Chapter A
General rules of electrical
installation design
A1
Contents
3
4
Methodology
A2
Rules and statutory regulations
A4
2.1 Definition of voltage ranges
2.2 Regulations
2.3 Standards
2.4 Quality and safety of an electrical installation
2.5 Initial testing of an installation
2.6 Periodic check-testing of an installation
2.7 Conformity (with standards and specifications) of equipment
used in the installation
2.8 Environment
A4
A5
A5
A6
A6
A7
Installed power loads - Characteristics
A10
3.1 Induction motors
3.2 Resistive-type heating appliances and incandescent lamps
(conventional or halogen)
A10
Power loading of an installation
A15
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
A15
A15
A16
A17
A18
A19
A20
Installed power (kW)
Installed apparent power (kVA)
Estimation of actual maximum kVA demand
Example of application of factors ku and ks
Diversity factor
Choice of transformer rating
Choice of power-supply sources
A7
A8
A12
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1
2
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
1 Methodology
A2
For the best results in electrical installation design it is recommended to read all the
chapters of this guide in the order in which they are presented.
Listing of power demands
A - General rules of electrical installation design
The study of a proposed electrical installation requires an adequate understanding of
all governing rules and regulations.
The total power demand can be calculated from the data relative to the location and
power of each load, together with the knowledge of the operating modes (steady
state demand, starting conditions, non simultaneous operation, etc.)
From these data, the power required from the supply source and (where appropriate)
the number of sources necessary for an adequate supply to the installation are
readily obtained.
Local information regarding tariff structures is also required to allow the best choice
of connection arrangement to the power-supply network, e.g. at medium voltage or
low voltage level.
Service connection
B – Connection to the MV utility distribution
network
C - Connection to the LV utility distribution
network
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
E - LV Distribution
F - Protection against electric shocks
This connection can be made at:
b Medium Voltage level
A consumer-type substation will then have to be studied, built and equipped. This
substation may be an outdoor or indoor installation conforming to relevant standards
and regulations (the low-voltage section may be studied separately if necessary).
Metering at medium-voltage or low-voltage is possible in this case.
b Low Voltage level
The installation will be connected to the local power network and will (necessarily) be
metered according to LV tariffs.
Electrical Distribution architecture
The whole installation distribution network is studied as a complete system.
A selection guide is proposed for determination of the most suitable architecture.
MV/LV main distribution and LV power distribution levels are covered.
Neutral earthing arrangements are chosen according to local regulations, constraints
related to the power-supply, and to the type of loads.
The distribution equipment (panelboards, switchgears, circuit connections, ...) are
determined from building plans and from the location and grouping of loads.
The type of premises and allocation can influence their immunity to external
disturbances.
Protection against electric shocks
The earthing system (TT, IT or TN) having been previously determined, then the
appropriate protective devices must be implemented in order to achieve protection
against hazards of direct or indirect contact.
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Circuits and switchgear
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Each circuit is then studied in detail. From the rated currents of the loads, the level
of short-circuit current, and the type of protective device, the cross-sectional area
of circuit conductors can be determined, taking into account the nature of the
cableways and their influence on the current rating of conductors.
Before adopting the conductor size indicated above, the following requirements must
be satisfied:
b The voltage drop complies with the relevant standard
b Motor starting is satisfactory
b Protection against electric shock is assured
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
The short-circuit current Isc is then determined, and the thermal and electrodynamic
withstand capability of the circuit is checked.
These calculations may indicate that it is necessary to use a conductor size larger
than the size originally chosen.
The performance required by the switchgear will determine its type and
characteristics.
The use of cascading techniques and the discriminative operation of fuses and
tripping of circuit breakers are examined.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
1 Methodology
A3
Protection against overvoltages
J – Protection against voltage surges in LV
Direct or indirect lightning strokes can damage electrical equipment at a distance
of several kilometers. Operating voltage surges, transient and industrial frequency
over-voltage can also produce the same consequences.The effects are examined
and solutions are proposed.
K – Energy efficiency in electrical distribution
Energy efficiency in electrial distribution
Implementation of measuring devices with an adequate communication system
within the electrical installation can produce high benefits for the user or owner:
reduced power consumption, reduced cost of energy, better use of electrical
equipment.
L - Power factor correction and harmonic filtering
Reactive energy
The power factor correction within electrical installations is carried out locally,
globally or as a combination of both methods.
Harmonics
M - Harmonic management
Harmonics in the network affect the quality of energy and are at the origin of many
disturbances as overloads, vibrations, ageing of equipment, trouble of sensitive
equipment, of local area networks, telephone networks. This chapter deals with the
origins and the effects of harmonics and explain how to measure them and present
the solutions.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and
loads
Particular supply sources and loads
P - Residential and other special locations
Generic applications
Particular items or equipment are studied:
b Specific sources such as alternators or inverters
b Specific loads with special characteristics, such as induction motors, lighting
circuits or LV/LV transformers
b Specific systems, such as direct-current networks
Certain premises and locations are subject to particularly strict regulations: the most
common example being residential dwellings.
EMC Guidelines
Q - EMC guideline
Some basic rules must be followed in order to ensure Electromagnetic Compatibility.
Non observance of these rules may have serious consequences in the operation of
the electrical installation: disturbance of communication systems, nuisance tripping
of protection devices, and even destruction of sensitive devices.
Ecodial software
Ecodial software(1) provides a complete design package for LV installations, in
accordance with IEC standards and recommendations.
(1) Ecodial is a Merlin Gerin product and is available in French
and English versions.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The following features are included:
b Construction of one-line diagrams
b Calculation of short-circuit currents
b Calculation of voltage drops
b Optimization of cable sizes
b Required ratings of switchgear and fusegear
b Discrimination of protective devices
b Recommendations for cascading schemes
b Verification of the protection of people
b Comprehensive print-out of the foregoing calculated design data
A - General rules of electrical installation design
2 Rules and statutory regulations
A4
Low-voltage installations are governed by a number of regulatory and advisory texts,
which may be classified as follows:
b Statutory regulations (decrees, factory acts,etc.)
b Codes of practice, regulations issued by professional institutions, job specifications
b National and international standards for installations
b National and international standards for products
2.1 Definition of voltage ranges
IEC voltage standards and recommendations
Three-phase four-wire or three-wire systems
Nominal voltage (V)
50 Hz
60 Hz
–
120/208
–
240
230/400(1)
277/480
400/690(1)
480
–
347/600
1000
600
Single-phase three-wire systems
Nominal voltage (V)
60 Hz
120/240
–
–
–
–
–
(1) The nominal voltage of existing 220/380 V and 240/415 V systems shall evolve
toward the recommended value of 230/400 V. The transition period should be as short
as possible and should not exceed the year 2003. During this period, as a first step, the
electricity supply authorities of countries having 220/380 V systems should bring the
voltage within the range 230/400 V +6 %, -10 % and those of countries having
240/415 V systems should bring the voltage within the range 230/400 V +10 %,
-6 %. At the end of this transition period, the tolerance of 230/400 V ± 10 % should
have been achieved; after this the reduction of this range will be considered. All the
above considerations apply also to the present 380/660 V value with respect to the
recommended value 400/690 V.
Fig. A1 : Standard voltages between 100 V and 1000 V (IEC 60038 Edition 6.2 2002-07)
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Series I
Highest voltage
for equipment (kV)
3.6(1)
7.2(1)
12
–
–
–
(17.5)
24
–
36(3)
–
40.5(3)
Nominal system
voltage (kV)
3.3(1)
3(1)
6.6(1)
6(1)
11
10
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
(15)
22
20
–
–
33(3)
–
–
–
–
35(3)
Series II
Highest voltage
for equipment (kV)
4.40(1)
–
–
13.2(2)
13.97(2)
14.52(1)
–
–
26.4(2)
–
36.5
–
Nominal system
voltage (kV)
4.16(1)
–
–
12.47(2)
13.2(2)
13.8(1)
–
–
24.94(2)
–
34.5
–
These systems are generally three-wire systems unless otherwise indicated.
The values indicated are voltages between phases.
The values indicated in parentheses should be considered as non-preferred values. It is
recommended that these values should not be used for new systems to be constructed
in future.
Note 1: It is recommended that in any one country the ratio between two adjacent
nominal voltages should be not less than two.
Note 2: In a normal system of Series I, the highest voltage and the lowest voltage do
not differ by more than approximately ±10 % from the nominal voltage of the system.
In a normal system of Series II, the highest voltage does not differ by more then +5 %
and the lowest voltage by more than -10 % from the nominal voltage of the system.
(1) These values should not be used for public distribution systems.
(2) These systems are generally four-wire systems.
(3) The unification of these values is under consideration.
Fig. A2 : Standard voltages above 1 kV and not exceeding 35 kV
(IEC 60038 Edition 6.2 2002-07)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
2 Rules and statutory regulations
A5
2.2 Regulations
In most countries, electrical installations shall comply with more than one set of
regulations, issued by National Authorities or by recognized private bodies. It is
essential to take into account these local constraints before starting the design.
2.3 Standards
IEC 60038
IEC 60076-2
IEC 60076-3
IEC 60076-5
IEC 60076-10
IEC 60146
IEC 60255
IEC 60265-1
IEC 60269-1
IEC 60269-2
IEC 60282-1
IEC 60287-1-1
IEC 60364
IEC 60364-1
IEC 60364-4-41
IEC 60364-4-42
IEC 60364-4-43
IEC 60364-4-44
IEC 60364-5-51
IEC 60364-5-52
IEC 60364-5-53
IEC 60364-5-54
IEC 60364-5-55
IEC 60364-6-61
IEC 60364-7-701
IEC 60364-7-702
IEC 60364-7-703
IEC 60364-7-704
IEC 60364-7-705
IEC 60364-7-706
IEC 60364-7-707
IEC 60364-7-708
IEC 60364-7-709
IEC 60364-7-710
IEC 60364-7-711
IEC 60364-7-712
IEC 60364-7-713
IEC 60364-7-714
IEC 60364-7-715
IEC 60364-7-717
IEC 60364-7-740
IEC 60427
IEC 60439-1
IEC 60439-2
IEC 60439-3
IEC 60439-4
IEC 60446
IEC 60439-5
IEC 60479-1
IEC 60479-2
IEC 60479-3
Standard voltages
Power transformers - Temperature rise
Power transformers - Insulation levels, dielectric tests and external clearances in air
Power transformers - Ability to withstand short-circuit
Power transformers - Determination of sound levels
Semiconductor convertors - General requirements and line commutated convertors
Electrical relays
High-voltage switches - High-voltage switches for rated voltages above 1 kV and less than 52 kV
Low-voltage fuses - General requirements
Low-voltage fuses - Supplementary requirements for fuses for use by unskilled persons (fuses mainly for household and similar applications)
High-voltage fuses - Current-limiting fuses
Electric cables - Calculation of the current rating - Current rating equations (100% load factor) and calculation of losses - General
Electrical installations of buildings
Electrical installations of buildings - Fundamental principles
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against electric shock
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against thermal effects
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against overcurrent
Electrical installations of buildings - Protection for safety - Protection against electromagnetic and voltage disrurbance
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Common rules
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Wiring systems
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Isolation, switching and control
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Earthing arrangements
Electrical installations of buildings - Selection and erection of electrical equipment - Other equipments
Electrical installations of buildings - Verification and testing - Initial verification
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Locations containing a bath tub or shower basin
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Swimming pools and other basins
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Locations containing sauna heaters
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Construction and demolition site installations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Electrical installations of agricultural and horticultural
premises
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Restrictive conducting locations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Earthing requirements for the installation of data
processing equipment
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Electrical installations in caravan parks and caravans
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Marinas and pleasure craft
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Medical locations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Exhibitions, shows and stands
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Solar photovoltaic (PV) power supply systems
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Furniture
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - External lighting installations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Extra-low-voltage lighting installations
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Mobile or transportable units
Electrical installations of buildings - Requirements for special installations or locations - Temporary electrical installations for structures,
amusement devices and booths at fairgrounds, amusement parks and circuses
High-voltage alternating current circuit-breakers
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Type-tested and partially type-tested assemblies
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for busbar trunking systems (busways)
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies intended to
be installed in places where unskilled persons have access for their use - Distribution boards
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for assemblies for construction sites (ACS)
Basic and safety principles for man-machine interface, marking and identification - Identification of conductors by colours or numerals
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear assemblies - Particular requirements for assemblies intended to be installed outdoors in public places
- Cable distribution cabinets (CDCs)
Effects of current on human beings and livestock - General aspects
Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Special aspects
Effects of current on human beings and livestock - Effects of currents passing through the body of livestock
(Continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
This Guide is based on relevant IEC standards, in particular IEC 60364. IEC 60364
has been established by medical and engineering experts of all countries in the
world comparing their experience at an international level. Currently, the safety
principles of IEC 60364 and 60479-1 are the fundamentals of most electrical
standards in the world (see table below and next page).
A - General rules of electrical installation design
2 Rules and statutory regulations
A6
IEC 60529
IEC 60644
IEC 60664
IEC 60715
IEC 60724
IEC 60755
IEC 60787
IEC 60831
IEC 60947-1
IEC 60947-2
IEC 60947-3
IEC 60947-4-1
IEC 60947-6-1
IEC 61000
IEC 61140
IEC 61557-1
IEC 61557-8
IEC 61557-9
IEC 61557-12
IEC 61558-2-6
IEC 62271-1
IEC 62271-100
IEC 62271-102
IEC 62271-105
IEC 62271-200
IEC 62271-202
Degrees of protection provided by enclosures (IP code)
Spécification for high-voltage fuse-links for motor circuit applications
Insulation coordination for equipment within low-voltage systems
Dimensions of low-voltage switchgear and controlgear. Standardized mounting on rails for mechanical support of electrical devices in switchgear
and controlgear installations.
Short-circuit temperature limits of electric cables with rated voltages of 1 kV (Um = 1.2 kV) and 3 kV (Um = 3.6 kV)
General requirements for residual current operated protective devices
Application guide for the selection of fuse-links of high-voltage fuses for transformer circuit application
Shunt power capacitors of the self-healing type for AC systems having a rated voltage up to and including 1000 V - General - Performance, testing
and rating - Safety requirements - Guide for installation and operation
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - General rules
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Circuit-breakers
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and fuse-combination units
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Contactors and motor-starters - Electromechanical contactors and motor-starters
Low-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Multiple function equipment - Automatic transfer switching equipment
Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
Protection against electric shocks - common aspects for installation and equipment
Electrical safety in low-voltage distribution systems up to 1000 V AC and 1500 V DC - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures - General requirements
Electrical safety in low-voltage distribution systems up to 1000 V AC and 1500 V DC - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures
Electrical safety in low-voltage distribution systems up to 1000 V AC and 1500 V DC - Equipment for insulation fault location in IT systems
Electrical safety in low-voltage distribution systems up to 1000 V AC and 1500 V DC - Equipment for testing, measuring or monitoring of protective
measures. Performance measuring and monitoring devices (PMD)
Safety of power transformers, power supply units and similar - Particular requirements for safety isolating transformers for general use
Common specifications for high-voltage switchgear and controlgear standards
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - High-voltage alternating-current circuit-breakers
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating current disconnectors and earthing switches
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating current switch-fuse combinations
High-voltage switchgear and controlgear - Alternating current metal-enclosed switchgear and controlgear for rated voltages above 1 kV and up to
and including 52 kV
High-voltage/low voltage prefabricated substations
(Concluded)
2.4 Quality and safety of an electrical installation
In so far as control procedures are respected, quality and safety will be assured
only if:
b The initial checking of conformity of the electrical installation with the standard and
regulation has been achieved
b The electrical equipment comply with standards
b The periodic checking of the installation recommended by the equipment
manufacturer is respected.
2.5 Initial testing of an installation
Before a utility will connect an installation to its supply network, strict precommissioning electrical tests and visual inspections by the authority, or by its
appointed agent, must be satisfied.
These tests are made according to local (governmental and/or institutional)
regulations, which may differ slightly from one country to another. The principles of
all such regulations however, are common, and are based on the observance of
rigorous safety rules in the design and realization of the installation.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
IEC 60364-6-61 and related standards included in this guide are based on an
international consensus for such tests, intended to cover all the safety measures and
approved installation practices normally required for residential, commercial and (the
majority of) industrial buildings. Many industries however have additional regulations
related to a particular product (petroleum, coal, natural gas, etc.). Such additional
requirements are beyond the scope of this guide.
The pre-commissioning electrical tests and visual-inspection checks for installations
in buildings include, typically, all of the following:
b Insulation tests of all cable and wiring conductors of the fixed installation, between
phases and between phases and earth
b Continuity and conductivity tests of protective, equipotential and earth-bonding
conductors
b Resistance tests of earthing electrodes with respect to remote earth
b Verification of the proper operation of the interlocks, if any
b Check of allowable number of socket-outlets per circuit
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A - General rules of electrical installation design
2 Rules and statutory regulations
A7
b Cross-sectional-area check of all conductors for adequacy at the short-circuit
levels prevailing, taking account of the associated protective devices, materials and
installation conditions (in air, conduit, etc.)
b Verification that all exposed- and extraneous metallic parts are properly earthed
(where appropriate)
b Check of clearance distances in bathrooms, etc.
These tests and checks are basic (but not exhaustive) to the majority of installations,
while numerous other tests and rules are included in the regulations to cover
particular cases, for example: TN-, TT- or IT-earthed installations, installations based
on class 2 insulation, SELV circuits, and special locations, etc.
The aim of this guide is to draw attention to the particular features of different types
of installation, and to indicate the essential rules to be observed in order to achieve
a satisfactory level of quality, which will ensure safe and trouble-free performance.
The methods recommended in this guide, modified if necessary to comply with any
possible variation imposed by a utility, are intended to satisfy all precommissioning
test and inspection requirements.
2.6 Periodic check-testing of an installation
In many countries, all industrial and commercial-building installations, together with
installations in buildings used for public gatherings, must be re-tested periodically by
authorized agents.
Figure A3 shows the frequency of testing commonly prescribed according to the
kind of installation concerned.
Type of installation
Installations which
require the protection
of employees
Installations in buildings
used for public gatherings,
where protection against
the risks of fire and panic
are required
Residential
b Locations at which a risk of degradation,
fire or explosion exists
b Temporary installations at worksites
b Locations at which MV installations exist
b Restrictive conducting locations
where mobile equipment is used
Other cases
According to the type of establishment
and its capacity for receiving the public
Testing
frequency
Annually
Every 3 years
From one to
three years
According to local regulations
Fig A3 : Frequency of check-tests commonly recommended for an electrical installation
2.7 Conformity (with standards and specifications)
of equipment used in the installation
Attestation of conformity
The conformity of equipment with the relevant standards can be attested:
b By an official mark of conformity granted by the certification body concerned, or
b By a certificate of conformity issued by a certification body, or
b By a declaration of conformity from the manufacturer
The first two solutions are generally not available for high voltage equipment.
Declaration of conformity
Where the equipment is to be used by skilled or instructed persons, the
manufacturer’s declaration of conformity (included in the technical documentation),
is generally recognized as a valid attestation. Where the competence of the
manufacturer is in doubt, a certificate of conformity can reinforce the manufacturer’s
declaration.
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Conformity of equipment with the relevant
standards can be attested in several ways
A - General rules of electrical installation design
2 Rules and statutory regulations
A8
Note: CE marking
In Europe, the European directives require the manufacturer or his authorized
representative to affix the CE marking on his own responsibility. It means that:
b The product meets the legal requirements
b It is presumed to be marketable in Europe
The CE marking is neither a mark of origin nor a mark of conformity.
Mark of conformity
Marks of conformity are affixed on appliances and equipment generally used by
ordinary non instructed people (e.g in the field of domestic appliances). A mark of
conformity is delivered by certification body if the equipment meet the requirements
from an applicable standard and after verification of the manufacturer’s quality
management system.
Certification of Quality
The standards define several methods of quality assurance which correspond to
different situations rather than to different levels of quality.
Assurance
A laboratory for testing samples cannot certify the conformity of an entire production
run: these tests are called type tests. In some tests for conformity to standards,
the samples are destroyed (tests on fuses, for example).
Only the manufacturer can certify that the fabricated products have, in fact,
the characteristics stated.
Quality assurance certification is intended to complete the initial declaration or
certification of conformity.
As proof that all the necessary measures have been taken for assuring the quality of
production, the manufacturer obtains certification of the quality control system which
monitors the fabrication of the product concerned. These certificates are issued
by organizations specializing in quality control, and are based on the international
standard ISO 9001: 2000.
These standards define three model systems of quality assurance control
corresponding to different situations rather than to different levels of quality:
b Model 3 defines assurance of quality by inspection and checking of final products.
b Model 2 includes, in addition to checking of the final product, verification of the
manufacturing process. For example, this method is applied, to the manufacturer of
fuses where performance characteristics cannot be checked without destroying the
fuse.
b Model 1 corresponds to model 2, but with the additional requirement that the
quality of the design process must be rigorously scrutinized; for example, where it is
not intended to fabricate and test a prototype (case of a custom-built product made to
specification).
2.8 Environment
Environmental management systems can be certified by an independent body if they
meet requirements given in ISO 14001. This type of certification mainly concerns
industrial settings but can also be granted to places where products are designed.
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A product environmental design sometimes called “eco-design” is an approach of
sustainable development with the objective of designing products/services best
meeting the customers’ requirements while reducing their environmental impact
over their whole life cycle. The methodologies used for this purpose lead to choose
equipment’s architecture together with components and materials taking into account
the influence of a product on the environment along its life cycle (from extraction of
raw materials to scrap) i.e. production, transport, distribution, end of life etc.
In Europe two Directives have been published, they are called:
b RoHS Directive (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) coming into force on
July 2006 (the coming into force was on February 13th, 2003, and the application
date is July 1st, 2006) aims to eliminate from products six hazardous substances:
lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, polybrominated biphenyls (PBB) or
polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE).
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2 Rules and statutory regulations
A9
b WEEE Directive (Waste of Electrical and Electronic Equipment) coming into
force in August 2005 (the coming into force was on February 13th, 2003, and
the application date is August 13th, 2005) in order to master the end of life and
treatments for household and non household equipment.
In other parts of the world some new legislation will follow the same objectives.
In addition to manufacturers action in favour of products eco-design, the contribution
of the whole electrical installation to sustainable development can be significantly
improved through the design of the installation. Actually, it has been shown that an
optimised design of the installation, taking into account operation conditions, MV/LV
substations location and distribution structure (switchboards, busways, cables),
can reduce substantially environmental impacts (raw material depletion, energy
depletion, end of life)
See chapter D about location of the substation and the main LV switchboard.
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A - General rules of electrical installation design
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
3 Installed power loads Characteristics
A10
The examination of actual values of apparent-power required by each load enables
the establishment of:
An examination of the actual apparentpower demands of different loads: a
necessary preliminary step in the design of a
LV installation
b A declared power demand which determines the contract for the supply of energy
b The rating of the MV/LV transformer, where applicable (allowing for expected
increased load)
b Levels of load current at each distribution board
The nominal power in kW (Pn) of a motor
indicates its rated equivalent mechanical power
output.
The apparent power in kVA (Pa) supplied to
the motor is a function of the output, the motor
efficiency and the power factor.
Pn
Pa =
ηcosϕ
3.1 Induction motors
Current demand
The full-load current Ia supplied to the motor is given by the following formulae:
b 3-phase motor: Ia = Pn x 1,000 / (√3 x U x η x cos ϕ)
b 1-phase motor: Ia = Pn x 1,000 / (U x η x cos ϕ)
where
Ia: current demand (in amps)
Pn: nominal power (in kW)
U: voltage between phases for 3-phase motors and voltage between the terminals
for single-phase motors (in volts). A single-phase motor may be connected phase-toneutral or phase-to-phase.
η: per-unit efficiency, i.e. output kW / input kW
cos ϕ: power factor, i.e. kW input / kVA input
Subtransient current and protection setting
b Subtransient current peak value can be very high ; typical value is about 12
to 15 times the rms rated value Inm. Sometimes this value can reach 25 times Inm.
b Merlin Gerin circuit-breakers, Telemecanique contactors and thermal relays are
designed to withstand motor starts with very high subtransient current (subtransient
peak value can be up to 19 times the rms rated value Inm).
b If unexpected tripping of the overcurrent protection occurs during starting, this
means the starting current exceeds the normal limits. As a result, some maximum
switchgear withstands can be reached, life time can be reduced and even some
devices can be destroyed. In order to avoid such a situation, oversizing of the
switchgear must be considered.
b Merlin Gerin and Telemecanique switchgears are designed to ensure the
protection of motor starters against short-circuits. According to the risk, tables show
the combination of circuit-breaker, contactor and thermal relay to obtain type 1 or
type 2 coordination (see chapter N).
Motor starting current
Although high efficiency motors can be found on the market, in practice their starting
currents are roughly the same as some of standard motors.
The use of start-delta starter, static soft start unit or variable speed drive allows to
reduce the value of the starting current (Example : 4 Ia instead of 7.5 Ia).
Compensation of reactive-power (kvar) supplied to induction motors
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It is generally advantageous for technical and financial reasons to reduce the current
supplied to induction motors. This can be achieved by using capacitors without
affecting the power output of the motors.
The application of this principle to the operation of induction motors is generally
referred to as “power-factor improvement” or “power-factor correction”.
As discussed in chapter L, the apparent power (kVA) supplied to an induction motor
can be significantly reduced by the use of shunt-connected capacitors. Reduction
of input kVA means a corresponding reduction of input current (since the voltage
remains constant).
Compensation of reactive-power is particularly advised for motors that operate for
long periods at reduced power.
kW input
so
kVA
input will
sothat
thataakVA
kVA input
input reduction
reduction in
will
increase
kVA input
(i.e.
improve)
the
value
of
cos
ϕ
.
increase (i.e. improve) the value of cos
As noted above cos
=
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Installed power loads Characteristics
A11
The current supplied to the motor, after power-factor correction, is given by:
cos
I=Ia
cos '
where cos ϕ is the power factor before compensation and cos ϕ’ is the power factor
after compensation, Ia being the original current.
Figure A4 below shows, in function of motor rated power, standard motor current
values for several voltage supplies.
kW
hp
230 V
0.18
0.25
0.37
0.55
0.75
1.1
1.5
2.2
3.0
3.7
4
5.5
7.5
11
15
18.5
22
30
37
45
55
75
90
110
132
150
160
185
200
220
250
280
300
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/2
2
3
7-1/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
-
A
1.0
1.5
1.9
2.6
3.3
4.7
6.3
8.5
11.3
15
20
27
38.0
51
61
72
96
115
140
169
230
278
340
400
487
609
748
-
380 415 V
A
1.3
1.8
2.3
3.3
4.3
6.1
9.7
14.0
18.0
27.0
34.0
44
51
66
83
103
128
165
208
240
320
403
482
560
636
-
400 V
A
0.6
0.85
1.1
1.5
1.9
2.7
3.6
4.9
6.5
8.5
11.5
15.5
22.0
29
35
41
55
66
80
97
132
160
195
230
280
350
430
-
440 480 V
A
1.1
1.6
2.1
3.0
3.4
4.8
7.6
11.0
14.0
21.0
27.0
34
40
52
65
77
96
124
156
180
240
302
361
414
474
-
Fig. A4 : Rated operational power and currents (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
500 V
690 V
A
0.48
0.68
0.88
1.2
1.5
2.2
2.9
3.9
5.2
6.8
9.2
12.4
17.6
23
28
33
44
53
64
78
106
128
156
184
224
280
344
-
A
0.35
0.49
0.64
0.87
1.1
1.6
2.1
2.8
3.8
4.9
6.7
8.9
12.8
17
21
24
32
39
47
57
77
93
113
134
162
203
250
-
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
A - General rules of electrical installation design
A - General rules of electrical installation design
3 Installed power loads Characteristics
A12
kW
hp
230 V
315
335
355
375
400
425
450
475
500
530
560
600
630
670
710
750
800
850
900
950
1000
540
500
-
A
940
1061
1200
1478
1652
1844
2070
2340
2640
2910
380 415 V
A
786
-
400 V
440 480 V
A
515
590
-
A
540
610
690
850
950
1060
1190
1346
1518
1673
500 V
690 V
A
432
488
552
680
760
848
952
1076
1214
1339
A
313
354
400
493
551
615
690
780
880
970
Fig. A4 : Rated operational power and currents (concluded)
3.2 Resistive-type heating appliances and
incandescent lamps (conventional or halogen)
The current demand of a heating appliance or an incandescent lamp is easily
obtained from the nominal power Pn quoted by the manufacturer (i.e. cos ϕ = 1)
(see Fig. A5).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Nominal
power
(kW)
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
Current demand (A)
1-phase 1-phase
127 V
230 V
0.79
0.43
1.58
0.87
3.94
2.17
7.9
4.35
11.8
6.52
15.8
8.70
19.7
10.9
23.6
13
27.6
15.2
31.5
17.4
35.4
19.6
39.4
21.7
47.2
26.1
55.1
30.4
63
34.8
71
39.1
79
43.5
3-phase
230 V
0.25
0.50
1.26
2.51
3.77
5.02
6.28
7.53
8.72
10
11.3
12.6
15.1
17.6
20.1
22.6
25.1
3-phase
400 V
0.14
0.29
0.72
1.44
2.17
2.89
3.61
4.33
5.05
5.77
6.5
7.22
8.66
10.1
11.5
13
14.4
Fig. A5 : Current demands of resistive heating and incandescent lighting (conventional or
halogen) appliances
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
3 Installed power loads Characteristics
A13
The currents are given by:
b 3-phase case:
case: I a =
Pn
(1)
3U
Pn
b 1-phase case:
case: I a =
(1)
U
where U is the voltage between the terminals of the equipment.
For an incandescent lamp, the use of halogen gas allows a more concentrated light
source. The light output is increased and the lifetime of the lamp is doubled.
Note: At the instant of switching on, the cold filament gives rise to a very brief but
intense peak of current.
Fluorescent lamps and related equipment
The power Pn (watts) indicated on the tube of a fluorescent lamp does not include
the power dissipated in the ballast.
The current is given by:
Ia =
Pballast + Pn
U cos
Where U = the voltage applied to the lamp, complete with its related equipment.
If no power-loss value is indicated for the ballast, a figure of 25% of Pn may be used.
Standard tubular fluorescent lamps
With (unless otherwise indicated):
b cos ϕ = 0.6 with no power factor (PF) correction(2) capacitor
b cos ϕ = 0.86 with PF correction(2) (single or twin tubes)
b cos ϕ = 0.96 for electronic ballast.
If no power-loss value is indicated for the ballast, a figure of 25% of Pn may be used.
Figure A6 gives these values for different arrangements of ballast.
Arrangement
Tube power
of lamps, starters (W) (3)
and ballasts
Single tube
18
36
58
Twin tubes
2 x 18
2 x 36
2 x 58
(3) Power in watts marked on tube
Current (A) at 230 V
Magnetic ballast
Without PF
correction
capacitor
0.20
0.33
0.50
With PF
correction
capacitor
0.14
0.23
0.36
0.28
0.46
0.72
Electronic
ballast
Tube
length
(cm)
0.10
0.18
0.28
0.18
0.35
0.52
60
120
150
60
120
150
Fig. A6 : Current demands and power consumption of commonly-dimensioned fluorescent
lighting tubes (at 230 V-50 Hz)
Compact fluorescent lamps
(1) Ia in amps; U in volts. Pn is in watts. If Pn is in kW, then
multiply the equation by 1,000
(2) “Power-factor correction” is often referred to as
“compensation” in discharge-lighting-tube terminology.
Cos ϕ is approximately 0.95 (the zero values of V and I
are almost in phase) but the power factor is 0.5 due to the
impulsive form of the current, the peak of which occurs “late”
in each half cycle
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Compact fluorescent lamps have the same characteristics of economy and long life
as classical tubes. They are commonly used in public places which are permanently
illuminated (for example: corridors, hallways, bars, etc.) and can be mounted in
situations otherwise illuminated by incandescent lamps (see Fig. A7 next page).
A - General rules of electrical installation design
3 Installed power loads Characteristics
A14
Type of lamp
Separated
ballast lamp
Integrated
ballast lamp
Lamp power
(W)
10
18
26
8
11
16
21
Current at 230 V
(A)
0.080
0.110
0.150
0.075
0.095
0.125
0.170
Fig. A7 : Current demands and power consumption of compact fluorescent lamps (at 230 V - 50 Hz)
Discharge lamps
The power in watts indicated on the tube of
a discharge lamp does not include the power
dissipated in the ballast.
Figure A8 gives the current taken by a complete unit, including all associated
ancillary equipment.
These lamps depend on the luminous electrical discharge through a gas or vapour
of a metallic compound, which is contained in a hermetically-sealed transparent
envelope at a pre-determined pressure. These lamps have a long start-up time,
during which the current Ia is greater than the nominal current In. Power and current
demands are given for different types of lamp (typical average values which may
differ slightly from one manufacturer to another).
Type of
lamp (W)
Power
demand
(W) at
230 V 400 V
Current In(A)
Starting
PF not
PF
Ia/In
corrected
corrected
230 V 400 V 230 V 400 V
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
High-pressure sodium vapour lamps
50
60
0.76
70
80
1
100
115
1.2
150
168
1.8
250
274
3
400
431
4.4
1000
1055
10.45
Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps
26
34.5
0.45
36
46.5
66
80.5
91
105.5
131
154
Period
(mins)
Luminous
efficiency
(lumens
per watt)
Average
timelife of
lamp (h)
Utilization
0.3
0.45
0.65
0.85
1.4
2.2
4.9
1.4 to 1.6 4 to 6
80 to 120
9000
b Lighting of
large halls
b Outdoor spaces
b Public lighting
0.17
0.22
0.39
0.49
0.69
1.1 to 1.3 7 to 15
100 to 200
8000
to 12000
b Lighting of
autoroutes
b Security lighting,
station
b Platform, storage
areas
Mercury vapour + metal halide (also called metal-iodide)
70
80.5
1
0.40
1.7
3 to 5
70 to 90
6000
b Lighting of very
150
172
1.80
0.88
6000
large areas by
250
276
2.10
1.35
6000
projectors (for
400
425
3.40
2.15
6000
example: sports
1000
1046
8.25
5.30
6000
stadiums, etc.)
2000
2092 2052 16.50 8.60 10.50 6
2000
Mercury vapour + fluorescent substance (fluorescent bulb)
50
57
0.6
0.30
1.7 to 2
3 to 6
40 to 60
8000
b Workshops
80
90
0.8
0.45
to 12000
with very high
125
141
1.15
0.70
ceilings (halls,
250
268
2.15
1.35
hangars)
400
421
3.25
2.15
b Outdoor lighting
700
731
5.4
3.85
b Low light output(1)
1000
1046
8.25
5.30
2000
2140 2080 15
11
6.1
(1) Replaced by sodium vapour lamps.
Note: these lamps are sensitive to voltage dips. They extinguish if the voltage falls to less than 50% of their nominal voltage, and will
not re-ignite before cooling for approximately 4 minutes.
Note: Sodium vapour low-pressure lamps have a light-output efficiency which is superior to that of all other sources. However, use of
these lamps is restricted by the fact that the yellow-orange colour emitted makes colour recognition practically impossible.
Fig. A8 : Current demands of discharge lamps
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
4 Power loading of an installation
A15
In order to design an installation, the actual maximum load demand likely to be
imposed on the power-supply system must be assessed.
To base the design simply on the arithmetic sum of all the loads existing in the
installation would be extravagantly uneconomical, and bad engineering practice.
The aim of this chapter is to show how some factors taking into account the diversity
(non simultaneous operation of all appliances of a given group) and utilization
(e.g. an electric motor is not generally operated at its full-load capability, etc.) of
all existing and projected loads can be assessed. The values given are based on
experience and on records taken from actual installations. In addition to providing
basic installation-design data on individual circuits, the results will provide a
global value for the installation, from which the requirements of a supply system
(distribution network, MV/LV transformer, or generating set) can be specified.
4.1 Installed power (kW)
The installed power is the sum of the nominal
powers of all power consuming devices in the
installation.
This is not the power to be actually supplied in
practice.
Most electrical appliances and equipments are marked to indicate their nominal
power rating (Pn).
The installed power is the sum of the nominal powers of all power-consuming
devices in the installation. This is not the power to be actually supplied in practice.
This is the case for electric motors, where the power rating refers to the output power
at its driving shaft. The input power consumption will evidently be greater
Fluorescent and discharge lamps associated with stabilizing ballasts, are other
cases in which the nominal power indicated on the lamp is less than the power
consumed by the lamp and its ballast.
Methods of assessing the actual power consumption of motors and lighting
appliances are given in Section 3 of this Chapter.
The power demand (kW) is necessary to choose the rated power of a generating set
or battery, and where the requirements of a prime mover have to be considered.
For a power supply from a LV public-supply network, or through a MV/LV transformer,
the significant quantity is the apparent power in kVA.
4.2 Installed apparent power (kVA)
The installed apparent power is commonly
assumed to be the arithmetical sum of the kVA
of individual loads. The maximum estimated
kVA to be supplied however is not equal to the
total installed kVA.
The installed apparent power is commonly assumed to be the arithmetical sum of
the kVA of individual loads. The maximum estimated kVA to be supplied however is
not equal to the total installed kVA.
The apparent-power demand of a load (which might be a single appliance) is
obtained from its nominal power rating (corrected if necessary, as noted above for
motors, etc.) and the application of the following coefficients:
η = the per-unit efficiency = output kW / input kW
cos ϕ = the power factor = kW / kVA
The apparent-power kVA demand of the load
Pa = Pn /(η x cos ϕ)
From this value, the full-load current Ia (A)(1) taken by the load will be:
Pa x 103
V
for single phase-to-neutral
for single phase-to-neutral connected load
c
b Ia =
Pa x 103
3xU
for
single
phase-to-neutral
for three-phase
balanced load where:
(1) For greater precision, account must be taken of the factor
of maximum utilization as explained below in 4.3
V = phase-to-neutral voltage (volts)
U = phase-to-phase voltage (volts)
It may be noted that, strictly speaking, the total kVA of apparent power is not the
arithmetical sum of the calculated kVA ratings of individual loads (unless all loads are
at the same power factor).
It is common practice however, to make a simple arithmetical summation, the result
of which will give a kVA value that exceeds the true value by an acceptable “design
margin”.
When some or all of the load characteristics are not known, the values shown
in Figure A9 next page may be used to give a very approximate estimate of VA
demands (individual loads are generally too small to be expressed in kVA or kW).
The estimates for lighting loads are based on floor areas of 500 m2.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
c
b Ia =
A - General rules of electrical installation design
4 Power loading of an installation
A16
Fluorescent lighting (corrected to cos ϕ = 0.86)
Type of application
Estimated (VA/m2)
Average lighting
fluorescent tube
level (lux = lm/m2)
with industrial reflector(1)
Roads and highways
7
150
storage areas, intermittent work
Heavy-duty works: fabrication and
14
300
assembly of very large work pieces
Day-to-day work: office work
24
500
Fine work: drawing offices
41
800
high-precision assembly workshops
Power circuits
Type of application
Estimated (VA/m2)
Pumping station compressed air
3 to 6
Ventilation of premises
23
Electrical convection heaters:
private houses
115 to 146
flats and apartments
90
Offices
25
Dispatching workshop
50
Assembly workshop
70
Machine shop
300
Painting workshop
350
Heat-treatment plant
700
(1) example: 65 W tube (ballast not included), flux 5,100 lumens (Im),
luminous efficiency of the tube = 78.5 Im / W.
Fig. A9 : Estimation of installed apparent power
4.3 Estimation of actual maximum kVA demand
All individual loads are not necessarily operating at full rated nominal power nor
necessarily at the same time. Factors ku and ks allow the determination of the
maximum power and apparent-power demands actually required to dimension the
installation.
Factor of maximum utilization (ku)
In normal operating conditions the power consumption of a load is sometimes less
than that indicated as its nominal power rating, a fairly common occurrence that
justifies the application of an utilization factor (ku) in the estimation of realistic values.
This factor must be applied to each individual load, with particular attention to
electric motors, which are very rarely operated at full load.
In an industrial installation this factor may be estimated on an average at 0.75 for
motors.
For incandescent-lighting loads, the factor always equals 1.
For socket-outlet circuits, the factors depend entirely on the type of appliances being
supplied from the sockets concerned.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Factor of simultaneity (ks)
It is a matter of common experience that the simultaneous operation of all installed
loads of a given installation never occurs in practice, i.e. there is always some degree
of diversity and this fact is taken into account for estimating purposes by the use of a
simultaneity factor (ks).
The factor ks is applied to each group of loads (e.g. being supplied from a distribution
or sub-distribution board). The determination of these factors is the responsibility
of the designer, since it requires a detailed knowledge of the installation and the
conditions in which the individual circuits are to be exploited. For this reason, it is not
possible to give precise values for general application.
Factor of simultaneity for an apartment block
Some typical values for this case are given in Figure A10 opposite page, and are
applicable to domestic consumers supplied at 230/400 V (3-phase 4-wires). In the
case of consumers using electrical heat-storage units for space heating, a factor of
0.8 is recommended, regardless of the number of consumers.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Power loading of an installation
A17
Number of downstream
consumers
2 to 4
5 to 9
10 to 14
15 to 19
20 to 24
25 to 29
30 to 34
35 to 39
40 to 49
50 and more
Factor of
simultaneity (ks)
1
0.78
0.63
0.53
0.49
0.46
0.44
0.42
0.41
0.40
Fig. A10 : Simultaneity factors in an apartment block
Example (see Fig. A11):
5 storeys apartment building with 25 consumers, each having 6 kVA of installed load.
The total installed load for the building is: 36 + 24 + 30 + 36 + 24 = 150 kVA
The apparent-power supply required for the building is: 150 x 0.46 = 69 kVA
From Figure A10, it is possible to determine the magnitude of currents in different
sections of the common main feeder supplying all floors. For vertical rising mains
fed at ground level, the cross-sectional area of the conductors can evidently be
progressively reduced from the lower floors towards the upper floors.
These changes of conductor size are conventionally spaced by at least 3-floor
intervals.
In the example, the current entering the rising main at ground level is:
150 x 0.46 x 103
400
3
= 100 A
the current entering the third floor is:
(36 + 24) x 0.63 x 103
400
3
= 55 A
4th
floor
6 consumers
36 kVA
3 rd
floor
4 consumers
24 kVA
2 nd
floor
5 consumers
30 kVA
1st
floor
6 consumers
36 kVA
ground
floor
4 consumers
24 kVA
0.78
0.63
0.53
0.49
0.46
Fig. A11 : Application of the factor of simultaneity (ks) to an apartment block of 5 storeys
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
A - General rules of electrical installation design
A - General rules of electrical installation design
4 Power loading of an installation
A18
Factor of simultaneity for distribution boards
Figure A12 shows hypothetical values of ks for a distribution board supplying a
number of circuits for which there is no indication of the manner in which the total
load divides between them.
If the circuits are mainly for lighting loads, it is prudent to adopt ks values close to
unity.
Number of
circuits
Assemblies entirely tested
2 and 3
4 and 5
6 to 9
10 and more
Assemblies partially tested
in every case choose
Factor of
simultaneity (ks)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
1.0
Fig. A12 : Factor of simultaneity for distribution boards (IEC 60439)
Factor of simultaneity according to circuit function
ks factors which may be used for circuits supplying commonly-occurring loads, are
shown in Figure A13.
Circuit function
Factor of simultaneity (ks)
Lighting
1
Heating and air conditioning
1
Socket-outlets
0.1 to 0.2 (1)
Lifts and catering hoist (2) b For the most powerful
motor
1
b For the second most
powerful motor
0.75
b For all motors
0.60
(1) In certain cases, notably in industrial installations, this factor can be higher.
(2) The current to take into consideration is equal to the nominal current of the motor,
increased by a third of its starting current.
Fig. A13 : Factor of simultaneity according to circuit function
4.4 Example of application of factors ku and ks
An example in the estimation of actual maximum kVA demands at all levels of an
installation, from each load position to the point of supply is given Fig. A14 (opposite
page).
In this example, the total installed apparent power is 126.6 kVA, which corresponds
to an actual (estimated) maximum value at the LV terminals of the MV/LV transformer
of 65 kVA only.
Note: in order to select cable sizes for the distribution circuits of an installation, the
current I (in amps) through a circuit is determined from the equation:
kVA x 103
I=
U 3
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
where kVA is the actual maximum 3-phase apparent-power value shown on the
diagram for the circuit concerned, and U is the phase to- phase voltage (in volts).
4.5 Diversity factor
The term diversity factor, as defined in IEC standards, is identical to the factor of
simultaneity (ks) used in this guide, as described in 4.3. In some English-speaking
countries however (at the time of writing) diversity factor is the inverse of ks i.e. it is
always u 1.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
A - General rules of electrical installation design
4 Power loading of an installation
A19
Level 2
Level 1
Utilization
Level 3
Apparent Utilization Apparent Simultaneity Apparent Simultaneity Apparent Simultaneity Apparent
power
factor
power
factor
power
factor
power factor
power
(Pa)
max.
demand
demand
demand
demand
kVA
max. kVA
kVA
kVA
kVA
Workshop A Lathe
no. 1
5
0.8
4
no. 2
5
0.8
4
no. 3
5
0.8
4
no. 4
5
0.8
4
2
0.8
1.6
2
0.8
1.6
18
1
18
0.2
3.6
3
1
3
1
3
15
0.8
12
1
12 Socket-
10.6
1
10.6
0.4
4.3
1
1
1
1
1
Workshop C Ventilation no. 1
2.5
1
2.5
no. 2
2.5
1
2.5
Distribution
box
no. 1
15
1
15
no. 2
5 socketoutlets 10/16 A
15
1
15
18
1
18
0.28
5
2
1
2
1
2
Pedestalno. 1
drill
no. 2
5 socketoutlets 10/16 A
30 fluorescent
lamps
Workshop B Compressor
3 socketoutlets 10/16 A
10 fluorescent
lamps
Oven
20 fluorescent
lamps
Distribution
box
0.75
1
Power
circuit
14.4
Workshop A
distribution
box
0.9
Socketoulets
Lighting
circuit
Power
circuit
oulets
Workshop B
distribution
box
Lighting
circuit
18.9
Main
general
distribution
board
MGDB
LV / MV
15.6
65
0.9
0.9
Workshop C
distribution
35
Powver
box
circuit
0.9
37.8
Socketoulets
Lighting
circuit
Fig A14 : An example in estimating the maximum predicted loading of an installation (the factor values used are for demonstration purposes only)
4.6 Choice of transformer rating
When an installation is to be supplied directly from a MV/LV transformer and
the maximum apparent-power loading of the installation has been determined, a
suitable rating for the transformer can be decided, taking into account the following
considerations (see Fig. A15):
b The possibility of improving the power factor of the installation (see chapter L)
b Anticipated extensions to the installation
b Installation constraints (e.g. temperature)
Apparent power
kVA
100
160
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3150
In (A)
237 V
244
390
609
767
974
1218
1535
1949
2436
3045
3898
4872
6090
7673
410 V
141
225
352
444
563
704
887
1127
1408
1760
2253
2816
3520
4436
Fig. A15 : Standard apparent powers for MV/LV transformers and related nominal output currents
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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b Standard transformer ratings
A - General rules of electrical installation design
4 Power loading of an installation
A20
The nominal full-load current In on the LV side of a 3-phase transformer is given by:
In =
Pa x 103
U
3
where
b Pa = kVA rating of the transformer
b U = phase-to-phase voltage at no-load in volts (237 V or 410 V)
b In is in amperes.
For a single-phase transformer:
Pa x 103
V
where
where
In =
b V = voltage between LV terminals at no-load (in volts)
Simplified equation for 400 V (3-phase load)
b In = kVA x 1.4
The IEC standard for power transformers is IEC 60076.
4.7 Choice of power-supply sources
The importance of maintaining a continuous supply raises the question of the use of
standby-power plant. The choice and characteristics of these alternative sources are
part of the architecture selection, as described in chapter D.
For the main source of supply the choice is generally between a connection to the
MV or the LV network of the power-supply utility.
In practice, connection to a MV source may be necessary where the load exceeds
(or is planned eventually to exceed) a certain level - generally of the order of
250 kVA, or if the quality of service required is greater than that normally available
from a LV network.
Moreover, if the installation is likely to cause disturbance to neighbouring consumers,
when connected to a LV network, the supply authorities may propose a MV service.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Supplies at MV can have certain advantages: in fact, a MV consumer:
b Is not disturbed by other consumers, which could be the case at LV
b Is free to choose any type of LV earthing system
b Has a wider choice of economic tariffs
b Can accept very large increases in load
It should be noted, however, that:
b The consumer is the owner of the MV/LV substation and, in some countries,
he must build and equip it at his own expense. The power utility can, in certain
circumstances, participate in the investment, at the level of the MV line for example
b A part of the connection costs can, for instance, often be recovered if a second
consumer is connected to the MV line within a certain time following the original
consumer’s own connection
b The consumer has access only to the LV part of the installation, access to the
MV part being reserved to the utility personnel (meter reading, operations, etc.).
However, in certain countries, the MV protective circuit-breaker (or fused load-break
switch) can be operated by the consumer
b The type and location of the substation are agreed between the consumer and
the utility
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter B
Connection to the MV utility
distribution network
B1
Contents
Supply of power at medium voltage
B2
1.1 Power supply characteristics of medium voltage
utility distribution network
1.2 Different MV service connections
1.3 Some operational aspects of MV distribution networks
B2
B11
B12
Procedure for the establishment of a new substation
B14
2.1 Preliminary informations
B14
2.2 Project studies
2.3 Implementation
2.4 Commissioning
B15
B15
B15
3
Protection aspect
B16
3.1 Protection against electric shocks
3.2 Protection of transformer and circuits
3.3 Interlocks and conditioned operations
B16
B17
B19
4
The consumer substation with LV metering
B22
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
B22
B22
B25
B25
1
2
General
Choice of MV switchgear
Choice of MV switchgear panel for a transformer circuit
Choice of MV/LV transformer
B29
5
The consumer substation with MV metering
B32
5.1 General
5.2 Choice of panels
5.3 Parallel operation of transformers
B32
B34
B35
6
Constitution of MV/LV distribution substations
B37
6.1 Different types of substation
6.2 Indoor substation
6.3 Outdoor substation
B37
B37
B39
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4.5 Instructions for use of MV equipment
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
B2
The term "medium voltage" is commonly used for distribution systems with voltages
above 1 kV and generally applied up to and including 52 kV (see IEC 601-01-28
Standard).
In this chapter, distribution networks which operate at voltages of 1,000 V or less
are referred to as Low-Voltage systems, while systems of power distribution which
require one stage of stepdown voltage transformation, in order to feed into low voltage
networks, will be referred to as Medium- Voltage systems.
For economic and technical reasons the nominal voltage of medium-voltage
distribution systems, as defined above, seldom exceeds 35 kV.
The main features which characterize a powersupply system include:
b The nominal voltage and related insulation
levels
b The short-circuit current
b The rated normal current of items of plant
and equipment
b The earthing system
1.1 Power supply characteristics of medium voltage
utility distribution network
Nominal voltage and related insulation levels
The nominal voltage of a system or of an equipment is defined in IEC 60038 Standard
as “the voltage by which a system or equipment is designated and to which certain
operating characteristics are referred”. Closely related to the nominal voltage is the
“highest voltage for equipment” which concerns the level of insulation at normal
working frequency, and to which other characteristics may be referred in relevant
equipment recommendations.
The “highest voltage for equipment” is defined in IEC 60038 Standard as:
“the maximum value of voltage for which equipment may be used, that occurs under
normal operating conditions at any time and at any point on the system. It excludes
voltage transients, such as those due to system switching, and temporary voltage
variations”.
Notes:
1- The highest voltage for equipment is indicated for nominal system voltages
higher than 1,000 V only. It is understood that, particularly for some categories
of equipment, normal operation cannot be ensured up to this "highest voltage for
equipment", having regard to voltage sensitive characteristics such as losses of
capacitors, magnetizing current of transformers, etc. In such cases, IEC standards
specify the limit to which the normal operation of this equipment can be ensured.
2- It is understood that the equipment to be used in systems having nominal voltage
not exceeding 1,000 V should be specified with reference to the nominal system
voltage only, both for operation and for insulation.
3- The definition for “highest voltage for equipment” given in IEC 60038 Standard
is identical to the definition given in IEC 62271-1 Standard for “rated voltage”.
IEC 62271-1 Standard concerns switchgear for voltages exceeding 1,000 V.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The following values of Figure B1, taken from IEC 60038 Standard, list the
most-commonly used standard levels of medium-voltage distribution, and relate
the nominal voltages to corresponding standard values of “Highest Voltage for
Equipment”.
These systems are generally three-wire systems unless otherwise indicated. The
values shown are voltages between phases.
The values indicated in parentheses should be considered as non-preferred values.
It is recommended that these values should not be used for new systems to be
constructed in future.
It is recommended that in any one country the ratio between two adjacent nominal
voltages should be not less than two.
Series I (for 50 Hz and 60 Hz networks)
Nominal system voltage
Highest voltage for equipement
(kV)
(kV)
3.3 (1)
3 (1)
3.6 (1)
6.6 (1)
6 (1)
7.2 (1)
11
10
12
15
17.5
22
20
24
33 (2)
36 (2)
35 (2)
40.5 (2)
(1) These values should not be used for public distribution systems.
(2) The unification of these values is under consideration.
Fig. B1 : Relation between nominal system voltages and highest voltages for the equipment
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
In order to ensure adequate protection of equipment against abnormally-medium
short term power-frequency overvoltages, and transient overvoltages caused by
lightning, switching, and system fault conditions, etc. all MV equipment must be
specified to have appropriate rated insulation levels.
B3
A "rated insulation level" is a set of specified dielectric withstand values covering
various operating conditions. For MV equipment, in addition to the "highest voltage
for equipment", it includes lightning impulse withstand and short-duration power
frequency withstand.
Switchgear
Figure B2 shown below, lists normal values of “withstand” voltage requirements
from IEC 62271-1 Standard. The choice between List 1 and List 2 values of table
B2 depends on the degree of exposure to lightning and switching overvoltages(1),
the type of neutral earthing, and the type of overvoltage protection devices, etc. (for
further guidance reference should be made to IEC 60071).
Rated
voltage
U (r.m.s.
value)
Rated lightning impulse withstand voltage
(peak value)
Rated short-duration
power-frequency
withstand voltage
(r.m.s. value)
List 1
List 2
To earth,
Across the To earth,
Across the To earth,
Across the
between
isolating
between
isolating
between
isolating
poles
distance
poles
distance
poles
distance
and across
and across
and across
open
open
open
switching
switching
switching
device
device
device
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
(kV)
3.6
20
23
40
46
10
12
7.2
40
46
60
70
20
23
12
60
70
75
85
28
32
17.5
75
85
95
110
38
45
24
95
110
125
145
50
60
36
145
165
170
195
70
80
52
250
290
95
110
72.5
325
375
140
160
Note: The withstand voltage values “across the isolating distance” are valid only for
the switching devices where the clearance between open contacts is designed to meet
requirements specified for disconnectors (isolators).
Fig. B2 : Switchgear rated insulation levels
It should be noted that, at the voltage levels in question, no switching overvoltage
ratings are mentioned. This is because overvoltages due to switching transients are
less severe at these voltage levels than those due to lightning.
Transformers
Figure B3 shown below have been extracted from IEC 60076-3.
Highest voltage
for equipment
(r.m.s.)
(kV)
y 1.1
3.6
7.2
12
17.5
24
36
52
72.5
(1) This means basically that List 1 generally applies to
switchgear to be used on underground-cable systems while
List 2 is chosen for switchgear to be used on overhead-line
systems.
Rated short duration
power frequency
withstand voltage
(r.m.s.)
(kV)
3
10
20
28
38
50
70
95
140
Fig. B3 : Transformers rated insulation levels
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Rated lightning impulse
withstand voltage
(peak)
List 1
List 2
(kV)
(kV)
20
40
40
60
60
75
75
95
95
125
145
170
250
325
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The significance of list 1 and list 2 is the same as that for the switchgear table, i.e.
the choice depends on the degree of exposure to lightning, etc.
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
B4
Other components
It is evident that the insulation performance of other MV components associated
with these major items, e.g. porcelain or glass insulators, MV cables, instrument
transformers, etc. must be compatible with that of the switchgear and
transformers noted above. Test schedules for these items are given in appropriate
IEC publications.
The national standards of any particular country are normally rationalized to include
one or two levels only of voltage, current, and fault-levels, etc.
The national standards of any particular country
are normally rationalized to include one or two
levels only of voltage, current, and fault-levels,
etc.
General note:
The IEC standards are intended for worldwide application and consequently
embrace an extensive range of voltage and current levels.
These reflect the diverse practices adopted in countries of different meteorologic,
geographic and economic constraints.
A circuit-breaker (or fuse switch, over a limited
voltage range) is the only form of switchgear
capable of safely breaking all kinds of fault
currents occurring on a power system.
Short-circuit current
Standard values of circuit-breaker short-circuit current-breaking capability are
normally given in kilo-amps.
These values refer to a 3-phase short-circuit condition, and are expressed as the
average of the r.m.s. values of the AC component of current in each of the three
phases.
For circuit-breakers in the rated voltage ranges being considered in this chapter,
Figure B4 gives standard short-circuit current-breaking ratings.
kV
kA
(rms)
3.6
8
10
16
25
40
7.2
8
12.5
16
25
40
12
8
12.5
16
25
40
50
17.5
8
12.5
16
25
40
24
8
12.5
16
25
40
36
8
12.5
16
25
40
52
8
12.5
20
Fig. B4 : Standard short-circuit current-breaking ratings
Short-circuit current calculation
The rules for calculating short-circuit currents in electrical installations are presented
in IEC standard 60909.
The calculation of short-circuit currents at various points in a power system can
quickly turn into an arduous task when the installation is complicated.
The use of specialized software accelerates calculations.
This general standard, applicable for all radial and meshed power systems, 50 or
60 Hz and up to 550 kV, is extremely accurate and conservative.
It may be used to handle the different types of solid short-circuit (symmetrical or
dissymmetrical) that can occur in an electrical installation:
b Three-phase short-circuit (all three phases), generally the type producing the
highest currents
b Two-phase short-circuit (between two phases), currents lower than three-phase faults
b Two-phase-to-earth short-circuit (between two phases and earth)
b Phase-to-earth short-circuit (between a phase and earth), the most frequent type
(80% of all cases).
Current (I)
22I''k
When a fault occurs, the transient short-circuit current is a function of time and
comprises two components (see Fig. B5).
b An AC component, decreasing to its steady-state value, caused by the various
rotating machines and a function of the combination of their time constants
b A DC component, decreasing to zero, caused by the initiation of the current and a
function of the circuit impedances
22Ib
IDC
22Ik
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Ip
Time (t)
tmin
Fig. B5 : Graphic representation of short-circuit quantities as
per IEC 60909
Practically speaking, one must define the short-circuit values that are useful in
selecting system equipment and the protection system:
b I’’k: rms value of the initial symmetrical current
b Ib: rms value of the symmetrical current interrupted by the switching device when
the first pole opens at tmin (minimum delay)
b Ik: rms value of the steady-state symmetrical current
b Ip: maximum instantaneous value of the current at the first peak
b IDC: DC value of the current
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
These currents are identified by subscripts 3, 2, 2E, 1, depending on the type of
short-circuit, respectively three-phase, two-phase clear of earth, two-phase-to-earth,
phase-to-earth.
B5
The method, based on the Thevenin superposition theorem and decomposition into
symmetrical components, consists in applying to the short-circuit point an equivalent
source of voltage in view of determining the current. The calculation takes place in
three steps.
b Define the equivalent source of voltage applied to the fault point. It represents the
voltage existing just before the fault and is the rated voltage multiplied by a factor
taking into account source variations, transformer on-load tap changers and the
subtransient behavior of the machines.
b Calculate the impedances, as seen from the fault point, of each branch arriving at
this point. For positive and negative-sequence systems, the calculation does not take
into account line capacitances and the admittances of parallel, non-rotating loads.
b Once the voltage and impedance values are defined, calculate the characteristic
minimum and maximum values of the short-circuit currents.
The various current values at the fault point are calculated using:
b The equations provided
b A summing law for the currents flowing in the branches connected to the node:
v I’’k (see Fig. B6 for I’’k calculation, where voltage factor c is defined by the
standard; geometric or algebraic summing)
v Ip = κ x 2 x I’’k, where κ is less than 2, depending on the R/X ratio of the positive
sequence impedance for the given branch; peak summing
v Ib = μ x q x I’’k, where μ and q are less than 1, depending on the generators and
motors, and the minimum current interruption delay; algebraic summing
v Ik = I’’k, when the fault is far from the generator
v Ik = λ x Ir, for a generator, where Ir is the rated generator current and λ is a factor
depending on its saturation inductance; algebraic summing.
Type of short-circuit
I’’k
General situation
Distant faults
c Un
3 Z1
3-phase
c Un
3 Z1
2-phase
c Un
Z1 + Z2
2-phase-to-earth
c Un 3 Z2
Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z0 + Z1 Z0
c Un 3
Z1 + 2Z 0
c Un 3
Z1+Z2+Z0
c Un 3
2 Z1 + Z0
+
Phase-to-earth
+
c Un
2Z1
Fig. B6 : Short-circuit currents as per IEC 60909
Characterization
There are 2 types of system equipment, based on whether or not they react when a
fault occurs.
Passive equipment
This category comprises all equipment which, due to its function, must have
the capacity to transport both normal current and short-circuit current.
This equipment includes cables, lines, busbars, disconnecting switches, switches,
transformers, series reactances and capacitors, instrument transformers.
For this equipment, the capacity to withstand a short-circuit without damage
is defined in terms of:
b Electrodynamic withstand (“peak withstand current”; value of the peak current
expressed in kA), characterizing mechanical resistance to electrodynamic stress
b Thermal withstand (“short time withstand current”; rms value expressed in kA
for duration between 0,5 and 3 seconds, with a preferred value of 1 second),
characterizing maximum permissible heat dissipation.
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
B6
Active equipment
This category comprises the equipment designed to clear short-circuit currents, i.e.
circuit-breakers and fuses. This property is expressed by the breaking capacity and,
if required, the making capacity when a fault occurs.
b Breaking capacity (see Fig. B7)
This basic characteristic of a fault interrupting device is the maximum current (rms
value expressed in kA) it is capable of breaking under the specific conditions defined
by the standards; in the IEC 62271-100 standard, it refers to the rms value of the
AC component of the short-circuit current. In some other standards, the rms value
of the sum of the 2 components (AC and DC) is specified, in which case, it is the
“asymmetrical current”.
The breaking capacity depends on other factors such as:
v Voltage
v R/X ratio of the interrupted circuit
v Power system natural frequency
v Number of breaking operations at maximum current, for example the cycle:
O - C/O - C/O (O = opening, C = closing)
The breaking capacity is a relatively complicated characteristic to define and it
therefore comes as no surprise that the same device can be assigned different
breaking capacities depending on the standard by which it is defined.
b Short-circuit making capacity
In general, this characteristic is implicitly defined by the breaking capacity because a
device should be able to close for a current that it can break.
Sometimes, the making capacity needs to be higher, for example for circuit-breakers
protecting generators.
The making capacity is defined in terms of peak value (expressed in kA) because the
first asymmetric peak is the most demanding from an electrodynamic point of view.
For example, according to standard IEC 62271-100, a circuit-breaker used in a 50 Hz
power system must be able to handle a peak making current equal to 2.5 times the
rms breaking current (2.6 times for 60 Hz systems).
Making capacity is also required for switches, and sometimes for disconnectors, even
if these devices are not able to clear the fault.
b Prospective short-circuit breaking current
Some devices have the capacity to limit the fault current to be interrupted.
Their breaking capacity is defined as the maximum prospective breaking current that
would develop during a solid short-circuit across the upstream terminals of the device.
Specific device characteristics
The functions provided by various interrupting devices and their main constraints are
presented in Figure B8.
Current (I)
IAC
Device
Isolation of
two active
networks
Disconnector
Switch
Yes
No
Current switching
conditions
Normal Fault
No
No
Yes
No
Contactor
No
Yes
No
Circuit-breaker
No
Yes
Yes
Fuse
No
No
Yes
Time (t)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
IDC
IAC: Peak of the periodic component
IDC: Aperiodic component
Fig. B7 : Rated breaking current of a circuit-breaker subjected
to a short-circuit as per IEC 60056
Fig. B8 : Functions provided by interrupting devices
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Main constrains
Longitudinal input/output isolation
Making and breaking of normal
load current
Short-circuit making capacity
Rated making and breaking
capacities
Maximum making and breaking
capacities
Duty and endurance
characteristics
Short-circuit breaking capacity
Short-circuit making capacity
Minimum short-circuit breaking
capacity
Maximum short-circuit breaking
capacity
The most common normal current rating for
general-purpose MV distribution switchgear is
400 A.
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
Rated normal current
The rated normal current is defined as “the r.m.s. value of the current which can be
carried continuously at rated frequency with a temperature rise not exceeding that
specified by the relevant product standard”.
The rated normal current requirements for switchgear are decided at the substation
design stage.
The most common normal current rating for general-purpose MV distribution
switchgear is 400 A.
In industrial areas and medium-load-density urban districts, circuits rated at 630 A
are sometimes required, while at bulk-supply substations which feed into MV
networks,
800 A; 1,250 A; 1,600 A; 2,500 A and 4,000 A circuit-breakers are listed as standard
ratings for incoming-transformer circuits, bus-section and bus-coupler CBs, etc.
For MV/LV transformer with a normal primary current up to roughly 60 A,
a MV switch-fuse combination can be used . For higher primary currents,
switch-fuse combination usually does not have the required performances.
There are no IEC-recommended rated current values for switch-fuse combinations.
The actual rated current of a given combination, meaning a switchgear base
and defined fuses, is provided by the manufacturer of the combination as a table
"fuse reference / rated current". These values of the rated current are defined by
considering parameters of the combination as:
b Normal thermal current of the fuses
b Necessary derating of the fuses, due to their usage within the enclosure.
When combinations are used for protecting transformers, then further parameters
are to be considered, as presented in Appendix A of the IEC 62271-105 and in the
IEC 60787. They are mainly:
b The normal MV current of the transformer
b The possible need for overloading the transformer
b The inrush magnetizing current
b The MV short-circuit power
b The tapping switch adjustment range.
Manufacturers usually provide an application table "service voltage / transformer
power / fuse reference" based on standard distribution network and transformer
parameters, and such table should be used with care, if dealing with unusual
installations.
B7
In such a scheme, the load-break switch should be suitably fitted with a tripping
device e.g. with a relay to be able to trip at low fault-current levels which must cover
(by an appropriate margin) the rated minimum breaking current of the MV fuses. In
this way, medium values of fault current which are beyond the breaking capability of
the load-break switch will be cleared by the fuses, while low fault-current values, that
cannot be correctly cleared by the fuses, will be cleared by the tripped load-break
switch.
Influence of the ambient temperature and altitude on the rated current
Normal-current ratings are assigned to all current-carrying electrical appliances,
and upper limits are decided by the acceptable temperature rise caused by the
I2R (watts) dissipated in the conductors, (where I = r.m.s. current in amperes and
R = the resistance of the conductor in ohms), together with the heat produced
by magnetic-hysteresis and eddy-current losses in motors, transformers, steel
enclosures, etc. and dielectric losses in cables and capacitors, where appropriate.
The temperature rise above the ambient temperature will depend mainly on the
rate at which the heat is removed. For example, large currents can be passed
through electric motor windings without causing them to overheat, simply because
a cooling fan fixed to the shaft of the motor removes the heat at the same rate as it
is produced, and so the temperature reaches a stable value below that which could
damage the insulation and result in a burnt-out motor.
The normal-current values recommended by IEC are based on ambientair temperatures common to temperate climates at altitudes not exceeding
1,000 metres, so that items which depend on natural cooling by radiation and
air-convection will overheat if operated at rated normal current in a tropical climate
and/ or at altitudes exceeding 1,000 metres. In such cases, the equipment has to be
derated, i.e. be assigned a lower value of normal current rating.
The case of transformer is addressed in IEC 60076-2.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
B8
Earth faults on medium-voltage systems
can produce dangerous voltage levels on
LV installations. LV consumers (and substation
operating personnel) can be safeguarded
against this danger by:
b Restricting the magnitude of MV earth-fault
currents
b Reducing the substation earthing resistance
to the lowest possible value
b Creating equipotential conditions at the
substation and at the consumer’s installation
Earthing systems
Earthing and equipment-bonding earth connections require careful consideration,
particularly regarding safety of the LV consumer during the occurrence of a shortcircuit to earth on the MV system.
Earth electrodes
In general, it is preferable, where physically possible, to separate the electrode
provided for earthing exposed conductive parts of MV equipment from the electrode
intended for earthing the LV neutral conductor. This is commonly practised in rural
systems where the LV neutral-conductor earth electrode is installed at one or two
spans of LV distribution line away from the substation.
In most cases, the limited space available in urban substations precludes this
practice, i.e. there is no possibility of separating a MV electrode sufficiently from
a LV electrode to avoid the transference of (possibly dangerous) voltages to the
LV system.
Earth-fault current
Earth-fault current levels at medium voltage are generally (unless deliberately
restricted) comparable to those of a 3-phase short-circuit.
Such currents passing through an earth electrode will raise its voltage to a medium
value with respect to “remote earth” (the earth surrounding the electrode will be
raised to a medium potential; “remote earth” is at zero potential).
For example, 10,000 A of earth-fault current passing through an electrode with an
(unusually low) resistance of 0.5 ohms will raise its voltage to 5,000 V.
Providing that all exposed metal in the substation is “bonded” (connected together)
and then connected to the earth electrode, and the electrode is in the form of (or is
connected to) a grid of conductors under the floor of the substation, then there is no
danger to personnel, since this arrangement forms an equipotential “cage” in which
all conductive material, including personnel, is raised to the same potential.
Transferred potential
A danger exists however from the problem known as Transferred Potential. It will be
seen in Figure B9 that the neutral point of the LV winding of the MV/LV transformer
is also connected to the common substation earth electrode, so that the neutral
conductor, the LV phase windings and all phase conductors are also raised to the
electrode potential.
Low-voltage distribution cables leaving the substation will transfer this potential to
consumers installations. It may be noted that there will be no LV insulation failure
between phases or from phase to neutral since they are all at the same potential. It is
probable, however, that the insulation between phase and earth of a cable or some
part of an installation would fail.
HV
Solutions
A first step in minimizing the obvious dangers of transferred potentials is to reduce
the magnitude of MV earth-fault currents. This is commonly achieved by earthing the
MV system through resistors or reactors at the star points of selected transformers(1),
located at bulk-supply substations.
A relatively medium transferred potential cannot be entirely avoided by this means,
however, and so the following strategy has been adopted in some countries.
The equipotential earthing installation at a consumer’s premises represents a remote
earth, i.e. at zero potential. However, if this earthing installation were to be connected
by a low-impedance conductor to the earth electrode at the substation, then the
equipotential conditions existing in the substation would also exist at the consumer’s
installation.
LV
1
2
3
N
Fault
If
Consumer
If
Low-impedance interconnection
This low-impedance interconnection is achieved simply by connecting the neutral
conductor to the consumer’s equipotential installation, and the result is recognized as
the TN earthing system (IEC 60364) as shown in diagram A of Figure B10 next page.
The TN system is generally associated with a Protective Multiple Earthing (PME)
scheme, in which the neutral conductor is earthed at intervals along its length (every
3rd or 4th pole on a LV overhead-line distributor) and at each consumer’s service
position. It can be seen that the network of neutral conductors radiating from a
substation, each of which is earthed at regular intervals, constitutes, together with
the substation earthing, a very effective low-resistance earth electrode.
V= IfRs
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Rs
Fig. B9 : Transferred potential
(1) The others being unearthed. A particular case of earth-fault
current limitation is by means of a Petersen coil.
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
B9
Diagram
A - TN-a
MV
Rs value
B - IT-a
LV
MV
Cases A and B
LV
1
1
2
2
3
3
N
N
RS
RS
C - TT-a
Cases C and D
D - IT-b
MV
LV
MV
LV
1
1
2
2
3
3
N
N
RS
F - IT-c
RS
LV
RN
Rs y
Uw - Uo
Im
Where
Uw = the rated normal-frequency withstand
voltage for low-voltage equipment at
consumer installations
Uo = phase to neutral voltage at consumer's
installations
Im = maximum value of MV earth-fault current
RS
E - TT-b
MV
No particular resistance value for Rs is imposed
in these cases
Cases E and F
MV
LV
1
1
2
2
3
3
N
N
RS
RN
Rs y
Uws - U
Im
Where
Uws = the normal-frequency withstand voltage
for low-voltage equipments in the
substation (since the exposed conductive
parts of these equipments are earthed
via Rs)
U = phase to neutral voltage at the substation
for the TT(s) system, but the phase-tophase voltage for the IT(s) system
Im = maximum value of MV earth-fault current
In cases E and F the LV protective conductors (bonding exposed conductive parts) in the substation
are earthed via the substation earth electrode, and it is therefore the substation LV equipment (only)
that could be subjected to overvoltage.
Notes:
b For TN-a and IT-a, the MV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation and those at the consumer’s installations, together with the
LV neutral point of the transformer, are all earthed via the substation electrode system.
b For TT-a and IT-b, the MV and LV exposed conductive parts at the substation, together with the LV neutral point of the transformer are earthed via
the substation electrode system.
b For TT-b and IT-c, the LV neutral point of the transformer is separately earthed outside of the area of influence of the substation earth electrode.
Uw and Uws are commonly given the (IEC 60364-4-44) value Uo + 1200 V, where Uo is the nominal phase-to-neutral voltage of the LV system
concerned.
The combination of restricted earth-fault currents, equipotential installations and
low resistance substation earthing, results in greatly reduced levels of overvoltage
and limited stressing of phase-to-earth insulation during the type of MV earth-fault
situation described above.
Limitation of the MV earth-fault current and earth resistance of the substation
Another widely-used earthing system is shown in diagram C of Figure B10. It will be
seen that in the TT system, the consumer’s earthing installation (being isolated from
that of the substation) constitutes a remote earth.
This means that, although the transferred potential will not stress the phase-to-phase
insulation of the consumer’s equipment, the phase-to-earth insulation of all three
phases will be subjected to overvoltage.
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Fig. B10 : Maximum earthing resistance Rs at a MV/LV substation to ensure safety during a short-circuit to earth fault on the medium-voltage equipment for different
earthing systems
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B10
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
The strategy in this case, is to reduce the resistance of the substation earth
electrode, such that the standard value of 5-second withstand-voltage-to-earth for
LV equipment and appliances will not be exceeded.
Practical values adopted by one national electrical power-supply authority, on its
20 kV distribution systems, are as follows:
b Maximum earth-fault current in the neutral connection on overhead line distribution
systems, or mixed (O/H line and U/G cable) systems, is 300 A
b Maximum earth-fault current in the neutral connection on underground systems is
1,000 A
The formula required to determine the maximum value of earthing resistance Rs at
the substation, to ensure that the LV withstand voltage will not be exceeded, is:
Uw Uo
in ohms
ohms (see
(see cases
cases C
C and
and D
D in
in Figure
Figure B10).
C10).
in
Rs =
Im
Where
Uw = the lowest standard value (in volts) of short-term (5 s) withstand voltage for the
consumer’s installation and appliances = Uo + 1200 V (IEC 60364-4-44)
Uo = phase to neutral voltage (in volts) at the consumer’s LV service position
Im = maximum earth-fault current on the MV system (in amps). This maximum earth
fault current Im is the vectorial sum of maximum earth-fault current in the neutral
connection and total unbalanced capacitive current of the network.
A third form of system earthing referred to as the “IT” system in IEC 60364 is
commonly used where continuity of supply is essential, e.g. in hospitals, continuousprocess manufacturing, etc. The principle depends on taking a supply from an
unearthed source, usually a transformer, the secondary winding of which is
unearthed, or earthed through a medium impedance (u1,000 ohms). In these cases,
an insulation failure to earth in the low-voltage circuits supplied from the secondary
windings will result in zero or negligible fault-current flow, which can be allowed to
persist until it is convenient to shut-down the affected circuit to carry out repair work.
Diagrams B, D and F (Figure B10)
They show IT systems in which resistors (of approximately 1,000 ohms) are included
in the neutral earthing lead.
If however, these resistors were removed, so that the system is unearthed, the
following notes apply.
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Diagram B (Figure B10)
All phase wires and the neutral conductor are “floating” with respect to earth, to which
they are “connected” via the (normally very medium) insulation resistances and (very
small) capacitances between the live conductors and earthed metal (conduits, etc.).
Assuming perfect insulation, all LV phase and neutral conductors will be raised by
electrostatic induction to a potential approaching that of the equipotential conductors.
In practice, it is more likely, because of the numerous earth-leakage paths of all live
conductors in a number of installations acting in parallel, that the system will behave
similarly to the case where a neutral earthing resistor is present, i.e. all conductors
will be raised to the potential of the substation earth.
In these cases, the overvoltage stresses on the LV insulation are small or nonexistent.
Diagrams D and F (Figure B10)
In these cases, the medium potential of the substation (S/S) earthing system acts on
the isolated LV phase and neutral conductors:
b Through the capacitance between the LV windings of the transformer and the
transformer tank
b Through capacitance between the equipotential conductors in the S/S and the
cores of LV distribution cables leaving the S/S
b Through current leakage paths in the insulation, in each case.
At positions outside the area of influence of the S/S earthing, system capacitances
exist between the conductors and earth at zero potential (capacitances between
cores are irrelevant - all cores being raised to the same potential).
The result is essentially a capacitive voltage divider, where each “capacitor” is
shunted by (leakage path) resistances.
In general, LV cable and installation wiring capacitances to earth are much
larger, and the insulation resistances to earth are much smaller than those of the
corresponding parameters at the S/S, so that most of the voltage stresses appear at
the substation between the transformer tank and the LV winding.
The rise in potential at consumers’ installations is not likely therefore to be a problem
where the MV earth-fault current level is restricted as previously mentioned.
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
All IT-earthed transformers, whether the neutral point is isolated or earthed through
a medium impedance, are routinely provided with an overvoltage limiting device
which will automatically connect the neutral point directly to earth if an overvoltage
condition approaches the insulation-withstand level of the LV system.
In addition to the possibilities mentioned above, several other ways in which these
overvoltages can occur are described in Clause 3.1.
This kind of earth-fault is very rare, and when does occur is quickly detected and
cleared by the automatic tripping of a circuit-breaker in a properly designed and
constructed installation.
Safety in situations of elevated potentials depends entirely on the provision of
properly arranged equipotential areas, the basis of which is generally in the form of a
widemeshed grid of interconnected bare copper conductors connected to verticallydriven copper-clad(1) steel rods.
The equipotential criterion to be respected is that which is mentioned in Chapter F
dealing with protection against electric shock by indirect contact, namely: that the
potential between any two exposed metal parts which can be touched simultaneously
by any parts the body must never, under any circumstances, exceed 50 V in dry
conditions, or 25 V in wet conditions.
Special care should be taken at the boundaries of equipotential areas to avoid steep
potential gradients on the surface of the ground which give rise to dangerous “step
potentials”.
This question is closely related to the safe earthing of boundary fences and is further
discussed in Sub-clause 3.1.
Overhead line
B11
1.2 Different MV service connections
According to the type of medium-voltage network, the following supply arrangements
are commonly adopted.
Single-line service
The substation is supplied by a single circuit tee-off from a MV distributor (cable or
line).
In general, the MV service is connected into a panel containing a load-break/
isolating switch-fuse combination and earthing switches, as shown in Figure B11.
In some countries a pole-mounted transformer with no MV switchgear or fuses
(at the pole) constitutes the “substation”. This type of MV service is very common in
rural areas.
Protection and switching devices are remote from the transformer, and generally
control a main overhead line, from which a number of these elementary service lines
are tapped.
Fig. B11 : Single-line service
Underground cable
ring main
Fig. B12 : Ring-main service
(1) Copper is cathodic to most other metals and therefore
resists corrosion.
(2) A ring main is a continuous distributor in the form of a
closed loop, which originates and terminates on one set of
busbars. Each end of the loop is controlled by its own circuitbreaker. In order to improve operational flexibility the busbars
are often divided into two sections by a normally closed bussection circuit-breaker, and each end of the ring is connected
to a different section.
An interconnector is a continuous untapped feeder connecting
the busbars of two substations. Each end of the interconnector
is usually controlled by a circuit beaker.
An interconnector-distributor is an interconnector which
supplies one or more distribution substations along its length.
Ring-main units (RMU) are normally connected to form a MV ring main(2) or
interconnector-distributor(2), such that the RMU busbars carry the full ring-main or
interconnector current (see Fig. B12).
The RMU consists of three units, integrated to form a single assembly, viz:
b 2 incoming units, each containing a load break/isolating switch and a circuit
earthing switch
b 1 outgoing and general protection unit, containing a load-break switch and
MV fuses, or a combined load-break/fuse switch, or a circuit-breaker and isolating
switch, together with a circuit-earthing switch in each case.
All load-break switches and earthing switches are fully rated for short-circuit currentmaking duty.
This arrangement provides the user with a two-source supply, thereby reducing
considerably any interruption of service due to system faults or operations by the
supply authority, etc.
The main application for RMUs is in utility supply MV underground-cable networks in
urban areas.
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Ring-main service
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B12
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
Parallel feeders service
Where a MV supply connection to two lines or cables originating from the same
busbar of a substation is possible, a similar MV switchboard to that of a RMU is
commonly used (see Fig. B13).
The main operational difference between this arrangement and that of a RMU is that
the two incoming panels are mutually interlocked, such that one incoming switch only
can be closed at a time, i.e. its closure prevents the closure of the other.
On the loss of power supply, the closed incoming switch must be opened and the
(formerly open) switch can then be closed.
The sequence may be carried out manually or automatically.
This type of switchboard is used particularly in networks of medium-load density and
in rapidly-expanding urban areas supplied by MV underground cable systems.
1.3 Some operational aspects of MV distribution
networks
Overhead lines
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Paralleled underground
cable distributors
Fig. B13 : Parallel feeders service
Medium winds, ice formation, etc., can cause the conductors of overhead lines to
touch each other, thereby causing a momentary (i.e. not permanent) short-circuit
fault.
Insulation failure due to broken ceramic or glass insulators, caused by air-borne
debris; careless use of shot-guns, etc., or again, heavily polluted insulator surfaces,
can result in a short-circuit to earth.
Many of these faults are self-clearing. For example, in dry conditions, broken
insulators can very often remain in service undetected, but are likely to flashover to
earth (e.g. to a metal supporting structure) during a rainstorm. Moreover, polluted
surfaces generally cause a flashover to earth only in damp conditions.
The passage of fault current almost invariably takes the form of an electric arc, the
intense heat of which dries the current path, and to some extent, re-establishes its
insulating properties. In the meantime, protective devices have usually operated to
clear the fault, i.e. fuses have blown or a circuit-breaker has tripped.
Experience has shown that in the large majority of cases, restoration of supply by
replacing fuses or by re-closing a circuit-breaker will be successful.
For this reason it has been possible to considerably improve the continuity of service
on MV overhead-line distribution networks by the application of automatic circuitbreaker reclosing schemes at the origin of the circuits concerned.
These automatic schemes permit a number of reclosing operations if a first attempt
fails, with adjustable time delays between successive attempts (to allow de-ionization
of the air at the fault) before a final lock-out of the circuit-breaker occurs, after all
(generally three) attempts fail.
Other improvements in service continuity are achieved by the use of remotelycontrolled section switches and by automatic isolating switches which operate in
conjunction with an auto-reclosing circuit-breaker.
This last scheme is exemplified by the final sequence shown in Figure B14 next
page.
The principle is as follows: if, after two reclosing attempts, the circuit-breaker trips,
the fault is assumed to be permanent, then there are two possibilities:
b The fault is on the section downstream the Automatic Line Switch, and while the
feeder is dead the ALS opens to isolate this section of the network, before the third
(and final) reclosing takes place,
b The fault is on the section upstream the ALS and the circuit-breaker will make a
third reclosing attempt and thus trip and lock out.
While these measures have greatly improved the reliability of supplies from
MV overhead line systems, the consumers must, where considered necessary, make
their own arrangements to counter the effects of momentary interruptions to supply
(between reclosures), for example:
b Uninterruptible standby emergency power
b Lighting that requires no cooling down before re-striking (“hot restrike”).
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
1 Supply of power at medium
voltage
B13
1- Cycle 1SR
O1
If
O2
In
Io
SR
O3
15 to 30 s
fault
Permanent fault
0.3 s
0.4 s
2 - Cycle 2SR
a - Fault on main feeder
O1
If
O2
In
Io
SR1 O3
15 to 30s
SR2 O4
15 to 30 s
fault
0.3 s
0.4 s
Permanent fault
0.45 s
0.4 s
b - Fault on section supplied through Automatic Line Switch
O1
O2
SR1 O3
If
In
Io
SR2
15 to 30 s
15 to 30 s
Fault
0.3 s
0.4 s
0.4 s
Opening of ALS
Fig. B14 : Automatic reclosing cycles of a circuit-breaker controlling a radial MV feeder
Underground cable networks
Faults on underground cable networks are sometimes the result of careless
workmanship by cable jointers or by cable laying contractors, etc., but are more
commonly due to damage from tools such as pick-axes, pneumatic drills and trench
excavating machines, and so on, used by other utilities.
Insulation failures sometimes occur in cable terminating boxes due to overvoltage,
particularly at points in a MV system where an overhead line is connected to an
underground cable. The overvoltage in such a case is generally of atmospheric
origin, and electromagnetic-wave reflection effects at the joint box (where the natural
impedance of the circuit changes abruptly) can result in overstressing of the cablebox insulation to the point of failure. Overvoltage protection devices, such as lightning
arresters, are frequently installed at these locations.
Faults occurring in cable networks are less frequent than those on overhead (O/H)
line systems, but are almost invariably permanent faults, which require more time for
localization and repair than those on O/H lines.
Where a cable fault occurs on a ring, supply can be quickly restored to all consumers
when the faulty section of cable has been determined.
If, however, the fault occurs on a radial feeder, the delay in locating the fault and
carrying out repair work can amount to several hours, and will affect all consumers
downstream of the fault position. In any case, if supply continuity is essential on all,
or part of, an installation, a standby source must be provided.
Remote control of MV networks
Remote control on MV feeders is useful to reduce outage durations in case of cable
fault by providing an efficient and fast mean for loop configuration. This is achieved
by motor operated switches implemented in some of the substations along the loop
associated with relevant remote telecontrol units. Remote controled substation will
always be reenergized through telecontroled operation when the other ones could
have to wait for further manual operation.
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Centralized remote control, based on SCADA
(Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition)
systems and recent developments in IT
(Information Technology) techniques, is
becoming more and more common in countries
in which the complexity of highly interconnected
systems justifies the expenditure.
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
2 Procedure for the establishment
of a new substation
B14
Large consumers of electricity are invariably supplied at MV.
On LV systems operating at 120/208 V (3-phase 4-wires), a load of 50 kVA might be
considered to be “large”, while on a 240/415 V 3-phase system a “large” consumer
could have a load in excess of 100 kVA. Both systems of LV distribution are common
in many parts of the world.
As a matter of interest, the IEC recommends a “world” standard of 230/400 V for
3-phase 4-wire systems. This is a compromise level and will allow existing systems
which operate at 220/380 V and at 240/415 V, or close to these values, to comply
with the proposed standard simply by adjusting the off-circuit tapping switches of
standard distribution transformers.
The distance over which the energy has to be transmitted is a further factor in
considering an MV or LV service. Services to small but isolated rural consumers are
obvious examples.
The decision of a MV or LV supply will depend on local circumstances and
considerations such as those mentioned above, and will generally be imposed by the
utility for the district concerned.
When a decision to supply power at MV has been made, there are two widelyfollowed methods of proceeding:
1 - The power-supplier constructs a standard substation close to the consumer’s
premises, but the MV/LV transformer(s) is (are) located in transformer chamber(s)
inside the premises, close to the load centre
2 - The consumer constructs and equips his own substation on his own premises, to
which the power supplier makes the MV connection
In method no. 1 the power supplier owns the substation, the cable(s) to the
transformer(s), the transformer(s) and the transformer chamber(s), to which he has
unrestricted access.
The transformer chamber(s) is (are) constructed by the consumer (to plans and
regulations provided by the supplier) and include plinths, oil drains, fire walls and
ceilings, ventilation, lighting, and earthing systems, all to be approved by the supply
authority.
The tariff structure will cover an agreed part of the expenditure required to provide
the service.
Whichever procedure is followed, the same principles apply in the conception and
realization of the project. The following notes refer to procedure no. 2.
The consumer must provide certain data to the
utility at the earliest stage of the project.
2.1 Preliminary information
Before any negotiations or discussions can be initiated with the supply authorities,
the following basic elements must be established:
Maximum anticipated power (kVA) demand
Determination of this parameter is described in Chapter A, and must take into
account the possibility of future additional load requirements. Factors to evaluate at
this stage are:
b The utilization factor (ku)
b The simultaneity factor (ks)
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Layout plans and elevations showing location of proposed substation
Plans should indicate clearly the means of access to the proposed substation, with
dimensions of possible restrictions, e.g. entrances corridors and ceiling height,
together with possible load (weight) bearing limits, and so on, keeping in mind that:
b The power-supply personnel must have free and unrestricted access to the
MV equipment in the substation at all times
b Only qualified and authorized consumer’s personnel are allowed access to the
substation
b Some supply authorities or regulations require that the part of the installation operated
by the authority is located in a separated room from the part operated by the customer.
Degree of supply continuity required
The consumer must estimate the consequences of a supply failure in terms of its
duration:
b Loss of production
b Safety of personnel and equipment
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
2 Procedure for the establishment
of a new substation
The utility must give specific information to the
prospective consumer.
2.2 Project studies
B15
From the information provided by the consumer, the power-supplier must indicate:
The type of power supply proposed, and define:
b The kind of power-supply system: overheadline or underground-cable network
b Service connection details: single-line service, ring-main installation, or parallel
feeders, etc.
b Power (kVA) limit and fault current level
The nominal voltage and rated voltage (Highest voltage for equipment)
Existing or future, depending on the development of the system.
Metering details which define:
b The cost of connection to the power network
b Tariff details (consumption and standing charges)
2.3 Implementation
The utility must give official approval of the
equipment to be installed in the substation,
and of proposed methods of installation.
Before any installation work is started, the official agreement of the power-supplier
must be obtained. The request for approval must include the following information,
largely based on the preliminary exchanges noted above:
b Location of the proposed substation
b Single-line diagram of power circuits and connections, together with earthingcircuit proposals
b Full details of electrical equipment to be installed, including performance
characteristics
b Layout of equipment and provision for metering components
b Arrangements for power-factor improvement if required
b Arrangements provided for emergency standby power plant (MV or LV) if eventually
required
After testing and checking of the installation by
an independent test authority, a certificate is
granted which permits the substation to be put
into service.
2.4 Commissioning
When required by the authority, commissioning tests must be successfully completed
before authority is given to energize the installation from the power supply system.
Even if no test is required by the authority it is better to do the following verification tests:
b Measurement of earth-electrode resistances
b Continuity of all equipotential earth-and safety bonding conductors
b Inspection and functional testing of all MV components
b Insulation checks of MV equipment
b Dielectric strength test of transformer oil (and switchgear oil if appropriate), if
applicable
b Inspection and testing of the LV installation in the substation
b Checks on all interlocks (mechanical key and electrical) and on all automatic
sequences
b Checks on correct protective-relay operation and settings
When finally the substation is operational:
b The substation and all equipment belongs to the consumer
b The power-supply authority has operational control over all MV switchgear in the
substation, e.g. the two incoming load-break switches and the transformer MV switch
(or CB) in the case of a RingMainUnit, together with all associated MV earthing switches
b The power-supply personnel has unrestricted access to the MV equipment
b The consumer has independent control of the MV switch (or CB) of the transformer(s)
only, the consumer is responsible for the maintenance of all substation equipment,
and must request the power-supply authority to isolate and earth the switchgear to
allow maintenance work to proceed. The power supplier must issue a signed permitto-work to the consumers maintenance personnel, together with keys of locked-off
isolators, etc. at which the isolation has been carried out.
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It is also imperative to check that all equipment is provided, such that any properly
executed operation can be carried out in complete safety. On receipt of the certificate
of conformity (if required):
b Personnel of the power-supply authority will energize the MV equipment and check
for correct operation of the metering
b The installation contractor is responsible for testing and connection of the
LV installation
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B16
3 Protection aspect
The subject of protection in the electrical power industry is vast: it covers all aspects
of safety for personnel, and protection against damage or destruction of property,
plant, and equipment.
These different aspects of protection can be broadly classified according to the
following objectives:
b Protection of personnel and animals against the dangers of overvoltages and
electric shock, fire, explosions, and toxic gases, etc.
b Protection of the plant, equipment and components of a power system against
the stresses of short-circuit faults, atmospheric surges (lightning) and power-system
instability (loss of synchronism) etc.
b Protection of personnel and plant from the dangers of incorrect power-system
operation, by the use of electrical and mechanical interlocking. All classes of
switchgear (including, for example, tap-position selector switches on transformers,
and so on...) have well-defined operating limits. This means that the order in which
the different kinds of switching device can be safely closed or opened is vitally
important. Interlocking keys and analogous electrical control circuits are frequently
used to ensure strict compliance with correct operating sequences.
It is beyond the scope of a guide to describe in full technical detail the numerous
schemes of protection available to power-systems engineers, but it is hoped that the
following sections will prove to be useful through a discussion of general principles.
While some of the protective devices mentioned are of universal application,
descriptions generally will be confined to those in common use on MV and
LV systems only, as defined in Sub-clause 1.1 of this Chapter.
Protection against electric shocks and
overvoltages is closely related to the
achievement of efficient (low resistance)
earthing and effective application of the
principles of equipotential environments.
3.1 Protection against electric shocks
Protective measures against electric shock are based on two common dangers:
b Contact with an active conductor, i.e. which is live with respect to earth in normal
circumstances. This is referred to as a “direct contact” hazard.
b Contact with a conductive part of an apparatus which is normally dead, but which
has become live due to insulation failure in the apparatus. This is referred to as an
“indirect contact” hazard.
It may be noted that a third type of shock hazard can exist in the proximity of MV or
LV (or mixed) earth electrodes which are passing earth-fault currents. This hazard
is due to potential gradients on the surface of the ground and is referred to as a
“step-voltage” hazard; shock current enters one foot and leaves by the other foot, and
is particular dangerous for four-legged animals. A variation of this danger, known as
a “touch voltage” hazard can occur, for instance, when an earthed metallic part is
situated in an area in which potential gradients exist.
Touching the part would cause current to pass through the hand and both feet.
Animals with a relatively long front-to-hind legs span are particularly sensitive to
step-voltage hazards and cattle have been killed by the potential gradients caused by
a low voltage (230/400 V) neutral earth electrode of insufficiently low resistance.
Potential-gradient problems of the kind mentioned above are not normally
encountered in electrical installations of buildings, providing that equipotential
conductors properly bond all exposed metal parts of equipment and all extraneous
metal (i.e. not part of an electrical apparatus or the installation - for example
structural steelwork, etc.) to the protective-earthing conductor.
Direct-contact protection or basic protection
The main form of protection against direct contact hazards is to contain all live parts
in housings of insulating material or in metallic earthed housings, by placing out of
reach (behind insulated barriers or at the top of poles) or by means of obstacles.
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Where insulated live parts are housed in a metal envelope, for example transformers,
electric motors and many domestic appliances, the metal envelope is connected to
the installation protective earthing system.
For MV switchgear, the IEC standard 62271-200 (Prefabricated Metal Enclosed
switchgear and controlgear for voltages up to 52 kV) specifies a minimum Protection
Index (IP coding) of IP2X which ensures the direct-contact protection. Furthermore,
the metallic enclosure has to demonstrate an electrical continuity, then establishing
a good segregation between inside and ouside of the enclosure. Proper grounding of
the enclosure further participates to the electrical protection of the operators under
normal operating conditions.
For LV appliances this is achieved through the third pin of a 3-pin plug and socket.
Total or even partial failure of insulation to the metal, can raise the voltage of the
envelope to a dangerous level (depending on the ratio of the resistance of the leakage
path through the insulation, to the resistance from the metal envelope to earth).
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3 Protection aspect
Indirect-contact protection or fault protection
B17
A person touching the metal envelope of an apparatus with a faulty insulation, as
described above, is said to be making an indirect contact.
An indirect contact is characterized by the fact that a current path to earth exists
(through the protective earthing (PE) conductor) in parallel with the shock current
through the person concerned.
Case of fault on L.V. system
Extensive tests have shown that, providing the potential of the metal envelope is not
greater than 50 V with respect to earth, or to any conductive material within reaching
distance, no danger exists.
Indirect-contact hazard in the case of a MV fault
If the insulation failure in an apparatus is between a MV conductor and the metal
envelope, it is not generally possible to limit the rise of voltage of the envelope to
50 V or less, simply by reducing the earthing resistance to a low value. The solution
in this case is to create an equipotential situation, as described in Sub-clause 1.1
“Earthing systems”.
3.2 Protection of transformer and circuits
General
The electrical equipment and circuits in a substation must be protected in order
to avoid or to control damage due to abnormal currents and/or voltages. All
equipment normally used in power system installations have standardized short-time
withstand ratings for overcurrent and overvoltage. The role of protective scheme is
to ensure that this withstand limits can never be exceeded. In general, this means
that fault conditions must be cleared as fast as possible without missing to ensure
coordination between protective devices upstream and downstream the equipement
to be protected. This means, when there is a fault in a network, generally several
protective devices see the fault at the same time but only one must act.
These devices may be:
b Fuses which clear the faulty circuit directly or together with a mechanical tripping
attachment, which opens an associated three-phase load-break switch
b Relays which act indirectly on the circuit-breaker coil
Transformer protection
Stresses due to the supply network
Some voltage surges can occur on the network such as :
b Atmospheric voltage surges
Atmospheric voltage surges are caused by a stroke of lightning falling on or near an
overhead line.
b Operating voltage surges
A sudden change in the established operating conditions in an electrical network
causes transient phenomena to occur. This is generally a high frequency or damped
oscillation voltage surge wave.
For both voltage surges, the overvoltage protection device generally used is a
varistor (Zinc Oxide).
In most cases, voltage surges protection has no action on switchgear.
Stresses due to the load
Overloading is frequently due to the coincidental demand of a number of small
loads, or to an increase in the apparent power (kVA) demand of the installation,
due to expansion in a factory, with consequent building extensions, and so on. Load
increases raise the temperature of the wirings and of the insulation material. As
a result, temperature increases involve a reduction of the equipment working life.
Overload protection devices can be located on primary or secondary side of the
transformer.
The protection against overloading of a transformer is now provided by a digital relay
which acts to trip the circuit-breaker on the secondary side of the transformer. Such
relay, generally called thermal overload relay, artificially simulates the temperature,
taking into account the time constant of the transformer. Some of them are able to
take into account the effect of harmonic currents due to non linear loads (rectifiers,
computer equipment, variable speed drives…).This type of relay is also able to
predict the time before overload tripping and the waiting time after tripping. So, this
information is very helpful to control load shedding operation.
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
3 Protection aspect
B18
In addition, larger oil-immersed transformers frequently have thermostats with two
settings, one for alarm purposes and the other for tripping.
Dry-type transformers use heat sensors embedded in the hottest part of the windings
insulation for alarm and tripping.
Internal faults
The protection of transformers by transformer-mounted devices, against the effects
of internal faults, is provided on transformers which are fitted with airbreathing
conservator tanks by the classical Buchholz mechanical relay (see Fig. B15). These
relays can detect a slow accumulation of gases which results from the arcing of
incipient faults in the winding insulation or from the ingress of air due to an oil leak.
This first level of detection generally gives an alarm, but if the condition deteriorates
further, a second level of detection will trip the upstream circuit-breaker.
An oil-surge detection feature of the Buchholz relay will trip the upstream circuitbreaker “instantaneously” if a surge of oil occurs in the pipe connecting the main tank
with the conservator tank.
Such a surge can only occur due to the displacement of oil caused by a rapidly
formed bubble of gas, generated by an arc of short-circuit current in the oil.
By specially designing the cooling-oil radiator elements to perform a concerting action,
“totally filled” types of transformer as large as 10 MVA are now currently available.
Expansion of the oil is accommodated without an excessive rise in pressure by the
“bellows” effect of the radiator elements. A full description of these transformers is
given in Sub-clause 4.4 (see Fig. B16).
Fig. B15 : Transformer with conservator tank
Evidently the Buchholz devices mentioned above cannot be applied to this design; a
modern counterpart has been developed however, which measures:
b The accumulation of gas
b Overpressure
b Overtemperature
The first two conditions trip the upstream circuit-breaker, and the third condition trips
the downstream circuit-breaker of the transformer.
Internal phase-to-phase short-circuit
Internal phase-to-phase short-circuit must be detected and cleared by:
b 3 fuses on the primary side of the tranformer or
b An overcurrent relay that trips a circuit-breaker upstream of the transformer
Internal phase-to-earth short-circuit
This is the most common type of internal fault. It must be detected by an earth fault
relay. Earth fault current can be calculated with the sum of the 3 primary phase
currents (if 3 current transformers are used) or by a specific core current transformer.
If a great sensitivity is needed, specific core current transformer will be prefered. In
such a case, a two current transformers set is sufficient (see Fig. B17).
Protection of circuits
Fig. B16 : Totally filled transformer
The protection of the circuits downstream of the transformer must comply with the
IEC 60364 requirements.
HV
LV
1
1
2
2
3
3
N
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Overcurrent relay
E/F relay
Fig. B17 : Protection against earth fault on the MV winding
Discrimination between the protective devices upstream and
downstream of the transformer
The consumer-type substation with LV metering requires discriminative operation
between the MV fuses or MV circuit-breaker and the LV circuit-breaker or fuses.
The rating of the MV fuses will be chosen according to the characteristics of the
transformer.
The tripping characteristics of the LV circuit-breaker must be such that, for an
overload or short-circuit condition downstream of its location, the breaker will trip
sufficiently quickly to ensure that the MV fuses or the MV circuit-breaker will not be
adversely affected by the passage of overcurrent through them.
The tripping performance curves for MV fuses or MV circuit-breaker and LV circuitbreakers are given by graphs of time-to-operate against current passing through
them. Both curves have the general inverse-time/current form (with an abrupt
discontinuity in the CB curve at the current value above which “instantaneous”
tripping occurs).
These curves are shown typically in Figure B18.
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
b In order to achieve discrimination:
All parts of the fuse or MV circuit-breaker curve must be above and to the right of the
CB curve.
Minimum pre-arcing
time of MV fuse
b In order to leave the fuses unaffected (i.e. undamaged):
All parts of the minimum pre-arcing fuse curve must be located to the right of the CB
curve by a factor of 1.35 or more (e.g. where, at time T, the CB curve passes through
a point corresponding to 100 A, the fuse curve at the same time T must pass through
a point corresponding to 135 A, or more, and so on...) and, all parts of the fuse curve
must be above the CB curve by a factor of 2 or more (e.g. where, at a current level I
the CB curve passes through a point corresponding to 1.5 seconds, the fuse curve
at the same current level I must pass through a point corresponding to 3 seconds, or
more, etc.).
The factors 1.35 and 2 are based on standard maximum manufacturing tolerances
for MV fuses and LV circuit-breakers.
In order to compare the two curves, the MV currents must be converted to the
equivalent LV currents, or vice-versa.
Where a LV fuse-switch is used, similar separation of the characteristic curves of the
MV and LV fuses must be respected.
B/A u 1.35 at any
moment in time
D/C u 2 at any
current value
D
Circuit breaker
tripping
characteristic
C
Current
A
B
Fig. B18 : Discrimination between MV fuse operation and LV
circuit-breaker tripping, for transformer protection
U1
MV
LV
Fig. B19 : MV fuse and LV circuit-breaker configuration
U2
B19
b In order to leave the MV circuit-breaker protection untripped:
All parts of the minimum pre-arcing fuse curve must be located to the right of the
CB curve by a factor of 1.35 or more (e.g. where, at time T, the LV CB curve passes
through a point corresponding to 100 A, the MV CB curve at the same time T must
pass through a point corresponding to 135 A, or more, and so on...) and, all parts of
the MV CB curve must be above the LV CB curve (time of LV CB curve must be less
or equal than MV CB curves minus 0.3 s)
The factors 1.35 and 0.3 s are based on standard maximum manufacturing
tolerances for MV current transformers, MV protection relay and LV circuit-breakers.
In order to compare the two curves, the MV currents must be converted to the
equivalent LV currents, or vice-versa.
Choice of protective device on the primary side of the
transformer
As explained before, for low reference current, the protection may be by fuses or by
circuit-breaker.
When the reference current is high, the protection will be achieved by circuit-breaker.
Protection by circuit-breaker provides a more sensitive transformer protection
compared with fuses. The implementation of additional protections (earth fault
protection, thermal overload protection) is easier with circuit-breakers.
3.3 Interlocks and conditioned operations
Mechanical and electrical interlocks are included on mechanisms and in the control
circuits of apparatus installed in substations, as a measure of protection against an
incorrect sequence of manœuvres by operating personnel.
Mechanical protection between functions located on separate equipment
(e.g. switchboard and transformer) is provided by key-transfer interlocking.
An interlocking scheme is intended to prevent any abnormal operational manœuvre.
Some of such operations would expose operating personnel to danger, some others
would only lead to an electrical incident.
Basic interlocking
Basic interlocking functions can be introduced in one given functionnal unit; some
of these functions are made mandatory by the IEC 62271-200, for metal-enclosed
MV switchgear, but some others are the result of a choice from the user.
Considering access to a MV panel, it requires a certain number of operations
which shall be carried out in a pre-determined order. It is necessary to carry out
operations in the reverse order to restore the system to its former condition. Either
proper procedures, or dedicated interlocks, can ensure that the required operations
are performed in the right sequence. Then such accessible compartment will be
classified as “accessible and interlocked” or “accessible by procedure”. Even for
users with proper rigorous procedures, use of interlocks can provide a further help
for safety of the operators.
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Time
3 Protection aspect
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
3 Protection aspect
B20
Key interlocking
Beyond the interlocks available within a given functionnal unit (see also 4.2), the
most widely-used form of locking/interlocking depends on the principle of key transfer.
The principle is based on the possibility of freeing or trapping one or several keys,
according to whether or not the required conditions are satisfied.
These conditions can be combined in unique and obligatory sequences, thereby
guaranteeing the safety of personnel and installation by the avoidance of an incorrect
operational procedure.
Non-observance of the correct sequence of operations in either case may have
extremely serious consequences for the operating personnel, as well as for the
equipment concerned.
Note: It is important to provide for a scheme of interlocking in the basic design stage
of planning a MV/LV substation. In this way, the apparatuses concerned will be
equipped during manufacture in a coherent manner, with assured compatibility of
keys and locking devices.
Service continuity
For a given MV switchboard, the definition of the accessible compartments as well
as their access conditions provide the basis of the “Loss of Service Continuity”
classification defined in the standard IEC 62271-200. Use of interlocks or only proper
procedure does not have any influence on the service continuity. Only the request for
accessing a given part of the switchboard, under normal operation conditions, results
in limiting conditions which can be more or less severe regarding the continuity of the
electrical distribution process.
Interlocks in substations
In a MV/LV distribution substation which includes:
b A single incoming MV panel or two incoming panels (from parallel feeders) or two
incoming/outgoing ring-main panels
b A transformer switchgear-and-protection panel, which can include a load-break/
disconnecting switch with MV fuses and an earthing switch, or a circuit-breaker and
line disconnecting switch together with an earthing switch
b A transformer compartment
Interlocks allow manœuvres and access to different panels in the following conditions:
Basic interlocks, embedded in single functionnal units
b Operation of the load-break/isolating switch
v If the panel door is closed and the associated earthing switch is open
b Operation of the line-disconnecting switch of the transformer switchgear - and
- protection panel
v If the door of the panel is closed, and
v If the circuit-breaker is open, and the earthing switch(es) is (are) open
b Closure of an earthing switch
v If the associated isolating switch(es) is (are) open(1)
b Access to an accessible compartment of each panel, if interlocks have been
specified
v If the isolating switch for the compartment is open and the earthing switch(es) for
the compartment is (are) closed
b Closure of the door of each accessible compartment, if interlocks have been
specified
v If the earthing switch(es) for the compartment is (are) closed
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Functional interlocks involving several functional units or separate equipment
b Access to the terminals of a MV/LV transformer
v If the tee-off functional unit has its switch open and its earthing switch closed.
According to the possibility of back-feed from the LV side, a condition on the LV main
breaker can be necessary.
Practical example
In a consumer-type substation with LV metering, the interlocking scheme most
commonly used is MV/LV/TR (high voltage/ low voltage/transformer).
(1) If the earthing switch is on an incoming circuit, the
associated isolating switches are those at both ends of the
circuit, and these should be suitably interlocked. In such
situation, the interlocking function becomes a multi-units key
interlock.
The aim of the interlocking is:
b To prevent access to the transformer compartment if the earthing switch has not
been previously closed
b To prevent the closure of the earthing switch in a transformer switchgear-andprotection panel, if the LV circuit-breaker of the transformer has not been previously
locked “open” or “withdrawn”
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
3 Protection aspect
Access to the MV or LV terminals of a transformer, (protected upstream by a
MV switchgear-and-protection panel, containing a MV load-break / isolating
switch, MV fuses, and a MV earthing switch) must comply with the strict procedure
described below, and is illustrated by the diagrams of Figure B20.
B21
Note: The transformer in this example is provided with plug-in type MV terminal
connectors which can only be removed by unlocking a retaining device common to
all three phase connectors(1).
The MV load-break / disconnecting switch is mechanically linked with the
MV earthing switch such that only one of the switches can be closed, i.e. closure
of one switch automatically locks the closure of the other.
Procedure for the isolation and earthing of the power transformer, and removal
of the MV plug-type shrouded terminal connections (or protective cover)
S
Initial conditions
b MV load-break/disconnection switch and LV circuit-breaker are closed
b MV earthing switch locked in the open position by key “O”
b Key “O” is trapped in the LV circuit-breaker as long as that circuit-breaker is closed
S
Step 1
b Open LV CB and lock it open with key “O”
b Key “O” is then released
MV switch and LV CB closed
Step 2
b Open the MV switch
b Check that the “voltage presence” indicators extinguish when the MV switch is
opened
O
S
O
Step 3
b Unlock the MV earthing switch with key “O” and close the earthing switch
b Key “O” is now trapped
Step 4
The access panel to the MV fuses can now be removed (i.e. is released by closure of
the MV earthing switch). Key “S” is located in this panel, and is trapped when the MV
switch is closed
b Turn key “S” to lock the MV switch in the open position
b Key “S” is now released
S
MV fuses accessible
O
The result of the foregoing procedure is that:
b The MV switch is locked in the open position by key “S”.
Key “S” is trapped at the transformer terminals interlock as long as the terminals are
exposed.
b The MV earthing switch is in the closed position but not locked, i.e. may be opened
or closed. When carrying out maintenance work, a padlock is generally used to lock
the earthing switch in the closed position, the key of the padlock being held by the
engineer supervizing the work.
b The LV CB is locked open by key “O”, which is trapped by the closed MV earthing
switch. The transformer is therefore safely isolated and earthed.
S
O
Transformer MV terminals accessible
Legend
Key absent
Key free
Key trapped
Panel or door
It may be noted that the upstream terminal of the load-break disconnecting switch
may remain live in the procedure described as the terminals in question are located
in a separate non accessible compartment in the particular switchgear under
discussion. Any other technical solution with exposed terminals in the accessed
compartment would need further de-energisation and interlocks.
Fig. B20 : Example of MV/LV/TR interlocking
(1) Or may be provided with a common protective cover over
the three terminals.
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S
Step 5
Key “S” allows removal of the common locking device of the plug-type MV terminal
connectors on the transformer or of the common protective cover over the terminals,
as the case may be.
In either case, exposure of one or more terminals will trap key “S” in the interlock.
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B22
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
4.1 General
A consumer substation with LV metering is an electrical installation connected to a
utility supply system at a nominal voltage of 1 kV - 35 kV, and includes a single
MV/LV transformer generally not exceeding 1,250 kVA.
Functions
The substation
All component parts of the substation are located in one room, either in an existing
building, or in the form of a prefabricated housing exterior to the building.
Connection to the MV network
Connection at MV can be:
b Either by a single service cable or overhead line, or
b Via two mechanically interlocked load-break switches with two service cables from
duplicate supply feeders, or
b Via two load-break switches of a ring-main unit
The transformer
Since the use of PCB(1)-filled transformers is prohibited in most countries,
the preferred available technologies are:
b Oil-immersed transformers for substations located outside premises
b Dry-type, vacuum-cast-resin transformers for locations inside premises, e.g.
multistoreyed buildings, buildings receiving the public, and so on...
Metering
Metering at low voltage allows the use of small metering transformers at modest cost.
Most tariff structures take account of MV/LV transformer losses.
LV installation circuits
A low-voltage circuit-breaker, suitable for isolation duty and locking off facilities, to:
b Supply a distribution board
b Protect the transformer against overloading and the downstream circuits against
short-circuit faults.
One-line diagrams
The diagrams on the following page (see Fig. B21) represent the different methods
of MV service connection, which may be one of four types:
b Single-line service
b Single-line service (equipped for extension to form a ring main)
b Duplicate supply service
b Ring main service
4.2 Choice of MV switchgear
Standards and specifications
The switchgear and equipment described below are rated for 1 kV - 24 kV systems
and comply with the following international standards:
IEC 62271-1, 62271-200, 60265-1, 62271-102, 62271-100, 62271-105
Local regulations can also require compliance with national standards as:
b France:
UTE
b United Kingdom:
BS
b Germany:
VDE
b United States of America: ANSI
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Type of equipment
In addition of Ring Main Units discussed in section 1.2, all kinds of switchgear
arrangements are possible when using modular switchgear, and provisions for later
extensions are easily realized.
(1) Polychlorinated biphenyl
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
B23
Power supply
system
Service
connection
MV protection and
MV/LV transformation
Supplier/consumer
interface
Single-line service
LV metering
and isolation
Transformer
LV terminals
LV distribution
and protection
Downstream terminals
of LV isolator
Protection
Protection
Single-line service
(equipped for extension
to form a ring main)
Permitted if only one
transformer and rated power
low enough to accomodate
the limitations of fuses and
combinations
Protection
Duplicatesupply
service
Ring main
service
Permitted if only one
transformer and rated power
low enough to accomodate
the limitations of fuses and
combinations
Protection
Protection
+
Auto-changeover
switch
Automatic
LV standby
source
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Always permitted
Fig. B21 : Consumer substation with LV metering
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
B24
Operational safety of metal enclosed switchgear
Description
The following notes describe a “state-of-the art” load-break / disconnecting-switch
panel (see Fig. B22) incorporating the most modern developments for ensuring:
b Operational safety
b Minimum space requirements
b Extendibility and flexibility
b Minimum maintenance requirements
Each panel includes 3 compartments:
b Switchgear: the load-break disconnecting switch is incorporated in an hermetically
sealed (for life) molded epoxy-resin unit
b Connections: by cable at terminals located on the molded switch unit
b Busbars: modular, such that any number of panels may be assembled side-by-side
to form a continuous switchboard, and for control and indication a low voltage cabinet
which can accommodate automatic control and relaying equipment. An additional
cabinet may be mounted above the existing one if further space is required.
Cable connections are provided inside a cable-terminating compartment at the
front of the unit, to which access is gained by removal of the front panel of the
compartment.
The units are connected electrically by means of prefabricated sections of busbars.
Site erection is effected by following the assembly instructions.
Operation of the switchgear is simplified by the grouping of all controls and
indications on a control panel at the front of each unit.
The technology of these switchgear units is essentially based on operational safety,
ease of installation and low maintenance requirements.
Switchgear internal safety measures
b The load-break/disconnecting switch fully satisfies the requirement of “reliable
position indicating device” as defined in IEC 62271-102 (disconnectors and earthing
switches)
b The functionnal unit incorporates the basic interlocks specified by the
IEC 62271-200 (prefabricated metal enclosed switchgear and controlgear):
v Closure of the switch is not possible unless the earth switch is open
v Closure of the earthing switch is only possible if the load break/isolating switch is
open
b Access to the cable compartment, which is the only user-accessible compartment
during operation, is secured by further interlocks:
v Opening of the access panel to the cable terminations compartment(1) is only
possible if the earthing switch is closed
v The load-break/disconnecting switch is locked in the open position when the
above-mentioned access panel is open. Opening of the earthing switch is then
possible, for instance to allow a dielectric test on the cables.
With such features, the switchboard can be operated with live busbars and cables,
except for the unit where the access to cables is made. It complies then with the
Loss of Service Continuity class LSB2A, as defined in the IEC 62271-200.
Apart from the interlocks noted above, each switchgear panel includes:
b Built-in padlocking facilities on the operation levers
b 5 predrilled sets of fixing holes for possible future interlocking locks
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Operations
Fig. B22 : Metal enclosed MV load break disconnecting switch
b Operating handles, levers, etc. required for switching operations are grouped
together on a clearly illustrated panel
b All closing-operation levers are identical on all units (except those containing a
circuit-breaker)
b Operation of a closing lever requires very little effort
b Opening or closing of a load-break/disconnecting switch can be by lever or by
push-button for automatic switches
b Conditions of switches (Open, Closed, Spring-charged), are clearly indicated
(1) Where MV fuses are used they are located in this
compartment.
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4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
4.3 Choice of MV switchgear panel for a transformer
circuit
B25
Three types of MV switchgear panel are generally available:
b Load-break switch and separate MV fuses in the panel
b Load-break switch/MV fuses combination
b Circuit-breaker
Seven parameters influence the optimum choice:
b The primary current of the transformer
b The insulating medium of the transformer
b The position of the substation with respect to the load centre
b The kVA rating of the transformer
b The distance from switchgear to the transformer
b The use of separate protection relays (as opposed to direct-acting trip coils).
Note: The fuses used in the load-break/switch fuses combination have striker-pins
which ensure tripping of the 3-pole switch on the operation of one (or more) fuse(s).
4.4 Choice of MV/LV transformer
Characteristic parameters of a transformer
A transformer is characterized in part by its electrical parameters, but also by its
technology and its conditions of use.
Electrical characteristics
b Rated power (Pn): the conventional apparent-power in kVA on which other designparameter values and the construction of the transformer are based. Manufacturing
tests and guarantees are referred to this rating
b Frequency: for power distribution systems of the kind discussed in this guide, the
frequency will be 50 Hz or 60 Hz
b Rated primary and secondary voltages: For a primary winding capable of operating at
more than one voltage level, a kVA rating corresponding to each level must be given.
The secondary rated voltage is its open circuit value
b Rated insulation levels are given by overvoltage-withstand test values at power
frequency, and by high voltage impulse tests values which simulate lightning
discharges. At the voltage levels discussed in this guide, overvoltages caused by
MV switching operations are generally less severe than those due to lightning, so
that no separate tests for switching-surge withstand capability are made
b Off-circuit tap-selector switch generally allows a choice of up to ± 2.5% and ± 5%
level about the rated voltage of the highest voltage winding. The transformer must be
de-energized before this switch is operated
b Winding configurations are indicated in diagrammatic form by standard symbols for
star, delta and inter-connected-star windings; (and combinations of these for special
duty, e.g. six-or twelve-phase rectifier transformers, etc.) and in an IEC-recommended
alphanumeric code. This code is read from left-to-right, the first letter refers to the
highest voltage winding, the second letter to the next highest, and so on:
v Capital letters refer to the highest voltage winding
D = delta
Y = star
Z = interconnected-star (or zigzag)
N = neutral connection brought out to a terminal
v Lower-case letters are used for tertiary and secondary windings
d = delta
y = star
z = interconnected-star (or zigzag)
n = neutral connection brought out to a terminal
v A number from 0 to 11, corresponding to those, on a clock dial (“0” is used instead
of “12”) follows any pair of letters to indicate the phase change (if any) which occurs
during the transformation.
A very common winding configuration used for distribution transformers is that
of a Dyn 11 transformer, which has a delta MV winding with a star-connected
secondary winding the neutral point of which is brought out to a terminal. The phase
change through the transformer is +30 degrees, i.e. phase 1 secondary voltage is
at “11 o’clock” when phase 1 of the primary voltage is at “12 o’clock”, as shown in
Figure B31 page B34. All combinations of delta, star and zigzag windings produce a
phase change which (if not zero) is either 30 degrees or a multiple of 30 degrees.
IEC 60076-4 describes the “clock code” in detail.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B26
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
Characteristics related to the technology and utilization of the transformer
This list is not exhaustive:
b Choice of technology
The insulating medium is:
v Liquid (mineral oil) or
v Solid (epoxy resin and air)
b For indoor or outdoor installation
b Altitude (<= 1,000 m is standard)
b Temperature (IEC 60076-2)
v Maximum ambient air: 40 °C
v Daily maximum average ambient air: 30 °C
v Annual maximum average ambient air: 20 °C
For non-standard operating conditions, refer to “Influence of the Ambient temperature
and altitude on the rated current” on page B7.
Description of insulation techniques
There are two basic classes of distribution transformer presently available:
b Dry type (cast in resin)
b Liquid filled (oil-immersed)
Dry type transformers
The windings of these transformers are insulated by resin between turns and by
resin and air to other windings and to frame. The resin is usually cast under vacuum
process (which is patented by major manufacturers).
It is recommended that the transformer be chosen according to the IEC 60076-11,
as follows:
b Environment class E2 (frequent condensation and/or high level of pollution)
b Climatic conditions class B2 (utilization, transport and stockage down to -25 °C)
b Fire resistance (transformers exposed to fire risk with low flammability and self
extinguishing in a given time)
The following description refers to the process developed by a leading European
manufacturer in this field.
The encapsulation of a winding uses three components:
b Epoxy-resin based on biphenol A with a viscosity that ensures complete
impregnation of the windings
b Anhydride hardener modified to introduce a degree of resilience in the moulding,
essential to avoid the development of cracks during the temperature cycles occurring
in normal operation
b Pulverulent additive composed of trihydrated alumina Al (OH)3 and silica which
enhances its mechanical and thermal properties, as well as giving exceptional
intrinsic qualities to the insulation in the presence of heat.
This three-component system of encapsulation gives Class F insulation (Δθ = 100 K)
with excellent fire-resisting qualities and immediate self-extinction. These
transformers are therefore classified as nonflammable.
The mouldings of the windings contain no halogen compounds (chlorine, bromine,
etc.) or other compounds capable of producing corrosive or toxic pollutants, thereby
guaranteeing a high degree of safety to personnel in emergency situations, notably
in the event of a fire.
It also performs exceptionally well in hostile industrial atmospheres of dust, humidity,
etc. (see Fig. B23).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Liquid-filled transformers
The most common insulating/cooling liquid used in transformers is mineral oil.
Mineral oils are specified in IEC 60296. Being flammable, safety measures are
obligatory in many countries, especially for indoor substations. The DGPT unit
(Detection of Gas, Pressure and Temperature) ensures the protection of oil-filled
transformers. In the event of an anomaly, the DGPT causes the MV supply to the
transformer to be cut off very rapidly, before the situation becomes dangerous.
Mineral oil is bio-degradable and does not contain PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl),
which was the reason for banning askerel, i.e. Pyralène, Pyrolio, Pyroline...
On request, mineral oil can be replaced by an alternative insulating liquid, by
adapting the transformer, as required, and taking appropriate additional precautions
if necessary.
Fig. B23 : Dry-type transformer
The insulating fluid also acts as a cooling medium; it expands as the load and/or
the ambient temperature increases, so that all liquid-filled transformers must be
designed to accommodate the extra volume of liquid without the pressure in the tank
becoming excessive.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
There are two ways in which this pressure limitation is commonly achieved:
b Hermetically-sealed totally-filled tank (up to 10 MVA at the present time)
Developed by a leading French manufacturer in 1963, this method was adopted by the
national utility in 1972, and is now in world-wide service (see Fig. B24).
Expansion of the liquid is compensated by the elastic deformation of the oil-cooling
passages attached to the tank.
The “total-fill” technique has many important advantages over other methods:
v Oxydation of the dielectric liquid (with atmospheric oxygen) is entirely precluded
v No need for an air-drying device, and so no consequent maintenance (inspection
and changing of saturated dessicant)
v No need for dielectric-strength test of the liquid for at least 10 years
v Simplified protection against internal faults by means of a DGPT device is possible
v Simplicity of installation: lighter and lower profile (than tanks with a conservator)
and access to the MV and LV terminals is unobstructed
v Immediate detection of (even small) oil leaks; water cannot enter the tank
b Air-breathing conservator-type tank at atmospheric pressure
Expansion of the insulating liquid is taken up by a change in the level of liquid in
an expansion (conservator) tank, mounted above the transformer main tank, as
shown in Figure B25. The space above the liquid in the conservator may be filled
with air which is drawn in when the level of liquid falls, and is partially expelled
when the level rises. When the air is drawn in from the surrounding atmosphere it is
admitted through an oil seal, before passing through a dessicating device (generally
containing silica-gel crystals) before entering the conservator. In some designs of
larger transformers the space above the oil is occupied by an impermeable air bag
so that the insulation liquid is never in contact with the atmosphere. The air enters
and exits from the deformable bag through an oil seal and dessicator, as previously
described. A conservator expansion tank is obligatory for transformers rated above
10 MVA (which is presently the upper limit for “total-fill” type transformers).
B27
Choice of technology
As discussed above, the choice of transformer is between liquid-filled or dry type.
For ratings up to 10 MVA, totally-filled units are available as an alternative to
conservator-type transformers.
A choice depends on a number of considerations, including:
b Safety of persons in proximity to the transformer. Local regulations and official
recommendations may have to be respected
b Economic considerations, taking account of the relative advantages of each technique
The regulations affecting the choice are:
b Dry-type transformer:
v In some countries a dry-type transformer is obligatory in high apartment blocks
v Dry-type transformers impose no constraints in other situations
b Transformers with liquid insulation:
v This type of transformer is generally forbidden in high apartment blocks
v For different kinds of insulation liquids, installation restrictions, or minimum
protection against fire risk, vary according to the class of insulation used
v Some countries in which the use of liquid dielectrics is highly developed, classify
the several categories of liquid according to their fire performance. This latter is
assessed according to two criteria: the flash-point temperature, and the minimum
calorific power. The principal categories are shown in Figure B26 in which a
classification code is used for convenience.
Fig. B24 : Hermetically-sealed totally-filled tank
As an example, French standard defines the conditions for the installation of liquidfilled transformers. No equivalent IEC standard has yet been established.
Fig. B25 : Air-breathing conservator-type tank at atmosphere
pressure
Code
Dielectric fluid
O1
K1
K2
K3
L3
Mineral oil
High-density hydrocarbons
Esters
Silicones
Insulating halogen liquids
Fig. B26 : Categories of dielectric fluids
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Flash-point
(°C)
< 300
> 300
> 300
> 300
-
Minimum calorific power
(MJ/kg)
48
34 - 37
27 - 28
12
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The French standard is aimed at ensuring the safety of persons and property and
recommends, notably, the minimum measures to be taken against the risk of fire.
