Pujas at Angkor Also featuring Pancaratra and Angkor Wat Temple 1 COPYRIGHT 2 3 4 C O N T E N T S Chapter Pujas at Angkor1 Page 7 Chapterv2 Monumental Gates of AngkorbPage 33 Chapter 3 ANGKOR WAT in Collective Memorialization page 43 Chapter 4-Hindu Cities & Cosmological Design page 55 Chapter 5-The Art & Architecture of the Vijaynagar Empire page 93 CHAPTER 6-THE CONCEPT of a LOST CONTINENT-Featuring Atlantis 5 Chapter 1 Pujas at Angkor Also featuring Pancaratra and Angkor Wat Temple How does Angkor Wat reflect Hindu beliefs? Iconic Angkor Wat was originally built as a Hindu temple of god Vishnu to see over the Khmer Empire that ruled during that time. ... Vishnu is known as the protector, and as King Suryavarman's name translating as “protector of the sun”, dedicating the temple to his namesake seems fitting. In my earlier paper-The 9 Graha Puja performed at Bantey Sarai( near Angkor Wat) 1200 years ago I had outlined the “Satyanarayan” puja performed there. In his paper The Planetary clustering and navagraha at Banteay Srei , Asger Mollerup found that an inscription at Prasat Banteay Srey, 15 km north of Angkor Wat in Cambodia, dates the inauguration of this Shivaite sanctuary to coincide with a planetary alignment. A planetary clustering or planetary alignment is when the five planets visible to the naked eye are observable at dawn or dusk above the eastern or western horizon. The five planets form together with the sun, the moon, Rahu and Ketu the Indian concept the Navagraha. A close gathering of the five planets is an impressive celestial event and has been described in ancient Indian and Chinese records and calculations. https://www.academia.edu/41864223/Planetary_clustering_and_navagraha_at_Banteay_Sr ei Since the 15th century, Buddhists have used the temple and visitors today will see, among the thousands of visitors, Buddhist monks and nuns who worship at the site. Angkor Wat has also become an important symbol for the Cambodian nation. Hindu god Vishnu is Worshipped in Angkor Wat today also. Originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the 12th century. there is a Vishnu temple right at the entrance of Angor Wat Temple. 6 Overall in earlier times focus was on hindu trinity god • • • Brahma - the creator Vishnu - the preserver Mahesh(Shiva ) - the destroyer You would still be able to find all three gods among angor wat temple. But recently Vishnu & Shiva became more popular gods. Here are a fabulous collection of temples – replete with tales from Ramayana and Mahabharata etched on its walls – that lie 2500 km from the south Indian shores, as the crow flies. The temple complex – brilliant by all accord – was built in the 12th century by the local king Suryavaraman in a place that was named Yeshodharapura but subsequently renamed Angkor. If all the names sound so Indian, then don’t be surprised: the king was by descent related to the Cholas who ruled from present day Tamil Nadu. Our local guide Arjun tells us that Angkor Wat is Vishnu loka, the abode of the preserver of the universe. It later became a Buddhist temple and even today the idols of the Sakyamuni adorn the temple and are worshipped daily here in Cambodia. Cambodia's Hinduism can be traced back to the Funan Kingdom which ruled between 100BC and 500AD. During this period, kings worshiped Vishnu and Shiva. When the Khmer Empire came to power, Hinduism remained the dominating religion until Jayavarman VII (reigned 11811218). Spread of Hinduism Hinduism and Judaism were historically not that intent on evangelism. Both these religions have more cultural/ethnic roots. Like the pagan religions of Europe & the religions of China, the missionary zeal was absent. There is nothing in the religious texts that makes it a duty of the followers to spread the religion. Angkor Wat was built in the first half of the 12th century (1135BC). Estimated construction time of the temple is 30 years by King Suryavarman II. He was one of the greatest ones from Khmer Empire. It was build as a state temple. Although originally build as a Hindu temple dedicated to Supreme Lord Vishnu, later on it got converted as Buddhist temple, when Khmers adopted Buddhism as a state religion. At the western entrance of Angkor Wat stands 5 meters tall statue of Lord Vishnu, known locally as Ta Reach. It is carved from a single piece of sandstone and is draped with colorful clothing and offerings from pilgrims visiting the site. This standing stone statue has eight arms and the head of Buddha. When Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple, the head of Lord Vishnu was replaced with the head of Buddha. 7 In fact the entire stretch of South East Asia from Indonesia to Cambodia is strewn with remains of Indian influence. Travelers would not have missed that Bangkok’s airport is called Suvarnabhoomi and the entrance of the airport depicts Amrit Manthan, the churning of the sea by devas to extract the elixir of life. The Indian influence in Indonesia –whose tourist haven of Bali is a Hindu majority province, is something that is fairly well known. But the Indian history lessons taught in our schools and colleges depict nothing of this Hindu, Buddhist and ancient Indian influence on this region. Instead all that it depicts is the continual invasion of India from north-west borders and how hordes upon hordes entered and pillaged the plains of Hindustan. Soon these invading armies started settling in the regions around Delhi and thus begun the Delhi sultanate. This was followed by the Mughals whose 180 year rule between 1530 and 1707 was the high-water mark of Indian prosperity in medieval India. Everybody in India has been exposed to Akbar and in college studying economic history (as a side course in Economics) I was exposed to the agrarian revenue system of the Mughals and how it was established by the great Mughal. I also learnt that agricultural productivity in those days was high, in fact higher than pre green revolution levels. Hindu temples are important places for Hindu culture, religion, and traditions. They are often visited on auspicious occasions as part of pilgrimages rather than as a regular practice. Hindus, in diaspora or dispersed communities, see temples as important social environments where they can meet other members of their community to strengthen social bonds. Unlike other religions, visiting temples for worship is not a mandate for the Hindus. They have home shrines where they can partake in home puja, which is part of their dharma. In Hinduism, dharma means morality, duty or virtue and refers to the power which upholds the universe or society. 8 With major Hindu Complexes around the world, each of them holds a strong historical significance, and some are even named after gods. Here are some of the biggest and most impressive Hindu temple complexes in the world. Only Hindus knew well what lays in the ruins and living of Angkor Wat, I would not be amused if they would stake religious claims on Cambodia. In spite of numerous national calamities and tragedies, the spirit of the country is witnessed in the Angkor Wat. Temples of Angkor: The massive and greatest Angkor Wat stands out against any Hindu temple of the Indian Sub Continent. Built around the Hindu fable of ‘Samudra Mathan’, the temple is among the few relics which has remained a religious site ever since it was founded. Many other temple complexes show a strong Hindu presence in the region, both Shaivites and Vashnavites, owing to the strong trade domination kings from India had over most of South East Asia at that time, including Myanmar, Southern Vietnam, Cambodia and Sumatra. The Angkor Wat Temple, architecturally oriented to the west, is designed in the form of galleries and ‘South Indian mountain style’ temples, which represents Mt Sumeru - the mountain used for the churning of the ocean of milk. The galleries exhibit carvings from Ramayana and Mahabharata, a true eye tonic for a Hindu devout. Bayon Temple- Though the Angkor Wat temple is more enormous and the most well preserved of the lot, there are also some significant ‘not-to-be-missed’ temples in the complex. The temples in the Angkor Thom complex such as Bayon, which was built by Mahayana Budhhist king Jayawarman VII, and exhibits what looks like a mixture of Lord Buddha and the kings own image on every tower of the temple. Priest doing Puja at Bayon 9 Restore puja in Angkor Wat by priests of Sivakaivalya lineage The excerpts are taken from the authoritative work by French Epigraphist Prof. George Coedes in his French book translated as: The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1964, p.73, pp. 99-102, p.113: [Quote]The inscriptions in Khmer, which begin to appear in greater number, have preserved an archaic stage of this language (Sanskrit), a language that has undergone much less change over fourteen centuries than have Indo-European languages during the same period...The major Hindu sects seem to have co-existed in Cambodia as in India proper, and among those already mentioned we find the Sivaite sect of the Pasupatas and the Vishnuite sect of the Pancharatras, each of which in its sphere played a leading role in the Angkor period...Foundation of the Kingdom of Angkor, the Sailendras in Sumatra, First Three Quarters of the Ninth Century. The beginnings of the Kingdom of Angkor: Jayavarman II (802-50) The liberation of Cambodia from the suzerainty of Java was the work of Jayavarman II, founder of the Kingdom of Angkor...the principal episodes of his reign are related in some detail in an inscription of the eleventh century on the stele of Sdok Kak Thom (Louis Finot, 'L'inscription de Sdok kak Thom.' BBulletin de l'Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient (BEFEO), XV, 2, pp.51-106. Coedes and Pierre Dupont, 'Les steles de Sdok Kak Thom, Phnom Sandak et Prah Vihar,' BEFEO, XLIII, pp. 56 ff.)...It was at Indrapura, it seems, that the young king took into his services as royal chaplain a Brahman scholar, Srikaivalya, who was to folow him in all his changes of residence and to become the first chief priest of a new cult, that of the Devaraja, or 'God-King'...'When they arrived at the Eastern District,' says the stele of Sdok Kak Thom, 'the king bestowed an estate and a village called Kuti upon the family of the royal chaplain.' The 'eastern district' refers to the region to the east of Angkor. The name Kuti survives in the name of Banteay Kdei, a late monument which was built near a much earlier one. 'Later,' continues the stele, 'the king reigned in the city of Hariharalaya. The royal chaplain also settled in this city, and the members of his family were appointed to the corps of pages.'... 'Afterwards,' the inscription says, 'the king went to found the city of Amarendrapura, and the royal chaplain also settled in the city to serve the king.'...'Then,' continues the inscription, the king went to reign at Mahendraparvata, and the Lord Sivakaivalya followed him, establishing himself in this capital to serve the king as before. Then a Brahman named Hiranyadama, learned in the magical science, came from Janapada (Probably Prasad Khna in Mlu Prei -- Coeses, 'Le Site de Janaada', BEFEO, XLIII, p.8) at the king's invitation to perform a ritual designed to ensure that the country of Kambujas would no longer be dependent on Java and that there would be no more than one sovereign who was chakravartin (universal monarch). This Brahman performed a ritual according to the sacred Vinasikha and established a Lord of the Universe who was the king (Sanskrit: Devaraja). This Brahman taught the sacred Vinasikha, the Nayottara, the Sammoha, and the Siraccheda. He recited them from beginning to end in order that they might be written down and taught to Lord Sivakaivalya, and he ordained Lord Sivakaivalya to perform the ritual of the Devaraja. The king and the Brahman Hiranyadama took an oath to employ the family of Lord Sivakaivalya to conduct the worship of the Devaraja and not allow others to conduct it. The Lord Sivakaivalya, the chief priest (purohita), assigned all his relatives to this cult.'...A number of families were to trace their first ancestor back to his reign, and several charters of the endowment of land ownership attribute their origin to his reign...the king (Yasovarman) had a 10 series of monasteries built for the various sects that his religious eclecticism permitted him to divide his favors among: the Sivaite Brahmanasrama for the Saiva, the Pasupatas, and the Tapasvins, the Vishnuite Vaishnavasrama for the Pancharatras, the Bhagavatas and the Sattvatas; and perhaps also a Buddhist Saugasrama, the stele of which, moved from its original site, has been found at Tep Pranam in Angkor Thom. (Coedes, 'La stele de Tep Pranam,' Journal Asiatique, March-April 1908, p.203). [Unquote] Restoring puja in Angkor wat-http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.in/2018/03/restore-puja-inangkor-wat-by-priests.html Sdok Kok Thom inscription K.194 identifies Divakarapandita as rajahotar of Suryavarman II. He had also served the previous two kings Jayavarman VI and Dharanindravarman I. (Coedes G. & Dupont P., Les steles de Sdok Kak Thom, Phnom Sandak et Prah Vihar, BEFEO, XLIII, 1943: 145). It is a reasonable assumption that the themes and narratives of sculptures of the temple were chosen from Itihasa-Purana with the guidance of Divakarapandita. From S'ivapada of Chams to Vishnuloka of Suryavarman II is a remarkable syncretism of the traditions which have been documented in Indian traditions documented in Pancaratra samhitas (e.g. Sattvata and Ahirbudhnya Samhitas), Ramayana and Mahabharata -- and adapted in Angkor Wat and associated sites of the Cham-Kampuchean-Thai peoples who orgnized themselves into a state, Rajyam governed by dharma-dhamma Hindu-Bauddham continuum. The term pancaratra denotes 5 principal subjects: 1. Ontology (cosmology); 2. liberation; 3. devotion; 4. yoga; 5. objects of sense. Pancaratra Sattra is mentioned in Satapatha Brahmana (SB) XIII.6.1 which refers to Purusa Narayana as having conceived the idea of Pancaratra Sattra (continued performance of rites for five days) to obtain superiority over all beings and becoming 11 all beings. Chapter XIII.3.4 of SB details how He, by sacrificing Himself, actually became the whole world. (p.25). Five-fold self-manifestation of paramaatman Mahesvara occurs by means of His Para, Vyuha, Vibhava, Antaryamin and Arca forms. Ahirbudhnya Samhita notes at the end of the 11th adhyaya that the Paramaatman Himself framed out of the original S'astra 'the system (tantra) called Pancaratra describing His (fivefold) nature known as Para (life-period of a Brahman), Vyuha, Vibhava, etc." and 'that highest Will of Visnu called Sudarsana through which He split into five, appearing five-mouthed." The Vaishnava Agamas are: Pancharatra Agama and Vaikhanasa Agama. Some of the Samhitas are: * Agastya-Samhita * Aniruddha-Samhita * Ahirbudhnya Samhita * Brahma Samhita * Brihat-Brahma-Samhita * Isvara-Samhita * Kapinjala-Samhita * Gautama-Samhita * Citrasikhandi-Samhita * Jayakhya-Samhita * Jayottara-Samhita * Nalakubara-Samhita * Naradiya-Samhita * Pancaprasna-Samhita * Parama-Samhita * Paramapurusa-Samhita * Parasara-Samhita * Padma-Samhita * Paramesvara-Samhita * Purusottama-Samhita * PauskaraSamhita * Bharadvaja-Samhita * Bhargava-Tantra * Mayavaibhava-Samhita * MarkandeyaSamhita * Laksmi Tantra * Varaha-Samhita * Vasistha-Samhita * Visva-Samhita * VisvamitraSamhita * Visnutattva-Samhita * Visnu Tantra * Visnu-Samhita * Visvaksena-Samhita * Vihagendra-Samhita * Vrddha-Padma-Samhita * Sriprasna-Samhita * Sanatkumara-Samhita * Sattvata-Samhita * Hayasirsa-Samhita This list is mainly based on the list of the Sanskrit texts from the H. Daniel Smith Agama Collection, Cleveland, Ohio. Of these Samhitas in Srirangam SriRanganatha Swamy temple "SriParamesvara Samhita" a variant of paushkara samhita is followed and in practice. In SriKanchipuram Varadaraja Swamy temple "Sri Jayakhya Samhita" is followed and in practice. In SriMelukote Cheluva Narayana Swamy temple "Sri ISwara samhita" is followed and in practice. In Tiruvellarai Sri Pundarikaksha Swamy Temple "Sri Paadma Samhita" is followed and in practice. In Tirukkudantai (kumbakONam) Aravamudhan Sarngapani is worshipped with "Sriprasna samhita" Rest of the places use pAdma samhita or its variants. Gaudiya Vaishnavism follow Brahma Samhita and "Naradiya Samhita" Pancaratra Agamas: There are three main agamic schools - the Saiva, Sakta and Vaisnava - and each has their own Pancaratras. Among the Vaisnavas the followers of Sri-sampradaya (Sri Vaisnavas) draw a lot from the agamas. All of these agamas comprise four topics in general: Jnana or knowledge; kriya (service such as construction of temples, installation of deities); carya or conduct (such as the observance of daily rites, festivals); and yoga or devotion, or attention. Common features of all agamas: (a) They accept the existence of a supreme being with a predominant male or female aspect. (b) The existence of undivided souls. (c) The reality of the objective universe. (d) Devotion is the only means of emancipation. Nearly nine centuries after the world’s tallest Hindu shrine – Angkor Wat temple - was built in Cambodia, its replica is all set to come up in Bihar’s Vaishali district. The foundation stone for 12 an identical shrine of Angkor Wat – was laid near Hajipur (Vaishali) recently. The proposed temple will come up on the sprawling campus of 15 acres of land on Hajipur-Biddupur road at an estimated cost of Rs 100 crore. “The temple, much like the original structure at Angkor (Cambodia), will be five-storeyed and have five shikhas.. o be named Virat Angkor Wat Ram Mandir, the temple near Hajipur will be spread over one lakh square feet and have deities such as Rama-Sita, Radha-Krishna, Shiva-Parvati, Ganesh, Surya and 10 incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Slaves in Cambodia were treated as ‘goods’ possessed by an owner. They were gifted to temples along with lands and other goods. A case suggesting two dependent parents is recorded on inscription K904,A1.23, “me kandan, ta kandan ku Kandan” meaning mother of Kandan, father of Kandan. Kandan is a Tamil name derivedfrom Sanskrit Skanda. Va and Ku are used frequently in inscriptions, Va is Mr and Ku is Mrs or Miss. In folk tales Kandhan , with Tamil spelling, Kam Raj, Krishna Kumar and Suvanna Kumar ( Swarnakumara) are used. Though these names are Tamilized Sanskrit words these are more common in Tamil Nadu than other parts of India. 13 Order of details in Inscriptions Pre-Angkor inscriptions followed the same order in giving details like India. Here also we see Indian influence. The date or name of the reigning king; The title and name of donors; The name of the god; Names of the people from whom the donor obtained land to offer to the foundation; The extent, location, capacity of the donated rice fields; The names of the donated slaves with an indication of their duties; Details of the subsistence given to the religious personnel; Details of other lands given to the foundation, orchards, market, garden etc List of precious objects given to the foundation; The statement s that the revenues are to be combined with those of another foundation ; Warning of punishment for anyone using or abusing the belongings of the foundation. King Vikramaditya ‘Satra keng kantrai’ is a collection of legal tales known also in Laos, Thailand and Burma. In each case the dispute cannot be solved by a mere judge and has to be referred to the king. His judgments are wise and fair. When two women claim to be the mother of one child, for example, he settles the case very much as Solomon did. It is like our Vikramaditya, a wise and just king. Tamil Anangu The frequent appearances in the stories of spirits ‘anak ta’ always associated with a specific locality such as a strangely shaped tree trunk or huge rock may be compared with ‘Thaakku Anangu’ in Sangam Tamil literature and Brahmarakshas in Sanskrit literature. This shows clear Indian influence. (Thaaku Anangu= Anak Ta) When we look at all these stories we come across Sanskrit or Tamil words or parallel Indian stories. That shows even Solomon’s stories are borrowed from India and adapted. Dhananjay ‘Themen Chey’ is a story known in Cambodia, Burma and Thailand. It is the corrupted form of Dhananjayan, one of the popular names of Arjuna. Also a common name among business community of Tamil Nadu. In the story, he is a poor boy who rises first to be the servant of a rich man, then to attend upon the king, and finally to be the most eminent man in the land. –subham– 14 Brahmin Power in South East Asian Countries Written by London swaminathanDate: 10 JUNE 2018 Pictures shown here are taken from various sources such as Facebook friends, Books, Google and newspapers; thanks. Pictures may be subject to copyright laws. In Cambodia, Brahmins maintained powerful hierarchy for many centuries. They were well organised. They came there around fifth century and increased in number due to a constant flow of immigrants from India. During the reign of Yasovarman 889 CE, Saivism was predominant. We learn from the following inscription that they enjoyed a position similar to that which was theirs in India. The king,well versed in kingly duties, performed Koti Homa and Yajnas, for which he gave the priest s magnificent presents of jewels, gold etc. The cult of the Royal God, though founded by Jayavarman II, 802 CE, did not reach the heights of its development until two centuries after wards, and was especially associated with Vaishnavism and the temple of Angkor Wat. This cult led Brahmins enjoying even more exalted position . The priest hood became hereditary in the family of Sivakaivalya, who enjoyed immense power. This sacerdotal dynasty almost threw the royal dynasty into the shade. Brahmins were depicted on the reliefs of Angkor Wat and Coedes has identified Drona and Visvamitra amongst them. In one of the relief s which illustrates a royal procession, it is interesting that the Brahmins were the only onlookers who do not prostrate before the king, as was also the case in India. In the reliefs aristocracy wear the chignon and the lower castes short hair. 15 One remarkable sign of the power of the Brahmins was that they had even marriage alliances with the princesses. Bakus, the descendants of ancient Brahmins, chose one from them to succeed if the royal family failed. As early as the reign of Jayavarman V, Buddhism and Hinduism got mixed and the Brahmin purohitas were expected to be well versed in Buddhist prayers and rites. But the Brahmin s of Cambodia never sank so low as did those of Campa (modern Vietnam). In the Po Nagar inscription of Campa, we read that the feet of the king were worshiped,even by Brahmins and priests. In Thailand Though the religion of Thailand was Buddhism the royalty recruited Brahmin s from Cambodia. For centuries Brahmin s enjoyed quite an important position.The famous inscription dated about 1361 CE of King Dharma Raja mentioned the kings knowledge of the Vedas and of astronomy. The inscription on the Siva statue found at Kamben bejra recorded the desire of King Dharmasokaraja,(1510 CE), to exalt both Hinduism and Buddhism. 16 Brahmins had access to sacred books and law books and so they served the royal s in various capacities. The epigraph ic records demonstrate the powerful influence of purohitas in Burma and Cambodia, where they often served under successive rulers and provided continuity to the government in troubled times. In ninth century Angkor, for instance, Indravarman I had the service of Sivasoma, who studied VedantA under Shankara. Indian Brahmins are occasionally mentioned in the south East Asian inscription s and one wondered how Brahmins travelled abroad when Manu and other lawmakers ban foreign travel for Brahmins. These prohibitions may have had little practical effect, and would n of have deterred ambitious men lured by the hope of honour and fortune in a distant land. In fact they were invited by some rulers. Not only in the Hindu courts in Cambodia but also in the courts of Pagan in Burma and Sukothai in Thailand, the Brahmins conducted great ceremonies,such as the Royal Consecration and-functioned as ministers and counsellors . The grand ceremony in Pagan required the services of numerous Brahmins. In Cambodia Jayavarman VIII built a temple for the scholar priest Jayamangalaartha and likewise for the Brahmin Vidyesavid. Who became Royal sacrificial Priest. The Chinese visitor Chou Ta kuan refers to the presence of Brahmins wearing sacred thread. We have evidence of use of Sanskrit even in Sri Lanka. Thirteenth century work Kundamala was composed in Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, according to some scholars. 17 Religious Kingship in Cambodia and India:The Role and Status Purohita (King’s Priest) in the context of the Devarāja (god-king) Tradition, Nalini Rao,2017 In Kāmbujadeśa, the terms, paṇdita, ācārya, guru, rājaguru and rājapurohita were normally associated with Tāntric priests which was not the case in India. This requires an examination of the office of the priest in the context of Tāntrism and the devarāja cult. The Khmers received Tāntric Śaivism in two waves – the first during the Pre- Angkorean period, 7th to early 8th centuries CE, and the second from 9th to 14th centuries CE. The first period consisted of followers of the Atimārga tradition, with the Paśupatas, the Pancarātrikas, Lakuliśas/ Kālamukhas and Somasiddhāntins; the second period included the practitioners of the Mantramārga tradition correspoinding to Āgamic or Tāntric Śaivism, principally that of the Śaivasiddhantikas, the followers of the Siddhānta.22 Inscriptional evidences from Kāmbujadeśa clearly point to the presence of priests belonging to these paths. The early Phnom Preah Vihar inscription of Bhavavarman mentions the royal purohita, Vidyapuśpa, as a Paśupatāchārya...and Hiranyadāma, the brāhmin is said to have taught the Tāntric texts of Vīnāśikha, Nayottara, Saṃmoha and Śiraścheda (Tantrās) to Śivakaivalya who could perform the ritual viddhi in the presence of the kamraten jagat ta rāja, which was the royal devarāja (ritual) based on the four Tāntric texts.23 Purohita and the Devarāja Cult The devarāja cult played a central role in the history of the rise of Khmer kingly authority and power. It has been variously interpreted, as a god-king cult, ritual, temple, deified king, etc. According to Mabbett, devarāja was not similar to the worship of the king,31 while Filliozat contends that the term did not refer to the kings of Angkor but to God Siva as ‘King of the Gods.’ However, the cult appears to be a gradual development, originating from the king being an overlord,32 to one who accomplished the siddhi of success. Later, Khmer kings were identified with their favorite god even during their lifetimes, with either Śiva or Durga, according to their gender,33 and finally the cult was assimilated into the tutelary gods of Bhadreśvara and Tribhuvaneśvara implying the divinity of kings.34 In India, although Hindu kingship had been regarded as a divine institution, (as described in the Manusmriti, Nārada Smriti, Mahābhārata, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and other texts), a comparison of kings to gods did not imply divine kingship or actual divinity of kings, but a king with special qualities and essence, lineage, and virtues. In Kāmbujadeśa the devarāja cult was closely associated with the divinity of the king, which imparted politicoreligious benefits of legitimacy to kingly power. It was an extraordinary means devised by the priest, when living kings as rulers of the earth became the representatives and part of the divine ruler or devarāja. It exalted the status of both the king and the purohita, whose genius lay in its creative transformation into an integral system within its kingship. The Family of the Purohita It is interesting to find that in Kāmbujadeśa, the office of the purohita, apart from being hereditary, could pass down the line of sister’s son, which was the case in kingly families as well. In the Sdok Kak Thom inscription of Jayavarman II, of 1053 CE, Hiranyadāma, a brāhmin agreed that the right to conduct the “worship of the god should pass from 18 Śivakaivalya to men or women in his maternal line.35 The priestly families in Cambodia exercised even hereditary rights as well, to provide the religious functionaries. For instance, Atmaśiva who belonged to the family of Śivakaivalya, was the purohita of Jayavarman V (9681000 CE). His hotṛ, who belonged to the family of Pranāvatman, was Nārayana, brother of Sankara who had served as a hotṛ under Rājendravaman (944-968 CE.). Some of the important priestly families, who were also in the service of the king were the Saptadevakula and Ānanditapura hereditary families.36 Furthermore, a long inscription recounts the lineage of Śivakaivalya under Jayavarman and his successors till Śadāśiva in Udayādityavarman II’s reign (1050- 1066 CE).37 A further evidence comes from the priest, Śivācarya who descended from the family of Śivakaivalya and furnished hereditary priests. Even more striking is that, Sivāchārya is said to have continued to be a priest for both Jayavarman and Udayādityavarman (1050-1066 CE).38 We also come across the phenomenon of the purohita having marriage alliances with royalty, such as Suryavarman I (1006-50 CE) who took his purohita Sadāśiva out of the religious state and married him to a sister of Suryavarman’s own queen; on his marriage he is said to have relinquished the hereditary charge of the purohita of the devarāja cult.39 Apart from the relation to the kingly families by marriage, the purohita was rewarded with valuable gifts, such as a golden palanquin, fans, parasols, royal symbols, servants and lands.40 Such a pre-eminent position, leads us to investigate into the concept of the royal advisor or rājaguru. The Rājapurohita and the Rājaguru. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/321904720_Religious_Kingship_in_Cambodia_and_In diaThe_Role_and_Status_Purohita_King%27s_Priest_in_the_context_of_the_Devaraja_godking_Tradition Priests Uphold a Unique and Royal TraditionSamantha Melamed and Kuch Naren October 31, 2005 Centuries ago in the chambers of Angkor Wat and Bayon temple, Brahman priests serving Angkorian kings presided over sacred ceremonies. Descendants of the Indian priest caste who brought their religion to Cambodia centuries before Buddhism took root, the Brahmans served as mystics, clairvoyants, advisers and clergy. They passed down their faith from one generation of men to the next, in a chain of tradition that withstood centuries of warring regimes and even the cultural destruction wreaked by the Khmer Rouge. “Cambodia has Brahmanism in its history,” Ly Daravuth, director of Reyum Institute, explained. “When the Indian entrance became effective, it brought in the Brahmans. Although there was Buddhism, [there] has been Brahmanism all along—the state religion and the king’s religion. Brahmanism has always been part of the Cambodian royalty,” he said. Now, the burden of upholding that royal tradition falls on the gaunt, hunched shoulders of Kang Ken, Cambodia’s head Brahman priest and a civil servant in the Ministry of the Royal Palace. With his tall frame wrapped in the traditional white shirt and black trousers, and his long, graying hair tied in a tight knot, Kang Ken, 55, leads seven other priests known as the Bakou 19 Borahet, the Brahmans of the King’s court. Puri, See also B. N. (1958). BRAHMANISM IN ANCIENT KAMBUJADEŚA. Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, 21, 95–101. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44145174 20 In Indian tradition of Hinduism and Bauddham, Itihasa-Purana were considered the "fifth Veda".(Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 2.4.10, 4.1.2, 4.5.11.) Itihasa means 'that which occurred'. Purana (Sanskrit: पुराण, meaning "ancient" or "old")are defined with "Panca-laksana" (Sanskrit: "Five distinguishing marks or contents") which expand itihasa to provide an account of the history of creation and cosmology, combined with a chronology of the families of great personages of history, and dynastic histories: Sarga—The creation of the universe. Pratisarga—Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution. Vamśa—Genealogy of gods and sages. Manvañtara—The creation of the human race and the first human beings. Vamśānucaritam—Dynastic histories.(Matsya Purana 53.65) In the ancient Indian tradition, two great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are known as itihasa. Traditionally, it is said that there are eighteen Mahāpuranas and eighteen Upapuranas (Great and Additional Puranas). Scholars read from itihasa and Purana; tell their stories, usually in Katha sessions in a temple. Such Katha sessions are embellished as visual narratives in the exquisite sculptures of Angkor Wat. Many facets of Vyûha are represented in the sculptures. Ahirbudhnya Samhita (see the embedded introduction to the samhita) discusses the Vyûha. This Samhit also mentions Jayakhya and Sattvata Samhita [which in turn mentions Pauskara, Varaha and Prajapatya (Brahma)], all of which constitute the authoritative Pancaratra scripture. As noted in the introduction, the ideal Pancaratra Samhita, like the Saiva Agamas, is said to consist of four 'quarters' (Paada) teaching respectively (1) jnaana, knowledge; (2) yoga, concentration; (3) kriyaa (making); and (4) caryaa, doing. "By Making is meant everything connected with the construction and consecration of temples (mandira-nirmaana) and images (pratistha-vidhi), and by Doing, the religious and social observances [domestic/daily observances (samskaara, aahnika), public festivals (utsava), social rules (varnasrama-dharma)]." (p.22) This four-fold classification is confirmed by Padma Tantra Visnutttva Samhita which have jnaana paada, yoga paada, kriyaa paada and caryaa paada. Similarly, Hayasirsa Samhita has 4 kaandas: Pratistha, Samkarsa, Linga and Saura, the first two dealing with supplement (consecration), worship (puja). The term pancaratra denotes 5 principal subjects: 1. Ontology (cosmology); 2. liberation; 3. devotion; 4. yoga; 5. objects of sense. Pancaratra Sattra is mentioned in Satapatha Brahmana (SB) XIII.6.1 which refers to Purusa Narayana as having conceived the idea of Pancaratra Sattra (continued performance of rites for five days) to obtain superiority over all beings and becoming all beings. Chapter XIII.3.4 of SB details how He, by sacrificing Himself, actually became the whole world. (p.25). Five-fold self-manifestation of paramaatman Mahesvara occurs by means of His Para, Vyuha, Vibhava, Antaryamin and Arca forms. Ahirbudhnya Samhita notes at the end of the 11th adhyaya that the Paramaatman Himself framed out of the original S'astra 'the system (tantra) called Pancaratra describing His (fivefold) nature 21 known as Para (life-period of a Brahman), Vyuha, Vibhava, etc." and 'that highest Will of Visnu called Sudarsana through which He split into five, appearing five-mouthed." The Ahirbudhnya Samhita illustrates the days and nights of the Paramaatman by an image of dazzling beauty: during the Day the universe is like a sky sprinkled all over with cirrus clouds -- the Brahmic Eggs, of which there are koti-arbudas of koti-oghas (an unimaginably high number); while during the Night it resembles a sky without a single cloud. (p. 29). "In the eighth and last part of the Cosmic Night (paurusi ratri) the great S'akti of Visnu, awakened as it were by His command, 'opens her eyes'. This unmesa 'opening of the eyes', says the Samhita, is like the appearance of a lightning in the sky. And it means that the S'akti, which was so far indistinguishable from the 'windless atmosphere' or 'motionless ocean' of the Absolute, existing only as it were in a form of 'darkness' or 'emptiness', suddenly, 'by some independent resolve' (kasmaccit svatantryat), flashes up, with an infinitely small part of herself, in her dual aspect of kriya (acting) and bhuti (becoming), that is Force and Matter...The Kriya S'akti is 'the Sudarsana portion of Lakshmi'; for it is identical with Visnu's 'Will-to-be' symbolised by the Sudarsana or discus...Through three pairs of what are called the Six Gunas (shadguna), to wit: Knowledge, Lordship, Power, etc. does the Pure Creation (or first stage) of (His) becoming takes place. Now, the six Gunas are described as follows: The first Guna is jnaana, 'knowledge', defined as 'non-inert, self-conscious, eternal, allpenetrating', that is: omniscience. 'It is both the essence and an attribute of Brahman', for which reason the remaining five Gunas are occasionally called 'attributes of jnaana'. Jnaana is, of course, also the essence of Lakshmi. The second Guna is aisvarya 'lordship', that is 'activity based on independence', 'unimpeded activity'...The third Guna is s'akti 'ability, potency', namely to become the material cause of the world (jagat-prakriti-bhaava)...The fourth Guna is bala, 'strength' defined as 'absence of fatigue' (srama-haani), or 'fatigulessness in connection with the production of the world', or 'power to sustain all things', 'sustaining power' (dhaarana-saamarthya). The fifth Guna is veerya 'virility', that is 'unaffectedness (changelessness, vikaara-viraha) in spite of being the material cause...The sixth and last Guna is tejas 'splendour, might', which is said to mean 'self-sufficiency (sahakaari-anapeksa) and 'power to defeat others' (paraabhibhavana-saamarthya)...The six Gunas are the material, or instruments, as it were of Pure Creation (1) in their totality, and (2)by pairs...In their totality the Gunas make up the body of Vasudeva, the highest personal divinity as well as that of his consort Lakshmi, in the way that these two are constantly seen by the free aatman inhabiting the Highest Space...The Pancaratra teaches a chain, as it were, of emanations; each emanation, except the first, originating from an anterior emanation; and thus the favourite image of the process has, with the Pancaratrins, become that of one flame proceeding from another flame. Any production, up to the formation of the Egg, is imagined as taking place in this way. The first three (or, including Vasudeva, four) beings thus coming into existence are called Vyuhas. This word is a combination of the root uuh 'to shove' and the preposition vi 'asunder' and apparently refers to the 'shoving asunder' and apparently refers to the 'shoving asunder' of the six Gunas into three pairs...each Vyuha is Visnu Himself with His six Gunas, of which, however, two only, in each case, become manifest. Abiding by the image, we may say that each new flame has for its fuel another pair of Gunas. The Vyuhas are named after the elder brother, the son, and the grandson, respectively of Krsna, namely Samkarsana (or Balarama, Baladeva), Pradyumna, and Aniruddha and the pairs of Gunas connected with these are respectively: jnaana and bala; aisvarya and veerya; s'akti and tejas." 22 Lakshmi Tantra explains that Samkarsana, etc. Vyuha are, as it were, the soul (jeeva), the mind (buddhi, manas), and the organ of self-assertion of the 'playing' (that is, creating)Vasudeva. Vishvaksena Samhita declares Samkarsana 'is acting as the superintendent of all the aatman'; Pradyumna 'is the superintendent of the mind (manas); he is declared to be of the nature of the mind (manomaya); and Aniruddha is declared as the creator of the mis'ra-varga, that is, of the aatman dominated by Rajas and Tamas, thus seen as the adhishthaatr of the Ahamkaara. From each Vyuha descend three sub-vyuhas (vyuhantar, maartyantara), namely (1) from Vasudeva: Kesava, Narayana and Madhava; (2) from Samkarsana: Govinda, Visnu, and Madhusudana; (3) from Pradyumna: Trivikrama, Vamana and S'ridhara; and (4) from Aniruddha: Hrsikesa, Padmanabha and Damodara. These twelve are the 'Lords of the months', that is the tutelar deities (adhidevata) of the twelve months and the twelve suns and as such play an important part in diagrams (yantras), etc. (p.41) Another set of twelve Vidyes'varas descending from the Vyuhas is mentioned...Padma Tantra...: from the Vyuha Vasudeva springs another Vasudeva, from the latter Purushottama, and from him Janardana; similarly from Samkarsana another Samkarsana, Adhokshaja, and Upendra; and from Aniruddha another Aniruddha, Acyuta and Krsna. These twelve are enumerated after the twelve sub-vyuhas and called, together with the latter, 'the twenty-four forms' (caturvims'atimurtayah). To Pure Creation further belong the so-called Vibhavas (manifestations) or Avataras (descents), that is incarnations of Paramaatman or His Vyuhas or Sub-Vyuhas or angels among this or that class of terrestrial beings (vibhavo naama tat-tat-sajaateeya-roopan aavirbhaavah). The principal Vibhavas according to Ahirbudhnya Samhit are the following 39: 1. Padmanabha; 2. Dhruva; 3. Ananta; 4. S'aktyaatman; 5. Madhusudana; 6. Vidyadhideva; 7. Kapila; 8. Vis'varupa; 9. Vihangama; 10. Krodaatman; 11. Badabaavaktra; 12. Dharma; 13. Vagis'vara; 14. Ekarnavas'aayin; 15. Kamathes'vara; 16. Varaha; 17. Narasimha; 18. Piyusaharanin;19. S'ripati; 20. Kantaatman; 21. Rahujit; 22. Kalanemighna; 23. Parijatahara; 24 Lokanatha; 25. S'antaatman; 26. Dattatraya; 27. Nyagrodhas'aayin; 28. Ekas'rngatanu; 29. Vaamanadeha; 30. Trivikrama; 31. Nara; 32. Narayana; 33. Hari; 34. Krsna; 35. Paras'urama; 36. Rama Dhanurdhara; 37. Vedavid; 38. Kalkin; 39. Paataalas'ayana.(p.42) Pancaratra and Angkor Wat Temple A follower of Visnu is enjoined to perform the sraddha rites with the remnants of food first offered to Visnu. The Padma-purana enjoins that deities other than Visnu and the fathers may be propitiated with food that has been first offered to Visnu. In that same text Narada says, "Following the ordinances of the Sattvata School, the devotees first worshiped Visnu, the God of gods, and with the remnants of such food worshiped the fathers." In the Brahmandapurana it is enjoined that the father's remain gratified for thousands of kalpas with rice cakes mixed with sacred blossoms of tulasi, prepared with the remnants of food offered with devotion to Visnu. In the Skanda-purana, Siva says, "Food should first be offered to Visnu and then the very same food should be distributed to the minor deities and the fathers." In the Purusottama-khanda of that same text, it is stated, "For avoiding defilement, the remnants of food offered to Visnu should be mixed with the rice cakes to be offered to the fathers. Food is rendered pure when sprinkled with the waters of the tulasi and when mixed with the food offered to Visnu." In the course of a conversation between Brahma and Narada ithas been 23 made clear that the worship of Visnu alone is capable of releasing the fathers from the suffering of hell." It is even stated that the performance of the sraddha rite is useless in the age of Kali without first worshipping Visnu. This series of quotations from various Puranas reflects the Pancaratrika idea that through a person's sole reliance on Visnu all things that a human being would otherwise have to do alone could be accomplished through the grace of God. The successful outcome of the sraddha process was therefore, not dependant on the power of the ritual, the expertise of the priest, precise timing, and availability of the articles, etc. but upon God alone. This approach involved the 'handing over' of the fate of the soul to God. According to this approach, food or water that is offered to the pitrs is first offered to Visnu and thereby transformed into visnu-prasada. The word prasada means "mercy" or "grace." Thus visnu-prasada is God's grace. This prasada of Visnu is then offered to the pitrs, who now receive God's grace instead of mere food or water. In this way, the grace of God has the power to elevate and sustain the pitrs in a manner that no human power can match. In the case of a homa or havan, a ritual performed with fire, the fire is used as the "delivery system" by which Visnu is first offered food. This food offering, which is now God's grace, is then offered to the pitrs through the fire. It is thus Agnideva, the fire God, who acts as the link between this world and the world of the pitrs. Pitru Paksha ("fortnight of ancestors"), is the period when the family remembers all its ancestors and offers Tarpan to them. This period falls just before the Navratri or Durga Puja falling in the month of Ashwin (Hincu calendar). Mahalaya marks the end of the fortnightlong Tarpan to the ancestors. Mahalaya Tarpan is on September 27, 2011. In Khmer tradition, Pchum Ben is celebrated between October 7 and 9 that is 14 and 15 of Phutrobot (Bhadrapada) and 1 of Asuj [Phutrobot (Bhadrapada) and Asuj (Asvina) are lunar months according to the following calendar of 12 months]: 24 Songkran in Thailand (saMkrama m. Sanskrit. संक्रमः The passage of a planetary body through the zodiacal signs; दिनक्षये व्यतीपाते संक्रमे$र्कदिने$दप वा Bhāg.4.12.49.) संक्रमणम् 1 Concurrence. -2 Transition, progress, passing from one point to another. -3 Passage. -4 The sun's passage from one zodiacal sign to another. संक्रान्तः f. The passage of the sun or any planetary body from one zodiacal sign into another.