Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
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Journal of Archaeological Science
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas
Matching sherds to vessels through ceramic petrography: an Early
Neolithic Iberian case study
lez a, *, Attila Kreiter b, Kamal Badreshany a, John Chapman a,
Antonio Blanco-Gonza
ter Pa
ncze
l b
Pe
a
b
Department of Archaeology, University of Durham, DH13LE Durham, United Kingdom
ci út 3, Hungary
Hungarian National Museum, National Heritage Protection Centre, H-1113 Budapest, Daro
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 21 April 2014
Received in revised form
2 June 2014
Accepted 27 June 2014
Available online 19 July 2014
Ceramic re-fitting has traditionally focused on linking sherds to vessels using their formal features or
decoration. This paper presents an innovative procedure designed to test such associations using ceramic
thin section analysis. An assemblage of the earliest hand-made ceramics from central Iberia dated to the
second half of the 6th millennium BC was used as a test case. First, the whole ceramic assemblage was
subjected to macroscopic morphological sorting, taphonomic evaluation and a re-fitting operation. These
tasks led to the recognition of both secure physical joins and probable matches. 16 sherds, representing 8
pairs, were selected from among those probable matches. These samples were investigated by thin
section petrography and the photomicrographs processed using digital image analyses to produce
qualitative mineralogical and quantitative textural data for assessing the likelihood of each pair
belonging to the same vessel. The results show the potential of this strategy for matching sherds to
vessels, as well as its reliability and wide applicability.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Early Neolithic pottery
6th millennium BC
Sherd-to-vessel associations
Ceramic re-fitting
Thin section petrography
Digital image analysis
1. Introduction
Pottery re-fitting constitutes a well tested and efficient postexcavation analytical method, becoming widespread in the last
decade (e.g. Sullivan, 1989; Bollong, 1994; Garrow, 2006; Edwards,
2012). This is the most suitable strategy to address important
archaeological questions, such as stratigraphic and formation
processes, the cultural choices related to the management of
waste, or the in-depth characterization etemporality, scale, frequency, etceof past depositional practices. This approach was
^ine op
originally borrowed from the cha
eratoire method, aimed at
bitage (Chapman and
reconstructing Palaeolithic technological de
Gaydarska, 2007: 85e87). Lithics and ceramics are, however,
very different archaeological materials whose methods of study
are often not interchangeable. Thus, an uncritical reliance on the
original lithic studies has been detrimental to the development of
ceramic re-fitting. Particularly, sherd-links have been addressed
through an almost exclusive emphasis on diagnostic sherds, such
as rims, carinations, bases, etc., since ‘body sherds are often
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ34 920213605.
lez).
E-mail address: ablancoglez@gmail.com (A. Blanco-Gonza
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.06.024
0305-4403/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
impossible to match’ (Orton and Hughes, 2013: 266). Moreover,
the focus for linkages is most often on sherds that can be directly
adjoined or matched. This perspective has narrowed the
understanding of results achievable from sherd re-fitting, leading
to an underappreciation of the broad informative potential of
lez and Chapman, 2014). Indeed,
this practice (Blanco-Gonza
secure ceramic matches constitute a rare, random and unrepresentative subset (Sullivan, 1989: 104) out of the array of associations actually recognizable between potsherds, necessitating
the development of methods that can securely identify these
associations.
The above shortcomings have rarely been addressed by
scholars. Bollong's scoring method (1994: 17e19, Table 1) is one of
the few and most notable contributions on this subject to date.
This author defined six types of sherd-to-vessel associations
ranging from actual physical refits to more uncertain linkages and
isolated examples with no association in the assemblage, known
as ‘orphan’ sherds. However, his scheme relies heavily upon visual
impressions expressed in qualitative indexes, inhibiting an independent evaluation of the results. Moreover, Bollong does not pay
adequate attention to body sherds with no physical matches,
which represent the bulk of potsherds in any ceramic assemblage.
Ceramic thin section analysis could be a strategy well suited to
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
140
Table 1
Ceramic samples from La L
ampara, stating their archaeological context, description and the questions addressed through their study.
Sample
Accession no.