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B28
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
The main precautions to observe are indicated in Figure B27.
b For liquid dielectrics of class L3 there are no special measures to be taken
b For dielectrics of classes O1 and K1 the measures indicated are applicable only if
there are more than 25 litres of dielectric liquid in the transformer
b For dielectrics of classes K2 and K3 the measures indicated are applicable only if
there are more than 50 litres of dielectric liquid in the transformer.
Class
of
dielectric
fluid
O1
No. of
litres above
which
measures
must be
taken
25
K1
K2
K3
L3
50
Locations
Chamber or enclosed area reserved to qualified
and authorized personnel, and separated from any
other building by a distance D
D>8m
4m<D<8m
D < 4 m(1) in the direction of occupied areas
No special
Interposition of
Fire-proof wall
measures
a fire-proof
(2 hour rating)
screen
against adjoining
(1 hour rating)
building
No special measures
Interposition of a
fire-proof screen
(1 hour rating)
No special measures
Reserved to trained personnel
and isolated from work areas
by fire-proof walls (2 hours rating)
No openings
With opening(s)
Other chambers
or locations(2)
Measures
(1 + 2)
or 3
or 4
No special
measures
Measures
(1A + 2 + 4)(3)
or 3
Measures
(1 + 2 + 5)
or 3
or (4 + 5)
Measures 1A
or 3
or 4
Measures 1
or 3
or 4
Measure 1: Arrangements such that if the dielectric escapes from the transformer, it will be completely contained (in a sump, by sills around the
transformer, and by blocking of cable trenches, ducts and so on, during construction).
Measure 1A: In addition to measure 1, arrange that, in the event of liquid ignition there is no possibility of the fire spreading (any combustible
material must be moved to a distance of at least 4 metres from the transformer, or at least 2 metres from it if a fire-proof screen [of 1 hour rating] is
interposed).
Measure 2: Arrange that burning liquid will extinguish rapidly and naturally (by providing a pebble bed in the containment sump).
Measure 3: An automatic device (gas, pressure & thermal relay, or Buchholz) for cutting off the primary power supply, and giving an alarm, if gas
appears in the transformer tank.
Measure 4: Automatic fire-detection devices in close proximity to the transformer, for cutting off primary power supply, and giving an alarm.
Measure 5: Automatic closure by fire-proof panels (1/2 hour minimum rating) of all openings (ventilation louvres, etc.) in the walls and ceiling of
the substation chamber.
Notes:
(1) A fire-proof door (rated at 2 hours) is not considered to be an opening.
(2) Transformer chamber adjoining a workshop and separated from it by walls, the fire-proof characteristics of which are not rated for 2 hours.
Areas situated in the middle of workshops the material being placed (or not) in a protective container.
(3) It is indispensable that the equipment be enclosed in a chamber, the walls of which are solid, the only orifices being those necessary for
ventilation purposes.
Fig. B27 : Safety measures recommended in electrical installations using dielectric liquids of classes 01, K1, K2 or K3
The determination of optimal power
Oversizing a transformer
It results in:
b Excessive investment and unecessarily high no-load losses, but
b Lower on-load losses
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Undersizing a transformer
It causes:
b A reduced efficiency when fully loaded, (the highest efficiency is attained in the
range 50% - 70% full load) so that the optimum loading is not achieved
b On long-term overload, serious consequences for
v The transformer, owing to the premature ageing of the windings insulation, and in
extreme cases, resulting in failure of insulation and loss of the transformer
v The installation, if overheating of the transformer causes protective relays to trip
the controlling circuit-breaker.
Definition of optimal power
In order to select an optimal power (kVA) rating for a transformer, the following
factors must be taken into account:
b List the power of installed power-consuming equipment as described in Chapter A
b Decide the utilization (or demand) factor for each individual item of load
b Determine the load cycle of the installation, noting the duration of loads and overloads
b Arrange for power-factor correction, if justified, in order to:
v Reduce cost penalties in tariffs based, in part, on maximum kVA demand
v Reduce the value of declared load (P(kVA) = P (kW)/cos ϕ)
b Select, among the range of standard transformer ratings available, taking into
account all possible future extensions to the installation.
It is important to ensure that cooling arrangements for the transformer are adequate.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
4.5 Instructions for use of MV equipment
B29
The purpose of this chapter is to provide general guidelines on how to avoid
or greatly reduce MV equipment degradation on sites exposed to humidity and
pollution.
Normal service conditions for indoor MV equipment
All MV equipments comply with specific standards and with the IEC 62271-1
standard “Common specifications for high-voltage switchgear and controlgear”,
which defines the normal conditions for the installation and use of such equipment.
For instance, regarding humidity, the standard mentions:
The conditions of humidity are as follows:
b The average value of the relative humidity, measured over a period of 24 h does
not exceed 90%;
b The average value of the water vapour pressure, over a period of 24 h does not
exceed 2.2 kPa;
b The average value of the relative humidity, over a period of one month does not
exceed 90%;
b The average value of water vapour pressure, over a period of one month does not
exceed 1.8 kPa;
Under these conditions, condensation may occasionally occur.
NOTE 1: Condensation can be expected where sudden temperature changes occur
in period of high humidity.
NOTE 2: To withstand the effects of high humidity and condensation, such as a
breakdown of insulation or corrosion of metallic parts, switchgear designed for such
conditions and tested accordingly shoul be used.
NOTE 3: Condensation may be prevented by special design of the building or
housing, by suitable ventilation and heating of the station or by use of dehumifying
equipment.
As indicated in the standard, condensation may occasionally occur even under
normal conditions. The standard goes on to indicate special measures concerning
the substation premises that can be implemented to prevent condensation.
Use under severe conditions
Under certain severe conditions concerning humidity and pollution, largely beyond
the normal conditions of use mentioned above, correctly designed electrical
equipment can be subject to damage by rapid corrosion of metal parts and surface
degradation of insulating parts.
Remedial measures for condensation problems
b Carefully design or adapt substation ventilation.
b Avoid temperature variations.
b Eliminate sources of humidity in the substation environment.
b Install an air conditioning system.
b Make sure cabling is in accordance with applicable rules.
Remedial measures for pollution problems
b Equip substation ventilation openings with chevron-type baffles to reduce entry
of dust and pollution.
b Keep substation ventilation to the minimum required for evacuation of transformer
heat to reduce entry of pollution and dust.
b Use MV cubicles with a sufficiently high degree of protection (IP).
b Use air conditioning systems with filters to restrict entry of pollution and dust.
b Regularly clean all traces of pollution from metal and insulating parts.
Ventilation
Substation ventilation is generally required to dissipate the heat produced by
transformers and to allow drying after particularly wet or humid periods.
However, a number of studies have shown that excessive ventilation can drastically
increase condensation.
Ventilation should therefore be kept to the minimum level required.
Furthermore, ventilation should never generate sudden temperature variations that
can cause the dew point to be reached.
For this reason:
Natural ventilation should be used whenever possible. If forced ventilation is
necessary, the fans should operate continuously to avoid temperature fluctuations.
Guidelines for sizing the air entry and exit openings of substations are presented
hereafter.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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Fig. B28 : SM6 metal enclosed indoor MV eqpuipment
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
B30
Calculation methods
A number of calculation methods are available to estimate the required size of
substation ventilation openings, either for the design of new substations or the
adaptation of existing substations for which condensation problems have occurred.
The basic method is based on transformer dissipation.
The required ventilation opening surface areas S and S’ can be estimated using the
following formulas:
S
S'
H
and S' 1.10 x S
where:
S = Lower (air entry) ventilation opening area [m²] (grid surface deducted)
S’= Upper (air exit) ventilation opening area [m²] (grid surface deducted)
P = Total dissipated power [W]
P is the sum of the power dissipated by:
b The transformer (dissipation at no load and due to load)
b The LV switchgear
b The MV switchgear
H = Height between ventilation opening mid-points [m]
See Fig. B29
Note:
This formula is valid for a yearly average temperature of 20 °C and a maximum
altitude of 1,000 m.
200 mm
mini
H
S
Fig. B29 : Natural ventilation
1.8 x 10-4 P
It must be noted that these formulae are able to determine only one order of
magnitude of the sections S and S', which are qualified as thermal section, i.e. fully
open and just necessary to evacuate the thermal energy generated inside the MV/LV
substation.
The pratical sections are of course larger according ot the adopted technological
solution.
Indeed, the real air flow is strongly dependant:
b on the openings shape and solutions adopted to ensure the cubicle protection
index (IP): metal grid, stamped holes, chevron louvers,...
b on internal components size and their position compared to the openings:
transformer and/or retention oil box position and dimensions, flow channel between
the components, ...
b and on some physical and environmental parameters: outside ambient
temperature, altitude, magnitude of the resulting temperature rise.
The understanding and the optimization of the attached physical phenomena are
subject to precise flow studies, based on the fluid dynamics laws, and realized with
specific analytic software.
Example:
Transformer dissipation = 7,970 W
LV switchgear dissipation = 750 W
MV switchgear dissipation = 300 W
The height between ventilation opening mid-points is 1.5 m.
Calculation:
Dissipated Power P = 7,970 + 750 + 300 = 9,020 W
S
1.8 x 10-4 P
1.5
1.32 m2 and S' 1.1 x 1.32 1.46 m2
Ventilation opening locations
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. B30 : Ventilation opening locations
To favour evacuation of the heat produced by the transformer via natural convection,
ventilation openings should be located at the top and bottom of the wall near the
transformer. The heat dissipated by the MV switchboard is negligible.
To avoid condensation problems, the substation ventilation openings should be
located as far as possible from the switchboard (see Fig. B 30).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
4 The consumer substation
with LV metering
Type of ventilation openings
B31
To reduce the entry of dust, pollution, mist, etc., the substation ventilation openings
should be equipped with chevron-blade baffles.
Always make sure the baffles are oriented in the right direction (see Fig. B31).
Temperature variations inside cubicles
Temperature variations inside the substation
The following measures can be taken to reduce temperature variations inside the
substation:
b Improve the thermal insulation of the substation to reduce the effects of outdoor
temperature variations on the temperature inside the substation.
b Avoid substation heating if possible. If heating is required, make sure the regulation
system and/or thermostat are sufficiently accurate and designed to avoid excessive
temperature swings (e.g. no greater than 1 °C).
If a sufficiently accurate temperature regulation system is not available, leave the
heating on continuously, 24 hours a day all year long.
b Eliminate cold air drafts from cable trenches under cubicles or from openings in the
substation (under doors, roof joints, etc.).
Substation environment and humidity
Various factors outside the substation can affect the humidity inside.
b Plants
Avoid excessive plant growth around the substation.
b Substation waterproofing
The substation roof must not leak. Avoid flat roofs for which
waterproofing is difficult to implement and maintain.
b Humidity from cable trenches
Make sure cable trenches are dry under all conditions.
A partial solution is to add sand to the bottom of the cable trench.
Pollution protection and cleaning
Excessive pollution favours leakage current, tracking and flashover on insulators.
To prevent MV equipment degradation by pollution, it is possible to either protect the
equipment against pollution or regularly clean the resulting contamination.
Protection
Indoor MV switchgear can be protected by enclosures providing a sufficiently high
degree of protection (IP).
Cleaning
If not fully protected, MV equipment must be cleaned regularly to prevent
degradation by contamination from pollution.
Cleaning is a critical process. The use of unsuitable products can irreversibly
damage the equipment.
For cleaning procedures, please contact your Schneider Electric correspondent.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. B31 : Chevron-blade baffles
To reduce temperature variations, always install anti-condensation heaters inside
MV cubicles if the average relative humidity can remain high over a long period of
time. The heaters must operate continuously, 24 hours a day all year long.
Never connect them to a temperature control or regulation system as this could lead
to temperature variations and condensation as well as a shorter service life for the
heating elements. Make sure the heaters offer an adequate service life (standard
versions are generally sufficient).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B32
A consumer substation with MV metering
is an electrical installation connected to a
utility supply system at a nominal voltage of
1 kV - 35 kV and generally includes a single
MV/LV transformer which exceeds 1,250 kVA,
or several smaller transformers.
The rated current of the MV switchgear does
not normally exceed 400 A.
5 The consumer substation
with MV metering
5.1 General
Functions
The substation
According to the complexity of the installation and the manner in which the load is
divided, the substation:
b Might include one room containing the MV switchboard and metering panel(s),
together with the transformer(s) and low-voltage main distribution board(s),
b Or might supply one or more transformer rooms, which include local LV distribution
boards, supplied at MV from switchgear in a main substation, similar to that
described above.
These substations may be installed, either:
b Inside a building, or
b Outdoors in prefabricated housings.
Connection to the MV network
Connection at MV can be:
b Either by a single service cable or overhead line, or
b Via two mechanically interlocked load-break switches with two service cables from
duplicate supply feeders, or
b Via two load-break switches of a ring-main unit.
Metering
Before the installation project begins, the agreement of the power-supply utility
regarding metering arrangements must be obtained.
A metering panel will be incorporated in the MV switchboard. Voltage transformers
and current transformers, having the necessary metering accuracy, may be included
in the main incoming circuit-breaker panel or (in the case of the voltage transformer)
may be installed separately in the metering panel.
Transformer rooms
If the installation includes a number of transformer rooms, MV supplies from the main
substation may be by simple radial feeders connected directly to the transformers, or
by duplicate feeders to each room, or again, by a ring-main, according to the degree
of supply availability desired.
In the two latter cases, 3-panel ring-main units will be required at each transformer
room.
Local emergency generators
Emergency standby generators are intended to maintain a power supply to essential
loads, in the event of failure of the power supply system.
Capacitors
Capacitors will be installed, according to requirements:
b In stepped MV banks at the main substation, or
b At LV in transformer rooms.
Transformers
For additional supply-security reasons, transformers may be arranged for automatic
changeover operation, or for parallel operation.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
One-line diagrams
The diagrams shown in Figure B32 next page represent:
b The different methods of MV service connection, which may be one of four types:
v Single-line service
v Single-line service (equipped for extension to form a ring main)
v Duplicate supply service
v Ring main service
b General protection at MV, and MV metering functions
b Protection of outgoing MV circuits
b Protection of LV distribution circuits
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
5 The consumer substation
with MV metering
B33
Power supply
system
Service connection
Supplier/consumer
interface
MV protection
and metering
MV distribution and protection
of outgoing circuits
Downstream terminals of
MV isolator for the installation
Single-line service
LV distribution
and protection
LV terminals of
transformer
Protection
LV
Single-line service
(equipped for
extension to form
a ring main)
A single transformer
Automatic LV/MV
standby source
Duplicatesupply
service
Protection
+ automatic
changeover
feature
Protection
Ring-main
service
Automatic LV
standby source
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. B32 : Consumer substation with MV metering
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
5 The consumer substation
with MV metering
B34
5.2 Choice of panels
A substation with MV metering includes, in addition to the panels described in 4.2,
panels specifically designed for metering and, if required, for automatic or manual
changeover from one source to another.
Metering and general protection
These two functions are achieved by the association of two panels:
b One panel containing the VT
b The main MV circuit-breaker panel containing the CTs for measurement and
protection
The general protection is usually against overcurrent (overload and short-circuit) and
earth faults. Both schemes use protective relays which are sealed by the powersupply utility.
Substation including generators
MV distribution
panels for
which standby Automatic
supply is
changeover
required
panel
Generator in stand alone operation
If the installation needs great power supply availability, a MV standby generator set
can be used. In such a case, the installation must include an automatic changeover.
In order to avoid any posssibility of parallel operation of the generator with the power
supply network, a specific panel with automatic changeover is needed (see Fig. B33).
Busbar
transition
panel
To remainder
of the MV
switchboard
b Protection
Specific protective devices are intended to protect the generator itself. It must be
noted that, due to the very low short-circuit power of the generator comparing with
the power supply network, a great attention must be paid to protection discrimination.
b Control
A voltage regulator controlling an alternator is generally arranged to respond to a
reduction of voltage at its terminals by automatically increasing the excitation current
of the alternator, until the voltage is restored to normal. When it is intended that
the alternator should operate in parallel with others, the AVR (Automatic Voltage
Regulator) is switched to “parallel operation” in which the AVR control circuit is
slightly modified (compounded) to ensure satisfactory sharing of kvars with the other
parallel machines.
When a number of alternators are operating in parallel under AVR control, an
increase in the excitation current of one of them (for example, carried out manually
after switching its AVR to Manual control) will have practically no effect on the voltage
level. In fact, the alternator in question will simply operate at a lower power factor
(more kVA, and therefore more current) than before.
From standby generator
P y 20,000 kVA
Fig. B33 : Section of MV switchboard including standby supply
panel
The power factor of all the other machines will automatically improve, such that the
load power factor requirements are satisfied, as before.
Generator operating in parallel with the utility supply network
To connect a generator set on the network, the agreement of the power supply utility
is usually required. Generally the equipement (panels, protection relays) must be
approved by the utility.
The following notes indicate some basic consideration to be taken into account for
protection and control.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b Protection
To study the connection of generator set, the power supply utility needs some data
as follows :
v Power injected on the network
v Connection mode
v Short-circuit current of the generator set
v Voltage unbalance of the generator
v etc.
Depending on the connection mode, dedicated uncoupling protection functions are
required :
v Under-voltage and over-voltage protection
v Under-frequency and over-frequency protection
v Zero sequence overvoltage protection
v Maximum time of coupling (for momentary coupling)
v Reverse real power
For safety reasons, the switchgear used for uncoupling must also be provided
with the characteristics of a disconnector (i.e total isolation of all active conductors
between the generator set and the power supply network).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
5 The consumer substation
with MV metering
b Control
When generators at a consumer’s substation operate in parallel with all the
generation of the utility power supply system, supposing the power system voltage is
reduced for operational reasons (it is common to operate MV systems within a range
of ± 5% of nominal voltage, or even more, where load-flow patterns require it), an
AVR set to maintain the voltage within ± 3% (for example) will immediately attempt to
raise the voltage by increasing the excitation current of the alternator.
B35
Instead of raising the voltage, the alternator will simply operate at a lower power
factor than before, thereby increasing its current output, and will continue to do so,
until it is eventually tripped out by its overcurrent protective relays. This is a wellknown problem and is usually overcome by the provision of a “constant powerfactor” control switch on the AVR unit.
By making this selection, the AVR will automatically adjust the excitation current
to match whatever voltage exists on the power system, while at the same time
maintaining the power factor of the alternator constant at the pre-set value (selected
on the AVR control unit).
In the event that the alternator becomes decoupled from the power system, the AVR
must be automatically (rapidly) switched back to “constant-voltage” control.
5.3 Parallel operation of transformers
The need for operation of two or more transformers in parallel often arises due to:
b Load growth, which exceeds the capactiy of an existing transformer
b Lack of space (height) for one large transformer
b A measure of security (the probability of two transformers failing at the same time
is very small)
b The adoption of a standard size of transformer throughout an installation
Total power (kVA)
The total power (kVA) available when two or more transformers of the same
kVA rating are connected in parallel, is equal to the sum of the individual ratings,
providing that the percentage impedances are all equal and the voltage ratios are
identical.
Transformers of unequal kVA ratings will share a load practically (but not exactly)
in proportion to their ratings, providing that the voltage ratios are identical and the
percentage impedances (at their own kVA rating) are identical, or very nearly so.
In these cases, a total of more than 90% of the sum of the two ratings is normally
available.
It is recommended that transformers, the kVA ratings of which differ by more
than 2:1, should not be operated permanently in parallel.
Conditions necessary for parallel operation
All paralleled units must be supplied from the same network.
The inevitable circulating currents exchanged between the secondary circuits of
paralleled transformers will be negligibly small providing that:
b Secondary cabling from the transformers to the point of paralleling have
approximately equal lengths and characteristics
b The transformer manufacturer is fully informed of the duty intended for the
transformers, so that:
v The winding configurations (star, delta, zigzag star) of the several transformers
have the same phase change between primary and secondary voltages
v The short-circuit impedances are equal, or differ by less than 10%
v Voltage differences between corresponding phases must not exceed 0.4%
v All possible information on the conditions of use, expected load cycles, etc. should
be given to the manufacturer with a view to optimizing load and no-load losses
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B36
5 The consumer substation
with MV metering
Common winding arrangements
As described in 4.4 “Electrical characteristics-winding configurations” the
relationships between primary, secondary, and tertiary windings depend on:
b Type of windings (delta, star, zigzag)
b Connection of the phase windings
Depending on which ends of the windings form the star point (for example), a
star winding will produce voltages which are 180° displaced with respect to those
produced if the opposite ends had been joined to form the star point. Similar 180°
changes occur in the two possible ways of connecting phase-to-phase coils to form
delta windings, while four different combinations of zigzag connections are possible.
b The phase displacement of the secondary phase voltages with respect to the
corresponding primary phase voltages.
As previously noted, this displacement (if not zero) will always be a multiple of
30° and will depend on the two factors mentioned above, viz type of windings and
connection (i.e. polarity) of the phase windings.
By far the most common type of distribution transformer winding configuration is the
Dyn 11 connection (see Fig. B34).
Voltage vectors
1
1
V12
2
N
3
2
3
1
1
N
2
2
Windings
correspondence
3
V12 on the primary winding produces V1N in the
secondary winding and so on ...
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. B34 : Phase change through a Dyn 11 transformer
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3
6 Constitution of
MV/LV distribution substations
MV/LV substations are constructed according to the magnitude of the load and the
kind of power system in question.
B37
Substations may be built in public places, such as parks, residential districts, etc. or
on private premises, in which case the power supply authority must have unrestricted
access. This is normally assured by locating the substation, such that one of its
walls, which includes an access door, coincides with the boundary of the consumers
premises and the public way.
6.1 Different types of substation
Substations may be classified according to metering arrangements (MV or LV) and
type of supply (overhead line or underground cable).
The substations may be installed:
b Either indoors in room specially built for the purpose, within a building, or
b An outdoor installation which could be :
v Installed in a dedicated enclosure prefabricated or not, with indoor equipment
(switchgear and transformer)
v Ground mounted with outdoor equipment (switchgear and transformers)
v Pole mounted with dedicated outdoor equipment (swithgear and transformers)
Prefabricated substations provide a particularly simple, rapid and competitive choice.
6.2 Indoor substation
Conception
Figure B35 shows a typical equipment layout recommended for a LV metering
substation.
Remark: the use of a cast-resin dry-type transformer does not need a fireprotection
oil sump. However, periodic cleaning is needed.
LV connections
from
transformer
MV connections to transformer
(included in a panel or free-standing)
LV switchgear
2 incoming
MV panels
MV
switching
and
protection
panel
Current
transformers
provided by
power-supply
authority
Connection to the powersupply network by single-core
or three-core cables,
with or without a cable trench
Transformer
Fig. B35 : Typical arrangment of switchgear panels for LV metering
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Oil sump
LV cable
trench
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B38
6 Constitution of
MV/LV distribution substations
Service connections and equipment interconnections
At high voltage
b Connections to the MV system are made by, and are the responsibility of the utility
b Connections between the MV switchgear and the transformers may be:
v By short copper bars where the transformer is housed in a panel forming part of
the MV switchboard
v By single-core screened cables with synthetic insulation, with possible use of plugin type terminals at the transformer
At low voltage
b Connections between the LV terminals of the transformer and the LV switchgear
may be:
v Single-core cables
v Solid copper bars (circular or rectangular section) with heat-shrinkable insulation
Metering (see Fig. B36)
b Metering current transformers are generally installed in the protective cover of the
power transformer LV terminals, the cover being sealed by the supply utility
b Alternatively, the current transformers are installed in a sealed compartment within
the main LV distribution cabinet
b The meters are mounted on a panel which is completely free from vibrations
b Placed as close to the current transformers as possible, and
b Are accessible only to the utility
100
MV supply
LV distribution
Common earth busbar
for the substation
800 mini
Safety accessories
Meters
Fig. B36 : Plan view of typical substation with LV metering
Earthing circuits
The substation must include:
b An earth electrode for all exposed conductive parts of electrical equipment in the
substation and exposed extraneous metal including:
v Protective metal screens
v Reinforcing rods in the concrete base of the substation
Substation lighting
Supply to the lighting circuits can be taken from a point upstream or downstream
of the main incoming LV circuit-breaker. In either case, appropriate overcurrent
protection must be provided. A separate automatic circuit (or circuits) is (are)
recommended for emergency lighting purposes.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Operating switches, pushbuttons, etc. are normally located immediately adjacent to
entrances.
Lighting fittings are arranged such that:
b Switchgear operating handles and position indication markings are adequately
illuminated
b All metering dials and instruction plaques and so on, can be easily read
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
6 Constitution of
MV/LV distribution substations
B39
Materials for operation and safety
According to local safety rules, generally, the substation is provided with:
b Materials for assuring safe exploitation of the equipment including:
v Insulating stool and/or an insulating mat (rubber or synthetic)
v A pair of insulated gloves stored in an envelope provided for the purpose
v A voltage-detecting device for use on the MV equipment
v Earthing attachments (according to type of switchgear)
b Fire-extinguishing devices of the powder or CO2 type
b Warning signs, notices and safety alarms:
v On the external face of all access doors, a DANGER warning plaque and
prohibition of entry notice, together with instructions for first-aid care for victims of
electrical accidents.
6.3 Outdoor substations
Outdoor substation with prefabricated enclosures
A prefabricated MV/LV substation complying with IEC 62271-202 standard includes :
b equipement in accordance with IEC standards
b a type tested enclosure, which means during its design, it has undergone a battery
of tests (see Fig. B37):
v Degree of protection
v Functional tests
v Temperature class
v Non-flammable materials
v Mechanical resistance of the enclosure
v Sound level
v Insulation level
v Internal arc withstand
v Earthing circuit test
v Oil retention,…
Use of equipment conform
to IEC standards:
Mechanical resistance
of the enclosure:
b Degree of protection
b Sound level
b Electromagnetic
compatibility
b Insulation level
b Functional tests
LV
MV
b Internal arcing
withstand
b Temperature class
b Non-flammable
materials
Earthing circuit test
Oil retention
Walk-in
Non walk-in
Half buried
Underground
a-
b-
Main benefits are :
b Safety:
v For public and operators thanks to a high reproducible quality level
b Cost effective:
v Manufactured, equipped and tested in the factory
b Delivery time
v Delivered ready to be connected.
IEC 62271-202 standard includes four main designs (see Fig. B38)
Fig. B38 : The four designs according to IEC 62271-202
standard and two pictures [a] walk-in type MV/LV substation;
[b] half buried type MV/LV substation
b Walk-in type substation :
v Operation protected from bad weather conditions
b Non walk-in substation
v Ground space savings, and outdoors operations
b Half buried substation
v Limited visual impact
b Underground substation
v Blends completely into the environment.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. B37 : Type tested substation according to IEC 62271-202 standard
B - Connection to the MV public
distribution network
B40
6 Constitution of
MV/LV distribution substations
Outdoor substations without enclosures (see Fig. B39)
These kinds of outdoor substation are common in some countries, based on
weatherproof equipment exposed to the elements.
These substations comprise a fenced area in which three or more concrete plinths
are installed for:
b A ring-main unit, or one or more switch-fuse or circuit-breaker unit(s)
b One or more transformer(s), and
b One or more LV distribution panel(s).
Pole mounted substations
Field of application
These substations are mainly used to supply isolated rural consumers from MV
overhead line distribution systems.
Constitution
In this type of substation, most often, the MV transformer protection is provided by
fuses.
Lightning arresters are provided, however, to protect the transformer and consumers
as shown in Figure B40.
General arrangement of equipment
As previously noted the location of the substation must allow easy access, not only
for personnel but for equipment handling (raising the transformer, for example) and
the manœuvring of heavy vehicles.
Lightning
arresters
LV circuit breaker D1
Earthing conductor 25 mm2 copper
Protective conductor cover
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Safety earth mat
Fig. B39 : Outdoor substations without enclosures
Fig. B40 : Pole-mounted transformer substation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter C
Connection to the LV utility
distribution network
Contents
1
Low-voltage utility distribution networks
C2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
C2 C1
C10
C11
C15
2
Tariffs and metering
C16
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Low-voltage consumers
Low-voltage distribution networks
The consumer service connection
Quality of supply voltage
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
The most-common LV supplies are within the
range 120 V single phase to 240/415 V
3-phase 4-wires.
C2 Loads up to 250 kVA can be supplied at LV, but
power-supply organizations generally propose
a MV service at load levels for which their
LV networks are marginally adequate.
An international voltage standard for 3-phase
4-wire LV systems is recommended by the
IEC 60038 to be 230/400 V
1.1 Low-voltage consumers
In Europe, the transition period on the voltage tolerance to “230V/400V + 10% / - 10%”
has been extended for another 5 years up to the year 2008.
Low-voltage consumers are, by definition, those consumers whose loads can be
satisfactorily supplied from the low-voltage system in their locality.
The voltage of the local LV network may be 120/208 V or 240/415 V, i.e. the lower
or upper extremes of the most common 3-phase levels in general use, or at some
intermediate level, as shown in Figure C1.
An international voltage standard for 3-phase 4-wire LV systems is recommended
by the IEC 60038 to be 230/400 V.
Loads up to 250 kVA can be supplied at LV, but power-supply organizations
generally propose a MV service at load levels for which their LV networks are
marginally adequate.
Country
Algeria
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
50
220 (k)
50 ± 1.5
Angola
50
Antigua and Barbuda
60
Argentina
50 ± 2
Armenia
50 ± 5
Australia
50 ± 0.1
Austria
50 ± 0.1
230 (k)
Azerbaijan
50 ± 0.1
Bahrain
50 ± 0.1
208/120 (a)
240/120 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
Bangladesh
50 ± 2
Barbados
50 ± 6
Belarus
50
Belgium
50 ± 5
Bolivia
50 ± 0.5
230 (k)
Botswana
Brazil
50 ± 3
60
220 (k)
220 (k)
127 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220/380 (a)
127/220 (a)
Brunei
50 ± 2
230
230
Bulgaria
50 ± 0.1
220
220/240
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Afghanistan
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (e)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
240 (k)
120 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
380/220 (a)
10,000
5,500
6,600
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
410/220 (a)
220 (k)
230/115 (j)
115 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
230 (k)
230 (a)
3N, 400
400/230 (a)
120/208 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
440/250 (a)
440 (m)
380/230 (a) (b)
230 (k)
208/120 (a)
240/120 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
410/220 (a)
230/115 (j)
200/115 (a)
220/115 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
230 (k)
230 (a)
3N, 400
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
400/230 (a)
120/208 (a)
380/220 (a)
22,000
11,000
6,600
415/240
440/250
5,000
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
11,000
410/220 (a)
230/400 (g)
230/155 (j)
380/220 (a)
6,600
10,000
11,000
15,000
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
13,800
11,200
220/380 (a)
127/220 (a)
11,000
68,000
1,000
690
380
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Cambodia
Cameroon
Canada
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
50 ± 1
50 ± 1
60 ± 0.02
220 (k)
220/260 (k)
120/240 (j)
220/300
220/260 (k)
347/600 (a)
480 (f)
240 (f)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
Cape Verde
Chad
Chile
China
50 ± 1
50 ± 1
50 ± 0.5
220
220 (k)
220 (k)
220 (k)
Colombia
60 ± 1
Congo
50
Croatia
50
Cyprus
50 ± 0.1
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
240 (k)
220
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
120/240 (g)
120 (k)
240/120 (j)
120 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
415/240
220/380
220/380 (a)
7,200/12,500
347/600 (a)
120/208
600 (f)
480 (f)
240 (f)
380/400
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
13,200
120/240 (g)
380/220 (a)
Czech Republic
50 ± 1
230
500
230/400
Denmark
Djibouti
Dominica
Egypt
50 ± 1
50
50
50 ± 0.5
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Estonia
50 ± 1
Ethiopia
50 ± 2.5
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/231 (a)
Falkland Islands
Fidji Islands
50 ± 3
50 ± 2
Finland
50 ± 0.1
230 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
230 (k)
415/230 (a)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
400/230 (a)
France
50 ± 1
400/230 (a)
230 (a)
Gambia
Georgia
50
50 ± 0.5
Germany
50 ± 0.3
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230
690/400
590/100
220/380
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
Ghana
Gibraltar
Greece
50 ± 5
50 ± 1
50
220/240
415/240 (a)
220 (k)
230
220/240
415/240 (a)
6,000
380/220 (a)
Granada
Hong Kong
50
50 ± 2
230 (k)
220 (k)
Hungary
Iceland
50 ± 5
50 ± 0.1
220
230
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220
230/400
120/240 (g)
120 (k)
220 (k)
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
C3
400/230 (a)
11,000
415/240
400,000
220,000
110,000
35,000
22,000
10,000
6,000
3,000
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
66,000
33,000
20,000
11,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
15 000
380/231 (a)
415/230 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
690/400 (a)
400/230 (a)
20,000
10,000
230/400
380
380/220 (a)
20,000
10,000
6,000
690/400
400/230
415/240 (a)
415/240 (a)
22,000
20,000
15,000
6,600
400/230 (a)
11,000
386/220 (a)
220/380
230/400
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Country
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
C4
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
Country
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
India
50 ± 1.5
440/250 (a)
230 (k)
440/250 (a)
230 (k)
Indonesia
50 ± 2
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Iran
50 ± 5
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Iraq
50
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Ireland
50 ± 2
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Israel
50 ± 0.2
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
Italy
50 ± 0.4
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Jamaica
50 ± 1
220/110 (g) (j)
220/110 (g) (j)
Japan (east)
+ 0.1
- 0.3
200/100 (h)
200/100 (h)
(up to 50 kW)
Jordan
50
380/220 (a)
Kazakhstan
50
Kenya
Kirghizia
50
50
Korea (North)
60 +0, -5
380/220 (a)
400/230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
240 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
220 (k)
11,000
400/230 (a)
440/250 (a)
150,000
20,000
380/220 (a)
20,000
11,000
400/231 (a)
380/220 (a)
11,000
6,600
3,000
380/220 (a)
20,000
10,000
400/230 (a)
22,000
12,600
6,300
400/230 (a)
20,000
15,000
10,000
400/230 (a)
4,000
2,300
220/110 (g)
140,000
60,000
20,000
6,000
200/100 (h)
400 (a)
Korea (South)
Kuwait
Laos
Lesotho
Latvia
60
50 ± 3
50 ± 8
50 ± 0.4
Lebanon
Libya
50
50
100 (k)
240 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
230 (k)
127 (k)
Lithuania
50 ± 0.5
Luxembourg
50 ± 0.5
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
100/200 (j)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
400/230 (a)
220/127 (a)
230 (k)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Macedonia
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Madagascar
50
220/110 (k)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220/380 (a)
13,600
6,800
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
400/230 (a)
220/127 (a)
380/220 (a)
20,000
15,000
5,000
10,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
35,000
5,000
380/220
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
Country
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Malaysia
50 ± 1
415/240 (a)
415/240 (a)
Malawi
50 ± 2.5
240 (k)
415 (a)
230 (k)
400 (a)
Mali
50
220 (k)
127 (k)
Malta
Martinique
50 ± 2
50
240 (k)
127 (k)
Mauritania
Mexico
50 ± 1
60 ± 0.2
230 (k)
127/220 (a)
220 (k)
120 (l)
400 (a)
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a)
220 (k)
127 (k)
415/240 (a)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
400/230 (a)
127/220 (a)
220 (k)
120 (l)
Moldavia
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Morocco
50 ± 5
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
220/110 (a)
Mozambique
50
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
Nepal
50 ± 1
220 (k)
Netherlands
50 ± 0.4
230/400 (a)
230 (k)
440/220 (a)
220 (k)
230/400 (a)
New Zealand
50 ± 1.5
400/230 (e) (a)
230 (k)
Niger
50 ± 1
400/230 (e) (a)
230 (k)
460/230 (e)
230 (k)
Nigeria
50 ± 1
230 (k)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
Norway
50 ± 2
230/400
230/400
Oman
50
240 (k)
Pakistan
50
230 (k)
Papua New Guinea
50 ± 2
240 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
Paraguay
50 ± 0.5
220 (k)
Philippines (Rep of the)
60 ± 0.16
110/220 (j)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
13,800
4,160
2,400
110/220 (h)
Poland
50 ± 0.1
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Portugal
50 ± 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Qatar
50 ± 0.1
415/240 (k)
15,000
5,000
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a)
415/240 (a)
220/127 (a)
400/230 (a)
13,800
13,200
277/480 (a)
127/220 (b)
380/220 (a)
225,000
150,000
60,000
22,000
20,000
6,000
10,000
11,000
440/220 (a)
25,000
20,000
12,000
10,000
230/400
11,000
400/230 (a)
15,000
380/220 (a)
15,000
11,000
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
230/400
690
415/240 (a)
400/230 (a)
22,000
11,000
415/240 (a)
22,000
380/220 (a)
13,800
4,160
2,400
440 (b)
110/220 (h)
1,000
690/400
400/230 (a)
15,000
5,000
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
380/220 (a)
C5
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
C6
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
Country
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Romania
50 ± 0.5
220 (k)
220/380 (a)
220/380 (a)
Russia
50 ± 0.2
Rwanda
50 ± 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
20,000
10,000
6,000
220/380 (a)
380/220 (a)
Saint Lucia
50 ± 3
240 (k)
415/240 (a)
Samoa
San Marino
50 ± 1
400/230
230/220
380
Saudi Arabia
60
220/127 (a)
220/127 (a)
380/220 (a)
The Solomon Islands
Senegal
50 ± 2
50 ± 5
240
220 (a)
127 (k)
415/240
380/220 (a)
220/127 (k)
Serbia and Montenegro
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Seychelles
50 ± 1
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
Sierra Leone
50 ± 5
230 (k)
Singapore
50
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Slovakia
Slovenia
50 ± 0.5
50 ± 0.1
230
220 (k)
230
380/220 (a)
Somalia
50
South Africa
50 ± 2.5
230 (k)
220 (k)
110 (k)
433/250 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Spain
50 ± 3
Sri Lanka
50 ± 2
380/220 (a) (e)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
230 (k)
440/220 (j)
220/110 (j)
230 (k)
11,000
6,600
3,300
433/250 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
220/127 (a) (e)
Sudan
50
240 (k)
Swaziland
50 ± 2.5
230 (k)
Sweden
50 ± 0.5
Switzerland
50 ± 2
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
Syria
50
220 (k)
115 (k)
Tadzhikistan
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
415/240 (a)
240 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
230 (k)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
200/115 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
15,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
15,000
380
11,000
7,200
380/220 (a)
415/240
90,000
30,000
6,600
10,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
11,000
400
22,000
6,600
400/230 (a)
230/400
10,000
6,600
380/220 (a)
440/220 (g)
220/110 (g)
11,000
6,600
3,300
500 (b)
380/220 (a)
15,000
11,000
380/220 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
415/240 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
6,000
400/230 (a)
20,000
10,000
3,000
1,000
690/500
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
Country
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
Tanzania
50
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
Thailand
50
220 (k)
Togo
50
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
11,000
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
Tunisia
50 ± 2
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Turkmenistan
50
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
Turkey
50 ± 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220/127 (a)
127 (k)
380/220 (a)
Uganda
+ 0.1
240 (k)
415/240 (a)
Ukraine
+ 0.2 / - 1.5
United Arab Emirates
50 ± 1
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
220 (k)
United Kingdom
(except Northern
Ireland)
50 ± 1
230 (k)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
United Kingdom
(Including Northern
Ireland)
United States of
America
Charlotte
(North Carolina)
50 ± 0.4
230 (k)
220 (k)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
60 ± 0.06
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
265/460 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
United States of
America
Detroit (Michigan)
60 ± 0.2
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
480 (f)
120/240 (h)
120/208 (a)
United States of
America
Los Angeles (California)
United States of
America
Miami (Florida)
60 ± 0.2
120/240 (j)
4,800
120/240 (g)
60 ± 0.3
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/240 (h)
120/208 (a)
United States of
America New York
(New York)
60
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
240 (f)
United States of
America
Pittsburg
(Pennsylvania)
60 ± 0.03
120/240 (j)
265/460 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
460 (f)
230 (f)
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
20,000
5,500
380/220 (a)
30,000
15,000
10,000
380/220 (a)
380/220 (a)
15,000
6,300
380/220 (a)
11,000
415/240 (a)
380/220 (a)
220 (k)
6,600
415/210 (a)
380/220 (a)
22,000
11,000
6,600
3,300
400/230 (a)
400/230 (a)
380/220 (a)
14,400
7,200
2,400
575 (f)
460 (f)
240 (f)
265/460 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
13,200
4,800
4,160
480 (f)
120/240 (h)
120/208 (a)
4,800
120/240 (g)
13,200
2,400
480/277 (a)
120/240 (h)
12,470
4,160
277/480 (a)
480 (f)
13,200
11,500
2,400
265/460 (a)
120/208 (a)
460 (f)
230 (f)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
380/220 (a)
C7
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
Country
C8
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
Frequency & tolerance
(Hz & %)
60
Domestic (V)
Commercial (V)
Industrial (V)
120/240 (j)
227/480 (a)
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
480 (f)
240 (f)
United States of
America
San Francisco
(California)
60 ± 0.08
120/240 (j)
277/480 (a)
120/240 (j)
United States of
America
Toledo (Ohio)
60 ± 0.08
120/240 (j)
120/208 (a)
277/480 (c)
120/240(h)
120/208 (j)
Uruguay
50 ± 1
220 (b) (k)
220 (b) (k)
Vietnam
50 ± 0.1
220 (k)
380/220 (a)
Yemen
Zambia
Zimbabwe
50
50 ± 2.5
50
250 (k)
220 (k)
225 (k)
440/250 (a)
380/220 (a)
390/225 (a)
19,900
12,000
7,200
2,400
277/480 (a)
120/208 (a)
480 (f)
240 (f)
20,800
12,000
4,160
277/480 (a)
120/240 (g)
12,470
7,200
4,800
4,160
480 (f)
277/480 (a)
120/208 (a)
15,000
6,000
220 (b)
35,000
15,000
10,000
6,000
440/250 (a)
380 (a)
11,000
390/225 (a)
United States of
America
Portland (Oregon)
Circuit diagrams
(a) Three-phase star;
Four-wire:
Earthed neutral
(f) Three-phase delta:
Three-wire
(b) Three-phase star:
Three-wire
(c) Three-phase star;
Three-wire:
Earthed neutral
(g) Three-phase delta;
Four-wire:
Earthed mid point of
one phase
(d) Three-phase star; (e) Two-phase star;
Four-wire:
Three-wire
Non-earthed neutral Earthed neutral
(h) Three-phase open delta;
Four-wire:
Earthed mid point of one
phase
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
V
(j) Single-phase;
Three-wire:
Earthed mid point
(k) Single-phase;
Two-wire:
Earthed end of phase
(l) Single-phase;
Two-wire
Unearthed
Vk
(m) Single-wire:
Earthed return (swer)
Fig. C1 : Voltage of local LV network and their associated circuit diagrams (concluded)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
(i) Three-phase
open delta:
Earthed junction
of phases
(n) DC:
Three-wire:
Unearthed
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
Residential and commercial consumers
The function of a LV “mains” distributor is to provide service connections
(underground cable or overhead line) to a number of consumers along its route.
The current-rating requirements of distributors are estimated from the number of
consumers to be connected and an average demand per consumer.
C9
The two principal limiting parameters of a distributor are:
b The maximum current which it is capable of carrying indefinitely, and
b The maximum length of cable which, when carrying its maximum current, will not
exceed the statutory voltage-drop limit
These constraints mean that the magnitude of loads which utilities are willing to
connect to their LV distribution mains, is necessarily restricted.
For the range of LV systems mentioned in the second paragraph of this sub-clause
(1.1) viz: 120 V single phase to 240/415 V 3-phase, typical maximum permitted loads
connected to a LV distributor might(1) be (see Fig. C2):
System
120 V 1-phase 2-wire
120/240 V 1-phase 3-wire
120/208 V 3-phase 4-wire
220/380 V 3-phase 4-wire
230/400 V 3-phase 4-wire
240/415 V 3-phase 4-wire
Assumed max. permitted current
per consumer service
60 A
60 A
60 A
120 A
120 A
120 A
kVA
7.2
14.4
22
80
83
86
Fig. C2 : Typical maximum permitted loads connected to a LV distributor
Practices vary considerably from one power supply organization to another, and no
“standardized” values can be given.
Factors to be considered include:
b The size of an existing distribution network to which the new load is to be connected
b The total load already connected to the distribution network
b The location along the distribution network of the proposed new load, i.e. close to
the substation, or near the remote end of the distribution network, etc
In short, each case must be examined individually.
The load levels listed above are adequate for all normal residential consumers, and
will be sufficient for the installations of many administrative, commercial and similar
buildings.
Medium-size and small industrial consumers (with dedicated
LV lines direct from a utility supply MV/LV substation)
Medium and small industrial consumers can also be satisfactorily supplied at lowvoltage.
For loads which exceed the maximum permitted limit for a service from a distributor,
a dedicated cable can usually be provided from the LV distribution fuse- (or switch-)
board, in the power utility substation.
(1) The Figure C2 values shown are indicative only, being
(arbitrarily) based on 60 A maximum service currents for the
first three systems, since smaller voltage drops are allowed at
these lower voltages, for a given percentage statutory limit.
The second group of systems is (again, arbitrarily) based on a
maximum permitted service current of 120 A.
In practice, however:
b Large loads (e.g. > 300 kVA) require correspondingly large cables, so that,
unless the load centre is close to the substation, this method can be economically
unfavourable
b Many utilities prefer to supply loads exceeding 200 kVA (this figure varies with
different suppliers) at medium voltage
For these reasons, dedicated supply lines at LV are generally applied (at 220/380 V
to 240/415 V) to a load range of 80 kVA to 250 kVA.
Consumers normally supplied at low voltage include:
b Residential dwellings
b Shops and commercial buildings
b Small factories, workshops and filling stations
b Restaurants
b Farms, etc
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Generaly, the upper load limit which can be supplied by this means is restricted only
by the available spare transformer capacity in the substation.
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
In cities and large towns, standardized
LV distribution cables form a network through
link boxes. Some links are removed, so that
C10 each (fused) distributor leaving a substation
forms a branched open-ended radial system,
as shown in Figure C3
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
1.2 LV distribution networks
In European countries the standard 3-phase 4-wire distribution voltage level is
230/400 V. Many countries are currently converting their LV systems to the latest IEC
standard of 230/400 V nominal (IEC 60038). Medium
to large-sized towns and cities have underground cable distribution systems.
MV/LV distribution substations, mutually spaced at approximately 500-600 metres,
are typically equipped with:
b A 3-or 4-way MV switchboard, often made up of incoming and outgoing loadbreak switches forming part of a ring main, and one or two MV circuit-breakers or
combined fuse/ load-break switches for the transformer circuits
b One or two 1,000 kVA MV/LV transformers
b One or two (coupled) 6-or 8-way LV 3-phase 4-wire distribution fuse boards, or
moulded-case circuit-breaker boards, control and protect outgoing 4-core distribution
cables, generally referred to as “distributors”
The output from a transformer is connected to the LV busbars via a load-break
switch, or simply through isolating links.
In densely-loaded areas, a standard size of distributor is laid to form a network,
with (generally) one cable along each pavement and 4-way link boxes located in
manholes at street corners, where two cables cross.
Recent trends are towards weather-proof cabinets above ground level, either against
a wall, or where possible, flush-mounted in the wall.
Links are inserted in such a way that distributors form radial circuits from the
substation with open-ended branches (see Fig. C3). Where a link box unites a
distributor from one substation with that from a neighbouring substation, the phase
links are omitted or replaced by fuses, but the neutral link remains in place.
4-way
link box
HV/LV
substation
Service
cable
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Phase links
removed
Fig. C3 : Showing one of several ways in which a LV distribution network may be arranged for
radial branched-distributor operation, by removing (phase) links
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
This arrangement provides a very flexible system in which a complete substation can
be taken out of service, while the area normally supplied from it is fed from link boxes
of the surrounding substations.
Moreover, short lengths of distributor (between two link boxes) can be isolated for
fault-location and repair.
In less-densely loaded urban areas a moreeconomic system of tapered radial distribution
is commonly used, in which conductors of
reduced size are installed as the distance from
a substation increases
C11
Where the load density requires it, the substations are more closely spaced, and
transformers up to 1,500 kVA are sometimes necessary.
Other forms of urban LV network, based on free-standing LV distribution pillars,
placed above ground at strategic points in the network, are widely used in areas of
lower load density. This scheme exploits the principle of tapered radial distributors in
which the distribution cable conductor size is reduced as the number of consumers
downstream diminish with distance from the substation.
In this scheme a number of large-sectioned LV radial feeders from the distribution
board in the substation supply the busbars of a distribution pillar, from which smaller
distributors supply consumers immediately surrounding the pillar.
Distribution in market towns, villages and rural areas generally has, for many years,
been based on bare copper conductors supported on wooden, concrete or steel
poles, and supplied from pole-mounted or ground-mounted transformers.
Improved methods using insulated twisted
conductors to form a pole mounted aerial cable
are now standard practice in many countries
In recent years, LV insulated conductors, twisted to form a two-core or 4-core self
supporting cable for overhead use, have been developed, and are considered to be
safer and visually more acceptable than bare copper lines.
This is particularly so when the conductors are fixed to walls (e.g. under-eaves
wiring) where they are hardly noticeable.
As a matter of interest, similar principles have been applied at higher voltages, and
self supporting “bundled” insulated conductors for MV overhead installations are now
available for operation at 24 kV.
Where more than one substation supplies a village, arrangements are made at poles
on which the LV lines from different substations meet, to interconnect corresponding
phases.
In Europe, each utility-supply distribution
substation is able to supply at LV an area
corresponding to a radius of approximately
300 metres from the substation.
North and Central American systems of
distribution consist of a MV network from which
numerous (small) MV/LV transformers each
supply one or several consumers, by direct
service cable (or line) from the transformer
location
North and Central American practice differs fundamentally from that in Europe, in
that LV networks are practically nonexistent, and 3-phase supplies to premises in
residential areas are rare.
The distribution is effectively carried out at medium voltage in a way, which again
differs from standard European practices. The MV system is, in fact, a 3-phase
4-wire system from which single-phase distribution networks (phase and neutral
conductors) supply numerous single-phase transformers, the secondary windings
of which are centre-tapped to produce 120/240 V single-phase 3-wire supplies.
The central conductors provide the LV neutrals, which, together with the MV neutral
conductors, are solidly earthed at intervals along their lengths.
Each MV/LV transformer normally supplies one or several premises directly from the
transformer position by radial service cable(s) or by overhead line(s).
Many other systems exist in these countries, but the one described appears to be
the most common.
Figure C4 (next page) shows the main features of the two systems.
1.3 The consumer-service connection
In the past, an underground cable service or the wall-mounted insulated conductors
from an overhead line service, invariably terminated inside the consumer’s premises,
where the cable-end sealing box, the utility fuses (inaccessible to the consumer) and
meters were installed.
A more recent trend is (as far as possible) to locate these service components in a
weatherproof housing outside the building.
The utility/consumer interface is often at the outgoing terminals of the meter(s) or,
in some cases, at the outgoing terminals of the installation main circuit-breaker
(depending on local practices) to which connection is made by utility staff, following a
satisfactory test and inspection of the installation.
A typical arrangement is shown in Figure C5 (next page).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Service components and metering equipment
were formerly installed inside a consumer’s
building. The modern tendency is to locate
these items outside in a weatherproof cabinet
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
C12
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
For primary voltages > 72.5 kV
(see note) primary
winding may be:
- Delta
- Earthed star
- Earthed zigzag
Depending on the country concerned
13.8 kV / 2.4-4.16 kV
N
1
2
Each MV/LV transformer shown
represents many similar units
3
Tertiary delta normally
(not always) used if the
primary winding is not delta
2
3
N
2.4 kV / 120-240 V
1 ph - 3 wire
distribution
transformer
1 ph MV / 230 V
service transformer
to isolated consumer(s)
(rural supplies)
}
HV (1)
Ph
N
1
1
N
MV (2)
N
Resistor replaced
by a Petersen
coil on O/H line
systems in some
countries
N
2
2
N
3 ph
MV / 230/400 V
4-wire distribution
transformer
1
2
3
N
N
N 1 2 3
LV distribution network
Main 3 ph and neutral
MV distributor
(1) 132 kV for example
(2) 11 kV for example
Note: At primary voltages greater than 72.5 kV in bulk-supply substations, it is common practice in some European countries
to use an earthed-star primary winding and a delta secondary winding. The neutral point on the secondary side is then
provided by a zigzag earthing reactor, the star point of which is connected to earth through a resistor.
Frequently, the earthing reactor has a secondary winding to provide LV 3-phase supplies for the substation. It is then referred
to as an “earthing transformer”.
Fig. C4 : Widely-used American and European-type systems
CB
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
M
F
A
Fig. C5 : Typical service arrangement for TT-earthed systems
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
LV consumers are normally supplied according
to the TN or TT system, as described in
chapters F and G. The installation main circuitbreaker for a TT supply must include a residual
current earth-leakage protective device. For a
TN service, overcurrent protection by circuitbreaker or switch-fuse is required
A MCCB -moulded case circuit-breaker- which incorporates a sensitive residualcurrent earth-fault protective feature is mandatory at the origin of any LV installation
forming part of a TT earthing system. The reason for this feature and related
leakage-current tripping levels are discussed in Clause 3 of Chapter G.
A further reason for this MCCB is that the consumer cannot exceed his (contractual)
declared maximum load, since the overload trip setting, which is sealed by the
supply authority, will cut off supply above the declared value. Closing and tripping of
the MCCB is freely available to the consumer, so that if the MCCB is inadvertently
tripped on overload, or due to an appliance fault, supplies can be quickly restored
following correction of the anomaly.
C13
In view of the inconvenience to both the meter reader and consumer, the location of
meters is nowadays generally outside the premises, either:
b In a free-standing pillar-type housing as shown in Figures C6 and C7
b In a space inside a building, but with cable termination and supply authority’s fuses
located in a flush-mounted weatherproof cabinet accessible from the public way, as
shown in Figure C8 next page
b For private residential consumers, the equipment shown in the cabinet in
Figure C5 is installed in a weatherproof cabinet mounted vertically on a metal
frame in the front garden, or flush-mounted in the boundary wall, and accessible to
authorized personnel from the pavement. Figure C9 (next page) shows the general
arrangement, in which removable fuse links provide the means of isolation
M
F CB
A
In this kind of installation it is often necessary to place the main installation circuitbreaker some distance from the point of utilization, e.g. saw-mills, pumping stations,
etc.
Fig. C6 : Typical rural-type installation
CB
M
A
The main installation CB is located in the consumer’s premises in cases where it is
set to trip if the declared kVA load demand is exceeded.
Fig. C7 : Semi-urban installations (shopping precincts, etc.)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
F
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
C14
M
CB
F
A
The service cable terminates in a flushmounted wall cabinet which contains the
isolating fuse links, accessible from the public way. This method is preferred for
esthetic reasons, when the consumer can provide a suitable metering and mainswitch location.
Fig. C8 : Town centre installations
Interface
Utility
Service cable
Consumer
Installation
Isolation by
fuse links
Meter
Meter cabinet
Main
circuit
breaker
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. C9 : Typical LV service arrangement for residential consumers
In the field of electronic metering, techniques have developed which make their
use attractive by utilities either for electricity metering and for billing purposes, the
liberalisation of the electricity market having increased the needs for more data
collection to be returned from the meters. For example electronic metering can also
help utilities to understand their customers’ consumption profiles. In the same way,
they will be useful for more and more power line communication and radio-frequency
applications as well.
In this area, prepayment systems are also more and more employed when
economically justified. They are based on the fact that for instance consumers having
made their payment at vending stations, generate tokens to pass the information
concerning this payment on to the meters. For these systems the key issues are
security and inter-operability which seem to have been addressed successfully
now. The attractiveness of these systems is due to the fact they not only replace the
meters but also the billing systems, the reading of meters and the administration of
the revenue collection.
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C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
1 Low-voltage utility distribution
networks
An adequate level of voltage at the consumers
supply-service terminals is essential for
satisfactory operation of equipment and
appliances. Practical values of current, and
resulting voltage drops in a typical LV system,
show the importance of maintaining a high
Power Factor as a means of reducing voltage
drop.
1.4 Quality of supply voltage
The quality of the LV network supply voltage in its widest sense implies:
b Compliance with statutory limits of magnitude and frequency
b Freedom from continual fluctuation within those limits
b Uninterrupted power supply, except for scheduled maintenance shutdowns, or as a
result of system faults or other emergencies
b Preservation of a near-sinusoidal wave form
C15
In this Sub-clause the maintenance of voltage magnitude only will be discussed.
In most countries, power-supply authorities have a statutory obligation to maintain
the level of voltage at the service position of consumers within the limits of ± 5% (or
in some cases ± 6% or more-see table C1) of the declared nominal value.
Again, IEC and most national standards recommend that LV appliances be designed
and tested to perform satisfactorily within the limits of ± 10% of nominal voltage. This
leaves a margin, under the worst conditions (of minus 5% at the service position, for
example) of 5% allowable voltage drop in the installation wiring.
The voltage drops in a typical distribution system occur as follows: the voltage at
the MV terminals of a MV/LV transformer is normally maintained within a ± 2% band
by the action of automatic onload tapchangers of the transformers at bulk-supply
substations, which feed the MV network from a higher-voltage subtransmission
system.
If the MV/LV transformer is in a location close to a bulk-supply substation, the ± 2%
voltage band may be centered on a voltage level which is higher than the nominal
MV value. For example, the voltage could be 20.5 kV ± 2% on a 20 kV system. In this
case, the MV/LV distribution transformer should have its MV off-circuit tapping switch
selected to the + 2.5% tap position.
Conversely, at locations remote from bulk supply substations a value of 19.5 kV ±
2% is possible, in which case the off-circuit tapping switch should be selected to the
- 5% position.
The different levels of voltage in a system are normal, and depend on the system
powerflow pattern. Moreover, these voltage differences are the reason for the term
“nominal” when referring to the system voltage.
Practical application
With the MV/LV transformer correctly selected at its off-circuit tapping switch, an
unloaded transformer output voltage will be held within a band of ± 2% of its no-load
voltage output.
To ensure that the transformer can maintain the necessary voltage level when fully
loaded, the output voltage at no-load must be as high as possible without exceeding
the upper + 5% limit (adopted for this example). In present-day practice, the winding
ratios generally give an output voltage of about 104% at no-load(1), when nominal
voltage is applied at MV, or is corrected by the tapping switch, as described above.
This would result in a voltage band of 102% to 106% in the present case.
A typical LV distribution transformer has a short-circuit reactance voltage of 5%. If it
is assumed that its resistance voltage is one tenth of this value, then the voltage drop
within the transformer when supplying full load at 0.8 power factor lagging, will be:
V% drop = R% cos ϕ + X% sin ϕ
= 0.5 x 0.8 + 5 x 0.6
= 0.4 + 3 = 3.4%
The voltage band at the output terminals of the fully-loaded transformer will therefore
be (102 - 3.4) = 98.6% to (106 - 3.4) = 102.6%.
This means, in practical terms, that a medium-sized 230/400 V 3-phase 4-wire
distribution cable of 240 mm2 copper conductors would be able to supply a total load
of 292 kVA at 0.8 PF lagging, distributed evenly over 306 metres of the distributor.
Alternatively, the same load at the premises of a single consumer could be supplied
at a distance of 153 metres from the transformer, for the same volt-drop, and so on...
As a matter of interest, the maximum rating of the cable, based on calculations
derived from IEC 60287 (1982) is 290 kVA, and so the 3.6% voltage margin is not
unduly restrictive, i.e. the cable can be fully loaded for distances normally required in
LV distribution systems.
(1) Transformers designed for the 230/400 V IEC standard
will have a no-load output of 420 V, i.e. 105% of the nominal
voltage
Furthermore, 0.8 PF lagging is appropriate to industrial loads. In mixed semiindustrial areas 0.85 is a more common value, while 0.9 is generally used for
calculations concerning residential areas, so that the volt-drop noted above may be
considered as a “worst case” example.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The maximum allowable voltage drop along a distributor is therefore 98.6 - 95 = 3.6%.
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
2 Tariffs and metering
No attempt will be made in this guide to discuss particular tariffs, since there appears
to be as many different tariff structures around the world as there are utilities.
Some tariffs are very complicated in detail but certain elements are basic to all of
them and are aimed at encouraging consumers to manage their power consumption
in a way which reduces the cost of generation, transmission and distribution.
C16
The two predominant ways in which the cost of supplying power to consumers can
be reduced, are:
b Reduction of power losses in the generation, transmission and distribution of
electrical energy. In principle the lowest losses in a power system are attained when
all parts of the system operate at unity power factor
b Reduction of the peak power demand, while increasing the demand at low-load
periods, thereby exploiting the generating plant more fully, and minimizing plant
redundancy
Reduction of losses
Although the ideal condition noted in the first possibility mentioned above cannot
be realized in practice, many tariff structures are based partly on kVA demand, as
well as on kWh consumed. Since, for a given kW loading, the minimum value of kVA
occurs at unity power factor, the consumer can minimize billing costs by taking steps
to improve the power factor of the load (as discussed in Chapter L). The kVA demand
generally used for tariff purposes is the maximum average kVA demand occurring
during each billing period, and is based on average kVA demands, over fixed periods
(generally 10, 30 or 60 minute periods) and selecting the highest of these values.
The principle is described below in “principle of kVA maximum-demand metering”.
Reduction of peak power demand
The second aim, i.e. that of reducing peak power demands, while increasing demand
at low-load periods, has resulted in tariffs which offer substantial reduction in the cost
of energy at:
b Certain hours during the 24-hour day
b Certain periods of the year
The simplest example is that of a residential consumer with a storage-type water
heater (or storage-type space heater, etc.). The meter has two digital registers, one
of which operates during the day and the other (switched over by a timing device)
operates during the night. A contactor, operated by the same timing device, closes
the circuit of the water heater, the consumption of which is then indicated on the
register to which the cheaper rate applies. The heater can be switched on and off at
any time during the day if required, but will then be metered at the normal rate. Large
industrial consumers may have 3 or 4 rates which apply at different periods during
a 24-hour interval, and a similar number for different periods of the year. In such
schemes the ratio of cost per kWh during a period of peak demand for the year, and
that for the lowest-load period of the year, may be as much as 10: 1.
Meters
It will be appreciated that high-quality instruments and devices are necessary to
implement this kind of metering, when using classical electro-mechanical equipment.
Recent developments in electronic metering and micro-processors, together with
remote ripple-control(1) from an utility control centre (to change peak-period timing
throughout the year, etc.) are now operational, and facilitate considerably the
application of the principles discussed.
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In most countries, some tariffs, as noted above, are partly based on kVA demand,
in addition to the kWh consumption, during the billing periods (often 3-monthly
intervals). The maximum demand registered by the meter to be described, is, in fact,
a maximum (i.e. the highest) average kVA demand registered for succeeding periods
during the billing interval.
(1) Ripple control is a system of signalling in which a voice
frequency current (commonly at 175 Hz) is injected into the
LV mains at appropriate substations. The signal is injected
as coded impulses, and relays which are tuned to the signal
frequency and which recognize the particular code will operate
to initiate a required function. In this way, up to 960 discrete
control signals are available.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 Tariffs and metering
Figure C10 shows a typical kVA demand curve over a period of two hours divided
into succeeding periods of 10 minutes. The meter measures the average value of
kVA during each of these 10 minute periods.
C17
kVA
Maximum average value
during the 2 hour interval
Average values
for 10 minute
periods
t
0
1
2 hrs
Fig. C10 : Maximum average value of kVA over an interval of 2 hours
Principle of kVA maximum demand metering
A kVAh meter is similar in all essentials to a kWh meter but the current and voltage
phase relationship has been modified so that it effectively measures kVAh (kilovolt-ampere-hours). Furthermore, instead of having a set of decade counter dials,
as in the case of a conventional kWh meter, this instrument has a rotating pointer.
When the pointer turns it is measuring kVAh and pushing a red indicator before it.
At the end of 10 minutes the pointer will have moved part way round the dial (it is
designed so that it can never complete one revolution in 10 minutes) and is then
electrically reset to the zero position, to start another 10 minute period. The red
indicator remains at the position reached by the measuring pointer, and that position,
corresponds to the number of kVAh (kilo-volt-ampere-hours) taken by the load in
10 minutes. Instead of the dial being marked in kVAh at that point however it can be
marked in units of average kVA. The following figures will clarify the matter.
Supposing the point at which the red indicator reached corresponds to 5 kVAh.
It is known that a varying amount of kVA of apparent power has been flowing for
10 minutes, i.e. 1/6 hour.
If now, the 5 kVAh is divided by the number of hours, then the average kVA for the
period is obtained.
In this case the average kVA for the period will be:
1
5x
= 5 x 6 = 30 kVA
1
6
Every point around the dial will be similarly marked i.e. the figure for average kVA will
be 6 times greater than the kVAh value at any given point. Similar reasoning can be
applied to any other reset-time interval.
At the end of the billing period, the red indicator will be at the maximum of all the
average values occurring in the billing period.
The red indicator will be reset to zero at the beginning of each billing period. Electromechanical meters of the kind described are rapidly being replaced by electronic
instruments. The basic measuring principles on which these electronic meters
depend however, are the same as those described above.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
C - Connecion to the LV public
distribution network
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter D
MV & LV architecture selection
guide
Contents
1
2
3
D3
Simplified architecture design process
D4
2.1 The architecture design
2.2 The whole process
D4
D5
Electrical installation characteristics
D7
3.1 Activity
3.2 Site topology
3.3 Layout latitude
3.4 Service reliability
3.5 Maintainability
3.6 Installation lexibility
3.7 Power demand
3.8 Load distribution
3.9 Power interruption sensitivity
3.10 Disturbance sensitivity
3.11 Disturbance capability of circuits
3.12 Other considerations or constraints
D7
D7
D7
D8
D8
D8
D8
D9
D9
D9
D10
D10
4
Technological characteristics
D11
4.1 Environment, atmosphere
4.2 Service Index
4.3 Other considerations
D11
D11
D12
5
Architecture assessment criteria
D13
5.1 On-site work time
5.2 Environmental impact
5.3 Preventive maintenance level
5.4 Availability of electrical power supply
D13
D13
D13
D14
6
Choice of architecture fundamentals
D15
6.1 Connection to the upstream network
6.2 MV circuit coniguration
6.3 Number and distribution of MV/LV transformation substations
6.4 Number of MV/LV transformers
6.5 MV back-up generator
D15
D16
D17
D18
D18
7
Choice of architecture details
D19
7.1 Layout
7.2 Centralized or distributed layout
7.3 Presence of an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
7.4 Coniguration of LV circuits
D19
D20
D22
D22
8
Choice of equiment
D24
D1
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Stakes for the user
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Recommendations for architecture optimization
D26
9.1 On-site work time
9.2 Environmental impact
9.3 Preventive maintenance volume
9.4 Electrical power availability
D26
D26
D28
D28
10
11
12
Glossary
D29
ID-Spec software
D30
Example: electrical installation in a printworks
D31
12.1 Brief description
12.2 Installation characteristics
12.3 Technological characteristics
12.4 Architecture assessment criteria
12.5 Choice of technogical solutions
D31
D31
D31
D32
D34
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D2
9
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
1 Stakes for the user
Choice of distribution architecture
The choice of distribution architecture has a decisive impact on installation
performance throughout its lifecycle:
b right from the construction phase, choices can greatly inluence the installation
time, possibilities of work rate, required competencies of installation teams, etc.
b there will also be an impact on performance during the operation phase in terms
of quality and continuity of power supply to sensitive loads, power losses in power
supply circuits,
b and lastly, there will be an impact on the proportion of the installation that can be
recycled in the end-of-life phase.
D3
The Electrical Distribution architecture of an installation involves the spatial
coniguration, the choice of power sources, the deinition of different distribution
levels, the single-line diagram and the choice of equipment.
The choice of the best architecture is often expressed in terms of seeking a
compromise between the various performance criteria that interest the customer who
will use the installation at different phases in its lifecycle. The earlier we search for
solutions, the more optimization possibilities exist (see Fig. D1).
Potential for
optimization
Ecodial
Preliminary
design
ID-Spec
Detailled
design
Installation
Exploitation
A successful search for an optimal solution is also strongly linked to the ability for
exchange between the various players involved in designing the various sections of
a project:
b the architect who deines the organization of the building according to user
requirements,
b the designers of different technical sections (lighting, heating, air conditioning,
luids, etc.),
b the user’s representatives e.g. deining the process.
The following paragraphs present the selection criteria as well as the architecture
design process to meet the project performance criteria in the context of industrial
and tertiary buildings (excluding large sites).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. D1 : Optimization potential
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
2 Simplified architecture design
process
2.1 The architecture design
The architecture design considered in this document is positioned at the Draft
Design stage. It generally covers the levels of MV/LV main distribution, LV power
distribution, and exceptionally the terminal distribution level. (see Fig. D2).
D4
MV/LV main
distribution
LV power
distribution
LV terminal
distribution
M
M
M
M
Fig. D2 : Example of single-line diagram
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The design of an electrical distribution architecture can be described by a 3-stage
process, with iterative possibilities. This process is based on taking account of the
installation characteristics and criteria to be satisied.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
2 Simplified architecture design
process
2.2 The whole process
The whole process is described briely in the following paragraphs and illustrated on
Figure D3.
The process described in this document is not intended as the only solution. This
document is a guide intended for the use of electrical installation designers.
D5
Data
See § 3
Step
Installation
characteristics
Deliverable
See § 6
Step 1
Choice of
fundamentals
Schematic
diagram
See § 7
Step 2
Choice of
architecturedetails
Detailed
diagram
See § 4
Technological
characteristics
See § 8
Step 3
Choice of
equipment
Techno.
Solution
See § 5
Assessment
criteria
See § 9
ASSESSMENT
Optimisation
recommendations
Definitive
solution
Fig. D3 : Flow diagram for choosing the electrical distribution architecture
This involves deining the general features of the electrical installation. It is based
on taking account of macroscopic characteristics concerning the installation and its
usage.
These characteristics have an impact on the connection to the upstream network,
MV circuits, the number of transformer substations, etc.
At the end of this step, we have several distribution schematic diagram solutions,
which are used as a starting point for the single-line diagram. The deinitive choice is
conirmed at the end of the step 2.
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Step 1: Choice of distribution architecture fundamentals
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
2 Simplified architecture design
process
Step 2: choice of architecture details
This involves deining the electrical installation in more detail. It is based on the
results of the previous step, as well as on satisfying criteria relative to implementation
and operation of the installation.
The process loops back into step1 if the criteria are not satisied. An iterative process
allows several assessment criteria combinations to be analyzed.
At the end of this step, we have a detailed single-line diagram.
D6
Step 3: choice of equipment
The choice of equipment to be implemented is carried out in this stage, and results
from the choice of architecture. The choices are made from the manufacturer
catalogues, in order to satisfy certain criteria.
This stage is looped back into step 2 if the characteristics are not satisied.
Assessment
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This assessment step allows the Engineering Ofice to have igures as a basis for
discussions with the customer and other players.
According to the result of these discussions, it may be possible to loop back into step 1.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Electrical installation
characteristics
These are the main installation characteristics enabling the deining of the
fundamentals and details of the electrical distribution architecture. For each of these
characteristics, we supply a deinition and the different categories or possible values.
3.1 Activity
Definition:
D7
Main economic activity carried out on the site.
Indicative list of sectors considered for industrial buildings:
b Manufacturing
b Food & Beverage
b Logistics
Indicative list of sectors considered for tertiary buildings:
b Ofices buildings
b Hypermarkets
b Shopping malls
3.2 Site topology
Definition:
Architectural characteristic of the building(s), taking account of the number of
buildings, number of loors, and of the surface area of each loor.
Different categories:
b Single storey building,
b Multi-storey building,
b Multi-building site,
b High-rise building.
3.3 Layout latitude
Definition:
Characteristic taking account of constraints in terms of the layout of the electrical
equipment in the building:
b aesthetics,
b accessibility,
b presence of dedicated locations,
b use of technical corridors (per loor),
b use of technical ducts (vertical).
Different categories:
b Low: the position of the electrical equipment is virtually imposed
b Medium: the position of the electrical equipment is partially imposed, to the
detriment of the criteria to be satisied
b High: no constraints. The position of the electrical equipment can be deined to
best satisfy the criteria.
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
3 Electrical installation
characteristics
3.4 Service reliability
Definition:
The ability of a power system to meet its supply function under stated conditions for
a speciied period of time.
Different categories:
D8
b Minimum: this level of service reliability implies risk of interruptions related to
constraints that are geographical (separate network, area distant from power
production centers), technical (overhead line, poorly meshed system), or economic
(insuficient maintenance, under-dimensioned generation).
b Standard
b Enhanced: this level of service reliability can be obtained by special measures
taken to reduce the probability of interruption (underground network, strong meshing,
etc.)
3.5 Maintainability
Definition:
Features input during design to limit the impact of maintenance actions on the
operation of the whole or part of the installation.
Different categories:
b Minimum: the installation must be stopped to carry out maintenance operations.
b Standard: maintenance operations can be carried out during installation
operations, but with deteriorated performance. These operations must be preferably
scheduled during periods of low activity. Example: several transformers with partial
redundancy and load shedding.
b Enhanced: special measures are taken to allow maintenance operations without
disturbing the installation operations. Example: double-ended coniguration.
3.6 Installation flexibility
Definition:
Possibility of easily moving electricity delivery points within the installation, or to
easily increase the power supplied at certain points. Flexibility is a criterion which
also appears due to the uncertainty of the building during the pre-project summary
stage.
Different categories:
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b No lexibility: the position of loads is ixed throughout the lifecycle, due to the high
constraints related to the building construction or the high weight of the supplied
process. E.g.: smelting works.
b Flexibility of design: the number of delivery points, the power of loads or their
location are not precisely known.
b Implementation lexibility: the loads can be installed after the installation is
commissioned.
b Operating lexibility: the position of loads will luctuate, according to process reorganization.
Examples:
v industrial building: extension, splitting and changing usage
v ofice building: splitting
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
3 Electrical installation
characteristics
3.7 Power demand
Definition:
The sum of the apparent load power (in kVA), to which is applied a usage coeficient.
This represents the maximum power which can be consumed at a given time for the
installation, with the possibility of limited overloads that are of short duration.
Signiicant power ranges correspond to the transformer power limits most commonly
used:
b < 630kVA
b from 630 to 1250kVA
b from 1250 to 2500kVA
b > 2500kVA
D9
3.8 Load distribution
Definition:
A characteristic related to the uniformity of load distribution (in kVA / m²) over an area
or throughout the building.
Different categories:
b Uniform distribution: the loads are generally of an average or low unit power and
spread throughout the surface area or over a large area of the building (uniform
density).
E.g.: lighting, individual workstations
b intermediate distribution: the loads are generally of medium power, placed in
groups over the whole building surface area
E.g.: machines for assembly, conveying, workstations, modular logistics “sites”
b localized loads: the loads are generally high power and localized in several areas
of the building (non-uniform density).
E.g.: HVAC
3.9 Power Interruption Sensitivity
Definition:
The aptitude of a circuit to accept a power interruption.
Different categories:
b “Sheddable” circuit: possible to shut down at any time for an indeinite duration
b Long interruption acceptable: interruption time > 3 minutes *
b Short interruption acceptable: interruption time < 3 minutes *
b No interruption acceptable.
This is expressed in terms of the criticality of supplying of loads or circuits.
b Non-critical:
The load or the circuit can be “shed” at any time. E.g.: sanitary water heating circuit.
b Low criticality:
A power interruption causes temporary discomfort for the occupants of a building,
without any inancial consequences. Prolonging of the interruption beyond the critical
time can cause a loss of production or lower productivity. E.g.: heating, ventilation
and air conditioning circuits (HVAC).
b Medium criticality
A power interruption causes a short break in process or service. Prolonging of
the interruption beyond a critical time can cause a deterioration of the production
facilities or a cost of starting for starting back up.
E.g.: refrigerated units, lifts.
b High criticality
Any power interruption causes mortal danger or unacceptable inancial losses.
E.g.: operating theatre, IT department, security department.
* indicative value, supplied by standard EN50160:
“Characteristics of the voltage supplied by public distribution
networks”.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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We can distinguish various levels of severity of an electrical power interruption,
according to the possible consequences:
b No notable consequence,
b Loss of production,
b Deterioration of the production facilities or loss of sensitive data,
b Causing mortal danger.
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
3 Electrical installation
characteristics
3.10 Disturbance sensitivity
Definition
The ability of a circuit to work correctly in presence of an electrical power
disturbance.
D10
A disturbance can lead to varying degrees of malfunctioning. E.g.: stopping working,
incorrect working, accelerated ageing, increase of losses, etc
Types of disturbances with an impact on circuit operations:
b brown-outs,
b overvoltages
b voltage distortion,
b voltage luctuation,
b voltage imbalance.
Different categories:
b low sensitivity: disturbances in supply voltages have very little effect on operations.
E.g.: heating device.
b medium sensitivity: voltage disturbances cause a notable deterioration in
operations.
E.g.: motors, lighting.
b high sensitivity: voltage disturbances can cause operation stoppages or even the
deterioration of the supplied equipment.
E.g.: IT equipment.
The sensitivity of circuits to disturbances determines the design of shared or
dedicated power circuits. Indeed it is better to separate “sensitive” loads from
“disturbing” loads. E.g.: separating lighting circuits from motor supply circuits.
This choice also depends on operating features. E.g.: separate power supply of
lighting circuits to enable measurement of power consumption.
3.11 Disturbance capability of circuits
Definition
The ability of a circuit to disturb the operation of surrounding circuits due to
phenomena such as: harmonics, in-rush current, imbalance, High Frequency
currents, electromagnetic radiation, etc.
Different categories
b Non disturbing: no speciic precaution to take
b moderate or occasional disturbance: separate power supply may be necessary in
the presence of medium or high sensitivity circuits. E.g.: lighting circuit generating
harmonic currents.
b Very disturbing: a dedicated power circuit or ways of attenuating disturbances are
essential for the correct functioning of the installation. E.g.: electrical motor with a
strong start-up current, welding equipment with luctuating current.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
3.12 Other considerations or constraints
b Environment
E.g.: lightning classiication, sun exposure
b Speciic rules
E.g.: hospitals, high rise buildings, etc.
b Rule of the Energy Distributor
Example: limits of connection power for LV, access to MV substation, etc
b Attachment loads
Loads attached to 2 independent circuits for reasons of redundancy.
b Designer experience
Consistency with previous designs or partial usage of previous designs,
standardization of sub-assemblies, existence of an installed equipment base.
b Load power supply constraints
Voltage level (230V, 400V, 690V), voltage system (single-phase, three-phase with or
without neutral, etc)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
4 Technological characteristics
The technological solutions considered concern the various types of MV and LV
equipment, as well as Busbar Trunking Systems .
The choice of technological solutions is made following the choice of single-line
diagram and according to characteristics given below.
4.1 Environment, atmosphere
A notion taking account of all of the environmental constraints (average ambient
temperature, altitude, humidity, corrosion, dust, impact, etc.) and bringing together
protection indexes IP and IK.
Different categories:
b Standard: no particular environmental constraints
b Enhanced: severe environment, several environmental parameters generate
important constraints for the installed equipment
b Speciic: atypical environment, requiring special enhancements
D11
4.2 Service Index
The service index (IS) is a value that allows us to characterize an LV switchboard
according to user requirements in terms of operation, maintenance, and scalability.
The different index values are indicated in the following table (Fig D4):
Operation
Maintenance
Upgrade
Level 1
IS = 1 • •
Operation may lead to complete
stoppage of the switchboard
IS = • 1 •
Operation may lead to complete
stoppage of the switchboard
IS = • • 1
Operation may lead to complete
stoppage of the switchboard
Level 2
IS = 2 • •
Operation may lead to stoppage of
only the functional unit
IS = • 2 •
Operation may lead to stoppage of
only the functional unit, with work on
connections
IS = • • 2
Operation may lead to stoppage
of only the functional unit, with
functional units provided for back-up
Level 3
IS = 3 • •
Operation may lead to stoppage of
the power of the functional unit only
IS = • 3 •
Operation may lead to stoppage of
only the functional unit, without work
on connections
IS = • • 3
Operation may lead to stoppage of
only the functional unit, with total
freedom in terms of upgrade
Fig. D4 : Different index values
b Examples of an operation event: turning off a circuit-breaker, switching operation to
energize/de-energize a machine
b Example of a maintenance operation: tightening connections
b Example of an upgrade operation: connecting an additional feeder
IS
Operation
Maintenance
Upgrade
111
Switching off the whole switchboard
Working time > 1h, with total nonavailability
Extension not planned
Working time between 1/4h and 1h,
with work on connections
Possible adding of functional units
without stopping the switchboard
211
223
232
Individually switching off the functional
unit and re-commissioning < 1h
Possible adding of functional units with
stopping the switchboard
233
Working time between 1/4h and 1h,
without work on connections
332
333
Individually switching off the functional
unit and re-commissioning < 1/4h
Fig. D5 : Relevant service indices (IS)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Possible adding of functional units
without stopping the switchboard
Possible adding of functional units with
stopping the switchboard
Possible adding of functional units
without stopping the switchboard
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There are a limited number of relevant service indices (see Fig. D5)
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
4 Technological characteristics
The types of electrical connections of functional units can be denoted by a threeletter code:
b The irst letter denotes the type of electrical connection of the main incoming
circuit,
b The second letter denotes the type of electrical connection of the main outgoing
circuit,
b The third letter denotes the type of electrical connection of the auxiliary circuits.
The following letters are used:
b F for ixed connections,
b D for disconnectable connections,
b W for withdrawable connections.
D12
Service ratings are related to other mechanical parameters, such as the Protection
Index (IP), form of internal separations, the type of connection of functional units or
switchgear (Fig. D6):
Service rating
Protection index
IP
Form
Functional Unit
Withdrawability
111
2XX
1
FFF
211
2XB
1
FFF
223
2XB
3b
WFD
232
2XB
3b
WFW
233
2XB
3b
WWW
332
2XB
3b
WWW
333
2XB
3b
WWW
Fig. D6 : Correspondence between service index and other mechanical parameters
Technological examples are given in chapter E2.
b Deinition of the protection index: see IEC 60529: “Degree of protection given by
enclosures (IP code)”,
b Deinitions of the form and withdrawability: see IEC 60439-1: “Low-voltage
switchgear and controlgear assemblies; part 1: type-tested and partially type-tested
assemblies”.
4.3 Other considerations
Other considerations have an impact on the choice of technological solutions:
b Designer experience,
b Consistency with past designs or the partial use of past designs,
b Standardization of sub-assemblies,
b The existence of an installed equipment base,
b Utilities requirements,
b Technical criteria: target power factor, backed-up load power, presence of harmonic
generators…
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These considerations should be taken into account during the detailed electrical
deinition phase following the draft design stage.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
5 Architecture assessment criteria
Certain decisive criteria are assessed at the end of the 3 stages in deining
architecture, in order to validate the architecture choice. These criteria are listed
below with the different allocated levels of priority.
5.1 On-site work time
Time for implementing the electrical equipment on the site.
D13
Different levels of priority:
b Secondary: the on-site work time can be extended, if this gives a reduction in
overall installation costs,
b Special: the on-site work time must be minimized, without generating any
signiicant excess cost,
b Critical: the on-site work time must be reduced as far as possible, imperatively,
even if this generates a higher total installation cost,
5.2 Environmental impact
Taking into consideration environmental constraints in the installation design. This
takes account of: consumption of natural resources, Joule losses (related to CO2
emission), “recyclability” potential, throughout the installation’s lifecycle.
Different levels of priority:
b Non signiicant: environmental constraints are not given any special consideration,
b Minimal: the installation is designed with minimum regulatory requirements,
b Proactive: the installation is designed with a speciic concern for protecting
the environment. Excess cost is allowed in this situation. E.g.: using low-loss
transformers.
The environmental impact of an installation will be determined according to the
method carrying out an installation lifecycle analysis, in which we distinguish
between the following 3 phases:
b manufacture,
b operation,
b end of life (dismantling, recycling).
In terms of environmental impact, 3 indicators (at least) can be taken into account
and inluenced by the design of an electrical installation. Although each lifecycle
phase contributes to the three indicators, each of these indicators is mainly related to
one phase in particular:
b consumption of natural resources mainly has an impact on the manufacturing
phase,
b consumption of energy has an impact on the operation phase,
b “recycleability” potential has an impact on the end of life.
The following table details the contributing factors to the 3 environmental indicators
(Fig D7).
Indicators
Contributors
Natural resources consumption
Mass and type of materials used
Power consumption
Joule losses at full load and no load
«Recyclability» potential
Mass and type of material used
Fig D7 : Contributing factors to the 3 environmental indicators
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
5 Architecture assessment criteria
5.3 Preventive maintenance level
Definition:
Number of hours and sophistication of maintenance carried out during operations in
conformity with manufacturer recommendations to ensure dependable operation of
the installation and the maintaining of performance levels (avoiding failure: tripping,
down time, etc).
D14
Different categories:
b Standard: according to manufacturer recommendations.
b Enhanced: according to manufacturer recommendations, with a severe
environment,
b Speciic: speciic maintenance plan, meeting high requirements for continuity of
service, and requiring a high level of maintenance staff competency.
5.4 Availability of electrical power supply
Definition:
This is the probability that an electrical installation be capable of supplying quality
power in conformity with the speciications of the equipment it is supplying. This is
expressed by an availability level:
Availability (%) = (1 - MTTR/ MTBF) x 100
MTTR (Mean Time To Repair): the average time to make the electrical system once
again operational following a failure (this includes detection of the reason for failure,
its repair and re-commissioning),
MTBF (Mean Time Between Failure): measurement of the average time for which
the electrical system is operational and therefore enables correct operation of the
application.
The different availability categories can only be deined for a given type of
installation. E.g.: hospitals, data centers.
Example of classification used in data centers:
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Tier 1: the power supply and air conditioning are provided by one single channel,
without redundancy, which allows availability of 99.671%,
Tier 2: the power supply and air conditioning are provided by one single channel,
with redundancy, which allows availability of 99.741%,
Tier 3: the power supply and air conditioning are provided by several channels, with
one single redundant channel, which allows availability of 99.982%,
Tier 4: the power supply and air conditioning are provided by several channels, with
redundancy, which allows availability of 99.995%.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
6 Choice of architecture
fundamentals
The single-line diagram can be broken down into different key parts, which are
determined throughout a process in 2 successive stages. During the irst stage we
make the following choices:
b connection to the utilities network,
b coniguration of MV circuits,
b number of power transformers,
b number and distribution of transformation substations,
b MV back-up generator
D15
6.1 Connection to the upstream network
The main conigurations for possible connection are as follows (see Fig. D8 for MV
service):
b LV service,
b MV single-line service,
b MV ring-main service,
b MV duplicate supply service,
b MV duplicate supply service with double busbar.
Metering, protection, disconnection devices, located in the delivery substations are
not represented on the following diagrams. They are often speciic to each utilities
company and do not have an inluence on the choice of installation architecture.
For each connection, one single transformer is shown for simpliication purposes, but
in the practice, several transformers can be connected.
(MLVS: Main Low Voltage Switchboard)
a) Single-line:
b) Ring-main:
MV
MV
LV
LV
MLVS
MLVS
c) Duplicate supply:
d) Double busbar with duplicate supply:
MV
MV
MV
LV
LV
LV
MLVS
Fig. D8 : MV connection to the utilities network
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MLVS1
MLVS2
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
6 Choice of architecture
fundamentals
For the different possible conigurations, the most probable and usual set of
characteristics is given in the following table:
Configuration
LV
D16
MV
Characteristic to
consider
Simple-line
Ring-main
Duplicate supply
Duplicate supply
with double
busbars
Activity
Any
Any
Any
Hi-tech, sensitive
ofice, health-care
Any
Site topology
Single building
Single building
Single building
Single building
Several buildings
Service reliability
Minimal
Minimal
Standard
Enhanced
Enhanced
Power demand
< 630kVA
≤ 1250kVA
≤ 2500kVA
> 2500kVA
> 2500kVA
Other connection
constraints
Any
Isolated site
Low density urban
area
High density
urban area
Urban area with
utility constraint
6.2 MV circuit configuration
The main possible connection conigurations are as follows (Fig. D9):
b single feeder, one or several transformers
b open ring, one MV incomer
b open ring, 2 MV incomers
The basic coniguration is a radial single-feeder architecture, with one single
transformer.
In the case of using several transformers, no ring is realised unless all of the
transformers are located in a same substation.
Closed-ring coniguration is not taken into account.
a) Single feeder:
b) Open ring, 1 MV substation:
c) Open ring, 2 MV substations:
MV
MV
MV
MV
MV
MV
MV
MV
LV
LV
LV
LV
LV
LV
LV
LV
MLVS 1
MLVS n
MLVS 1
MLVS 2
MLVS n
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Fig. D9 : MV circuit configuration
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
MLVS 1
MLVS 2
MLVS n
6 Choice of architecture
fundamentals
For the different possible conigurations, the most probable and usual set of
characteristics is given in the table on Fig D10.
MV circuit configuration
Characteristic to
consider
Single feeder
Open ring
1 MV substation
Open ring
2 MV substations
Site topology
Any
< 25000m²
Building with one
level or several
buildings
≤ 25000m²
Several buildings
≥ 25000m²
Maintainability
Minimal or standard
Enhanced
Enhanced
Power demand
Any
> 1250kVA
> 2500kVA
Disturbance sensitivity
Long interruption
acceptable
Short interruption
acceptable
Short interruption
acceptable
D17
Fig. D10 : Typical values of the installation characteristics
Another exceptional coniguration: power supply by 2 MV substations and connection
of the transformers to each of these 2 substations (MV “double ended” connection).
6.3 Number and distribution of MV/LV
transformation substations
Main characteristics to consider to determine the transformation substations:
b Surface area of building or site
b Power demand, (to be compared with standardized transformer power),
b Load distribution
The preferred basic coniguration comprises one single substation. Certain factors
contribute to increasing the number of substations (> 1):
b A large surface area (> 25000m²),
b The site coniguration: several buildings,
b Total power > 2500kVA,
b Sensitivity to interruption: need for redundancy in the case of a ire.
Configuration
Characteristic to
consider
1 substation with
N transformers
N substations
N transformers
(identical substations)
Building coniguration
< 25000m²
Power demand
< 2500kVA
≥ 2500kVA
≥ 2500kVA
Load distribution
Localized loads
Uniform distribution
Medium density
≥ 25000m²
1 building with several
loors
N substations
M transformers
(different powers)
≥ 25000m²
several buildings
Fig. D11 : Typical characteristics of the different configurations
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
6 Choice of architecture
fundamentals
6.4 Number of MV/LV transformers
D18
Main characteristics to consider to determine the number of transformers:
b Surface of building or site
b Total power of the installed loads
b Sensitivity of circuits to power interruptions
b Sensitivity of circuits to disturbances
b Installation scalability
The basic preferred coniguration comprises a single transformer supplying the total
power of the installed loads. Certain factors contribute to increasing the number of
transformers (> 1), preferably of equal power:
b A high total installed power (> 1250kVA): practical limit of unit power
(standardization, ease of replacement, space requirement, etc),
b A large surface area (> 5000m²): the setting up of several transformers as close as
possible to the distributed loads allows the length of LV trunking to be reduced
b A need for partial redundancy (down-graded operation possible in the case of a
transformer failure) or total redundancy (normal operation ensured in the case a
transformer failure)
b Separating of sensitive and disturbing loads (e.g.: IT, motors)
6.5 MV back-up generator
Main characteristics to consider for the implementation of an MV back-up generator:
b Site activity
b Total power of the installed loads
b Sensitivity of circuits to power interruptions
b Availability of the public distribution network
The preferred basic coniguration does not include an MV generator. Certain factors
contribute to installing an MV generator:
b Site activity: process with co-generation, optimizing the energy bill,
b Low availability of the public distribution network.
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Installation of a back-up generator can also be carried out at LV level.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
7 Choice of architecture details
This is the second stage in designing of the electrical installation. During this stage
we carry out the following choices are carried out:
b Layout,
b Centralized or decentralized distribution,
b Presence of back-up generators,
b Presence of uninterruptible power supplies,
b Coniguration of LV circuits,
b Architecture combinations.
D19
7.1 Layout
Position of the main MV and LV equipment on the site or in the building.
This layout choice is applied to the results of stage 1.
Selection guide:
b Place power sources as close as possible to the barycenter of power consumers,
b Reduce atmospheric constraints: building dedicated premises if the layout in the
workshop is too restrictive (temperature, vibrations, dust, etc.),
b Placing heavy equipment (transformers, generators, etc) close to walls or main
exists for ease of maintenance,
A layout example is given in the following diagram (Fig. D12):
Global current
consumer
Barycenter
Finishing
Panel
shop
Office
Painting
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. D12 : The position of the global current consumer barycenter guides the positioning of power sources
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
7 Choice of architecture details
7.2 Centralized or distributed layout
In centralized layout, current consumers are connected to the power sources
by a star-connection. Cables are suitable for centralized layout, with point to point
links between the MLVS and current consumers or sub-distribution boards (radial
distribution, star- distribution) (Fig. D13):
D20
Fig. D13: Example of centralized layout with point to point links
In decentralized layout, current consumers are connected to sources via a busway.
Busbar trunking systems are well suited to decentralized layout, to supply many
loads that are spread out, making it easy to change, move or add connections
(Fig D14):
Fig. D14 : Example of decentralized layout, with busbar trunking links
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Factors in favour of centralized layout (see summary table in Fig. D15):
b Installation lexibility: no,
b Load distribution: localized loads (high unit power loads).
Factors in favor of decentralized layout:
b Installation lexibility: "Implementation" lexibility (moving of workstations, etc…),
b Load distribution: uniform distribution of low unit power loads
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
7 Choice of architecture details
Load distribution
Flexibility
Localized loads
Intermediate
distribution
Uniform distributed
No flexibility
Centralized
Design flexibility
Implementation
flexibility
Decentralized
Centralized
Decentralized
D21
Operation flexibility
Fig. D15 : Recommendations for centralized or decentralized layout
Power supply by cables gives greater independence of circuits (lighting, power
sockets, HVAC, motors, auxiliaries, security, etc), reducing the consequences of a
fault from the point of view of power availability.
The use of busbar trunking systems allows load power circuits to be combined and
saves on conductors by taking advantage of a clustering coeficient. The choice
between cable and busbar trunking, according to the clustering coeficient, allows us
to ind an economic optimum between investment costs, implementation costs and
operating costs.
These two distribution modes are often combined.
Presence of back-up generators (Fig. D16)
Here we only consider LV back-up generators.
The electrical power supply supplied by a back-up generator is produced by an
alternator, driven by a thermal engine.
No power can be produced until the generator has reached its rated speed. This type
of device is therefore not suitable for an uninterrupted power supply.
According to the generator’s capacity to supply power to all or only part of the
installation, there is either total or partial redundancy.
A back-up generator functions generally disconnected from the network. A source
switching system is therefore necessary.
The generator can function permanently or intermittently. Its back-up time depends
on the quantity of available fuel.
G
LV switchboard
Fig. D16 : Connection of a back-up generator
The main characteristics to consider for implementing LV back-up generator:
b Sensitivity of loads to power interruption,
b Availability of the public distribution network,
b Other constraints (e.g.: generators compulsory in hospitals or high-vise buildings)
The presence of generators can be decided to reduce the energy bill or due to the
opportunity for co-generation. These two aspects are not taken into account in this
guide.
The presence of a back-up generator is essential if the loads cannot be shed for
an indeinite duration (long interruption only acceptable) or if the utility network
availability is low.
Determining the number of back-up generator units is in line with the same criteria
as determining the number of transformers, as well as taking account of economic
and availability considerations (redundancy, start-up reliability, maintenance facility).
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
7 Choice of architecture details
7.3 Presence of an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
The electrical power from a UPS is supplied from a storage unit: batteries or inertia
wheel. This system allows us to avoid any power failure. The back-up time of the
system is limited: from several minutes to several hours.
The simultaneous presence of a back-up generator and a UPS unit is used for
permanently supply loads for which no failure is acceptable (Fig. D17). The back-up
time of the battery or the inertia wheel must be compatible with the maximum time
for the generator to start up and be brought on-line.
A UPS unit is also used for supply power to loads that are sensitive to disturbances
(generating a “clean” voltage that is independent of the network).
D22
Main characteristics to be considered for implementing a UPS:
b Sensitivity of loads to power interruptions,
b Sensitivity of loads to disturbances.
The presence of a UPS unit is essential if and only if no failure is acceptable.
G
LV Switchboard
Normal
By-pass
Non-critical
circuit
MLVS
ASI
Fig. D18 : Radial single feeder configuration
Critical
circuit
Fig. D17 : Example of connection for a UPS
7.4 Configuration of LV circuits
MLVS
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. D19 : Two-pole configuration
MLVS
NO
Fig. D20 : Two-pole configuration with two ½ MLVS and NO link
Main possible conigurations (see figures D18 to D25):
b Radial single feeder configuration: This is the reference coniguration and
the most simple. A load is connected to only one single source. This coniguration
provides a minimum level of availability, since there is no redundancy in case of
power source failure.
b Two-pole configuration: The power supply is provided by 2 transformers,
connected to the same MV line. When the transformers are close, they are generally
connected in parallel to the same MLVS.
b Variant: two-pole with two ½ MLVS: In order to increase the availability in case
of failure of the busbars or authorize maintenance on one of the transformers,
it is possible to split the MLVS into 2 parts, with a normally open link (NO). This
coniguration generally requires an Automatic Transfer Switch, (ATS).
b Shedable switchboard (simple disconnectable attachment): A series of
shedable circuits can be connected to a dedicated switchboard. The connection to
the MLVS is interrupted when needed (overload, generator operation, etc)
b Interconnected switchboards: If transformers are physically distant from one
another, they may be connected by a busbar trunking. A critical load can be supplied
by one or other of the transformers. The availability of power is therefore improved,
since the load can always be supplied in the case of failure of one of the sources.
The redundancy can be:
v Total: each transformer being capable of supplying all of the installation,
v Partial: each transformer only being able to supply part of the installation. In this
case, part of the loads must be disconnected (load-shedding) in the case of one of
the transformers failing.
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
MLVS
LV swichboard
b Ring configuration: This coniguration can be considered as an extension of the
coniguration with interconnection between switchboards. Typically, 4 transformers
connected to the same MV line, supply a ring using busbar trunking. A given load
is then supplied power by several clustered transformers. This coniguration is well
suited to extended installations, with a high load density (in kVA/m²). If all of the loads
can be supplied by 3 transformers, there is total redundancy in the case of failure
of one of the transformers. In fact, each busbar can be fed power by one or other
of its ends. Otherwise, downgraded operation must be considered (with partial load
shedding). This coniguration requires special design of the protection plan in order
to ensure discrimination in all of the fault circumstances.
D23
b Double-ended power supply: This coniguration is implemented in cases where
maximum availability is required. The principle involves having 2 independent power
sources, e.g.:
v 2 transformers supplied by different MV lines,
v 1 transformer and 1 generator,
v 1 transformer and 1 UPS.
An automatic transfer switch (ATS) is used to avoid the sources being parallel
connected. This coniguration allows preventive and curative maintenance to be
carried out on all of the electrical distribution system upstream without interrupting
the power supply.
Fig. D21 : Shedable switchboard
MLVS
7 Choice of architecture details
MLVS
b Configuration combinations: An installation can be made up of several subasssemblies with different conigurations, according to requirements for the
availability of the different types of load. E.g.: generator unit and UPS, choice by
sectors (some sectors supplied by cables and others by busbar trunking).
Busbar
or
G or
UPS
Fig. D22 : Interconnected switchboards
MLVS
MLVS
Fig. D24 : Double-ended configuration with automatic transfer switch
Busbar
1
Busbar
2
3
G
Busbar
Busbar
MLVS
MLVS
Busbar
Fig. D23 : Ring configuration
MLVS
Fig. D25 : Example of a configuration combination
1: Single feeder, 2: Switchboard interconnection, 3: Double-ended
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
MLVS
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
7 Choice of architecture details
For the different possible conigurations, the most probable and usual set of
characteristics is given in the following table:
Coniguration
Radial
Two-pole
Sheddable load
Interconnected
switchboards
Ring
Double-ended
Site topology
Any
Any
Any
1 level
5 to 25000m²
1 level
5 to 25000m²
Any
Location latitude
Any
Any
Any
Medium of high
Medium or high
Any
Maintainability
Minimal
Standard
Minimal
Standard
Standard
Enhanced
Power demand
< 2500kVA
Any
Any
≥ 1250kVA
> 2500kVA
Any
Load distribution
Localized loads
Localized loads
Localized load
Intermediate or
uniforme distribution
Uniform distribution
Localized loads
Interruptions sensitivity
Long
interruption
acceptable
Long
interruption
acceptable
Sheddable
Long
interruption
acceptable
Long
interruption
acceptable
Short or no
interruption
Disturbances sensitivity
Low sensitivity
High sensitivity
Low sensitivity
High sensitivity
High sensitivity
High sensitivity
Other constraints
/
/
/
/
/
Double-ended
loads
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
D24
Characteristic to be
considered
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
8 Choice of equipment
The choice of equipment is step 3 in the design of an electrical installation. The aim
of this step is to select equipment from the manufacturers’ catalogues. The choice of
technological solutions results from the choice of architecture.
List of equipment to consider:
b MV/LV substation,
b MV switchboards,
b Transformers,
b LV switchboards,
b Busbar trunking,
b UPS units,
b Power factor correction and iltering equipment.
D25
Criteria to consider:
b Atmosphere, environment,
b Service index,
b Offer availability per country,
b Utilities requirements,
b Previous architecture choices.
The choice of equipment is basically linked to the offer availability in the country. This
criterion takes into account the availability of certain ranges of equipment or local
technical support.
The detailed selection of equipment is out of the scope of this document.
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
9 Recommendations for
architecture optimization
These recommendations are intended to guide the designer towards architecture
upgrades which allow him to improve assessment criteria.
9.1 On-site work
D26
To be compatible with the “special” or “critical” work-site time, it is recommended to
limit uncertainties by applying the following recommendations:
b Use of proven solutions and equipment that has been validated and tested by
manufacturers (“functional” switchboard or “manufacturer” switchboard according to
the application criticality),
b Prefer the implementation of equipment for which there is a reliable distribution
network and for which it is possible to have local support (supplier well established),
b Prefer the use of factory-built equipment (MV/LV substation, busbar trunking),
allowing the volume of operations on site to be limited,
b Limit the variety of equipment implemented (e.g. the power of transformers),
b Avoid mixing equipment from different manufacturers.
9.2 Environmental impact
The optimization of the environmental assessment of an installation will involve
reducing:
b Power losses at full load and no load during installation operation,
b Overall, the mass of materials used to produce the installation.
Taken separately and when looking at only one piece of equipment, these 2
objectives may seem contradictory. However, when applied to whole installation, it
is possible to design the architecture to contribute to both objectives. The optimal
installation will therefore not be the sum of the optimal equipment taken separately,
but the result of an optimization of the overall installation.
Figure D26 gives an example of the contribution per equipment category to the
weight and energy dissipation for a 3500 kVA installation spread over 10000m².
LV switchboard
and switchgear
LV switchboard
and switchgear
5%
10 %
LV cables
and trunking
LV cables
and trunking
75 %
46 %
Transformers
Transformers
20 %
44 %
Total loss for equipment considered: 414 MWh Total mass of equipment considered: 18,900 kg
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. D26 : Example of the spread of losses and the weight of material for each equipment category
Generally speaking, LV cables and trunking as well as the MV/LV transformers are
the main contributors to operating losses and the weight of equipment used.
Environmental optimization of the installation by the architecture will therefore
involve:
b reducing the length of LV circuits in the installation,
b clustering LV circuits wherever possible to take advantage of the factor of
simultaneity ks (see chapter A: General rules of electrical installation design, Chapter
– Power loading of an installation, 4.3 “Estimation of actual maximum kVA demand”)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
9 Recommendations for
architecture optimization
Objectives
Resources
Reducing the length of LV
circuits
Placing MV/LV substations as close as possible to the barycenter
of all of the LV loads to be supplied
Clustering LV circuits
When the simultaneity factor of a group of loads to be supplied
is less than 0.7, the clustering of circuits allows us to limit the
volume of conductors supplying power to these loads.
In real terms this involves:
b setting up sub-distribution switchboards as close as possible to
the barycenter of the groups of loads if they are localized,
b setting up busbar trunking systems as close as possible to the
barycenter of the groups of loads if they are distributed.
The search for an optimal solution may lead to consider several
clustering scenarios.
In all cases, reducing the distance between the barycenter of
a group of loads and the equipment that supplies them power
allows to reduce environmental impact.
D27
Fig. D27 : Environmental optimization : Objectives and Ressources.
As an example figure D28 shows the impact of clustering circuits on reducing
the distance between the barycenter of the loads of an installation and that of the
sources considered (MLVS whose position is imposed). This example concerns a
mineral water bottling plant for which:
b the position of electrical equipment (MLVS) is imposed in the premises outside of
the process area for reasons of accessibility and atmosphere constraints,
b the installed power is around 4 MVA.
In solution No.1, the circuits are distributed for each workshop.
In solution No. 2, the circuits are distributed by process functions (production lines).
Solution
Barycenter position
Workshop 1
N°1
Workshop 2
Workshop 3
Storage
MLVS area
Workshop 1
Barycenter
N°2
Workshop 2
Barycenter
Workshop 1
Workshop 2
Workshop 3
Barycenter
Workshop 3
Storage
Barycenter
line 1
Barycenter
line 2
Barycenter
line 3
Barycenter
line 3
Fig. D28 : Example of barycenter positioning
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
MLVS area
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
9 Recommendations for
architecture optimization
Without changing the layout of electrical equipment, the second solution allows us
to achieve gains of around 15% on the weight of LV cables to be installed (gain on
lengths) and a better uniformity of transformer power.
To supplement the optimizations carried out in terms of architecture, the following
points also contribute to the optimization:
D28
b the setting up of LV power factor correction to limit losses in the transformers and
LV circuits if this compensation is distributed,
b the use of low loss transformers,
b the use of aluminum LV busbar trunking when possible, since natural resources of
this metal are greater.
9.3 Preventive maintenance volume
Recommendations for reducing the volume of preventive maintenance:
b Use the same recommendations as for reducing the work site time,
b Focus maintenance work on critical circuits,
b Standardize the choice of equipment,
b Use equipment designed for severe atmospheres (requires less maintenance).
9.4 Electrical power availability
Recommendations for improving the electrical power availability:
b Reduce the number of feeders per switchboard, in order to limit the effects of a
possible failure of a switchboard,
b Distributing circuits according to availability requirements,
b Using equipment that is in line with requirements (see Service Index, 4.2),
b Follow the selection guides proposed for steps 1 & 2 (see Fig. D3 page D5).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Recommendations to increase the level of availability:
b Change from a radial single feeder coniguration to a two-pole coniguration,
b Change from a two-pole coniguration to a double-ended coniguration,
b Change from a double-ended coniguration to a uninterruptible coniguration with a
UPS unit and a Static Transfer Switch
b Increase the level of maintenance (reducing the MTTR, increasing the MTBF)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
10 Glossary
Architecture: choice of a single-line diagram and technological solutions, from
connection to the utility network through to load power supply circuits.
Main MV/LV distribution: Level upstream of the architecture, from connection
to the network utility through to LV distribution equipment on the site (MLVS – or
equivalent).
MLVS – Main Low Voltage Switchboard: Main switchboard downstream of the
MV/LV transformer, starting point of power distribution circuits in the installation
LV power distribution: intermediate level in the architecture, downstream of the
main level through to the sub-distribution switchboards (spatial and functional
distribution of electrical power in the circuits).
D29
LV terminal distribution: Downstream level of the architecture, downstream of the
sub-distribution switchboards through to the loads. This level of distribution is not
dealt with in this guide.
Single-line diagram: general electrical schematic diagram to represent the main
electrical equipment and their interconnection.
MV substation, transformation substation: Enclosures grouping together MV
equipment and/or MV/LV transformers. These enclosures can be shared or separate,
according to the site layout, or the equipment technology. In certain countries, the
MV substation is assimilated with the delivery substation.
Technological solution: Resulting from the choice of technology for an installation
sub-assembly, from among the different products and equipment proposed by the
manufacturer.
Characteristics: Technical or environmental data relative to the installation, enabling
the best-suited architecture to be selected.
Criteria: Parameters for assessing the installation, enabling selection of the
architecture that is the best-suited to the needs of the customer.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
11 ID-Spec software
ID-Spec is a new software which aims at helping the designer to be more productive
in draft design phase and argue easily his design decisions.
It supports the designer in selecting the relevant single line diagram patterns for main
distribution and sub distribution and in adapting these patterns to his project. It also
supports the designer in equipment technology and rating selection. Its generates
automatically the corresponding design speciication documentation including single
line diagram and its argument, list and speciication of the corresponding equipment.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
D30
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
12 Example: electrical installation
in a printworks
12.1 Brief description
Printing of personalized mailshots intended for mail order sales.
12.2 Installation characteristics
Characteristic
Category
Activity
Mechanical
Site topology
single storey building,
10000m² (8000m² dedicated to the process, 2000m² for
ancillary areas)
Layout latitude
High
Service reliability
Standard
Maintainability
Standard
Installation lexibility
b No lexibility planned:
v HVAC
v Process utilities
v Ofice power supply
b Possible lexibility:
v inishing, putting in envelopes
v special machines, installed at a later date
v rotary machines (uncertainty at the draft design stage)
Power demand
3500kVA
Load distribution
Intermediate distribution
Power interruptions sensitivity
b Sheddable circuits:
v ofices (apart from PC power sockets)
v air conditioning, ofice heating
v social premises
v maintenance premises
b long interruptions acceptable:
v printing machines
v workshop HVAC (hygrometric control)
v Finishing, envelope illing
v Process utilities (compressor, recycling of cooled water)
b No interruptions acceptable:
v servers, ofice PCs
Disturbance sensitivity
b Average sensitivity:
v motors, lighting
b High sensitivity:
v IT
D31
No special precaution to be taken due to the connection to
the EdF network (low level of disturbance)
Disturbance capability
Non disturbing
Other constraints
b Building with lightning classiication: lightning surge
arresters installed
b Power supply by overhead single feeder line
12.3 Technological characteristics
Criteria
Category
Atmosphere, environment
b IP: standard (no dust, no water protection)
b IK: standard (use of technical pits, dedicated premises)
b °C: standard (temperature regulation)
Service index
211
Offer availability by country
No problem (project carried out in France)
Other criteria
Nothing particular
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D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
12 Example: electrical installation
in a printworks
12.4 Architecture assessment criteria
D32
Criteria
Category
On-site work time
Secondary
Environmental impact
Minimal: compliance with European standard regulations
Preventive maintenance costs
Standard
Power supply availability
Level I
Step 1: Architecture fundamentals
Choice
Main criteria
Solution
Connection to upstream
network
Isolated site
single branch circuit
MV Circuits
Layout + criticality
single feeder
Number of transformers
Power > 2500kVA
2 x 2000kVA
Number and distribution of
substations
Surface area and power
distribution
2 possible solutions: 1
substation or 2 substations
b if 1 substations: NO link
between MLVS
b if 2 substations:
interconnected switchboards
MV Generator
Site activity
No
MV
MV
MV
MV
LV
LV
LV
LV
MLVS 1
MLVS 2
MLVS 1
MLVS 2
Trunking
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. D29 : Two possible single-line diagrams
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
12 Example: electrical installation
in a printworks
Step 2: Architecture details
“1 substation” solution
Choice
Main criteria
Solution
Layout
Atmospheric constraint
Dedicated premises
Centralized or decentralized
layout
Uniform loads, distributed
power, scalability possibilities
b Decentralized with busbar
trunking:
v inishing sector, envelope
illing
b Centralized with cables:
v special machines,
rotary machines, HVAC,
process utilities, ofices
(2 switchboards), ofice air
conditioning, social premises,
maintenance
Non-uniform loads, direct link
from MLVS
Presence of back-up
generator
Criticality ≤ low
Network availability: standard
Presence of UPS
Criticality
UPS unit for servers and ofice
PCs
LV circuit coniguration
2 transformers, possible
partial redundancy
b Two-pole, variant 2 ½ MLVS
+ NO link (reduction of the Isc
by MLVS, no redundancy
b process (≤ weak)
b sheddable circuit for noncritical loads
No back-up generator
MV
MV
LV
LV
MLVS 1
D33
MLVS 2
Trunking
ASI
HVAC
Sheddable
Offices
Machines
Fig. D30 : Detailed single-line diagram (1 substation)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
D - MV & LV architecture selection guide
12 Example: electrical installation
in a printworks
12.5 Choice of technological solutions:
D34
Choice
Main criteria
Solution
MV/LV substation
Atmosphere, environment
indoor (dedicated premises)
MV switchboard
Offer availability by country
SM6 (installation produced in
France)
Transformers
Atmosphere, environment
cast resin transfo (avoids
constraints related to oil)
LV switchboard
Atmosphere, IS
MLVS: Prisma + P
Sub-distribution: Prisma +
Busbar trunking
Installed power to be
supplied
Canalis KS
UPS units
Installed power to be
supplied, back-up time
Galaxy PW
Power factor correction
Installed power, presence of
harmonics
LV, standard, automatic
(Average Q, ease of
installation)
“2 substation” solution
Ditto apart from:
LV circuit: 2 remote MLVS connected via busbar trunking
MV
MV
LV
LV
MLVS 1
MLVS 2
Trunking
Trunking
HVAC
Sheddable
ASI
Offices
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. D31 : Detailed single-line diagram (2 substations)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Machines
Chapter E
LV Distribution
Contents
1
Earthing schemes
E2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
E2
E3
E6
E8
E10
E11
2
The installation system
E15
2.1 Distribution boards
2.2 Cables and busways
E15
E18
3
External influences (IEC 60364-5-51)
E25
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
E25
E25
E25
E28
Earthing connections
Definition of standardised earthing schemes
Characteristics of TT, TN and IT systems
Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems
Choice of earthing method - implementation
Installation and measurements of earth electrodes
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Definition and reference standards
Classification
List of external influences
Protection provided for enclosed equipment: codes IP and IK
E1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
In a building, the connection of all metal parts
of the building and all exposed conductive parts
of electrical equipment to an earth electrode
prevents the appearance of dangerously high
voltages between any two simultaneously
accessible metal parts
E2
Extraneous
conductive
parts
4
3
3
Main
protective
conductor
Heating
Definitions
National and international standards (IEC 60364) clearly define the various elements
of earthing connections. The following terms are commonly used in industry and in
the literature. Bracketed numbers refer to Figure E1 :
b Earth electrode (1): A conductor or group of conductors in intimate contact with,
and providing an electrical connection with Earth (cf details in section 1.6 of Chapter E.)
b Earth: The conductive mass of the Earth, whose electric potential at any point is
conventionally taken as zero
b Electrically independent earth electrodes: Earth electrodes located at such a
distance from one another that the maximum current likely to flow through one of
them does not significantly affect the potential of the other(s)
b Earth electrode resistance: The contact resistance of an earth electrode with the
Earth
b Earthing conductor (2): A protective conductor connecting the main earthing
terminal (6) of an installation to an earth electrode (1) or to other means of earthing
(e.g. TN systems);
b Exposed-conductive-part: A conductive part of equipment which can be touched
and which is not a live part, but which may become live under fault conditions
b Protective conductor (3): A conductor used for some measures of protection against
electric shock and intended for connecting together any of the following parts:
v Exposed-conductive-parts
v Extraneous-conductive-parts
v The main earthing terminal
v Earth electrode(s)
v The earthed point of the source or an artificial neutral
b Extraneous-conductive-part: A conductive part liable to introduce a potential,
generally earth potential, and not forming part of the electrical installation (4).
For example:
v Non-insulated floors or walls, metal framework of buildings
v Metal conduits and pipework (not part of the electrical installation) for water, gas,
heating, compressed-air, etc. and metal materials associated with them
b Bonding conductor (5): A protective conductor providing equipotential bonding
b Main earthing terminal (6): The terminal or bar provided for the connection of
protective conductors, including equipotential bonding conductors, and conductors
for functional earthing, if any, to the means of earthing.
Connections
5
Water
4
3
Branched
protective
conductors
to individual
consumers
1.1 Earthing connections
The main equipotential bonding system
The bonding is carried out by protective conductors and the aim is to ensure that,
in the event of an incoming extraneous conductor (such as a gas pipe, etc.) being
raised to some potential due to a fault external to the building, no difference of
potential can occur between extraneous-conductive-parts within the installation.
The bonding must be effected as close as possible to the point(s) of entry into the
building, and be connected to the main earthing terminal (6).
However, connections to earth of metallic sheaths of communications cables require
the authorisation of the owners of the cables.
5
Gas 5
6
7
Supplementary equipotential connections
These connections are intended to connect all exposed-conductive-parts and all
extraneous-conductive-parts simultaneously accessible, when correct conditions
for protection have not been met, i.e. the original bonding conductors present an
unacceptably high resistance.
2
1
Connection of exposed-conductive-parts to the earth electrode(s)
The connection is made by protective conductors with the object of providing a lowresistance path for fault currents flowing to earth.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. E1 : An example of a block of flats in which the main
earthing terminal (6) provides the main equipotential connection;
the removable link (7) allows an earth-electrode-resistance
check
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
Components (see Fig. E2)
Effective connection of all accessible metal fixtures and all exposed-conductive-parts
of electrical appliances and equipment, is essential for effective protection against
electric shocks.
Component parts to consider:
as exposed-conductive-parts
Cableways
b Conduits
b Impregnated-paper-insulated lead-covered
cable, armoured or unarmoured
b Mineral insulated metal-sheathed cable
(pyrotenax, etc.)
Switchgear
b cradle of withdrawable switchgear
Appliances
b Exposed metal parts of class 1 insulated
appliances
Non-electrical elements
b metallic fittings associated with cableways
(cable trays, cable ladders, etc.)
b Metal objects:
v Close to aerial conductors or to busbars
v In contact with electrical equipment.
Component parts not to be considered:
as exposed-conductive-parts
Diverse service channels, ducts, etc.
b Conduits made of insulating material
b Mouldings in wood or other insulating
material
b Conductors and cables without metallic sheaths
Switchgear
b Enclosures made of insulating material
Appliances
b All appliances having class II insulation
regardless of the type of exterior envelope
as extraneous-conductive-parts
Elements used in building construction
b Metal or reinforced concrete (RC):
v Steel-framed structure
v Reinforcement rods
v Prefabricated RC panels
b Surface finishes:
v Floors and walls in reinforced concrete
without further surface treatment
v Tiled surface
b Metallic covering:
v Metallic wall covering
E3
Building services elements other than electrical
b Metal pipes, conduits, trunking, etc. for gas,
water and heating systems, etc.
b Related metal components (furnaces, tanks,
reservoirs, radiators)
b Metallic fittings in wash rooms, bathrooms,
toilets, etc.
b Metallised papers
as extraneous-conductive-parts
b Wooden-block floors
b Rubber-covered or linoleum-covered floors
b Dry plaster-block partition
b Brick walls
b Carpets and wall-to-wall carpeting
Fig. E2 : List of exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts
1.2 Definition of standardised earthing schemes
The choice of these methods governs the measures necessary for protection against
indirect-contact hazards.
The earthing system qualifies three originally independent choices made by the
designer of an electrical distribution system or installation:
b The type of connection of the electrical system (that is generally of the neutral
conductor) and of the exposed parts to earth electrode(s)
b A separate protective conductor or protective conductor and neutral conductor
being a single conductor
b The use of earth fault protection of overcurrent protective switchgear which clear
only relatively high fault currents or the use of additional relays able to detect and
clear small insulation fault currents to earth
In practice, these choices have been grouped and standardised as explained below.
Each of these choices provides standardised earthing systems with three
advantages and drawbacks:
b Connection of the exposed conductive parts of the equipment and of the neutral
conductor to the PE conductor results in equipotentiality and lower overvoltages but
increases earth fault currents
b A separate protective conductor is costly even if it has a small cross-sectional area
but it is much more unlikely to be polluted by voltage drops and harmonics, etc. than a
neutral conductor is. Leakage currents are also avoided in extraneous conductive parts
b Installation of residual current protective relays or insulation monitoring devices are
much more sensitive and permits in many circumstances to clear faults before heavy
damage occurs (motors, fires, electrocution). The protection offered is in addition
independent with respect to changes in an existing installation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The different earthing schemes (often referred
to as the type of power system or system
earthing arrangements) described characterise
the method of earthing the installation
downstream of the secondary winding of a
MV/LV transformer and the means used for
earthing the exposed conductive-parts of the
LV installation supplied from it
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
Neutral
Exposed conductive parts
Earth
Earth
1 Earthing schemes
TT system (earthed neutral) (see Fig. E3)
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
One point at the supply source is connected directly to earth. All exposed- and
extraneous-conductive-parts are connected to a separate earth electrode at the
installation. This electrode may or may not be electrically independent of the source
electrode. The two zones of influence may overlap without affecting the operation of
protective devices.
TN systems (exposed conductive parts connected to the
neutral)
The source is earthed as for the TT system (above). In the installation, all exposedand extraneous-conductive-parts are connected to the neutral conductor. The several
versions of TN systems are shown below.
Rn
E4
Fig. E3 : TT System
Neutral
Exposed conductive parts
Earth
Neutral
L1
L2
L3
PEN
Rn
Fig. E4 : TN-C system
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
TN-C system (see Fig. E4)
The neutral conductor is also used as a protective conductor and is referred to as
a PEN (Protective Earth and Neutral) conductor. This system is not permitted for
conductors of less than 10 mm2 or for portable equipment.
The TN-C system requires an effective equipotential environment within the
installation with dispersed earth electrodes spaced as regularly as possible since
the PEN conductor is both the neutral conductor and at the same time carries phase
unbalance currents as well as 3rd order harmonic currents (and their multiples).
The PEN conductor must therefore be connected to a number of earth electrodes in
the installation.
Caution: In the TN-C system, the “protective conductor” function has priority over
the “neutral function”. In particular, a PEN conductor must always be connected to
the earthing terminal of a load and a jumper is used to connect this terminal to the
neutral terminal.
TN-S system (see Fig. E5)
The TN-S system (5 wires) is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less
than 10 mm2 for portable equipment.
The protective conductor and the neutral conductor are separate. On underground
cable systems where lead-sheathed cables exist, the protective conductor is
generally the lead sheath. The use of separate PE and N conductors (5 wires)
is obligatory for circuits with cross-sectional areas less than 10 mm2 for portable
equipment.
TN-C-S system (see Fig. E6 below and Fig. E7 next page)
The TN-C and TN-S systems can be used in the same installation. In the TN-C-S
system, the TN-C (4 wires) system must never be used downstream of the TN-S
(5 wires) system, since any accidental interruption in the neutral on the upstream
part would lead to an interruption in the protective conductor in the downstream part
and therefore a danger.
Rn
Fig. E5 : TN-S system
5 x 50 mm2
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
PEN
PE
16 mm2
6 mm2
16 mm2
16 mm2
PEN
Bad
Bad
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
TN-C scheme not permitted
downstream of TN-S scheme
Fig. E6 : TN-C-S system
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
4 x 95 mm2
L1
L2
L3
PEN
16 mm2
10 mm2
6 mm2
6 mm2
PEN
PEN
N
Correct
Incorrect
Correct
PEN connected to the neutral
terminal is prohibited
Neutral
Exposed conductive parts
Isolated or
impedance-earthed
Earth
IT system (isolated or impedance-earthed neutral)
Fig. E8 : IT system (isolated neutral)
MV/LV
R1
C2
E5
Fig. E7 : Connection of the PEN conductor in the TN-C system
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
C1
Incorrect
S < 10 mm 2
TNC prohibited
R2
R3
C3
IT system (isolated neutral)
No intentional connection is made between the neutral point of the supply source
and earth (see Fig. E8).
Exposed- and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are connected to an
earth electrode.
In practice all circuits have a leakage impedance to earth, since no insulation
is perfect. In parallel with this (distributed) resistive leakage path, there is the
distributed capacitive current path, the two paths together constituting the normal
leakage impedance to earth (see Fig. E9).
Example (see Fig. E10)
In a LV 3-phase 3-wire system, 1 km of cable will have a leakage impedance due to
C1, C2, C3 and R1, R2 and R3 equivalent to a neutral earth impedance Zct of 3,000
to 4,000 Ω, without counting the filtering capacitances of electronic devices.
IT system (impedance-earthed neutral)
An impedance Zs (in the order of 1,000 to 2,000 Ω) is connected permanently
between the neutral point of the transformer LV winding and earth (see Fig. E11).
All exposed- and extraneous-conductive-parts are connected to an earth electrode.
The reasons for this form of power-source earthing are to fix the potential of a small
network with respect to earth (Zs is small compared to the leakage impedance) and to
reduce the level of overvoltages, such as transmitted surges from the MV windings,
static charges, etc. with respect to earth. It has, however, the effect of slightly
increasing the first-fault current level.
Fig. E9 : IT system (isolated neutral)
MV/LV
MV/LV
Zct
Fig. E10 : Impedance equivalent to leakage impedances in an
IT system
Fig. E11 : IT system (impedance-earthed neutral)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Zs
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
1.3 Characteristics of TT, TN and IT systems
TT system (see Fig. E12)
The TT system:
b Technique for the protection of persons: the
exposed conductive parts are earthed and
residual current devices (RCDs) are used
b Operating technique: interruption for the first
insulation fault
E6
Fig. E12 : TT system
Note: If the exposed conductive parts are earthed at a number of points, an RCD
must be installed for each set of circuits connected to a given earth electrode.
Main characteristics
b Simplest solution to design and install. Used in installations supplied directly by the
public LV distribution network.
b Does not require continuous monitoring during operation (a periodic check on the
RCDs may be necessary).
b Protection is ensured by special devices, the residual current devices (RCD), which
also prevent the risk of fire when they are set to y 500 mA.
b Each insulation fault results in an interruption in the supply of power, however the
outage is limited to the faulty circuit by installing the RCDs in series (selective RCDs)
or in parallel (circuit selection).
b Loads or parts of the installation which, during normal operation, cause high leakage
currents, require special measures to avoid nuisance tripping, i.e. supply the loads
with a separation transformer or use specific RCDs (see section 5.1 in chapter F).