-- Songkran is the traditional Thai New Year, generally celebrated as a water festival. Be prepared to get wet all over as revelers abound, ready to soak you as a form of celebrating this season! Songkran 2012 Friday, 13 April 2012 Saturday, 14 April 2012 Sunday, 15 April 2012 The Tamil New Year follows the nirayanam vernal equinox and generally falls on 13 or 14 April of the Gregorian year. 13 or 14 April marks the first day of the traditional Tamil calendar and this remains a public holiday in both Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka. Tropical vernal equinox fall around 22 March, and adding 23 degrees of trepidation or oscillation to it, we get the Hindu sidereal or Nirayana Mesha Sankranti (Sun's transition into nirayana Aries). Hence, the Tamil calendar begins on the same date in April which is observed by most traditional calendars of the rest of India - Assam, Bengal, Kerala, Orissa, Manipur, Punjab etc. This also coincides with the traditional new year in Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh Nepal and Thailand. 25 Pic at Left: King Jayavarman VII, National Museum, Phnom Penh, twelfth century. A number of similar statues have been found, and are also presumed to be his likeness. There is no intimation, in these statues, that the King was venerated or worshipped in a temple. In the Pancaratra tradition of temple construction and consecration of murti-s, artistic embellishments are invariably found in all murti-s to connote their sacredness (such as a mukuta or ear or neck ornaments). Such embellishments are absent in the statues of King Jayavarman VII, thus belying the hypotheses of some scholars who claim that some temples were 'funerary temples'. Sdok Kok Thom inscription K.194 identifies Divakarapandita as rajahotar of Suryavarman II. He had also served the previous two kings Jayavarman VI and Dharanindravarman I. (Coedes G. & Dupont P.,Les steles de Sdok Kak Thom, Phnom Sandak et Prah Vihar, BEFEO, XLIII, 1943: 145). It is a reasonable assumption that the themes and narratives of sculptures of the temple were chosen from Itihasa-Purana with the guidance of Divakarapandita. Pic at RIGHT:n Soldiers descend from Mount S'ivapada. Inscription K.268 was translated by E. Aymonier (1904) and George Coedes (1911). Represented twice are the king, two of his ministers and the rajahotar. Total 19 dignitaries are shown: Vrah kmraten an - VKA (His Lordship) are six; kamraten an - KA (Lord) are two and Anak sanjak AS(protectors of the king) are eleven. The inscription records 'tnvay kamraten an pandita' ('the presents from the honorable pandits'); 'samtac vrah pada kamraten an paravishnuloka na stt nau vnam S'ivapada pi pancuh vala' ('His Majesty Paramavishnuloka, at the moment when he is on Mt. S'ivapada to make the army descend'); VKA's are: 'Shri Virasinhavarman', 'Shri Jayendravarman Ldau'; 'Shri Virendradhipativarman Chok Vakula'; 'Shri Virayudhavarman'; 'Shri Mahipatindravaman Canlattai'; 'Shri Ranaviravarman'; 'Shri Rajasinhavarman'; 'Narapatindravarman'; 'Shuradhiparivarman'; KA's are: 'Dhananjaya', 'Shri Varddha'; AS's are: Kancas Pryak, Mat Gnan ti hau; Vidyashrama ti hau; Virajaya, Aso Vnya Chlan to hau. Another message of the inscription is: 'Vrah pada kamraten Paramavishnuloka' ('The holy 26 feet of his Grace Paramavishnuloka'. King Suryavarman II stands on the royal elephant turning his head back, accompanied by 15 parasols, five fans, six flywhisks, four banners and a standard with a statuette of Vishnu on the shoulder of Garuda A carved pedestal supports a linga. Tra Kieu. Ht. 43 cm. (Courtesy Paisarn Priemmattawat). Tra Kieu was known as Simhapura to the Chams. Glover (Glover, I.C., 1997, The excavations of J.Y. Claeys at Tra Kieu, Central Vietnam, 1927-28 from the unpublished archives of the EFEO, Parts and records in possession of the Claeys family, JSS 85: 173-86) identified the settlement to the 5th and 6th centuries, with initial occupation in the last two or three centuries BCE. A fragment of pottery from the lowest layer has been identified as rouletted ware closely paralleling Arikamedu finds in India. This suggests maritime exchange was in place during the late first millennium BCE. (cf. Charles Higham, Early cultures of Mainland Southeast Asia, Chicago, Art Media Resources Ltd., p. 273) Paramavishnuloka is a reference to the memory of the ancestor, Suryavarman II 'he who has reached the realm of Vishnu'. All Suryavarman's ministers and associates are united on Mount S'ivapada. Rajahotar's presence denotes a s'raddha observance (remembering the ancestors). Vrah Vlen 'sacred fire' is carried in an ark on a type of palanquin, preceded by an orchestra. From S'ivapada of Chams to Vishnuloka of Suryavarman II is a remarkable syncretism of the traditions which have been documented in Indian traditions documented in Pancaratra samhitas (e.g. Sattvata and Ahirbudhnya Samhitas), Ramayana and Mahabharata -- and adapted in Angkor Wat and associated sites of the Cham-Kampuchean-Thai peoples who orgnized themselves into a state, Rajyam governed by dharma-dhamma Hindu-Bauddham continuum. 27 Banteay Srei lintel, 10th century. Valin and Sugriva of Ramayana/ Royal sacred power derives from adherance to dharma-dhamma, the eternal, cosmic, universal law. The sacredtemples of Angkor are a testament to the sacred power of dharmadhamma. Ancestors are deified and merit is earned by constructing temples, constructing reservoirs and performing dharmic acts. From Vishnuloka to S'ivapada, the function of the temple is to depict the steps for final liberation and attainment of Vrah Vishnuloka. This panel is the closest one gets to a s'raddha, an event venerating the ancestors with specific reference to royal associates in King Suryavarman II's reign. It will be an incomplete representation of the message of the temple to view it as a 'funerary temple' for some kings of ancient Cambodia (cf. George Coedes, 1963,Angkor, an introduction, London, OUP, p. 38). Nor is it valid to record that the parikrama (circumambulation) of the temple praakaara has to be done counter-clockwise because in the Indian historical tradition, Ramayana chronologically precedes Mahabharata. 28 Banteay Srei lintel, tenth century. Ravana shakes Moutn Kailasa. Like Meru, it is shown as a temple-mountain, a pyramid with several layers. S'iva and Parvati are enthroned on top. Below is a row of ascetics, people in masks and animals fleeing in fear. 29 Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat depictions of Samudra manthanam 92 asuras, 88 devas pulling the snake Vasuki. Both the epics do recount the narrative of Samudra manthanam (churning of the ocean). The divinity common to both the epics is Hanuman. The parikrama is done as in any Mandiram (temple) clockwise - starting with the Battle of Lanka narrative from Ramayana. Yes, there are narrative panels of Raja Suryarman's army on the march close to the Kurukshetra war narrative panel. This interpolation clearly demonstrates that there is no counter-clockwise parikrama prescribed for the worship in the temple of Angkor Wat. Like Angkor Wat, there are many Hindu temples in India and in South East Asia which face west: Prambanan temple has three main temples in the primary yard, namely Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva temples. Those three temples are symbols of Trimurti in Hindu belief. All of them face to the east. Each main temple has accompanying temple facing to the west, namely Nandini for Shiva, Angsa for Brahma, and Garuda for Vishnu. 30 31 The monograph will demonstrate that Angkor Wat is embellished with visual narratives and inscriptions which substantiate the Itihasa-Purana tradition. पदिमं इदतहास श्रवणे इदतवृत्तम आध्यादयर्ोिाहरणं धमं शास्त्रं अर्क शास्त्रं चेतीदतहासः Puraana (the chronicles of the ancients), Itivrtta (occurrences or events), Akhyayika (anecdotes and tales), Udaaharana (illustrative examples), Dharmashastra (the canon of Righteous conduct), and Arthashastra (the science of Government) are known by (comprise the corpus of Itihaasah, history)(Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Book 1, Chapter 5). The purport of itihaasa is clearly stated to have been achieved to 'hearing' s'ravane. Thus, the chroniclers were kathaa-kaar, 'historytellers'. Kalhana in the Rajatarangini,12th century CE (1147 to 1149 CE) expounds the purpose of itihasa: धमाकर्क र्ाममोक्षाणामुपिे श समन्ितं । पुरावृत्तं क्तर्र्ायुक्त रूपदमदतहासं प्रचक्षते ।। “Dharmaartha-kaama-moskshanaam upadesa-samanvitam | Puraa-vrttam, kathaa-yuttarupam Ithihaasah prachakshate ||” Trahslation: Itihasa provides, combined with guidance from past events embellished with anecdotes, the means to achieve dharma, artha, kaama and moksha - righteous conduct, material well-being and liberation. 32 Chapter 2 Monumentalised Gates of Angkor In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the lonely sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus a social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages, the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived. Almost all Hindu temples take two forms: a house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter which serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable images is mentioned by Pāṇini. In Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja, which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with the deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform jap, or meditation, or yoga, or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture. A gopuram or gopura is a monumental entrance tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of a Hindu temple, in the Tamil architecture of the Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Karnataka, and Telangana states of Southern India. Ancient and early medieval temples feature smaller gopuram, while in later temples they are a prominent feature of Hindu temples of the Dravidian style; or in many cases the temple compound was expanded and new larger gopuram built along the new boundary. They are topped by the kalasam, a bulbous stone finial. They function as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. Another towering structure located towards the center of the temple is the Vimanam. Both of them are designed and constructed as per rules given in the texts of Vaastu shastra. The gopuram's origins can be traced back to early structures of the Pallava kings, and relate to the central shikhara towers of North India. Between the twelfth and sixteenth century, during the Pandya, Nayaka and Vijayanagara era when Hindu temples increasingly became a hub of the urban life, these gateways became a dominant feature of a temple's outer appearance, eventually overshadowing the inner sanctuary which became obscured from view by the gopuram's colossal size and courtyards. It also dominated the inner sanctum in amount of ornamentation. Often a shrine has more than one gopuram. They also appear in architecture outside India, especially Khmer architecture, as at Angkor Wat. A large Dravidian-style temple, or koil, may have multiple gopurams as the openings into successively smaller walled enclosures around the main shrine, with the largest generally at the 33 outer edges. The temple compound is typically square or rectangular with at least the outermost wall having gopuras, often from the four cardinal directions. The multiple storeys of a gopuram typically repeat the lower level features on a rhythmic diminishing scale. The inner sanctum and its towering roof (the central deity's shrine) is also called the Vimanam, although in the south it is typically smaller than the gopurams in large temples. GOPURAM-The Tamil derivation of Gopuram is from the two words: க ோ (kō) and புறம் (puram) meaning 'king' and 'exterior' respectively. It originates from the Sangam age when it was known as ஓங் கு நிலை வோயிை் (ōnggu nilai vāyil) meaning 'imperishable gateway' Eastern Gopuram at Angkor 34 Jungle Temple Entrance or gate In 1177, approximately 27 years after the death of Suryavarman II, Angkor was sacked by the Chams, the traditional enemies of the Khmer.[ Thereafter the empire was restored by a new king, Jayavarman VII, who established a new capital and state temple (Angkor Thom and the Bayon, respectively), a few kilometers north, dedicated to Buddhism, because the king believed that the Hindu gods had failed him. Angkor Wat was therefore also gradually converted into a Buddhist site, and many Hindu sculptures were replaced by Buddhist arAngkor Wat combines two basic plans of Khmer temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the later galleried temple. It is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology. Unlike most Angkorian temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west. Scholars are divided as to the significance of this. The temple is admired for the grandeur and harmony of its architecture, extensive bas-reliefs, and the statues of Buddhas and Devas that adorn its walls. As the best-preserved temple at the site, Angkor Wat is the only one to have remained a significant religious centre since its foundation. The temple is at the top of the high classical style of Khmer architecture. It is one of the most important pilgrimage sites for Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world, having played a major role in converting Cambodia into a Buddhist nation. It has become a symbol of Cambodia,appearing on its national flag, and is the country's main tourist attraction. 35 The Meenakshi temple complex of Madurai, mostly built between 1623 and 1655 CE, a large complex in the Dravidian architecture of South India, dominated by gopuram gatehouse towers. The two main shrines are much smaller, with gold tops. How many gates are there in Angkor Wat? According to a myth, the construction of Angkor Wat was ordered by Indra to serve as a palace for his son Precha Ket Mealea. According to the 13th-century Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan, some believed that the temple was constructed in a single night by a divine architect Architectural design. The city of Angkor Thom is surrounded by a wall, 8m high and 12km long, with five gates (two in the eastern wall). The initial design and construction of the temple took place in the first half of the 12th century, during the reign of Suryavarman II (ruled 1113 – c. 1150). All of the original religious motifs derived from Hinduism. Breaking from the Shaiva tradition of previous kings, Angkor Wat was instead dedicated to Vishnu. It was built as the king's state temple and capital city. As neither the foundation stela nor any contemporary inscriptions referring to the temple have been found, its original name is unknown, but it may have been known as "Varah Vishnu-lok" after the presiding deity. Work seems to have ended shortly after the king's death, leaving some of the bas-relief decoration unfinished. The term Vrah Viṣṇuloka or Parama Viṣṇuloka literally means "The king who has gone to the 36 supreme world of Vishnu", which refer to Suryavarman II posthumously and intend to venerate his glory and memory. The temple is a representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat symbolize the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level. The South Gate is the most famous city gate and a kind of emblem of Angkor Thom. Every visitor of Angkor will see it, as the only road from the Angkor Wat to the second-most popular destination, the Bayon, crosses Angkor Thom's South Gate The South Gate is the most famous city gate and a kind of emblem of Angkor Thom. Every visitor of Angkor will see it, as the only road from the Angkor Wat to the second-most popular destination, the Bayon, crosses Angkor Thom's South Gate. All visitors will stop here in front of Angkor's most extensive collection of giant sculptures. Many tourists start an elephant ride here, either through the South Gate to the Bayon temple or to the top of the nearby hill Phnom Bakheng. The causeway of the South Gate is pretty crowded sometimes, particularly between 9.00 and 10.00 am. In the evening, an hour or two after sunset, the South Gate will be closed. Visits of Angkor are not allowed at night-time, except for guests of some special events such as dining on the upper terrace of the illuminated Bayon, sometimes exclusively arranged by luxury hotels. In front of the South Gate there is the best-preserved and restored stone causeway across the 100 m broad moat of Angkor Thom. The railings are formed by the world-famous rows of giant sculptures holding on their knees a Naga, whose seven heads rises fanwise at the outer end of the causeway. Originally, each of the Angkor Thom's five city gates had such balustrades with two times 54 figures, 108 being a holy number in Mahayana Buddhism. But today only the South Gate has an almost complete set. The eastern railing is the row of 54 Ashura demons, they can be easily identified because of the grimacing expressions of their faces. Some of the original heads are sheltered in museums now, being replaced by cement copies of a much brighter colour. The other row of 54 more friendly looking Devas (gods) is less well preserved, and more heads are missing. As already mentioned, the sculptures in each of both rows are connected by a rope in their hands in the form of a serpent. The most common and convincing interpretation, though not undisputed, is that this is a three-dimensional version of the famous "Churning of the Milk Ocean", which is depicted on many bas-reliefs in Angkor, for example, in majestic size and perfect workmanship, at the western outer gallery of the Angkor Wat. The myth of the Churning of the Sea of Milk is told in India's sacred Purana scriptures, for example in the most famous one, the Bhagavatam. Thus, the Churning of the Ocean of Milk is a narrative from the Vishnu mythology, more precisely, the story of the second of his ten major incarnations within a world cycle ("Dashavataras" = "ten Avatars") . Vishnu had to appear in the form of a turtle called Kurma in order to help to produce the elixier of immortality for the gods. The story goes: The Devas were not able to gain the Amrita, the elixier of immortality, as long as they fought against their opponents, the Ashuras, who also tried to win it. Finally both sides 37 agreed to join their forces temporarily and to churn the Sea of Milk together in order to produce Amrita. After winding the body of the serpent Vashuki around the pivot, Mt. Mandara, they jointly churned the ocean by rotating Mt. Mandara with the Naga's body as a rope. But Mt. Mandara began to sink into the ocean. And this is why Vishnu had to incarnate himself as the turtle Kurma, in order to carry Mt. Mandara on the back of his shell and to stabilize the pivotal mountain. During a period of one thousand years of joint efforts, many treasures came into existence by that churning, among them the celestial female dancers called Apsaras, the goddess Lakshmi, the three-headed elephant Airavata, and finally the Amrita elixier. Instantly, another argument and battle between gods and demons arose, before the gods could secure the Amrita for themselves. Mt. Mandara could be symbolized by the enormous Bayon temple in the centre of Angkor Thom, right in the middle between the rows of giants at the South Gate and the North Gate. The morning is slightly better to visit the South Gate. Then the faces of the demons are lighted up from the side, in the afternoon frontally. The ticket is not checked at the monument, but at the access roads of Angkor Wat and Angkor 38 A jamb (from French jambe, "leg"), in architecture, is the side-post or lining of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window outside the frame are called “reveals.” Small shafts to doors and windows with caps and bases are known as “jamb-shafts”; when in the inside arris of the jamb of a window they are sometimes called "scoinsons." A doorjamb, door jamb (also sometimes doorpost) is the vertical portion of the door frame onto which a door is secured.[2] The jamb bears the weight of the door through its hinges, and most types of door latches and deadbolts extend into a recess in the doorjamb when engaged, making the accuracy of the plumb (i.e. true vertical) and strength of the doorjambs vitally important to the overall operational durability and security of the door. The word jamb is also used to describe a wing of a building, perhaps just in Scottish architecture. John Adam added a 'jamb' to the old Leith Customs house in the Citadel of Leith in 1754–1755. There ate no jamb statutes.A jamb statue is a figure carved on the jambs of a doorway or window. These statues are often human figures-typically religious figures or secular or ecclesiastical leaders. Jambs are usually a part of a portal, accompanied by lintel and trumeau. 39 Two commonly known examples of jamb statues are the ones in Chartres Cathedral and those in Reims Cathedral; both locations are in France. RIGHT PIC BELOWS • • • • • • • • The basic form of a Hindu structural temple consists of the following. Garbhagriha: It literally means 'womb-house' and is a cave like a sanctum. ... Mandapa: It is the entrance to the temple. ... Shikhara or Vimana: ... Amalaka: ... Kalasha: ... Antarala (vestibule): ... Jagati: ... Vahana: Outer enclosure A view of the gates and west wall of the outer enclosure of Angkor Wat from across the moat 40 The outer wall, 1,024 m (3,360 ft) by 802 m (2,631 ft) and 4.5 m (15 ft) high, is surrounded by a 30 m (98 ft) apron of open ground and a moat 190 m (620 ft) wide and over 5 kilometres (3 mi) in perimeter. The moat extends 1.5 kilometres from east to west and 1.3 kilometres from north to south. Access to the temple is by an earth bank to the east and a sandstone causeway to the west; the latter, the main entrance, is a later addition, possibly replacing a wooden bridge. There are gopuras at each of the cardinal points; the western is by far the largest and has three ruined towers. Glaize notes that this gopura both hides and echoes the form of the temple proper. Galleries run between the towers and as far as two further entrances on either side of the gopura often referred to as "elephant gates", as they are large enough to admit those animals. These galleries have square pillars on the outer (west) side and a closed wall on the inner (east) side. The ceiling between the pillars is decorated with lotus rosettes; the west face of the wall with dancing figures; and the east face of the wall with balustered windows, dancing male figures on prancing animals, and devatas, including (south of the entrance) the only one in the temple to be showing her teeth. in a particular way In general, these gateways have much less decoration than the gates of the religious complexes, something that we had already expected not to see so much in a city fortress. However, it was common in Khmer architecture that the gates of urban enclosures (called gopura in Sanskrit) were monumentalised in a particular way, including having a height of wall superior to the rectilinear sections of the perimeter. Thus, the size of the gateways of Vimayapura was sufficient for a royal elephant to enter; we calculate the width was approximately 2.5 metres, the length of the passageway almost 12 metres and the preserved height 6 metres, excluding the vaults and towers. As a comparison we note that the passageways of Angkor Thom are 3.5-metre wide, 16-metre long and 7-metre high. The same as the gates of many Khmer towns and temples, including Prasat Phimai, those from the urban enceinte of Vimayapura had a cruciform plan (Figure 14). They form a Greek cross, composed of a passage perpendicular to the enclosure walls flanked by two side chambers with the stone floor elevated around one metre from the level of circulation.26 Each of those chambers was divided into three smaller rectangular spaces, with doors between them, except for the first one which was open (Figures 15, 16 and 17). They would have been used as guard posts, to control the passage of people, carriages, animals or goods inside and outside the city centre. 41 Old plan of the North Gate of Vimayapura. Although the proportions are correct, each one of the side chambers should be divided into three spaces instead of two One of the side chambers of the North Gate divided into three spaces / One of the side chambers of the West Gate divided into three spaces The jambs of the doors still have, carved in stone, the corresponding vertical frames for installing the heavy wooden panels, nowadays gone (Figure 18). Moreover, on the floor of the passageways there are two rows of transversal stones, about one metre wide and 30 centimetres high, exactly in the points where the doors closed. Besides this function, these elements could 42 have served for hindering the pace of those who crossed the gates, mounted or on foot, thus increasing the security of the control post. The gates were originally covered with the characteristic corbel or false vaults used by the ancient Khmers and crowned with tower-like decorative structures, none of them preserved. Although it is tempting to imagine gigantic stone faces similar to those from Angkor Thom or Banteay Chmar (Sharrock 2015), unfortunately we do not have any conclusive data regarding this possibility. Nevertheless, we should remember that in Khmer art those giant faces represent the guardian bodhisattva Avalokitesvara looking towards the four cardinal directions, protector of the cities and the kingdom (Jessup 2004, 173), and both Kings Jayavarman VI and Jayavarman VII (with one hundred years difference and related to Vimayapura) are known for ordering the construction of Buddhist monuments. In the case of the second, he is famous for his special predilection for that iconographic way of decorating city gates and temples (Albanese 2005, 132–33, 220–35; 2006, 202–19; Freeman and Jacques 2008, 74–83). Puja happening at Main Vishnu Shrine of Angkor 43 Chapter 3 ANGKOR WAT in Collective Memorialization Tomb of the Pol Pot Victims. Slaves on the walls of Angkor Cambodia is a small country, but it offers everything. There are two main reasons why on should visit Cambodia: 1) it offers an incredible amount of history and culture; 2) its nature is amazing: it ranges from the gorgeous National Parks to the relaxing islands. The most obvious and popular interesting fact about Cambodia is, of course, Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat is the main reason tourists flock in their numbers to Cambodia. It is the world's largest religious building and considered one of the wonders of the worldAngkor, archaeological site in what is now northwestern Cambodia, lying 4 miles (6 km) north of the modern town of Siĕmréab. It was the capital of the Khmer (Cambodian) empire from the 9th to the 15th century, a period that is considered the classical era of Cambodian history. Its most-imposing monuments are Angkor Wat, a temple complex built in the 12th century by King Suryavarman II (reigned 1113–c. 1150), and Angkor Thom, a temple complex built about 1200 by King Jayavarman VII. (See also Southeast Asian arts: Kingdom of Khmer: 9th to 13th century.)Angkor Wat is the largest Hindu temple in the world and considered one of the most important archaeological sites for its historical, religious and architectural significance. ... Today, Angkor Wat attracts thousands with religious backgrounds and individuals visiting Siem Reap on Cambodia tours. In the late 13th century, according to a vivid account by the Chinese commercial envoy Zhou Daguan, Angkor was still a large, thriving metropolis and one of the most magnificent capitals in all Asia. Nevertheless, by then the great building frenzy that had peaked during the reign of 44 Jayavarman VII had clearly come to an end, the new and more restrained religious orientation represented by Theravada Buddhism was on the rise, and the armies of Ayutthaya established in the western sections of the empire were beginning to encroach on the Khmer heartland. By the 16th century, when the next available firsthand description was written, the city was abandoned, and all that remained were the jungle-covered remnants of the ancient temples and the ruins of the oncemagnificent system of reservoirs and waterways. Archaeological interest and preservation issues During the more than four centuries between the demise of the ancient city and the beginning of the modern period (i.e., from the mid-15th century to the late 19th century), interest in Angkor was largely focused on Angkor Wat, which, having been taken over and kept largely intact by Theravada Buddhist monks, became one of the most important pilgrimage sites in Southeast Asia. Even during this period, however, a number of early European visitors to Cambodia showed a strong curiosity concerning the “lost city,” and, when the French colonial regime was established (1863), the entire site became the focus of intense scholarly interest and concern. Working at first independently and then, in the first half of the 20th century, under the aegis of the governmentsponsored École Française d’Extrême Orient (French School of the Far East), a group of French archaeologists and philologists initiated a comprehensive program of research, which yielded much of the knowledge now possessed about the history of the city and the sophisticated religious and political system that informed and guided its life. Archaeologists also carried through an arduous and painstaking program of reconstruction, through which the ancient complex of temples, reservoirs, and canals was partially restored. Heritage and social memory are not an abstract concepts. Cambodia’s recent history needs to be re-articulated and made meaningful for a population recovering from decades of national turmoil. The role played in this context by the national festival of Khmer New Year sends an important message to the people as well as the visitors- mostly tourists- that “WE LIVE” and “WE REJOICE 45 our heritage”Cambodian New Year Khmer New Year also known as Choul Chnam Thmey or Moha Sankranti in Sanskrit maks the traditional solar year in Cambodia and begins in April.. Every Cambodian family it is said, has lost relatives under the Khmer Rouge.The genocide perpetrated in Cambodia by the Khmer Rouge between 1975 and 1979, under the leadership of Pol Pot was in fact a Marxist dictatorship, the self-proclaimed “Democratic Kampuchea,30 years ago that caused the death of about 1.5 million people, or a quarter of the population .The government believes in politics of reconciliation, Buddhist believe in karma, economic development brings mass tourism opportunities, international law, and national historical narratives ann underlining Cambodia has in the past decades been in the news with the first trial of a Democratic Kampuchea leader under the auspices of the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia (ECCC). After the National Assembly passed a law in 2003 establishing an international court for the prosecution of crimes committed under the rule of Democratic Kampuchea, the first warrants against high-ranked leaders were issued in April 2004. The first defendant was Guek Eav Kaing, alias Duch, who was the commander of the Tuol Sleng prison (known as S-21 in the Khmer Rouge code). As such, he was responsible for sending over 14,000 people to their deaths after extended torture and inhumane treatment. Duch’s trial, which spanned from 2009 to 2010, was the first opportunity to publicly document the genocidal operations and to memorialize the victims, since numerous civil parties were represented and scores of witnesses testified in memory of the dead. Another four top-ranked officials—Khieu Samphan (alias Hem), Ieng Thirith (alias Phea), Ieng Sary (alias Van), and Nuon Chea, all elderly—have been indicted for crimes against humanity and detained since 2007. They are awaiting trial, provided they do not die first, as did Pol Pot and Ta Mok (“the butcher”). Although these trials have generated new research on the genocide and the remembrance of victims, little has been written about the memorialization efforts, especially in relation to memorial sites and commemorative practices. The articles written by Paul Williams and Judy Ledgerwood espouse an anthropological and museum studies perspective but focus exclusively on the center of the Khmer Rouge killing machine, Tuol Sleng and Choeung Ek.4Rachel Hughes is one of the rare scholars to explore local genocide memorials as well, albeit briefly. 5 Here, I examine a variety of memorial sites and commemorative practices, embracing the hyper-local and the transnational, as well as political, economic, and religious motivations. There are over one hundred memorial sites related to the genocide in Cambodia, from mass graves to urns and ossuaries to public artworks, but most of them are scattered in the provinces and not easily identifiable by foreign visitors. This partially explains why local memorials have not generated much scholarship. However, the main reason that national and international attention turned to Tuol Sleng and Choeung Ek lies in the original agenda of these memorials. Both sites were the first “genocide museums” that meant to display the crimes of the Khmer Rouge while primarily fulfilling a political agenda. In other words, Tuol Sleng did not become a tourism destination over time; curatorial and marketing strategies to attract visitors have been essential from its inception. When 100,000 Vietnamese troops invaded Cambodia in January 1979, those who stormed the barricaded compound of Tuol Sleng found dead bodies in shackles, fresh bloodstains on the walls, 46 human bones, torture instruments, photographic archives, and memos left by the Khmer Rouge who had just fled. While the Khmer Rouge were physically eliminating thousands of people and making the identification of human remains impossible, they were meticulously documenting their crimes— mug shots of those imprisoned, tortured, and killed; volumes of “confessions” obtained under pressure; lists of names given under duress—a paradoxical policy of erasure and evidence not unlike that of the Nazis. The army preserved everything and immediately asked a Vietnamese museum expert, Mai Lam, to turn Tuol Sleng into a museum that would document the crimes of Democratic Kampuchea. Mai Lam was a colonel in the Vietnamese army who had fought in Cambodia during the first Indochina war and had previously organized the Museum of American War Crimes in Ho-Chi-Minh City. He came with experience and with an agenda. The genocide museum opened a year later, in 1980, first to foreign dignitaries and later to the general public. David Chandler wrote: “It was important for the Vietnamese and the PRK to label Democratic Kampuchea a ‘fascist’ regime, like Nazi Germany, rather than a Communist one, recognized as such by many Communist countries. Finally, it was important for the Vietnamese to argue that what had happened in Cambodia under Democratic Kampuchea, and particularly at S-21, was genocide, resembling the Holocaust in World War II, rather than the assassinations of political enemies that at different times had marked the history of the Soviet Union, Communist China, and Vietnam.” 7 The post–Khmer Rouge discourse is very similar to that of the German Democratic Republic after World War II. This state aligned itself with the Soviet Union in denouncing the fascist crimes of (West) Germany and siding with the liberators. In the case of Cambodia, the Vietnamese forces and the new DRK government divorced the labels “Communist” or “Socialist” from Democratic Kampuchea, in favor of “Pol Pot’s genocidal clique,” “traitors of the people,” and “fascists,” so as to position themselves as liberators, even though they were Communists. Prisons, torture chambers and houses and make shift killing places mark the landscape all open to visitors as much as the Hindu temples of the Khmer Civilization. In the course of time, the number of Cambodian visitors decreased, while statistics for foreign visitors increased. Since 1993 and the establishment of the Kingdom of Cambodia, the prison has seen thousands of tourists from capitalist countries (Australia, Japan, South Korea, United States, France, Germany, etc.). Consequently, it has adapted its offering to mass tourism: a US $3 entrance fee charged to foreign visitors, guided tours, marketing with travel agents, pamphlets in various languages, bathrooms, a souvenir shop, a food and drink stand, and parking areas. The neighborhood has developed accordingly, with numerous shops selling arts and crafts, rickshaw drivers hailing potential customers, and beggars working for their daily pittance. The main site of the Khmer Rouge genocide, the killing fields of Choeung Ek, also discovered by Vietnamese troops and turned into a tourism site by Mai Lam in the early 1980s is located ten miles southeast of Phnom-Penh. Choeung Ek is described, on the official flyer, as “hell on earth in the 20th century.” A former orchard and Chinese cemetery, Choeung Ek was the main killing field where prisoners from Tuol Sleng were transported to be murdered in 1977–78. When the Vietnamese troops discovered the site, they found about 9,000 bodies in mass graves; many were headless, naked, their hands tied; the separated heads were blindfolded. The skulls and bones showed traces of bullets, knives, and other forms of violence inflicted upon men, women, and children. Babies were thrown against trees and instantly killed. 47 Through its glass doors, one can see hundreds of skulls and human bones stacked almost to the top of the sixty-two-meter-high structure. The glass doors are ajar, and the skulls stare at the visitors. Foreign tourists constitute over 90 percent of the total visitors, according to the statistics for 2007 and 2008 released by the administration of the memorial.15 In line with this statistic, the development and management of the site seem to be entirely geared toward international tourism. The mission statement on the official flyer announces, “Choeung Ek Killing Field became a historical museum for humankind and is one of the most popular attractions for both domestic and foreign tourists in Phnom-Penh.” The official management policy lists the following goals: “Preserve genocide history . . . ; make Choeung Ek an international symbol of genocide; bring Choeung Ek to the attention of the world; make Choeung Ek a model for conservation.”17 The means to achieve the goals include improving communication with tourists, generating income by attracting more tourists, finding alternative sources of income aside from the entrance fee, and developing ties with other tourism sites such as Tuol Sleng. The strategic plan recommends “the progressive enhancement of the facilities so as to increase income by providing resting chairs, a coffee shop, a restaurant, a souvenir and bookshop and toilets; the development of a calendar of special events, information projects, lectures that will eventually attract 1,000 visitors per day.”18 The notions of remembrance or memory are almost absent from the official document; so are Cambodian nationals, who do not seem worthy of much attention, as opposed to paying international tourists. In Cambodia, memory and memorialization are not performed in the main sites of murder such as Tuol Sleng and Choeung Ek, and not on official holidays such as January 7 and May 20. It is clear that these government-sponsored memorials serve primarily other purposes—political legitimacy, economic development, and profit-making ventures. They are not directed to locals who have a personal connection to memory but to international travelers who feed the global tourism industry and the national economy. To this end, all strategies are acceptable, even if they involve commodifying skulls, capitalizing on human suffering, promoting sites associated with criminals, and ignoring religious traditions. In Cambodia, remembrance of the genocide does take place, but quietly, traditionally, and locally— in each village, in each stupa, next to the pagoda, on religious holidays. There, human dignity is respected, mourning rituals have meaning, and the spirits of the murdered can eventually find rest. What makes Cambodia special? 48 Cambodians are proud people. They are proud of their strong history, which stretches back to the mighty Angkor Empire – the creators of Angkor Wat – and they are proud of their rich culture, which takes in apsara dancing, traditional arts and a swathe of artisanal crafts. Cambodia is a member of the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), one of the largest and most important free trade areas in the world, and benefits from the Common Effective Preferential Tariff (CEPT) agreement. This means that it can trade with other member countries on preferential terms and, in some cases, tariff-free. According to a Royal Decree dated March 21, 2005 on the Designation of Animals and Plants as National Symbols of the Kingdom of Cambodia, the seven symbols are the kouprey, giant ibis, royal turtle, giant Mekong barb, sugar palm, rumdul and chicken egg banana. An alarming amount of young Cambodians have no idea know what our national symbols are, a shocking surprise given their knee-jerk reactions when responding affirmatively to being nationalists. Yang Hakvun, 20, a student at Vanda Institute, said, “I want to know about the symbols of our national pride, but I don’t know what those animals and plants are.” Hakvun studies accounting, and has heard nothing of Cambodia’s national symbols in the media. According to a Royal Decree dated March 21, 2005 on the Designation of Animals and Plants as National Symbols of the Kingdom of Cambodia, the seven symbols are the kouprey, giant ibis, royal turtle, giant Mekong barb, sugar palm, rumdul and chicken egg banana. The kouprey is a kind of wild animal that dwells in low land and forests. They are more intelligent than other species in their family, and they are strong and agile. However, the kouprey is now extinct – it hasn’t been spotted since 1983. The royal turtle stands out from other turtles because while other turtle species have five claws, the royal turtle has four. The turtle was believed to be extinct in Cambodia, but the animal was spotted again in 1995 in Koh Kong Province. People named it the “royal turtle” because its eggs were eaten only by the king. 49 The giant Mekong barb is the biggest kind of river fish in Cambodia; its weight can be up to 300 kilograms. There are pictures of Giant Mekong Barb carved on Angkor Wat bas reliefs. The fish is so delicious that Cambodians prefers to eat it more than any other fish, while its scales are used to make shuttlecock. The giant ibis can be found in Preh Vihear Province, where its population stands around 100. The bird has been widely written about in popular Khmer songs and traditional tales. The giant ibis is very intelligent: if it fails at hunting in one place, the bird will never return to that location. Sugar palm is a kind of trees with a single stem, large stump and cylindrical trunk with a height of approximately 10 metres. People use sugar palm’s leaves for building roofs, its dates for making cookies and the trunk for building boats. Rumdul is a kind of flower that’s known for its alluring fragrance. The elderly compare the smell of a rumdul to a virgin girl, both fresh in nature. Rumdul flowers are a white-yellow colour and you can smell them from miles away. The chicken egg banana is used as an offering to the spirits, Thevada and for presents in many ceremonies. Its purpose is largely ceremonial. H.E. Chuch Phoeurn, Secretary of State, responsible for Cultural Heritage and Museums, said, “By selecting the seven national symbols of Cambodia, we must distinguish whether it’s rare or extinct to be preserved such as the kouprey, the giant ibis and the royal turtle.” “Those things must be praised and valued by Cambodian people, relate to the history and culture as in the songs or books and be especially advantageous to every-day life.” “For example, sugar palm can provide benefits from its roots to its leaves.” His Excellency added, “The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts has planned and is preparing an application to put these National Symbols of Cambodia as the Memory of the World Register, like Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum.” Om Ratha, 22, a Beltei International Institute student majoring in English Literature, said, “I know about the animals and plants from when I read through a magazine, which made me want to read more about these symbols.” A history teacher at Intraktevi High School, Ke Sokhena, said that she knew about the animals and plants as National Symbols of Cambodia, but she did not have time to talk about it due to a tight lesson schedule. However, the animals and plants chosen as symbols are taught in geography class, she said. 50 How successive Cambodian governments have regarded the so‐called Khmer Rouge regime, which ruled Cambodia between 1975 and 1979 is interesting to note. Between 1979 and 1993, Cambodian governments demonised the Khmer Rouge but since the late 1990s, and the collapse of the Khmer Rouge as a movement, the government has enforced a policy of collective amnesia. In closing, the rationales for officially demonising the past and officially burying it – and how these rartionales ‘fit’ with Cambodia’s collective memory – are discussed in relation to the trial of surviving Khmer leaders now (2008) taking place in Phnom Penh. In examining tourism at Angkor as a form of spatial practice, it has been argued that the presence of certain prevailing discourses and framings, in this case cultural tourism, serves to marginalise alternative understandings of heritage and memory. By viewing formations of landscape and heritage as inherently contested, and thus far from normative, the analysis offered here has highlighted some of the tensions underpinning Angkor’s recent transformation into commodified tourist space. The arrival of large-scale international tourism in Cambodia undoubtedly necessitates difficult decisions regarding both the preservation and the presentation of Angkor. While the current strategy of developing cultural tourism succeeds in presenting a ‘high quality’ landscape of ‘ancient’ monuments for an international audience, the practices and values of domestic visitors remain inadequately appreciated. By contrast, this paper has drawn upon the concept of memory to illuminate how the recent traumatic historical events of a nation are simultaneously re-appropriated, remembered and forgotten through the personal experiences of being a tourist at Angkor today. Examining tourism through the Heideggerian lens of Dasein has powerfully illustrated the ways in which activities such as picnicking, swimming and driving are symbolically and metaphorically imbued with a sense of national recovery for Cambodians today. We have also seen how the ongoing reconstruction of Angkor’s temples and modern pagodas, in the context of an increasingly popular festival, also provides Cambodians with an optimism regarding the country’s future. Addressing the complex interplay between time and space in this way provides valuable insight into the processes through which encounters with heritage landscapes can be translated and abstracted into formations of collective identities. Clearly, new year at Angkor is an example of a tourism practice whereby the ‘the activity and its 51 space are enlarged in the imagination’ (Crouch, 1999: 271). As post-conflict Cambodia vividly demonstrates, the material heritage of ‘ancient’ monumental landscapes does not merely remain part of a nation’s past, but can actively serve as a living heritage contributing to the ongoing constitution of national, cultural and ethnic identities. This analysis of domestic tourism at Angkor, as a series of creative sociocultural practices, is thus offered in an attempt to advance the understanding of such vital processes Tim Winter wrote 9n Landscape, Memory and Heritage: New Year Celebrations at Angkor, Cambodia, 2004,Current Issues in Tourism 7(4):330-345 and in Article 2 - Ethnic Identity and Cultural Heritage Tourism,2019 Site of Angkor, Cambodia. Rather than viewing heritage and social memory as abstract concepts, the paper explores domestic tourism at Angkor as the context within which Cambodia’s recent history is re-articulated and made meaningful for a population recovering from decades of national turmoil. In exploring the various values and mean- ings associated with the national festival of Khmer New Year, the paper argues that an understanding of Angkor as a form of ‘living heritage’ remains neglected within a management framework which conceives the site as a form of material culture of the ‘ancient’ past. It is therefore suggested that exploring the values and meanings associ- ated with Angkor’s cultural heritage in this way provides valuable insight into the complex relationships of landscape, memory and identity. 