Towards a process-based typology of workplace coaching: An
empirical investigation
Adrian Myers and Tatiana Bachkirova
Oxford Brookes University
Abstract
Research into work-based coaching has been led by the need of a new discipline to demonstrate
effectiveness of this practice, often assuming that coaching is a homogeneous activity. A
multifaceted and multi-purposeful nature of coaching now requires development of meaningful
typologies that reflect this diversity and grounded in the analysis of coaching process. There are
many reasons empirical investigations of the coaching process are extremely rare. The aim of this
article is to present such a study leading to an empirically derived model representing a 4demensional coaching typology. The research was based on a ‘qualiquantological’ Q
methodology involving 47 participants. Actual coaching sessions were evaluated from the
perspective of professional coaches, their clients and professional coaches observing recordings
of these sessions. A Q methodological factor analysis led to a clear identification of two types of
coaching: ‘Client-led coaching’ in which the coach and client work together in a flowing
dialogue exploring the client’s issues and ‘Process-led coaching,’ characterized by an actively
engaged coach using a wide range of coaching techniques, visibly structuring the coaching
process. There was partial support for a third type of ‘Dialogic Coaching’ and a fourth approach
was inferred as being the inverse type of client-led coaching.
Keywords:
Workplace coaching, Executive Coaching, Coaching Process Research, Q methodology,
Coaching Process Q Sort
1
Introduction
The professional practice of workplace coaching grew organically in response to the needs of
organisations to provide individually focused support for diverse groups of employees
(Bachkirova, Spence, & Drake, 2017). This bottom-up development process has been positive
overall with growing evidence that coaching is “a mainstream activity in organizations
worldwide” (Grant, 2013, p.15) and reports that there are now 53,300 practising coaches
worldwide (International Coach Federation, 2016). However, the conceptualization of this
practice has been seriously behind this utilization process (Ellinger & Kim, 2014; Cox,
Bachkirova, & Clutterbuck, 2014a). Even a definition of workplace coaching continues to be an
issue because of the diversity of coaching styles, contexts and applications (Bachkirova &
Kauffman, 2009). We will use a reasonably generic definition from a well-known handbook
describing coaching as “a human development process that involves structured, focused
interaction and the use of appropriate strategies, tools and techniques to promote desirable and
sustainable change for the benefit of the client and potentially for other stakeholders” (Cox et al.,
2014b, p. 1).
The theoretical base of the discipline of coaching is heavily dependent on neighbouring
disciplines such as mentoring and counselling and relevant theories in core disciplines such as
psychology, sociology and organizational studies (Cox et al., 2014a; Bachkirova, 2017). This
multiplicity of influences has led to a highly eclectic use of theory in coaching thus creating an
impression of “an unnecessary mystique” about its theoretical base (Cox et al 2014a, p. 140) and
even a justified concern of coaching being atheoretical (Peltier, 2009; Hamlin, Ellinger, and
Beattie, 2008). Cox et al. (2014a) argued that as much as coaching can be a powerful ally, for
example in HRD, its rich but inconsistent discourses in description of coaching services create a
difficult task for HR professionals and particularly buyers of coaching to judge the relevance of
2
numerous traditions of coaching and evaluate them for their organizational agendas (Robson,
2011; Egan, 2013).
As far as research is concerned, being a new discipline with a need to establish its place
in the organizational arena has been a significant factor in the agenda for coaching research to
‘prove that coaching works’. Therefore, the emphasis in research activities has been for some
time on outcome studies and their number is steadily growing (e.g., Olivero, Bane, &
Kopelman, 1997; Bowles, Cunningham, & de la Rosa & Picano, 2007; Smither, London,
Flautt, Vargas, & Kucine 2003; Mackie, 2015, de Haan, Duckworth, Birch, & Jones, 2013).
Although these studies and their systematic analysis (e.g., Grant, 2012; Theeboom, Beersma,
and van Vianen, 2014; Jones, Woods, & Guillaume, 2016; Greif, 2017) confirm that coaching
can be effective in some specific contexts, there are many issues associated with the diversity
of coaching approaches which create obstacles for development of the evidence base for
coaching. According to Grant (2013, p. 34) “onlookers struggle to make sense of the
potentially amorphous mass of data”. The diversity refers not only to the many contexts of
application and varied outcome measures but also to the enormous variety of ways to coach,
thus making outcome studies difficult to compare and to develop reliable implications. The
lack of conceptualization of coaching at least in relation to types of coaching affects the value
of such studies for further development of the coaching discipline. What seems important at
tis stage is a research focus on the empirical investigation of the coaching process: the
interpersonal interaction between coach and client with an intention to establish patterns in the
way coaching is conducted: a typology of coaching.
There has recently been a strong call in the coaching discipline to expand the attention
of researchers to understanding the process of coaching, to have a rich description of the
coaching interaction, to explore the main parameters of coaching that make a difference and to
identify them within different coaching types and variations of practice: the identification of
3
the “active ingredients” (Bono et al, 2009, p. 393) of the coaching process. These could include
the observable behaviours occurring between coach and client, the tasks and activities which
are conducted and the broader phenomenological and meaning-making process occurring
between coach and client (Bachkirova et al, 2015). It must be said that the literature on the
coaching process is not entirely absent, but it consists of opinion-based texts by practitioners
(e.g. Rogers, 2012; Wilson, 2007) and a few handbooks that tend to faithfully describe
differences in coaching process as a reflection of a variety of theoretical approaches usually
following main therapeutic traditions (e.g. Palmer and Whybrow, 2007; Cox et al, 2014b). At
the same time, the reality of the practice shows that coaches tend to identify with these
traditions only loosely and develop their own approaches to practice (Clutterbuck, 2010).
Therefore, it is not just that a meaningful typology of coaching is needed, but it must derive
from the actual practice of coaching, from what coaching process is like. The number of
empirical studies on the coaching process is however limited for some obvious reasons such as
the willingness of the participants to be observed in a real session and the possible effect of
intrusion on the relationship.
An additional challenge that coaching process researchers face is the decisions that
must be made about whose perspectives are the most relevant/informative in the assessment of
what is happening in the coaching session. A particularly challenging distinction is between on
the one hand, the coach’s and client’s first-person perspective and on the other hand, the
observers’ perspective of the same session. This distinction has serious implications not only
for research but also for practice, policies and the education of coaches. It seems reasonable to
assume that a typology of coaching process must be based on multi-perspective research but
research to date is lacking. The third person perspective is a challenge for various ethical
reasons. Although some elements of the session have been studied from the observer
perspective (Greif, 2010), there has been no attempt to analyse real sessions in their entirety.
4
This study is therefore an empirical investigation into the coaching process from
multiple perspectives of the coach, client and observers. Building on the structural analysis of
the coaching engagement that includes elements of the coach and client as individuals, context
of the engagement, relationship and coaching processes (Cox et al., 2014a), we will focus on
the latter by taking as a unit of analysis a whole coaching session. This position reflects our
view on coaching as a two-way process between the coach and client rather than a series of
actions performed by the coach. This is a relational and constructivist conceptualisation of the
coaching process. Accordingly, this study aims to provide coaches, clients, sponsors, educators
and supervisors with rich description of the complexity of the interaction between coach and
client and identify patterns that can be used in reflecting on coaching sessions. This reflective
process can lead coaches to consider how they might or actually work with clients, the
implications of this and the need to change. At the same time, arriving at a typology of
coaching may advance theoretical understanding of the coaching process and differentiation of
it from other practices such as counselling or consultancy (Bachkirova and Kauffman, 2009).