Context
Reference
Description
Addressed questions
A
97/8/C/175
Pit 1
B
99/197/E-404/1
Pit 3
C
2001/125/3.2.1.2
Pit 9
Rojo et al. 2008:
158, Fig. 130, no. 8
Rojo et al. 2008:
158, Fig. 130, no. 3
Rojo et al. 2008:
150, Fig. 122, no. 10
Sherds from the same hemispheric
bowl in different pits (25 m apart)?
Differential post-breakage alteration
(by fire in Sample A)?
Sherds from the same hemispheric
bowl within the same Pit 9? Differential
post-breakage alterations by fire?
D
2001/125/3.2.1.1
Pit 9
Rojo et al. 2008:
150, Fig. 122, no. 4
E
99/197/E-406/4
Pit 3
Rojo et al. 2008:
150, Fig. 122, no. 11
F
2001/125/2.13.12
Pit 13
Rojo et al. 2008:
150, Fig. 122, no. 7
G
2001/125/7.5.1.2
Pit 17
Unpublished
H
2001/125/7.6.1.3
Pit 17
Rojo et al. 2008:
139, Fig. 114, no. 2
I
99/98/D-302/14
Pit 2
Unpublished
J
99/98/B-202/82
Pit 10
Unpublished
K
2001/125/2.3.1.2
Pit 13
L
2001/125/1.1.1.1
Pit 18
Rojo et al. 2008:
158, Fig. 130, no. 4
Unpublished
Incised rim sherd with light
orange surfaces
Incised rim sherd with
homogeneous dark color
Grooved body sherd from a
hemispheric bowl with
homogeneous light brownorange color
Grooved rim from a
hemispheric bowl with uneven
gray color
Grooved rim from a
hemispheric bowl with even
gray color
Grooved rim from a
hemispheric bowl with uneven
gray color and clear postbreakage sooting
Coarse, handled, body sherd
with gray color, rounded edges,
porous surfaces and intense fire
disturbance
Coarse, handled, body sherd
with homogeneous color, fresh
edges and smooth polished
surface
Plain body sherd with light
orange color
Plain body sherd with light
orange color
Incised rim dark gray sherd,
worn surfaces and breaks.
Incised body light gray sherd
M
2001/125/2.11.1.4
Pit 13
N
2001/125/2.10.1.3
Pit 13
O
2001/125/2/11/1/1
Pit 13
P
2001/125/2/12/1/2
Pit 13
Rojo et al. 2008:
163, Fig. 134, no. 2
Rojo et al. 2008:
163, Fig. 134, no. 3
Rojo et al. 2008:
140, Fig. 115, no. 1
Rojo et al. 2008:
140, Fig. 115, no. 1
tackling these concerns; it has been widely used to characterize
pottery production technology and even post-depositional alterations (e.g. Orton and Hughes, 2013: 172e173; Quinn, 2013:
204e210). Yet, petrography has never been deployed to characterize the pre-depositional processes that take place between the
time vessels are fractured and their definitive discard. This paper
contributes towards this endeavor. First a visual assessment and a
re-fitting operation were carried out with a collection of handmade ceramics. Then, 16 non-conjoining paired sherds were
selected, sectioned and petrographically examined. Subsequently
their photomicrographs were processed through digital image
analyses. A scanning electron microscope was used to compare the
nature of some mineral inclusions. This procedure has allowed for
the testing of several hypothetical sherd-to-vessel associations
with important consequences for understanding how these ceramics entered the archaeological record. This new method suggests that there is much to learn from these often disregarded
stages of the life-cycle of archaeological ceramics, which have
been referred to as their ‘life after the break’ (Chapman and
Gaydarska, 2007: 81e112).
Incised rim sherd with pale
orange color
Incised body sherd with dark
gray color
Irregularly fired rim sherd from
a large vessel with impressed
lip and impressed plastic
applications, fresh edges and
fractures
Irregularly fired rim sherd from
a large vessel with impressed
lip and impressed plastic
applications, eroded edges and
fractures
Sherds from the same hemispheric
bowl in different pits (30 m apart)?
Differential post-breakage alterations
(by fire in Sample F)?
Sherds from the same coarse handled
vessel within Pit 17? Differential postbreakage alterations (abrasion and fire
in Sample G)?
Sherds from the same vessel in different
pits (45 m apart)? No post-breakage
alterations
Sherds from the same bowl in different
pits (10 m apart)? Differential postbreakage alterations (abrasion in
Sample K)?