1 In the 1930s, an American writer described Cambodia as 'a haunted country, full of shadows, full of ambiguous little hints of the past. Villages lie scattered through it, hovering behind old trees like huge mushrooms. Time doesn't exist here. Men are born old and die young' (Prokosch 1983: 340). While using conventional exotic, orientalist themes, Frederic Prokosch does convey something of the evident omnipresence of the past in the Cambodian landscape and the dizzying temporal somersaults to which its built environment in particular is subject. This 'haunted country' has produced contrasting constructions of memory at two neighbouring sites: one generated by colonial discourse in which France recreated Angkor as a 'French' monument, and the other of the neighbouring 'French' town of Siem Reap, which struggles to resist the reductive memory that global tourism inscribes on it. While historical accounts of the region are abundant, especially in French and English, there is far less contemporary local historiography, unsurprisingly in a country in which written records of all kinds have been systematically destroyed. 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1. https://www.re-thinkingthefuture.com/designing-for-typologies/a4851-angkor-wat-and-itsmagnificent-khmer-story/ 2. A tale of two cities: Angkor and Siem Reap-Dick Vigers. Journal of Romance Studies(Vol. 5, Issue 1), Date: Spring 2005,Publisher: Liverpool University Press (UK) 52 To many in the West, the name Cambodia still conjures up indelible images of destruction and death, the legacy of the brutal Khmer Rouge regime and the terror it inflicted in its attempt to create a communist utopia in the 1970s. Sebastian Strangio, a journalist based in the capital city of Phnom Penh, now offers an eye-opening appraisal of modern-day Cambodia in the years following its emergence from bitter conflict and bloody upheaval. In the early 1990s, Cambodia became the focus of the UN’s first great post–Cold War nationbuilding project, with billions in international aid rolling in to support the fledgling democracy. But since the UN-supervised elections in 1993, the nation has slipped steadily backward into neo-authoritarian rule under Prime Minister Hun Sen. Behind a mirage of democracy, ordinary people have few rights and corruption infuses virtually every facet of everyday lifeIt has become a nation struggling to reconcile the promise of peace and democracy with a violent and tumultuous past. In A tale of two cities: Angkor and Siem Reap--the evolution of competing sites of memory 53 Chapter 4 Hindu Cities & Cosmological Design Throughout the Indian subcontinent there are territories and areas wherein culture, geography, and the archetypal cosmos interact with each other to create a sacredscape that is infused with meaning, cultural performances and transcendent power. These sacred sites possess extensive mythological associations where believed that spirit can cross between different realms. In a broad perspective such studies falls within the realm of cultural astronomy, which has two broad areas, viz. archaeoastronomy, concerned with the study of the use of astronomy and its role in ancient cultures and civilizations; and ethnoastronomy that studies the use of astronomy and its role in contemporary cultures. The critical appraisal of studying cultural astronomy and cosmic order and its implications in India, is thebcore of the pictured book COSMIC ORDER AND CULTURAL ATRONOMY. It is illustrated with case studies like heritagescape of Khajuraho, where stone speaks; manescape of Gaya, where manes come and bless the devotees; Deviscape of Vindhyachal, where goddess resorts; Shivascape of Kashi, where Shiva dances in making order; Shaktiscape of Kashi, that possesses the spatial ordering of goddesses; and Naturscape of Chitrakut, where mother earth blesses. COSMOLOGY: HINDU COSMOLOGY Hindu tradition possesses one of the richest and most continually evolving cosmologies in the global culture. From the most ancient Indian religious compositions, the Vedas, to contemporary twenty-first-century Indian theories combining science and religion, time and space have been lavishly narrated and meticulously calculated. Moreover moral, social, and philosophical meanings underlie these cosmologies in compelling ways. 54 Although through the millennia Hindu thinkers have dramatically redrawn notions of time, space, and person, they also share a wealth of common imagery: the reciprocal effects between natural and human affairs, the central idea of a cycle, and the divisions of space into particular realms and spheres. Each new cosmology does not completely replace the old but stands alongside of it as yet another cosmological option. Vedic Cosmology The Vedas and Brāhmaṇas are texts that existed before the idea of "Hinduism" per se emerged as a world religion. Present scholarly consensus puts the earliest date of the Vedas at 1500 bce, but there remains debate on the topic that might place the Vedas earlier. The Brāhmaṇas are placed around 900 bce. These texts were almost entirely oral, guarded by the priestly Brahmanic tradition as the basic supporting texts of the sacrifice. The cosmology of the Vedas speaks of the cosmos as Father Sky (Dyaus Pitṛ) and Earth (Pṛthivī). In other texts the cosmos is divided into three realms: 1. bhūr (earth), 2. bhuvaḥ (air), and 3. svaḥ (heaven). The sacrifice and not the gods is considered the source of time, space, and all things that make up the universe. The Agnicayana, or the building of the fire altar, as well as many other forms of sacrifice are viewed in the Brāhmaṇa texts as symbolic reconstructions of the cosmos. Moreover the right placement of sacrificial implements and correct chanting of mantras allows the unimpeded turning of the year, the months, and the seasons as well as the correct placement of the three realms. At times cosmological thinking is so present and deeply assumed in Vedic texts that the "earthly realm" (as opposed to the other realms) is simply referred to as iha, "here." Vedic Space Following from above, the basic form of cosmological space is the sacrificial arena. However, many of the Vedic gods, such as Agni, the fire god, have three different forms corresponding to the three Vedic realms. These "realms" are not only spatial but can also be described as mental states of mind: loka, or world, in its earliest meanings, can mean the "freedom to exist unimpeded" or "expansiveness" as much as it can mean a physical location. Yet these three realms are not the only form of imagined space: at death, the Vedic funeral hymns assert, the various elements within a person are scattered to various parts of the natural world. Alternatively the person can go to the realm of Yama, the overlord of the dead. Vedic Time 55 The sacrificial world understood time as a kind of simple cycle in which the year, the months, and the day are products of the work of the sacrifice. The passing of time is also homologized with death, and in later periods both death and the year were created by Prajāpati, the "Lord of Creatures," who also gave instructions about the correct procedures of the sacrifice. If one sacrificed well and long enough, one attained status oneself as an ancestor deity to be propitiated by other living sacrificers on earth. Therefore once one attained this status, the Vedic texts express a wish to avoid a "re-death." In addition Vedic texts show a high awareness of the motion and rhythm of the sun, moon, and stars and imagine them in a variety of colorful ways: the sun as a horse crossing the sky in a chariot, night and the dawn as rivalrous sisters, and so on. There is evidence that astronomical knowledge, such as the marking of the lunar asterisms, might well have been fairly advanced, even at this early stage of known religious history. Vedic Person and Morality In one famous Vedic hymn (Ṛgveda 10:90), which proved to be influential in a number of later Hindu schools of thought, the universe itself is understood as a cosmic person (Puruṣa). This Puruṣa is sacrificed in a primordial ritual procedure, and from parts of his body emerge the various creatures of the earth, elements of time and space, elements of the sacrifice, and most importantly categories of the social world, called varṇa. These four varṇa s (brahmin priest; kṣatriya warrior; vaiśya agriculturalist or trader; and śūdra servant) become the basis of social organization expressed in later legal and religious texts. The model earthly Vedic person is one who studies the Vedas, sacrifices, and tends to the sacrificial fires and therefore becomes ritually and morally responsible for the cosmos. And yet such a person is also a seeker. Ṛgveda 10:90 ends with a philosophical paradox: "with the sacrifice the gods sacrificed to the sacrifice." This enigma also sets the tone for much of Vedic cosmology: acceptance of multiple versions of creation; Vedic cosmology is questioning and searching, not doctrinal or creedal in nature. One of the most famous cosmological hymns, the Nasadīya hymn (Ṛgveda 10:129), speaks of the world beginning from nothingness, where "the One breathed, windless," and then coming into existence through the power of heat. Desire is the primal seed, and the sages create by stretching a cord across the void. Yet even this spare, poetic cosmology ends with a query: Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it? Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation? The gods came afterwards, with the creation of the universe. Who then knows whence it has arisen? … perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not—the one who looks down on it, in the highest heaven, only he knows perhaps he does not know. (O'Flaherty, 1981, pp. 25–26) UpaniṢadic Cosmology While the activity of sacrifice is still presumed in the period of composition of the Upaniṣadic texts, the object of sacrificial knowledge is no longer the actual procedures of the sacrifice or the gods per se but a new force called brahman. Brahman is thought of as the power behind the sacrifice, and as the Upaniṣadic thought developed, it was described as the power behind every living thing and every element in the universe. Brahman is "the Whole" (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 2:5) and transcends even the gods. It also exists beyond all known things in this world, and yet is also present within them as well. It is set apart from beings and yet dwelling within 56 beings at the same time. This basic identification between the selves of beings and brahman leads to the famous Upaniṣadic equation that the self (ātman) is the same as the power behind the universe (brahman). As the sage Yājn̄avalkya puts it, "The self within all is this self of yours." The larger brahman is also spoken of as the ātman or "self" of the universe, thus giving rise to the poetic nineteenth-century translation "the World-Soul." The earliest Upaniṣads probably originated around 600 to 500 bce and were composed in prose. They shared a common focus on many topics, such as the nature of brahman, the nature of sacrificial speech and the verses, the various forms of breath, and the homologization of parts of the body to the powers in the universe. The teaching of the five fires as the essence of the major parts of the cosmos (e.g., fire as man, woman, and the three worlds) is especially distinctive in these early prose compositions. The later Upaniṣads are composed in verse and develop the theme of brahman into a theistic rather than monistic conception. They also focus on the idea of liberation through meditation. Both are themes common in later Purāṇic cosmologies. UpaniṢadic Space Many of the Upaniṣads continue the idea of the three worlds in the Vedas but add to this cosmology an inner, more existential meaning. When the student Aśvala asks how many oblations there will be, the sage Yājn̄avalkya responds that each oblation has its own modality and is therefore connected to the specific world that shares that modality. The oblations that flare will win the world of the gods, for the world shines that way. The oblations that overflow (atinedante) will go to the world of the ancestors, for that world is "over above" (ati). The oblations that lie down (adhiśerate) will go to this human world, for that world is here below (adha). This imagery continues a basic cosmology that one sees in earlier Vedic texts of the worlds of the gods, the fathers, and the ancestors. However, it attributes, through etymologies, different modes of being to each of the offerings and each of worlds. In other passages the three-fold world is described in a progression of size from one to sixty-four, a numerology that is recurrent in many later cosmological texts. Finally, in other passages the three levels (bhūr, bhuvaḥ, svaḥ) of the Vedic world are expanded into seven realms, many of the additional realms again connoting "modes of being": mahas, janas, tapas (meditative heat), and satyam (truth). The second kind of Upaniṣadic space is the body itself. Each of the basic sacrificial procedures, present from the earliest Vedic ritual texts, becomes homologized with the individual breathing body as well as the world itself. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka and other Upaniṣads the sacrificial fires are seen as part of the inner workings of the body; the role of the Adhvaryu priest is identified with their eyes and the process of sight itself, and this sight can see the nature of the whole world (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3:1:5). In other passages it is not only the cosmology of the sacrifice that is given to the body but also the cosmology of the entire world and its topography. For instance, rivers of the world are identified as the rivers contained within the body (Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 1:1:1; Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 1:4:5), the eye of the world is also the sight of the body (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 1:7:4), and so on. The third kind of Upaniṣadic space is that of brahman itself. Brahman is also spoken of as a formulation of truth—a truth that is to be attained by wise men and women who have practiced 57 meditation and focused on the forest teachings for a long time. Brahman is the highest object of the teachings on hidden connections—an object rooted in austerity and the knowledge of the self (Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 1:9). The imagery here is not simply that of a truth to be attained but of an abode in its own right, where the sun never sets nor rises (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 3:11). Similarly other Upaniṣads also describe brahman as a stainless realm (Praśna Upaniṣad 1.16) in its own right—a world of unending peace, an ancient formulation that is heard in the heavenly abodes. UpaniṢadic Time: The Cycle of Birth and Death One sees emerging in the Upaniṣads a theory of death and birth that is strikingly different than the Vedic sacrificial fear of "re-death" (punarmṛtyu). The Upaniṣads contain the earliest records of what has been called saṃsāra, or the endless cycle of birth and death, as well as mokṣa, or the path that leads away from saṃsāra. The story of Jabālā is instructive on this point (Chāndogya Upaniṣad 3:4:1–4). Jabālā is ashamed that his native learning, gleaned at his father's knee, is not sufficient in the court to which he travels. He must learn an entirely new set of metaphors, in which each aspect of life (man, woman, semen, food) is said to be identical with the sacrificial fire. While such matters are not unusual for many sections of the Upaniṣads, the subsequent section is startlingly new. Those whose conduct is good but who choose to offer sacrifices in the village will go on the path of the moon and be reborn accordingly. Those who choose the path of the forest and the knowledge of brahman will go on the path of the sun and leave this life altogether. And those whose conduct is reprehensible will be reborn into a lesser, probably repugnant womb. In other accounts the two paths are described as the path of the gods (devayāna) and the path of the father (pitṛyāna). UpaniṢadic Person and Morality Despite their variations, the Upaniṣads all share the concept of a cycle of infinitely recurring births and deaths in which the nature of a rebirth depends upon a person's actions in life. The only way to escape this cycle of time is through knowledge of brahman, the infinite, which can be gained through slow and painstaking mastery of meditation under the guidance of a teacher. Each Upaniṣad had a different method for teaching this knowledge, but all used the basic imageries of the sacrifice to show the ways in which bodily processes and processes of awareness allowed the student to conceive of the sacrifice as going on inside his body. In the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3:1:8–10, Aśvala the hotṛ (a priest trained in sacrifice and sacrificial recitation), asks Yājn̄avalkya the teacher about how many deities will be used by the Brāhmaṇ priest to protect the sacrifice that day. He answers, "One, the mind." Yajn̄avalkya argues that this is possible because the mind is without limit, the all-gods are without limit, and the world one gains by it is also limitless. Thus the deities become identified with mind itself— and by implication the Brāhmaṇ priest, the controller of the sacrifice, can earn his authority through the machinations of his own mind. Finally, in discussing the hymns that are used in the sacrifice, Aśvala asks what these hymns are with respect to the "self-body" (ātman). Yājn̄avalkya replies that the hymn recited before the sacrifice is the out-breath, the hymn that accompanies the sacrifice the in-breath, and the hymn of praise the inter-breath. The Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad puts the relationship between self, body, and cosmos eloquently: "This self is the honey of all beings, and all beings are the honey of this self. The radiant and 58 immortal person in the self and the radiant and immortal person connected with the body [here, also referred to as ātman ]—they are both one's self. It is the immortal; it is Brahman, it is the Whole" (2:5:9). Epic Cosmology The two great Indian epics, the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata, were probably composed between 200 bce and 200 ce. Both of these narratives act as a kind of bridge between the worlds of the Vedas and the Upaniṣads and that of classical, Purāṇic Hinduism. This same period saw the development of the early Śāstras or legal texts, which also contain cosmological information. The cosmology of the epics and the early Śāstras incorporates an increasing systematization of the idea of samsaric time for the individual and expands the idea of the universe into one that dissolves and regenerates. Epic cosmology also incorporates the ideas of Sāṃkhya and Yoga philosophy, such as the "qualities," or guṇa s, that are inherent in all beings and elements in the universe. Such a cosmology involves an entirely new pantheon of gods, the triad of Viṣṇu, Śiva, and Brahmā, and the Devī, or goddess. These gods were probably part of the popular religious worlds of North India, even during the period of Vedic sacrificial practice. However, as sacrificial practice waned and the patronage of temples increased, these gods emerged as the larger, cosmological deities in their own right. Devotion (bhakti) toward these deities is also an emerging theme in the epics, in which the deity is seen as the creator and sustainer of the universe. The body of the deity is the frame of the cosmos, and time (also an agent of the deity) moves beings toward their final state. At the basis of these ideas is an early Hindu philosophy called Sāṃkhya, which means "counting." In the sense that its aim is to enumerate everything in the universe, it could also be called a cosmology. According to Sāṃkhya, the universe evolves from a feminine "natural matter" and becomes entangled with the masculine puruṣa, which is an individual soul (and not to be confused with the earlier "cosmic person"). Thus in these entanglements twenty-four "evolutes" emerge, including the senses and the elements. Sāṃkhya is the basis of the practice of Yoga, whereby the yogin gradually extricates the soul from the evolutes of prakṛti. After eight stages, the soul realizes its eternal nature and is no longer subject to the laws of action (karma) or transmigration (saṃsāra). Time, however, is not an agent in itself. Sāṃkhya's ordering of the universe of prakṛti is generally not hierarchical, although one text—the Yoga Bhāṣya —sees the lower evolutes of prakṛti as the hells and the higher ones as the heavens. The extrication of the soul from prakṛti in the practice of Yoga is seen as the soul's movement toward the higher realms, and when it leaves the world altogether, it also dissolves it. On a smaller cosmological scale, Sāṃkhya Yoga philosophy contributes the basic idea that there are universal qualities or "guṇas" inherent in every element on earth. These guṇas are sattva (truth, light); rajas (passion, force) and tamas (weight, darkness) are inherent in every particle of the universe. Epic Space The epics and Dharmaśāstras and related texts of this period give an idea of how those heavens and netherworlds might be inhabited. In the Mahābhārata, Arjuna visits Śiva and obtains a 59 weapon from him in one of his heavenly abodes; so too the gods dwelling in heaven remind Rāma of his duty toward his wife at the end of the Rāmāyaṇa. The great Mahābhārata heroes, the Paṇḍava brothers, also make ascents and descents to heaven and hell at the end of the great battle. Most importantly it is during this transitional period that one sees the intimation that the land of Bhārata is to be identified with Indian civilization and the entirety of the earth. Epic Time The Bhiṣmaparvan of the Mahābhārata (4–12) contains an entire depiction of the cosmos, which involves the beginnings of the devotional, or bhakti, tradition. So too the Śantiparvan introduces the idea of the division of time into kalpas and yugas, as does the Manu Smṛti, one of the more well-known legal Dharmaśāstric texts developed during this time. The epic texts also introduce explicit teachings on the doctrine of the avatāras, or "descents" of god. These avatāras appear at various points when time has lost its power to fight the demons and to restore the dharma, or moral order, of the universe. As early as the great Bhagavadgītā, or "Song of the Lord," contained in the Mahābhārata, Kṛṣṇa apparently refers to the notion of time and to the integration of the idea of the avatāra with that of the descending ages, or yugas. As Kṛṣṇa puts it: Son of Bhārata, whenever there is a decline in dharma, and the absence of dharma increases, I create Myself. I come into being from age to age with the purpose of fixing dharma —as a refuge for those who do good and as a doom for those who do wrong. (4:7–8; in Patton, 2005) Epic Person and Morality Kṛṣṇa's words lead directly to a new understanding of the relationship between cosmology and the morality of the human world. That relationship is conceived of in terms of dharma (sacred role or duty). Kṛṣṇa is beyond time and space and yet at the same time incarnates himself in order to make sure that dharma is in the correct order and format. The cosmos is perceived as directly responsive to any change in the correct pattern of dharma. So too the reverse is the case: as one of the Dharmaśāstras argues, if one follows the dharma of hospitality toward a brahmin guest, one can gain various heavens depending upon the number of days the guest stays in one's home. Entertaining a brahmin guest forever allows one to attain svargaloka. PurĀṆic Cosmology The medieval Hindu texts called Purāṇas ("of the ancient times") contain Hindu cosmology at its most exuberant and efflorescent. Emerging during the early first millennium ce as a genre in their own right, Purāṇas were sponsored by each temple or kingdom and usually focused on a particular deity, which gave its own account of the world and its destruction. In the Purāṇas, the basic themes introduced in the epics and the Śāstras are elaborated upon imagistically, poetically, and mathematically. Moreover the theme of bhakti, or devotion, which was dramatically introduced in the epics and Yoga texts, becomes paramount. PurĀṆic Space Many Purāṇas, including the relatively early Viṣṇu Purāṇa, describe a flat disk of earth, which is itself composed of a series of circles. These are in fact seven concentric islands that keep doubling in size as one moves outward. (The first is an actual circle, and the concentric islands 60 are ring-shaped.) The islands are separated from each other by a series of oceans, each of which has the width of the island it encircles. The center-most island is the most well known and is called Jambudvīpa (Rose Apple Island). And at the center of the world, the golden mountain called Meru anchors the entire arrangement. Meru is unusual in that it is an inversion of the usual mountains and points downward. Jambudvīpa is further divided into nine varṣa s, or regions, that consist of mountain ranges. The lines are latitudinal, running from east to west. The region of Jambudvīpa that is the farthest north is called Uttarakuru and may well be Kurukṣetra, where the central battle of the Mahābhārata took place. Moving southward, one encounters the other varṣas: Hiranmaya, Ramyaka, Ketumāla, Ilavṛta, Bhadrāśya, Harivarṣa, Kiṃpuruṣa, and Bhārata. The final region, Bhārata, is assumed by many scholars to be India, as this is the same name for India in the twenty-first century. In the Purāṇic cosmograph, however, it is a karmabhūmi, or realm where the laws of karma apply. As such one can only attain mokṣa, or liberation from these laws, in this region. Bhārata is also the only place on earth where rain falls. Bhārata itself is divided into nine sections. Moreover the celestial river Ganges also divides into seven branches—the traditional seven rivers found in ancient Vedic texts. The full series of seven islands then begins with Jambudvīpa, whose diameter is 100,000 yojana s. Jambudvīpa forms an actual circle with a radius of fifty thousand yojana s. (A yojana is a word that occurs as early as the Ṛgveda; it has been variously measured as two, four, five, or nine English miles, although it also has an etymological link to Yoga and yuga that makes its connotations metaphysical.) The rest of the ring-shaped islands are named as follows: Plakṣadvīpa, Sālmaladvīpa, Kuśadvīpa, Krauṇcadvīpa, Śākadvīpa, and Puṣkaradvīpa. All the islands are named after some species of the trees and plants that grow on them. Each concentric ring island is double the width of the previous one, so that the outermost, Puṣkaradvīpa, ends up with a width of 6.4 million yojana s. Finally, just as Jambudvīpa is divided into nine varṣa s, or regions, of mountain ranges, so too each of the five inner ring-shaped islands also is divided into seven mountain-range varṣa s. The outer most island, Puṣkaradvīpa, is delineated by a ring of mountains called Mānassottara. The oceans that separate the ring islands from one another have the same width as the diameter they surround, with the same expansion of measurement up to 6.4 million for the last ocean. Their names are drawn from the substance of the oceans themselves: Lavaṇoda (Salt Ocean), Ikṣura (Molasses Ocean), Suroda (Wine Ocean), Ghṛtoda (Ghee Ocean), Dadhyoda (Curd Ocean), Kṣīroda (Milk Ocean), and Svādūdaka (Freshwater Ocean). The Freshwater Ocean flows beyond the last ring island, Puṣkaradvīpa, and separates it from the end of the universe (lokasaṃsthiti). The realm at the end of the universe is a golden realm that divides the world from the nonworld, similarly to the way in which being and nonbeing are distinguished even in the earliest Vedic cosmologies. The golden realm also has a mountain, Lokakāloka (World and non-World). After this mountain is a region of perpetual darkness, where, the texts seem to suggest, only the elements of earth, wind, air, and fire exist. After that realm is the shell of the egg of Brahmā, which envelopes the universe in its entirety. The entire diameter of this universe is said to be 500 million yojana s. What of the stars and other heavenly bodies? The stars move around Mount Meru in a circular direction, with the North Star (dhruva) as their pivot. Below them lies the flat disk of the earth. The sun, moon, and planets move about in chariots drawn by horses, as was the case even in the 61 earliest Vedic texts. They are attached to the North Star by bands of air that allow them to travel in their proper orbits. The Hindu cosmograph, with its conical center, Mount Meru, and the chariot of the sun and disk of stars circulating above the disk of concentric islands and oceans may be based on a projection of the celestial sphere onto a flat surface. In such an analysis the circle of the sun is the mythographic expression of the circle of the ecliptic. Mount Meru represents the projection of the celestial Tropic of Cancer, while the Mānassottara Mountain represents the projection of the Tropic of Capricorn. The prominence of the North Star, the conspicuous absence of the south polar star, and the stories about the exile of Agastya (Canopus) to the Southern Hemisphere to preserve the cosmograph all support the idea that the Hindu cosmograph is a northern, planispheric projection of the sort used to construct such instruments as the astrolabe. As for a vertical cosmology, there are seven worlds with the same names as those of the Upaniṣads, although the Purāṇas make considerable elaboration on these. The bhūrloka contains the cosmograph of the seven islands outlined above, with Bhārata as the only land where the law of karma applies and liberation is possible. Most significantly, there are seven Pātalas, or netherworlds: Atala, Vitala, Nitala, Gabhastimat, Mahātala, Sutala, and Pātala. Below these are twenty-eight hell realms. The bhuvaṣḥ, or intermediate realm, is the realm of the sun, which moves through its annual course in its chariot. Above this is the svarloka, which contains, in ascending order, the moon; its twenty-seven or twenty-eight Nakṣatras, or houses of the moon; Mercury (Buddha); Venus (Śukra); Mars (Angārika); Jupiter (Bṛhaspati); Saturn (Śani); and the Seven Ṛṣis (the Great Bear) and Dhruva (the North star, mentioned above). The three basic realms of bhur, bhuvaḥ, and svaḥ are described as kṛtika —meaning they are "created" worlds and therefore transitory. They are the regions where consequences are experienced and renewed with every kalpa. In these three realms the fruits of karma that are acquired in Bhārata manifest themselves, and souls are reborn to enjoy these fruits. These are the enjoyment realms (bhogabhūmi) as opposed to the karmabhūmi of Bhārata. Above the svarloka is the realm of mahas, which is considered a mixed realm because it is a deserted by beings at the end of kalpa but is not destroyed. Finally, the three highest realms—janas, tapas, and satyam —are described as akṛittika: that which is uncreated. They perish only at the end of the life of Brahmā. PurĀṆic Time The Purāṇas divide time into such components as yugas, as four age cycles, and kalpa s, which are a day and a night of Brahmā. The Purāṇas provide a very thorough analysis of these components. Together with doctrines concerning the various destructions (pralayas), they are the glue that holds this cosmology together and provides it with a coherent drama of salvation. Indeed Viṣṇu Purāṇa asserts it is not space but time that constitutes the body of the deity. Hindu divisions of time are as follows. Fifteen "twinklings of the eye" make a kāṣṭhās, or one kalā; and thirty kalās equal one muhūrtta. Thirty muhūrttas constitute a day and a night of 62 mortals; thirty such days make a month, which is divided into two halves (waxing and waning). Six months form an ayana, and two ayanas compose a year. The southern ayana is a night and the northern a day of the gods. Twelve thousand divine years, each comprising 360 such days, constitute the period of the yugas (caturyuga). The kṛtayuga consists of four thousand divine years, the tretāyuga of three thousand, the dvāparayuga of two thousand, and the kaliyuga of one thousand. The period that precedes a yuga is called a sandhyā; it lasts for as many hundred years as there are thousands in the yuga. The sandhyānsa, at the end of the yuga, is of similar duration. Together the four yugas constitute a kalpa. A thousand kalpas is a day of Brahmā, and fourteen Manus, or descendants of man, reign during that time period, which is known as Manvantara. At the end of a day of Brahmā, the universe is consumed by fire, and its dissolution occurs. Brahmā then sleeps for a night of equal duration. Three hundred and sixty such days and nights constitute a year of Brahmā, and one hundred such years equal his entire life (mahākalpa). One parārddha, or half his life, has expired. The various pralayas epitomize the agency of time by moving the soul—and the universe—from its current state to its eventual salvation. The Purāṇas distinguish four types of dissolution, or pralaya, each reversing the process of creation at different levels. These include: • • • • Nitya pralaya, or physical death of the individual caught in the cycle of transmigration; Ātyantika pralaya, or spiritual liberation (mokṣa) ; Prākṛta pralaya, or dissolution of the elements at the end of the life of Brahmā; Naimittika pralaya, or occasional dissolution associated with the cycles of yugas and descents of avatāras. Yet calculations of time also had a meditative quality: the contemplation of infinity, or the largest number next to infinity, was meant to be close to a vision of God. The Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa tells the well-known story of the dialogue between Viṣṇu and Indra. In the form of a young boy, Viṣṇu tells Indra that a parade of ants crawling on the earth have all had lives as Indras—each ruling over their own solar systems in different ages. PurĀṆic Person and Morality In the Purāṇic texts, the four yugas progress as a kind of inevitable decay in the moral quality of the universe. The Kūrma Purāṇa (1:27, 16–57; 28:1–7) states it elaborately. The text describes the meditational bliss, lack of self interest, and natural habitat of human beings in the first yuga, kṛtayuga; the arising of pleasure and greed in the tretāyuga; the lack of firm resolve and the introduction of war, death, and suffering in the dvāparayuga; and the rampant hunger, fear, and inversion of social order in the final present age of the kaliyuga. Happiness, beauty, homes in the forest, and food dropping from trees gradually give way to the moral decay of the world and then to the development of practices aimed at liberation from such decay. The kaliyuga is considered the worst of the four yugas —the moment right before the final destruction and renewal of the universe. The Purāṇas and many contemporary Hindu thinkers understand the present to be the kaliyuga. The decadence, greed, and confusion of social 63 categories is both inevitable and part of the turning of the cycles of time, and yet the Purāṇas and other Hindu texts exhort each individual to be the moral exception in this period of decay. Non-Sanskritic Cosmologies It is important to note, however, that the extended discussion of cosmology above is based mainly on the Sanskrit textual tradition and that there are many important cosmologies within Hinduism that may depart from these basic ideas in significant ways. In South India, for example, Tamil, Telugu, and Karnatak traditions have developed complex and sophisticated classical cosmologies of their own. Such texts focus on the meaning of the temple and the city surrounding it as a center and origin of the world and on a regional deity as its creator. The temple spires and surrounding tanks frequently function in ways similar to, and are sometimes even compared with, Mount Meru and its surrounding islands in the Sanskrit texts. So too South Indian texts describe deities like Murukaṉ (Murugan) residing in these temples as if they were a kind of paradise created at the beginning of the world. At a village level, guardian deities of ponds, wells, and the intersections of roads are also credited with cosmological powers and roles in creation. Finally, the ādivasis, or "tribal" communities of India, such as the Muṇḍa, Santal, and others, also possess unique cosmologies, some of which incorporate Hindu deities such as Rāma, others of which involve completely separate deities who have created and preside over the natural world and look after the welfare of human beings. Many tribal cosmologies incorporate narratives of the victory of good over evil. The Muṇḍa, for example, tell the story of Singbonga, who tried to stop the iron smelters from working as it was causing pollution in the universe. When they refused, he had to destroy them in order to keep the world safe. So too the Kokna, Bhil, and Varli peoples understand that before humans the world was filled with rakṣasas, or demons; Rāma and Sītā then passed through the area, killed the demons, and gave birth to humans. Science and Cosmology Any discussion of Hindu cosmology would be empty without a discussion of astronomy and related sciences. As mentioned previously, the astronomical sciences appear as early as the Vedic period in the form of Jyotiṣḥśāstra, or "the science of light." Though there is considerable debate as to the range and nature of astronomical knowledge, it is known that the lunar mansions are mentioned in the Brāhmaṇas and that the Hindu science of calculation began with the cosmological Vedic altars and developed into the elaborate calculations of the yugas, kalpas, and mahākalpas in the Purāṇas. Jyotiṣḥśāstra encouraged thinkers to assign dates to the grand conjunctions of the middle planets at Aries, and the date February 18 (or 19) of 3101 (or 3102) bce is frequently cited as marking the beginning of the kaliyuga. One astronomical text, in the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa (2:166–174), is the earliest of this genre and is the basis of the Brahmāpakṣa. Together with the Aryapakṣa and the Ardharatrikapakṣa, these three texts form the canonical schools of Hindu astronomy. The great astronomer-sage Āryabhaṭa (fifth–sixth centuries ce) calculated the rotations of the earth and the sun in terms of the yugas. His treatises (siddhantas) sketch his mathematical, planetary, and cosmic theories and include a sine table, astronomical computations, divisions of 64 time, and rules for computation for eclipses as well as the longitude of planets. Among the other theorists, Varāhamihira (sixth century ce), Brahmagupta (seventh century ce), Bhāskara (twelfth century ce), and Mādhava (fourteenth century ce) all gave calculational and astronomical theories that contributed to overall ideas about the universe, such as the rotational powers of the planets and the centrality of the sun. Indeed by the time of Bhāskara (c. twelfth century ce) the old Purāṇic cosmology was being questioned with the construction of a different model of the solar system. In the debates one can detect a conflict between the Purāṇic cosmology and the cosmology of the Jyotiṣas. There are some discussions that remind one of the contemporary cosmological debate between creationism and the Big Bang. For instance, the astronomical writers asked: If, as some of the Purāṇas state, a tortoise is holding up the earth, then what being or substance might be supporting that tortoise? Or if one is assuming the gigantic height of Mount Meru and a flat, disk-like earth, then would not one be able to see Mount Meru from every point on the disk of the earth? Around 1200 ce al-Bīrūnī, an Arab astronomer and translator, noted the debates and problems of Purāṇic cosmology that were present in the discussions of Indian astronomers. Relatedly it is clear that there was a great deal of scientific collaboration between Hindus and Muslims in Mughal India, especially in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Jaipur, where the appropriate description of the cosmos was argued out at great length. Finally, in the contemporary period various more and less controversial attempts have been made to correlate scientific advances with Hindu cosmology. In the more controversial cases textual exegetes argue about whether it is appropriate to view certain descriptions of "vehicles" in the epics as referring to space travelers or whether the ancient word yojana, mentioned above, refers to the speed of light. In a more speculative and less controversial vein Yoga theorists draw parallels between the theory of the three guṇas and James C. Maxwell's theories of electromagnetism; between the relation of space and time in Sāṃkhya theory and the theory of relativity; between the idea of the cosmic egg and the theory of curved space in the general theory of relativity; and so on. Many contemporary philosophers and historians, such as S. Radhakrishnan, B. K. Motilal, A. N. Balslev, and W. R. Kloetzli, have written of the parallels (not equivalencies) between scientific and Hindu philosophical thinking. The Hindu philosophical school of Nyāya Vaiśeṣika and its views on the atom's role in the universe is one particularly salient example. Finally, the cosmological writings of astrophysicist Jayant Viṣṇu Narlikar land more squarely in the world of physical science and cosmology. Considered a leading expert and defender of the steady state cosmology against the more popular Big Bang cosmology, Narlikar has also drawn some intriguing parallels with Hindu mythology—not in order to "prove" the existence of scientific knowledge in ancient texts but rather to show the power of the cosmological imagination in both science and mythology. Many of the cosmological myths referred to above, involving expansion and contraction, the in-breathing and out-breathing of Brahmā, and so on, seem to involve metaphors of a "steady state" similar to Narlikar's physical and mathematical arguments in scientific cosmology. TOWN PLANNING 65 They say that town planning originated in the United Kingdom during the industrial revolution. The rapid growth of the urban population resulted in overcrowding and water contamination which caused serious public health issues. In response, local authorities took responsibility for providing clean water and the removal of sewerage and refuse. Acts of Parliament were passed to regulate for these services. Town planning soon expanded to include amenity matters. Controls were introduced to minimise the detrimental effects that resulted from the adjacent location of incompatible activities (e.g. noisy or smelly activities in residential areas). It was soon recognised that rural land also needed to be managed to prevent the continued loss of productive rural land and the escalating cost of providing infrastructure to the suburbs. Similarly, the history of urban planning is a technical and political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as transportation and distribution networks. The history of urban planning runs parallel to the history of the city, as planning is in evidence at some of the earliest known urban sites. The pre-Classical and Classical periods saw a number of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were characteristic of the Minoan, Mesopotamian, Harrapan, and Egyptian civilisations of the third millennium BC (see Urban planning in ancient Egypt). The first recorded description of urban planning appears in the Epic of Gilgamesh: "Go up on to the wall of Uruk and walk around. Inspect the foundation platform and scrutinise the brickwork. Testify that its bricks are baked bricks, And that the Seven Counsellors must have laid its foundations. One square mile is city, one square mile is orchards, one square mile is claypits, as well as the open ground of Ishtar's temple.Three square miles and the open ground comprise Uruk. Look for the copper tablet-box, Undo its bronze lock, Open the door to its secret, Lift out the lapis lazuli tablet and read." All these word describe the same phenomenon- aggregate living of people. Which ofcourse began since ancient times and not just after the industrial revolution. A city was and is a large human settlement. It can be defined as a permanent and densely settled place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organisations and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving efficiency of goods and service distribution. Historically, city-dwellers have been a small proportion of humanity overall, but following two centuries of unprecedented and rapid urbanization, more than half of the world population now lives in cities, which has had profound consequences for global sustainability. Present-day cities usually form the core of larger metropolitan areas and urban areas—creating numerous commuters traveling towards city centres for employment, entertainment, and education. However, in a world of intensifying globalisation, all cities are to varying degrees also connected globally beyond these regions. This increased influence means that cities also have significant 66 influences on global issues, such as sustainable development, global warming and global health. Because of these major influences on global issues, the international community has prioritized investment in sustainable cities through Sustainable Development Goal 11. Due to the efficiency of transportation and the smaller land consumption, dense cities hold the potential to have a smaller ecological footprint per inhabitant than more sparsely populated areas. Therefore, compact cities are often referred to as a crucial element of fighting climate change. However, this concentration can also have significant negative consequences, such as forming urban heat islands, concentrating pollution, and stressing water supplies and other resources. Other important traits of cities besides population include the capital status and relative continued occupation of the city. For example, country capitals such as Beijing, London, Mexico City, Moscow, Nairobi, New Delhi, Paris, Rome, Athens, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo, and Washington, D.C. reflect the identity and apex of their respective nations. Some historic capitals, such as Kyoto and Xi'an, maintain their reflection of cultural identity even without modern capital status. Religious holy sites offer another example of capital status within a religion, Jerusalem, Mecca, Varanasi, Ayodhya, Haridwar and Prayagraj each hold significance. The cities of Jericho, Faiyum, Damascus, Athens, Aleppo and Argos are among those laying claim to the longest continual inhabitation. HISTORY Cities, characterized by population density, symbolic function, and urban planning, have existed for thousands of years.