Theoretical background
In the coaching and wider literature there are many concepts, models and theoretical
propositions that claim the importance of the interactive nature of the coaching engagement
and thus a focus on the coaching relationship and the nature of the coaching conversation. In
the conceptualization of the coaching engagement by Cox et al (2014a), processes and
relationship are one of the four essential and equally important elements; the other three being
characteristics and attitudes of the coach and client and the environmental factors of the
context. Coaching is viewed as “a type of extended cognition, an alliance, where a new piece of
knowledge may result in either a new explanation or is used to fill a gap in an existing
explanation, but where both help the alliance to move a little closer to a more complete
5
understanding of the task and its resolution” (2014a, p. 143). The elements of the process are
generally associated with learning and with good communication and include listening,
clarifying and mutually enhanced reflection. In addition to learning, this conceptualization also
emphasises the importance of the coaching relationship (e.g., de Haan, 2008).
Differently to seeing coaching as a relational and learning process (Cox, 2013; Kemp,
2008), there are other conceptualizations of coaching process. Gessnitzer & Kauffeld (2015)
for example suggest that the coaching is essentially relational (de Haan, 2008). They consider
the quality of relationship as the most important success factor in the coaching process.
Postulating a primary importance of the relationship, they offer a different conceptualization to
the above by Cox et al (2014a). Others see coaching as a discursive process (Western, 2012) or
as a meaning-making process (Stelter, 2014), which could also be explored if a more granular
analysis of a coaching session were undertaken.
Empirical research investigating the coaching process has increased in recent years.
For this review we divide these studies into three different groups depending on the focus of
their investigation. The first group of studies aims to test theories (hypothesis testing studies).
Much of this research has set out to identify the relationship between a small number of
variables and coaching outcomes (Myers, 2017). Ianiro, Lehmann-Willenbrock, and, Kauffeld
(2015) for example explored affiliation and dominance patterns in coaching sessions. While
these and similar studies (Myers, 2017) provide useful insights into the coaching process, they
overlook the overall characteristics of coaching sessions. Moreover, most studies investigating
the impact of key variables in influencing coaching outcomes have tended to explore the
effects of inputs into the coaching process rather than the interaction itself. The coaching
relationship has been explored and the literature relating to this factor is growing (de Haan &
Gannon, 2017). However, the coaching relationship is only part of the coach-client interaction.
6
It could even be argued that the relationship is an outcome of the coach-client interaction rather
than being part of the coaching process itself (Myers, 2017).
A second group of studies exploring coaching process addresses only specific events
during the coaching process. The Ashridge Critical-Moment Study Group (de Haan & NieB,
2012) for example has carried out an extensive programme of research investigating the nature
and frequency of a ‘critical moment,’ defined in terms of “an exciting, tense or significant
moment’ (de Haan, 2008, p.92) experienced during coaching sessions. The exploration and
classification of critical moments provides valuable insight into the coaching process, including
drawing distinctions between “run-of-the-mill coaching and…dramatic moments and ruptures”
(de Haan Bertie, Day, & Sills, 2010, p.125). The research suggests that most everyday
coaching is a process through which “coaches need to help clients look beyond their current
solutions and mindset…Epiphanies are not necessarily what is needed. Sometimes, creating a
sense of support and reflection is adequate” (de Haan et al., 2010, p.125). This finding suggests
that most everyday coaching has a pragmatic sense of working collaboratively with the client
to help the client achieve insights without intentionally being deeply explorative or
transformative.
Another useful finding from the work of de Haan and associates is in how their research
suggests broad agreement in the recall of critical moments between coaches and clients. This
has led de Haan et al. (2010) to refute the “Rashomon” experience identified in psychotherapy
research (Mintz, Auerbach, Luborsky, & Johnson, 1973; Weiss, Rabinowitz, & Spiro, 1996) in
which client, practitioner and/or observer tend to recall different accounts of the same session.
(The allusion to the ‘Rashomon experience’ is based on a film by Akira Kurosawa, 1950, in
which 4 characters recount the same event in very different ways). However, the findings in a
subsequent study involving sponsors of coaching as well as coaches and clients were less clearcut (de Haan & NieB, 2015). While deeply informative of coaching practice, research on
7
critical moments risks presenting coaching as a series of significant moments rather than a
continuous interaction and doesn’t characterize the overall patterns of coaching.
A third group of studies investigating coaching process is the smallest group of studies,
but most relevant for our investigation. These studies attempt to consider the coaching
assignment as a whole and aim to classify different types of coaching. Stein (2009), for
example, has analysed coaching practice in terms of sixteen conversational identities (e.g.,
agenda facilitator, action facilitator, problem solver) coaches might adopt within three task
frames when coaching (attention to the content of the discussion, the process or management of
the content and the relationship). This is an important study, but it focuses on coach behaviours
rather than a broader range of characteristics of coaching sessions.
From a theoretical perspective, Segers, Vloeberghs, Hendrickx, & Inceoglu (2011)
classify coaching traditions drawing on a model derived from psychotherapy research (e.g.,
L’Abate, Frey, & Wagner,1982) in terms of emotionality (humanistic), rationality (e.g.,
cognitive behavioural and psychodynamic), activity (e.g., behaviourist), awareness-raising
(e.g., Gestalt) and context schools. Each school is characterized by a range of specific
interventions. For example, in the ‘Emotionality school’, the coach draws on techniques such
as restatement, paraphrasing, listening, reflecting on feelings, summarizing and focuses on the
phenomenological experience and feelings of the client. The ‘Rationality’ school focuses on
cognitive processes and may include techniques such as working with transference processes
and resistance. The ‘Activity’ school stresses rewards and reinforcers as well as modelling.
The ‘Awareness’ school includes a Gestalt approach which typically draws on “experiments.”
The ‘Context’ approach is systems oriented. Segers et al. (2011) highlight how there is much
overlap across the different schools, which further illustrates the challenge in marking clear
distinctions across coaching practices. Segers et al. (2011, p. 207) state that a major problem in
understanding these approaches and their differences is a lack of empirical validation. Their
8
model, based on combining the who (who provides the coaching), the what (the type of
coaching relating to the level of engagement required) and the how of coaching (the different
traditions) leads to a possible 60 combinations of approaches. They suggest the existence of 13
likely combinations which still renders the task of identifying what might be understood as the
core characteristics of coaching very difficult.
Culpin, & Curd (2011) conducted research asking clients to provide feedback on their
coaching experiences using a behavioural questionnaire (de Haan & Burger, 2004). The
questionnaire is based on Heron’s (1976) range of interventions used in a wide range of helping
interventions and is intended to identify coaching styles. The styles are Directing (giving
advice, making suggestions and recommendations); Informing (providing information and
knowledge; summarizing); Challenging (providing feedback to increase self- awareness and to
explore assumptions); Discovering (increasing insight by encouraging self-exploration);
Supporting (promoting self-confidence/esteem and Releasing (exploring emotions which may
be blocking progress). The styles are useful but don’t take appear to take account of the context
in which these styles might usefully be applied or how they are applied (e.g., with more, or less
tact). The relevance of challenge and support, two of the behaviours assessed in the
questionnaire has been highlighted elsewhere in the literature with Blakey and Day (2012)
arguing that coaches often overlook the need to be more challenging.