The TN system:
TN system (see Fig. E13 and Fig. E14 )
b Technique for the protection of persons:
v Interconnection and earthing of exposed
conductive parts and the neutral are mandatory
v Interruption for the first fault using overcurrent
protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
b Operating technique: interruption for the first
insulation fault
PEN
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. E13 : TN-C system
N
PE
Fig. E14 : TN-S system
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
Main characteristics
b Generally speaking, the TN system:
v requires the installation of earth electrodes at regular intervals throughout the
installation
v Requires that the initial check on effective tripping for the first insulation fault
be carried out by calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory
measurements to confirm tripping during commissioning
v Requires that any modification or extension be designed and carried out by a
qualified electrician
v May result, in the case of insulation faults, in greater damage to the windings of
rotating machines
v May, on premises with a risk of fire, represent a greater danger due to the higher
fault currents
E7
b In addition, the TN-C system:
v At first glance, would appear to be less expensive (elimination of a device pole and
of a conductor)
v Requires the use of fixed and rigid conductors
v Is forbidden in certain cases:
- Premises with a risk of fire
- For computer equipment (presence of harmonic currents in the neutral)
b In addition, the TN-S system:
v May be used even with flexible conductors and small conduits
v Due to the separation of the neutral and the protection conductor, provides a clean
PE (computer systems and premises with special risks)
IT system (see Fig. E15)
IT system:
b Protection technique:
v Interconnection and earthing of exposed
conductive parts
v Indication of the first fault by an insulation
monitoring device (IMD)
v Interruption for the second fault using
overcurrent protection (circuit-breakers or fuses)
Cardew
IMD
Fig. E15 : IT system
Main characteristics
b Solution offering the best continuity of service during operation
b Indication of the first insulation fault, followed by mandatory location and clearing,
ensures systematic prevention of supply outages
b Generally used in installations supplied by a private MV/LV or LV/LV transformer
b Requires maintenance personnel for monitoring and operation
b Requires a high level of insulation in the network (implies breaking up the network
if it is very large and the use of circuit-separation transformers to supply loads with
high leakage currents)
b The check on effective tripping for two simultaneous faults must be carried out by
calculations during the design stage, followed by mandatory measurements during
commissioning on each group of interconnected exposed conductive parts
b Protection of the neutral conductor must be ensured as indicated in section 7.2 of
Chapter G
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b Operating technique:
v Monitoring of the first insulation fault
v Mandatory location and clearing of the fault
v Interruption for two simultaneous insulation
faults
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
Selection does not depend on safety criteria.
The three systems are equivalent in terms
of protection of persons if all installation and
operating rules are correctly followed.
The selection criteria for the best system(s)
depend on the regulatory requirements,
the required continuity of service, operating
conditions and the types of network and loads.
E8
1.4 Selection criteria for the TT, TN and IT systems
In terms of the protection of persons, the three system earthing arrangements
(SEA) are equivalent if all installation and operating rules are correctly followed.
Consequently, selection does not depend on safety criteria.
It is by combining all requirements in terms of regulations, continuity of service,
operating conditions and the types of network and loads that it is possible to
determine the best system(s) (see Fig. E16).
Selection is determined by the following factors:
b Above all, the applicable regulations which in some cases impose certain types of
SEA
b Secondly, the decision of the owner if supply is via a private MV/LV transformer
(MV subscription) or the owner has a private energy source (or a separate-winding
transformer)
If the owner effectively has a choice, the decision on the SEA is taken following
discussions with the network designer (design office, contractor)
The discussions must cover:
b First of all, the operating requirements (the required level of continuity of service)
and the operating conditions (maintenance ensured by electrical personnel or not,
in-house personnel or outsourced, etc.)
b Secondly, the particular characteristics of the network and the loads
(see Fig. E17 next page)
TT
TN-S
TN-C
IT1
IT2
Comments
Electrical characteristics
Fault current
Fault voltage
-
--
--
+
+
--
Touch voltage
+/- -
-
-
+
-
Only the IT system offers virtually negligible first-fault currents
In the IT system, the touch voltage is very low for the first fault,
but is considerable for the second
In the TT system, the touch voltage is very low if system is
equipotential, otherwise it is high
Protection
Protection of persons against indirect contact
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
Not
+
allowed
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
+
+
+
-
-
+
-
+
-
-
+
+
+
-
Only the IT system avoids tripping for the first insulation fault
The TN-S, TNC and IT (2nd fault) systems generate high fault
currents which may cause phase voltage dips
Installation
Special devices
-
+
+
-
-
Number of earth electrodes
-
+
+
-/+
-/+
Number of cables
-
-
+
-
-
The TT system requires the use of RCDs. The IT system requires
the use of IMDs
The TT system requires two distinct earth electrodes. The IT system
offers a choice between one or two earth electrodes
Only the TN-C system offers, in certain cases, a reduction in
the number of cables
Maintenance
Cost of repairs
-
--
--
-
--
Installation damage
+
-
-
++
-
Protection of persons with emergency
generating sets
Protection against fire (with an RCD)
Overvoltages
Continuous overvoltage
Transient overvoltage
Overvoltage if transformer breakdown
(primary/secondary)
Electromagnetic compatibility
Immunity to nearby lightning strikes
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Immunity to lightning strikes on MV lines
Continuous emission of an
electromagnetic field
Transient non-equipotentiality of the PE
Continuity of service
Interruption for first fault
Voltage dip during insulation fault
All SEAs (system earthing arrangement) are equivalent,
if the rules are followed
Systems where protection is ensured by RCDs are not sensitive
to a change in the internal impedance of the source
All SEAs in which RCDs can be used are equivalent.
The TN-C system is forbidden on premises where there is a risk of fire
A phase-to-earth overvoltage is continuous in the IT system
if there is a first insulation fault
Systems with high fault currents may cause transient overvoltages
In the TT system, there is a voltage imbalance between
the different earth electrodes. The other systems are interconnected
to a single earth electrode
In the TT system, there may be voltage imbalances between
the earth electrodes. In the TT system, there is a significant current
loop between the two separate earth electrodes
All SEAs are equivalent when a MV line takes a direct lightning strike
Connection of the PEN to the metal structures of the building is
conducive to the continuous generation of electromagnetic fields
The PE is no longer equipotential if there is a high fault current
The cost of repairs depends on the damage caused by
the amplitude of the fault currents
Systems causing high fault currents require a check on
the installation after clearing the fault
Fig. E16 : Comparison of system earthing arrangements
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E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
Type of network
Very large network with high-quality earth electrodes
for exposed conductive parts (10 Ω max.)
Very large network with low-quality earth electrodes
for exposed conductive parts (> 30 Ω)
Disturbed area (storms)
(e.g. television or radio transmitter)
Network with high leakage currents (> 500 mA)
Network with outdoor overhead lines
Emergency standby generator set
Advised
TN
Possible
TT, TN, IT (1)
or mixed
TN-S
Not advised
TN
TT
IT (1)
TN-C
IT (2)
TN (4)
TT (5)
IT (4)
TT (3) (4)
TN (5) (6)
IT (6)
IT
TT
TN (7)
E9
Type of loads
Loads sensitive to high fault currents (motors, etc.)
IT
TT
TN (8)
Loads with a low insulation level (electric furnaces,
welding machines, heating elements, immersion heaters,
equipment in large kitchens)
Numerous phase-neutral single-phase loads
(mobile, semi-fixed, portable)
Loads with sizeable risks (hoists, conveyers, etc.)
TN (9)
TT (9)
IT
TT (11)
IT (10)
TN-C (10)
IT (11)
Numerous auxiliaries (machine tools)
TN-S
TN-C
IT (12 bis)
TT (12)
Miscellaneous
Supply via star-star connected power transformer (13)
TT
Premises with risk of fire
IT (15)
IT
without neutral
TN-S (15)
TT (15)
IT (13)
with neutral
TN-C (14)
LV
TT (16)
MV/LV
TT (17)
Installation where the continuity of earth circuits is uncertain
(work sites, old installations)
Electronic equipment (computers, PLCs)
Machine control-monitoring network, PLC sensors and actuators
TT (19)
TN-S
TN-S
IT (20)
TT
TN-S, TT
TN (18)
IT (18)
TN-C
IT (19)
TN-C
(1) When the SEA is not imposed by regulations, it is selected according to the level of operating characteristics (continuity of service that is
mandatory for safety reasons or desired to enhance productivity, etc.)
Whatever the SEA, the probability of an insulation failure increases with the length of the network. It may be a good idea to break up the
network, which facilitates fault location and makes it possible to implement the system advised above for each type of application.
(2) The risk of flashover on the surge limiter turns the isolated neutral into an earthed neutral. These risks are high for regions with frequent
thunder storms or installations supplied by overhead lines. If the IT system is selected to ensure a higher level of continuity of service, the
system designer must precisely calculate the tripping conditions for a second fault.
(3) Risk of RCD nuisance tripping.
(4) Whatever the SEA, the ideal solution is to isolate the disturbing section if it can be easily identified.
(5) Risks of phase-to-earth faults affecting equipotentiality.
(6) Insulation is uncertain due to humidity and conducting dust.
(7) The TN system is not advised due to the risk of damage to the generator in the case of an internal fault. What is more, when generator sets
supply safety equipment, the system must not trip for the first fault.
(8) The phase-to-earth current may be several times higher than In, with the risk of damaging or accelerating the ageing of motor windings, or of
destroying magnetic circuits.
(9) To combine continuity of service and safety, it is necessary and highly advised, whatever the SEA, to separate these loads from the rest of
the installation (transformers with local neutral connection).
(10) When load equipment quality is not a design priority, there is a risk that the insulation resistance will fall rapidly. The TT system with RCDs
is the best means to avoid problems.
(11) The mobility of this type of load causes frequent faults (sliding contact for bonding of exposed conductive parts) that must be countered.
Whatever the SEA, it is advised to supply these circuits using transformers with a local neutral connection.
(12) Requires the use of transformers with a local TN system to avoid operating risks and nuisance tripping at the first fault (TT) or a double fault (IT).
(12 bis) With a double break in the control circuit.
(13) Excessive limitation of the phase-to-neutral current due to the high value of the zero-phase impedance (at least 4 to 5 times the direct
impedance). This system must be replaced by a star-delta arrangement.
(14) The high fault currents make the TN system dangerous. The TN-C system is forbidden.
(15) Whatever the system, the RCD must be set to Δn y 500 mA.
(16) An installation supplied with LV energy must use the TT system. Maintaining this SEA means the least amount of modifications on the
existing network (no cables to be run, no protection devices to be modified).
(17) Possible without highly competent maintenance personnel.
(18) This type of installation requires particular attention in maintaining safety. The absence of preventive measures in the TN system means
highly qualified personnel are required to ensure safety over time.
(19) The risks of breaks in conductors (supply, protection) may cause the loss of equipotentiality for exposed conductive parts. A TT system or a
TN-S system with 30 mA RCDs is advised and is often mandatory. The IT system may be used in very specific cases.
(20) This solution avoids nuisance tripping for unexpected earth leakage.
Fig. E17 : Influence of networks and loads on the selection of system earthing arrangements
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Increase in power level of LV utility subscription,
requiring a private substation
Installation with frequent modifications
TT (10)
TN-S
TN (11)
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
1.5 Choice of earthing method - implementation
After consulting applicable regulations, Figures E16 and E17 can be used as an aid
in deciding on divisions and possible galvanic isolation of appropriate sections of a
proposed installation.
Division of source
E10
This technique concerns the use of several transformers instead of employing one
high-rated unit. In this way, a load that is a source of network disturbances (large
motors, furnaces, etc.) can be supplied by its own transformer.
The quality and continuity of supply to the whole installation are thereby improved.
The cost of switchgear is reduced (short-circuit current level is lower).
The cost-effectiveness of separate transformers must be determined on a case by
case basis.
Network islands
The creation of galvanically-separated “islands” by means of LV/LV transformers
makes it possible to optimise the choice of earthing methods to meet specific
requirements (see Fig. E18 and Fig. E19 ).
MV/LV
IMD
IT system
LV/LV
TN-S system
Fig. E18 : TN-S island within an IT system
MV/LV
TN-S
LV/LV
LV/LV
IMD
IT
TN-S system
Hospital
IMD
IT
Operating room
Fig. E19 : IT islands within a TN-S system
Conclusion
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The optimisation of the performance of the whole installation governs the choice of
earthing system.
Including:
b Initial investments, and
b Future operational expenditures, hard to assess, that can arise from insufficient
reliability, quality of equipment, safety, continuity of service, etc.
An ideal structure would comprise normal power supply sources, local reserve
power supply sources (see section 1.4 of Chapter E) and the appropriate earthing
arrangements.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
A very effective method of obtaining a lowresistance earth connection is to bury a
conductor in the form of a closed loop in the
soil at the bottom of the excavation for building
foundations.
The resistance R of such an electrode (in
homogeneous soil) is given (approximately) in
ohms by: R =
2
L
where
where
1.6 Installation and measurements of earth
electrodes
The quality of an earth electrode (resistance as low as possible) depends essentially
on two factors:
b Installation method
b Type of soil
Installation methods
L = length of the buried conductor in metres
ρ = soil resistivity in ohm-metres
Three common types of installation will be discussed:
Buried ring (see Fig. E20)
This solution is strongly recommended, particularly in the case of a new building.
The electrode should be buried around the perimeter of the excavation made for
the foundations. It is important that the bare conductor be in intimate contact with
the soil (and not placed in the gravel or aggregate hard-core, often forming a base
for concrete). At least four (widely-spaced) vertically arranged conductors from the
electrode should be provided for the installation connections and, where possible,
any reinforcing rods in concrete work should be connected to the electrode.
The conductor forming the earth electrode, particularly when it is laid in an
excavation for foundations, must be in the earth, at least 50 cm below the hard-core
or aggregate base for the concrete foundation. Neither the electrode nor the vertical
rising conductors to the ground floor, should ever be in contact with the foundation
concrete.
For existing buildings, the electrode conductor should be buried around the outside
wall of the premises to a depth of at least 1 metre. As a general rule, all vertical
connections from an electrode to above-ground level should be insulated for the
nominal LV voltage (600-1,000 V).
E11
The conductors may be:
b Copper: Bare cable (u 25 mm2) or multiple-strip (u 25 mm2 and u 2 mm thick)
b Aluminium with lead jacket: Cable (u 35 mm2)
b Galvanised-steel cable: Bare cable (u 95 mm2) or multiple-strip (u 100 mm2
and u 3 mm thick)
The approximate resistance R of the electrode in ohms:
2
where
R=
L
where
L = length of conductor in metres
ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see “Influence of the type of soil” next page)
Earthing rods (see Fig. E21)
Vertically driven earthing rods are often used for existing buildings, and for improving
(i.e. reducing the resistance of) existing earth electrodes.
For n rods: R = 1
nL
where
The rods may be:
b Copper or (more commonly) copper-clad steel. The latter are generally 1 or
2 metres long and provided with screwed ends and sockets in order to reach
considerable depths, if necessary (for instance, the water-table level in areas of high
soil resistivity)
b Galvanised (see note (1) next page) steel pipe u 25 mm diameter or
rod u 15 mm diameter, u 2 metres long in each case.
Rods connected in parallel
Fig. E20 : Conductor buried below the level of the foundations,
i.e. not in the concrete
Fig. E21 : Earthing rods
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Lu3m
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
It is often necessary to use more than one rod, in which case the spacing between
them should exceed the depth to which they are driven, by a factor of 2 to 3.
The total resistance (in homogeneous soil) is then equal to the resistance of one rod,
divided by the number of rods in question. The approximate resistance R obtained is:
1
R=
if the distance separating the rods > 4L
nL
where
where
L = the length of the rod in metres
ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see “Influence of the type of soil” below)
n = the number of rods
E12
Vertical plates (see Fig. E22)
Rectangular plates, each side of which must be u 0.5 metres, are commonly used as
earth electrodes, being buried in a vertical plane such that the centre of the plate is
at least 1 metre below the surface of the soil.
For a vertical plate electrode: R = 0.8
L
The plates may be:
b Copper of 2 mm thickness
b Galvanised (1) steel of 3 mm thickness
The resistance R in ohms is given (approximately), by:
0.8
R=
L
L = the perimeter of the plate in metres
ρ = resistivity of the soil in ohm-metres (see “Influence of the type of soil” below)
Influence of the type of soil
Measurements on earth electrodes in similar
soils are useful to determine the resistivity
value to be applied for the design of an earthelectrode system
Type of soil
Swampy soil, bogs
Silt alluvium
Humus, leaf mould
Peat, turf
Soft clay
Marl and compacted clay
Jurassic marl
Clayey sand
Siliceous sand
Stoney ground
Grass-covered-stoney sub-soil
Chalky soil
Limestone
Fissured limestone
Schist, shale
Mica schist
Granite and sandstone
Modified granite and sandstone
Mean value of resistivity
in Ωm
1 - 30
20 - 100
10 - 150
5 - 100
50
100 - 200
30 - 40
50 - 500
200 - 300
1,500 - 3,000
300 - 500
100 - 300
1,000 - 5,000
500 - 1,000
50 - 300
800
1,500 - 10,000
100 - 600
Fig. E23 : Resistivity (Ωm) for different types of soil
Type of soil
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
2 mm thickness (Cu)
Fertile soil, compacted damp fill
Arid soil, gravel, uncompacted non-uniform fill
Stoney soil, bare, dry sand, fissured rocks
Average value of resistivity
in Ωm
50
500
3,000
Fig. E24 : Average resistivity (Ωm) values for approximate earth-elect
Fig. E22 : Vertical plate
(1) Where galvanised conducting materials are used for earth
electrodes, sacrificial cathodic protection anodes may be
necessary to avoid rapid corrosion of the electrodes where
the soil is aggressive. Specially prepared magnesium anodes
(in a porous sack filled with a suitable “soil”) are available for
direct connection to the electrodes. In such circumstances, a
specialist should be consulted
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
1 Earthing schemes
Measurement and constancy of the resistance between an
earth electrode and the earth
The resistance of the electrode/earth interface rarely remains constant
Among the principal factors affecting this resistance are the following:
b Humidity of the soil
The seasonal changes in the moisture content of the soil can be significant at depths
of up to 2 meters.
At a depth of 1 metre the resistivity and therefore the resistance can vary by a ratio
of 1 to 3 between a wet winter and a dry summer in temperate regions
b Frost
Frozen earth can increase the resistivity of the soil by several orders of magnitude.
This is one reason for recommending the installation of deep electrodes, in particular
in cold climates
E13
b Ageing
The materials used for electrodes will generally deteriorate to some extent for
various reasons, for example:
v Chemical reactions (in acidic or alkaline soils)
v Galvanic: due to stray DC currents in the earth, for example from electric railways,
etc. or due to dissimilar metals forming primary cells. Different soils acting on
sections of the same conductor can also form cathodic and anodic areas with
consequent loss of surface metal from the latter areas. Unfortunately, the most
favourable conditions for low earth-electrode resistance (i.e. low soil resistivity) are
also those in which galvanic currents can most easily flow.
b Oxidation
Brazed and welded joints and connections are the points most sensitive to oxidation.
Thorough cleaning of a newly made joint or connection and wrapping with a suitable
greased-tape binding is a commonly used preventive measure.
Measurement of the earth-electrode resistance
There must always be one or more removable links to isolate an earth electrode so
that it can be tested.
There must always be removable links which allow the earth electrode to be isolated
from the installation, so that periodic tests of the earthing resistance can be carried
out. To make such tests, two auxiliary electrodes are required, each consisting of a
vertically driven rod.
b Ammeter method (see Fig. E25)
U
t1
A
T
t2
Fig. E25 : Measurement of the resistance to earth of the earth electrode of an installation by
means of an ammeter
A = RT + Rt1 =
UTt1
i1
B = Rt1 + Rt 2 =
Ut1t 2
i2
C = Rt 2 + RT =
Ut 2T
i3
When the source voltage U is constant (adjusted to be the same value for each test)
then:
RT =
U 1 1
+
2 i1 i3
1
i2
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E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
1 Earthing schemes
In order to avoid errors due to stray earth currents (galvanic -DC- or leakage currents
from power and communication networks and so on) the test current should be
AC, but at a different frequency to that of the power system or any of its harmonics.
Instruments using hand-driven generators to make these measurements usually
produce an AC voltage at a frequency of between 85 Hz and 135 Hz.
The distances between the electrodes are not critical and may be in different
directions from the electrode being tested, according to site conditions. A number of
tests at different spacings and directions are generally made to cross-check the test
results.
E14
b Use of a direct-reading earthing-resistance ohmmeter
These instruments use a hand-driven or electronic-type AC generator, together
with two auxiliary electrodes, the spacing of which must be such that the zone of
influence of the electrode being tested should not overlap that of the test electrode (C).
The test electrode (C) furthest from the electrode (X) under test, passes a current
through the earth and the electrode under test, while the second test electrode (P)
picks up a voltage. This voltage, measured between (X) and (P), is due to the test
current and is a measure of the contact resistance (of the electrode under test) with
earth. It is clear that the distance (X) to (P) must be carefully chosen to give accurate
results. If the distance (X) to (C) is increased, however, the zones of resistance of
electrodes (X) and (C) become more remote, one from the other, and the curve of
potential (voltage) becomes more nearly horizontal about the point (O).
In practical tests, therefore, the distance (X) to (C) is increased until readings taken
with electrode (P) at three different points, i.e. at (P) and at approximately 5 metres
on either side of (P), give similar values. The distance (X) to (P) is generally about
0.68 of the distance (X) to (C).
VG
G
I
V
X
P
C
voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (X)
O
VG
voltage-drop due
to the resistance
of electrode (C)
a) the principle of measurement is based on assumed homogeneous soil conditions. Where the
zones of influence of electrodes C and X overlap, the location of test electrode P is difficult to
determine for satisfactory results.
X
P
C
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
O
b) showing the effect on the potential gradient when (X) and (C) are widely spaced. The location
of test electrode P is not critical and can be easily determined.
Fig. E26 : Measurement of the resistance to the mass of earth of electrode (X) using an earthelectrode-testing ohmmeter.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
Distribution switchboards, including the main
LV switchboard (MLVS), are critical to the
dependability of an electrical installation.
They must comply with well-defined standards
governing the design and construction of
LV switchgear assemblies
2.1 Distribution switchboards
A distribution switchboard is the point at which an incoming-power supply divides
into separate circuits, each of which is controlled and protected by the fuses or
switchgear of the switchboard. A distribution switchboard is divided into a number
of functional units, each comprising all the electrical and mechanical elements
that contribute to the fulfilment of a given function. It represents a key link in the
dependability chain.
Consequently, the type of distribution switchboard must be perfectly adapted to its
application. Its design and construction must comply with applicable standards and
working practises.
The distribution switchboard enclosure provides dual protection:
b Protection of switchgear, indicating instruments, relays, fusegear, etc. against
mechanical impacts, vibrations and other external influences likely to interfere with
operational integrity (EMI, dust, moisture, vermin, etc.)
b The protection of human life against the possibility of direct and indirect electric
shock (see degree of protection IP and the IK index in section 3.3 of Chapter E).
E15
Types of distribution switchboards
Distribution switchboards may differ according to the kind of application and the
design principle adopted (notably in the arrangement of the busbars).
The load requirements dictate the type of
distribution switchboard to be installed
Distribution switchboards according to specific applications
The principal types of distribution switchboards are:
b The main LV switchboard - MLVS - (see Fig. E27a)
b Motor control centres - MCC - (see Fig. E27b)
b Sub-distribution switchboards (see Fig. E28)
b Final distribution switchboards (see Fig. E29)
Distribution switchboards for specific applications (e.g. heating, lifts, industrial
processes) can be located:
b Adjacent to the main LV switchboard, or
b Near the application concerned
Sub-distribution and final distribution switchboards are generally distributed
throughout the site.
a
b
Fig. E27 : [a] A main LV switchboard - MLVS - (Prisma Plus P) with incoming circuits in the form
of busways - [b] A LV motor control centre - MCC - (Okken)
Fig. E28 : A sub-distribution switchboard (Prisma Plus G)
b
c
Fig. E29 : Final distribution switchboards [a] Prisma Plus G Pack; [b] Kaedra; [c] mini-Pragma
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
a
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
A distinction is made between:
b Traditional distribution switchboards in which
switchgear and fusegear, etc. are fixed to a
chassis at the rear of an enclosure
b Functional distribution switchboards for
specific applications, based on modular and
standardised design.
Traditional distribution switchboards
Switchgear and fusegear, etc. are normally located on a chassis at the rear of the
enclosure. Indications and control devices (meters, lamps, pushbuttons, etc.) are
mounted on the front face of the switchboard.
The placement of the components within the enclosure requires very careful study,
taking into account the dimensions of each item, the connections to be made to it,
and the clearances necessary to ensure safe and trouble-free operation. .
Functional distribution switchboards
Generally dedicated to specific applications, these distribution switchboards are
made up of functional modules that include switchgear devices together with
standardised accessories for mounting and connections, ensuring a high level of
reliability and a great capacity for last-minute and future changes.
b Many advantages
The use of functional distribution switchboards has spread to all levels of LV
electrical distribution, from the main LV switchboard (MLVS) to final distribution
switchboards, due to their many advantages:
v System modularity that makes it possible to integrate numerous functions in a
single distribution switchboard, including protection, control, technical management
and monitoring of electrical installations. Modular design also enhances distribution
switchboard maintenance, operation and upgrades
v Distribution switchboard design is fast because it simply involves adding functional
modules
v Prefabricated components can be mounted faster
v Finally, these distribution switchboards are subjected to type tests that ensure a
high degree of dependability.
E16
Fig. E30 : Assembly of a final distribution switchboard with
fixed functional units (Prisma Plus G)
The new Prisma Plus G and P ranges of functional distribution switchboards from
Schneider Electric cover needs up to 3200 A and offer:
v Flexibility and ease in building distribution switchboards
v Certification of a distribution switchboard complying with standard IEC 60439 and
the assurance of servicing under safe conditions
v Time savings at all stages, from design to installation, operation and modifications
or upgrades
v Easy adaptation, for example to meet the specific work habits and standards in
different countries
Figures E27a, E28 and E29 show examples of functional distribution switchboards
ranging for all power ratings and figure E27b shows a high-power industrial functional
distribution switchboard.
b Main types of functional units
Three basic technologies are used in functional distribution switchboards.
v Fixed functional units (see Fig. E30)
These units cannot be isolated from the supply so that any intervention for
maintenance, modifications and so on, requires the shutdown of the entire
distribution switchboard. Plug-in or withdrawable devices can however be used to
minimise shutdown times and improve the availability of the rest of the installation.
v Disconnectable functional units (see Fig. E31)
Each functional unit is mounted on a removable mounting plate and provided with a
means of isolation on the upstream side (busbars) and disconnecting facilities on the
downstream (outgoing circuit) side. The complete unit can therefore be removed for
servicing, without requiring a general shutdown.
v Drawer-type withdrawable functional units (see Fig. E32)
The switchgear and associated accessories for a complete function are mounted on
a drawer-type horizontally withdrawable chassis. The function is generally complex
and often concerns motor control.
Isolation is possible on both the upstream and downstream sides by the complete
withdrawal of the drawer, allowing fast replacement of a faulty unit without deenergising the rest of the distribution switchboard.
Fig. E31 : Distribution switchboard with disconnectable
functional units
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Two technologies of distribution switchboards
Fig. E32 : Distribution switchboard with withdrawable functional
units in drawers
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
Standards
Different standards
Certain types of distribution switchboards (in particular, functional distribution
switchboards) must comply with specific standards according to the application or
environment involved.
The reference international standard is IEC 60439-1 type-tested and partially typetested assemblies
Three elements of standard IEC 60439-1
contribute significantly to dependability:
b Clear definition of functional units
b Forms of separation between adjacent
functional units in accordance with user
requirements
b Clearly defined routine tests and type tests
Form 1
Standard IEC 60439-1
b Categories of assemblies
Standard IEC 60439-1 distinguishes between two categories of assemblies:
v Type-tested LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies (TTA), which do not diverge
significantly from an established type or system for which conformity is ensured by
the type tests provided in the standard
v Partially type-tested LV switchgear and controlgear assemblies (PTTA), which may
contain non-type-tested arrangements provided that the latter are derived from typetested arrangements
When implemented in compliance with professional work standards and
manufacturer instructions by qualified personnel, they offer the same level of safety
and quality.
b Functional units
The same standard defines functional units:
v Part of an assembly comprising all the electrical and mechanical elements that
contribute to the fulfilment of the same function
v The distribution switchboard includes an incoming functional unit and one or more
functional units for outgoing circuits, depending on the operating requirements of the
installation
What is more, distribution switchboard technologies use functional units that may be
fixed, disconnectable or withdrawable (see section 3.1 of Chapter E).
b Forms (see Fig. E33)
Separation of functional units within the assembly is provided by forms that are
specified for different types of operation.
The various forms are numbered from 1 to 4 with variations labelled “a” or “b”. Each
step up (from 1 to 4) is cumulative, i.e. a form with a higher number includes the
characteristics of forms with lower numbers. The standard distinguishes:
v Form 1: No separation
v Form 2: Separation of busbars from the functional units
v Form 3: Separation of busbars from the functional units and separation of all
functional units, one from another, except at their output terminals
v Form 4: As for Form 3, but including separation of the outgoing terminals of all
functional units, one from another
The decision on which form to implement results from an agreement between the
manufacturer and the user.
The Prima Plus functional range offers solutions for forms 1, 2b, 3b, 4a, 4b.
Form 2a
Form 2b
Form 3a
Busbar
Separation
Form 3b
Form 4a
Form 4b
Fig. E33 : Representation of different forms of LV functional distribution switchboards
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E17
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Compliance with applicable standards is
essential in order to ensure an adequate
degree of dependability
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
b Type tests and routine tests
They ensure compliance of each distribution switchboard with the standard. The
availability of test documents certified by independent organisations is a guarantee
for users.
Total accessibility of electrical information and
intelligent distribution switchboards are now a
reality
E18
Remote monitoring and control of the electrical installation
Remote monitoring and control are no longer limited to large installations.
These functions are increasingly used and provide considerable cost savings.
The main potential advantages are:
b Reductions in energy bills
b Reductions in structural costs to maintain the installation in running order
b Better use of the investment, notably concerning optimisation of the installation life
cycle
b Greater satisfaction for energy users (in a building or in process industries) due to
improved power availability and/or quality
The above possibilities are all the more an option given the current deregulation of
the electrical-energy sector.
Modbus is increasingly used as the open standard for communication within the
distribution switchboard and between the distribution switchboard and customer
power monitoring and control applications. Modbus exists in two forms, twisted pair
(RS 485) and Ethernet-TCP/IP (IEEE 802.3).
The www.modbus.org site presents all bus specifications and constantly updates the
list of products and companies using the open industrial standard.
The use of web technologies has largely contributed to wider use by drastically
reducing the cost of accessing these functions through the use of an interface that is
now universal (web pages) and a degree of openness and upgradeability that simply
did not exist just a few years ago.
2.2 Cables and busway trunking
Two types of distribution are possible:
b By insulated wires and cables
b By busbar trunking (busways)
Distribution by insulated conductors and cables
Definitions
b Conductor
A conductor comprises a single metallic core with or without an insulating envelope.
b Cable
A cable is made up of a number of conductors, electrically separated, but joined
mechanically, generally enclosed in a protective flexible sheath.
b Cableway
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The term cableway refers to conductors and/or cables together with the means of
support and protection, etc. for example : cable trays, ladders, ducts, trenches, and
so on… are all “cableways”.
Conductor marking
Conductor identification must always respect the following three rules:
b Rule 1
The double colour green and yellow is strictly reserved for the PE and PEN
protection conductors.
b Rule 2
v When a circuit comprises a neutral conductor, it must be light blue or marked “1” for
cables with more than five conductors
v When a circuit does not have a neutral conductor, the light blue conductor may be
used as a phase conductor if it is part of a cable with more than one conductor
b Rule 3
Phase conductors may be any colour except:
v Green and yellow
v Green
v Yellow
v Light blue (see rule 2)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
Conductors in a cable are identified either by their colour or by numbers (see Fig. E34).
Number of Circuit
conductors
in circuit
1
2
3
4
5
>5
Fixed cableways
Insulated conductors
Protection or earth
Single-phase between phases
Single-phase between phase and neutral
Single-phase between phase and neutral
+ protection conductor
Three-phase without neutral
2 phases + neutral
2 phases + protection conductor
Single-phase between phase and neutral
+ protection conductor
Three-phase with neutral
Three-phase with neutral + protection conductor
2 phases + neutral + protection conductor
Three-phase with PEN conductor
Three-phase + neutral + protection conductor
G/Y: Green and yellow
BL: Black
b : As indicated in rule 3
Ph
Ph
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
Pn
N
PE
G/Y
LB
G/Y
b
LB
LB
G/Y
G/Y
Rigid and flexible multiconductor cables
Ph
Ph
Ph
N
BL
BL
BL
LB
BL
BL
BL
BL
B
B
LB
PE
LB
G/Y
E19
LB
LB
LB
G/Y
G/Y
b
b
b
LB
BL
B
BL
LB
b
b
b
G/Y
BL
B
LB
G/Y
b
b
LB
G/Y
BL
B
LB
G/Y
b
b
b
G/Y
BL
B
LB
G/Y
b
b
b
LB
G/Y
BL
B
BL
LB
G/Y
Protection conductor: G/Y - Other conductors: BL: with numbering
The number “1” is reserved for the neutral conductor if it exists
LB: Light blue
B: Brown
Fig. E34 : Conductor identification according to the type of circuit
Note: If the circuit includes a protection conductor and if the available cable does not
have a green and yellow conductor, the protection conductor may be:
b A separate green and yellow conductor
b The blue conductor if the circuit does not have a neutral conductor
b A black conductor if the circuit has a neutral conductor
In the last two cases, the conductor used must be marked by green and yellow
bands or markings at the ends and on all visible lengths of the conductor.
Equipment power cords are marked similar to multi-conductor cables (see Fig. E35).
Distribution and installation methods (see Fig. E36)
Distribution takes place via cableways that carry single insulated conductors or
cables and include a fixing system and mechanical protection.
Final
distribution
swichboard
Floor subdistribution
swichboard
Main LV switchboard
(MLVS)
Black conductor
Heating, etc.
Light blue conductor
Building utilities sub-distribution swichboard
Fig. E35 : Conductor identification on a circuit-breaker with a
phase and a neutral
Fig. E36 : Radial distribution using cables in a hotel
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
Busways, also referred to as busbar trunking
systems, stand out for their ease of installation,
flexibility and number of possible connection
points
Busbar trunking (busways)
Busbar trunking is intended to distribute power (from 20 A to 5000 A) and lighting
(in this application, the busbar trunking may play a dual role of supplying electrical
power and physically holding the lights).
Busbar trunking system components
A busbar trunking system comprises a set of conductors protected by an enclosure
(see Fig. E37). Used for the transmission and distribution of electrical power, busbar
trunking systems have all the necessary features for fitting: connectors, straights,
angles, fixings, etc. The tap-off points placed at regular intervals make power
available at every point in the installation.
E20
Straight trunking
Power Unit
Tap-off points to
distribute current
Fixing system for ceilings, walls or
raised floor, etc.
Range of clip-on tap-off units to
connect a load (e.g.: a machine) to
the busbar trunking
End piece
Angle
Fig. E37 : Busbar trunking system design for distribution of currents from 25 to 4000 A.
The various types of busbar trunking:
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Busbar trunking systems are present at every level in electrical distribution: from
the link between the transformer and the low voltage switch switchboard (MLVS)
to the distribution of power sockets and lighting to offices, or power distribution to
workshops.
Fig. E38 : Radial distribution using busways
We talk about a distributed network architecture.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 The installation system
There are essentially three categories of busways.
b Transformer to MLVS busbar trunking
Installation of the busway may be considered as permanent and will most likely never
be modified. There are no tap-off points.
Frequently used for short runs, it is almost always used for ratings above 1,600 /
2,000 A, i.e. when the use of parallel cables makes installation impossible. Busways
are also used between the MLVS and downstream distribution switchboards.
The characteristics of main-distribution busways authorize operational currents from
1,000 to 5,000 A and short-circuit withstands up to 150 kA.
b Sub-distribution busbar trunking with low or high tap-off densities
Downstream of main-distribution busbar trunking , two types of applications must be
supplied:
v Mid-sized premises (industrial workshops with injection presses and metalwork
machines or large supermarkets with heavy loads). The short-circuit and current
levels can be fairly high (respectively 20 to 70 kA and 100 to 1,000 A)
v Small sites (workshops with machine-tools, textile factories with small machines,
supermarkets with small loads). The short-circuit and current levels are lower
(respectively 10 to 40 kA and 40 to 400 A)
Sub-distribution using busbar trunking meets user needs in terms of:
v Modifications and upgrades given the high number of tap-off points
v Dependability and continuity of service because tap-off units can be connected
under energized conditions in complete safety
The sub-distribution concept is also valid for vertical distribution in the form of 100 to
5,000 A risers in tall buildings.
E21
b Lighting distribution busbar trunking
Lighting circuits can be distributed using two types of busbar trunking according to
whether the lighting fixtures are suspended from the busbar trunking or not.
v busbar trunking designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures
These busways supply and support light fixtures (industrial reflectors, discharge
lamps, etc.). They are used in industrial buildings, supermarkets, department stores
and warehouses. The busbar trunkings are very rigid and are designed for one or
two 25 A or 40 A circuits. They have tap-off outlets every 0.5 to 1 m.
v busbar trunking not designed for the suspension of lighting fixtures
Similar to prefabricated cable systems, these busways are used to supply all types
of lighting fixtures secured to the building structure. They are used in commercial
buildings (offices, shops, restaurants, hotels, etc.), especially in false ceilings. The
busbar trunking is flexible and designed for one 20 A circuit. It has tap-off outlets
every 1.2 m to 3 m.
Busbar trunking systems are suited to the requirements of a large number of
buildings.
b Industrial buildings: garages, workshops, farm buildings, logistic centers, etc.
b Commercial areas: stores, shopping malls, supermarkets, hotels, etc.
b Tertiary buildings: offices, schools, hospitals, sports rooms, cruise liners, etc.
Standards
Busbar trunking systems must meet all rules stated in IEC 439-2.
This defines the manufacturing arrangements to be complied with in the design
of busbar trunking systems (e.g.: temperature rise characteristics, short-circuit
withstand, mechanical strength, etc.) as well as test methods to check them.
Standard IEC 439-2 defines 13 compulsory type-tests on configurations or system
components..
By assembling the system components on the site according to the assembly
instructions, the contractor benefits from conformity with the standard.
The advantages of busbar trunking systems
Flexibility
b Easy to change configuration (on-site modification to change production line
configuration or extend production areas).
b Reusing components (components are kept intact): when an installation is subject
to major modifications, the busbar trunking is easy to dismantle and reuse.
b Power availability throughout the installation (possibility of having a tap-off point
every meter).
b Wide choice of tap-off units.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
Simplicity
b Design can be carried out independently from the distribution and layout of current
consumers.
b Performances are independent of implementation: the use of cables requires a lot
of derating coefficients.
b Clear distribution layout
b Reduction of fitting time: the trunking system allows fitting times to be reduced by
up to 50% compared with a traditional cable installation.
b Manufacturer’s guarantee.
b Controlled execution times: the trunking system concept guarantees that there are
no unexpected surprises when fitting. The fitting time is clearly known in advance
and a quick solution can be provided to any problems on site with this adaptable and
scalable equipment.
b Easy to implement: modular components that are easy to handle, simple and quick
to connect.
E22
Dependability
b Reliability guaranteed by being factory-built
b Fool-proof units
b Sequential assembly of straight components and tap-off units making it impossible
to make any mistakes
Continuity of service
b The large number of tap-off points makes it easy to supply power to any new
current consumer. Connecting and disconnecting is quick and can be carried out in
complete safety even when energized. These two operations (adding or modifying)
take place without having to stop operations.
b Quick and easy fault location since current consumers are near to the line
b Maintenance is non existent or greatly reduced
Major contribution to sustainable development
b Busbar trunking systems allow circuits to be combined. Compared with a
traditional cable distribution system, consumption of copper raw materials and
insulators is divided by 3 due to the busbar trunking distributed network concept
(see Fig. E39).
Distribution type
Conductors
Insulators
Consumption
Branched
ΣIxks
I1
R
I2
I3
R
R
I4
R
I5
R
I6
R
I7
R
ks: clustering coefficient= 0.6
Alu: 128 mm²
4 kg
Copper equivalent: 86 mm²
1 000 Joules
Copper: 250 mm²
1 600 Joules
Centralized
ΣIxks
I1
R
I2
R
I3
R
I4
R
I5
R
I6
R
I7
12 kg
R
ks: clustering coefficient= 0.6
Fig. E39 : Example: 30 m of Canalis KS 250A equipped with 10 25 A, four-pole feeders
b Reusable device and all of its components are fully recyclable.
b Does not contain PVC and does not generate toxic gases or waste.
b Reduction of risks due to exposure to electromagnetic fields.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
New functional features for Canalis
Busbar trunking systems are getting even better. Among the new features we can
mention:
b Increased performance with a IP55 protection index and new ratings of 160 A
through to 1000 A (Ks).
b New lighting offers with pre-cabled lights and new light ducts.
b New fixing accessories. Quick fixing system, cable ducts, shared support with
“VDI” (voice, data, images) circuits.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 The installation system
Busbar trunking systems are perfectly integrated with the environment:
b white color to enhance the working environment, naturally integrated in a range of
electrical distribution products.
b conformity with European regulations on reducing hazardous materials (RoHS).
Examples of Canalis busbar trunking systems
E23
Fig. E40 : Flexible busbar trunking not capable of supporting light fittings : Canalis KDP (20 A)
Fig. E41 : Rigid busbar trunking able to support light fittings : Canalis KBA or KBB (25 and 40 A)
Fig. E42 : Lighting duct : Canalis KBX (25 A)
Fig. E43 : A busway for medium power distribution : Canalis KN (40 up to 160 A)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
2 The installation system
Fig. E44 : A busway for medium power distribution : Canalis KS (100 up to 1000 A)
E24
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. E45 : A busway for high power distribution : Canalis KT (800 up to 1000 A)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
3 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
External influences shall be taken into account
when choosing:
b The appropriate measures to ensure the
safety of persons (in particular in special
locations or electrical installations)
b The characteristics of electrical equipment,
such as degree of protection (IP), mechanical
withstand (IK), etc.
3.1 Definition and reference standards
Every electrical installation occupies an environment that presents a variable degree
of risk:
b For people
b For the equipment constituting the installation
Consequently, environmental conditions influence the definition and choice of
appropriate installation equipment and the choice of protective measures for the
safety of persons.
The environmental conditions are referred to collectively as “external influences”.
Many national standards concerned with external influences include a classification
scheme which is based on, or which closely resembles, that of international standard
IEC 60364-5-51.
If several external influences appear at the
same time, they can have independent or
mutual effects and the degree of protection must
be chosen accordingly
E25
3.2 Classification
Each condition of external influence is designated by a code comprising a group of
two capital letters and a number as follows:
First letter (A, B or C)
The first letter relates to the general category of external influence :
b A = environment
b B = utilisation
b C = construction of buildings
Second letter
The second letter relates to the nature of the external influence.
Number
The number relates to the class within each external influence.
Additional letter (optional)
Used only if the effective protection of persons is greater than that indicated by the
first IP digit.
When only the protection of persons is to be specified, the two digits of the IP code
are replaced by the X’s.
Example: IP XXB.
Example
For example the code AC2 signifies:
A = environment
AC = environment-altitude
AC2 = environment-altitude > 2,000 m
3.3 List of external influences
Figure E46 below is from IEC 60364-5-51, which should be referred to if further
details are required.
Characteristics required for equipment
Specially designed equipment or appropriate arrangements
Normal (special precautions in certain cases)
Normal
Specially designed equipment or appropriate arrangements
Fig. E46 : List of external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 60364-5-51) (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Code External influences
A - Environment
AA
Ambient temperature (°C)
Low
High
AA1
- 60 °C
+ 5 °C
AA2
- 40 °C
+ 5 °C
AA3
- 25 °C
+ 5 °C
AA4
- 5° C
+ 40 °C
AA5
+ 5 °C
+ 40 °C
AA6
+ 5 °C
+ 60 °C
AA7
- 25 °C
+ 55 °C
AA8
- 50 °C
+ 40 °C
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
E26
Code External influences
A - Environment
AB
Atmospheric humidity
Air temperature °C
Low
High
AB1
- 60 °C
+ 5 °C
AB2
- 40 °C
+ 5 °C
AB3
- 25 °C
+ 5 °C
AB4
- 5° C
+ 40 °C
AB5
+ 5 °C
+ 40 °C
AB6
+ 5 °C
+ 60 °C
AB7
- 25 °C
+ 55 °C
AB8
- 50 °C
+ 40 °C
AC
Altitude
AC1
y 2000 m
AC2
> 2000 m
AD
Presence of water
AD1
Negligible
AD2
Free-falling drops
AD3
Sprays
AD4
Splashes
AD5
Jets
AD6
Waves
AD7
Immersion
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
AD8
AE
AE1
AE2
AE3
AE4
AE5
AE6
AF
AF1
AF2
AF3
AF4
AG
AG1
AG2
AG3
AH
AH1
AH2
AH3
AJ
AK
AH1
AH2
AL
AH1
AH2
AM
AM1
AM2
AM3
AM4
AM5
AM6
AM7
AM8
AM9
AM21
3 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
Characteristics required for equipment
Relative humidity %
Low
High
3
100
10
100
10
100
5
95
5
85
10
100
10
100
15
100
Absolute humidity g/m3
Low
High
0.003
7
0.1
7
0.5
7
1
29
1
25
1
35
0.5
29
0.04
36
Appropriate arrangements shall be made
Normal
Normal
Appropriate arrangements shall be made
Normal
May necessitate precaution (derating factors)
Outdoor or non-weather protected locations
IPX0
IPX1 or IPX2
IPX3
IPX4
IPX5
IPX6
IPX7
Locations where hose water is used regularly
Seashore locations (piers, beaches, quays…)
Water 150 mm above the highest point and
equipment not more than 1m below the surface
Submersion
Equipment is permanently and totally covered
IPX8
Presence of foreign solid bodies
Smallest dimension
Example
Negligible
IP0X
Small objects
2.5 mm
Tools
IP3X
Very small objects
1 mm
Wire
IP4X
Light dust
IP5X if dust penetration is not harmful to functioning
Moderate dust
IP6X if dust should not penetrate
Heavy dust
IP6X
Presence of corrosive or polluting substances
Negligible
Normal
Atmospheric
According to the nature of the substance
Intermittent, accidental
Protection against corrosion
Continuous
Equipment specially designed
Mechanical stress impact
Low severity
Normal
Medium severity
Standard where applicable or reinforced material
High severity
Reinforced protection
Vibrations
Low severity
Household or similar
Normal
Medium severity
Usual industrial conditions
Specially designed equipment or special arrangements
High severity
Severe industrial conditions
Other mechanical stresses
Presence of flora and/or mould growth
No hazard
Normal
Hazard
Presence of fauna
No hazard
Normal
Hazard
Electromagnetic, electrostatic or ionising influences / Low frequency electromagnetic phenomena / Harmonics
Harmonics, interharmonics
Refer to applicable IEC standards
Signalling voltage
Voltage amplitude variations
Voltage unbalance
Power frequency variations
Induced low-frequency voltages
Direct current in a.c. networks
Radiated magnetic fields
Electric field
Induced oscillatory voltages or currents
Fig. E46 : List of external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 60364-5-51) (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
Code External influences
A - Environment
AM22 Conducted unidirectional transients of the nanosecond time scale
AM23 Conducted unidirectional transients of the microsecond to the millisecond
time scale
AM24 Conducted oscillatory transients
AM25 Radiated high frequency phenomena
AM31 Electrostatic discharges
AM41 Ionisation
AN
Solar radiation
AN1
Low
AN2
Medium
AN3
High
AP
Seismic effect
AP1
Negligible
AP2
Low severity
AP3
Medium severity
AP4
High severity
AQ
Lightning
AQ1
Negligible
AQ2
Indirect exposure
AQ3
Direct exposure
AR
Movement of air
AQ1
Low
AQ2
Medium
AQ3
High
AS
Wind
AQ1
Low
AQ2
Medium
AQ3
High
B - Utilization
BA
Capability of persons
BA1
Ordinary
BA2
Children
BA3
Handicapped
BA4
Instructed
BA5
Skilled
BB
Electrical resistance of human body
BC
Contact of persons with earth potential
BC1
None
BC2
Low
BC3
Frequent
BC4
Continuous
BD
Condition of evacuation in case of emergency
BD1
Low density / easy exit
BD2
Low density / difficult exit
BD3
High density / easy exit
BD4
High density / difficult exit
BE
Nature of processed or stored materials
BE1
No significant risks
BE2
Fire risks
BE3
Explosion risks
BE4
Contamination risks
C - Construction of building
CA
Construction materials
CA1
Non combustible
CA2
Combustible
CB
Building design
CB1
Negligible risks
CB2
Propagation of fire
CB3
Movement
CB4
lexible or unstable
Characteristics required for equipment
Refer to applicable IEC standards
Normal
E27
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Class of equipment according to IEC61140
Normal
Normal
Normal
Normal
Fig. E46 : List of external influences (taken from Appendix A of IEC 60364-5-51) (concluded)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
3 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
3.4 Protection provided for enclosed equipment:
codes IP and IK
IP code definition (see Fig. E47)
The degree of protection provided by an enclosure is indicated in the IP code,
recommended in IEC 60529.
Protection is afforded against the following external influences:
b Penetration by solid bodies
b Protection of persons against access to live parts
b Protection against the ingress of dust
b Protection against the ingress of liquids
E28
Note: the IP code applies to electrical equipment for voltages up to and including
72.5 kV.
Elements of the IP Code and their meanings
A brief description of the IP Code elements is given in the following chart
(see Fig. E48).
Element
Code letters
First
characteristic
numeral
Second
characteristic
numeral
IP
2
3
C
H
Code letters
(International Protection)
First characteristic numeral
(numerals 0 to 6, or letter X)
Additional
letter
(optional)
Second characteristic numeral
(numerals 0 to 6, or letter X)
Additional letter (optional)
(letters A, B, C, D)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Supplementary letter (optional)
(letters H, M, S, W)
Where a characteristic numeral is not required to be specified,
it shall be replaced by the letter "X" ("XX" if both numerals
are omitted). Additional letters and/or supplementary letters
may be omitted without replacement.
Fig. E47 : IP Code arrangement
Supplementary
letter
(optional)
Numerals
or letters
Meaning for the protection
of equipment
Meaning for the
protection of persons
Against ingress of solid foreign
objects
Against access to
hazardous parts with
(non-protected)
u 50 mm diameter
u 12.5 mm diameter
u 2.5 mm diameter
u 1.0 mm diameter
Dust-protected
Dust-tight
(non-protected)
Back of hand
Finger
Too l
Wire
Wire
Wire
IP
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Against ingress of water with
harmful effects
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(non-protected)
Vertically dripping
Dripping (15° tilted)
Spraying
Splashing
Jetting
Powerful jetting
Temporary immersion
Continuous immersion
Against access to
hazardous parts with
A
B
C
D
H
M
S
W
back of hand
Finger
Too l
Wire
Supplementary information specific to:
High-voltage apparatus
Motion during water test
Stationary during water test
Weather conditions
Fig. E48 : Elements of the IP Code
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 External influences
(IEC 60364-5-51)
IK Code definition
Standard IEC 62262 defines an IK code that characterises the aptitude of equipment
to resist mechanical impacts on all sides (see Fig. E49).
IK code
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
Impact energy
(in Joules)
0
y 0.14
y 0.20
y 0.35
y 0.50
y 0.70
y1
y2
y5
y 10
y 20
AG code
AG1
E29
AG2
AG3
AG4
Fig. E49 : Elements of the IK Code
IP and IK code specifications for distribution switchboards
The degrees of protection IP and IK of an enclosure must be specified as a function
of the different external influences defined by standard IEC 60364-5-51, in particular:
b Presence of solid bodies (code AE)
b Presence of water (code AD)
b Mechanical stresses (no code)
b Capability of persons (code BA)
b…
Prisma Plus switchboards are designed for indoor installation.
Unless the rules, standards and regulations of a specific country stipulate otherwise,
Schneider Electric recommends the following IP and IK values (see Fig. E50 and
Fig. E51 )
IP recommendations
IP codes according to conditions
Normal without risk of vertically falling water
Normal with risk of vertically falling water
Very severe with risk of splashing water
from all directions
Technical rooms
Hallways
Workshops
30
31
54/55
Technical rooms
Hallways
07
08 (enclosure
with door)
10
Fig. E50 : IP recommendations
IK recommendations
IK codes according to conditions
No risk of major impact
Significant risk of major impact that could
damage devices
Maximum risk of impact that could damage
the enclosure
Fig. E51 : IK recommendations
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Workshops
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
E - Distribution in low-voltage installations
Chapter F
Protection against electric shocks
Contents
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
General
F2
1.1 Electric shock
F2
1.2 Protection against electric shock
F3
1.3 Direct and indirect contact
F3
Protection against direct contact
F4
2.1 Measures of protection against direct contact
F4
2.2 Additional measure of protection against direct contact
F6
Protection against indirect contact
F6
3.1 Measures of protection: two levels
F6
3.2 Automatic disconnection for TT system
F7
3.3 Automatic disconnection for TN systems
F8
3.4 Automatic disconnection on a second fault in an IT system
F10
3.5 Measures of protection against direct or indirect contact
without automatic disconnection of supply
F13
Protection of goods in case of insulation fault
F17
4.1 Measures of protection against fire risk with RCDs
F17
4.2 Ground Fault Protection (GFP)
F17
Implementation of the TT system
F19
5.1 Protective measures
F19
5.2 Coordination of residual current protective devices
F20
Implementation of the TN system
F23
6.1 Preliminary conditions
F23
6.2 Protection against indirect contact
F23
6.3 High-sensitivity RCDs
F27
6.4 Protection in high fire-risk locations
F28
6.5 When the fault current-loop impedance is particularly high
F28
Implementation of the IT system
F29
7.1 Preliminary conditions
F29
7.2 Protection against indirect contact
F30
7.3 High-sensitivity RCDs
F34
7.4 Protection in high fire-risk locations
F35
7.5 When the fault current-loop impedance is particularly high
F35
Residual current differential devices (RCDs)
F36
8.1 Types of RCDs
F36
8.2 Description
F36
8.3 Sensitivity of RDCs to disturbances
F39
F1
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
1 General
1.1 Electric shock
When a current exceeding 30 mA passes
through a part of a human body, the person
concerned is in serious danger if the current is
not interrupted in a very short time.
The protection of persons against electric
shock in LV installations must be provided in
conformity with appropriate national standards
statutory regulations, codes of practice, official
guides and circulars etc.
Relevant IEC standards include: IEC 60364,
IEC 60479 series, IEC 61008, IEC 61009 and
IEC 60947-2.
An electric shock is the pathophysiological effect of an electric current through the
human body.
Its passage affects essentially the muscular, circulatory and respiratory functions and
sometimes results in serious burns. The degree of danger for the victim is a function
of the magnitude of the current, the parts of the body through which the current
passes, and the duration of current flow.
IEC publication 60479-1 updated in 2005 defines four zones of current-magnitude/
time-duration, in each of which the pathophysiological effects are described (see Fig
F1). Any person coming into contact with live metal risks an electric shock.
Curve C1 shows that when a current greater than 30 mA passes through a human
being from one hand to feet, the person concerned is likely to be killed, unless the
current is interrupted in a relatively short time.
The point 500 ms/100 mA close to the curve C1 corresponds to a probability of heart
fibrillation of the order of 0.14%.
F2
The protection of persons against electric shock in LV installations must be provided
in conformity with appropriate national standards and statutory regulations, codes of
practice, official guides and circulars, etc. Relevant IEC standards include: IEC 60364
series, IEC 60479 series, IEC 60755, IEC 61008 series, IEC 61009 series and IEC
60947-2.
Duration of current
flow I (ms)
A
10,000
C1 C2 C3
B
5,000
AC-4.1
AC-4.2
2,000
AC-4.3
1,000
500
AC-1
AC-2
AC-3
AC-4
200
100
50
20
Body current
Is (mA)
10
0.1 0.2
0.5
1
2
5
10
20
50
100 200
500
2,000
10,000
1,000
5,000
AC-1 zone: Imperceptible
AC-2 zone: Perceptible
A curve: Threshold of perception of current
B curve: Threshold of muscular reactions
AC-3 zone : Reversible effects: muscular contraction
AC-4 zone: Possibility of irreversible effects
C1 curve: Threshold of 0% probability of ventricular
fibrillation
C2 curve: Threshold of 5% probability of ventricular
fibrillation
C3 curve: Threshold of 50% probability of ventricular
fibrillation
AC-4-1 zone: Up to 5%probability of heart fibrillation
AC-4-2 zone: Up to 50% probability of heart fibrillation
AC-4-3 zone: More than 50% probability of heart fibrillation
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F1 : Zones time/current of effects of AC current on human body when passing from left hand to feet
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
1 General
1.2 Protection against electric shock
The fundamental rule of protection against electric shock is provided by the
document IEC 61140 which covers both electrical installations and electrical
equipment.
Hazardous-live-parts shall not be accessible and accessible conductive parts shall
not be hazardous.
This requirement needs to apply under:
b Normal conditions, and
b Under a single fault condition
Various measures are adopted to protect against this hazard, and include:
b Automatic disconnection of the power supply to the connected electrical equipment
b Special arrangements such as:
v The use of class II insulation materials, or an equivalent level of insulation
v Non-conducting location, out of arm’s reach or interposition of barriers
v Equipotential bonding
F3
v Electrical separation by means of isolating transformers
1.3 Direct and indirect contact
Two measures of protection against direct
contact hazards are often required, since, in
practice, the first measure may not be infallible
Direct contact
A direct contact refers to a person coming into contact with a conductor which is live
in normal circumstances (see Fig. F2).
IEC 61140 standard has renamed “protection against direct contact” with the term
“basic protection”. The former name is at least kept for information.
Standards and regulations distinguish two kinds
of dangerous contact,
b Direct contact
b Indirect contact
and corresponding protective measures
Indirect contact
An indirect contact refers to a person coming into contact with an exposedconductive-part which is not normally alive, but has become alive accidentally (due
to insulation failure or some other cause).
The fault current raise the exposed-conductive-part to a voltage liable to be
hazardous which could be at the origin of a touch current through a person coming
into contact with this exposed-conductive-part (see Fig. F3).
IEC 61140 standard has renamed “protection against indirect contact” with the term
“fault protection”. The former name is at least kept for information.
1
1
2
3
2
3
PE
N
Id
Busbars
Insulation
failure
Is
Is
Fig. F2 : Direct contact
Fig F3 : Indirect contact
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Id: Insulation fault current
Is: Touch current
F - Protection against electric shock
2 Protection against direct contact
Two complementary measures are commonly used as protection against the
dangers of direct contact:
b The physical prevention of contact with live parts by barriers, insulation,
inaccessibility, etc.
b Additional protection in the event that a direct contact occurs, despite or due to
failure of the above measures. This protection is based on residual-current operating
device with a high sensitivity (IΔn y 30 mA) and a low operating time. These devices
are highly effective in the majority of case of direct contact.
IEC and national standards frequently
distinguish two protections:
b Complete (insulation, enclosures)
b Partial or particular
2.1 Measures of protection against direct contact
Protection by the insulation of live parts
This protection consists of an insulation which complies with the relevant standards
(see Fig. F4). Paints, lacquers and varnishes do not provide an adequate protection.
F4
Fig. F4 : Inherent protection against direct contact by insulation of a 3-phase cable with outer
sheath
Protection by means of barriers or enclosures
This measure is in widespread use, since many components and materials are
installed in cabinets, assemblies, control panels and distribution boards (see Fig. F5).
To be considered as providing effective protection against direct contact hazards,
these equipment must possess a degree of protection equal to at least IP 2X or
IP XXB (see chapter E sub-clause 3.4).
Moreover, an opening in an enclosure (door, front panel, drawer, etc.) must only be
removable, open or withdrawn:
b By means of a key or tool provided for this purpose, or
b After complete isolation of the live parts in the enclosure, or
b With the automatic interposition of another screen removable only with a key or
a tool. The metal enclosure and all metal removable screen must be bonded to the
protective earthing conductor of the installation.
Partial measures of protection
b Protection by means of obstacles, or by placing out of arm’s reach
This protection is reserved only to locations to which skilled or instructed
persons only have access. The erection of this protective measure is detailed in
IEC 60364-4-41.
Particular measures of protection
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F5 : Example of isolation by envelope
b Protection by use of extra-low voltage SELV (Safety Extra-Low Voltage) or by
limitation of the energy of discharge.
These measures are used only in low-power circuits, and in particular circumstances,
as described in section 3.5.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
2 Protection against direct contact
An additional measure of protection against
the hazards of direct contact is provided by the
use of residual current operating device, which
operate at 30 mA or less, and are referred to as
RCDs of high sensitivity
2.2 Additional measure of protection against direct
contact
All the preceding protective measures are preventive, but experience has shown
that for various reasons they cannot be regarded as being infallible. Among these
reasons may be cited:
b Lack of proper maintenance
b Imprudence, carelessness
b Normal (or abnormal) wear and tear of insulation; for instance flexure and abrasion
of connecting leads
b Accidental contact
b Immersion in water, etc. A situation in which insulation is no longer effective
In order to protect users in such circumstances, highly sensitive fast tripping
devices, based on the detection of residual currents to earth (which may or may
not be through a human being or animal) are used to disconnect the power
supply automatically, and with sufficient rapidity to prevent injury to, or death by
electrocution, of a normally healthy human being (see Fig. F6).
F5
These devices operate on the principle of differential current measurement, in which
any difference between the current entering a circuit and that leaving it (on a system
supplied from an earthed source) be flowing to earth, either through faulty insulation
or through contact of an earthed part, such as a person, with a live conductor.
Standardised residual-current devices, referred to as RCDs, sufficiently sensitive for
protection against direct contact are rated at 30 mA of differential current.
According to IEC 60364-4-41, additional protection by means of high sensitivity
RCDs (I∆n y 30 mA) must be provided for circuits supplying socket-outlets with a
rated current y 20 A in all locations, and for circuits supplying mobile equipment with
a rated current y 32 A for use outdoors.
This additional protection is required in certain countries for circuits supplying socketoutlets rated up to 32 A, and even higher if the location is wet and/or temporary
(such as work sites for instance).
It is also recommended to limit the number of socket-outlets protected by a RCD
(e.g. 10 socket-outlets for one RCD).
Chapter P section 3 itemises various common locations in which RCDs of
high sensitivity are obligatory (in some countries), but in any case, are highly
recommended as an effective protection against both direct and indirect contact
hazards.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F6 : High sensitivity RCD
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
Exposed-conductive-parts used in the manufacturing process of an electrical
equipment is separated from the live parts of the equipment by the “basic insulation”.
Failure of the basic insulation will result in the exposed-conductive-parts being alive.
Touching a normally dead part of an electrical equipment which has become live due
to the failure of its insulation, is referred to as an indirect contact.
3.1 Measures of protection: two levels
Protection against indirect contact hazards
can be achieved by automatic disconnection of
the supply if the exposed-conductive-parts of
equipment are properly earthed
F6
Two levels of protective measures exist:
b 1st level: The earthing of all exposed-conductive-parts of electrical equipment in the
installation and the constitution of an equipotential bonding network (see chapter G
section 6).
b 2sd level: Automatic disconnection of the supply of the section of the installation
concerned, in such a way that the touch-voltage/time safety requirements are
respected for any level of touch voltage Uc(1) (see Fig. F7).
Earth
connection
Uc
Fig. F7 : Illustration of the dangerous touch voltage Uc
The greater the value of Uc, the greater the rapidity of supply disconnection required
to provide protection (see Fig. F8). The highest value of Uc that can be tolerated
indefinitely without danger to human beings is 50 V a.c.
Reminder of the theoretical disconnecting-time limits
Uo (V)
50 < Uo y 120
System TN or IT 0.8
TT
0.3
120 < Uo y 230
0.4
0.2
230 < Uo y 400
0.2
0.07
Uo > 400
0.1
0.04
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F8 : Maximum safe duration of the assumed values of AC touch voltage (in seconds)
(1) Touch voltage Uc is the voltage existing (as the result of
insulation failure) between an exposed-conductive-part and
any conductive element within reach which is at a different
(generally earth) potential.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
3.2 Automatic disconnection for TT system
Automatic disconnection for TT system is
achieved by RCD having a sensitivity of
50
I ni
where RA is the resistance of the
RA
installation earth electrode
Principle
In this system all exposed-conductive-parts and extraneous-conductive-parts of
the installation must be connected to a common earth electrode. The neutral point
of the supply system is normally earthed at a pint outside the influence area of the
installation earth electrode, but need not be so. The impedance of the earth-fault loop
therefore consists mainly in the two earth electrodes (i.e. the source and installation
electrodes) in series, so that the magnitude of the earth fault current is generally
too small to operate overcurrent relay or fuses, and the use of a residual current
operated device is essential.
This principle of protection is also valid if one common earth electrode only is used,
notably in the case of a consumer-type substation within the installation area, where
space limitation may impose the adoption of a TN system earthing, but where all
other conditions required by the TN system cannot be fulfilled.
Protection by automatic disconnection of the supply used in TT system is by RCD of
sensitivity:
I
ni
50
where R
RA
F7
where
RA is the resistance of the earth electrode for the installation
IΔn is the rated residual operating current of the RCD
For temporary supplies (to work sites, …) and agricultural and horticultural premises,
the value of 50 V is replaced by 25 V.
Example (see Fig. F9)
b The resistance of the earth electrode of substation neutral Rn is 10 Ω.
b The resistance of the earth electrode of the installation RA is 20 Ω.
b The earth-fault loop current Id = 7.7 A.
b The fault voltage Uf = Id x RA = 154 V and therefore dangerous, but
IΔn = 50/20 = 2.5 A so that a standard 300 mA RCD will operate in about 30 ms
without intentional time delay and will clear the fault where a fault voltage exceeding
appears on an exposed-conductive-part.
Uo(1) (V)
T (s)
50 < Uo y 120
0.3
120 < Uo y 230
0.2
230 < Uo y 400
0.07
Uo > 400
0.04
(1) Uo is the nominal phase to earth voltage
Fig. F10 : Maximum disconnecting time for AC final circuits not exceeding 32 A
Rn = 10 Ω
RA = 20 Ω
Uf
Substation
earth
electrode
Installation
earth
electrode
Fig. F9 : Automatic disconnection of supply for TT system
Specified maximum disconnection time
The tripping times of RCDs are generally lower than those required in the majority
of national standards; this feature facilitates their use and allows the adoption of an
effective discriminative protection.
The IEC 60364-4-41 specifies the maximum operating time of protective devices
used in TT system for the protection against indirect contact:
b For all final circuits with a rated current not exceeding 32 A, the maximum
disconnecting time will not exceed the values indicated in Figure F10
b For all other circuits, the maximum disconnecting time is fixed to 1s. This limit
enables discrimination between RCDs when installed on distribution circuits.
RCD is a general term for all devices operating on the residual-current principle.
RCCB (Residual Current Circuit-Breaker) as defined in IEC 61008 series is a specific
class of RCD.
Type G (general) and type S (Selective) of IEC 61008 have a tripping time/current
characteristics as shown in Figure F11 next page. These characteristics allow a certain
degree of selective tripping between the several combination of ratings and types, as
shown later in sub-clause 4.3. Industrial type RCD according to IEC 60947-2 provide
more possibilities of discrimination due to their flexibility of time-delaying.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
1
2
3
N
PE
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
x IΔn
Domestic
Industrial
Instantaneous
Type S
Instantaneous
Time-delay (0.06)
Time-delay (other)
1
2
5
0.3
0.15
0.04
0.5
0.2
0.15
0.3
0.15
0.04
0.5
0.2
0.15
According to manufacturer
>5
0.04
0.15
0.04
0.15
Fig. F11 : Maximum operating time of RCD’s (in seconds)
3.3 Automatic disconnection for TN systems
F8
The automatic disconnection for TN system is
achieved by overcurrent protective devices or
RCD’s
Principle
In this system all exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts of the installation are
connected directly to the earthed point of the power supply by protective conductors.
As noted in Chapter E Sub-clause 1.2, the way in which this direct connection is
carried out depends on whether the TN-C, TN-S, or TN-C-S method of implementing
the TN principle is used. In figure F12 the method TN-C is shown, in which the
neutral conductor acts as both the Protective-Earth and Neutral (PEN) conductor. In
all TN systems, any insulation fault to earth results in a phase to neutral short-circuit.
High fault current levels allow to use overcurrent protection but can give rise to touch
voltages exceeding 50% of the phase to neutral voltage at the fault position during
the short disconnection time.
In practice for utility distribution network, earth electrodes are normally installed at
regular intervals along the protective conductor (PE or PEN) of the network, while
the consumer is often required to install an earth electrode at the service entrance.
On large installations additional earth electrodes dispersed around the premises are
often provided, in order to reduce the touch voltage as much as possible. In high-rise
apartment blocks, all extraneous conductive parts are connected to the protective
conductor at each level. In order to ensure adequate protection, the earth-fault
current
Uo
Uo
must
be higher or equal to Ia, where:
or 0.8
I
Zc
Zs
b Uo = nominal phase to neutral voltage
b Id = the fault current
b Ia = current equal to the value required to operate the protective device in the time
specified
b Zs = earth-fault current loop impedance, equal to the sum of the impedances of the
source, the live phase conductors to the fault position, the protective conductors from
the fault position back to the source
b Zc = the faulty-circuit loop impedance (see “conventional method” Sub-clause 6.2)
Id =
Note: The path through earth electrodes back to the source will have (generally)
much higher impedance values than those listed above, and need not be considered.
B
A
1
2
3
PEN
F
E
N
NSX160
35 mm2
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
50 m
35 mm2
D
C
Uf
Example (see Fig. F12)
230
= 115 V and is hazardous;
The fault voltage Uf =
2
The fault loop impedance Zs=ZAB + ZBC + ZDE + ZEN + ZNA.
If ZBC and ZDE are predominant, then:
L
sothat
that
= 64.3 m , ,so
S
230
= 3,576 A ((≈ 22 In based on a NSX160 circuit-breaker).
I d=
64.3 x10 -3
The “instantaneous” magnetic trip unit adjustment of the circuit-breaker is many time
less than this short-circuit value, so that positive operation in the shortest possible
time is assured.
Zs = 2
Note: Some authorities base such calculations on the assumption that a voltage
drop of 20% occurs in the part of the impedance loop BANE.
This method, which is recommended, is explained in chapter F sub-clause 6.2
Fig. F12 : Automatic disconnection in TN system
“conventional method” and in this example will give an estimated fault current of
230 x 0.8 x 103
= 2,816 A ((≈ 18 In).
64.3
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
Specified maximum disconnection time
The IEC 60364-4-41 specifies the maximum operating time of protective devices
used in TN system for the protection against indirect contact:
b For all final circuits with a rated current not exceeding 32 A, the maximum
disconnecting time will not exceed the values indicated in Figure F13
b For all other circuits, the maximum disconnecting time is fixed to 5s. This limit
enables discrimination between protective devices installed on distribution circuits
Note: The use of RCDs may be necessary on TN-earthed systems. Use of RCDs on
TN-C-S systems means that the protective conductor and the neutral conductor must
(evidently) be separated upstream of the RCD. This separation is commonly made at
the service entrance.
Uo(1) (V)
T (s)
50 < Uo y 120
0.8
120 < Uo y 230
0.4
230 < Uo y 400
0.2
Uo > 400
0.1
(1) Uo is the nominal phase to earth voltage
F9
Fig. F13 : Maximum disconnecting time for AC final circuits not exceeding 32 A
Protection by means of circuit-breaker (see Fig. F14)
If the protection is to be provided by a circuitbreaker, it is sufficient to verify that the fault
current will always exceed the current-setting
level of the instantaneous or short-time delay
tripping unit (Im)
The instantaneous trip unit of a circuit-breaker will eliminate a short-circuit to earth in
less than 0.1 second.
In consequence, automatic disconnection within the maximum allowable time will
always be assured, since all types of trip unit, magnetic or electronic, instantaneous
or slightly retarded, are suitable: Ia = Im. The maximum tolerance authorised
by the relevant standard, however, must always be taken into consideration. It is
Uo
Uo
determined
calculation
sufficient therefore that the fault current
determined
byby
calculation
(or estimated
or 0.8
Zs
Zc
(or estimated on site) be greater than the instantaneous trip-setting current, or than
the very short-time tripping threshold level, to be sure of tripping within the permitted
time limit.
Protection by means of fuses (see Fig. F15)
Ia can be determined from the fuse
performance curve. In any case, protection
The value of current which assures the correct operation of a fuse can be
ascertained from a current/time performance graph for the fuse concerned.
cannot be achieved if the loop impedance Zs
Uo
Uo
or Zc exceeds a certain value
therefore thatThe
the fault current
determined
by calculation
estimated
or 0.8
as determined
above, must(or
largely
exceed that
Zs
Zc
necessary to ensure positive operation of the fuse. The condition to observe
Uo
Uo
therefore
as as
indicated
in Figure
F15.
or 0.8
therefore is that I a <
indicated
in Figure
F15.
Zs
Zc
t
t
1: Short-time delayed trip
2: Instantaneous trip
2
Im
Uo/Zs
Fig. F14 : Disconnection by circuit-breaker for a TN system
I
Ia Uo/Zs
Fig. F15 : Disconnection by fuses for a TN system
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
I
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
tc = 0.4 s
1
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
Example: The nominal phase to neutral voltage of the network is 230 V and
the maximum disconnection time given by the graph in Figure F15 is 0.4 s.
The corresponding value of Ia can be read from the graph. Using the voltage (230 V)
and the current IIa, the complete loop impedance or the circuit loop impedance can
230
230
. This impedance value must never be
be calculated from Zs =
or Zc = 0.8
Ia
Ia
exceeded and should preferably be substantially less to ensure satisfactory fuse
operation.
Protection by means of Residual Current Devices for
TN-S circuits
Residual Current Devices must be used where:
b The loop impedance cannot be determined precisely (lengths difficult to estimate,
presence of metallic material close to the wiring)
b The fault current is so low that the disconnecting time cannot be met by using
overcurrent protective devices
The rated tripping current of RCDs being in the order of a few amps, it is well below
the fault current level. RCDs are consequently well adapted to this situation.
F10
In practice, they are often installed in the LV sub distribution and in many countries,
the automatic disconnection of final circuits shall be achieved by Residual Current
Devices.
3.4 Automatic disconnection on a second fault in an
IT system
In this type of system:
b The installation is isolated from earth, or the neutral point of its power-supply
source is connected to earth through a high impedance
b All exposed and extraneous-conductive-parts are earthed via an installation earth
electrode.
First fault situation
In IT system the first fault to earth should not
cause any disconnection
On the occurrence of a true fault to earth, referred to as a “first fault”, the fault current
is very low, such that the rule Id x RA y 50 V (see F3.2) is fulfilled and no dangerous
fault voltages can occur.
In practice the current Id is low, a condition that is neither dangerous to personnel,
nor harmful to the installation.
However, in this system:
b A permanent monitoring of the insulation to earth must be provided, coupled with
an alarm signal (audio and/or flashing lights, etc.) operating in the event of a first
earth fault (see Fig. F16)
b The rapid location and repair of a first fault is imperative if the full benefits of the
IT system are to be realised. Continuity of service is the great advantage afforded by
the system.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
For a network formed from 1 km of new conductors, the leakage (capacitive)
impedance to earth Zf is of the order of 3,500 Ω per phase. In normal operation, the
capacitive current(1) to earth is therefore:
Uo
230
=
= 66 mA per phase.
Zf 3,500
During a phase to earth fault, as indicated in Figure F17 opposite page, the current
passing through the electrode resistance RnA is the vector sum of the capacitive
currents in the two healthy phases. The voltages of the healthy phases have
(because of the fault) increased to 3 the normal phase voltage, so that the capacitive
currents increase by the same amount. These currents are displaced, one from the
other by 60°, so that when added vectorially, this amounts to 3 x 66 mA = 198 mA, in
the present example.
The fault voltage Uf is therefore equal to 198 x 5 x 10-3 = 0.99 V, which is obviously
harmless.
The current through the short-circuit to earth is given by the vector sum of the
neutral-resistor current Id1 (=153 mA) and the capacitive current Id2 (198 mA).
Since the exposed-conductive-parts of the installation are connected directly to
earth, the neutral impedance Zct plays practically no part in the production of touch
voltages to earth.
Fig. F16 : Phases to earth insulation monitoring device
obligatory in IT system
(1) Resistive leakage current to earth through the insulation is
assumed to be negligibly small in the example.
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F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
Id1 + Id2
Id1
1
2
3
N
PE
B
Zf
Zct = 1,500 Ω
Ω
RnA = 5 Ω
Id2
Uf
F11
Fig. F17 : Fault current path for a first fault in IT system
Second fault situation
On the appearance of a second fault, on a different phase, or on a neutral conductor,
a rapid disconnection becomes imperative. Fault clearance is carried out differently in
each of the following cases:
The simultaneous existence of two earth faults
(if not both on the same phase) is dangerous,
and rapid clearance by fuses or automatic
circuit-breaker tripping depends on the type of
earth-bonding scheme, and whether separate
earthing electrodes are used or not, in the
installation concerned
1st case
It concerns an installation in which all exposed conductive parts are bonded to a
common PE conductor, as shown in Figure F18.
In this case no earth electrodes are included in the fault current path, so that a high
level of fault current is assured, and conventional overcurrent protective devices are
used, i.e. circuit-breakers and fuses.
The first fault could occur at the end of a circuit in a remote part of the installation,
while the second fault could feasibly be located at the opposite end of the installation.
For this reason, it is conventional to double the loop impedance of a circuit, when
calculating the anticipated fault setting level for its overcurrent protective device(s).
Where the system includes a neutral conductor in addition to the 3 phase
conductors, the lowest short-circuit fault currents will occur if one of the (two) faults is
from the neutral conductor to earth (all four conductors are insulated from earth in an
IT scheme). In four-wire IT installations, therefore, the phase-to-neutral voltage must
Uo
(1) where
u I a (1)
be used to calculate short-circuit protective levels i.e.
i.e. 0.8
2 Zc
Uo = phase to neutral voltage
Zc = impedance of the circuit fault-current loop (see F3.3)
Ia = current level for trip setting
If no neutral conductor is distributed, then the voltage to use for the fault-current
3 Uo
(1)
calculationisisthe
thephase-to-phase
phase-to-phasevalue,
value, i.e.
i.e. 0.8
calculation
u I a (1)
2 Zc
b Maximum tripping times
Disconnecting times for IT system depends on how the different installation and
substation earth electrodes are interconnected.
For final circuits supplying electrical equipment with a rated current not exceeding
32 A and having their exposed-conductive-parts connected to an independent earth
electrode electrically separated from the substation earth electrode, the maximum
tripping time is given in Figure F13. For the other circuits within the same group of
non interconnected exposed-conductive-parts, the maximum disconnecting time is
1s. This is due to the fact that any double fault situation resulting from one insulation
fault within this group and another insulation fault from another group will generate a
fault current limited by the different earth electrode resistances as in TT system.
(1) Based on the “conventional method” noted in the first
example of Sub-clause 3.3.
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For final circuits supplying electrical equipment with a rated current not exceeding
32 A and having their exposed-conductive-parts bonded with the substation earth
electrode, the maximum tripping time is given in table F8. For the other circuits
within the same group of interconnected exposed-conductive-parts, the maximum
disconnecting time is 5 s. This is due to the fact that any double fault situation within
this group will result in a short-circuit current as in TN system.
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
Id
K
A
B
J
F
NSX160
160 A
50 m
35 mm2
G
1
2
3
N
PE
E
50 m
35 mm2
H
D
C
RA
F12
Fig. F18 : Circuit-breaker tripping on double fault situation when exposed-conductive-parts are
connected to a common protective conductor
b Protection by circuit-breaker
In the case shown in Figure F18, the adjustments of instantaneous and short-time
delay overcurrent trip unit must be decided. The times recommended here above can
be readily complied with. The short-circuit protection provided by the NSX160 circuitbreaker is suitable to clear a phase to phase short-circuit occurring at the load ends
of the circuits concerned.
Reminder: In an IT system, the two circuits involved in a phase to phase short-circuit
are assumed to be of equal length, with the same cross sectional area conductors,
the PE conductors being the same cross sectional area as the phase conductors. In
such a case, the impedance of the circuit loop when using the “conventional method”
(sub clause 6.2) will be twice that calculated for one of the circuits in the TN case,
shown in Chapter F sub clause 3.3.
L
in m where:
The resistance of circuit loop FGHJ == 2RJH = 2
where:
a
ρ = resistance of copper rod 1 meter long of cross sectional area 1 mm2, in mΩ
L = length of the circuit in meters
a = cross sectional area of the conductor in mm2
FGHJ = 2 x 22.5 x 50/35 = 64.3 mΩ
and the loop resistance B, C, D, E, F, G, H, J will be 2 x 64.3 = 129 mΩ.
The fault current will therefore be 0.8 x 3 x 230 x 103/129 = 2,470 A.
b Protection by fuses
The current Ia for which fuse operation must be assured in a time specified according
to here above can be found from fuse operating curves, as described in figure F15.
The current indicated should be significantly lower than the fault currents calculated
for the circuit concerned.
b Protection by Residual current circuit-breakers (RCCBs)
For low values of short-circuit current, RCCBs are necessary. Protection against
indirect contact hazards can be achieved then by using one RCCB for each circuit.
2nd case
b It concerns exposed conductive parts which are earthed either individually (each part
having its own earth electrode) or in separate groups (one electrode for each group).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
If all exposed conductive parts are not bonded to a common electrode system, then
it is possible for the second earth fault to occur in a different group or in a separately
earthed individual apparatus. Additional protection to that described above for
case 1, is required, and consists of a RCD placed at the circuit-breaker controlling
each group and each individually-earthed apparatus.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
The reason for this requirement is that the separate-group electrodes are “bonded”
through the earth so that the phase to phase short-circuit current will generally be
limited when passing through the earth bond by the electrode contact resistances
with the earth, thereby making protection by overcurrent devices unreliable. The
more sensitive RCDs are therefore necessary, but the operating current of the RCDs
must evidently exceed that which occurs for a first fault (see Fig. F19).
Leakage capacitance
(µF)
1
5
30
First fault current
(A)
0.07
0.36
2.17
Note: 1 µF is the 1 km typical leakage capacitance for
4-conductor cable.
F13
Fig. F19 : Correspondence between the earth leakage capacitance and the first fault current
For a second fault occurring within a group having a common earth-electrode
system, the overcurrent protection operates, as described above for case 1.
Note 1: See also Chapter G Sub-clause 7.2, protection of the neutral conductor.
Note 2: In 3-phase 4-wire installations, protection against overcurrent in the neutral
conductor is sometimes more conveniently achieved by using a ring-type current
transformer over the single-core neutral conductor (see Fig. F20).
Case 1
Case 2
RCD
N
RCD
N
Ω PIM
RCD
RCD
Ω PIM
Group
earth 1
Group
earth
RA
Rn
Rn
RA1
Group
earth 2
RA2
Fig. F20 : Application of RCDs when exposed-conductive-parts are earthed individually or by group on IT system
3.5 Measures of protection against direct or indirect
contact without automatic disconnection of supply
The use of SELV (Safety Extra-Low Voltage)
Safety by extra low voltage SELV is used in situations where the operation of electrical
equipment presents a serious hazard (swimming pools, amusement parks, etc.).
This measure depends on supplying power at extra-low voltage from the secondary
windings of isolating transformers especially designed according to national or to
international (IEC 60742) standard. The impulse withstand level of insulation between
the primary and secondary windings is very high, and/or an earthed metal screen
is sometimes incorporated between the windings. The secondary voltage never
exceeds 50 V rms.
Three conditions of exploitation must be respected in order to provide satisfactory
protection against indirect contact:
b No live conductor at SELV must be connected to earth
b Exposed-conductive-parts of SELV supplied equipment must not be connected to
earth, to other exposed conductive parts, or to extraneous-conductive-parts
b All live parts of SELV circuits and of other circuits of higher voltage must be
separated by a distance at least equal to that between the primary and secondary
windings of a safety isolating transformer.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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Extra-low voltage is used where the risks
are great: swimming pools, wandering-lead
hand lamps, and other portable appliances for
outdoor use, etc.
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
These measures require that:
b SELV circuits must use conduits exclusively provided for them, unless cables which
are insulated for the highest voltage of the other circuits are used for the SELV circuits
b Socket outlets for the SELV system must not have an earth-pin contact. The
SELV circuit plugs and sockets must be special, so that inadvertent connection to a
different voltage level is not possible.
Note: In normal conditions, when the SELV voltage is less than 25 V, there is no
need to provide protection against direct contact hazards. Particular requirements
are indicated in Chapter P, Clause 3: “special locations”.
The use of PELV (Protection by Extra Low Voltage) (see Fig. F21)
This system is for general use where low voltage is required, or preferred for safety
reasons, other than in the high-risk locations noted above. The conception is similar
to that of the SELV system, but the secondary circuit is earthed at one point.
IEC 60364-4-41 defines precisely the significance of the reference PELV. Protection
against direct contact hazards is generally necessary, except when the equipment
is in the zone of equipotential bonding, and the nominal voltage does not exceed
25 V rms, and the equipment is used in normally dry locations only, and large-area
contact with the human body is not expected. In all other cases, 6 V rms is the
maximum permitted voltage, where no direct contact protection is provided.
F14
230 V / 24 V
Fig. F21 : Low-voltage supplies from a safety isolating transformer
FELV system (Functional Extra-Low Voltage)
Where, for functional reasons, a voltage of 50 V or less is used, but not all of the
requirements relating to SELV or PELV are fulfilled, appropriate measures described
in IEC 60364-4-41 must be taken to ensure protection against both direct and
indirect contact hazards, according to the location and use of these circuits.
Note: Such conditions may, for example, be encountered when the circuit contains
equipment (such as transformers, relays, remote-control switches, contactors)
insufficiently insulated with respect to circuits at higher voltages.
The electrical separation of circuits is suitable
for relatively short cable lengths and high levels
of insulation resistance. It is preferably used for
an individual appliance
The electrical separation of circuits (see Fig. F22)
The principle of the electrical separation of circuits (generally single-phase circuits)
for safety purposes is based on the following rationale.
The two conductors from the unearthed single-phase secondary winding of a
separation transformer are insulated from earth.
If a direct contact is made with one conductor, a very small current only will flow into
the person making contact, through the earth and back to the other conductor, via
the inherent capacitance of that conductor with respect to earth. Since the conductor
capacitance to earth is very small, the current is generally below the level of perception.
As the length of circuit cable increases, the direct contact current will progressively
increase to a point where a dangerous electric shock will be experienced.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
230 V/230 V
Fig. F22 : Safety supply from a class II separation transformer
Even if a short length of cable precludes any danger from capacitive current, a low
value of insulation resistance with respect to earth can result in danger, since the
current path is then via the person making contact, through the earth and back to the
other conductor through the low conductor-to-earth insulation resistance.
For these reasons, relatively short lengths of well insulated cables are essential in
separation systems.
Transformers are specially designed for this duty, with a high degree of insulation
between primary and secondary windings, or with equivalent protection, such as an
earthed metal screen between the windings. Construction of the transformer is to
class II insulation standards.
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F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
As indicated before, successful exploitation of the principle requires that:
b No conductor or exposed conductive part of the secondary circuit must be
connected to earth,
b The length of secondary cabling must be limited to avoid large capacitance values(1),
b A high insulation-resistance value must be maintained for the cabling and appliances.
These conditions generally limit the application of this safety measure to an
individual appliance.
In the case where several appliances are supplied from a separation transformer, it is
necessary to observe the following requirements:
b The exposed conductive parts of all appliances must be connected together by an
insulated protective conductor, but not connected to earth,
b The socket outlets must be provided with an earth-pin connection. The earth-pin
connection is used in this case only to ensure the interconnection (bonding) of all
exposed conductive parts.
In the case of a second fault, overcurrent protection must provide automatic
disconnection in the same conditions as those required for an IT system of power
system earthing.
F15
Class II equipment
Class II equipment symbol:
These appliances are also referred to as having “double insulation” since in class
II appliances a supplementary insulation is added to the basic insulation (see
Fig. F23).
No conductive parts of a class II appliance must be connected to a protective conductor:
b Most portable or semi-fixed equipment, certain lamps, and some types of
transformer are designed to have double insulation. It is important to take particular
care in the exploitation of class II equipment and to verify regularly and often that the
class II standard is maintained (no broken outer envelope, etc.). Electronic devices,
radio and television sets have safety levels equivalent to class II, but are not formally
class II appliances
b Supplementary insulation in an electrical installation: IEC 60364-4-41(Sub-clause
413-2) and some national standards such as NF C 15-100 (France) describe in
more detail the necessary measures to achieve the supplementary insulation during
installation work.
Active part
Basic insulation
Supplementary insulation
Fig. F23 : Principle of class II insulation level
A simple example is that of drawing a cable into a PVC conduit. Methods are also
described for distribution switchboards.
b For distribution switchboards and similar equipment, IEC 60439-1 describes a set
of requirements, for what is referred to as “total insulation”, equivalent to class II
b Some cables are recognised as being equivalent to class II by many national standards
Out-of-arm’s reach or interposition of obstacles
By these means, the probability of touching a live exposed-conductive-part, while at
the same time touching an extraneous-conductive-part at earth potential, is extremely
low (see Fig. F24 next page). In practice, this measure can only be applied in a dry
location, and is implemented according to the following conditions:
b The floor and the wall of the chamber must be non-conducting, i.e. the resistance
to earth at any point must be:
v > 50 kΩ (installation voltage y 500 V)
v > 100 kΩ (500 V < installation voltage y 1000 V)
Resistance is measured by means of “MEGGER” type instruments (hand-operated
generator or battery-operated electronic model) between an electrode placed on the
floor or against the wall, and earth (i.e. the nearest protective earth conductor). The
electrode contact area pressure must be evidently be the same for all tests.
(1) It is recommended in IEC 364-4-41 that the product of the
nominal voltage of the circuit in volts and length in metres of
the wiring system should not exceed 100,000, and that the
length of the wiring system should not exceed 500 m.
Different instruments suppliers provide electrodes specific to their own product, so
that care should be taken to ensure that the electrodes used are those supplied with
the instrument.
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In principle, safety by placing simultaneouslyaccessible conductive parts out-of-reach, or by
interposing obstacles, requires also a nonconducting floor, and so is not an easily applied
principle
F - Protection against electric shock
3 Protection against indirect
contact
b The placing of equipment and obstacles must be such that simultaneous contact
with two exposed-conductive-parts or with an exposed conductive-part and an
extraneous-conductive-part by an individual person is not possible.
b No exposed protective conductor must be introduced into the chamber concerned.
b Entrances to the chamber must be arranged so that persons entering are not at
risk, e.g. a person standing on a conducting floor outside the chamber must not be
able to reach through the doorway to touch an exposed-conductive-part, such as a
lighting switch mounted in an industrial-type cast-iron conduit box, for example.
Insulated
walls
Insulated
obstacles
F16
2.5 m
Electrical
apparatus
Electrical
apparatus
Electrical
apparatus
Insulated floor
>2m
<2m
Fig. F24 : Protection by out-of arm’s reach arrangements and the interposition of non-conducting obstacles
Earth-free equipotential chambers are
associated with particular installations
(laboratories, etc.) and give rise to a number of
practical installation difficulties
Earth-free equipotential chambers
In this scheme, all exposed-conductive-parts, including the floor (1) are bonded by
suitably large conductors, such that no significant difference of potential can exist
between any two points. A failure of insulation between a live conductor and the
metal envelope of an appliance will result in the whole “cage” being raised to phaseto-earth voltage, but no fault current will flow. In such conditions, a person entering
the chamber would be at risk (since he/she would be stepping on to a live floor).
Suitable precautions must be taken to protect personnel from this danger (e.g. nonconducting floor at entrances, etc.). Special protective devices are also necessary to
detect insulation failure, in the absence of significant fault current.
M
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Conductive
floor
Insulating material
Fig. F25 : Equipotential bonding of all exposed-conductive-parts simultaneously accessible
(1) Extraneous conductive parts entering (or leaving) the
equipotential space (such as water pipes, etc.) must be
encased in suitable insulating material and excluded from the
equipotential network, since such parts are likely to be bonded
to protective (earthed) conductors elsewhere in the installation.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
4 Protection of goods
in case of insulation fault
The standards consider the damage (mainly fire) of goods due to insulation faults
to be high. Therefore, for location with high risk of fire, 300 mA Residual Current
Devices must be used. For the other locations, some standards relies on technique
called « Ground Fault Protection » (GFP).
4.1 Measures of protection against fire risk with
RCDs
RCDs are very effective devices to provide
protection against fire risk due to insulation
fault because they can detect leakage current
(ex : 300 mA) wich are too low for the other
protections, but sufficient to cause a fire
RCDs are very effective devices to provide protection against fire risk due to
insulation fault. This type of fault current is actually too low to be detected by the
other protection (overcurrent, reverse time).
For TT, IT TN-S systems in which leakage current can appear, the use of 300 mA
sensitivity RCDs provides a good protection against fire risk due to this type of fault.
An investigation has shown that the cost of the fires in industrial and tertiary
buildings can be very great.
F17
The analysis of the phenomena shows that fire risk due to electicity is linked to
overheating due to a bad coordination between the maximum rated current of the
cable (or isolated conductor) and the overcurrent protection setting.
Overheating can also be due to the modification of the initial method of installation
(addition of cables on the same support).
This overheating can be the origin of electrical arc in humid environment. These
electrical arcs evolve when the fault current-loop impedance is greater than 0.6 Ω
and exist only when an insulation fault occurs. Some tests have shown that a
300 mA fault current can induce a real risk of fire (see Fig. F26).
4.2 Ground Fault Protection (GFP)
Beginning of fire
Different type of ground fault protections (see Fig. F27)
Three types of GFP are possible dependind on the measuring device installed :
b “Residual Sensing” RS
The “insulation fault” current is calculated using the vectorial sum of currents of
current transformers secondaries. The current transformer on the neutral conductor
is often outside the circuit-breaker.
Id << 300 mA
Humid dust
Some tests have shown that a very low leakage
current (a few mA) can evolve and, from 300 mA,
induce a fire in humid and dusty environment.
b “Source Ground Return” SGR
The « insulation fault current » is measured in the neutral – earth link of the
LV transformer. The current transformer is outside the circuit-breaker.
b “Zero Sequence” ZS
The « insulation fault » is directly measured at the secondary of the current
transformer using the sum of currents in live conductors. This type of GFP is only
used with low fault current values.
Fig. F26 : Origin of fires in buildings
RS system
SGR system
ZS system
R
R
L1
L1
L2
L3
N
L2
L3
L1
L2
L3
N
N
PE
Fig. F27 : Different types of ground fault protections
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© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
R
F - Protection against electric shock
4 Protection of goods
in case of insulation fault
Positioning GFP devices in the installation
Type / installation level
Source Ground Return
(SGR)
Main-distribution
v
Sub-distribution
Comments
Used
Residual Sensing (RS)
(SGR)
v
b
Often used
Zero Sequence
(SGR)
v
b
Rarely used
v Possible
b Recommended or required
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
F18
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F - Protection against electric shock
5 Implementation of the TT system
5.1 Protective measures
Protection against indirect contact
General case
Protection against indirect contact is assured by RCDs, the sensitivity IΔn of which
50 V (1)(1)
complies with the condition I n i
RA
The choice of sensitivity of the residual current device is a function of the resistance
RA of the earth electrode for the installation, and is given in Figure F28.
IΔn
3A
1A
500 mA
300 mA
30 mA
Maximum resistance of the earth electrode
(50 V)
(25 V)
16 Ω
8Ω
50 Ω
25 Ω
100 Ω
50 Ω
166 Ω
83 Ω
1666 Ω
833 Ω
F19
Fig. F28 : The upper limit of resistance for an installation earthing electrode which must not be
exceeded, for given sensitivity levels of RCDs at UL voltage limits of 50 V and 25 V
Case of distribution circuits (see Fig. F29)
IEC 60364-4-41 and a number of national standards recognize a maximum tripping
time of 1 second in installation distribution circuits (as opposed to final circuits). This
allows a degree of selective discrimination to be achieved:
b At level A: RCD time-delayed, e.g. “S” type
b At level B: RCD instantaneous
Case where the exposed conductive parts of an appliance, or group of
appliances, are connected to a separate earth electrode (see Fig. F30)
Protection against indirect contact by a RCD at the circuit-breaker level protecting
each group or separately-earthed individual appliance.
A
RCD
In each case, the sensitivity must be compatible with the resistance of the earth
electrode concerned.
High-sensitivity RCDs (see Fig. F31)
RCD
Fig. F29 : Distribution circuits
RA1
RA2
Distant location
Fig. F30 : Separate earth electrode
Fig. F31 : Circuit supplying socket-outlets
(1) 25 V for work-site installations, agricultural establishments, etc.
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According to IEC 60364-4-41, high sensitivity RCDs (y 30 mA) must be used for
protection of socket outlets with rated current y 20 A in all locations. The use of such
RCDs is also recommended in the following cases:
b Socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all current ratings
b Socket-outlet circuits in temporary installations
b Circuits supplying laundry rooms and swimming pools
b Supply circuits to work-sites, caravans, pleasure boats, and travelling fairs
See 2.2 and chapter P, section 3
B
RCD
F - Protection against electric shock
5 Implementation of the TT system
In high fire risk locations (see Fig. F32)
RCD protection at the circuit-breaker controlling all supplies to the area at risk is
necessary in some locations, and mandatory in many countries.
The sensitivity of the RCD must be y 500 mA, but a 300 mA sensitivity is
recommended.
Protection when exposed conductive parts are not connected
to earth (see Fig. F33)
(In the case of an existing installation where the location is dry and provision of
an earthing connection is not possible, or in the event that a protective earth wire
becomes broken).
RCDs of high sensitivity (y 30 mA) will afford both protection against indirect-contact
hazards, and the additional protection against the dangers of direct-contact.
F20
Fire-risk
location
Fig. F32 : Fire-risk location
Fig. F33 : Unearthed exposed conductive parts (A)
5.2 Coordination of residual current protective
devices
Discriminative-tripping coordination is achieved either by time-delay or by subdivision
of circuits, which are then protected individually or by groups, or by a combination of
both methods.
Such discrimination avoids the tripping of any RCD, other than that immediately
upstream of a fault position:
b With equipment currently available, discrimination is possible at three or four
different levels of distribution :
v At the main general distribution board
v At local general distribution boards
v At sub-distribution boards
v At socket outlets for individual appliance protection
b In general, at distribution boards (and sub-distribution boards, if existing) and on
individual-appliance protection, devices for automatic disconnection in the event of
an indirect-contact hazard occurring are installed together with additional protection
against direct-contact hazards.
Discrimination between RCDs
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The general specification for achieving total discrimination between two RCDs is as
follow:
b The ratio between the rated residual operating currents must be > 2
b Time delaying the upstream RCD
Discrimination is achieved by exploiting the several levels of standardized sensitivity:
30 mA, 100 mA, 300 mA and 1 A and the corresponding tripping times, as shown
opposite page in Figure F34.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
5 Implementation of the TT system
t (ms)
10,000
1,000
500
300
250
200
150
130
100
II
I
60
40
selective RCDs
domestic S
F21
and industrial
(settings I and II)
RCD 30 mA
general domestic
and industrial setting 0
Current
(mA)
1,000
500
600
60
300
30
150
15
100
10
1 1.5
10
100
500 1,000
(A)
Fig. F34 : Total discrimination at 2 levels
Discrimination at 2 levels (see Fig. F35)
A
b Level A: RCD time-delayed setting I (for industrial device) or type S (for domestic
device) for protection against indirect contacts
b Level B: RCD instantaneous, with high sensitivity on circuits supplying socketoutlets or appliances at high risk (washing machines, etc.) See also Chapter P
Clause 3
Protection
RCD 300 mA
type S
RCD
30 mA
B
Schneider Electric solutions
b Level A: Compact or Multi 9 circuit-breaker with adaptable RCD module
(Vigi NSX160 or Vigi NC100), setting I or S type
b Level B: Circuit-breaker with integrated RCD module (DPN Vigi) or adaptable
RCD module (e.g. Vigi C60 or Vigi NC100) or Vigicompact
Fig. F35 : Total discrimination at 2 levels
Note: The setting of upstream RCCB must comply with selectivity rules and take into
account all the downstream earth leakage currents.
Relay with separate
toroidal CT 3 A
delay time 500 ms
B
Discrimination at 3 or 4 levels (see Fig. F36)
Protection
b Level A: RCD time-delayed (setting III)
b Level B: RCD time-delayed (setting II)
b Level C: RCD time-delayed (setting I) or type S
b Level D: RCD instantaneous
RCCB 1 A
delay time 250 ms
C
RCCB 300 A
delay time 50 ms
or type S
D
Fig. F36 : Total discrimination at 3 or 4 levels
RCCB
30 mA
Schneider Electric solutions
b Level A: Circuit-breaker associated with RCD and separate toroidal transformer
(Vigirex RH328AP)
b Level B: Vigicompact or Vigirex
b Level C: Vigirex, Vigicompact or Vigi NC100 or Vigi C60
b Level D:
v Vigicompact or
v Vigirex or
v Multi 9 with integrated or adaptable RCD module : Vigi C60 or DPN Vigi
Note: The setting of upstream RCCB must comply with selectivity rules and take into
account all the downstream earth leakage currents
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A
F - Protection against electric shock
5 Implementation of the TT system
Discriminative protection at three levels (see Fig. F37)
Withdrawable Masterpact
or Visucompact
MV/LV
F22
NSX400
NSX100 MA
Discont.
Vigicompact
NSX100
Setting 1
300 mA
NC100L MA
instantaneous
300 mA
NC100
diff.
300 mA
selective
S
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Leakage current
of the filter: 20 mA
Terminal
board
Leakage current equal to 3.5 mA per
socket outlet (Information technology
equipement): max 4 sockets outlets.
Fig. F37 : Typical 3-level installation, showing the protection of distribution circuits in a TT-earthed system. One motor is provided with specific protection
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
6 Implementation of the TN system
6.1 Preliminary conditions
At the design stage, the maximum permitted lengths of cable downstream of a
protective circuit-breaker (or set of fuses) must be calculated, while during the
installation work certain rules must be fully respected.
Certain conditions must be observed, as listed below and illustrated in Figure F38.
1. PE conductor must be regularly connected to earth as much as possible.
2. The PE conductor must not pass through ferro-magnetic conduit, ducts, etc. or
be mounted on steel work, since inductive and/or proximity effects can increase the
effective impedance of the conductor.
3. In the case of a PEN conductor (a neutral conductor which is also used as a
protective conductor), connection must be made directly to the earth terminal of an
appliance (see 3 in Figure F38) before being looped to the neutral terminal of the
same appliance.
4. Where the conductor y 6 mm2 for copper or 10 mm2 for aluminium, or where a
cable is movable, the neutral and protective conductors should be separated (i.e. a
TN-S system should be adopted within the installation).
5. Earth faults may be cleared by overcurrent-protection devices, i.e. by fuses and
circuit-breakers.
The foregoing list indicates the conditions to be respected in the implementation of a
TN scheme for the protection against indirect contacts.
F23
5
2
2
5
1
5
PE N
4
PEN
3
TN-C system
TN-C-S system
RpnA
Notes:
b The TN scheme requires that the LV neutral of the MV/LV transformer, the exposed
conductive parts of the substation and of the installation, and the extraneous conductive
parts in the substation and installation, all be earthed to a common earthing system.
b For a substation in which the metering is at low-voltage, a means of isolation is required at
the origin of the LV installation, and the isolation must be clearly visible.
b A PEN conductor must never be interrupted under any circumstances. Control and
protective switchgear for the several TN arrangements will be:
v 3-pole when the circuit includes a PEN conductor,
v Preferably 4-pole (3 phases + neutral) when the circuit includes a neutral with a separate
PE conductor.
Fig. F38 : Implementation of the TN system of earthing
6.2 Protection against indirect contact
Methods of determining levels of short-circuit current
In TN-earthed systems, a short-circuit to earth will, in principle, always provide
sufficient current to operate an overcurrent device.
The source and supply mains impedances are much lower than those of the
installation circuits, so that any restriction in the magnitude of earth-fault currents
will be mainly caused by the installation conductors (long flexible leads to appliances
greatly increase the “fault-loop” impedance, with a corresponding reduction of shortcircuit current).
The most recent IEC recommendations for indirect-contact protection on TN earthing
systems only relates maximum allowable tripping times to the nominal system
voltage (see Figure F12 in Sub-clause 3.3).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Three methods of calculation are commonly
used:
b The method of impedances, based on the
trigonometric addition of the system resistances
and inductive reactances
b The method of composition
b The conventional method, based on an
assumed voltage drop and the use of prepared
tables
F - Protection against electric shock
6 Implementation of the TN system
The reasoning behind these recommendations is that, for TN systems, the current
which must flow in order to raise the potential of an exposed conductive part to 50 V
or more is so high that one of two possibilities will occur:
b Either the fault path will blow itself clear, practically instantaneously, or
b The conductor will weld itself into a solid fault and provide adequate current to
operate overcurrent devices
To ensure correct operation of overcurrent devices in the latter case, a reasonably
accurate assessment of short-circuit earth-fault current levels must be determined at
the design stage of a project.
A rigorous analysis requires the use of phase-sequence-component techniques
applied to every circuit in turn. The principle is straightforward, but the amount of
computation is not considered justifiable, especially since the zero-phase-sequence
impedances are extremely difficult to determine with any reasonable degree of
accuracy in an average LV installation.
Other simpler methods of adequate accuracy are preferred. Three practical methods
are:
F24
b The “method of impedances”, based on the summation of all the impedances
(positive-phase-sequence only) around the fault loop, for each circuit
b The “method of composition”, which is an estimation of short-circuit current at
the remote end of a loop, when the short-circuit current level at the near end of the
loop is known
b The “conventional method” of calculating the minimum levels of earth-fault
currents, together with the use of tables of values for obtaining rapid results
These methods are only reliable for the case in which the cables that make up the
earth-fault-current loop are in close proximity (to each other) and not separated by
ferro-magnetic materials.
For calculations, modern practice is to use
software agreed by National Authorities, and
based on the method of impedances, such as
Ecodial 3. National Authorities generally also
publish Guides, which include typical values,
conductor lengths, etc.
Method of impedances
This method summates the positive-sequence impedances of each item (cable, PE
conductor, transformer, etc.) included in the earth-fault loop circuit from which the
short-circuit earth-fault current is calculated, using the formula:
U
I=
2
2
R +
X
(
) (
)
where
(ΣR) 2 = (the sum of all resistances in the loop)2 at the design stage of a project.
and (ΣX) 2 = (the sum of all inductive reactances in the loop) 2
and U = nominal system phase-to-neutral voltage.
The application of the method is not always easy, because it supposes a knowledge
of all parameter values and characteristics of the elements in the loop. In many
cases, a national guide can supply typical values for estimation purposes.
Method of composition
This method permits the determination of the short-circuit current at the end of
a loop from the known value of short-circuit at the sending end, by means of the
approximate formula:
U
I = Isc
U+ Zs. I sc
where
Isc = upstream short-circuit current
I = end-of-loop short-circuit current
U = nominal system phase voltage
Zs = impedance of loop
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Note: in this method the individual impedances are added arithmetically(1) as
opposed to the previous “method of impedances” procedure.
Conventional method
This method is generally considered to be sufficiently accurate to fix the upper limit
of cable lengths.
Principle
(1) This results in a calculated current value which is less than
that it would actually flow. If the overcurrent settings are based
on this calculated value, then operation of the relay, or fuse, is
assured.
The principle bases the short-circuit current calculation on the assumption that the
voltage at the origin of the circuit concerned (i.e. at the point at which the circuit
protective device is located) remains at 80% or more of the nominal phase to neutral
voltage. The 80% value is used, together with the circuit loop impedance, to compute
the short-circuit current.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
6 Implementation of the TN system
This coefficient takes account of all voltage drops upstream of the point considered.
In LV cables, when all conductors of a 3-phase 4-wire circuit are in close proximity
(which is the normal case), the inductive reactance internal to and between
conductors is negligibly small compared to the cable resistance.
This approximation is considered to be valid for cable sizes up to 120 mm2.
Above that size, the resistance value R is increased as follows:
The maximum length of any circuit of a
TN-earthed installation is:= 0.8 Uo Sph
(1+ m) I a
Core size (mm2)
S = 150 mm2
S = 185 mm2
S = 240 mm2
Value of resistance
R+15%
R+20%
R+25%
The maximum length of a circuit in a TN-earthed installation is given by the formula:
0.8 Uo Sph
Lmax =
(1+ m) I a
where:
Lmax = maximum length in metres
Uo = phase volts = 230 V for a 230/400 V system
ρ = resistivity at normal working temperature in ohm-mm2/metre
(= 22.5 10-3 for copper; = 36 10-3 for aluminium)
Ia = trip current setting for the instantaneous operation of a circuit-breaker, or
Ia = the current which assures operation of the protective fuse concerned, in the
specified time.
Sph
m=
SPE
F25
Sph = cross-sectional area of the phase conductors of the circuit concerned in mm2
SPE = cross-sectional area of the protective conductor concerned in mm2.
(see Fig. F39)
The following tables give the length of circuit
which must not be exceeded, in order that
persons be protected against indirect contact
hazards by protective devices
Tables
The following tables, applicable to TN systems, have been established according to
the “conventional method” described above.
The tables give maximum circuit lengths, beyond which the ohmic resistance of the
conductors will limit the magnitude of the short-circuit current to a level below that
required to trip the circuit-breaker (or to blow the fuse) protecting the circuit, with
sufficient rapidity to ensure safety against indirect contact.
Correction factor m
Figure F40 indicates the correction factor to apply to the values given in Figures F41
to F44 next pages, according to the ratio Sph/SPE, the type of circuit, and the
conductor materials.
A
The tables take into account:
b The type of protection: circuit-breakers or fuses
b Operating-current settings
b Cross-sectional area of phase conductors and protective conductors
b Type of system earthing (see Fig. F45 page F27)
b Type of circuit-breaker (i.e. B, C or D)(1)
B
PE
Imagn
The tables may be used for 230/400 V systems.
Id
Equivalent tables for protection by Compact and Multi 9 circuit-breakers (Merlin
Gerin) are included in the relevant catalogues.
L
Sph
Circuit
C
3P + N or P + N
Fig. F39 : Calculation of L max. for a TN-earthed system, using
the conventional method
Conductor
material
Copper
Aluminium
m = Sph/SPE (or PEN)
m=1
m=2
m=3
1
0.67
0.50
0.62
0.42
0.31
Fig. F40 : Correction factor to apply to the lengths given in tables F40 to F43 for
TN systems
(1) For the definition of type B, C, D circuit-breakers, refer to
chapter H, clause 4.2
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
m=4
0.40
0.25
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
SPE
F - Protection against electric shock
6 Implementation of the TN system
Circuits protected by general purpose circuit-breakers (Fig. F41)
F26
Nominal
crosssectional
area
of
conductors
mm2 50
63
1.5 100 79
2.5 167 133
4
267 212
6
400 317
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
Instantaneous or short-time-delayed tripping current Im (amperes)
80
63
104
167
250
417
100
50
83
133
200
333
125
40
67
107
160
267
427
160
31
52
83
125
208
333
200
25
42
67
100
167
267
417
250
20
33
53
80
133
213
333
467
320
16
26
42
63
104
167
260
365
495
400
13
21
33
50
83
133
208
292
396
500
10
17
27
40
67
107
167
233
317
560
9
15
24
36
60
95
149
208
283
417
630
8
13
21
32
53
85
132
185
251
370
700
7
12
19
29
48
76
119
167
226
333
452
800
6
10
17
25
42
67
104
146
198
292
396
875
6
10
15
23
38
61
95
133
181
267
362
457
1000
5
8
13
20
33
53
83
117
158
233
317
400
435
1120
4
7
12
18
30
48
74
104
141
208
283
357
388
459
1250
4
7
11
16
27
43
67
93
127
187
263
320
348
411
1600 2000 2500 3200 4000 5000 6300 8000 10000 12500
5
8
13
21
33
52
73
99
146
198
250
272
321
400
4
7
10
17
27
42
58
79
117
158
200
217
257
320
5
8
13
21
33
47
63
93
127
160
174
206
256
4
6
10
17
26
36
49
73
99
125
136
161
200
5
8
13
21
29
40
58
79
100
109
128
160
4
7
11
17
23
32
47
63
80
87
103
128
5
8
13
19
25
37
50
63
69
82
102
4
7
10
15
20
29
40
50
54
64
80
5
8
12
16
23
32
40
43
51
64
4
7
9
13
19
25
32
35
41
51
Fig. F41 : Maximum circuit lengths (in metres) for different sizes of copper conductor and instantaneous-tripping-current settings for general-purpose circuit-breakers
in 230/240 V TN system with m = 1
Circuits protected by Compact or Multi 9 circuit-breakers for industrial or
domestic use (Fig. F42 to Fig. F44)
Sph
mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
Rated current (A)
1
2
3
1200 600
400
1000 666
1066
4
300
500
800
1200
6
200
333
533
800
10
120
200
320
480
800
16
75
125
200
300
500
800
20
60
100
160
240
400
640
25
48
80
128
192
320
512
800
32
37
62
100
150
250
400
625
875
40
30
50
80
120
200
320
500
700
50
24
40
64
96
160
256
400
560
760
63
19
32
51
76
127
203
317
444
603
80
15
25
40
60
100
160
250
350
475
100
12
20
32
48
80
128
200
280
380
125
10
16
26
38
64
102
160
224
304
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F42 : Maximum circuit lengths (in meters) for different sizes of copper conductor and rated currents for type B (1) circuit-breakers in a 230/240 V single-phase or
three-phase TN system with m = 1
Sph
mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
Rated current (A)
1
2
3
600
300
200
500
333
533
4
150
250
400
600
6
100
167
267
400
667
10
60
100
160
240
400
640
16
37
62
100
150
250
400
625
875
20
30
50
80
120
200
320
500
700
25
24
40
64
96
160
256
400
560
760
32
18
31
50
75
125
200
312
437
594
40
15
25
40
60
100
160
250
350
475
50
12
20
32
48
80
128
200
280
380
63
9
16
25
38
63
101
159
222
301
80
7
12
20
30
50
80
125
175
237
100
6
10
16
24
40
64
100
140
190
125
5
8
13
19
32
51
80
112
152
Fig. F43 : Maximum circuit lengths (in metres) for different sizes of copper conductor and rated currents for type C (1) circuit-breakers in a 230/240 V single-phase or
three-phase TN system with m = 1
(1) For the definition of type B and C circuit-breakers refer to
chapter H clause 4.2.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
Sph
mm2
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
Rated current (A)
1
2
3
429
214
143
714
357
238
571
381
857
571
952
6 Implementation of the TN system
4
107
179
286
429
714
6
71
119
190
286
476
762
10
43
71
114
171
286
457
714
16
27
45
71
107
179
286
446
625
20
21
36
80
120
200
320
500
700
848
25
17
29
46
69
114
183
286
400
543
32
13
22
36
54
89
143
223
313
424
40
11
18
29
43
71
114
179
250
339
50
9
14
23
34
57
91
143
200
271
63
7
11
18
27
45
73
113
159
215
80
5
9
14
21
36
57
89
125
170
100
4
7
11
17
29
46
71
80
136
125
3
6
9
14
23
37
57
100
109
Fig. F44 : Maximum circuit lengths (in metres) for different sizes of copper conductor and rated currents for type D (1) circuit-breakers in a 230/240 V single-phase or
three-phase TN system with m = 1
F27
Example
A 3-phase 4-wire (230/400 V) installation is TN-C earthed. A circuit is protected by a
type B circuit-breaker rated at 63 A, and consists of an aluminium cored cable with
50 mm2 phase conductors and a neutral conductor (PEN) of 25 mm2.
What is the maximum length of circuit, below which protection of persons against
indirect-contact hazards is assured by the instantaneous magnetic tripping relay of
the circuit-breaker?
Figure F42 gives, for 50 mm2 and a 63 A type B circuit-breaker, 603 metres, to which
Sph
must be applied a factor of 0.42 (Figure F40 for m =
= 2)..
SPE
The maximum length of circuit is therefore:
603 x 0.42 = 253 metres.
RA1
RA2
Distant location
Particular case where one or more exposed conductive part(s)
is (are) earthed to a separate earth electrode
Protection must be provided against indirect contact by a RCD at the origin of any
circuit supplying an appliance or group of appliances, the exposed conductive parts
of which are connected to an independent earth electrode.
Fig. F45 : Separate earth electrode
The sensitivity of the RCD must be adapted to the earth electrode resistance (RA2 in
Figure F45). See specifications applicable to TT system.
6.3 High-sensitivity RCDs (see Fig. F31)
Fig. F46 : Circuit supplying socket-outlets
(1) For the definition of type D circuit-breaker refer to chapter H
Sub-clause 4.2.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
According to IEC 60364-4-41, high sensitivity RCDs (y 30 mA) must be used for
protection of socket outlets with rated current y 20 A in all locations. The use of such
RCDs is also recommended in the following cases:
b Socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all current ratings
b Socket-outlet circuits in temporary installations
b Circuits supplying laundry rooms and swimming pools
b Supply circuits to work-sites, caravans, pleasure boats, and travelling fairs
See 2.2 and chapter P, al section 3.
F - Protection against electric shock
6 Implementation of the TN system
6.4 Protection in high fire-risk location
According to IEC 60364-422-3.10, circuits in high fire-risk locations must be
protected by RCDs of sensitivity y 500 mA. This excludes the TN-C arrangement and
TN-S must be adopted.
A preferred sensitivity of 300 mA is mandatory in some countries (see Fig. F47).
6.5 When the fault current-loop impedance is
particularly high
When the earth-fault current is limited due to an inevitably high fault-loop impedance,
so that the overcurrent protection cannot be relied upon to trip the circuit within the
prescribed time, the following possibilities should be considered:
Suggestion 1 (see Fig. F48)
b Install a circuit-breaker which has a lower instantaneous magnetic tripping level, for
example:
F28
2In y Irm y 4In
This affords protection for persons on circuits which are abnormally long. It must
be checked, however, that high transient currents such as the starting currents of
motors will not cause nuisance trip-outs.
b Schneider Electric solutions
v Type G Compact (2Im y Irm y 4Im)
v Type B Multi 9 circuit-breaker
Fire-risk
location
Suggestion 2 (see Fig. F49)
b Install a RCD on the circuit. The device does not need to be highly-sensitive
(HS) (several amps to a few tens of amps). Where socket-outlets are involved, the
particular circuits must, in any case, be protected by HS (y 30 mA) RCDs; generally
one RCD for a number of socket outlets on a common circuit.
b Schneider Electric solutions
v RCD Multi 9 NG125 : IΔn = 1 or 3 A
v Vigicompact REH or REM: IΔn = 3 to 30 A
v Type B Multi 9 circuit-breaker
Fig. F47 : Fire-risk location
Suggestion 3
Increase the size of the PE or PEN conductors and/or the phase conductors, to
reduce the loop impedance.
PE or PEN
2 y Irm y 4In
Suggestion 4
Add supplementary equipotential conductors. This will have a similar effect to that
of suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-fault-loop resistance, while at the same
time improving the existing touch-voltage protection measures. The effectiveness
of this improvement may be checked by a resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective conductor.
Great length of cable
Fig. F48 : Circuit-breaker with low-set instantaneous magnetic
tripping
For TN-C installations, bonding as shown in Figure F50 is not allowed, and
suggestion 3 should be adopted.
Phases
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Neutral
PE
Fig. F49 : RCD protection on TN systems with high earth-faultloop impedance
Fig. F50 : Improved equipotential bonding
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
The basic feature of the IT earthing system is that, in the event of a short-circuit to
earth fault, the system can continue to operate without interruption. Such a fault is
referred to as a “first fault”.
In this system, all exposed conductive parts of an installation are connected via
PE conductors to an earth electrode at the installation, while the neutral point of the
supply transformer is:
b Either isolated from earth
b Or connected to earth through a high resistance (commonly 1,000 ohms or more)
This means that the current through an earth fault will be measured in milli-amps,
which will not cause serious damage at the fault position, or give rise to dangerous
touch voltages, or present a fire hazard. The system may therefore be allowed to
operate normally until it is convenient to isolate the faulty section for repair work. This
enhances continuity of service.
In practice, the system earthing requires certain specific measures for its satisfactory
exploitation:
b Permanent monitoring of the insulation with respect to earth, which must signal
(audibly or visually) the occurrence of the first fault
b A device for limiting the voltage which the neutral point of the supply transformer
can reach with respect to earth
b A “first-fault” location routine by an efficient maintenance staff. Fault location is
greatly facilitated by automatic devices which are currently available
b Automatic high-speed tripping of appropriate circuit-breakers must take place in
the event of a “second fault” occurring before the first fault is repaired. The second
fault (by definition) is an earth fault affecting a different live conductor than that of the
first fault (can be a phase or neutral conductor)(1).
F29
The second fault results in a short-circuit through the earth and/or through
PE bonding conductors.
7.1 Preliminary conditions (see Fig. F51 and Fig. F52)
Minimum functions required
Protection against overvoltages
at power frequency
Neutral earthing resistor
(for impedance earthing variation)
Components and devices
(1) Voltage limiter
Examples
Cardew C
(2) Resistor
Impedance Zx
Overall earth-fault monitor
with alarm for first fault condition
Automatic fault clearance
on second fault and
protection of the neutral
conductor against overcurrent
Location of first fault
(3) Permanent insulation
monitor PIM with alarm feature
(4) Four-pole circuit-breakers
(if the neutral is distributed)
all 4 poles trip
Vigilohm TR22A
or XM 200
Compact circuit-breaker
or RCD-MS
(5) With device for fault-location
on live system, or by successive
opening of circuits
Vigilohm system
Fig. F51 : Essential functions in IT schemes and examples with Merlin Gerin products
4
L1
L2
L3
N
4
4
2 1
3
5
Fig. F52 : Positions of essential functions in 3-phase 3-wire IT-earthed system
(1) On systems where the neutral is distributed, as shown in
Figure F56.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
HV/LV
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
7.2 Protection against indirect contact
Modern monitoring systems greatly facilitate
first-fault location and repair
First-fault condition
The earth-fault current which flows under a first-fault condition is measured in milliamps.
The fault voltage with respect to earth is the product of this current and the
resistance of the installation earth electrode and PE conductor (from the faulted
component to the electrode). This value of voltage is clearly harmless and could
amount to several volts only in the worst case (1,000 Ω earthing resistor will pass
230 mA(1) and a poor installation earth-electrode of 50 ohms, would give 11.5 V, for
example).
An alarm is given by the permanent insulation monitoring device.
Principle of earth-fault monitoring
A generator of very low frequency a.c. current, or of d.c. current, (to reduce the
effects of cable capacitance to negligible levels) applies a voltage between the
neutral point of the supply transformer and earth. This voltage causes a small current
to flow according to the insulation resistance to earth of the whole installation, plus
that of any connected appliance.
F30
Low-frequency instruments can be used on a.c. systems which generate transient
d.c. components under fault conditions. Certain versions can distinguish between
resistive and capacitive components of the leakage current.
Modern equipment allow the measurement of leakage-current evolution, so that
prevention of a first fault can be achieved.
Fault-location systems comply with
IEC 61157-9 standard
Examples of equipment
b Manual fault-location (see Fig. F53)
The generator may be fixed (example: XM100) or portable (example: GR10X
permitting the checking of dead circuits) and the receiver, together with the magnetic
clamp-type pick-up sensor, are portable.
M ERLIN GERIN
XM100
XM100
P12
P50
P100
ON/O
FF
GR10X
RM10N
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F53 : Non-automatic (manual) fault location
b Fixed automatic fault location (see Fig. F54 next page)
The monitoring relay XM100, together with the fixed detectors XD1 or XD12 (each
connected to a toroidal CT embracing the conductors of the circuit concerned)
provide a system of automatic fault location on a live installation.
Moreover, the level of insulation is indicated for each monitored circuit, and two
levels are checked: the first level warns of unusually low insulation resistance so that
preventive measures may be taken, while the second level indicates a fault condition
and gives an alarm.
(1) On a 230/400 V 3-phase system.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
M ERLIN GERIN
XM100
Toroidal CTs
XM100
1 to 12 circuits
F31
XD1
XD1
XD1
XD12
Fig. F54 : Fixed automatic fault location
b Automatic monitoring, logging, and fault location (see Fig. F55)
The Vigilohm System also allows access to a printer and/or a PC which provides
a global review of the insulation level of an entire installation, and records the
chronological evolution of the insulation level of each circuit.
The central monitor XM100, together with the localization detectors XD08 and XD16,
associated with toroidal CTs from several circuits, as shown below in Figure F55,
provide the means for this automatic exploitation.
M ERLIN GERIN
XM100
XM100
M ERLIN GERIN
M ERLIN GERIN
XL08
XL16
897
678
Fig. F55 : Automatic fault location and insulation-resistance data logging
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
XD16
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
XD08
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
Implementation of permanent insulation-monitoring (PIM) devices
b Connection
The PIM device is normally connected between the neutral (or articificial neutral)
point of the power-supply transformer and its earth electrode.
b Supply
Power supply to the PIM device should be taken from a highly reliable source. In
practice, this is generally directly from the installation being monitored, through
overcurrent protective devices of suitable short-circuit current rating.
b Level settings
Certain national standards recommend a first setting at 20% below the insulation
level of the new installation. This value allows the detection of a reduction of the
insulation quality, necessitating preventive maintenance measures in a situation of
incipient failure.
The detection level for earth-fault alarm will be set at a much lower level.
By way of an example, the two levels might be:
v New installation insulation level: 100 kΩ
v Leakage current without danger: 500 mA (fire risk at > 500 mA)
v Indication levels set by the consumer:
- Threshold for preventive maintenance: 0.8 x 100 = 80 kΩ
- Threshold for short-circuit alarm: 500 Ω
F32
Notes:
v Following a long period of shutdown, during which the whole, or part of the installation
remains de-energized, humidity can reduce the general level of insulation resistance.
This situation, which is mainly due to leakage current over the damp surface of
healthy insulation, does not constitute a fault condition, and will improve rapidly as the
normal temperature rise of current-carrying conductors reduces the surface humidity.
v The PIM device (XM) can measure separately the resistive and the capacitive
current components of the leakage current to earth, thereby deriving the true
insulation resistance from the total permanent leakage current.
The case of a second fault
A second earth fault on an IT system (unless occurring on the same conductor
as the first fault) constitutes a phase-phase or phase-to-neutral fault, and whether
occurring on the same circuit as the first fault, or on a different circuit, overcurrent
protective devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) would normally operate an automatic
fault clearance.
The settings of overcurrent tripping relays and the ratings of fuses are the basic
parameters that decide the maximum practical length of circuit that can be
satisfactorily protected, as discussed in Sub-clause 6.2.
Note: In normal circumstances, the fault current path is through common
PE conductors, bonding all exposed conductive parts of an installation, and so the
fault loop impedance is sufficiently low to ensure an adequate level of fault current.
Where circuit lengths are unavoidably long, and especially if the appliances of a
circuit are earthed separately (so that the fault current passes through two earth
electrodes), reliable tripping on overcurrent may not be possible.
In this case, an RCD is recommended on each circuit of the installation.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Where an IT system is resistance earthed, however, care must be taken to ensure
that the RCD is not too sensitive, or a first fault may cause an unwanted trip-out.
Tripping of residual current devices which satisfy IEC standards may occur at values
of 0.5 IΔn to IΔn, where IΔn is the nominal residual-current setting level.
Three methods of calculation are commonly
used:
b The method of impedances, based on the
trigonometric addition of the system resistances
and inductive reactances
b The method of composition
b The conventional method, based on an
assumed voltage drop and the use of prepared
tables
Methods of determining levels of short-circuit current
A reasonably accurate assessment of short-circuit current levels must be carried out
at the design stage of a project.