[41] In the conventional view, civilization and the city both followed from the development of agriculture, which enabled production of surplus food, and thus a social division of labour (with concomitant social stratification) and trade. Early cities often featured granaries, sometimes within a temple. A minority viewpoint considers that cities may have arisen without agriculture, due to alternative means of subsistence (fishing), to use as communal seasonal shelters, to their value as bases for defensive and offensive military organization, or to their inherent economic function. Cities played a crucial role in the establishment of political power over an area, and ancient leaders such as Alexander the Great founded and created them with zeal. Ancient times Jericho and Çatalhöyük, dated to the eighth millennium BC, are among the earliest protocities known to archaeologists. In the fourth and third millennium BC, complex civilizations flourished in the river valleys of Mesopotamia, India, China, and Egypt. Excavations in these areas have found the ruins of cities geared variously towards trade, politics, or religion. Some had large, dense populations, but others carried out urban activities in the realms of politics or religion without having large associated populations. Among the early Old World cities, Mohenjo-daro of the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day Pakistan, existing from about 2600 BC, was one of the largest, with a population of 50,000 or more and a sophisticated sanitation system. China's planned cities were constructed according to sacred principles to act as celestial microcosms. The Ancient Egyptian cities known physically by archaeologists are not extensive. They include (known by their Arab names) El Lahun, a workers' town associated with the pyramid of Senusret II, and the religious city Amarna built by Akhenaten and abandoned. These sites appear planned in a highly 67 regimented and stratified fashion, with a minimalistic grid of rooms for the workers and increasingly more elaborate housing available for higher classes. In Mesopotamia, the civilization of Sumer, followed by Assyria and Babylon, gave rise to numerous cities, governed by kings and fostering multiple languages written in cuneiform. The Phoenician trading empire, flourishing around the turn of the first millennium BC, encompassed numerous cities extending from Tyre, Cydon, and Byblos to Carthage and Cádiz. In the following centuries, independent city-states of Greece, especially Athens, developed the polis, an association of male landowning citizens who collectively constituted the city. The agora, meaning "gathering place" or "assembly", was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritual and political life of the polis. Rome was the first city that surpassed one million inhabitants. Under the authority of its empire, Rome transformed and founded many cities (coloniae), and with them brought its principles of urban architecture, design, and society. In the ancient Americas, early urban traditions developed in the Andes and Mesoamerica. In the Andes, the first urban centers developed in the Norte Chico civilization, Chavin and Moche cultures, followed by major cities in the Huari, Chimu and Inca cultures. The Norte Chico civilization included as many as 30 major population centers in what is now the Norte Chico region of north-central coastal Peru. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas, flourishing between the 30th century BC and the 18th century BC. Mesoamerica saw the rise of early urbanism in several cultural regions, beginning with the Olmec and spreading to the Preclassic Maya, the Zapotec of Oaxaca, and Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Later cultures such as the Aztec, Andean civilization, Mayan, Mississippians, and Pueblo peoples drew on these earlier urban traditions. Many of their ancient cities continue to be inhabited, including major metropolitan cities such as Mexico City, in the same location as Tenochtitlan; while ancient continuously inhabited Pueblos are near modern urban areas in New Mexico, such as Acoma Pueblo near the Albuquerque metropolitan area and Taos Pueblo near Taos; while others like Lima are located nearby ancient Peruvian sites such as Pachacamac. Jenné-Jeno, located in present-day Mali and dating to the third century BC, lacked monumental architecture and a distinctive elite social class—but nevertheless had specialized production and relations with a hinterland.[64] Pre-Arabic trade contacts probably existed between Jenné-Jeno and North Africa.[65] Other early urban centers in sub-Saharan Africa, dated to around 500 AD, include Awdaghust, Kumbi-Saleh the ancient capital of Ghana, and Maranda a center located on a trade route between Egypt and Gao. Middle Ages In the remnants of the Roman Empire, cities of late antiquity gained independence but soon lost population and importance. The locus of power in the West shifted to Constantinople and to the ascendant Islamic civilization with its major cities Baghdad, Cairo, and Córdoba.[67] From the 9th through the end of the 12th century, Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe, with a population approaching 1 million. The Ottoman Empire gradually gained control over many cities in the Mediterranean area, including Constantinople in 1453. In the Holy Roman Empire, beginning in the 12th. century, free imperial cities such as Nuremberg, Strasbourg, Frankfurt, Basel, Zurich, Nijmegen became a privileged elite among 68 towns having won self-governance from their local lay or secular lord or having been granted self-governanace by the emperor and being placed under his immediate protection. By 1480, these cities, as far as still part of the empire, became part of the Imperial Estates governing the empire with the emperor through the Imperial Diet. By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy medieval communes developed into city-states including the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. In Northern Europe, cities including Lübeck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of Ghent, Ypres, and Amsterdam. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of Sakai, which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan. In the first millennium AD, the Khmer capital of Angkor in Cambodia grew into the most extensive preindustrial settlement in the world by area, covering over 1,000 sq km and possibly supporting up to one million people 69 RESEARCH Smith, M. E. (2003). Can We Read Cosmology in Ancient Maya City Plans? Comment on Ashmore and Sabloff. Latin American Antiquity, 14(2), 221–228. https://doi.org/10.2307/3557596 found that the Mayans planned their cities based on the map of the stars. In Layout of Ancient Maya Cities,Grant R. Aylesworth, Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy pp 769772| it issaid that although there is little doubt that the ancient Maya of Mesoamerica laid their cities out based, in part, on astronomical considerations, the proliferation of “cosmograms” in contemporary scholarly discourse has complicated matters for the acceptance of rigorous archaeoastronomical research. Hidenobu, Jinnai. "CHAPTER TWO. The Cosmology of a City of Water". Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2020, pp. 66170. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520354906-005 refers to the planning of Tokyo which resembled Venice and in fact reflectef theTokyo of yesterday: even destroyed by the earthquake of 1923 and again by the firebombing of World War II much remained of the old city. The internationally known Japanese architectural historian Jinnai Hidenobu found that, despite an almost completely new cityscape, present-day inhabitants divide Tokyo's space in much the same way that their ancestors did two hundred years before.His detailing shows how natural, topographical features were incorporated into the layout of the city. A variety of visual documents (maps from the Tokugawa and Meiji periods, building floorplans, woodblock prints, photographs) supplement his observations. Industry Reviews term it as a book about the historical and social logic of Tokyo: a compelling exploration of the reasons why the city acquired is present shape. . . . "Tokyo: A Spatial Anthropology is very obviously a labor of love; its style overflows with enthusiasm at the wonders to the city. . . . An original, readable, and fascinating book."--Tessa Morris-Suzuki, "Journal of Asian Studies. Yet ther is no agreement on assessing the Typology of Cosmological interphase of the cities as proposed in More on Mesoamerican Cosmology and City Plans by Ivan Šprajc MOHNJO DARO 70 Around 12,000 years ago, humans hunkered down. Though they had previously traversed the planet to forage for food, people made the decision to devote themselves to agriculture and spent their days planting seeds, picking produce and amassing the world’s first food surpluses. Ultimately, the security provided by abundant food allowed portions of the human population to concentrate on converting small, agrarian settlements into vibrant cities. They could construct towering temples and palaces and throw themselves into the burgeoning endeavors of art, philosophy and politics. Here are seven ancient societies that have gained a reputation for their ingenuity and innovation. (The exact timelines for these civilizations are approximate and subject to academic debate.) Sumerian Civilization (4500 B.C. to 1900 B.C.) Ancient Sumer, an area in Mesopotamia above the shared floodplains of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, is famous for fostering the first civilizations in human history. Around 10000 B.C., Mesopotamia’s “Fertile Crescent” allowed ancient populations to settle and support themselves with farming. By about 4500 B.C., these communities (who we currently call the Sumerians), could cultivate crops in such excess that they could forge the world’s first cities without feeling peckish. Sumerian cities such as Eridu, Uruk and Ur contained tall temple and palace complexes. The ancient Sumerians are also credited with creating the written word: As many as 5,000 years ago, they scratched clay tablets with a writing system called cuneiform. This system allowed them to track the movement of grain throughout their territory, share stories and myths, and spread advice on agriculture and cooking, among other purposes. These innovations secured Mesopotamia’s modern title: the “Cradle of Civilization.” The Sumerians also pioneered mathematics, astronomy and astrology, invented irrigation, started the first schools, codified the 71 first codes of law and fashioned our current conceptions of time by dividing the day into hours, minutes and seconds. Indus Valley Civilization (3300 B.C. to 1300 B.C.) Around 7000 B.C., agriculturalists began building small villages throughout the Indus River Valley in present-day India and Pakistan. Starting around 3300 B.C., these settlements grew particularly bustling. Although the Sumerians invented cities, the people of the Indus Valley perfected them. Their settlements of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, for instance, housed approximately 40,000 to 50,000 individuals and featured baked-brick buildings. Sophisticated sewer and water supply systems kept these cities clean, and their spacious streets formed a strict grid structure suggesting these sites were meticulously planned. The painstaking urban planning that transpired in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro indicate the people of the Indus Valley sought uniformity. Their omnipresent bricks shared standard dimensions, and, indeed, their standardized weights and measures rank among their most important innovations. Other inventions included a mysterious writing system that remains undecipherable, and novel techniques in metallurgy. Ancient Egypt (3100 B.C. to 30 B.C.) By 6000 B.C., settlers arrived at the banks of the Nile and found an asylum from the scorching sands. They tilled the soil and built villages, and around 3100 B.C., these settlements became bustling metropolises, ruled by pharaohs who acted as statesmen — declaring laws, demanding taxes, waging war and overseeing their territory — and divine intermediaries between the people and their deities. The Egyptians thrived for thousands of years under the pharaohs and found fame for their advances in several fields of knowledge. For instance, they possessed a vast awareness of what became arithmetic, astronomy and anatomy, and were credited with inventing medical surgery 72 thanks to their skills in stitching wounds and setting broken bones. (It’s actually theorized that their mummification practices influenced their medical talents.) The ancient Egyptians were also prolific writers. They independently invented a system of hieroglyphics featuring hundreds — if not thousands — of alphabetic, syllabic and logographic characters that they inscribed in stone. This early civilization also pioneered several derivative scripts that were written across papyrus, a tough material made from the pith of plants found throughout the floodplains. Above all, the people of ancient Egypt proved to be skilled builders. Their temples and tombs are considered among the grandest constructions ever executed, and their monuments such as the Great Sphinx and the Pyramids at Giza still remind us of their early ingenuity. Ancient and Early Imperial China (2070 B.C. to A.D. 220) The Yellow River Valley of China fostered one of the world’s oldest civilizations. The first farming settlements appeared there around 5000 B.C., and from these modest foundations grew a centralized government. Starting with the Xia (2070-1600 B.C.), several successive dynasties dominated Chinese civilization. These kingdoms supposedly sustained themselves by divine decree, an idea that developed into the “Mandate of Heaven.” This political philosophy encouraged rulers to act as stewards of their people and warned against bad behavior. In both tranquil and troubled times, Chinese culture flourished. In the Shang Dynasty (16001046 B.C.), Chinese scribes wrote with characters that resemble those used today, and by around 400 B.C., the ideas of famous figures such as Confucius began blossoming into full-fledged belief systems stressing virtue and filial piety. Beyond these philosophical achievements, Chinese artisans created the first silk and the first forms of paper. They also fashioned the first block printing processes and maritime compasses. The traditions of acupuncture and herbal medicine have become one of China’s longest-lived contributions. Additionally, Chinese builders are famed for constructing and connecting the first portions of one of the most 73 impressive architectural accomplishments of all time: the Great Wall. This tremendous work started as early as the 7th century B.C. Ancient Maya Civilization (1000 B.C. to A.D. 1520) Around 7000 B.C., Mesoamerican communities started cultivating maize and beans and developing permanent dwellings concentrated in what is now southeastern Mexico, Guatemala and Belize, as well as sections of Honduras and El Salvador. Starting around 1000 B.C., these villages were replaced by the ancient cities of the Maya Civilization, which spread around massive administrative and ceremonial complexes that seemed to touch the stars. The Maya found the sky fascinating. They built large observatories and made meticulous records of planetary movement with a sophisticated system of writing that combined pictorial and phonetic characters. They also made predictions of the positions of celestial objects that rang true far into the future. In fact, the Maya people’s understanding of the movements of Venus, Mars and the moon inspired their famous system of timekeeping. This system incorporated complex interlocking calendars that timed their agricultural activities and religious rituals to coincide with certain astronomical arrangements. Modern minds are also captivated by their calendar, which is still consulted by many of the Maya’s 6 million modern descendants. 74 Ancient Greece (1100 B.C. to A.D. 140) Ancient Greece wasn’t the first civilization to form on the craggy coasts of the Mediterranean, though their culture undoubtedly made its mark. In approximately 7000 B.C., agricultural settlements appeared across the Aegean Sea and grew into societies including those of the Minoans and Mycenaeans. In fact, the latter greatly influenced the Greeks: They developed the first forms of their language and worshiped several gods and goddesses who would ultimately populate the Greek pantheon, including Zeus, Poseidon and Athena. They also inspired ancient Greece’s most important myths, including their account of the legendary Mycenaean soldiers Achilles and Odysseus and their activities in the Trojan War. By 1100 B.C., the Minoan and Mycenaean cultures collapsed, and around the 8th century B.C., a smattering of independent city-states, including Athens, Sparta and Thebes, began to dominate the Greek world. Though these city-states possessed distinct cultures, they shared a language, religion and interest in innovation. While the society’s poets such as Homer and Hesiod pioneered Western literature, Greek thinkers paved the way for modern medicine, mathematics and science, and became the first proponents of ideas such as atomism and heliocentrism. It was also ancient Greek figures — including Socrates, Plato and Aristotle — who fostered Western philosophy. Perhaps most consequentially, the culture laid the foundations for today’s democracies. 75 Ancient Rome (750 B.C. to A.D. 470) Though Rome began as a modest village along the banks of the Tiber on the Italian Peninsula around 750 B.C., it expanded into one of history’s largest empires, spanning massive swaths of the Mediterranean and beyond. As they extended their authority, the Romans often appropriated the ideas and inventions of those they encountered. For instance, they absorbed the divinities and rituals of the Greeks, Egyptians and several other societies to supplement their own pantheon. They also collected and systematized knowledge from throughout the Mediterranean world and wrote the earliest surviving encyclopedias. In fact, Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis Historia claimed to compile 20,000 facts from various cultures and cover all ancient knowledge about natural history, art and architecture. Roman appropriation was not without ingenuity, particularly with state-sponsored construction projects. Though the Romans did not invent the road, arch nor aqueduct, their renditions were renowned for their sturdiness and strength, and some still operate today. Alongside the temples and amphitheaters — including the Pantheon and the Colosseum — that still stand thanks to the Romans’ innovations in concrete, their constructions testify to the skill of the era’s architects. Today, they remind us that plenty of impressive inventions are rooted in the ancient past. Ancient Indian Cities Forgotten in Time India is a land of many wonders. It is known for its cultural diversity and heritage, which has a history of more than 2000 years. It has inspired many literary giants and poets, both new and old. India is also home to some of the oldest cities in the world that were once bustling towns, thriving sea ports, majestic capitals of great empires and trade centres of the world. Eventually, these ancient Indian cities fell prey to the ravages of war and time. Here’s an effort to remember some of them. 1. Dwarka 76 One of the holy cities of pilgrimage for Hindus all over the world, Dwarka is counted as one among the country’s oldest cities. It is further evidenced by the fact that no one knows for certain when this city came into existence or when it was established. Located in the state of Gujarat, it finds extensive mention in the Mahabharata and the Harivamsa. Mythologically, Krishna is believed to have found and built this city after fleeing from Mathura. Archaeologists have divided opinions about how ancient this city exactly is. Some findings have shown that the city could have existed around the time when Indus Valley Civilization flourished. According to the Mahabharata, the city of Dwarka was swept away by the sea after the death of Krishna, but this was considered to be a grand myth. In 1983, when excavations were conducted under the sea, archaeologists found several temple structures and the remains of a town just a little off the coast of Dwarka, thus adding credence to the legend of this ancient city. Only time will tell us more about the treasures the sea around Dwarka still holds. 2. Nagarjunakonda 77 About 150 kilometres southeast of Hyderabad lie the ruins of a city that flourished about 1800 years ago. It was one of the largest and richest cities in South India, and also the educational, cultural and religious centre of Buddhism. Nagarjunakonda or “the hill of Nagarjuna” was named after Acharya Nagarjuna, a renowned Buddhist philosopher who was responsible for setting up many monasteries and schools that attracted students from all over the world. Home to a large number of academic centres, temples and stupas, the city thrived under the reign of many powerful kingdoms especially the Ikshvaku dynasty, which made the illustrious city their capital. It eventually fell into decline after the demise of the last Ikshvaku king. The ruins of this city were discovered in 1926, but it was only in 1953 that this area was excavated yielding the ruins of many stupas, viharas, mandaps, tools from the Stone Age era and a number of priceless Buddhist relics. 3. Mahabalipuram 78 One of the most beautiful cities in South India, Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram is named after the great Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman-I. Filled with relics, monuments and some of the most beautiful temples in the world, Mahabalipuram was an important sea port of the Pallava dynasty from the 7th to the 10th centuries. Often referred to as the “Land of Seven Pagodas” based on an ancient Hindu legend, Mahabalipuram is a city known for its grandeur, hand carved monolithic structures, shrines and the rathas or cave temples. The descent of the Ganges is the world’s largest bas-relief sculpture depicting tales from the Mahabharata. The legendary stone-built Shore temple, which is a mammoth architectural wonder, is believed to be the only one surviving among the seven pagodas. 4. Muziris Muziris or “Muciri” as it is known in Tamil and “Muyirikkottu” in Malayalam was once a thriving sea port and an important trade centre between the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean regions. It has been mentioned in a number of ancient scripts and texts by Egyptian and Greek writers like Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder, as well as a few Roman and Tamil Sangam texts. According to the Vienna Papyrus, there was a healthy trading relationship between Alexandria and Muziris, which means that in addition to acting as a sea port for the Romans and the Egyptians, Muziris must also have been a busy and flourishing town. A number of excavations undertaken by the ASI and Kerala Council for Historical Research have suggested that the town of Pattanam near Kochi could be the ancient Muziris, but the exact location of this town that vanished without a trace one morning in 1314 CE still remains unknown. 79 Hampi Vijayanagara Kingdom – Roehan Rengadurai via Flickr Beneath all the development and modernization that we see today, India is still a country with long history that dates back to ancient times. Right from the Indus Valley Civilization, our country has seen a lot of ancient cities that were eventually abandoned or razed to the ground due to wars, natural disasters, invasions, etc. The following is a list of few such ancient cities of India that were forgotten in time and that make great offbeat travel destinations to explore the ancient times of India. Sirkap 80 Source Sirkap is an ancient city in Taxila, Punjab (present-day Pakistan) that was founded by the Bactrian king Demetrius, when he invaded the region in 180 BC. The city was rebuilt numerous times during raids and incursions and flourished as a town from the 2nd century BC under several rulers, such as the Greeks, the Scythians, the Parthians and the Kushanas. It eventually sank into oblivion when it was abandoned for a new city at Sirsukh. It was only in 1912 that the details about Sirkap came to light when archaeologist Sir John Marshall began excavating the region. These excavations have yielded a number of Greek artifacts, coins, gold and silver jewellery. What remains of the city now are ruins and temples built according to the Greek Hippodamian plan, Buddhist stupas and shrines. Kalibangan Considered to be the “very first city of the indian culture and heritage”, Kalibangan is a prehistoric city that traces its origin back to the Indus valley civilization and is located on the banks of the river Ghaggar, in modern day Rajasthan. Excavations were carried out in 1960, but Kalibangan’s identity and location were unearthed during the 18th century by Italian Indologist Luigi Pio Tessitori. The town has yielded evidence that it was indeed a bustling Harappan city, but the most important discovery is the existence of a ploughed agricultural field, perhaps the earliest of its kind in the world. The town is also known for its fire altars which may have been used for ceremonials rituals. The city was destroyed during an earthquake that took place in 2600 BC; archaeologists have also suggested that it may have been abandoned when the river Ghaggar dried up. 81 Lothal Lothal was once a prominent trade centre as well as one of the most important cities during the Indus valley civilization. Located in modern day Gujarat, it was first discovered in 195. The excavations at this region have again borne evidence of the fact that the Harappans were the most cultured and educated people of their day. Its most dominating feature is the unique dockyard which must have been a wonder in its heyday. A number of rare antiquities such as jewellery, beads, pottery and seals have been found at this site. The city was eventually abandoned because of constant floods and storms. Puhar 82 Puhar or Poompuhar near Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was the seat of the Chola kings. It served as a port capital to the kings and flourished under their regime. This ancient city also finds a mention in a number of Tamil texts and poetic works, Brahmi inscriptions as well as GrecoRoman manuscripts. Excavations began in 1910 revealing that Puhar was a well-planned city; the remains of buildings, beautiful temples, copper coins, brick figures and a wharf have also been unearthed. Unfortunately because of its proximity to the sea, it sank and submerged in the waters around 300 BC and only a few villages remain as a testament to this once glorious town. Vijayanagara 83 Vijayanagara or modern day Hampi was once considered to be the second largest city in the world. It prospered under the famous Vijayanagara dynasty and was the most powerful Hindu city in ancient India. Home to magnificent temples such as the Virupaksha temple and the Vittala temple, as well as the historic Lotus Palace and the exquisite elephant stables, it is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The now ruined “City of Victory”, Vijayanagara dazzled foreign travellers such as Domingos Paes, who was astonished by its beauty and wealth. However, in the 15th century the city fell into the hands of Muslim invaders who razed and destroyed it, bringing this once glorious city to its untimely end. HINDU COSMOLOGY IN CITY DESIGN Smith, M. E. (2003). Can We Read Cosmology in Ancient Maya City Plans? Comment on Ashmore and Sabloff. Latin American Antiquity, 14(2), 221–228. https://doi.org/10.2307/3557596 Synoptic philosophy comes from the Greek word συνοπτικός synoptikos ("seeing everything together") and together with the word philosophy, means the love of wisdom emerging from a coherent understanding of everything together. Social constructivism is a sociological theory of knowledge according to which human development is socially situated and knowledge is constructed through interaction with others. Like social constructionism, social constructivism states that people work together to construct artifacts. While social constructionism focuses on the artifacts that are created through the social interactions of a group, social constructivism focuses on an individual's learning that takes place because of his or her interactions in a group. A very simple example is an object like a cup. The object can be used for many things, but its shape does suggest some 'knowledge' about carrying liquids (see also Affordance). A more complex example is an online course—not only do the 'shapes' of the software tools indicate certain things about the way online courses should work, but the activities and texts produced within the group as a whole will help shape how each person behaves within that group. A person's cognitive development will also be influenced by the culture that they are involved in, such as the language, history and social context. The 2007 study used satellite images, aircraft-based radar data, conventional aerial photography, and ground observations to analyze an area of 2,848 square kilometers (1,100 square miles). The top image is a mosaic of observations collected by the Airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (AIRSAR) between 2000 and 2007. The bottom image is a map derived from airborne data sources and earlier archaeological maps. A radar doesn’t work like a camera, so its imagery doesn’t look like a photograph. The radar (mounted on an airplane) sends a pulse of energy down towards the surface, and measures the echo—the signal that the surface scatters back. Different surfaces—water, forests, clearings, buildings—have different echoes. Smooth surfaces tend to be darker (less backscatter), and rough surfaces tend to be brighter (more backscatter). Since radio-frequency energy is invisible, scientists make false-color images in which they use colors to represent different frequencies and intensities of energy. 84 In the top image, the darker areas indicate low echoes, such as water bodies where the pulse simply bounced off the smooth surface and away from the radar. The largest example is the medieval West Baray reservoir, which continues to hold water today. Forested areas appear much brighter, almost white in places, because the radar pulse is backscattered by multi-layered surfaces, such as branches and leaves. Within these lighter areas, colors take on an additional significance. Red indicates the smallest surfaces, such as grasses and rice fields. Green indicates larger surfaces, such as broader leaves and shrubs. Blue indicates even larger surfaces, such as tree trunks. (Because AIRSAR is a sideways-looking instrument, large vertical objects like tree trunks and walls present the sensor with the largest surface areas.) Within the dotted fields of color, the straight lines and sharp angles of architecture contrast sharply with the surroundings. The bottom image is a map of the surface features of the ancient city made by scientists from the results of the 2007 study. The researchers described this map as conservative; for a feature to be included, it had to appear in at least two separate data sources, or be verified from the ground or a low-altitude aerial survey. This map reveals an extensive network of linear features. On the flat Angkor plain, elevated linear features might have served as water channels, water barriers, and/or roads, and these features remained visible to radar sensors centuries later. Dwellings and water tanks were spread across some 1,000 square kilometers (385 square miles), connected by roads and canals. The study published in 2007 concluded that the perimeter of Angkor’s urban complex enclosed roughly 900 to 1,000 square kilometers (350 to 385 square miles)—nearly four times the size of twenty-first century New York City. Angkor was a low-density city, meaning the settlement was spread out over a fairly large area, more closely resembling a modern suburb than an inner city. The Angkor perimeter identified in 2007 established Angkor as the largest pre-industrial city yet known to exist anywhere on Earth, several times the size of the Mayan metropolis of Tikal. Besides giving a sense of the medieval city’s size, the 2007 study also suggested causes for Angkor’s demise. The extensive water management system built at Angkor enabled its inhabitants to overcome the vicissitudes of nature—for a time. However, those same humanengineered changes to the landscape also created a new set of problems, including deforestation, degradation of the topsoil, and erosion. Evidence of impromptu changes to the water management system, and breaches and failures within the system suggested to archaeologists that the waterways became harder to manage as the years wore on. Although some residents remained after the fifteenth century, they comprised only a tiny remnant of Angkor’s population at its peak. NASA images create by Jesse Allen, using imagery provided courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History’s Science Bulletins and Damian Evans, University o The synoptic view of Landsat imagery generated from the Angkor landscape provides a new perspective in archaeology. This is especially significant for large, complex sites such as Angkor, the religious and administrative centre of Khmer dynasts for more than 500 years. In this study the major features of the Angkor “townscape”; ‐barays, temple‐pyramids and canals ‐ are examined. Landsat‐TM signatures are developed for each class of feature and detectability ratings established. Changes in the urban perimeter are identified and set in a chronological framework. The regional road network is mapped with the addition of new details. The benefits of the Landsat overview are shown to be the discovery of hitherto unrecorded detail, increased 85 understanding of the site situation from contextual environmental relations and an improved comprehension of the historic landscape as a whole. John T. Parry (1996) A new perspective on Angkor ‐ the spatial organization of an historical landscape viewed from Landsat, Geocarto International, 11:2, 1532, DOI: 10.1080/10106049609354531 Formore than a decade the mult national (Australian, French, Cambodian) Greater Angkor Project has been investigating the rise and fall of medieval urbanism at Angkor, in Cambodia, using a diverse range of techniques, including extensive use of remotely sensed imagery to find, map and analyse elements of urban form. The research activities have focussed on the role of Angkor’s elaborate water management system in the demise of the urban complex, and has recently been expanded to include nearby ‘secondary’ settlement complexes such as provincial centres and ephemeral capitals. In such a research agenda, it is crucial to gain a full understanding of the original hydrological layout of the Angkor basin, in order to provide essential insights into human modifications to the natural hydrology and topography. To this end, a number of multispectral satellite images (including QuickBird and ASTER) were processed and analysed to identify palaeo-environmental traces and anthropogenic features relevant to the identification of remnants of the original fluvial system. Vegetation indices (VI), Vegetation suppression and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were adopted as the primary procedures in order to detect relevant traces over differing environments such as perennially forested zones, scrubland and barren terrain. The outcome of this work has been to add significant chronological resolution to the current map of Greater Angkor. Uncovering Angkor: Integrated Remote Sensing Applications in the Archaeology of Early CambodiaDamian Evans,Arianna Traviglia, Satellite Remote Sensing January 2012 A synoptic vision of the universe in ancient India and shows its continuity across different periods. This vision was based on an assumed equivalence of the outer and the inner cosmoses and it is embodied in architecture, music, and art. It provides an archaeoastronomical window on Indian monumental architecture. The ancient world did not have a split between the sacred and the temporal. The temple served as the place where time-bound ritual was conducted and keeping time was one of its functions. The English word temple is derived from the Latin templum, which is sacred space, facing west, that was marked out by the augurs. In the east-west orientation of the axis of the temple that is strictly true only on the two equinoxes is the acknowledgement of concern with time and the seasons. In India, the temple is likewise associated with the east-west axis and we can trace its origins to priests who maintained different day counts with respect to the solstices and the equinoxes. Specific days were marked with ritual observances [1] that were done at different times of the day. Some ritual included construction of altars that coded knowledge related to the motions of the sun and the moon and supposed correspondences with the inner cosmos. Time, Space and Structure in Ancient https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0903/0903.3252.pdf 86 India, Subhash Kak, The Khmer Empire had steadily gained hegemonic power over most of mainland Southeast Asia since its early days in the 8th and 9th centuries. Rivalries and wars with its western neighbour, the Pagan Kingdom of the Mon people of modern-day Burma were less numerous and decisive than those with Champa to the east. The Khmer and Cham Hindu kingdoms remained for centuries preoccupied with each other's containment and it has been argued that one of the Khmer's military objectives was "...in the reigns of the Angkor kings Suryavarman II and Jayavarman VII." the conquest of the Cham ports, "...important in the international trade of the time". Even though the Khmer suffered a number of serious defeats, such as the Cham invasion of Angkor in 1177, the empire quickly recovered, capable to strike back, as it was the case in 1181 with the invasion of the Cham city-state of Vijaya. Mongol incursions into southern China and political and cultural pressure caused the southward migration of the Tai people and Thai people and their settling on the upper Chao Phraya River in the 12th century. The Sukhothai Kingdom and later the Ayutthaya kingdom were established and "...conquered the Khmers of the upper and central Menam valley and greatly extended their territory..." Although a number of sources, such as the Cambodian Royal Chronicles and the Royal chronicles of Ayutthaya contain recordings of military expeditions and raids with associated dates and the names of sovereigns and warlords, several influential scholars, such as David Chandler and Michael Vickery doubt the accuracy and reliability of these texts. Other authors criticise this rigid "overall assessment", though. David Chandler states in A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing, Volume 2: "Michael Vickery has argued that Cambodian chronicles, including this one, that treat events earlier than 1550 cannot be verified, and were often copied from Thai chronicles about Thailand..." Linguist Jean-Michel Filippi concludes: "The chronology of Cambodian history itself is more a chronoideology with a pivotal role offered to Angkor." Similarities apply to Thai chronological records, with the notable example of the Ramkhamhaeng controversy. According to the Siamese Royal chronicles of Paramanuchitchinorot, clashes occurred in 1350, around 1380, 1418 and 1431. "In 1350/51; probably April 1350 King Ramadhipati had his son Ramesvara attack the capital of the King of the Kambujas (Angkor) and had Paramaraja (Pha-ngua) of Suphanburi advance to support him. The Kambuja capital was taken and many families were removed to the capital Ayudhya. At that time, [around 1380] the ruler of Kambuja came to attack Chonburi, to carry away families from the provinces eastwards to Chanthaburi, amounting to about six or seven thousand persons who returned [with the Cambodian armies] to Kambuja. So the King attacked Kambuja and, having captured it, returned to the capitol.