Bachkirova et al. (2015) developed an instrument (the Coaching Process Q-Set; CPQS)
that would allow for the detailed interactive process between coach and client to be analysed
systematically at the level of a whole session. Coaches worldwide were asked to use the
instrument to describe a typical session. Their descriptions led to a conceptualization of
coaching in which the role of the coach is to “explore and understand the worldview and goals
of the client…The session is a fluid process with an atmosphere of warmth…The role of the
coach could be best conceptualized as a “collaborative explorer”” (p.448). This study
9
suggested that there was widespread consensus about how coaching is practiced. While an
important and useful step in coaching process research, the study did not analyse actual
coaching sessions. However, the study did provide a methodology for exploring coaching
session in-depth and is used in this investigation.
The concepts and theories described above provide useful ideas for how coaching can
be conceptualized as an overall process that leads to changes that people make in their lives.
These propositions have only been partially tested (e.g., the quality of relationships as a factor)
and need more fine-tuned analysis according to different types of coaching. The empirical
studies, on the other hand, provide a wealth of data that is difficult to compare considering
differences in how coaching is conceptualized and conducted. A typology of coaching that is
based on empirical data from the perception of real coaching sessions may be able to provide
useful distinctions in the evaluation of research findings and conceptualization of coaching
process that is more meaningful for coaching practitioners. With such an intention this study is
designed to analyse 6 real-life coaching sessions involving 47 participants: experienced
coaches and their clients in action and coaches observing coaching sessions.
Many coaching process investigations adopt the dominant positivist approach to
analysing coaching process using what might be described as “hypothesis testing” studies and
which typically attempt to predict outcome from a small number of variables (Myers, 2017,
p.596). A similar approach has been adopted in psychotherapy. Hardy and Llewelyn (2015,
p.187) have argued that what “is striking about this approach is that despite many thousands of
studies, few variables have been found to consistently predict outcome across most studies”.
The authors cite as notable exceptions, the quality of the relationship and the client’s
commitment (p. 187). Hardy and Llewelyn (2015) list many reasons for the limitation of
findings in process research including “small and unrepresentative samples” (p.190). Similar
criticisms have been made elsewhere in the literature on psychotherapy process including
10
Elliott (2010) who highlights how some limitations could be addressed, including the use of
large sample sizes, citing an example of a study which involved over 1000 participants. It is
highly unlikely however that coaching process researchers will readily be able to involve over
1000 coaching clients experiencing a similar type of coaching engagement given that coaching
is usually provided only for small numbers of executives in very specific contexts. Even if
such research was possible, the review provided by Hardy and Llewelyn (2015) and other
studies (e.g., Elliot, 2010) suggests that it is unclear if hypothesis testing approaches in
coaching are likely to lead to the identification of causal links between process variables and
outcomes. A more useful research approach might be to employ research methods which adopt
a different paradigmatic conceptualisation of the research process and this is what Q
methodology achieves. Watts and Stenner (2005, p.69) describe how Q methodology “was
designed for the very purpose of challenging the dated Newtonian logic of ‘testing’ that
predominates in psychology. Q methodology “is most often deployed in order to explore (and
to make sense of) highly complex and socially contested concepts and subject matters from the
point of view of the group of individuals involved” (Watts and Stenner, 2005, p.70).
Methods
The study is designed according to Q methodology (Watts & Stenner, 2012) using the
Coaching Process Q Set (CPQS; Bachkirova et al., 2015), a specially designed tool for
analysing whole coaching sessions. The purpose of the CPQS is to identify how coaches,
clients and observers describe coaching sessions; that is to identify individual and collective
viewpoints about sessions they have taken part in or observed, and which may indicate a
potential typology of coaching. The instrument consists of a “comprehensive generic set of
[80] descriptors” (Bachkirova et al., 2015, p.435) of typical mid-engagement coaching sessions
11
including coach and client behaviours and other defining session characteristics (e.g., “Coach
shows empathy” and “There is a sense of optimism in the session”).
These descriptors (Q items) are typically written on playing sized cards (one Q item per
card). Clients, coaches or observers of coaching sessions are asked to rank-order the cards in an
ordinal scale according to how “characteristic/uncharacteristic” the Q items appear to describe
a coaching session from their point of view. This leads to relative subjective judgements; for
example, that the “Coach shows empathy” more than “There is a sense of optimism in the
session”. In sorting the Q items, coach, client and/or observers are presented with a template
made up of a fixed number of columns and rows with directional arrows asking participants to
place the Q items according to how “characteristic” or “uncharacteristic” they appear to
describe the session in focus. In this study, a 13-point scale was used (-6 through to 0 through
to +6), consistent with scaling decisions for Q sets (the total set of Q items) of this size (Brown,
1980). The number of Q items (rows) to be ranked in each column is illustrated in Figure 1.
Each completed rank-ordering of Q items is called a Q sort.
There is some debate in the literature as to whether participants might use free or nonstandardized distributions (Watts and Stenner, 2012, p.78). For example, participants might
well wish to position Q items differently to a distribution pattern which only allows
participants to position fixed numbers of Q items on a scale as is the case in the CPQS.
However, Block (2008, p.45) strongly argues against this and includes in his argument that
“idiosyncratic Q-distribution shapes are inconsequential in their effect.”
If a Q item is placed towards the “highly characteristic” end of the distribution, then the
viewpoint being expressed is that that Q item describes a key characteristic of the session.
Similarly, if a Q item is placed towards the “highly uncharacteristic” end of the distribution,
then the viewpoint being expressed is that that Q item describes what the session was not like.
Q items that are positioned towards the middle of the distribution are considered neither
12
particularly characteristic nor uncharacteristic of the session (neutral); they are not defining
characteristics. Since the Q items are given numerical values for each participant, it is possible
to intercorrelate whole Q sorts; that is to compare the Q sort of the coaches with those of the
clients and observers. Factors are extracted through what is described in Q methodology as a by
person factor analysis (Brown, 1980). The factors identify common variance (similar ways of
rating the Q items in the inter-correlated Q sorts). Each factor therefore represents a shared
viewpoint. Typical factor analytical procedures are conducted including factor rotation.
Participants whose Q sort loads significantly onto a given factor are considered to share a
common viewpoint in describing a session.
A factor array is created for each extracted factor. It is a “single Q sort configured to
represent the viewpoint of a particular factor” (Watts & Stenner, 2012, p.140). It is configured
in the same sorting pattern used to sort the data (-6 to +6 with the same number of rows) and
derived from the Z scores of the Q items which load onto each factor identified in the study.
The final and most important step in Q methodology and in the use of the CPQS is to
describe the viewpoint expressed in each factor array. This should be done by reviewing the
overall configuration of Q items in each factor array as a Gestalt of Q items (Watts & Stenner,
2005, p.70). Those Q items which are at the ends of the distribution (rated as highly
characteristic or highly uncharacteristic) are considered particularly important because they
describe psychologically salient characteristics of how the session appears. Typically, the
factors are identified for all participants collectively. It is then possible to identify those
participants whose Q sorts load onto the factors and to compare differences in descriptions
expressed in the factor arrays. The description of each factor array is presented as a written
narrative referring to the position of Q-items. Q methodology has been described as
“qualiquantological” (Stenner & Stainton Rogers, 1995) to illustrate how quantitative
techniques are used in qualitatively oriented research.
13
Less Characteristic of Session
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
More Characteristic of Session
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
The coach, coachee or observer positions each Q item (session descriptor) to the left or right of the
distribution according to how characteristic the Q item is considered to represent the session.
Q items placed more to the right of the distribution are increasingly characteristic of the session.