A rigorous analysis is not necessary, since current magnitudes only are important for
the protective devices concerned (i.e. phase angles need not be determined) so that
simplified conservatively approximate methods are normally used. Three practical
methods are:
b The method of impedances, based on the vectorial summation of all the (positivephase-sequence) impedances around a fault-current loop
b The method of composition, which is an approximate estimation of short-circuit
current at the remote end of a loop, when the level of short-circuit current at the near
end of the loop is known. Complex impedances are combined arithmetically in this
method
b The conventional method, in which the minimum value of voltage at the origin of
a faulty circuit is assumed to be 80% of the nominal circuit voltage, and tables are
used based on this assumption, to give direct readings of circuit lengths.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
These methods are reliable only for the cases in which wiring and cables which
make up the fault-current loop are in close proximity (to each other) and are not
separated by ferro-magnetic materials.
Methods of impedances
This method as described in Sub-clause 6.2, is identical for both the IT and
TN systems of earthing.
The software Ecodial is based on the “method
of impedance”
Methods of composition
This method as described in Sub-clause 6.2, is identical for both the IT and
TN systems of earthing.
Conventional method (see Fig. F56)
The principle is the same for an IT system as that described in Sub-clause 6.2 for a
TN system : the calculation of maximum circuit lengths which should not be exceeded
downstream of a circuit-breaker or fuses, to ensure protection by overcurrent devices.
The maximum length of an IT earthed circuit is:
b For a 3-phase 3-wire scheme
Lmax =
0.8 Uo 3 Sph
2 I a(1+ m)
It is clearly impossible to check circuit lengths for every feasible combination of two
concurrent faults.
b For a 3-phase 4-wire scheme
Lmax =
All cases are covered, however, if the overcurrent trip setting is based on the
assumption that a first fault occurs at the remote end of the circuit concerned,
while the second fault occurs at the remote end of an identical circuit, as already
mentioned in Sub-clause 3.4. This may result, in general, in one trip-out only
occurring (on the circuit with the lower trip-setting level), thereby leaving the system
in a first-fault situation, but with one faulty circuit switched out of service.
0.8 Uo S1
2 I a(1+ m)
F33
b For the case of a 3-phase 3-wire installation the second fault can only cause a
phase/phase short-circuit, so that the voltage to use in the formula for maximum
circuit length is 3 Uo.
The maximum circuit length is given by:
Lmax =
0.8 Uo 3 Sph metres
2 I a(1+ m)
b For the case of a 3-phase 4-wire installation the lowest value of fault current will
occur if one of the faults is on a neutral conductor. In this case, Uo is the value to use
for computing the maximum cable length, and
Lmax =
0.8 Uo S1
metres
2 I a(1+ m)
i.e. 50% only of the length permitted for a TN scheme (1)
N
N
B
D
A
C
Id
PE
Id
Id
Non distributed neutral
Fig. F56 : Calculation of Lmax. for an IT-earthed system, showing fault-current path for a double-fault condition
(1) Reminder: There is no length limit for earth-fault protection
on a TT scheme, since protection is provided by RCDs of high
sensitivity.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Id
Distributed neutral
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
PE
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
In the preceding formulae:
Lmax = longest circuit in metres
Uo = phase-to-neutral voltage (230 V on a 230/400 V system)
ρ = resistivity at normal operating temperature (22.5 x 10-3 ohms-mm2/m for copper,
36 x 10-3 ohms-mm2/m for aluminium)
Ia = overcurrent trip-setting level in amps, or Ia = current in amps required to clear
the fuse in the specified time
m=
Sph
SPE
SPE = cross-sectional area of PE conductor in mm2
S1 = S neutral if the circuit includes a neutral conductor
S1 = Sph if the circuit does not include a neutral conductor
The following tables(1) give the length of circuit
which must not be exceeded, in order that
F34 persons be protected against indirect contact
hazards by protective devices
Tables
The following tables have been established according to the “conventional method”
described above.
The tables give maximum circuit lengths, beyond which the ohmic resistance of
the conductors will limit the magnitude of the short-circuit current to a level below
that required to trip the circuit-breaker (or to blow the fuse) protecting the circuit,
with sufficient rapidity to ensure safety against indirect contact. The tables take into
account:
b The type of protection: circuit-breakers or fuses, operating-current settings
b Cross-sectional area of phase conductors and protective conductors
b Type of earthing scheme
b Correction factor: Figure F57 indicates the correction factor to apply to the lengths
given in tables F40 to F43, when considering an IT system
Circuit
3 phases
3ph + N or 1ph + N
Conductor
material
Copper
Aluminium
Copper
Aluminium
m = Sph/SPE (or PEN)
m=1
m=2
m=3
0.86
0.57
0.43
0.54
0.36
0.27
0.50
0.33
0.25
0.31
0.21
0.16
m=4
0.34
0.21
0.20
0.12
Fig. F57 : Correction factor to apply to the lengths given in tables F41 to F44 for TN systems
Example
A 3-phase 3-wire 230/400 V installation is IT-earthed.
One of its circuits is protected by a circuit-breaker rated at 63 A, and consists of an
aluminium-cored cable with 50 mm2 phase conductors. The 25 mm2 PE conductor
is also aluminum. What is the maximum length of circuit, below which protection of
persons against indirect-contact hazards is assured by the instantaneous magnetic
tripping relay of the circuit-breaker?
Figure F42 indicates 603 metres, to which must be applied a correction factor of 0.36
(m = 2 for aluminium cable).
The maximum length is therefore 217 metres.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
7.3 High-sensitivity RCDs
According to IEC 60364-4-41, high sensitivity RCDs (y 30 mA) must be used for
protection of socket outlets with rated current y 20 A in all locations. The use of such
RCDs is also recommended in the following cases:
b Socket-outlet circuits in wet locations at all current ratings
b Socket-outlet circuits in temporary installations
b Circuits supplying laundry rooms and swimming pools
b Supply circuits to work-sites, caravans, pleasure boats, and travelling fairs
See 2.2 and chapter P, al section 3
Fig. F62 : Circuit supplying socket-outlets
(1) The tables are those shown in Sub-clause 6.2 (Figures
F41 to F44). However, the table of correction factors (Figure
F57) which takes into account the ratio Sph/SPE, and of the
type of circuit (3-ph 3-wire; 3-ph 4-wire; 1-ph 2-wire) as well
as conductor material, is specific to the IT system, and differs
from that for TN.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
7 Implementation of the IT system
7.4 Protection in high fire-risk locations
Protection by a RCD of sensitivity y 500 mA at the origin of the circuit supplying the
fire-risk locations is mandatory in some countries (see Fig. F59).
A preferred sensitivity of 300 mA may be adopted.
7.5 When the fault current-loop impedance is
particularly high
When the earth-fault current is restricted due to an inevitably high fault-loop
impedance, so that the overcurrent protection cannot be relied upon to trip the circuit
within the prescribed time, the following possibilities should be considered:
Suggestion 1 (see Fig. F60)
b Install a circuit-breaker which has an instantaneous magnetic tripping element with
an operation level which is lower than the usual setting, for example:
F35
2In y Irm y 4In
This affords protection for persons on circuits which are abnormally long. It must
be checked, however, that high transient currents such as the starting currents of
motors will not cause nuisance trip-outs.
Fire-risk
location
b Schneider Electric solutions
v Compact NSX with G trip unit or Micrologic trip unit (2Im y Irm y 4Im)
v Type B Multi 9 circuit-breaker
Suggestion 2 (see Fig. F61)
Install a RCD on the circuit. The device does not need to be highly-sensitive (HS)
(several amps to a few tens of amps). Where socket-outlets are involved, the
particular circuits must, in any case, be protected by HS (y 30 mA) RCDs; generally
one RCD for a number of socket outlets on a common circuit.
Fig. F59 : Fire-risk location
b Schneider Electric solutions
v RCD Multi 9 NG125 : IΔn = 1 or 3 A
v Vigicompact MH or ME: IΔn = 3 to 30 A
PE
Suggestion 3
Increase the size of the PE conductors and/or the phase conductors, to reduce the
loop impedance.
2 y Irm y 4In
Great length of cable
Fig. F60 : A circuit-breaker with low-set instantaneous
magnetic trip
Suggestion 4 (see Fig. F62)
Add supplementary equipotential conductors. This will have a similar effect to that
of suggestion 3, i.e. a reduction in the earth-fault-loop resistance, while at the same
time improving the existing touch-voltage protection measures. The effectiveness
of this improvement may be checked by a resistance test between each exposed
conductive part and the local main protective conductor.
Phases
Fig. F61 : RCD protection
Fig. F62 : Improved equipotential bonding
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Neutral
PE
F - Protection against electric shock
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
8.1 Types of RCDs
Residual current devices (RCD) are commonly incorporated in or associated with the
following components:
b Industrial-type moulded-case circuit-breakers (MCCB) and air circuit-breakers
(ACB) conforming to IEC 60947-2 and its appendix B and M
b Industrial type miniature circuit-breakers (MCB) conforming to IEC 60947-2 and its
appendix B and M
b Household and similar miniature circuit-breakers (MCB) complying with IEC 60898,
IEC 61008, IEC 61009
b Residual load switch conforming to particular national standards
b Relays with separate toroidal (ring-type) current transformers, conforming to
IEC 60947-2 Appendix M
RCDs are mandatorily used at the origin of TT-earthed installations, where their
ability to discriminate with other RCDs allows selective tripping, thereby ensuring the
level of service continuity required.
F36
Industrial circuit-breakers with an integrated
RCD are covered in IEC 60947-2 and its
appendix B
Industrial type circuit-breakers with integrated or adaptable
RCD module (see Fig. F63)
Industrial type circuit-breaker
Vigi Compact
Multi 9 DIN-rail industrial
Circuit-breaker with adaptable Vigi RCD module
Fig. F63 : Industrial-type CB with RCD module
Adaptable residual current circuit-breakers, including DIN-rail mounted units (e.g.
Compact or Multi 9), are available, to which may be associated an auxiliary RCD
module (e.g. Vigi).
The ensemble provides a comprehensive range of protective functions (isolation,
protection against short-circuit, overload, and earth-fault.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Household or domestic circuit-breakers with
an integrated RCD are covered in IEC 60898,
IEC 61008 and IEC 61009
Household and similar miniature circuit-breakers with RCD
(see Fig. F64)
The incoming-supply circuitbreaker can also have timedelayed characteristics and
integrate a RCD (type S).
“Monobloc” Déclic Vigi residual current circuit-breakers
intended for protection of terminal socket-outlet circuits
in domestic and tertiary sector applications.
Fig. F64 : Domestic residual current circuit-breakers (RCCBs) for earth leakage protection
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F - Protection against electric shock
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
Residual current load break switches are
covered by particular national standards.
RCDs with separate toroidal current
transformers are standardized in IEC 60947-2
appendix M
Residual current circuit-breakers and RCDs with separate
toroidal current transformer (see Fig. F65)
RCDs with separate toroidal CTs can be used in association with circuit-breakers or
contactors.
F37
Fig. F65 : RCDs with separate toroidal current transformers (Vigirex)
8.2 Description
Principle
The essential features are shown schematically in Figure F66 below.
I1
A magnetic core encompasses all the current-carrying conductors of an electric
circuit and the magnetic flux generated in the core will depend at every instant on
the arithmetical sum of the currents; the currents passing in one direction being
considered as positive (I1), while those passing in the opposite direction will be
negative (I2).
I2
In a normally healthy circuit I1 + I2 = 0 and there will be no flux in the magnetic core,
and zero e.m.f. in its coil.
I3
An earth-fault current Id will pass through the core to the fault, but will return to the
source via the earth, or via protective conductors in a TN-earthed system.
The current balance in the conductors passing through the magnetic core therefore
no longer exists, and the difference gives rise to a magnetic flux in the core.
The difference current is known as the “residual” current and the principle is referred
to as the “residual current” principle.
The resultant alternating flux in the core induces an e.m.f. in its coil, so that a current
I3 flows in the tripping-device operating coil. If the residual current exceeds the value
required to operate the tripping device either directly or via an electronic relay, then
the associated circuit-breaker will trip.
8.3 Sensitivity of RDCs to disturbances
In certain cases, aspects of the environment can disturb the correct operation of
RCDs:
b “nuisance” tripping: Break in power supply without the situation being really
hazardous. This type of tripping is often repetitive, causing major inconvenience and
detrimental to the quality of the user's electrical power supply.
b non-tripping, in the event of a hazard. Less perceptible than nuisance tripping,
these malfunctions must still be examined carefully since they undermine user safety.
This is why international standards define 3 categories of RCDs according to their
immunity to this type of disturbance (see below).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F66 : The principle of RCD operation
F - Protection against electric shock
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
Main disturbance types
I
Permanent earth leakage currents
Every LV installation has a permanent leakage current to earth, which is either due
to:
b Unbalance of the intrinsic capacitance between live conductors and earth for threephase circuits or
b Capacitance between live conductors and earth for single-phase circuits
The larger the installation the greater its capacitance with consequently increased
leakage current.
100%
90%
10 s (f = 100 kHz)
The capacitive current to earth is sometimes increased significantly by filtering
capacitors associated with electronic equipment (automation, IT and computerbased systems, etc.).
10%
t
In the absence of more precise data, permanent leakage current in a given
installation can be estimated from the following values, measured at 230 V 50 Hz:
ca.0.5 s
Single-phase or three-phase line: 1.5 mA /100m
b Heating floor: 1mA / kW
b Fax terminal, printer: 1 mA
b Microcomputer, workstation: 2 mA
b Copy machine: 1.5 mA
F38
60%
Fig. F67 : Standardized 0.5 µs/100 kHz current transient wave
Since RCDs complying with IEC and many national standards may operate under,
the limitation of permanent leakage current to 0.25 I∆n, by sub-division of circuits
will, in practice, eliminate any unwanted tripping.
For very particular cases, such as the extension, or partial renovation of extended
IT-earthed installations, the manufacturers must be consulted.
U
High frequency components (harmonics, transients, etc.), are generated by
computer equipment power supplies, converters, motors with speed regulators,
fluorescent lighting systems and in the vicinity of high power switching devices and
reactive energy compensation banks.
Part of these high frequency currents may flow to earth through parasitic
capacitances. Although not hazardous for the user, these currents can still cause the
tripping of differential devices.
Umax
0.5U
t
1.2 s
50 s
Fig. F68 : Standardized 1.2/50 µs voltage transient wave
Common mode overvoltages
Electrical networks are subjected to overvoltages due to lightning strikes or to abrupt
changes of system operating conditions (faults, fuse operation, switching, etc.).
These sudden changes often cause large transient voltages and currents in inductive
and capacitive circuits. Records have established that, on LV systems, overvoltages
remain generally below 6 kV, and that they can be adequately represented by the
conventional 1.2/50 µs impulse wave (see Fig. F68).
I
1
0.9
These overvoltages give rise to transient currents represented by a current impulse
wave of the conventional 8/20 µs form, having a peak value of several tens of
amperes (see Fig. F69).
The transient currents flow to earth via the capacitances of the installation.
0.5
Non-sinusoidal fault currents
0.1
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
t
Fig. F69 : Standardized current-impulse wave 8/20 µs
Energization
The initial energization of the capacitances mentioned above gives rise to high
frequency transient currents of very short duration, similar to that shown in
Figure F67.
The sudden occurrence of a first-fault on an IT-earthed system also causes transient
earth-leakage currents at high frequency, due to the sudden rise of the two healthy
phases to phase/phase voltage above earth.
Type AC, A, B
Standard IEC 60755 (General requirements for residual current operated protective
devices) defines three types of RCD depending on the characteristics of the fault
current:
b Type AC
RCD for which tripping is ensured for residual sinusoidal alternating currents.
b Type A
RCD for which tripping is ensured:
v for residual sinusoidal alternating currents,
v for residual pulsating direct currents,
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
b Type B
RCD for which tripping is ensured:
v as for type A,
v for pure direct residual currents which may result from three-phase rectifying
circuits.
Cold: in the cases of temperatures under - 5 °C, very high sensitivity
electromechanical relays in the RCD may be “welded” by the condensation – freezing
action.
Type “Si” devices can operate under temperatures down to - 25 °C.
Atmospheres with high concentrations of chemicals or dust: the special alloys
used to make the RCDs can be notably damaged by corrosion. Dust can also block
the movement of mechanical parts.
See the measures to be taken according to the levels of severity defined by
standards in Fig. F70.
Regulations define the choice of earth leakage protection and its implementation.
The main reference texts are as follows:
b Standard IEC 60364-3:
v This gives a classification (AFx) for external influences in the presence of corrosive
or polluting substances.
v It defines the choice of materials to be used according to extreme influences.
Disturbed
network
Influence of
the electrical
network
Clean network
Superimmunized
residual current
protections
Type A if: k
SiE k
residual current
protections
Standard
immunized
residual current
protections
Type AC
SiE k
SiE k
residual current residual current
protections
protections
+
+
Appropriate
additional
protection
(sealed cabinet
or unit)
Appropriate
additional
protection
(sealed cabinet
or unit +
overpressure)
AF1
AF2
AF3
AF4
b External
influences:
negligible,
b External
influences:
presence
of corrosive
or polluting
atmospheric
agents,
b External
influences:
intermittent
or accidental
action of
certain
common
chemicals,
b External
influences:
permanent
action of
corrosive
or polluting
chemicals
b Equipment
characteristics:
normal.
b Equipment
characteristics:
e.g. conformity
with salt mist
or atmospheric
pollution tests.
b Equipment
characteristics:
corrosion
protection.
b Equipment
characteristics:
specifically
studied
according to
the type of
products.
Examples of exposed sites
External influences
Iron and steel works.
Presence of sulfur, sulfur vapor, hydrogen
sulfide.
Marinas, trading ports, boats, sea edges, naval
shipyards.
Salt atmospheres, humid outside, low
temperatures.
Swimming pools, hospitals, food & beverage.
Chlorinated compounds.
Petrochemicals.
Hydrogen, combustion gases, nitrogen
oxides.
Breeding facilities, tips.
Hydrogen sulfide.
Fig. F70 : External influence classification according to IEC 60364-3 standard
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
F39
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
F - Protection against electric shock
F - Protection against electric shock
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
Immunity level for Merlin Gerin residual current devices
The Merlin Gerin range comprises various types of RCDs allowing earth leakage
protection to be adapted to each application. The table below indicates the choices to
be made according to the type of probable disturbances at the point of installation.
Device type
Nuisance
trippings
High
frequency
leakage
current
Fault current
Rectified
alternating
Pure direct
Low
Corrosion
temperatures Dust
(down to
- 25 °C)
b
AC
F40
Non-trippings
A
b
b
b
SI
b b b
b
b
SiE
b b b
b
b
B
b b b
b
b
b
b
Fig. F71 : Immunity level of Merlin Gerin RCDs
Immunity to nuisance tripping
Type Si/SiE RCDs have been designed to avoid nuisance tripping or non-tripping in
case of polluted network , lightning effect, high frequency currents, RF waves, etc.
Figure F72 below indicates the levels of tests undergone by this type of RCDs.
Disturbance type
Rated test wave
Immunity
Multi9 :
ID-RCCB, DPN Vigi, Vigi C60, Vigi
C120, Vigi NG125
SI / SiE type
Continuous disturbances
Harmonics
1 kHz
Earth leakage current = 8 x I∆n
Lightning induced overvoltage
1.2 / 50 µs pulse
(IEC/EN 61000-4-5)
4.5 kV between conductors 5.5 kV /
earth
Lightning induced current
8 / 20 µs pulse
(IEC/EN 61008)
5 kA peak
Switching transient, indirect
lightning currents
0.5 µs / 100 kHz
“ ring wave ”
(IEC/EN 61008)
400 A peak
Downstream surge arrester
operation, capacitance loading
10 ms pulse
500 A
Inductive load switchings
fluorescent lights, motors, etc.)
Repeated bursts
(IEC 61000-4-4)
4 kV / 400 kHz
Fluorescent lights, thyristor
controlled circuits, etc.
RF conducted
waves
(IEC 61000-4-6)
66 mA (15 kHz to 150 kHz)
30 V (150 kHz to 230 MHz)
RF waves (TV&
radio, broadcact,
telecommunications,etc.)
RF radiated waves
80 MHz to 1 GHz
(IEC 61000-4-3)
30 V / m
Transient disturbances
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Electromagnetic compatibility
Fig. F72 : Immunity to nuisance tripping tests undergone by Merlin Gerin RCDs
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
Recommendations concerning the installation of RCDs with
separate toroidal current transformers
The detector of residual current is a closed magnetic circuit (usually circular) of
very high magnetic permeability, on which is wound a coil of wire, the ensemble
constituting a toroidal (or ring-type) current transformer.
Because of its high permeability, any small deviation from perfect symmetry of
the conductors encompassed by the core, and the proximity of ferrous material
(steel enclosure, chassis members, etc.) can affect the balance of magnetic forces
sufficiently, at times of large load currents (motor-starting current, transformer
energizing current surge, etc.) to cause unwanted tripping of the RCD.
Unless particular measures are taken, the ratio of operating current IΔn to maximum
phase current Iph (max.) is generally less than 1/1,000.
This limit can be increased substantially (i.e. the response can be desensitized) by
adopting the measures shown in Figure F73, and summarized in Figure F74.
F41
L
L = twice the diameter of
the magnetic ring core
Fig. F73 : Three measures to reduce the ratio IΔn/Iph (max.)
Measures
Diameter
(mm)
Sensitivity
diminution factor
Careful centralizing of cables through the ring core
Oversizing of the ring core
ø 50 → ø 100
ø 80 → ø 200
ø 120 → ø 300
ø 50
3
2
2
6
4
Use of a steel or soft-iron shielding sleeve
b Of wall thickness 0.5 mm
b Of length 2 x inside diameter of ring core
b Completely surrounding the conductors and
ø 80
3
ø 120
3
ø 200
2
overlapping the circular core equally at both ends
These measures can be combined. By carefully centralizing the cables in a ring core
of 200 mm diameter, where a 50 mm core would be large enough, and using a sleeve,
the ratio 1/1,000 could become 1/30,000.
Fig. F74 : Means of reducing the ratio I∆n/Iph (max.)
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F - Protection against electric shock
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F - Protection against electric shock
8 Residual current devices (RCDs)
Choice of characteristics of a residual-current circuit-breaker
(RCCB - IEC 61008)
a
Rated current
The rated current of a RCCB is chosen according to the maximum sustained load
current it will carry.
b
b If the RCCB is connected in series with, and downstream of a circuit-breaker, the
rated current of both items will be the same, i.e. In u In1 (see Fig. F75a)
b If the RCCB is located upstream of a group of circuits, protected by circuitbreakers, as shown in Figure F75b, then the RCCB rated current will be given by:
In1
In u ku x ks (In1 + In2 + In3 + In4)
In
In
F42
In1
In2
In3
In4
Electrodynamic withstand requirements
Protection against short-circuits must be provided by an upstream SCPD (ShortCircuit Protective Device) but it is considered that where the RCCB is located in the
same distribution box (complying with the appropriate standards) as the downstream
circuit-breakers (or fuses), the short-circuit protection afforded by these (outgoingcircuit) SCPDs is an adequate alternative. Coordination between the RCCB and the
SCPDs is necessary, and manufacturers generally provide tables associating RCCBs
and circuit-breakers or fuses (see Fig. F76).
Fig. F75 : Residual current circuit-breakers (RCCBs)
Circuit-breaker and RCCB association – maxi Isc (r.m.s) value in kA
Upstream circuit-breaker
Downstream 2P
I 20A
RCCB
230V
IN-A 40A
IN-A 63A
I 100A
4P
I 20A
400V
IN-A 40A
IN-A 63A
NG 125NA
DT40
6.5
6
6
DT40N
6.5
10
10
C60N
6.5
20
20
C60H
6.5
30
30
C60L
6.5
30
30
4.5
6
6
4.5
10
10
4.5
10
10
4.5
15
15
4.5
15
15
gG upstream fuse
Downstream 2P
RCCB
230V
20A
8
Fuses and RCCB association – maxi Isc (r.m.s) value in kA
4P
400V
I 20A
IN-A 40A
IN-A 63A
I 100A
I 20A
IN-A 40A
IN-A 63A
NG 125NA
63A
100A
30
30
20
20
6
30
30
20
20
C120N
3
10
10
15
2
7
7
10
125A
8
50
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. F76 : Typical manufacturers coordination table for RCCBs, circuit-breakers, and fuses (Merlin Gerin products)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
C120H
4.5
10
10
15
3
7
7
16
NG125N
4.5
15
15
15
3
15
15
25
NG125H
4.5
15
15
15
3
15
15
50
Chapter G
Sizing and protection of conductors
Contents
1
General
G2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
G2
G4
G4
G6
G6
2
Practical method for determining the smallest allowable
cross-sectional area of circuit conductors
G7
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
G7
G7
G16
G18
3
4
Determination of voltage drop
G20
3.1 Maximum voltage drop limit
3.2 Calculation of voltage drop in steady load conditions
G20
G21 G1
Short-circuit current
G24
4.1 Short-circuit current at the secondary terminals of
a MV/LV distribution transformer
4.2 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point within
a LV installation
4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder in terms of the Isc
at its sending end
4.4 Short-circuit current supplied by an alternator or an inverter
G24
Methodology and definition
Overcurrent protection principles
Practical values for a protective scheme
Location of protective devices
Conductors in parallel
General
General method for cables
Recommended simplified approach for cables
Busbar trunking systems
G25
G28
G29
5
Particular cases of short-circuit current
G30
5.1 Calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit current
5.2 Verification of the withstand capabilities of cables under
short-circuit conditions
G30
G35
6
Protective earthing conductor
G37
6.1 Connection and choice
6.2 Conductor sizing
6.3 Protective conductor between MV/LV transformer and
the main general distribution board (MGDB)
6.4 Equipotential conductor
G37
G38
G40
G41
7
The neutral conductor
G42
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
G42
G42
G44
G44
8
Worked example of cable calculation
G46
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Sizing the neutral conductor
Protection of the neutral conductor
Breaking of the neutral conductor
Isolation of the neutral conductor
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
1 General
1.1 Methodology and definition
Component parts of an electric circuit and its
protection are determined such that all normal
and abnormal operating conditions are satisfied
Methodology (see Fig. G1 )
Following a preliminary analysis of the power requirements of the installation, as
described in Chapter B Clause 4, a study of cabling(1) and its electrical protection is
undertaken, starting at the origin of the installation, through the intermediate stages
to the final circuits.
The cabling and its protection at each level must satisfy several conditions at the
same time, in order to ensure a safe and reliable installation, e.g. it must:
b Carry the permanent full load current, and normal short-time overcurrents
b Not cause voltage drops likely to result in an inferior performance of certain loads,
for example: an excessively long acceleration period when starting a motor, etc.
Moreover, the protective devices (circuit-breakers or fuses) must:
b Protect the cabling and busbars for all levels of overcurrent, up to and including
short-circuit currents
b Ensure protection of persons against indirect contact hazards, particularly in
TN- and IT- earthed systems, where the length of circuits may limit the magnitude
of short-circuit currents, thereby delaying automatic disconnection (it may be
remembered that TT- earthed installations are necessarily protected at the origin by
a RCD, generally rated at 300 mA).
G2
The cross-sectional areas of conductors are determined by the general method
described in Sub-clause 2 of this Chapter. Apart from this method some national
standards may prescribe a minimum cross-sectional area to be observed for reasons
of mechanical endurance. Particular loads (as noted in Chapter N) require that the
cable supplying them be oversized, and that the protection of the circuit be likewise
modified.
Power demand:
- kVA to be supplied
- Maximum load current IB
Conductor sizing:
- Selection of conductor type and insulation
- Selection of method of installation
- Taking account of correction factors for
different environment conditions
- Determination of cross-sectional areas using
tables giving the current carrying capability
Verification of the maximum voltage drop:
- Steady state conditions
- Motor starting conditions
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Calculation of short-circuit currents:
- Upstream short-circuit power
- Maximum values
- Minimum values at conductor end
Selection of protective devices:
- Rated current
- Breaking capability
- Implementation of cascading
- Check of discrimination
Fig. G1 : Flow-chart for the selection of cable size and protective device rating for a given circuit
(1) The term “cabling” in this chapter, covers all insulated
conductors, including multi-core and single-core cables and
insulated wires drawn into conduits, etc.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
1 General
Definitions
Maximum load current: IB
b At the final circuits level, this current corresponds to the rated kVA of the load.
In the case of motor-starting, or other loads which take a high in-rush current,
particularly where frequent starting is concerned (e.g. lift motors, resistance-type
spot welding, and so on) the cumulative thermal effects of the overcurrents must be
taken into account. Both cables and thermal type relays are affected.
b At all upstream circuit levels this current corresponds to the kVA to be supplied,
which takes account of the factors of simultaneity (diversity) and utilization, ks and ku
respectively, as shown in Figure G2.
Main distribution
board
Combined factors of simultaneity
(or diversity) and utilization:
ks x ku = 0.69
IB = (80+60+100+50) x 0.69 = 200 A
G3
Sub-distribution
board
80 A
60 A
100 A
50 A
M
Normal load
motor current
50 A
Fig. G2 : Calculation of maximum load current IB
Maximum permissible current: Iz
This is the maximum value of current that the cabling for the circuit can carry
indefinitely, without reducing its normal life expectancy.
The current depends, for a given cross sectional area of conductors, on several
parameters:
b Constitution of the cable and cable-way (Cu or Alu conductors; PVC or EPR etc.
insulation; number of active conductors)
b Ambient temperature
b Method of installation
b Influence of neighbouring circuits
Overcurrents
An overcurrent occurs each time the value of current exceeds the maximum load
current IB for the load concerned.
This current must be cut off with a rapidity that depends upon its magnitude, if
permanent damage to the cabling (and appliance if the overcurrent is due to a
defective load component) is to be avoided.
Overcurrents of relatively short duration can however, occur in normal operation; two
types of overcurrent are distinguished:
b Overloads
These overcurrents can occur in healthy electric circuits, for example, due to a
number of small short-duration loads which occasionally occur co-incidentally: motor
starting loads, and so on. If either of these conditions persists however beyond a
given period (depending on protective-relay settings or fuse ratings) the circuit will be
automatically cut off.
b Short-circuit currents
These currents result from the failure of insulation between live conductors or/and
between live conductors and earth (on systems having low-impedance-earthed
neutrals) in any combination, viz:
v 3 phases short-circuited (and to neutral and/or earth, or not)
v 2 phases short-circuited (and to neutral and/or earth, or not)
v 1 phase short-circuited to neutral (and/or to earth)
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G - Sizing and protection of conductors
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
1 General
1.2 Overcurrent protection principles
A protective device is provided at the origin of the circuit concerned (see Fig. G3 and
Fig. G4).
b Acting to cut-off the current in a time shorter than that given by the I2t
characteristic of the circuit cabling
b But allowing the maximum load current IB to flow indefinitely
The characteristics of insulated conductors when carrying short-circuit currents
can, for periods up to 5 seconds following short-circuit initiation, be determined
approximately by the formula:
I2t = k2 S2 which shows that the allowable heat generated is proportional to the
squared cross-sectional-area of the condutor.
where
t: Duration of short-circuit current (seconds)
S: Cross sectional area of insulated conductor (mm2)
I: Short-circuit current (A r.m.s.)
k: Insulated conductor constant (values of k2 are given in Figure G52 )
For a given insulated conductor, the maximum permissible current varies according
to the environment. For instance, for a high ambient temperature (θa1 > θa2), Iz1 is
less than Iz2 (see Fig. G5). θ means “temperature”.
G4
Note:
v ISC: 3-phase short-circuit current
v ISCB: rated 3-ph. short-circuit breaking current of the circuit-breaker
v Ir (or Irth)(1): regulated “nominal” current level; e.g. a 50 A nominal circuit-breaker
can be regulated to have a protective range, i.e. a conventional overcurrent tripping
level (see Fig. G6 opposite page) similar to that of a 30 A circuit-breaker.
t
Maximum
load
current
I2t cable
characteristic
1.3 Practical values for a protective scheme
Temporary
overload
The following methods are based on rules laid down in the IEC standards, and are
representative of the practices in many countries.
Circuit-breaker
tripping curve
General rules
IB Ir Iz
ISCB ICU
I
Fig. G3 : Circuit protection by circuit-breaker
A protective device (circuit-breaker or fuse) functions correctly if:
b Its nominal current or its setting current In is greater than the maximum load
current IB but less than the maximum permissible current Iz for the circuit, i.e.
IB y In y Iz corresponding to zone “a” in Figure G6
b Its tripping current I2 “conventional” setting is less than 1.45 Iz which corresponds
to zone “b” in Figure G6
The “conventional” setting tripping time may be 1 hour or 2 hours according to local
standards and the actual value selected for I2. For fuses, I2 is the current (denoted
If) which will operate the fuse in the conventional time.
t
I2t cable
characteristic
t
1
2
θa1 > θa2
Fuse curve
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Temporary
overload
IB
5s
Ir cIz Iz
I2t = k2S2
I
Fig. G4 : Circuit protection by fuses
Iz1 < Iz2
I
Fig. G5 : I2t characteristic of an insulated conductor at two different ambient temperatures
(1) Both designations are commonly used in different
standards.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
1 General
Circuit cabling
Iz
45
1.
B
I
nt
rre
cu
M
ax
im
um
ad
lo
lo
ad
um
im
ax
M
cu
rre
nt
Iz
Loads
IB
1.45 Iz
Iz
Isc
0
In
I2
ISCB
zone a
zone c
Protective device
g
3
fa -ph
ul s
t-c ho
ur r t
re -ci
nt rc
br uit
ea
ki
ng
ra
tin
re
ur
rc
C
tri onv
p e
cu nt
rre ion
nt al
I 2 ov
e
N
its om
re ina
gu l c
la ur
te re
d n
cu t I
rre n o
nt r
Ir
nt
zone b
G5
IB y In y Iz zone a
I2 y 1.45 Iz zone b
ISCB u ISC zone c
Fig. G6 : Current levels for determining circuir breaker or fuse characteristics
b Its 3-phase short-circuit fault-current breaking rating is greater than the 3-phase
short-circuit current existing at its point of installation. This corresponds to zone “c” in
Figure G6.
Applications
Criteria for fuses:
IB y In y Iz/k3 and ISCF u ISC.
b Protection by fuses
The condition I2 y 1.45 Iz must be taken into account, where I2 is the fusing (melting
level) current, equal to k2 x In (k2 ranges from 1.6 to 1.9) depending on the particular
fuse concerned.
k2
A further factor k3 has been introduced ( k3 =
) such that I2 y 1.45 Iz
1.45
will be valid if In y Iz/k3.
For fuses type gG:
In < 16 A → k3 = 1.31
In u 16 A → k3 = 1.10
Moreover, the short-circuit current breaking capacity of the fuse ISCF must exceed
the level of 3-phase short-circuit current at the point of installation of the fuse(s).
b Association of different protective devices
The use of protective devices which have fault-current ratings lower than the fault
level existing at their point of installation are permitted by IEC and many national
standards in the following conditions:
v There exists upstream, another protective device which has the necessary shortcircuit rating, and
v The amount of energy allowed to pass through the upstream device is less than
that which can be withstood without damage by the downstream device and all
associated cabling and appliances.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Criteria for circuit-breakers:
IB y In y Iz and ISCB u ISC.
b Protection by circuit-breaker
By virtue of its high level of precision the current I2 is always less than 1.45 In (or
1.45 Ir) so that the condition I2 y 1.45 Iz (as noted in the “general rules” above) will
always be respected.
v Particular case
If the circuit-breaker itself does not protect against overloads, it is necessary to
ensure that, at a time of lowest value of short-circuit current, the overcurrent device
protecting the circuit will operate correctly. This particular case is examined in Subclause 5.1.
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
1 General
In pratice this arrangement is generally exploited in:
v The association of circuit-breakers/fuses
v The technique known as “cascading” or “series rating” in which the strong
current-limiting performance of certain circuit-breakers effectively reduces the
severity of downstream short-circuits
Possible combinations which have been tested in laboratories are indicated in certain
manufacturers catalogues.
1.4 Location of protective devices
A protective device is, in general, required at the
origin of each circuit
General rule (see Fig. G7a)
A protective device is necessary at the origin of each circuit where a reduction of
permissible maximum current level occurs.
Possible alternative locations in certain circumstances
(see Fig. G7b)
The protective device may be placed part way along the circuit:
b If AB is not in proximity to combustible material, and
b If no socket-outlets or branch connections are taken from AB
G6
a
P
P2
P3
50 mm2
P4
10 mm2
25 mm2
b
Three cases may be useful in practice:
b Consider case (1) in the diagram
v AB y 3 metres, and
v AB has been installed to reduce to a practical minimum the risk of a short-circuit
(wires in heavy steel conduit for example)
b Consider case (2)
v The upstream device P1 protects the length AB against short-circuits in
accordance with Sub-clause 5.1
b Consider case (3)
v The overload device (S) is located adjacent to the load. This arrangement is
convenient for motor circuits. The device (S) constitutes the control (start/stop) and
overload protection of the motor while (SC) is: either a circuit-breaker (designed for
motor protection) or fuses type aM
v The short-circuit protection (SC) located at the origin of the circuit conforms with
the principles of Sub-clause 5.1
Circuits with no protection (see Fig. G7c)
P1
Either
b The protective device P1 is calibrated to protect the cable S2 against overloads
and short-circuits
A
<3m
sc
B
B
P2
B
P3
Case (1)
Case (2)
Short-circuit
protective
device
s Overload
protective
device
Or
b Where the breaking of a circuit constitutes a risk, e.g.
v Excitation circuits of rotating machines
v circuits of large lifting electromagnets
v the secondary circuits of current transformers
No circuit interruption can be tolerated, and the protection of the cabling is of
secondary importance.
Case (3)
1.5 Conductors in parallel
Conductors of the same cross-sectional-area, the same length, and of the same
material, can be connected in parallel.
c
The maximum permissible current is the sum of the individual-core maximum
currents, taking into account the mutual heating effects, method of installation, etc.
Protection against overload and short-circuits is identical to that for a single-cable
circuit.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
P1: C60 rated 15 A
2.5 mm2
S2:
1.5 mm2
Fig. G7 : Location of protective devices
The following precautions should be taken to avoid the risk of short-circuits on the
paralleled cables:
b Additional protection against mechanical damage and against humidity, by the
introduction of supplementary protection
b The cable route should be chosen so as to avoid close proximity to combustible
materials
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
2.1 General
The reference international standard for the study of cabling is IEC 60364-5-52:
“Electrical installation of buildings - Part 5-52: Selection and erection of electrical
equipment - Wiring system”.
A summary of this standard is presented here, with examples of the most commonly
used methods of installation. The current-carrying capacities of conductors in all
different situations are given in annex A of the standard. A simplified method for use
of the tables of annex A is proposed in informative annex B of the standard.
2.2 General method for cables
Possible methods of installation for different types of
conductors or cables
The different admissible methods of installation are listed in Figure G8, in
conjonction with the different types of conductors and cables.
G7
Conductors and cables
Method of installation
Without Clipped
Conduit Cable trunking
fixings
direct
(including
skirting trunking,
flush floor trunking)
–
–
–
–
–
–
+
+
+
+
+
+
Bare conductors
Insulated conductors
Sheathed
Multi-core
cables
(including
armoured
Single-core 0
+
and
mineral
insulated)
+ Permitted.
– Not permitted.
0 Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
+
+
Cable
Cable ladder
ducting Cable tray
Cable brackets
On
Support
insulators wire
–
+
+
–
–
+
+
+
0
–
–
+
+
+
0
+
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G8 : Selection of wiring systems (table 52-1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
Possible methods of installation for different situations:
Different methods of installation can be implemented in different situations. The
possible combinations are presented in Figure G9.
The number given in this table refer to the different wiring systems considered.
(see also Fig. G10)
Situations
Building voids
G8
Method of installation
Without With
Conduit
fixings
fixings
Cable channel
40, 46,
15, 16
56
0
15, 16,
41, 42
54, 55
56
Buried in ground
Embedded in structure
72, 73
57, 58
0
3
Surface mounted
–
20, 21
70, 71
1, 2,
59, 60
4, 5
Overhead
–
–
Immersed
80
80
– Not permitted.
0 Not applicable, or not normally used in practice.
Cable trunking
Cable
(including
ducting
skirting trunking,
flush floor trunking)
–
43
0
44, 45
–
50, 51, 52, 53
44, 45
0
6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 13, 14
22, 23
10, 11
6, 7,
8, 9
–
0
–
0
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G9 : Erection of wiring systems (table 52-2 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Cable ladder
cable tray,
cable brackets
On
Support
insulators wire
30, 31, 32,
33, 34
30, 31, 32,
33, 34
70, 71
0
–
–
–
–
0
–
–
–
36
–
36
35
–
–
30, 31, 32,
33, 34
30, 31, 32
33, 34
0
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
Examples of wiring systems and reference methods of
installations
An illustration of some of the many different wiring systems and methods of
installation is provided in Figure G10.
Several reference methods are defined (with code letters A to G), grouping
installation methods having the same characteristics relative to the current-carrying
capacities of the wiring systems.
Item No.
Methods of installation
1
Description
Reference method of
installation to be used to
obtain current-carrying
capacity
Insulated conductors or single-core
cables in conduit in a thermally
insulated wall
A1
Room
G9
2
Multi-core cables in conduit in a
thermally insulated wall
A2
4
Insulated conductors or single-core
cables in conduit on a wooden, or
masonry wall or spaced less than
0,3 x conduit diameter from it
B1
5
Multi-core cable in conduit on a
wooden, or mansonry wall or spaced
less than 0,3 x conduit diameter
from it
B2
20
Single-core or multi-core cables:
- fixed on, or sapced less than 0.3 x cable
diameter from a wooden wall
C
On unperforated tray
C
Room
30
0.3 D e
Fig. G10 : Examples of methods of installation (part of table 52-3 of IEC 60364-5-52) (continued on next page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
0.3 D e
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Item No.
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
Description
Reference method of
installation to be used to
obtain current-carrying
capacity
On perforated tray
E or F
36
Bare or insulated conductors on
insulators
G
70
Multi-core cables in conduit or in cable
ducting in the ground
D
71
Single-core cable in conduit or in cable
ducting in the ground
D
31
Methods of installation
0.3 D e
0.3 D e
G10
Fig. G10 : Examples of methods of installation (part of table 52-3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Maximum operating temperature:
The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables have been
determined so that the maximum insulation temperature is not exceeded for
sustained periods of time.
For different type of insulation material, the maximum admissible temperature is
given in Figure G11.
Type of insulation
Polyvinyl-chloride (PVC)
Cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) and ethylene
propylene rubber (EPR)
Mineral (PVC covered or bare exposed to touch)
Mineral (bare not exposed to touch and not in
contact with combustible material)
Temperature limit °C
70 at the conductor
90 at the conductor
70 at the sheath
105 at the seath
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Fig. G11 : Maximum operating temperatures for types of insulation (table 52-4 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Correction factors:
In order to take environnement or special conditions of installation into account,
correction factors have been introduced.
The cross sectional area of cables is determined using the rated load current IB
divided by different correction factors, k1, k2, ...:
I' B =
IB
k1 ⋅ k 2 ...
I’B is the corrected load current, to be compared to the current-carrying capacity of
the considered cable.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
b Ambient temperature
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the air are based on an average air
temperature equal to 30 °C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is given in
Figure G12 for PVC, EPR and XLPE insulation material.
The related correction factor is here noted k1.
Ambient temperature °C
10
15
20
25
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Insulation
PVC
1.22
1.17
1.12
1.06
0.94
0.87
0.79
0.71
0.61
0.50
-
XLPE and EPR
1.15
1.12
1.08
1.04
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.58
0.50
0.41
G11
Fig. G12 : Correction factors for ambient air temperatures other than 30 °C to be applied to the
current-carrying capacities for cables in the air (from table A.52-14 of IEC 60364-5-52)
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on an average
ground temperature equal to 20 °C. For other temperatures, the correction factor is
given in Figure G13 for PVC, EPR and XLPE insulation material.
The related correction factor is here noted k2.
Ground temperature °C
10
15
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
Insulation
PVC
1.10
1.05
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.77
0.71
0.63
0.55
0.45
-
XLPE and EPR
1.07
1.04
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.85
0.80
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.60
0.53
0.46
0.38
Fig. G13 : Correction factors for ambient ground temperatures other than 20 °C to be applied to
the current-carrying capacities for cables in ducts in the ground (from table A.52-15 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
b Soil thermal resistivity
The current-carrying capacities of cables in the ground are based on a ground
resistivity equal to 2.5 K.m/W. For other values, the correction factor is given in
Figure G14.
The related correction factor is here noted k3.
Thermal resistivity, K.m/W
Correction factor
1
1.18
1.5
1.1
2
1.05
2.5
1
3
0.96
Fig. G14 : Correction factors for cables in buried ducts for soil thermal resistivities other than 2.5
K.m/W to be applied to the current-carrying capacities for reference method D (table A52.16 of
IEC 60364-5-52)
Based on experience, a relationship exist between the soil nature and resistivity.
Then, empiric values of correction factors k3 are proposed in Figure G15, depending
on the nature of soil.
G12
Nature of soil
Very wet soil (saturated)
Wet soil
Damp soil
Dry soil
Very dry soil (sunbaked)
k3
1.21
1.13
1.05
1.00
0.86
Fig. G15 : Correction factor k3 depending on the nature of soil
b Grouping of conductors or cables
The current-carrying capacities given in the subsequent tables relate to single
circuits consisting of the following numbers of loaded conductors:
v Two insulated conductors or two single-core cables, or one twin-core cable
(applicable to single-phase circuits);
v Three insulated conductors or three single-core cables, or one three-core cable
(applicable to three-phase circuits).
Where more insulated conductors or cables are installed in the same group, a group
reduction factor (here noted k4) shall be applied.
Examples are given in Figures G16 to G18 for different configurations (installation
methods, in free air or in the ground).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Figure G16 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of
unburied cables or conductors, grouping of more than one circuit or multi-core
cables.
Arrangement
(cables touching)
Bunched in air, on a
surface, embedded or
enclosed
Single layer on wall, floor
or unperforated tray
Single layer fixed directly
under a wooden ceiling
Single layer on a
perforated horizontal or
vertical tray
Single layer on ladder
support or cleats etc.
Number of circuits or multi-core cables
1
2
3
4
5
6
1.00
0.80
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.57
7
0.54
8
0.52
9
0.50
12
0.45
Reference methods
1.00
0.85
0.79
0.75
0.73
0.72
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.95
0.81
0.72
0.68
0.66
0.64
0.63
0.62
0.61
No further reduction
factor for more than
nine circuits or
multi-core cables
1.00
0.88
0.82
0.77
0.75
0.73
0.73
0.72
0.72
1.00
0.87
0.82
0.80
0.80
0.79
0.79
0.78
0.78
16
0.41
20
0.38
Fig. G16 : Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit or of more than one multi-core cable (table A.52-17 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Methods A to F
Method C
Methods E and F
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
Figure G17 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of
unburied cables or conductors, for groups of more than one circuit of single-core
cables in free air.
Method of installation
Perforated
trays
Vertical
perforated
trays
Number
of tray
1
2
3
1
0.98
0.91
0.87
2
0.96
0.87
0.81
20 mm
3
0.95
0.85
0.78
Touching
1
0.96
0.86
2
0.95
0.84
Touching
31
31
Number of three-phase
circuits
Use as a
multiplier to
rating for
Three cables in
horizontal
formation
Three cables in
vertical
formation
225 mm
G13
Ladder
supports,
cleats, etc...
32
1
1.00
0.97
0.96
2
0.98
0.93
0.89
3
0.97
0.90
0.86
1
1.00
0.98
0.96
2
0.97
0.93
0.89
3
0.96
0.92
0.86
1
1.00
0.91
0.89
2
1.00
0.90
0.86
1
1.00
1.00
1.00
2
0.97
0.95
0.93
3
0.96
0.94
0.90
Touching
33
34
Three cables in
horizontal
formation
20 mm
Perforated
trays
31
2D e
De
20 mm
Vertical
perforated
trays
31
De
Spaced
225 mm
Three cables in
trefoil formation
2D e
Ladder
supports,
cleats, etc...
32
2D e
De
33
34
20 mm
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G17 : Reduction factors for groups of more than one circuit of single-core cables to be applied to reference rating for one circuit of single-core cables in free air
- Method of installation F. (table A.52.21 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
Figure G18 gives the values of correction factor k4 for different configurations of
cables or conductors laid directly in the ground.
Number
of circuits
2
3
4
5
6
a
G14
a
Cable to cable clearance (a)a
Nil (cables One cable
0.125 m
touching)
diameter
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.60
0.60
0.70
0.55
0.55
0.65
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.25 m
0.5 m
0.90
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.70
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.80
0.80
Multi-core cables
a
a
a
a
Single-core cables
Fig. G18 : Reduction factors for more than one circuit, single-core or multi-core cables laid
directly in the ground. Installation method D. (table 52-18 of IEC 60364-5-52)
b Harmonic current
The current-carrying capacity of three-phase, 4-core or 5-core cables is based on
the assumption that only 3 conductors are fully loaded.
However, when harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral current can be
significant, and even higher than the phase currents. This is due to the fact that the
3rd harmonic currents of the three phases do not cancel each other, and sum up in
the neutral conductor.
This of course affects the current-carrying capacity of the cable, and a correction
factor noted here k5 shall be applied.
In addition, if the 3rd harmonic percentage h3 is greater than 33%, the neutral current
is greater than the phase current and the cable size selection is based on the neutral
current. The heating effect of harmonic currents in the phase conductors has also to
be taken into account.
The values of k5 depending on the 3rd harmonic content are given in Figure G19.
Third harmonic content
of phase current %
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
0 - 15
15 - 33
33 - 45
> 45
Correction factor
Size selection is based
on phase current
1.0
0.86
Size selection is based
on neutral current
0.86
1.0
Fig. G19 : Correction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables (table D.52.1
of IEC 60364-5-52)
Admissible current as a function of nominal cross-sectional
area of conductors
IEC standard 60364-5-52 proposes extensive information in the form of tables
giving the admissible currents as a function of cross-sectional area of cables. Many
parameters are taken into account, such as the method of installation, type of
insulation material, type of conductor material, number of loaded conductors.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
As an example, Figure G20 gives the current-carrying capacities for different
methods of installation of PVC insulation, three loaded copper or aluminium
conductors, free air or in ground.
Nominal
cross-sectional
area of conductors
(mm2)
1
Copper
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Aluminium
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Installation methods
A1
A2
B1
B2
C
D
2
3
4
5
6
7
13.5
18
24
31
42
56
73
89
108
136
164
188
216
245
286
328
13
17.5
23
29
39
52
68
83
99
125
150
172
196
223
261
298
15.5
21
28
36
50
68
89
110
134
171
207
239
-
15
20
27
34
46
62
80
99
118
149
179
206
-
17.5
24
32
41
57
76
96
119
144
184
223
259
299
341
403
464
18
24
31
39
52
67
86
103
122
151
179
203
230
258
297
336
14
18.5
24
32
43
57
70
84
107
129
149
170
194
227
261
13.5
17.5
23
31
41
53
65
78
98
118
135
155
176
207
237
16.5
22
28
39
53
70
86
104
133
161
186
-
15.5
21
27
36
48
62
77
92
116
139
160
-
18.5
25
32
44
59
73
90
110
140
170
197
227
259
305
351
18.5
24
30
40
52
66
80
94
117
138
157
178
200
230
260
G15
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G20 : Current-carrying capacities in amperes for different methods of installation, PVC insulation, three loaded conductors, copper or aluminium, conductor
temperature: 70 °C, ambient temperature: 30 °C in air, 20 °C in ground (table A.52.4 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
2.3 Recommended simplified approach for cables
In order to facilitate the selection of cables, 2 simplified tables are proposed, for
unburied and buried cables.
These tables summarize the most commonly used configurations and give easier
access to the information.
b Unburied cables:
G16
Reference
methods
A1
A2
B1
B2
C
E
F
1
Size (mm2)
Copper
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
Aluminium
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
Number of loaded conductors and type of insulation
2
3
4
3 XLPE 2 XLPE
3 XLPE 2 XLPE
3 PVC 2 PVC
3 XLPE
2 PVC
3 XLPE 2 XLPE
3 PVC
2 PVC 3 XLPE
3 PVC
2 PVC
3 PVC
5
6
7
8
9
13
17.5
23
29
39
52
68
-
13.5
18
24
31
42
56
73
-
14.5
19.5
26
34
46
61
80
-
15.5
21
28
36
50
68
89
110
134
171
207
239
-
17
23
31
40
54
73
95
117
141
179
216
249
285
324
380
18.5
25
34
43
60
80
101
126
153
196
238
276
318
362
424
19.5
27
36
46
63
85
110
137
167
213
258
299
344
392
461
22
30
40
51
70
94
119
147
179
229
278
322
371
424
500
23
31
42
54
75
100
127
158
192
246
298
346
395
450
538
24
33
45
58
80
107
135
169
207
268
328
382
441
506
599
26
36
49
63
86
115
149
185
225
289
352
410
473
542
641
161
200
242
310
377
437
504
575
679
13.5
17.5
23
31
41
53
-
14
18.5
24
32
43
57
-
15
20
26
36
48
63
-
16.5
22
28
39
53
70
86
104
133
161
186
-
18.5
25
32
44
58
73
90
110
140
170
197
226
256
300
19.5
26
33
46
61
78
96
117
150
183
212
245
280
330
21
28
36
49
66
83
103
125
160
195
226
261
298
352
23
31
39
54
73
90
112
136
174
211
245
283
323
382
24
32
42
58
77
97
120
146
187
227
263
304
347
409
26
35
45
62
84
101
126
154
198
241
280
324
371
439
28
38
49
67
91
108
135
164
211
257
300
346
397
470
121
150
184
237
289
337
389
447
530
3 PVC
2 PVC
2 PVC
3 PVC
3 PVC
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G21a : Current-carrying capacity in amperes (table B.52-1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 XLPE
2 XLPE
3 XLPE
2 XLPE
2 PVC 3 XLPE
2 XLPE
10
11
12
13
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
Correction factors are given in Figure G21b for groups of several circuits or multicore cables:
Arrangement
Number of circuits or multi-core cables
1
2
3
4
6
9
12
16
20
1.00 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.40
Embedded or enclosed
Single layer on walls, floors
or on unperforatedtrays
Single layer fixed directly
under a ceiling
Single layer on perforated
horizontal trays or on vertical trays
Single layer on cable
ladder supports or cleats, etc...
1.00 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.70 0.70 -
-
-
0.95 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.60 -
-
-
1.00 0.90 0.80 0.75 0.75 0.70 -
-
-
1.00 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.80 -
-
-
Fig. G21b : Reduction factors for groups of several circuits or of several multi-core cables
(table B.52-3 of IEC 60364-5-52)
G17
b Buried cables:
Installation Size
method
mm2
D
Copper
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
D
Aluminium
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Number of loaded conductors and type of insulation
Two PVC
Three PVC Two XLPE
Three XLPE
22
29
38
47
63
81
104
125
148
183
216
246
278
312
361
408
18
24
31
39
52
67
86
103
122
151
179
203
230
258
297
336
26
34
44
56
73
95
121
146
173
213
252
287
324
363
419
474
22
29
37
46
61
79
101
122
144
178
211
240
271
304
351
396
22
29
36
48
62
80
96
113
140
166
189
213
240
277
313
18.5
24
30
40
52
66
80
94
117
138
157
178
200
230
260
26
34
42
56
73
93
112
132
163
193
220
249
279
322
364
22
29
36
47
61
78
94
112
138
164
186
210
236
272
308
Fig. G22 : Current-carrying capacity in amperes (table B.52-1 of IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
2.4 Busbar trunking systems
The selection of busbar trunking systems is very straightforward, using the data
provided by the manufacturer. Methods of installation, insulation materials, correction
factors for grouping are not relevant parameters for this technology.
The cross section area of any given model has been determined by the manufacturer
based on:
b The rated current,
b An ambient air temperature equal to 35 °C,
b 3 loaded conductors.
Rated current
The rated current can be calculated taking account of:
b The layout,
b The current absorbed by the different loads connected along the trunking system.
Ambient temperature
G18
A correction factor has to be applied for temperature higher than 35 °C. The
correction factor applicable to medium and high power range (up to 4,000 A) is given
in Figure G23a.
°C
Correction factor
35
1
40
0.97
45
0.93
50
0.90
55
0.86
Fig. G23a : Correction factor for air temperature higher than 35 °C
Neutral current
Where 3rd harmonic currents are circulating, the neutral conductor may be carrying a
significant current and the corresponding additional power losses must be taken into
account.
Figure G23b represents the maximum admissible phase and neutral currents (per
unit) in a high power busbar trunking system as functions of 3rd harmonic level.
Maximum admissible current (p.u)
1.4
Neutral conductor
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Phase conductor
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
3rd harmonic current level (%)
Fig. G23b : Maximum admissible currents (p.u.) in a busbar trunking system as functions of the
3rd harmonic level.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 Practical method for determining
the smallest allowable crosssectional area of circuit conductors
The layout of the trunking system depends on the position of the current consumers,
the location of the power source and the possibilities for fixing the system.
v One single distribution line serves a 4 to 6 meter area
v Protection devices for current consumers are placed in tap-off units, connected
directly to usage points.
v One single feeder supplies all current consumers of different powers.
Once the trunking system layout is established, it is possible to calculate the
absorbed current In on the distribution line.
In is equal to the sum of absorbed currents by the current In consumers: In = Σ IB.
The current consumers do not all work at the same time and are not permanently on
full load, so we have to use a clustering coefficient kS : In = Σ (IB . kS).
Application
Number of current consumers
Lighting, Heating
Distribution (engineering
workshop)
Ks Coefficient
1
2...3
4...5
6...9
10...40
40 and over
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
G19
Note : for industrial installations, remember to take account of upgrading of the machine
equipment base. As for a switchboard, a 20 % margin is recommended:
In ≤ IB x ks x 1.2.
Fig G24 : Clustering coefficient according to the number of current consumers
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
3 Determination of voltage drop
The impedance of circuit conductors is low but not negligible: when carrying
load current there is a voltage drop between the origin of the circuit and the load
terminals. The correct operation of a load (a motor, lighting circuit, etc.) depends
on the voltage at its terminals being maintained at a value close to its rated value.
It is necessary therefore to determine the circuit conductors such that at full-load
current, the load terminal voltage is maintained within the limits required for correct
performance.
This section deals with methods of determining voltage drops, in order to check that:
b They comply with the particular standards and regulations in force
b They can be tolerated by the load
b They satisfy the essential operational requirements
3.1 Maximum voltage drop
Maximum allowable voltage-drop vary from one country to another. Typical values for
LV installations are given below in Figure G25.
G20
Type of installations
A low-voltage service connection from
a LV public power distribution network
Consumers MV/LV substation supplied
from a public distribution MV system
Lighting
circuits
3%
Other uses
(heating and power)
5%
6%
8%
Fig. G25 : Maximum voltage-drop between the service-connection point and the point of utilization
These voltage-drop limits refer to normal steady-state operating conditions and do
not apply at times of motor starting, simultaneous switching (by chance) of several
loads, etc. as mentioned in Chapter A Sub-clause 4.3 (factor of simultaneity, etc.).
When voltage drops exceed the values shown in Figure G25, larger cables (wires)
must be used to correct the condition.
The value of 8%, while permitted, can lead to problems for motor loads; for example:
b In general, satisfactory motor performance requires a voltage within ± 5% of its
rated nominal value in steady-state operation,
b Starting current of a motor can be 5 to 7 times its full-load value (or even higher).
If an 8% voltage drop occurs at full-load current, then a drop of 40% or more will
occur during start-up. In such conditions the motor will either:
v Stall (i.e. remain stationary due to insufficient torque to overcome the load torque)
with consequent over-heating and eventual trip-out
v Or accelerate very slowly, so that the heavy current loading (with possibly
undesirable low-voltage effects on other equipment) will continue beyond the normal
start-up period
b Finally an 8% voltage drop represents a continuous power loss, which, for continuous
loads will be a significant waste of (metered) energy. For these reasons it is
recommended that the maximum value of 8% in steady operating conditions should not
be reached on circuits which are sensitive to under-voltage problems (see Fig. G26).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
MV consumer
LV consumer
8% (1)
5% (1)
Load
Fig. G26 : Maximum voltage drop
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
(1) Between the LV supply point and the load
3 Determination of voltage drop
3.2 Calculation of voltage drop in steady load
conditions
Use of formulae
Figure G27 below gives formulae commonly used to calculate voltage drop in a
given circuit per kilometre of length.
If:
b IB: The full load current in amps
b L: Length of the cable in kilometres
b R: Resistance of the cable conductor in Ω/km
R=
R=
22.5 Ω mm2 / km
(
)
for copper
)
for aluminium
S c.s.a. in mm2
36 Ω mm2 / km
(
S c.s.a. in mm2
Note: R is negligible above a c.s.a. of 500 mm2
b X: inductive reactance of a conductor in Ω/km
Note: X is negligible for conductors of c.s.a. less than 50 mm2. In the absence of any
other information, take X as being equal to 0.08 Ω/km.
b ϕ: phase angle between voltage and current in the circuit considered, generally:
v Incandescent lighting: cos ϕ = 1
v Motor power:
- At start-up: cos ϕ = 0.35
- In normal service: cos ϕ = 0.8
b Un: phase-to-phase voltage
b Vn: phase-to-neutral voltage
G21
For prefabricated pre-wired ducts and bustrunking, resistance and inductive
reactance values are given by the manufacturer.
Circuit
Voltage drop (ΔU)
in volts
in %
Single phase: phase/phase
∆U = 2 I B(R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L
100 ∆U
Un
Single phase: phase/neutral
∆U = 2 I B(R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L
100 ∆U
Vn
Balanced 3-phase: 3 phases
∆U = 3 I B(R cos ϕ + X sin ϕ) L
100 ∆U
Un
(with or without neutral)
Fig. G27 : Voltage-drop formulae
Simplified table
Calculations may be avoided by using Figure G28 next page, which gives, with
an adequate approximation, the phase-to-phase voltage drop per km of cable per
ampere, in terms of:
b Kinds of circuit use: motor circuits with cos ϕ close to 0.8, or lighting with a cos ϕ
close to 1.
b Type of cable; single-phase or 3-phase
Voltage drop in a cable is then given by:
K x IB x L
K is given by the table,
IB is the full-load current in amps,
L is the length of cable in km.
The column motor power “cos ϕ = 0.35” of Figure G28 may be used to compute the
voltage drop occurring during the start-up period of a motor (see example no. 1 after
the Figure G28).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
c.s.a. in mm2
G22
Cu
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
Al
10
16
25
35
50
70
120
150
185
240
300
400
500
3 Determination of voltage drop
Single-phase circuit
Motor power
Normal service Start-up
cos ϕ = 0.8
24
14.4
9.1
6.1
3.7
2.36
1.5
1.15
0.86
0.64
0.48
0.39
0.33
0.29
0.24
0.21
Lighting
cos ϕ = 0.35
10.6
6.4
4.1
2.9
1.7
1.15
0.75
0.6
0.47
0.37
0.30
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.2
0.19
cos ϕ = 1
30
18
11.2
7.5
4.5
2.8
1.8
1.29
0.95
0.64
0.47
0.37
0.30
0.24
0.19
0.15
Balanced three-phase circuit
Motor power
Normal service Start-up
cos ϕ = 0.8
20
12
8
5.3
3.2
2.05
1.3
1
0.75
0.56
0.42
0.34
0.29
0.25
0.21
0.18
cos ϕ = 0.35
9.4
5.7
3.6
2.5
1.5
1
0.65
0.52
0.41
0.32
0.26
0.23
0.21
0.19
0.17
0.16
Lighting
cos ϕ = 1
25
15
9.5
6.2
3.6
2.4
1.5
1.1
0.77
0.55
0.4
0.31
0.27
0.2
0.16
0.13
Fig. G28 : Phase-to-phase voltage drop ΔU for a circuit, in volts per ampere per km
Examples
Example 1 (see Fig. G29)
A three-phase 35 mm2 copper cable 50 metres long supplies a 400 V motor taking:
b 100 A at a cos ϕ = 0.8 on normal permanent load
b 500 A (5 In) at a cos ϕ = 0.35 during start-up
The voltage drop at the origin of the motor cable in normal circumstances (i.e. with
the distribution board of Figure G29 distributing a total of 1,000 A) is 10 V phase-tophase.
What is the voltage drop at the motor terminals:
b In normal service?
b During start-up?
Solution:
b Voltage drop in normal service conditions:
∆U
∆U% = 100
1,000 A
Un
Table G28 shows 1 V/A/km so that:
ΔU for the cable = 1 x 100 x 0.05 = 5 V
ΔU total = 10 + 5 = 15 V = i.e.
400 V
15
x 100 = 3.75%
400
This value is less than that authorized (8%) and is satisfactory.
b Voltage drop during motor start-up:
ΔUcable = 0.52 x 500 x 0.05 = 13 V
50 m / 35 mm2 Cu
IB = 100 A
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
(500 A du ring start-up)
Owing to the additional current taken by the motor when starting, the voltage drop at
the distribution board will exceed 10 Volts.
Supposing that the infeed to the distribution board during motor starting is
900 + 500 = 1,400 A then the voltage drop at the distribution board will increase
approximately pro rata, i.e.
10 x 1,400
= 14 V
1,000
ΔU distribution board = 14 V
ΔU for the motor cable = 13 V
ΔU total = 13 + 14 = 27 V i.e.
27
x 100 = 6.75%
400
Fig. G29 : Example 1
a value which is satisfactory during motor starting.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Determination of voltage drop
Example 2 (see Fig. G30)
A 3-phase 4-wire copper line of 70 mm2 c.s.a. and a length of 50 m passes a current
of 150 A. The line supplies, among other loads, 3 single-phase lighting circuits, each
of 2.5 mm2 c.s.a. copper 20 m long, and each passing 20 A.
It is assumed that the currents in the 70 mm2 line are balanced and that the three
lighting circuits are all connected to it at the same point.
What is the voltage drop at the end of the lighting circuits?
Solution:
b Voltage drop in the 4-wire line:
∆U
∆U% = 100
Un
ΔU line = 0.55 x 150 x 0.05 = 4.125 V phase-to-phase
Figure G28 shows 0.55 V/A/km
which gives:
4 . 125
phase to
to neutral.
neutral.
= 2.38 V phase
3
b Voltage drop in any one of the lighting single-phase circuits:
ΔU for a single-phase circuit = 18 x 20 x 0.02 = 7.2 V
The total voltage drop is therefore
7.2 + 2.38 = 9.6 V
G23
9.6 V
x 100 = 4.2%
230 V
This value is satisfactory, being less than the maximum permitted voltage drop of 6%.
50 m / 70 mm2 Cu
IB = 150 A
20 m / 2.5 mm2 Cu
IB = 20 A
Fig. G30 : Example 2
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
4 Short-circuit current
A knowledge of 3-phase symmetrical short-circuit current values (Isc) at strategic
points of an installation is necessary in order to determine switchgear (fault current
rating), cables (thermal withstand rating), protective devices (discriminative trip
settings) and so on...
In the following notes a 3-phase short-circuit of zero impedance (the so-called bolted
short-circuit) fed through a typical MV/LV distribution transformer will be examined.
Except in very unusual circumstances, this type of fault is the most severe, and is
certainly the simplest to calculate.
Short-circuit currents occurring in a network supplied from a generator and also in
DC systems are dealt with in Chapter N.
The simplified calculations and practical rules which follow give conservative results
of sufficient accuracy, in the large majority of cases, for installation design purposes.
Knowing the levels of 3-phase symmetrical
short-circuit currents (Isc) at different points
in an installation is an essential feature of its
design
4.1 Short-circuit current at the secondary terminals
of a MV/LV distribution transformer
The case of one transformer
b In a simplified approach, the impedance of the MV system is assumed to be
G24
negligibly small, so that: I sc =
I n x 100
Usc
where I n =
P x 103
and :
U20 3
P = kVA rating of the transformer
U20 = phase-to-phase secondary volts on open circuit
In = nominal current in amps
Isc = short-circuit fault current in amps
Usc = short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer in %.
Typical values of Usc for distribution transformers are given in Figure G31.
Transformer rating
(kVA)
Usc in %
Oil-immersed
50 to 750
800 to 3,200
4
6
Cast-resin
dry type
6
6
Fig. G31 : Typical values of Usc for different kVA ratings of transformers with MV windings y 20 kV
b Example
400 kVA transformer, 420 V at no load
Usc = 4%
In =
400 x 103
= 550 A
420 x 3
I sc =
550 x 100
= 13.7 kA
4
The case of several transformers in parallel feeding a busbar
The value of fault current on an outgoing circuit immediately downstream of
the busbars (see Fig. G32) can be estimated as the sum of the Isc from each
transformer calculated separately.
Isc1
Isc2
Isc3
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Isc1 + Isc2 + Isc3
Fig. G32 : Case of several transformers in parallel
It is assumed that all transformers are supplied from the same MV network, in which
case the values obtained from Figure G31 when added together will give a slightly
higher fault-level value than would actually occur.
Other factors which have not been taken into account are the impedance of the
busbars and of the circuit-breakers.
The conservative fault-current value obtained however, is sufficiently accurate for
basic installation design purposes. The choice of circuit-breakers and incorporated
protective devices against short-circuit fault currents is described in Chapter H Subclause 4.4.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
4 Short-circuit current
4.2 3-phase short-circuit current (Isc) at any point
within a LV installation
In a 3-phase installation Isc at any point is given by:
I sc =
U20
3 ZT
where
U20 = phase-to-phase voltage of the open circuited secondary windings of the power
supply transformer(s).
ZT = total impedance per phase of the installation upstream of the fault location (in Ω)
Method of calculating ZT
Each component of an installation (MV network, transformer, cable, circuit-breaker,
busbar, and so on...) is characterized by its impedance Z, comprising an element
of resistance (R) and an inductive reactance (X). It may be noted that capacitive
reactances are not important in short-circuit current calculations.
The parameters R, X and Z are expressed in ohms, and are related by the sides of a
right angled triangle, as shown in the impedance diagram of Figure G33.
Z
The method consists in dividing the network into convenient sections, and to
calculate the R and X values for each.
X
Where sections are connected in series in the network, all the resistive elements in
the section are added arithmetically; likewise for the reactances, to give RT and XT.
The impedance (ZT) for the combined sections concerned is then calculated from
R
G25
Z T = RT 2 + X T 2
Fig. G33 : Impedance diagram
Any two sections of the network which are connected in parallel, can, if
predominantly both resistive (or both inductive) be combined to give a single
equivalent resistance (or reactance) as follows:
Let R1 and R2 be the two resistances connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance R3 will be given by:
R3 =
R1 x R2
R1 + R2
or for reactances X 3 = X1 x X2
X1 + X2
It should be noted that the calculation of X3 concerns only separated circuit without
mutual inductance. If the circuits in parallel are close togother the value of X3 will be
notably higher.
Determination of the impedance of each component
b Network upstream of the MV/LV transformer (see Fig. G34)
The 3-phase short-circuit fault level PSC, in kA or in MVA(1) is given by the power
supply authority concerned, from which an equivalent impedance can be deduced.
Psc
250 MVA
500 MVA
Uo (V)
420
420
Ra (mΩ)
0.07
0.035
Xa (mΩ)
0.7
0.351
Fig. G34 : The impedance of the MV network referred to the LV side of the MV/LV transformer
where
Zs = impedance of the MV voltage network, expessed in milli-ohms
Uo = phase-to-phase no-load LV voltage, expressed in volts
Psc = MV 3-phase short-circuit fault level, expressed in kVA
The upstream (MV) resistance Ra is generally found to be negligible compared with
the corresponding Xa, the latter then being taken as the ohmic value for Za. If more
accurate calculations are necessary, Xa may be taken to be equal to 0.995 Za and
Ra equal to 0.1 Xa.
(1) Short-circuit MVA: 3 EL Isc where:
b EL = phase-to-phase nominal system voltage expressed in
kV (r.m.s.)
b Isc = 3-phase short-circuit current expressed in kA (r.m.s.)
(2) up to 36 kV
Figure G36 gives values for Ra and Xa corresponding to the most common MV(2)
short-circuit levels in utility power-supply networks, namely, 250 MVA and 500 MVA.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
A formula which makes this deduction and at the same time converts the impedance
to an equivalent value at LV is given, as follows:
U 2
Zs = 0
Psc
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
4 Short-circuit current
b Transformers (see Fig. G35)
The impedance Ztr of a transformer, viewed from the LV terminals, is given by the
formula:
U 2 Usc
Ztr = 20 x
Pn 100
where:
U20 = open-circuit secondary phase-to-phase voltage expressed in volts
Pn = rating of the transformer (in kVA)
Usc = the short-circuit impedance voltage of the transformer expressed in %
The transformer windings resistance Rtr can be derived from the total losses as
follows:
Pcu = 3 I n2 x Rtr so that Rtr =
Pcu x 103
in milli-ohms
3 I n2
where
Pcu = total losses in watts
In = nominal full-load current in amps
Rtr = resistance of one phase of the transformer in milli-ohms (the LV and
corresponding MV winding for one LV phase are included in this resistance value).
Xtr = Ztr 2 − Rtr 2
For an approximate calculation Rtr may be ignored since X ≈ Z in standard
distribution type transformers.
G26
Rated
Oil-immersed
Usc (%)
Rtr (mΩ)
Xtr (mΩ)
Ztr (mΩ)
Cast-resin
Power
(kVA)
100
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
Usc (%)
Rtr (mΩ)
Xtr (mΩ)
Ztr (mΩ)
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
37.9
16.2
11.9
9.2
6.2
5.1
3.8
2.9
2.9
2.3
1.8
1.4
1.1
59.5
41.0
33.2
26.7
21.5
16.9
13.6
10.8
12.9
10.3
8.3
6.5
5.2
70.6
44.1
35.3
28.2
22.4
17.6
14.1
11.2
13.2
10.6
8.5
6.6
5.3
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
37.0
18.6
14.1
10.7
8.0
6.1
4.6
3.5
2.6
1.9
1.5
1.1
0.9
99.1
63.5
51.0
41.0
32.6
25.8
20.7
16.4
13.0
10.4
8.3
6.5
5.2
105.8
66.2
52.9
42.3
33.6
26.5
21.2
16.8
13.2
10.6
8.5
6.6
5.3
Fig. G35 : Resistance, reactance and impedance values for typical distribution 400 V transformers with MV windings y 20 kV
b Circuit-breakers
In LV circuits, the impedance of circuit-breakers upstream of the fault location must
be taken into account. The reactance value conventionally assumed is 0.15 mΩ per
CB, while the resistance is neglected.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b Busbars
The resistance of busbars is generally negligible, so that the impedance is practically
all reactive, and amounts to approximately 0.15 mΩ/metre(1) length for LV busbars
(doubling the spacing between the bars increases the reactance by about 10% only).
b Circuit conductors
L
The resistance of a conductor is given by the formula: Rc = ρ
S
where
ρ = the resistivity constant of the conductor material at the normal operating
temperature being:
v 22.5 mΩ.mm2/m for copper
v 36 mΩ.mm2/m for aluminium
L = length of the conductor in m
S = c.s.a. of conductor in mm2
(1) For 50 Hz systems, but 0.18 mΩ/m length at 60 Hz
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
4 Short-circuit current
Cable reactance values can be obtained from the manufacturers. For c.s.a. of less
than 50 mm2 reactance may be ignored. In the absence of other information, a value
of 0.08 mΩ/metre may be used (for 50 Hz systems) or 0.096 mΩ/metre (for 60 Hz
systems). For prefabricated bus-trunking and similar pre-wired ducting systems, the
manufacturer should be consulted.
b Motors
At the instant of short-circuit, a running motor will act (for a brief period) as a
generator, and feed current into the fault.
In general, this fault-current contribution may be ignored. However, if the total
power of motors running simultaneously is higher than 25% of the total power
of transformers, the influence of motors must be taken into account. Their total
contribution can be estimated from the formula:
Iscm = 3.5 In from each motor i.e. 3.5mIn for m similar motors operating concurrently.
The motors concerned will be the 3-phase motors only; single-phase-motor
contribution being insignificant.
b Fault-arc resistance
Short-circuit faults generally form an arc which has the properties of a resistance.
The resistance is not stable and its average value is low, but at low voltage this
resistance is sufficient to reduce the fault-current to some extent. Experience has
shown that a reduction of the order of 20% may be expected. This phenomenon will
effectively ease the current-breaking duty of a CB, but affords no relief for its faultcurrent making duty.
G27
b Recapitulation table (see Fig. G36)
Parts of power-supply system
Supply network
Figure G34
Transformer
Figure G35
R (mΩ)
X (mΩ)
Ra
= 0.1
Xa
Xa = 0.995 Za; Za =
Rtr =
Circuit-breaker
Rtr is often negligible compared to Xtr
for transformers > 100 kVA
Negligible
Busbars
Negligible for S > 200 mm2 in the formula:
L
S
L
R=ρ
S
R=ρ
Circuit conductors(2)
M
Pcu x 103
3 I n2
Motors
(1)
U202
Psc
Ztr 2 − Rtr 2
with
Ztr =
U202 Usc
x
Pn 100
XD = 0.15 mΩ/pole
XB = 0.15 mΩ/m
Cables: Xc = 0.08 mΩ/m
(1)
See Sub-clause 4.2 Motors
(often negligible at LV)
Three-phase short
circuit current in kA
U20
I sc =
3
RT 2 + XT 2
U20: Phase-to-phase no-load secondary voltage of MV/LV transformer (in volts).
Psc: 3-phase short-circuit power at MV terminals of the MV/LV transformers (in kVA).
Pcu: 3-phase total losses of the MV/LV transformer (in watts).
Pn: Rating of the MV/LV transformer (in kVA).
Usc: Short-circuit impedance voltage of the MV/LV transfomer (in %).
RT : Total resistance. XT: Total reactance
(1) ρ = resistivity at normal temperature of conductors in service
b ρ = 22.5 mΩ x mm2/m for copper
b ρ = 36 mΩ x mm2/m for aluminium
(2) If there are several conductors in parallel per phase, then divide the resistance of one conductor by the number of
conductors. The reactance remains practically unchanged.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G36 : Recapitulation table of impedances for different parts of a power-supply system
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
4 Short-circuit current
b Example of short-circuit calculations (see Fig. G37)
LV installation
G28
MV network
Psc = 500 MVA
Transformer
20 kV/420 V
Pn = 1000 kVA
Usc = 5%
Pcu = 13.3 x 103 watts
Single-core cables
5 m copper
4 x 240 mm2/phase
Main
circuit-breaker
Busbars
10 m
Three-core cable
100 m
95 mm2 copper
Three-core cable
20 m
10 mm2 copper
final circuits
R (mΩ)
X (mΩ)
0.035
0.351
2.24
8.10
Rc =
22.5 5
x
= 0.12
4
240
Xc = 0.08 x 5 = 0.40
RT (mΩ)
XT (mΩ)
I sc =
2.41
8.85
Isc1 = 26 kA
420
3 RT 2 + XT 2
RD = 0
XD = 0.15
RB = 0
XB = 1.5
2.41
10.5
Isc2 = 22 kA
Xc = 100 x 0.08 = 8
26.1
18.5
Isc3 = 7.4 kA
Xc = 20 x 0.08 = 1.6
71.1
20.1
Isc4 = 3.2 kA
Rc = 22.5 x
Rc = 22.5 x
100
= 23.68
95
20
= 45
10
Fig. G37 : Example of short-circuit current calculations for a LV installation supplied at 400 V (nominal) from a 1,000 kVA MV/LV transformer
4.3 Isc at the receiving end of a feeder as a function
of the Isc at its sending end
The network shown in Figure G38 typifies a case for the application of Figure G39
next page, derived by the «method of composition» (mentioned in Chapter F Subclause 6.2). These tables give a rapid and sufficiently accurate value of short-circuit
current at a point in a network, knowing:
b The value of short-circuit current upstream of the point considered
b The length and composition of the circuit between the point at which the shortcircuit current level is known, and the point at which the level is to be determined
It is then sufficient to select a circuit-breaker with an appropriate short-circuit fault
rating immediately above that indicated in the tables.
If more precise values are required, it is possible to make a detailled calculation
(see Sub-Clause 4.2) or to use a software package, such as Ecodial. In such a case,
moreover, the possibility of using the cascading technique should be considered,
in which the use of a current limiting circuit-breaker at the upstream position would
allow all circuit-breakers downstream of the limiter to have a short-circuit current
rating much lower than would otherwise be necessary (See chapter H Sub-Clause 4.5).
Method
Select the c.s.a. of the conductor in the column for copper conductors (in this
example the c.s.a. is 47.5 mm2).
Search along the row corresponding to 47.5 mm2 for the length of conductor equal
to that of the circuit concerned (or the nearest possible on the low side). Descend
vertically the column in which the length is located, and stop at a row in the middle
section (of the 3 sections of the Figure) corresponding to the known fault-current
level (or the nearest to it on the high side).
400 V
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Isc = 28 kA
47,5 mm2, Cu
20 m
In this case 30 kA is the nearest to 28 kA on the high side. The value of short-circuit
current at the downstream end of the 20 metre circuit is given at the intersection of
the vertical column in which the length is located, and the horizontal row corresponding
to the upstream Isc (or nearest to it on the high side).
Isc = ?
This value in the example is seen to be 14.7 kA.
IB = 55 A
The procedure for aluminium conductors is similar, but the vertical column must be
ascended into the middle section of the table.
IB = 160 A
Fig. G38 : Determination of downstream short-circuit current
level Isc using Figure G39
In consequence, a DIN-rail-mounted circuit-breaker rated at 63 A and Isc of 25 kA
(such as a NG 125N unit) can be used for the 55 A circuit in Figure G38.
A Compact rated at 160 A with an Isc capacity of 25 kA (such as a NS160 unit) can
be used to protect the 160 A circuit.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
4 Short-circuit current
Copper 230 V / 400 V
c.s.a. of phase
conductors (mm2)
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
47.5
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
2x120
2x150
2x185
553x120
3x150
3x185
Isc upstream
(in kA)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
7
5
4
3
2
1
Length of circuit (in metres)
1.6 2.3
1.2 1.8 2.5
1.5 2.1 2.9
1.8 2.6 3.7
2.2 3.1 4.4
2.3 3.2 4.6
2.5 3.5 5.0
2.9 4.2 5.9
3.4 4.9 6.9
3.7 5.3 7.5
4.4 6.2 8.8
Isc downstream
(in kA)
93
90
87
84
82
79
75
74
71
66
65
63
57
56
55
48
47
46
39
38
38
34
34
33
29
29
29
25
24
24
20
20
19.4
14.8 14.8 14.7
9.9 9.9 9.8
7.0 6.9 6.9
5.0 5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0 4.0
3.0 3.0 3.0
2.0 2.0 2.0
1.0 1.0 1.0
1.1
1.2 1.7
1.8 2.6
2.2 3.0 4.3
1.7 2.4 3.4 4.9 6.9
1.3 1.9 2.7 3.8 5.4 7.6 10.8
1.9 2.7 3.8 5.3 7.5 10.6 15.1
1.8 2.6 3.6 5.1 7.2 10.2 14.4 20
2.7 3.8 5.3 7.5 10.7 15.1 21
30
2.6 3.6 5.1 7.2 10.2 14.5 20
29
41
3.2 4.6 6.5 9.1 12.9 18.3 26
37
52
3.5 5.0 7.0 9.9 14.0 19.8 28
40
56
4.2 5.9 8.3 11.7 16.6 23
33
47
66
5.2 7.3 10.3 14.6 21
29
41
58
83
6.2 8.8 12.4 17.6 25
35
50
70
99
6.5 9.1 12.9 18.3 26
37
52
73
103
7.0 9.9 14.0 20
28
40
56
79
112
8.3 11.7 16.6 23
33
47
66
94
133
9.7 13.7 19.4 27
39
55
77
110 155
10.5 14.9 21
30
42
60
84
119 168
12.5 17.6 25
35
50
70
100 141 199
1.5
2.4
3.6
6.1
9.7
15.2
21
29
43
58
73
79
94
117
140
146
159
187
219
238
281
1.3
2.1
3.4
5.2
8.6
13.8
21
30
41
60
82
103
112
133
165
198
206
224
265
309
336
398
1.8
3.0
4.9
7.3
12.2
19.4
30
43
58
85
115
146
159
187
233
280
292
317
375
438
476
562
2.6
4.3
6.9
10.3
17.2
27
43
60
82
120
163
206
224
265
330
396
412
448
530
619
672
82
75
68
61
53
45
37
33
28
24
19.2
14.5
9.8
6.9
4.9
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
22
22
21
20
20
18.3
16.8
15.8
14.7
13.4
11.8
9.9
7.4
5.6
4.3
3.5
2.7
1.9
1.0
17.0
16.7
16.3
15.8
15.2
14.5
13.5
12.9
12.2
11.2
10.1
8.7
6.7
5.2
4.0
3.3
2.6
1.8
1.0
12.6
12.5
12.2
12.0
11.6
11.2
10.6
10.2
9.8
9.2
8.4
7.4
5.9
4.7
3.7
3.1
2.5
1.8
0.9
9.3
9.2
9.1
8.9
8.7
8.5
8.1
7.9
7.6
7.3
6.8
6.1
5.1
4.2
3.4
2.9
2.3
1.7
0.9
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.6
6.5
6.3
6.1
6.0
5.8
5.6
5.3
4.9
4.2
3.6
3.0
2.6
2.1
1.6
0.9
4.9
4.8
4.8
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.1
3.8
3.4
3.0
2.5
2.2
1.9
1.4
0.8
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.4
3.4
3.3
3.3
3.2
3.2
3.1
2.9
2.7
2.4
2.1
1.9
1.6
1.3
0.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.4
2.3
2.3
2.2
2.0
1.9
1.7
1.6
1.4
1.1
0.7
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.6
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.6
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.5
1.1
1.6
1.9 2.7
2.2 3.1 4.3
1.7 2.4 3.4 4.8 6.8
1.7 2.4 3.4 4.7 6.7 9.5
1.6 2.3 3.2 4.6 6.4 9.1 12.9
2.4 3.4 4.7 6.7 9.5 13.4 19.0
2.3 3.2 4.6 6.4 9.1 12.9 18.2 26
2.9 4.1 5.8 8.1 11.5 16.3 23
32
3.1 4.4 6.3 8.8 12.5 17.7 25
35
3.7 5.2 7.4 10.4 14.8 21
30
42
4.6 6.5 9.2 13.0 18.4 26
37
52
5.5 7.8 11.1 15.6 22
31
44
62
5.8 8.1 11.5 16.3 23
33
46
65
6.3 8.8 12.5 17.7 25
35
50
71
7.4 10.5 14.8 21
30
42
59
83
9.2 13.0 18.4 26
37
52
74
104
8.6 12.2 17.3 24
34
49
69
97
9.4 13.3 18.8 27
37
53
75
106
11.1 15.7 22
31
44
63
89
125
13.8 19.5 28
39
55
78
110 156
1.5
2.3
3.8
6.1
9.6
13.4
18.2
27
36
46
50
59
73
88
92
100
118
147
138
150
177
220
1.4
2.2
3.2
5.4
8.7
13.5
18.9
26
38
51
65
71
83
104
125
130
141
167
208
195
212
250
312
1.9
3.1
4.6
7.7
12.2
19.1
27
36
54
73
92
100
118
147
177
184
200
236
294
275
299
354
441
2.7
4.3
6.5
10.8
17.3
27
38
51
76
103
130
141
167
208
250
260
282
334
415
389
423
500
623
3.8
6.1
9.2
15.3
24
38
54
73
107
145
184
199
236
294
353
367
399
472
587
551
598
707
5.4
8.6
13.0
22
35
54
76
103
151
205
259
282
333
415
499
519
7.6
12.2
18.3
31
49
76
107
145
214
290
367
399
471
10.8
17.3
26
43
69
108
151
205
303
411
15.3
24
37
61
98
153
214
290
428
22
35
52
86
138
216
302
410
77
71
64
58
51
43
36
32
27
23
18.8
14.3
9.7
6.9
4.9
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
70
65
59
54
48
41
34
30
27
23
18.4
14.1
9.6
6.8
4.9
3.9
3.0
2.0
1.0
62
58
54
49
44
38
32
29
25
22
17.8
13.7
9.4
6.7
4.9
3.9
2.9
2.0
1.0
54
51
47
44
39
35
30
27
24
21
17.0
13.3
9.2
6.6
4.8
3.9
2.9
2.0
1.0
45
43
40
38
35
31
27
24
22
19.1
16.1
12.7
8.9
6.4
4.7
3.8
2.9
2.0
1.0
37
35
34
32
29
27
24
22
20
17.4
14.9
11.9
8.5
6.2
4.6
3.7
2.9
1.9
1.0
29
28
27
26
24
22
20
18.8
17.3
15.5
13.4
11.0
8.0
6.0
4.5
3.6
2.8
1.9
1.0
3.6
6.1
9.7
14.6
24
39
61
85
115
170
231
291
317
374
466
561
583
634
749
5.2
8.6
13.7
21
34
55
86
120
163
240
326
412
448
529
659
7.3
12.1
19.4
29
49
78
121
170
231
340
461
10.3
17.2
27
41
69
110
172
240
326
14.6
24
39
58
97
155
243
340
461
21
34
55
82
137
220
343
480
G29
Aluminium 230 V / 400 V
Length of circuit (in metres)
1.2
1.4
1.4
1.6
1.9
2.3
2.2
2.3
2.8
3.5
1.6
2.0
2.0
2.2
2.6
3.3
3.1
3.3
3.9
4.9
2.3
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.7
4.6
4.3
4.7
5.5
6.9
2.6
3.3
3.9
4.1
4.4
5.2
6.5
6.1
6.6
7.8
9.8
Note: for a 3-phase system having 230 V between phases, divide the above lengths by 3
Fig. G39 : Isc at a point downstream, as a function of a known upstream fault-current value and the length and c.s.a. of the intervening conductors,
in a 230/400 V 3-phase system
4.4 Short-circuit current supplied by a generator or
an inverter: Please refer to Chapter N
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
c.s.a. of phase
conductors (mm2)
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
47.5
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
2x120
2x150
2x185
2x240
3x120
3x150
3x185
3x240
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
5.1 Calculation of minimum levels of short-circuit
current
If a protective device in a circuit is intended
only to protect against short-circuit faults, it is
essential that it will operate with certainty at the
lowest possible level of short-circuit current that
can occur on the circuit
In general, on LV circuits, a single protective device protects against all levels of
current, from the overload threshold through the maximum rated short-circuit currentbreaking capability of the device.
In certain cases, however, overload protective devices and separate short-circuit
protective devices are used.
Examples of such arrangements
Figures G40 to G42 show some common arrangements where overload and
short-circuit protections are achieved by separate devices.
aM fuses
(no protection
against overload)
G30
Load breaking contactor
with thermal overload relay
Circuit breaker with
instantaneous magnetic
short-circuit protective relay only
Fig. G40 : Circuit protected by aM fuses
As shown in Figures G40 and G41, the most common circuits using separate
devices control and protect motors.
Figure G42a constitutes a derogation in the basic protection rules, and is generally
used on circuits of prefabricated bustrunking, lighting rails, etc.
Load breaking contactor
with thermal overload relay
Fig. G41 : Circuit protected by circuit-breaker without thermal
overload relay
Variable speed drive
Figure G42b shows the functions provided by the variable speed drive, and if
necessary some additional functions provided by devices such as circuit-breaker,
thermal relay, RCD.
Protection to be provided
Circuit breaker D
Cable overload
Motor overload
Downstream short-circuit
Variable speed drive overload
Overvoltage
Undervoltage
Loss of phase
Upstream short-circuit
S1
Protection generally provided
by the variable speed drive
Yes = (1)
Yes = (2)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Internal fault
Load with
incorporated
overload
protection
S2 < S1
Downstream earth fault
(indirect contact)
Direct contact fault
Fig. G42a : Circuit-breaker D provides protection against shortcircuit faults as far as and including the load
(self protection)
Additional protection
Not necessary if (1)
Not necessary if (2)
Circuit-breaker
(short-circuit tripping)
Circuit-breaker
(short-circuit and
overload tripping)
RCD u 300 mA
RCD y 30 mA
Figure G42b : Protection to be provided for variable speeed drive applications
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
The protective device must fulfill:
b instantaneous trip setting Im < Iscmin for a
circuit-breaker
b fusion current Ia < Iscmin for a fuse
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
Conditions to be fulfilled
The protective device must therefore satisfy the two following conditions:
b Its fault-current breaking rating must be greater than Isc, the 3-phase short-circuit
current at its point of installation
b Elimination of the minimum short-circuit current possible in the circuit, in a time tc
compatible with the thermal constraints of the circuit conductors, where:
(valid for tc < 5 seconds)
K 2S 2
tc i
I scmin2
Comparison of the tripping or fusing performance curve of protective devices, with
the limit curves of thermal constraint for a conductor shows that this condition is
satisfied if:
b Isc (min) > Im (instantaneous or short timedelay circuit-breaker trip setting current
level), (see Fig. G45)
b Isc (min) > Ia for protection by fuses. The value of the current Ia corresponds to
the crossing point of the fuse curve and the cable thermal withstand curve
(see Fig. G44 and G45)
G31
t
t=
k2 S2
I2
I
Im
Fig. G45 : Protection by circuit-breaker
t
t=
k2 S2
I2
I
Ia
Fig. G46 : Protection by aM-type fuses
t
t=
Ia
Fig. G47 : Protection by gl-type fuses
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
k2 S2
I2
I
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
In practice this means that the length of circuit
downstream of the protective device must not
exceed a calculated maximum length:
0.8 U Sph
Lmax =
2ρI m
Practical method of calculating Lmax
The limiting effect of the impedance of long circuit conductors on the value of
short-circuit currents must be checked and the length of a circuit must be restricted
accordingly.
The method of calculating the maximum permitted length has already been
demonstrated in TN- and IT- earthed schemes for single and double earth faults,
respectively (see Chapter F Sub-clauses 6.2 and 7.2). Two cases are considered
below:
1 - Calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 3-wire circuit
The minimum short-circuit current will occur when two phase wires are shortcircuited at the remote end of the circuit (see Fig. G46).
P
0.8 U
G32
Load
L
Fig G46 : Definition of L for a 3-phase 3-wire circuit
Using the “conventional method”, the voltage at the point of protection P is assumed
to be 80% of the nominal voltage during a short-circuit fault, so that 0.8 U = Isc Zd,
where:
Zd = impedance of the fault loop
Isc = short-circuit current (ph/ph)
U = phase-to-phase nominal voltage
For cables y 120 mm2, reactance may be neglected, so that
2L
Zd = ρ
(1)
Sph
where:
ρ = resistivity of conductor material at the average temperature during a short-circuit,
Sph = c.s.a. of a phase conductor in mm2
L = length in metres
The condition for the cable protection is Im y Isc with Im = magnetic trip current
setting of the CB.
This leads to Im y 0.8 U
which gives L y= 0.8 U Sph
Zd
with U = 400 V
ρ = 1.25 x 0.018 = 0.023 Ω.mm2/m(2) (Cu)
Lmax = maximum circuit length in metres
Lmax =
2ρI m
k Sph
Im
2 - Calculation of Lmax for a 3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit
The minimum Isc will occur when the short-circuit is between a phase conductor and
the neutral.
A calculation similar to that of example 1 above is required, but using the following
formulae (for cable y 120 mm2 (1)).
b Where Sn for the neutral conductor = Sph for the phase conductor
Lmax =
3,333 Sph
Im
b If Sn for the neutral conductor < Sph, then
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Lmax = 6,666
(1) For larger c.s.a.’s, the resistance calculated for the
conductors must be increased to account for the non-uniform
current density in the conductor (due to “skin” and “proximity”
effects)
Suitable values are as follows:
150 mm2: R + 15%
185 mm2: R + 20%
240 mm2: R + 25%
300 mm2: R + 30%
(2) The high value for resistivity is due to the elevated
temperature of the conductor when passing short-circuit
current
Sph 1
Sph
where m =
I m 1+ m
Sn
For larger c.s.a.’s than those listed, reactance values must be combined with those of
resistance to give an impedance. Reactance may be taken as 0.08 mΩ/m for cables
(at 50 Hz). At 60 Hz the value is 0.096 mΩ/m.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
Tabulated values for Lmax
Figure G47 below gives maximum circuit lengths (Lmax) in metres, for:
b 3-phase 4-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. with neutral) and
b 1-phase 2-wire 230 V circuits
protected by general-purpose circuit-breakers.
In other cases, apply correction factors (given in Figure G53) to the lengths obtained.
The calculations are based on the above methods, and a short-circuit trip level within
± 20% of the adjusted value Im.
For the 50 mm2 c.s.a., calculation are based on a 47.5 mm2 real c.s.a.
Operating current
level Im of the
instantaneous
magnetic tripping
element (in A)
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
320
400
500
560
630
700
800
875
1000
1120
1250
1600
2000
2500
3200
4000
5000
6300
8000
10000
12500
c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
1.5
100
79
63
50
40
31
25
20
16
13
10
9
8
7
6
6
5
4
4
2.5
167
133
104
83
67
52
42
33
26
21
17
15
13
12
10
10
8
7
7
5
4
4
267
212
167
133
107
83
67
53
42
33
27
24
21
19
17
15
13
12
11
8
7
5
4
6
400
317
250
200
160
125
100
80
63
50
40
36
32
29
25
23
20
18
16
13
10
8
6
5
4
10
417
333
267
208
167
133
104
83
67
60
63
48
42
38
33
30
27
21
17
13
10
8
7
5
4
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
G33
427
333
267
213
167
133
107
95
85
76
67
61
53
48
43
33
27
21
17
13
11
8
7
5
4
417
333
260
208
167
149
132
119
104
95
83
74
67
52
42
33
26
21
17
13
10
8
7
467
365
292
233
208
185
167
146
133
117
104
93
73
58
47
36
29
23
19
15
12
9
495
396
317
283
251
226
198
181
158
141
127
99
79
63
49
40
32
25
20
16
13
417
370
333
292
267
233
208
187
146
117
93
73
58
47
37
29
23
19
452
396
362
317
283
253
198
158
127
99
79
63
50
40
32
25
457
400
357
320
250
200
160
125
100
80
63
50
40
32
435
388
348
272
217
174
136
109
87
69
54
43
35
459
411
321
257
206
161
128
103
82
64
51
41
400
320
256
200
160
128
102
80
64
51
Fig. G47 : Maximum circuit lengths in metres for copper conductors (for aluminium, the lengths must be multiplied by 0.62)
Figures G48 to G50 next page give maximum circuit length (Lmax) in metres for:
b 3-phase 4-wire 400 V circuits (i.e. with neutral) and
b 1-phase 2-wire 230 V circuits
protected in both cases by domestic-type circuit-breakers or with circuit-breakers
having similar tripping/current characteristics.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In other cases, apply correction factors to the lengths indicated. These factors are
given in Figure G51 next page.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Rated current of
circuit-breakers (in A)
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
200
333
533
800
120
200
320
480
800
75
125
200
300
500
800
60
100
160
240
400
640
48
80
128
192
320
512
800
37
62
100
150
250
400
625
875
30
50
80
120
200
320
500
700
24
40
64
96
160
256
400
560
19
32
51
76
127
203
317
444
15
25
40
60
100
160
250
350
12
20
32
48
80
128
200
280
10
16
26
38
64
102
160
224
50
760
603
475
380
304
Fig. G48 : Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by B-type circuit-breakers
G34
Rated current of
circuit-breakers (in A)
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
100
167
267
400
667
60
100
160
240
400
640
37
62
100
150
250
400
625
875
30
50
80
120
200
320
500
700
24
40
64
96
160
256
400
560
18.0
31
50
75
125
200
313
438
15.0
25
40
60
100
160
250
350
12.0
20
32
48
80
128
200
280
9.5
16.0
26
38
64
102
159
222
7.5
12.5
20
30
50
80
125
175
6.0
10.0
16.0
24
40
64
100
140
5.0
8.0
13.0
19.0
32
51
80
112
50
760
594
475
380
302
238
190
152
Fig. G49 : Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by C-type circuit-breakers
Rated current of
circuit-breakers (in A)
1
2
3
4
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
c.s.a. (nominal cross-sectional-area) of conductors (in mm2)
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
429
714
214
357
571
857
143
238
381
571
952
107
179
286
429
714
71
119
190
286
476
762
43
71
114
171
286
457
714
27
45
71
107
179
286
446
625
21
36
57
86
143
229
357
500
17.0
29
46
69
114
183
286
400
13.0
22
36
54
89
143
223
313
11.0
18.0
29
43
71
114
179
250
9.0
14.0
23
34
57
91
143
200
7.0
11.0
18.0
27
45
73
113
159
5.0
9.0
14.0
21
36
57
89
125
4.0
7.0
11.0
17.0
29
46
71
100
3.0
6.0
9.0
14.0
23
37
57
80
50
848
679
543
424
339
271
215
170
136
109
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G50 : Maximum length of copper-conductor circuits in metres protected by D-type circuit-breakers
Circuit detail
3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit or 1-phase 2-wire 400 V circuit (no neutral)
1-phase 2-wire (phase and neutral) 230 V circuit
3-phase 4-wire 230/400 V circuit or 2-phase 3-wire 230/400 V circuit
(i.e with neutral)
Sph / S neutral = 1
Sph / S neutral = 2
1.73
1
1
0.67
Fig. G51 : Correction factor to apply to lengths obtained from Figures G47 to G50
Note: IEC 60898 accepts an upper short-circuit-current tripping range of 10-50 In for
type D circuit-breakers. European standards, and Figure G50 however, are based on
a range of 10-20 In, a range which covers the vast majority of domestic and similar
installations.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
Examples
Example 1
In a 1-phase 2-wire installation the protection is provided by a 50 A circuit-breaker
type NSX80HMA, the instantaneous short-circuit current trip, is set at 500 A
(accuracy of ± 20%), i.e. in the worst case would require 500 x 1,2 = 600 A to trip.
The cable c.s.a. = 10 mm2 and the conductor material is copper.
In Figure G47, the row Im = 500 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 10 mm2 at the value
for Lmax of 67 m. The circuit-breaker protects the cable against short-circuit faults,
therefore, provided that its length does not exceed 67 metres.
Example 2
In a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), the protection is provided by a
220 A circuit-breaker type NSX250N with an instantaneous short-circuit current trip
unit type MA set at 2,000 A (± 20%), i.e. a worst case of 2,400 A to be certain of
tripping. The cable c.s.a. = 120 mm2 and the conductor material is copper.
In Figure G47 the row Im = 2,000 A crosses the column c.s.a. = 120 mm2 at the
value for Lmax of 200 m. Being a 3-phase 3-wire 400 V circuit (without neutral), a
correction factor from Figure G51 must be applied. This factor is seen to be 1.73.
The circuit-breaker will therefore protect the cable against short-circuit current,
provided that its length does not exceed 200 x 1.73= 346 metres.
G35
5.2 Verification of the withstand capabilities of
cables under short-circuit conditions
In general, verification of the thermal-withstand
capability of a cable is not necessary, except in
cases where cables of small c.s.a. are installed
close to, or feeding directly from, the main
general distribution board
Thermal constraints
When the duration of short-circuit current is brief (several tenths of a second
up to five seconds maximum) all of the heat produced is assumed to remain in
the conductor, causing its temperature to rise. The heating process is said to be
adiabatic, an assumption that simplifies the calculation and gives a pessimistic result,
i.e. a higher conductor temperature than that which would actually occur, since in
practice, some heat would leave the conductor and pass into the insulation.
For a period of 5 seconds or less, the relationship I2t = k2S2 characterizes the
time in seconds during which a conductor of c.s.a. S (in mm2) can be allowed to
carry a current I, before its temperature reaches a level which would damage the
surrounding insulation.
The factor k2 is given in Figure G52 below.
Insulation
PVC
XLPE
Conductor copper (Cu)
13,225
20,449
Conductor aluminium (Al)
5,776
8,836
Fig. G52 : Value of the constant k2
S (mm2)
1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
PVC
Copper
0.0297
0.0826
0.2116
0.4761
1.3225
3.3856
8.2656
16.2006
29.839
Aluminium
0.0130
0.0361
0.0924
0.2079
0.5776
1.4786
3.6100
7.0756
13.032
XLPE
Copper
0.0460
0.1278
0.3272
0.7362
2.0450
5.2350
12.7806
25.0500
46.133
Aluminium
0.0199
0.0552
0.1414
0.3181
0.8836
2.2620
5.5225
10.8241
19.936
Fig. G53 : Maximum allowable thermal stress for cables I2t (expressed in ampere2 x second x 106)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The method of verification consists in checking that the thermal energy I2t per
ohm of conductor material, allowed to pass by the protecting circuit-breaker (from
manufacturers catalogues) is less than that permitted for the particular conductor (as
given in Figure G53 below).
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
5 Particular cases of short-circuit
current
Example
Is a copper-cored XLPE cable of 4 mm2 c.s.a. adequately protected by a
C60N circuit-breaker?
Figure G53 shows that the I2t value for the cable is 0.3272 x 106, while the maximum
“let-through” value by the circuit-breaker, as given in the manufacturer’s catalogue, is
considerably less (< 0.1.106 A2s).
The cable is therefore adequately protected by the circuit-breaker up to its full rated
breaking capability.
Electrodynamic constraints
For all type of circuit (conductors or bus-trunking), it is necessary to take
electrodynamic effects into account.
To withstand the electrodynamic constraints, the conductors must be solidly fixed
and the connection must be strongly tightened.
For bus-trunking, rails, etc. it is also necessary to verify that the electrodynamic
withstand performance is satisfactory when carrying short-circuit currents. The peak
value of current, limited by the circuit-breaker or fuse, must be less than the busbar
system rating. Tables of coordination ensuring adequate protection of their products
are generally published by the manufacturers and provide a major advantage of such
systems.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G36
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
6 Protective earthing conductor
(PE)
6.1 Connection and choice
Protective (PE) conductors provide the bonding connection between all exposed
and extraneous conductive parts of an installation, to create the main equipotential
bonding system. These conductors conduct fault current due to insulation failure
(between a phase conductor and an exposed conductive part) to the earthed neutral
of the source. PE conductors are connected to the main earthing terminal of the
installation.
The main earthing terminal is connected to the earthing electrode (see Chapter E)
by the earthing conductor (grounding electrode conductor in the USA).
PE conductors must be:
b Insulated and coloured yellow and green (stripes)
b Protected against mechanical and chemical damage
In IT and TN-earthed schemes it is strongly recommended that PE conductors
should be installed in close proximity (i.e. in the same conduits, on the same cable
tray, etc.) as the live cables of the related circuit. This arrangement ensures the
minimum possible inductive reactance in the earth-fault current carrying circuits.
It should be noted that this arrangement is originally provided by bus-trunking.
Connection
PE conductors must:
b Not include any means of breaking the continuity of the circuit (such as a switch,
removable links, etc.)
b Connect exposed conductive parts individually to the main PE conductor, i.e. in
parallel, not in series, as shown in Figure G54
b Have an individual terminal on common earthing bars in distribution boards.
PE
G37
TT scheme
The PE conductor need not necessarily be installed in close proximity to the live
conductors of the corresponding circuit, since high values of earth-fault current are
not needed to operate the RCD-type of protection used in TT installations.
Correct
PE
Incorrect
Fig. G54 : A poor connection in a series arrangement will leave
all downstream appliances unprotected
PEN
IT and TN schemes
The PE or PEN conductor, as previously noted, must be installed as close as
possible to the corresponding live conductors of the circuit and no ferro-magnetic
material must be interposed between them. A PEN conductor must always be
connected directly to the earth terminal of an appliance, with a looped connection
from the earth terminal to the neutral terminal of the appliance (see Fig. G55).
b TN-C scheme (the neutral and PE conductor are one and the same, referred to as
a PEN conductor)
The protective function of a PEN conductor has priority, so that all rules governing
PE conductors apply strictly to PEN conductors
b TN-C to TN-S transition
The PE conductor for the installation is connected to the PEN terminal or bar (see
Fig. G56) generally at the origin of the installation. Downstream of the point of
separation, no PE conductor can be connected to the neutral conductor.
PEN
PE
N
Fig. G56 : The TN-C-S scheme
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G55 : Direct connection of the PEN conductor to the earth
terminal of an appliance
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
6 Protective earthing conductor
(PE)
Types of materials
Materials of the kinds mentioned below in Figure G57 can be used for PE conductors,
provided that the conditions mentioned in the last column are satisfied.
G38
Type of protective earthing conductor (PE) IT scheme
TN scheme
TT scheme Conditions to be respected
Supplementary
In the same cable
Strongly
Strongly recommended
Correct
The PE conductor must
conductor
as the phases, or in
recommended
be insulated to the same
the same cable run
level as the phases
Independent of the
Possible (1)
Possible (1) (2)
Correct
b The PE conductor may
phase conductors
be bare or insulated (2)
b The electrical continuity
Metallic housing of bus-trunking or of other
Possible (3)
PE possible (3)
Correct
prefabricated prewired ducting (5)
PEN possible (8)
must be assured by protection
against deterioration by
External sheath of extruded, mineral- insulated Possible (3)
PE possible (3)
Possible
mechanical, chemical and
conductors (e.g. «pyrotenax» type systems)
PEN not recommended (2)(3)
electrochemical hazards
Certain extraneous conductive elements (6)
Possible (4)
PE possible (4)
Possible
such as:
PEN forbidden
b Their conductance
b Steel building structures
must be adequate
b Machine frames
b Water pipes (7)
Metallic cable ways, such as, conduits (9),
Possible (4)
PE possible (4)
Possible
ducts, trunking, trays, ladders, and so on…
PEN not recommended (2)(4)
Forbidden for use as PE conductors, are: metal conduits (9), gas pipes, hot-water pipes, cable-armouring tapes (9) or wires (9)
(1) In TN and IT schemes, fault clearance is generally achieved by overcurrent devices (fuses or circuit-breakers) so that the impedance
of the fault-current loop must be sufficiently low to assure positive protective device operation. The surest means of achieving a low loop
impedance is to use a supplementary core in the same cable as the circuit conductors (or taking the same route as the circuit conductors).
This solution minimizes the inductive reactance and therefore the impedance of the loop.
(2) The PEN conductor is a neutral conductor that is also used as a protective earth conductor. This means that a current may be flowing
through it at any time (in the absence of an earth fault). For this reason an insulated conductor is recommended for PEN operation.
(3) The manufacturer provides the necessary values of R and X components of the impedances (phase/PE, phase/PEN) to include in the
calculation of the earth-fault loop impedance.
(4) Possible, but not recomended, since the impedance of the earth-fault loop cannot be known at the design stage. Measurements on the
completed installation are the only practical means of assuring adequate protection for persons.
(5) It must allow the connection of other PE conductors. Note: these elements must carry an indivual green/yellow striped visual indication,
15 to 100 mm long (or the letters PE at less than 15 cm from each extremity).
(6) These elements must be demountable only if other means have been provided to ensure uninterrupted continuity of protection.
(7) With the agreement of the appropriate water authorities.
(8) In the prefabricated pre-wired trunking and similar elements, the metallic housing may be used as a PEN conductor, in parallel with the
corresponding bar, or other PE conductor in the housing.
(9) Forbidden in some countries only. Universally allowed to be used for supplementary equipotential conductors.
Fig. G57 : Choice of protective conductors (PE)
6.2 Conductor sizing
Figure G58 below is based on IEC 60364-5-54. This table provides two methods of
determining the appropriate c.s.a. for both PE or PEN conductors.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Simplified
method (1)
Adiabatic method
c.s.a. of phase
conductors Sph (mm2)
Minimum c.s.a. of
PE conductor (mm2)
Sph y 16
16 < Sph y 25
25 < Sph y 35
35 < Sph y 50
Sph > 50
Sph (2)
16
Any size
Sph /2
SPE/PEN =
I2 ⋅ t
Minimum c.s.a. of
PEN conductor (mm2)
Cu
Al
Sph (3) Sph (3)
16
25
Sph /2
Sph /2
(3)(4)
(4)
(3)
k
(1) Data valid if the prospective conductor is of the same material as the line conductor. Otherwise, a correction factor must be applied.
(2) When the PE conductor is separated from the circuit phase conductors, the following minimum values must be respected:
b 2.5 mm2 if the PE is mechanically protected
b 4 mm2 if the PE is not mechanically protected
(3) For mechanical reasons, a PEN conductor, shall have a cross-sectional area not less than 10 mm2 in copper or 16 mm2 in aluminium.
(4) Refer to table G53 for the application of this formula.
Fig. G58 : Minimum cross section area of protective conductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
6 Protective earthing conductor
(PE)
The two methods are:
b Adiabatic (which corresponds with that described in IEC 60724)
This method, while being economical and assuring protection of the conductor
against overheating, leads to small c.s.a.’s compared to those of the corresponding
circuit phase conductors. The result is sometimes incompatible with the necessity
in IT and TN schemes to minimize the impedance of the circuit earth-fault loop, to
ensure positive operation by instantaneous overcurrent tripping devices. This method
is used in practice, therefore, for TT installations, and for dimensioning an earthing
conductor (1).
b Simplified
This method is based on PE conductor sizes being related to those of the
corresponding circuit phase conductors, assuming that the same conductor material
is used in each case.
Thus, in Figure G58 for:
Sph y 16 mm2 SPE = Sph
16 < Sph y 35 mm2 SPE = 16 mm2
Sph
Sph
Sph>>35
35 mm
mm22 SPE =
2
: when, in a TT scheme, the installation earth electrode is beyond the zone of
Note: when, in a TT scheme, the installation earth electrode is beyond the zone of
influence of the source earthing electrode, the c.s.a. of the PE conductor can be
limited to 25 mm2 (for copper) or 35 mm2 (for aluminium).
G39
The neutral cannot be used as a PEN conductor unless its c.s.a. is equal to or larger
than 10 mm2 (copper) or 16 mm2 (aluminium).
Moreover, a PEN conductor is not allowed in a flexible cable. Since a PEN conductor
functions also as a neutral conductor, its c.s.a. cannot, in any case, be less than that
necessary for the neutral, as discussed in Subclause 7.1 of this Chapter.
This c.s.a. cannot be less than that of the phase conductors unless:
b The kVA rating of single-phase loads is less than 10% of the total kVA load, and
b Imax likely to pass through the neutral in normal circumstances, is less than the
current permitted for the selected cable size.
Furthermore, protection of the neutral conductor must be assured by the protective
devices provided for phase-conductor protection (described in Sub-clause 7.2 of this
Chapter).
k values
Final temperature (°C)
Initial temperature (°C)
Insulated conductors
not incoporated in
cables or bare
conductors in contact
with cable jackets
Conductors of a
multi-core-cable
Nature of insulation
Polyvinylchloride (PVC)
Copper
Aluminium
Steel
160
30
143
95
52
Cross-linked-polyethylene
(XLPE)
Ethylene-propylene-rubber
(EPR)
250
30
176
116
64
Copper
Aluminium
115
76
143
94
Fig. G59 : k factor values for LV PE conductors, commonly used in national standards and
complying with IEC 60724
(1) Grounding electrode conductor
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Values of factor k to be used in the formulae
These values are identical in several national standards, and the temperature rise
ranges, together with factor k values and the upper temperature limits for the different
classes of insulation, correspond with those published in IEC 60724 (1984).
The data presented in Figure G59 are those most commonly needed for LV installation
design.
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
6 Protective earthing conductor
(PE)
6.3 Protective conductor between MV/LV transformer
and the main general distribution board (MGDB)
These conductors must be sized according to
national practices
All phase and neutral conductors upstream of the main incoming circuit-breaker
controlling and protecting the MGDB are protected by devices at the MV side of the
transformer. The conductors in question, together with the PE conductor, must be
dimensioned accordingly. Dimensioning of the phase and neutral conductors from
the transformer is exemplified in Sub-clause 7.5 of this chapter (for circuit C1 of the
system illustrated in Fig. G65).
Recommended conductor sizes for bare and insulated PE conductors from the
transformer neutral point, shown in Figure G60, are indicated below in Figure G61.
The kVA rating to consider is the sum of all (if more than one) transformers
connected to the MGDB.
G40
PE
MGDB
Main earth bar
for the LV installation
Fig. G60 : PE conductor to the main earth bar in the MGDB
The table indicates the c.s.a. of the conductors in mm2 according to:
b The nominal rating of the MV/LV transformer(s) in kVA
b The fault-current clearance time by the MV protective devices, in seconds
b The kinds of insulation and conductor materials
If the MV protection is by fuses, then use the 0.2 seconds columns.
In IT schemes, if an overvoltage protection device is installed (between the
transformer neutral point and earth) the conductors for connection of the device
should also be dimensioned in the same way as that described above for
PE conductors.
Transformer Conductor
rating in kVA material
(230/400 V
Copper t(s)
output)
Aluminium t(s)
Bare
conductors
0.2
0.5
0.2
y100
25
25
25
25
35
50
50
70
70
95
95
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
c.s.a. of PE
conductors
SPE (mm2)
25
25
35
35
50
70
70
95
120
120
150
0.5
PVC-insulated
conductors
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
XLPE-insulated
conductors
0.2
0.5
0.2
0.5
25
35
50
70
70
95
120
150
150
185
185
25
25
25
35
35
50
70
70
95
95
120
25
25
25
25
35
35
50
70
70
70
95
25
25
35
50
50
70
95
95
120
120
150
25
50
50
70
95
95
120
150
185
185
240
25
25
25
35
50
50
70
95
95
120
120
25
35
50
50
70
95
95
120
150
150
185
Fig. G61 : Recommended c.s.a. of PE conductor between the MV/LV transformer and the MGDB,
as a function of transformer ratings and fault-clearance times.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
6 Protective earthing conductor
(PE)
6.4 Equipotential conductor
The main equipotential conductor
This conductor must, in general, have a c.s.a. at least equal to half of that of the
largest PE conductor, but in no case need exceed 25 mm2 (copper) or 35 mm2
(aluminium) while its minimum c.s.a. is 6 mm2 (copper) or 10 mm2 (aluminium).
Supplementary equipotential conductor
This conductor allows an exposed conductive part which is remote from the nearest
main equipotential conductor (PE conductor) to be connected to a local protective
conductor. Its c.s.a. must be at least half of that of the protective conductor to which
it is connected.
If it connects two exposed conductive parts (M1 and M2 in Figure G62) its c.s.a.
must be at least equal to that of the smaller of the two PE conductors (for M1 and
M2). Equipotential conductors which are not incorporated in a cable, should be
protected mechanically by conduits, ducting, etc. wherever possible.
Other important uses for supplementary equipotential conductors concern the
reduction of the earth-fault loop impedance, particulary for indirect-contact protection
schemes in TN- or IT-earthed installations, and in special locations with increased
electrical risk (refer to IEC 60364-4-41).
Between two exposed conductive parts
if SPE1 y SPE2
then S LS = SPE1
Between an exposed conductive part
and a metallic structure
SPE
SLS =
2
SPE2
SPE1
SPE1
SLS
M1
G41
SLS
M2
Metal structures
(conduits, girders…)
M1
Fig. G62 : Supplementary equipotential conductors
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
7 The neutral conductor
The c.s.a. and the protection of the neutral conductor, apart from its current-carrying
requirement, depend on several factors, namely:
b The type of earthing system, TT, TN, etc.
b The harmonic currents
b The method of protection against indirect contact hazards according to the
methods described below
The color of the neutral conductor is statutorily blue. PEN conductor, when insulated,
shall be marked by one of the following methods :
b Green-and-yellow throughout its length with, in addition, light blue markings at the
terminations, or
b Light blue throughout its length with, in addition, green-and-yellow markings at the
terminations
7.1 Sizing the neutral conductor
Influence of the type of earthing system
TT and TN-S schemes
b Single-phase circuits or those of c.s.a. y 16 mm2 (copper) 25 mm2 (aluminium): the
c.s.a. of the neutral conductor must be equal to that of the phases
b Three-phase circuits of c.s.a. > 16 mm2 copper or 25 mm2 aluminium: the c.s.a. of
the neutral may be chosen to be:
v Equal to that of the phase conductors, or
v Smaller, on condition that:
- The current likely to flow through the neutral in normal conditions is less than the
permitted value Iz. The influence of triplen(1) harmonics must be given particular
consideration or
- The neutral conductor is protected against short-circuit, in accordance with the
following Sub-clause G-7.2
- The size of the neutral conductor is at least equal to 16 mm2 in copper or 25 mm2 in
aluminium
G42
TN-C scheme
The same conditions apply in theory as those mentioned above, but in practice,
the neutral conductor must not be open-circuited under any circumstances since
it constitutes a PE as well as a neutral conductor (see Figure G58 “c.s.a. of PEN
conductor” column).
IT scheme
In general, it is not recommended to distribute the neutral conductor, i.e. a 3-phase
3-wire scheme is preferred. When a 3-phase 4-wire installation is necessary,
however, the conditions described above for TT and TN-S schemes are applicable.
Influence of harmonic currents
Effects of triplen harmonics
Harmonics are generated by the non-linear loads of the installation (computers,
fluorescent lighting, rectifiers, power electronic choppers) and can produce high
currents in the Neutral. In particular triplen harmonics of the three Phases have a
tendency to cumulate in the Neutral as:
b Fundamental currents are out-of-phase by 2π/3 so that their sum is zero
b On the other hand, triplen harmonics of the three Phases are always positioned in
the same manner with respect to their own fundamental, and are in phase with each
other (see Fig. G63a).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
(1) Harmonics of order 3 and multiple of 3
I1 H1
+
I1 H3
I2 H1
+
I2 H3
I3 H1
+
I3 H3
3
3
IN =
Ik H1
+
Ik H3
1
1
0
+
3 IH3
Fig. G63a : Triplen harmonics are in phase and cumulate in the Neutral
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
7 The neutral conductor
Figure G63b shows the load factor of the neutral conductor as a function of the
percentage of 3rd harmonic.
In practice, this maximum load factor cannot exceed 3.
INeutral
IPhase
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
i 3 (%)
0
20
40
60
80
G43
100
Fig. G63b : Load factor of the neutral conductor vs the percentage of 3rd harmonic
Reduction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables with
four cores carrying current
The basic calculation of a cable concerns only cables with three loaded conductors
i.e there is no current in the neutral conductor. Because of the third harmonic current,
there is a current in the neutral. As a result, this neutral current creates an hot
environment for the 3 phase conductors and for this reason, a reduction factor for
phase conductors is necessary (see Fig. G63).
Reduction factors, applied to the current-carrying capacity of a cable with three
loaded conductors, give the current-carrying capacity of a cable with four loaded
conductors, where the current in the fourth conductor is due to harmonics. The
reduction factors also take the heating effect of the harmonic current in the phase
conductors into account.
b Where the neutral current is expected to be higher than the phase current, then the
cable size should be selected on the basis of the neutral current
b Where the cable size selection is based on a neutral current which is not
significantly higher than the phase current, it is necessary to reduce the tabulated
current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors
b If the neutral current is more than 135% of the phase current and the cable size is
selected on the basis of the neutral current then the three phase conductors will not
be fully loaded. The reduction in heat generated by the phase conductors offsets the
heat generated by the neutral conductor to the extent that it is not necessary to apply
any reduction factor to the current carrying capacity for three loaded conductors.
b In order to protect cables, the fuse or circuit-breaker has to be sized taking into
account the greatest of the values of the line currents (phase or neutral). However,
there are special devices (for example the Compact NSX circuit breaker equipped
with the OSN tripping unit), that allow the use of a c.s.a. of the phase conductors
smaller than the c.s.a. of the neutral conductor. A big economic gain can thus be
made.
Third harmonic content
of phase current
(%)
0 - 15
15 - 33
33 - 45
> 45
Reduction factor
Size selection is based on
phase current
1.0
0.86
-
Size selection is based on
neutral current
0.86
1.0
Fig. G63 : Reduction factors for harmonic currents in four-core and five-core cables
(according to IEC 60364-5-52)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Compact NSX100 circuit breaker
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
7 The neutral conductor
Examples
Consider a three-phase circuit with a design load of 37 A to be installed using fourcore PVC insulated cable clipped to a wall, installation method C. From Figure G24,
a 6 mm2 cable with copper conductors has a current-carrying capacity of 40 A and
hence is suitable if harmonics are not present in the circuit.
b If 20 % third harmonic is present, then a reduction factor of 0,86 is applied and the
design load becomes: 37/0.86 = 43 A.
For this load a 10 mm2 cable is necessary.
In this case, the use of a special protective device (Compact NSX equipped with the
OSN trip unit for instance) would allow the use of a 6 mm2 cable for the phases and
of 10 mm2 for the neutral.
b If 40 % third harmonic is present, the cable size selection is based on the neutral
current which is: 37 x 0,4 x 3 = 44,4 A and a reduction factor of 0,86 is applied,
leading to a design load of: 44.4/0.86 = 51.6 A.
For this load a 10 mm2 cable is suitable.
G44
b If 50 % third harmonic is present, the cable size is again selected on the basis of
the neutral current, which is: 37 x 0,5 x 3 = 55,5 A .In this case the rating factor is
1 and a 16 mm2 cable is required.
In this case, the use of a special protective device (Compact NSX equipped with the
OSN trip for instance) would allow the use of a 6 mm2 cable for the phases and of
10 mm2 for the neutral.
7.2 Protection of the neutral conductor
(see Fig. G64 next page)
Protection against overload
If the neutral conductor is correctly sized (including harmonics), no specific
protection of the neutral conductor is required because it is protected by the phase
protection.
However, in practice, if the c.s.a. of the neutral conductor is lower than the phase
c.s.a, a neutral overload protection must be installed.
Protection against short-circuit
If the c.s.a. of the neutral conductor is lower than the c.s.a. of the phase conductor,
the neutral conductor must be protected against short-circuit.
If the c.s.a. of the neutral conductor is equal or greater than the c.s.a. of the phase
conductor, no specific protection of the neutral conductor is required because it is
protected by the phase protection.
7.3 Breaking of the neutral conductor
(see Fig. G64 next page)
The need to break or not the neutral conductor is related to the protection against
indirect contact.
In TN-C scheme
The neutral conductor must not be open-circuited under any circumstances since it
constitutes a PE as well as a neutral conductor.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In TT, TN-S and IT schemes
In the event of a fault, the circuit-breaker will open all poles, including the neutral
pole, i.e. the circuit-breaker is omnipolar.
The action can only be achieved with fuses in an indirect way, in which the operation
of one or more fuses triggers a mechanical trip-out of all poles of an associated
series-connected load-break switch.
7.4 Isolation of the neutral conductor
(see Fig. G64 next page)
It is considered to be the good practice that every circuit be provided with the means
for its isolation.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
7 The neutral conductor
TT
TN-C
TN-S
IT
Single-phase
(Phase-Neutral)
N
N
N
or
N (B)
or
N
N
Single-phase
(Phase-Phase)
(A)
(A)
or
or
Three-phase
four wires
Sn u Sph
G45
N
N
N (B)
N
or
N
Three-phase
four wires
Sn < Sph
N
N (B)
N
or
N
(A) Authorized for TT or TN-S systems if a RCD is installed at the origin of the circuit or upstream of it, and if no artificial
neutral is distributed downstream of its location
(B) The neutral overcurrent protection is not necessary:
b If the neutral conductor is protected against short-circuits by a device placed upstream, or,
b If the circuit is protected by a RCD which sensitivity is less than 15% of the neutral admissible current.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. G64 : The various situations in which the neutral conductor may appear
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
8 Worked example of cable
calculation
Worked example of cable calculation (see Fig. G65)
The installation is supplied through a 1,000 kVA transformer. The process requires
a high degree of supply continuity and this is provided by the installation of a 500 kVA
400 V standby generator and the adoption of a 3-phase 3-wire IT system at the main
general distribution board. The remainder of the installation is isolated by a 400 kVA
400/400 V transformer. The downstream network is a TT-earthed 3-phase 4-wire
system. Following the single-line diagram shown in Figure G65 below, a reproduction
of the results of a computer study for the circuit C1, the circuit-breaker Q1, the circuit
C6 and the circuit-breaker Q6. These studies were carried out with ECODIAL 3.3
software (a Merlin Gerin product).