[sic] Then [1418] he went to attack Angkor, the capital of Kambuja, and captured it." Land or People? Siamese sources record the habit of capturing sizeable numbers of inhabitants from the capital cities and centres of civilisation of the defeated parties in Chiang Mai and Angkor which can be assumed to have accelerated the cultural decline. 87 Cambodian people in 18th century in chinese painting Portraits of Periodical Offering by Xie Sui. Author Michael Vickery debates the degree of importance of this subject in his publication "Two Historical Records of the Kingdom of Vientiane - Land or People?": "It is not at all certain that Angkor desired manpower in central Thailand, rather than simply control over the rich agricultural resources." and "...whether the political economy of early Southeast Asia resulted in rulers being more concerned with control of land or control of people..." and "...both sides of this discussion have offered ad hoc, case-by-case pronunciamentos, which are then repeated like mantra... Critical discussion of the question is long overdue..." Contrary views Author Akin Rabibhadana, who quotes Ram Khamhaeng: "One particular characteristic of the historical Southeast Asian mainland states was the lack of manpower. The need for manpower is well illustrated by events following each war between Thailand and her neighbours. The victorious side always carried off a large number of people from the conquered territory. Whole villages were often moved into the territory of the conqueror, where they were assimilated and became the population of the conqueror." David K. Wyatt: "As much as anything else, the Tai müang was an instrument for the efficient use of manpower in a region where land was plentiful in relation to labor and agricultural technology." And Aung-Thwin wrote: "Much of the warfare of early Southeast Asia witnessed the victor carrying off half the population of the vanquished foe and later resettling them on his own soil. Pagan was located in the dry belt of Burma, and depended mainly upon irrigated agriculture for its economic base. Land was plentiful but labor was extremely difficult to obtain." 88 Dynastic and religious factors The flag of the kingdom of Cambodia until 1863. The complete transition from the early Khmer kingdom to the firm establishment of the Mahidharapura dynasty (first king Jayavarman VI, 1080 to 1107), which originated west of the Dângrêk Mountains at Phimai in the Mun river valley lasted several decades. Some historians argue, that these kings failed to acquire absolute central administrative control and had limited access to local resources. The dynasty discontinued "ritual policy" and genealogical traditions. Further momentum ensued as Mahayana Buddhism was eventually tolerated and several Buddhist kings emerged, including Suryavarman I, Rajendravarman II and Jayavarman VII. These rulers were not considered, and did not consider themselves, as divine, which lead to a shift in perception of royal authority, central power and a loss of dynastic prestige with respect to foreign rulers. Effectively the royal subjects were given permission to re-direct attention and support from the Hindu state of military dominance with its consecrated leader, the "Varman"—protector king, towards the inner-worldly alternative with the contradictory teachings of the Buddhist temple.Indravarman III (c. 1295-1308) adopted Theravada Buddhism as the state religion,[45] which implied an even more passive, introverted focus towards individual and personal responsibility to accumulate merit to achieve nirvana. Miriam T. Stark argues that competition and rivalries in royal succession, usurpers and "second grade" rulers characterised the kingdom since the 9th century. Periods of "...consolidation alternated with political fragmentation [as] only few rulers were able to wrest control from the provincial level". Debate remains on the progress of the imperial society as the kingdom grew and occupied foreign lands. Authors present numerous theories about the relationship between Southeast Asian kings and the populace's loyalties, nature and degree of identity, the Mandala concept and the effects of changing state-religion. Scholar Ben Kiernan highlights a tendency to identify with a universal religion rather than to adhere to the concept of a people or nation, as he refers to author Victor Lieberman in: Blood and Soil: Modern Genocide 15002000 "[local courts make]...no formal demand, that rulers be of the same ethnicity as their subjects" Environmental problems and infrastructural breakdown Historians increasingly maintain the idea that decline was caused by progressing ecological imbalance of the delicate irrigation network and canal system of "...a profoundly ritualized, elaborate system of hydraulic engineering..." at Angkor's Yasodharapura. Recent studies indicate that the irrigation system was overworked and gradually started to silt up, amplified 89 by large scale deforestation.[51] Permanent monument construction projects and maintenance of temples instead of canals and dykes put an enormous strain on the royal resources and drained thousands of slaves and common people from the public workforce and caused tax deficits. Author Heng L. Thung addressed common sense in "Geohydrology and the decline of Angkor" as he sums things up: "...the preoccupation of the Khmers with the need to store water for the long dry season. Each household needed a pond to provide drinking and household water for both man and beast. The barays [reservoirs] of Angkor were simply the manifestation of the need of an urban population. Water was the fountain of life for Angkor; a disruption in its supply would be fatal." Recent Lidar (Light detection and ranging) Geo-Scans of Angkor have produced new data, that have caused several "Eureka moments" and "have profoundly transformed our understanding of urbanism in the region of Angkor". Results of dendrochronological studies imply prolonged periods of drought between the 14th and 15th centuries. As a result, recent re-interpretations of the epoch put greater emphasis on human–environment interactions and the ecological consequences Kings never decided arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their orientation and their layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired by the model of the Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology. It should have a perfect quadrangular shape, walls with four gates in the middle of each side and an organised internal layout resembling a mandala, with the city temple in the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a tower shape which represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by successive concentric walls. At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning was based on the religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja), which considers monarchs as incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or Buddha. The role and function of Angkor Wat has changed significantly over the eight centuries since its construction in the twelfth century AD (Fletcher et al. 2015: 1389–90) (Figure 1). Despite this varied history, research on Angkor Wat has largely focused on its art and architecture and its role as a Vishnuite temple during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. During the Angkorian period (ninth to fifteenth centuries), Angkor was situated at the heart of its empire but by the Middle Period or post-Angkorian period (fifteenth to nineteenth centuries), this location had come to be on the periphery of the Cambodian state. The kingdom of Ayutthaya was, at this time, expanding its influence and significantly encroaching on the former territory of Angkor. Meanwhile, Angkor Wat, originally built as a temple dedicated to Vishnu, had, by the sixteenth century, become hallowed by Theravada Buddhist monks as the religious practices of the Khmer changed. Over the centuries, Angkor Wat has undergone repairs; in addition to maintenance, it has been modified in several places, especially within the first (innermost) enclosure. These additions are significant because they reveal changes to the function of the monument. The fourth (outermost) enclosure wall also bears traces of a significant, and late, change in its function in the form of numerous holes and postholes (Figure 2), which supported substantial wooden structures that no longer 90 As an example I could discuss the case of Varanasi or Banagas.In Cosmic Layout of the Hindu Sacred city, Varanasi, the author Rana P.B. Singh describes one of the few cosmologi\cally planned cities of Hindu India-Varanasi (Benares), also known as the microcosm of India and the most sacred city of Hindu religion, has maintained its cosmic layout which developed in the historical past. The passage from macrocosmos (heaven) into mesocosmos (earth) and further down into microcosmos (the temple, or body) is made spatially visible and is regulated by the network of pilgrimage routes — this is what we call pilgrimage mandala. In Varanasi five of the various pilgrimage circuits are well developed; taken as a sequence leading from outer to inner space, they reveal parallels between macro-, meso- and microcosmos and the related transcendental powers. Moreover, the spatial arrangement of the 56 shrines of Ganesha ("Elephant-headed God") and the route5 following Vinayaka's pilgrimage journey, also form a mandala representing the product of 8 directions and 7 layers of atmosphere, thus the number 56. These aspects are described and the notion of cosmogonic integrity is discussed. From its prominent position on the river Ganges , Banaras has borne testimony to a flourishing civilization and the many socio-political turmoil associated with a thriving territory from the ancient kingdoms of Aryans with its mention in Ramayana to the combats of medieval rulers of Mauryan and Gupta dynasty and the never ceasing instability during the dominance of Muslim and British regime.[1] The historical unrest has vanished and the city with its inhabitants of “grin-and-bear-it” attitude endured every phase of this turmoil and adapted to it and commemorated every such change in their stories and culture. Every paradigm shift gave Banaras its own unique Art and Culture which it (Banaras) has assimilated and made it its very own signature be it Food, Fabric, Jewellery, Lifestyle, Mode of communication, Weapons, Architecture, Mythology, Tales, Culture, Cult , Art and much more The citys divine image , its elaborate traditional rituals , its prodigious display of the hand-in-hand existence of art and the mundane activities of life. All give it a peculiar feel, though the city has tried to keep pace with time, it has modernized or commercialised but what has stayed with time is what satiates the quench of a mystic or an explorer of Art and Culture . This write up here is an attempt to bring to words the connection between what the oldest civilizations or cults have left to enrich the Art & culture or other-way-round , how by exploring the existing we are able to get a glimpse into the glorious past that has passed and enriched India .This manuscript is a study and construal of Varanasi from the perspective of one who is close enough to the hindu tradition to see its religious significance and also close enough to art , design and academics to know the understanding that Arts and Varanasi might pose. The journey towards the finalization of this script started with mapping the city and searching for the temples mentioned in various texts and my work is based on two primary sources : the city itself with its multitude of temples , its seasons of pilgrimage , the Akharas , voluminous literature on Banaras and its pandas and lay interpreters.1 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------BANARAS: A PARALLEL SPACE OF THE COSMIC UNIVERSE AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO ARCHITECTURE- Kumar Vikas, https://www.journalijar.com/article/35173/banaras:-a-parallel-space-of-the-cosmic-universe-andits-contribution-to-architecture/ Further Rana P.B. Singh says that “ The tīrthas (holy places, sacredscapes) of India provide examples of self-amplifying interactions between people and their cultural landscape. The five 91 pilgrimage routes, developed during CE 5th – 9th centuries, in Banaras symbolises the manifestation and archetypal representation of five koshas, the ‘sheaths’. That is how koshas are analogous to the five gross elements of organism according to Hindu mythology. The mythologies give a cosmogonic outline to understand the archetypal nature of earth spirit ― a process making a place sacred and exposed in a frame of cosmic geometry. Born of the earth, of water, of fire, of space, and of air, the Hindu divinities are still here among us, still alive, of course invisible. The geographicality of the sacred territories, the pilgrimages and the related journeys, and experiential feelings of the pilgrims directly correspond to the making of complex web of metamorphosis that converged into sacredscapes and faithscapes of Banaras/Kashi. Banaras is an example of the ‘cosmic whole’, an archetype of ‘body’.” 92 Chapter 5 The Art & Architecture of the Vijaynagar Empire Virupaksha temple By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world's second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India's richest at that time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates; its capital was conquered, pillaged and destroyed by sultanate armies in 1565, after which Hampi remained in ruins. 93 Gandaberunda emblem in the Mysore Palace. This is now the official emblem of Karnataka state in India 1. Vijayanagar Empire: A Hindu state based in the Deccan plateau region of South India that reigned from 1336–1646 CE, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda. 2. gopuram: A monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India. 3. hippogryphs: A legendary creature that has the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a horse. 4. Chronicles left by Persian and European travellers, particularly Portuguese, say that it was a prosperous, wealthy & grand city near the Tungabhadra River, with temples, farms & trading markets. 5. By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was world's second-largest medieval-era city after Beijing, and probably India's richest, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal. *)The Vijayanagara Empire was defeated by a coalition of Muslim sultanates and was destroyed and ruined 6. Now I would discuss about some of the important sites to watch in Hampi 7. Virupaksha temple and market complex 8. The Virupaksha temple is the oldest shrine, the principal destination for pilgrims and tourists, and remains an active Hindu worship site. *)The temple is a collection of smaller temples, a regularly repainted, 50-metre (160 ft) high gopuram, a Hindu monastery dedicated to 9. Vidyaranya of Advaita Vedanta tradition, a water tank (Manmatha), a community kitchen, other monuments and a 750 metres (2,460 ft)-long ruined stone market with a monolithic Nandi shrine on the east end. *) The market was Probable richest in entire India during Mediaval age. 94 10. Krishna temple, Narasimha and Linga *)The Krishna temple, also called Balakrishna temple, on the other side of Hemakuta hill, is about 1 kilometre south of Virupaksha temple. *)It is dated to 1515 CE; this part of the Hampi complex is called Krishnapura in inscriptions 11. Lakshmi Narasimha Temple 12. The Narasimha monolith originally had goddess Lakshmi with him, but it shows signs of extensive damage and a carbon-stained floor—evidence of attempts to burn the shrine down. 13. The statue has been cleaned and parts of the shrine have been restored 14. This is Gaint Shiva Linga 15. Achyutaraya temple and market complex 16. The Achyutaraya temple, also called the Tiruvengalanatha temple is 1 kilometre east of Virupaksha temple and close to the Tungabhadra River. It is referred to be in Achyutapura and is dated to 1534 CE. Its one of the largest complexes here 17. Vitthala temple and market complex *)The Vitthala temple and market complex is over 3 kilometres north-east of the Virupaksha temple near the banks of the Tungabhadra River. It is the most artistically sophisticated Hindu temple in Hampi, and is part of the sacred centre. 18. Near Temple, The Garuda shrine in the form of stone chariot at Vitthala temple which is one of the World famous Sites. 19. Hemakuta hill monuments -The Hemakuta hill lies between the Virupaksha temple complex to the north and Krishna temple to the south. Its a collection of modestly sized monuments that are the best examples for pre-Vijayanagara and early-Vijayanagara temples and construction. 20. Hazara Rama temple-The Hazara Rama temple, referred to as the Ramachandra temple in inscriptions, occupied the western part of the urban core in the royal centre section of Hampi. This temple was dedicated to Rama. It was the ceremonial temple for the royal family. 21. 1 -Outer walls of the Hazara Rama temple show Hindu festive procession 2- Jain tirthankar relief inside the temple. 22. There are also Areas like-Kodandarama temple and riverside monuments *)Pattabhirama temple complex Mahanavami platform, public square complex 23. Water infrastructure -The Square Water Pavilion, also called the Queen's Bath, is in the south-east of the royal centre. 24. There were also fountains and community kitchens. - Below One is Stable of Elephants and other is Lotus Mahal. 25. There are also Jain monuments like Ganagitti Jain temple and Tomb of Ahmad Khan. 26. THE THREE CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE ARE: 27. THE PRINCIPAL DEITY WAS VITTHLA A FORM OF LORD "VISHNU". 95 28. THE TEMPLE HAS SEVERAL HALLS AND A SHRINE DESIGNED AS A CHARIOT. 29. A CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE OF THE TEMPLE IS COMPLEXES IS THE CHARIOT STREETS THAT EXTENDED FROM THE TEMPLE GOPURAM IN A STRAIGHT LINE. INTRODUCTION The Vijayanagara Empire, also called Karnata Kingdom, was based in the Deccan Plateau region in South India. It was established in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, members of a pastoralist cowherd community that claimed Yadava lineage. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. At its peak, it subjugated almost all of South India's ruling families and pushed the sultans of the Deccan beyond the Tungabhadra-Krishna river doab region, in addition to annexing modern day Odisha (ancient Kalinga) from the Gajapati Kingdom thus becoming a notable power. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India. The wealth and fame of the empire inspired visits by and writings of medieval European travelers such as Domingo Paes, Fernão Nunes, and Niccolò de' Conti. These travelogues, contemporary literature and epigraphy in the local languages and modern archeological excavations at Vijayanagara has provided ample information about the history and power of the empire. The empire's legacy includes monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. Different temple building traditions in South and Central India were merged into the Vijayanagara architecture style. This synthesis inspired architectural innovations in the construction of Hindu temples. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies to the region such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit with topics such as astronomy, mathematics, medicine, fiction, musicology, historiography and theater gaining popularity. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music, evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in the history of Southern India that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan – the Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, and the Pandyan Empire of Madurai – were repeatedly raided and attacked by Muslims from the north. By 1336 the upper Deccan region (modern-day Maharashtra and Telangana) had been defeated by armies of Sultan Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq of the Delhi Sultanate. Further south in the Deccan region, Hoysala commander Singeya Nayaka-III declared independence after the Muslim forces of the Delhi Sultanate defeated and captured the territories of the Yadava Empire in 1294 CE. He created the Kampili kingdom near Gulbarga and Tungabhadra River in the northeastern parts of presentday Karnataka state. The kingdom collapsed after a defeat by the armies of Delhi Sultanate and 96 upon their defeat, the populace committed a jauhar (ritual mass suicide) in c. 1327–28. The Vijayanagara Kingdom was founded in 1336 CE as a successor to the hitherto prosperous Hindu kingdoms of the Hoysalas, the Kakatiyas, and the Yadavas with the breakaway Kampili Kingdom adding a new dimension to the resistance to the Muslim invasion of South India. Two theories have been proposed regarding the linguistic origins of the Vijayanagara empire. One is that Harihara I and Bukka-I, the founders of the empire, were Kannadigas and commanders in the army of the Hoysala Empire stationed in the Tungabhadra region to ward off Muslim invasions from Northern India. Another theory is that Harihara and Bukkaraya were Telugu people, first associated with the Kakatiya Kingdom, who took control of the northern parts of the Hoysala Empire during its decline. They were believed to have been captured by the army of Ulugh Khan at Warangal. According to tradition, based on a Telugunarrative, the founders were supported and inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery, to fight the Muslim invasion of South India, but the role of Vidyaranya in the founding of the Vijayanagara Empire is not certain. Architecture Virupaksha temple, Raja Gopura (main tower over entrance gate) at Hampi, Karnataka Typical dravidian style Shikhara (superstructure) over shrines at the Raghunatha temple in Hampi/Typical dravidian shrine and mantapa of the Vijayanagara period at Balakrishna temple in Ha mpi Vijayanagara architecture of 1336–1565 CE was a notable building idiom that developed during the rule of the imperial Hindu Vijayanagara Empire. The empire ruled South India, from 97 their regal capital at Vijayanagara, on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in modern Karnataka, India. The empire built temples, monuments, palaces and other structures across South India, with a largest concentration in its capital. The monuments in and around Hampi, in the Vijayanagara principality, are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In addition to building new temples, the empire added new structures and made modifications to hundreds of temples across South India. Some structures at Vijayanagara are from the preVijayanagara period. The Mahakuta hill temples are from the Western Chalukya era. The region around Hampi had been a popular place of worship for centuries before the Vijayanagara period with earliest records dating from 689 CE when it was known as Pampa Tirtha after the local river God Pampa. There are hundreds of monuments in the core area of the capital city. Of these, 56 are protected by UNESCO, 654 monuments are protected by the government of Karnataka and another 300 await protection. Salient features Early 14th century Shiva temples on Hemakuta hill built during the rule of Harihara Raya I incorporates the stepped Kadamba style nagara shikhara (superstructure)/ The mid-14th century Vidyashankara temple at Sringeri, one of the earliest temples built by the kings of the empire 98 Typical shrine at Hazare Rama temple in Hampi/ A typical Vijayanagara style pillared maha mantapa (main hall) at Someshvara temple at Kolar Pillared open mantapa incorporating Hoysala style "staggered square" layout at Vittala temple in Hampi/ Typical large open pillared hall at Ananthasayana temple in Ananthasayanagudi, Bellary district, Karnataka An open mantapa with yali columns at the Vittala temple in Hampi Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic architecture, as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and serene art of the past.. For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and the Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was chloritic schist or soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily carved. During the Vijayanagar period the local hard granite was preferred in the Badami Chalukya style, although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. To cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then painted it with lively colours. Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch. Medium-sized temples have a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life-size figures of men, woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida-influenced style became popular during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed 99 over the next 200 years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur and the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium-size temples have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to serve the needs of annual celebrations. Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) — horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually carvings from Hindu mythology.[8] Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally rectangular with mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of smaller pillars around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have engravings of Gods and Goddesses. Carvings of hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of the artists who created them. The Mandapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or with Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The 1,000pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1,000-pillared Jain basadi at Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at Hampi. Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated specifically for Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally they are different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for whose worship the temple was built. Each shrine has its own enclosure and a separate kitchen and pilgrim feeding hall. The water storage tank inside the royal center, the [stepwell stepped tank] called, "Pushkarni", is a recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned with finished chlorite schist slabs arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and landings descending to the water on all four sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of present-day Karnataka. The inscriptions on the slabs indicate the material was brought from outside the Vijayanagara area. P A L A C E S Much of what is known today of Vijayanagara palaces is drawn from archaeological excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived.[14] Most palaces stand in their own compound defined by high tapering walls made of stone or layered earth. Palaces are approached through a sequence of courts with passageways and doorways requiring multiple changes in direction. All palaces face east or north. The larger palaces have side extensions giving the complex a symmetrical shape. Palaces were built on raised platforms made of granite. The platforms have multiple tiers of mouldings with well-decorated friezes. The decorations can be floral, Kirtimukha shapes (demon faces), geese, elephants and occasionally human figures. Pillars, beams and rafters inside the palace were made of wood as evidenced by ash discovered in excavations. The roof was made of brick or lime concrete, while copper and ivory were used for finials. Palaces commonly consisted of multiple levels with each flight of stairs decorated by balustrades on either side, with 100 either yali (imaginary beast) or elephant sculptures. The entrance steps into palaces and temple mantapas were similarly decorated. Water tanks inside the palace complex have decorative water spouts such as the carved torso of the Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water flow into the tank.Other structures commonly found inside a palace complex are wells and shrines. The courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic influences. Examples are the Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers. Courtly buildings and domed structures were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble. The impact of this style of architecture was seen well into the 17th century when the successive Nayaka kingdoms continued to encourage pillars with hippogryphs and granite became the main building material. While the empire is well known for its monuments in the regal capital Vijayanagara (a UNESCO World Heritage Site), it also built temples in other regions of Karnataka including the coastal region (called Karavali) where the Vijayanagara idiom mingled with local styles. A List of these temples and their approximate time of construction is given in the article List of Vijayanagara era temples in Karnataka. In Andhra Pradesh the empire built the Mallikarjuna Temple at Srisailam, Upper Narasimha Temple and Lower Narasimha Temple at Ahobilam, Veera Bhadra Temple at Lepakshi and Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati and others. In Tamil Nadu the empire built the Vijayaraghava Permal temple modeled after the famous temples at Tirupati with statues of Krishnadevaraya in Thayar Sanithi pillars facing each other. Typical Vijayanagara style dravida shikhara (south Indian style tower over shrine) at the Someshvara temple at Kolar (14th century)/ Yali pillars at Ranganatha temple, Rangasthala, Chikkaballapur district, Karnataka Yali pillars at Ranganatha temple in Neerthadi, Chitradurga district, Karnataka/Yali pillars of a mantapa at Vittala temple, Hampi 101 1. Pillared hall in Veera Bhadra temple, Lepakshi 2. A mantapa with hippogryphs at Melkote 3. Ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa in Cheluva Narayana temple, Melkote 4. Pillared hall in Raghunatha temple, Hampi Kudure Gombe (horse doll) mantapa in Hampi/Elephant balustrade leading open mantapa in Raghunatha temple in Hampi/Yali pillars with Hippogryphs at Hampi to Yali pillars in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri in Shimoga District/Market place at Hampi and the sacred tank located near the Krishna temple 102 Temple car at the Vittala temple in Hampi Vijayanagara architecture, according to art critic Percy Brown is a vibrant combination and blossoming of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries. Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls) and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. An open-air theatre of monuments at its capital at Vijayanagara is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. In the 14th century, the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style gopuras to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva Raya are examples of Deccan architecture.[170] The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work. At Hampi, the Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples are examples of their pillared Kalyanamantapa style. A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty. The Vitthala temple took several decades to complete during the reign of the Tuluva kings. Aerial view of the Meenakshi Temple, Madurai. The temple was rebuilt by the Nayaks rulers under the Vijayanagar Empire Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large monoliths such as the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana (marriage of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi, the Shivapurana murals (tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples 103 at Kanchi. This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a new idiom of art not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture differing from that previously in India. An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform" (Mahanavami Dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants. Hoysala architecture is the building style in Hindu temple architecture developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire between the 11th and 14th centuries, in the region known today as Karnataka, a state of India. Hoysala influence was at its peak in the 13th century, when it dominated the Southern Deccan Plateau region. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. Other examples of Hoysala craftsmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amruthapura, Hosaholalu, Mosale, Arasikere, Basaralu, Kikkeri and Nuggehalli. St udy of the Hoysala architectural style has revealed a negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct. Temples built prior to Hoysala independence in the mid-12th century reflect significant Western Chalukya influences, while later temples retain some features salient to Western Chalukya architecture but have additional inventive decoration and ornamentation, features unique to Hoysala artisans. Some three hundred temples are known to survive in present-day Karnataka state and many more are mentioned in inscriptions, though only about seventy have been documented. The greatest concentration of these are in the Malnad (hill) districts, the native home of the Hoysala kings. Hoysala architecture is classified by the influential scholar Adam Hardy as part of the Karnata Dravida tradition, a trend within Dravidian architecture in the Deccan that is distinct from the Tamil style of further south. Other terms for the tradition are Vesara, and Chalukya architecture, divided into early Badami Chalukya architecture and the Western Chalukya architecture which immediately preceded the Hoysalas. The whole tradition covers a period of about seven centuries began in the 7th century under the patronage of the Chalukya dynasty of Badami, developed further under the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta during the 9th and 10th centuries and the Western Chalukyas (or Later Chalukyas) of Basavakalyan in the 11th and 12th centuries. Its final development stage and transformation into an independent style was during the rule of the Hoysalas in the 12th and 13th centuries.[7] Medieval inscriptions displayed 104 prominently at temple locations give information about donations made toward the maintenance of the temple, details of consecration and on occasion, even architectural details Vishnu with Lakshmi (Lakshminarayana) at Halebidu Shiva, Parvati, Nandi at Halebidu Hinduism is a combination of secular and sacred beliefs, rituals, daily practices and traditions that has evolved over the course of over two thousand years and embodies complex symbolism combining the natural world with philosophy. Hindu temples began as simple shrines housing a deity and by the time of the Hoysalas had evolved into well-articulated edifices in which worshippers sought transcendence of the daily world. Hoysala temples were not limited to any specifically organised tradition of Hinduism and encouraged pilgrims of different Hindu devotional movements. The Hoysalas usually dedicated their temples to Shiva or to Vishnu (two of the popular Hindu gods), but they occasionally built some temples dedicated to the Jain faith as well. Worshippers of Shiva are called Shaivas and worshippers of Vishnu are called Vaishnavas. While King Vishnuvardhana and his descendants were Vaishnava by faith,records show that the Hoysalas maintained religious harmony by building as many temples dedicated to Shiva as they did to Vishnu. Most of these temples have secular features with broad themes depicted in their sculptures. This can be seen in the famous Chennakesava Temple at Belur dedicated to Vishnu and in the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu dedicated to Shiva. The Kesava temple at Somanathapura is different in that its ornamentation is strictly Vaishnava. Generally Vaishnava temples are dedicated to Keshava (or to Chennakeshava, meaning "Beautiful Vishnu") while a small number are dedicated to Lakshminarayana and Lakshminarasimha (Narayana and Narasimha both being Avatars, or physical manifestations, of Vishnu) with Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu, seated at his feet. Temples dedicated to Vishnu are always named after the deity. The Shaiva temples have a Shiva linga, symbol of fertility and the universal symbol of Shiva, in the shrine. The names of Shiva temples can end with the suffix eshwara meaning "Lord of". The name "Hoysaleswara", for instance, means "Lord of Hoysala". The temple can also be named after the devotee who commissioned the construction of the temple, an example being the Bucesvara temple at Koravangala, named after the devotee Buci. The most striking sculptural decorations are the horizontal rows of mouldings with detailed relief, and intricately carved images of gods, goddesses and their attendants on the outer temple wall panels. The Doddagaddavalli Lakshmi Devi ("Goddess of Wealth") Temple is an exception as it is dedicated to neither Vishnu nor Shiva. The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty (of present-day south Karnataka) by the Cholas in the early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism. However, two notable locations of Jain worship in the Hoysala territory were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli. The Hoysalas built Jain temples to satisfy the needs of its Jain population, a few of which have survived in Halebidu containing icons of Jain tirthankaras. They constructed stepped wells called Pushkarni or Kalyani, the ornate tank at Hulikere being an example. The tank has twelve minor shrines containing Hindu deities. 105 The two main deities found in Hoysala temple sculpture are Shiva and Vishnu in their various forms and avatars (incarnations). Shiva is usually shown with four arms holding a trident and a small drum among other emblems that symbolise objects worshiped independently of the divine image with which they are associated. Any male icon portrayed in this way is Shiva although a female icon may sometimes be portrayed with these attributes as Shiva's consort, Parvati. Various depictions of Lord Shiva exist: showing him naked (fully or partially), in activities such as slaying a demon (Andhaka) or dancing on the head of a slain elephant (Gajasura) and holding its skin up behind his back. He is often accompanied by his consort Parvati or shown with Nandi the bull. He may be represented as Bhairava, another of Shiva's many manifestations. A male figure depicted holding certain objects such as a conch (symbol of eternal, heavenly space) and a wheel (eternal time and destructive power) is Vishnu. If a female figure is depicted holding these objects, she is seen as his consort, Lakshmi. In all the depictions Vishnu is holding four objects: a conch, a wheel, a lotus and a Kaumodaki (mace). These can be held in any of the icon's hands, making possible twenty-four different forms of Vishnu, each with a unique name.[19] Apart from these, Vishnu is depicted in any of his ten avataras, which include Vishnu sitting on Anantha (the celestial snake and keeper of life energy also known as Shesha), Vishnu with Lakshmi seated on his lap (Lakshminarayana), with the head of a lion disembowelling a demon on his lap (Lakshminarasimha), with head of a boar walking over a demon (Varaha), in the Krishna avatar (as Venugopala or the cow herder playing the Venu (flute), dancing on the head of the snake Kaliya, lifting a hill such as Govardhana), with his feet over head of a small figure (Vamana), along with Indra riding an elephant, with Lakshmi seated on Garuda, and the eagle (stealing the parijata tree). TEMPLE COMPLEXES Hoysala stepped temple tank (Kalyani) at Hulikere, Karnataka 106 Temple profile – staggered square plan mantapa at Kedareshvara Temple, Balligavi/Akkana Basadi at Shravanbelgola The focus of a temple is the centre or sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha) where the image of the deity resides, so temple architecture is designed to move the devotee from outside to the garbhagriha through ambulatory passageways for circumambulation and halls or chambers (mantapas) that become increasingly sacred as the deity is approached. Hoysala temples have distinct parts that are merged to form a unified organic whole, in contrast to the temples of Tamil country where different parts of a temple stand independently. Although superficially unique, Hoysala temples resemble each other structurally. They are characterised by a complex profusion of sculpture decorating all the temple parts chiselled of soft soapstone (chloritic schist), a good material for intricate carving, executed mostly by local craftsmen, and exhibit architectural features that distinguish them from other temple architectures of South India. Most Hoysala temples have a plain covered entrance porch supported by lathe turned (circular or bell-shaped) pillars which were sometimes further carved with deep fluting and moulded with decorative motifs. The temples may be built upon a platform raised by about a metre called a "jagati". The jagati, apart from giving a raised look to the temple, serves as a pradakshinapatha or "circumambulation path" for circumambulation around the temple, as the garbagriha (inner sanctum) provides no such feature.[22] Such temples will have an additional set of steps leading to an open mantapa (open hall) with parapet walls. A good example of this style is the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura. The jagati which is in unity with the rest of the temple[23] follows a star-shaped design and the walls of the temple follow a zig-zag pattern, a Hoysala innovation. Devotees can first complete a ritual circumambulation on the jagati starting from the main entrance by walking in a clockwise direction (towards the left) before entering the mantapa, following the sculptural clockwise-sequenced reliefs on the outer temple walls depicting a sequence of epic scenes from the Hindu epics. Temples that are not built on a jagati can have steps flanked by elephant balustrades (parapets) that lead to the mantapa from ground level. An example of a temple that does not exhibit the raised platform is the Bucesvara temple in Korvangla, Hassan District. In temples with two shrines (dvikuta), the vimanas (the shrines or cellae) may be placed either next to each other or on opposite sides The Lakshmidevi temple at Doddagaddavalli is unique to Hoysala architecture as it has four shrines around a common centre and a fifth shrine within the same complex for the deity Bhairava (a form of Shiva). In addition, four minor shrines exist at each corner of the courtyard (prakaram). 107 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS Mantapa Ornate lintel over mantapa entrance in Chennakeshava temple, Belur/ Ornate bay ceiling in mantapa in the Veera Narayana Temple, Belavadi, a common feature in Hoysala temples The mantapa is the hall where groups of people gather during prayers. The entrance to the mantapa normally has a highly ornate overhead lintel called a makaratorana (makara is an imaginary beast and torana is an overhead decoration).[22] The open mantapa which serves the purpose of an outer hall (outer mantapa) is a regular feature in larger Hoysala temples leading to an inner small closed mantapa and the shrines. The open mantapas which are often spacious have seating areas (asana) made of stone with the mantapa's parapet wall acting as a back rest. The seats may follow the same staggered square shape of the parapet wall. The ceiling here is supported by numerous pillars that create many bays. The shape of the open mantapa is best described as staggered-square and is the style used in most Hoysala temples.