Sherds from the same hemispheric
bowl within the same Pit 13?
Differential post-breakage alterations
by fire?
Sherds from the same large decorated
vessel within the same Pit 13?
Differential post-breakage alterations
(abrasion in Sample P)?
2. Materials and methods
An awareness of the above mentioned issues prompted the
design of an alternative method. This method focuses on nonadjoining sherds irrespective of their shape or quality and pays
special attention to the terminal steps of their use-lives, i.e. after
they became detached fragments. A threefold procedure was
developed that combined mainstream macroscopic aspects and a
microstructural compositional approach, which incorporated: a)
an initial systematic qualitative examination of the entire ceramic
collection, including a re-fitting experiment and a complete
taphonomic evaluation. This led to the identification of direct or
physical joins and non-physical but highly probable matches; b)
the selection among the highly probable but non-adjoining
matches of sherd-pairs representing a suite of sherds types and
taphonomic alterations, aimed at tackling a series of research
questions, and c) the use of thin section petrographic examination
and the digital image analysis of photomicrographs to verify the
previous observations in qualitative mineralogical and quantitative textural terms.
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
141
mpara in inner Iberia (Spain). B. Excavated sectors, pits with ceramics studied using the proposed method, and inter-feature refitting sherds (after Rojo
Fig. 1. A. Location of La La
et al., 2008: 80).
142
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A. Blanco-Gonza
Fig. 2. Sherd samples A to H and respective photomicrographs in cross polarized light. White lines indicate from where sample slices have been obtained. Scales in cm.
Once the procedure was designed, samples were selected to
test a series of hypothetical sherd-to-vessel associations. These
samples were also chosen because their analysis would inform
on important aspects of site formation processes and prehistoric
cultural practices dealing with the management of refuse and the
reuse of ceramics after their break. In particular, we were interested in characterizing the completeness of vessels among the
surviving debris. Patterns of diminution and discard of ceramics
were also investigated in order to understand their temporality,
dispersion and degradation before deposition. The Early Neolithic
mpara (Soria, Spain) represents a
ceramic assemblage from La La
suitable case study since it meets a series of basic criteria: a) it is
relatively small and manageable allowing for a systematic refitting and taphonomic assessment; b) it consist of abundant
decorated sherds, including already tested re-fitting fragments,
many of them showing a variety of post-breakage alterations,
and c) all the ceramic collection was carefully documented and
fully published, and ceramic items were retrieved from multiple
mpara is a pit site
undisturbed depositional contexts. La La
located at a strategic crossroad from the Mediterranean coast to
the Iberian central Meseta (Fig. 1A). Excavations in the late 1990s
unearthed 18 pits dug in the geological subsoil (Fig. 1B), some of
them probably used as ground storage silos that were subsequently backfilled with settlement debris (Rojo et al., 2008:
379e393). These cut features yielded one of the earliest ceramic
collections from Iberia. This seasonal camp was reoccupied all
through the second half of the 6th millennium BC according to a
series of 24 radiocarbon assays e including short-lived samples e
from seven pits. It was inhabited by small agro-pastoral groups
whose subsistence was based on mixed farming eespecially
wheat and barley (Stika, 2005) e, the herding of goats and sheep
and some hunting and gathering (Rojo et al., 2008). In short, this
ceramic sample testifies to the earliest occupation of farmers
introducing Neolithic socio-economic innovations into the inner
tablelands of Iberia.
2.1. Re-fitting and taphonomic operations
Research conducted at the Museo Numantino (Soria, Spain)
allowed for the study of the whole ceramic assemblage recovered
at La L
ampara during the 1997, 1998 and 2001 excavations. The
examination was aimed at thoroughly characterizing the patterns
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
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143
Fig. 3. Sherd samples I to P and respective thin section photomicrographs in cross polarized light. White lines indicate from where sample slices have been obtained.