This is followed by the same calculations carried out by the method described in this
guide.
T1
1000 kVA 400 V 50 Hz
G46
Circuit 1
C1
G5
G
P = 500 kVA
U = 400 V
Q1
Switchboard 2
Ks = 1.00
ib = 826.8 A
B2
Q6
Circuit 5
C5
Q5
Q3
Switchboard 4
Ks = 1.00
ib = 250.0 A
B4
Q12
Circuit 6
C6
T6
P = 400 kVA
U = 400 V
Circuit 12
C12
Q7
L12
ku = 1.0
ib = 250.00 A
P = 147.22 kW
C7
Circuit 7
x1
Switchboard 8
Ks = 1.00
ib = 490.0 A
B8
Q9
Q10
Circuit 9
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
C9
Q11
Circuit 10
C10
L9
L10
L11
ku = 1.0
ib = 250.00 A
P = 147.22 kW
x1
Circuit 11
C11
ku = 1.0
ib = 160.00 A
P = 94.22 kW
x1
Fig. G65 : Example of single-line diagram
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
ku = 1.0
ib = 80.00 A
P = 47.11 kW
x1
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
8 Worked example of cable
calculation
Calculation using software Ecodial 3.3
General network characteristics
Earthing system
Neutral distributed
Voltage (V)
Frequency (Hz)
Transformer T1
Number of transformers
Upstream fault level (MVA)
Rating (kVA)
Short-circuit impedance voltage (%)
Busbars B2
Maximum load current (A)
Type
IT
No
400
50
Ambient temperature (°C)
Dimensions (m and mm)
1
500
1,000
6
Resistance of MV network (mΩ)
Reactance of MV network (mΩ)
0.0351
Transformer resistance RT (mΩ)
0.351
3-phase short-circuit current Ik3 (kA)
Cable C1
Maximum load current (A)
Type of insulation
Conductor material
Ambient temperature (°C)
Single-core or multi-core cable
Installation method
Number of circuits in close proximity (table G21b)
Other coefficient
Selected cross-sectional area (mm2)
Protective conductor
Length (m)
10.333
Transformer reactance XT (mΩ)
Voltage drop ΔU (%)
Voltage drop ΔU total (%)
2.293
23.3
1,374
PVC
Copper
30
Single
F
1
1
6 x 95
1 x 120
5
.122
3-phase short-circuit current Ik3 (kA)
.122
1-phase-to-earth fault current Id (kA)
Circuit-breaker Q1
17
3-ph short-circuit current Ik3 upstream
of the circuit-breaker (kA)
Maximum load current (A)
Number of poles and protected poles
Circuit-breaker
Type
Tripping unit type
Rated current (A)
23
23
1,374
3P3D
NT 16
H 1 – 42 kA
Micrologic 5 A
1,600
3-ph short-circuit current Ik3 (kA)
Material
3-ph peak value of short-circuit current Ik (kA)
Resistance of busbar R (mΩ)
Reactance of busbar X (mΩ)
Circuit-breaker Q6
3-ph short-circuit current upstream
of the circuit-breaker Ik3 (kA)
Maximum load current (A)
Number of poles and protected poles
Circuit-breaker
Type
Tripping unit type
Rated current (A)
Limit of discrimination (kA)
Cable C6
Maximum load current (A)
Type of insulation
Conductor material
Ambient temperature (°C)
Single-core or multi-core cable
Installation method
Number of circuits in close proximity (table G20)
Other coefficient
Selected cross-sectional area (mm2)
Protective conductor
Length (m)
Voltage drop ΔU (%)
Voltage drop ΔU total (%)
3-phase short-circuit current Ik3 (kA)
1-phase-to-earth fault current Id (kA)
Specific sizing constraint
1,374
Standard on
edge
30
1m
2x5 mm x 63 mm
Copper
23
48
2.52
10.8
23
560
3P3D
NS800
N – 50 kA
Micrologic 2.0
800
Total
G47
560
PVC
Copper
30
Single
F
1
1
1 x 300
1 x 150
15
.38
.54
20
13.7
Overloads
Fig. G66 : Partial results of calculation carried out with Ecodial software (Merlin Gerin)
The same calculation using the simplified method
recommended in this guide
Six single-core PVC-insulated copper cables in parallel will be used for each phase.
These cables will be laid on cable trays according to method F. The “k” correction
factors are as follows:
k1 = 1 (see table G12, temperature = 30 °C)
k4 = 0.87 (see table G17, touching cables, 1 tray, u 3 circuits)
Other correction factors are not relevant in this example.
The corrected load current is:
IB
1,374
I' B =
=
= 1,579 A
k1⋅ k4
0.87
Each conductor will therefore carry 263 A. Figure G21a indicates that the c.s.a. is
95 mm2.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Dimensioning circuit C1
The MV/LV 1,000 kVA transformer has a rated no-load voltage of 420 V. Circuit C1
must be suitable for a current of
1,000 x 103
IB =
= 1,374 A per phase
3 x 420
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
8 Worked example of cable
calculation
The resistances and the inductive reactances for the six conductors in parallel are,
for a length of 5 metres:
R=
22.5 x 5
= 0.20 mΩ (cab
(cable resistance: 22.5 mΩ.mm2/m)
95 x 6
X = 0.08 x 5 = 0.40 mΩ (cable reactance: 0.08 mΩ/m)
Ω
Dimensioning circuit C6
Circuit C6 supplies a 400 kVA 3-phase 400/400 V isolating transformer
Primary current =
400.103
= 550 A
420. 3
A single-core cable laid on a cable tray (without any other cable) in an ambient air
temperature of 30 °C is proposed. The circuit-breaker is set at 560 A
The method of installation is characterized by the reference letter F, and the “k”
correcting factors are all equal to 1.
A c.s.a. of 240 mm2 is appropriate.
The resistance and inductive reactance are respectively:
22.5 x 15
= 1.4 mΩ
240
X = 0.08 x 15 = 1.2 mΩ
R=
G48
Calculation of short-circuit currents for the selection of circuit-breakers
Q 1 and Q 6 (see Fig. G67)
Circuits components
parts
500 MVA at
the MV source network
1 MVA transformer
Cable C1
Sub-total for Q1
Busbar B2
Cable C6
Sub-total for Q6
R (mΩ)
X (mΩ)
0.04
0.36
2.2
0.20
2.44
3.6
1.4
4.0
9.8
0.4
10.6
7.2
1.2
8.4
Z (mΩ)
Ikmax (kA)
10.0
23
10.9
23
9.3
20
Fig. G67 : Example of short-circuit current evaluation
The protective conductor
Thermal requirements: Figures G58 and G59 show that, when using the adiabatic
method the c.s.a. for the protective earth (PE) conductor for circuit C1 will be:
34,800 x 0.2
= 108 mm2
143
A single 120 mm2 conductor dimensioned for other reasons mentioned later is
therefore largely sufficient, provided that it also satisfies the requirements for indirectcontact protection (i.e. that its impedance is sufficiently low).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
For the circuit C6, the c.s.a. of its PE conductor should be:
29,300 x 0.2
= 92 mm2
143
In this case a 95 mm2 conductor may be adequate if the indirect-contact protection
conditions are also satisfied.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
8 Worked example of cable
calculation
Protection against indirect-contact hazards
For circuit C6 of Figure G65, Figures F45 and F61, or the formula given page F27
may be used for a 3-phase 3-wire circuit.
The maximum permitted length of the circuit is given by :
Lmax =
0.8 x 240 x 230 3 x 1,000
= 70 m
240
x 630 x 11
2 x 22.5 1+
95
(The value in the denominator 630 x 11 = Im i.e. the current level at which the
instantaneous short-circuit magnetic trip of the 630 A circuit-breaker operates).
The length of 15 metres is therefore fully protected by “instantaneous” overcurrent
devices.
Voltage drop
From Figure G28 it can be seen that:
b For the cable C1 (6 x 95mm2 per phase)
0.42 (V A-1 km-1) x 1,374 (A) x 0.008
∆U =
= 1.54 V
3
100
x 1.54 = 0.38%
∆U% =
400
G49
b For the circuit C6
0.21 (V A-1 km-1) x 433 (A) x 0.015
∆U =
= 1.36 V
3
100
∆U% =
x 1.36 = 0.34%
400
ΔU% = 0.72%
At the circuit terminals of the LV/LV transformer the percentage volt-drop
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
G - Sizing and protection of conductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter H
LV switchgear: functions &
selection
Contents
1
The basic functions of LV switchgear
H2
1.1 Electrical protection
1.2 Isolation
1.3 Switchgear control
H2
H3
H4
2
The switchgear
H5
2.1 Elementary switching devices
2.2 Combined switchgear elements
H5
H9
3
Choice of switchgear
H10
3.1 Tabulated functional capabilities
3.2 Switchgear selection
H10
H10
4
Circuit-breaker
H11
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
H11
H13
H15
H18 H1
H22
H28
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Standards and description
Fundamental characteristics of a circuit-breaker
Other characteristics of a circuit-breaker
Selection of a circuit-breaker
Coordination between circuit-breakers
Discrimination MV/LV in a consumer’s substation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
1 The basic functions of
LV switchgear
National and international standards define the manner in which electric circuits of
LV installations must be realized, and the capabilities and limitations of the various
switching devices which are collectively referred to as switchgear.
The role of switchgear is:
b Electrical protection
b Safe isolation from live parts
b Local or remote switching
The main functions of switchgear are:
b Electrical protection
b Electrical isolation of sections of an installation
b Local or remote switching
These functions are summarized below in Figure H1.
Electrical protection at low voltage is (apart from fuses) normally incorporated in
circuit-breakers, in the form of thermal-magnetic devices and/or residual-currentoperated tripping devices (less-commonly, residual voltage- operated devices
- acceptable to, but not recommended by IEC).
In addition to those functions shown in Figure H1, other functions, namely:
b Over-voltage protection
b Under-voltage protection
are provided by specific devices (lightning and various other types of voltage-surge
arrester, relays associated with contactors, remotely controlled circuit-breakers, and
with combined circuit-breaker/isolators… and so on)
Electrical protection
against
b Overload currents
b Short-circuit currents
b Insulation failure
H2
Isolation
Control
b Isolation clearly indicated
by an authorized fail-proof
mechanical indicator
b A gap or interposed insulating
barrier between the open
contacts, clearly visible
b Functional switching
b Emergency switching
b Emergency stopping
b Switching off for
mechanical maintenance
Fig. H1 : Basic functions of LV switchgear
1.1 Electrical protection
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Electrical protection assures:
b Protection of circuit elements against the
thermal and mechanical stresses of short-circuit
currents
b Protection of persons in the event of
insulation failure
b Protection of appliances and apparatus being
supplied (e.g. motors, etc.)
The aim is to avoid or to limit the destructive or dangerous consequences of
excessive (short-circuit) currents, or those due to overloading and insulation failure,
and to separate the defective circuit from the rest of the installation.
A distinction is made between the protection of:
b The elements of the installation (cables, wires, switchgear…)
b Persons and animals
b Equipment and appliances supplied from the installation
The protection of circuits
v Against overload; a condition of excessive current being drawn from a healthy
(unfaulted) installation
v Against short-circuit currents due to complete failure of insulation between
conductors of different phases or (in TN systems) between a phase and neutral (or
PE) conductor
Protection in these cases is provided either by fuses or circuit-breaker, in the
distribution board at the origin of the final circuit (i.e. the circuit to which the load
is connected). Certain derogations to this rule are authorized in some national
standards, as noted in chapter H1 sub-clause 1.4.
The protection of persons
v Against insulation failures. According to the system of earthing for the installation
(TN, TT or IT) the protection will be provided by fuses or circuit-breakers, residual
current devices, and/or permanent monitoring of the insulation resistance of the
installation to earth
The protection of electric motors
v Against overheating, due, for example, to long term overloading, stalled rotor,
single-phasing, etc. Thermal relays, specially designed to match the particular
characteristics of motors are used.
Such relays may, if required, also protect the motor-circuit cable against overload.
Short-circuit protection is provided either by type aM fuses or by a circuit-breaker
from which the thermal (overload) protective element has been removed, or
otherwise made inoperative.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
1 The basic functions of
LV switchgear
A state of isolation clearly indicated by an
approved “fail-proof” indicator, or the visible
separation of contacts, are both deemed to
satisfy the national standards of many countries
1.2 Isolation
The aim of isolation is to separate a circuit or apparatus (such as a motor, etc.) from
the remainder of a system which is energized, in order that personnel may carry out
work on the isolated part in perfect safety.
In principle, all circuits of an LV installation shall have means to be isolated.
In practice, in order to maintain an optimum continuity of service, it is preferred to
provide a means of isolation at the origin of each circuit.
An isolating device must fulfil the following requirements:
b All poles of a circuit, including the neutral (except where the neutral is a PEN
conductor) must open(1)
b It must be provided with a locking system in open position with a key (e.g. by
means of a padlock) in order to avoid an unauthorized reclosure by inadvertence
b It must comply with a recognized national or international standard
(e.g. IEC 60947-3) concerning clearance between contacts, creepage distances,
overvoltage withstand capability, etc.:
Other requirements apply:
v Verification that the contacts of the isolating device are, in fact, open.
The verification may be:
- Either visual, where the device is suitably designed to allow the contacts to be seen
(some national standards impose this condition for an isolating device located at the
origin of a LV installation supplied directly from a MV/LV transformer)
- Or mechanical, by means of an indicator solidly welded to the operating shaft
of the device. In this case the construction of the device must be such that, in the
eventuality that the contacts become welded together in the closed position, the
indicator cannot possibly indicate that it is in the open position
v Leakage currents. With the isolating device open, leakage currents between the
open contacts of each phase must not exceed:
- 0.5 mA for a new device
- 6.0 mA at the end of its useful life
v Voltage-surge withstand capability, across open contacts. The isolating device,
when open must withstand a 1.2/50 μs impulse, having a peak value of 6, 8 or 12 kV
according to its service voltage, as shown in Figure H2. The device must satisfy
these conditions for altitudes up to 2,000 metres. Correction factors are given in
IEC 60664-1 for altitudes greater than 2,000 metres.
H3
Consequently, if tests are carried out at sea level, the test values must be increased
by 23% to take into account the effect of altitude. See standard IEC 60947.
Service (nominal
voltage
(V)
230/400
400/690
690/1,000
Impulse withstand
peak voltage category
(for 2,000 metres)
(kV)
III
IV
4
6
6
8
8
12
(1) the concurrent opening of all live conductors, while not
always obligatory, is however, strongly recommended (for
reasons of greater safety and facility of operation). The neutral
contact opens after the phase contacts, and closes before
them (IEC 60947-1).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. H2 : Peak value of impulse voltage according to normal service voltage of test specimen.
The degrees III and IV are degrees of pollution defined in IEC 60664-1
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
1 The basic functions of
LV switchgear
Switchgear-control functions allow system
operating personnel to modify a loaded system
at any moment, according to requirements,
and include:
b Functional control (routine switching, etc.)
b Emergency switching
b Maintenance operations on the power system
1.3 Switchgear control
In broad terms “control” signifies any facility for safely modifying a load-carrying
power system at all levels of an installation. The operation of switchgear is an
important part of power-system control.
Functional control
This control relates to all switching operations in normal service conditions for
energizing or de-energizing a part of a system or installation, or an individual piece
of equipment, item of plant, etc.
Switchgear intended for such duty must be installed at least:
b At the origin of any installation
b At the final load circuit or circuits (one switch may control several loads)
Marking (of the circuits being controlled) must be clear and unambiguous.
In order to provide the maximum flexibility and continuity of operation, particularly
where the switching device also constitutes the protection (e.g. a circuit-breaker or
switch-fuse) it is preferable to include a switch at each level of distribution, i.e. on
each outgoing way of all distribution and subdistribution boards.
The manœuvre may be:
b Either manual (by means of an operating lever on the switch) or
b Electric, by push-button on the switch or at a remote location (load-shedding and
reconnection, for example)
These switches operate instantaneously (i.e. with no deliberate delay), and those
that provide protection are invariably omni-polar(1).
H4
The main circuit-breaker for the entire installation, as well as any circuit-breakers
used for change-over (from one source to another) must be omni-polar units.
Emergency switching - emergency stop
An emergency switching is intended to de-energize a live circuit which is, or could
become, dangerous (electric shock or fire).
An emergency stop is intended to halt a movement which has become dangerous.
In the two cases:
b The emergency control device or its means of operation (local or at remote
location(s)) such as a large red mushroom-headed emergency-stop pushbutton must
be recognizable and readily accessible, in proximity to any position at which danger
could arise or be seen
b A single action must result in a complete switching-off of all live conductors (2) (3)
b A “break glass” emergency switching initiation device is authorized, but in
unmanned installations the re-energizing of the circuit can only be achieved by
means of a key held by an authorized person
It should be noted that in certain cases, an emergency system of braking, may
require that the auxiliary supply to the braking-system circuits be maintained until
final stoppage of the machinery.
Switching-off for mechanical maintenance work
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
This operation assures the stopping of a machine and its impossibility to be
inadvertently restarted while mechanical maintenance work is being carried out
on the driven machinery. The shutdown is generally carried out at the functional
switching device, with the use of a suitable safety lock and warning notice at the
switch mechanism.
(1) One break in each phase and (where appropriate) one
break in the neutral.
(2) Taking into account stalled motors.
(3) In a TN schema the PEN conductor must never be
opened, since it functions as a protective earthing wire as well
as the system neutral conductor.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
2 The switchgear
2.1 Elementary switching devices
Disconnector (or isolator) (see Fig. H5)
This switch is a manually-operated, lockable, two-position device (open/closed)
which provides safe isolation of a circuit when locked in the open position. Its
characteristics are defined in IEC 60947-3. A disconnector is not designed to make
or to break current(1) and no rated values for these functions are given in standards.
It must, however, be capable of withstanding the passage of short-circuit currents
and is assigned a rated short-time withstand capability, generally for 1 second,
unless otherwise agreed between user and manufacturer. This capability is normally
more than adequate for longer periods of (lower-valued) operational overcurrents,
such as those of motor-starting. Standardized mechanical-endurance, overvoltage,
and leakage-current tests, must also be satisfied.
Load-breaking switch (see Fig. H6)
This control switch is generally operated manually (but is sometimes provided with
electrical tripping for operator convenience) and is a non-automatic two-position
device (open/closed).
It is used to close and open loaded circuits under normal unfaulted circuit conditions.
It does not consequently, provide any protection for the circuit it controls.
IEC standard 60947-3 defines:
b The frequency of switch operation (600 close/open cycles per hour maximum)
b Mechanical and electrical endurance (generally less than that of a contactor)
b Current making and breaking ratings for normal and infrequent situations
When closing a switch to energize a circuit there is always the possibility that
an unsuspected short-circuit exists on the circuit. For this reason, load-break
switches are assigned a fault-current making rating, i.e. successful closure against
the electrodynamic forces of short-circuit current is assured. Such switches are
commonly referred to as “fault-make load-break” switches. Upstream protective
devices are relied upon to clear the short-circuit fault
H5
Category AC-23 includes occasional switching of individual motors. The switching
of capacitors or of tungsten filament lamps shall be subject to agreement between
manufacturer and user.
Fig. H5 : Symbol for a disconnector (or isolator)
The utilization categories referred to in Figure H7 do not apply to an equipment
normally used to start, accelerate and/or stop individual motors.
Example
A 100 A load-break switch of category AC-23 (inductive load) must be able:
b To make a current of 10 In (= 1,000 A) at a power factor of 0.35 lagging
b To break a current of 8 In (= 800 A) at a power factor of 0.45 lagging
b To withstand short duration short-circuit currents when closed
Fig. H6 : Symbol for a load-break switch
AC-21A
AC-21B
AC-22A
AC-22B
AC-23A
AC-23B
Typical applications
Cos ϕ
Making
current x In
Breaking
current x In
Connecting and disconnecting
under no-load conditions
Switching of resistive loads
including moderate overloads
Switching of mixed resistive
and inductive loads, including
moderate overloads
-
-
-
0.95
1.5
1.5
0.65
3
3
Switching of motor loads or
other highly inductive loads
0.45 for I y 100 A 10
0.35 for I > 100 A
Fig. H7 : Utilization categories of LV AC switches according to IEC 60947-3
(1) i.e. a LV disconnector is essentially a dead system
switching device to be operated with no voltage on either side
of it, particularly when closing, because of the possibility of an
unsuspected short-circuit on the downstream side. Interlocking
with an upstream switch or circuit-breaker is frequently used.
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8
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Utilization category
Frequent
Infrequent
operations
operations
AC-20A
AC-20B
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
2 The switchgear
Remote control switch (see Fig. H8)
This device is extensively used in the control of lighting circuits where the depression
of a pushbutton (at a remote control position) will open an already-closed switch or
close an opened switch in a bistable sequence.
Typical applications are:
b Two-way switching on stairways of large buildings
b Stage-lighting schemes
b Factory illumination, etc.
Auxiliary devices are available to provide:
b Remote indication of its state at any instant
b Time-delay functions
b Maintained-contact features
Contactor (see Fig. H9)
The contactor is a solenoid-operated switching device which is generally held
closed by (a reduced) current through the closing solenoid (although various
mechanically-latched types exist for specific duties). Contactors are designed to
carry out numerous close/open cycles and are commonly controlled remotely by
on-off pushbuttons. The large number of repetitive operating cycles is standardized in
table VIII of IEC 60947-4-1 by:
b The operating duration: 8 hours; uninterrupted; intermittent; temporary of 3, 10, 30,
60 and 90 minutes
b Utilization category: for example, a contactor of category AC3 can be used for the
starting and stopping of a cage motor
b The start-stop cycles (1 to 1,200 cyles per hour)
b Mechanical endurance (number of off-load manœuvres)
b Electrical endurance (number of on-load manœuvres)
b A rated current making and breaking performance according to the category of
utilization concerned
H6
Example:
A 150 A contactor of category AC3 must have a minimum current-breaking capability
of 8 In (= 1,200 A) and a minimum current-making rating of 10 In (= 1,500 A) at a
power factor (lagging) of 0.35.
Fig. H8 : Symbol for a bistable remote control switch
Discontactor(1)
Control
circuit
A contactor equipped with a thermal-type relay for protection against overloading
defines a “discontactor”. Discontactors are used extensively for remote push-button
control of lighting circuits, etc., and may also be considered as an essential element
in a motor controller, as noted in sub-clause 2.2. “combined switchgear elements”.
The discontactor is not the equivalent of a circuit-breaker, since its short-circuit
current breaking capability is limited to 8 or 10 In. For short-circuit protection
therefore, it is necessary to include either fuses or a circuit-breaker in series with,
and upstream of, the discontactor contacts.
Power
circuit
Fig. H9 : Symbol for a contactor
Two classes of LV cartridge fuse are very
widely used:
b For domestic and similar installations type gG
b For industrial installations type gG, gM or aM
Fuses (see Fig. H10)
The first letter indicates the breaking range:
b “g” fuse-links (full-range breaking-capacity fuse-link)
b “a” fuse-links (partial-range breaking-capacity fuse-link)
The second letter indicates the utilization category; this letter defines with accuracy
the time-current characteristics, conventional times and currents, gates.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
For example
b “gG” indicates fuse-links with a full-range breaking capacity for general application
b “gM” indicates fuse-links with a full-range breaking capacity for the protection of
motor circuits
b “aM” indicates fuse-links with a partial range breaking capacity for the protection of
motor circuits
Fuses exist with and without “fuse-blown” mechanical indicators. Fuses break a
circuit by controlled melting of the fuse element when a current exceeds a given
value for a corresponding period of time; the current/time relationship being
presented in the form of a performance curve for each type of fuse. Standards define
two classes of fuse:
b Those intended for domestic installations, manufactured in the form of a cartridge
for rated currents up to 100 A and designated type gG in IEC 60269-1 and 3
b Those for industrial use, with cartridge types designated gG (general use); and gM
and aM (for motor-circuits) in IEC 60269-1 and 2
Fig. H10 : Symbol for fuses
(1) This term is not defined in IEC publications but is commonly
used in some countries.
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H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
2 The switchgear
The main differences between domestic and industrial fuses are the nominal
voltage and current levels (which require much larger physical dimensions) and
their fault-current breaking capabilities. Type gG fuse-links are often used for the
protection of motor circuits, which is possible when their characteristics are capable
of withstanding the motor-starting current without deterioration.
A more recent development has been the adoption by the IEC of a fuse-type gM for
motor protection, designed to cover starting, and short-circuit conditions. This type of
fuse is more popular in some countries than in others, but at the present time the
aM fuse in combination with a thermal overload relay is more-widely used.
A gM fuse-link, which has a dual rating is characterized by two current values. The
first value In denotes both the rated current of the fuse-link and the rated current of
the fuseholder; the second value Ich denotes the time-current characteristic of the
fuse-link as defined by the gates in Tables II, III and VI of IEC 60269-1.
These two ratings are separated by a letter which defines the applications.
For example: In M Ich denotes a fuse intended to be used for protection of
motor circuits and having the characteristic G. The first value In corresponds to
the maximum continuous current for the whole fuse and the second value Ich
corresponds to the G characteristic of the fuse link. For further details see note at the
end of sub-clause 2.1.
An aM fuse-link is characterized by one current value In and time-current
characteristic as shown in Figure H14 next page.
Important: Some national standards use a gI (industrial) type fuse, similar in all main
essentails to type gG fuses.
Type gI fuses should never be used, however, in domestic and similar installations.
gM fuses require a separate overload relay, as
described in the note at the end of sub-clause 2.1.
H7
Fusing zones - conventional currents
The conditions of fusing (melting) of a fuse are defined by standards, according to
their class.
Class gG fuses
These fuses provide protection against overloads and short-circuits.
Conventional non-fusing and fusing currents are standardized, as shown in
Figure H12 and in Figure H13.
b The conventional non-fusing current Inf is the value of current that the fusible
element can carry for a specified time without melting.
Example: A 32 A fuse carrying a current of 1.25 In (i.e. 40 A) must not melt in less
than one hour (table H13)
b The conventional fusing current If (= I2 in Fig. H12) is the value of current which
will cause melting of the fusible element before the expiration of the specified time.
Example: A 32 A fuse carrying a current of 1.6 In (i.e. 52.1 A) must melt in one hour
or less
IEC 60269-1 standardized tests require that a fuse-operating characteristic lies
between the two limiting curves (shown in Figure H12) for the particular fuse under
test. This means that two fuses which satisfy the test can have significantly different
operating times at low levels of overloading.
Minimum
pre-arcing
time curve
1 hour
Rated current(1)
In (A)
In y 4 A
4 < In < 16 A
16 < In y 63 A
63 < In y 160 A
160 < In y 400 A
400 < In
Fuse-blow
curve
Inf I2
I
Fig. H12 : Zones of fusing and non-fusing for gG and gM fuses
Conventional nonfusing current
Inf
Conventional
fusing current
I2
Conventional
time (h)
1
1.5 In
2.1 In
1.5 In
1.9 In
1
1.25 In
1.6 In
1
1.25 In
1.6 In
2
1.25 In
1.6 In
3
1.25 In
1.6 In
4
Fig. H13 : Zones of fusing and non-fusing for LV types gG and gM class fuses (IEC 60269-1
and 60269-2-1)
(1) Ich for gM fuses
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t
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
2 The switchgear
b The two examples given above for a 32 A fuse, together with the foregoing notes
on standard test requirements, explain why these fuses have a poor performance in
the low overload range
b It is therefore necessary to install a cable larger in ampacity than that normally
required for a circuit, in order to avoid the consequences of possible long term
overloading (60% overload for up to one hour in the worst case)
By way of comparison, a circuit-breaker of similar current rating:
b Which passes 1.05 In must not trip in less than one hour; and
b When passing 1.25 In it must trip in one hour, or less (25% overload for up to one
hour in the worst case)
Class aM (motor) fuses
These fuses afford protection against short-circuit currents only and must necessarily
be associated with other switchgear (such as discontactors or circuit-breakers) in
order to ensure overload protection < 4 In. They are not therefore autonomous. Since
aM fuses are not intended to protect against low values of overload current, no levels
of conventional non-fusing and fusing currents are fixed. The characteristic curves for
testing these fuses are given for values of fault current exceeding approximately 4 In
(see Fig. H14), and fuses tested to IEC 60269 must give operating curves which fall
within the shaded area.
Class aM fuses protect against short-circuit
currents only, and must always be associated
with another device which protects against
overload
Note: the small “arrowheads” in the diagram indicate the current/time “gate” values
for the different fuses to be tested (IEC 60269).
Rated short-circuit breaking currents
A characteristic of modern cartridge fuses is that, owing to the rapidity of fusion
in the case of high short-circuit current levels(1), a current cut-off begins before
the occurrence of the first major peak, so that the fault current never reaches its
prospective peak value (see Fig. H15).
H8
This limitation of current reduces significantly the thermal and dynamic stresses
which would otherwise occur, thereby minimizing danger and damage at the fault
position. The rated short-circuit breaking current of the fuse is therefore based on the
rms value of the AC component of the prospective fault current.
t
No short-circuit current-making rating is assigned to fuses.
Minimum
pre-arcing
time curve
Reminder
Short-circuit currents initially contain DC components, the magnitude and duration of
which depend on the XL/R ratio of the fault current loop.
Fuse-blown
curve
Close to the source (MV/LV transformer) the relationship Ipeak / Irms (of
AC component) immediately following the instant of fault, can be as high as 2.5
(standardized by IEC, and shown in Figure H16 next page).
4 In
x In
Fig. H14 : Standardized zones of fusing for type aM fuses (all
current ratings)
I
Prospective
fault-current peak
rms value of the AC
component of the
prospective fault curent
Current peak
limited by the fuse
0.01 s
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Tf Ta
Ttc
t
0.005 s
0.02 s
Tf: Fuse pre-arc fusing time
Ta: Arcing time
Ttc: Total fault-clearance time
Fig. H15 : Current limitation by a fuse
At lower levels of distribution in an installation, as previously noted, XL is small
compared with R and so for final circuits Ipeak / Irms ~ 1.41, a condition which
corresponds with Figure H15.
The peak-current-limitation effect occurs only when the prospective rms
AC component of fault current attains a certain level. For example, in the Figure H16
graph, the 100 A fuse will begin to cut off the peak at a prospective fault current
(rms) of 2 kA (a). The same fuse for a condition of 20 kA rms prospective current
will limit the peak current to 10 kA (b). Without a current-limiting fuse the peak
current could attain 50 kA (c) in this particular case. As already mentioned, at lower
distribution levels in an installation, R greatly predominates XL, and fault levels are
generally low. This means that the level of fault current may not attain values high
enough to cause peak current limitation. On the other hand, the DC transients (in this
case) have an insignificant effect on the magnitude of the current peak, as previously
mentioned.
Note: On gM fuse ratings
A gM type fuse is essentially a gG fuse, the fusible element of which corresponds to
the current value Ich (ch = characteristic) which may be, for example, 63 A. This is
the IEC testing value, so that its time/ current characteristic is identical to that of a
63 A gG fuse.
This value (63 A) is selected to withstand the high starting currents of a motor, the
steady state operating current (In) of which may be in the 10-20 A range.
This means that a physically smaller fuse barrel and metallic parts can be used,
since the heat dissipation required in normal service is related to the lower figures
(10-20 A). A standard gM fuse, suitable for this situation would be designated 32M63
(i.e. In M Ich).
The first current rating In concerns the steady-load thermal performance of the
fuselink, while the second current rating (Ich) relates to its (short-time) startingcurrent performance. It is evident that, although suitable for short-circuit protection,
(1) For currents exceeding a certain level, depending on the
fuse nominal current rating, as shown below in Figure H16.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Prospective fault
current (kA) peak
2 The switchgear
overload protection for the motor is not provided by the fuse, and so a separate
thermal-type relay is always necessary when using gM fuses. The only advantage
offered by gM fuses, therefore, when compared with aM fuses, are reduced physical
dimensions and slightly lower cost.
Maximum possible current
peak characteristic
i.e. 2.5 Irms (IEC)
100
20
(b)
10
Single units of switchgear do not, in general, fulfil all the requirements of the three
basic functions, viz: Protection, control and isolation.
160A
Nominal
100A fuse
50A ratings
Where the installation of a circuit-breaker is not appropriate (notably where the
switching rate is high, over extended periods) combinations of units specifically
designed for such a performance are employed. The most commonly-used
combinations are described below.
(a)
5
Peak current
cut-off
characteristic
curves
2
1
2.2 Combined switchgear elements
(c)
50
1
2
5
10 20
Switch and fuse combinations
50 100
AC component of prospective
fault current (kA) rms
Fig. H16 : Limited peak current versus prospective rms values
of the AC component of fault current for LV fuses
Two cases are distinguished:
b The type in which the operation of one (or more) fuse(s) causes the switch to open.
This is achieved by the use of fuses fitted with striker pins, and a system of switch
tripping springs and toggle mechanisms (see Fig. H17)
b The type in which a non-automatic switch is associated with a set of fuses in a
common enclosure.
In some countries, and in IEC 60947-3, the terms “switch-fuse” and “fuse-switch”
have specific meanings, viz:
v A switch-fuse comprises a switch (generally 2 breaks per pole) on the upstream
side of three fixed fuse-bases, into which the fuse carriers are inserted (see Fig. H18)
v A fuse-switch consists of three switch blades each constituting a double-break per
phase.
H9
These blades are not continuous throughout their length, but each has a gap in the
centre which is bridged by the fuse cartridge. Some designs have only a single break
per phase, as shown in Figure H19.
Fig. H17 : Symbol for an automatic tripping switch-fuse
Fig. H18 : Symbol for a non-automatic fuse-switch
Fig. H19 : Symbol for a non-automatic switch-fuse
The current range for these devices is limited to 100 A maximum at 400 V 3-phase,
while their principal use is in domestic and similar installations. To avoid confusion
between the first group (i.e. automatic tripping) and the second group, the term
“switch-fuse” should be qualified by the adjectives “automatic” or “non-automatic”.
Fig. H20 : Symbol for a fuse disconnector + discontactor
The fuse-disconnector must be interlocked with the discontactor such that no opening
or closing manœuvre of the fuse disconnector is possible unless the discontactor is
open ( Figure H20), since the fuse disconnector has no load-switching capability.
A fuse-switch-disconnector (evidently) requires no interlocking (Figure H21).
The switch must be of class AC22 or AC23 if the circuit supplies a motor.
Fig. H21 : Symbol for a fuse-switch disconnector + discontactor
Circuit-breaker + contactor
Circuit-breaker + discontactor
These combinations are used in remotely controlled distribution systems in which the
rate of switching is high, or for control and protection of a circuit supplying motors.
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Fuse – disconnector + discontactor
Fuse - switch-disconnector + discontactor
As previously mentioned, a discontactor does not provide protection against shortcircuit faults. It is necessary, therefore, to add fuses (generally of type aM) to perform
this function. The combination is used mainly for motor control circuits, where the
disconnector or switch-disconnector allows safe operations such as:
b The changing of fuse links (with the circuit isolated)
b Work on the circuit downstream of the discontactor (risk of remote closure of the
discontactor)
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
3 Choice of switchgear
3.1 Tabulated functional capabilities
After having studied the basic functions of LV switchgear (clause 1, Figure H1) and
the different components of switchgear (clause 2), Figure H22 summarizes the
capabilities of the various components to perform the basic functions.
Isolation
Switchgear
item
H10
Isolator (or
disconnector)(4)
Switch(5)
Residual
device
(RCCB)(5)
Switchdisconnector
Contactor
Remote control
switch
Fuse
Circuit
breaker
Circuit-breaker
disconnector(5)
Residual
and overcurrent
circuit-breaker
(RCBO)(5)
Point of
installation
(general
principle)
Control
Functional
Emergency
switching
Emergency
stop
(mechanical)
Switching for
mechanical
maintenance
Electrical protection
Overload
Short-circuit
Electric
shock
b
b
b
b
b
b (1)
b (1)
b (1) (2)
b (1) (2)
b
b
b
b
b (1)
b (1) (2)
b
b
b
b (1)
b (1)
b (1) (2)
b
b
b
b (1)
b (1) (2)
b
b
b
b
b
b
b
b (1)
b (1) (2)
b
b
b
b
b
b (1)
b (1) (2)
b
b
b
b
Origin of each
circuit
All points where,
for operational
reasons it may
be necessary
to stop the
process
In general at the
incoming circuit
to every
distribution
board
At the supply
point to each
machine
and/or on the
machine
concerned
At the supply
point to each
machine
Origin of each
circuit
Origin of each
circuit
Origin of circuits
where the
earthing system
is appropriate
TN-S, IT, TT
b
b
b (3)
(1) Where cut-off of all active conductors is provided
(2) It may be necessary to maintain supply to a braking system
(3) If it is associated with a thermal relay (the combination is commonly referred to as a “discontactor”)
(4) In certain countries a disconnector with visible contacts is mandatory at the origin of a LV installation supplied directly from a MV/LV transformer
(5) Certain items of switchgear are suitable for isolation duties (e.g. RCCBs according to IEC 61008) without being explicitly marked as such
Fig. H22 : Functions fulfilled by different items of switchgear
3.2 Switchgear selection
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Software is being used more and more in the field of optimal selection of switchgear.
Each circuit is considered one at a time, and a list is drawn up of the required
protection functions and exploitation of the installation, among those mentioned in
Figure H22 and summarized in Figure H1.
A number of switchgear combinations are studied and compared with each other
against relevant criteria, with the aim of achieving:
b Satisfactory performance
b Compatibility among the individual items; from the rated current In to the fault-level
rating Icu
b Compatibility with upstream switchgear or taking into account its contribution
b Conformity with all regulations and specifications concerning safe and reliable
circuit performance
In order to determine the number of poles for an item of switchgear, reference is
made to chapter G, clause 7 Fig. G64. Multifunction switchgear, initially more costly,
reduces installation costs and problems of installation or exploitation. It is often found
that such switchgear provides the best solution.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
The circuit-breaker/disconnector fulfills all of the
basic switchgear functions, while, by means of
accessories, numerous other possibilities exist
As shown in Figure H23 the circuit-breaker/ disconnector is the only item of
switchgear capable of simultaneously satisfying all the basic functions necessary in
an electrical installation.
Moreover, it can, by means of auxiliary units, provide a wide range of other functions,
for example: indication (on-off - tripped on fault); undervoltage tripping; remote
control… etc. These features make a circuit-breaker/ disconnector the basic unit of
switchgear for any electrical installation.
Functions
Isolation
Control
Protection
Functional
Emergency switching
Switching-off for mechanical
maintenance
Overload
Short-circuit
Insulation fault
Undervoltage
Remote control
Indication and measurement
Possible conditions
b
b
b (With the possibility of a tripping
coil for remote control)
b
b
b
b (With differential-current relay)
b (With undervoltage-trip coil)
b Added or incorporated
b (Generally optional with an
electronic tripping device)
H11
Fig. H23 : Functions performed by a circuit-breaker/disconnector
Power circuit terminals
Contacts and arc-diving
chamber
Fool-proof mechanical
indicator
Latching mechanism
Trip mechanism and
protective devices
Fig. H24 : Main parts of a circuit-breaker
4.1 Standards and description
Standards
For industrial LV installations the relevant IEC standards are, or are due to be:
b 60947-1: general rules
b 60947-2: part 2: circuit-breakers
b 60947-3: part 3: switches, disconnectors, switch-disconnectors and fuse
combination units
b 60947-4: part 4: contactors and motor starters
b 60947-5: part 5: control-circuit devices and switching elements
b 60947-6: part 6: multiple function switching devices
b 60947-7: part 7: ancillary equipment
For domestic and similar LV installations, the appropriate standard is IEC 60898, or
an equivalent national standard.
Description
Figure H24 shows schematically the main parts of a LV circuit-breaker and its four
essential functions:
b The circuit-breaking components, comprising the fixed and moving contacts and
the arc-dividing chamber
b The latching mechanism which becomes unlatched by the tripping device on
detection of abnormal current conditions
This mechanism is also linked to the operation handle of the breaker.
b A trip-mechanism actuating device:
v Either: a thermal-magnetic device, in which a thermally-operated bi-metal strip
detects an overload condition, while an electromagnetic striker pin operates at
current levels reached in short-circuit conditions, or
v An electronic relay operated from current transformers, one of which is installed on
each phase
b A space allocated to the several types of terminal currently used for the main
power circuit conductors
Domestic circuit-breakers (see Fig. H25 next page) complying with IEC 60898 and
similar national standards perform the basic functions of:
b Isolation
b Protection against overcurrent
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Industrial circuit-breakers must comply with
IEC 60947-1 and 60947-2 or other equivalent
standards.
Domestic-type circuit-breakers must comply with
IEC standard 60898, or an equivalent national
standard
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
Some models can be adapted to provide sensitive detection (30 mA) of earthleakage current with CB tripping, by the addition of a modular block, while other
models (RCBOs, complying with IEC 61009 and CBRs complying with IEC 60947-2
Annex B) have this residual current feature incorporated as shown in Figure H26.
Apart from the above-mentioned functions further features can be associated with
the basic circuit-breaker by means of additional modules, as shown in Figure H27;
notably remote control and indication (on-off-fault).
1
3
5
2
4
Fig. H25 : Domestic-type circuit-breaker providing overcurrent
protection and circuit isolation features
O-OFF
O--OFF
O--OFF
H12
Fig. H27 : “Multi 9” system of LV modular switchgear components
Moulded-case circuit-breakers complying with IEC 60947-2 are available from 100
to 630 A and provide a similar range of auxiliary functions to those described above
(see Figure H28).
Air circuit-breakers of large current ratings, complying with IEC 60947-2, are
generally used in the main switch board and provide protector for currents from
630 A to 6300 A, typically.(see Figure H29).
In addition to the protection functions, the Micrologic unit provides optimized
functions such as measurement (including power quality functions), diagnosis,
communication, control and monitoring.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. H26 : Domestic-type circuit-breaker as above (Fig. H25)
with incorparated protection against electric shocks
Fig. H28 : Example of a Compact NSX industrial type of circuitbreaker capable of numerous auxiliary functions
Fig. H29 : Example of air circuit-breakers. Masterpact provides many control features in its
“Micrologic” tripping unit
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
4.2 Fundamental characteristics of a circuit-breaker
The fundamental characteristics of a circuit-breaker are:
b Its rated voltage Ue
b Its rated current In
b Its tripping-current-level adjustment ranges for overload protection (Ir(1) or Irth(1))
and for short-circuit protection (Im)(1)
b Its short-circuit current breaking rating (Icu for industrial CBs; Icn for domestictype CBs).
Rated operational voltage (Ue)
This is the voltage at which the circuit-breaker has been designed to operate, in
normal (undisturbed) conditions.
Other values of voltage are also assigned to the circuit-breaker, corresponding to
disturbed conditions, as noted in sub-clause 4.3.
Rated current (In)
This is the maximum value of current that a circuit-breaker, fitted with a specified
overcurrent tripping relay, can carry indefinitely at an ambient temperature stated by
the manufacturer, without exceeding the specified temperature limits of the current
carrying parts.
Example
A circuit-breaker rated at In = 125 A for an ambient temperature of 40 °C will be
equipped with a suitably calibrated overcurrent tripping relay (set at 125 A). The
same circuit-breaker can be used at higher values of ambient temperature however,
if suitably “derated”. Thus, the circuit-breaker in an ambient temperature of 50 °C
could carry only 117 A indefinitely, or again, only 109 A at 60 °C, while complying
with the specified temperature limit.
H13
Derating a circuit-breaker is achieved therefore, by reducing the trip-current setting
of its overload relay, and marking the CB accordingly. The use of an electronic-type
of tripping unit, designed to withstand high temperatures, allows circuit-breakers
(derated as described) to operate at 60 °C (or even at 70 °C) ambient.
Note: In for circuit-breakers (in IEC 60947-2) is equal to Iu for switchgear generally,
Iu being the rated uninterrupted current.
Frame-size rating
A circuit-breaker which can be fitted with overcurrent tripping units of different current
level-setting ranges, is assigned a rating which corresponds to the highest currentlevel-setting tripping unit that can be fitted.
Example
A Compact NSX630N circuit-breaker can be equipped with 11 electronic trip units
from 150 A to 630 A. The size of the circuit-breaker is 630 A.
Overload relay trip-current setting (Irth or Ir)
Rated current of
the tripping unit
In
Adjustment
range
160 A
360 A
The thermal-trip relays are generally adjustable from 0.7 to 1.0 times In, but when
electronic devices are used for this duty, the adjustment range is greater; typically 0.4
to 1 times In.
Circuit breaker
frame-size rating
Overload trip
current setting
Ir
400 A
Example (see Fig. H30)
A NSX630N circuit-breaker equipped with a 400 A Micrologic 6.3E overcurrent trip
relay, set at 0.9, will have a trip-current setting:
630 A
Fig. H30 : Example of a NSX630N circuit-breaker equipped with
a Micrologic 6.3E trip unit adjusted to 0.9, to give Ir = 360 A
Ir = 400 x 0.9 = 360 A
Note: For circuit-breakers equipped with non-adjustable overcurrent-trip relays,
Ir = In. Example: for C60N 20 A circuit-breaker, Ir = In = 20 A.
(1) Current-level setting values which refer to the currentoperated thermal and “instantaneous” magnetic tripping
devices for over-load and short-circuit protection.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
0.4 In
Apart from small circuit-breakers which are very easily replaced, industrial circuitbreakers are equipped with removable, i.e. exchangeable, overcurrent-trip relays.
Moreover, in order to adapt a circuit-breaker to the requirements of the circuit
it controls, and to avoid the need to install over-sized cables, the trip relays are
generally adjustable. The trip-current setting Ir or Irth (both designations are
in common use) is the current above which the circuit-breaker will trip. It also
represents the maximum current that the circuit-breaker can carry without tripping.
That value must be greater than the maximum load current IB, but less than the
maximum current permitted in the circuit Iz (see chapter G, sub-clause 1.3).
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Short-circuit relay trip-current setting (Im)
Short-circuit tripping relays (instantaneous or slightly time-delayed) are intended to
trip the circuit-breaker rapidly on the occurrence of high values of fault current. Their
tripping threshold Im is:
b Either fixed by standards for domestic type CBs, e.g. IEC 60898, or,
b Indicated by the manufacturer for industrial type CBs according to related
standards, notably IEC 60947-2.
For the latter circuit-breakers there exists a wide variety of tripping devices which
allow a user to adapt the protective performance of the circuit-breaker to the
particular requirements of a load (see Fig. H31, Fig. H32 and Fig. H33).
H14
Type of
protective
relay
Overload
protection
Short-circuit protection
Domestic
breakers
IEC 60898
Thermalmagnetic
Ir = In
Low setting
type B
3 In y Im y 5 In
Standard setting
type C
5 In y Im y 10 In
High setting circuit
type D
10 In y Im y 20 In(1)
Modular
industrial(2)
circuit-breakers
Thermalmagnetic
Ir = In
fixed
Low setting
type B or Z
3.2 In y fixed y 4.8 In
Standard setting
type C
7 In y fixed y 10 In
High setting
type D or K
10 In y fixed y 14 In
Industrial(2)
circuit-breakers
IEC 60947-2
Thermalmagnetic
Ir = In fixed
Adjustable:
0.7 In y Ir y In
Electronic
Long delay
0.4 In y Ir y In
Fixed: Im = 7 to 10 In
Adjustable:
- Low setting : 2 to 5 In
- Standard setting: 5 to 10 In
Short-delay, adjustable
1.5 Ir y Im y 10 Ir
Instantaneous (I) fixed
I = 12 to 15 In
(1) 50 In in IEC 60898, which is considered to be unrealistically high by most European manufacturers (Merlin Gerin = 10 to 14 In).
(2) For industrial use, IEC standards do not specify values. The above values are given only as being those in common use.
Fig. H31 : Tripping-current ranges of overload and short-circuit protective devices for LV circuit-breakers
t (s )
t (s )
Ir
Im
I(A
Ii
Icu
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Ir: Overload (thermal or long-delay) relay trip-current
Ir
I(A
Im
Icu
Fig. H32 : Performance curve of a circuit-breaker thermalmagnetic protective scheme
setting
Im: Short-circuit (magnetic or short-delay) relay tripcurrent setting
Ii: Short-circuit instantaneous relay trip-current setting.
Icu: Breaking capacity
Fig. H33 : Performance curve of a circuit-breaker electronic protective scheme
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Isolating feature
A circuit-breaker is suitable for isolating a circuit if it fulfills all the conditions
prescribed for a disconnector (at its rated voltage) in the relevant standard (see
sub-clause 1.2). In such a case it is referred to as a circuit-breaker-disconnector and
marked on its front face with the symbol
All Multi 9, Compact NSX and Masterpact LV switchgear of Schneider Electric
ranges are in this category.
The short-circuit current-breaking performance
of a LV circuit-breaker is related (approximately)
to the cos ϕ of the fault-current loop. Standard
values for this relationship have been
established in some standards
Rated short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu or Icn)
The short-circuit current-breaking rating of a CB is the highest (prospective) value
of current that the CB is capable of breaking without being damaged. The value
of current quoted in the standards is the rms value of the AC component of the
fault current, i.e. the DC transient component (which is always present in the worst
possible case of short-circuit) is assumed to be zero for calculating the standardized
value. This rated value (Icu) for industrial CBs and (Icn) for domestic-type CBs is
normally given in kA rms.
Icu (rated ultimate s.c. breaking capacity) and Ics (rated service s.c. breaking
capacity) are defined in IEC 60947-2 together with a table relating Ics with Icu for
different categories of utilization A (instantaneous tripping) and B (time-delayed
tripping) as discussed in subclause 4.3.
Tests for proving the rated s.c. breaking capacities of CBs are governed by
standards, and include:
b Operating sequences, comprising a succession of operations, i.e. closing and
opening on short-circuit
b Current and voltage phase displacement. When the current is in phase with the
supply voltage (cos ϕ for the circuit = 1), interruption of the current is easier than
that at any other power factor. Breaking a current at low lagging values of cos ϕ is
considerably more difficult to achieve; a zero power-factor circuit being (theoretically)
the most onerous case.
H15
In practice, all power-system short-circuit fault currents are (more or less) at lagging
power factors, and standards are based on values commonly considered to be
representative of the majority of power systems. In general, the greater the level of
fault current (at a given voltage), the lower the power factor of the fault-current loop,
for example, close to generators or large transformers.
Figure H34 below extracted from IEC 60947-2 relates standardized values of cos ϕ
to industrial circuit-breakers according to their rated Icu.
b Following an open - time delay - close/open sequence to test the Icu capacity of a
CB, further tests are made to ensure that:
v The dielectric withstand capability
v The disconnection (isolation) performance and
v The correct operation of the overload protection
have not been impaired by the test.
Icu
cos ϕ
6 kA < Icu y 10 kA
0.5
10 kA < Icu y 20 kA
0.3
20 kA < Icu y 50 kA
0.25
50 kA < Icu
0.2
Fig. H34 : Icu related to power factor (cos ϕ) of fault-current circuit (IEC 60947-2)
4.3 Other characteristics of a circuit-breaker
Rated insulation voltage (Ui)
This is the value of voltage to which the dielectric tests voltage (generally greater
than 2 Ui) and creepage distances are referred to.
The maximum value of rated operational voltage must never exceed that of the rated
insulation voltage, i.e. Ue y Ui.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Familiarity with the following characteristics of
LV circuit-breakers is often necessary when
making a final choice.
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Rated impulse-withstand voltage (Uimp)
This characteristic expresses, in kV peak (of a prescribed form and polarity) the value
of voltage which the equipment is capable of withstanding without failure, under test
conditions.
Generally, for industrial circuit-breakers, Uimp = 8 kV and for domestic types,
Uimp = 6 kV.
t (s)
Category (A or B) and rated short-time withstand current (Icw)
As already briefly mentioned (sub-clause 4.2) there are two categories of
LV industrial switchgear, A and B, according to IEC 60947-2:
b Those of category A, for which there is no deliberate delay in the operation of the
“instantaneous” short-circuit magnetic tripping device (see Fig. H35), are generally
moulded-case type circuit-breakers, and
b Those of category B for which, in order to discriminate with other circuit-breakers
on a time basis, it is possible to delay the tripping of the CB, where the fault-current
level is lower than that of the short-time withstand current rating (Icw) of the CB
(see Fig. H36). This is generally applied to large open-type circuit-breakers and
to certain heavy-duty moulded-case types. Icw is the maximum current that the B
category CB can withstand, thermally and electrodynamically, without sustaining
damage, for a period of time given by the manufacturer.
I(A)
Im
Rated making capacity (Icm)
Fig. H35 : Category A circuit-breaker
Icm is the highest instantaneous value of current that the circuit-breaker can
establish at rated voltage in specified conditions. In AC systems this instantaneous
peak value is related to Icu (i.e. to the rated breaking current) by the factor k, which
depends on the power factor (cos ϕ) of the short-circuit current loop (as shown in
Figure H37 ).
H16
t (s )
Icu
cos ϕ
6 kA < Icu y 10 kA
0.5
10 kA < Icu y 20 kA
0.3
20 kA < Icu y 50 kA
0.25
50 kA y Icu
0.2
Icm = kIcu
1.7 x Icu
2 x Icu
2.1 x Icu
2.2 x Icu
Fig. H37 : Relation between rated breaking capacity Icu and rated making capacity Icm at
different power-factor values of short-circuit current, as standardized in IEC 60947-2
I(A )
Im
I
Icw
Icu
Example: A Masterpact NW08H2 circuit-breaker has a rated breaking capacity
Icu of 100 kA. The peak value of its rated making capacity Icm will be
Fig. H36 : Category B circuit-breaker
100 x 2.2 = 220 kA.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In a correctly designed installation, a circuitbreaker is never required to operate at its
maximum breaking current Icu. For this reason
a new characteristic Ics has been introduced.
It is expressed in IEC 60947-2 as a percentage
of Icu (25, 50, 75, 100%)
Rated service short-circuit breaking capacity (Ics)
The rated breaking capacity (Icu) or (Icn) is the maximum fault-current a circuitbreaker can successfully interrupt without being damaged. The probability of such
a current occurring is extremely low, and in normal circumstances the fault-currents
are considerably less than the rated breaking capacity (Icu) of the CB. On the other
hand it is important that high currents (of low probability) be interrupted under good
conditions, so that the CB is immediately available for reclosure, after the faulty
circuit has been repaired. It is for these reasons that a new characteristic (Ics) has
been created, expressed as a percentage of Icu, viz: 25, 50, 75, 100% for industrial
circuit-breakers. The standard test sequence is as follows:
b O - CO - CO(1) (at Ics)
b Tests carried out following this sequence are intended to verify that the CB is in a
good state and available for normal service
For domestic CBs, Ics = k Icn. The factor k values are given in IEC 60898 table XIV.
In Europe it is the industrial practice to use a k factor of 100% so that Ics = Icu.
(1) O represents an opening operation.
CO represents a closing operation followed by an opening
operation.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Many designs of LV circuit-breakers feature
a short-circuit current limitation capability,
whereby the current is reduced and prevented
from reaching its (otherwise) maximum peak
value (see Fig. H38). The current-limitation
performance of these CBs is presented in
the form of graphs, typified by that shown in
Figure H39, diagram (a)
Fault-current limitation
The fault-current limitation capacity of a CB concerns its ability, more or less
effective, in preventing the passage of the maximum prospective fault-current,
permitting only a limited amount of current to flow, as shown in Figure H38.
The current-limitation performance is given by the CB manufacturer in the form of
curves (see Fig. H39).
b Diagram (a) shows the limited peak value of current plotted against the rms
value of the AC component of the prospective fault current (“prospective” faultcurrent refers to the fault-current which would flow if the CB had no current-limiting
capability)
b Limitation of the current greatly reduces the thermal stresses (proportional I2t) and
this is shown by the curve of diagram (b) of Figure H39, again, versus the rms value
of the AC component of the prospective fault current.
LV circuit-breakers for domestic and similar installations are classified in certain
standards (notably European Standard EN 60 898). CBs belonging to one class (of
current limiters) have standardized limiting I2t let-through characteristics defined by
that class.
In these cases, manufacturers do not normally provide characteristic performance
curves.
a)
b)
Limited
current
peak
(kA)
22
Limited
current peak
(A2 x s)
t
n
rre
cu s
d ic
ite rist
limcte
on ra
N ha
c
H17
4,5.105
2.105
Prospective AC
component (rms)
Prospective AC
component (rms)
150 kA
150 kA
Fig. H39 : Performance curves of a typical LV current-limiting circuit-breaker
Current limitation reduces both thermal and
electrodynamic stresses on all circuit elements
through which the current passes, thereby
prolonging the useful life of these elements.
Furthermore, the limitation feature allows
“cascading” techniques to be used (see 4.5)
thereby significantly reducing design and
installation costs
The advantages of current limitation
The use of current-limiting CBs affords numerous advantages:
b Better conservation of installation networks: current-limiting CBs strongly attenuate
all harmful effects associated with short-circuit currents
b Reduction of thermal effects: Conductors (and therefore insulation) heating is
significantly reduced, so that the life of cables is correspondingly increased
b Reduction of mechanical effects: forces due to electromagnetic repulsion are lower,
with less risk of deformation and possible rupture, excessive burning of contacts, etc.
b Reduction of electromagnetic-interference effects:
v Less influence on measuring instruments and associated circuits,
telecommunication systems, etc.
Icc
Prospectice
fault-current peak
Limited
current peak
Example
On a system having a prospective shortcircuit current of 150 kA rms, a Compact L
circuit-breaker limits the peak current to less than 10% of the calculated prospective
peak value, and the thermal effects to less than 1% of those calculated.
Prospectice
fault-current
Limited
current
tc
Fig. H38 : Prospective and actual currents
t
Cascading of the several levels of distribution in an installation, downstream of a
limiting CB, will also result in important savings.
The technique of cascading, described in sub-clause 4.5 allows, in fact, substantial
savings on switchgear (lower performance permissible downstream of the limiting
CB(s)) enclosures, and design studies, of up to 20% (overall).
Discriminative protection schemes and cascading are compatible, in the Compact
NSX range, up to the full short-circuit breaking capacity of the switchgear.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
These circuit-breakers therefore contribute towards an improved exploitation of:
b Cables and wiring
b Prefabricated cable-trunking systems
b Switchgear, thereby reducing the ageing of the installation
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
The choice of a range of circuit-breakers is
determined by: the electrical characteristics of
the installation, the environment, the loads and
a need for remote control, together with the type
of telecommunications system envisaged
Ambient
temperature
Temperature of air
surrouding the
circuit breakers
Ambient
temperature
4.4 Selection of a circuit-breaker
Choice of a circuit-breaker
The choice of a CB is made in terms of:
b Electrical characteristics of the installation for which the CB is intended
b Its eventual environment: ambient temperature, in a kiosk or switchboard
enclosure, climatic conditions, etc.
b Short-circuit current breaking and making requirements
b Operational specifications: discriminative tripping, requirements (or not) for
remote control and indication and related auxiliary contacts, auxiliary tripping coils,
connection
b Installation regulations; in particular: protection of persons
b Load characteristics, such as motors, fluorescent lighting, LV/LV transformers
The following notes relate to the choice LV circuit-breaker for use in distribution
systems.
Choice of rated current in terms of ambient temperature
Single CB
in free air
Circuit breakers installed
in an enclosure
Fig. H40 : Ambient temperature
The rated current of a circuit-breaker is defined for operation at a given ambient
temperature, in general:
b 30 °C for domestic-type CBs
b 40 °C for industrial-type CBs
Performance of these CBs in a different ambient temperature depends mainly on the
technology of their tripping units (see Fig. H40).
H18
Circuit-breakers with uncompensated thermal
tripping units have a trip current level that
depends on the surrounding temperature
Uncompensated thermal magnetic tripping units
Circuit-breakers with uncompensated thermal tripping elements have a trippingcurrent level that depends on the surrounding temperature. If the CB is installed
in an enclosure, or in a hot location (boiler room, etc.), the current required to trip
the CB on overload will be sensibly reduced. When the temperature in which the
CB is located exceeds its reference temperature, it will therefore be “derated”. For
this reason, CB manufacturers provide tables which indicate factors to apply at
temperatures different to the CB reference temperature. It may be noted from typical
examples of such tables (see Fig. H41) that a lower temperature than the reference
value produces an up-rating of the CB. Moreover, small modular-type CBs mounted
in juxtaposition, as shown typically in Figure H27, are usually mounted in a small
closed metal case. In this situation, mutual heating, when passing normal load
currents, generally requires them to be derated by a factor of 0.8.
Example
What rating (In) should be selected for a C60 N?
b Protecting a circuit, the maximum load current of which is estimated to be 34 A
b Installed side-by-side with other CBs in a closed distribution box
b In an ambient temperature of 50 °C
A C60N circuit-breaker rated at 40 A would be derated to 35.6 A in ambient air at
50 °C (see Fig. H41). To allow for mutual heating in the enclosed space, however, the
0.8 factor noted above must be employed, so that, 35.6 x 0.8 = 28.5 A, which is not
suitable for the 34 A load.
A 50 A circuit-breaker would therefore be selected, giving a (derated) current rating
of 44 x 0.8 = 35.2 A.
Compensated thermal-magnetic tripping units
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
These tripping units include a bi-metal compensating strip which allows the overload
trip-current setting (Ir or Irth) to be adjusted, within a specified range, irrespective of
the ambient temperature.
For example:
b In certain countries, the TT system is standard on LV distribution systems, and
domestic (and similar) installations are protected at the service position by a circuitbreaker provided by the supply authority. This CB, besides affording protection
against indirect-contact hazard, will trip on overload; in this case, if the consumer
exceeds the current level stated in his supply contract with the power authority. The
circuit-breaker (y 60 A) is compensated for a temperature range of - 5 °C to + 40 °C.
b LV circuit-breakers at ratings y 630 A are commonly equipped with compensated
tripping units for this range (- 5 °C to + 40 °C)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
C60a, C60H: curve C. C60N: curves B and C (reference temperature: 30 °C)
Rating (A) 20 °C
25 °C
30 °C
35 °C
40 °C
45 °C
50 °C 55 °C
1
1.05
1.02
1.00
0.98
0.95
0.93
0.90
0.88
2
2.08
2.04
2.00
1.96
1.92
1.88
1.84
1.80
3
3.18
3.09
3.00
2.91
2.82
2.70
2.61
2.49
4
4.24
4.12
4.00
3.88
3.76
3.64
3.52
3.36
6
6.24
6.12
6.00
5.88
5.76
5.64
5.52
5.40
10
10.6
10.3
10.0
9.70
9.30
9.00
8.60
8.20
16
16.8
16.5
16.0
15.5
15.2
14.7
14.2
13.8
20
21.0
20.6
20.0
19.4
19.0
18.4
17.8
17.4
25
26.2
25.7
25.0
24.2
23.7
23.0
22.2
21.5
32
33.5
32.9
32.0
31.4
30.4
29.8
28.4
28.2
40
42.0
41.2
40.0
38.8
38.0
36.8
35.6
34.4
50
52.5
51.5
50.0
48.5
47.4
45.5
44.0
42.5
63
66.2
64.9
63.0
61.1
58.0
56.7
54.2
51.7
Compact NSX100-250 N/H/L equippment with TM-D or TM-G trip units
Rating
Temperature (°C)
(A)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
16
18.4 18.7 18
18
17
16.6 16
15.6 15.2 14.8
25
28.8 28
27.5 25
26.3 25.6 25
24.5 24
23.5
32
36.8 36
35.2 34.4 33.6 32.8 32
31.3 30.5 30
40
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
50
57.5 56
55
54
52.5 51
50
49
48
47
63
72
71
69
68
66
65
63
61.5 60
58
80
92
90
88
86
84
82
80
78
76
74
100
115 113 110 108 105 103 100 97.5 95
92.5
125
144 141 138 134 131 128 125 122 119 116
160
184 180 176 172 168 164 160 156 152 148
200
230 225 220 215 210 205 200 195 190 185
250
288 281 277 269 263 256 250 244 238 231
60
14.5
23
29.5
36
46
57
72
90
113
144
180
225
60 °C
0.85
1.74
2.37
3.24
5.30
7.80
13.5
16.8
20.7
27.5
33.2
40.5
49.2
65
14
22
29
35
45
55
70
87.5
109
140
175
219
70
13.8
21
28.5
34
44
54
68
85
106
136
170
213
H19
Fig. H41 : Examples of tables for the determination of derating/uprating factors to apply to CBs
with uncompensated thermal tripping units, according to temperature
Electronic trip units
An important advantage with electronic tripping units is their stable performance
in changing temperature conditions. However, the switchgear itself often imposes
operational limits in elevated temperatures, so that manufacturers generally provide
an operating chart relating the maximum values of permissible trip-current levels to
the ambient temperature (see Fig. H42).
Moreover, electronic trip units can provide information that can be used for a better
management of the electrical distribution, including energy efficiency and power
quality.
Masterpact NW20 version
H1/H2/H3
L1
Withdrawable with
horizontal plugs
Withdrawable with
on-edge plugs
In (A)
Maximum
adjustment Ir
In (A)
Maximum
adjustment Ir
40°C
45°C
50°C
55°C
60°C
2,000
1
2,000
1
2,000
1
1,980
0.99
1,890
0.95
2,000
1
200
1
1,900
0.95
1,850
0.93
1,800
0.90
Coeff. In (A)
1 2,000
NW20 withdrawable with
horizontal plugs
0.95 1,890
NW20 L1 withdrawable
with on edge plugs
0.90 1,800
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
θ°C
Fig. H42 : Derating of Masterpact NW20 circuit-breaker, according to the temperature
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Electronic tripping units are highly stable in
changing temperature levels
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
Selection of an instantaneous, or short-time-delay, tripping
threshold
Figure H43 below summarizes the main characteristics of the instantaneous or
short-time delay trip units.
Type
t
Tripping unit
Low setting
type B
Applications
b Sources producing low short-circuitcurrent levels
(standby generators)
b Long lengths of line or cable
Standard setting
type C
b Protection of circuits: general case
High setting
type D or K
b Protection of circuits having high initial
transient current levels
(e.g. motors, transformers, resistive loads)
12 In
type MA
b Protection of motors in association with
discontactors
(contactors with overload protection)
I
t
I
t
H20
I
t
I
Fig. H43 : Different tripping units, instantaneous or short-time-delayed
The installation of a LV circuit-breaker requires
that its short-circuit breaking capacity (or that of
the CB together with an associated device) be
equal to or exceeds the calculated prospective
short-circuit current at its point of installation
Selection of a circuit-breaker according to the short-circuit
breaking capacity requirements
The installation of a circuit-breaker in a LV installation must fulfil one of the two
following conditions:
b Either have a rated short-circuit breaking capacity Icu (or Icn) which is equal to or
exceeds the prospective short-circuit current calculated for its point of installation, or
b If this is not the case, be associated with another device which is located
upstream, and which has the required short-circuit breaking capacity
In the second case, the characteristics of the two devices must be co-ordinated
such that the energy permitted to pass through the upstream device must not
exceed that which the downstream device and all associated cables, wires and other
components can withstand, without being damaged in any way. This technique is
profitably employed in:
b Associations of fuses and circuit-breakers
b Associations of current-limiting circuit-breakers and standard circuit-breakers.
The technique is known as “cascading” (see sub-clause 4.5 of this chapter)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The circuit-breaker at the output of the smallest
transformer must have a short-circuit capacity
adequate for a fault current which is higher
than that through any of the other transformer
LV circuit-breakers
The selection of main and principal circuit-breakers
A single transformer
If the transformer is located in a consumer’s substation, certain national standards
require a LV circuit-breaker in which the open contacts are clearly visible such as
Compact NSX withdrawable circuit-breaker.
Example (see Fig. H44 opposite page)
What type of circuit-breaker is suitable for the main circuit-breaker of an installation
supplied through a 250 kVA MV/LV (400 V) 3-phase transformer in a consumer’s
substation?
In transformer = 360 A
Isc (3-phase) = 8.9 kA
A Compact NSX400N with an adjustable tripping-unit range of 160 A - 400 A and a
short-circuit breaking capacity (Icu) of 50 kA would be a suitable choice for this duty.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
Several transformers in parallel (see Fig. H45)
b The circuit-breakers CBP outgoing from the LV distribution board must each be
capable of breaking the total fault current from all transformers connected to the
busbars, viz: Isc1 + Isc2 + Isc3
b The circuit-breakers CBM, each controlling the output of a transformer, must be
capable of dealing with a maximum short-circuit current of (for example) Isc2 + Isc3
only, for a short-circuit located on the upstream side of CBM1.
From these considerations, it will be seen that the circuit-breaker of the smallest
transformer will be subjected to the highest level of fault current in these
circumstances, while the circuit-breaker of the largest transformer will pass the
lowest level of short-circuit current
b The ratings of CBMs must be chosen according to the kVA ratings of the
associated transformers
Note: The essential conditions for the successful operation of 3-phase transformers
in parallel may be summarized as follows:
1. the phase shift of the voltages, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units
to be paralleled.
2. the open-circuit voltage ratios, primary to secondary, must be the same in all units.
3. the short-circuit impedance voltage (Zsc%) must be the same for all units.
For example, a 750 kVA transformer with a Zsc = 6% will share the load correctly
with a 1,000 kVA transformer having a Zsc of 6%, i.e. the transformers will be loaded
automatically in proportion to their kVA ratings. For transformers having a ratio of kVA
ratings exceeding 2, parallel operation is not recommended.
250 kVA
20 kV/400 V
Compact
NSX400N
Fig. H44 : Example of a transformer in a consumer’s substation
MV
Tr1
LV
A1
Tr3
LV
A2
CBM
B1
CBM
B2
CBP
Moreover, this table shows selected circuit-breakers of M-G manufacture
recommended for main and principal circuit-breakers in each case.
MV
Tr2
Example (see Fig. H47 next page)
b Circuit-breaker selection for CBM duty:
For a 800 kVA transformer In = 1.126 A; Icu (minimum) = 38 kA (from Figure H46),
the CBM indicated in the table is a Compact NS1250N (Icu = 50 kA)
b Circuit-breaker selection for CBP duty:
The s.c. breaking capacity (Icu) required for these circuit-breakers is given in the
Figure H46 as 56 kA.
A recommended choice for the three outgoing circuits 1, 2 and 3 would be currentlimiting circuit-breakers types NSX400 L, NSX250 L and NSX100 L. The Icu rating in
each case = 150 kA.
LV
A3
H21
CBM
B3
CBP
E
Fig. H45 : Transformers in parallel
Number and kVA ratings Minimum S.C breaking
of 20/0.4 kV transformers capacity of main CBs
(Icu) kA
2 x 400
14
3 x 400
28
2 x 630
22
3 x 630
44
2 x 800
19
3 x 800
38
2 x 1,000
23
3 x 1,000
47
2 x 1,250
29
3 x 1,250
59
2 x 1,600
38
3 x 1,600
75
2 x 2,000
47
3 x 2,000
94
Main circuit-breakers (CBM)
total discrimination with out
going circuit-breakers (CBP)
NW08N1/NS800N
NW08N1/NS800N
NW10N1/NS1000N
NW10N1/NS1000N
NW12N1/NS1250N
NW12N1/NS1250N
NW16N1/NS1600N
NW16N1/NS1600N
NW20N1/NS2000N
NW20N1/NS2000N
NW25N1/NS2500N
NW25N1/NS2500N
NW32N1/NS3200N
NW32N1/NS3200N
Minimum S.C breaking
capacity of principal CBs
(Icu) kA
27
42
42
67
38
56
47
70
59
88
75
113
94
141
Rated current In of
principal circuit-breaker
(CPB) 250A
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250H
NSX250L
NSX250L
NSX250L
NSX250L
NSX250L
Fig. H46 : Maximum values of short-circuit current to be interrupted by main and principal circuit-breakers (CBM and CBP respectively), for several transformers in parallel
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
MV
Figure H46 indicates, for the most usual arrangement (2 or 3 transformers of
equal kVA ratings) the maximum short-circuit currents to which main and principal
CBs (CBM and CBP respectively, in Figure H45) are subjected. It is based on the
following hypotheses:
b The short-circuit 3-phase power on the MV side of the transformer is 500 MVA
b The transformers are standard 20/0.4 kV distribution-type units rated as listed
b The cables from each transformer to its LV circuit-breaker comprise 5 metres of
single core conductors
b Between each incoming-circuit CBM and each outgoing-circuit CBP there is
1 metre of busbar
b The switchgear is installed in a floormounted enclosed switchboard, in an ambientair temperature of 30 °C
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
These circuit-breakers provide the advantages of:
v Absolute discrimination with the upstream (CBM) breakers
v Exploitation of the “cascading” technique, with its associated savings for all
downstream components
Choice of outgoing-circuit CBs and final-circuit CBs
Short-circuit fault-current levels at any point in
an installation may be obtained from tables
Use of table G40
From this table, the value of 3-phase short-circuit current can be determined rapidly
for any point in the installation, knowing:
b The value of short-circuit current at a point upstream of that intended for the CB
concerned
b The length, c.s.a., and the composition of the conductors between the two points
A circuit-breaker rated for a short-circuit breaking capacity exceeding the tabulated
value may then be selected.
Detailed calculation of the short-circuit current level
In order to calculate more precisely the short-circuit current, notably, when the shortcircuit current-breaking capacity of a CB is slightly less than that derived from the
table, it is necessary to use the method indicated in chapter G clause 4.
Two-pole circuit-breakers (for phase and neutral) with one protected pole only
These CBs are generally provided with an overcurrent protective device on the
phase pole only, and may be used in TT, TN-S and IT schemes. In an IT scheme,
however, the following conditions must be respected:
b Condition (B) of table G67 for the protection of the neutral conductor against
overcurrent in the case of a double fault
b Short-circuit current-breaking rating: A 2-pole phase-neutral CB must, by
convention, be capable of breaking on one pole (at the phase-to-phase voltage) the
current of a double fault equal to 15% of the 3-phase short-circuit current at the point
of its installation, if that current is y 10 kA; or 25% of the 3-phase short-circuit current
if it exceeds 10 kA
b Protection against indirect contact: this protection is provided according to the
rules for IT schemes
H22
Insufficient short-circuit current breaking rating
In low-voltage distribution systems it sometimes happens, especially in heavy-duty
networks, that the Isc calculated exceeds the Icu rating of the CBs available for
installation, or system changes upstream result in lower level CB ratings being
exceeded
b Solution 1: Check whether or not appropriate CBs upstream of the CBs affected
are of the current-limiting type, allowing the principle of cascading (described in subclause 4.5) to be applied
b Solution 2: Install a range of CBs having a higher rating. This solution is
economically interesting only where one or two CBs are affected
b Solution 3: Associate current-limiting fuses (gG or aM) with the CBs concerned, on
the upstream side. This arrangement must, however, respect the following rules:
v The fuse rating must be appropriate
v No fuse in the neutral conductor, except in certain IT installations where a double
fault produces a current in the neutral which exceeds the short-circuit breaking rating
of the CB. In this case, the blowing of the neutral fuse must cause the CB to trip on
all phases
3 Tr
800 kVA
20 kV/400 V
CBM
CBP1
400 A
CBP2
100 A
CBP3
200 A
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. H47 : Transformers in parallel
The technique of “cascading” uses the
properties of current-limiting circuit-breakers
to permit the installation of all downstream
switchgear, cables and other circuit components
of significantly lower performance than would
otherwise be necessary, thereby simplifying and
reducing the cost of an installation
4.5 Coordination between circuit-breakers
Cascading
Definition of the cascading technique
By limiting the peak value of short-circuit current passing through it, a current-limiting
CB permits the use, in all circuits downstream of its location, of switchgear and
circuit components having much lower short-circuit breaking capacities, and thermal
and electromechanical withstand capabilities than would otherwise be necessary.
Reduced physical size and lower performance requirements lead to substantial
economy and to the simplification of installation work. It may be noted that, while a
current-limiting circuit-breaker has the effect on downstream circuits of (apparently)
increasing the source impedance during short-circuit conditions, it has no such
effect in any other condition; for example, during the starting of a large motor (where
a low source impedance is highly desirable). The range of Compact NSX currentlimiting circuit-breakers with powerful limiting performances is particularly interesting.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
In general, laboratory tests are necessary to
ensure that the conditions of implementation
required by national standards are met and
compatible switchgear combinations must be
provided by the manufacturer
4 Circuit-breaker
Conditions of implementation
Most national standards admit the cascading technique, on condition that the
amount of energy “let through” by the limiting CB is less than the energy all
downstream CBs and components are able to withstand without damage.
In practice this can only be verified for CBs by tests performed in a laboratory. Such
tests are carried out by manufacturers who provide the information in the form of
tables, so that users can confidently design a cascading scheme based on the
combination of recommended circuit-breaker types. As an example, Figure H48
indicates the cascading possibilities of circuit-breaker types C60, DT40N, C120 and
NG125 when installed downstream of current-limiting CBs Compact NSX 250 N, H
or L for a 230/400 V or 240/415 V 3-phase installation.
Short-circuit
breaking capacity
of the upstream
(limiter) CBs
Possible short-circuit
breaking capacity of
the downstream CBs
(benefiting from the
cascading technique)
kA rms
150
70
50
150
70
36
30
30
25
20
NSX250L
NSX250H
NSX250N
NG125L
NG125L
NG125N
NG125N
C60N/H<=32A C60N/H<=32A C60N/H<=32A
C60L<=25A
C60L<=25A
C60L<=25A
Quick PRD
40/20/8
C60H>=40A C60H>=40A C60H>=40A
C120N/H
C120N/H
C120N/H
C60N>=40A C60N>=40A C60N>=40A
H23
Fig. H48 : Example of cascading possibilities on a 230/400 V or 240/415 V 3-phase installation
Advantages of cascading
The current limitation benefits all downstream circuits that are controlled by the
current-limiting CB concerned.
The principle is not restrictive, i.e. current-limiting CBs can be installed at any point in
an installation where the downstream circuits would otherwise be inadequately rated.
The result is:
b Simplified short-circuit current calculations
b Simplification, i.e. a wider choice of downstream switchgear and appliances
b The use of lighter-duty switchgear and appliances, with consequently lower cost
b Economy of space requirements, since light-duty equipment have generally a
smaller volume
Principles of discriminative tripping (selectivity)
Discrimination is achieved by automatic protective devices if a fault condition, occurring
at any point in the installation, is cleared by the protective device located immediately
upstream of the fault, while all other protective devices remain unaffected (see
Fig. H49).
A
B
Isc
0
Total discrimination
Ir B
0
Isc B
Partial discrimination
B only opens A and B open
Ir B
Is
Isc
Isc
Isc B
Is = discrimination limit
Fig. H49 : Total and partial discrimination
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Discrimination may be total or partial, and
based on the principles of current levels, or
time-delays, or a combination of both. A more
recent development is based on the logic
techniques.
The Schneider Electric system takes
advantages of both current-limitation and
discrimination
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Discrimination between circuit-breakers A and B is total if the maximum value of
short-circuit-current on circuit B (Isc B) does not exceed the short-circuit trip setting
of circuit-breaker A (Im A). For this condition, B only will trip (see Fig. H50).
Discrimination is partial if the maximum possible short-circuit current on circuit B
exceeds the short-circuit trip-current setting of circuit-breaker A. For this maximum
condition, both A and B will trip (see Fig. H51).
Protection against overload : discrimination based on current levels
(see Fig. H52a)
This method is realized by setting successive tripping thresholds at stepped levels,
from downstream relays (lower settings) towards the source (higher settings).
Discrimination is total or partial, depending on particular conditions, as noted above.
As a rule of thumb, discrimination is achieved when:
b IrA/IrB > 2:
t
Protection against low level short-circuit currents : discrimination based on
stepped time delays (see Fig. H52b)
This method is implemented by adjusting the time-delayed tripping units, such that
downstream relays have the shortest operating times, with progressively longer
delays towards the source.
B
In the two-level arrangement shown, upstream circuit-breaker A is delayed
sufficiently to ensure total discrimination with B (for example: Masterpact with
electronic trip unit).
A
H24
Discrimination based on a combination of the two previous methods
(see Fig. H52c)
A time-delay added to a current level scheme can improve the overall discrimination
performance.
I
Ir B
Ir A Isc B Im A
Fig. H50 : Total discrimination between CBs A and B
The upstream CB has two high-speed magnetic tripping thresholds:
b Im A: delayed magnetic trip or short-delay electronic trip
b Ii: instantaneous strip
t
Discrimination is total if Isc B < Ii (instantaneous).
Protection against high level short-circuit currents: discrimination based on
arc-energy levels
This technology implemented in the Compact NSX range (current limiting circuitbreaker) is extremely effective for achievement of total discrimination.
B
Principle: When a very high level short-circuit current is detected by the two circuitsbreaker A and B, their contacts open simultaneously. As a result, the current is highly
limited.
b The very high arc-energy at level B induces the tripping of circuit-breaker B
b Then, the arc-energy is limited at level A and is not sufficient to induce the tripping
of A
A
I
Ir B
Im A Is cB
Ir A
B only opens
Is c A
As a rule of thumb, the discrimination between Compact NSX is total if the size ratio
between A and B is greater than 2.5.
A and B open
Fig. H51 : Partial discrimination between CBs A and B
a) t
b)
B
c) t
A
t
B
B
A
A
Isc B
A
∆t
I
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Ir B
Ir A
B
I
Isc B
Fig. H52 : Discrimination
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Im A
Ii A
delayed
instantaneous
I
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Current-level discrimination
This technique is directly linked to the staging of the Long Time (LT) tripping curves
of two serial-connected circuit-breakers.
t
D2
D1
D1
D2
I
Ir2
Ir1
Isd 2 Isd1
Fig. H53 : Current discrimination
The discrimination limit ls is:
b Is = Isd2 if the thresholds lsd1 and lsd2 are too close or merge,
b Is = Isd1 if the thresholds lsd1 and lsd2 are sufficiently far apart.
As a rule, current discrimination is achieved when:
b Ir1 / Ir2 < 2,
b Isd1 / Isd2 > 2.
The discrimination limit is:
b Is = Isd1.
H25
Discrimination quality
Discrimination is total if Is > Isc(D2), i.e. Isd1 > Isc(D2).
This normally implies:
b a relatively low level Isc(D2),
b a large difference between the ratings of circuit-breakers D1 and D2.
Current discrimination is normally used in final distribution.
Discrimination based on time-delayed tripping
uses CBs referred to as “selective” (in some
countries).
Implementation of these CBs is relatively simple
and consists in delaying the instant of tripping
of the several series-connected circuit-breakers
in a stepped time sequence
Time discrimination
This is the extension of current discrimination and is obtained by staging over time
of the tripping curves. This technique consists of giving a time delay of t to the Short
Time (ST) tripping of D1.
D2
D1
t
D1
Δt
I
Ir2
Fig. H54 : Time discrimination
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Ir1
Isd 2 Isd1
Ii1
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
D2
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
The thresholds (Ir1, Isd1) of D1 and (Ir2, Isd2) comply with the staging rules of
current discrimination.
The discrimination limit ls of the association is at least equal to li1, the instantaneous
threshold of D1.
Masterpact NT06
630 A
Compact NSX
250 A
H26
Compact NSX
100 A
Multi 9
C60
Discrimination quality
There are two possible applications:
b on final and/or intermediate feeders
A category circuit-breakers can be used with time-delayed tripping of the
upstream circuit-breaker. This allows extension of current discrimination up
to the instantaneous threshold li1 of the upstream circuit-breaker: Is = li1.
If Isc(D2) is not too high - case of a final feeder - total discrimination
can be obtained.
b on the incomers and feeders of the MSB
At this level, as continuity of supply takes priority, the installation
characteristics allow use of B category circuit-breakers designed for
time-delayed tripping. These circuit-breakers have a high thermal withstand
(Icw u 50% Icn for t = 1s): Is = Icw1.
Even for high lsc(D2), time discrimination normally provides total
discrimination: Icw1 > Icc(D2).
Note: Use of B category circuit-breakers means that the installation must withstand
high electrodynamic and thermal stresses.
Consequently, these circuit-breakers have a high instantaneous threshold li that can
be adjusted and disabled in order to protect the busbars if necessary.
Practical example of discrimination at several levels with Schneider Electric
circuit-breakers (with electronic trip units)
"Masterpact NT is totally selective with any moulded-case Compact NSX circuit
breaker, i.e., the downstream circuit-breaker will trip for any short-circuit value up to
its breaking capacity. Further, all Compact NSX CBs are totally selective, as long as
the ration between sizes is greater than 1.6 and the ratio between ratings is greater
than 2.5. The same rules apply for the total selectivity with the miniature circuitbreakers Multi9 further downstream (see Fig. H55).
t
A
B
Non tripping
time of A
Current-breaking
time for B
Only B opens
I
Ir B
Icc B
Icc
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. H55 : 4 level discrimination with Schneider Electric circuit breakers : Masterpact NT
Compact NSX and Multi 9
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
4 Circuit-breaker
Energy discrimination with current limitation
Cascading between 2 devices is normally achieved by using the tripping of the
upstream circuit-breaker A to help the downstream circuit-breaker B to break the
current. The discrimination limit Is is consequently equal to the ultimate breaking
current Icu B of circuit-breaker B acting alone, as cascading requires the tripping of
both devices.
The energy discrimination technology implemented in Compact NSX circuit-breakers
allows to improve the discrimination limit to a value higher than the ultimate breaking
current Icu B of the downstream circuit-breaker. The principle is as follows:
b The downstream limiting circuit-breaker B sees a very high short-circuit current.
The tripping is very fast (<1 ms) and then, the current is limited
b The upstream circuit-breaker A sees a limited short-circuit current compared to its
breaking capability, but this current induces a repulsion of the contacts. As a result,
the arcing voltage increases the current limitation. However, the arc energy is not
high enough to induce the tripping of the circuit-breaker. So, the circuit-breaker A
helps the circuit-breaker B to trip, without tripping itself. The discrimination limit can
be higher than Icu B and the discrimination becomes total with a reduced cost of the
devices
Natural total discriminitation with Compact NSX
The major advantage of the Compact NSX range is to provide a natural total
discrimination between two series-connected devices if:
b The ratio of the two trip-unit current ratings is > 1.6
b The ratio of rated currents of the two circuit-breakers is > 2.5
Discrimination schemes based on logic
techniques are possible, using CBs equipped
with electronic tripping units designed for
the purpose (Compact, Masterpact) and
interconnected with pilot wires
Logic discrimination or “Zone Sequence Interlocking – ZSI”
H27
This type of discrimination can be achieved with circuit-breakers equipped with
specially designed electronic trip units (Compact, Masterpact): only the Short Time
Protection (STP) and Ground Fault Protection (GFP) functions of the controlled
devices are managed by Logic Discrimination. In particular, the Instantaneous
Protection function - inherent protection function - is not concerned.
Settings of controlled circuit-breakers
b time delay: there are no rules, but staging (if any)of the time delays of time
discrimination must be applied (∆tD1 u ∆tD2 u ∆tD3),
b thresholds: there are no threshold rules to be applied, but natural staging of the
protection device ratings must be complied with (IcrD1 u IcrD2 u IcrD3).
Note: This technique ensures discrimination even with circuit-breakers of similar
ratings.
Principles
Activation of the Logic Discrimination function is via transmission of information on
the pilot wire:
b ZSI input:
pilot wire
D1
v low level (no downstream faults): the Protection function is on standby with a
reduced time delay (y 0,1 s),
v high level (presence of downstream faults): the relevant Protection function moves
to the time delay status set on the device.
interlocking
order
D2
b ZSI output:
v low level: the trip unit detects no faults and sends no orders,
v high level: the trip unit detects a fault and sends an order.
Fig. H56 : Logic discrimination.
Operation
A pilot wire connects in cascading form the protection devices of an installation
(see Fig. H56). When a fault occurs, each circuit-breaker upstream of the fault
(detecting a fault) sends an order (high level output) and moves the upstream circuitbreaker to its natural time delay (high level input). The circuitbreaker placed just
above the fault does not receive any orders (low level input) and thus trips almost
instantaneously.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
D3
interlocking
order
4 Circuit-breaker
H - LV switchgear: functions & selection
Discrimination quality
This technique enables:
b easy achievement as standard of discrimination on 3 levels or more,
b elimination of important stresses on the installation, relating to timedelayed tripping of the protection device, in event of a fault directly on the
upstream busbars.
All the protection devices are thus virtually instantaneous,
b easy achievement of downstream discrimination with non-controlled
circuit-breakers.
4.6 Discrimination MV/LV in a consumer’s
substation
In general the transformer in a consumer’s substation is protected by MV fuses,
suitably rated to match the transformer, in accordance with the principles laid down
in IEC 60787 and IEC 60420, by following the advice of the fuse manufacturer.
63 A
H28
The basic requirement is that a MV fuse will not operate for LV faults occurring
downstream of the transformer LV circuit-breaker, so that the tripping characteristic
curve of the latter must be to the left of that of the MV fuse pre-arcing curve.
1,250 kVA
20 kV / 400 V
Full-load current
1,760 A
3-phase
short-circuit
current level
31.4 kA
This requirement generally fixes the maximum settings for the LV circuit-breaker
protection:
b Maximum short-circuit current-level setting of the magnetic tripping element
b Maximum time-delay allowable for the short-circuit current tripping element
(see Fig. H57)
b Short-circuit level at MV terminals of transformer: 250 MVA
b Transformer MV/LV: 1,250 kVA 20/0.4 kV
b MV fuses: 63 A
b Cabling, transformer - LV circuit-breaker: 10 metres single-core cables
b LV circuit-breaker: Compact NSX 2000 set at 1,800 A (Ir)
What is the maximum short-circuit trip current setting and its maximum time delay
allowable?
Compact
NS2000
set at 1,800 A
Fig. H57 : Example
t
(s)
1,000
The curves of Figure H58 show that discrimination is assured if the short-time delay
tripping unit of the CB is set at:
b A level y 6 Ir = 10.8 kA
b A time-delay setting of step 1 or 2
NS 2000
set at
1,800 A
200
100
Minimum pre-arcing
curve for 63 A HV fuses
(current referred to the
secondary side of the
transformer)
10
1
4
6
8
0.2
0.1
Step 4
Step 3
Step 2
0.50
Step 1
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
0.01
I
1,800 A
Ir
10 kA
Isc maxi
31.4 kA
Fig. H58 : Curves of MV fuses and LV circuit-breaker
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter J
Protection against voltage surges
in LV
Contents
1
2
3
General
J2
1.1 What is a voltage surge?
J2
1.2 The four voltage surge types
J2
1.3 Main characteristics of voltage surges
J4
1.4 Different propagation modes
J5
Overvoltage protection devices
J6
2.1 Primary protection devices (protection of installations
against lightning)
J6
2.2 Secondary protection devices (protection of internal
installations against lightning)
J8
Protection against voltage surges in LV
J11
3.1 Surge protective device description
J11
3.2 Surge protective device standards
J11
3.3 Surge protective device data according to IEC 61643-1 standard J11
J13
3.5 Surge arrester installation standards
J13
Choosing a protection device
J14
4.1 Protection devices according to the earthing system
J14
4.2 Internal architecture of surge arresters
J15
4.3 Coordination of surge arresters
J16
4.4 Selection guide
J17
4.5 Choice of disconnector
J22
4.6 End-of-life indication of the surge arrester
J23
4.7 Application example: supermarket
J24
J1
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
4
3.4 Lightning protection standards
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1 General
1.1 What is a voltage surge?
A voltage surge is a voltage impulse or wave which is superposed on the rated
network voltage (see Fig. J1).
Voltage
Lightning type impulse
(duration = 100 µs)
"Operating impulse"
type dumped ring wave
(F = 100 kHz to 1 MHz)
Irms
Fig. J1 : Voltage surge examples
This type of voltage surge is characterised by ( see Fig. J2):
b The rise time (tf) measured in μs
b The gradient S measured in kV/μs
J2
A voltage surge disturbs equipment and causes electromagnetic radiation.
Furthermore, the duration of the voltage surge (T) causes a surge of energy in the
electrical circuits which is likely to destroy the equipment.
Voltage (V or kV)
U max
50 %
t
Rise time (tf)
Voltage surge duration (T)
Fig. J2 : Main overvoltage characteristics
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
1.2 The four voltage surge types
There are four types of voltage surges which may disturb electrical installations and
loads:
b Atmospheric voltage surges
b Operating voltage surges
b Transient overvoltage at industrial frequency
b Voltage surges caused by electrostatic discharge
Atmospheric voltage surges
Lightning risk – a few figures
Between 2,000 and 5,000 storms are constantly forming around the earth. These
storms are accompanied by lightning which constitutes a serious risk for both people
and equipment. Strokes of lightning hit the ground at a rate of 30 to 100 strokes per
second. Every year, the earth is struck by about 3 billion strokes of lightning.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1 General
b Throughout the world, every year, thousands of people are struck by lightning and
countless animals are killed
b Lightning also causes a large number of fires, most of which break out on farms
(destroying buildings or putting them out of use)
b Lightning also affects transformers, electricity meters, household appliances, and
all electrical and electronic installations in the residential sector and in industry.
b Tall buildings are the ones most often struck by lightning
b The cost of repairing damage caused by lightning is very high
b It is difficult to evaluate the consequences of disturbance caused to computer or
telecommunications networks, faults in PLC cycles and faults in regulation systems.
Furthermore, the losses caused by a machine being put out of use can have financial
consequences rising above the cost of the equipment destroyed by the lightning.
Characteristics of lightning discharge
Figure J3 shows the values given by the lighting protection committee (Technical
Committee 81) of the I.E.C. As can be seen, 50 % of lightning strokes are of a force
greater than 33 kA and 5 % are greater than 85 kA. The energy forces involved are
thus very high.
Beyond peak
probability
P%
95
50
5
Current
peak
I (kA)
7
33
85
Gradient
S (kA/μs)
9.1
24
65
Total
duration
T (s)
0.001
0.01
1.1
Number of
discharges
n
1
2
6
Fig. J3 : Lightning discharge values given by the IEC lightning protection committee
J3
It is important to define the probability of adequate protection when protecting a site.
Furthermore, a lightning current is a high frequency (HF) impulse current reaching
roughly a megahertz.
Lightning comes from the discharge of electrical
charges accumulated in the cumulo-nimbus
clouds which form a capacitor with the ground.
Storm phenomena cause serious damage.
Lightning is a high frequency electrical
phenomenon which produces voltage surges
on all conductive elements, and especially on
electrical loads and wires.
The effects of lightning
A lightning current is therefore a high frequency electrical current. As well as
considerable induction and voltage surge effects, it causes the same effects as any
other low frequency current on a conductor:
b Thermal effects: fusion at the lightning impact points and joule effect, due to the
circulation of the current, causing fires
b Electrodynamic effects: when the lightning currents circulate in parallel conductors,
they provoke attraction or repulsion forces between the wires, causing breaks or
mechanical deformations (crushed or flattened wires)
b Combustion effects: lightning can cause the air to expand and create overpressure
which stretches over a distance of a dozen metres or so. A blast effect breaks windows
or partitions and can project animals or people several metres away from their original
position. This shock wave is at the same time transformed into a sound wave: thunder
b Voltage surges conducted after an impact on overhead electrical or telephone lines
b Voltage surges induced by the electromagnetic radiation effect of the lightning
channel which acts as an antenna over several kilometres and is crossed by a
considerable impulse current
b The elevation of the earth potential by the circulation of the lightning current in the
ground. This explains indirect strokes of lightning by step voltage and the breakdown
of equipment
A sudden change in the established operating conditions in an electrical network
causes transient phenomena to occur. These are generally high frequency or
damped oscillation voltage surge waves (see Fig. J1).
They are said to have a slow gradient: their frequency varies from several ten to
several hundred kilohertz.
Operating voltage surges may be created by:
b The opening of protection devices (fuse, circuit-breaker), and the opening or
closing of control devices (relays, contactors, etc.)
b Inductive circuits due to motors starting and stopping, or the opening of
transformers such as MV/LV substations
b Capacitive circuits due to the connection of capacitor banks to the network
b All devices that contain a coil, a capacitor or a transformer at the power supply
inlet: relays, contactors, television sets, printers, computers, electric ovens, filters, etc.
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Operating voltage surges
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1 General
Transient overvoltages at industrial frequency (see Fig. J4)
These overvoltages have the same frequency as the network (50, 60 or 400 Hz); and
can be caused by:
b Phase/frame or phase/earth insulating faults on a network with an insulated or
impedant neutral, or by the breakdown of the neutral conductor. When this happens,
single phase devices will be supplied in 400 V instead of 230 V.
b A cable breakdown. For example, a medium voltage cable which falls on a low
voltage line.
b The arcing of a high or medium voltage protective spark-gap causing a rise in earth
potential during the action of the protection devices. These protection devices follow
automatic switching cycles which will recreate a fault if it persists.
t
Normal voltage
230/400 V
Transient overvoltage
Normal voltage
230/400 V
Fig. J4 : Transient overvoltage at industrial frequency
J4
Voltage surges caused by electrical discharge
In a dry environment, electrical charges accumulate and create a very strong
electrostatic field. For example, a person walking on carpet with insulating soles
will become electrically charged to a voltage of several kilovolts. If the person walks
close to a conductive structure, he will give off an electrical discharge of several
amperes in a very short rise time of a few nanoseconds. If the structure contains
sensitive electronics, a computer for example, its components or circuit boards may
be damaged.
Three points must be kept in mind:
b A direct or indirect lightning stroke may
have destructive consequences on electrical
installations several kilometres away from
where it falls
b Industrial or operating voltage surges also
cause considerable damage
b The fact that a site installation is underground
in no way protects it although it does limit the
risk of a direct strike
1.3 Main characteristics of voltage surges
Figure J5 below sums up the main characteristics of voltage surges.
Type of voltage surge
Voltage surge
coefficient
Duration
Front gradient
or frequency
Industrial frequency
(insulation fault)
Operation
y 1.7
2 to 4
Industrial frequency
(50-60-400 Hz)
Average
1 to 200 kHz
Atmospheric
>4
Long
30 to 1,000 ms
Short
1 to 100 ms
Very short
1 to 100 μs
Very high
1 to 1,000 kV/μs
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Fig. J5 : Main characteristics of voltage surges
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
1 General
1.4 Different propagation modes
Common mode
Common mode voltage surges occur between the live parts and the earth:
phase/earth or neutral/earth (see Fig. J6).
They are especially dangerous for devices whose frame is earthed due to the risk of
dielectric breakdown.
Ph
Equipment
Imc
N
Voltage surge
common mode
Imc
Fig. J6 : Common mode
Differential mode
Differential mode voltage surges circulate between live conductors: Phase to phase
or phase to neutral (see Fig. J7). They are especially dangerous for electronic
equipment, sensitive computer equipment, etc.
Imd
Ph
N
J5
U voltage surge
differential mode
Equipment
Imd
Fig. J7 : Differential mode
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
2 Overvoltage protection devices
Two major types of protection devices are used to suppress or limit voltage surges:
they are referred to as primary protection devices and secondary protection devices.
2.1 Primary protection devices (protection of
installations against lightning)
The purpose of primary protection devices is to protect installations against direct
strokes of lightning. They catch and run the lightning current into the ground. The
principle is based on a protection area determined by a structure which is higher
than the rest.
The same applies to any peak effect produced by a pole, building or very high
metallic structure.
There are three types of primary protection:
b Lightning conductors, which are the oldest and best known lightning protection
device
b Overhead earth wires
b The meshed cage or Faraday cage
The lightning conductor
The lightning conductor is a tapered rod placed on top of the building. It is earthed by
one or more conductors (often copper strips) (see Fig. J8).
J6
Copper strip
down conductor
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Test clamp
Crow-foot earthing
Fig. J8 : Example of protection using a lightning conductor
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2 Overvoltage protection devices
The design and installation of a lightning conductor is the job of a specialist.
Attention must be paid to the copper strip paths, the test clamps, the crow-foot
earthing to help high frequency lightning currents run to the ground, and the
distances in relation to the wiring system (gas, water, etc.).
Furthermore, the flow of the lightning current to the ground will induce voltage
surges, by electromagnetic radiation, in the electrical circuits and buildings to be
protected. These may reach several dozen kilovolts. It is therefore necessary to
symmetrically split the down conductor currents in two, four or more, in order to
minimise electromagnetic effects.
Overhead earth wires
These wires are stretched over the structure to be protected (see Fig. J9). They are
used for special structures: rocket launch pads, military applications and lightning
protection cables for overhead high voltage power lines (see Fig. J10).
Tin plated copper 25 mm 2
Metal post
d > 0.1 h
h
J7
Frame grounded earth belt
Fig. J9 : Example of lightning protection using overhead earth wires
i
i/2
i/2
Lightning
protection
cables
Fig. J10 : Lightning protection wires
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
2 Overvoltage protection devices
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
Primary lightning conductor protection devices
such as a meshed cage or overhead earth
wires are used to protect against direct strokes
of lighting.These protection devices do not
prevent destructive secondary effects on
equipment from occurring. For example, rises
in earth potential and electromagnetic induction
which are due to currents flowing to the earth.
To reduce secondary effects, LV surge arresters
must be added on telephone and electrical
power networks.
The meshed cage (Faraday cage)
This principle is used for very sensitive buildings housing computer or integrated
circuit production equipment. It consists in symmetrically multiplying the number of
down strips outside the building. Horizontal links are added if the building is high; for
example every two floors (see Fig. J11). The down conductors are earthed by frog’s
foot earthing connections. The result is a series of interconnected 15 x 15 m or
10 x 10 m meshes. This produces better equipotential bonding of the building and
splits lightning currents, thus greatly reducing electromagnetic fields and induction.
J8
Fig. J11 : Example of protection using the meshed cage (Faraday cage) principle
Secondary protection devices are classed in
two categories: Serial protection and parallel
protection devices.
Serial protection devices are specific to a
system or application.
Parallel protection devices are used for: Power
supply network, telephone network, switching
network (bus).
2.2 Secondary protection devices (protection of
internal installations against lightning)
These handle the effects of atmospheric, operating or industrial frequency voltage
surges. They can be classified according to the way they are connected in an
installation: serial or parallel protection.
Serial protection device
This is connected in series to the power supply wires of the system to be protected
(see Fig. J12).
Power supply
Installation to be protected
Serial
protection
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Up
Fig. J12 : Serial protection principle
Transformers
They reduce voltage surges by inductor effect and make certain harmonics
disappear by coupling. This protection is not very effective.
Filters
Based on components such as resistors, inductance coils and capacitors they
are suitable for voltage surges caused by industrial and operation disturbance
corresponding to a clearly defined frequency band. This protection device is not
suitable for atmospheric disturbance.
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2 Overvoltage protection devices
Wave absorbers
They are essentially made up of air inductance coils which limit the voltage surges,
and surge arresters which absorb the currents. They are extremely suitable for
protecting sensitive electronic and computing equipment. They only act against
voltage surges. They are nonetheless extremely cumbersome and expensive.
Network conditioners and static uninterrupted power supplies (UPS)
These devices are essentially used to protect highly sensitive equipment, such as
computer equipment, which requires a high quality electrical power supply. They
can be used to regulate the voltage and frequency, stop interference and ensure a
continuous electrical power supply even in the event of a mains power failure (for
the UPS). On the other hand, they are not protected against large, atmospheric type
voltage surges against which it is still necessary to use surge arresters.
Parallel protection device
The principle
The parallel protection is adapted to any installation power level (see Fig. J13).
This type of overvoltage protection is the most commonly used.
Power supply
Installation to
be protected
Parallel
protection
Up
J9
Fig. J13 : Parallel protection principle
Main characteristics
b The rated voltage of the protection device must correspond to the network voltage
at the installation terminals
b When there is no voltage surge, a leakage current should not go through the
protection device which is on standby
b When a voltage surge above the allowable voltage threshold of the installation
to be protected occurs, the protection device abruptly conducts the voltage surge
current to the earth by limiting the voltage to the desired protection level Up
(see Fig. J14).
U (V)
Up
0
I (A)
Fig. J14 : Typical U/I curve of the ideal protection device
When the voltage surge disappears, the protection device stops conducting and
returns to standby without a holding current. This is the ideal U/I characteristic curve:
b The protection device response time (tr) must be as short as possible to protect the
installation as quickly as possible
b The protection device must have the capacity to be able to conduct the energy
caused by the foreseeable voltage surge on the site to be protected
b The surge arrester protection device must be able to withstand the rated current In.
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
2 Overvoltage protection devices
The products used
b Voltage limiters
They are used in MV/LV substations at the transformer output, in IT earthing scheme.
They can run voltage surges to the earth, especially industrial frequency surges
(see Fig. J15)
MV/LV
Overvoltage
limiter
PIM
Permanent
insulation
monitor
Fig. J15 : Voltage limiter
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
J10
b LV surge arresters
This term designates very different devices as far as technology and use are
concerned. Low voltage surge arresters come in the form of modules to be installed
inside LV switchboard. There are also plug-in types and those that protect power
outlets. They ensure secondary protection of nearby elements but have a small flow
capacity. Some are even built into loads although they cannot protect against strong
voltage surges
b Low current surge arresters or overvoltage protectors
These protect telephone or switching networks against voltage surges from the
outside (lightning), as well as from the inside (polluting equipment, switchgear
switching, etc.)
Low current voltage surge arresters are also installed in distribution boxes or
built into loads.
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3 Protection against voltage
surges in LV
3.1 Surge protective device description
A surge protective device (SDP) is a device that limits transient voltage surges and
runs current waves to ground to limit the amplitude of the voltage surge to a safe
level for electrical installations and equipment.
The surge protective device includes one or several non linear components.
The surge protective device eliminates voltage surges:
b In common mode: Phase to earth or neutral to earth
b In differential mode: Phase to phase or phase to neutral
When a voltage surge exceeds the Uc threshold, the surge protective device (SDP)
conducts the energy to earth in common mode. In differential mode the diverted
energy is directed to another active conductor.
The surge protective device has an internal thermal protection device which protects
against burnout at its end of life. Gradually, over normal use after withstanding
several voltage surges, the Surge Protective Device degrades into a conductive
device. An indicator informs the user when end-of-life is close.
Some surge protective devices have a remote indication.
In addition, protection against short-circuits is ensured by an external circuit-breaker.
3.2 Surge protective device standards
International standard IEC 61643-1 ed. 02/2005
Surge protective devices connected to low-voltage power distribution systems.
Three test classes are defined:
b Class I tests: They are conducted using nominal discharge current (In), voltage
impulse with 1.2/50 μs waveshape and impulse current Iimp.
The class I tests is intended to simulate partial conducted lightning current impulses.
SPDs subjected to class I test methods are generally recommended for locations
at points of high exposure, e.g., line entrances to buildings protected by lightning
protection systems.
b Class II tests: They are conducted using nominal discharge current (In), voltage
impulse with 1.2/50 μs waveshape
b Class III tests: They are conducted using the combination waveform (1.2/50 and
8/20 μs).
SPDs tested to class II or III test methods are subjected to impulses of shorter
duration. These SPDs are generally recommended for locations with lesser exposure.
These 3 test classes cannot be compared, since each originates in a country and
each has its own specificities. Moreover, each builder can refer to one of the 3 test
classes.
J11
European standard EN 61643-11 2002
Some requirements as per IEC 61643-1. Moreover SPDs are classified in three
categories:
Type 1: SPD tested to Class I
Type 2: SPD tested to Class II
Type 3: SPD tested to Class III
3.3 Surge protective device data according to
IEC 61643-1 standard
b Surge protective device (SPD): A device that is intended to limit transient
overvoltages and divert surge currents. It contains at least one nonlinear component.
b Test classes: Surge arrester test classification.
b In: Nominal discharge current; the crest value of the current through the SPD
having a current waveshape of 8/20. This is used for the classification of the SPD for
the class II test and also for preconditioning of the SPD for class I and II tests.
b Imax: Maximum discharge current for class II test; crest value of a current through
the SPD having an 8/20 waveshape and magnitude according to the test sequence
of the class II operating duty test. Imax is greater than In.
b Ic: Continuous operating current; current that flows in an SPD when supplied at
its permament full withstand operating voltage (Uc) for each mode. Ic corresponds
to the sum of the currents that flow in the SPD’s protection component and in all the
internal circuits connected in parallel.
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
3 Protection against voltage
surges in LV
b Iimp: Impulse current, it is defined by a current peak value Ipeak and the charge
Q. Tested according to the test sequence of the operating duty test. This is used for
the classification of the SPD for class I test.
b Un: Rated network voltage.
b Uc: Maximum continuous operating voltage; the maximum r.m.s. or d.c. voltage
which may be continuously applied to the SPDs mode of protection. This is equal to
the rated voltage.
b Up: Voltage protection level; a parameter that characterizes the performance of
the SPD in limiting the voltage across its terminals, which is selected from a list of
preferred values. This value shall be greater than the highest value of the measured
limiting voltages.
The most common values for a 230/400 V network are:
1 kV - 1.2 kV - 1.5 kV - 1.8 kV - 2 kV - 2.5 kV.
b Ures: Residual voltage, the peak value of the voltage that appears between the
terminals of an SPD due to the passage of discharge current.
The SPD is characterised by Uc, Up, In and Imax (see Fig. J16)
b To test the surge arrester, standardized voltage and current waves have been
defined that are specific to each country:
v Voltage wave
e.g. 1.2/50 μs (see Fig. J17)
v Current wave
Example 8/20 μs (see Fig. J18)
U
J12
Up
Uc
I
In
< 1 mA
Imax
Fig. J16 : Voltage/current characteristics
I
V
Maxi
100 %
Maxi
100 %
50 %
50 %
t
t
1,2
8
50
Fig. J17 : 1.2/50 μs wave
Fig. J18 : 8/20 μs wave
20
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
v Other possible wave characteristics:
4/10 μs, 10/1000 μs, 30/60 μs, 10/350 μs...
Comparison between different surge protective devices must be carried out using the
same wave characteristics, in order to get relevant results.
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
3 Protection against voltage
surges in LV
3.4 Lightning protection standards
The IEC 62305 series (part 1 to 5) restructures and updates the publications of
IEC 61024 series, IEC 61312 series and IEC 61663 series.
The need for protection, the economic benefits of installing protection measures and
the selection of adequate protection measures should be determined in terms of risk
management. Risk management is the subject of IEC 62305-2.
The criteria for design, installation and maintenance of lightning protection measures
are considered in three separate groups:
b The first group concerning protection measures to reduce physical damage and life
hazard in a structure is given in IEC 62305-3.
b The second group concerning protection measures to reduce failures of electrical
and electronic systems in a structure is given in IEC 62305-4.
b The third group concerning protection measures to reduce physical damage and
failures of services connected to a structure (mainly electrical and telecommunication
lines) is given in IEC 62305-5.
3.5 Surge arrester installation standards
b International: IEC 61643-12 selection and application principles
b International: IEC 60364 Electrical installations of buildings
v IEC 60364-4-443: protection for safety
When an installation is supplied by, or includes, an overhead line, a protection device
against atmospheric overvoltages must be foreseen if the keraunic level of the site
being considered corresponds to the external influences condition AQ 1 (more than
25 days per year with thunderstorms).
v IEC 60364-4-443-4: selection of equipment in the installation.
This section helps with the choice of the protection level Up for the surge arrester in
function of the loads to be protected.
Rated residual voltage of protection devices must not be higher than the value in the
voltage impulse withstand category II (see Fig. J19):
Nominal voltage of
the installation(1) V
Three-phase Single-phase
systems(2)
systems with
middle point
230/400(2)
277/480(2)
400/690
1,000
120-240
-
Required impulse withstand voltage for
kV
Equipment at Equipment of
Appliances
the origin of
distribution and
the installation final circuits
(impulse
(impulse
(impulse
withstand
withstand
withstand
category IV)
category III)
category II)
4
2.5
1.5
6
4
2.5
-
8
6
4
Values subject to system engineers
J13
Specially
protected
equipment
(impulse
withstand
category I)
0.8
1.5
2.5
(1) According to IEC 60038
(2) In Canada and USA for voltages to earth higher than 300 V,
the impulse withstand voltage corresponding to the
next higher voltage in column one applies.
Category I is addressed to particular equipment engineering.
Category II is addressed to product committees for equipment
for connection to the mains.
Category III is addressed to product committees of installation
material and some special product committees.
Category IV is addressed to supply authorities and system
engineers (see also 443.2.2).
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Fig. J19 : Choosing equipment for the installation according to IEC 60364
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
3 Protection against voltage
surges in LV
v IEC 60364-5-534: choosing and implementing electrical equipment
This section describes surge arrester installation conditions:
- According to earthing systems: The maximum continuous operating voltage Uc
of SPDs shall be equal to or higher than shown in Fig. J20.
SPDs connected
between
System configuration of distribution network
TT
TN-C
TN-S
Line conductor and
neutral conductor
1.1 Uo
NA
1.1 Uo
1.1 Uo
NA
Each line conductor and
PE conductor
1.1 Uo
NA
1.1 Uo
3Uo(1)
Line-to-line
voltage (1)
Uo(1)
NA
Uo(1)
Uo(1)
NA
NA
1.1 Uo
NA
NA
NA
Neutral conductor and PE
conductor
Each line conductor and
PEN conductor
IT with
IT without
distributed distributed
neutral
neutral
NA: not applicable
NOTE 1: Uo is the line-to-neutral voltage of the low-voltage system.
NOTE 2: This table is based on IEC 61643-1 amendment 1.
Fig. J20 : Minimum required Uc of the SPD dependent on supply system configuration
- At the origin of the installation: if the surge arrester is installed at the source of
an electrical installation supplied by the utility distribution network, its rated discharge
current may be lower than 5 kA.
If a surge arrester is installed downstream from an earth leakage protection device,
an RCD of the s type, with immunity to impulse currents of less than 3 kA (8/20 μs),
must be used.
- Protection against overcurrent at 50 Hz and consequences of a SPD failure:
protection against SPDs short-circuits is provided by the overcurrent protective
devices F2 which are to be selected according to the maximum recommended rating
for the overcurrent protective device given in the manufacturer's SPD instructions.
- In the presence of lightning conductors: a surge arrester must be installed,
additional specifications for surge arresters must be applied (see IEC 62305 part 4).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
J14
(1) These values are related to worst case fault conditions,
therefore the tolerance of 10 % is not taken into account
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Choosing a protection device
When installing surge arresters, several elements must be considered, such as:
b Cascading
b Positioning with respect to residual current devices
b The choice of disconnection circuit breakers
The earthing system must also be taken into account.
4.1 Protection devices according to the earthing
system
b Common mode overvoltage: basic protection involves the installation of a common
mode surge arrester between phase and PE or phase and PEN, whatever type of
earthing system is used.
b Differential mode overvoltage: in the TT and TN-S earthing systems, earthing the
neutral leads to dissymmetry due to earthing impedances, which causes differential
mode voltages to appear, whereas the overvoltage induced by a lightning strike is a
common mode voltage.
For example, let us consider a TT earthing system. A two-pole surge arrester is
installed in common mode to protect the installation (see Fig. J21).
I
I
I
J15
I
Fig. J21 : Common mode protection only
The neutral earthing resistor R1 used for the pylons has a lower resistance than the
earthing resistor R2 used for the installation. The lightning current will flow through
circuit ABCD to earth via the easiest path. It will pass through varistors V1 and V2 in
series, causing a differential voltage equal to twice the residual voltage of the surge
arrester (Up1 + Up2) to appear at the terminals of A and C at the entrance to the
installation in extreme cases.
To protect the loads between Ph and N effectively, the differential mode voltage
(between A and C) must be reduced.
Another earthing system is therefore used (see Fig. J22).
The lightning current flows through circuit ABH which has a lower impedance than
circuit ABCD, as the impedance of the component used between B and H is null (gas
filled spark gap).
In this case, the differential voltage is equal to the residual voltage of the surge
arrester (Up2).
I
I
I
Fig. J22 : Common + differentiel mode protection
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
4 Choosing a protection device
Between
TT
TN-S
TN-C
IT
Differential
Mode
phase and neutral
yes
yes
-
-
Common
phase and earth
yes
yes
yes
yes
phase and earth
yes
yes
-
yes (if distributed
neutral)
Fig. J23 : Connections to be made according to the earthing systems used, in the case of
atmospheric overvoltages
4.2 Internal architecture of surge arresters
b 2P, 3P, 4P surge arresters (see Fig. J24):
v They provide protection against common-mode overvoltages only
v They are appropriate for TN-C and IT earthing systems.
J16
Fig. J24 : 2P, 3P, 4P surge arresters
b 1P+N, 3P+N surge arresters (see Fig. J25):
v They provide protection against common-mode and differential-mode overvoltages
v They are appropriate for TT, TN-S, and IT earthing systems.
Fig. J25 : 1P+N, 3P+N surge arresters
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
PE
Earthing conductor
Main earth terminal
Fig. J26 : Connection example
b Single-pole (1P) surge arresters (see Fig. J26):
v They are used to satisfy the demand of different assemblies (according to the
manufacturer’s instructions) by supplying only one product.
However, special dimensioning will be required for N - PE protection
(for example 1+N and 3P+N)
v The assembly must be validated by means of the tests specified in EN 61643-11.
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J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
4 Choosing a protection device
Cascading protection requires a minimum
distance of at least 10 m between the two
protection devices.
This is valid, whatever the field of application:
domestic, tertiary or industrial.
4.3 Coordination of surge arresters
The overvoltage protection study of an installation may show that the site is highly
exposed and that the equipment to be protected is sensitive. The surge arrester
must be able to discharge high currents and have a low level of protection. This dual
constraint cannot always be handled by a single surge arrester. A second one will
therefore be required (see Fig. J27).
The first device, P1 (incoming protection) will be placed at the incoming end of the
installation.
Its purpose will be to discharge the maximum amount of energy to earth with a
level of protection y 2000 V that can be withstood by the electrotechnical equipment
(contactors, motors, etc.).
The second device (fine protection) will be placed in a distribution enclosure, as
close as possible to the sensitive loads. It will have a low discharge capacity and a
low level of protection that will limit overvoltages significantly and therefore protect
sensitive loads (y 1500 V).
I
Fig. J27 : Cascading of surge arresters
I
I
J17
Fig. J28 : Coordination of surge arresters
The fine-protection device P2 is installed in parallel with the incoming protection
device P1.
If the distance L is too small, at the incoming overvoltage, P2 with a protection
level of U2 = 1500 V will operate before P1 with a level of U1 = 2000 V. P2 will not
withstand an excessively high current. The protection devices must therefore be
coordinated to ensure that P1 activates before P2. To do this, we shall experiment
with the length L of the cable, i.e. the value of the self-inductance between the two
protection devices. This self-inductance will block the current flow to P2 and cause a
certain delay, which will force P1 to operate before P2. A metre of cable gives a selfinductance of approximately 1µH.
Ldi
causes a voltage drop of approximately 100 V/m/kA, 8/20 µs
The rule ΔU=
dt
wave.
For L = 10 m, we get UL1 = UL2 ≈ 1000 V.
To ensure that P2 operates with a level of protection of 1500 V requires
U1 = UL1 + UL2 + U2 = 1000 + 1000 + 1500 V = 3500 V.
Consequently, P1 operates before 2000 V and therefore protects P2.
Note: if the distance between the surge arrester at the incoming end of the
installation and the equipment to be protected exceeds 30 m, cascading the surge
arresters is recommended, as the residual voltage of the surge arrester may rise
to double the residual voltage at the terminals of the incoming surge arrester; as in
the above example, the fine protection surge arrester must be placed as close as
possible to the loads to be protected.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Installation rules (see page Q12).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
4 Choosing a protection device
4.4 Selection guide
1
Estimate the value of the equipment to be protected
To estimate its value, consider:
b The cost of the equipment in financial terms
b The economic impact if the equipment goes down.
b Domestic equipment:
v audio-video, computers
v household appliances
v burglar alarm.
J18
b Sensitive equipment:
v burglar alarm
v fire alarm
v access control
v video surveillance.
b Building equipment:
v automated heating or
b Professional equipment:
v programmable machine
v computer server
v sound or light control system.
b Heavy equipment:
v medical infrastructure
v production infrastructure
v heavy computer processing.
air-conditioning
v lift.
2
Determine the electrical architecture of buildings
3
Understand the risk of the impact of lightning on the site
Lightning protection can be calculated for an entire building or for part of a
building that is electrically independent
Depending on the size of the building and the extent of its electrical system, one or
more surge arresters must be used in the various switchboards in the installation.
b Detached house.
b Apartment, small semi-detached house.
b Communal part of a building.
b Professional premises.
b Tertiary and industrial buildings:
v single switchboard, main switchboard
v distribution board
v sensitive equipment more than 30 m from the switchboard.
Lightning is attracted by high points that conduct electricity. They can be:
b Natural: tall trees, mountain crest, wet areas, ferrous soil
b Artificial: chimney, aerial, pylon, lightning conductor.
Indirect effects can be incurred within a fifty metre radius around the point of impact.
Location of the building
In an area where there is a
particular hazard (pylon, tree,
mountainous region, mountain
crest, wet area or pond).
In flat open country.
In an exceptionally exposed area
(lightning conductor on a building
less than 50 metres away).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In an urban, peri-urban,
grouped housing area.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1
Equipment to be
protected
4 Choosing a protection device
Domestic equipment
Audio-video, computers,
household appliances,
burglar alarm, etc.
2
Determine the
architecture of the
building
Apartment, small
semi-detached
house
Detached house,
Professional
premises
Communal part of a
building
J19
3
Risk level of
the impact of a
lightning strike
Choice of type of
surge arrester
Type 1
25 kA
Type 2 Type 2
+
10 kA 40 kA
Type 2
40 kA
Type 1
25 kA
+
Type 2
40 kA
Type 1
25 kA
Type 2 Type 2
+
40 kA 65 kA
Type 2
40 kA
Type 2
10 kA
Note:
Type 1: very high discharge capacity surge arrester used with a lightning conductor with an impact level of
Type 2: surge arrester used in cascade behind a type 1 surge arrester or alone in zone
and
and
Type 1
25 kA
+
Type 2
40 kA
.
.
Lightning also propagates through
telecommunications networks.
It can damage all the equipment connected to
these networks.
Protection of telecommunications equipment
Choice of surge arresters
Analogue telephone networks < 200 V
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
PRC
b
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. J32 : Domestic equipment
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1
4 Choosing a protection device
Sensitive equipment:
Equipment to be
protected
Building equipment:
Burglar alarm,
fire alarm,
access control,
video-surveillance, etc.
Automated heating or
air-conditioning,
lift, etc.
2
Single
switchboard,
main
switchboard
Determine the
architecture of the
building
J20
Distribution
board
Dedicated
protection,
more than
30 m from a
switchboard
3
Risk level of
the impact of a
lightning strike
Choice of type of
surge arrester
Type 1
25 kA
or
Type 2 Type 2 Type 2
35 kA
20 kA 40 kA 40 kA
+
Type 2
40 kA
Type 2
20 kA
Type 2
8 kA
Note:
Type 1: very high discharge capacity surge arrester used with a lightning conductor with an impact level of
Type 2: surge arrester used in cascade behind a type 1 surge arrester or alone in zone
and
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. J33 : Sensitive equipment, Building equipment
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
.
and
.
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1
4 Choosing a protection device
Professional equipment
Equipment to be
protected
Programmable machine,
server,
sound or light control system,
etc.
2
Single
switchboard,
main
switchboard
Determine the
architecture of the
building
Distribution
board
Dedicated
protection,
more than
30 m from a
switchboard
J21
3
Risk level of
the impact of a
lightning strike
Choice of type of
surge arrester
Type 1
25 kA
or
Type 2 Type 2 Type 2
35 kA
40 kA 65 kA 65 kA
+
Type 2
40 kA
Type 2
20 kA
Type 2
8 kA
Note:
Type 1: very high discharge capacity surge arrester used with a lightning conductor with an impact level of
Type 2: surge arrester used in cascade behind a type 1 surge arrester or alone in zone
and
and
.
.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. J34 : Professional equipment
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
1
4 Choosing a protection device
Heavy equipment
Equipment to be
protected
Medical, production,
or heavy computer
processing infrastructure,
etc.
2
Single
switchboard,
main
switchboard
Determine the
architecture of the
building
J22
Distribution
board
Dedicated
protection,
more than
30 m from a
switchboard
3
Risk level of
the impact of a
lightning strike
Choice of type of
surge arrester
Type 1
25 kA
Type 2
+
65 kA
Type 2
40 kA
Type 1
25 kA
or
35 kA
+
Type 2
40 kA
Type 1
25 kA
or
35 kA
+
Type 2
40 kA
Type 2
20 KA
Type 2
8 kA
Note:
Type 1: very high discharge capacity surge arrester used with a lightning conductor with an impact level of
Type 2: surge arrester used in cascade behind a type 1 surge arrester or alone in zone
and
and
.
.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. J35 : Heavy equipment
Lightning can also propagate through
telecommunications and computer networks.
It can damage all the equipment connected
to these networks: telephones, modems,
computers, servers, etc.
Protection of telecommunications and computer equipment
Choice of surge arresters
Analogue telephone networks < 200 V
PRC
PRI
b
Digital networks, analogue lines < 48 V
b
Digital networks, analogue lines < 6 V
VLV load supply < 48 V
b
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
4 Choosing a protection device
4.5 Choice of disconnector
The disconnector is necessary to ensure the safety of the installation
b One of the surge arrester parameters is the maximum current (Imax 8/20 µs
wave) that it can withstand without degradation. If this current is exceeded, the surge
arrester will be destroyed; it will be permanently short circuited and it is essential to
replace it.
The fault current must therefore be eliminated by an external disconnector installed
upstream.
The disconnector provides the complete protection required by a surge arrester
installation, i.e.:
v It must be able to withstand standard test waves:
- it must not trip at 20 impulses at In
- it can trip at Imax without being destroyed
v the surge arrester disconnects if it short-circuits.
b The ready-to-cable surge arresters with an integrated disconnection circuit breaker
are:
v Combi PRF1
v Quick PF
v Quick PRD.
Surge arrester / disconnection circuit breaker correspondence
table
Type 1
Surge arrester
names
6 kA
Isc
Imax or Iimp
PRF1 Master
35 kA(1)
PRD1 Master
25 kA(1)
36 kA
50 kA
Compact NSX160B 160A
Compact
NSX160F
160A
Compact
NSX160N
160A
NG 125 N C 80A
NG 125L C 80A
PRD1 25r
NG 125 N C 80A
NG 125L C 80A
PRF1
D125 D
curve
Combi PRF1
15 kA
25 kA
NG 125 N C 80A
PF 65/ PRD 65r
65 kA(2)
C60N 50A C curve
C60H 50A
C curve
NG125L
50A C
curve
Fuse NH 50A gL/gG
PF 40 / PRD 40r
40 kA(2)
C60N 40A C curve
C60H 40A
C curve
NG125L
40A C
curve
Fuse 22x58 40A gL/gG
NG 125L C 80A
Integrated
20
kA(2)
Quick PF 10
10
kA(2)
PF 8/ PRD 8r
8 kA(2)
Quick PRD 20r
Quick PRD 8 r
100 kA
Integrated
12,5 kA(1)
PF 20/ PRD 20r
70 kA
J23
PRF1 12,5 r
Quick PRD 40r
Type 2
10 kA
Contact us
C60N 25A C curve
C60H 25A
C curve
NG125L
25A C
curve
Integrated
Fuse 22x58 25A gL/gG
Contact us
Integrated
C60N 20A C curve
C60H 20A
C curve
NG125L 20A C curve
Integrated
Contact us
Isc: prospective short-circuit current at the point of installation.
