflected in the number and range of conceptual and theoretical entries within this encyclopedia. Further illustration of the almost meteoric growth of the scholarly, empirical study of social movements within the social sciences, and particularly sociology, is provided by its recent development into one of the largest and most intellectually vibrant subfields in sociology, as well as by the recent publication of two international journals of i n t ro d u c t i o n xliii research and theory about social movements and protest (Mobilization published in the US, and Social Movement Studies published in the UK). Social movement studies have also been very pluralistic methodologically, thereby leading to a broadened and better understanding of citizen mobilization. Thus, there is far more conceptual and systematic empirical work on which to base an encyclopedia now than there was 50, 40, 30, or even 20 years ago. Our objective in compiling this encyclopedia has been to provide a comprehensive, authoritative, interdisciplinary, up-to-date work on social and political movements that will be an invaluable reference volume for students and scholars of social movements worldwide. Thus, the coverage is broad-based such that major social and political movements and related collective phenomena throughout segments of history and across the globe are represented among the entries. Obviously, selectivity was involved, since there is no assembled worldwide population of social movements from which to sample. But the movements and related events included were not selected haphazardly. Rather, we selected some of our advisory editors with an eye to ensuring that there was regional representation of movements across the globe. In other words, we selected a number of advisory editors who have specialized knowledge of social movements and related activities in different regions of the world – for example, Africa, Eastern Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan), Europe, and Latin America. Additionally, we also wanted to include major theoretical perspectives, concepts and processes, and relevant research methodologies and procedures; so we also selected advisory editors who could ensure coverage of the major perspectives and concepts and different types of movements. Consistent with the aim to produce a broad-based, comprehensive encyclopedia that will have interdisciplinary and international appeal, the team of 13 advisory editors we assembled is nationally and substantively diverse (see the list of advisory editors). When the four of us (the co-editors) are coupled with the 13 advisory editors, there is representation from ten countries (China, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and United States), four disciplines (history, political science, social psychology, and sociology), as well as broad coverage of theoretical perspectives, substantive research topics, different methods of study and a broad range of social movements studied. In short, we tried to assemble a team of advisory editors that, in combination with us, ensured sufficient national diversity and scholarly research breadth to produce a top-flight encyclopedia that would meet our articulated objectives and aims. We think we have been reasonably successful in realizing these objectives. However, we do have some misgivings about the finished product. The major one has to do with the daunting task of finding informed authors for all of the entries and then the difficult challenge of patiently pestering the would-be authors to write the promised entry. While the patient pestering paid off in most cases, a number of entries were never written, and this was particularly the case with entries on specific movements in some parts of the world. Thus, for example, we received fewer entries on social movements xliv i n t ro d u c t i o n in Africa than we had hoped. But such challenges notwithstanding, we still secured 434 entries on specific social movements, revolutions, and related events worldwide, and on a very broad range of theoretical perspectives, concepts, processes, and methods fundamental to the study and understanding of social and political movements. We are therefore hopeful that readers and scholars alike will find the encyclopedia helpful in extending their knowledge and understanding of social movements as well as inspiring further study of social movements of all kinds and their dynamics.