Scales in cm.
of fragmentation, as well as the alteration and eventual deposition of ceramics. Some of these dynamics had been regarded by
the excavators as very likely deliberate, rather than random (Rojo
et al., 2008: 375). The re-fitting experiment involved 1349 potsherds, derived from a minimum of 64 vessels (García et al., 2011:
86). The identification of sherd-links focused on the systematic
optical comparison of attributes ee.g. thickness, decoration, surface treatment, core color and inclusions, etc. e between sets of
sherds observed with a hand-lens, filling in a scoring template
lez and
that has been presented elsewhere (Blanco-Gonza
Chapman, 2014). This allowed the recording of a total of 72
such sherds-to-vessel associations, each one involving between 2
and 42 sherds: 148 cases constituted ‘physical’ or ‘directly’
adjoining sherds, including already glued pieces (e.g. Rojo et al.,
2008: 381), whereas 206 represented sherds that could not be
physically matched, but arguably belonged to the same vessels.
Only old fractures were considered. Regarding the contexts of
deposition, out of the 72 sherds-to-vessel associations the bulk of
them (67 cases) are intra-feature refits, between sherds within
the same pit, and 5 cases represent cross-feature refits, which
linked sherds from different pits (Fig. 1B). Regarding the taphonomic assessment, despite the effect of further postabandonment fractures e probably due to their low firing temperature e the fragments are, on average, fairly large (>12 cm2).
The majority of the sherds are well preserved, exhibiting fresh
edges and only residual abrasion. Importantly, an exhaustive examination led to the identification of pre-pit disturbances such as
attritional marks left by open-air weathering or differences in
color between sherds due to burning. Since such alterations also
affect the breaks of the sherds, technological or use-wear causes
can be rejected - they are to be confidently ascertained as postbreakage degradation. A few such cases were recognized between probable re-fitting sherds.
2.2. Sampling for petrographic examination
Out of the 206 non-conjoined pieces, a total of 16 sherds were
subjected to thin sectioning for petrographic analysis (Table 1,
Figs. 2 and 3). The samples consisted of decorated and plain rims
and body sherds from both fine and coarse wares from eight
144
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
Fig. 4. Back-scattered scanning electron image of sample J showing a monocrystalline grain of calcite. The EDS spectrum and bulk chemical composition are included.
different features (Pits 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 13, 17, 18) (Table 1 and Fig. 1B).
Samples were named from A to P, forming pairs of non-physically
matching sherds suspected of belonging to the same vessels.
These sherds were strategically chosen to test the reliability of the
preliminary macroscopic observations through a more thorough
assessment. They were also selected to verify whether some of the
above mentioned post-breakage alterations might have impeded
comparisons between sherds, thus restricting the applicability of
the proposed procedure. Three specific archaeological questions
were addressed (Table 1) through the selection and sampling of
specific pairs of sherds:
a) Whether sherds from the same vessels can be found in different
pits (pairs A & B; E & F; I & J; K & L). A positive result e i.e. they
are from a common vessel e would contribute to assessing the
mobility of ceramics on the site and indicate the contemporary
backfilling of these pits (Bollong, 1994; Garrow, 2006; Orton and
Hughes, 2013: 265). A negative result would require further
refinement in the methods of macroscopic comparison between
sherds.
b) Whether sherds from the same vessels can be found in the same
pit (pairs C & D; G & H; M & N; O & P). If they actually belonged
to the same vessels they might have been handled and
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A. Blanco-Gonza
145
Fig. 5. Photomicrographs of the digital image analysis from samples A & B showing the polygons created by the software around the grains and voids. The digital image software
creates a binary image, differentiating the grains and voids from the matrix, then creates polygons around the pixel values representing the grains. The percent area of grains and
voids to matrix and the total number of grains are then calculated.
discarded together after breakage. If, on the contrary, they
derive from different vessels, it might indicate the joint disposal
of similarly looking decorated sherds.
c) Whether sherds with contrasting appearance due to predepositional and clearly post-breakage alterations eabrasion
and burning- can be shown to originate from a common vessel
(pairs A & B; C & D; E & F; G & H; K & L; M & N; O & P) (Table 1).
A positive outcome will indicate disparate life-paths e e.g.
middening or reuse of fragments (cf. Chapman and Gaydarska,
2007: 75e77; Garrow, 2006; Edwards, 2012) prior to their
definitive discard.
Pairs of conjoining sherds might have provided with a control
test to check the results of the petrographic and digital image analyses. However, the sampling strategy of one of the earliest
ceramic assemblages in central Iberia e with many of the selected
sherds being decorated e was strongly limited by curatorial requirements. Thus, instead of allocating time and resources to
analyze adjoining sherds e whose results would be predictably
very close e , characterizing a collection of the far more problematic non-conjoining sherds as wide as possible and representative
of diverse research topics was considered priority.