Q items placed to the left are increasingly less characteristic of the session. There are fixed numbers
of Q items that can be placed in any column as showing in the diagram
14
6
Participants and data collection
Six coaches were invited to hold a coaching session, each with a different client (all holding
senior managerial responsibilities) using snowball and self-selection sampling (Saunders,
Lewis, & Thornhill, 2015). All coaches conducting coaching sessions were highly experienced
with a typical 20 years or more of workplace coaching as the main source of income) and
based in the UK but with some including in their practice international assignments. While
most of these coaches referred to a generally humanistic approach to their coaching practice,
there were some important differences in how these coaches conducted their sessions. The
coach for Session 1 said that he drew on a range of approaches and in his own idiosyncratic
model emphasised a focus on the client’s use of language and his own role in helping the client
to identify patterns. Session 1 was very much aligned with how he typically practised. The
coach for Session 2 described her approach as more eclectic, typically drawing on
psychometrics, cognitive-behavioural methods and Neuro-Linguistic Programming. The coach
described her recorded session more in existential terms in how she focused on the client to
discover what valued to him in life and to make choices based on those values. The Coach for
Session 3 described how she drew primarily on her sense of intuition. The main focus of the
recorded session was based on a visualization exercise involving a time-line. The Coach for
Session 4 described her session very much in terms of a strongly grounded Gestalt orientation.
Her session focused on a discussion of how the client might be able to integrate two alternative
constructions of self and featured an empty-chair exercise. The Session 5 coach described her
approach as a process of “coaching and consultation” in which she would draw on her
professional business background to help the client find answers to the challenges the coach
faced. She described her approach as being very “anti-psychologising.” This way of
facilitating the coaching process was demonstrated in how she gave practical suggestions to the
client about how to network more effectively and deliver business presentations. The coach for
15
Session 6 described her approach in person-cantered terms and this was evidenced in the way
that she stayed closely with the client’s own frame of reference, demonstration of empathic
listening and strong relationship building.
All coaches were working primarily at senior levels in organizations. ‘Experienced
coaches’ (3 years or more of experience) were invited to take part as observers and were also
identified using snowball and self-selection sampling. In practice, the experience of the
coaches taking part varied with some highly experienced coaches and others who appeared to
be developing their practice (e.g., 4 observers were identified as MA students); formal coach
training also varied and with some coaches describing strong preferences for specific coaching
approaches (e.., ‘Gestalt’, ‘solutions-focused’) and others more ‘eclectic’. While the observer
sample was not strictly a random sample of coaches, the mix of the observer groups was
indicative of a diversity of coaches practising coaching in the UK.
A professional video-recording was made of all 6 sessions (60-90 minutes each). Q
sorting typically followed immediately after the sessions or within 48 hours of the sessions.
The coaches invited to take part as observers viewed the recordings in groups of 4-8 and with
each observer viewing only one of the six sessions. None of the coaches acting as observers
had any personal knowledge of the coaches or clients. Some limited introduction to the
sessions was provided (e.g., if it would be a “one-off session” or “the last session in a series of
sessions”) but this information was kept to a minimum to avoid influencing how the observers
might have interpreted the sessions. After collecting the Q sorts from participants, all
participants were given an opportunity to comment on the sessions (there had been no
discussion of the sessions until after Q sorts had been completed individually). Normally in Q
methodology, these comments are only used to help clarify or confirm viewpoints expressed in
factor arrays rather than analysed separately using other qualitative methods.
16
Results
Two factors (F1, F2) were extracted and rotated (varimax) using PQ Method (Schmolck,
2014). The factors were then manually rotated 12 degrees (anticlockwise) to position the
individual Q sorts either side of the two factors. This is a recommended practice in Q
methodology (Brown, 1980). Through manual rotation, the two factors are positioned to
provide a central viewpoint through the middle of those participants loading significantly onto
those factors. Figure 2 shows the rotated factors and the positions of the 46 participants loading
onto the two factors (all participants completed Q sorts excepting the client for session 6).
Table 1 presents the same data allowing the identification of the participants in Figure 2. All
loadings greater than 0.28 are significant at p< 0.01and all Q sorts load significantly on at least
one factor. The study explained 32% of the study variance. The validity of both factors is
confirmed given that both have acceptable eigenvalues loading >1 (Watts & Stenner, 2012;
Factor 1:10.3; Factor 2: 4.4).
Twenty-Five Q sorts (54%) loaded significantly onto only factor 1 (Group 1: Figure 2).
These comprised 12 observers of Sessions 1 and 2; 4/5 clients completing Q sorts, 4/6 coaches
and 5 observers from a range of other sessions. Nine Q sorts (20%) loaded significantly onto
only factor 2 (Group 2). These were 3/4 of the observers for Session 3; 1/8 of the observers for
Session 4; 4/6 of the observers for Session 5 and 1/4 of the observers for Session 6. Finally, 12
Q sorts (26%) loaded significantly onto both factors 1 and 2 (Group 3). These included the
coaches for Sessions 1 and 3, the client for session 3 (inverse loading on Factor 2 but her prime
loading was still on factor 1 and is included in Group 1 as she was the only participant loading
significantly at the reverse polarity of factor 2) and a mix of observers from across sessions 36. There were no instances of significant loadings at the opposite pole of Factor 1.
17
18
Table 1:
Loadings for Each Participant by Session
No.
FACTOR 1
FACTOR 2
SESSION 1
NO
No.
FACTOR 1
FACTOR 2
SESSION 4
CLIENT
7
0.74*
0.03
CLIENT
23
0.62*
0.14
COACH
8
0.47*
0.39*
COACH
24
0.50*
0.09
Observer 1
1
0.50*
0.04
Observer 1
25
0.49*
0.16
Observer 2
2
0.46*
0.07
Observer 2
26
0.23
0.36*
Observer 3
3
0.64*
0.02
Observer 3
27
0.61*
0.36*
Observer 4
4
0.39*
-0.15
Observer 4
28
0.55*
-0.07
Observer 5
5
0.77*
0.01
Observer 5
29
0.42*
0.35*
Observer 6
6
0.61*
0.03
Observer 6
30
0.33*
0.07
Observer 7
N/A
N/A
N/A
Observer 7
31
0.35*
0.38*
Observer 8
N/A
N/A
N/A
Observer 8
32
0.33*
0.32*
SESSION 2
SESSION 5
CLIENT
10
0.63*
-0.05
CLIENT
39
0.70*
0.01
COACH
9
0.42*
0.15
COACH
40
0.45*
0.02
Observer 1
11
0.64*
-0.09
Observer 1
33
0.45*
-0.10
Observer 2
12
0.67*
-0.26
Observer 2
34
0.28*
0.32*
Observer 3
13
0.69*
-0.02
Observer 3
35
-0.09
0.51*
Observer 4
14
0.53*
0.02
Observer 4
36
0.13
0.71*
Observer 5
15
0.54*
0.18
Observer 5
37
0.09
0.61*
Observer 6
16
0.48*
-0.24
Observer 6
38
-0.06
0.66*
N/A
N/A
SESSION 3
SESSION 6
CLIENT
17
0.47*
-0.30*
CLIENT
COACH
18
0.36*
0.36*
COACH
41
0.60*
0.00
Observer 1
19
0.06
0.40*
Observer 1
42
0.38*
0.42*
Observer 2
20
0.16
0.45*
Observer 2
43
0.36*
0.39*
Observer 3
21
0.43*
0.65*
Observer 3
44
0.43*
0.12
Observer 4
22
-0.08
0.40*
Observer 4
45
0.35*
0.33*
Observer 5
N/A
N/A
N/A
Observer 5
46
0.07
0.47*
*Denotes a significant loading: p>0.28 p<0.01
19
The identification of three groups of participants aligning either onto factor 1, factor 2
or a mix of factors suggests two clearly differentiated descriptions of coaching sessions: factor
1 (primarily observers of sessions 1 and 2, clients and coaches) and factor 2 (primarily
observers of sessions 3 and 5). The third grouping is a mix of these descriptions (primarily
observers of sessions 4 and 6, secondary loadings of two coaches and the session 3 client,
inverse loading). In summary, the clients always tended to describe (in their Q sorts) the
sessions which aligned with factor 1 and in one case tending toward a viewpoint that was
diametrically opposed to factor 2. The perspective of the observers was more mixed and varied
according to the session observed. The coaches generally aligned with the perspective of the
clients but could be more nuanced. The factor arrays for Factors 1 and 2 are provided in Table
2. For ease of reference, they are shown side by side with factor scores for each so that
similarities in the ranking of each Q item in the respective factor arrays can be identified.