[31] Even the smallest open mantapa has 13 bays. The walls have parapets that have half pillars supporting the outer ends of the roof which allow plenty of light making all the sculptural details visible. The mantapa ceiling is generally ornate with sculptures, both mythological and floral. The ceiling consists of deep and domical surfaces and contains sculptural depictions of banana bud motifs and other such decorations. Open Mantapa with shining, lathe-turned pillars at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura If the temple is small it will consist of only a closed mantapa (enclosed with walls extending all the way to the ceiling) and the shrine. The closed mantapa, well decorated inside and out, is larger than the vestibule connecting the shrine and the mantapa and has four lathe-turned pillars to support the ceiling, which may be deeply domed. The four pillars divide the hall into nine bays. The nine bays result in nine decorated ceilings.[33] Pierced stone screens 108 (Jali or Latticework) that serve as windows in the navaranga (hall) and Sabhamantapa (congregation hall) is a characteristic Hoysala stylistic element. A porch adorns the entrance to a closed mantapa, consisting of an awning supported by two halfpillars (engaged columns) and two parapets, all richly decorated. The closed mantapa is connected to the shrines by a vestibule, a square area that also connects the shrines. Its outer walls are decorated, but as the size the vestibule is not large, this may not be a conspicuous part of the temple. The vestibule also has a short tower called the sukanasi or "nose" upon which is mounted the Hoysala emblem. In Belur and Halebidu, these sculptures are quite large and are placed at all doorways. The outer and inner mantapa (open and closed) have circular lathe-turned pillars having four brackets at the top. Over each bracket stands sculptured figures called salabhanjika or madanika. The pillars may also exhibit ornamental carvings on the surface and no two pillars are alike. This is how Hoysala art differs from the work of their early overlords, the Western Chalukyas, who added sculptural details to the circular pillar base and left the top plain. The lathe-turned pillars are 16, 32, or 64-pointed; some are bell-shaped and have properties that reflect light. The Parsvanatha Basadi at Halebidu is a good example. According to Brown, the pillars with four monolithic brackets above them carry images of salabhanjikas and madanikas (sculpture of a woman, displaying stylised feminine features). This is a common feature of Chalukya-Hoysala temples. According to Sastri, the shape of the pillar and its capital, the base of which is square and whose shaft is a monolith that is lathe turned to render different shapes, is a "remarkable feature" of Hoysala art. Vimana Outer wall panel with six horizontal mouldings at Somanathapura/Star shaped Vimana (shrine) at Hosaholalu The vimana, also called the cella, contains the most sacred shrine wherein resides the image of the presiding deity. The vimana is often topped by a tower which is quite different on the outside than on the inside. Inside, the vimana is plain and square, whereas outside it is profusely decorated and can be either stellate ("star-shaped") or shaped as a staggered square, or feature a combination of these designs, giving it many projections and recesses that seem to multiply as the light falls on it. Each projection and recess has a complete decorative articulation that is rhythmic and repetitive and composed of blocks and mouldings, obscuring the tower profile. 109 Depending on the number of shrines (and hence on the number of towers), the temples are classified as ekakuta (one), dvikuta (two), trikuta (three), chatushkuta (four) and panchakuta (five). Most Hoysala temples are ekakuta, dvikuta or trikuta, the Vaishnava ones mostly being trikuta. There are cases where a temple is trikuta but has only one tower over the main shrine (in the middle). So the terminology trikuta may not be literally accurate.[ In temples with multiple disconnected shrines, such as the twin temples at Mosale, all essential parts are duplicated for symmetry and balance. The highest point of the temple (kalasa) has the shape of a water pot and stands on top of the tower. This portion of the vimana is often lost due to age and has been replaced with a metallic pinnacle. Below the kalasa is a large, highly- sculptured structure resembling a dome which is made from large stones and looks like a helmet. It may be 2 m by 2 m in size and follows the shape of the shrine. Below this structure are domed roofs in a square plan, all of them much smaller and crowned with small kalasas. They are mixed with other small roofs of different shapes and are ornately decorated. The tower of the shrine usually has three or four tiers of rows of decorative roofs while the tower on top of the sukanasi has one less tier, making the tower look like an extension of the main tower (Foekema calls it the "nose"). One decorated roof tier runs on top of the wall of a closed mantapa above the heavy eaves of an open mantapa and above the porches. Below the superstructure of the vimana are temple "eaves" projecting half a meter from the wall. Below the eaves two different decorative schemes may be found, depending on whether a temple was built in the early or the later period of the empire. In the early temples built prior to the 13th century, there is one eave and below this are decorative miniature towers. A panel of Hindu deities and their attendants are below these towers, followed by a set of five different mouldings forming the base of the wall. In the later temples there is a second eave running about a metre below the upper eaves with decorative miniature towers placed between them. The wall images of gods are below the lower eaves, followed by six different mouldings of equal size. This is broadly termed "horizontal treatment".The six mouldings at the base are divided in two sections. Going from the very base of the wall, the first horizontal layer contains a procession of elephants, above which are horsemen and then a band of foliage. The second horizontal section has depictions of the Hindu epics and Puranic scenes executed with detail. Above this are two friezes of yalis or makaras (imaginary beasts) and hamsas (swans). The vimana (tower) is divided into three horizontal sections and is even more ornate than the walls. 110 Sculpture Sthamba buttalika, Hoysala art at Belur/ Madanika bracket at Belur In Hoysala art Hardy identifies two conspicuous departures from the more austere Western (Later) Chalukya art:ornamental elaboration and a profusion of iconography with figure sculptures, both of which are found in abundance even on the superstructure over the shrine. Their medium, the soft chlorite schist (Soapstone) enabled a virtuoso carving style. Hoysala artists are noted for their attention to sculptural detail be it in the depiction of themes from the Hindu epics and deities or in their use of motifs such as yali, kirtimukha (gargoyles), aedicula (miniature decorative towers) on pilaster, makara (aquatic monster), birds (hamsa), spiral foliage, animals such as lions, elephants and horses, and even general aspects of daily life such as hair styles in vogue Salabhanjika, a common form of Hoysala sculpture, is an old Indian tradition going back to Buddhist sculpture. Sala is the sala tree and bhanjika is the chaste maiden. In the Hoysala idiom, madanika figures are decorative objects put at an angle on the outer walls of the temple near the roof so that worshipers circumambulating the temple can view them. The sthamba buttalikas are pillar images that show traces of Chola art in the Chalukyan touches. Some of the artists working for the Hoysalas may have been from Chola country, a result of the expansion of the empire into Tamil-speaking regions of Southern India. The image of mohini on one of the pillars in the mantapa (closed hall) of the Chennakeshava temple is an example of Chola art. General life themes are portrayed on wall panels such as the way horses were reined, the type of stirrup used, the depiction of dancers, musicians, instrumentalists, and rows of animals such as lions and elephants (where no two animals are identical). Perhaps no other temple in the country depicts the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics more effectively than the Hoysaleshwara temple at Halebidu.. Erotica was a subject the Hoysala artist handled with discretion. There is no exhibitionism in this, and erotic themes were carved into recesses and niches, generally miniature in form, making them inconspicuous. These erotic representations are associated with the Shakta practice 111 Apart from these sculptures, entire sequences from the Hindu epics (commonly the Ramayana and the Mahabharata) have been sculpted in a clockwise direction starting at the main entrance.[48] The right to left sequence is the same direction taken by the devotees in their ritual circumambulation as they wind inward toward the inner sanctum. Depictions from mythology such as the epic hero Arjuna shooting fish, the elephant-headed god Ganesha, the Sun god Surya, the weather and war god Indra, and Brahma with Sarasvati are common. Also frequently seen in these temples is Durga, with several arms holding weapons given to her by other gods, in the act of killing a buffalo (a demon in a buffalo's form) and Harihara (a fusion of Shiva and Vishnu) holding a conch, wheel, and trident. Many of these friezes were signed by the artisans, the first known instance of signed artwork in India. Kirtimukha decoration (demon faces) on tower at Amrutesvara Temple, Amruthapura Ornate lintel and door jamb relief at entrance to inner mantapa in the Harihareshwara Temple at Harihar According to Settar, surveys in modern times have indicated that 1000–1500 structures were built by the Hoysalas, of which about a hundred temples have survived to date. The Hoysala style is an offshoot of the Western Chalukya style, which was popular in the 10th and 11th centuries. It is distinctively Dravidian, and according to Brown, owing to its features, Hoysala architecture qualifies as an independent style. While the Hoysalas introduced innovative features into their architecture, they also borrowed features from earlier builders of Karnata like the Kadambas, Western Chalukyas. These features included the use of chloritic schist or soapstone as a basic building material. Other features were the stepped style of vimana tower called the Kadamba shikhara, which was inherited from the Kadambas. Hoysala sculptors made use of the effect of light and shade on carved walls, which poses a challenge for photography of the temples.[13] The artistry of the Hoysalas in stone has been compared to the finesse of an ivory worker or a goldsmith. The abundance of jewellery worn by the sculpted figures and the variety of hairstyles and headdresses depicted give a fair idea of the lifestyles of the Hoysala times. CRAFTSMEN 112 Elephant balustrades in the Bucesvara temple. A temple plan without jagati at Korvangla Vasantha mantapa, an ornate 13th century contribution from the Hoysala era to the preexisting Uma-Maheshvara shrine at the Bhoga Nandeeshwara Temple complex, Chikkaballapura district While medieval Indian artisans preferred to remain anonymous, Hoysala artisans signed their works, which has given researchers details about their lives, families, guilds, etc. Apart from the architects and sculptors, people of other guilds such as goldsmiths, ivory carvers, carpenters, and silversmiths also contributed to the completion of temples. The artisans were from diverse geographical backgrounds and included famous locals. Prolific architects included Amarashilpi Jakanachari,[55] a native of Kaidala in Tumkur district, who also built temples for the Western Chalukyas. Ruvari Malithamma built the Kesava Temple at Somanathapura and worked on forty other monuments, including the Amruteshwara temple at Amruthapura. Malithamma specialised in ornamentation, and his works span six decades. His sculptures were typically signed in shorthand as Malli or simply Ma. Dasoja and his son Chavana from Balligavi were the architects of Chennakesava Temple at Belur; Kedaroja was the chief architect of the Hoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu. Their influence is seen in other temples built by the Hoysalas as well. Names of other locals found in inscriptions are Maridamma, Baicoja, Caudaya, Nanjaya and Bama, Malloja, Nadoja, Siddoja,[59] Masanithamma, Chameya and Rameya. Artists from Tamil country included Pallavachari and Cholavachari. Temples of the Hoysala Empire 113 Kadamba shikara (tower)with Kalasa (pinnacle) Doddagaddavalli on top at Lakshmi Devi Temple, Pierced stone window screens at Somanathapura/ Stellate plan of shrine in Chennakeshava Temple, Aralaguppe, Karnataka Name Location Lakshmidevi Perio d King Deity Doddagaddaval 1113 li Vishnuvardha na Lakshmi Chennakesava Belur 1117 Vishnuvardha na Vishnu Hoysaleswara Halebidu 1120 Vishnuvardha Shiva 114 na Vishnuvardha Parshvanatha, Shantinatha, Adin na, Veera atha Ballala II Basadi complex Halebidu 1133, 1196 Rameshvara Koodli 12th c. Vishnuvardha na Shiva Brahmeshwara Kikkeri 1171 Narasimha I Shiva Bucheshvara Koravangala 1173 Veera Ballala Shiva II Akkana Basadi Shravanabelag ola 1181 Veera Ballala Parshvanatha II Amruteshwara Amruthapura 1196 Veera Ballala II Shiva Shantinatha Basadi Jinanathapura 1200 Veera Ballala Shantinatha II NageshvaraChennakeshava Mosale 1200 Veera Ballala Shiva, Vishnu II Veeranarayana Belavadi 1200 Veera Ballala Vishnu II Kedareshwara Halebidu 1200 Veera Ballala Shiva II 115 Ishvara (Shiva) Arsikere 1220 Veera Ballala Shiva II Harihareshwara Harihar 1224 Vira Narasimha II Shiva, Vishnu Mallikarjuna Basaralu 1234 Vira Narasimha II Shiva Someshvara Haranhalli 1235 Vira Someshwara Shiva Lakshminarasimh Haranhalli a 1235 Vira Someshwara Vishnu Panchalingeshwa Govindanhalli ra[ 1238 Vira Someshwara Shiva Lakshminarasimh Nuggehalli a 1246 Vira Someshwara Vishnu Sadashiva Nuggehalli 1249 Vira Someshwara Shiva Lakshminarayana Hosaholalu 1250 Vira Someshwara Vishnu Lakshminarasimh Javagallu a 1250 Vira Someshwara Vishnu 116 Chennakesava Aralaguppe 1250 Vira Someshwara Vishnu Kesava Somanathapur a 1268 Narasimha III Vishnu Architecture in the Vijayanagar Empire The Vijayanagar Empire ruled in South India from 1336 until 1646 and left a lasting legacy of architecture, sculpture, and painting. Vijayanagar architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles , which evolved from prior empires in earlier centuries. It is also influenced by later Deccan and Dravidian styles. • Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami Chalukyas. • Vijayanagar temples are characterized by ornate pillared halls and rayagopurams, or monumental towers adorned with life-sized figures of gods and goddesses that stand at the entrance of the temple. • The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar is generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches , domes , and vaults . • balustrade: A row of balusters topped by a rail, serving as an open parapet, as along the edge of a balcony, terrace, bridge, staircase, or the eaves of a building. monolithic: Formed of a single massive rock or stone. • Background: The Vijayanagar Empire The Vijayanagar Empire was a Hindu empire based in the Deccan plateau region of South India. Established in 1336 by Harihara I (who ruled from 1336–1356 CE), it enjoyed its greatest political and cultural prominence under Emperor Krishna Deva Raya (who ruled from 1509– 1529 CE) and lasted until 1646, when it was conquered by the Muslim Sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda. The empire’s patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights, and its legacy of sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South India long after the empire came to an end. There were great innovations in Hindu temple construction during this period, and many diverse temple building traditions and styles in South India came together in the Vijayanagar style of architecture, the finest examples of which are to be found in the capital Hampi. 117 Vijayanagar Architecture Vijayanagar era architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly, and civic architecture. Its style is a harmonious combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles that evolved in earlier centuries and represents a return to the simplicity and serenity of the past. Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice, as it had been for the Badami Chalukyas; however, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was also used for reliefs and sculptures. Temples Vijayanagar temples are surrounded by strong enclosures and characterized by ornate pillared kalyanamandapa (marriage halls); tall rayagopurams (carved monumental towers at the entrance of the temple) built of wood, brick, and stucco in the Chola style; and adorned with lifesized figures of gods and goddesses. This dravida style became popular during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next two centuries. Vijayanagar temples are also known for their carved pillars , which depict charging horses, figures from Hindu mythology, and yali (hippogriphs). Some of the larger temples are dedicated to a male deity , with a separate shrine intended for the worship of his female counterpart. Some famous temples exemplifying the Vijayanagar style include the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi and the Hazara Rama temple of Deva Raya I. 118 Virupaksha Temple, Hampi: This temple has a particularly fine example of the tall, ornate rayagopuram popularized by Vijayanagar architecture. Horse Pillars in Vijayanagar Temple: Kudure gombe (horse doll) pillars in a mantapa at Hampi Pillars at Chandikesvara Temple in Hampi: Pillars of Vijayanagar temples are often engraved with images of yali, or hippogriffs. Palaces and Courtly Architecture No royal palace structures from the Vijayanagar period have survived intact, and most of what is known about them has been drawn from archaeological excavations at Hampi. Most of the palaces faced east or north and stood within compounds surrounded by high, tapering stone and earth walls. They were built on raised granite platforms with multiple tiers of mouldings decorated with carved friezes . Palaces usually spanned multiple levels and had tall flights of stairs flanked on either side by balustrades carved with yali and elephants. Pillars and beams were made of wood and the roofs of brick and lime concrete. The courtly architecture of Vijayanagar was generally made of mortar mixed with stone rubble and often shows secular styles with Islamic-influenced arches, domes, and vaults. Sculpture in the Vijayanagar Empire Vijayanagar sculpture can most commonly be seen in the reliefs, pillars, and monolithic statues of temples. • The mingling of South Indian styles under the Vijayanagar Empire resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs and sculpture that surpassed that seen previously in India. 119 • Soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and sculptures. To cover the unevenness of the stone, artists employed brightly painted plaster to smooth over and finish rough surfaces. • Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples. • Large life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn many Vijayagara temples, and temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali) and other elements of Hindu mythology. • Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large monolithic statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi. Vijayanagar Sculpture The Vijayanagar Empire’s patronage enabled its fine arts and literature to rise to new heights. Its legacy of sculpture, painting, and architecture influenced the development of the arts in South India long after the empire came to an end. The mingling of South Indian styles resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, including a focus on reliefs in addition to sculpture that surpassed that seen previously in India. Sculpture Material Preferred for its durability, local hard granite was the building material of choice for architecture; however, soapstone, which was soft and easily carved, was commonly used for reliefs and sculptures. While the use of granite reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more durable material for the temple structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures reached the high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. In order to cover the unevenness of the stone used in sculptures, artists employed brightly painted plaster to smooth over and finish rough surfaces. Temple Sculpture Sculpture was integrally linked with architecture in the creation of Vijayanagar temples. Large life-size figures of men, women, gods, and goddesses adorn the gopuram of many Vijayagara temples. Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (yali)—horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are often carvings from Hindu mythology. Another element of the Vijayanagar style is the carving and consecration of large monolithic statues, such as the Sasivekalu Ganesha and Kadalekalu Ganesha at Hampi; the Gommateshvara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur; and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi. Examples of this style can also be seen in the Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri, Shringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara, and 120 Srikalahasti in Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi, and Srirangam in Tamil Nadu. Painting in the Vijayanagar Empire Painting in the Vijayanagar Empire, which evolved into the Mysore style of painting, is best illustrated in the elaborate wall paintings of temples. The Vijayanagar school of painting is renowned for its frescoes of Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology on temple walls and ceilings.Absorbing the local artistic traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually evolved into many styles of painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of painting. Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail; they are characterized by delicate lines , intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures, and the discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf .Vijayanagar painting is most commonly represented in elaborate manuscripts and wall paintings in Hindu temples.Mysore painting: An important form of classical South Indian art that originated in and around a town with this name in Karnataka, and evolved from the paintings of Vijayanagar times during the reign of the Vijayanagar Kings. These paintings are made by artisans of the chitrakar caste, within the Newar community of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal; traditionally painters and mask makers. The Vijayanagar School and Mysore Painting In addition to architecture and sculpture, the Vijayanagar emperors were enthusiastic patrons of painting. The Vijayanagar school of painting was renowned for its frescoes of Hindu mythological themes on temple walls and ceilings. The rulers of Vijayanagar encouraged literature, art, architecture, religious, and philosophical discussions. With the fall of the Vijayanagar empire after the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, the artists who were under royal patronage migrated to various other places such as Mysore, Tanjore, and Surpur. Absorbing the local artistic traditions and customs, the Vijayanagar school of painting gradually evolved into many styles of painting in South India, including the Mysore and Tanjore schools of painting. Mysore painting, an important form of South Indian classical painting, developed out of Vijayanagar painting and originated in the southern town of Mysore, in Karnataka, during the reign of the Vijayanagar emperors. Characteristics of Vijayanagar Painting Mysore paintings are known for their elegance, muted colors, and attention to detail. Popular themes include Hindu gods and goddesses and scenes from Hindu mythology. The paintings are characterized by delicate lines, intricate brush strokes, graceful delineation of figures, and the discreet use of bright vegetable colors and lustrous gold leaf. More than mere decorative pieces, 121 the paintings are designed to inspire feelings of devotion and humility in the viewer . The painter’s individual skill in giving expression to various emotions is therefore of paramount importance to this style of painting. The ancient painters in Mysore prepared their own materials. The colors were from natural sources of vegetable, mineral, leaves, stones, and flowers. Brushes were made with squirrel hairs for delicate work, and for superfine lines, a brush made of pointed blades of a special variety of grass was used. Due to the long lasting quality of the earth and vegetable colors used, the original Mysore paintings still retain their freshness and luster even today. Wall Paintings Vijayanagar art includes wall paintings such as the Dashavatara (the Ten Avatars of Vishnu) and the Girijakalyana (the marriage of Parvati, Shiva’s consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi; the Shivapurana murals (the Tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple at Lepakshi; and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi. Painted Ceiling, Virupaksha Temple: 15th century painting, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology in red and gold. 122 Manuscripts The most famous of the manuscripts detailing the various nuances of the Mysore school is the Sritattvanidhi, a voluminous work of 1500 pages prepared under the patronage of Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This pictorial digest is a compendium of illustrations of gods, goddesses, and mythological figures with instructions to painters on an incredible range of topics concerning composition placement, color choice, individual attributes, and mood. The seasons, ecohappenings, animals, and plant world are also effectively depicted in these paintings as cothemes or contexts. Other Sanskrit literary sources such as the Visnudharmottara Purana , Abhilasitarthacintamani, and Sivatatvaratnakara also highlight the objectives and principles of painting, methods of preparing pigments , brushes, qualifications of the chitrakar (the traditional community of painters), and the technique to be followed. Hampi has been ranked second in New York Times must-see Global Destinations. At the height of the Vijayanagar Empire in the 16th century, Hampi thrived as one of the largest and richest cities in the world. Its architectural legacy lives on in the southwestern state of Karnataka with over 1,000 well-preserved stone monuments, including Hindu temples, forts and palaces.Spread over 16 miles near the banks of the Tungabhadra River, and surrounded by a sea of granite boulders, the Unesco World Heritage site has been notoriously difficult to reach, until now.TruJet recently began daily direct flights from Hyderabad and Bangalore to Ballari, a 25-mile drive from Hampi. One of the notable features of the Vittala Temple is the Musical Pillars-Musical Pillared Hall The most elegant achievements of the Kingdom was the 56 Musical Pillared Hall, which is in the Vijaya Vittala Temple, enclosure which striking the pillars brings out the 7 Musical Chords and the Stone Chariot carved out of a single Granite rock is an achievement in the field of architecture as one wonders of how the Wheels of a Granite Rock carved Chariot to rotated. The large Ranga Mandapa is well known for its 56 musical pillars. These pillars are also known as SaReGaMa pillars, which are attributed to the musical notes emerging out of them. The pillars produce musical tones when struck with a thumb. The Temple is also called as the Vijaya Vittala Temple and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu 123 The political history of medieval Karnataka spans the 4th to the 16th centuries, when the empires that evolved in the Karnataka region of India made a lasting impact on the subcontinent. Before this, alien empires held sway over the region, and the nucleus of power was outside modern Karnataka. The medieval era can be broadly divided into several periods: The earliest native kingdoms and imperialism; the successful domination of the Gangetic plains in northern India and rivalry with the empires of Tamilakam over the Vengi region; and the domination of the southern Deccan and consolidation against Muslim invasion. The origins of the rise of the Karnataka region as an independent power date back to the fourth-century birth of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi, the earliest of the native rulers to conduct administration in the native language of Kannada in addition to the official Sanskrit. This is the historical starting point in studying the development of the region as an enduring geopolitical entity and of Kannada as an important regional language. In the southern regions of Karnataka, the Western Gangas of Talakad were contemporaries of the Kadambas. The Kadambas and Gangas were followed by the imperial dynasties of the Badami Chalukya Empire, the Rashtrakuta Empire, the Western Chalukya Empire, the Hoysala Empire and the Vijayanagara Empire, all patronising the ancient Indic religions while showing tolerance to the new cultures arriving from the west of the subcontinent. The Muslim invasion of the Deccan resulted in the breaking away of the feudatory Sultanates in the 14th century. The rule of the Bahamani Sultanate of Bidar and the Bijapur Sultanate from the northern Deccan region caused a mingling of the ancient Hindu traditions with the nascent Islamic culture in the region. The hereditary ruling families and clans ably served the large empires and upheld the local culture and traditions. The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 brought about a slow disintegration of Kannada-speaking regions into minor kingdoms that struggled to maintain autonomy in an age dominated by foreigners until unification and independence in 1947. Kadamba Dynasty, Western Ganga Dynasty, and Western Ganga literature 124 Kadamba tower at Doddagaddavalli Kadamba Empire, 500 CE. Prior to and during the early centuries of the first millennium, large areas of the Karnataka region was ruled by such imperial powers as the Mauryas of Maghada and later the Satavahanas, empires whose centres of power were in the Gangetic plains and Central India respectively. With the weakening of the Satavahanas, the Pallavas of Kanchi took control for a brief duration. [1] In the 4th century, the rise to power of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi identified the Karnataka region as an independent political entity and Kannada as an administrative language from the middle of the 5th century. The Kadambas were natives of the Talagunda region (in modern Shivamogga district) as proven by inscriptions. Mayurasharma, a Brahmin native of Talagunda who was humiliated by a Pallava guard, rose in rage against the Pallava control of the Banavasi region and declared his independence in 345. After many wars, the Pallava king had to accept the sovereignty of the Kadambas and Mayurasharma, the founding king, crowned himself at Banavasi (in the present day Uttara Kannada district). 125 Western Ganga Territories, 800 CE. The fact that the Kadambas cultivated marital ties with the imperial Vakatakas and Gupta dynasties attests to their power.[12] Kakusthavarma, the most powerful ruler of the dynasty whom inscriptions describe as "ornament of the Kadamba family" and "Sun among the kings of wide spread flame", gave one daughter in marriage to Vakataka Narendrasena and another to Skandagupta, grandson of Chandragupta II of the Gupta dynasty. Historians trace their rise to political power through the examination of the contemporaneous Sanskrit writing, Aichitya Vichara Charcha by Kshemendra, which quotes portions of a writing Kunthalesvara Dautya by the famous poet Kalidasa. Here Kalidasa describes his visit to the Kadamba kingdom as an ambassador where he was not offered a seat in the court of the Kadamba king and had to sit on the ground. Historians view this act as one of assertion by the Kadambas who considered themselves equal to the imperial Gupta dynasty.[15] Roof relief sculpture, Jain Panchakuta basadi at Kambadahalli. 126 Family feuds and conflicts ended the Kadamba rule in the middle of the 6th century when the last Kadamba ruler Krishna Varma II was subdued by Pulakeshin I of the Chalukya feudatory, ending their sovereign rule. The Kadambas would continue to rule parts of Karnataka and Goa for many centuries to come but never again as an independent kingdom. Some historians view the Kadambas as the originators of the Karnataka architectural tradition although there were elements in common with the structures built by the contemporaneous Pallavas of Kanchi.[17] The oldest surviving Kadamba structure is one dating to the late 5th century in Halsi in modern Belgaum district. The most prominent feature of their architectural style, one that remained popular centuries later and was used by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagar kings, is the Kadamba Shikara (Kadamba tower) with a Kalasa (pot) on top. The Western Ganga Dynasty, contemporaries of the Kadambas, came to power from Kolar but in the late 4th century - early 5th century moved their capital to Talakad in modern Mysore district. They ruled the region historically known as Gangavadi comprising most of the modern southern districts of Karnataka. Acting as a buffer state between the Kannada kingdoms of Karnataka region and the Tamil kingdoms of Tamilakam, the Western Ganga architectural innovations show mixed influences.[20] Their sovereign rule ended around the same time as the Kadambas when they came under the Badami Chalukya control. The Western Gangas continued to rule as a feudatory till the beginning of the eleventh century when they were defeated by the Cholas of Tanjavur. Important figures among the Gangas were King Durvinita and Shivamara II, admired as able warriors and scholars,[22] and minister Chavundaraya who was a builder, a warrior and a writer in Kannada and Sanskrit. The most important architectural contributions of these Gangas are the monuments and basadis of Shravanabelagola, the monolith of Gomateshwara termed as the mightiest achievement in the field of sculpture in ancient Karnataka and the Panchakuta basadi ( five towers) at Kambadahalli. Their free standing pillars (called Mahasthambhas and Brahmasthambhas) and Hero stones (virgal) with sculptural detail are also considered a unique contribution.[26] Badami Chalukya Empire during the reign of Pulakeshin II, 640 CE. 127 The Badami Chalukya era (7th and 8th century) was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. Their style of architecture is called “Chalukyan architecture” or “Karnata Dravida architecture”.The Chalukya dynasty, natives of the Aihole and Badami region in Karnataka, were at first a feudatory of the Kadambas. They encouraged the use of Kannada in addition to the Sanskrit language in their administration. In the middle of the 6th century the Chalukyas came into their own when Pulakeshin I made the hill fortress in Badami his center of power. During the rule of Pulakeshin II a south Indian empire sent expeditions to the north past the Tapti River and Narmada River for the first time and successfully defied Harshavardhana, the King of Northern India (Uttarapatheswara). The Aihole inscription of Pulakeshin II, written in classical Sanskrit language and old Kannada script dated 634, proclaims his victories against the Kingdoms of Kadambas, Western Gangas, Alupas of South Canara, Mauryas of Puri, Kingdom of Kosala, Malwa, Lata and Gurjaras of southern Rajasthan. The inscription describes how King Harsha of Kannauj lost his Harsha (joyful disposition) on seeing a large number of his war elephants die in battle against Pulakeshin II. Badami Cave Temples No 3.(Vishnu) These victories earned him the title Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy (lord of the south). Pulakeshin II continued his conquests in the east where he conquered all kingdoms in his way and reached the Bay of Bengal in present-day Orissa. A Chalukya viceroyalty was set up in Gujarat and Vengi (coastal Andhra) and princes from the Badami family were dispatched to rule them. Having subdued the Pallavas of Kanchipuram, he accepted tributes from the Pandyas of Madurai, Chola dynasty and Cheras of the Kerala region. Pulakeshin II thus became the master of India, south of the Narmada River. Pulakeshin II is widely regarded as one of the great kings in Indian history. Hiuen-Tsiang, a Chinese traveller visited the court of Pulakeshin II at this time and Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors. However, the continuous wars with Pallavas took a turn for the worse in 642 when the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I avenged his father's defeat, conquered and plundered the capital of 128 Pulakeshin II who may have died in battle. A century later, Chalukya Vikramaditya II marched victoriously into Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital and occupied it on three occasions, the third time under the leadership of his son and crown prince Kirtivarman II. He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a Kannada inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple. He later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, Cholas and Keralas in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler. The Kappe Arabhatta record from this period (700) in tripadi (three line) metre is considered the earliest available record in Kannada poetics. The most enduring legacy of the Chalukya dynasty is the architecture and art that they left behind. More than one hundred and fifty monuments attributed to them, built between 450 and 700, have survived in the Malaprabha basin in Karnataka. The constructions are centred in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland. The structural temples at Pattadakal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the cave temples of Badami, the temples at Mahakuta and early experiments in temple building at Aihole are their most celebrated monuments. Two of the famous paintings at Ajanta cave no. 1, "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy" are also credited to them. Further, they influenced the architecture in far off places like Gujarat and Vengi as evidenced in the Nava Brahma temples at Alampur. The Badami Chalukya architecture The Badami Chalukya architecture was a temple building idiom that evolved in the 5th – 8th centuries AD in the Malaprabha river basin, in present-day Bagalkot district of Karnataka state of India, under the Chalukya dynasty. This style is sometimes called the Vesara style and Chalukya style, a term that also includes the much later Western Chalukya architecture of the 11th and 12th centuries. Early Chalukya architecture, used by George Michell and others, equates to Badami Chalukya. The earliest Badami Chalukya temples date back to around 450 A.D. in Aihole when the Badami Chalukyas were vassals of the Kadambas of Banavasi. According to historian K.V. Sounder Rajan, the Badami Chalukyas contribution to temple building matched their valor and their achievements in battle. About 450 CE, the Early Chalukya style originated in Aihole and was perfected in Badaami, Karnataka and Pattadakal, Karnataka. The unknown architects and artists experimented with different styles, blended the Nagara and Dravidian styles. Their style includes two types of monuments: rock cut halls or "cave temples", and "structural" temples, built above ground. 129 Cave temple at Badami Karnataka// Bhutanatha temple complex Badami cave temples have rock-cut halls with three basic features: pillared veranda, columned hall and a sanctum cut out deep into rock. Early experiments in rock-cut halls were attempted in Aihole where they built three cave temples, one each in Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina styles. Later they refined their style and cut out four marvellous cave temples at Badami. One noteworthy feature of these cave temples is the running frieze of Ganas in various amusing postures caved in relief on each plinth. The outside verandas of the cave temples are rather plain, but the inner hall contains rich and prolific sculptural symbolism. Art critic Dr. M. Sheshadri wrote of the Chalukya art that they cut rock like Titans but finished like jewellers. Critic Zimmer wrote that the Chalukya cave temples are a fine balance of versatility and restrain. The finest structural temples are located in Pattadakal. Of the ten temples in Pattadakal, six are in Dravidian style and four in Rekhanagara style. The Virupaksha temple in many ways holds resemblance to the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram which came into existence a few years earlier. This is a fully inclusive temple, it has a central structure, nandi pavilion in front and has a walled enclosure that is entered by a gateway. The main sanctum has a Pradakshinapatha and mantapa. The mantapa is pillared and has perforated windows (pierced window screens). The external wall surface is divided by pilasters into well-spaced ornamental niches filled with either sculptures or perforated windows. Art critic Percy Brown says about the sculptures that they flow into the architecture in a continuous stream. It is said that the Virupaskha temple is one of those monuments where the spirit of the men who built it, still lives. Many centuries later, the serene art of the Badami Chalukya reappeared in the pillared architecture of the Vijayanagar Empire. Their caves include finely engraved sculptures of Harihara, Trivikrama, Mahisa 130 Mardhini, Tandavamurthi, Paravasudeva, Nataraja, Varaha, Gomateshvara and others. Plenty of animal and foliage motifs are also included. Some important sculptors of their time were Gundan Anivaritachari, Revadi Ovajja and Narasobba. Important Badami Chalukya temples Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal// Ravana Phadi cave, Aihole Pattadakal • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Virupaksha Temple Sangameswarar Temple Kashivisvanatha Temple (Rashtrakuta) Mallikarjuna Temple Galganatha Temple Kadasiddeshvara Temple Jambulinga Temple Jain Narayana Temple (Rashtrakuta) Papanatha Temple Museum of the Plains and Sculpture gallery Naganatha Temple Chandrashekara Mahakuteshwara Temple Sun Temple 131 Jain tirthankara Parshvanath, cave No. 4, Badami cave temples Aihole • • • • • • • • • Lad Khan Temple Huchiappayyagudi Temple Huchiappayya math Durga Temple Meguti Jain Temple Ravanaphadi Temple Gowda Temple Museum & Art Gallery Suryanarayana Temple Badami • • • • • Cave 1 (Shiva) Cave 2 (Vishnu as Trivikrama or Vamana, Varaha and Krishna) Cave 3 (Vishnu as Narasimha, Varaha, Harihara and Trivikrama.) Cave 4 (Jain Tirthankara Parsvanatha) Bhutanatha group of temples (Badami and Kalyani Chalukya) Gerusoppa • Vardhamanaswamy Temple Sanduru • Parvati temple Alampur, Andhra Pradesh 132 • • Navabrahma temples Kudavelly Sangameshwara Temple Rashtrakuta Dynasty and Rashtrakuta literature Rashtrakuta Empire in 800 CE, 915 CE. In the middle of the 8th century the Chalukya rule was ended by their feudatory, the Rashtrakuta family rulers of Berar (in present-day Amravati district of Maharashtra). Sensing an opportunity during a weak period in the Chalukya rule, Dantidurga trounced the great Chalukyan "Karnatabala" (power of Karnata). Having overthrown the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas made Manyakheta their capital (modern Malkhed in Kalaburagi district). Although the origins of the early Rashtrakuta ruling families in central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries is controversial, during the eighth through the tenth centuries they emphasised the importance of the Kannada language in conjunction with Sanskrit in their administration. Rashtrakuta inscriptions are in Kannada and Sanskrit only. They encouraged literature in both languages and thus literature flowered under their rule. 133 Kailash Temple in Ellora Caves The Rashtrakutas quickly became the most powerful Deccan empire, making their initial successful forays into the doab region of Ganges River and Jamuna River during the rule of Dhruva Dharavarsha. The rule of his son Govinda III signaled a new era with Rashtrakuta victories against the Pala Dynasty of Bengal and Gurjara Pratihara of north western India resulting in the capture of Kannauj. The Rashtrakutas held Kannauj intermittently during a period of a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains. Because of Govinda III's victories, historians have compared him to Alexander the Great and Pandava Arjuna of the Hindu epic Mahabharata. The Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank the icy water of the Himalayan stream and his war elephants tasted the sacred waters of the Ganges River.