(1) Iimp.
(2) Imax.
Fig. J36 : Coordination table between SPD and its disconnector
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Types
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
4 Choosing a protection device
4.6 End-of-life indication of the surge arrester
Various indication devices are provided to warn the user that the loads are no longer
protected against atmospheric overvoltages.
Type 1 surge arresters (with gas filled spark gap)
PRF1 1P 260 V, Combi 1P+N and 3P+N and PRF1 Master
These surge arresters have a light indicating that the module is in good working
order. This indicator light requires a minimum operating voltage of 120 V AC.
b The light does not come on:
v if the operating voltage is y 120 V AC
v if there is no network voltage
v if the spark-over electronics are defective.
Type 2 surge arresters (varistor, varistor + gas filled spark gap)
PF, PRD
At end of life, the surge arrester or the cartridge are destroyed.
b This can occur in two ways:
v internal end-of-life disconnection: the accumulated electric shocks cause the
varistors to age, resulting in an increase in leakage current.
Above 1 mA, a thermal runaway occurs and the surge arrester disconnects.
v external end-of-life disconnection: this occurs in the event of an excessive
overvoltage (direct lightning strike on the line); above the discharge capacity of the
surge arrester, the varistor(s) are dead short-circuited to earth (or possibly between
phase and neutral). This short-circuit is eliminated when the mandatory associated
disconnection circuit breaker opens.
Quick PRD and Quick PF
Whatever the hazards of the power supply network, Quick PRD and Quick PF
incorporate a perfectly coordinated disconnector.
b In the event of lightning strikes < Imax: like all surge arresters, they have internal
anti-ageing protection.
b In the event of a lightning strike > Imax: Quick PRD and Quick PF are selfprotected by their integrated disconnector.
b In the event of neutral disconnection or phase-neutral reversal occurring on the
power supply:
Quick PRD and Quick PF are self-protected by their integrated disconnector.
To simplify maintenance work, Quick PRD is fitted with local indicators and draw-out
cartridges that are mechanically combined with the disconnector.
J24
Fig. J37 : Example of indication for PRD
Quick PRD has indicator lights on the cartridges and on the integrated disconnector,
so that the work to be carried out can quickly be located.
For safety reasons, the disconnector opens automatically when a cartridge is
removed. It cannot be set until the cartridge is plugged in.
When changing the cartridge, a phase/neutral failsafe system ensures that it can be
plugged in safely.
Operating state continuous display
Quick PRD has an integrated reporting contact to send information about the
operating state of the surge arrester from a remote location.
Monitoring the surge arresters installed throughout the installation makes it possible
to be continuously aware of their operating state and to ensure that the protection
devices are always in good working order.
b A reporting contact gives the alert:
v at end of life of a cartridge
v if a cartridge is missing, as soon as it has been removed
v if a fault occurs on the line (short-circuit, neutral disconnection, phase-neutral
reversal)
v in the event of local manual operation (handle down).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. J39 : Example of indication for Quick PRD
Quick PF has an optional indication reporting auxiliary (SR) that sends information
about the operating state of the surge arrester from a remote location.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
J - Protection against voltage surges in LV
4 Choosing a protection device
MV/LV transformer
160 kVA
Main
switchboard
C60
40 A
PRD
40 kA
Switchboard 1
Switchboard
2
C60
20 A
ID
"si"
ID
"si"
PRD
8 kA
C60
20 A
PRD
8 kA
Heating
Lighting
Storeroom lighting
Freezer Refrigerator
Fire-fighting system
Power outlets
Alarm
IT system Checkout
J25
Fig. J39 : Application example : supermarket
4.7 Application example: supermarket
Solutions and schematic diagram
Cabling recommendations
b Ensure the equipotentiality of the earth terminations of the building.
b Reduce the looped power supply cable areas.
Installation recommendations
Fig. J40 : Telecommunications network
b Install a surge arrester, Imax = 40 kA (8/20 µs) and a C60 disconnection circuit
breaker rated at 20 A.
b Install fine protection surge arresters, Imax = 8 kA (8/20 µs) and the associated
C60 disconnection circuit breakers rated at 20 A.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b The surge arrester selection guide has made it possible to determine the precise
value of the surge arrester at the incoming end of the installation and that of the
associated disconnection circuit breaker.
b As the sensitive devices (Uimp < 1.5 kV) are located more than 30 m from the
incoming protection device, the fine protection surge arresters must be installed as
close as possible to the loads.
b To ensure better continuity of service for cold room areas:
v"si" type residual current circuit breakers will be used to avoid nuisance tripping
caused by the rise in earth potential as the lightning wave passes through.
b For protection against atmospheric overvoltages:
v install a surge arrester in the main switchboard
v install a fine protection surge arrester in each switchboard (1 and 2) supplying the
sensitive devices situated more than 30 m from the incoming surge arrester
v install a surge arrester on the telecommunications network to protect the devices
supplied, for example fire alarms, modems, telephones, faxes.
Chapter K
Energy Efficiency in electrical
distribution
Contents
3
4
5
6
Introduction
K2
Energy efficiency and electricity
K3
2.1 Regulation is pushing energy efficiency worldwide
K3
2.2 How to achieve Energy Efficiency
K4
Diagnosis through electrical measurement
K7
3.1 Physical value acquisition
K7
3.2 Electrical data for real objectives
K8
3.3 Measurement starts with the "stand alone product" solution
K10
Energy saving solutions
k13
4.1 Motor systems and replacement
K13
4.2 Pumps, fans and variable speed drives
K14
4.3 Lighting
K18
4.4 Load management strategies
K20
4.5 Power factor correction
K22
4.6 Harmonic filtering
K22
4.7 Other measures
K23
4.8 Communication and Information System
K23
4.9 Mapping of solutions
K30
How to value energy savings
K31
5.1 Introduction to IPMVP and EVO
K31 K1
5.2 Principles and options of IPMVP
K31
5.3 Six qualities of IPMVP
K32
5.4 IPMVP'S options
K32
5.5 Fundamental points of an M&V plan
K33
From returns on investment to sustained performance
K34
6.1 Technical support services
K34
6.2 Operational support services
K35
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
1
2
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
1 Introduction
While there are a number of factors influencing the attitudes and opinions towards
energy efficiency – most notably the increasing cost of energy and a rising social
conscience – it is likely to be legislative drivers that have the greatest impact on
changing behaviours and practices. Respective governments internationally are
introducing energy saving targets and effecting regulations to ensure they are met.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is a global target set at the Earth Summit in
Kyoto in 1997 and finally ratified by 169 countries in December 2006 enabling the
Agreement’s enactment in February 2005.
Under the Kyoto Protocol industrialised countries have agreed to reduce their
collective emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2% by 2008-2012 compared to the
year 1990 (however, compared to the emissions levels expected by 2012 prior to
the Protocol, this limitation represents a 29% cut). The target in Europe is an 8%
reduction overall with a target for CO2 emissions to fall by 20% by 2020.
Of the six greenhouse gases listed by Kyoto, one of the most significant by volume
of emissions is carbon dioxide (CO2) and it is gas that is mainly emitted as a result
of electricity generation and use, as well as direct thermal losses in, for example,
heating.
Up to 50% of CO2 emissions attributable to residential and commercial buildings
is from electricity consumption. Moreover, as domestic appliances, computers and
entertainment systems proliferate; and other equipment such as air conditioning and
ventilation systems increase in use, electricity consumption is rising at a higher rate
than other energy usage.
The ability to meet targets by simply persuading people to act differently or deploy
new energy saving or energy efficient technology is unlikely to succeed. Just
considering construction and the built environment, new construction is far less than
2% of existing stock. If newly constructed buildings perform exactly as existing stock
the result by 2020 will be an increase in electricity consumption of 22%. On the other
hand, if all new construction has energy consumption of 50% less than existing
stock, the result is still an increase of 18%.
In order to reach a fall in consumption of 20% by 2020 the folllowing has to happen:
b All new buildings constructed to consume 50% less energy
b 1 in 10 existing buildings reduce consumption by 30% each year
K2
(see Fig.K1).
Significantly, by 2020 in most countries 80% of all buildings will have already been
built. The refurbishment of existing building stock and improving energy management
is vital in meeting emission reduction targets. Given that in the west, most buildings
have already undergone thermal insulation upgrades such as cavity wall insulation,
loft insulation and glazing, the only potential for further savings is by reducing the
amount of energy consumed.
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Action on existing built environment will almost certainly become compulsory to meet
targets fixed for the coming years.
A minimum renovation of 10% per year of existing stock is
compulsory to reach less 20%
Renovation =
New =
As a result, governments are applying pressures to meet the ambitious targets. It is
almost certain that ever more demanding regulations will be enforced to address all
energy uses, including existing buildings and, naturally, industry. At the same time
energy prices are rising as natural resources become exhausted and the electrical
infrastructure in some countries struggles to cope with increasing demand.
Technology exists to help tackle energy efficiency on many levels from reducing
electrical consumption to controlling other energy sources more efficiently. Strong
regulatory measures may be required to ensure these technologies are adopted
quickly enough to impact on the 2020 targets.
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
Base
SC1
SC2
The most important ingredient however, lies with the ability of those in control of
industry, business and government to concentrate their hearts and minds on making
energy efficiency a critical target. Otherwise, it might not be just the Kyoto targets on
which the lights go out.
70% of the savings
30% of the savings
The message to heed is that if those empowered to save energy don’t do so
willingly now, they will be compelled under legal threat to do so in the future.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K1 : How to reach a fall in consumption of 20% by 2020
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
2 Energy efficiency and electricity
2.1 Regulation is pushing Energy Efficiency
worldwide
Kyoto Protocol was the start of fixing quantitative targets and agenda in CO2
emissions reduction with clear government's commitments.
Beyond Kyoto commitment (which covers only the period up to 2012) many
countries have fixed longer time frame and targets in line with the last GIEEC
recommendations to UNFCC to stabilise the CO2 concentration at a level of 450 ppm
(this should require a division by 2 before 2050 of the CO2 emission level based on
1990).
European Union is a good example and firm commitment with a target of Iess
20% before 2020 has been taken by heads of EU member states in March 2007
(known as the 3x20: it includes reduction of 20% of CO2 emission, Improvement of
20% of the Energy Efficiency level and reaching 20% of the energy produced from
renewable).This commitment of Iess 20% in 2020 couId be extended to less 30% in
2020 in case of post Kyoto international agreement.
Some European Countries are planning commitment for the 2050 with level of
reduction up to 50%. All of this illustrates that Energy Efficiency Iandscape and
policies will be present in a long time frame.
Reaching these targets wiII require real change and regulations, legislation,
standardisation are enablers governments are re inforcing everyday.
All over the world Régulation/Législation is strengthening stakeholders
obligations and putting in place financial & fiscal schemes
b In US
v Energy Policy Act of 2005
v Building Codes
v Energy Codes (10CFR434)
v State Energy prograrn (10CFR420)
v Energy Conservation for Consumer Goods (10CFR430)
b In European Union
v EU Emission Trading Scheme
v Energy Performance of Building Directive
v Energy Using Product Directive
v End use of energy & energy services directive
K3
b In China
v China Energy Conservation Law
v China Architecture law (EE in Building)
v China Renewable Energy Law
v Top 1000 Industrial Energy Conservation Program
Building
Energy
Performance
EE
Dedicated
directives
Dec 02
EPB
2002/91
Energy
Labelling of
Domestic
Appliances
Jul 03
ELDA
2003/66
Emission
Trading
Scheme
Oct 03
ETS
2003/87
Combined
Heat &
Power
Feb 04
CHP
2004/8
Energy
Using
Products
July 05
Eco Design
2005/32
End use of
Energy &
Energy Services
April 06
EUE & ES
2006/32
Various legislative and financial-fiscal incentives schemes are developed at
national and regional levels such as:
b Auditing & assessment schemes
b Performance labelling schemes
b Building Codes
b Energy Performance Certificates
b Obligation to energy sellers to have their clients making energy savings
b Voluntary agreements in Industry
b Financial-market mechanism (tax credit, accelerated depreciation, white
certificates,...)
b Taxation and incentive schemes
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K2 : EE Dedicated directives
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
2 Energy efficiency and electricity
All sectors are concerned and regulations impact not only new construction
and installation but as well the existing buildings in industrial or infrastructure
environment.
In parallel Standardisation work has started with a lot of new standards being
issued or in progress.
In building all energy use are concerned:
b Lighting
b Ventilation
b Heating
b Cooling and AC
For industries as well as commercial companies Energy Management Systems
standards ( in Iine with the well known ISO 9001 for quality and ISO 14001 for
environment) are under process in Standardisation Bodies. Energy Efficiency
Services standards are as well at work.
K4
Active EE
Passive EE
2.2 How to achieve Energy Efficiency
b Efficient devices and efficient installation (10 to 15%)
Low consumption devices, insulated building...
b Optimized usage of installation and devices (5 to 15%)
Turn off devices when not needed, regulate motors or
heating at the optimized level…
b Permanent monitoring and improvement program (2 to 8%)
Rigorous maintenance program, measure
and react in case of deviation
Fig. K2 : 30% Savings are available today…
30% savings are available through existing EE solutions, but to really understand
where these opportunities are, let’s understand first the main differences between
Passive and Active EE.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Passive EE is regarded as the installation of countermeasures against thermal
losses, the use of low consumption equipment and so forth. Active Energy Efficiency
is defined as effecting permanent change through measurement, monitoring and
control of energy usage. It is vital, but insufficient, to make use of energy saving
equipment and devices such as low energy lighting. Without proper control, these
measures often merely militate against energy losses rather than make a real
reduction in energy consumed and in the way it is used.
Everything that consumes power – from direct electricity consumption through
lighting, heating and most significantly electric motors, but also in HVAC control,
boiler control and so forth – must be addressed actively if sustained gains are to be
made. This includes changing the culture and mindsets of groups of individuals,
resulting in behavioural shifts at work and at home, but clearly, this need is reduced
by greater use of technical controls.
b 10 to 15% savings are achievable through passive EE measures such as installing
low consumption devices, insulating building, etc.
b 5 to 15% can be achieved through such as optimizing usage of installation and
devices, turn off devices when not needed, regulating motors or heating at the
optimized level…
v Up to 40% of the potential savings for a motor system are realized by the Drive &
Automation
v Up to 30% of the potential for savings in a building lighting system can be realized
via the lighting control system
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 Energy efficiency and electricity
b And a further 2 to 8% can also be achieved through active EE measures such as
putting in place a permanent monitoring and improvement program
But savings can be lost quickly if there is:
b Unplanned, unmanaged shutdowns of equipment and processes
b Lack of automation and regulation (motors, heating)
b No continuity of behaviors
Energy Efficiency : it's easy, just follow the 4 sustainability steps
1 Measure
b Energy meters
b Power quality meters
2 Fix the basics
b Low consumption devices
b Insulation material
b Power quality
b Power reliability
3 Automate
b Building management systems
b Lighting control systems
b Motor control systems
b Home control systems
b Variable speed drive
4 Monitor and Improve
b Energy management software
b Remote monitoring systems
Fig. K4 : The 4 sustainability steps
Energy Efficiency is not different form other disciplines and we take a very rational
approach to it, very similar to the 6Sigma DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze,
Improve and Control) approach.
As always, the first thing that we need to do is to measure in order to understand
where are the main consumptions, what is the consumption pattern, etc. This initial
measurement, together with some benchmarking information, will allow us see how
good or bad we are doing, to define the main improvement axis and an estimation
of what can be expected in terms of gains. We can not improve what we can not
measure.
K5
Then, we need to fix the basics or what is called passive EE. Change old enduse
devices by Low consumption ones (bulbs, motors, etc), Improve the Insulation of
your installations, and assure power quality reliability in order to be able to work in a
stable environment where the gains are going to sustainable over time.
After that, we are ready to enter into the automation phase or Active Energy
efficiency. As already highlighted, everything that consumes power must be
addressed actively if sustained gains are to be made.
Active Energy Efficiency can be achieved not only when energy saving devices
and equipment are installed, but with all kind of end-use devices. It is this aspect of
control that is critical to achieving the maximum efficiency. As an example, consider a
low consumption bulb that is left on in an empty room. All that is achieved is that less
energy is wasted compared to using an ordinary bulb, but energy is still wasted!
Responsible equipment manufacturers are continually developing more efficient
products. However, while for the most part the efficiency of the equipment is a fair
representation of its energy saving potential - say, in the example of a domestic
washing machine or refrigerator - it is not always the case in industrial and
commercial equipment. In many cases the overall energy performance of the system
is what really counts. Put simply, if an energy saving device is left permanently
on stand-by it can be less efficient than a higher consuming device that is always
switched off when not in use.
Summarizing, managing energy is the key to maximizing its usefulness and
economizing on its waste. While there are increasing numbers of products that are
now more energy efficient than their predecessors, controlling switching or reducing
settings of variables such as temperature or speed, makes the greatest impact.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
2 Energy efficiency and electricity
The key to sustainable savings
100%
b Up to 8% per year is lost without
monitoring and maintenance program
b Up to 12% per year is lost without
regulation and control systems
Optimized usage
via automation
Efficient devices
and installation
Energy
Consumption
70%
Monitoring & Maintenance
Time
Fig. K5 : Control and monitoring technologies will sustain the savings
As you could see, 30% energy saving are available and quite easily achievable
today but up to 8% per year can be lost without proper maintenance and diligent
monitoring of your key indicators. Information is key to sustaining the energy savings.
You cannot manage what you cannot measure and therefore metering and
monitoring devices coupled with proper analysis provide the tools required to take on
that challenge successfully.
Lifecycle approach to Energy Efficiency
K6
Energy Audit
& Measure
building, industrial
process…
Fix the basics
Low consumption
devices,
Insulation material
Power factor
correction…
Optimize through
Automation and
regulation
Monitor,
maintain,
improve
HVAC control,
lighting control,
variable speed
drives…
Meters installation
Monitoring services
EE analysis software
Passive
Energy Efficiency
Control
Improve
Active
Energy Efficiency
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K6 : Lifecycle solutions for Energy Efficiency
Energy Efficiency needs a structured approach in order to provide significant and
sustainable savings. Schneider Electric take a customer lifecycle approach to tackle
it. It starts with a diagnosis or audit on buildings and industrial processes… This will
provide us an indication of the situation and the main avenues to pursue savings. But
is not enough, it is just the beginning, what really counts is getting the results. Only
companies having the means to be active in the whole process can be there with
their customers up to the real savings and results.
Then, we will fix the basics, automate and finally monitor, maintain and improve.
Then we are ready to start again and continue the virtuous cycle.
Energy Efficiency is an issue where a risk sharing and a win-win relation shall be
established to reach the goal.
As targets are fixed over long timeframe (less 20% in 2020 , less 50% in 2050),
for most of our customers EE programs are not one-shot initiatives and permanent
improvement over the time is key. Therefore, frame services contracts is the ideal
way to deal with these customer needs.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Diagnosis through electrical
measurement
The energy efficiency performance in terms of electricity can only be expressed in
terms of fundamental physical measurements – voltage, current, harmonics, etc.
These physical measurements are then reprocessed to become digital data and then
information.
In the raw form, data are of little use. Unfortunately, some energy managers become
totally immersed in data and see data collection and collation as their primary task.
To gain value from data they must be transformed into information (used to support
the knowledge development of all those managing energy) and understanding (used
to action energy savings).
The operational cycle is based on four processes: data collection; data analysis;
communication; and action (see Fig. K7). These elements apply to any information
system. The cycle works under condition that an adequate communication network
has been set up.
Communication
(information to
understanding)
Action
(understanding
to results)
Data analysis
(data to information)
Data collection
Fig. K7 : The operational cycle
K7
The data processing level results in information that can be understood by the
recipient profile: the ability to interpret the data by the user remains a considerable
challenge in terms of decision making.
The data is then directly linked to loads that consume electricity – industrial process,
lighting, air conditioning, etc. – and the service that these loads provide for the
company – quantity of products manufactured, comfort of visitors to a supermarket,
ambient temperature in a refrigerated room, etc.
The information system is then ready to be used on a day to day basis by users to
achieve energy efficiency objectives set by senior managers in the company.
3.1 Physical value acquisition
The quality of data starts with the measurement itself: at the right place, the right
time and just the right amount.
Basically, electrical measurement is based on voltage and current going through the
conductors. These values lead to all the others: power, energy, power factor, etc.
Firstly we will ensure consistency of the precision class of current transformers,
voltage transformers and the precision of the measurement devices themselves. The
precision class will be lower for higher voltages: an error in the measurement of high
voltage for example represents a very large amount of energy.
The total error is the quadratic sum of each error.
∑ of error =
error 2 + error 2 + ... + error 2
Example:
a device with an error of 2% connected on a CT ’s with an error of 2% that means:
∑ of error =
( 2 )2 + ( 2 ) 2
= 2,828%
.
That could mean a loss of 2,828 kWh for 100,000 kWh of consumption.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
3 Diagnosis through electrical
measurement
Voltage measurement
In low voltage, the voltage measurement is directly made by the measurement
device. When the voltage level becomes incompatible with the device capacity, for
example in medium voltage, we have to put in voltage transformers.
A VT (Voltage transformer) is defined by:
b its primary voltage and secondary voltage
b its apparent power
b its precision class
A CT is defined by:
b transformation ratio. For example: 50/5A
b precision class Cl. Example: Cl=0.5
b precision power in VA to supply power to
the measurement devices on the secondary.
Example: 1.25 VA
b limit precision factor indicated as a factor
applied to In before saturation.
Example: FLP (or Fs) =10 for measurement
devices with a precision power that is in
conformity.
Current measurement
Current measurement is made by split or closed-core CT’s placed around the phase
and neutral conductors as appropriate.
According to the required precision for measurement, the CT used for the protection
relay also allows current measurement under normal conditions.
Energy measurement
To measure energy, we consider two objectives:
b A contractual billing objective, e.g. between an electricity company and its client
or even between an airport manager (sub-billing) and stores renting airport surface
areas. In this case IEC 62053-21 for Classes 1 and 2 and IEC 62053-22 for Classes
0.5S and 0.2S become applicable to measure active energy.
The full measurement chain – CT, VT and measurement unit – can reach a precision
class Cl of 1 in low voltage, Cl 0.5 in medium voltage and 0.2 in high voltage, or even
0.1 in the future.
b An internal cost allocation objective for the company, e.g. to break-down the cost
of electricity for each product produced in a specific workshop. In this case of a
precision class between 1 and 2 for the whole chain (CT, VT and measurement
station) is sufficient.
It is recommended to match the full measurement chain precision with actual
measurement requirements: there is no one single universal solution, but a good
technical and economic compromise according to the requirement to be satisfied.
Note that the measurement precision also has a cost, to be compared with the return
on investment that we are expecting.
Generally gains in terms of energy efficiency are even greater when the electrical
network has not been equipped in this way until this point. In addition, permanent
modifications of the electrical network, according to the company’s activity, mainly
cause us to search for significant and immediate optimizations straight away.
K8
Example:
A class 1 analogue ammeter, rated 100 A, will display a measurement of +/-1 A
at 100 A. However if it displays 2 A, the measurement is correct to within 1 A and
therefore there is uncertainty of 50%.
A class 1 energy measurement station such as PM710 – like all other Power
Meter and Circuit Monitor Measurement Units – is accurate to 1% throughout the
measurement range as described in IEC standards 62053.
PM700 measurement unit
Other physical measurements considerably enhance the data:
b on/off, open/closed operating position of devices, etc.
b energy metering impulse
b transformer, motor temperature
b operation hours, quantity of switching operations
b motor load
b UPS battery load
b event logged equipment failures
b etc.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
3.2 Electrical data for real objectives
Electrical data is transformed into information that is usually intended to satisfy
several objectives:
b It can modify the behaviour of users to manage energy wisely and finally lowers
overall energy costs
b It can contribute to field staff efficiency increase
b It can contribute to decrease the cost of Energy
b It can contribute to save energy by understanding how it is used and how assets
and process can be optimized to be more energy efficient
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
3 Diagnosis through electrical
measurement
b It may help in optimizing and increasing the life duration of the assets associated to
the electrical network
b And finally it may be a master piece in increasing the productivity of the associated
process (industrial process or even office, building management), by preventing, or
reducing downtime, or insuring higher quality energy to the loads.
Facility utility costs parallel the visualization of an iceberg (see Fig. K8). While
an iceberg seems large above the surface, the size is completely overwhelming
beneath the surface. Similarly, electrical bills are brought to the surface each month
when your power provider sends you a bill. Savings in this area are important
and can be considerable enough to be the only justification needed for a power
monitoring system. However, there are other less obvious yet more significant
savings opportunities to be found below the surface if you have the right tools at your
disposal.
Modify the behaviour of energy users
Using cost allocation reports, you can verify utility billing accuracy, distribute bills
internally by department, make effective fact-based energy decisions and drive
accountability in every level of your organization. Then providing ownership of
electricity costs to the appropriate level in an organization, you modify the behaviour
of users to manage energy wisely and finally lowers overall energy costs.
K9
Here are some examples of the main usage of the simplest monitoring systems:
b Benchmark between zones to detect abnormal consumption.
b Track unexpected consumption.
b Ensure that power consumption is not higher that your competitors.
b Choose the right Power delivery contract with the Power Utility.
b Set-up simple load-shedding just focusing on optimizing manageable loads such
as lights.
b Be in a position to ask for damage compensation due to non-quality delivery
from the Power Utilities – " The process has been stopped because of a sag on the
networks".
Implementing energy efficiency projects
The Power monitoring system will deliver information that support a complete
energy audit of a factility. Such audit can be the way to cover not only electricity
but also Water, Air, Gas and Steam. Measures, benchmark and normalized energy
consumption information will tell how efficient the industrial facilities and process
are. Appropriate action plans can then be put in place. Their scope can be as wide
as setting up control lighting, Building automation systems, variable speed drive,
process automation, etc.
Optimizing the assets
One increasing fact is that electrical network evolves more and more and then a
recurrent question occurs : Will my network support this new evolution?
This is typically where a Monitoring system can help the network owner in making
the right decision.
By its logging activity, it can archive the real use of the assets and then evaluate
quite accurately the spare capacity of a network, or a switchboard, a transformer…
A better use of an asset may increase its life duration.
Monitoring systems can provide accurate information of the exact use of an asset
and then the maintenance team can decide the appropriate maintenance operation,
not too late, or not too early.
In some cases also, the monitoring of harmonics can be a positive factor for the life
duration of some assets (such as motors or transformers).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K8 : Facility utility costs parallel the visualisation of an
iceberg
Increase field staff efficiency
One of the big challenges of field staff in charge of the electrical network is to make
the right decision and operate in the minimum time.
The first need of such people is then to better know what happens on the network,
and possibly to be informed everywhere on the concerned site.
This site-wise transparency is a key feature that enables a field staff to:
b Understand the electrical energy flows – check that the network is correctly set-up,
balanced, what are the main consumers, at what period of the day, or the week…
b Understand the network behaviour – a trip on a feeder is easier to understand
when you have access to information from downstream loads.
b Be spontaneously informed on events, even outside the concerned site by using
today’s mobile communication
b Going straight forward to the right location on the site with the right spare part, and
with the understanding of the complete picture
b Initiate a maintenance action taking into account the real usage of a device, not too
early and not too late
b Therefore, providing to the electrician a way to monitor the electrical network can
appear as a powerful mean to optimize and in certain case drastically reduce the
cost of power.
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
3 Diagnosis through electrical
measurement
Increasing the productivity by reducing the downtime
Downtime is the nightmare of any people in charge of an electrical network. It may
cause dramatic loss for the company, and the pressure for powering up again in the
minimum time – and the associated stress for the operator – is very high.
A monitoring and control system can help reducing the downtime very efficiently.
Without speaking of a remote control system which are the most sophisticated
system and which may be necessary for the most demanding application, a simple
monitoring system can already provide relevant information that will highly contribute
in reducing the downtime:
b Making the operator spontaneously informed, even remote, even out of the
concerned site (Using the mobile communication such as DECT network or GSM/
SMS)
b Providing a global view of the whole network status
b Helping the identification of the faulty zone
b Having remotely the detailed information attached to each event caught by the field
devices (reason for trip for example)
Then remote control of a device is a must but not necessary mandatory. In many
cases, a visit of the faulty zone is necessary where local actions are possible.
Increasing the productivity by improving the Energy Quality
Some loads can be very sensitive to electricity quality, and operators may face
unexpected situations if the Energy quality is not under control.
Monitoring the Energy quality is then an appropriate way to prevent such event and /
or to fix specific issue.
3.3 Measurement starts with the “stand alone
product” solution
Compact NSX with Micrologic trip unit
K10
TeSys U motor controller
The progress made in real time industrial electronics and IT are used in a single
device:
b to meet requirements for simplification of switchboards
b to reduce acquisition costs and reduce the number of devices
b to facilitate product developments by software upgrade procedures
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
ION 6200 metering unit
The choice of measurement products in electrical equipment is made according to
your energy efficiency priorities and also current technological advances:
b measurement and protection functions of the LV or MV electrical network are
integrated in the same device,
Example: Sepam metering and protection relays, Micrologic tripping unit for Compact
NSX and Masterpact, TeSys U motor controller, NRC12 capacitor bank controller,
Galaxy UPSs
b the measurement function is in the device, separate from the protection function,
e.g. built on board the LV circuit breaker.
Example: PowerLogic ION 6200 metering unit
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
3 Diagnosis through electrical
measurement
Example of solutions for a medium-sized site:
Analysesample Ltd. is a company specialized in analyzing industrial samples from
regional factories: metals, plastics, etc., to certify their chemical characteristics.
The company wants to carry out better control of its electrical consumption for the
existing electrical furnaces, its air conditioning system and to ensure quality of
electrical supply for high-precision electronic devices used to analyze the samples.
Electrical network protected and monitored via the Intranet site
The solution implemented involves recovering power data via metering units that
also allows measurement of basic electrical parameters as well as verification of
energy power quality. Connected to a web server, an Internet browser allows to use
them very simply and export data in a Microsoft Excel™ type spreadsheet. Power
curves can be plotted in real time by the spreadsheet (see Fig. K9).
Therefore no IT investment, either in software or hardware, is necessary to use the
data.
For example to reduce the electricity bill and limit consumption during nighttime
and weekends, we have to study trend curves supplied by the measurement units
(see Fig. K10).
Fig. K9 : Example of electrical network protected and
monitored via the Intranet site
K11
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K10 : A Test to stop all lighting B Test to stop air conditioning
Here consumption during non-working hours seems excessive, consequently two decisions were taken:
b reducing night time lighting
b stopping air conditioning during weekends
The new curve obtained shows a significant drop in consumption.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
3 Diagnosis through electrical
measurement
Below we give examples of measurements available via Modbus, RS485 or Ethernet
(see Fig. K11):
Measurement units
MV protection and
measurement relays
LV protection and
measurement relays
Capacitor bank
regulators
Insulation monitors
Power Meter, Circuit
Monitor
Sepam
Masterpact &
Compact Micrologic
trip units
Varlogic
Vigilohm System
Power, inst., max., min.
b
b
b
b
-
Energy, reset capability
b
b
b
-
-
Power factor, inst.
b
b
b
-
-
Cos φ inst.
-
-
-
b
-
Examples
Keep control over power consumption
Improve power supply availability
K12
Current, inst., max., min., unbalance
b
b
b
b
-
Current, wave form capture
b
b
b
-
-
Voltage, inst., max., min., unbalance
b
b
b
b
-
Voltage, wave form capture
b
b
b
-
-
Device status
b
b
b
b
-
Faults history
b
b
b
-
-
Frequency, inst., max., min.
b
b
b
-
-
THDu, THDi
b
b
b
b
-
Load temperature, load and device
thermal state
b
b
-
b
-
Insulating resistance
-
-
-
-
b
Motor controllers
LV variable speed
drives
LV softstarters
MV softstarters
UPSs
TeSys U
ATV.1
ATS.8
Motorpact RVSS
Galaxy
Power, inst., max., min.
-
b
-
b
b
Energy, reset capability
-
b
b
b
-
Power factor, inst.
-
-
b
b
b
Manage electrical installation better
Examples
Keep control over power consumption
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Improve power supply availability
Current, inst., max., min., unbalance
b
b
b
b
b
Current, wave form capture
-
-
-
b
b
Device status
b
b
b
b
b
Faults history
b
b
b
b
-
THDu, THDi
-
b
-
-
-
Load temperature, load and device
thermal state
b
b
b
b
b
Motor running hours
-
b
b
b
-
Battery follow up
-
-
-
-
b
Manage electrical installation better
Fig. K11 : Examples of measurements available via Modbus, RS485 or Ethernet
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
Based on the reports collected by the power monitoring system or energy
information system, appropriate energy efficiency projects can be selected. There
are various strategies for choosing which projects to implement:
b Often organizations like to get started with relatively low-cost, easy projects to
generate some quick wins before making larger investments.
b The simple payback period (the length of time the project will take to pay for itself)
is a popular method to rank and choose projects. Its advantage is simplicity of the
analysis. The disadvantage is that this method may not take into account the full
long-term impact of the project.
b Other more complex methods such as net present value or internal rate of return
can also be used. Additional effort is required to make the analysis, but a truer
indication of the full project benefits is obtained.
Energy savings can be achieved in a number of ways:
b Energy reduction measures that either use less energy to achieve the same
results, or reduce energy consumption by ensuring that energy is not over-used
beyond the real requirements. An example of the former is using high-efficiency
lamps to provide the same illumination at lower energy cost. An example of the latter
is reducing the number of lamps in over-illuminated areas to reduce lighting levels to
the required level.
b Energy cost saving measures that do not reduce the total energy consumed, but
reduce the per-unit cost. An example is scheduling some activities at night to take
advantage of time-of-day electricity tariffs. Peak demand avoidance and demand
response schemes are other examples.
b Energy reliability measures that not only contribute to operational efficiency by
avoiding downtime, but which also avoid the energy losses associated with restarts
or reworking spoiled batches.
Comprehensive
Energy Strategy
K13
Reduce
Consumption
Optimize
Utility
Costs
Improve
Reliability &
Availability
Fig. K12 : Comprehensive Energy strategy
95
Since in industry, 60% of consumed electricity is used to run motors, there is a high
likelihood that motor systems will appear strongly among the identified opportunities.
Two reasons to consider replacing motors and thereby improve passive energy
efficiency are:
85
EFF 2
2 pole
80
EFF 3
2&4
pole
b to take advantage of new high-efficiency motor designs
b to address oversizing
75
70
1
15
Rated Power (kW)
90
Fig. K13 : Definition of energy efficiency classes for LV motors
established by the European Commission and CEMEP
(European Committee of Manufacturers of Electrical Machines
and Power Electronics)
Depending on horsepower, high efficiency motors operate between 1% and 10%
more efficiently than standard motors. Motors that operate for long periods may be
good candidates for replacement with high efficiency motors, especially if the existing
motor needs rewinding. Note that rewound motors are usually 3% – 4% less efficient
than the original motor. However, if the motor receives low to moderate use (e.g.
under 3000 hours per year), replacement of standard efficiency motors (particularly
those that have not yet been re-wound) with high efficiency motors may not be
economical. Also, it is important to ensure the critical performance characteristics
(such as speed) of the new motor are equivalent to those of the existing motor.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
90
Efficiency (%)
4.1 Motor systems and replacement
EFF 1
4 pole
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
Motors are most efficient when operated between about 60% and 100% of their fullrated load. Efficiency falls sharply when loading is below 50%. Historically, designers
have tended to oversize motors by a significant safety margin in order to eliminate
any risk of failure even under extremely unlikely conditions. Facility studies show that
about one-third of motors are severely oversized and generally are running below
50% of rated load (1). Average loading of motors is around 60%(2). Oversized motors
are not only inefficient but have higher initial purchase cost than correctly-sized units.
Larger motors can also contribute to lower power factor, which may lead to reactive
power charges on the electricity bill. Replacement considerations should take this
into account along with the remaining useful life of the motor. In addition, note that
some motors may be oversized but still be so lightly loaded or infrequently used that
they do not consume enough electricity to make it cost-effective to install a different
motor.
Clearly, wherever appropriate the two approaches should be combined to replace
over-sized standard motors with high-efficiency motors sized suitably for the
application.
Other tactics which can be applied to motor systems include:
b Improve active energy efficiency by simply turn off motors when they are not
required. This may require improvements in automatic control, or education,
monitoring and perhaps incentives for operators. If the operator of the motor is not
accountable for its energy consumption, they are more likely to leave it running even
when not in use.
b Check and if necessary correct shaft alignment, starting with the largest motors.
Misaligned motor couplings waste energy and eventually lead to coupling failure and
downtime. An angular offset of 0.6 mm in a pin coupling can result in a power loss of
as much as 8%.
4.2 Pumps, fans and variable speed drives
63% of energy used by motors is for fluid applications such as pumps and fans.
Many of these applications run the motor at full speed even when lower levels of flow
are required. To obtain the level of flow needed, inefficient methods such as valves,
dampers and throttles are often used. In a car, these methods would be equivalent
to using the brake to control speed while keeping the gas or accelerator pedal fully
depressed. These are still some of the most common control methods used in
industry. Given that motors are the leading energy-consuming device, and pumps
and fans are the largest category of motor-driven equipment, these applications are
frequently among the top-ranked energy saving opportunities.
K14
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
An Altivar variable speed drive is an active EE approach that can provide the means
to obtain the variable output required from the fan or pump along with significant
energy savings and other benefits. Well-chosen projects can result in simple payback
periods as short as ten months, with many useful projects in the range of paybacks
up to three years. Variable speed drives (VSD) can be useful in many applications,
including air compressors, plastic injection moulding machines, and other machines.
Fig. K14 : Examples of centrifugal pump and fan which can benefit from variable speed control
(1) Operations and Maintenance Manual for Energy
Management - James E. Piper
(2) US Department of Energy fact sheet
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Energy saving solutions
Most pumps are required either to move fluids between a source and a destination
(e.g. filling a reservoir at a higher level) or to circulate liquid in a system (e.g.
to transfer heat). Fans are required to move air or other gases, or to maintain a
pressure differential. To make the liquid or air flow at the required rate, pressure is
required. Many pumping or ventilation systems require the flow or pressure to vary
from time to time.
To change the flow or pressure in the system, there are a number of possible
methods. The suitability will depend on the design of the fan or pump, e.g. whether
a pump is a positive displacement pump or rotodynamic pump, whether a fan is a
centrifugal fan or axial fan.
b Multiple pumps or fans: This leads to step increase when additional pumps or fans
are switched in, making fine control difficult. Usually there are efficiency losses as
the real needs are somewhere between the possible steps.
b Stop/start control: This is only practical where intermittent flow is acceptable.
b Flow control valve: This uses a valve to reduce the flow by increased frictional
resistance to the output of the pump. This wastes energy since the pump is
producing a flow which is then cut back by the valve. In addition, pumps have a
preferred operating range, and increasing the resistance by this method can force
the pump to operate in a range where its efficiency is lower (wasting even more
energy) and where its reliability is reduced.
b Damper: Similar in effect to a flow control valve in a pumping system, this reduces
the flow by obstructing the output of the fan. This wastes energy since the fan is
producing a flow which is then cut back by the damper.
b Bypass control: This technique keeps the pump running at full power and routes
surplus fluid output from the pump back to the source. It allows a low value of flow
to be achieved without risk of increasing the output pressure, but inefficiency is very
high since the energy used to pump the surplus fluid is entirely wasted.
b Spillage valve: Similar in effect to a bypass control valve in a pumping system, this
technique keeps the fan running at full power and vents surplus flow. Inefficiency is
very high since the energy used to move the vented air or gas is entirely wasted.
b Variable pitch: Some fan designs allow the angle of the blades to be adapted to
change the output.
b Inlet guide vane: these are structures using fins to improve or disrupt the routing
of air or gas into a fan. In this way they increase or decrease the airflow going in and
hence increase or decrease the output.
actuator
motor
fixed
shaft speed
100% of nominal
fan or
pump
K15
sensor
damper
or valve
reduced output
50% of nominal
output
100% of
nominal
sensor
fan or
pump
motor
VSD
power
consumed
12.5% of
nominal
variable
shaft speed
50% of nominal
open
output
50% of
nominal
unchanged output
50% of nominal
Fig. K15 : Fan and pump control: in theory
Wherever a fan or a pump has been installed for a range of required flow rates or
pressure levels, it will have been sized to meet the greatest output demand. It will
therefore usually be oversized, and will be operating inefficiently for other duties.
Combining this with the inefficiency of the control methods listed above means that
there is generally an opportunity to achieve an energy cost saving by using control
methods which reduce the power to drive the pump or fan during the periods of
reduced demand. However, a fan or pump that is not required to perform variable
duties may be running at full speed without any of the above control methods, or
with those control methods present but unused (e.g. valves or dampers set to fully
open). In this case the device will be operating at or close to its best efficiency and a
variable frequency drive will not bring any improvement.
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K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
For those fans and pumps which are required to generate varying levels of output,
a variable frequency drive reduces the speed of the pump or fan and the power it
consumes. Among fans, effectiveness will vary depending on the design. Centrifugal
fans offer good potential, both with forward curved and backward curved impellers.
Axial fans have a greater intrinsic efficiency and normally do not offer enough
economic potential for a VSD application. In pumps, the effectiveness will vary
depending on a number of factors, including the ‘static head’ of the system (the
effects of a difference in height between the source and destination of the fluid) and
‘friction head’ (the effects of the liquid moving in the pipes, valves and equipment).
The variable frequency drive should always be matched with the safe operating
range of the pump. Generally, variable speed drives bring greater benefits in systems
where the friction head is the dominant effect. In some cases, replacing the fan or
pump with a more efficient design may bring greater benefits than retrofit of a VSD.
A fan or pump that is infrequently used, even if it is inefficient, may not generate
enough savings to make replacement or VSD retrofit cost-effective. However note
that flow control by speed regulation is always more efficient than by control valve or
bypass control.
Fan and pump applications are governed by the affinity laws:
b Flow is proportional to shaft speed
v Half the shaft speed gives you half the flow
b Pressure or head is proportional to the square of shaft speed
v Half the shaft speed gives you quarter the pressure
b Power is proportional to the cube of shaft speed
v Half the shaft speed uses one–eighth of the power
v Hence half the flow uses one-eighth of the power
120
100
K16
80
P (%) 60
40
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Q (%)
Fig. K16 : Theoretical power saving with a fan running at half speed
Therefore, if you don’t need the fan or pump to run at 100% flow or pressure output,
you can reduce the power consumed by the fan, and the amount of the reduction can
be very substantial for moderate changes in flow. Unfortunately in practice, efficiency
losses in the various components render the theoretical values not achievable.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
P (W)
0
0
Q (m3/s)
Fig. K17 : Power versus flow rate for the different fan control methods: downstream damper, inlet
vanes, and variable speed (top to bottom).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Energy saving solutions
The actual achievable savings depend on the design of the fan or pump, its inherent
efficiency profile, the size of the motor, the number of hours used per year, and the
local cost of electricity. These savings can be estimated using a tool such as ECO8,
or can be accurately forecast by installing temporary metering and analyzing the
data obtained in the context of the appropriate curve.
The drive can be integrated into a variety of possible control methods:
b Control by fixing pressure but varying flow: This uses a pressure sensor connected
to the VSD which in turn varies the speed allowing the fan or pump to increase or
decrease the flow required by the system. This is a common method in water supply
schemes where constant pressure is required but water is required at different
flows dependant on the number of users at any given time. This is also common on
centralised cooling and distribution systems and in irrigation where a varying number
of spray heads or irrigation sections are involved.
b Heating system control: In heating and cooling systems there is a requirement for
flow to vary based on temperature. The VSD is controlled by a temperature sensor,
which increases or decreases the flow of hot or cold liquid or air based on the actual
temperature required by the process. This is similar to pressure control, where the
flow also varies, but a constant temperature requirement from a temperature sensor
replaces that from a pressure sensor.
b Control by fixing flow but varying pressure: Constant flow may be required in
irrigation and water supply systems. Since the water levels both upstream and
downstream of the pumping station can change, the pressure will be variable. Also
many cooling, chiller, spraying and washing applications require a specific volume of
water to be supplied even if the suction and delivery conditions vary. Typically suction
conditions vary when the height of a suction reservoir or tank drops and delivery
pressure can change if filters blind or if system resistance increases occur through
blockages etc. A flowmeter is used to keep the flow rate constant, normally installed
in the discharge line.
The benefits achieved include:
b Reduced energy consumption and hence cost savings by replacing inefficient
control methods or other obsolete components such as two-speed motors
b Better control and accuracy in achieving required flow and pressure
b Reduced noise and vibration, as the inverter allows fine adjustment of the speeds
and so prevents the equipment running at a resonant frequency of the pipes or
ductwork
b Increased lifecycle and improved reliability, for example, pumps that are operated
in a throttled condition usually suffer from reduced useful life
b Simplified pipe or duct systems (elimination of dampers, control valves & by-pass
lines)
b Soft start & stop creates less risk of transient effects in the electrical network or
mechanical stress on the rotating parts of the pump or fan. This also reduces water
hammer in pumps, because the drive provides smooth acceleration and deceleration
instead of abrupt speed variations
b Reduced maintenance
Without VSD
With VSD
Reduction
% savings
Average power
use (2 motors
per fan)
104 kW per
motor
40 kW per motor
64 kW per motor
62%
Electricity cost
per fan
£68.66 per
tonne output
£26.41 per
tonne output
£42.25 per
tonne output
CO2 rate
459,000 kg /
year
175,541 kg /
year
283,459 kg /
year
Annual running
cost
£34,884
£13,341
£21,542
Payback period
10 months with local capital allowances claimed
14 months without local capital allowances
Fig. K18 : Example of savings for variable speed driven pumps
Additionally, significant energy savings can be often be made simply by changing
pulley sizes, to ensure a fan or pump runs at a more appropriate duty point. This
doesn’t provide the flexibility of variable speed control but costs very little, can
probably be done within the maintenance budget and doesn’t require capital
approval.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K17
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K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
4.3 Lighting
Lighting can represent over 35% of energy consumption in buildings depending on
the business. Lighting control is one of the easiest ways to save energy costs for low
investment and is one of the most common energy saving measures.
Lamps and ballasts
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K18
Lighting design for commercial buildings is governed by standards, regulations and
building codes. Lighting not only needs to be functional but must meet occupational
health and safety requirements and be fit for purpose. In many instances, office
lighting is over-illuminated, and substantial energy savings are possible by passive
EE: replacing inefficient, old technology lamps with high efficiency, low wattage
lamps in conjunction with electronic ballasts.
This is especially appropriate in areas where lighting is required constantly or for
long periods, because in such places there is less opportunity to save energy by
turning lights off. Simple payback periods vary but many projects have paybacks of
around two years.
Depending on the needs, type and age of your lighting installation, more efficient
lamps may be available. For example, 40-watt T12 fluorescent lamps may be
replaced by newer 32-watt T8 fluorescent lamps. (T designates a tubular lamp. The
number is the diameter in eights of an inch. T12 lamps are therefore 1.5 inches in
diameter. Standards vary between countries.) Changing the lamp will also require
changing the ballast.
Fluorescent lamps contain gases that emit ultraviolet light when excited by electricity.
The phosphor coating of the lamp converts the ultraviolet light into the visible
spectrum. If the electricity entering the lamp is not regulated, the light will continue
to gain in intensity. A ballast supplies the initial electricity to create the light and then
regulates the current thereafter to maintain the correct light level. Ballasts are also
used with arc lamps or mercury vapor lamps. New designs of electronic ballasts
deliver considerable savings compared with older electromagnetic ballast designs.
T8 lamps with electronic ballasts will use from 32% to 40% less electricity than T12
lamps with electromagnetic ballasts.
Electronic ballasts do have a disadvantage compared to magnetic ballasts. Magnetic
ballasts operate at line frequency (50 or 60 Hz), but electronic ballasts operate
at 20,000 to 60,000 Hz and can introduce harmonic distortion or noise into the
electrical network. This can contribute to overheating or reduced life of transformers,
motors, neutral lines, overvoltage trips and damage to electronics.
Usually this is not a problem apart from facilities with heavy lighting loads and a large
number of electronic ballasts. Most makes of electronic ballasts integrate passive
filtering within the ballast to keep the total harmonic distortion to less than 20 percent
of fundamental current.
If the facility has strict needs for power quality, (e.g. hospitals, sensitive
manufacturing environments, etc) electronic ballasts are available having total
harmonic distortion of five percent or less.
Other types of lighting are also available and may be suitable depending on the
requirements of the facility. An assessment of lighting needs will include evaluation
of the activities taking place and the required degree of illumination and colour
rendering. Many older lighting systems were designed to provide more light than
current standards require. Savings can be made by redesigning a system to provide
the minimum necessary illumination.
The use of high efficiency lamps in conjunction with electronic ballasts have a
number of advantages, firstly energy and cost savings can be easily qualified,
modern lamps and electronic ballasts are more reliable leading to reduced
maintenance costs, lighting levels are restored to more appropriate levels for
office space, whilst complying with relevant building codes, practices and lighting
standards, the incidence of ‘frequency beat” often associated with migraines and
eye strain disappears and the color rendering of modern lamps produces a more
conducive working environment.
Reflectors
A less common passive EE recommendation, but one which should be considered
along with changing lamps and ballasts, is to replace reflectors. The reflector in
a luminaire (light fixture) directs light from the lamps towards the area where it
is intended to fall. Advances in materials and design have resulted in improved
reflector designs which can be retrofitted to existing luminaires. This results in
increased usable light, and may allow lamps to be removed, this saving energy while
maintaining the needed level of lighting.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
+
4 Energy saving solutions
A KW2 high efficiency reflector has a spectral efficiency of over 90%. This means two
lamps may be replaced by a single lamp. In this way it is possible to reduce energy
costs attributed to lighting by 50% or more. Existing luminaires may be retrofitted
with the space age technology reflector, whilst maintaining spatial distance between
luminaires, making retrofitting easy and cost effective, with minimal disruption to the
existing ceiling design.
+
Lighting control
Below: KW/2's silver surface is shaped to reflect the maximum
amount of light downward.
+
Fig. K19 : Overview on KW/2 principle
Improved lighting control is another method of increasing efficiency in lighting. Such
recommendations are less common, but the simple payback period is typically
shorter, between six and twelve months. By itself, passive EE from lamps, ballasts
and reflectors does not maximize savings, since an energy efficient lamp will still
waste energy if left on when not required. Although users can be sensitized to
switch off lights, in practice lapses are common, and automatic control is much
more effective in obtaining and sustaining efficiency. The objective of lighting
control schemes is to provide the comfort and flexibility that users require, while
simultaneously ensuring active EE, minimizing costs by ensuring lights are turned
off promptly whenever they are not needed. The sophistication of such schemes can
vary considerably.
Some of the simplest methods include:
b Timer switches to turn off lights after a fixed period has passed. Timers are best
deployed in areas where occupancy is well defined (e.g. in hotel corridors where the
time for a person to pass through is predictable).
b Occupancy sensors / movement detectors to turn off lights when no movement has
been detected for a certain period. Occupancy sensors are best deployed in offices,
storerooms, stairwells, kitchens and bathrooms where the use of the facilities cannot
be predicted with a high degree of accuracy during the day.
b Photoelectric cells / daylight harvesting sensors to control lights near windows.
When bright exterior light is available, lamps are turned off or dimmed.
b Programmable timers to switch lights on and off at predetermined times (e.g. shop
fronts, ensure office lights are turned off at nights and weekends).
b Dimmable lights to maintain a low level of illumination at off-peak periods (e.g. a
car parking lot which needs to be fully illuminated during peak use, perhaps until
midnight, but which can have lower ambient illumination from midnight until dawn)
b Voltage regulators to optimize the power consumed. Ballasts perform this function
on fluorescent lighting. Voltage regulators are also available for other lighting types
such as high pressure sodium lamps.
Fig. K20 : Examples of lighting control devices: timers, light detectors, movement detectors,...
US Dept of Energy Industrial Assessment Centers database
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K19
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Above: Around 70% of a fluorescent tube's light is directed
sideways and upwards to the light fittings surfaces;
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
Methods may be combined, e.g. the ability to dim lights in the parking lot may be
combined with movement detectors or override switches with a timer to increase
illumination when needed if a user requires access outside normal hours.
More sophisticated and customizable schemes can be implemented with integrated
lighting control systems. Aesthetic requirements can be incorporated, such as using
programmable lighting panels to record a variety of lighting setups which can be
reproduced at the touch of a button (e.g. for boardrooms requiring different light
arrangements for meetings, presentations, demonstrations, etc). Wireless technology
can make retrofit applications simple and economical.
Lighting control systems such as C-Bus and KNX offer the additional advantage
that they can be networked and integrated with the building management system,
for greater flexibility of control, central monitoring and control function as well as
combination of lighting controls with other building services such as HVAC for even
greater energy savings.
Lighting controls have the potential to realize energy savings of 30% but this
depends very much on application. A lighting survey and energy audit can help
define the best lighting solution for the premises and activities performed as well
as identify areas for energy and cost savings. In addition to office space, Schneider
offers solutions for exterior, car parking and landscape lighting for optimum lighting
and energy savings.
4.4 Load management strategies
Since electricity has to be generated in response to immediate needs, and cannot
economically be stored, suppliers are obliged to size their generating capacity
according to peak needs, which may occur infrequently. At other times, that capacity
is surplus and represents capital tied up in facilities and equipment that are idle and
unused. Suppliers are therefore motivated to smooth out peaks in electricity demand.
Load management requires an active EE approach, since even high-efficiency
devices will contribute to peak needs.
K20
Peak demand avoidance
One way utilities encourage users to avoid peaks is by transferring the cost of
maintaining the peak production capacity to those users who contribute most to
the peaks. Utilities structure their billing with various components. One is always
the actual consumption in the billing period, but another component (the demand
charge) is normally based on the peak usage at some point during the preceding
period, which could be twelve months or another period such as a season. The
demand charge is a premium that large users pay each month for the utility to have
the extra generation capacity and infrastructure required to meet their peak demand
levels whenever they need it – even if they don’t use it very often. If a customer
can avoid setting peaks in their energy usage, they can minimize the part of their
energy bill driven by the peak consumption, even if their total consumption remains
the same. Note that setting a new peak has a continuing economic impact, because
it determines the demand charge not only for that month, but for each subsequent
month during the period defined by the tariff, which may be as much as a year. This
means that a single short event that spikes consumption for as little as a few minutes
can have a continuing effect on the electricity bill.
kW
Peak Demand
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Peak Usage
rescheduled
to fit under
lower threshold
Shaved Peak
Demand
Time
Fig. K21 : Example of load management strategy
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Energy saving solutions
Peak demand avoidance applications are PLC controlled automatic electrical
distribution control systems. A demand interval is defined as a particular level of
consumption in a period of time (e.g. kWh in a 15 minute period). The objective is
to keep the total energy consumed in each period below the limit. If the customer
is consuming a large amount of power in a given period, the system will detect that
a peak is approaching. An alarm is activated, and unless an operator overrides the
system, it will begin to shed non-essential loads in a predetermined order, until the
alarm condition is cleared, or the demand interval ends. All loads in a facility are
defined in one of three categories: critical, essential, and non-essential loads. Usually
only non-essential loads are shed, and the order of shedding can be configured.
The peak set during month 2 will
dictate the demand charge for the
next 12 months (or some other peirod
set by the tariff).
kW
Peak during month 2
1
2
3
4
5
The bill for month 4 will be based on
the consumption (green) and the peak
set during month 2 (red line).
Fig. K22 : Impact of peak demand on electricity bill
Providing the customer has enough non-essential loads to be able to impact their
peak consumption, it may be possible to reduce the demand charge by as much as
10% to 30%. Demand charge can be up to 60% of the bill. The application usually
pays for itself in one year or less.
K21
Load scheduling
Utilities often have different rates that apply for different times of the day. During
normal daily business hours, the rates are the highest. Many users shift, or
reschedule loads to take advantage of lower rates. These are loads that are not time
sensitive or critical.
Demand response (curtailment)
Another tactic is demand response (also known as demand curtailment). Demand
response is a means to manage the demand from customers taking supply
conditions into account. Utilities may offer financial incentives to customers to
reduce load during periods when the utility does not have the distribution capacity to
handle the total demand. Typically this will be during the hottest months of the year,
when consumer and business needs for cooling and ventilation are high and draw
a lot of electricity in addition to normal requirements. In some countries, third-party
aggregators may manage schemes that monitor the network capacity and the realtime price of electricity on the network. Participants in the scheme receive incentives
to shed load, creating capacity which the aggregator can sell into the network.
In each case, the utility or aggregator offers a contract including an agreement from
the customer to reduce the kW consumption at their site down to a predetermined
level when notified. These contracts may contain both emergency curtailments (when
the participants in the scheme must comply or face penalties) and opt-in curtailments
(where participants can evaluate the specific conditions for that particular curtailment
and decide whether or not to accept). Usually the contract limits the duration of the
curtailment (e.g. 2 to 6 hours) and the number of times per year the curtailment
can be activated (3 to 5). Industrial customers tend to have more opportunity to
participate, since building managers are less likely to be able to drop substantial
loads without impacting the building occupants’ comfort.
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© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
A curtailment is activated following a notification by phone or via a signal output
from the utility revenue meter. Typically there is 30 to 60 minutes advance notice.
The customer systematically reduces load until the curtailment level is obtained,
either by manually reducing or shutting off loads or by an automated PLC controlled
system. The utility or aggregator then signals the start of the curtailment period. After
the curtailment period is complete, the utility or aggregator signals the end of the
curtailment period. The customer may then re-establish normal facility loading and
production.
The return on investment from demand response schemes will vary depending on
local tariff rates and electricity market. The incentive generally takes the form of a
credit for the demand reduction during the response period. If the customer has
enough non-essential loads to be able to impact peak consumption, he may be able
to benefit from incentives that in effect reduce the cost per unit by as much as 30%.
Automated demand response control applications usually pay for themselves in one
year or less. Without such a scheme, loads have to be turned off manually, with a
significant chance of failure, for example, if a human operator does not act quickly
enough. Failing to comply with a curtailment brings financial penalties, and so an
automated application which can support both peak demand avoidance and demand
curtailment can be a very good investment.
Together with the control applications, a demand response portal can make
participation in a demand response scheme much more convenient. Such a portal
provides a means for a utility or aggregator to notify the participants of emergency
or opt-in events. Participants can evaluate the conditions of an opt-in and view their
current consumption and what they would have to do in order to comply with the
request before accepting or rejecting the event. The portal also supports auditing or
completed events to demonstrate compliance with the conditions.
On-site generation
K22
On-site generation increases the flexibility available to facility operators. Instead of
shedding loads, on-site generation can provide the power required to keep running
during a period of peak avoidance or demand curtailment. The automated control
system can be extended to integrate control of on-site generation facilities into the
scheme. If the customer is buying electricity from a supplier at a time-of-use rate,
the control system can be configured to continuously monitor the current cost of
electricity from the supplier and compare it to the cost of energy generated on site
using another fuel source. When the cost of electricity rises above the cost of using
the generator (replacing the fuel), the control scheme automatically shifts load to the
on-site generation. When the cost falls, load is shifted back to the supply utility.
However, in many places the local authorities only permit diesel generators to be
used for a certain maximum number of hours per year, in order to limit emissions.
This has to be taken into account as it limits the opportunities to make use of the
generator.
4.5 Power factor correction
If the electricity supplier charges penalties for reactive power, implementing power
factor correction has the potential to bring significant savings on the electricity bill.
Power factor correction solutions are typically passive EE measures that operate
transparently once installed, and don’t require any changes to existing procedures or
behaviour of staff. Simple payback periods can be less than a year.
Power factor correction is treated in detail in chapter L.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
4.6 Harmonic filtering
Many solutions to improve efficient use of electricity can have side effects, bring
harmonics into the electrical network. High-efficiency motors, variable speed drives,
electronic ballasts for fluorescent lights, and computers can all generate electrical
pollution which can have significant effects. Harmonics can create transient overvoltage conditions that cause protection relays to trip and result in production
downtime. They increase heat and vibration and thereby decrease efficiency and
shorten life of neutral conductors, transformers, motors and generators. Power factor
correction capacitors may magnify harmonics, and can suffer from overloading and
premature aging.
Management of harmonics is treated in detail in chapter M.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Energy saving solutions
4.7 Other measures
Outside the scope of the electrical installation, other energy savings measures
may be available depending on the activities present on the site. Productivity
enhancements in production such as reducing bottlenecks, eliminating defects
and reducing materials can generate further savings. Combustion systems (such
as furnaces, ovens, boilers) and thermal systems (such as steam systems, heat
generation, containment and recovery, cooling towers, chillers, refrigerators, dryers)
may also provide opportunities.
4.8 Communication and Information System
Most organisations will already have some level of energy information system, even
if it is not identified or managed as one. It should be appreciated that in a changing
working world, any information system will need to develop to meet its prime
objective - supporting management decision making: a key point is to make the
energy information visible at any level of the organization through the communication
infrastructure.
Energy data is important data, it is one of the company’s assets. The company has
IT managers who are already in charge of managing its other IT systems. These
are important players in the power monitoring system and above all in that for data
exchange within the corporate organization.
Communication network at product, equipment and site level
The day-to-day working of the energy information system can be illustrated by a
closed loop diagram (see Fig. K23).
ra
Int
Mo
net*
K23
s*
dbu
Understanding
Information
Data
g
atin e*
unic devic
m
m
o
C
nt
reme
measu
Energy information systems
* Communication network
Fig. K23 : System hierarchy
Various resources are used to send data from metering and protection devices
installed in the user’s electrical cabinets, e.g. via Schneider ElectricTransparent
Ready™.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
The Modbus communication protocol
Modbus is an industrial messaging protocol between equipment that is
interconnected via a physical transmission link e.g. RS 485 or Ethernet (via TCP/IP)
or modem (GSM, Radio etc). This protocol is very widely implemented on metering
and protection products for electrical networks.
Initially created by Schneider Electric, Modbus is now a public resource managed
by an independent organization Modbus-IDA – enabling total opening up of its
specification. An industrial standard since 1979, Modbus allows millions of products
to communicate with one another.
The IETF, international authority managing the Internet, has approved the creation
of a port (502) for products connected to the Internet/Intranet and using the Ethernet
Modbus TCP/IP communication protocol.
Modbus is a query/reply process between two pieces of equipment based on data
reading and writing services (function codes).
The query is emitted by a single “master”, the reply is sent only by the “slave”
equipment identified in the query (see Fig. K24).
Each “slave” product connected to the Modbus network is set by the user with an ID
number, called the Modbus address, between 1 and 247.
The “master” – for example a web server included in an electrical cabinet
– simultaneously queries all of the products with a message comprising its target’s
address, function code, memory location in the product and quantity of information,
at most 253 octets.
Only a product set with the corresponding address answers the request for data.
Exchange is only carried out on the initiative of the master (here the web server): this
is the master-slave Modbus operating procedure.
This query procedure followed by a reply, implies that the master will have all of the
data available in a product when it is queried.
The “master” manages all of the transaction queries successively if they are intended
for the same product. This arrangement leads to the calculation of a maximum
number of products connected to the master to optimize an acceptable response
time for the query initiator, particularly when it is a low rate RS485 link.
K24
Fig. K24 : The function codes allow writing or reading of data.
A transmission error software detection mechanism called CRC16 allows a message with an
error to be repeated and only the product concerned to respond.
Your Intranet network
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Data exchange from industrial data basically uses web technologies implemented
permanently on the corporate communication network, and more particularly on its
Intranet.
The IT infrastructure manages the cohabitation of software applications: the
company uses it to operate applications for the office, printing, data backup, for the
corporate IT system, accounting, purchasing, ERP, production facility control, API,
MES, etc. The cohabitation of data on the same communication network does not
pose any particular technological problem.
When several PC’s, printers and servers are connected to one another in the
company’s buildings, very probably using the Ethernet local network and web
services: this company is then immediately eligible to have energy efficiency data
delivered by its electrical cabinets. Without any software development, all they need
is an Internet browser.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Energy saving solutions
The data from these applications cross the local broadband Ethernet network up to
1 Gb/s: the communication media generally used in this world is copper or optic fiber,
which allows connection everywhere, in commercial or industrial buildings and in
electrical premises.
If the company also has an internal Intranet communication network for emailing
and sharing web servers data, it uses an extremely common standardized
communication protocol: TCP/IP.
The TCP/IP communication protocol is designed for widely used web services such
as HTTP to access web pages, SMTP for electronic messaging between other
services.
Applications SNMP
Transport
NTP
RTPS
DHCP
TFTP
FTP
HTTP
UDP
Link
Physical
SMTP
Modbus
TCP
IP
Ethernet 802.3 and Ethernet II
Electrical data recorded in industrial web servers installed in electrical cabinets are
sent using the same standardized TCP/IP protocol in order to limit the recurrent IT
maintenance costs that are intrinsic in an IT network. This is the operating principle
of Schneider Electric Transparent ReadyTM for communication of data on energy
efficiency. The electrical cabinet is autonomous without the need for any additional IT
system on a PC, all of the data related to energy efficiency is recorded and can be
circulated in the usual way via the intranet, GSM, fixed telephone link, etc.
Security
Employees are well informed, more efficient and working in complete electrical
safety: they no longer need to go into electrical rooms or make standard checks
on electrical devices - they just have to consult data. Under these conditions,
communicative systems give the company’s employees immediate and significant
gains and avoid worrying about making mistakes.
It becomes possible for electricians, maintenance or production technicians, on-site
or visiting managers to work together in complete safety.
According to the sensitivity of data, the IT manager will simply give users the
appropriate access rights.
K25
Marginal impact on local network maintenance
The company’s IT manager has technical resources to add and monitor equipment
to the local company network.
Based on standard web services including the Modbus protocol on TCP/IP, and
due to the low level of bandwidth requirement characteristic in electrical network
monitoring systems as well as the use of technologies that are not impacted by
viruses and worldwide IT standards, the IT manager does not have to make any
specific investment to preserve the local network performance level or to protect
against any additional security problems (virus, hacking, etc.).
Empowering external partners
According to the company’s security policy, it becomes possible to use support
services of the usual partners in the electrical sector: contractors, utilities managers,
panelbuilders, systems integrators or Schneider Electric Services can provide
remote assistance and electrical data analysis to the company consuming electricity.
The messaging web service can regularly send data by email or web pages can be
remotely consulted using the appropriate techniques.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
From Network Monitoring and Control System to Intelligent
Power Equipment
Traditionally and for years, monitoring and control systems have been centralized
and based on SCADA (Supervisory, Control and Data acquisition) automation
systems.
Deciding on investing in such system – noted (3) in Figure K25 – was really
reserved for high demanding installation, because either they were big power
consumers, or their process was very sensitive to Power non quality.
Based on automation technology, such systems were very often designed,
customised by a system integrator, and then delivered on site. However the initial
cost, the skills needed to correctly operate such system, and the cost of upgrades to
follow the evolutions of the network may have discouraged potential users to invest.
Then based on a dedicated solution for electrician, the other approach noted (2)
is much more fitting the electrical network specific needs and really increases the
payback of such system. However, due to its centralised architecture, the level cost
of such solution may still appear high.
On some sites Type (2) and (3) can cohabit, providing the most accurate information
to the electrician when needed.
Nowadays, a new concept of intelligent Power equipment – noted (1) – has come.
considered as an entering step for going to level 2 or 3, due the ability of these
solutions to co-exist on a site.
Function
levels
General
purpose
monitoring
system
3
General
purpose
site
monitoring
Eqt gateway
Power
Equipment
K26
Specialised
network
monitoring
Other
utilities
Process
Specialised
monitoring
such as
Power Logic
IONEntreprise
2
Eqt gateway
Power
Equipment
Web browser
standard
1
Basic
monitoring
Eqt server
Intelligent
Power
Equipment
Other
utilities
Standard network
Sensitive electrical networks
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K26 : Monitoring system positioning
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
High demanding sites
System
complexity
4 Energy saving solutions
b Level 1
Intelligent equipment based architecture (see Fig. K26)
This new architecture has appeared recently due to Web technology capabilities, and
can really be positioned as an entry point into monitoring systems.
Based on Web technologies it takes the maximum benefits of standard
communication services and protocols, and license-free software.
The access to electricity information can be done from everywhere in the site, and
electrical staff can gain a lot in efficiency.
Openness to the Internet is also offered for out of the site services.
Standard remote
Web browser
Standard local
Web browser
Internet
Intranet (Ethernet/IP)
Equipment server
Gateway
Intelligence Power Equipment
Modbus
1
2
3
Meter 1
Meter 2
Meter 3
Circuit breakers
K27
Fig. K26 : Intelligent equipment architecture
b Level 2
Electrician specialized centralised architecture (see Fig. K27)
Dedicated to electrician, this architecture is based on a specific supervision
centralised mean that fully match the needs for monitoring an electrical network.
Then it offers naturally a lower level of skill to set up and maintain it – all Electrical
Distribution devices are already present in a dedicated library. Finally its purchase
cost is really minimized, due the low level of system integrator effort.
Dedicated supervisor
for electrician
Modbus (SL or Ethernet/IP)
Communicating Power Equipment
Gateway
Modbus
1
2
Circuit breakers
Fig. K27 : ED specialist monitoring system
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3
Meter 1
Meter 2
Meter 3
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
b Level 3
Conventional general purpose centralised architecture (see Fig. K28)
Here is a typical architecture based on standard automation pieces such as SCADA
systems, and gateways.
This architecture is typically used for high demanding installation which requires high
availability of electricity.
In such case, real time performance is key, either to be achieved automatically or
through 24/7 operation team on site.
In order to comply with very high availability constraint, such system very often
requests to support transparently (i.e with no visible impact) a first fault of system
level components such as the SCADA itself, the communication infrastructure, ...
Energy efficiency is also an important matter, and such solution should offer all the
mean to clearly master the energy consumption and quality on site. Electrical assets
protection is then the 3d main matter, and such solution should offer a mean to
prevent any damage of these very expensive electrical and process assets.
Connectivity with the Process control system is also required, especially through
the remote control of the operating mode of motors (MV and LV). Solutions such as
PowerLogic SCADA (Modbus or IEC 61850 based) appear the most appropriate.
Conventional
supervisor
Modbus (SL or Ethernet/IP)
Communicating Power Equipment
Gateway
Modbus
K28
1
2
3
Meter 1
Meter 2
Meter 3
Circuit breakers
Fig. K28 : Real-time conventional monitoring and control system
e-Support becomes accessible
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The setting up of an information system to support a global energy efficiency
approach very quickly leads to economic gains, in general with an ROI of less than
2 years for electricity.
An additional benefit, that is still underestimated today, is the leverage that this leads
to in terms of information technologies in the electrical sector. The electrical network
can be analyzed from time to time by third parties – in particular using external
competencies via the internet for very specific issues:
b Electricity supply contracts. Changing of supplier at a given point in time, e.g.
permanent economic analysis of the costs related to consumption becomes possible
without having to wait for an annual review.
b Total management of electrical data – via internet – to transform it into relevant
information that is fed back via a personalized web portal. Consumer usage
information is now a value-added commodity, available to a wide range of users. It's
easy to post customer usage data on the Internet – making it useful to the users is
another matter.
b Complex electrical fault diagnosis to call in an electrotechnical expert, a rare
resource that is easily accessible on the web.
b Monitoring of consumption and generating alerts in the case of abnormal
consumption peaks.
b A maintenance service that is no more than necessary to meet pressure on
overheads via facility management services.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Energy saving solutions
Energy efficiency is no longer an issue that the company has to face on its own,
many e-partners can back up the approach as necessary – in particular when the
measurement and decision making assistance stage is reached, on condition that
the electrical network is metered and communicative via internet.
Implementation can be gradual starting by making a few key pieces of equipment
communicative and gradually extending the system so as to be more accurate or to
give wider coverage of the installation.
The company can choose its policy: ask one or more partners to analyze the data,
do it itself or combine these options.
The company may decide to manage its electrical energy itself, or ask a partner to
monitor the quality to ensure active monitoring of performances in terms of aging.
Example:
Schneider Electric proposes e-Services that offers load data visualization and analysis
application in ASP mode. It simplifies processes for tenants with geographically diverse locations
by providing convenient integrated billing and usage information for all locations combined.
The system turns customer usage data into useful information, easily accessible to all internal
users. It helps control costs by showing customers how their organizations use power.
A wide range of functionality serves the needs of staff from the same platform:
Data Access and Analysis , Historical and Estimated Bills, Rate Comparison, What-if Analysis
- Assess the impact of operational changes, such as shifting energy between time periods or
reducing usage by fixed amounts or percentages, Automatic Alarming, Memorized Reports,
Benchmarking - Benchmark usage data from multiple facilities by applying normalization factors
such as square footage, operating hours, and units of production. Multiple Commodities - Access
usage data for gas and water as well as electricity etc.
New York
Chicago
Los Angeles
Seattle
K29
Ethernet/VPN Ethernet/VPN
Weather info
WEB
Utility tariffs & rates
WEB
Real-time pricing
Electricity
Water & Gas
Power Quality
XML
Reports
Energy Cost
Analysis
Normalize data using:
- Temperature
- Occupancy rates
- Rooms
- Other parameters
Corporate
Database
ODBC
Stores data including:
- Occupancy rates
- Square footage
- Other parameters
Fig. K29 : Typical solution example
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical installations
4 Energy saving solutions
4.9 Mapping of solutions:
Energy savings
Variable speed drives
High efficiency motors
and transformers
MV motor supply
Power factor correction
Harmonic management
Configuration of circuits
Back-up generators
UPS (see page N11)
Soft starters
Protection coordination
iMCC
Intelligent Equipment
based architecture
Level 1
Electrician specialized
centralised architecture
Level 2
Conventional general
purpose centralised
architecture
Level 3
Fig. K31 : Mapping of solutions
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K30
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Cost optimization
Availability &
Reliability
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
5 How to value energy savings
IPMVP (International Performance
Measurement & Verification Protocol) is a
methodology to value the energetic savings.
Certain information in this chapter is taken from
the IPMVP guide volume 1 published by EVO
www.evo-world.org
5.1 Introduction to IPMVP and EVO
Today, the interest in energy efficiency project, for whatever purpose, industrial or
public, has never been greater. It is noticed that one of the most important barriers
to a widespread implementation of energy efficiency projects is the lack of reliable
and commercially-viable financing result. The more we invest for a project, the bigger
the need for a reliable proof is. Therefore, there is a continuing need for standard
methods to quantify the results of energy efficiency investments.
That’s why Efficiency Valuation Organization (EVO) published IPMVP: International
Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol, a guidance document
describing common practice in measuring, computing and reporting savings
achieved by energy efficiency projects at end user facilities.
The first edition of IPMVP was published in March 1996 and the second in 2004.
Until now, EVO has published three volumes of IPMVP:
b Volume I : Concepts and Options for Determining Energy and Water Savings
b Volume II : Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) Issues
b Volume III : Applications
The first volume is used by Schneider Electric in energy efficiency projects.
This publication provides methods, with different levels of cost and accuracy, for
determining savings either for the whole facility or for the energy efficiency action
only.
IPMVP also specifies the contents of a Measurement and Verification Plan
(M&V Plan) which defines all activities necessary to demonstrate the short-term
performance of an industrial retrofit project and its result.
5.2 Principles and options of IPMVP
Principle of IPMVP
K31
Energy
Use
Adjusted
baseline
energy
Baseline
energy
Inreased
production
Savings
Reporting period
Measured energy
Solution
installation
Baseline period
Reporting period
Time
Before the installation of energy efficiency solution, a certain time interval is studied
to determine the relationship between energy use and conditions of production,
this period is called baseline. We can do the measurement during this time or
more simply use the energy bill of the plant. Following the installation, this baseline
relationship was used to estimate how much energy the plant would have used if
there had been no solution (called the “adjusted-baseline energy”). The savings
is the difference between the adjusted-baseline energy and the energy that was
actually metered during the reporting period.
Savings = (Adjusted Baseline Period Use or Demand - Reporting-Period Use or
Demand)
Or
Savings = Baseline Period Use or Demand - Reporting-Period Use or Demand
± Adjustments
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. K31 : Principle of baseline definition
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
5 How to value energy savings
5.3 Six qualities of IPMVP
When an M&V plan is drawn up for an IPMVP action, it must guarantee six
principles:
b Accurate: M&V reports should be as accurate as the M&V budget will allow. M&V
costs should normally be small relative to the monetary value of the savings being
evaluated.
b Complete: The reporting of energy savings should consider all effects of a project.
b Conservative: Where judgements are made about uncertain quantities, M&V
procedures should be designed to under-estimate savings.
b Consistent: The reporting of a project’s energy effectiveness should be consistent
between:
v different types of energy efficiency projects;
v different energy management professionals for any one project;
v different periods of time for the same project;
v and energy efficiency projects and new energy supply projects.
b Relevant: The determination of savings should measure the performance
parameters of concern, or least well known, while other less critical or predictable
parameters may be estimated.
b Transparent: All M&V activities should be clearly and fully disclosed.
5.4 IPMVP’s options
Option A
Option B
Option C
Option D
Definition
Retrofit isolation: key
parameter measurement
Retrofit isolation: all parameter
measurement
Whole facility
Calibrated simulation
Description
Savings are determined by
field measurement of the key
performance parameter(s)
which define the energy use
of the system affected by the
energy efficiency solution.
Parameters not selected
for field measurement are
estimated.
Savings are determined by field
measurement of the energy
use of the system affected by
the solution.
Savings are determined by
measuring energy use at
the whole facility or subfacility level. Continuous
measurements of the entire
facility’s energy use are taken
throughout the reporting period.
Savings are determined
through simulation of the
energy use of the whole facility,
or of a sub-facility. Simulation
routines are demonstrated
to adequately model actual
energy performance measured
in the facility.
Calculation of savings
Engineering calculation of
baseline and reporting period
energy from:
- short-term or continuous
measurements of key operating
parameter(s); and
- estimated values.
Short-term or continuous
measurements of baseline and
reporting period energy
Analysis of whole facility
baseline and reporting period
data.
Routine adjustments are
required, using techniques
such as simple comparison or
regression analysis.
Energy use simulation,
calibrated with hourly or
monthly utility billing data.
When use this option?
On one hand, this option can
give a result with considerable
uncertainty because of the
estimation of some parameters.
On the other hand, it is not
expensive compared to the
option B.
Option B is less cheap than
option A as all parameters are
measured. But if a customer
asks for a high precision level,
it would be a good choice.
When there is a multifaceted
energy management program
affecting many systems in a
facility, a choice of option C can
help in saving money and work.
Option D is used only when
the baseline data is missed.
Example: a facility where no
meter existed before solution’s
installation and the measure of
the baseline period takes too
much time and money.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K32
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
5 How to value energy savings
Option selection process
Start
ECM
performance
Facility
performance
Measure facility or
ECM performance?
Able to isolate
ECM with
meter(s)?
No
Expected
savings >10%?
No
Yes
Yes
Need full
perfomance
demonstration?
No
No
Need to
separately assess
each ECM?
Analysis of
main meter
data
Yes
Install isolation
meters for all
parameters and
assess interactive
effects
Missing baseline
or reporting period
data?
Simulate
system or
facility
Install isolation meters
for key parameters
assess interactive effects,
and estimate well know
parameters
Missing baseline
or reporting period
data?
Obtain
calibration
data
Calibrate
simulation
Yes
Simulate with and
without ECM(s)
No
Yes
Yes
K33
No
Option B
Retrofit isolation:
All parameter
measurement
Option A
Retrofit isolation:
Key parameter
measurement
Option C
Whole facility
Option D
Calibrated
simulation
Fig. K32 : Option selection process
5.5 Fundamental points of an M&V plan
b Energy efficiency project’s intent
b Selected IPMVP option and measurement boundary
b Baseline: period, energy and conditions
b Reporting period : duration and condition
b Basis for adjustment
b Analysis procedure: the data analysis procedures, algorithms and assumptions to
be used.
b Energy prices
b Meter specifications
b Monitoring responsibilities
b Expected accuracy
b Budget for IPMVP activities
b Report format
b Quality assurance
Our services with IPMVP
Sign the
energetic
performance
contract
Establish
an M&V
plan
Collect the
baseline
information
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Project
installation
Measure the reporting,
report information and
calculate the savings
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
6 From returns on investment to
sustained performance
Once energy audits have been conducted and energy savings measures are put
in place with quantified return, it is imperative to implement follow up actions to
sustain performance. Without an ongoing cycle of continuous improvement, energy
performance tends to revert to a level close to that before the implementation of
savings measures.
Energy Performance Curve
Savings with On-going Services
Savings without proper O&M
Energy Audit
& Consulting
Energy
Conservation
Measures
Services
Contact
The continuous improvement cycle requires the existence, productive use and
maintenance of a power monitoring system. Such system will be used for proactive on-going analysis of site energy usage, as well as recommendations for
improvements to the electrical distribution system. In order to ensure optimal
performance of such system and the best use of the collected data, it is industry
common practice to perform the technical and operational services described below.
Schneider Electric experts can deliver such services upon request.
K34
6.1 Technical support services
Power Monitoring systems which are not actively maintained tend to deteriorate for a
variety of reasons.
b The software can lose communications with devices resulting in lost data.
b During the life of any software product upgrades, service packs and patches are
released to address issues such as: uncovered bugs, operating system software
updates, new hardware product support etc.
b Databases which are not maintained can become very large, unwieldy and even
corrupt.
b The electrical distribution system itself may be changing so that the power
monitoring system no longer matches it.
b Firmware updates for hardware devices are released periodically to address bugs
or provide improved or additional functionality.
Remote services
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Support is provided by email, telephone and VPN or other remote connection from
the support center to the customer’s server. Typical services available include:
b Toll free hotline for troubleshooting assistance
b Senior support representative assigned to site
b Free software upgrades during the contract validity
b Periodic remote system checks, maintenance and reporting
b Remote software upgrades
b 24/7 telephonic support
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
6 From returns on investment to
sustained performance
On site services
Monthly, quarterly, biannual or annual (as agreed) site visits for system maintenance.
Typical services provided are:
b Install all PowerLogic software upgrades
b Perform firmware upgrades to all PowerLogic monitoring devices
b System troubleshooting to the device level
b Modification of graphic screens per customer input
b Modification of alarms and data logs per customer input
b Reconfiguration of system to match changes to the electrical distribution system
6.2 Operational support services
These contracts are designed to meet the need for energy analysis and improvement
recommendations.
Hosted systems
In this scenario the user’s usage data is pushed to a Schneider Electric hosted
server. The user accesses his information via a web browser. Typical information
made available is the following:
b Energy consumption data
b Carbon emissions data
b Degree day analysis
b Normalized performance indicators
b Regression analysis
b CUSUM analysis (Cumulative Sum)
On site systems
Here the user has a server at one or multiple sites. Different software packages can
be in use depending on the need. The services include all the reports offered in the
hosted system plus the following:
b An up front site energy audit with improvement recommendations
b Direct line to an energy consultant
b Periodic data analysis, reporting and recommendations (monthly, quarterly,
biannual or annual as required)
b Consolidated data from multiple facilities
b Load profiles
b Power quality reporting
K35
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
K - Energy Efficiency in electrical distribution
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter L
Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
Contents
1
Reactive energy and power factor
L2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
L2
L2
L3
L4
2
3
Why to improve the power factor?
L5
2.1 Reduction in the cost of electricity
2.2 Technical/economic optimization
L5
L5
How to improve the power factor?
L7
3.1 Theoretical principles
3.2 By using what equipment?
3.3 The choice between a fixed or automatically-regulated bank
of capacitors
L7
L7
L9
4
Where to install power factor correction capacitors?
L10
4.1 Global compensation
4.2 Compensation by sector
4.3 Individual compensation
L10
L10
L11
5
How to decide the optimum level of compensation?
L12
5.1 General method
5.2 Simplified method
5.3 Method based on the avoidance of tariff penalties
5.4 Method based on reduction of declared maximum apparent
power (kVA)
L12
L12
L14
6
7
8
9
Compensation at the terminals of a transformer
L15
6.1 Compensation to increase the available active power output
6.2 Compensation of reactive energy absorbed by the transformer
L15
L16
Power factor correction of induction motors
L18
7.1 Connection of a capacitor bank and protection settings
7.2 How self-excitation of an induction motor can be avoided
L18
L19
Example of an installation before and
after power-factor correction
L20
The effects of harmonics
L21
9.1 Problems arising from power-system harmonics
9.2 Possible solutions
9.3 Choosing the optimum solution
L21
L21
L23
10
Implementation of capacitor banks
L24
10.1 Capacitor elements
10.2 Choice of protection, control devices and connecting cables
L24
L25
L14
L1
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The nature of reactive energy
Equipment and appliances requiring reactive energy
The power factor
Practical values of power factor
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
1 Reactive energy and power
factor
Alternating current systems supply two forms of
energy:
b “Active” energy measured in kilowatt hours
(kWh) which is converted into mechanical work,
heat, light, etc
b “Reactive” energy, which again takes two
forms:
v “Reactive” energy required by inductive
circuits (transformers, motors, etc.),
v “Reactive” energy supplied by capacitive
circuits (cable capacitance, power capacitors,
etc)
1.1 The nature of reactive energy
All inductive (i.e. electromagnetic) machines and devices that operate on AC systems
convert electrical energy from the power system generators into mechanical work
and heat. This energy is measured by kWh meters, and is referred to as “active”
or “wattful” energy. In order to perform this conversion, magnetic fields have to be
established in the machines, and these fields are associated with another form of
energy to be supplied from the power system, known as “reactive” or “wattless”
energy.
The reason for this is that inductive circuit cyclically absorbs energy from the system
(during the build-up of the magnetic fields) and re-injects that energy into the system
(during the collapse of the magnetic fields) twice in every power-frequency cycle.
An exactly similar phenomenon occurs with shunt capacitive elements in a power
system, such as cable capacitance or banks of power capacitors, etc. In this case,
energy is stored electrostatically. The cyclic charging and discharging of capacitive
circuit reacts on the generators of the system in the same manner as that described
above for inductive circuit, but the current flow to and from capacitive circuit in exact
phase opposition to that of the inductive circuit. This feature is the basis on which
power factor correction schemes depend.
It should be noted that while this “wattless” current (more accurately, the “wattless”
component of a load current) does not draw power from the system, it does cause
power losses in transmission and distribution systems by heating the conductors.
In practical power systems, “wattless” components of load currents are invariably
inductive, while the impedances of transmission and distribution systems are
predominantly inductively reactive. The combination of inductive current passing
through an inductive reactance produces the worst possible conditions of voltage
drop (i.e. in direct phase opposition to the system voltage).
For these reasons (transmission power losses and voltage drop), the power-supply
authorities reduce the amount of “wattless” (inductive) current as much as possible.
“Wattless” (capacitive) currents have the reverse effect on voltage levels and produce
voltage-rises in power systems.
The power (kW) associated with “active” energy is usually represented by the letter P.
The reactive power (kvar) is represented by Q. Inductively-reactive power is
conventionally positive (+ Q) while capacitively-reactive power is shown as a
negative quantity (- Q).
The apparent power S (kVA) is a combination of P and Q (see Fig. L1).
L2
Sub-clause 1.3 shows the relationship between P, Q, and S.
S
(kVA)
Q
(kvar)
P
(kW)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. L1 : An electric motor requires active power P and reactive power Q from the power system
1.2 Equipement and appliances requiring reactive
energy
Fig. L2 : Power consuming items that also require reactive
energy
All AC equipement and appliances that include electromagnetic devices, or depend
on magnetically-coupled windings, require some degree of reactive current to create
magnetic flux.
The most common items in this class are transformers and reactors, motors and
discharge lamps (with magnetic ballasts) (see Fig. L2).
The proportion of reactive power (kvar) with respect to active power (kW) when an
item of equipement is fully loaded varies according to the item concerned being:
b 65-75% for asynchronous motors
b 5-10% for transformers
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
The power factor is the ratio of kW to kVA.
The closer the power factor approaches its
maximum possible value of 1, the greater the
benefit to consumer and supplier.
PF = P (kW) / S (kVA)
P = Active power
S = Apparent power
1 Reactive energy and power
factor
1.3 The power factor
Definition of power factor
The power factor of a load, which may be a single power-consuming item, or a
number of items (for example an entire installation), is given by the ratio of P/S i.e.
kW divided by kVA at any given moment.
The value of a power factor will range from 0 to 1.
If currents and voltages are perfectly sinusoidal signals, power factor equals cos ϕ.
A power factor close to unity means that the reactive energy is small compared with
the active energy, while a low value of power factor indicates the opposite condition.
Power vector diagram
b Active power P (in kW)
v Single phase (1 phase and neutral): P = V I cos ϕ
v Single phase (phase to phase): P = U I cos ϕ
v Three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): P = 3U I cos ϕ
b Reactive power Q (in kvar)
v Single phase (1 phase and neutral): P = V I sin ϕ
v Single phase (phase to phase): Q = U I sin ϕ
v Three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): P = 3 U I sin ϕ
b Apparent power S (in kVA)
v Single phase (1 phase and neutral): S = V I
v Single phase (phase to phase): S = U I
v Three phase (3 wires or 3 wires + neutral): P = 3 U I
where:
V = Voltage between phase and neutral
U = Voltage between phases
I = Line current
ϕ = Phase angle between vectors V and I.
v For balanced and near-balanced loads on 4-wire systems
Current and voltage vectors, and derivation of the power diagram
The power “vector” diagram is a useful artifice, derived directly from the true rotating
vector diagram of currents and voltage, as follows:
The power-system voltages are taken as the reference quantities, and one phase
only is considered on the assumption of balanced 3-phase loading.
The reference phase voltage (V) is co-incident with the horizontal axis, and the
current (I) of that phase will, for practically all power-system loads, lag the voltage by
an angle ϕ.
L3
The component of I which is in phase with V is the “wattful” component of I and is
equal to I cos ϕ, while VI cos ϕ equals the active power (in kW) in the circuit, if V is
expressed in kV.
The component of I which lags 90 degrees behind V is the wattless component of
I and is equal to I sin ϕ, while VI sin ϕ equals the reactive power (in kvar) in the
circuit, if V is expressed in kV.
If the vector I is multiplied by V, expressed in kV, then VI equals the apparent power
(in kVA) for the circuit.
The simple formula is obtained: S2 = P2 + Q2
The above kW, kvar and kVA values per phase, when multiplied by 3, can therefore
conveniently represent the relationships of kVA, kW, kvar and power factor for a total
3-phase load, as shown in Figure L3 .
ϕ
V
P = VI cos ϕ (kW)
S = VI (kVA)
Q = VI sin ϕ (kvar)
Fig. L3 : Power diagram
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P = Active power
Q = Reactive power
S = Apparent power
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
1 Reactive energy and power
factor
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
An example of power calculations (see Fig. L4 )
Type of
circuit
Apparent power Active power
S (kVA)
P (kW)
Single-phase (phase and neutral)
S = VI
Single-phase (phase to phase)
Example
5 kW of load
cos ϕ = 0.5
S = UI
10 kVA
Three phase 3-wires or 3-wires + neutral S = 3 UI
Example
Motor Pn = 51 kW
65 kVA
cos ϕ = 0.86
ρ = 0.91 (motor efficiency)
P = VI cos ϕ
P = UI cos ϕ
5 kW
Reactive power
Q (kvar)
Q = VI sin ϕ
Q = UI sin ϕ
8.7 kvar
P = 3 UI cos ϕ Q = 3 UI sin ϕ
56 kW
33 kvar
Fig. L4 : Example in the calculation of active and reactive power
1.4 Practical values of power factor
The calculations for the three-phase example above are as follows:
Pn = delivered shaft power = 51 kW
P = active power consumed
Pn
51
P=
=
= 56 kW
ρ 0.91
S = apparent power
P
56
S=
=
= 65 kVA
cos ϕ 0.86
So that, on referring to diagram Figure L5 or using a pocket calculator, the value of
tan ϕ corresponding to a cos ϕ of 0.86 is found to be 0.59
Q = P tan ϕ = 56 x 0.59 = 33 kvar (see Figure L15).
Alternatively
Q = S2 - P2 = 652 - 562 = 33 kvar
L4
Average power factor values for the most commonly-used equipment and
appliances (see Fig. L6)
Equipment and appliances
b Common
loaded at
induction motor
ϕ
P = 56 kW
Q = 33 kvar
S=
65
kV
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
A
Fig. L5 : Calculation power diagram
0%
25%
50%
75%
100%
b Incandescent lamps
b Fluorescent lamps (uncompensated)
b Fluorescent lamps (compensated)
b Discharge lamps
b Ovens using resistance elements
b Induction heating ovens (compensated)
b Dielectric type heating ovens
b Resistance-type soldering machines
b Fixed 1-phase arc-welding set
b Arc-welding motor-generating set
b Arc-welding transformer-rectifier set
b Arc furnace
cos ϕ
0.17
0.55
0.73
0.80
0.85
1.0
0.5
0.93
0.4 to 0.6
1.0
0.85
0.85
0.8 to 0.9
0.5
0.7 to 0.9
0.7 to 0.8
0.8
Fig. L6 : Values of cos ϕ and tan ϕ for commonly-used equipment
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
tan ϕ
5.80
1.52
0.94
0.75
0.62
0
1.73
0.39
2.29 to 1.33
0
0.62
0.62
0.75 to 0.48
1.73
1.02 to 0.48
1.02 to 0.75
0.75
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
2 Why to improve the power
factor?
An improvement of the power factor of an
installation presents several technical and
economic advantages, notably in the reduction
of electricity bills
2.1 Reduction in the cost of electricity
Good management in the consumption of reactive energy brings economic
advantages.
These notes are based on an actual tariff structure commonly applied in Europe,
designed to encourage consumers to minimize their consumption of reactive energy.
The installation of power-factor correction capacitors on installations permits the
consumer to reduce his electricity bill by maintaining the level of reactive-power
consumption below a value contractually agreed with the power supply authority.
In this particular tariff, reactive energy is billed according to the tan ϕ criterion.
As previously noted:
tan ϕ =
Q (kvarh)
P (kWh)
The power supply authority delivers reactive energy for free:
b If the reactive energy represents less than 40% of the active energy (tan ϕ < 0.4)
for a maximum period of 16 hours each day (from 06-00 h to 22-00 h) during the
most-heavily loaded period (often in winter)
b Without limitation during light-load periods in winter, and in spring and summer.
During the periods of limitation, reactive energy consumption exceeding 40% of
the active energy (i.e. tan ϕ > 0.4) is billed monthly at the current rates. Thus, the
quantity of reactive energy billed in these periods will be:
kvarh (to be billed) = kWh (tan ϕ > 0.4) where:
v kWh is the active energy consumed during the periods of limitation
v kWh tan ϕ is the total reactive energy during a period of limitation
v 0.4 kWh is the amount of reactive energy delivered free during a period of
limitation
tan ϕ = 0.4 corresponds to a power factor of 0.93 so that, if steps are taken to ensure
that during the limitation periods the power factor never falls below 0.93,
the consumer will have nothing to pay for the reactive power consumed.
Against the financial advantages of reduced billing, the consumer must balance
the cost of purchasing, installing and maintaining the power factor improvement
capacitors and controlling switchgear, automatic control equipment (where stepped
levels of compensation are required) together with the additional kWh consumed by
the dielectric losses of the capacitors, etc. It may be found that it is more economic
to provide partial compensation only, and that paying for some of the reactive energy
consumed is less expensive than providing 100% compensation.
The question of power-factor correction is a matter of optimization, except in very
simple cases.
2.2 Technical/economic optimization
A high power factor allows the optimization of the components of an installation.
Overating of certain equipment can be avoided, but to achieve the best results, the
correction should be effected as close to the individual inductive items as possible.
Reduction of cable size
Figure L7 shows the required increase in the size of cables as the power factor is
reduced from unity to 0.4, for the same active power transmitted.
Multiplying factor
for the cross-sectional
area of the cable core(s)
cos ϕ
1
1.25
1.67
2.5
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
Fig. L7 : Multiplying factor for cable size as a function of cos ϕ
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Power factor improvement allows the use of
smaller transformers, switchgear and cables,
etc. as well as reducing power losses and
voltage drop in an installation
L5
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
2 Why to improve the power
factor?
Reduction of losses (P, kW) in cables
Losses in cables are proportional to the current squared, and are measured by the
kWh meter of the installation. Reduction of the total current in a conductor by 10% for
example, will reduce the losses by almost 20%.
Reduction of voltage drop
Power factor correction capacitors reduce or even cancel completely the (inductive)
reactive current in upstream conductors, thereby reducing or eliminating voltage
drops.
Note: Over compensation will produce a voltage rise at the capacitor level.
Increase in available power
By improving the power factor of a load supplied from a transformer, the current
through the transformer will be reduced, thereby allowing more load to be added. In
practice, it may be less expensive to improve the power factor (1), than to replace the
transformer by a larger unit.
This matter is further elaborated in clause 6.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
L6
(1) Since other benefits are obtained from a high value of
power factor, as previously noted.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
3 How to improve the power factor?
Improving the power factor of an installation
requires a bank of capacitors which acts as a
source of reactive energy. This arrangement is
said to provide reactive energy compensation
a) Reactive current components only flow pattern
IL - IC
IC
C
IL
IL
R
L
Load
IC
C
IL
IL
R
L
Load
c) With load current added to case (b)
IR
IC
C
IL IR
IR + IL
L
An inductive load having a low power factor requires the generators and
transmission/distribution systems to pass reactive current (lagging the system
voltage by 90 degrees) with associated power losses and exaggerated voltage
drops, as noted in sub-clause 1.1. If a bank of shunt capacitors is added to the
load, its (capacitive) reactive current will take the same path through the power
system as that of the load reactive current. Since, as pointed out in sub-clause
1.1, this capacitive current Ic (which leads the system voltage by 90 degrees) is
in direct phase opposition to the load reactive current (IL), the two components
flowing through the same path will cancel each other, such that if the capacitor bank
is sufficiently large and Ic = IL there will be no reactive current flow in the system
upstream of the capacitors.
This is indicated in Figure L8 (a) and (b) which show the flow of the reactive
components of current only.
In this figure:
R represents the active-power elements of the load
L represents the (inductive) reactive-power elements of the load
C represents the (capacitive) reactive-power elements of the power-factor correction
equipment (i.e. capacitors).
It will be seen from diagram (b) of Figure L9, that the capacitor bank C appears
to be supplying all the reactive current of the load. For this reason, capacitors are
sometimes referred to as “generators of lagging vars”.
In diagram (c) of Figure L9, the active-power current component has been added,
and shows that the (fully-compensated) load appears to the power system as having
a power factor of 1.
b) When IC = IL, all reactive power is supplied from the
capacitor bank
IL - IC = 0
3.1 Theoretical principles
R
In general, it is not economical to fully compensate an installation.
Figure L9 uses the power diagram discussed in sub-clause 1.3 (see Fig. L3) to
illustrate the principle of compensation by reducing a large reactive power Q to a
smaller value Q’ by means of a bank of capacitors having a reactive power Qc.
In doing so, the magnitude of the apparent power S is seen to reduce to S’.
Example:
A motor consumes 100 kW at a power factor of 0.75 (i.e. tan ϕ = 0.88). To improve
the power factor to 0.93 (i.e. tan ϕ = 0.4), the reactive power of the capacitor bank
must be : Qc = 100 (0.88 - 0.4) = 48 kvar
The selected level of compensation and the calculation of rating for the capacitor
bank depend on the particular installation. The factors requiring attention are
explained in a general way in clause 5, and in clauses 6 and 7 for transformers and
motors.
Load
Fig. L8 : Showing the essential features of power-factor
correction
L7
Note: Before starting a compensation project, a number of precautions should be
observed. In particular, oversizing of motors should be avoided, as well as the noload running of motors. In this latter condition, the reactive energy consumed by a
motor results in a very low power factor (≈ 0.17); this is because the kW taken by the
motor (when it is unloaded) are very small.
P
ϕ' ϕ
Q'
S'
Q
3.2 By using what equipment?
Compensation at LV
Qc
Fig. L9 : Diagram showing the principle of compensation:
Qc = P (tan ϕ - tan ϕ’)
At low voltage, compensation is provided by:
b Fixed-value capacitor
b Equipment providing automatic regulation, or banks which allow continuous
adjustment according to requirements, as loading of the installation changes
Note: When the installed reactive power of compensation exceeds 800 kvar, and the
load is continuous and stable, it is often found to be economically advantageous to
instal capacitor banks at the medium voltage level.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
S
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
Compensation can be carried out by a
fixed value of capacitance in favourable
circumstances
3 How to improve the power factor?
Fixed capacitors (see Fig. L10)
This arrangement employs one or more capacitor(s) to form a constant level of
compensation. Control may be:
b Manual: by circuit-breaker or load-break switch
b Semi-automatic: by contactor
b Direct connection to an appliance and switched with it
These capacitors are applied:
b At the terminals of inductive devices (motors and transformers)
b At busbars supplying numerous small motors and inductive appliance for which
individual compensation would be too costly
b In cases where the level of load is reasonably constant
Fig. L10 : Example of fixed-value compensation capacitors
Compensation is more-commonly effected by
means of an automatically-controlled stepped
bank of capacitors
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
L8
Automatic capacitor banks (see Fig. L11)
This kind of equipment provides automatic control of compensation, maintaining the
power factor within close limits around a selected level. Such equipment is applied at
points in an installation where the active-power and/or reactive-power variations are
relatively large, for example:
b At the busbars of a general power distribution board
b At the terminals of a heavily-loaded feeder cable
Fig. L11 : Example of automatic-compensation-regulating equipment
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
3 How to improve the power factor?
Automatically-regulated banks of capacitors
allow an immediate adaptation of compensation
to match the level of load
The principles of, and reasons, for using automatic
compensation
A bank of capacitors is divided into a number of sections, each of which is controlled
by a contactor. Closure of a contactor switches its section into parallel operation with
other sections already in service. The size of the bank can therefore be increased or
decreased in steps, by the closure and opening of the controlling contactors.
A control relay monitors the power factor of the controlled circuit(s) and is arranged
to close and open appropriate contactors to maintain a reasonably constant
system power factor (within the tolerance imposed by the size of each step of
compensation). The current transformer for the monitoring relay must evidently
be placed on one phase of the incoming cable which supplies the circuit(s) being
controlled, as shown in Figure L12.
A Varset Fast capacitor bank is an automatic power factor correction equipment
including static contactors (thyristors) instead of usual contactors. Static correction
is particularly suitable for a certain number of installations using equipment with fast
cycle and/or sensitive to transient surges.
The advantages of static contactors are :
b Immediate response to all power factor fluctuation (response time 2 s or 40 ms
according to regulator option)
b Unlimited number of operations
b Elimination of transient phenomena on the network on capacitor switching
b Fully silent operation
By closely matching compensation to that required by the load, the possibility of
producing overvoltages at times of low load will be avoided, thereby preventing
an overvoltage condition, and possible damage to appliances and equipment.
Overvoltages due to excessive reactive compensation depend partly on the value of
source impedance.
CT In / 5 A cl 1
Varmetric
relay
L9
Fig. L12 : The principle of automatic-compensation control
3.3 The choice between a fixed or automaticallyregulated bank of capacitors
Where the kvar rating of the capacitors is less than, or equal to 15% of the supply
transformer rating, a fixed value of compensation is appropriate. Above the 15%
level, it is advisable to install an automatically-controlled bank of capacitors.
The location of low-voltage capacitors in an installation constitutes the mode of
compensation, which may be global (one location for the entire installation), partial
(section-by-section), local (at each individual device), or some combination of the
latter two. In principle, the ideal compensation is applied at a point of consumption
and at the level required at any instant.
In practice, technical and economic factors govern the choice.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Commonly-applied rules
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
4 Where to install correction
capacitors?
4.1 Global compensation (see Fig. L13)
Where a load is continuous and stable, global
compensation can be applied
Principle
The capacitor bank is connected to the busbars of the main LV distribution board for
the installation, and remains in service during the period of normal load.
Advantages
The global type of compensation:
b Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars
b Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing charges are usually
based
b Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if
necessary
Comments
b Reactive current still flows in all conductors of cables leaving (i.e. downstream of)
the main LV distribution board
b For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and power losses in them, are
not improved by the global mode of compensation.
no.1
M
M
M
M
L10
Fig. L13 : Global compensation
Compensation by sector is recommended
when the installation is extensive, and where the
load/time patterns differ from one part of
the installation to another
4.2 Compensation by sector (see Fig. L14)
Principle
Capacitor banks are connected to busbars of each local distribution board, as shown
in Figure L14.
A significant part of the installation benefits from this arrangement, notably the feeder
cables from the main distribution board to each of the local distribution boards at
which the compensation measures are applied.
Advantages
The compensation by sector:
b Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars
b Reduces the apparent power kVA demand, on which standing charges are usually
based
b Relieves the supply transformer, which is then able to accept more load if
necessary
b The size of the cables supplying the local distribution boards may be reduced, or
will have additional capacity for possible load increases
b Losses in the same cables will be reduced
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
no. 1
no. 2
no. 2
M
M
Fig. L14 : Compensation by sector
M
M
Comments
b Reactive current still flows in all cables downstream of the local distribution boards
b For the above reason, the sizing of these cables, and the power losses in them,
are not improved by compensation by sector
b Where large changes in loads occur, there is always a risk of overcompensation
and consequent overvoltage problems
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
4 Where to install correction
capacitors?
Individual compensation should be considered
when the power of motor is significant with
respect to power of the installation
4.3 Individual compensation
Principle
Capacitors are connected directly to the terminals of inductive circuit (notably motors,
see further in Clause 7). Individual compensation should be considered when the
power of the motor is significant with respect to the declared power requirement
(kVA) of the installation.
The kvar rating of the capacitor bank is in the order of 25% of the kW rating of the
motor. Complementary compensation at the origin of the installation (transformer)
may also be beneficial.
Advantages
Individual compensation:
b Reduces the tariff penalties for excessive consumption of kvars
b Reduces the apparent power kVA demand
b Reduces the size of all cables as well as the cable losses
Comments
b Significant reactive currents no longer exist in the installation
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
L11
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
5 How to decide the optimum level
of compensation?
5.1 General method
Listing of reactive power demands at the design stage
This listing can be made in the same way (and at the same time) as that for the
power loading described in chapter A. The levels of active and reactive power
loading, at each level of the installation (generally at points of distribution and subdistribution of circuits) can then be determined.
Technical-economic optimization for an existing installation
The optimum rating of compensation capacitors for an existing installation can be
determined from the following principal considerations:
b Electricity bills prior to the installation of capacitors
b Future electricity bills anticipated following the installation of capacitors
b Costs of:
v Purchase of capacitors and control equipment (contactors, relaying, cabinets, etc.)
v Installation and maintenance costs
v Cost of dielectric heating losses in the capacitors, versus reduced losses in cables,
transformer, etc., following the installation of capacitors
Several simplified methods applied to typical tariffs (common in Europe) are shown
in sub-clauses 5.3 and 5.4.
5.2 Simplified method
General principle
An approximate calculation is generally adequate for most practical cases, and may
be based on the assumption of a power factor of 0.8 (lagging) before compensation.
In order to improve the power factor to a value sufficient to avoid tariff penalties (this
depends on local tariff structures, but is assumed here to be 0.93) and to reduce
losses, volt-drops, etc. in the installation, reference can be made to Figure L15 next
page.
From the figure, it can be seen that, to raise the power factor of the installation from
0.8 to 0.93 will require 0.355 kvar per kW of load. The rating of a bank of capacitors
at the busbars of the main distribution board of the installation would be
Q (kvar) = 0.355 x P (kW).
L12
This simple approach allows a rapid determination of the compensation capacitors
required, albeit in the global, partial or independent mode.
Example
It is required to improve the power factor of a 666 kVA installation from 0.75 to 0.928.
The active power demand is 666 x 0.75 = 500 kW.
In Figure L15, the intersection of the row cos ϕ = 0.75 (before correction) with
the column cos ϕ = 0.93 (after correction) indicates a value of 0.487 kvar of
compensation per kW of load.
For a load of 500 kW, therefore, 500 x 0.487 = 244 kvar of capacitive compensation
is required.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Note: this method is valid for any voltage level, i.e. is independent of voltage.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
Before
compensation
tan ϕ
2.29
2.22
2.16
2.10
2.04
1.98
1.93
1.88
1.83
1.78
1.73
1.69
1.64
1.60
1.56
1.52
1.48
1.44
1.40
1.37
1.33
1.30
1.27
1.23
1.20
1.17
1.14
1.11
1.08
1.05
1.02
0.99
0.96
0.94
0.91
0.88
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.78
0.75
0.72
0.70
0.67
0.65
0.62
0.59
0.57
0.54
0.51
0.48
cos ϕ
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.43
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.51
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
5 How to decide the optimum level
of compensation?
kvar rating of capacitor bank to install per kW of load, to improve cos ϕ (the power factor) or tan ϕ,
to a given value
tan ϕ
cos ϕ
0.75
0.59
0.48
0.46
0.43
0.40
0.36
0.33
0.29
0.25
0.20
0.14
0.80
1.557
1.474
1.413
1.356
1.290
1.230
1.179
1.130
1.076
1.030
0.982
0.936
0.894
0.850
0.809
0.769
0.730
0.692
0.665
0.618
0.584
0.549
0.515
0.483
0.450
0.419
0.388
0.358
0.329
0.299
0.270
0.242
0.213
0.186
0.159
0.132
0.105
0.079
0.053
0.026
0.86
1.691
1.625
1.561
1.499
1.441
1.384
1.330
1.278
1.228
1.179
1.232
1.087
1.043
1.000
0.959
0.918
0.879
0.841
0.805
0.768
0.733
0.699
0.665
0.633
0.601
0.569
0.538
0.508
0.478
0.449
0.420
0.392
0.364
0.336
0.309
0.82
0.255
0.229
0.202
0.176
0.150
0.124
0.098
0.072
0.046
0.020
0.90
1.805
1.742
1.681
1.624
1.558
1.501
1.446
1.397
1.343
1.297
1.248
1.202
1.160
1.116
1.075
1.035
0.996
0.958
0.921
0.884
0.849
0.815
0.781
0.749
0.716
0.685
0.654
0.624
0.595
0.565
0.536
0.508
0.479
0.452
0.425
0.398
0.371
0.345
0.319
0.292
0.266
0.240
0.214
0.188
0.162
0.136
0.109
0.083
0.054
0.028
0.91
1.832
1.769
1.709
1.651
1.585
1.532
1.473
1.425
1.370
1.326
1.276
1.230
1.188
1.144
1.103
1.063
1.024
0.986
0.949
0.912
0.878
0.843
0.809
0.777
0.744
0.713
0.682
0.652
0.623
0.593
0.564
0.536
0.507
0.480
0.453
0.426
0.399
0.373
0.347
0.320
0.294
0.268
0.242
0.216
0.190
0.164
0.140
0.114
0.085
0.059
0.031
0.92
1.861
1.798
1.738
1.680
1.614
1.561
1.502
1.454
1.400
1.355
1.303
1.257
1.215
1.171
1.130
1.090
1.051
1.013
0.976
0.939
0.905
0.870
0.836
0.804
0.771
0.740
0.709
0.679
0.650
0.620
0.591
0.563
0.534
0.507
0.480
0.453
0.426
0.400
0.374
0.347
0.321
0.295
0.269
0.243
0.217
0.191
0.167
0.141
0.112
0.086
0.058
0.93
1.895
1.831
1.771
1.713
1.647
1.592
1.533
1.485
1.430
1.386
1.337
1.291
1.249
1.205
1.164
1.124
1.085
1.047
1.010
0.973
0.939
0.904
0.870
0.838
0.805
0.774
0.743
0.713
0.684
0.654
0.625
0.597
0.568
0.541
0.514
0.487
0.460
0.434
0.408
0.381
0.355
0.329
0.303
0.277
0.251
0.225
0.198
0.172
0.143
0.117
0.089
0.94
1.924
1.840
1.800
1.742
1.677
1.628
1.567
1.519
1.464
1.420
1.369
1.323
1.281
1.237
1.196
1.156
1.117
1.079
1.042
1.005
0.971
0.936
0.902
0.870
0.837
0.806
0.775
0.745
0.716
0.686
0.657
0.629
0.600
0.573
0.546
0.519
0.492
0.466
0.440
0.413
0.387
0.361
0.335
0.309
0.283
0.257
0.230
0.204
0.175
0.149
0.121
0.95
1.959
1.896
1.836
1.778
1.712
1.659
1.600
1.532
1.497
1.453
1.403
1.357
1.315
1.271
1.230
1.190
1.151
1.113
1.076
1.039
1.005
0.970
0.936
0.904
0.871
0.840
0.809
0.779
0.750
0.720
0.691
0.663
0.634
0.607
0.580
0.553
0.526
0.500
0.474
0.447
0.421
0.395
0.369
0.343
0.317
0.291
0.264
0.238
0.209
0.183
0.155
0.96
1.998
1.935
1.874
1.816
1.751
1.695
1.636
1.588
1.534
1.489
1.441
1.395
1.353
1.309
1.268
1.228
1.189
1.151
1.114
1.077
1.043
1.008
0.974
0.942
0.909
0.878
0.847
0.817
0.788
0.758
0.729
0.701
0.672
0.645
0.618
0.591
0.564
0.538
0.512
0.485
0.459
0.433
0.407
0.381
0.355
0.329
0.301
0.275
0.246
0.230
0.192
0.97
2.037
1.973
1.913
1.855
1.790
1.737
1.677
1.629
1.575
1.530
1.481
1.435
1.393
1.349
1.308
1.268
1.229
1.191
1.154
1.117
1.083
1.048
1.014
0.982
0.949
0.918
0.887
0.857
0.828
0.798
0.769
0.741
0.712
0.685
0.658
0.631
0.604
0.578
0.552
0.525
0.499
0.473
0.447
0.421
0.395
0.369
0.343
0.317
0.288
0.262
0.234
0.98
2.085
2.021
1.961
1.903
1.837
1.784
1.725
1.677
1.623
1.578
1.529
1.483
1.441
1.397
1.356
1.316
1.277
1.239
1.202
1.165
1.131
1.096
1.062
1.030
0.997
0.966
0.935
0.905
0.876
0.840
0.811
0.783
0.754
0.727
0.700
0.673
0.652
0.620
0.594
0.567
0.541
0.515
0.489
0.463
0.437
0.417
0.390
0.364
0.335
0.309
0.281
0.99
2.146
2.082
2.022
1.964
1.899
1.846
1.786
1.758
1.684
1.639
1.590
1.544
1.502
1.458
1.417
1.377
1.338
1.300
1.263
1.226
1.192
1.157
1.123
1.091
1.058
1.007
0.996
0.966
0.937
0.907
0.878
0.850
0.821
0.794
0.767
0.740
0.713
0.687
0.661
0.634
0.608
0.582
0.556
0.530
0.504
0.478
0.450
0.424
0.395
0.369
0.341
0.0
1
2.288
2.225
2.164
2.107
2.041
1.988
1.929
1.881
1.826
1.782
1.732
1.686
1.644
1.600
1.559
1.519
1.480
1.442
1.405
1.368
1.334
1.299
1.265
1.233
1.200
1.169
1.138
1.108
1.079
1.049
1.020
0.992
0.963
0.936
0.909
0.882
0.855
0.829
0.803
0.776
0.750
0.724
0.698
0.672
0.645
0.620
0.593
0.567
0.538
0.512
0.484
L13
Value selected as an example on section 5.2
Fig. L15 : kvar to be installed per kW of load, to improve the power factor of an installation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Value selected as an example on section 5.4
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
5 How to decide the optimum level
of compensation?
In the case of certain (common) types of
tariff, an examination of several bills covering
the most heavily-loaded period of the year
allows determination of the kvar level of
compensation required to avoid kvarh (reactiveenergy) charges. The pay-back period of a
bank of power-factor-correction capacitors
and associated equipment is generally about
18 months
5.3 Method based on the avoidance of tariff
penalties
The following method allows calculation of the rating of a proposed capacitor bank,
based on billing details, where the tariff structure corresponds with (or is similar to)
the one described in sub-clause 2.1 of this chapter.
The method determines the minimum compensation required to avoid these charges
which are based on kvarh consumption.
The procedure is as follows:
b Refer to the bills covering consumption for the 5 months of winter (in France these
are November to March inclusive).
Note: in tropical climates the summer months may constitute the period of heaviest
loading and highest peaks (owing to extensive air conditioning loads) so that a
consequent variation of high-tariff periods is necessary in this case. The remainder of
this example will assume Winter conditions in France.
b Identify the line on the bills referring to “reactive-energy consumed” and “kvarh
to be charged”. Choose the bill which shows the highest charge for kvarh (after
checking that this was not due to some exceptional situation).
For example: 15,966 kvarh in January.
b Evaluate the total period of loaded operation of the installation for that month, for
instance: 220 hours (22 days x 10 hours). The hours which must be counted are
those occurring during the heaviest load and the highest peak loads occurring on
the power system. These are given in the tariff documents, and are (commonly)
during a 16-hour period each day, either from 06.00 h to 22.00 h or from 07.00 h to
23.00 h according to the region. Outside these periods, no charge is made for kvarh
consumption.
b The necessary value of compensation in kvar = kvarh billed/number of hours of
operation(1) = Qc
The rating of the installed capacitor bank is generally chosen to be slightly larger
than that calculated.
Certain manufacturers can provide “slide rules” especially designed to facilitate
these kinds of calculation, according to particular tariffs. These devices and
accompanying documentation advice on suitable equipment and control schemes,
as well as drawing attention to constraints imposed by harmonic voltages on the
power system. Such voltages require either over dimensioned capacitors (in terms of
heat-dissipation, voltage and current ratings) and/or harmonic-suppression inductors
or filters.
L14
For 2-part tariffs based partly on a declared value
of kVA, Figure L17 allows determination of the
kvar of compensation required to reduce the
value of kVA declared, and to avoid exceeding it
P = 85.4 kW
ϕ' ϕ
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q'
Cos ϕ = 0.7
Cos ϕ'= 0.95
S = 122 kVA
S' = 90 kVA
Q = 87.1 kvar
Qc = 56 kvar
Q' = 28.1 kvar
S'
Q
S
Qc
Fig. L16 : Reduction of declared maximum kVA by powerfactor improvement
5.4 Method based on reduction of declared
maximum apparent power (kVA)
For consumers whose tariffs are based on a fixed charge per kVA declared, plus a
charge per kWh consumed, it is evident that a reduction in declared kVA would be
beneficial. The diagram of Figure L16 shows that as the power factor improves, the
kVA value diminishes for a given value of kW (P). The improvement of the power
factor is aimed at (apart from other advantages previously mentioned) reducing the
declared level and never exceeding it, thereby avoiding the payment of an excessive
price per kVA during the periods of excess, and/or tripping of the the main circuitbreaker. Figure L15 (previous page) indicates the value of kvar of compensation per
kW of load, required to improve from one value of power factor to another.
Example:
A supermarket has a declared load of 122 kVA at a power factor of 0.7 lagging, i.e.an
active-power load of 85.4 kW. The particular contract for this consumer was based on
stepped values of declared kVA (in steps of 6 kVA up to 108 kVA, and 12 kVA steps
above that value, this is a common feature in many types of two-part tariff). In the
case being considered, the consumer was billed on the basis of
132 kVA. Referring to Figure L15, it can be seen that a 60 kvar bank of capacitors
will improve the power factor of the load from 0.7 to 0.95 (0.691 x 85.4 = 59 kvar
85.4
in the figure). The declared value of kVA will then be
= 90 kVA , i.e. an
0.95
improvement of 30%.
(1) In the billing period, during the hours for which
reactive energy is charged for the case considered above:
15,996 kvarh
Qc =
= 73 kvar
220 h
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
6 Compensation at the terminals
of a transformer
The installation of a capacitor bank can avoid
the need to change a transformer in the event of
a load increase
6.1 Compensation to increase the available active
power output
Steps similar to those taken to reduce the declared maximum kVA, i.e. improvement
of the load power factor, as discussed in subclause 5.4, will maximise the available
transformer capacity, i.e. to supply more active power.
Cases can arise where the replacement of a transformer by a larger unit, to overcome
a load growth, may be avoided by this means. Figure L17 shows directly the power
(kW) capability of fully-loaded transformers at different load power factors, from
which the increase of active-power output can be obtained as the value of power
factor increases.
tan ϕ
cos ϕ
0.00
0.20
0.29
0.36
0.43
0.48
0.54
0.59
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.86
0.91
0.96
1.02
1
0.98
0.96
0.94
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.86
0.84
0.82
0.80
0.78
0.76
0.74
0.72
0.70
Nominal rating of transformers (in kVA)
100
160
250
315
400
100
160
250
315
400
98
157
245
309
392
96
154
240
302
384
94
150
235
296
376
92
147
230
290
368
90
144
225
284
360
88
141
220
277
352
86
138
215
271
344
84
134
210
265
336
82
131
205
258
328
80
128
200
252
320
78
125
195
246
312
76
122
190
239
304
74
118
185
233
296
72
115
180
227
288
70
112
175
220
280
500
500
490
480
470
460
450
440
430
420
410
400
390
380
370
360
350
630
630
617
605
592
580
567
554
541
529
517
504
491
479
466
454
441
800
800
784
768
752
736
720
704
688
672
656
640
624
608
592
576
560
1000
1000
980
960
940
920
900
880
860
840
820
800
780
760
740
720
700
1250
1250
1225
1200
1175
1150
1125
1100
1075
1050
1025
1000
975
950
925
900
875
1600
1600
1568
1536
1504
1472
1440
1408
1376
1344
1312
1280
1248
1216
1184
1152
1120
2000
2000
1960
1920
1880
1840
1800
1760
1720
1680
1640
1600
1560
1520
1480
1440
1400
Fig. L17 : Active-power capability of fully-loaded transformers, when supplying loads at different values of power factor
Example: (see Fig. L18 )
L15
An installation is supplied from a 630 kVA transformer loaded at 450 kW (P1) with a
450
mean power factor of 0.8 lagging. The apparent power S1 =
= 562 kVA
0.8
The corresponding reactive power
Q1 = S12 − P12 = 337 kvar
The anticipated load increase P2 = 100 kW at a power factor of 0.7 lagging.
The apparent power S2 = 100 = 143 kVA
The corresponding reactive0.7
power
Q2 = S22 − P22 = 102 kvar
What is the minimum value of capacitive kvar to be installed, in order to avoid a
change of transformer?
Total power now to be supplied:
P = P1 + P2 = 550 kW
Q
The maximum reactive power capability of the 630 kVA transformer when delivering
550 kW is:
Qm = S2 − P2
Q2
Q
P2
S1
S
P1
Q1
Qm = 6302 − 5502 = 307 kvar
Total reactive power required by the installation before compensation:
Q1 + Q2 = 337 + 102 = 439 kvar
So that the minimum size of capacitor bank to install:
Q m
P
Fig. L18 : Compensation Q allows the installation-load
extension S2 to be added, without the need to replace the
existing transformer, the output of which is limited to S
Qkvar = 439 - 307 = 132 kvar
It should be noted that this calculation has not taken account of load peaks and their
duration.
The best possible improvement, i.e. correction which attains a power factor of
1 would permit a power reserve for the transformer of 630 - 550 = 80 kW.
The capacitor bank would then have to be rated at 439 kvar.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
S2
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
6 Compensation at the terminals
of a transformer
6.2 Compensation of reactive energy absorbed by
the transformer
Where metering is carried out at the MV side
of a transformer, the reactive-energy losses in
the transformer may need to be compensated
(depending on the tariff)
Perfect transformer
All previous references have been to shunt connected devices such as those used
in normal loads, and power factor-correcting capacitor banks etc. The reason for
this is that shunt connected equipment requires (by far) the largest quantities of
reactive energy in power systems; however, series-connected reactances, such as
the inductive reactances of power lines and the leakage reactance of transformer
windings, etc., also absorb reactive energy.
Leakage reactance
Secondary
winding
Primary
winding
The nature of transformer inductive reactances
Where metering is carried out at the MV side of a transformer, the reactive-energy
losses in the transformer may (depending on the tariff) need to be compensated. As
far as reactive-energy losses only are concerned, a transformer may be represented
by the elementary diagram of Figure L19. All reactance values are referred to
the secondary side of the transformer, where the shunt branch represents the
magnetizing-current path. The magnetizing current remains practically constant (at
about 1.8% of full-load current) from no load to full load, in normal circumstances,
i.e. with a constant primary voltage, so that a shunt capacitor of fixed value can be
installed at the MV or LV side, to compensate for the reactive energy absorbed.
Magnetizing
reactance
Fig. L19 : Transformer reactances per phase
The reactive power absorbed by a transformer
cannot be neglected, and can amount to (about)
5% of the transformer rating when supplying
its full load. Compensation can be provided by
a bank of capacitors. In transformers, reactive
power is absorbed by both shunt (magnetizing)
and series (leakage flux) reactances. Complete
compensation can be provided by a bank of
shunt-connected LV capacitors
Reactive-power absorption in series-connected
(leakage flux) reactance XL
A simple illustration of this phenomenon is given by the vector diagram of
Figure L20.
The reactive-current component through the load = I sin ϕ so that QL = VI sin ϕ.
The reactive-current component from the source = I sin ϕ’ so that QE = EI sin ϕ’.
It can be seen that E > V and sin ϕ’ > sin ϕ.
The difference between EI sin ϕ’ and VI sin ϕ gives the kvar per phase absorbed
by XL.
It can be shown that this kvar value is equal to I2XL (which is analogous to the I2R
active power (kW) losses due to the series resistance of power lines, etc.).
From the I2XL formula it is very simple to deduce the kvar absorbed at any load value
for a given transformer, as follows:
I
If per-unit values are used (instead of percentage values) direct multiplication of I
and XL can be carried out.
XL
L16
E
Source
V
Load
Example:
A 630 kVA transformer with a short-circuit reactance voltage of 4% is fully loaded.
What is its reactive-power (kvar) loss?
4% = 0.04 pu Ipu = 1
loss = I2XL = 12 x 0.04 = 0.04 pu kvar
E
where 1 pu = 630 kVA
V
IXL
'
I
I sin
I sin '
At half load i.e. I = 0.5 pu the losses will be
0.52 x 0.04 = 0.01 pu = 630 x 0.01 = 6.3 kvar and so on...
This example, and the vector diagram of Figure L20 show that:
b The power factor at the primary side of a loaded transformer is different (normally
lower) than that at the secondary side (due to the absorption of vars)
b Full-load kvar losses due to leakage reactance are equal to the transformer
percentage reactance (4% reactance means a kvar loss equal to 4% of the kVA rating
of the transformer)
b kvar losses due to leakage reactance vary according to the current
(or kVA loading) squared
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. L20 : Reactive power absorption by series inductance
The 3-phase kvar losses are 630 x 0.04 = 25.2 kvar (or, quite simply, 4% of 630 kVA).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
6 Compensation at the terminals
of a transformer
To determine the total kvar losses of a transformer the constant magnetizing-current
circuit losses (approx. 1.8% of the transformer kVA rating) must be added to the
foregoing “series” losses. Figure L21 shows the no-load and full-load kvar losses for
typical distribution transformers. In principle, series inductances can be compensated
by fixed series capacitors (as is commonly the case for long MV transmission lines).