TABLE 2
FACTOR ARRAYS (F1: “Client-led Coaching” & F2: “Process-Led Coaching”)
F1
No
F2
1
There is an exploration of the effect of client’s choice of words
1
-3
2
There is an exploration of the client’s values
0
-5
3
There is an exploration of the client’s environmental influences (e.g.,
0
-2
2
-6
organization, family, politics, history)
4
There is an exploration of the client’s underlying mindset (e.g.,
assumptions, beliefs, stories)
5
Coach and client explore the deeper meaning of a presenting issue
+1
-6
6
Coach works with the clients’ apparent defensiveness
-1
-4
7
Coach points out recurrent theme in client’s behaviour
3
0
8
Coach points out potential unconscious motives of the client (out of the
0
-5
-1
0
client’s awareness)
9
20
There is an exploration of the client’s in-session non-verbal behaviour
10
Coach invites client to consider other people’s perspectives on an issue
0
-1
11
Coach invites client to identify resources and how they might be
+2
+2
+1
0
leveraged (including strengths, accomplishments and/or external
resources)
12
Coach highlights client’s resources (including strengths,
accomplishments and/or external resources) and how they might be
leveraged
13
Coach explores client’s emotions
+1
-4
14
Coach encourages client to feel more deeply within session
0
-5
15
Coach encourages client to become more aware of his immediate
+1
0
experience in the session
16
Coach challenges client’s perspective of situation and or self
+3
-2
17
Coach asks client to quantify feeling/ perception/ issue using a scale
-4
-2
18
There is one or more, periods of silent reflection
0
-5
19
There is a discussion of the results of a psychometric instrument
-4
0
20
There is a discussion of external feedback
0
0
21
Coach gives feedback from coach’s experience of client
1
-2
22
Coach discloses own feelings/ bodily sensations evoked in the session
-3
-4
23
Coach describes her perception of the situation
+4
+2
24
There appears to be a productive use of metaphors
-2
-3
25
Coach and client explore their differences in perception of the situation
-2
-4
26
Coach expands on client’s statements
+2
+3
27
Coach provides reassurance to client
+2
+4
28
Coach uses humour
0
+3
29
Coach shows empathy
+5
+3
30
Coach shares personal details about herself
-3
0
31
Coach repairs lost connection to the client during the session
-4
-1
32
Coach discloses own fallibility
-3
-3
33
There appears to be rapport (strong connection) between client and
+6
+1
coach
34
Coach and client appear to understand each other
+5
+3
35
Coach and client discuss their relationship
-2
-4
36
Coach asks for permission to give feedback
-2
-4
21
37
Coach repeats client’s words back to him
+4
+5
38
Coach paraphrases the client’s statements
+2
+5
39
Coach checks if her understanding is correct
+3
+2
40
There is a sense of optimism in the coaching session
+3
+1
41
There appears to be a shift in energy during the coaching session
+2
+2
42
Coach and client appear to be engaged (vs. disengaged)
+6
+4
43
Coach and client use development plan to guide sessions
-4
-1
44
Coach follows up on key/ significant statements made by client
+4
0
45
Coach asks questions helping the client elaborate
+5
+2
46
There is a discussion of the coaching contract
-2
+1
47
There is a discussion of issues related to the termination coaching
-2
-1
48
There is a discussion of boundaries and/ or ethical issues relating to the
-4
-1
-4
-1
coaching engagement
49
There is a discussion of a potential referral to an outside specialist
(e.g., therapist, doctor, financial advisor)
50
The session is fast-paced
-4
0
51
The session appears highly structured
-5
-0
52
Coach and client appear to bring the session to closure easily
+2
+4
53
Coach and client discuss the process of the session
-1
-3
54
Coach takes an active role during the session
+4
+6
55
Coach makes explicit a shift in role during the session (e.g., acting as
-1
0
consultant, teacher, therapist)
56
Coach explains the reason behind using a specific intervention
-2
-2
57
Coach appears to be using an intervention mechanistically
-6
+1
58
Coach appears to be pursuing her own agenda
-5
+2
59
Client takes initiative in structuring the session
-3
-3
60
There is a discussion of client’s feedback on coaching
-1
0
61
Coach makes sounds or non-verbally encourages client to continue
+5
+6
62
Coach is verbose
-5
+5
63
Coach interrupts client
-4
+3
64
Client interrupts coach
-2
-2
65
Coach suggests in-session exercise/ activity
-1
+4
66
Coach broadens the focus of discussions
0
-2
22
67
Coach asks questions that appear to open new possibilities for the
+3
0
-3
-1
client
68
Coach appears to focus on a third party’s agenda (e.g., organization,
line manager)
69
Clients suggest his next course of action
+1
+1
70
There is discussion of new practices for the client
+4
+1
71
Coach offers possible solutions
+2
+4
72
Coach suggests homework for1client
-1
+1
73
Coach shares her knowledge about topic
-0
+1
74
Coach gives advice
0
+3
75
Coach follows up on previous homework
-1
-1
76
Coach encourages client to make choices
+3
+2
77
Coach asks the client to describe key learnings/ takeaways from
+3
+3
session
78
There is a discussion of the client’s progress
+1
+2
79
There is a discussion about the client’s overall goals
+1
+4
80
There is a discussion about how to measure the success of the coaching
-3
-2
engagement
81
Coach redirects client to client’s agenda
-1
+1
82
Coach explores client’s level of engagement in coaching
-6
-3
83
Coach enquires about client’s aim for the session
+4
+5
84
There is a discussion of the client’s impact on his environment (e.g.,
0
-3
organization/family)
Notes: 1) the numerical values in the columns for F1 and F2 indicate the positioning of the Qitems in the Factor Arrays. For example in Factor 1, Q33 and Q42 are positioned at the far
right of the distribution (+6) meaning that these were the Q items that were most typically
rated as highly characteristic of the session experienced or viewed for those participants
loading onto F1. Conversely, Q57 and Q82 are positioned at -6 indicating how participants
loading onto F1 considered these Q items to be highly uncharacteristic of their description of
the coaching sessions they experienced or viewed
23
2)the version of the CPQS used was a prototype of the version published in Bachkirova, Sibley
and Myers (2015). Q23, Q31 & Q43 were considered redundant & removed in the final
version; Q11 and Q12 were combined. These changes are not considered to impact on the
content validity of the Q sort.