[ Amoghavarsha I, eulogised by contemporary Arab traveller Sulaiman as one among the four great emperors of the world, succeeded Govinda III to the throne and ruled during an important cultural period that produced landmark writings in Kannada and Sanskrit. The benevolent development of Jain religion was a hallmark of his rule. Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature,[71] he has been compared to emperor Ashoka.] The rule of Indra III in the tenth century enhanced the Rashtrakuta position as an imperial power as they conquered and held Kannauj again.[75] Krishna III followed Indra III to the throne in 939. A patron of Kannada literature and a powerful warrior, his reign marked the submission of the Paramara of Ujjain in the north and Cholas in the south. An Arabic writing Silsilatuttavarikh (851) called the Rashtrakutas one among the four principle empires of the world. Kitab-ul-Masalik-ul-Mumalik (912) called them the "greatest kings of India" and there were many other contemporaneous books written in their praise. The Rashtrakuta empire at its peak spread from Cape Comorin in the south to Kannauj in the north and from Banaras in the east to Broach (Bharuch) in the west.] While the Rashtrakutas built many fine monuments in the Deccan, the most extensive and sumptuous of their work is the monolithic Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, the temple being a splendid achievement. In Karnataka their most famous temples are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal. All of the monuments are designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Western Chalukya Empire, Kannada literature in the Western Chalukya Empire, and Western Chalukya Architecture 134 Western Chalukya Empire in 1121 CE. In the late 10th century, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas or 'Later' Chalukyas rose to power by overthrowing the Rashtrakutas under whom they had been serving as feudatories. Manyakheta was their capital early on before they moved it to Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan). Whether the kings of this empire belonged to the same family line as their namesakes, the Badami Chalukyas is still debated. Whatever the Western Chalukya origins, Kannada remained their language of administration and the Kannada and Sanskrit literature of their time was prolific. Tailapa II, a feudatory ruler from Tardavadi (modern Bijapur district), reestablished the Chalukya rule by defeating the Rashtrakutas during the reign of Karka II. He timed his rebellion to coincide with the confusion caused by the invading Paramara of Central India to the Rashtrakutas capital in 973. This era produced prolonged warfare with the Chola dynasty of Tamilakam for control of the resources of the Godavari River-Krishna River doab region in Vengi. Someshvara I, a brave Chalukyan king, successfully curtailed the growth of the Chola Empire to the south of the Tungabhadra River region despite suffering some defeatswhile maintaining control over his feudatories in the Konkan, Gujarat, Malwa and Kalinga regions. For approximately 100 years, beginning in the early 11th century, the Cholas occupied large areas of South Karnataka region (Gangavadi). Gadag style pillars, Western Chalukya art. In 1076, the ascent of the most famous king of this Chalukya family, Vikramaditya VI, changed the balance of power in favour of the Chalukyas. His fifty-year reign was an important period in 135 Karnataka's history and is referred to as the "Chalukya Vikrama era". His victories over the Cholas in the late 11th and early 12th centuries put an end to the Chola influence in the Vengi region permanently. Some of the well-known contemporaneous feudatory families of the Deccan under Chalukya control were the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuri. At their peak, the Western Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the Narmada River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south. Vikramaditya VI is considered one of the most influential kings of Indian history. Important architectural works were created by these Chalukyas, especially in the Tungabhadra river valley, that served as a conceptual link between the building idioms of the early Badami Chalukyas and the later Hoysalas. With the weakening of the Chalukyas in the decades following the death of Vikramaditya VI in 1126, the feudatories of the Chalukyas gained their independence. The Kalachuris of Karnataka, whose ancestors were immigrants into the southern deccan from central India, had ruled as a feudatory from Mangalavada (modern Mangalavedhe in Maharashtra). Bijjala II, the most powerful ruler of this dynasty, was a commander (mahamandaleswar) during the reign of Chalukya Vikramaditya VI. Seizing an opportune moment in the waning power of the Chalukyas, Bijjala II declared independence in 1157 and annexed their capital Kalyani. His rule was cut short by his assassination in 1167 and the ensuing civil war caused by his sons fighting over the throne ended the dynasty as the last Chalukya scion regained control of Kalyani. This victory however, was short-lived as the Chalukyas were eventually driven out by the Seuna Yadavas. Hoysala Empire Shilabalika, Chennakeshava Temple, Belur./Hoysala Empire in 1200 CE. The Hoysalas had become a powerful force even during their rule from Belur in the 11th century as a feudatory of the Chalukyas (in the south Karnataka region). In the early 12th century they successfully fought the Cholas in the south, convincingly defeating them in the battle 136 of Talakad and moved their capital to nearby Halebidu. Historians refer to the founders of the dynasty as natives of Malnad Karnataka, based on the numerous inscriptions calling them Maleparolganda or "Lord of the Male (hills) chiefs" (Malepas). With the waning of the Western Chalukya power, the Hoysalas declared their independence in the late twelfth century. During this period of Hoysala control, distinctive Kannada literary metres such as Ragale (blank verse), Sangatya (meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), Shatpadi (six-line verse or sestet) etc. became widely accepted. The Hoysalas expanded the Vesara architecture stemming from the Chalukyas, culminating in the Hoysala architectural articulation and style as exemplified in the construction of the Chennakeshava Temple at Belur and the Hoysaleshwara Temple at Halebidu. Both these temples were built in commemoration of the victories of the Hoysala Vishnuvardhana against the Cholas in 1116. Veera Ballala II, the most effective of the Hoysala rulers, defeated the aggressive Pandya when they invaded the Chola kingdom and assumed the titles "Establisher of the Chola Kingdom" (Cholarajyapratishtacharya), "Emperor of the south" (Dakshina Chakravarthi) and "Hoysala emperor" (Hoysala Chakravarthi). The Hoysalas extended their foothold in areas known today as Tamil Nadu around 1225, making the city of Kannanur Kuppam near Srirangam a provincial capital.This gave them control over South Indian politics that began a period of Hoysala hegemony in the southern Deccan. In the early 13th century, with the Hoysala power remaining unchallenged, the first of the Muslim incursions into South India began. After over two decades of waging war against a foreign power, the Hoysala ruler at the time, Veera Ballala III, died in the battle of Madurai in 1343. This resulted in the merger of the sovereign territories of the Hoysala empire with the areas administered by Harihara I, founder of the Vijayanagara Empire, located in the Tungabhadra region in present-day Karnataka. The new kingdom thrived for another two centuries with Vijayanagara as its capital. Vijayanagara Architecture 137 Stone Chariot Hampi/ Vijayanagara Empire in 1446 CE, 1520 CE. The Vijayanagara Empire quickly rose to imperial status as early as the late 14th century. During the reign of Bukka Raya I, the island of Lanka paid tributes and ambassadors were exchanged with the Ming Dynasty of China. The empire's most famous rulers were Deva Raya II and the Tuluva king Krishnadevaraya. Deva Raya II (known as Gajabetekara or hunter of elephants) ascended the throne in 1424 and was the most effective of the Sangama dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords, the Zamorin of Calicut and the Quilon in the south, and invaded the island of Lanka while becoming overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim. After a brief decline, the empire reached its peak in the early 16th century during the rule of Krishnadevaraya when the Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south. Many important monuments at Hampi were either completed or commissioned during the reign of Krishnadevaraya. The enduring legacy of this empire is the vast open-air theatre of monuments at the regal capital, Vijayanagara, which is now a UNESCO World Heritage site. Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant blend of the preceding Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles. Literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil and Sanskrit languages found royal patronage. Telugu attained its height in popularity and reached its peak under Krishnadevaraya. The Kannada Haridasa movement contributed greatly to Carnatic music and fostered a strong Hindu sentiment across South India. With the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in the Battle of Talikota in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates, the Karnataka region and South India in general became fragmented and subsumed under the rule of various former feudatories of the empire. A diminished Vijayanagara Empire moved its capital to Penukonda in modern Andhra Pradesh and later to Chandragiri and Vellore before disintegrating. In the south and coastal Karnataka region, the Kingdom of Mysore and the Keladi Nayaka of Shimoga held sway while the northern regions were under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate. The Nayaka kingdom lasted into the 18th century before merging with the Kingdom of Mysore which remained a princely state until Indian independence in 1947, though they came under the British Raj (rule) in 1799 following the defeat and death of the last independent Mysore king, Tipu Sultan. Bahmani Sultanate 138 Bahmani Sultanate territories, 1470. The Bahmani Sultanate, a contemporary of the Vijayanagara Empire, was founded in 1347 by Alla-ud-din-Hasan, a breakaway commander of the armies of the northern invaders led by Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq. The capital was Gulbarga but was later moved further north to Bidar in 1430. The first of the Muslim invasions of the Deccan came in the early decades of the 14th century. At its peak, the Bahamani kingdom extended from the Krishna River in the south to Penganga River in the north, thus covering the regions of northern parts of modern Karnataka, parts of Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. The most famous of the Bahamani Kings was Firuz Shah (also known as Taj Ud Din Firuz), who ruled from 1397 to 1422. Militarily, the rule of Firuz Shah had uneven success against the Vijayanagara kings while he was more convincingly successful against the Kherla rulers of Madhya Pradesh and the Vema Reddies of Rajamundry, areas that he annexed in 1417. His last encounter with the Vijayanagara armies in 1417 was disastrous and led to his defeat, ill health and ultimate death in 1422. Contemporary writers such as Tabataba, in his writings have heaped praise on Firuz Shah. Tabataba wrote of the king as, "[a]n impetuous, mighty monarch who patronised learned men, Sheiks and hermits", while Shirazi described him as "a just, pious and generous king and one without equal". He has earned the honorific Sultan-i-ghazian for his bravery, tolerant nature and patronage of the fine arts. In the opinion of one historian, Firuz Shah was one of the most notable Sultans to rule in India.] Another well-known figure from this kingdom was Kwaja Mahamud Gavan, the prime minister, who served under several kings and regents. He rose above the kings and princess of the dynasty by virtue of his ministerial, administrative, martial, literary and philanthropic abilities. A Persian by descent and a visitor to Bidar in 1445, he impressed the ruling Sultan Alla-ud-din II and was chosen to become a minister in his court. As a commander he was able to extend the kingdom from Hubli in the south to Goa in the west and Kondavidu and Rajamahendri in the east. He soon rose to the position of prime minister (Vakil-Us-Sultanat). The Bahamanis introduced the large-scale use of paper in administration and began the IndoSarasenic architectural style, designed and constructed by Persian architects and artisans, (also known as Deccani architecture) with its local influences in Karnataka. The Sultanate monuments of Bidar and Gulbarga are testimony to their interest in architecture. The Bande Nawaz tombs and a Jama Masjid in Gulbarga which exhibits a Spanish influence are well known. In Bidar, 139 their buildings have Persian, Turkish, Arabic and Roman influences (the Solah Khamba mosque being an example). Rangin Mahal, Gangan Mahal, Tarkash Mahal, Chini Mahal, Nagina Mahal and the Taqk Mahal are some of the palaces built by them that have retained their beauty. The Ahmad Shah Wali tombs are noted for their decor, and the school of learning (madrasa) built by Gavan in Bidar (1472), with its lecture halls, library, mosque and residential houses are also famous. In the later part of the 15th century, with a growing rift between the local Deccani Muslims and the Pardeshi Muslims (foreign) who occupied influential positions in the kingdom, the execution of Gavan under dubious circumstances in 1481, and constant wars with the Vijayanagara kings weakened the Bahamani Kingdom eventually bringing about its end in 1527. THE ART of Bijapur Sultanate Bijapur Sultanate territories under Ibrahim II, 1620 CE. The Bijapur Sultanate (or Adilshahi Kingdom) emerged towards the end of the 15th century with the weakening of the Bahmani Sultanate . The main sources of information about this kingdom comes from contemporaneous inscriptions and writings in Persian and Kannada, travelogues of European visitors to the Deccan and inscriptions of neighbouring kingdoms. In 1489, Yusuf Adilkhan, a Turkic general in the Bahmani army, broke away to found the kingdom from modern Bijapur . Throughout his rule, the Sultanate was at war with the Vijayanagara Empire over the strategic Raichur doab, with the Portuguese over Goa, with the Barid Shahis of Bidar and later with the erstwhile feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire who had gained independence after 1565. The Italian writer Varathema wrote about the founder Adilkhan and Bijapur, "A powerful and prosperous king", "the city was encircled by many fortifications and contained beautiful and majestic buildings". Inter-Sultanate marriages normalised relations and Ali I (1557–1580) joined a confederacy of Sultanates who eventually inflicted a crushing defeat on the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565. The most notable ruler of the dynasty was Ibrahim II (1580–1626) who ascended the throne as a nineyear-old with Chandbibi, the king's aunt acting as the regent. Later when Ibrahim II was defeated by the first of the Moghul incursions into the Deccan, he gave his daughter in marriage to Daniyal, a son of Emperor Akbar, but managed to collect tributes from the former feudatories of the Vijayanagara Empire. According to a historian, the rule of Ibrahim II was the high point of 140 the Bijapur Sultanate. A tolerant king inclined to the fine arts, the earliest book on music in Urdu language called Kitab-e-Nauras is ascribed to him. The opening song in the book is an invocation of the Hindu Goddess Saraswati. During the rule of his son Muhammad, Shahji Bhosle from Ahmadnagar joined the Bijapur army and along with commander Ranadullah Khan conducted many successful campaigns in the southern Deccan collecting tribute from local rulers there. The final end of the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Vellore came during these campaigns. Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia. However, the rise of Maratha Shivaji and constant invasions by the Mughals from the north took its toll on the kingdom, eventually bringing it to an end in the later part of the 17th century. The contributions of the Bijapur Sultanate in the Indo-Saracenic idiom to the architectural landscape of Karnataka is noteworthy. Their most famous monuments are the mausoleums called Ibrahim Rauza and the Gol Gumbaz apart from many other palaces and mosques. The elegance, finish and beauty of Mehtar Mahal is claimed by a historian to be equal to anything in Cairo. Their Kali Masjid at Lakshmeshwar is a synthesis of Hindu and Muslim styles. The Ibrahim Rauza built by Ibrahim II is a combination of a mausoleum and a mosque and is called the "Taj Mahal of the Deccan".The Gol Gumbaz built by Muhammad is the largest dome in India and the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia with an impressive "whispering gallery". Some historians consider this one of the architectural marvels of the world. Persian language was given state patronage while the use of the local languages, Kannada and Marathi was popularised in local affairs. 141 Kingdom of Mysore under Tipu Sultan.// Mysore Palace at dusk (Indo-Saracenic style). The fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565 at the Battle of Talikota started a slow disintegration of the Kannada speaking region into many short-lived palegar chiefdoms, and the better known Kingdom of Mysore and the kingdom of Keladi Nayakas, which were to later become important centres of Kannada literary production. These kingdoms and the Nayakas ("chiefs") of Tamil country continued to owe nominal support to a diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Penukonda (1570) and later from Chandragiri (1586) in modern Andhra Pradesh, followed by a brief period of independence. By the mid-17th century, large areas in north Karnataka came under the control of the Bijapur Sultanate who waged several wars in a bid to establish a hegemony over the southern Deccan. The defeat of the Bijapur Sultanate at the hands of the Mughals in late 17th century added a new dimension to the prevailing confusion.[160] The constant wars of the local kingdoms with the two new rivals, the Mughals and the Marathas, and among themselves, caused further instability in the region.[161] Major areas of Karnataka came under the rule of the Mughals and the Marathas. Under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, the Mysore Kingdom reached its zenith of power but had to face the growing English might who by now had a firm foothold in the subcontinent. After the death of Tipu Sultan in 1799 in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war, the Mysore Kingdom came under the British umbrella. More than a century later, with the dawn of India as an independent nation in 1947, the unification of Kannada speaking regions as modern Karnataka state brought four centuries of political uncertainty (and centuries of foreign rule) to an end. Timeline 142 CHAPTER 6 THE CONCEPT of a LOST CONTINENT Featuring Atlantis 143 Lost lands are islands or continents believed by some to have existed during pre-history, but to have since disappeared as a result of catastrophic geological phenomena. Such continents are generally thought to have subsided into the sea, leaving behind only a few traces or legends by which they may be known. Legends of lost lands often originated as scholarly or scientific theories, only to be picked up by writers and individuals outside the academy. Occult and New Age writers have made use of Lost Lands, as have subaltern peoples such as the Tamils in India. Phantom islands, as opposed to lost lands, are land masses formerly believed by cartographers to exist in the current historical age, but to have been discredited as a result of expanding geographic knowledge. The classification of lost lands as continents, islands, or other regions is in some cases subjective; for example, Atlantis is variously described as either a "lost island" or a "lost continent". Lost land theories may originate in mythology or philosophy, or in scholarly or scientific theories, such as catastrophic theories of geology. Atlantis "island of Atlas" is a fictional island mentioned in an allegory on the hubris of nations in Plato's works Timaeus and Critias, wherein it represents the antagonist naval power that besieges "Ancient Athens", the pseudo-historic embodiment of Plato's ideal state in The Republic.[1] In the story, Athens repels the Atlantean attack unlike any other nation of the known world, supposedly bearing witness to the superiority of Plato's concept of a state. The story concludes with Atlantis falling out of favor with the deities and submerging into the Atlantic Ocean. Despite its minor importance in Plato's work, the Atlantis story has had a considerable impact on literature. The allegorical aspect of Atlantis was taken up in utopian works of several Renaissance writers, such as Francis Bacon's New Atlantis and Thomas More's Utopia. On the other hand, nineteenth-century amateur scholars misinterpreted Plato's narrative as historical tradition, most famously Ignatius L. Donnelly in his Atlantis: The Antediluvian World. 144 Plato's vague indications of the time of the events (more than 9,000 years before his time and the alleged location of Atlantis ("beyond the Pillars of Hercules") gave rise to much pseudoscientific speculation.[8] As a consequence, Atlantis has become a byword for any and all supposed advanced prehistoric lost civilizations and continues to inspire contemporary fiction, from comic books to films. While present-day philologists and classicists agree on the story's fictional character, there is still debate on what served as its inspiration. Plato is known to have freely borrowed some of his allegories and metaphors from older traditions, as he did, for instance, with the story of Gyges. This led a number of scholars to investigate possible inspiration of Atlantis from Egyptian records of the Thera eruption, the Sea Peoples invasion, or the Trojan War.] Others have rejected this chain of tradition as implausible and insist that Plato created an entirely fictional account, drawing loose inspiration from contemporary events such as the failed Athenian invasion of Sicily in 415–413 BC or the destruction of Helike in 373 BC. Timaeus A fifteenth-century Latin translation of Plato's Timaeus The only primary sources for Atlantis are Plato's dialogues Timaeus and Critias; all other mentions of the island are based on them. The dialogues claim to quote Solon, who visited Egypt between 590 and 580 BC; they state that he translated Egyptian records of Atlantis. Written in 360 BC, Plato introduced Atlantis in Timaeus: Critias According to Critias, the Hellenic deities of old divided the land so that each deity might have their own lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than Ancient Libya and Asia Minor combined, but it was later sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel to any part of the ocean. Plato asserted that the Egyptians described Atlantis as an island consisting mostly of mountains in the northern portions and along the shore and encompassing a great plain in an oblong shape in the south "extending in one direction three thousand stadia [about 555 km; 345 mi], but across the 145 center inland it was two thousand stadia [about 370 km; 230 mi]." Fifty stadia [9 km; 6 mi] from the coast was a mountain that was low on all sides ... broke it off all round about ... the central island itself was five stades in diameter [about 0.92 km; 0.57 mi]. In Plato's metaphorical tale, Poseidon fell in love with Cleito, the daughter of Evenor and Leucippe, who bore him five pairs of male twins. The eldest of these, Atlas, was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (called the Atlantic Ocean in his honor), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his fiefdom. Atlas's twin Gadeirus, or Eumelus in Greek, was given the extremity of the island toward the pillars of Hercules. The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes and Diaprepes—were also given "rule over many men, and a large territory." Poseidon carved the mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular moats of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size. The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island. They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats. Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each ring of the city. The walls were constructed of red, white, and black rock, quarried from the moats, and were covered with brass, tin, and the precious metal orichalcum, respectively. According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime a war took place between those outside the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar and those who dwelt within them. The Atlanteans had conquered the parts of Libya within the Pillars of Hercules, as far as Egypt, and the European continent as far as Tyrrhenia, and had subjected its people to slavery. The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire, and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands. But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea. For which reason the sea in those parts is impassable and impenetrable, because there is a shoal of mud in the way; and this was caused by the subsidence of the island. Ancient 146 A map showing the supposed extent of the Atlantean Empire, from Ignatius L. Donnelly's Atlantis: the Antediluvian World, 1882 Modern Aside from Plato's original account, modern interpretations regarding Atlantis are an amalgamation of diverse, speculative movements that began in the sixteenth century,[50] when scholars began to identify Atlantis with the New World. Francisco Lopez de Gomara was the first to state that Plato was referring to America, as did Francis Bacon and Alexander von Humboldt; Janus Joannes Bircherod said in 1663 orbe novo non-novo ("the New World is not new"). Athanasius Kircher accepted Plato's account as literally true, describing Atlantis as a small continent in the Atlantic Ocean. Contemporary perceptions of Atlantis share roots with Mayanism, which can be traced to the beginning of the Modern Age, when European imaginations were fueled by their initial encounters with the indigenous peoples of the Americas.[51] From this era sprang apocalyptic and utopian visions that would inspire many subsequent generations of theorists. Most of these interpretations are considered pseudohistory, pseudoscience, or pseudoarchaeology, as they have presented their works as academic or scientific, but lack the standards or criteria. The Flemish cartographer and geographer Abraham Ortelius is believed to have been the first person to imagine that the continents were joined before drifting to their present positions. In the 1596 edition of his Thesaurus Geographicus he wrote: "Unless it be a fable, the island of Gadir or Gades [Cadiz] will be the remaining part of the island of Atlantis or America, which was not sunk (as Plato reports in the Timaeus) so much as torn away from Europe and Africa by earthquakes and flood... The traces of the ruptures are shown by the projections of Europe and Africa and the indentations of America in the parts of the coasts of these three said lands that face each other to anyone who, using a map of the world, carefully considered them. So that anyone may say with Strabo in Book 2, that what Plato says of the island of Atlantis on the authority of Solon is not a figment." 147 Recent times 148 As continental drift became widely accepted during the 1960s, and the increased understanding of plate tectonics demonstrated the impossibility of a lost continent in the geologically recent past, most "Lost Continent" theories of Atlantis began to wane in popularity. Plato scholar Julia Annas, Regents Professor of Philosophy at the University of Arizona, had this to say on the matter: The continuing industry of discovering Atlantis illustrates the dangers of reading Plato. For he is clearly using what has become a standard device of fiction—stressing the historicity of an event (and the discovery of hitherto unknown authorities) as an indication that what follows is fiction. The idea is that we should use the story to examine our ideas of government and power. We have missed the point if instead of thinking about these issues we go off exploring the sea bed. The continuing misunderstanding of Plato as historian here enables us to see why his distrust of imaginative writing is sometimes justified. One of the proposed explanations for the historical context of the Atlantis story is a warning of Plato to his contemporary fourth-century fellow-citizens against their striving for naval power. Kenneth Feder points out that Critias's story in the Timaeus provides a major clue. In the dialogue, Critias says, referring to Socrates' hypothetical society: And when you were speaking yesterday about your city and citizens, the tale which I have just been repeating to you came into my mind, and I remarked with astonishment how, by some mysterious coincidence, you agreed in almost every particular with the narrative of Solon. ... Feder quotes A. E. Taylor, who wrote, "We could not be told much more plainly that the whole narrative of Solon's conversation with the priests and his intention of writing the poem about Atlantis are an invention of Plato's fancy." Location hypotheses of Atlantis Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens of locations proposed for Atlantis, to the point where the name has become a generic concept, divorced from the specifics of Plato's account. This is reflected in the fact that many proposed sites are not within the Atlantic at all. Few today are scholarly or archaeological hypotheses, while others have been made by psychic (e.g., Edgar Cayce) or other pseudoscientific means. (The Atlantis researchers Jacques Collina-Girard and Georgeos Díaz-Montexano, for instance, each claim the other's hypothesis is pseudoscience.) Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none has been demonstrated to be a true historical Atlantis. 149 Satellite image of the islands of Santorini. From the Minoan eruption event, and the 1964 discovery of Akrotiri on the island, this location is one of many sites purported to have been the location of Atlantis. In or near the Mediterranean Sea Most of the historically proposed locations are in or near the Mediterranean Sea: islands such as Sardinia, Crete, Santorini (Thera), Sicily, Cyprus, and Malta; land-based cities or states such as Troy,Tartessos, and Tantalis (in the province of Manisa, Turkey);[81] Israel-Sinai or Canaan; and northwestern Africa. The Thera eruption, dated to the seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story. In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon). Others have noted that, before the sixth century BC, the mountains on either side of the Gulf of Laconia were called the "Pillars of Hercules",[37][38] and they could be the geographical location being described in ancient reports upon which Plato was basing his story. The mountains stood at either side of the southernmost gulf in Greece, the largest in the Peloponnese, and that gulf opens onto the Mediterranean Sea. If from the beginning of discussions, misinterpretation of Gibraltar as the location rather than being at the Gulf of Laconia, would lend itself to many erroneous concepts regarding the location of Atlantis. Plato may have not been aware of the difference. The Laconian pillars open to the south toward Crete and beyond which is Egypt. The Thera eruption and the Late Bronze Age collapse affected that area and might have been the devastation to which the sources used by Plato referred. Significant events such as these would have been likely material for tales passed from one generation to another for almost a thousand years. 150 City Of Atlantis City-Building Survival Game Launches New Trailer Posted on June 6, 2021 -by Joshua Nelson Independent game developer SuperIndie Games has launched the latest trailer for City of Atlantis, their new city-building survival game. Within the trailer, SuperIndie showcases dramatic and stunning gameplay along with gorgeous graphics befitting of cinematics. The twist is, those graphics are the gameplay graphics! Key art of SuperIndie Games' city-building survival indie game, City of Atlantis. This art depicts an aerial view of Atlantis itself. In City of Atlantis, you take the reigns governing the not-so-lost city, improving infrastructure and architecture, protecting it from invaders, and perfecting Atlantis all the while. The city's role on Earth is to preserve all recorded human knowledge within it, and as such you must protect its scribes and keepers from harm while sending out heroic journeymen of your own to learn more from various other cultures. 151 A beautiful isometric screenshot from SuperIndie Games' city-building survival game, City of Atlantis.//RIGHT- A dramatic screenshot from City of Atlantis by SuperIndie Games, wherein a tsunami is fast approaching and the player must think fast to avert the devastation of the city Some goals of this indie game include the following, according to SuperIndie Games' press release:CHAIN OF PRODUCTION: City management is Key. Plan the expansion in a way that will ensure maximum efficiency of production chains and transportation. ENSURE SURVIVAL: Atlantis must not fall. Defend your city from tsunamis and invaders. GATHER AND PRESERVE KNOWLEDGE: The city of Atlantis has a mission. It must discover and preserve the knowledge of the world. Train and equip heroes who will travel across the land and gather knowledge about culture, history, law, art, and science. MANAGE THE POPULATION: The life of the keepers of Atlantis is priceless. Make sure that their work is not interrupted and they are protected from harm. In the Atlantic Ocean The location of Atlantis in the Atlantic Ocean has a certain appeal given the closely related names. Popular culture often places Atlantis there, perpetuating the original Platonic setting as they understand it. The Canary Islands and Madeira Islands have been identified as a possible location west of the Straits of Gibraltar, but in relative proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Detailed studies of their geomorphology and geology have demonstrated, however, that they have been steadily uplifted, without any significant periods of subsidence, over the last four million years, by geologic processes such as erosional unloading, gravitational unloading, lithospheric flexure induced by adjacent islands, and volcanic underplating. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the Azores. Similarly, cores of sediment covering the ocean bottom surrounding the Azores and other evidence demonstrate that it has been an undersea plateau for millions of years. The area is known for its volcanism however, which is associated with rifting along the Azores Triple Junction. The spread of the crust along the existing faults and fractures has produced many volcanic and seismic events. The area is supported by a buoyant upwelling in the deeper mantle, which some associate with an Azores hotspot.[94] Most of the volcanic activity has occurred primarily along the Terceira Rift. From the beginning of the islands' settlement, around the 15th century, there have been about 30 volcanic eruptions (terrestrial and submarine) as well as numerous, powerful earthquakes. The island of São Miguel in the Azores is the site of the Sete 152 Cidades volcano and caldera, which are the byproducts of historical volcanic activity in the Azores. The submerged island of Spartel near the Strait of Gibraltar has also been suggested. Ancient versions A Faroe Islands postage stamp honoring Janus Djurhuus' "Atlantis"RIGHTA fragment of Atlantis by Hellanicus of Lesbos In order to give his account of Atlantis verisimilitude, Plato mentions that the story was heard by Solon in Egypt, and transmitted orally over several generations through the family of 153 Dropides, until it reached Critias, a dialogue speaker in Timaeus and Critias.] Solon had supposedly tried to adapt the Atlantis oral tradition into a poem (that if published, was to be greater than the works of Hesiod and Homer). While it was never completed, Solon passed on the story to Dropides. Modern classicists deny the existence of Solon's Atlantis poem and the story as an oral tradition. Instead, Plato is thought to be the sole inventor or fabricator. Hellanicus of Lesbos used the word "Atlantis" as the title for a poem published before Plato, a fragment of which may be Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 11, 1359.] This work only describes the Atlantides (the daughters of Atlas), however, and has no relation to Plato's Atlantis account. In the new era, the third century AD Neoplatonist Zoticus wrote an epic poem based on Plato's account of Atlantis.] Plato's work may already have inspired parodic imitation, however. Writing only a few decades after the Timaeus and Critias, the historian Theopompus of Chios wrote of a land beyond the ocean known as Meropis. This description was included in Book 8 of his Philippica, which contains a dialogue between Silenus and King Midas. Silenus describes the Meropids, a race of men who grow to twice normal size, and inhabit two cities on the island of Meropis: Eusebes (Εὐσεβής, "Pious-town") and Machimos (Μάχιμος, "Fighting-town"). He also reports that an army of ten million soldiers crossed the ocean to conquer Hyperborea, but abandoned this proposal when they realized that the Hyperboreans were the luckiest people on earth. Heinz-Günther Nesselrath has argued that these and other details of Silenus' story are meant as imitation and exaggeration of the Atlantis story, by parody, for the purpose of exposing Plato's ideas to ridicule. Utopias and dystopias The creation of Utopian and dystopian fictions was renewed after the Renaissance, most notably in Francis Bacon's New Atlantis (1627), the description of an ideal society that he located off the western coast of America. Thomas Heyrick (1649-1694) followed him with "The New Atlantis" (1687), a satirical poem in three parts. His new continent of uncertain location, perhaps even a floating island either in the sea or the sky, serves as background for his exposure of what he described in a second edition as "A True Character of Popery and Jesuitism". The title of The New Atalantis by Delarivier Manley (1709), distinguished from the two others by the single letter, is an equally dystopian work but set this time on a fictional Mediterranean island. In it sexual violence and exploitation is made a metaphor for the hypocritical behaviour of politicians in their dealings with the general public. In Manley's case, the target of satire was the Whig Party, while in David Maclean Parry's The Scarlet Empire (1906) it is Socialism as practised in foundered Atlantis. It was followed in Russia by Velemir Khlebnikov's poem The Fall of Atlantis (Gibel' Atlantidy, 1912), which is set in a future rationalist dystopia that has discovered the secret of immortality and is so dedicated to progress that it has lost touch with the past. When the high priest of this ideology is tempted by a slave girl into an act of irrationality, he murders her and precipitates a second flood, above which her severed head floats vengefully among the stars. A slightly later work, The Ancient of Atlantis (Boston, 1915) by Albert Armstrong Manship, expounds the Atlantean wisdom that is to redeem the earth. Its three parts consist of a verse narrative of the life and training of an Atlantean wise one, followed by his Utopian moral 154 teachings and then a psychic drama set in modern times in which a reincarnated child embodying the lost wisdom is reborn on earth. In Hispanic eyes, Atlantis had a more intimate interpretation. The land had been a colonial power which, although it had brought civilization to ancient Europe, had also enslaved its peoples. Its tyrannical fall from grace had contributed to the fate that had overtaken it, but now its disappearance had unbalanced the world. This was the point of view of Jacint Verdaguer's vast mythological epic L'Atlantida (1877). After the sinking of the former continent, Hercules travels east across the Atlantic to found the city of Barcelona and then departs westward again to the Hesperides. The story is told by a hermit to a shipwrecked mariner, who is inspired to follow in his tracks and so "call the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old". This mariner, of course, was Christopher Columbus. Verdaguer's poem was written in Catalan, but was widely translated in both Europe and HispanoAmerica. One response was the similarly entitled Argentinian Atlantida of Olegario Victor Andrade (1881), which sees in "Enchanted Atlantis that Plato foresaw, a golden promise to the fruitful race" of Latins. The bad example of the colonising world remains, however. Jose Juan Tablada characterises its threat in his "De Atlántida" (1894) through the beguiling picture of the lost world populated by the underwater creatures of Classical myth, among whom is the Siren of its final stanza with: her eye on the keel of the wandering vessel that in passing deflowers the sea's smooth mirror, launching into the night her amorous warbling and the dulcet lullaby of her treacherous voice! There is a similar ambivalence in Janus Djurhuus' six-stanza "Atlantis" (1917), where a celebration of the Faroese linguistic revival grants it an ancient pedigree by linking Greek to Norse legend. In the poem a female figure rising from the sea against a background of Classical palaces is recognised as a priestess of Atlantis. The poet recalls "that the Faroes lie there in the north Atlantic Ocean/ where before lay the poet-dreamt lands," but also that in Norse belief, such a figure only appears to those about to drown. A land lost in the distance The fact that Atlantis is a lost land has made of it a metaphor for something no longer attainable. For the American poet Edith Willis Linn Forbes (1865-1945), "The Lost Atlantis" stands for idealisation of the past; the present moment can only be treasured once that is realised. Ella Wheeler Wilcox finds the location of "The Lost Land" (1910) in one's carefree youthful past. Similarly, for the Irish poet Eavan Boland in "Atlantis, a lost sonnet" (2007), the idea was defined when "the old fable-makers searched hard for a word/ to convey that what is gone is gone forever". For some male poets too, the idea of Atlantis is constructed from what cannot be obtained. Charles Bewley in his Newdigate Prize poem (1910) thinks it grows from dissatisfaction with one's condition, And, because life is partly sweet And ever girt about with pain, 155 We take the sweetness, and are fain To set it free from grief's alloy in a dream of Atlantis. Similarly for the Australian Gary Catalano in a 1982 prose poem, it is "a vision that sank under the weight of its own perfection".W. H. Auden, however, suggests a way out of such frustration through the metaphor of journeying toward Atlantis in his poem of 1941.] While travelling, he advises the one setting out, you will meet with many definitions of the goal in view, only realising at the end that the way has all the time led inward. Epic narratives A few late-19th century verse narratives complement the genre fiction that was beginning to be written at the same period. Two of them report the disaster that overtook the continent as related by long-lived survivors. In Frederick Tennyson's Atlantis (1888), an ancient Greek mariner sails west and discovers an inhabited island which is all that remains of the former kingdom. He learns of its end and views the shattered remnant of its former glory, from which a few had escaped to set up the Mediterranean civilisations. In the second, Mona, Queen of Lost Atlantis: An Idyllic Re-embodiment of Long Forgotten History (Los Angeles CA 1925) by James Logue Dryden (1840–1925), the story is told in a series of visions. A Seer is taken to Mona's burial chamber in the ruins of Atlantis, where she revives and describes the catastrophe. There follows a survey of the lost civilisations of Hyperborea and Lemuria as well as Atlantis, accompanied by much spiritualist lore. William Walton Hoskins (1856–1919) admits to the readers of his Atlantis and other poems (Cleveland OH, 1881), that he is only 24. Its melodramatic plot concerns the poisoning of the descendant of god-born kings. The usurping poisoner is poisoned in his turn, following which the continent is swallowed in the waves.