This arrangement is operationally difficult, however, so that, at the voltage levels
covered by this guide, shunt compensation is always applied.
In the case of MV metering, it is sufficient to raise the power factor to a point where
the transformer plus load reactive-power consumption is below the level at which a
billing charge is made. This level depends on the tariff, but often corresponds to a
tan ϕ value of 0.31 (cos ϕ of 0.955).
Rated power (kVA)
100
160
250
315
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
Reactive power (kvar) to be compensated
No load
Full load
2.5
6.1
3.7
9.6
5.3
14.7
6.3
18.4
7.6
22.9
9.5
28.7
11.3
35.7
20
54.5
23.9
72.4
27.4
94.5
31.9
126
37.8
176
Fig. L21 : Reactive power consumption of distribution transformers with 20 kV primary windings
As a matter of interest, the kvar losses in a transformer can be completely
compensated by adjusting the capacitor bank to give the load a (slightly) leading
power factor. In such a case, all of the kvar of the transformer is being supplied from
the capacitor bank, while the input to the MV side of the transformer is at unity power
factor, as shown in Figure L22.
L17
E (Input voltage)
IXL
I
ϕ
V (Load voltage)
Load
current
I0 Compensation current
Fig. L22 : Overcompensation of load to completely compensate transformer reactive-power losses
In practical terms, therefore, compensation for transformer-absorbed kvar is included
in the capacitors primarily intended for powerfactor correction of the load, either
globally, partially, or in the individual mode. Unlike most other kvar-absorbing items,
the transformer absorption (i.e. the part due to the leakage reactance) changes
significantly with variations of load level, so that, if individual compensation is applied
to the transformer, then an average level of loading will have to be assumed.
Fortunately, this kvar consumption generally forms only a relatively small part of the
total reactive power of an installation, and so mismatching of compensation at times
of load change is not likely to be a problem.
Figure L21 indicates typical kvar loss values for the magnetizing circuit (“no-load
kvar” columns), as well as for the total losses at full load, for a standard range of
distribution transformers supplied at 20 kV (which include the losses due to the
leakage reactance).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
7 Power factor correction of
induction motors
Individual motor compensation is recommended
where the motor power (kVA) is large with
respect to the declared power of the installation
7.1 Connection of a capacitor bank and protection
settings
General precautions
Because of the small kW consumption, the power factor of a motor is very low at noload or on light load. The reactive current of the motor remains practically constant at
all loads, so that a number of unloaded motors constitute a consumption of reactive
power which is generally detrimental to an installation, for reasons explained in
preceding sections.
Two good general rules therefore are that unloaded motors should be switched off,
and motors should not be oversized (since they will then be lightly loaded).
Connection
The bank of capacitors should be connected directly to the terminals of the motor.
Special motors
It is recommended that special motors (stepping, plugging, inching, reversing motors,
etc.) should not be compensated.
Effect on protection settings
After applying compensation to a motor, the current to the motor-capacitor
combination will be lower than before, assuming the same motor-driven load
conditions. This is because a significant part of the reactive component of the motor
current is being supplied from the capacitor, as shown in Figure L23.
Where the overcurrent protection devices of the motor are located upstream of the
motor capacitor connection (and this will always be the case for terminal-connected
capacitors), the overcurrent relay settings must be reduced in the ratio:
cos ϕ before compensation / cos ϕ after compensation
For motors compensated in accordance with the kvar values indicated in Figure L24
(maximum values recommended for avoidance of self-excitation of standard
induction motors, as discussed in sub-clause 7.2), the above-mentioned ratio
will have a value similar to that indicated for the corresponding motor speed in
Figure L25.
3-phase motors 230/400 V
Nominal power kvar to be installed
Speed of rotation (rpm)
kW
hp
3000
1500
1000
22
30
6
8
9
30
40
7.5
10
11
37
50
9
11
12.5
45
60
11
13
14
55
75
13
17
18
75
100
17
22
25
90
125
20
25
27
110
150
24
29
33
132
180
31
36
38
160
218
35
41
44
200
274
43
47
53
250
340
52
57
63
280
380
57
63
70
355
482
67
76
86
400
544
78
82
97
450
610
87
93
107
L18
Before
compensation
After
compensation
Transformer
Power
made
available
Active
power
Figure L24 : Maximum kvar of power factor correction applicable to motor terminals without risk
of self excitation
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
C
M
Motor
M
750
10
12.5
16
17
21
28
30
37
43
52
61
71
79
98
106
117
Reactive
power
supplied
by capacitor
Fig. L23 : Before compensation, the transformer supplies all
the reactive power; after compensation, the capacitor supplies
a large part of the reactive power
Speed in rpm
750
1000
1500
3000
Reduction factor
0.88
0.90
0.91
0.93
Fig. L25 : Reduction factor for overcurrent protection after compensation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
When a capacitor bank is connected to the
terminals of an induction motor, it is important
to check that the size of the bank is less than
that at which self-excitation can occur
7 Power factor correction of
induction motors
7.2 How self-excitation of an induction motor can be
avoided
When a motor is driving a high-inertia load, the motor will continue to rotate (unless
deliberately braked) after the motor supply has been switched off.
The “magnetic inertia” of the rotor circuit means that an emf will be generated in the
stator windings for a short period after switching off, and would normally reduce to
zero after 1 or 2 cycles, in the case of an uncompensated motor.
Compensation capacitors however, constitute a 3-phase “wattless” load for this
decaying emf, which causes capacitive currents to flow through the stator windings.
These stator currents will produce a rotating magnetic field in the rotor which acts
exactly along the same axis and in the same direction as that of the decaying
magnetic field.
The rotor flux consequently increases; the stator currents increase; and the voltage
at the terminals of the motor increases; sometimes to dangerously-high levels. This
phenomenon is known as self-excitation and is one reason why AC generators
are not normally operated at leading power factors, i.e. there is a tendency to
spontaneously (and uncontrollably) self excite.
Notes:
1. The characteristics of a motor being driven by the inertia of the load are not
rigorously identical to its no-load characteristics. This assumption, however, is
sufficiently accurate for practical purposes.
2. With the motor acting as a generator, the currents circulating are largely reactive,
so that the braking (retarding) effect on the motor is mainly due only to the load
represented by the cooling fan in the motor.
3. The (almost 90° lagging) current taken from the supply in normal circumstances by
the unloaded motor, and the (almost 90° leading) current supplied to the capacitors
by the motor acting as a generator, both have the same phase relationship
to the terminalvoltage. It is for this reason that the two characteristics may be
superimposed on the graph.
In order to avoid self-excitation as described above, the kvar rating of the capacitor
bank must be limited to the following maximum value:
Qc y 0.9 x Io x Un x 3 where Io = the no-load current of the motor and Un =
phase-to-phase nominal voltage of the motor in kV. Figure L24 previous page gives
appropriate values of Qc corresponding to this criterion.
Example
A 75 kW, 3,000 rpm, 400 V, 3-phase motor may have a capacitor bank no larger
than 17 kvar according to Figure L24. The table values are, in general, too small to
adequately compensate the motor to the level of cos ϕ normally required. Additional
compensation can, however, be applied to the system, for example an overall bank,
installed for global compensation of a number of smaller appliances.
L19
High-inertia motors and/or loads
In any installation where high-inertia motor driven loads exist, the circuit-breakers or
contactors controlling such motors should, in the event of total loss of power supply,
be rapidly tripped.
If this precaution is not taken, then self excitation to very high voltages is likely to
occur, since all other banks of capacitors in the installation will effectively be in
parallel with those of the high-inertia motors.
Fig. L26 : Connection of the capacitor bank to the motor
Closing of the main contactor is commonly subject to the capacitor contactor being
previously closed.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The protection scheme for these motors should therefore include an overvoltage
tripping relay, together with reverse-power checking contacts (the motor will feed
power to the rest of the installation, until the stored inertial energy is dissipated).
If the capacitor bank associated with a high inertia motor is larger than that
recommended in Figure L24, then it should be separately controlled by a circuitbreaker or contactor, which trips simultaneously with the main motor-controlling
circuit-breaker or contactor, as shown in Figure L26.
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
8 Example of an installation
before and after power-factor
correction
Installation before P.F. correction
� � � (1)
kVA=kW+kvar
kVA
kW
kvar
630 kVA
b kvarh are billed heavily above the declared
level
b Apparent power kVA is significantly greater
than the kW demand
b The corresponding excess current causes
losses (kWh) which are billed
b The installation must be over-dimensioned
Characteristics of the installation
500 kW cos ϕ = 0.75
b Transformer is overloaded
b The power demand is
P
500
S=
=
= 665 kVA
cos ϕ 0.75
S = apparent power
Installation after P.F. correction
���
kVA=kW+kvar
kVA
kW
630 kVA
Characteristics of the installation
500 kW cos ϕ = 0.928
b Transformer no longer overloaded
b The power-demand is 539 kVA
b There is 14% spare-transformer capacity
available
400 V
400 V
b The current flowing into the installation
downstream of the circuit breaker is
P
I=
= 960 A
3U cos ϕ
b The current flowing into the installation
through the circuit breaker is 778 A
b The losses in the cables are
7782
= 65% of the former value,
9602
thereby economizing in kWh consumed
b Losses in cables are calculated as a
function of the current squared: 9602
P=I2R
L20
b The consumption of kvarh is
v Eliminated, or
v Reduced, according to the cos ϕ required
b The tariff penalties
v For reactive energy where applicable
v For the entire bill in some cases are
eliminated
b The fixed charge based on kVA demand is
adjusted to be close to the active power kW
demand
reduced to
cos ϕ = 0.75
b Reactive energy is supplied through the
transformer and via the installation wiring
b The transformer, circuit breaker, and cables
must be over-dimensioned
cos ϕ = 0.928
b Reactive energy is supplied by the capacitor
bank
250 kvar
Capacitor bank rating is 250 kvar
in 5 automatically-controlled steps of 50 kvar.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
cos ϕ = 0.75
workshop
cos ϕ = 0.75
workshop
Note: In fact, the cos ϕ of the workshop remains at 0.75 but cos ϕ for all the
installation upstream of the capacitor bank to the transformer LV terminals
is 0.928.
As mentioned in Sub-clause 6.2 the cos ϕ at the HV side of the transformer
will be slightly lower (2), due to the reactive power losses in the transformer.
Fig. K27 : Technical-economic comparison of an installation before and after power-factor correction
(1) The arrows denote vector quantities.
(2) Particularly in the pre-corrected case.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
9 The effects of harmonics
9.1 Problems arising from power-system harmonics
Equipment which uses power electronics components (variable-speed motor
controllers, thyristor-controlled rectifiers, etc.) have considerably increased the
problems caused by harmonics in power supply systems.
Harmonics have existed from the earliest days of the industry and were (and still
are) caused by the non-linear magnetizing impedances of transformers, reactors,
fluorescent lamp ballasts, etc.
Harmonics on symmetrical 3-phase power systems are generally odd-numbered: 3rd,
5th, 7th, 9th..., and the magnitude decreases as the order of the harmonic increases.
A number of features may be used in various ways to reduce specific harmonics to
negligible values - total elimination is not possible. In this section, practical means of
reducing the influence of harmonics are recommended, with particular reference to
capacitor banks.
Capacitors are especially sensitive to harmonic components of the supply voltage
due to the fact that capacitive reactance decreases as the frequency increases.
In practice, this means that a relatively small percentage of harmonic voltage can
cause a significant current to flow in the capacitor circuit.
The presence of harmonic components causes the (normally sinusoidal) wave form
of voltage or current to be distorted; the greater the harmonic content, the greater the
degree of distortion.
If the natural frequency of the capacitor bank/ power-system reactance combination
is close to a particular harmonic, then partial resonance will occur, with amplified
values of voltage and current at the harmonic frequency concerned. In this particular
case, the elevated current will cause overheating of the capacitor, with degradation
of the dielectric, which may result in its eventual failure.
Several solutions to these problems are available. This can be accomplished by
b Shunt connected harmonic filter and/or harmonic-suppression reactors or
b Active power filters or
b Hybrid filters
Harmonics are taken into account mainly by
oversizing capacitors and including harmonicsuppression reactors in series with them
9.2 Possible solutions
Passive filter (see Fig. L28)
Countering the effects of harmonics
The presence of harmonics in the supply voltage results in abnormally high current
levels through the capacitors. An allowance is made for this by designing for an r.m.s.
value of current equal to 1.3 times the nominal rated current. All series elements,
such as connections, fuses, switches, etc., associated with the capacitors are
similarly oversized, between 1.3 to 1.5 times nominal rating.
L21
Harmonic distortion of the voltage wave frequently produces a “peaky” wave form,
in which the peak value of the normal sinusoidal wave is increased. This possibility,
together with other overvoltage conditions likely to occur when countering the effects
of resonance, as described below, are taken into account by increasing the insulation
level above that of “standard” capacitors. In many instances, these two counter
measures are all that is necessary to achieve satisfactory operation.
Countering the effects of resonance
Capacitors are linear reactive devices, and consequently do not generate harmonics.
The installation of capacitors in a power system (in which the impedances are
predominantly inductive) can, however, result in total or partial resonance occurring
at one of the harmonic frequencies.
Ihar
The harmonic order ho of the natural resonant frequency between the system
inductance and the capacitor bank is given by
Harmonic
generator
Filter
Fig. L28 : Operation principle of passive filter
Ssc
Q
where
Ssc = the level of system short-circuit kVA at the point of connection of the capacitor
Q = capacitor bank rating in kvar; and ho = the harmonic order of the natural
frequency fo i.e. fo for a 50 Hz system, or fo for a 60 Hz system.
50
60
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© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
ho =
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
9 The effects of harmonics
For example: ho =
Ssc
may give a value for ho of 2.93 which shows that the
Q
natural frequency of the capacitor/system-inductance combination is close to the 3rd
harmonic frequency of the system.
From ho =
fo
it can be seen that fo = 50 ho = 50 x 2.93 = 146.5 Hz
50
The closer a natural frequency approaches one of the harmonics present on the
system, the greater will be the (undesirable) effect. In the above example, strong
resonant conditions with the 3rd harmonic component of a distorted wave would
certainly occur.
In such cases, steps are taken to change the natural frequency to a value which will
not resonate with any of the harmonics known to be present. This is achieved by the
addition of a harmonic-suppression inductor connected in series with the capacitor
bank.
Is
Ihar
On 50 Hz systems, these reactors are often adjusted to bring the resonant frequency
of the combination, i.e. the capacitor bank + reactors to 190 Hz. The reactors are
adjusted to 228 Hz for a 60 Hz system. These frequencies correspond to a value
for ho of 3.8 for a 50 Hz system, i.e. approximately mid-way between the 3rd and 5th
harmonics.
Iact
Active
filter
Harmonic
generator
In this arrangement, the presence of the reactor increases the fundamental
frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz) current by a small amount (7-8%) and therefore the
voltage across the capacitor in the same proportion.
Linear
load
Fig. L29 : Operation principle of active filter
This feature is taken into account, for example, by using capacitors which are
designed for 440 V operation on 400 V systems.
Active filter (see Fig. L29)
Active filters are based on power electronic technology. They are generally installed
in parallel with the non linear load.
Is
Ihar
L22
Iact
Active
filter
Active filters analyse the harmonics drawn by the load and then inject the same
harmonic current to the load with the appropriate phase. As a result, the harmonic
currents are totally neutralised at the point considered. This means they no longer
flow upstream and are no longer supplied by the source.
A main advantage of active conditioners is that they continue to guarantee efficient
harmonic compensation even when changes are made to the installation. They are
also exceptionally easy to use as they feature:
b Auto-configuration to harmonic loads whatever their order of magnitude
b Elimination of overload risks
b Compatibility with electrical generator sets
b Connection to any point of the electrical network
b Several conditioners can be used in the same installation to increase depollution
efficiency (for example when a new machine is installed)
Active filters may provide also power factor correction.
Harmonic
generator
Hybride filter
Hybrid filter (see Fig. L30)
This type of filter combines advantages of passive and active filter. One frequency
can be filtered by passive filter and all the other frequencies are filtered by active
filter.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. L30 : Operation principle of hybrid filter
Linear
load
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
9 The effects of harmonics
9.3 Choosing the optimum solution
Figure L31 below shows the criteria that can be taken into account to select the
most suitable technology depending on the application.
Applications
… with total power of non
linear loads (variable speed
drive, UPS, rectifier…)
Power factor correction
Necessity of reducing the
harmonic distorsion in
voltage for sensitive loads
Necessity of reducing
the harmonic distorsion
in current to avoid cable
overload
Necessity of being in
accordance with strict
limits of harmonic
rejected
Passive filter
Industrial
greater than
200 kVA
Active filter
Tertiary
lower than
200 kVA
Hybrid filter
Industrial
greater than
200 kVA
No
No
Fig. L31 : Selection of the most suitable technology depending on the application
For passive filter, a choice is made from the following parameters:
b Gh = the sum of the kVA ratings of all harmonic-generating devices (static
converters, inverters, speed controllers, etc.) connected to the busbars from which
the capacitor bank is supplied. If the ratings of some of these devices are quoted in
kW only, assume an average power factor of 0.7 to obtain the kVA ratings
b Ssc = the 3-phase short-circuit level in kVA at the terminals of the capacitor bank
b Sn = the sum of the kVA ratings of all transformers supplying (i.e. directly
connected to) the system level of which the busbars form a part
If a number of transformers are operating in parallel, the removal from service of one
or more, will significantly change the values of Ssc and Sn. From these parameters,
a choice of capacitor specification which will ensure an acceptable level of operation
with the system harmonic voltages and currents, can be made, by reference to
Figure L32.
L23
b General rule valid for any size of transformer
Ssc
120
Standard capacitors
Gh i
Ssc
Ssc
i Gh i
120
70
Capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
(except 230 V units)
Ssc
70
Capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
+ harmonic-suppression reactor
Gh >
b Simplified rule if transformer(s) rating Sn y 2 MVA
Gh i 0.15 Sn
Standard capacitors
0.15 Sn < Gh i 0.25 Sn
Capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
(except 230 V units)
0.25 Sn < Gh i 0.60 Sn
Capacitor voltage rating
increased by 10%
+ harmonic suppression
reactor
Gh > 0.60 Sn
Filters
Fig. L32 : Choice of solutions for limiting harmonics associated with a LV capacitor bank supplied
via transformer(s)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
10 Implementation of capacitor
banks
10.1 Capacitor elements
Technology
The capacitors are dry-type units (i.e. are not impregnated by liquid dielectric)
comprising metallized polypropylene self-healing film in the form of a two-film roll.
They are protected by a high-quality system (overpressure disconnector used with
a high breaking capacity fuse) which switches off the capacitor if an internal fault
occurs.
The protection scheme operates as follows:
b A short-circuit through the dielectric will blow the fuse
b Current levels greater than normal, but insufficient to blow the fuse sometimes
occur, e.g. due to a microscopic flow in the dielectric film. Such “faults” often re-seal
due to local heating caused by the leakage current, i.e. the units are said to be “selfhealing”
b If the leakage current persists, the defect may develop into a short-circuit, and the
fuse will blow
b Gas produced by vaporizing of the metallisation at the faulty location will gradually
build up a pressure within the plastic container, and will eventually operate a
pressure-sensitive device to short-circuit the unit, thereby causing the fuse to blow
Capacitors are made of insulating material providing them with double insulation and
avoiding the need for a ground connection (see Fig. L33).
a)
HRC fuse
Discharge
resistor
Metallic
disc
Overpressure disconnect
device
L24
b)
Electrical characteristics
Standard
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Operating range
Rated voltage
Rated frequency
Capacitance tolerance
Temperature range
Maximum temperature
(up to 65 kvar)
Average temperature over
24 h
Average annual
temperature
Minimum temperature
Insulation level
Permissible current overload
Permissible voltage overload
IEC 60439-1, NFC 54-104, VDE 0560 CSA
Standards, UL tests
400 V
50 Hz
- 5% to + 10%
55 °C
45 °C
35 °C
- 25 °C
50 Hz 1 min withstand voltage : 6 kV
1.2/50 μs impulse withstand voltage : 25 kV
Classic range(1)
Comfort range(1)
30%
50%
10%
20%
Fig. L33 : Capacitor element, (a) cross-section, (b) electrical characteristics
(1) Merlin-Gerin designation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
10 Implementation of capacitor
banks
10.2 Choice of protection, control devices and
connecting cables
The choice of upstream cables and protection and control devices depends on the
current loading.
For capacitors, the current is a function of:
b The applied voltage and its harmonics
b The capacitance value
The nominal current In of a 3-phase capacitor bank is equal to:
In =
Q
with:
Un 3
v Q: kvar rating
v Un: Phase-to-phase voltage (kV)
The permitted range of applied voltage at fundamental frequency, plus harmonic
components, together with manufacturing tolerances of actual capacitance (for a
declared nominal value) can result in a 50% increase above the calculated value of
current. Approximately 30% of this increase is due to the voltage increases, while a
further 15% is due to the range of manufacturing tolerances, so that
1.3 x 1.15 = 1.5
All components carrying the capacitor current therefore, must be adequate to cover
this “worst-case” condition, in an ambient temperature of 50 °C maximum. In the
case where temperatures higher than 50 °C occur in enclosures, etc. derating of the
components will be necessary.
Protection
The size of the circuit-breaker can be chosen in order to allow the setting of long
time delay at:
b 1.36 x In for Classic range(1)
b 1.50 x In for Comfort range(1)
b 1.12 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 2.7 f)(2)
b 1.19 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 3.8 f)
b 1.31 x In for Harmony range(1) (tuned at 4.3 f)
Short time delay setting (short-circuit protection) must be insensitive to inrush
current. The setting will be 10 x In for Classic, Comfort and Harmony range(1).
L25
Example 1
50 kvar – 400V – 50 Hz – Classic range
50, 000
In =
= 72 A
(400 x 1.732)
Long time delay setting: 1.36 x 72 = 98 A
Short time delay setting: 10 x In = 720 A
Example 2
50 kvar – 400V – 50 Hz – Harmony range (tuned at 4.3 f)
In = 72 A
Long time delay setting: 1.31 x 72 = 94 A
Short time delay setting: 10 x In = 720 A
Upstream cables
Figure L34 next page gives the minimum cross section area of the upstream cable
for Rectiphase capacitors.
The minimum cross section area of these cables will be 1.5 mm2 for 230 V.
For the secondary side of the transformer, the recommended cross section
area is u 2.5 mm2.
(1) Merlin-Gerin designation
(2) Harmony capacitor banks are equipped with a harmonic
suppression reactor.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Cables for control
L - Power factor correction and
harmonic filtering
10 Implementation of capacitor
banks
Bank power
(kvar)
230 V
400 V
5
10
10
20
15
30
20
40
25
50
30
60
40
80
50
100
60
120
70
140
90-100
180
200
120
240
150
250
300
180-210
360
245
420
280
480
315
540
350
600
385
660
420
720
Copper
cross- section
(mm2)
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
2 x 95
2 x 120
2 x 150
2 x 185
2 x 240
2 x 300
3 x 150
3 x 185
Aluminium
cross- section
(mm2)
16
16
16
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
185
240
2 x 95
2 x 120
2 x 150
2 x 185
2 x 240
2 x 300
3 x 185
3 x 240
3 x 240
3 x 300
Fig L34 : Cross-section of cables connecting medium and high power capacitor banks(1)
Voltage transients
High-frequency voltage and current transients occur when switching a capacitor
bank into service. The maximum voltage peak does not exceed (in the absence of
harmonics) twice the peak value of the rated voltage when switching uncharged
capacitors.
In the case of a capacitor being already charged at the instant of switch closure,
however, the voltage transient can reach a maximum value approaching 3 times the
normal rated peak value.
L26
This maximum condition occurs only if:
b The existing voltage at the capacitor is equal to the peak value of rated voltage,
and
b The switch contacts close at the instant of peak supply voltage, and
b The polarity of the power-supply voltage is opposite to that of the charged
capacitor
In such a situation, the current transient will be at its maximum possible value, viz:
Twice that of its maximum when closing on to an initially uncharged capacitor, as
previously noted.
For any other values of voltage and polarity on the pre-charged capacitor, the
transient peaks of voltage and current will be less than those mentioned above.
In the particular case of peak rated voltage on the capacitor having the same polarity
as that of the supply voltage, and closing the switch at the instant of supply-voltage
peak, there would be no voltage or current transients.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Where automatic switching of stepped banks of capacitors is considered, therefore,
care must be taken to ensure that a section of capacitors about to be energized is
fully discharged.
The discharge delay time may be shortened, if necessary, by using discharge
resistors of a lower resistance value.
(1) Minimum cross-section not allowing for any correction
factors (installation mode, temperature, etc.). The calculations
were made for single-pole cables laid in open air at 30 °C.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter M
Harmonic management
Contents
1
2
3
4
The problem: why is it necessary to detect
and eliminate harmonics?
M2
Standards
M3
General
M4
Main effects of harmonics in installations
M6
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
M6
M6
M7
M9
M10
5
Essential indicators of harmonic distortion
and measurement principles
M11
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
M11
M11
M11
M12
M12
M13
Resonance
Increased losses
Overloads on equipment
Disturbances affecting sensitive loads
Economic impact
Power factor
Crest factor
Power values and harmonics
Harmonic spectrum and harmonic distortion
Total harmonic distortion (THD)
Usefulness of the various indicators
6
Measuring the indicators
M14
6.1 Devices used to measure the indicators
6.2 Procedures for harmonic analysis of distribution networks
6.3 Keeping a close eye on harmonics
M14
M14
M15
7
8
Detection devices
M16
Solutions to attenuate harmonics
M17 M1
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
M17
M18
M20
M20
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Basic solutions
Harmonic filtering
The method
Specific products
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
1 The problem: why is it necessary
to detect and eliminate harmonics?
Disturbances caused by harmonics
Harmonics flowing in distribution networks downgrade the quality of electrical power.
This can have a number of negative effects:
b Overloads on distribution networks due to the increase in rms current
b Overloads in neutral conductors due to the cumulative increase in third-order
harmonics created by single-phase loads
b Overloads, vibration and premature ageing of generators, transformers and motors
as well as increased transformer hum
b Overloads and premature ageing of power-factor correction capacitors
b Distortion of the supply voltage that can disturb sensitive loads
b Disturbances in communication networks and on telephone lines
Economic impact of disturbances
Harmonics have a major economic impact:
b Premature ageing of equipment means it must be replaced sooner unless
oversized right from the start
b Overloads on the distribution network can require higher subscribed power levels
and increase losses
b Distortion of current waveforms provokes nuisance tripping that can stop
production
Increasingly serious consequences
Only ten years ago, harmonics were not yet considered a real problem because
their effects on distribution networks were generally minor. However, the massive
introduction of power electronics in equipment has made the phenomenon far more
serious in all sectors of economic activity.
In addition, the equipment causing the harmonics is often vital to the company or
organisation.
Which harmonics must be measured and eliminated?
The most frequently encountered harmonics in three-phase distribution networks
are the odd orders. Harmonic amplitudes normally decrease as the frequency
increases. Above order 50, harmonics are negligible and measurements are no
longer meaningful. Sufficiently accurate measurements are obtained by measuring
harmonics up to order 30.
Utilities monitor harmonic orders 3, 5, 7, 11 and 13. Generally speaking, harmonic
conditioning of the lowest orders (up to 13) is sufficient. More comprehensive
conditioning takes into account harmonic orders up to 25.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
M2
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
2 Standards
Harmonic emissions are subject to various standards and regulations:
b Compatibility standards for distribution networks
b Emissions standards applying to the equipment causing harmonics
b Recommendations issued by utilities and applicable to installations
In view of rapidly attenuating the effects of harmonics, a triple system of standards
and regulations is currently in force based on the documents listed below.
Standards governing compatibility between distribution networks and
products
These standards determine the necessary compatibility between distribution
networks and products:
b The harmonics caused by a device must not disturb the distribution network
beyond certain limits
b Each device must be capable of operating normally in the presence of
disturbances up to specific levels
b Standard IEC 61000-2-2 for public low-voltage power supply systems
b Standard IEC 61000-2-4 for LV and MV industrial installations
Standards governing the quality of distribution networks
b Standard EN 50160 stipulates the characteristics of electricity supplied by public
distribution networks
b Standard IEEE 519 presents a joint approach between Utilities and customers
to limit the impact of non-linear loads. What is more, Utilities encourage preventive
action in view of reducing the deterioration of power quality, temperature rise and the
reduction of power factor. They will be increasingly inclined to charge customers for
major sources of harmonics
Standards governing equipment
b Standard IEC 61000-3-2 or EN 61000-3-2 for low-voltage equipment with rated
current under 16 A
b Standard IEC 61000-3-12 for low-voltage equipment with rated current higher than
16 A and lower than 75 A
Maximum permissible harmonic levels
International studies have collected data resulting in an estimation of typical
harmonic contents often encountered in electrical distribution networks. Figure M1
presents the levels that, in the opinion of many utilities, should not be exceeded.
Odd harmonic orders
non-multiples of 3
Order h LV
MV
5
6
6
7
5
5
11
3.5
3.5
13
3
3
17
2
2
19
1.5
1.5
23
1.5
1
25
1.5
1
> 25
0.2
0.2
+ 25/h + 25/h
EMV
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.7
0.7
0.1
+ 25/h
Odd harmonic orders
multiples of 3
Order h LV
MV
3
5
2.5
9
1.5
1.5
15
0.3
0.3
21
0.2
0.2
> 21
0.2
0.2
Even harmonic orders
EMV
1.5
1
0.3
0.2
0.2
Order h
2
4
6
8
10
12
> 12
LV
2
1
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.2
0.2
MV
1.5
1
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
EMV
1.5
1
0.5
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
M3
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. M1 : Maximum permissible harmonic levels
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
3 General
The presence of harmonics indicates a distorted current or voltage wave. The
distortion of the current or voltage wave means that the distribution of electrical
energy is disturbed and power quality is not optimum.
Harmonic currents are caused by non-linear loads connected to the distribution
network. The flow of harmonic currents causes harmonic voltages via distributionnetwork impedances and consequently distortion of the supply voltage.
Origin of harmonics
Devices and systems that cause harmonics are present in all sectors, i.e. industrial,
commercial and residential. Harmonics are caused by non-linear loads (i.e. loads
that draw current with a waveform that is not the same as that of the supply voltage).
Examples of non-linear loads are:
b Industrial equipment (welding machines, arc furnaces, induction furnaces,
rectifiers)
b Variable-speed drives for asynchronous or DC motors
b UPSs
b Office equipment (computers, photocopy machines, fax machines, etc.)
b Home appliances (television sets, micro-wave ovens, fluorescent lighting)
b Certain devices involving magnetic saturation (transformers)
Disturbances caused by non-linear loads: harmonic current and voltage
Non-linear loads draw harmonic currents that flow in the distribution network.
Harmonic voltages are caused by the flow of harmonic currents through the
impedances of the supply circuits (transformer and distribution network for situations
similar to that shown in Figure M2).
A
Zh
B
Ih
Non-linear
load
Fig. M2 : Single-line diagram showing the impedance of the supply circuit for a harmonic of order h
The reactance of a conductor increases as a function of the frequency of the current
flowing through the conductor. For each harmonic current (order h), there is therefore
an impedance Zh in the supply circuit.
M4
When the harmonic current of order h flows through impedance Zh, it creates a
harmonic voltage Uh, where Uh = Zh x Ih (Ohm law). The voltage at point B is
therefore distorted. All devices supplied via point B receive a distorted voltage.
For a given harmonic current, the distortion is proportional to the impedance in the
distribution network.
Flow of harmonic currents in distribution networks
The non-linear loads can be considered to reinject the harmonic currents upstream
into the distribution network, toward the source.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Figures M3 and M4 next page show an installation disturbed by harmonics. Figure
M3 shows the flow of the current at 50 Hz in the installation and Figure M4 shows
the harmonic current (order h).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 General
Zl
Non-linear
load
I 50 Hz
Fig. M3 : Installation supplying a non-linear load, where only the phenomena concerning the
50 Hz frequency (fundamental frequency) are shown
Zh
Ih
Vh
Non-linear
load
Vh = Harmonic voltage
= Zh x Ih
Fig. M4 : Same installation, where only the phenomena concerning the frequency of harmonic
order h are shown
Supply of the non-linear load creates the flow of a current I50Hz (shown in
figure M3), to which is added each of the harmonic currents Ih (shown in figure M4),
corresponding to each harmonic order h.
Still considering that the loads reinject harmonic current upstream into the
distribution network, it is possible to create a diagram showing the harmonic currents
in the network (see Fig. M5).
Iha
Backup power
supply
Rectifier
Arc furnace
Welding machine
G
Ihb
Variable-speed drive
Power-factor
correction
Ihd
Fluorescent or
discharge lamps
Ihe
Devices drawing rectified
current (televisions,
computer hardware, etc.)
MV/LV
M5
A
Harmonic
disturbances to
distribution network
and other users
Linear loads
(do not create
harmonics)
Note in the diagram that though certain loads create harmonic currents in the distribution
network, other loads can absorb the harmonic currents.
Fig. M5 : Flow of harmonic currents in a distribution network
Harmonics have major economic effects in installations:
b Increases in energy costs
b Premature ageing of equipment
b Production losses
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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M - Harmonic management
M - Harmonic management
4 Main effects of harmonics in
installations
4.1 Resonance
The simultaneous use of capacitive and inductive devices in distribution networks
results in parallel or series resonance manifested by very high or very low
impedance values respectively. The variations in impedance modify the current and
voltage in the distribution network. Here, only parallel resonance phenomena, the
most common, will be discussed.
Consider the following simplified diagram (see Fig. M6) representing an installation
made up of:
b A supply transformer
b Linear loads
b Non-linear loads drawing harmonic currents
b Power factor correction capacitors
For harmonic analysis, the equivalent diagram (see Fig. M7) is shown below.
Impedance Z is calculated by:
Z =
jLsω
1-LsCω 2
neglecting R and where:
Ls = Supply inductance (upstream network + transformer + line)
C = Capacitance of the power factor correction capacitors
R = Resistance of the linear loads
Ih = Harmonic current
Resonance occurs when the denominator 1-LsCw2 tends toward zero. The
corresponding frequency is called the resonance frequency of the circuit. At that
frequency, impedance is at its maximum and high amounts of harmonic voltages
appear with the resulting major distortion in the voltage. The voltage distortion is
accompanied, in the Ls+C circuit, by the flow of harmonic currents greater than
those drawn by the loads.
The distribution network and the power factor correction capacitors are subjected to
high harmonic currents and the resulting risk of overloads. To avoid resonance, antiharmonic coils can be installed in series with the capacitors.
4.2 Increased losses
Ih
Losses in conductors
The active power transmitted to a load is a function of the fundamental component I1
of the current.
M6
When the current drawn by the load contains harmonics, the rms value of the
current, Irms, is greater than the fundamental I1.
C
The definition of THD being:
2
Non-linear
load
Capacitor
bank
Linear
load
it may be deduced that: Irms = I1 1+ THD2
Fig. M6 : Diagram of an installation
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Ls
C
R
Irms
THD =
−1
I1
Ih
Z
Fig. M7 : Equivalent diagram of the installation shown in
Figure M6
Figure M8 (next page) shows, as a function of the harmonic distortion:
b The increase in the rms current Irms for a load drawing a given fundamental
current
b The increase in Joule losses, not taking into account the skin effect
(The reference point in the graph is 1 for Irms and Joules losses, the case when
there are no harmonics)
The harmonic currents provoke an increase in the Joule losses in all conductors in
which they flow and additional temperature rise in transformers, devices, cables, etc.
Losses in asynchronous machines
The harmonic voltages (order h) supplied to asynchronous machines provoke in the
rotor the flow of currents with frequencies higher than 50 Hz that are the cause of
additional losses.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Main effects of harmonics in
installations
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
THD
(%)
Joules losses
Irms
Fig. M8 : Increase in rms current and Joule losses as a function of the THD
Orders of magnitude
b A virtually rectangular supply voltage provokes a 20% increase in losses
b A supply voltage with harmonics u5 = 8% (of U1, the fundamental voltage),
u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu equal to 10%,
results in additional losses of 6%
Losses in transformers
Harmonic currents flowing in transformers provoke an increase in the “copper”
losses due to the Joule effect and increased “iron” losses due to eddy currents. The
harmonic voltages are responsible for “iron” losses due to hysteresis.
It is generally considered that losses in windings increase as the square of the THDi
and that core losses increase linearly with the THDu.
In utility-distribution transformers, where distortion levels are limited, losses increase
between 10 and 15%.
Losses in capacitors
The harmonic voltages applied to capacitors provoke the flow of currents
proportional to the frequency of the harmonics. These currents cause additional
losses.
M7
Example
A supply voltage has the following harmonics:
Fundamental voltage U1, harmonic voltages u5 = 8% (of U1), u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%,
u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic distortion THDu equal to 10%. The amperage of the
current is multiplied by 1.19. Joule losses are multiplied by 1.192, i.e. 1.4.
4.3 Overloads on equipment
Generators
Generators supplying non-linear loads must be derated due to the additional losses
caused by harmonic currents.
The level of derating is approximately 10% for a generator where the overall load
is made up of 30% of non-linear loads. It is therefore necessary to oversize the
generator.
Uninterruptible power systems (UPS)
The current drawn by computer systems has a very high crest factor. A UPS sized
taking into account exclusively the rms current may not be capable of supplying the
necessary peak current and may be overloaded.
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M - Harmonic management
M - Harmonic management
4 Main effects of harmonics in
installations
Transformers
b The curve presented below (see Fig. M9) shows the typical derating required for a
transformer supplying electronic loads
kVA
(%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
%
Electronic
load
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Fig. M9 : Derating required for a transformer supplying electronic loads
Example
If the transformer supplies an overall load comprising 40% of electronic loads, it must
be derated by 40%.
b Standard UTE C15-112 provides a derating factor for transformers as a function of
the harmonic currents.
k=
Th =
1
40
1+ 0.1 ∑ h1.6 Th2
h= 2
Ih
I1
Typical values:
b Current with a rectangular waveform (1/h spectrum (1)): k = 0.86
b Frequency-converter current (THD ≈ 50%): k = 0.80
M8
Asynchronous machines
Standard IEC 60892 defines a weighted harmonic factor (Harmonic voltage factor)
for which the equation and maximum value are provided below.
HVF =
13
∑
h= 2
Uh
i 0.02
h2
Example
A supply voltage has a fundamental voltage U1 and harmonic voltages u3 = 2% of
U1, u5 = 3%, u7 = 1%. The THDu is 3.7% and the MVF is 0.018. The MVF value
is very close to the maximum value above which the machine must be derated.
Practically speaking, for supply to the machine, a THDu of 10% must not be
exceeded.
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Capacitors
According to IEC 60831-1 standard, the rms current flowing in the capacitors must
not exceed 1.3 times the rated current.
Using the example mentioned above, the fundamental voltage U1, harmonic voltages
u5 = 8% (of U1), u7 = 5%, u11 = 3%, u13 = 1%, i.e. total harmonic
Irms
distortion
rated voltage.
voltage.For
Foraa
= 1.19 , at the rated
distortionTHDu
THDuequal
equalto
to 10%,
10%, the
the result
result is
I1
I
rms
voltageequal
equaltoto1.1
1.1times
timesthe
therated
ratedvoltage,
voltage, the
the current
current limit
limit
is reached
voltage
reached
= 1.3 is
I1
and it is necessary to resize the capacitors.
(1) In fact, the current waveform is similar to a rectangular
waveform. This is the case for all current rectifiers (three-phase
rectifiers, induction furnaces).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Main effects of harmonics in
installations
M - Harmonic management
Neutral conductors
Consider a system made up of a balanced three-phase source and three identical
single-phase loads connected between the phases and the neutral (see Fig. M10).
Figure M11 shows an example of the currents flowing in the three phases and the
resulting current in the neutral conductor.
In this example, the current in the neutral conductor has an rms value that is higher
than the rms value of the current in a phase by a factor equal to the square root of 3.
The neutral conductor must therefore be sized accordingly.
(A)
Ir
t
Is
t
It
t
In
M9
t
t (ms)
0
20
40
Fig. M11 : Example of the currents flowing in the various conductors connected to a three-phase
load (In = Ir + Is + It)
Ir
Load
4.4 Disturbances affecting sensitive loads
Is
Load
Load
In
Distortion of the supply voltage can disturb the operation of sensitive devices:
b Regulation devices (temperature)
b Computer hardware
b Control and monitoring devices (protection relays)
Distortion of telephone signals
Fig. M10 : Flow of currents in the various conductors
connected to a three-phase source
Harmonics cause disturbances in control circuits (low current levels). The level of
distortion depends on the distance that the power and control cables run in parallel,
the distance between the cables and the frequency of the harmonics.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Effects of distortion in the supply voltage
It
M - Harmonic management
4 Main effects of harmonics in
installations
4.5 Economic impact
Energy losses
Harmonics cause additional losses (Joule effect) in conductors and equipment.
Higher subscription costs
The presence of harmonic currents can require a higher subscribed power level and
consequently higher costs.
What is more, utilities will be increasingly inclined to charge customers for major
sources of harmonics.
Oversizing of equipment
b Derating of power sources (generators, transformers and UPSs) means they must
be oversized
b Conductors must be sized taking into account the flow of harmonic currents.
In addition, due the the skin effect, the resistance of these conductors increases
with frequency. To avoid excessive losses due to the Joule effect, it is necessary to
oversize conductors
b Flow of harmonics in the neutral conductor means that it must be oversized as well
Reduced service life of equipment
When the level of distortion in the supply voltage approaches 10%, the duration
of the service life of equipment is significantly reduced. The reduction has been
estimated at:
b 32.5% for single-phase machines
b 18% for three-phase machines
b 5% for transformers
To maintain the service lives corresponding to the rated load, equipment must be
oversized.
Nuisance tripping and installation shutdown
Circuit-breakers in the installation are subjected to current peaks caused by
harmonics.
These current peaks cause nuisance tripping with the resulting production losses, as
well as the costs corresponding to the time required to start the installation up again.
Examples
Given the economic consequences for the installations mentioned below, it was
necessary to install harmonic filters.
M10
Computer centre for an insurance company
In this centre, nuisance tripping of a circuit-breaker was calculated to have cost
100 k€ per hour of down time.
Pharmaceutical laboratory
Harmonics caused the failure of a generator set and the interruption of a longduration test on a new medication. The consequences were a loss estimated at
17 M€.
Metallurgy factory
A set of induction furnaces caused the overload and destruction of three
transformers ranging from 1500 to 2500 kVA over a single year. The cost of the
interruptions in production were estimated at 20 k€ per hour.
Factory producing garden furniture
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The failure of variable-speed drives resulted in production shutdowns estimated at
10 k€ per hour.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
5 Essential indicators of harmonic
distortion and measurement
principles
A number of indicators are used to quantify and evaluate the harmonic distortion
in current and voltage waveforms, namely:
b Power factor
b Crest factor
b Distortion power
b Harmonic spectrum
b Harmonic-distortion values
These indicators are indispensable in determining any necessary corrective action.
5.1 Power factor
Definition
The power factor PF is the ratio between the active power P and the apparent
power S.
PF =
P
S
Among electricians, there is often confusion with:
cos ϕ =
P1
S1
Where
Where
P1 = active power of the fundamental
S1 = apparent power of the fundamental
The cos ϕ concerns exclusively the fundamental frequency and therefore differs
from the power factor PF when there are harmonics in the installation.
Interpreting the power factor
An initial indication that there are significant amounts of harmonics is a measured
power factor PF that is different (lower) than the measured cos ϕ.
5.2 Crest factor
Definition
The crest factor is the ratio between the value of the peak current or voltage (Im or
Um) and its rms value.
b For a sinusoidal signal, the crest factor is therefore equal to 2.
b For a non-sinusoidal signal, the crest factor can be either greater than or less
than 2.
M11
In the latter case, the crest factor signals divergent peak values with respect to the
rms value.
Interpretation of the crest factor
The typical crest factor for the current drawn by non-linear loads is much higher
than 2. It is generally between 1.5 and 2 and can even reach 5 in critical cases.
A high crest factor signals high transient overcurrents which, when detected by
protection devices, can cause nuisance tripping.
5.3 Power values and harmonics
Active power
The active power P of a signal comprising harmonics is the sum of the active
powers resulting from the currents and voltages of the same order.
Reactive power
Reactive power is defined exclusively in terms of the fundamental, i.e.
Q = U1 x I1 x sinϕ1
Distortion power
When harmonics are present, the distortion power D is defined as
D = (S2 - P2 - Q2)1/2 where S is the apparent power.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
M - Harmonic management
M - Harmonic management
5 Essential indicators of harmonic
distortion and measurement
principles
5.4 Harmonic spectrum and harmonic distortion
Principle
Each type of device causing harmonics draws a particular form of harmonic current
(amplitude and phase displacement).
These values, notably the amplitude for each harmonic order, are essential for
analysis.
Individual harmonic distortion (or harmonic distortion of
order h)
The individual harmonic distortion is defined as the percentage of harmonics for
order h with respect to the fundamental.
U
uh (%) = 100 h
U1
or
ih (%) = 100
Ih
I1
Harmonic spectrum
By representing the amplitude of each harmonic order with respect to its frequency, it
is possible to obtain a graph called the harmonic spectrum.
Figure M12 shows an example of the harmonic spectrum for a rectangular signal.
Rms value
The rms value of the voltage and current can be calculated as a function of the rms
value of the various harmonic orders.
Irms =
∞
∑ I h2
h=1
and
Urms =
U(t)
∞
∑Uh2
h=1
1
5.5 Total harmonic distortion (THD)
t
The term THD means Total Harmonic Distortion and is a widely used notion in
defining the level of harmonic content in alternating signals.
Definition of THD
For a signal y, the THD is defined as:
M12
∞
THD =
H%
∑ yh2
h= 2
y1
This complies with the definition given in standard IEC 61000-2-2.
100
Note that the value can exceed 1.
According to the standard, the variable h can be limited to 50. The THD is the means
to express as a single number the distortion affecting a current or voltage flowing at a
given point in the installation.
The THD is generally expressed as a percentage.
33
20
h
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. M12 : Harmonic spectrum of a rectangular signal, for a
voltage U (t)
Current or voltage THD
For current harmonics, the equation is:
∞
THDi =
∑ Ih2
h= 2
I1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
5 Essential indicators of harmonic
distortion and measurement
principles
The equation below is equivalent to the above, but easier and more direct when the
total rms value is available:
2
I rms
THD i =
−1
I1
For voltage harmonics, the equation is:
∞
∑ Uh2
PF
cos ϕ
THD u =
1.2
h= 2
U1
Relation between power factor and THD (see Fig. M13)
1
When the voltage is sinusoidal or virtually sinusoidal, it may be said that:
0.8
P ≈ P1 = U1.I1.cosϕ1
0.6
Consequently : PF =
0.4
as:
0.2
THDi
(%)
0
50
100
PF
150
P U1.I1.cosϕ1
≈
S
U1.Irms
I1
1
=
Irms
1+ THDi2
hence: PF ≈
cosϕ1
1+ THDi2
Figure M13 shows a graph of
Fig. M13 : Variationof
in
as a function of the THDi, where
cosϕ
THDu = 0
PF
as a function of THDi.
cosϕ
5.6 Usefulness of the various indicators
The THDu characterises the distortion of the voltage wave.
Below are a number of THDu values and the corresponding phenomena in the
installation:
b THDu under 5% - normal situation, no risk of malfunctions
b 5 to 8% - significant harmonic pollution, some malfunctions are possible
b Higher than 8% - major harmonic pollution, malfunctions are probable. In-depth
analysis and the installation of attenuation devices are required
The THDi characterises the distortion of the current wave.
The disturbing device is located by measuring the THDi on the incomer and each
outgoer of the various circuits and thus following the harmonic trail.
Below are a number of THDi values and the corresponding phenomena in the
installation:
b THDi under 10% - normal situation, no risk of malfunctions
b 10 to 50% - significant harmonic pollution with a risk of temperature rise and the
resulting need to oversize cables and sources
b Higher than 50% - major harmonic pollution, malfunctions are probable. In-depth
analysis and the installation of attenuation devices are required
M13
Power factor PF
Used to evaluate the necessary oversizing for the power source of the installation.
Crest factor
Used to characterise the aptitude of a generator (or UPS) to supply high
instantaneous currents. For example, computer equipment draws highly distorted
current for which the crest factor can reach 3 to 5.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Spectrum (decomposition of the signal into frequencies)
It provides a different representation of electrical signals and can be used to evaluate
their distortion.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
6 Measuring the indicators
6.1 Devices used to measure the indicators
Device selection
The traditional observation and measurement methods include:
b Observations using an oscilloscope
An initial indication on the distortion affecting a signal can be obtained by viewing the
current or the voltage on an oscilloscope.
The waveform, when it diverges from a sinusoidal, clearly indicates the presence of
harmonics. Current and voltage peaks can be viewed.
Note, however, that this method does not offer precise quantification of the harmonic
components
b Analogue spectral analysers
They are made up of passband filters coupled with an rms voltmeter. They offer
mediocre performance and do not provide information on phase displacement.
Only the recent digital analysers can determine sufficiently precisely the
values of all the mentioned indicators.
Functions of digital analysers
The microprocessors in digital analysers:
b Calculate the values of the harmonic indicators (power factor, crest factor,
distortion power, THD)
b Carry out various complementary functions (corrections, statistical detection,
measurement management, display, communication, etc.)
b In multi-channel analysers, supply virtually in real time the simultaneous spectral
decomposition of the currents and voltages
Analyser operation and data processing
The analogue signals are converted into a series of numerical values.
Using this data, an algorithm implementing the Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
calculates the amplitudes and the phases of the harmonics over a large number of
time windows.
Most digital analysers measure harmonics up to order 20 or 25 when calculating the
THD.
Processing of the successive values calculated using the FFT (smoothing,
classification, statistics) can be carried out by the measurement device or by external
software.
M14
6.2 Procedures for harmonic analysis of distribution
networks
Measurements are carried out on industrial or commercial site:
b Preventively, to obtain an overall idea on distribution-network status (network map)
b In view of corrective action:
v To determine the origin of a disturbance and determine the solutions required to
eliminate it
v To check the validity of a solution (followed by modifications in the distribution
network to check the reduction in harmonics)
Operating mode
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The current and voltage are studied:
b At the supply source
b On the busbars of the main distribution switchboard (or on the MV busbars)
b On each outgoing circuit in the main distribution switchboard (or on the
MV busbars)
For the measurements, it is necessary to know the precise operating conditions
of the installation and particularly the status of the capacitor banks (operating, not
operating, the number of disconnected steps).
Analysis results
b Determine any necessary derating of equipment in the installation or
b Quantify any necessary harmonic protection and filtering systems to be installed in
the distribution network
b Enable comparison between the measured values and the reference values of the
utility (maximum harmonic values, acceptable values, reference values)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
6 Measuring the indicators
Use of measurement devices
Measurement devices serve to show both the instantaneous and long-term effects of
harmonics. Analysis requires values spanning durations ranging from a few seconds
to several minutes over observation periods of a number of days.
The required values include:
b The amplitudes of the harmonic currents and voltages
b The individual harmonic content of each harmonic order of the current and voltage
b The THD for the current and voltage
b Where applicable, the phase displacement between the harmonic voltage and
current of the same harmonic order and the phase of the harmonics with respect to a
common reference (e.g. the fundamental voltage)
6.3 Keeping a close eye on harmonics
The harmonic indicators can be measured:
b Either by devices permanently installed in the distribution network
b Or by an expert present at least a half day on the site (limited perception)
Permanent devices are preferable
For a number of reasons, the installation of permanent measurement devices in the
distribution network is preferable.
b The presence of an expert is limited in time. Only a number of measurements at
different points in the installation and over a sufficiently long period (one week to a
month) provide an overall view of operation and take into account all the situations
that can occur following:
v Fluctuations in the supply source
v Variations in the operation of the installation
v The addition of new equipment in the installation
b Measurement devices installed in the distribution network prepare and facilitate the
diagnosis of the experts, thus reducing the number and duration of their visits
b Permanent measurement devices detect any new disturbances arising following
the installation of new equipment, the implementation of new operating modes or
fluctuations in the supply network
Take advantage of built-in measurement and detection devices
Measurement and detection devices built into the electrical distribution equipment:
b For an overall evaluation of network status (preventive analysis), avoid:
v Renting measurement equipment
v Calling in experts
v Having to connect and disconnect the measurement equipment.
M15
For the overall evaluation of network status, the analysis on the main low-voltage
distribution switchboards (MLVS) can often be carried out by the incoming device
and/or the measurement devices equipping each outgoing circuit
b For corrective action, are the means to:
v Determine the operating conditions at the time of the incident
v Draw up a map of the distribution network and evaluate the implemented solution
The diagnosis is improved by the use of equipment intended for the studied problem.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
M - Harmonic management
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
7 Detection devices
Measurements are the first step in gaining control over harmonic pollution.
Depending on the conditions in each installation, different types of equipment
provide the necessary solution.
PowerLogic System with Power Meter and
Circuit Monitor, Micrologic offer a complete
range of devices for the detection of harmonic
distortion
Power-monitoring units
Power Meter and Circuit Monitor in the PowerLogic System
These products offer high-performance measurement capabilities for low and
medium-voltage distribution networks. They are digital units that include powerquality monitoring functions.
PowerLogic System is a complete offer comprising Power Meter (PM) and Circuit
Monitor (CM). This highly modular offer covers needs ranging from the most simple
(Power Meter) up to highly complex requirements (Circuit Monitor). These products
can be used in new or existing installations where the level of power quality must be
excellent. The operating mode can be local and/or remote.
Depending on its position in the distribution network, a Power Meter provides an initial
indication on power quality. The main measurements carried out by a Power Meter are:
b Current and voltage THD
b Power factor
Depending on the version, these measurements can be combined with timestamping and alarm functions.
A Circuit Monitor (see Fig. M14) carries out a detailed analysis of power quality
and also analyses disturbances on the distribution network. The main functions of a
Circuit Monitor are:
b Measurement of over 100 electrical parameters
b Storage in memory and time-stamping of minimum and maximum values for each
electrical parameter
b Alarm functions tripped by electrical parameter values
b Recording of event data
b Recording of current and voltage disturbances
b Harmonic analysis
b Waveform capture (disturbance monitoring)
Micrologic - a power-monitoring unit built into the circuit-breaker
For new installations, the Micrologic H control unit (see Fig. M15), an integral part
of Masterpact power circuit-breakers, is particularly useful for measurements at the
head of an installation or on large outgoing circuits.
M16
The Micrologic H control unit offers precise analysis of power quality and detailed
diagnostics on events. It is designed for operation in conjunction with a switchboard
display unit or a supervisor. It can:
b Measure current, voltage, active and reactive power
b Measure current and voltage THD
b Display the amplitude and phase of current and voltage harmonics up to the 51st order
b Carry out waveform capture (disturbance monitoring)
Fig. M14 : Circuit monitor
The functions offered by the Micrologic H control unit are equivalent to those of a
Circuit Monitor.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Operation of power-monitoring units
Software for remote operation and analysis
In the more general framework of a distribution network requiring monitoring,
the possibility of interconnecting these various devices can be offered in a
communication network, thus making it possible to centralise information and obtain
an overall view of disturbances throughout the distribution network.
Depending on the application, the operator can then carry out measurements in real
time, calculate demand values, run waveform captures, anticipate on alarms, etc.
The power-monitoring units transmit all the available data over either a Modbus,
Digipact or Ethernet network.
The essential goal of this system is to assist in identifying and planning maintenance
work. It is an effective means to reduce servicing time and the cost of temporarily
installing devices for on-site measurements or the sizing of equipment (filters).
Fig. M15 : Micrologic H control unit with harmonic metering for
Masterpact NT and NW circuit-breakers
Supervision software SMS
SMS is a very complete software used to analyse distribution networks, in conjunction
with the products in the PowerLogic System. Installed on a standard PC, it can:
b Display measurements in real time
b Display historical logs over a given period
b Select the manner in which data is presented (tables, various curves)
b Carry out statistical processing of data (display bar charts)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
There are three different types of solutions to attenuate harmonics:
b Modifications in the installation
b Special devices in the supply system
b Filtering
8.1 Basic solutions
To limit the propagation of harmonics in the distribution network, different solutions
are available and should be taken into account particularly when designing a new
installation.
Position the non-linear loads upstream in the system
Overall harmonic disturbances increase as the short-circuit power decreases.
All economic considerations aside, it is preferable to connect the non-linear loads as
far upstream as possible (see Fig. M16).
Z2
Sensitive
loads
Z1
Non-linear
loads
Where impedance
Z1 < Z2
Fig. M16 : Non-linear loads positioned as far upstream as possible (recommended layout)
Group the non-linear loads
When preparing the single-line diagram, the non-linear devices should be separated
from the others (see Fig. M17). The two groups of devices should be supplied by
different sets of busbars.
M17
Sensitive
loads
Yes
Line impedances
No
Non-linear
load 1
Non-linear
load 2
Fig. M17 : Grouping of non-linear loads and connection as far upstream as possible
(recommended layout)
Create separate sources
In attempting to limit harmonics, an additional improvement can be obtained by
creating a source via a separate transformer as indicated in the Figure M18 next
page.
The disadvantage is the increase in the cost of the installation.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
M - Harmonic management
M - Harmonic management
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
Non-linear
loads
MV
network
Linear
loads
Fig. M18 : Supply of non-linear loads via a separate transformer
Transformers with special connections
Different transformer connections can eliminate certain harmonic orders, as
indicated in the examples below:
b A Dyd connection suppresses 5th and 7th harmonics (see Fig. M19)
b A Dy connection suppresses the 3rd harmonic
b A DZ 5 connection suppresses the 5th harmonic
h5, h7, h11, h13
h11, h13
h5, h7, h11, h13
Fig. M19 : A Dyd transformer blocks propagation of the 5th and 7th harmonics to the upstream
network
Install reactors
When variable-speed drives are supplied, it is possible to smooth the current
by installing line reactors. By increasing the impedance of the supply circuit, the
harmonic current is limited.
Installation of harmonic suppression reactors on capacitor banks increases the
impedance of the reactor/capacitor combination for high-order harmonics.
This avoids resonance and protects the capacitors.
Select the suitable system earthing arrangement
M18
TNC system
In the TNC system, a single conductor (PEN) provides protection in the event of an
earth fault and the flow of unbalance currents.
Under steady-state conditions, the harmonic currents flow in the PEN. The latter,
however, has a certain impedance with as a result slight differences in potential (a
few volts) between devices that can cause electronic equipment to malfunction.
The TNC system must therefore be reserved for the supply of power circuits at the
head of the installation and must not be used to supply sensitive loads.
TNS system
This system is recommended if harmonics are present.
The neutral conductor and the protection conductor PE are completely separate and
the potential throughout the distribution network is therefore more uniform.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
8.2 Harmonic filtering
In cases where the preventive action presented above is insufficient, it is necessary
to equip the installation with filtering systems.
There are three types of filters:
b Passive
b Active
b Hybrid
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
M - Harmonic management
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
Passive filters
Typical applications
b Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing more than
200 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.)
b Installations requiring power-factor correction
b Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to avoid disturbing sensitive
loads
b Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads
I har
Operating principle
An LC circuit, tuned to each harmonic order to be filtered, is installed in parallel with
the non-linear load (see Fig. M20). This bypass circuit absorbs the harmonics, thus
avoiding their flow in the distribution network.
Generally speaking, the passive filter is tuned to a harmonic order close to the order
to be eliminated. Several parallel-connected branches of filters can be used if a
significant reduction in the distortion of a number of harmonic orders is required.
Filter
Non-linear
load
Active filters (active harmonic conditioner)
Typical applications
b Commercial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing less than
200 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, office equipment, etc.)
b Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads.
Fig. M20 : Operating principle of a passive filter
Operating principle
These systems, comprising power electronics and installed in series or parallel with
the non-linear load, compensate the harmonic current or voltage drawn by the load.
Figure M21 shows a parallel-connected active harmonic conditioner (AHC)
compensating the harmonic current (Ihar = -Iact).
Is
The AHC injects in opposite phase the harmonics drawn by the non-linear load, such
that the line current Is remains sinusoidal.
Iact
Hybrid filters
AHC
Non-linear
load
Linear
load
Fig. M21 : Operating principle of an active filter
Typical applications
b Industrial installations with a set of non-linear loads representing more than
200 kVA (variable-speed drives, UPSs, rectifiers, etc.)
b Installations requiring power-factor correction
b Installations where voltage distortion must be reduced to avoid disturbing sensitive
loads
b Installations where current distortion must be reduced to avoid overloads
b Installations where strict limits on harmonic emissions must be met
Operating principle
Passive and active filters are combined in a single system to constitute a hybrid filter
(see Fig. M22). This new filtering solution offers the advantages of both types of
filters and covers a wide range of power and performance levels.
Is
I har
Iact
AHC
Non-linear
load
Hybride filter
Fig. M22 : Operating principle of a hybrid filter
Linear
load
M19
Selection criteria
Passive filter
It offers both power-factor correction and high current-filtering capacity.
Passive filters also reduce the harmonic voltages in installations where the supply
voltage is disturbed. If the level of reactive power supplied is high, it is advised to turn
off the passive filter at times when the percent load is low.
Preliminary studies for a filter must take into account the possible presence of a
power factor correction capacitor bank which may have to be eliminated.
Active harmonic conditioners
They filter harmonics over a wide range of frequencies and can adapt to any type of
load.
On the other hand, power ratings are low.
Hybrid filters
They combine the performance of both active and passive filters.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
I har
M - Harmonic management
A complete set of services can be offered to
eliminate harmonics:
b Installation analysis
b Measurement and monitoring systems
b Filtering solutions
8 Solutions to attenuate
harmonics
8.3 The method
The best solution, in both technical and financial terms, is based on the results of an
in-depth study.
Harmonic audit of MV and LV networks
By calling on an expert, you are guaranteed that the proposed solution will produce
effective results (e.g. a guaranteed maximum THDu).
A harmonic audit is carried out by an engineer specialised in the disturbances
affecting electrical distribution networks and equipped with powerful analysis and
simulation equipment and software.
The steps in an audit are the following:
b Measurement of disturbances affecting current and phase-to-phase and phaseto-neutral voltages at the supply source, the disturbed outgoing circuits and the
non-linear loads
b Computer modelling of the phenomena to obtain a precise explanation of the
causes and determine the best solutions
b A complete audit report presenting:
v The current levels of disturbances
v The maximum permissible levels of disturbances (IEC 61000, IEC 34, etc.)
b A proposal containing solutions with guaranteed levels of performance
b Finally, implementation of the selected solution, using the necessary means and
resources.
The entire audit process is certified ISO 9002.
8.4 Specific products
Passive filters
Passive filters are made up of coils and capacitors set up in resonant circuits tuned
to the specific harmonic order that must be eliminated.
A system may comprise a number of filters to eliminate several harmonic orders.
Suitable for 400 V three-phase voltages, the power ratings can reach:
b 265 kvar / 470 A for harmonic order 5
b 145 kvar / 225 A for harmonic order 7
b 105 kvar / 145 A for harmonic order 11
Passive filters can be created for all voltage and current levels.
M20
Active filters
b SineWave active harmonic conditioners
v Suitable for 400 V three-phase voltages, they can deliver between 20 and 120 A
per phase
v SineWave covers all harmonic orders from 2 to 25. Conditioning can be total or
target specific harmonic orders
v Attenuation: THDi load / THDi upstream greater than 10 at rated capacity
v Functions include power factor correction, conditioning of zero-sequence
harmonics, diagnostics and maintenance system, parallel connection, remote
control, Ibus/RS485 communication interface
b Accusine active filters
v Suitable for 400 and 480 V three-phase voltages, they can filter between 50 and 30
A per phase
v All harmonic orders up to 50 are filtered
v Functions include power factor correction, parallel connection, instantaneous
response to load variations
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Hybrid filters
These filters combine the advantages of both a passive filter and the SineWave
active harmonic conditioner in a single system.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter N
Characteristics of particular
sources and loads
Contents
1
Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
N2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
N2
N5
N5
N10
Generator protection
Downstream LV network protection
The monitoring functions
Generator Set parallel-connection
2
Uninterruptible Power Supply units (UPS)
N11
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
N11
N12
N15
N16
N18
N20
N22
N22
3
Protection of LV/LV transformers
N24
3.1 Transformer-energizing inrush current
3.2 Protection for the supply circuit of a LV/LV transformer
3.3 Typical electrical characteristics of LV/LV 50 Hz transformers
3.4 Protection of LV/LV transformers, using Merlin Gerin
circuit-breakers
N24
N24
N25
4
Lighting circuits
N27
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
N27
N29
N34
N42
5
Asynchronous motors
N45
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
N45
N47
N49
N54
N54
Availability and quality of electrical power
Types of static UPSs
Batteries
System earthing arrangements for installations comprising UPSs
Choice of protection schemes
Installation, connection and sizing of cables
The UPSs and their environment
Complementary equipment
The different lamp technologies
Electrical characteristics of lamps
Constraints related to lighting devices and recommendations
Lighting of public areas
Functions for the motor circuit
Standards
Applications
Maximum rating of motors installed for consumers supplied at LV
Reactive-energy compensation (power-factor correction)
N25
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
Most industrial and large commercial electrical installations include certain important
loads for which a power supply must be maintained, in the event that the utility
electrical supply fails:
b Either, because safety systems are involved (emergency lighting, automatic fireprotection equipment, smoke dispersal fans, alarms and signalization, and so on…) or
b Because it concerns priority circuits, such as certain equipment, the stoppage of
which would entail a loss of production, or the destruction of a machine tool, etc.
One of the current means of maintaining a supply to the so-called “priority” loads, in
the event that other sources fail, is to install a diesel generator set connected, via a
change-over switch, to an emergency-power standby switchboard, from which the
priority services are fed (see Fig. N1).
G
HV
LV
Change-over switch
Non-priority circuits
Priority circuits
Fig N1 : Example of circuits supplied from a transformer or from an alternator
1.1 Generator protection
Figure N2 below shows the electrical sizing parameters of a Generator Set. Pn, Un
and In are, respectively, the power of the thermal motor, the rated voltage and the
rated current of the generator.
Un, In
Pn
R
Thermal
motor
N2
S
T
N
t (s)
Fig N2 : Block diagram of a generator set
1,000
Overload protection
The generator protection curve must be analysed (see Fig. N3).
Standards and requirements of applications can also stipulate specific overload
conditions. For example:
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
100
12
10
7
I/In
1.1
1.5
3
2
1
I
0
0 1.1 1.2 1.5
2
3
4
Fig N3 : Example of an overload curve t = f(I/In)
In
5
Overloads
t
>1h
30 s
The setting possibilities of the overload protection devices (or Long Time Delay) will
closely follow these requirements.
Note on overloads
b For economic reasons, the thermal motor of a replacement set may be strictly sized
for its nominal power. If there is an active power overload, the diesel motor will stall.
The active power balance of the priority loads must take this into account
b A production set must be able to withstand operating overloads:
v One hour overload
v One hour 10% overload every 12 hours (Prime Power)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
Short-circuit current protection
Making the short-circuit current
The short-circuit current is the sum:
b Of an aperiodic current
b Of a damped sinusoidal current
The short-circuit current equation shows that it is composed of three successive
phases (see Fig. N4).
I rms
1
2
3
≈ 3 In
1 - Subtransient conditions
2 - Transient conditions
3 - Steady state conditions
Generator with compound
excitation or over-excitation
In
Generator with serial
excitation
≈ 0.3 In
0
t (s)
0
10 to 20 ms
0.1 to 0.3 s
Fault appears
Fig N4 : Short-circuit current level during the 3 phases
b Subtransient phase
When a short-circuit appears at the terminals of a generator, the current is first made
at a relatively high value of around 6 to 12 In during the first cycle (0 to 20 ms).
The amplitude of the short-circuit output current is defined by three parameters:
v The subtransient reactance of the generator
v The level of excitation prior to the time of the fault and
v The impedance of the faulty circuit.
The short-circuit impedance of the generator to be considered is the subtransient
reactance x’’d expressed in % by the manufacturer. The typical value is 10 to 15%.
We determine the subtransient short-circuit impedance of the generator:
U2 x ′′d
where S = 3 Un I n
X ′′d(ohms) = n
100 S
b Steady state phase
The steady state occurs after 500 ms.
When the fault persists, the output voltage collapses and the exciter regulation seeks
to raise this output voltage. The result is a stabilised sustained short-circuit current:
v If generator excitation does not increase during a short-circuit (no field
overexcitation) but is maintained at the level preceding the fault, the current stabilises
at a value that is given by the synchronous reactance Xd of the generator. The typical
value of xd is greater than 200%. Consequently, the final current will be less than the
full-load current of the generator, normally around 0.5 In.
v If the generator is equipped with maximum field excitation (field overriding) or with
compound excitation, the excitation “surge” voltage will cause the fault current to
increase for 10 seconds, normally to 2 to 3 times the full-load current of the generator.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N3
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b Transient phase
The transient phase is placed 100 to 500 ms after the time of the fault. Starting from
the value of the fault current of the subtransient period, the current drops to 1.5 to
2 times the current In.
The short-circuit impedance to be considered for this period is the transient
reactance x’d expressed in % by the manufacturer. The typical value is 20 to 30%.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
Calculating the short-circuit current
Manufacturers normally specify the impedance values and time constants required
for analysis of operation in transient or steady state conditions (see Fig. N5).
(kVA)
x”d
x’d
xd
75
10.5
21
280
200
10.4
15.6
291
400
12.9
19.4
358
800
10.5
18
280
1,600
18.8
33.8
404
2,500
19.1
30.2
292
Fig N5 : Example of impedance table (in %)
Resistances are always negligible compared with reactances. The parameters for the
short-circuit current study are:
b Value of the short-circuit current at generator terminals
Short-circuit current amplitude in transient conditions is:
In 1
I sc3 =
(X’d in ohms)
(X’
X ′d 3
or
In
100 (x’d in%)
x ′d
Un is the generator phase-to-phase output voltage.
I sc3 =
Note: This value can be compared with the short-circuit current at the terminals of a
transformer. Thus, for the same power, currents in event of a short-circuit close to a
generator will be 5 to 6 times weaker than those that may occur with a transformer
(main source).
This difference is accentuated still further by the fact that generator set power is
normally less than that of the transformer (see Fig. N6).
Source 1
MV
2,000 kVA
GS
LV
42 kA
500 kVA
2.5 kA
NC
N4
NC
D1
NO
D2
Main/standby
Non-priority circuits
Priority circuits
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
NC: Normally closed
NO: Normally open
Fig N6 : Example of a priority services switchboard supplied (in an emergency) from a standby
generator set
When the LV network is supplied by the Main source 1 of 2,000 kVA, the short-circuit
current is 42 kA at the main LV board busbar. When the LV network is supplied by the
Replacement Source 2 of 500 kVA with transient reactance of 30%, the short-circuit
current is made at approx. 2.5 kA, i.e. at a value 16 times weaker than with the Main
source.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
1.2 Downstream LV network protection
Priority circuit protection
Choice of breaking capacity
This must be systematically checked with the characteristics of the main source
(MV/LV transformer).
Setting of the Short Time Delay (STD) tripping current
b Subdistribution boards
The ratings of the protection devices for the subdistribution and final distribution
circuits are always lower than the generator rated current. Consequently, except in
special cases, conditions are the same as with transformer supply.
b Main LV switchboard
v The sizing of the main feeder protection devices is normally similar to that of the
generator set. Setting of the STD must allow for the short-circuit characteristic of the
generator set (see “Short-circuit current protection” before)
v Discrimination of protection devices on the priority feeders must be provided
in generator set operation (it can even be compulsory for safety feeders). It is
necessary to check proper staggering of STD setting of the protection devices of
the main feeders with that of the subdistribution protection devices downstream
(normally set for distribution circuits at 10 In).
Note: When operating on the generator set, use of a low sensitivity Residual
Current Device enables management of the insulation fault and ensures very simple
discrimination.
Safety of people
In the IT (2nd fault) and TN grounding systems, protection of people against indirect
contacts is provided by the STD protection of circuit-breakers. Their operation on
a fault must be ensured, whether the installation is supplied by the main source
(Transformer) or by the replacement source (generator set).
Calculating the insulation fault current
Zero-sequence reactance formulated as a% of Uo by the manufacturer x’o.
The typical value is 8%.
The phase-to-neutral single-phase short-circuit current is given by:
Un 3
If =
2 X ′d + X ′o
The insulation fault current in the TN system is slightly greater than the three
phase fault current. For example, in event of an insulation fault on the system in the
previous example, the insulation fault current is equal to 3 kA.
1.3 The monitoring functions
Due to the specific characteristics of the generator and its regulation, the proper
operating parameters of the generator set must be monitored when special loads are
implemented.
N5
The behaviour of the generator is different from that of the transformer:
b The active power it supplies is optimised for a power factor = 0.8
b At less than power factor 0.8, the generator may, by increased excitation, supply
part of the reactive power
An off-load generator connected to a capacitor bank may self-excite, consequently
increasing its overvoltage.
The capacitor banks used for power factor regulation must therefore be disconnected.
This operation can be performed by sending the stopping setpoint to the regulator
(if it is connected to the system managing the source switchings) or by opening the
circuit-breaker supplying the capacitors.
If capacitors continue to be necessary, do not use regulation of the power factor relay
in this case (incorrect and over-slow setting).
Motor restart and re-acceleration
A generator can supply at most in transient period a current of between 3 and 5 times
its nominal current.
A motor absorbs roughly 6 In for 2 to 20 s during start-up.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Capacitor bank
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
If the sum of the motor power is high, simultaneous start-up of loads generates a
high pick-up current that can be damaging. A large voltage drop, due to the high
value of the generator transient and subtransient reactances will occur (20% to
30%), with a risk of:
b Non-starting of motors
b Temperature rise linked to the prolonged starting time due to the voltage drop
b Tripping of the thermal protection devices
Moreover, all the network and actuators are disturbed by the voltage drop.
Application (see Fig. N7)
A generator supplies a set of motors.
Generator characteristics: Pn = 130 kVA at a power factor of 0.8,
In = 150 A
x’d = 20% (for example) hence Isc = 750 A.
b The Σ Pmotors is 45 kW (45% of generator power)
Calculating voltage drop at start-up:
Σ PMotors = 45 kW, Im = 81 A, hence a starting current Id = 480 A for 2 to 20 s.
Voltage drop on the busbar for simultaneous motor starting:
∆U I d − I n
=
in %
U I sc − I n
55%
Δ∆UU==55%
b the Σ Pmotors is 20 kW (20% of generator power)
Calculating voltage drop at start-up:
Σ PMotors = 20 kW, Im = 35 A, hence a starting current Id = 210 A for 2 to 20 s.
Voltage drop on the busbar:
∆U I d − I n
=
in %
U I sc − I n
which is not tolerable for motors (failure to start).
Δ∆U = 10%
which is high but tolerable (depending on the type of loads).
G
PLC
N
F
N6
F
Remote control 1
F
F
Remote control 2
Motors
Resistive loads
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig N7 : Restarting of priority motors (ΣP > 1/3 Pn)
Restarting tips
1
starter
b If the Pmax of the largest motor > Pn , a progressive
soft starter must
bemust be
3
installed on this motor
If the Pmax of theblargest
motor >
If Σ Pmotors
1
Pn , amotor
progressive
mustmust
be be managed by a PLC
cascadestarter
restarting
3
b If Σ Pmotors < 1Pn , there are no restarting problems
3
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
Non-linear loads – Example of a UPS
Non-linear loads
These are mainly:
b Saturated magnetic circuits
b Discharge lamps, fluorescent lights
b Electronic converters
b Information Technology Equipment: PC, computers, etc.
These loads generate harmonic currents: supplied by a Generator Set, this can
create high voltage distortion due to the low short-circuit power of the generator.
Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) (see Fig. N8)
The combination of a UPS and generator set is the best solution for ensuring quality
power supply with long autonomy for the supply of sensitive loads.
It is also a non-linear load due to the input rectifier. On source switching, the autonomy
of the UPS on battery must allow starting and connection of the Generator Set.
Electrical utility
HV incomer
G
NC
NO
Mains 2
feeder
By-pass
Mains 1
feeder
Uninterruptible
power supply
Non-sensitive
load
Sensitive feeders
Fig N8 : Generator set- UPS combination for Quality energy
N7
UPS power
UPS inrush power must allow for:
b Nominal power of the downstream loads. This is the sum of the apparent powers
Pa absorbed by each application. Furthermore, so as not to oversize the installation,
the overload capacities at UPS level must be considered (for example: 1.5 In for
1 minute and 1.25 In for 10 minutes)
b The power required to recharge the battery: This current is proportional to the
autonomy required for a given power. The sizing Sr of a UPS is given by:
Sr = 1.17 x Pn
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Figure N9 next page defines the pick-up currents and protection devices for
supplying the rectifier (Mains 1) and the standby mains (Mains 2).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
Nominal power
Pn (kVA)
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
250
300
400
500
600
800
Current value (A)
Mains 1 with 3Ph battery
400 V - I1
86
123
158
198
240
317
395
493
590
793
990
1,180
1,648
Mains 2 or 3Ph application
400 V - Iu
60.5
91
121
151
182
243
304
360
456
608
760
912
1,215
Fig N9 : Pick-up current for supplying the rectifier and standby mains
Generator Set/UPS combination
b Restarting the Rectifier on a Generator Set
The UPS rectifier can be equipped with a progressive starting of the charger to
prevent harmful pick-up currents when installation supply switches to the Generator
Set (see Fig. N10).
Mains 1
GS starting
t (s)
UPS charger
starting
N8
20 ms
5 to 10 s
Fig N10 : Progressive starting of a type 2 UPS rectifier
b Harmonics and voltage distortion
Total voltage distortion τ is defined by:
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
τ(%) =
ΣUh2
U1
where Uh is the harmonic voltage of order h.
This value depends on:
v The harmonic currents generated by the rectifier (proportional to the power Sr of
the rectifier)
v The longitudinal subtransient reactance X”d of the generator
v The power Sg of the generator
Sr
We define U′ Rcc(%) = X ′′d
the generator relative short-circuit voltage, brought to
Sg
rectifier power, i.e. t = f(U’Rcc).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
Note 1: As subtransient reactance is great, harmonic distortion is normally too high
compared with the tolerated value (7 to 8%) for reasonable economic sizing of the
generator: use of a suitable filter is an appropriate and cost-effective solution.
Note 2: Harmonic distortion is not harmful for the rectifier but may be harmful for the
other loads supplied in parallel with the rectifier.
Application
A chart is used to find the distortion τ as a function of U’Rcc (see Fig. N11).
τ (%) (Voltage harmonic distortion)
18
Without filter
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
With filter
(incorporated)
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
U'Rcc = X''dSr
Sg
Fig N11 : Chart for calculating harmonic distorsion
The chart gives:
b Either τ as a function of U’Rcc
b Or U’Rcc as a function of τ
From which generator set sizing, Sg, is determined.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N9
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Example: Generator sizing
b 300 kVA UPS without filter, subtransient reactance of 15%
The power Sr of the rectifier is Sr = 1.17 x 300 kVA = 351 kVA
For a τ < 7%, the chart gives U’Rcc = 4%, power Sg is:
15
Sg = 351 x
≈ 1,400 kVA
4
c
b 300 kVA UPS with filter, subtransient reactance of 15%
For τ = 5%, the calculation gives U’Rcc = 12%, power Sg is:
15
Sg = 351 x
≈ 500 kVA
12
Note: With an upstream transformer of 630 kVA on the 300 kVA UPS without filter,
the 5% ratio would be obtained.
The result is that operation on generator set must be continually monitored for
harmonic currents.
If voltage harmonic distortion is too great, use of a filter on the network is the most
effective solution to bring it back to values that can be tolerated by sensitive loads.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
1 Protection of a LV generator set
and the downstream circuits
1.4 Generator Set parallel-connection
Parallel-connection of the generator set irrespective of the application type - Safety
source, Replacement source or Production source - requires finer management of
connection, i.e. additional monitoring functions.
Parallel operation
As generator sets generate energy in parallel on the same load, they must be
synchronised properly (voltage, frequency) and load distribution must be balanced
properly. This function is performed by the regulator of each Generator Set (thermal
and excitation regulation). The parameters (frequency, voltage) are monitored before
connection: if the values of these parameters are correct, connection can take place.
Insulation faults (see Fig. N12)
An insulation fault inside the metal casing of a generator set may seriously damage
the generator of this set if the latter resembles a phase-to-neutral short-circuit. The
fault must be detected and eliminated quickly, else the other generators will generate
energy in the fault and trip on overload: installation continuity of supply will no longer be
guaranteed. Ground Fault Protection (GFP) built into the generator circuit is used to:
b Quickly disconnect the faulty generator and preserve continuity of supply
b Act at the faulty generator control circuits to stop it and reduce the risk of damage
This GFP is of the “Residual Sensing” type and must be installed as close as
possible to the protection device as per a TN-C/TN-S (1) system at each generator set
with grounding of frames by a separate PE. This kind of protection is usually called
“Restricted Earth Fault”.
MV incomer
F
HV busbar
F
G
Generator no. 1
Generator no. 2
Protected
area
RS
RS
PE
Unprotected
area
PE
LV
PEN
PE
PEN
Phases
Fig N13 : Energy transfer direction – Generator Set as a
generator
N
N10
PE
MV incomer
Fig N12 : Insulation fault inside a generator
F
HV busbar
F
Generator Set operating as a load (see Fig. N13 and Fig. N14)
One of the parallel-connected generator sets may no longer operate as a generator
but as a motor (by loss of its excitation for example). This may generate overloading
of the other generator set(s) and thus place the electrical installation out of operation.
G
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
To check that the generator set really is supplying the installation with power
(operation as a generator), the proper flow direction of energy on the coupling busbar
must be checked using a specific “reverse power” check. Should a fault
occur, i.e. the set operates as a motor, this function will eliminate the faulty set.
Grounding parallel-connected Generator Sets
LV
Fig N14 : Energy transfer direction – Generator Set as a load
Grounding of connected generator sets may lead to circulation of earth fault currents
(triplen harmonics) by connection of neutrals for common grounding (grounding
system of the TN or TT type). Consequently, to prevent these currents from flowing
between the generator sets, we recommend the installation of a decoupling
resistance in the grounding circuit.
(1) The system is in TN-C for sets seen as the “generator” and
in TN-S for sets seen as “loads”
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
2.1 Availability and quality of electrical power
The disturbances presented above may affect:
b Safety of human life
b Safety of property
b The economic viability of a company or production process
Disturbances must therefore be eliminated.
A number of technical solutions contribute to this goal, with varying degrees of
effectiveness. These solutions may be compared on the basis of two criteria:
b Availability of the power supplied
b Quality of the power supplied
The availability of electrical power can be thought of as the time per year that power
is present at the load terminals. Availability is mainly affected by power interruptions
due to utility outages or electrical faults.
A number of solutions exist to limit the risk:
b Division of the installation so as to use a number of different sources rather than
just one
b Subdivision of the installation into priority and non-priority circuits, where the
supply of power to priority circuits can be picked up if necessary by another available
source
b Load shedding, as required, so that a reduced available power rating can be used
to supply standby power
b Selection of a system earthing arrangement suited to service-continuity goals, e.g.
IT system
b Discrimination of protection devices (selective tripping) to limit the consequences
of a fault to a part of the installation
Note that the only way of ensuring availability of power with respect to utility outages
is to provide, in addition to the above measures, an autonomous alternate source, at
least for priority loads (see Fig. N15).
2.5 kA
G
Alternate source
N11
Non-priority circuits
Priority circuits
This source takes over from the utility in the event of a problem, but two factors must
be taken into account:
b The transfer time (time required to take over from the utility) which must be
acceptable to the load
b The operating time during which it can supply the load
The quality of electrical power is determined by the elimination of the disturbances at
the load terminals.
An alternate source is a means to ensure the availability of power at the load
terminals, however, it does not guarantee, in many cases, the quality of the power
supplied with respect to the above disturbances.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
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Fig. N15 : Availability of electrical power
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
Today, many sensitive electronic applications require an electrical power supply
which is virtually free of these disturbances, to say nothing of outages, with
tolerances that are stricter than those of the utility.
This is the case, for example, for computer centers, telephone exchanges and many
industrial-process control and monitoring systems.
These applications require solutions that ensure both the availability and quality of
electrical power.
The UPS solution
The solution for sensitive applications is to provide a power interface between the
utility and the sensitive loads, providing voltage that is:
b Free of all disturbances present in utility power and in compliance with the strict
tolerances required by loads
b Available in the event of a utility outage, within specified tolerances
UPSs (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) satisfy these requirements in terms of power
availability and quality by:
b Supplying loads with voltage complying with strict tolerances, through use of an
inverter
b Providing an autonomous alternate source, through use of a battery
b Stepping in to replace utility power with no transfer time, i.e. without any interruption
in the supply of power to the load, through use of a static switch
These characteristics make UPSs the ideal power supply for all sensitive applications
because they ensure power quality and availability, whatever the state of utility power.
A UPS comprises the following main components:
b Rectifier/charger, which produces DC power to charge a battery and supply an
inverter
b Inverter, which produces quality electrical power, i.e.
v Free of all utility-power disturbances, notably micro-outages
v Within tolerances compatible with the requirements of sensitive electronic devices
(e.g. for Galaxy, tolerances in amplitude ± 0.5% and frequency ± 1%, compared to
± 10% and ± 5% in utility power systems, which correspond to improvement factors
of 20 and 5, respectively)
b Battery, which provides sufficient backup time (8 minutes to 1 hour or more) to
ensure the safety of life and property by replacing the utility as required
b Static switch, a semi-conductor based device which transfers the load from the
inverter to the utility and back, without any interruption in the supply of power
2.2 Types of static UPSs
Types of static UPSs are defined by standard IEC 62040.
N12
The standard distinguishes three operating modes:
b Passive standby (also called off-line)
b Line interactive
b Double conversion (also called on-line)
These definitions concern UPS operation with respect to the power source including
the distribution system upstream of the UPS.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Standard IEC 62040 defines the following terms:
b Primary power: power normally continuously available which is usually supplied by
an electrical utility company, but sometimes by the user’s own generation
b Standby power: power intended to replace the primary power in the event of
primary-power failure
b Bypass power: power supplied via the bypass
Practically speaking, a UPS is equipped with two AC inputs, which are called the
normal AC input and bypass AC input in this guide.
b The normal AC input, noted as mains input 1, is supplied by the primary power, i.e.
by a cable connected to a feeder on the upstream utility or private distribution system
b The bypass AC input, noted as mains input 2, is generally supplied by standby
power, i.e. by a cable connected to an upstream feeder other than the one supplying
the normal AC input, backed up by an alternate source (e.g. by an engine-generator
set or another UPS, etc.)
When standby power is not available, the bypass AC input is supplied with primary
power (second cable parallel to the one connected to the normal AC input).
The bypass AC input is used to supply the bypass line(s) of the UPS, if they
exist. Consequently, the bypass line(s) is supplied with primary or standby power,
depending on the availability of a standby-power source.
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
UPS operating in passive-standby (off-line) mode
Operating principle
The inverter is connected in parallel with the AC input in a standby (see Fig. N16).
b Normal mode
The load is supplied by utility power via a filter which eliminates certain disturbances
and provides some degree of voltage regulation (the standard speaks of “additional
devices…to provide power conditioning”). The inverter operates in passive standby
mode.
b Battery backup mode
When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the utility
power fails, the inverter and the battery step in to ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load following a very short (<10 ms) transfer time.
The UPS continues to operate on battery power until the end of battery backup time
or the utility power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the
AC input (normal mode).
Usage
This configuration is in fact a compromise between an acceptable level of protection
against disturbances and cost. It can be used only with low power ratings (< 2 kVA).
It operates without a real static switch, so a certain time is required to transfer the
load to the inverter. This time is acceptable for certain individual applications, but
incompatible with the performance required by more sophisticated, sensitive systems
(large computer centers, telephone exchanges, etc.).
What is more, the frequency is not regulated and there is no bypass.
Note: In normal mode, the power supplying the load does not flow through the
inverter, which explains why this type of UPS is sometimes called “Off-line”. This term
is misleading, however, because it also suggests “not supplied by utility power”, when
in fact the load is supplied by the utility via the AC input during normal operation. That
is why standard IEC 62040 recommends the term “passive standby”.
AC input
Charger
Battery
Inverter
UPS operating in line-interactive mode
Filter/
conditioner
Normal mode
Battery backup mode
Load
Fig. N16 : UPS operating in passive standby mode
Normal
AC input
Bypass
AC input
If only one AC input
Static
switch
Bypass
Operating principle
The inverter is connected in parallel with the AC input in a standby configuration,
but also charges the battery. It thus interacts (reversible operation) with the AC input
source (see Fig. N17).
b Normal mode
The load is supplied with conditioned power via a parallel connection of the AC input
and the inverter. The inverter operates to provide output-voltage conditioning and/or
charge the battery. The output frequency depends on the AC-input frequency.
b Battery backup mode
When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the utility
power fails, the inverter and the battery step in to ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load following a transfer without interruption using a static switch which
also disconnects the AC input to prevent power from the inverter from flowing upstream.
The UPS continues to operate on battery power until the end of battery backup time
or the utility power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the
AC input (normal mode).
b Bypass mode
This type of UPS may be equipped with a bypass. If one of the UPS functions fails,
the load can be transferred to the bypass AC input (supplied with utility or standby
power, depending on the installation).
N13
Usage
This configuration is not well suited to regulation of sensitive loads in the medium to
high-power range because frequency regulation is not possible.
For this reason, it is rarely used other than for low power ratings.
Inverter
Normal mode
Battery backup mode
Bypass mode
Load
Fig. N17 : UPS operating in line-interactive mode
Operating principle
The inverter is connected in series between the AC input and the application.
b Normal mode
During normal operation, all the power supplied to the load passes through the
rectifier/charger and inverter which together perform a double conversion (AC-DCAC), hence the name.
b Battery backup mode
When the AC input voltage is outside specified tolerances for the UPS or the utility
power fails, the inverter and the battery step in to ensure a continuous supply of
power to the load following a transfer without interruption using a static switch.
The UPS continues to operate on battery power until the end of battery backup time
or utility power returns to normal, which provokes transfer of the load back to the
AC input (normal mode).
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UPS operating in double-conversion (on-line) mode
Battery
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
b Bypass mode
This type of UPS is generally equipped with a static bypass, sometimes referred to
as a static switch (see Fig. N18).
The load can be transferred without interruption to the bypass AC input (supplied
with utility or standby power, depending on the installation), in the event of the
following:
v UPS failure
v Load-current transients (inrush or fault currents)
v Load peaks
However, the presence of a bypass assumes that the input and output frequencies
are identical and if the voltage levels are not the same, a bypass transformer is
required.
For certain loads, the UPS must be synchronized with the bypass power to ensure
load-supply continuity. What is more, when the UPS is in bypass mode, a disturbance
on the AC input source may be transmitted directly to the load because the inverter
no longer steps in.
Note: Another bypass line, often called the maintenance bypass, is available for
maintenance purposes. It is closed by a manual switch.
Normal
AC input
Bypass
AC input
If only one AC input
Battery
Static
switch
(static
bypass)
Inverter
Manual
maintenance
bypass
Load
Normal mode
Battery backup mode
Bypass mode
N14
Fig. N18 : UPS operating in double-conversion (on-line) mode
Usage
In this configuration, the time required to transfer the load to the inverter is negligible
due to the static switch.
Also, the output voltage and frequency do not depend on the input voltage and
frequency conditions. This means that the UPS, when designed for this purpose, can
operate as a frequency converter.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Practically speaking, this is the main configuration used for medium and high
power ratings (from 10 kVA upwards).The rest of this chapter will consider only this
configuration.
Note: This type of UPS is often called “on-line”, meaning that the load is continuously
supplied by the inverter, regardless of the conditions on the AC input source. This
term is misleading, however, because it also suggests “supplied by utility power”,
when in fact the load is supplied by power that has been reconstituted by the doubleconversion system. That is why standard IEC 62040 recommends the term “double
conversion”.
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
2.3 Batteries
Selection of battery type
A battery is made up of interconnected cells which may be vented or of the
recombination type.
There are two main families of batteries:
b Nickel-cadmium batteries
b Lead-acid batteries
b Vented cells (lead-antimony): They are equipped with ports to
v Release to the atmosphere the oxygen and hydrogen produced during the different
chemical reactions
v Top off the electrolyte by adding distilled or demineralized water
b Recombination cells (lead, pure lead, lead-tin batteries): The gas recombination
rate is at least 95% and they therefore do not require water to be added during
service life
By extension, reference will be made to vented or recombination batteries
(recombination batteries are also often called “sealed” batteries).
The main types of batteries used in conjunction with UPSs are:
b Sealed lead-acid batteries, used 95% of the time because they are easy to
maintain and do not require a special room
b Vented lead-acid batteries
b Vented nickel-cadmium batteries
The above three types of batteries may be proposed, depending on economic factors
and the operating requirements of the installation, with all the available service-life
durations.
Capacity levels and backup times may be adapted to suit the user’s needs.
The proposed batteries are also perfectly suited to UPS applications in that they are
the result of collaboration with leading battery manufacturers.
Selection of back up time
Selection depends on:
b The average duration of power-system failures
b Any available long-lasting standby power (engine-generator set, etc.)
b The type of application
The typical range generally proposed is:
b Standard backup times of 10, 15 or 30 minutes
b Custom backup times
The following general rules apply:
b Computer applications
Battery backup time must be sufficient to cover file-saving and system-shutdown
procedures required to ensure a controlled shutdown of the computer system.
Generally speaking, the computer department determines the necessary backup
time, depending on its specific requirements.
b Industrial processes
The backup time calculation should take into account the economic cost incurred by
an interruption in the process and the time required to restart.
N15
Selection table
In certain cases, however, vented batteries are preferred, notably for:
b Long service life
b Long backup times
b High power ratings
Vented batteries must be installed in special rooms complying with precise
regulations and require appropriate maintenance.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Figure N19 next page sums up the main characteristics of the various types of
batteries.
Increasingly, recombination batteries would seem to be the market choice for the
following reasons:
b No maintenance
b Easy implementation
b Installation in all types of rooms (computer rooms, technical rooms not specifically
intended for batteries, etc.)
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
Sealed lead-acid
Vented lead-acid
Nickel-cadmium
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
Service life
Compact
5 or 10 years
5 or 10 years
5 or 10 years
+
+
++
Operatingtemperature
tolerances
+
++
+++
Frequency
of
maintenance
Low
Medium
High
Special
room
Cost
No
Yes
no
Low medium
Low
High
Fig. N19 : Main characteristics of the various types of batteries
Installation methods
Depending on the UPS range, the battery capacity and backup time, the battery is:
b Sealed type and housed in the UPS cabinet
b Sealed type and housed in one to three cabinets
b Vented or sealed type and rack-mounted. In this case the installation method may be
v On shelves (see Fig. N20)
This installation method is possible for sealed batteries or maintenance-free vented
batteries which do not require topping up of their electrolyte.
v Tier mounting (see Fig. N21)
This installation method is suitable for all types of batteries and for vented batteries
in particular, as level checking and filling are made easy.
v In cabinets (see Fig. N22)
This installation method is suitable for sealed batteries. It is easy to implement and
offers maximum safety.
Fig. N20 : Shelf mounting
2.4 System earthing arrangements for installations
comprising UPSs
Application of protection systems, stipulated by the standards, in installations
comprising a UPS, requires a number of precautions for the following reasons:
b The UPS plays two roles
v A load for the upstream system
v A power source for downstream system
b When the battery is not installed in a cabinet, an insulation fault on the DC system
can lead to the flow of a residual DC component
Fig. N21 : Tier mounting
This component can disturb the operation of certain protection devices, notably
RCDs used for the protection of persons.
Protection against direct contact (see Fig. N23)
All installations satisfy the applicable requirements because the equipment is housed
in cabinets providing a degree of protection IP 20. This is true even for the battery
when it is housed in a cabinet.
When batteries are not installed in a cabinet, i.e. generally in a special room, the
measures presented at the end of this chapter should be implemented.
N16
Note: The TN system (version TN-S or TN-C) is the most commonly recommended
system for the supply of computer systems.
Fig. N22 : Cabinet mounting
Type of arrangement
Operation
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Techniques for protection
of persons
Advantages and
disadvantages
IT system
b Signaling of first insulation fault
b Locating and elimination of first fault
b Disconnection for second insulation fault
b Interconnection and earthing of
conductive parts
b Surveillance of first fault using an
insulation monitoring device (IMD)
b Second fault results in circuit interruption
(circuit-breaker or fuse)
b Solution offering the best continuity of
service (first fault is signalled)
b Requires competent surveillance
personnel (location of first fault)
TT system
b Disconnection for first
insulation fault
TN system
b Disconnection for first insulation fault
b Earthing of conductive parts
combined with use of RCDs
b First insulation fault results in
interruption by detecting leakage
currents
b Interconnection and earthing of
conductive parts and neutral imperative
b First insulation fault results in
interruption by detecting overcurrents
(circuit-breaker or fuse)
b Easiest solution in terms of design
and installation
b No insulation monitoring device
(IMD) required
b However, each fault results in
interruption of the concerned circuit
b Low-cost solution in terms of installation
b Difficult design
(calculation of loop impedances)
b Qualified operating personnel required
b Flow of high fault currents
Fig. N23 : Main characteristics of system earthing arrangements
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
Essential points to be checked for UPSs
Figure N24 shows all the essential points that must be interconnected as well as the
devices to be installed (transformers, RCDs, etc.) to ensure installation conformity
with safety standards.
T0
T0 neutral
IMD 1
CB0
Earth 1
CB1
CB2
T1
T2
T1 neutral
T2 neutral
Bypass
neutral
Q1
UPS exposed
conductive
parts
Q4S
Q3BP
N
Q5N
UPS output
IMD 2
N17
Downstream
neutral
Earth 2
CB3
Load
exposed
conductive
parts
Fig. N24 : The essential points that must be connected in system earthing arrangements
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Earth
3
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
2.5 Choice of protection schemes
The circuit-breakers have a major role in an installation but their importance often
appears at the time of accidental events which are not frequent. The best sizing of
UPS and the best choice of configuration can be compromised by a wrong choice of
only one circuit-breaker.
Circuit-breaker selection
Figure N25 shows how to select the circuit-breakers.
Ir
Ir
down- upstream
stream
Select the breaking capacities of
CB1 and CB2 for the short-circuit
current of the most powerful source
(generally the transformer)
100
GE
CB2 curve
CB3 curve
However, CB1 and CB2 must
trip on a short-circuit supplied
by the least powerful source
(generally the generator)
10
Tripping time (in seconds)
Im
downstream
Im
upstream
1
Generator
short-circuit
CB2 must protect the UPS static
switch if a short circuit occurs
downstream of the switch
0.1
Thermal limit
of static power
0.01
CB2
CB1
CB2
The overload capacity of the static
switch is 10 to 12 In for 20 ms,
where In is the current flowing
through the UPS at full rated load
CB3
0.001
0.1
Energizing of
a transformer
1
10
Energizing of all
loads downstream
of UPS
100
I/In of upstream
circuit breaker
N18
The Im current of CB2 must be calculated for simultaneous
energizing of all the loads downstream of the UPS
The trip unit of CB3 muqt be set not to trip for the overcurrent when the load is energized
CB3
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
If bypass power is not used to handle overloads, the UPS current must trip the CB3 circuit
breaker with the highest rating
Ir
downstream
Uc
For distant short-circuits, the CB3 unit setting must not result in a dangerous touch voltage.
If necessary, install an RCD
Fig. N25 : Circuit-breakers are submitted to a variety of situations
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
Rating
The selected rating (rated current) for the circuit-breaker must be the one just above
the rated current of the protected downstream cable.
Breaking capacity
The breaking capacity must be selected just above the short-circuit current that can
occur at the point of installation.
Ir and Im thresholds
The table below indicates how to determine the Ir (overload ; thermal or longtime)
and Im (short-circuit ; magnetic or short time) thresholds to ensure discrimination,
depending on the upstream and downstream trip units.
Remark (see Fig. N26)
b Time discrimination must be implemented by qualified personnel because time
delays before tripping increase the thermal stress (I2t) downstream (cables, semiconductors, etc.). Caution is required if tripping of CB2 is delayed using the Im
threshold time delay
b Energy discrimination does not depend on the trip unit, only on the circuit-breaker
Type of downstream
circuit
Ir upstream /
Ir downstream
Im upstream /
Im downstream
Im upstream /
Im downstream
Downstream trip unit
Distribution
Asynchronous motor
ratio
All types
> 1.6
>3
ratio
Magnetic
>2
>2
ratio
Electronic
>1.5
>1.5
Fig. N26 : Ir and Im thresholds depending on the upstream and downstream trip units
Special case of generator short-circuits
Figure N27 shows the reaction of a generator to a short-circuit.
To avoid any uncertainty concerning the type of excitation, we will trip at the first
peak (3 to 5 In as per X”d) using the Im protection setting without a time delay.
Irms
3 In
Generator with
over-excitation
N19
In
Generator with
series excitation
0.3 In
t
Fig. N27 : Generator during short-circuit
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Transient conditions
100 to 300 ms
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Subtransient
conditions 10 to 20 ms
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
2.6 Installation, connection and sizing of cables
Ready-to-use UPS units
The low power UPSs, for micro computer systems for example, are compact readyto-use equipement. The internal wiring is built in the factory and adapted to the
characteristics of the devices.
Not ready-to-use UPS units
For the other UPSs, the wire connections to the power supply system, to the battery
and to the load are not included.
Wiring connections depend on the current level as indicated in Figure N28 below.
Iu
SW
Static switch
Mains 1
I1
Iu
Load
Rectifier/
charger
Inverter
Mains 2
Ib
Battery
capacity C10
Fig.N28 : Current to be taken into account for the selection of the wire connections
Calculation of currents I1, Iu
b The input current Iu from the power network is the load current
b The input current I1 of the charger/rectifier depends on:
v The capacity of the battery (C10) and the charging mode (Ib)
v The characteristics of the charger
v The efficiency of the inverter
b The current Ib is the current in the connection of the battery
These currents are given by the manufacturers.
Cable temperature rise and voltage drops
N20
The cross section of cables depends on:
b Permissible temperature rise
b Permissible voltage drop
For a given load, each of these parameters results in a minimum permissible cross
section. The larger of the two must be used.
When routing cables, care must be taken to maintain the required distances between
control circuits and power circuits, to avoid any disturbances caused by HF currents.
Temperature rise
Permissible temperature rise in cables is limited by the withstand capacity of cable
insulation.
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Temperature rise in cables depends on:
b The type of core (Cu or Al)
b The installation method
b The number of touching cables
Standards stipulate, for each type of cable, the maximum permissible current.
Voltage drops
The maximum permissible voltage drops are:
b 3% for AC circuits (50 or 60 Hz)
b 1% for DC circuits
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
Selection tables
Figure N29 indicates the voltage drop in percent for a circuit made up of 100 meters
of cable. To calculate the voltage drop in a circuit with a length L, multiply the value in
the table by L/100.
b Sph: Cross section of conductors
b In: Rated current of protection devices on circuit
Three-phase circuit
If the voltage drop exceeds 3% (50-60 Hz), increase the cross section of conductors.
DC circuit
If the voltage drop exceeds 1%, increase the cross section of conductors.
a - Three-phase circuits (copper conductors)
50-60 Hz - 380 V / 400 V / 415 V three-phase, cos ϕ = 0.8, balanced system three-phase + N
In
Sph (mN2)
(A)
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
10
0.9
15
1.2
20
1.6
1.1
25
2.0
1.3
0.9
32
2.6
1.7
1.1
40
3.3
2.1
1.4
1.0
50
4.1
2.6
1.7
1.3
1.0
63
5.1
3.3
2.2
1.6
1.2
0.9
70
5.7
3.7
2.4
1.7
1.3
1.0
0.8
80
6.5
4.2
2.7
2.1
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.7
100
8.2
5.3
3.4
2.6
2.0
2.0
1.1
0.9
0.8
125
6.6
4.3
3.2
2.4
2.4
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.8
160
5.5
4.3
3.2
3.2
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.1
200
5.3
3.9
3.9
2.2
1.8
1.6
1.3
250
4.9
4.9
2.8
2.3
1.9
1.7
320
3.5
2.9
2.5
2.1
400
4.4
3.6
3.1
2.7
500
4.5
3.9
3.4
600
4.9
4.2
800
5.3
1,000
For a three-phase 230 V circuit, multiply the result by e
For a single-phase 208/230 V circuit, multiply the result by 2
b - DC circuits (copper conductors)
In
Sph (mN2)
(A)
25
35
100
5.1
3.6
125
4.5
160
200
250
320
400
500
600
800
1,000
1,250
50
2.6
3.2
4.0
70
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.6
95
1.3
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.3
120
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.4
150
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.6
2.2
2.7
3.4
185
0.7
0.8
1.1
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.8
3.4
4.3
240
300
0.9
1.2
1.4
1.9
2.3
2.9
3.6
4.4
6.5
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.8
4.7
240
0.5
0.6
0.6
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.6
3.3
4.2
5.3
300
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.6
2.1
2.7
3.4
4.2
5.3
N21
Special case for neutral conductors
In three-phase systems, the third-order harmonics (and their multiples) of singlephase loads add up in the neutral conductor (sum of the currents on the three
phases).
For this reason, the following rule may be applied:
neutral cross section = 1.5 x phase cross section
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N29 : Voltage drop in percent for [a] three-phase circuits and [b] DC circuits
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
Example
Consider a 70-meter 400 V three-phase circuit, with copper conductors and a rated
current of 600 A.
Standard IEC 60364 indicates, depending on the installation method and the load, a
minimum cross section.
We shall assume that the minimum cross section is 95 mm2.
It is first necessary to check that the voltage drop does not exceed 3%.
The table for three-phase circuits on the previous page indicates, for a 600 A current
flowing in a 300 mm2 cable, a voltage drop of 3% for 100 meters of cable, i.e. for
70 meters:
3 x 70 = 2.1 %
100
Therefore less than 3%
A identical calculation can be run for a DC current of 1,000 A.
In a ten-meter cable, the voltage drop for 100 meters of 240 mN2 cable is 5.3%, i.e.
for ten meters:
5.3 x 10 = 0.53 %
100
Therefore less than 3%
2.7 The UPSs and their environment
The UPSs can communicate with electrical and computing environment. They can
receive some data and provide information on their operation in order:
b To optimize the protection
For example, the UPS provides essential information on operating status to the
computer system (load on inverter, load on static bypass, load on battery, low battery
warning)
b To remotely control
The UPS provides measurement and operating status information to inform and
allow operators to take specific actions
b To manage the installation
The operator has a building and energy management system which allow to obtain
and save information from UPSs, to provide alarms and events and to take actions.
This evolution towards compatibilty between computer equipment and UPSs has the
effect to incorporate new built-in UPS functions.
2.8 Complementary equipment
Transformers
N22
A two-winding transformer included on the upstream side of the static contactor of
circuit 2 allows:
b A change of voltage level when the power network voltage is different to that of the
load
b A change of system of earthing between the networks
Moreover, such a transformer :
b Reduces the short-circuit current level on the secondary, (i.e load) side compared
with that on the power network side
b Prevents third harmonic currents which may be present on the secondary side
from passing into the power-system network, providing that the primary winding is
connected in delta.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Anti-harmonic filter
The UPS system includes a battery charger which is controlled by thyristors or
transistors. The resulting regularly-chopped current cycles “generate” harmonic
components in the power-supply network.
These indesirable components are filtered at the input of the rectifier and for most
cases this reduces the harmonic current level sufficiently for all practical purposes.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
2 Uninterruptible Power Supply
units (UPS)
In certain specific cases however, notably in very large installations, an additional
filter circuit may be necessary.
For example when :
b The power rating of the UPS system is large relative to the MV/LV transformer
suppllying it
b The LV busbars supply loads which are particularly sensitive to harmonics
b A diesel (or gas-turbine, etc,) driven alternator is provided as a standby power
supply
In such cases, the manufacturer of the UPS system should be consulted
Communication equipment
Communication with equipment associated with computer systems may entail the
need for suitable facilities within the UPS system. Such facilities may be incorporated
in an original design (see Fig. N30a ), or added to existing systems on request
(see Fig. N30b ).
Fig. N30b : UPS unit achieving disponibility and quality of computer system power supply
N23
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N30a : Ready-to-use UPS unit (with DIN module)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
3 Protection of LV/LV transformers
These transformers are generally in the range of several hundreds of VA to some
hundreds of kVA and are frequently used for:
b Changing the low voltage level for:
v Auxiliary supplies to control and indication circuits
v Lighting circuits (230 V created when the primary system is 400 V 3-phase
3-wires)
b Changing the method of earthing for certain loads having a relatively high
capacitive current to earth (computer equipment) or resistive leakage current
(electric ovens, industrial-heating processes, mass-cooking installations, etc.)
LV/LV transformers are generally supplied with protective systems incorporated,
and the manufacturers must be consulted for details. Overcurrent protection must,
in any case, be provided on the primary side. The exploitation of these transformers
requires a knowledge of their particular function, together with a number of points
described below.
Note: In the particular cases of LV/LV safety isolating transformers at extra-low
voltage, an earthed metal screen between the primary and secondary windings
is frequently required, according to circumstances, as recommended in European
Standard EN 60742.
3.1 Transformer-energizing inrush current
At the moment of energizing a transformer, high values of transient current (which
includes a significant DC component) occur, and must be taken into account when
considering protection schemes (see Fig. N31).
I
t
I 1st peak
10 to 25 In
5s
In
20
ms
Ir
Im
Ii
Fig N31 : Transformer-energizing inrush current
RMS value of
the 1st peak
N24
t
I
Fig N32 : Tripping characteristic of a Compact NS type STR
(electronic)
t
The magnitude of the current peak depends on:
b The value of voltage at the instant of energization
b The magnitude and polarity of the residual flux existing in the core of the
transformer
b Characteristics of the load connected to the transformer
The first current peak can reach a value equal to 10 to 15 times the full-load r.m.s.
current, but for small transformers (< 50 kVA) may reach values of 20 to 25 times
the nominal full-load current. This transient current decreases rapidly, with a time
constant θ of the order of several ms to severals tens of ms.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
3.2 Protection for the supply circuit of a
LV/LV transformer
I
In
10In 14In
RMS value of
the 1st peak
Fig N33 : Tripping characteristic of a Multi 9 curve D
The protective device on the supply circuit for a LV/LV transformer must avoid the
possibility of incorrect operation due to the magnetizing inrush current surge, noted
above.It is necessary to use therefore:
b Selective (i.e. slighly time-delayed) circuit-breakers of the type Compact NS STR
(see Fig. N32) or
b Circuit-breakers having a very high magnetic-trip setting, of the types Compact NS
or Multi 9 curve D (see Fig. N33)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
3 Protection of LV/LV transformers
Example
A 400 V 3-phase circuit is supplying a 125 kVA 400/230 V transformer (In = 180 A)
for which the first inrush current peak can reach 12 In, i.e. 12 x 180 = 2,160 A.
This current peak corresponds to a rms value of 1,530 A.
A compact NS 250N circuit-breaker with Ir setting of 200 A and Im setting at 8 x Ir
would therefore be a suitable protective device.
A particular case: Overload protection installed at the secondary side of the
transformer (see Fig. N34)
An advantage of overload protection located on the secondary side is that the shortcircuit protection on the primary side can be set at a high value, or alternatively a
circuit-breaker type MA (magnetic only) can be used. The primary side short-circuit
protection setting must, however, be sufficiently sensitive to ensure its operation in
the event of a short-circuit occuring on the secondary side of the transformer.
NS250N
Trip unit
STR 22E
3 x 70 mm2
400/230 V
125 kVA
Note: The primary protection is sometimes provided by fuses, type aM. This practice
has two disadvantages:
b The fuses must be largely oversized (at least 4 times the nominal full-load rated
current of the transformer)
b In order to provide isolating facilities on the primary side, either a load-break switch
or a contactor must be associated with the fuses.
Fig N34 : Example
3.3 Typical electrical characteristics of LV/LV 50 Hz
transformers
5
100
6.3
110
8
130
10
150
12.5 16
160 170
20
270
25
310
250
320
390
500
600
840
800
1180 1240 1530 1650 2150 2540 3700 3700 5900 5900 6500 7400 9300 9400 11400 13400
4.5
4.5
4.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5.5
5
5
4.5
5
5
5.5
4.5
5.5
8
105
400
5
10
115
530
5
12.5
120
635
5
16
140
730
4.5
20
150
865
4.5
25
175
1065
4.5
31.5
200
1200
4
40
215
1400
4
50
265
1900
5
63
305
2000
5
80
450
2450
4.5
100
450
3950
5.5
125
525
3950
5
160
635
4335
5
1-phase
kVA rating
No-load losses (W)
Full-load losses (W)
Short-circuit voltage (%)
31.5 40
350 350
50
410
63
460
80
520
100
570
125
680
160
680
200
790
5
250
950
5
315 400 500 630 800
1160 1240 1485 1855 2160
4.5
6
6
5.5
5.5
3.4 Protection of LV/LV transformers, using
Merlin Gerin circuit-breakers
Multi 9 circuit-breaker
Transformer power rating (kVA)
230/240 V 1-ph 230/240 V 3-ph
400/415 V 1-ph
0.05
0.09
0.11
0.18
0.21
0.36
0.33
0.58
0.67
1.2
1.1
1.8
1.7
2.9
2.1
3.6
2.7
4.6
3.3
5.8
4.2
7.2
5.3
9.2
6.7
12
8.3
14
11
18
13
23
N25
400/415 V 3-ph
Cricuit breaker
curve D or K
Size
(A)
0.16
0.32
0.63
1.0
2.0
3.2
5.0
6.3
8.0
10
13
16
20
25
32
40
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NG125
C60, C120, NC100, NG125
C60, C120, NC100, NG125
C120, NC100, NG125
C120, NC100, NG125
C120, NG125
0.5
1
2
3
6
10
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
3-phase
kVA rating
No-load
losses (W)
Full-load
losses (W)
Short-circuit
voltage (%)
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
3 Protection of LV/LV transformers
Compact NSX100 to NSX250 circuit-breakers with TM-D trip units
Transformer power rating (kVA)
230/240 V 1-ph 230/240 V 3-ph
400/415 V 1-ph
3
5…6
5
8…9
7…9
13…16
12…15
20…25
16…19
26…32
18…23
32…40
23…29
40…50
29…37
51…64
37…46
64…80
Circuit-breaker
Trip unit
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX160B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX160B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX250B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX250B/F/N/H/S/L
TM16D
TM25D
TM40D
TM63D
TM80D
TM100D
TM125D
TM160D
TM200D
400/415 V 3-ph
9…12
14…16
22…28
35…44
45…56
55…69
69…87
89…111
111…139
Compact NSX100 to NS1600 / Masterpact circuit-breakers with Micrologic trip
units
Transformer power rating (kVA)
230/240 V 1-ph 230/240 V 3-ph
400/415 V 1-ph
4…7
6…13
9…19
16…30
15…30
5…50
23…46
40…80
37…65
64…112
37…55
64…95
58…83
100…144
58…150
100…250
74…184
107…319
90…230
159…398
115…288
200…498
147…368
256…640
184…460
320…800
230…575
400…1,000
294…736
510…1,280
Circuit-breaker
Trip unit
Setting
Ir max
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX100B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX160B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX250B/F/N/H/S/L
NSX400F/N/H/S
NSX400L
NSX630F/N//H/S/L
NS630bN/bH NT06H1
NS800N/H - NT08H1- NW08N1/H1
NS1000N/H - NT10H1- NW10N1/H1
NS1250N/H - NT12H1 - NW12N1/H1
NS1600N/H - NT16H1 - NW16N1/H1
NW20N1/H1
NW25H2/H3
NW32H2/H3
Micrologic 2.2 or 6.2 40
Micrologic 2.2 or 6.2 100
Micrologic 2.2 or 6.2 160
Micrologic 2.2 or 6.2 250
Micrologic 2.3 or 6.3 400
Micrologic 2.3 or 6.3 400
Micrologic 2.3 or 6.3 630
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
Micrologic 5.0/6.0/7.0
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
400/415 V 3-ph
11…22
27…56
44…90
70…139
111…195
111…166
175…250
175…436
222…554
277…693
346…866
443…1,108
554…1,385
690…1,730
886…2,217
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N26
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
A source of comfort and productivity, lighting represents 15% of the quantity of
electricity consumed in industry and 40% in buildings. The quality of lighting (light
stability and continuity of service) depends on the quality of the electrical energy
thus consumed. The supply of electrical power to lighting networks has therefore
assumed great importance.
To help with their design and simplify the selection of appropriate protection devices,
an analysis of the different lamp technologies is presented. The distinctive features
of lighting circuits and their impact on control and protection devices are discussed.
Recommendations relative to the difficulties of lighting circuit implementation are given.
4.1 The different lamp technologies
Artificial luminous radiation can be produced from electrical energy according to two
principles: incandescence and electroluminescence.
Incandescence is the production of light via temperature elevation. The most
common example is a filament heated to white state by the circulation of an electrical
current. The energy supplied is transformed into heat by the Joule effect and into
luminous flux.
Luminescence is the phenomenon of emission by a material of visible or almost
visible luminous radiation. A gas (or vapors) subjected to an electrical discharge
emits luminous radiation (Electroluminescence of gases).
Since this gas does not conduct at normal temperature and pressure, the discharge
is produced by generating charged particles which permit ionization of the gas. The
nature, pressure and temperature of the gas determine the light spectrum.
Photoluminescence is the luminescence of a material exposed to visible or almost
visible radiation (ultraviolet, infrared).
When the substance absorbs ultraviolet radiation and emits visible radiation which
stops a short time after energization, this is fluorescence.
Incandescent lamps
Incandescent lamps are historically the oldest and the most often found in common
use.
They are based on the principle of a filament rendered incandescent in a vacuum or
neutral atmosphere which prevents combustion.
A distinction is made between:
b Standard bulbs
These contain a tungsten filament and are filled with an inert gas (nitrogen and
argon or krypton).
b Halogen bulbs
These also contain a tungsten filament, but are filled with a halogen compound
and an inert gas (krypton or xenon). This halogen compound is responsible for the
phenomenon of filament regeneration, which increases the service life of the lamps
and avoids them blackening. It also enables a higher filament temperature and
therefore greater luminosity in smaller-size bulbs.
a-
N27
The main disadvantage of incandescent lamps is their significant heat dissipation,
resulting in poor luminous efficiency.
Fluorescent lamps
This family covers fluorescent tubes and compact fluorescent lamps. Their
technology is usually known as “low-pressure mercury”.
b-
Fluorescent tubes dissipate less heat and have a longer service life than
incandescent lamps, but they do need an ignition device called a “starter” and a
device to limit the current in the arc after ignition. This device called “ballast” is
usually a choke placed in series with the arc.
Compact fluorescent lamps are based on the same principle as a fluorescent tube.
The starter and ballast functions are provided by an electronic circuit (integrated in
the lamp) which enables the use of smaller tubes folded back on themselves.
Compact fluorescent lamps (see Fig. N35) were developed to replace incandescent
lamps: They offer significant energy savings (15 W against 75 W for the same level of
brightness) and an increased service life.
Fig. N35 : Compact fluorescent lamps [a] standard,
[b] induction
Lamps known as “induction” type or “without electrodes” operate on the principle of
ionization of the gas present in the tube by a very high frequency electromagnetic
field (up to 1 GHz). Their service life can be as long as 100,000 hrs.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In fluorescent tubes, an electrical discharge causes electrons to collide with
ions of mercury vapor, resulting in ultraviolet radiation due to energization of the
mercury atoms. The fluorescent material, which covers the inside of the tubes, then
transforms this radiation into visible light.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Discharge lamps (see Fig. N36)
The light is produced by an electrical discharge created between two electrodes within
a gas in a quartz bulb. All these lamps therefore require a ballast to limit the current in
the arc. A number of technologies have been developed for different applications.
Low-pressure sodium vapor lamps have the best light output, however the color
rendering is very poor since they only have a monochromatic orange radiation.
High-pressure sodium vapor lamps produce a white light with an orange tinge.
In high-pressure mercury vapor lamps, the discharge is produced in a quartz or
ceramic bulb at high pressure. These lamps are called “fluorescent mercury discharge
lamps”. They produce a characteristically bluish white light.
Metal halide lamps are the latest technology. They produce a color with a broad color
spectrum. The use of a ceramic tube offers better luminous efficiency and better color
stability.
Light Emitting Diodes (LED)
The principle of light emitting diodes is the emission of light by a semi-conductor
as an electrical current passes through it. LEDs are commonly found in numerous
applications, but the recent development of white or blue diodes with a high light
output opens new perspectives, especially for signaling (traffic lights, exit signs or
emergency lighting).
LEDs are low-voltage and low-current devices, thus suitable for battery-supply.
A converter is required for a line power supply.
The advantage of LEDs is their low energy consumption. As a result, they operate
at a very low temperature, giving them a very long service life. Conversely, a simple
diode has a weak light intensity. A high-power lighting installation therefore requires
connection of a large number of units in series and parallel.
Fig. N36 : Discharge lamps
Technology
Standard
incandescent
Application
- Domestic use
- Localized decorative
lighting
Halogen
incandescent
- Spot lighting
- Intense lighting
Fluorescent tube
- Shops, offices, workshops
- Outdoors
Compact
fluorescent lamp
- Domestic use
- Offices
- Replacement of
incandescent lamps
- Workshops, halls, hangars
- Factory floors
HP mercury vapor
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N28
High-pressure
sodium
Low-pressure
sodium
Metal halide
- Outdoors
- Large halls
- Outdoors
- Emergency lighting
- Large areas
- Halls with high ceilings
LED
- Signaling (3-color traffic
lights, “exit” signs and
emergency lighting)
Technology
Standard incandescent
Halogen incandescent
Fluorescent tube
Compact fluorescent lamp
HP mercury vapor
High-pressure sodium
Low-pressure sodium
Metal halide
LED
Power (watt)
3 – 1,000
5 – 500
4 – 56
5 – 40
40 – 1,000
35 – 1,000
35 – 180
30 – 2,000
0.05 – 0.1
Advantages
- Direct connection without
intermediate switchgear
- Reasonable purchase price
- Compact size
- Instantaneous lighting
- Good color rendering
- Direct connection
- Instantaneous efficiency
- Excellent color rendering
- High luminous efficiency
- Average color rendering
- Low light intensity of single unit
- Sensitive to extreme temperatures
- Good luminous efficiency
- Good color rendering
- High initial investment
compared to incandescent lamps
- Good luminous efficiency
- Acceptable color rendering
- Compact size
- Long service life
- Very good luminous efficiency
- Lighting and relighting time
of a few minutes
- Good visibility in foggy weather
- Economical to use
- Good luminous efficiency
- Good color rendering
- Long service life
- Insensitive to the number of
switching operations
- Low energy consumption
- Low temperature
Disadvantages
- Low luminous efficiency and
high electricity consumption
- Significant heat dissipation
- Short service life
- Average luminous efficiency
- Lighting and relighting time
of a few minutes
- Long lighting time (5 min.)
- Mediocre color rendering
- Lighting and relighting time
of a few minutes
- Limited number of colors
- Low brightness of single unit
Efficiency (lumen/watt)
10 – 15
15 – 25
50 – 100
50 – 80
25 – 55
40 – 140
100 – 185
50 – 115
10 – 30
Fig. N37 : Usage and technical characteristics of lighting devices
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Service life (hours)
1,000 – 2,000
2,000 – 4,000
7,500 – 24,000
10,000 – 20,000
16,000 – 24,000
16,000 – 24,000
14,000 – 18,000
6,000 – 20,000
40,000 – 100,000
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
4.2 Electrical characteristics of lamps
Incandescent lamps with direct power supply
Due to the very high temperature of the filament during operation (up to 2,500 °C),
its resistance varies greatly depending on whether the lamp is on or off. As the cold
resistance is low, a current peak occurs on ignition that can reach 10 to 15 times the
nominal current for a few milliseconds or even several milliseconds.
This constraint affects both ordinary lamps and halogen lamps: it imposes a
reduction in the maximum number of lamps that can be powered by devices such as
remote-control switches, modular contactors and relays for busbar trunking.
Extra Low Voltage (ELV) halogen lamps
b Some low-power halogen lamps are supplied with ELV 12 or 24 V, via a
transformer or an electronic converter. With a transformer, the magnetization
phenomenon combines with the filament resistance variation phenomenon at
switch-on. The inrush current can reach 50 to 75 times the nominal current for a few
milliseconds. The use of dimmer switches placed upstream significantly reduces this
constraint.
b Electronic converters, with the same power rating, are more expensive than
solutions with a transformer. This commercial handicap is compensated by a greater
ease of installation since their low heat dissipation means they can be fixed on a
flammable support. Moreover, they usually have built-in thermal protection.
New ELV halogen lamps are now available with a transformer integrated in their
base. They can be supplied directly from the LV line supply and can replace normal
lamps without any special adaptation.
Dimming for incandescent lamps
This can be obtained by varying the voltage applied to the lampere
This voltage variation is usually performed by a device such as a Triac dimmer
switch, by varying its firing angle in the line voltage period. The wave form of the
voltage applied to the lamp is illustrated in Figure N38a. This technique known
as “cut-on control” is suitable for supplying power to resistive or inductive circuits.
Another technique suitable for supplying power to capacitive circuits has been
developed with MOS or IGBT electronic components. This techniques varies the
voltage by blocking the current before the end of the half-period (see Fig. N38b) and
is known as “cut-off control”.
Switching on the lamp gradually can also reduce, or even eliminate, the current peak
on ignition.
a]
As the lamp current is distorted by the electronic switching, harmonic currents
are produced. The 3rd harmonic order is predominant, and the percentage of 3rd
harmonic current related to the maximum fundamental current (at maximum power)
is represented on Figure N39.
300
200
100
0
t (s)
Note that in practice, the power applied to the lamp by a dimmer switch can only vary
in the range between 15 and 85% of the maximum power of the lampere
N29
-100
-200
-300
i3 (%)
0
0.01
0.02
50.0
b]
45.0
300
40.0
200
35.0
100
30.0
0
t (s)
25.0
15.0
-200
10.0
-300
0
0.01
5.0
0.02
0
Fig. N38 : Shape of the voltage supplied by a light dimmer at
50% of maximum voltage with the following techniques:
a] “cut-on control”
b] “cut-off control”
Power (%)
0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
Fig. N39 : Percentage of 3rd harmonic current as a function of the power applied to an
incandescent lamp using an electronic dimmer switch
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
20.0
-100
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
According to IEC standard 61000-3-2 setting harmonic emission limits for electric or
electronic systems with current y 16 A, the following arrangements apply:
b Independent dimmers for incandescent lamps with a rated power less than or
equal to 1 kW have no limits applied
b Otherwise, or for incandescent lighting equipment with built-in dimmer or dimmer
built in an enclosure, the maximum permissible 3rd harmonic current is equal to
2.30 A
Fluorescent lamps with magnetic ballast
Fluorescent tubes and discharge lamps require the intensity of the arc to be limited,
and this function is fulfilled by a choke (or magnetic ballast) placed in series with the
bulb itself (see Fig. N40).
This arrangement is most commonly used in domestic applications with a limited
number of tubes. No particular constraint applies to the switches.