Factor 1: “Client-led coaching”
The Factor is described as “Client-led coaching” to reflect a clear focus on the client. The
session is explorative and relational but without being deeply emotional, psychologically
challenging or transformative. The derivation of this description is based on an interpretation of
the configuration of Q items expressed in the factor array. Consistent with typical studies in Q
methodology (Watts and Stenner, 2005), the derivation of this factor is now explained in
relation to the configuration.
Those Q items with the highest positive loadings on Factor 1 relate to rapport (33: +6),
empathy (29: +5) and understanding (34: +5). There is strong engagement (42: +6). The coach
is active (Q54: +4) asking lots of questions (Q45: +4), picking up on significant statements
(Q44: +5) and making restatements (Q37: +4). The coach describes her perception of the
situation (Q23: +4) and is attentive to the purpose of the session (Q83: +4) rather than allowing
the conversation to take its own direction. The coach is listening (Q61: +5; Q39: +3). This
further indicates attentiveness to the client. There is limited exploration of the client’s mindset
(Q4: +2) or of the deeper meaning of a presenting issue (Q5: +1) but the client is challenged to
consider their perspective on self and events (Q16: +4). There is little discussion of the
unconscious (Q8: 0), defensiveness (Q6: -1), values (Q2: 0), emotions (Q13: 1), in-session
behaviour (Q9: -1) or experience in the session (Q18: 0). There aren’t lots of silences (Q:18: 0)
24
for the client to reflect. There isn’t a sense of transformation in the session with only some shift
in energy (Q41: +2) although some new possibilities are identified (Q67: +3). Those Q items
with the highest negative loadings suggest a fluent approach (i.e. not mechanistic: Q57: -6; nor
structured: Q51: -5). The pace is comfortable (i.e., not fast paced: Q50: -4) and is not
characterized by mechanistic interventions such as psychometric instruments (Q19: -4) or
development plans (Q43: -4). The coach is very much focused on the client agenda (Q 58: -5)
and does not dominate the conversation (i.e. is not verbose: Q62: -5). The coach holds the
client accountable by encouraging the client to make choices (Q76: +3). The session has a
practical orientation with an emphasis on new practices (Q70: +5) and a generally optimistic
atmosphere (Q40: +3).
Factor 2: “Process-led Coaching”
The factor is described as “Process-led coaching” to convey a sense of the coach orchestrating
a structured coaching process with the use of interpersonal skills, techniques and activities.
Process dominates rather than relationship or exploration of the client or client’s concerns. The
derivation of this factor now follows.
The factor array for F2 is characterized by a complete absence of depth and breadth of
exploration and this is indicated most clearly in the high factor loadings in a negative sense (the
opposite meaning of the Q item descriptors). The described session was not perceived to
explore deeper meanings (Q5: -6) or the mindset of the client (Q4: -6). There is no exploration
of values (Q2: -5), unconscious motives (Q8: -5), defences (Q6: -4), emotions (Q13: -4),
feelings (Q14: -5) or of the coaching relationship (Q35: -4). There is no space for reflection
(Q18: -5). The coach is not permission seeking (Q36: -4), is very active (Q54: +6) dominating
the conversation (Q62: +5) and expanding on the client’s statements (Q38: +5). The session is
characterized by activity (Q65: +4): the coach is active in giving emotional support in the form
25
of reassurance (Q27: +4), showing empathy (Q29: +3), offering solutions (Q71: +4) and in
giving advice (Q74: +3). There is therefore a sense of the coach working hard. The coach is
active in using a range of questioning and listening skills (Q61: +6; Q38: +5, Q37: +5) so much
so that the use of these techniques dominates the appearance of the session. There is a sense of
a structured and goal focused process with the aims of coaching being identified (Q83: +4), a
focus on goals specifically (Q79: +4), the session being brought to closure (Q52: +4) and
learning being highlighted (Q77: +3). The atmosphere is not intense with ample humour (28:
+3) and strong engagement (Q42: +4).
Supporting comments
The clients all spoke very highly of the coaches and found the sessions very useful. Skills
included being “very, very insightful” (client session 2) and “knowing when to ask the killer
question” (client session 3). All the clients reported a sense of being challenged but not
excessively: “It was kind of challenging without being really challenging. I wasn’t being asked
for hard and fast solutions” (client session 5). The learning and experience was considered
useful (“Just what I needed”; client session 3) but at the same time “there was nothing earth
shattering” (client, session 5). There was a sense of the session being focused on them: “She
did the right thing: go where I wanted to go” (client session 3). These and similar comments
support their descriptions (Q sorts) of their sessions as Client-led coaching: explorative,
interactive and client-focused but not excessively challenging. There were no clear evaluative
differences in how the clients spoke about any of the sessions, supporting a consensual view
about their reported experience.
The coaches all said that the sessions generally represented how they typically coached
and their comments were generally consistent with those of the clients supporting their loading
primarily onto Client-led Coaching. The coach in session 1 did say that she found herself
26
directing the client (giving advice), something she did not normally do which helps explain her
loading significantly onto factor 2 as well as factor 1.
The observers tended to identify the style of the coach as being much more directive in
some of the sessions (3 and 5) than the clients had described. One observer (session 4) loading
onto factor 2 referred to the “directedness of the coach” while another (session 3) thought that
the coach was too “busy in her own head” to be attentive to the needs of the client. The
observers of sessions 3 and 5 commented that there was limited breadth or depth of exploration
(“lots of missed opportunities”), which was a distinguishing characteristic of factor 2. These
comments were made about all sessions but were more pronounced in Sessions 3 and 5. In the
case of Sessions 1 and 2, there were many comments which related to the reflective process,
characteristic in the factor 1 array. For example, the coach in session 1 was perceived to be
“holding a mirror up” to the client but reflection did not equate to in-depth exploration of the
client’s issues which was considered by many observers to be limited. The observers did
highlight the sense of intimacy which is salient in the factor 1 array with one observer
commenting that the coach and client even “looked like each other”. Overall, therefore,
comments made by observers were consistent with the descriptions of factors 1 and 2. They
were also generally critical, particularly when the approach of the coach aligned with Factor 2,
suggesting that most observers identified what they considered to be limitations in the
approach associated with Factor 2.
Development of an empirically derived model of coaching practice
The identification of two factors in this study allows the creation of an empirically derived
model describing different types of coaching sessions representing Factors 1 and 2 (Figure 3).
Two types were clearly defined (Client-led and Process-led Coaching). A third type of
coaching was partially identified which was diametrically opposed to Process-led coaching.
27
Only one client loaded onto this inverse polarity of Process-led coaching while also loading
onto Client-led coaching, so the factor was not clearly differentiated. However, several Q sorts
of other coaches had some (non-significant) loadings onto this polarity suggesting the
possibility of this type of coaching. This type of coaching can be conceptualized as radically
different to Process-led Coaching. It is described as Dialogic. Another inferred, fourth type of
approach, ‘Performance Management’ is indicated by considering a style of coaching
asymmetric to a Client-led Coaching. Figure 3 represents the proposed typology with the
following description of each type of coaching.
Client-led Coaching
In this type of coaching, the coach is very attentive to the client, asks lots of questions and
gently and lightly explores the client’s issues in a non-confrontational manner. There is
empathy, rapport and mutual understanding. These aspects of the engagement foreground a
trusting and intimate relationship. The session flows in accordance with the needs of the client
and there is a focus on practical outcomes rather than an in-depth exploration of the breadth
and depth of client issues (e.g., in an overtly psychological exploration of concerns or
28
aspirations). There is a sense of collaboration with the coach being active in the conversation
and working with the client’s frame of reference (e.g., working with the client’s aims, being
inquiring and curious, picking up on significant statements and encouraging the client to
explore further).