[141] Asian gods people the landscape of The Lost Island (Ottawa 1889) by Edward Taylor Fletcher (1816–97). An angel foresees impending catastrophe and that the people will be allowed to escape if their semi-divine rulers will sacrifice themselves. A final example, Edward N. Beecher's The Lost Atlantis or The Great Deluge of All (Cleveland OH, 1898) is just a doggerel vehicle for its author's opinions: that the continent was the location of the Garden of Eden; that Darwin's theory of evolution is correct, as are Donnelly's views. Atlantis was to become a theme in Russia following the 1890s, taken up in unfinished poems by Valery Bryusov and Konstantin Balmont, as well as in a drama by the schoolgirl Larisa Reisner.[144] One other long narrative poem was published in New York by George V. Golokhvastoff. His 250-page The Fall of Atlantis (1938) records how a high priest, distressed by the prevailing degeneracy of the ruling classes, seeks to create an androgynous being from royal twins as a means to overcome this polarity. When he is unable to control the forces unleashed by his occult ceremony, the continent is destroyed.[145] Music The Spanish composer Manuel de Falla worked on a dramatic cantata based on Verdaguer's L'Atlántida, during the last 20 years of his life. The name has been affixed to 156 symphonies by Janis Ivanovs (1941), Richard Nanes,[148] and Vaclav Buzek (2009). There was also the symphonic celebration of Alan Hovhaness: "Fanfare for the New Atlantis" (Op. 281, 1975). The Bohemian-American composer and arranger Vincent Frank Safranek wrote Atlantis (The Lost Continent) Suite in Four Parts; I. Nocturne and Morning Hymn of Praise, II. A Court Function, III. "I Love Thee" (The Prince and Aana), IV. The Destruction of Atlantis, for military (concert) band in 1913. Painting and sculpture François de Nomé's The Fall of Atlantis// Nicholas Roerich's The Last of Atlantis 157 Léon Bakst's vision of cosmic catastrophe Athanasius Kircher's map of Atlantis, placing it in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, from Mundus Subterraneus 1669, published in Amsterdam. The map is oriented with south at the top. Athanasius Kircher (2 May 1602 – 27 November 1680) was a German Jesuit scholar and polymath who published around 40 major works, most notably in the fields of comparative religion, geology, and medicine. Kircher has been compared to fellow Jesuit Roger Joseph Boscovich and to Leonardo da Vinci for his enormous range of interests, and has been honoured 158 with the title "Master of a Hundred Arts" He taught for more than 40 years at the Roman College, where he set up a wunderkammer. A resurgence of interest in Kircher has occurred within the scholarly community in recent decades.’ Kircher claimed to have deciphered the hieroglyphic writing of the ancient Egyptian language, but most of his assumptions and translations in this field were later found to be incorrect. He did, however, correctly establish the link between the ancient Egyptian and the Coptic languages, and some commentators regard him as the founder of Egyptology. Kircher was also fascinated with Sinology and wrote an encyclopedia of China, in which he noted the early presence there of Nestorian Christians while also attempting to establish links with Egypt and Christianity. Kircher's work in geology included studies of volcanoes and fossils. One of the first people to observe microbes through a microscope, Kircher was ahead of his time in proposing that the plague was caused by an infectious microorganism and in suggesting effective measures to prevent the spread of the disease. Kircher also displayed a keen interest in technology and mechanical inventions; inventions attributed to him include a magnetic clock, various automatons and the first megaphone. The invention of the magic lantern is often misattributed to Kircher, although he did conduct a study of the principles involved in his Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae. A scientific star in his day, towards the end of his life he was eclipsed by the rationalism of René Descartes and others. In the late 20th century, however, the aesthetic qualities of his work again began to be appreciated. One modern scholar, Alan Cutler, described Kircher as "a giant among seventeenth-century scholars", and "one of the last thinkers who could rightfully claim all knowledge as his domain". Another scholar, Edward W. Schmidt, referred to Kircher as "the last Renaissance man". In A Man of Misconceptions, his 2012 book about Kircher, John Glassie writes that while "many of Kircher's actual ideas today seem wildly off-base, if not simply bizarre," he was "a champion of wonder, a man of awe-inspiring erudition and inventiveness," whose work was read "by the smartest minds of the time. 159 HOW CITIES OR CONTINENTS ARE LOST A lost city is a settlement that fell into terminal decline and became extensively or completely uninhabited, with the consequence that the site's former significance was no longer known to the wider world. The locations of many lost cities have been forgotten, but some have been rediscovered and studied extensively by scientists. Recently abandoned cities or cities whose location was never in question might be referred to as ruins or ghost towns. The search for such lost cities by European explorers and adventurers in Africa, the Americas, and Southeast Asia from the 15th century onwards eventually led to the development of archaeology. Lost cities generally fall into two broad categories: those where all knowledge of the city's existence was forgotten before it was rediscovered, and those whose memory was preserved in myth, legend, or historical records but whose location was lost or at least no longer widely recognized. Cities may become lost for a variety of reasons including natural disasters, economic or social upheaval, or war. The Incan capital city of Vilcabamba was destroyed and depopulated during the Spanish conquest of Peru in 1572. The Spanish did not rebuild the city, and the location went unrecorded and was forgotten until it was rediscovered through a detailed examination of period letters and documents. Troy was a city located in northwest Anatolia in what is now Turkey. It is best known for being the focus of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle and especially in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt, the city slowly declined and was abandoned in the Byzantine era. Buried by time, the city was consigned to the realm of legend until the location was first excavated in the 1860s. Other settlements are lost with few or no clues to their decline. For example, Malden Island, in the central Pacific, was deserted when first visited by Europeans in 1825, but the unsuspected presence of ruined temples and the remains of other structures found on the island indicate that a population of Polynesians had lived there for perhaps several generations some centuries earlier. Prolonged drought seems the most likely explanation for their demise and the remote nature of the island meant few visitors. Rediscovery: With the development of archaeology and the application of modern techniques, many previously lost cities have been rediscovered. Machu Picchu is a pre-Columbian Inca site situated on a mountain ridge above the Urubamba Valley in Peru. Often referred to as the "Lost City of the Incas", it is perhaps the most familiar icon of the Inca World. Machu Picchu was built around 1450, at the height of the Inca Empire. It was abandoned just over 100 years later, in 1572, as a belated result of the Spanish Conquest. It is possible that most of its inhabitants died from smallpox introduced by travelers before the Spanish conquistadors arrived in the area. In 1911, Melchor Arteaga led the explorer Hiram Bingham to Machu Picchu, which had been largely forgotten by everybody except the small number of people living in the immediate valley. 160 Helike was an ancient Greek city that sank at night in the winter of 373 BCE. The city was located in Achaea, Northern Peloponnesos, two kilometres (12 stadia) from the Corinthian Gulf. The city was thought to be legend until 2001, when it was rediscovered in the Helike Delta. In 1988, the Greek archaeologist Dora Katsonopoulou launched the Helike Project to locate the site of the lost city. In 1994, in collaboration with the University of Patras, a magnetometer survey was carried out in the midplain of the delta, which revealed the outlines of a buried building. In 1995, this target was excavated (now known as the Klonis site), and a large Roman building with standing walls was brought to light. The city was rediscovered in 2001, buried in an ancient lagoon. Lost cities of legend- &-15 Lost Cities Of The World 161 Fifteen Lost Cities Of The World The Lost City of Atlantis might not be on any legitimate tour map, but these 15 awe-inspiring metropolises of the past are open to visitors and well worth a trip. Machu Picchu-Country: Peru-Civilization: the Incas Inhabited: 15th and 16th centuries A.D. Conquistadors carrying small pox wiped out the inhabitants of this royal mountaintop fortress, but the Lost City of the Incas was never actually discovered by the Spanish--in fact, it wasn't discovered until 1911. 162 Ghost Towns of the Wild West-Country: U.S. Civilization: American frontiersmen Inhabited: 19th and early 20th centuries A.D. Many of these hubs of Western folklore were boom towns that went bust once gold and other nearby resources were depleted. Petra Country: Jordan-Civilization: the Nabataeans Inhabited: sixth century B.C. This rose-colored city carved from cliffs garnered fame in the West thanks to the 1980s blockbuster Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade. 163 Angkor-Country: Cambodia.Civilization: the Khmer Empire Inhabited: ninth century to 15th century A.D. More than a thousand temples, including Angkor Wat, populate this long-time Khmer capital. It declined after a successful attack by invaders from what is now Thailand. iStockphoto Pre-Roman Carthage Country: Tunisia-Civilization: the Phoenicians-Inhabited: 650 to 146 B.C. Carthage was home to the Roman Empire's arch-nemesis, Hannibal. It was burned and the earth salted during the final Punic War. 164 Chichen Itza-Country: Mexico-Civilization: the Mayans-Inhabited: 600 to 1000 A.D. Site of one of Mesoamerica's largest ball courts, this royal city is located near a massive underground cenote, or sinkhole, where the bodies of human sacrifices were dropped. Pompeii-Country: Italy-Civilization: the Roman Empire Inhabited: seventh/sixth century B.C. to 79 A.D. Pompeii was a cultural center and vacation destination for Roman high society until it was destroyed in 79 A.D. by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Left behind are naturally ash-encased mummies. 165 Derinkuyu Underground City-Country: Turkey-Civilization: possibly the Phrygians Inhabited: Approximately eighth century B.C.to 10th century A.D. This underground network has more than 10 floors and room for up to 50,000 people, plus livestock. It is rumored to have been a hideout for early Christians escaping Roman persecution. Country: Egypt---MEMPHIS- Civilization: the Ancient Egyptians Inhabited: third millennium B.C. to seventh century A.D. Located at the mouth of the Nile delta, Memphis thrived for centures as a center of trade, commerce, religion and royalty. Foreign invasions, including one by Alexander the Great, let to its demise. 166 Teotihuacan-Country: Mexico-Civilization: possibly the Totonac people Inhabited: 100 B.C. to 250 A.D. This city, the founders of which remain a mystery, is home to some of the largest pyramids in pre-Columbian America. It inspired several major empires, those of the Zapotec and Mayans. Mosque City of Bagerhat- Country: Bangladesh-Civilization: Khan Jahan Ali Inhabited: 15th century A.D. The city formerly known as Khalifatabad was founded by a Turkish general. It boasts more than 50 Islamic monuments and the Sixty Pillar Mosque, constructed with 60 pillars and 80 domes. 167 Troy-Country: Turkey-Civilization: the Hittites, among others-Inhabited: third millennium B.C. to fourth century A.D. Troia of Trojan War lore was decimated and rebuilt more than 10 times before disappearing for good during the Byzantine Empire. Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom- Country: China Civilization: Koguryo Kingdom-Inhabited: 37 B.C. to 668 A.D. This site includes three cities that served successively as capitals for the ancient Korean kingdom of Koguro before Chinese Tang soldiers conquered the region. 168 Thebes-Country: Egypt-Civilization: the Ancient Egyptians-Inhabited: 3200 B.C. to 20 B.C. A prosperous Nile River port, Thebes' wealth is a subject of Homer's The Iliad. It served as the capital of the female emperor Hatshepsut's Egyptian empire. Babylon-Country: Iraq-Civilization: the Babylonians Inhabited: third millennium B.C. to sixth century A.D. One of Mesopotamia's first cities, Babylon gave rise to King Hammurabi of "eye for an eye" fame before succumbing to defeat by Cyrus the Great of Persia. 169 Lost Continents: The Atlantis Theme in History, Science, and Literature The Atlantis.. the above book is a study by L. Sprague de Camp that provides a detailed examination of theories and speculations on Atlantis and other lost lands, including the scientific arguments against their existence. It is one of his most popular works. It was written in 1948, and first published serially in the magazine Other Worlds Science Fiction in 1952-1953; portions also appeared as articles in Astounding Science Fiction, Galaxy Science Fiction, Natural History Magazine, and the Toronto Star. It was first published in book form by Gnome Press in 1954; an updated edition was published by Dover Publications in 1970. De Camp revised the work both for its first book publication and for the updated edition.[1][2] Sprague de Camp enjoyed debunking doubtful history and pseudoscientific claims. The work provides a detailed examination of theories and speculations on Atlantis and other lost lands, including the scientific arguments against their existence and how it has been continued, developed and imitated by later theorists, speculators, scientific enquirers, enthusiasts, occultists, quacks, and fantasists throughout history. Major speculative locales as Atlantis, Mu, and Lemuria are covered in depth, with the origins of lesser-known ones such as Thule, Hyperborea, and Rutas also treated. The work shows how the misinterpretation of Mayan writings created the Mu myth, and how the name Lemuria originated from the geological hypothesis about a land bridge between India and South Africa. Modern usage of the concept in speculative fiction is gone into, as are the various attempts to discover the "real" Atlantis. Lost Continents by L. Sprague de Camp, Dover Publications, 1970 The 1970 edition was updated to reflect the rehabilitation of Alfred Wegener's continental drift theory and investigation of the ancient volcanic eruption of the Aegean island of Thera. This eruption is considered by many who think that Plato's account of Atlantis' destruction had an underlying historical basis, to be that basis. Importance De Camp's work is still one of the most reliable sources on the lost continent theme. Lost continents or ancient civilizations sunk by a deluge are a common theme in the scriptures of 170 doctrines of many modern pseudoreligions or cults. Well-known instances include James Churchward's books on Mu, or the Theosopical portrayals of Hyperborea, Lemuria and Atlantis, and even the Nazi mythologizing about Thule. As authors of these materials tend not to state (or mis-state) their sources, works like that of de Camp are quite useful to anyone interested in objective information. Critical reception Reviewer Groff Conklin described the original edition as "a monument of scholarship [and] a richly documented and entertaining survey of how crazy the crackpots can get." Boucher and McComas praised it as "a marvelously and terrifying history of the human will-tobelieve, even in the face of all Lost lands are islands or continents believed by some to have existed during pre-history, but to have since disappeared as a result of catastrophic geological phenomena. Such continents are generally thought to have subsided into the sea, leaving behind only a few traces or legends by which they may be known. Legends of lost lands often originated as scholarly or scientific theories, only to be picked up by writers and individuals outside the academy. Occult and New Age writers have made use of Lost Lands, as have subaltern peoples such as the Tamils in India. Phantom islands, as opposed to lost lands, are land masses formerly believed by cartographers to exist in the current historical age, but to have been discredited as a result of expanding geographic knowledge. The classification of lost lands as continents, islands, or other regions is in some cases subjective; for example, Atlantis is variously described as either a "lost island" or a "lost continent". Lost land theories may originate in mythology or philosophy, or in scholarly or scientific theories, such as catastrophic theories of geology. With the development of plate tectonic simulation software, new lost land has been discovered and confirmed by the scientific community (like Greater Adria in 2019). Submerged continent and Continental fragment The Sahul Shelf and the Sunda Shelf during the ice ages and today. The area in between is called "Wallacea". 171 Although the existence of lost continents in the above sense is mythical (aside from Zealandia and Greater Adria), there were many places on Earth that were once dry land, but submerged after the ice age around 10,000 BCE due to rising sea levels, and possibly were the basis for Neolithic and Bronze Age flood myths. Some were lost due to coastal erosion or volcanic eruptions. An (incomplete) list follows: • Atlit Yam, an ancient submerged Neolithic village off the coast of Atlit, Israel. • Dhanushkodi, a town on the Pamban Island off the South Indian coast, eroded away by storm surges in the 1964 Rameswaram cyclone. • Heracleion, an ancient Egyptian city located near the Canopic Mouth of the Nile, about 32 kilometres (20 miles) northeast of Alexandria. • Sundaland, the now submerged Sunda Shelf. • Kerguelen Plateau, a submerged micro-continent which is now 1–2 kilometres (0.62–1.2 miles) below sea level. • Beringia, connecting Asia and North America. • Doggerland, the bed of the North Sea, which once connected Great Britain to Continental Europe before being inundated by rising sea levels during the Holocene. • A large island in the Mediterranean Sea, of which Malta is the only part not now submerged. • Maui Nui, once a large island of the Hawaii archipelago; several major islands represent residual high ground of Maui Nui. • New Moore Island, an island in the Bay of Bengal which emerged after a cyclone in 1970 and submerged in 2010. • Pavlopetri, sunken city off the coast of southern Laconia in Peloponnese, Greece, • Verdronken Land van Reimerswaal, most of this region in The Netherlands vanished in a storm in 1532; the town of Reimerswaal survived as an island into the 17th century; the last bits of land vanished in the early 19th century. • Strand, an island off the German coast with the town Rungholt, eroded away by storm surges before being washed away by a final flood in 1634. • Jordsand, once an island off the Danish coast, eroded away by storm surges before being washed away by a final flood between 1998 and 1999. • Ferdinandea, submerged volcanic island which has appeared at least four times in the past. • Sarah Ann Island, now submerged guano island, located just north of the equator. Vanished between 1917 and 1932. • Ravenser Odd, a large 13th-century town on an old sandbank promontory in East Yorkshire, which became an island and then vanished in January 1392. • Dunwich, the traditional capital of the Kingdom of the East Angles that was lost to the sea by gradual coast erosion and partly by a storm surge in 1286. • Dadu Island, which was legally the southernmost point of the United States of America, located at Palmyra Atoll and still shown on the map (an incorporated U.S. territory), was a bare sand islet washed away by a storm in 2014. (It was named after a dog, "Dadu", that had lived at the atoll ) • Semyonovsky Island, an island that was discovered in 1770, it had rapidly decreased in size, 4.6 km2 (1.8 sq mi) to 1823, 0.5 km2 (0.19 sq mi) in 1936, by the 1950s it was just baydzharakh and when visited in the early 1960s it had been submerged due to erosion. 172 Lost continent • Zealandia, a scientifically accepted continent that is now 94% submerged under the Pacific Ocean, surrounding the areas of New Zealand and New Caledonia. • Greater Adria, a continent connecting between Italy and Northern Africa HYPOTHETICAL LOST CONTINENTS In the 1954 book Lost Continents by L. Sprague de Camp, he describes many modern writers who have speculated about ancient civilizations that existed on continents now deluged under the sea. According to de Camp, there is no real scientific evidence for any lost continents whatsoever. The most famous lost continent is Atlantis. Atlantis, like Hyperborea and Thule, is ultimately derived from ancient Greek geographic speculation and possibly memories of the Minoan eruption of the Thera volcano. The name of hypothetical vanished continent Mu originated from the first attempted translation of the Madrid Codex, one of only four remaining Maya codices. Lemuria was a hypothesised continent that was believed to have once connected India, Australia and Southern Africa. List of mythological places and Mythical continents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Plato's Atlantis described in Timaeus and Critias Agartha, in the Hollow Earth. Atlantis, Plato's utopian paradise. Avalon, the mythical lost land or island in Arthurian, Cornish and Welsh legend. Buyan, an island with the ability to appear and disappear in Slavic mythology. Cantre'r Gwaelod, in Welsh legend, the ancient sunken realm said to have occupied a tract of fertile land lying between Ramsey Island and Bardsey Island in what is now Cardigan Bay to the west of Wales. 7. Iram of the Pillars, a reference to a lost city, country or area mentioned in the Qur'an. 8. Kitezh, a legendary underwater city located in Russia, populated by spiritual people. 9. Kumari Kandam, a mythical lost continent with an ancient Tamil civilization in the Indian Ocean 10. Lemuria, a mythical lost continent in the Indian or the Pacific Ocean. 11. Llys Helig Welsh legends regarding the local rock formations conceal the palace of Prince Helig ap Glanawg, said to be part of a larger drowned kingdom near Penmaenmawr, Wales. 12. Lyonesse in Arthurian literature: it was the home of Tristan and is usually associated with the Isles of Scilly, Cornwall (an area inundated by the sea c.2500BC)[citation needed]. The tale parallels the Welsh and particularly Breton legendary lost lands.[citation needed] 173 13. Mu, a legendary lost continent in the Pacific Ocean 14. Shangri-La, a fictitious valley in Tibet the idea of which may have been inspired by the myth of Shambhala 15. Quivira and Cibola, also known as the Seven Cities of Gold. These were suspected somewhere in America by the Conquistadors. 16. El Dorado, mythic city of gold. 17. Ys, a mythical drowned city in Brittany, similar to other Celtic lost lands in Welsh and Cornish tradition. Most versions of the legend place the city in the Baie de Douarnenez. Phantom island 18. Phantom islands, as opposed to lost lands, are land masses formerly believed by cartographers to exist in the historical age, but to have been discredited as a result of expanding geographic knowledge. Terra Australis is a phantom continent. While a few phantom islands originated from literary works (an example is Ogygia from Homer's Odyssey), most phantom islands are the result of navigational errors. The following individuals are known for having written on the subject of lost lands (either as fiction, hypothesis, or supposed fact): I. H.P. Blavatsky II. Edgar Rice Burroughs (The Land That Time Forgot, Tarzan and the Jewels of Opar, At the Earth's Core) III. James Churchward IV. Henry Corbin (Malakut or Hurqalya)[6] V. Ignatius L. Donnelly VI. Burak Eldem VII. Warren Ellis VIII. Philip José Farmer IX. H. Rider Haggard X. Robert E. Howard (Hyborian Age) XI. Édouard Lalo (Le roi d'Ys) XII. H. P. Lovecraft often invoked the names of lost lands of his own invention, a practice that subsequently gave birth to the Cthulhu mythos. XIII. Geoffrey of Monmouth first mention of Avalon in his Historia Regum Britanniae XIV. Plato I. Augustus Le Plongeon II. Zecharia Sitchin III. J. R. R. Tolkien partially based the story of Númenor, referenced in The Lord of the Rings and The Silmarillion, on Atlantis. IV. Jack Vance (Lyonesse Trilogy) V. Samael Aun Weor Where Is Atlantis? Is Atlantis Real? 174 The lost city of Atlantis is supposedly located in the Atlantic Ocean. Atlantis is a fictional island that was first described by Plato some 2,400 years ago. The island nation was alleged to be an imperial superpower in the ancient world, possessing over 10,000 chariots and a large number of bulls and elephants. Atlantis or boasted of advanced technologies and series of complex canals. According to Plato, Atlantis’ attacks were repelled by Athens, unlike other nations. The story concludes by suggesting that Atlantis fell out of favor with the deities and submerged into the Atlantic Ocean. However, the existence of Atlantis has been a subject of great debate since Plato first mentioned it. Explorers have claimed to have found the lost city of Atlantis on multiple occasions throughout the years but none of their findings have solved the existence of this mysterious island nation. Fact Or Fiction? The debate on the existence of Atlantis is still far from over. Plato described this ancient city around 360 BCE and for centuries historians considered his writing as an allegory. Many philosophers, including Aristotle, also viewed Atlantis as fiction. However, some philosophers, historians, and geographers have considered Plato’s story as truth. The debate over the Atlantis remained relatively quiet until 1882 when Minnesota’s Representative, Ignatius Donnelly published a book titled “Atlantis: The Antediluvian World,” claiming that Atlantis was indeed a real place. He even claimed that all the known ancient civilization originated from Atlantis’ high Neolithic culture. 175 Scholars and historians consider Atlantis as a New Age idea and as one of Pluto’s parables. Their argument is backed by the fact that Plato often told fictitious tales. In the story of the Atlantis, such scholars believe that Plato was sending a warning to the Greeks on the dangers of political ambitions, and promoting nobility for personal gain. Possible Locations Of Atlantis Hundreds of locations have been proposed as the lost city of Atlantis to the point that the term “Atlantis” has become a generic term rather than one specific location. Interestingly, most of the proposed sites are not within the Atlantic Ocean. Also, some of the sites are scholarly hypothesis while other sites have been made by pseudoscientific means. Most of the proposed sites share similar characteristics of the Atlantis story including time period, water, and the catastrophic end. Inside The Mediterranean Most of the proposed sites are in or near the Mediterranean Sea because of the location of Egypt from where the story was allegedly derived. The suggested sites in the Mediterranean include the islands of Sardinia, Malta, Crete, Cyprus, and Santorini (Thera). A massive volcanic eruption on Santorini led to a massive tsunami that experts believe disrupted Minoan Civilization on Crete. Some people believe that this was the catastrophe that caused the sinking of Atlantis. Robert Sarmast argued that Atlantis lies at the bottom of Cyprus Basin on the eastern Mediterranean, beneath approximately 0.9 miles of water. Another possible location of the Atlantis is Malta, considering its location on the dividing line between eastern and western Mediterranean Sea. Being the location of some of the oldest manmade structures, Malta is considered by past and present researchers as the possible location of Atlantis. Outside The Mediterranean Other locations around the world have also been considered as a possible location for Atlantis. Some of these locations include Turkey, the Black Sea, Indonesia, the Caribbean Sea, Morocco, and even Antarctica. Some geologists have even suggested that Atlantis was actually the city-state of Troy. Although many proposed sites have been suggested as the lost city of Atlantis, if the tales are believed to be true about the fated city, Atlantis remains lost. Possible Site of Atlantis Found Using Satellite Imagery 176 Fer Gregory / Shutterstock.com Thanks to Plato’s account of the lost city and Google Earth, new visual and arithmetic clues suggest that the mythical city of Atlantis may have been hiding in plain sight the entire time, in rather an unlikely place. Since Plato first described it in his dialogues in 360 BC, the legend of Atlantis has traveled down the ages and only got stronger as centuries wore on. As the legend goes, Atlantians tried to invade Athens, but were pushed back, and had to endure the wrath of gods pouring down as a mighty deluge that engulfed the city. Atlantis sank, never to be seen ever again.Plato’s account of Atlantis is supposedly suggesting that tyrannical powers can’t triumph over organized democratic states, which is a major theme of his The Republic, written a few years earlier. “This [invading] power came forth out of the Atlantic Ocean, for in those days the Atlantic was navigable; and there was an island situated in front of the straits which are by you called the Pillars of Heracles,” so went the recount of Plato (in Timaeus) who goes on to describe the fate of Atlantis, “in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea”. To this day, Atlantis is still a dream for some archeologists, and a breeding ground for conspiracy theorists, who all believe the city was a real ancient advanced civilization that vanished due to a natural disaster after it has dominated the world. The Lost City of Atlantis is the Eye of the Sahara Most assumed that Atlantis, thought to have been once an idyllic paradise and a highly advanced society, would be under the water somewhere in the Atlantic ocean or the Mediterranean sea, or under the ice of Antarctica. 177 Even armed with modern science and tech, and more accurate translations of Plato’s account, no one has come close to finding this version of Atlantis. Now, we may have new clues as to the whereabouts of the Atlantis island that remained unseen since it went under around 9600 BC. Propounded by a YouTube channel called Bright Insight, a new theory, which fits Plato’s description nicely, suggests Atlantis has been hiding in the Sahara all along. Located in Mauritania (Northwest Africa), about 250 miles inland from the Atlantic Ocean, the Richat structure is more known as the Eye of the Sahara or the Eye of Africa. The Eye of the Sahara is a prominent circular geological structure that, at 30 miles across, is so huge that NASA astronauts used it as a landmark. From the ground, it’s hard to discern, but, thanks to satellite imagery of the Gemini 4 first in 1965, then other space missions , we finally got a comprehensive view of this giant bulls-eye. First thought to be a meteorite impact site or the remnant of an ancient volcano that erupted long ago, the Richat structure is now considered to be the natural product of an uplift shaped by erosion, which formed over a hundred million years ago. Bright Insight, however, has another theory that aspires to explain the origins of both Atlantis and the Eye of the Sahara by suggesting they are the same, or, more accurately, the latter is the ruinous remains of the former. 178 Bright Insight claims the Eye of the Sahara to be “the most likely location for the lost city of Atlantis as it matches so many precise details of what Plato wrote”. Atlantis… in Google Earth With its almost perfect circularity and measurements of it concentric circles, which can’t be explained by natural elements like erosion, the Eye of the Sahara fits the description of Plato. According to the philosopher, Atlantis was made of “alternate zones of sea and land, larger and smaller, encircling one another; there were two of land and three of water, which he turned as with a lathe out of the center of the island, equidistant every way”. The first clue is that if there had been water in the Eye of the Sahara, there would be three rings of water and two of land, as Plato described. The second clue, according to Plato’s texts, is that Atlantis disappeared 11,600 years ago, which could have coincided with a comet event (the Younger Dryas theory) that just might have caused the destruction of Atlantis, maybe by a tsunami. The third clue is that Plato said the diameter of the Atlantis island was 127 stadia, which is an ancient Greek distance unit that’s 607-630 feet (185-192 meters). So the diameter of the city of Atlantis was 127×607 stadia, or 14.6 miles (23.5 km). Measurements in Google Earth give you anywhere between 20 to 24 km, which is very close. Another hint: “The mountains of the island of Atlantis were celebrated for their size and beauty,” said Plato, “The surrounding mountains of the city flow with rivers. This part of the island looked toward the south and was sheltered from the north”. The Eye of the Sahara happens to be encircled with a chain of mountains on the north side, and satellite imagery shows traces of many ancient rivers on the sides of these mountains. Picture these rivers before they dry up, water spilling around the island of Atlantis, and the lush vegetation that could once have covered this desolate place. Plato says the city opens up to the ocean, and you can see in the image below that matches that description very well, and the mountains. There are many other clues that all point out that the Eye of the Sahara could well be the legendary Atlantis. For example, Plato also said that the city had elephants in great numbers, and archeologists have found many skeletal remains of elephants in the area, and there are also rock art depictions of elephants there. Although this YouTube channel brings something new to the table, this is not the first time that the Eye of the Sahara has been suggested as the location of the lost city of Atlantis.As always, people are divided and further investigation by experts is needed, but aren’t the clues convincing- By Mike Wehner- 2018 179 If there’s one archaeological find that would turn the world on its head it would be the discovery of the lost city of Atlantis. Many have looked for the remains of the mythical locale, but nobody has come close to actually finding it, and researchers claiming to have found it in the past have all ultimately been proven wrong. Now, with a suite of high-tech hardware at its disposal, a company called Merlin Burrows believes it might have finally pinpointed the location where the city once stood. Needless to say, you should take everything you read from this point on with a huge grain of salt. Thousands of years ago, Plato wrote about the civilization, noting that its incredible technological advancements and wealth had no equal, and that the city was ultimately destroyed by some terrible event. Nobody even really knows if Plato meant for his writings to be taken as documentation of the existence of the city or if he was just sewing a yarn to serve as a warning against the dangers of excess, but that hasn’t stopped plenty of people from searching for Atlantis. Merlin Burrows, which calls itself a land and sea search company specializing in finding “forgotten or hidden” things, is poised to release a documentary about what it says may finally be proof that Atlantis was real. 180 Speaking with Live Science, Merlin Burrows CEO Bruce Blackburn says his company used satellite data to comb an area that the group believed may have been the location of the thriving city. Their work began years ago and, according to Blackburn, the location was chosen based on Plato’s writings as well as other texts. The spot, which is located near the coast in Spain’s Doñana National Park, was subsequently searched for clues. Merlin Burrows says it was then that the company found what it believes is remains of temples and towers. Dating of the material, which is thought to be early concrete, suggested it was between 10,000 and 12,000 years old, which would fit the rough timeline of when Atlantis is said to have existed. This is hardly the first time a group has claimed discovery of Atlantis, and it’s not even the first time that researchers suggested the remains might be sitting in this specific location in Spain. However, Merlin Burrows says its upcoming documentary titled Atlantica will put questions to rest. With so many false “finds” in the past, the archaeological community at large is pretty worn out on Atlantis discoveries. If this is indeed the proof we’ve all been waiting for it’ll be an incredible achievement, but for now we’ll have to keep our fingers crossed. Author Mike Wehner has reported on technology and video games for the past decade, 181 ABOUT THE AUTHOR About the Author The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of Business Management and Research, Nagpur. In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore. A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years. In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of 182 California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of Seychelles. Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English. SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.” RESEARCH PAPERS-320 + in Researchgate and academia.edu & scribd (readers) 165,000 consolidated as on 26 th Januaryr,2021 Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS Dr. Uday Dokras B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada, MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA, Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden, Management and Efficacy Consultant, India 183 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project marketplace. Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN 184 From 2018 the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 185 Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras 186 Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA gimes( May 2010) 187 188 189 190 Some of my books 191 192 193 194 Unravelling the SCIENTIFIC BORUBUDUR Dr Uday Dokras-Srishti Dokras - Kinjal Shah 195 1262 BOOKS BY DR UDAY DOKRAS Published by The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Stockholm The Indo Swedish Author’s Collective Finland Dr. Uday Dokras Tamil People as Traders and Voyagers 196 The Cambodian Trilogy I.HINDU CAMBODIA II.HYDROLOGY of ANGKOR ANGKOR is known as a Hydraulic city- full or canals and river and waterways. It is this water system they say that brought the downfall of this intrinsic kingdom. But is that TRUE? III.ENTER…… THE KINGDOM THAT VANISHED- Angkor 197 Building Materials of the Hindu Temple In depth study of how Building Materials of the Hindu Temple was used in India,Indonesia and Cambodia and India The Art & Architecture of THE GOLDEN TEMPLE COMPLEX, AMRITSAR 198 Mathematics in Temple Designs Jain ART Book on Jain Art and Iconography Jain Temples- Part I -Complete CompendiumBook I A to Z of the architecture, Design,Cosmology,Philosophy of Jain temples in 199 Jain Temples II DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARCHITECTURE OF JAIN TEMPLES AND THE ACTUAL PHOTOGRAPHS(ORIGINAL) OF 3JAIN TEMPLES of Nagpur DWARKA- CELESTIAL MYSTERIES of the Lost CITY of KRISHNA TIRUPATI TEMPLE Book part I TIRUPATI TemplePart II 200 Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods Vahanas- the vehicles of Hindu Gods. Animals in Hinduism. demi Gods SATYANARAYAN PUJA-The Complete Compendium Satyanarayan Puja or 9 Graha Puja( a puja of 9 planets) has been performed by most Hindus not only now but for 1,000’s of years. MAHALAXMI Puja Hindu Goddess MAHALAXMI Puja 201 ARCHITECTURE OF PALESTINE Palestine my Love Palestine my Love is about the culture arts and crafts of palestine so we recognize it as a entity that is fighting for recognition of not only its legitimacy but also its cultural heritage QUINTET (5) BOOKS ON MANDALA Unravelling the MAZE of the MANDALA BOOK I First part of a two book treatise on MANDALAS. This introductory phase introduces mandalas 202 Maze of MANDALA BOOK II Advanced Mandala routine for those who want to know more about MANDALAS Mandala BOOK III on Nakshatra BOOK IV MANDALA & ARCHITECTURE The Use of Mandalas in Building Temples and Modern Buildings 203 Book V on Mandala of the Oriental Kingdoms Islamic Architectureal Arts of of Imam Ali's 2 Shrines Hindu Gods in Scandinavia Did the Hindu Gods originate or live in Scandinavia once? Find out 204 Book on Divinity and Architecture What is divinity? How has man tried to harness architecture to create magic in space Virat Hridaya Padma-sthalam CHIDAMBARAM Temple -Celestial Mysteries This book is about a mysterious and revered tempe built by the Chola Kings of South India 2000 years ago T2- Temple Tech. A Book How are Hindu temples built and the technology that follows this craft. From A to Z Complete Guide. 205 Rendezvous with Sri RAM Portfolio of Temple Art by Srishti Dokras, Architect Special section on Hindu Foods by Karan Dokras, Product Guru Best Foot Forward The story of Footwear through the ages up to COVID times Hindu Temple Panorama-Celestial Mysteries A to Z of Temples. A total Panoramic View of design and architecture of Hindu temples in 350 page... 206 DUOLOGY (2) on JAINISM Ativir ATIVIR means Very Brave and is the name given to Lord Mahavir the 24 th Saint(TIRTHANKAR) Contains rare translations of the Dialogue of the Mahavir with his disciples called GHANDHARVAVAD Vardhaman-वधकमान IThis book is about Jainism- written by a non- THE TRILOGY(3) on DEVRAJA The God kIngs of Khemer 207 Book I DEVRAJ- The God Kings of Indo ChinaCambodia. This is the first Book of a Trilogy that traces the growth of Hinduism in South East Asia. BOOK I I DEVRAJA- The Great Civilizations of South East Asia -HINDU Era How Hinduism reached Cambodia and how the Hindu Kings called Devraj Built these magnificent structures Devraja BOOK II I Devraja and Raj Dharma God King and Kingly Religion The HINDU Era of Great Civilizations of Khemer Book 2 of a Trilogy that traces the advent of Hinduism on South East Asian and Indo-Chinese 208 Vayu- Man's taming of the winds Man's conquest of nature spans a million years. How was wind tamed by him. Here is the full story... more VIMANA Ancient Conquests of Wind Ancient flying machines of Gods and Men(?) Were they true. Did they really exist. 7000 years ago? LIGHT HOUSES In words and pictures BOOK Architecture of the Lighthouse of Alexandria-BOOK Indo Swedish Author's Collective, 2020 209 The lighthouse was built on an island off the coast of Alexandria called Pharos. Its name, legend Cosmology of lotus Indo Nordic Author's Collective, 2020 The Lotus is the king of the flower world but few know it as a part of creation. Find out the Cosmology. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple Borobudur remains a mystery even today. The largest Buddhist Stupa in the world has many unanswered... Win with this new DIET 210 Hindu tempel of India , Cambodia and Indonesia Hindu Temples dot India, Cambodia and Indonesia DISRUPTION-Book Book Architecture Creativity Creativity and Architecture are linked and go hand in hand. This Book is a culmination of 16 publications that have been put together as a book Project HR Management Indo Swedish Author's Collective 211 PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT/'Dr UDAY DOKRAS The project sphere has not been valued appropriately Human Resource Engineering in Theme Parks. by Dr. Uday Dokras and Mansse Bhandari As theme parks evolve into facilitating for greater thrill seeking audience,the role of human res... more Health Human Resource Management Management of Health care workers in hospitals and the human resource practices to be followed in hospitals. 212 WIN DIET Lose fat-Diet and Exercise Book ONLY BODY SHAPING GUIDE YOU NEED The Act on Co-determination at Work – an Efficacy study Thesis of the Author for the degree of Doctor of Law Stockholm University, SWEDEN 1990 213 ATLANTIS The Lost Continent & other essays of the Lost Lands Dr Uday Dokras INCORPORATING an article on RAMATHA city of RAM & Kumari Kandam the lost Tamil Continent 214 215