Dimmer switches are not compatible with magnetic ballasts: the cancellation of the
voltage for a fraction of the period interrupts the discharge and totally extinguishes
the lampere
The starter has a dual function: preheating the tube electrodes, and then generating
an overvoltage to ignite the tube. This overvoltage is generated by the opening of a
contact (controlled by a thermal switch) which interrupts the current circulating in the
magnetic ballast.
During operation of the starter (approx. 1 s), the current drawn by the luminaire is
approximately twice the nominal current.
Since the current drawn by the tube and ballast assembly is essentially inductive, the
power factor is very low (on average between 0.4 and 0.5). In installations consisting
of a large number of tubes, it is necessary to provide compensation to improve the
power factor.
For large lighting installations, centralized compensation with capacitor banks is a
possible solution, but more often this compensation is included at the level of each
luminaire in a variety of different layouts (see Fig. N41).
a]
Ballast
b]
C
c]
Ballast
C
a
N30
C
Lamp
a
Ballast
Lamp
Ballast
Lamp
Lamp
a
Compensation layout
Application
Comments
Without compensation
Parallel [a]
Domestic
Offices, workshops,
superstores
Single connection
Risk of overcurrents for control devices
Series [b]
Duo [c]
Choose capacitors with high
operating voltage (450 to 480 V)
Avoids flicker
Fig. N41 : The various compensation layouts: a] parallel; b] series; c] dual series also called
“duo” and their fields of application
The compensation capacitors are therefore sized so that the global power factor is
greater than 0.85. In the most common case of parallel compensation, its capacity
is on average 1 µF for 10 W of active power, for any type of lampere However, this
compensation is incompatible with dimmer switches.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Constraints affecting compensation
Fig. N40 : Magnetic ballasts
The layout for parallel compensation creates constraints on ignition of the lampere
Since the capacitor is initially discharged, switch-on produces an overcurrent.
An overvoltage also appears, due to the oscillations in the circuit made up of the
capacitor and the power supply inductance.
The following example can be used to determine the orders of magnitude.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Assuming an assembly of 50 fluorescent tubes of 36 W each:
b Total active power: 1,800 W
b Apparent power: 2 kVA
b Total rms current: 9 A
b Peak current: 13 A
With:
b A total capacity: C = 175 µF
b A line inductance (corresponding to a short-circuit current of 5 kA): L = 150 µH
The maximum peak current at switch-on equals:
175 x 10-6
C
= 230 2
= 350 A
L
150 x 10-6
I c = Vmax
The theoretical peak current at switch-on can therefore reach 27 times the peak
current during normal operation.
The shape of the voltage and current at ignition is given in Figure N42 for switch
closing at the line supply voltage peak.
There is therefore a risk of contact welding in electromechanical control devices
(remote-control switch, contactor, circuit-breaker) or destruction of solid state
switches with semi-conductors.
(V)
600
400
200
0
t (s)
-200
-400
-600
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
(A)
300
200
100
0
t (s)
-100
N31
-200
-300
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Fig. N42 : Power supply voltage at switch-on and inrush current
Ignition of fluorescent tubes in groups implies one specific constraint. When a group
of tubes is already switched on, the compensation capacitors in these tubes which
are already energized participate in the inrush current at the moment of ignition of
a second group of tubes: they “amplify” the current peak in the control switch at the
moment of ignition of the second group.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In reality, the constraints are usually less severe, due to the impedance of the cables.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
The table in Figure N43, resulting from measurements, specifies the magnitude of
the first current peak, for different values of prospective short-circuit current Isc. It is
seen that the current peak can be multiplied by 2 or 3, depending on the number of
tubes already in use at the moment of connection of the last group of tubes.
Number of tubes
already in use
0
14
28
42
Number of tubes
connected
14
14
14
14
Inrush current peak (A)
Isc = 1,500 A
Isc = 3,000 A
233
250
558
556
608
607
618
616
Isc = 6,000 A
320
575
624
632
Fig. N43 : Magnitude of the current peak in the control switch of the moment of ignition of a
second group of tubes
Nonetheless, sequential ignition of each group of tubes is recommended so as to
reduce the current peak in the main switch.
The most recent magnetic ballasts are known as “low-loss”. The magnetic circuit has
been optimized, but the operating principle remains the same. This new generation
of ballasts is coming into widespread use, under the influence of new regulations
(European Directive, Energy Policy Act - USA).
In these conditions, the use of electronic ballasts is likely to increase, to the
detriment of magnetic ballasts.
Fluorescent lamps with electronic ballast
Electronic ballasts are used as a replacement for magnetic ballasts to supply power
to fluorescent tubes (including compact fluorescent lamps) and discharge lamps.
They also provide the “starter” function and do not need any compensation capacity.
The principle of the electronic ballast (see Fig. N44) consists of supplying the lamp
arc via an electronic device that generates a rectangular form AC voltage with a
frequency between 20 and 60 kHz.
Supplying the arc with a high-frequency voltage can totally eliminate the flicker
phenomenon and strobe effects. The electronic ballast is totally silent.
During the preheating period of a discharge lamp, this ballast supplies the lamp with
increasing voltage, imposing an almost constant current. In steady state, it regulates
the voltage applied to the lamp independently of any fluctuations in the line voltage.
Since the arc is supplied in optimum voltage conditions, this results in energy
savings of 5 to 10% and increased lamp service life. Moreover, the efficiency of the
electronic ballast can exceed 93%, whereas the average efficiency of a magnetic
device is only 85%.
The power factor is high (> 0.9).
The electronic ballast is also used to provide the light dimming function. Varying the
frequency in fact varies the current magnitude in the arc and hence the luminous
intensity.
N32
Inrush current
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The main constraint that electronic ballasts bring to line supplies is the high
inrush current on switch-on linked to the initial load of the smoothing capacitors
(see Fig. N45).
Technology
Rectifier with PFC
Rectifier with choke
Magnetic ballast
Fig. N44 : Electronic ballast
Max. inrush current
30 to 100 In
10 to 30 In
y 13 In
Duration
y 1 ms
y 5 ms
5 to 10 ms
Fig. N45 : Orders of magnitude of the inrush current maximum values, depending on the
technologies used
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
In reality, due to the wiring impedances, the inrush currents for an assembly of lamps
is much lower than these values, in the order of 5 to 10 In for less than 5 ms.
Unlike magnetic ballasts, this inrush current is not accompanied by an overvoltage.
Harmonic currents
For ballasts associated with high-power discharge lamps, the current drawn from
the line supply has a low total harmonic distortion (< 20% in general and < 10% for
the most sophisticated devices). Conversely, devices associated with low-power
lamps, in particular compact fluorescent lamps, draw a very distorted current
(see Fig. N46). The total harmonic distortion can be as high as 150%. In these
conditions, the rms current drawn from the line supply equals 1.8 times the current
corresponding to the lamp active power, which corresponds to a power factor of 0.55.
(A)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
t (s)
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0.02
0
Fig. N46 : Shape of the current drawn by a compact fluorescent lamp
In order to balance the load between the different phases, lighting circuits are usually
connected between phases and neutral in a balanced way. In these conditions,
the high level of third harmonic and harmonics that are multiple of 3 can cause an
overload of the neutral conductor. The least favorable situation leads to a neutral
current which may reach 3 times the current in each phase.
Harmonic emission limits for electric or electronic systems are set by IEC standard
61000-3-2. For simplification, the limits for lighting equipment are given here only for
harmonic orders 3 and 5 which are the most relevant (see Fig. N47).
Harmonic
order
3
5
Active input
power > 25W
% of fundamental
current
30
10
Active input power y 25W
one of the 2 sets of limits apply:
% of fundamental
Harmonic current relative
current
to active power
86
3.4 mA/W
61
1.9 mA/W
N33
Fig. N47 : Maximum permissible harmonic current
Electronic ballasts usually have capacitors placed between the power supply
conductors and the earth. These interference-suppressing capacitors are responsible
for the circulation of a permanent leakage current in the order of 0.5 to 1 mA per
ballast. This therefore results in a limit being placed on the number of ballasts that
can be supplied by a Residual Current Differential Safety Device (RCD).
At switch-on, the initial load of these capacitors can also cause the circulation of a
current peak whose magnitude can reach several amps for 10 µs. This current peak
may cause unwanted tripping of unsuitable devices.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Leakage currents
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
High-frequency emissions
Electronic ballasts are responsible for high-frequency conducted and radiated
emissions.
The very steep rising edges applied to the ballast output conductors cause current
pulses circulating in the stray capacities to earth. As a result, stray currents circulate
in the earth conductor and the power supply conductors. Due to the high frequency
of these currents, there is also electromagnetic radiation. To limit these HF emissions,
the lamp should be placed in the immediate proximity of the ballast, thus reducing
the length of the most strongly radiating conductors.
The different power supply modes (see Fig. N48)
Technology
Standard incandescent
Halogen incandescent
ELV halogen incandescent
Fluorescent tube
Power supply mode
Direct power supply
Other device
Dimmer switch
Transformer
Magnetic ballast and starter
Electronic converter
Electronic ballast
Electronic dimmer +
ballast
Compact fluorescent lamp
Mercury vapor
High-pressure sodium
Low-pressure sodium
Metal halide
Built-in electronic ballast
Magnetic ballast
Electronic ballast
Fig. N48 : Different power supply modes
4.3 Constraints related to lighting devices and
recommendations
The current actually drawn by luminaires
The risk
This characteristic is the first one that should be defined when creating an
installation, otherwise it is highly probable that overload protection devices will trip
and users may often find themselves in the dark.
It is evident that their determination should take into account the consumption of
all components, especially for fluorescent lighting installations, since the power
consumed by the ballasts has to be added to that of the tubes and bulbs.
N34
The solution
For incandescent lighting, it should be remembered that the line voltage can be more
than 10% of its nominal value, which would then cause an increase in the current
drawn.
For fluorescent lighting, unless otherwise specified, the power of the magnetic
ballasts can be assessed at 25% of that of the bulbs. For electronic ballasts, this
power is lower, in the order of 5 to 10%.
The thresholds for the overcurrent protection devices should therefore be calculated
as a function of the total power and the power factor, calculated for each circuit.
Overcurrents at switch-on
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The risk
The devices used for control and protection of lighting circuits are those such as
relays, triac, remote-control switches, contactors or circuit-breakers.
The main constraint applied to these devices is the current peak on energization.
This current peak depends on the technology of the lamps used, but also on the
installation characteristics (supply transformer power, length of cables, number of
lamps) and the moment of energization in the line voltage period. A high current
peak, however fleeting, can cause the contacts on an electromechanical control
device to weld together or the destruction of a solid state device with semiconductors.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Two solutions
Because of the inrush current, the majority of ordinary relays are incompatible with
lighting device power supply. The following recommendations are therefore usually
made:
b Limit the number of lamps to be connected to a single device so that their total
power is less than the maximum permissible power for the device
b Check with the manufacturers what operating limits they suggest for the devices.
This precaution is particularly important when replacing incandescent lamps with
compact fluorescent lamps
By way of example, the table in Figure N49 indicates the maximum number of
compensated fluorescent tubes that can be controlled by different devices with
16 A rating. Note that the number of controlled tubes is well below the number
corresponding to the maximum power for the devices.
Tube unit power
requirement
(W)
Number of tubes
corresponding
to the power
16 A x 230 V
18
36
58
204
102
63
Maximum number of tubes that can be
controlled by
Contactors
Remote
CircuitGC16 A
control
breakers
CT16 A
switches
C60-16 A
TL16 A
15
50
112
15
25
56
10
16
34
Fig. N49 : The number of controlled tubes is well below the number corresponding to the
maximum power for the devices
But a technique exists to limit the current peak on energization of circuits with
capacitive behavior (magnetic ballasts with parallel compensation and electronic
ballasts). It consists of ensuring that activation occurs at the moment when the line
voltage passes through zero. Only solid state switches with semi-conductors offer
this possibility (see Fig. N50a). This technique has proved to be particularly useful
when designing new lighting circuits.
More recently, hybrid technology devices have been developed that combine a solid
state switch (activation on voltage passage through zero) and an electromechanical
contactor short-circuiting the solid state switch (reduction of losses in the semiconductors) (see Fig. N50b).
N35
a
b
c
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N50 : “Standard” CT+ contactor [a], CT+ contactor with manual override, pushbutton for
selection of operating mode and indicator lamp showing the active operating mode [b], and TL +
remote-control switch [c] (Merlin Gerin brand)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
Modular contactors and impulse relays do
not use the same technologies. Their rating is
determined according to different standards.
For example, for a given rating, an impulse
relay is more efficient than a modular
contactor for the control of light fittings with
a strong inrush current, or with a low power
factor (non-compensated inductive circuit).
Type
of lamp
Unit power
and capacitance of power factor
correction capacitor
Basic incandescent lamps
LV halogen lamps
Replacement mercury vapour lamps (without ballast)
40 W
60 W
75 W
100 W
150 W
200 W
300 W
500 W
1000 W
1500 W
ELV 12 or 24 V halogen lamps
With ferromagnetic transformer 20 W
50 W
75 W
100 W
20 W
With electronic transformer
50 W
75 W
100 W
Fluorescent tubes with starter and ferromagnetic ballast
1 tube
15 W
without compensation (1)
18 W
N36
1 tube
with parallel compensation (2)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
2 or 4 tubes
with series compensation
20 W
36 W
40 W
58 W
65 W
80 W
115 W
15 W
18 W
20 W
36 W
40 W
58 W
65 W
80 W
115 W
2 x 18 W
4 x 18 W
2 x 36 W
2 x 58 W
2 x 65 W
2 x 80 W
2 x 115 W
Fluorescent tubes with electronic ballast
18 W
1 or 2 tubes
36 W
58 W
2 x 18 W
2 x 36 W
2 x 58 W
5 µF
5 µF
5 µF
5 µF
5 µF
7 µF
7 µF
7 µF
16 µF
4 Lighting circuits
Choice of relay rating according to lamp type
b Figure 51 below shows the maximum number of light fittings for each relay,
according to the type, power and configuration of a given lamp. As an indication, the
total acceptable power is also mentioned.
b These values are given for a 230 V circuit with 2 active conductors (single-phase
phase/neutral or two-phase phase/phase). For 110 V circuits, divide the values in the
table by 2.
b To obtain the equivalent values for the whole of a 230 V three-phase circuit,
multiply the number of lamps and the total acceptable power:
v by 3 (1.73) for circuits without neutral;
v by 3 for circuits with neutral.
Note: The power ratings of the lamps most commonly used are shown in bold.
Maximum number of light fittings for a single-phase circuit
and maximum power output per circuit
TL impulse relay
CT contactor
16 A
32 A
16 A
25 A
40 A
40
25
20
16
10
8
5
3
1
1
115
85
70
50
35
26
18
10
6
4
1500 W
to
1600 W
1500 W
70
28
19
14
60
25
18
14
1350 W
to
1450 W
83
1250 W
to
1300 W
70
62
35
31
21
20
16
11
60
50
45
25
22
16
13
11
7
56
1200 W
to
1400 W
900 W
2000 W
28
28
17
15
12
8
80
40
26
40
20
13
106
66
53
42
28
21
13
8
4
2
4000 W
to
4200 W
4000 W
180
74
50
37
160
65
44
33
3600 W
to
3750 W
213
3200 W
to
3350 W
186
160
93
81
55
50
41
29
160
133
120
66
60
42
37
30
20
148
3200 W
to
3350 W
2400 W
5300 W
74
74
45
40
33
23
1450 W
to
1550 W
212
106
69
106
53
34
3800 W
to
4000 W
38
30
25
19
12
10
7
4
2
1
1550 W 57
to
45
2000 W 38
28
18
14
2100 W 10
6
3
2
15
10
8
6
62
25
20
16
300 W
to
600 W
23
15
12
8
1250 W 90
to
39
1600 W 28
22
450 W
to
900 W
22
330 W
to
850 W
450 W
to
1200 W
22
22
20
20
13
13
10
7
15
15
15
15
15
10
10
10
5
30
30
16
16
10
10
9
6
30
30
28
28
17
17
15
10
200 W 20
to
20
800 W 20
20
20
15
15
15
7
1100 W 46
to
24
1500 W
24
16
16
13
10
74
38
25
36
20
12
1300 W 111
to
58
1400 W 37
55
30
19
2300 W
to
2850 W
3000 W
1850 W
to
2250 W
300 W
to
1200 W
1650 W
to
2400 W
2000 W
to
2200 W
63 A
4600 W
to
5250 W
5500 W
to
6000 W
42
27
23
18
182
76
53
42
850 W
to
1950 W
70
1050 W
to
2400 W
70
70
60
60
35
35
30
20
40
40
40
40
40
30
30
30
14
80
44
44
27
27
22
16
222
117
74
111
60
38
3650 W
to
4200 W
600 W
to
2400 W
2900 W
to
3800 W
4000 W
to
4400 W
172
125
100
73
50
37
25
15
8
5
6900 W
to
7500 W
63
42
35
27
275
114
78
60
1250 W
to
2850 W
100
1500 W
to
3850 W
100
100
90
90
56
56
48
32
60
60
60
60
60
43
43
43
20
123
68
68
42
42
34
25
333
176
111
166
90
57
Fig. N51 : Maximum number of light fittings for each relay, according to the type, power and configuration of a given lamp (Continued on opposite page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
7500 W
to
8000 W
5500 W
to
6000 W
900 W
to
3500 W
4450 W
to
5900 W
6000 W
to
6600 W
Type
of lamp
Unit power
and capacitance of power factor
correction capacitor
4 Lighting circuits
Maximum number of light fittings for a single-phase circuit
and maximum power output per circuit
TL impulse relay
CT contactor
16 A
32 A
16 A
25 A
Compact fluorescent lamps
With external electronic ballast
5W
240 1200 W 630 3150 W 210
7W
171 to
457 to
150
9W
138 1450 W 366 3800 W 122
11 W
118
318
104
18 W
77
202
66
26 W
55
146
50
170 850 W
390 1950 W 160
With integral electronic ballast 5 W
(replacement for incandescent 7 W
121 to
285 to
114
lamps)
9W
100 1050 W 233 2400 W 94
11 W
86
200
78
18 W
55
127
48
26 W
40
92
34
High-pressure mercury vapour lamps with ferromagnetic ballast without ignitor
Replacement high-pressure sodium vapour lamps with ferromagnetic ballast with integral ignitor (3)
Without compensation (1)
50 W
not tested,
15
infrequent use
80 W
10
125 / 110 W (3)
8
250 / 220 W (3)
4
400 / 350 W (3)
2
700 W
1
With parallel compensation (2) 50 W
7 µF
10
80 W
8 µF
9
125 / 110 W (3)
10 µF
9
250 / 220 W (3)
18 µF
4
400 / 350 W (3)
25 µF
3
700 W
40 µF
2
1000 W
60 µF
0
Low-pressure sodium vapour lamps with ferromagnetic ballast with external ignitor
35 W
5
Without compensation (1)
not tested,
infrequent use
55 W
5
90 W
3
135 W
2
180 W
2
With parallel compensation (2) 35 W
20 µF
38
1350 W 102 3600 W 3
55 W
3
20 µF
24
63
90 W
26 µF
15
40
2
135 W
1
40 µF
10
26
180 W
45 µF
7
18
1
High-pressure sodium vapour lamps
Metal-iodide lamps
With ferromagnetic ballast with 35 W
not tested,
16
external ignitor, without
infrequent use
70 W
8
compensation (1)
150 W
4
250 W
2
400 W
1
1000 W
0
With ferromagnetic ballast with 35 W
6 µF
34
1200 W 88
3100 W 12
external ignitor and parallel
to
to
70 W
6
12 µF
17
45
compensation (2)
1350 W 22
3400 W 4
150 W
20 µF
8
250 W
32 µF
5
13
3
400 W
45 µF
3
8
2
1000 W
60 µF
1
3
1
2000 W
85 µF
0
1
0
With electronic ballast
35 W
38
1350 W 87
3100 W 24
to
to
70 W
18
29
77
2200 W 33
5000 W 9
150 W
14
1050 W 330
to
222
1300 W 194
163
105
76
800 W 230
to
164
900 W 133
109
69
50
1650 W
to
2000 W
750 W 20
to
15
1000 W 10
6
4
2
500 W 15
to
13
1400 W 10
6
4
2
1
1000 W
to
1600 W
270 W
to
360 W
100 W
to
180 W
600 W
9
9
6
4
4
5
5
4
2
2
24
12
7
4
3
1
450 W 18
to
9
1000 W 6
4
3
2
1
850 W 38
to
29
1350 W 14
1150 W
to
1300 W
750 W
to
1600 W
320 W
to
720 W
175 W
to
360 W
850 W
to
1200 W
650 W
to
2000 W
1350 W
to
2200 W
40 A
63 A
670
478
383
327
216
153
470
335
266
222
138
100
3350 W
to
4000 W
not tested
2350 W
to
2600 W
710
514
411
340
213
151
3550 W
to
3950 W
34
27
20
10
6
4
28
25
20
11
8
5
3
1700 W
to
2800 W
53
40
28
15
10
6
43
38
30
17
12
7
5
2650 W
to
4200 W
1400 W
to
3500 W
14
14
9
6
6
10
10
8
5
4
500 W
to
1100 W
42
20
13
8
5
2
31
16
10
7
5
3
2
68
51
26
1450 W
to
2000 W
350 W
to
720 W
1100 W
to
4000 W
2400 W
to
4000 W
2150 W
to
5000 W
24
24
19
10
10
15
15
11
7
6
850 W
to
1800 W
64
32
18
11
8
3
50
25
15
10
7
5
3
102
76
40
2250 W
to
3200 W
550 W
to
1100 W
1750 W
to
6000 W
3600 W
to
6000 W
(1) Circuits with non-compensated ferromagnetic ballasts consume twice as much current for a given lamp power output. This explains the small number of lamps in this
configuration.
(2) The total capacitance of the power factor correction capacitors in parallel in a circuit limits the number of lamps that can be controlled by a contactor. The total
downstream capacitance of a modular contactor of rating 16, 25, 40 or 63 A should not exceed 75, 100, 200 or 300 µF respectively. Allow for these limits to calculate the
maximum acceptable number of lamps if the capacitance values are different from those in the table.
(3) High-pressure mercury vapour lamps without ignitor, of power 125, 250 and 400 W, are gradually being replaced by high-pressure sodium vapour lamps with integral
ignitor, and respective power of 110, 220 and 350 W.
Fig. N51 : Maximum number of light fittings for each relay, according to the type, power and configuration of a given lamp (Concluded)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N37
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Protection of lamp circuits: Maximum number of lamps and MCB rating versus
lamp type, unit power and MCB tripping curve
During start up of discharge lamps (with their ballast), the inrush current drawn by
each lamp may be in the order of:
b 25 x circuit start current for the first 3 ms
b 7 x circuit start current for the following 2 s
For fluorescent lamps with High Frequency Electronic control ballast, the protective
device ratings must cope with 25 x inrush for 250 to 350 µs.
However due to the circuit resistance the total inrush current seen by the MCB is
lower than the summation of all individual lamp inrush current if directly connected to
the MCB.
The tables below (see Fig. N52 to NXX) take into account:
b Circuits cables have a length of 20 meters from distribution board to the first lamp
and 7 meters between each additional fittings.
b MCB rating is given to protect the lamp circuit in accordance with the cable cross
section, and without unwanted tripping upon lamp starting.
b MCB tripping curve (C = instantaneous trip setting 5 to 10 In, D = instantaneous
trip setting 10 to 14 In).
Lamp
power (W)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
14/18
14 x2
14 x3
14 x4
18 x2
18 x4
21/24
21/24 x2
28
28 x2
35/36/39
35/36 x2
38/39 x2
40/42
40/42 x2
49/50
49/50 x2
54/55
54/55 x2
60
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Number of lamps per circuit
9
10
11
12
13
MCB rating C & D tripping curve
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
10
6
10
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
10
6
10
6
16
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
6
10
6
10
6
16
6
6
6
6
10
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
6
10
6
16
6
16
10
6
6
10
10
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
10
10
6
10
6
16
6
16
10
6
6
10
10
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
10
10
6
10
6
16
10
16
10
6
6
10
10
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
10
10
6
16
6
16
10
16
10
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
N38
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N52 : Fluorescent tubes with electronic ballast - Vac = 230 V
Lamp
power (W)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
6
9
11
13
14
15
16
17
18
20
21
23
25
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Number of lamps per circuit
9
10
11
12
13
MCB rating C & D tripping curve
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Fig. N53 : Compact fluorescent lamps - Vac = 230 V
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Lamp
power (W)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
50
80
125
250
400
1000
6
6
6
6
6
16
6
6
6
10
16
32
6
6
6
10
20
40
6
6
10
16
25
50
6
6
10
16
25
50
6
6
10
16
32
50
6
6
10
16
32
50
6
6
10
16
32
63
50
80
125
250
400
1000
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
10
20
6
6
6
10
16
25
6
6
6
10
16
32
6
6
6
10
20
40
6
6
6
10
20
40
6
6
10
16
25
50
6
6
10
16
25
63
Number of lamps per circuit
9
10
11
12
MCB rating C tripping curve
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
16
16
20
20
25
32
32
32
40
63
MCB rating D tripping curve
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
16
16
20
20
25
25
32
32
40
63
-
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
6
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
32
50
-
6
10
16
32
50
-
10
10
16
32
50
-
10
16
16
32
50
-
10
16
20
40
63
-
10
16
20
40
63
-
6
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
32
50
-
6
10
16
32
50
-
10
10
16
32
50
-
10
16
16
32
50
-
10
16
20
40
63
-
10
16
20
40
63
-
Fig. N54 : High pressure mercury vapour (with ferromagnetic ballast and PF correction) - Vac = 230 V
Lamp
power (W)
1
2
Ferromagnetic ballast
18
6
6
26
6
6
35/36
6
6
55
6
6
91
6
6
131
6
6
135
6
6
180
6
6
Electronic ballast
36
6
6
55
6
6
66
6
6
91
6
6
Ferromagnetic ballast
18
6
6
26
6
6
35/36
6
6
55
6
6
91
6
6
131
6
6
135
6
6
180
6
6
Electronic ballast
36
6
6
55
6
6
66
6
6
91
6
6
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number of lamps per circuit
9
10
11
12
13
MCB rating C tripping curve
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
16
16
16
25
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
25
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
25
6
6
6
10
16
20
20
25
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
MCB rating D tripping curve
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
16
6
6
10
16
6
6
10
16
6
6
10
16
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
16
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
6
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
20
6
6
6
10
16
16
16
25
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
25
6
6
6
10
16
16
20
25
6
6
6
10
16
20
20
25
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
10
6
6
6
16
6
6
10
16
6
6
10
16
6
6
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
10
16
16
N39
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N55 : Low pressure sodium (with PF correction) - Vac = 230 V
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
Lamp
power (W)
1
2
Ferromagnetic ballast
50
6
6
70
6
6
100
6
6
150
6
6
250
6
10
400
10
16
1000
16
32
Electronic ballast
35
6
6
50
6
6
100
6
6
Ferromagnetic ballast
50
6
6
70
6
6
100
6
6
150
6
6
250
6
6
400
6
10
1000
10
20
Electronic ballast
35
6
6
50
6
6
100
6
6
4 Lighting circuits
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number of lamps per circuit
9
10
11
12
13
MCB rating C tripping curve
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
6
6
6
10
16
20
40
6
6
6
10
16
25
50
6
6
6
10
16
32
50
6
6
6
10
20
32
50
6
6
6
10
20
32
50
6
6
6
10
20
32
63
6
6
10
6
20
32
63
6
10
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
16
32
50
-
6
10
16
20
32
50
-
10
10
16
20
32
50
-
10
16
16
20
32
50
-
10
16
16
25
40
63
-
10
16
16
25
40
63
-
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
10
10
10
10
MCB rating D tripping curve
6
10
10
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
6
6
6
10
16
32
6
6
6
6
10
16
32
6
6
6
6
16
20
40
6
6
6
10
16
20
40
6
6
6
10
16
25
50
6
6
6
10
16
25
63
6
6
10
10
16
25
63
6
6
10
16
20
32
-
6
10
10
16
20
32
-
6
10
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
10
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
16
25
40
-
6
10
16
16
32
50
-
6
10
16
20
32
50
-
10
10
16
20
32
50
-
10
16
16
20
32
50
-
10
16
16
25
40
63
-
10
16
16
25
40
63
-
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
10
6
6
10
6
6
10
6
6
10
6
6
10
6
10
10
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
10
16
6
6
10
16
20
32
-
6
10
10
16
20
32
-
6
10
10
16
25
40
-
Fig. N56 : High pressure sodium (with PF correction) - Vac = 230 V
Lamp
power (W)
1
2
Ferromagnetic ballast
35
6
6
70
6
6
150
6
6
250
6
10
400
6
16
1000
16
32
1800/2000
25
50
Electronic ballast
35
6
6
70
6
6
150
6
6
N40
Ferromagnetic ballast
35
6
6
70
6
6
150
6
6
250
6
6
400
6
10
1000
16
20
1800
16
32
2000
20
32
Electronic ballast
35
6
6
70
6
6
150
6
6
3
4
5
6
7
8
Number of lamps per circuit
9
10
11
12
13
MCB rating C tripping curve
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
6
6
10
16
20
40
63
6
6
10
16
25
50
63
6
6
10
16
25
50
63
6
6
10
20
32
50
-
6
6
10
20
32
50
-
6
6
10
20
32
63
-
6
6
10
20
32
63
-
6
10
16
25
40
63
-
6
10
16
25
40
63
-
6
10
16
32
50
63
-
6
10
20
32
50
63
-
6
10
20
32
50
63
-
6
16
20
32
50
63
-
6
16
25
40
63
63
-
6
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© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N57 : Metal halide (with PF correction) - Vac = 230 V
Lamp
power (W)
1
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6
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2000
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63
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63
-
Fig. N58 : Metal halide (with ferromagnetic ballast and PF correction) - Vac = 400 V
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Overload of the neutral conductor
The risk
In an installation including, for example, numerous fluorescent tubes with electronic
ballasts supplied between phases and neutral, a high percentage of 3rd harmonic
current can cause an overload of the neutral conductor. Figure N59 below gives an
overview of typical H3 level created by lighting.
Lamp type
Incandescend lamp
with dimmer
ELV halogen lamp
Typical power
100 W
Setting mode
Light dimmer
Typical H3 level
5 to 45 %
25 W
5%
Fluorescent tube
100 W
< 25 W
> 25 W
100 W
Electronic ELV
transformer
Magnetic ballast
Electronic ballast
+ PFC
Magnetic ballast
Electrical ballast
Discharge lamp
10 %
85 %
30 %
10 %
30 %
Fig. N59 : Overview of typical H3 level created by lighting
The solution
Firstly, the use of a neutral conductor with a small cross-section (half) should be
prohibited, as requested by Installation standard IEC 60364, section 523–5–3.
As far as overcurrent protection devices are concerned, it is necessary to provide
4-pole circuit-breakers with protected neutral (except with the TN-C system for which
the PEN, a combined neutral and protection conductor, should not be cut).
This type of device can also be used for the breaking of all poles necessary to supply
luminaires at the phase-to-phase voltage in the event of a fault.
A breaking device should therefore interrupt the phase and Neutral circuit
simultaneously.
Leakage currents to earth
The risk
At switch-on, the earth capacitances of the electronic ballasts are responsible for
residual current peaks that are likely to cause unintentional tripping of protection
devices.
Two solutions
The use of Residual Current Devices providing immunity against this type of impulse
current is recommended, even essential, when equipping an existing installation
(see Fig. N60).
For a new installation, it is sensible to provide solid state or hybrid control devices
(contactors and remote-control switches) that reduce these impulse currents
(activation on voltage passage through zero).
N41
Overvoltages
The risk
As illustrated in earlier sections, switching on a lighting circuit causes a transient state
which is manifested by a significant overcurrent. This overcurrent is accompanied by a
strong voltage fluctuation applied to the load terminals connected to the same circuit.
These voltage fluctuations can be detrimental to correct operation of sensitive loads
(micro-computers, temperature controllers, etc.)
Sensitivity of lighting devices to line voltage disturbances
Short interruptions
b The risk
Discharge lamps require a relighting time of a few minutes after their power supply
has been switched off.
Fig. N60 : s.i. residual current devices with immunity against
impulse currents (Merlin Gerin brand)
b The solution
Partial lighting with instantaneous relighting (incandescent lamps or fluorescent
tubes, or “hot restrike” discharge lamps) should be provided if safety requirements so
dictate. Its power supply circuit is, depending on current regulations, usually distinct
from the main lighting circuit.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The Solution
It is advisable to separate the power supply for these sensitive loads from the lighting
circuit power supply.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Voltage fluctuations
b The risk
The majority of lighting devices (with the exception of lamps supplied by electronic
ballasts) are sensitive to rapid fluctuations in the supply voltage. These fluctuations
cause a flicker phenomenon which is unpleasant for users and may even cause
significant problems. These problems depend on both the frequency of variations
and their magnitude.
Standard IEC 61000-2-2 (“compatibility levels for low-frequency conducted
disturbances”) specifies the maximum permissible magnitude of voltage variations as
a function of the number of variations per second or per minute.
These voltage fluctuations are caused mainly by high-power fluctuating loads (arc
furnaces, welding machines, starting motors).
b The solution
Special methods can be used to reduce voltage fluctuations. Nonetheless, it is
advisable, wherever possible, to supply lighting circuits via a separate line supply.
The use of electronic ballasts is recommended for demanding applications
(hospitals, clean rooms, inspection rooms, computer rooms, etc).
Developments in control and protection equipment
The use of light dimmers is more and more common. The constraints on ignition are
therefore reduced and derating of control and protection equipment is less important.
New protection devices adapted to the constraints on lighting circuits are being
introduced, for example Merlin Gerin brand circuit-breakers and modular residual
current circuit-breakers with special immunity, such as s.i. type ID switches and
Vigi circuit-breakers. As control and protection equipment evolves, some now offer
remote control, 24-hour management, lighting control, reduced consumption, etc.
4.4 Lighting of public areas
Normal lighting
Regulations governing the minimum requirements for buildings receiving the public in
most European countries are as follows:
b Installations which illuminates areas accessible to the public must be controlled
and protected independently from installations providing illumination to other areas
b Loss of supply on a final lighting circuit (i.e. fuse blown or CB tripped) must not
result in total loss of illumination in an area which is capable of accommodating more
than 50 persons
b Protection by Residual Current Devices (RCD) must be divided amongst several
devices (i.e. more than on device must be used)
Emergency lighting and other systems
N42
When we refer to emergency lighting, we mean the auxiliary lighting that is triggered
when the standard lighting fails.
Emergency lighting is subdivided as follows (EN-1838):
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Safety lighting
It originates from the emergency lighting and is intended to provide lighting for people to
evacuate an area safely or for those who try to fi nish a potentially dangerous operation before
leaving the area. It is intended to illuminate the means of evacuation and ensure continuous
visibility and ready usage in safety when standard or emergency lighting is needed.
Safety lighting may be further subdivided as follows:
Safety lighting for escape routes
It originates from the safety lighting, and is
intended to ensure that the escape means
can be clearly identifi ed and used safely
when the area is busy.
Anti-panic lighting in extended areas
It originates from the safety lighting, and is
intended to avoid panic and to provide the
necessary lighting to allow people to reach
a possible escape route area.
Emergency lighting and safety signs for escape routes
The emergency lighting and safety signs for escape routes are very important for all
those who design emergency systems. Their suitable choice helps improve safety
levels and allows emergency situations to be handled better.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
Standard EN 1838 ("Lighting applications. Emergency lighting") gives some
fundamental concepts concerning what is meant by emergency lighting for escape
routes:
"The intention behind lighting escape routes is to allow safe exit by the occupants,
providing them with suffi cient visibility and directions on the escape route …"
The concept referred to above is very simple:
The safety signs and escape route lighting must be two separate things.
Functions and operation of the luminaires
The manufacturing specifi cations are covered by standard EN 60598-2-22,
"Particular Requirements - Luminaires for Emergency Lighting", which must be read
with EN 60598-1, "Luminaires – Part 1: General Requirements and Tests".
Duration
A basic requirement is to determine the duration required for the emergency lighting.
Generally it is 1 hour but some countries may have different duration requirements
according to statutory technical standards.
Operation
We should clarify the different types of emergency luminaires:
b Non-maintained luminaires
v The lamp will only switch on if there is a fault in the standard lighting
v The lamp will be powered by the battery during failure
v The battery will be automatically recharged when the mains power supply is
restored
b Maintained luminaires
v The lamp can be switched on in continuous mode
v A power supply unit is required with the mains, especially for powering the lamp,
which can be disconnected when the area is not busy
v The lamp will be powered by the battery during failure.
Design
The integration of emergency lighting with standard lighting must comply strictly with
electrical system standards in the design of a building or particular place.
All regulations and laws must be complied with in order to design a system which is
up to standard (see Fig. N61).
The main functions of an emergency lighting system
when standard lighting fails are the following:
b Clearly show the escape
route using clear signs.
b Provide sufficient emergency
lighting along the escape paths
so that people can safely find
their ways to the exits.
N43
Fig. N61 : The main functions of an emergency lighting system
European standards
The design of emergency lighting systems is regulated by a number of legislative
provisions that are updated and implemented from time to time by new
documentation published on request by the authorities that deal with European and
international technical standards and regulations.
Each country has its own laws and regulations, in addition to technical standards
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b Ensure that alarms and
the fire safety equipment
present along the way out
are easily identifiable.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
4 Lighting circuits
which govern different sectors. Basically they describe the places that must be
provided with emergency lighting as well as its technical specifi cations. The
designer's job is to ensure that the design project complies with these standards.
EN 1838
A very important document on a European level regarding emergency lighting is the
Standard EN 1838, "Lighting applications. Emergency lighting".
This standard presents specifi c requirements and constraints regarding the
operation and the function of emergency lighting systems.
CEN and CENELEC standards
With the CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation) and CENELEC standards
(Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechnique), we are in a standardised
environment of particular interest to the technician and the designer. A number
of sections deal with emergencies. An initial distinction should be made between
luminaire standards and installation standards.
EN 60598-2-22 and EN-60598-1
Emergency lighting luminaires are subject to European standard EN 60598-222, "Particular Requirements - Luminaires for Emergency Lighting", which is an
integrative text (of specifi cations and analysis) of the Standard EN-60598-1,
Luminaires – "Part 1: General Requirements and Tests".
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N44
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
The consequence of an incorrectly protected motor can include the following:
The asynchronous (i.e. induction) motor is
robust and reliable, and very widely used.
95% of motors installed around the world are
asynchronous. The protection of these motors
is consequently a matter of great importance
in numerous applications.
b For persons:
v Asphyxiation due to the blockage of motor ventilation
v Electrocution due to insulation failure in the motor
v Accident due to non stopping of the motor following the failure of the control circuit
in case of incorrect overcurrent protection
b For the driven machine and the process
v Shaft couplings and axles, etc, damaged due to a stalled rotor
v Loss of production
v Manufacturing time delayed
b For the motor
v Motor windings burnt out due to stalled rotor
v Cost of dismantling and reinstalling or replacement of motor
v Cost of repairs to the motor
Therefore, the safety of persons and goods, and reliability and availability levels are
highly dependant on the choice of protective equipment.
In economic terms, the overall cost of failure must be considered. This cost
is increasing with the size of the motor and with the difficulties of access and
replacement. Loss of production is a further, and evidently important factor.
Specific features of motor performance influence the power supply circuits required
for satisfactory operation
A motor power-supply circuit presents certain constraints not normally encountered
in other (common) distribution circuits, owing to the particular characteristics, specific
to motors, such as:
b High start-up current (see Fig. N62) which is mostly reactive, and can therefore be
the cause of important voltage drop
b Number and frequency of start-up operations are generally high
b The high start-up current means that motor overload protective devices must have
operating characteristics which avoid tripping during the starting period
5.1 Functions for the motor circuit
Functions generally provided are:
b Basic functions including:
v Isolating facility
v Motor control (local or remote)
v Protection against short-circuits
v Protection against overload
b Complementary protections including:
v Thermal protection by direct winding temperature measurement
v Thermal protection by indirect winding temperature determination
v Permanent insulation-resistance monitoring
v Specific motor protection functions
N45
b Specific control equipment including:
v Electromechanical starters
v Control and Protective Switching devices (CPS)
v Soft-start controllers
v Variable speed drives
t
I" = 8 to 12 In
Id = 5 to 8 In
In = rated current of the motor
Isolating facility
It is necessary to isolate the circuits, partially or totally, from their power supply
network for satety of personnel during maintenance work. “Isolation” function is
provided by disconnectors. This function can be included in other devices designed
to provide isolation such as disconnector/circuit-breaker.
td
1 to 10s
Motor control
The motor control function is to make and break the motor current. In case of manual
control, this function can be provided by motor-circuit-breakers or switches.
In case of remote control, this function can be provided by contactors, starters or CPS.
20 to
30 ms
In
Id
I"
I
Fig. N62 : Direct on-line starting current characteristics of an
induction motor
The control function can also be initiated by other means:
b Overload protection
b Complementary protection
b Under voltage release (needed for a lot of machines)
The control function can also be provided by specific control equipment.
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© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Basic functions
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Protection against short-circuits
b Phase-to-phase short-circuit
This type of fault inside the machine is very rare. It is generally due to mechanical
incident of the power supply cable of the motor.
b Phase-to-earth short-circuit
The deterioration of winding insulation is the main cause. The resulting fault current
depends on the system of earthing. For the TN system, the resulting fault current is
very high and in most cases the motor will be deteriorated. For the other systems of
earthing, protection of the motor can be achieved by earth fault protection.
For short-circuit protection, it is recommended to pay special attention to avoid
unexpected tripping during the starting period of the motor. The inrush current of a
standard motor is about 6 to 8 times its rated current but during a fault the current
can be as high as 15 times the rated current. So, the starting current must not be
seen as a fault by the protection. In addition, a fault occuring in a motor circuit must
not disturb any upstream circuit. As a consequence, discrimination/selectivity of
magnetic protections must be respected with all parts of the installation.
Protection against overload
Mechanical overloads due to the driven machine are the main origins of the overload
for a motor application. They cause overload current and motor overheating. The life
of the motor can be reduced and sometimes, the motor can be deteriorated. So, it is
necessary to detect motor overload. This protection can be provided by:
b Specific thermal overload relay
b Specific thermal-magnetic circuit-breaker commonly referred to as “motor circuitbreaker”
b Complementary protection (see below) like thermal sensor or electronic
multifunction relay
b Electronic soft start controllers or variable speed drives (see below)
Complementary protections
b Thermal protection by direct winding temperature measurement
Provided by thermal sensors incorporated inside the windings of the motor and
associated relays.
b Thermal protection by indirect winding temperature determination
Provided by multifunction relays through current measurement and taking into
account the characteristics of the motors (e.g.: thermal time constant).
b Permanent insulation-resistance monitoring relays or residual current differential
relays
They provide detection and protection against earth leakage current and short-circuit
to earth, allowing maintenance operation before destruction of the motor.
b Specific motor protection functions
Such as protection against too long starting period or stalled rotor, protection
against unbalanced, loss or permutation of phases, earth fault protection, no load
protection, rotor blocked (during start or after)…; pre alarm overheating indication,
communication, can also be provided by multifunction relays.
N46
Specific control equipment
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b Electromechanical starters (star-delta, auto-transformer, rheostatic rotor
starters,…)
They are generally used for application with no load during the starting period (pump,
fan, small centrifuge, machine-tool, etc.)
v Advantages
Good torque/current ratio; great reduction of inrush current.
v Disadvantages
Low torque during the starting period; no easy adjustment; power cut off during the
transition and transient phenomenon; 6 motor connection cables needed.
b Control and Protective Switching devices (CPS)
They provide all the basic functions listed before within a single unit and also some
complementary functions and the possibility of communication. These devices also
provide continuity of service in case of short-circuit.
b Soft-start controllers
Used for applications with pump, fan, compressor, conveyor.
v Advantages
Reduced inrush current, voltage drop and mechanical stress during the motor start;
built-in thermal protection; small size device; possibility of communication
v Disadvantages
Low torque during the starting period; thermal dissipation.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
b Variable speed drives
They are used for applications with pump, fan, compressor, conveyor, machine with
high load torque, machine with high inertia.
v Advantages
Continuous speed variation (adjustment typically from 2 to 130% of nominal speed),
overspeed is possible; accurate control of acceleration and deceleration; high
torque during the starting and stopping periods; low inrush current, built-in thermal
protection, possibility of communication.
v Disadvantages
Thermal dissipation, volume, cost.
5.2 Standards
The motor control and protection can be achieved in different way:
b By using an association of a SCPD (Short-Circuit-Protective-Device) and
electromechanical devices such as
v An electromechanical starters fulfilling the standard IEC 60947-4-1
v A semiconductor starter fulfilling the standard IEC 60947-4-2
v A variable speed drives fulfilling the standard series IEC 61800
b By using a CPS, single device covering all the basic functions, and fulfilling the
standard IEC 60947-6-2
In this document, only the motor circuits including association of electromechanical
devices such as, starters and protection against short-circuit, are considered. The
devices meeting the standard 60947-6-2, the semiconductor starters and the variable
speed drives will be considered only for specific points.
A motor circuit will meet the rules of the IEC 60947-4-1 and mainly:
b The co-ordination between the devices of the motor circuit
b The tripping class of the thermal relays
b The category of utilization of the contactors
b The insulation co-ordination
Note: The first and last points are satisfied inherently by the devices meeting the
IEC 60947-6-2 because they provide a continuity of service.
Standardization of the association circuit-breaker + contactor
+ thermal relay
Type of current
Alternating current
Direct current
Operating categories
Typical uses
AC-1
Non inductive or slightly inductive load, resistance furnace.Power distribution (lighting, generators, etc.).
AC-2
Brush motor: starting, breaking.Heavy duty equipment (hoisting, handling, crusher, rolling-mill train, etc.).
AC-3
Squirrel cage motor: starting, switching off running motors. Motor control (pumps, compressors, fans, machinetools, conveyors,presses, etc.).
AC-4
Squirrel cage motor: starting, plugging, inching. Heavy-duty equipment (hoisting, handling, crusher, rolling-mill
train, etc.).
DC-1
Non inductive or slightly inductive load, resistance furnace.
DC-3
Shunt wound motor: starting, reversing, counter-current breaking, inching.Dynamic breaking for direct current
motors.
DC-5
Series wound motor: starting, reversing, counter-current breaking, inching.Dynamic breaking for direct current
motors.
* Category AC-3 can be used for the inching or reversing, counter-current breaking for occasional operations of a limited length of time, such as for theassembly of
a machine. The number of operations per limited length of time normally do not exceed five per minute and ten per 10 minutes.
Fig. N63 : Contactor utilisation categories based on the purposes they are designed for, according to IEC 60947-1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N47
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Control devices categories
The standards in the IEC 60947 series define the utilisation categoriesaccording
to the purposes the control gear is designed for (see Fig. N63). Each category is
characterised by one or more operating conditions such as:
b Currents
b Voltages
b Power factor or time constant
b And if necessary, other operating conditions
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
The following is also taken into consideration:
b Circuit making and breaking conditions
b Type of load (squirrel cage motor, brush motor, resistor)
b Conditions in which making and breaking take place (motor running,motor stalled,
starting process, counter-current breaking, etc.)
Coordination between protections and control
It is coordination, the most efficient combination of the different protections(against
short circuits and overloads) and the control device (contactor) which make up a
motor starter unit.
Studied for a given power, it provides the best possible protection of the equipment
controlled by this motor starter unit (see Fig. N64).
It has the double advantage of reducing equipment and maintenance costsas the
different protections complement each other as exactly as possible,with no useless
redundancy.
Trip curve overload relay
Fuse
Trip of the overload relay alone
Thermal limit of the breaker
Overload relay limit
Breaking current with SCPD (1) (1).
Magnetic tripping of the breaker
Fig. N64 : The basics of coordination
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
N48
There are different types of coordination
Two types of coordination (type 1 and type 2) are defined by IEC 60947-4-1.
b Type 1 coordination:
The commonest standard solution. It requires that in event of a short circuit, the
contactor or the starter do not put people or installations in danger. It admits the
necessity of repairs or part replacements before service restoration.
b Type 2 coordination:
The high performance solution. It requires that in the event of a short circuit, the
contactor or the starter do not put people or installations in danger and that it
is able to work afterwards. It admits the risk of contact welding. In this case, the
manufacturer must specify the measures to take for equipment maintenance.
b Some manufacturers offer:
The highest performance solution, which is “Total coordination”.
This coordination requires that in the event of a short circuit, the contactor or
the starter do not put people or installations in danger and that it is able to work
afterwards. It does not admit the risk of contact welding and the starting of the motor
starter unit must be immediate.
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Control and protection switching gear (CPS)
CPS or “starter-controllers” are designed to fulfil control and protection functions
simultaneously (overload and short circuit). In addition, they are designed to carry
out control operations in the event of a short circuit.
They can also assure additional functions such as insulation, thereby totally fulfilling
the function of “motor starter unit”. They comply with standard IEC 60947-6-2, which
notably defines the assigned values and utilisation categories of a CPS, as do
standards IEC 60947-1 and 60947-4-1.
The functions performed by a CPS are combined and coordinated in such a way as
to allow for uptime at all currents up to the Ics working short circuit breaking capacity
of the CPS. The CPS may or may not consist of one device, but its characteristics are
assigned as for a single device. Furthermore, the guarantee of “total” coordination of
all the functions ensures the user has a simple choice with optimal protection
which is easy to implement.
Although presented as a single unit, a CPS can offer identical or greater modularity
than the “three product” motor starter unit solution. This is the case with the “Tesys U”
starter-controller (see Fig. N65).
Fig. N65 : Example of a CPS modularity (Tesys Ustarter controller by Telemecanique)
N49
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
This starter-controller can at any time bring in or change a control unit with protection
and control functions for motors from 0.15A to 32A in a generic “base power” or
“base unit” of a 32 A calibre.
Additional functionality’s can also be installed with regard to:
b Power, reversing block, limiter
b Control
v Functions modules, alarms, motor load, automatic resetting, etc,
v Communication modules: AS-I, Modbus, Profibus, CAN-Open, etc,
v Auxiliary contact modules, added contacts.
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N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Communications functions are possible with this system (see Fig. N66).
Available functions:
Standard
Control units: Upgradeable
Multifunction
Starter status (ready, running, with default)
Alarms (overcurrents…)
Thermal alarm
Remote resetting by bus
Indication of motor load
Defaults differentiation
Parameter setting and protection function reference
“Log file” function
“Monitoring” function
Start and Stop controls
Information conveyed by bus (Modbus) and functions performed
Fig. N66 : Tesys U Communication functions
What sort of coordination does one choose?
The choice of the coordination type depends on the operation parameters.
It should be made to achieve the best balance of user needs and installation costs.
b Type 1
Acceptable when uptime is not required and the system can be reactivated after
replacing the faulty parts.
In this case the maintenance service must be efficient (available andcompetent).
The advantage is reduced equipment costs.
b Type 2
To be considered when the uptime is required.
It requires a reduced maintenance service.
When immediate motor starting is necessary, “Total coordination”mustbe retained.
No maintenance service is necessary.
The coordinations offered in the manufacturers’ catalogues simplify the users’ choice
and guarantees that the motor starter unit complies with the standard.
5.3 Applications
N50
The control and protection of a motor can consist of one, two, three or four different
devices which provide one or several functions.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
In the case of the combination of several devices, co-ordination between them
is essential in order to provide optimized protection of the motor application.
To protect a motor circuit, many parameters must be taken into account. They
depend on:
b The application (type of driven machine, safety of operation, number of operations,
etc.)
b The continuity performance requested by the application
b The standards to be enforced to provide security and safety.
The electrical functions to be provided are quite different:
b Start, normal operation and stop without unexpected tripping while maintaining
control requirements, number of operations, durability and safety requirements
(emergency stops), as well as circuit and motor protection, disconnection (isolation)
for safety of personnel during maintenance work.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Basic protection schemes: circuit-breaker + contactor
+ thermal relay
Among the many possible methods of
protecting a motor, the association of a
circuit breaker + contactor + thermal relay (1)
provides many advantages
Avantages
The combination of devices facilitates installation work, as well as operation and
maintenance, by:
b The reduction of the maintenance work load: the circuit-breaker avoids the need to
replace blown fuses and the necessity of maintaining a stock (of different sizes and
types)
b Better continuity performance: the installation can be re-energized immediately
following the elimination of a fault and after checking of the starter
b Additional complementary devices sometimes required on a motor circuit are
easily accomodated
b Tripping of all three phases is assured (thereby avoiding the possibility of “single
phasing”)
b Full load current switching possibility (by circuit-breaker) in the event of contactor
failure, e.g. contact welding
b Interlocking
b Diverse remote indications
b Better protection for the starter in case of overcurrent and in particular for impedant
short-circuit (2) corresponding to currents up to about 30 times In of motor (see Fig. N67).
b Possibility of adding RCD:
v Prevention of risk of fire (sensitivity 500 mA)
v Protection against destruction of the motor (short-circuit of laminations) by the
early detection of earth fault currents (sensitivity 300 mA to 30 A)
t
1.05 to 1.20 In
Circuit
breaker
Magnetic
relay
Operating curve
of thermal relay
End of
start-up
period
Contactor
Thermal
relay
Cable thermal withstand limit
1 to
10 s
Limit of thermal relay constraint
Cable
Motor
Short circuit current breaking capacity
of the association (CB + contactor)
Operating curve of the
MA type circuit breaker
20 to
30 ms
In
Is
I" magn.
I
Short circuit current breaking capacity
of the CB
N51
Fig. N67 : Tripping characteristics of a circuit-breaker + contactor + thermal relay (1)
(1) The combination of a contactor with a thermal relay is
commonly referred to as a “discontactor”.
(2) In the majority of cases, short-circuit faults occur at the
motor, so that the current is limited by the cable and the wiring
of the starter and are called impedant short-circuits
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Conclusion
The combination of a circuit-breaker + contactor + thermal relay for the control and
protection of motor circuits is eminently appropriate when:
b The maintenance service for an installation is reduced, which is generally the case
in tertiary and small and medium sized industrial sites
b The job specification calls for complementary functions
b There is an operational requirement for a load breaking facility in the event of need
of maintenance.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Key points in the successful combination of a circuit-breaker
and a discontactor
Standards define precisely the elements which must be taken into account to
achieve a correct coordination of type 2:
b Absolute compatibility between the thermal relay of the discontactor and the
magnetic trip of the circuit-breaker. In Figure N68 the thermal relay is protected if
its limit boundary for thermal withstand is placed to the right of the circuit-breaker
magnetic trip characteristic curve. In the case of a motor control circuit-breaker
incorporating both magnetic and thermal relay devices, coordination is provided by
design.
b The overcurrent breaking capability of the contactor must be greater than the
current corresponding to the setting of the circuit-breaker magnetic trip relay.
b When submitted to a short-circuit current, the contactor and its thermal relay must
perform in accordance with the requirements corresponding to the specified type of
co-ordination.
Compact
type MA
t
1 Operating curve of the MA type circuit breaker
2 Operating curve of thermal relay
3 Limit of thermal relay constraint
2
Icc ext.
3
1
I
Fig. N68 : The thermal-withstand limit of the thermal relay must be to the right of the CB
magnetic-trip characteristic
Short-circuit current-breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker
+ contactor combination
It is not possible to predict the short-circuit
current-breaking capacity of a circuit-breaker
+ contactor combination. Only laboratory tests
by manufacturers allow to do it. So, Schneider
Electric can give table with combination of
N52 Multi 9 and Compact type MA circuit-breakers
with different types of starters
At the selection stage, the short-circuit current-breaking capacity which must be
compared to the prospective short-circuit current is:
b Either, that of the circuit-breaker + contactor combination if the circuit-breaker
and the contactor are physically close together (see Fig. N69) (same drawer or
compartment of a motor control cabinet). A short-circuit downstream of the
combination will be limited to some extent by the impedances of the contactor and
the thermal relay. The combination can therefore be used on a circuit for which
the prospective short-circuit current level exceeds the rated short-circuit currentbreaking capacity of the circuit-breaker. This feature very often presents a significant
economic advantage
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
b Or that of the circuit-breaker only, for the case where the contactor is separated
(see Fig. N70) with the risk of short-circuit between the contactor and the circuitbreaker.
M
M
Fig. N69 : Circuit-breaker and contactor mounted side by side
Fig. N70 : Circuit-breaker and contactor mounted separately
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Choice of instantaneous magnetic-trip relay for the circuitbreaker
The operating threshold must never be less than 12 In for this relay, in order to avoid
unexpected tripping due to the first current peak during motor starting.
Complementary protections
Complementary protections are:
b Thermal sensors in the motor (windings, bearings, cooling-air ducts, etc.)
b Multifunction protections (association of functions)
b Insulation-failure detection devices on running or stationary motor
Thermal sensors
Thermal sensors are used to detect abnormal temperature rise in the motor by direct
measurement. The thermal sensors are generally embedded in the stator windings
(for LV motors), the signal being processed by an associated control device acting to
trip the contactor or the circuit-breaker (see Fig. N71).
Fig. N71 : Overheating protection by thermal sensors
Mutifunction motor protection relay
The multifunction relay, associated with a number of sensors and indication modules,
provides protection for motor and also for some functions, protection of the driven
machine such as:
b Thermal overload
b Stalled rotor, or starting period too long
b Overheating
b Unbalanced phase current, loss of one phase, inverse rotation
b Earth fault (by RCD)
b Running at no-load, blocked rotor on starting
Preventive protection of stationary motors
This protection concerns the monitoring of the insulation resistance level of a
stationary motor, thereby avoiding the undesirable consequences of insulation failure
during operation such as:
b Failure to start or to perform correctly for motor used on emergency systems
b Loss of production
This type of protection is essential for emergency systems motors, especially when
installed in humid and/or dusty locations. Such protection avoids the destruction of
a motor by short-circuit to earth during starting (one of the most frequently-occuring
incidents) by giving a warning informing that maintenance work is necessary to
restore the motor to a satisfactory operationnal condition.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N53
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
The avantages are essentially:
b A comprehensive protection, providing a reliable, high performance and permanent
monitoring/control function
b Efficient monitoring of all motor-operating schedules
b Alarm and control indications
b Possibility of communication via communication buses
Example: Telemecanique LT6 relay with permanent monitoring/control function
and communication by bus, or multifunction control unit LUCM and communication
module for TeSys model U.
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
Example of application:
Motors driving pumps for “sprinklers” fire-protection systems or irrigation pumps for
seasonal operation.
A Vigilohm SN21 (Merlin Gerin) monitors the insulation of a motor, and signals
audibly and visually any abnormal reduction of the insulation resistance level.
Furthermore, this relay can prevent any attempt to start the motor, if necessary
(see Fig. N72).
SM21
M E R LIN G E R IN
SM20
IN
OUT
Fig. N72 : Preventive protection of stationary motors
Limitative protections
Residual current diffential protective devices (RCDs) can be very sensitive and
detect low values of leakage current which occur when the insulation to earth of an
installation deteriorates (by physical damage, contamination, excessive humidity,
and so on). Some versions of RCDs, with dry contacts, specially designed for such
applications, provide the following:
b To avoid the destruction of a motor (by perforation and short-circuiting of the
laminations of the stator) caused by an eventual arcing fault to earth. This protection
can detect incipient fault conditions by operating at leakage currents in the range of
300 mA to 30 A, according to the size of the motor (approx sensitivity: 5% In)
b To reduce the risk of fire: sensitivity y 500 mA
N54
For example, RH99M relay (Merlin Gerin) provides (see Fig. N73):
b 5 sensitivities (0.3; 1; 3; 10; 30 A)
b Possibility of discrimination or to take account of particular operation by virtue of 3
possible time delays (0, 90, 250 ms)
b Automatic breaking if the circuit from the current transformer to the relay is broken
b Protection against unwanted trippings
b Protection against DC leakage currents (type A RCD)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
RH99M
M E R LIN G E R IN
Fig. N73 : Example using relay RH99M
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
N - Characteristics of particular sources and loads
5 Asynchronous motors
The importance of limiting the voltage drop at the motor terminals during
start-up
In order to have a motor starting and accelerating to its normal speed in the
appropriate time, the torque of the motor must exceed the load torque by at least
70%. However, the starting current is much higher than the full-load current of
the motor. As a result, if the voltage drop is very high, the motor torque will be
excessively reduced (motor torque is proportional to U2) and it will result, for extreme
case, in failure to start.
Example:
b With 400 V maintained at the terminals of a motor, its torque would be 2.1 times
that of the load torque
b For a voltage drop of 10% during start-up, the motor torque would be
2.1 x 0.92 = 1.7 times the load torque, and the motor would accelerate to its rated
speed normally
b For a voltage drop of 15% during start-up, the motor torque would be
2.1 x 0.852 = 1.5 times the load torque, so that the motor starting time would
be longer than normal
In general, a maximum allowable voltage drop of 10% is recommended during
start-up of the motor.
5.4 Maximum rating of motors installed for
consumers supplied at LV
The disturbances caused on LV distribution networks during the start-up of large
direct-on-line AC motors can cause considerable nuisance to neighbouring
consumers, so that most power-supply utilities have strict rules intended to limit such
disturbances to tolerable levels. The amount of disturbance created by a given motor
depends on the “strength” of the network, i.e. on the short-circuit fault level at the
point concerned. The higher the fault level, the “stronger” the system and the lower
the disturbance (principally voltage drop) experienced by neibouring consumers. For
distribution networks in many countries, typical values of maximum allowable starting
currents and corresponding maximum power ratings for direct-on-line motors are
shown in Figures N74 and N75 below.
Type of motor
Location
Single phase
Dwellings
Others
Dwellings
Others
Three phase
Maximum starting current (A)
Overhead-line network Underground-cable network
45
45
100
200
60
60
125
250
Fig. N74 : Maximum permitted values of starting current for direct-on-line LV motors (230/400 V)
N55
Location
Dwellings
Others Overhead
line network
Underground
cable network
Type of motor
Single phase 230 V
(kW)
1.4
3
Three phase 400 V
Direct-on-line starting
at full load (kW)
5.5
11
Other methods
of starting (kW)
11
22
5.5
22
45
Since, even in areas supplied by one power utility only, “weak” areas of the network
exist as well as “strong” areas, it is always advisable to secure the agreement of the
power supplier before acquiring the motors for a new project.
Other (but generally more costly) alternative starting arrangements exist, which
reduce the large starting currents of direct-on-line motors to acceptable levels; for
example, star-delta starters, slip-ring motor, “soft start” electronic devices, etc.
5.5 Reactive-energy compensation (power-factor
correction)
The method to correct the power factor is indicated in chapter L.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. N75 : Maximum permitted power ratings for LV direct-on-line starting motors
Chapter P
Residential and other special
locations
Contents
1
Residential and similar premises
P2
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
P2
P2
P4
P6
P7
2
Bathrooms and showers
P8
2.1 Classification of zones
2.2 Equipotential bonding
2.3 Requirements prescribed for each zone
P8
P11
P11
3
Recommendations applicable to special installations
and locations
P12
General
Distribution boards components
Protection of people
Circuits
Protection against overvoltages and lightning
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
P1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P - Residential and other special locations
1 Residential and similar premises
1.1 General
Electrical installations for residential premises
need a high standard of safety and reliability
Related standards
Most countries have national regulations and-or standards governing the rules
to be strictly observed in the design and realization of electrical installations for
residential and similar premises. The relevant international standard is the publication
IEC 60364.
The power distribution utility connects the LV
neutral point to its MV/LV distribution tranformer
to earth.
All LV installations must be protected by RCDs.
All exposed conductive parts must be bonded
together and connected to the earth.
The power network
The vast majority of power distribution utilities connect the low voltage neutral point
of their MV/LV distribution transformers to earth.
The protection of persons against electric shock therefore depends, in such case, on
the principle discussed in chapter F. The measures required depend on whether the
TT, TN or IT scheme of earthing is adopted.
RCDs are essential for TT and IT earthed installations. For TN installations, high
speed overcurrent devices or RCDs may provide protection against direct contact
of the electrical circuits. To extend the protection to flexible leads beyond the fixed
socket outlets and to ensure protection against fires of electrical origin RCDs shall
be installed.
The quality of electrical equipment used in
residential premises is commonly ensured by a
mark of conformity situated on the front of each
item
1.2 Distribution boards components (see Fig. P1)
Distribution boards (generally only one in residential premises) usually include
the meter(s) and in some cases (notably where the supply utilities impose a TT
earthing system and/or tariff conditions which limit the maximum permitted current
consumption) an incoming supply differential circuit-breaker which includes an
overcurrent trip. This circuit-breaker is freely accessible to the consumer.
Enclosure
Service connection
Distribution board
Lightning protection
Incoming-supply
circuit breaker
Combi surge arrester
Overcurrent
protection
and isolation
P2
Protection against
direct and indirect
contact,
and protection
against fire
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Remote control
MCB phase and neutral
Differential
MCB
Differential load
switch
Remote control switch
TL 16 A
Energy management
Programmable thermostat
THP
Load shedding switch
CDSt
Programmable time switch
IHP
Contactors, off-peak
or manual control CT
Fig. P1 : Presentation of realizable functions on a consumer unit
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P - Residential and other special locations
1 Residential and similar premises
On installations which are TN earthed, the supply utilities usually protect the
installation simply by means of sealed fuse cut-outs immediately upstream of the
meter(s) (see Fig. P2). The consumer has no access to these fuses.
Meter
Fuse …
or …
Circuit breaker
depending on
earthing system
Distribution
board
Fig. P2 : Components of a control and distribution board
The incoming supply circuit-breaker (see Fig. P3)
Fig. P3 : Incoming-supply circuit-breaker
The consumer is allowed to operate this CB if necessary (e.g to reclose it if the
current consumption has exceeded the authorized limit; to open it in case of
emergency or for isolation purposes).
The rated residual current of the incoming circuit-breaker in the earth leakage
protection shall be 300 mA.
If the installation is TT, the earth electrode resistance shall be less than
50 V
166 .. In practice, the earth electrode resistance of a new installation
300 mA
R
( )..
shall be less than 80 Ω
2
R
The control and distribution board (consumer unit) (see Fig. P4)
This board comprises:
b A control panel for mounting (where appropriate) the incoming supply circuitbreaker and other control auxiliaries, as required
b A distribution panel for housing 1, 2 or 3 rows (of 24 multi 9 units) or similar MCBs
or fuse units, etc.
b Installation accessories for fixing conductors, and rails for mounting MCBs, fuses
bases, etc, neutral busbar and earthing bar, and so on
b Service cable ducts or conduits, surface mounted or in cable chases embedded in
the wall
Note: to facilitate future modifications to the installation, it is recommended to keep
all relevant documents (photos, diagrams, characteristics, etc.) in a suitable location
close to the distribution board.
The board should be installed at a height such that the operating handles,
indicating dials (of meters) etc., are between 1 metre and 1.80 metres from the floor
(1.30 metres in situations where handicapped or elderly people are concerned).
Fig. P4 : Control and distribution board
Lightning arresters
The installation of lightning arresters at the service position of a LV installation is
strongly recommended for installations which include sensitive (e.g electronic)
equipment.
P3
Resistance value of the earth electrode
In the case where the resistance to earth exceeds 80 Ω, one or several 30 mA RCDs
should be used in place of the earth leakage protection of the incoming supply
circuit-breaker.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
If, in a TT scheme, the value of 80 Ω for the
resistance of the electrode can not be met then,
30 mA RCDs must be installed to take over the
function of the earth leakage protection of the
incoming supply circuit-breaker
These devices must automatically disconnect themselves from the installation in
case of failure or be protected by a MCB. In the case of residential installations, the
use of a 300 mA differential incoming supply circuit-breaker type S (i.e slightly timedelayed) will provide effective earth leakage protection, while, at the same time, will
not trip unnecessarily each time a lightning arrester discharges the current (of an
overvoltage-surge) to earth.
P - Residential and other special locations
1 Residential and similar premises
Where utility power supply systems and
consumers’ installations form a TT earthed
system, the governing standards impose the use
of RCDs to ensure the protection of persons
1.3 Protection of people
On TT earthed systems, the protection of persons is ensured by the following
measures:
b Protection against indirect contact hazards by RCDs (see Fig. P5) of medium
sensitivity (300 mA) at the origin of the installation (incorporated in the incoming
supply circuit-breaker or, on the incoming feed to the distribution board). This
measure is associated with a consumer installed earth electrode to which must be
connected the protective earth conductor (PE) from the exposed conductive parts of
all class I insulated appliances and equipment, as well as those from the earthing
pins of all socket outlets
b When the CB at the origin of an installation has no RCD protection, the protection
of persons shall be ensured by class II level of insulation on all circuits upstream
of the first RCDs. In the case where the distribution board is metallic, care shall be
taken that all live parts are double insulated (supplementary clearances or insulation,
use of covers, etc.) and wiring reliably fixed
b Obligatory protection by 30 mA sensitive RCDs of socket outlet circuits, and
circuits feeding bathroom, laundry rooms, and so on (for details of this latter
obligation, refer to clause 3 of this chapter)
300 mA
30 mA
Diverse
circuits
Socket-outlets
circuit
30 mA
Bathroom and/or
shower room
Fig. P5 : Installation with incoming-supply circuit-breaker having instantaneous differential
protection
Incoming supply circuit-breaker with instantaneous differential
relay
P4
In this case:
b An insulation fault to earth could result in a shutdown of the entire installation
b Where a lightning arrester is installed, its operation (i.e. discharging a voltage
surge to earth) could appear to an RCD as an earth fault, with a consequent
shutdown of the installation
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Recommendation of suitable Merlin Gerin components
b Incoming supply circuit-breaker with 300 mA differential and
b High sensitivity 30 mA RCD (for example differential circuit-breaker 1P + N type
Declic Vigi) on the circuits supplying socket outlets
b High sensitivity 30 mA RCD (for example differential load switch type ID’clic) on
circuits to bathrooms, shower rooms, laundry rooms, etc. (lighting, heating, socket
outlets)
Incoming supply circuit-breaker with type S time delayed
differential relay
This type of CB affords protection against fault to earth, but by virtue of a short time
delay, provides a measure of discrimination with downstream instantaneous RCDs.
Tripping of the incoming supply CB and its consequences (on deep freezers, for
example) is thereby made less probable in the event of lightning, or other causes of
voltage surges. The discharge of voltage surge current to earth, through the surge
arrester, will leave the type S circuit-breaker unaffected.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P - Residential and other special locations
1 Residential and similar premises
Recommendation of suitable Merlin Gerin components (see Fig. P6)
b Incoming supply circuit-breaker with 300 mA differential type S and
b High sensitivity 30 mA RCD (for example differential circuit-breaker 1P + N type
Declic Vigi) on the circuits supplying washing machines and dish-washing machine
b High sensitivity 30 mA RCD (for example differential load switch type ID’clic) on
circuits to bathrooms, shower rooms, laundry rooms, etc. (lighting, heating, socket
outlets)
300 mA - type S
30 mA
30 mA
30 mA
1
Diverse High-risk location Socketoutlet
circuits (laundry room)
circuit
2
Bathroom and/or
shower room
Fig. P6 : Installation with incoming-supply circuit-breaker having short time delay differential
protection, type S
Incoming supply circuit-breaker without differential protection
5
300 mA
3
4
30 mA
30 mA
30 mA
Socket-outlet
circuit
Diverse
circuits
High-risk circuit
(dish-washing
machine)
Fig. P7 : Installation with incoming-supply circuit-breaker
having no differential protection
Recommendation of suitable Merlin Gerin components
Figure P7 refers:
1. Incoming-supply circuit-breaker without differential protection
2. Automatic disconnection device (if a lightning arrester is installed)
3. 30 mA RCD (for example differential circuit-breaker 1P + N type Declic Vigi) on
each circuit supplying one or more socket-outlets
4. 30 mA RCD (for example differential load swith type ID’clic) on circuits to
bathrooms and shower rooms (lighting, heating and socket-outlets) or a 30 mA
differential circuit-breaker per circuit
5. 300 mA RCD (for example differential load swith) on all the other circuits
P5
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Bathroom and/or
shower room
In this case the protection of persons must be ensured by:
b Class II level of insulation up to the downstream terminals of the RCDs
b All outgoing circuits from the distribution board must be protected by 30 mA or
300 mA RCDs according to the type of circuit concerned as discussed in chapter F.
Where a voltage surge arrester is installed upstream of the distribution board
(to protect sensitive electronic equipment such as microprocessors, videocassette recorders, TV sets, electronic cash registers, etc.) it is imperative that the
device automatically disconnects itself from the installation following a rare (but
always possible) failure. Some devices employ replaceable fusing elements; the
recommended method however as shown in Figure P7, is to use a circuit-breaker.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P - Residential and other special locations
1 Residential and similar premises
The distribution and division of circuits provides
comfort and facilitates rapid location of fault
1.4 Circuits
Subdivision
National standards commonly recommend the subdivision of circuits according to the
number of utilization categories in the installation concerned (see Fig. P8):
b At least 1 circuit for lighting. Each circuit supplying a maximum of 8 lighting points
b At least 1 circuit for socket-outlets rated 10/16 A, each circuit supplying a maximum
of 8 sockets. These sockets may be single or double units (a double unit is made up
of two 10/16 A sockets mounted on a common base in an embedded box, identical
to that of a single unit
b 1 circuit for each appliance such as water heater, washing machine, dish-washing
machine, cooker, refrigerator, etc. Recommended numbers of 10/16 A (or similar)
socket-outlets and fixed lighting points, according to the use for which the various
rooms of a dwelling are intended, are indicated in Figure P9
Room function
Socketoutlets
Lighting
Heating
Washing Cooking
machine apparatus
Fig. P8 : Circuit division according to utilization
The inclusion of a protective conductor in all
circuits is required by IEC and most national
standards
Minimum number
of fixed lighting points
1
1
Minimum number
of 10/16 A socket-outlets
5
3
Living room
Bedroom, lounge,
bureau, dining room
Kitchen
2
4 (1)
Bathroom, shower room
2
1 or 2
Entrance hall, box room
1
1
WC, storage space
1
Laundry room
1
(1) Of which 2 above the working surface and 1 for a specialized circuit: in addition
an independent socket-outlet of 16 A or 20 A for a cooker and a junction box or
socket-outlet for a 32 A specialized circuit
Fig P9 : Recommended minimum number of lighting and power points in residential premises
Protective conductors
IEC and most national standards require that each circuit includes a protective
conductor. This practice is strongly recommended where class I insulated appliances
and equipment are installed, which is the general case.
The protective conductors must connect the earthing-pin contact in each socketoutlet, and the earthing terminal in class I equipment, to the main earthing terminal
at the origin of the installation.
Furthermore, 10/16 A (or similarly sized) socket-outlets must be provided with
shuttered contact orifices.
Cross-sectional-area (c.s.a.) of conductors (see Fig. P10)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
P6
The c.s.a. of conductors and the rated current of the associated protective device
depend on the current magnitude of the circuit, the ambient temperature, the kind of
installation, and the influence of neighbouring circuits (refer to chapter G)
Moreover, the conductors for the phase wires, the neutral and the protective
conductors of a given circuit must all be of equal c.s.a. (assuming the same material
for the conductors concerned, i.e. all copper or all aluminium).
Fig. P10 : Circuit-breaker 1 phase + N - 2 x 9 mm spaces
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P - Residential and other special locations
1 Residential and similar premises
Figure P11 indicates the c.s.a. required for commonly-used appliances
Protective devices 1 phase + N in 2 x 9 mm spaces comply with requirements for
isolation, and for marking of circuit current rating and conductor sizes.
Type of circuit
single-phase 230 V
1 ph + N or 1 ph + N + PE
Fixed lighting
c. s. a. of the
conductors
Maximum power
Protective device
1.5 mm2
(2.5 mm2)
2,300 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
16 A
10 A
10/16 A
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
Dish-washing machine
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
Clothes-washing machine
2.5 mm2
(4 mm2)
4,600 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
25 A
20 A
Cooker or hotplate (1)
6 mm2
(10 mm2)
7,300 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
40 A
32 A
Electric space heater
1.5 mm2
(2.5 mm2)
2,300 W
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
16 A
10 A
Individual-load circuits
Water heater
(1) In a 230/400 V 3-phase circuit, the c. s. a. is 4 mm2 for copper or 6 mm2 for aluminium, and protection is provided by a 32 A
circuit-breaker or by 25 A fuses.
Fig. P11 : C. s. a. of conductors and current rating of the protective devices in residential installations (the c. s. a. of aluminium conductors are shown in brackets)
1.5 Protection against overvoltages and lightning
The choice of surge arrester is described in chapter J
Installation rules
Three principal rules must be respected:
1 - It is imperative that the three lengths of cable used for the installation of the surge
arrester each be less than 50 cm i.e.:
b the live conductors connected to the isolating switch
b from the isolating switch to the surge arrester
b from the surge arrester to the main distribution board (MDB) earth bar (not
to be confused with the main protective-earth (PE) conductor or the main earth
terminal for the installation.The MDB earth bar must evidently be located in the
same cabinet as the surge arrester.
P7
3 - In the interest of a good continuity of supply it is recommended that the
circuit-breaker be of the time-delayed or selective type.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
2 - It is necessary to use an isolating switch of a type recommended by the
manufacturer of the surge arrester.
P - Residential and other special locations
2 Bathrooms and showers
Bathrooms and showers rooms are areas of high risk, because of the very low
resistance of the human body when wet or immersed in water.
Precaution to be taken are therefore correspondingly rigorous, and the regulations
are more severe than those for most other locations.
The relevant standard is IEC 60364-7-701.
Precautions to observe are based on three aspects:
b The definition of zones, numbered 0,1, 2, 3 in which the placement (or exclusion)
of any electrical device is strictly limited or forbidden and, where permitted, the
electrical and mechanical protection is prescribed
b The establishment of an equipotential bond between all exposed and extraneous
metal parts in the zones concerned
b The strict adherence to the requirements prescribed for each particular zones, as
tabled in clause 3
2.1 Classification of zones
Sub-clause 701.32 of IEC 60364-7-701 defines the zones 0, 1, 2, 3 as shown in the
following diagrams (see Fig. P12 below to Fig P18 opposite and next pages):
Zone 1*
Zone 1*
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 0
Zone 2
Zone 0
0.60 m
2.40 m
2.40 m
0.60 m
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
2.25 m
Zone 1
Zone 0
0.60 m
P8
Zone 3
2.40 m
(*) Zone 1 is above the bath as shown in the vertical cross-section
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. P12 : Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3 in proximity to a bath-tub
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 Bathrooms and showers
Zone 0
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 0
Zone 1
Zone 3
Zone 2
Zone 3
2.40 m
0.60 m
2.40 m
0.60 m
Zone 1
Zone 3
Zone 2
2.25 m
Zone 1
Zone 0
2.40 m
0.60 m
Fig. P13 : Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3 in proximity of a shower with basin
Fixed shower
head (1)
Fixed shower
head (1)
0.60 m
Zone 1
0.60 m
Zone 2
0.60 m
Zone 1
0.60 m
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 1
2.40 m
Zone
2
2.40 m
Zone 3
Zone 3
2.25 m
(1) When the shower head is at the end of a flexible tube, the vertical central axis of
a zone passes through the fixed end of the flexible tube
Fig. P14 : Zones 0, 1, 2 and 3 in proximity of a shower without basin
P9
0.60 m
0.60 m
Fig. P15 : No switch or socket-outlet is permitted within 60 cm of the door opening of a shower
cabinet
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Prefabricated
shower
cabinet
P - Residential and other special locations
2 Bathrooms and showers
Classes
of external
influences
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
Classes
of external
influences
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
Zone 3
Dressing cubicles (zone 2)
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3
AD 3
WC BB 2
BC 3
Shower cabinets (zone 1)
Fig. P16 : Individual showers with dressing cubicles
Classes
of external
influences
Classes
of external
influences
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
Dressing cubicles
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3
Zone 2
Zone 1
WC
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
Fig. P17 : Individual showers with separate individual dressing cubicles
Classes
of external
influences
Classes
of external
influences
AD 3
BB 2
BC 3
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
h < 1.10m
AD 5
1.10m < h < 2.25m
AD 3
BB 3
BC 3
Dressing room
Zone 2
Zone 2
Zone 1
AD 7
BB 3
BC 3
P10
Fig. P18 : Communal showers and common dressing room
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Note: Classes of external influences (see Fig. E46).
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
2 Bathrooms and showers
2.2 Equipotential bonding (see Fig. P19)
To the earth
electrode
Metallic pipes
hi 2m
Water-drainage
piping
Socket-outlet
Gaz
Radiator
Lighting
Metal bath
Equipotential conductors
for a bathroom
Metal
door-frame
Fig. P19 : Supplementary equipotential bonding in a bathroom
2.3 Requirements prescribed for each zone
The table of clause 3 describes the application of the principles mentioned in the
foregoing text and in other similar or related cases
P11
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
P - Residential and other special locations
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
P - Residential and other special locations
3 Recommendations applicable to
special installations and locations
Figure P20 below summarizes the main requirements prescribed in many national
and international standards.
Note: Section in brackets refer to sections of IEC 60364-7
Locations
Protection principles
IP
level
20
Domestic dwellings
and other habitations
Bathrooms or shower
rooms (section 701)
Zone 0
b TT or TN-S systems
b Differential protection
v 300 mA if the earth electrode
resistance is y 80 ohms instantaneous
or short time delay (type S)
v 30 mA if the earth electrode
resistance is u 500 ohms
b surge arrester at the origin of the
installation if
v supply is from overhead line with bare
conductors, and if
v the keraunic level > 25
b a protective earth (PE) conductor
on all circuits
Supplementary equipotential bonding
in zones 0, 1, 2 and 3
SELV 12 V only
27
Zone 1
SELV 12 V
25
Zone 2
SELV 12 V or 30 mA RCD
24
Zone 3
Swimming baths
(section 702)
Zone 0
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
P12
Wiring
and cables
28
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Zone 2
22
(indoor)
24
(outdoor)
24
Class II
44
Special appliances
Special aplliances
Water heater
Special appliances
Water heater
Class II luminaires
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
Class II
limited to
strict minimum
25
Conventional voltage limit UL
reduced to 25 V
Conventional voltage limit UL
reduced to 25 V
Protection against fire risks
by 500 mA RCDs
Installation
materials
Only socket-outlets protected by :
b 30 mA RCD or
b Electrical separation or
b SELV 50 V
Zone 1
Saunas
(section 703)
Work sites
(section 704)
Agricultural and
horticultural
establishments
(section 705)
Restricted conductive
locations (section 706)
Socket-outlets
Switch operating handles Protection by
and similar devices on
30 mA RCDs
distribution panels,
to be mounted
between 1 metre and
1.80 metre above the floor
21
Supplementary equipotential bonding
in zones 0, 1, and 2
SELV 12 V
Switchgear
Special appliances
Special appliances
Only socket-outlets protected by :
b 30 mA RCD or
b electrical separation or
b SELV 50 V
Mechanically
protected
35
2x
Fig. P20 : Main requirements prescribed in many national and international standards (continued on opposite page)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Adapted to temperature
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Protection of:
b Portable tools by:
v SELV or
v Electrical separation
b Hand-held lamps
v By SELV
b Fixed equipement by
v SELV
v Electrical separation
v 30 mA RCDs
v Special supplementary
equipotential bonding
P - Residential and other special locations
3 Recommendations applicable to
special installations and locations
Locations
Protection principles
Fountains
(section 702)
Protection by 30 mA RCDs and
equipotential bonding of all exposed
and extraneous conductive parts
TN-S system recommended
TT system if leakage current is limited.
Protective conductor 10 mm2 minimum
in aluminium. Smaller sizes (in copper)
must be doubled.
Data processing
(section 707)
Caravan park
(section 708)
Marinas and pleasure
craft (section 709)
The cable length for connection to
pleasure craft must not exceeded 25 m
Medical locations
Group 2 : Operating
theatres and similar
(section 710)
IT medical system equipotential
grouding, limited to one operating
theatre and not exceeding 10 kVA
Medical locations
Group 1 :
Hospitalization and
similar (section 710)
Exhibitions, shows and
stands (section 711)
Balneotherapy
(cure-centre baths)
TT or TNS
Motor-fuel filling
stations
Motor vehicules
TT or TN-S systems
IP
level
Wiring
and cables
55
Flexible cable of
25 metres
length
Switchgear
Only magnetic
protection for the
primary of LV/LV
transformer. Monitoring
of secondary loads
and transformer
temperature
Socket-outlets
Installation
materials
Socket-outlets
shall be placed
at a height of
0.80 m to 1.50 m
from the ground.
Protection of
circuits by
30 mA RCDs
(one per 6
socket-outlets)
Protection of
circuits by
30 mA RCDs
(one per 6
socket-outlets)
Protection of circuits
by thermal-magnetic
protection only. One
to three per circuit.
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
4x
Individual: see section 701
(volumes 0 and 1)
Collective: see section 702
(volumes 0 and 1)
Explosion risks in security zones
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
Limited to the
necessary minimum
Protection by RCDs or by
electrical separation
External lighting
installations
(section 714)
Mobile or transportable The use of TN-C system is not
units (section 717)
permitted inside any unit
23
Protection by
30 mA RCDs
30 mA RCDs
must be used for
all socket-outlets
supplying
equipment
outside the unit
P13
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. P20 : Main requirements prescribed in many national and international standards (concluded)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Chapter Q
EMC guidelines
Contents
1
2
3
Electrical distribution
Q2
Earthing principles and structures
Q3
Implementation
Q5
3.1 Equipotential bonding inside and outside buildings
3.2 Improving equipotential conditions
3.3 Separating cables
3.4 False loor
3.5 Cable running
3.6 Implementation of shielded cables
3.7 Communication networks
3.8 Implementation of surge arrestors
3.9 Cabinet cabling
3.10 Standards
Q5
Q5
Q7
Q7
Q8
Q11
Q11
Q12
Q15
Q15
4
Coupling mechanisms and counter-measures
Q16
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
Q16
Q17
Q18
Q19
Q20
5
Wiring recommendations
Q22
5.1 Signal classes
5.2 Wiring recommendations
Q22
Q22
General
Common-mode impedance coupling
Capacitive coupling
Inductive coupling
Radiated coupling
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q1
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
1 Electrical distribution
The system earthing arrangement must be properly selected to ensure the
safety of life and property. The behaviour of the different systems with respect
to EMC considerations must be taken into account. Figure Q1 below presents a
summary of their main characteristics.
European standards (see EN 50174-2 § 6.4 and EN 50310 § 6.3) recommend the
TN-S system which causes the fewest EMC problems for installations comprising
information-technology equipment (including telecom equipment).
Safety of persons
Safety of property
Availability of energy
EMC behaviour
TT
Good
RCD mandatory
Good
Medium fault current
(< a few dozen amperes)
Good
Good
- Risk of overvoltages
- Equipotential
problems
- Need to manage
devices with high
leakage currents
TN-S
IT
TN-C
Good
Continuity of the PE conductor must be ensured throughout the installation
Poor
Good
Poor
Low current for irst fault High fault current
High fault current
(around 1 kA)
(< a few dozen mA),
(around 1 kA)
but high for second fault
Good
Excellent
Good
Excellent
Poor (to be avoided)
Poor
(should never be used)
- Few equipotential
- Risk of overvoltages
problems
- Common-mode ilters - Neutral and PE are
- Need to manage
and surge arrestors
the same
devices with high
must handle the phase- - Circulation of disturbed
leakage currents
to-phase voltages
currents in exposed
- High fault currents
- RCDs subject to
conductive parts (high
(transient disturbances) nuisance tripping if
magnetic-ield radiation)
common-mode
- High fault currents
capacitors are present (transient disturbances)
- Equivalent to
TN system for second
fault
Fig. Q1 : Main characteristics of system earthing
When an installation includes high-power equipment (motors, air-conditioning, lifts,
power electronics, etc.), it is advised to install one or more transformers speciically
for these systems. Electrical distribution must be organised in a star system and all
outgoing circuits must exit the main low-voltage switchboard (MLVS).
Electronic systems (control/monitoring, regulation, measurement instruments, etc.)
must be supplied by a dedicated transformer in a TN-S system.
Figure Q2 below illustrate these recommendations.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Lighting
Q2
Disturbing Sensitive
devices
devices
Disturbing Sensitive
devices
devices
Not recommended
Preferable
Fig. Q2 : Recommendations of separated distributions
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Air conditioning
Transformer
Disturbing
devices
Sensitive
devices
Excellent
2 Earthing principles and
structures
This section deals with the earthing and equipotential bonding of information-technology
devices and other similar devices requiring interconnections for signalling purposes.
Earthing networks are designed to fulil a number of functions. They can be
independent or operate together to provide one or more of the following:
b Safety of persons with respect to electrical hazards
b Protection of equipment with respect to electrical hazards
b A reference value for reliable, high-quality signals
b Satisfactory EMC performance
The system earthing arrangement is generally designed and installed in view of
obtaining a low impedance capable of diverting fault currents and HF currents away
from electronic devices and systems. There are different types of system earthing
arrangements and some require that speciic conditions be met. These conditions
are not always met in typical installations. The recommendations presented in this
section are intended for such installations.
For professional and industrial installations, a common bonding network (CBN) may
be useful to ensure better EMC performance with respect to the following points:
b Digital systems and new technologies
b Compliance with the EMC requirements of EEC 89/336 (emission and immunity)
b The wide number of electrical applications
b A high level of system safety and security, as well as reliability and/or availability
For residential premises, however, where the use of electrical devices is limited, an
isolated bonding network (IBN) or, even better, a mesh IBN may be a solution.
It is now recognised that independent, dedicated earth electrodes, each serving a
separate earthing network, are a solution that is not acceptable in terms of EMC,
but also represent a serious safety hazard. In certain countries, the national building
codes forbid such systems.
Use of a separate “clean” earthing network for electronics and a “dirty” earthing
network for energy is not recommended in view of obtaining correct EMC, even
when a single electrode is used (see Fig. Q3 and Fig. Q4). In the event of a lightning
strike, a fault current or HF disturbances as well as transient currents will low in the
installation. Consequently, transient voltages will be created and result in failures or
damage to the installation. If installation and maintenance are carried out properly,
this approach may be dependable (at power frequencies), but it is generally not
suitable for EMC purposes and is not recommended for general use.
Surge arrestors
"Clean"
earthing network
Electrical
earthing network
Separate earth electrodes
Q3
Fig. Q3 : Independent earth electrodes, a solution generally not acceptable for safety and EMC
reasons
Surge arrestors
"Clean"
earthing network
Electrical
earthing network
Single earth electrode
Fig. Q4 : Installation with a single earth electrode
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© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Q - EMC guidelines
2 Earthing principles and
structures
The recommended coniguration for the earthing network and electrodes is two or
three dimensional (see Fig. Q5). This approach is advised for general use, both
in terms of safety and EMC. This recommendation does not exclude other special
conigurations that, when correctly maintained, are also suitable.
Equipotential bonding required for
multi-level buildings
Surge arrestors
"Electrical" and "communication"
earthing as needed
Multiple interconnected earth electrodes
Fig. Q5 : Installation with multiple earth electrodes
In a typical installation for a multi-level building, each level should have its
own earthing network (generally a mesh) and all the networks must be both
interconnected and connected to the earth electrode. At least two connections are
required (built in redundancy) to ensure that, if one conductor breaks, no section of
the earthing network is isolated.
Practically speaking, more than two connections are made to obtain better symmetry
in current low, thus reducing differences in voltage and the overall impedance
between the various levels in the building.
The many parallel paths have different resonance frequencies. If one path has a high
impedance, it is most probably shunted by another path with a different resonance
frequency. On the whole, over a wide frequency spectrum (dozens of Hz and MHz), a
large number of paths results in a low-impedance system (see Fig. Q6).
Fig. Q6 : Each level has a mesh and the meshes are
interconnected at several points between levels. Certain
ground-floor meshes are reinforced to meet the needs of
certain areas
Each room in the building should have earthing-network conductors for equipotential
bonding of devices and systems, cableways, trunking systems and structures. This
system can be reinforced by connecting metal pipes, gutters, supports, frames, etc.
In certain special cases, such as control rooms or computers installed on false loors,
ground reference plane or earthing strips in areas for electronic systems can be used
to improve earthing of sensitive devices and protection interconnection cables.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q4
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Implementation
3.1 Equipotential bonding inside and outside
buildings
The fundamental goals of earthing and bonding are the following:
b Safety
By limiting the touch voltage and the return path of fault currents
b EMC
By avoiding differences in potential and providing a screening effect.
Stray currents are inevitably propagated in an earthing network. It is impossible to
eliminate all the sources of disturbances for a site. Earth loops are also inevitable.
When a magnetic ield affects a site, e.g. the ield created by lightning, differences in
potential are created in the loops formed by the various conductors and the currents
lowing in the earthing system. Consequently, the earthing network is directly
affected by any counter-measures taken outside the building.
As long as the currents low in the earthing system and not in the electronic circuits,
they do no damage. However, when earthing networks are not equipotential, e.g.
when they are star connected to the earth electrode, the HF stray currents will low
wherever they can, including in control wires. Equipment can be disturbed, damaged
or even destroyed.
The only inexpensive means to divide the currents in an earthing system and
maintain satisfactory equipotential characteristics is to interconnect the earthing
networks. This contributes to better equipotential bonding within the earthing
system, but does not remove the need for protective conductors. To meet legal
requirements in terms of the safety of persons, suficiently sized and identiied
protective conductors must remain in place between each piece of equipment and
the earthing terminal. What is more, with the possible exception of a building with a
steel structure, a large number of conductors for the surge-arrestor or the lightningprotection network must be directly connected to the earth electrode.
The fundamental difference between a protective conductor (PE) and a surgearrestor down-lead is that the irst conducts internal currents to the neutral of the
MV/LV transformer whereas the second carries external current (from outside the
installation) to the earth electrode.
In a building, it is advised to connect an earthing network to all accessible conducting
structures, namely metal beams and door frames, pipes, etc. It is generally suficient
to connect metal trunking, cable trays and lintels, pipes, ventilation ducts, etc. at
as many points as possible. In places where there is a large amount of equipment
and the size of the mesh in the bonding network is greater than four metres, an
equipotential conductor should be added. The size and type of conductor are not of
critical importance.
It is imperative to interconnect the earthing networks of buildings that have shared
cable connections. Interconnection of the earthing networks must take place via a
number of conductors and all the internal metal structures of the buildings or linking
the buildings (on the condition that they are not interrupted).
In a given building, the various earthing networks (electronics, computing, telecom,
etc.) must be interconnected to form a single equipotential bonding network.
This earthing-network must be as meshed as possible. If the earthing network is
equipotential, the differences in potential between communicating devices will be low
and a large number of EMC problems disappear. Differences in potential are also
reduced in the event of insulation faults or lightning strikes.
If equipotential conditions between buildings cannot be achieved or if the distance
between buildings is greater than ten metres, it is highly recommended to use
optical ibre for communication links and galvanic insulators for measurement and
communication systems.
Q5
These measures are mandatory if the electrical supply system uses the IT or
TN-C system.
3.2 Improving equipotential conditions
Bonding networks
Even though the ideal bonding network would be made of sheet metal or a ine
mesh, experience has shown that for most disturbances, a three-metre mesh size is
suficient to create a mesh bonding network.
Examples of different bonding networks are shown in Figure Q7 next page. The
minimum recommended structure comprises a conductor (e.g. copper cable or strip)
surrounding the room.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
Mesh BN
IBN
PE
Mesh BN
Mesh IBN
Local mesh
Local mesh
IBN
Trunk
Tree structure
IBN
Star (IBN)
CBN
BN: Bonding network
CBN: Common bonding network
IBN: Isolated bonding network
Fig. Q7 : Examples of bonding networks
The length of connections between a structural element and the bonding network
does not exceed 50 centimetres and an additional connection should be installed
in parallel at a certain distance from the irst. The inductance of the connection
between the earthing bar of the electrical enclosure for a set of equipment and the
bonding network (see below) should be less than one µHenry (0.5 µH, if possible).
For example, it is possible to use a single 50 cm conductor or two parallel conductors
one meter long, installed at a minimum distance from one another (at least 50 cm) to
reduce the mutual inductance between the two conductors.
Where possible, connection to the bonding network should be at an intersection to
divide the HF currents by four without lengthening the connection. The proile of the
bonding conductors is not important, but a lat proile is preferable. The conductor
should also be as short as possible.
Parallel earthing conductor (PEC)
The purpose of a parallel earthing conductor is to reduce the common-mode current
lowing in the conductors that also carry the differential-mode signal (the commonmode impedance and the surface area of the loop are reduced).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q6
The parallel earthing conductor must be designed to handle high currents when it
is used for protection against lightning or for the return of high fault currents. When
cable shielding is used as a parallel earthing conductor, it cannot handle such high
currents and the solution is to run the cable along metal structural elements or
cableways which then act as other parallel earthing conductors for the entire cable.
Another possibility is to run the shielded cable next to a large parallel earthing
conductor with both the shielded cable and the parallel earthing conductor connected
at each end to the local earthing terminal of the equipment or the device.
For very long distances, additional connections to the network are advised for
the parallel earthing conductor, at irregular distances between the devices. These
additional connections form a shorter return path for the disturbing currents lowing
through the parallel earthing conductor. For U-shaped trays, shielding and tubes, the
additional connections should be external to maintain the separation with the interior
(“screening” effect).
Bonding conductors
Bonding conductors may be metal strips, lat braids or round conductors. For highfrequency systems, metal strips and lat braids are preferable (skin effect) because a
round conductor has a higher impedance than a lat conductor with the same cross
section. Where possible, the length to width ratio should not exceed 5.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Implementation
3.3 Separating cables
The physical separation of high and low-current cables is very important for EMC,
particularly if low-current cables are not shielded or the shielding is not connected
to the exposed conductive parts (ECPs). The sensitivity of electronic equipment is in
large part determined by the accompanying cable system.
If there is no separation (different types of cables in separate cableways, minimum
distance between high and low-current cables, types of cableways, etc.),
electromagnetic coupling is at its maximum. Under these conditions, electronic
equipment is sensitive to EMC disturbances lowing in the affected cables.
Use of busbar trunking systems such as Canalis or busbar ducts for high power
ratings is strongly advised. The levels of radiated magnetic ields using these types of
trunking systems is 10 to 20 times lower than standard cables or conductors.
The recommendations in the “Cable running” and “Wiring recommendations”
sections should be taken into account.
3.4 False floors
The inclusion of the loors in the mesh contributes to equipotentiality of the area and
consequently to the distribution and dilution of disturbing LF currents.
The screening effect of a false loor is directly related to its equipotentiality. If the
contact between the loor plates is poor (rubber antistatic joints, for example) or if
the contact between the support brackets is faulty (pollution, corrosion, mildew, etc.
or if there are no support brackets), it is necessary to add an equipotential mesh. In
this case, it is suficient to ensure effective electrical connections between the metal
support columns. Small spring clips are available on the market to connect the metal
columns to the equipotential mesh. Ideally, each column should be connected, but
it is often suficient to connect every other column in each direction. A mesh 1.5 to
2 metres is size is suitable in most cases. The recommended cross-sectional area of
the copper is 10 mm2 or more. In general, a lat braid is used. To reduce the effects of
corrosion, it is advised to use tin-plated copper (see Fig. Q8).
Perforated loor plates act like normal loor plates when they have a cellular steel
structure.
Preventive maintenance is required for the loor plates approximately every ive years
(depending on the type of loor plate and the environment, including humidity, dust
and corrosion). Rubber or polymer antistatic joints must be maintained, similar to the
bearing surfaces of the loor plates (cleaning with a suitable product).
False floor
Q7
Spring clips
Metal support columns
u 10 mm2
Fig. Q8 : False floor implementation
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
3.5 Cable running
Selection of materials and their shape depends on the following criteria:
b Severity of the EM environment along cableways (proximity of sources of
conducted or radiated EM disturbances)
b Authorised level of conducted and radiated emissions
b Type of cables (shielded?, twisted?, optical ibre?)
b EMI withstand capacity of the equipment connected to the wiring system
b Other environmental constraints (chemical, mechanical, climatic, ire, etc.)
b Future extensions planned for the wiring system
Non-metal cableways are suitable in the following cases:
b A continuous, low-level EM environment
b A wiring system with a low emission level
b Situations where metal cableways should be avoided (chemical environment)
b Systems using optical ibres
For metal cableways, it is the shape (lat, U-shape, tube, etc.) rather than the crosssectional area that determines the characteristic impedance. Closed shapes are
better than open shapes because they reduce common-mode coupling. Cableways
often have slots for cable straps. The smaller the better. The types of slots causing
the fewest problems are those cut parallel and at some distance from the cables.
Slots cut perpendicular to the cables are not recommended (see Fig. Q9).
Mediocre
OK
Better
Fig. Q9 : CEM performance of various types of metal cableways
In certain cases, a poor cableway in EMI terms may be suitable if the
EM environment is low, if shielded cables or optical ibres are employed, or separate
cableways are used for the different types of cables (power, data processing, etc.).
It is a good idea to reserve space inside the cableway for a given quantity of
additional cables. The height of the cables must be lower than the partitions of the
cableway as shown below. Covers also improve the EMC performance of cableways.
In U-shaped cableways, the magnetic ield decreases in the two corners.
That explains why deep cableways are preferable (see Fig. Q10).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q8
NO!
YES!
Area protected against external EM field
Fig. Q10 : Installation of different types of cables
Different types of cables (power and low-level connections) should not be installed in
the same bundle or in the same cableway. Cableways should never be illed to more
than half capacity.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Implementation
It is recommended to electromagnetically separate groups from one another, either
using shielding or by installing the cables in different cableways. The quality of the
shielding determines the distance between groups. If there is no shielding, suficient
distances must be maintained (see Fig. Q11).
The distance between power and control cables must be at least 5 times the radius
of the larger power cable.
Forbidden
Ideal
Correct
Power cables
Auxiliary circuits (relay contacts)
Control (digital)
Measurements (analogue)
Note: All metal parts must be electrically interconnected
Fig. Q11 : Recommendation to install groups of cables in metal cableways
Metal building components can be used for EMC purposes. Steel beams (L, H, U
or T shaped) often form an uninterrupted earthed structure with large transversal
sections and surfaces with numerous intermediate earthing connections. Cables
should if possible be run along such beams. Inside corners are better than the
outside surfaces (see Fig. Q12).
Recommended
Acceptable
Not recommended
Fig. Q12 : Recommendation to install cables in steel beams
Both ends of metal cableways must always be connected to local earth electrodes.
For very long cableways, additional connections to the earthing system are
recommended between connected devices. Where possible, the distance between
these earthing connections should be irregular (for symmetrical wiring systems) to
avoid resonance at identical frequencies. All connections to the earthing system
should be short.
Metal and non-metal cableways are available. Metal solutions offer better
EMC characteristics. A cableway (cable trays, conduits, cable brackets, etc.) must
offer a continuous, conducting metal structure from beginning to end.
An aluminium cableway has a lower DC resistance than a steel cableway of the
same size, but the transfer impedance (Zt) of steel drops at a lower frequency,
particularly when the steel has a high relative permeability µr. Care must be taken
when different types of metal are used because direct electrical connection is not
authorised in certain cases to avoid corrosion. That could be a disadvantage in terms
of EMC.
When devices connected to the wiring system using unshielded cables are not
affected by low-frequency disturbances, the EMC of non-metal cableways can be
improved by adding a parallel earthing conductor (PEC) inside the cableway. Both
ends must be connected to the local earthing system. Connections should be made
to a metal part with low impedance (e.g. a large metal panel of the device case).
The PEC should be designed to handle high fault and common-mode currents.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q9
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
Implementation
When a metal cableway is made up of a number of short sections, care is required to
ensure continuity by correctly bonding the different parts. The parts should preferably
be welded along all edges. Riveted, bolted or screwed connections are authorised as
long as the contact surfaces conduct current (no paint or insulating coatings) and are
protected against corrosion. Tightening torques must be observed to ensure correct
pressure for the electrical contact between two parts.
When a particular shape of cableway is selected, it should be used for the entire
length. All interconnections must have a low impedance. A single wire connection
between two parts of the cableway produces a high local impedance that cancels its
EMC performance.
Starting at a few MHz, a ten-centimetre connection between two parts of the cableway
reduces the attenuation factor by more than a factor of ten (see Fig. Q13).
NO!
NOT RECOMMENDED
YES!
Fig. Q13 : Metal cableways assembly
Each time modiications or extensions are made, it is very important to make sure
they are carried out according to EMC rules (e.g. never replace a metal cableway by
a plastic version!).
Covers for metal cableways must meet the same requirements as those applying to
the cableways themselves. A cover should have a large number of contacts along the
entire length. If that is not possible, it must be connected to the cableway at least at
the two ends using short connections (e.g. braided or meshed connections).
When cableways must be interrupted to pass through a wall (e.g. irewalls), lowimpedance connections must be used between the two parts (see Fig. Q14).
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q10
Mediocre
OK
Better
Fig. Q14 : Recommendation for metal cableways assembly to pass through a wall
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
3.6 Implementation of shielded cables
When the decision is made to use shielded cables, it is also necessary to determine
how the shielding will be bonded (type of earthing, connector, cable entry, etc.),
otherwise the beneits are considerably reduced. To be effective, the shielding should
be bonded over 360°. Figure Q15 below show different ways of earthing the cable
shielding.
For computer equipment and digital links, the shielding should be connected at each
end of the cable.
Connection of the shielding is very important for EMC and the following points should
be noted.
If the shielded cable connects equipment located in the same equipotential bonding
area, the shielding must be connected to the exposed conductive parts (ECP) at
both ends. If the connected equipment is not in the same equipotential bonding area,
there are a number of possibilities.
b Connection of only one end to the ECPs is dangerous. If an insulation fault occurs,
the voltage in the shielding can be fatal for an operator or destroy equipment. In
addition, at high frequencies, the shielding is not effective.
b Connection of both ends to the ECPs can be dangerous if an insulation fault
occurs. A high current lows in the shielding and can damage it. To limit this problem,
a parallel earthing conductor (PEC) must be run next to the shielded cable. The size
of the PEC depends on the short-circuit current in the given part of the installation.
It is clear that if the installation has a well meshed earthing network, this problem
does not arise.
All bonding connections must be made to bare metal
Not acceptable
Acceptable
Collar, clamp, etc.
Bonding bar
connected
to the chassis
Bonding wire
Poorly connected shielding = reduced effectiveness
Correct
Collar, clamp, etc.
Equipotential metal panel
Ideal
Cable gland = circumferential contact to
equipotential metal panel
Fig. Q15 : Implementation of shielded cables
Q11
Communication networks cover large distances and interconnect equipment
installed in rooms that may have distribution systems with different system earthing
arrangements. In addition, if the various sites are not equipotential, high transient
currents and major differences in potential may occur between the various devices
connected to the networks. As noted above, this is the case when insulation
faults and lightning strikes occur. The dielectric withstand capacity (between live
conductors and exposed conductive parts) of communication cards installed in
PCs or PLCs generally does not exceed 500 V. At best, the withstand capacity can
reach 1.5 kV. In meshed installations with the TN-S system and relatively small
communication networks, this level of withstand capacity is acceptable. In all cases,
however, protection against lightning strikes (common and differential modes) is
recommended.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
3.7 Communication networks
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
The type of communication cable employed is an important parameter. It must
be suited to the type of transmission. To create a reliable communication link, the
following parameters must be taken into account:
b Characteristic impedance
b Twisted pairs or other arrangement
b Resistance and capacitance per unit length
b Signal attenutation per unit length
b The type(s) of shielding used
In addition, it is important to use symmetrical (differential) transmission links because
they offer higher performance in terms of EMC.
In environments with severe EM conditions, however, or for wide communication
networks between installations that are not or are only slightly equipotential, in
conjunction with IT, TT or TN-C systems, it is highly recommended to use optical
ibre links.
For safety reasons, the optical ibre must not have metal parts (risk of electric shock
if the ibre links two areas with different potentials).
3.8 Implementation of surge arrestors
Connections
They must be as short as possible. In fact, one of the essential characteristics
for equipment protection is the maximum level of voltage that the equipment can
withstand at its terminals. A surge arrester with a protection level suitable for the
equipment to be protected should be chosen (see Fig. 16). The total length of the
connections is L = L1 + L2 + L3. It represents an impedance of roughly 1 µH/m for
high frequency currents.
Application of the rule ∆U = L di
dt
with an 8/20 µs wave and a current of 8 kA leads to a voltage of 1,000 V peak per
metre of cable.
∆U = 1.10-6 x 8.103 = 1,000 V
8.10-6
U equipment
L1
disconnection
circuit-breaker
U1
L2
L = L1 + L2 + L3 < 50 cm
surge arrester
L3
Up
load to be
protected
U2
Fig. Q16 : Surge arrester connection: L < 50 cm
Q12
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
This gives U equipment = Up + U1 + U2.
If L1 + L2 + L3 = 50 cm, this will result in a voltage surge of 500 V for a current of
8 kA.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
3 Implementation
Wiring rules
b Rule 1
The irst rule to be respected is not to exceed a distance of 50 cm when connecting
the surge arrester to its disconnection circuit-breaker. The surge arrester connections
are shown in Figure Q17.
d1
d1
D
k PR
Quic PD
S
tor
nnec
disco
d2
d3
(8/20)
65kA(8/20)
Imax:
In: 20kA
1,5kV
Up: 340Va
Uc:
SPD
d3
d2
d1 +
+ d3
y 50
cm
m
d2
d1 +
+ d3
35 c
Fig. Q17 : SPD with separate or integrated disconnector
b Rule 2
The outgoing feeders of the protected conductors must be connected right at the
terminals of the surge arrester and disconnection circuit-breaker (see Fig. Q18).
Power supply
Protected feeders
L < 35 cm
Quick PRD
Fig. Q18 : Connections are right at the SPD's terminals
Q13
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
b Rule 3
The phase, neutral and PE incoming wires must be tightly coupled to reduce the loop
surfaces (see Fig. Q19).
Clean cables polluted by
neighbouring polluted cables
Clean cable paths separated
from polluted cable paths
protected
outgoing
feeders
Large
frame
loop
surface
NO
YES
Intermediate
earth terminal
LN
Intermediate
earth
terminal
Small
frame
loop
surface
Main earth
terminal
LN
Main earth
terminal
Fig. Q19 : Example of wiring precautions to be taken in a box (rules 2, 3, 4, 5)
b Rule 4
The surge arrester's incoming wires must be moved away from the outgoing wires to
avoid mixing the polluted cables with the protected cables (see Fig. Q19).
b Rule 5
The cables must be lattened against the metallic frames of the box in order to
minimise the frame loops and thus beneit from a disturbance screening effect.
If the box is made of plastic and the loads particularly sensitive, it must be replaced
by a metal box.
In all cases, you must check that the metallic frames of the boxes or cabinets are
frame grounded by very short connections.
Finally, if screened cables are used, extra lengths which serve no purpose
("pigtails"), must be cut off as they reduce screening effectiveness.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q14
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
3 Implementation
3.9 Cabinet cabling (Fig. Q20)
Each cabinet must be equipped with an earthing bar or a ground reference metal
sheet. All shielded cables and external protection circuits must be connected to this
point. Anyone of the cabinet metal sheets or the DIN rail can be used as the ground
reference.
Plastic cabinets are not recommended. In this case, the DIN rail must be used as
ground reference.
Potential
Reference Plate
Fig. Q20 : The protected device must be connected to the surge-arrestor terminals
3.10 Standards
It is absolutely essential to specify the standards and recommendations that must be
taken into account for installations.
Below are several documents that may be used:
b EN 50174-1
Information technology - Cabling installation.
Part 1: Speciication and quality assurance
b EN 50174-2
Information technology - Cabling installation.
Part 2: Installation planning and practices inside buildings
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q15
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
4 Coupling mechanisms and
counter-measures
4.1 General
An EM interference phenomenon may be summed up in Figure Q21 below.
Source
Coupling
Victim
Origin of
emitted disturbances
Means by which
disturbances are
transmitted
Equipment likely
to be disturbed
Example:
Radiated waves
Walkie-talkie
TV set
Fig. Q21 : EM interference phenomenon
The different sources of disturbances are:
b Radio-frequency emissions
v Wireless communication systems (radio, TV, CB, radio telephones, remote controls)
v Radar
b Electrical equipment
v High-power industrial equipment (induction furnaces, welding machines, stator
control systems)
v Ofice equipment (computers and electronic circuits, photocopy machines, large
monitors)
v Discharge lamps (neon, luorescent, lash, etc.)
v Electromechanical components (relays, contactors, solenoids, current interruption
devices)
b Power systems
v Power transmission and distribution systems
v Electrical transportation systems
b Lightning
b Electrostatic discharges (ESD)
b Electromagnetic nuclear pulses (EMNP)
The potential victims are:
b Radio and television receivers, radar, wireless communication systems
b Analogue systems (sensors, measurement acquisition, ampliiers, monitors)
b Digital systems (computers, computer communications, peripheral equipment)
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q16
The different types of coupling are:
b Common-mode impedance (galvanic) coupling
b Capacitive coupling
b Inductive coupling
b Radiated coupling (cable to cable, ield to cable, antenna to antenna)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
4 Coupling mechanisms and
counter-measures
4.2 Common-mode impedance coupling
Definition
Two or more devices are interconnected by the power supply and communication
cables (see Fig. Q22). When external currents (lightning, fault currents, disturbances)
low via these common-mode impedances, an undesirable voltage appears between
points A and B which are supposed to be equipotential. This stray voltage can
disturb low-level or fast electronic circuits.
All cables, including the protective conductors, have an impedance, particularly at
high frequencies.
Device 1
Device 2
Z sign.
Stray
overvoltage
I2
ECPs
Signal line
ECPs
I1
Z1
Z2
The exposed conductive parts (ECP) of devices 1 and 2 are connected to a common
earthing terminal via connections with impedances Z1 and Z2.
The stray overvoltage lows to the earth via Z1. The potential of device 1 increases
to Z1 I1. The difference in potential with device 2 (initial potential = 0) results in the
appearance of current I2.
Z1
I2
Z1 I 1 = (Zsign + Z2) I 2 ⇒
=
I 1 (Zsign + Z2)
Current I2, present on the signal line, disturbs device 2.
Fig. Q22 : Definition of common-mode impedance coupling
Examples (see Fig. Q23)
b Devices linked by a common reference conductor (e.g. PEN, PE) affected by fast
or intense (di/dt) current variations (fault current, lightning strike, short-circuit, load
changes, chopping circuits, harmonic currents, power factor correction capacitor
banks, etc.)
b A common return path for a number of electrical sources
Disturbed
cable
Device 1
Device 2
Signal cable
Disturbing
current
Difference in
potential
ZMC
Fig. Q23 : Example of common-mode impedance coupling
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Fault
currents
Q17
Lightning
strike
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Q - EMC guidelines
4 Coupling mechanisms and
counter-measures
Counter-measures (see Fig. Q24)
If they cannot be eliminated, common-mode impedances must at least be as low as
possible. To reduce the effects of common-mode impedances, it is necessary to:
b Reduce impedances:
v Mesh the common references,
v Use short cables or lat braids which, for equal sizes, have a lower impedance than
round cables,
v Install functional equipotential bonding between devices.
b Reduce the level of the disturbing currents by adding common-mode iltering and
differential-mode inductors
Device 1
Z sign.
Stray
overvoltage
Device 2
I2
Z sup.
Z1
PEC
I1
Z2
If the impedance of the parallel earthing conductor PEC (Z sup) is very low
compared to Z sign, most of the disturbing current lows via the PEC, i.e. not
via the signal line as in the previous case.
The difference in potential between devices 1 and 2 becomes very low and the
disturbance acceptable.
Fig. Q24 : Counter-measures of common-mode impedance coupling
4.3 Capacitive coupling
U
Definition
Vsource
The level of disturbance depends on the voltage variations (dv/dt) and the value of
the coupling capacitance between the disturber and the victim.
t
Vvictim
Q18
Capacitive coupling increases with:
b The frequency
b The proximity of the disturber to the victim and the length of the parallel cables
b The height of the cables with respect to a ground referencing plane
b The input impedance of the victim circuit (circuits with a high input impedance are
more vulnerable)
b The insulation of the victim cable (εr of the cable insulation), particularly for tightly
coupled pairs
Figure Q25 shows the results of capacitive coupling (cross-talk) between two cables.
t
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Examples (see Fig. Q26 opposite page)
Fig. Q25 : Typical result of capacitive coupling (capacitive
cross-talk)
b Nearby cables subjected to rapid voltage variations (dv/dt)
b Start-up of luorescent lamps
b High-voltage switch-mode power supplies (photocopy machines, etc.)
b Coupling capacitance between the primary and secondary windings of
transformers
b Cross-talk between cables
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
4 Coupling mechanisms and
counter-measures
Differential mode
Common mode
Source
Vs
Vs
DM
Iv
CM
Victim
Iv
CM
DM
Source
Victim
Vs DM: Source of the disturbing voltage (differential mode)
Iv DM: Disturbing current on victim side (differential mode)
Vs CM: Source of the disturbing voltage (common mode)
Iv CM: Disturbing current on victim side (common mode)
Metal shielding
Fig. Q26 : Example of capacitive coupling
Counter-measures (see Fig. Q27)
C
Victim
Fig. Q27 : Cable shielding with perforations reduces capacitive
coupling
4.4 Inductive coupling
Definition
The disturber and the victim are coupled by a magnetic ield. The level of disturbance
depends on the current variations (di/dt) and the mutual coupling inductance.
Inductive coupling increases with:
b The frequency
b The proximity of the disturber to the victim and the length of the parallel cables,
b The height of the cables with respect to a ground referencing plane,
b The load impedance of the disturbing circuit.
Examples (see Fig. Q28 next page)
b Nearby cables subjected to rapid current variations (di/dt)
b Short-circuits
b Fault currents
b Lightning strikes
b Stator control systems
b Welding machines
b Inductors
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q19
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Source
b Limit the length of parallel runs of disturbers and victims to the strict minimum
b Increase the distance between the disturber and the victim
b For two-wire connections, run the two wires as close together as possible
b Position a PEC bonded at both ends and between the disturber and the victim
b Use two or four-wire cables rather than individual conductors
b Use symmetrical transmission systems on correctly implemented, symmetrical
wiring systems
b Shield the disturbing cables, the victim cables or both (the shielding must be
bonded)
b Reduce the dv/dt of the disturber by increasing the signal rise time where possible
Q - EMC guidelines
4 Coupling mechanisms and
counter-measures
Disturbing
cable
Disturbing
cable
H
H
Victim loop
Victim pair
i
i
Victim loop
Differential mode
Common mode
Fig. Q28 : Example of inductive coupling
Counter-measures
b Limit the length of parallel runs of disturbers and victims to the strict minimum
b Increase the distance between the disturber and the victim
b For two-wire connections, run the two wires as close together as possible
b Use multi-core or touching single-core cables, preferably in a triangular layout
b Position a PEC bonded at both ends and between the disturber and the victim
b Use symmetrical transmission systems on correctly implemented, symmetrical
wiring systems
b Shield the disturbing cables, the victim cables or both (the shielding must be
bonded)
b Reduce the dv/dt of the disturber by increasing the signal rise time where possible
(series-connected resistors or PTC resistors on the disturbing cable, ferrite rings on
the disturbing and/or victim cable)
4.5 Radiated coupling
Definition
The disturber and the victim are coupled by a medium (e.g. air). The level of
disturbance depends on the power of the radiating source and the effectiveness
of the emitting and receiving antenna. An electromagnetic ield comprises both an
electrical ield and a magnetic ield. The two ields are correlated. It is possible to
analyse separately the electrical and magnetic components.
The electrical ield (E ield) and the magnetic ield (H ield) are coupled in wiring
systems via the wires and loops (see Fig. Q29).
E field
H field
i
Q20
V
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Field-to-cable coupling
Fig. Q29 : Definition of radiated coupling
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Field-to-loop coupling
4 Coupling mechanisms and
counter-measures
When a cable is subjected to a variable electrical ield, a current is generated in the
cable. This phenomenon is called ield-to-cable coupling.
Similarly, when a variable magnetic ield lows through a loop, it creates a counter
electromotive force that produces a voltage between the two ends of the loop. This
phenomenon is called ield-to-loop coupling.
Examples (see Fig. Q30)
b Radio-transmission equipment (walkie-talkies, radio and TV transmitters, mobile
services)
b Radar
b Automobile ignition systems
b Arc-welding machines
b Induction furnaces
b Power switching systems
b Electrostatic discharges (ESD)
b Lighting
E field
EM field
Signal
cable
Device 1
Device 2
i
Device
h
h
Area of the
earth loop
Ground reference plane
Example of field-to-cable coupling
Example of field-to-loop coupling
Fig. Q30 : Examples of radiated coupling
Counter-measures
To minimise the effects of radiated coupling, the measures below are required.
For field-to-cable coupling
b Reduce the antenna effect of the victim by reducing the height (h) of the cable with
respect to the ground referencing plane
b Place the cable in an uninterrupted, bonded metal cableway (tube, trunking, cable
tray)
b Use shielded cables that are correctly installed and bonded
b Add PECs
b Place ilters or ferrite rings on the victim cable
For field-to-loop coupling
b Reduce the surface of the victim loop by reducing the height (h) and the length
of the cable. Use the solutions for ield-to-cable coupling. Use the Faraday cage
principle.
Radiated coupling can be eliminated using the Faraday cage principle. A possible
solution is a shielded cable with both ends of the shielding connected to the metal
case of the device. The exposed conductive parts must be bonded to enhance
effectiveness at high frequencies.
Radiated coupling decreases with the distance and when symmetrical transmission
links are used.
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q21
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Q - EMC guidelines
Q - EMC guidelines
5 Wiring recommendations
5.1 Signal classes (see Fig. Q31)
1 - Power connections
(supply + PE)
Device
Shielded cables of
different groups
Unshielded cables of
different groups
2 - Relay
connections
e
h
NO!
Ground
reference
plane
YES!
4 - Analogue link
(sensor)
3 - Digital link
(bus)
Risk of cross-talk in common mode if e < 3 h
Fig. Q31 : Internal signals can be grouped in four classes
Sensitive
cable
Sensitive
cable
Disturbing
cable
Disturbing
cable
u1m
30 cm
NO!
Cross incompatible
cables at right angles
YES!
Fig. Q32 : Wiring recommendations for cables carrying
different types of signals
NO!
YES!
Standard cable
Four classes of internal signals are:
b Class 1
Mains power lines, power circuits with a high di/dt, switch-mode converters, powerregulation control devices.
This class is not very sensitive, but disturbs the other classes (particularly in
common mode).
b Class 2
Relay contacts.
This class is not very sensitive, but disturbs the other classes (switching, arcs when
contacts open).
b Class 3
Digital circuits (HF switching).
This class is sensitive to pulses, but also disturbs the following class.
b Class 4
Analogue input/output circuits (low-level measurements, active sensor supply
circuits). This class is sensitive.
It is a good idea to use conductors with a speciic colour for each class to
facilitate identiication and separate the classes. This is useful during design and
troubleshooting.
Two distinct pairs
5.2 Wiring recommendations
Poorly implemented
ribbon cable
Correctly implemented
ribbon cable
Digital connection
Analogue pair
Bonding wires
Q22
Disturbing cables (classes 1 and 2) must be placed at some distance from the
sensitive cables (classes 3 and 4) (see Fig. Q32 and Fig. Q33)
In general, a 10 cm separation between cables laid lat on sheet metal is suficient
(for both common and differential modes). If there is enough space, a distance of
30 cm is preferable. If cables must be crossed, this should be done at right angles to
avoid cross-talk (even if they touch). There are no distance requirements if the cables
are separated by a metal partition that is equipotential with respect to the ECPs.
However, the height of the partition must be greater than the diameter of the cables.
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Fig. Q33 : Use of cables and ribbon cable
Cables carrying different types of signals must be physically separated
(see Fig. Q32 above)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Q - EMC guidelines
5 Wiring recommendations
A cable should carry the signals of a single group (see Fig. Q34)
If it is necessary to use a cable to carry the signals of different groups, internal
shielding is necessary to limit cross-talk (differential mode). The shielding, preferably
braided, must be bonded at each end for groups 1, 2 and 3.
It is advised to overshield disturbing and sensitive cables (see Fig. Q35)
The overshielding acts as a HF protection (common and differential modes) if it
is bonded at each end using a circumferential connector, a collar or a clampere
However, a simple bonding wire is not suficient.
NO!
Shielded pair
Electronic
control
device
Sensor
Unshielded cable for stator control
Electromechanical
device
YES!
Bonded using a clamp
Shielded pair + overshielding
Electronic
control
device
Sensor
Shielded cable for stator control
Electromechanical
device
Fig. Q35 : Shielding and overshielding for disturbing and/or sensitive cables
NO!
Power +
analogue
YES!
Digital +
relay contacts
Power +
relay contacts
Digital +
analogue
Avoid using a single connector for different groups (see Fig. Q36)
Except where necessary for groups 1 and 2 (differential mode). If a single connector
is used for both analogue and digital signals, the two groups must be separated by at
least one set of contacts connected to 0 V used as a barrier.
All free conductors (reserve) must always be bonded at each end
(see Fig. Q37)
For group 4, these connections are not advised for lines with very low voltage
and frequency levels (risk of creating signal noise, by magnetic induction, at the
transmission frequencies).
Shielding
Power connections
Digital connections
Relay I/O connections
Analogue connections
Fig. Q34 : Incompatible signals = different cables
NO!
YES!
Electronic
system
NO!
Electronic
system
YES!
Wires not
equipotentially
bonded
Q23
Analogue connections
Fig. Q36 : Segregation applies to connectors as well!
Equipotential sheet metal panel
Fig. Q37 : Free wires must be equipotentially bonded
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009
Equipotential sheet metal panel
© Schneider Electric - all rights reserved
Digital connections
Q - EMC guidelines
5 Wiring recommendations
The two conductors must be installed as close together as possible
(see Fig. Q38)
This is particularly important for low-level sensors. Even for relay signals with a
common, the active conductors should be accompanied by at least one common
conductor per bundle. For analogue and digital signals, twisted pairs are a minimum
requirement. A twisted pair (differential mode) guarantees that the two wires remain
together along their entire length.
NO!
Area of
loop too large
PCB with
relay contact
I/Os
YES!
PCB with
relay contact
I/Os
+
Power supply
+
Power supply
Fig. Q38 : The two wires of a pair must always be run close together
Group-1 cables do not need to be shielded if they are filtered
But they should be made of twisted pairs to ensure compliance with the previous
section.
Cables must always be positioned along their entire length against the bonded
metal parts of devices (see Fig. Q39)
For example: Covers, metal trunking, structure, etc. In order to take advantage of the
dependable, inexpensive and signiicant reduction effect (common mode) and anticross-talk effect (differential mode).
NO!
NO!
YES!
Chassis 1
Chassis 1
Chassis 2
Chassis 2
Chassis 3
Chassis 3
YES!
Metal tray
Power
supply
Q24
Power or disturbing cables
Relay cables
I/O interface
Power
supply
I/O interface
All metal parts (frame, structure, enclosures, etc.) are equipotential
Fig. Q39 : Run wires along their entire length against the bonded metal parts
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Measurement or sensitive cables
Fig. Q40 : Cable distribution in cable trays
The use of correctly bonded metal trunking considerably improves
internal EMC (see Fig. Q40)
Schneider Electric - Electrical installation guide 2009