‘Performance Management’
In the diametrically opposed approach to Client-led coaching, the practitioner is not attentive
to the client’s agenda; there is no exploration of issues, no rapport or mutual understanding.
Solutions are instructional and prescriptive. There could be formality to the process including
use of written reports and the interaction may lead to a referral (e.g., training, extra coaching or
disciplinary action). This type of interaction would foreground the interests of a third party
(e.g., organization) rather than the client. The approach could be characteristic of serious issues
of performance management.
There might be some Q sort descriptors in the CPQS that could begin to correlate at a
low level with this type of approach. For example, Q items which would score in a negative
sense at this polarity might include the use of a development plan or psychometrics, but the use
of these interventions would likely be delivered mechanistically with little checking of
understanding or any concern or awareness of how the feedback is being received. The focus
would be on how well the person receiving feedback would be meeting organisational norms/
decisions. Another type of interaction that might correlate to some extent with this type might
be a manager who has a generally autocratic leadership style, limited sensitivity to others but
believing that he or she is expressing a leadership style characteristic of coaching. The notion
of ‘Performance Management’ is intended to stress the nature of performance being managed
(led by the organization) rather than common conceptualizations of coaching in which the
individual is encouraged to “develop themselves…and is free from the influence or boundaries
29
of organizational status structures” (Jones et al., p.205-251). It is not intended to reflect broader
and more progressive notions of performance management (e.g., Peterson, 2009)
Process-Led Coaching
In this type of coaching the coach is directing the process: there is a focus on goal setting,
session structure and activity including possibly in-session exercises and the coach appearing
to be actively working with a visible use of interpersonal techniques. The relationship is not
foregrounded in part because the coach is so engaged in structuring the process that the needs
of the client might be overlooked. Similarly, the lack of reflective space, attentiveness to the
client’s issues and lack of focus on meaning, mindset or client experiencing could be leading to
a lack of depth and breadth of exploration.
Dialogic coaching
A coaching session diametrically opposed to the Process-led coaching involves a depth of
exploration including for example, emotions, drives, the coaching relationship, the coaching
process, differences in perspectives, values, choice of words, mindset and physical
experiencing. However, the explorative process is not visibly directed by the coach and the use
of conventional techniques is limited or unnoticeable. The coach is less active in the sense of
allowing reflective space rather than talking and is not introducing activities or finding
solutions for the client. However, the coach is still involved in the process, encouraging depth
of exploration and giving her perspective. The process is more emergent, perhaps with neither
the coach nor the client knowing at the outset what the issue might be (there may not be a clear
identification of an aim or session goals). There might not be a clear point at which to bring the
session to a closure. There may even be moments when the conversation might not appear
30
purposeful, leading to a possible disengagement when there might not be a clear understanding
between coach and client.
Discussion
The different types of coaching in the proposed typology resonate with various approaches and
style of coaching described in the literature. For example, Client-led coaching is generally
aligned with the common description by coaches of their typical approach in the research by
Bachkirova et al. (2015). However, the coach of the Client-led type appears less explorative of
mindsets than reported by coaches (coaches considered the exploration of mindset as a key
characteristic of their practice in Bachkirova et al., 2015) and suggests that coaches might
assume they are more exploratory and challenging than they are in practice. Client-led seems to
be an approach that emphasizes relationship and is congruent with one of the three frames
identified by Stein (2009). It is also associated with (gentle) challenging and supporting styles
(Heron, 1976; de Haan & Burger, 2004).
Process-led coaching seems to relate to a more competency driven approach in which
the coaches showed lots of coaching techniques with an awareness of how to actively manage
the interaction in a structured manner (e.g., agreeing aims and goals, introducing exercises and
activities, making suggestions, bringing the session to closure and capturing learning) but at the
expense of a possible lack of depth of exploration or intimacy of relationship. This form of
coaching seems consistent with a “directive” style (de Haan & Burger, 2004). It is a more
instrumental approach (Stelter, 2014) and in this sense, might be conceptualized in terms of the
coach working from the perspective of the “competent self” (Bachkirova, 2016)
Dialogic Coaching is more associated with an in-depth exploration of the client’s way
of being (e.g., life purpose, deeper meanings of events) and aspects of self beyond the
immediate awareness of client or coach, with parallels to the existential approach in coaching
31
(Spinelli & Horner, 2007). “It is less about developing an immediate shift in specific
behaviours and performance than it is about extending clients’ understanding of their
individual stance in life” (p.126). It is an approach which emphasizes depth of exploration in a
manner which is very non-directive. In this sense, it would seem to fit more comfortably with
the Humanistic School rather than with the Rationality or Activity schools identified by Segers
et al. (2011). It would also be consistent with the “dialogic” approach described by Bachkirova,
(2016) and Stelter (2014).
The fourth inferred type of ‘Performance Management’ is the antithesis of a more
readily identified type of ‘Client-led’ coaching and may have some parallels with interventions
according to the managerial discourses in coaching described by Western (2012, 2017).
Managerial discourses for example tend to control the individual and promote the needs of the
organization over those of the individual and the emphasis shifts from self-actualisation to roleactualisation (Western, 2017).
While this study suggests a range of descriptions (types) of coaching sessions, these
descriptions were often different for the same sessions. One way of understanding these
descriptive differences is in terms of differences in “horizons of understanding” (Gadamer,
1996) held by the different participants. From the perspective of the clients, unaccustomed to
another person demonstrating the behaviours of active listening, questioning skills, verbal
displays of empathy and other coaching skills, the clients might have experienced the sessions
as Client-led. They might have also valued the sessions not having been too challenging which
would align with similar findings in psychotherapy where clients value sessions which are
“smooth” rather than “deep”, the converse being the case for therapists (Stiles & Snow, 1984).
However, from the perspective of the observers, describing the session in relation to
professional standards, the sessions often fell short of what they might have expected in terms
of an explorative in-depth dialogical process. This suggests the possibility of self-deception on
32
the part of the coaches (Bachkirova, 2016). In applying a full range of coaching skills
(paraphrasing, restatement, expressing empathy, consciously building rapport, providing
support/reassurance, giving verbal encouragement, structuring the session and suggesting
solutions), some of the coaches might have appeared to have been too busy to allow the
conversation to develop at its own pace and allowing rapport to build naturally.
Another way of making sense of the differences in descriptions could be in terms of the
available range and use of vocabulary of the clients and observers. The clients might for
example have readily identified references in Q items relating to empathy (Q29) and rapport
(Q33) which were associated with Client-led coaching but less so for Q items relating to terms
such as “repairs lost connection” (Q31) which would likely have made more sense to the
coaches/observers. This may have led to differences in sorting patterns. The clients might have
also wished to express satisfaction with their coaches deliberately highlighting Q items
associated with Client-led coaching whereas the observers and two coaches conducting
sessions who loaded onto factor 2 as well as factor 1 might have wished to express a more
professional evaluation. However, the verbal comments provided by the clients tended to
support an approach very much aligned with a “Client-led” approach.
Yet another possible way of understanding differences in descriptions is that in the
immediacy and intimacy of the face to face exchange, the coaches sensed the positive impact
of their approach on the client and this led them to believe that they were adopting a Client-led
and valued approach (if qualified for two of the coaches who also loaded significantly onto
Factor 2 as well as Factor 1). The observers who were physically distant from the interaction
(physically removed in space, time and with no relationship with the client) gave a different
description of the session. A sense of Buber’s (1999) “I thou” relationship perhaps was only
meaningful for the coach and client. In short, there was a difference in how the session was
experienced compared to how it was observed.
33
Thinking about the implication of the proposed typology for practice, it is important to
highlight that the types of coaching identified in this research are congruent with organizational
needs expressed for example in the HRD strategies. Drawing on research by Bates & Chen
(2004) and Bates (2002) we can argue that our proposed types of coaching share parallels with
the three paradigms of practice in HRD these authors identified: to encourage learning, to
increase performance and to enhance meaning in work. For example, Client-led coaching is
compatible with the learning paradigm with its emphasis on the client and self-directed
learning (andragogy). This approach can be entirely consistent with organizational learning
provided there is alignment between learning and the goals of the organization. Process-led
coaching is consistent with an inherent behaviourism in the performance paradigm of HRD in
the way the coach draws on process, activities and techniques in order to achieve clearly
formulated goals. The Performance approach inferred in this study as the antithesis of much
coaching practice is when organizational performance takes precedence over individual
learning. Holton (2002) describes this approach within an overall performance paradigm as
potentially abusive (p. 210). A Dialogic coaching type is consistent with the meaning in work
paradigm with its emphasis on meaning rather than performance as an end it itself. In relation
to different coaching genres (Cox et al., 2014), Client-led coaching is more aligned to the
building of confidence, resourcefulness and leadership development. Process-led coaching is
most clearly aligned with performance coaching and provides a structure and focus for the
resolution of immediate work challenges. A dialogic approach is a more developmental and
psychologically challenging form of coaching in which the client might find outcomes which
may or may not align with organizational system performance needs but delivers broader
outcomes of value to the individual.
It might be argued that the model proposed in this study is an oversimplification of the
coaching process given that there are a range of what on the surface at least, seem very
34
different approaches to coaching described in the literature (Palmer and Whybrow, 2007;
Passmore, 2007; Cox, et al, 2014). It isn’t clear however if these approaches actually share
essential similarities. In using Q mode factor analysis as a data reduction method in this study,
it is hoped that some fundamental features have been identified in the coaching process. There
is clearly a need for expanding this study to evaluate a broader range of coaching practices.
However, given the difficulties process researchers face in gaining access to coaching sessions,
the involvement of 6 experienced coaches and the “one-off” nature of some coaching sessions
provides a promising start of what is hoped to be an on-going programme of research.
Limitations
While the study did make use of very experienced coaches, the diversity of coaches involved
was limited when taking account of the range of coaching approaches (Palmer & Whybrow,
2007). The one-off nature of some of the sessions coupled with the use of a video-recorder
might also have led to a lack of in-depth exploration on the part of the coaches. What also can
be considered as a limitation is that the study did not take account of context. The notion of
context can include a number of background factors for the session: the broader objectives of
coaching (e.g., specific skills, performance or development), the personality type or cognitive
style of the client as well as the specific focus of the coaching intervention or the so called
‘presenting problem’ (e.g., addressing work relationships or initiating a business start-up).
Context can also include the broader business climate in which coaching is commissioned. The
study by Kauffman & Hodgetts (2016) for example illustrates how coaches can be particularly
sensitive to contextual factors when facilitating sessions. At the same time, the focus on the
process is important in its own right if we wish to understand essential elements of the
coaching practice in spite of their interdependence and complexity.
35
Given the exploratory nature of the research, it is acknowledged that the typology
presented in this paper is tentative, being based on only a small and limited range of coaching
sessions. It is possible that future research identifies different typologies. However, the
identification of an initial typology illustrates how the methodological approach outlined in this
paper provides great potential for analysing whole coaching sessions in detail and from
multiple perspectives. It also suggests that even experienced coaches might conduct coaching
sessions in a way which can give an appearance of a mechanistic/ process-driven approach or
one that is very much focused on the client and the relationship rather than encourage depth of
exploration.
Future Directions
It is recommended that future research collect Q sort descriptions of a broader range of
coaching traditions, genres and contexts. Future studies could therefore set out to establish
replication or to identify alternative typologies. It would be useful to compare the approaches
of novice and experienced coaches. More experienced coaches may be more likely to
demonstrate managed eclecticism (Clutterbuck, 2010) or model agility (Kauffman and
Hodgetts, 2016) although it was interesting to note that our study did involve experienced
coaches who might have been expected to have demonstrated model agility. Future studies
could also provide more contextual information to observers, including the deliberations of the
coach. In this way, the approach of more experienced coaches might be viewed more
sympathetically and less process-driven. It would be useful to conduct research that includes
clients who might be considered to be at a more advanced level of development (Bachkirova,
2011). This would allow an exploration of how these clients respond to what might be
observed as a “Process-led” approach and how their Q Sorts would load onto this type of
coaching. The methodology illustrated in this article could be extended to explore interactions
36
in coaching supervision in addition to a wide range of workplace interactions including
mentoring, performance appraisals, leadership interactions, 360-degree feedback, interviews,
sales and consultancy interactions. The strength of Q methodology is its capacity to provide a
rich description of interactive processes.
Conclusions and final comments
The typology described in this article present important ways of conceptualizing differences in
the actual practice of coaching. As a first in-depth exploratory and empirical study into the
coaching process at the level of a coaching session, it makes a significant contribution to the
discipline of coaching by suggesting a tentative typology of coaching based on actual coachclient interactions evaluated from the three essential perspectives. For example, the differences
in descriptions of sessions elicited in this article not only provide clarity in coaching practice
but also, paradoxically, highlight the relevance of multiple voices (Bachkirova, 2016) in
coaching. In doing so, these findings support the relevance of the ‘Rashomon conjecture’ and
re-open this debate in coaching.
A different argument could have been put forward in this paper about the nature of the
coaching process had this study not included the perspectives of the coach and client. If only
the observer perspective had been included, the study would have given the appearance of two,
more or less uncontested types of coaching session: Client-led (sessions 1 and 2); Process-led
(sessions 3 and 5) or a mix of both (sessions 4 ad 6). The inclusion of the client and coach
perspectives calls into question the ontology of a coaching session as something existing
independently of perspective. Both, the client and coach perspectives are fundamental in
understanding of the nature of coaching and in the assessment of coaching. There is a parallel
here in terms of how leadership might best be understood in terms of the impact it has on
37
followers (e.g., theories of transformational leadership, Bass, 1999) rather than in terms of how
it might be described in terms of behavioural descriptions.
In terms of practical contribution, the study highlights implications that are relevant to
both organizational clients who buy and evaluate coaching and coaching practitioners who are
interested in improving their practice. For organizational needs, the typology identified in this
empirical investigation offers an opportunity to differentiate what needs are better met by what
type of coaching and thus to judge the outcomes of coaching according to the original and most
appropriate expectations. What is important for coaches is that they can recognize that they
may be using a Client-led, Process-led, Dialogic or a mix of approaches. They can also reflect
on whether an emphasis on structuring and directing the process might be impeding depth of
exploration or if they are incorporating practices which do not correspond with common
understandings of coaching (Performance Management Approach). The descriptions of
coaching identified empirically in this study are characteristic of much of what has been
described as “run-of-the-mill coaching”. This provides reassurance to coaches in the sense that
“epiphanies” may not be necessary (de Haan et al., 2010) but at the same time calls into
question whether coaching is relationship or technique driven without being particularly
explorative and challenging. The possibility is even raised that positive client feedback could
lead to self-deception on the part of coaches (Bachkirova, 2015) and thus an additional
incentive for their long-term personal and professional development.
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