2.3. Petrographic analysis
Petrographic analysis focused on the composition of fabrics
characterizing the types, amounts, size ranges, roundness and
sorting of non-plastic inclusions and types of accessory minerals.
The microstructure of the clay matrices were also examined, such
as the shape, orientation and size of voids, distribution of inclusions within the fabric and signs of raw material preparation
(e.g. incomplete kneading of clay or mixing of different clays). A
Nikon Eclipse LV100 polarizing microscope equipped with a Nikon
DS Fi1 digital camera was used for the analysis. The raw materials,
tempers and raw material preparation were examined for each
ceramic pair. During petrographic analysis, the quantity of inclusions, their size categories, the degree of sorting and roundness
of the components were determined in accordance with the
guidelines of the Prehistoric Ceramic Research Group (2010:
21e27). A Hitachi TM3000 scanning electron microscope (henceforth SEM) fitted with a SwiftED3000 energy dispersive X-ray
spectrometer (henceforth EDS) was used to analyze and compare
the carbonate fraction in samples I & J. This was necessary because
calcite and dolomite are difficult to differentiate under the optical
microscope, especially when the calcite has been crushed and
added as temper forming euhedral rhombs, which are often more
typical of dolomite (Gribble and Hall, 2003: 154). If the carbonate
fraction was found to be the same in both samples it could serve to
indicate sherds I and J originated from the same vessel. The
accelerating voltage was set to 15 kV and the probe current was set
to 700 pA. The compositional analysis (Fig. 4) was generated by the
SwiftED software using standardless matrix corrections and is
semi-quantitative.
The following methodological considerations were taken into
account: first, we considered that different parts of vessels may
have been made from different raw materials since this practice
may appear in hand-made vessels (e.g. Tobert, 1988: 65). It
seems that there is no evidence for this practice for Iberian
Neolithic ceramics. Therefore, sherds that were matched without
doubt in terms of morphology and macroscopic fabric analysis
but show slight differences during microscopic analysis could
still have came from different parts of the same vessel. It must
be noted that the composition and other petrographic characteristics within the fabric of the same vessel could be slightly
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
146
Fig. 6. Photomicrographs of the digital image analysis from samples I & J showing the polygons created by the software around the grains and voids.
different and may suggest that the samples belong to different
vessels, when in fact they belong to the same one. It should be
acknowledged that minor compositional differences in fabrics
may be the result of natural heterogeneity of the original raw
material or incomplete raw material preparation. The latter was
often identified during the analysis: inclusions gathered in
groups, drying cracks appear in the clay matrix. Therefore, while
pairing the sherds all petrographically observable features were
considered including microstructural characteristics that could
be used to assess possible similarities or differences. We
acknowledge that this approach is subjective and depends on
the experience of the analyst but in many cases this seems to be
the most effective means of assessing the complex characteristics of ceramics. Moreover, many textural and microtextural
criteria, which can be particularly important in re-fitting do not
always allow appropriate numerical definitions (see Quinn, 2013,
71e73).
2.4. Digital image analysis
In order to provide supporting evidence for the hypothesis
that paired sherds in the assemblage originated from common
vessels, digital image analysis was used to contribute further
quantitative data. As mentioned above, the clay used to make
vessels is often heterogeneous. Still, if two sherds originate from
the same vessel, elements of the microtopography, such as grain
distribution (sorting) and the ratio of non-plastic inclusions and
voids to clay matrix should be roughly equivalent in random
samples from the same vessel, as this would reflect clay prepared using materials from a similar geological source or sources
and similar paste preparation by the potter (Quinn, 2013:
102e106).
A number of software programs exist for the quantitative
textural description of petrographic samples. The program Jmicrovision1 was used here to quantify the number of non-plastic
grains and voids and their total area as a percentage within the
sample. Photomicrographs taken during the petrographic analysis
were used for image processing. The data were taken from image
analyses conducted on photomicrographs taken in plane polarized
light. Images taken under crossed polarized light were also processed as a check. The results were found to be similar for every
sample. The individual photomicrographs were tiled together to
create highly magnified, but extensive images for processing
(Figs. 5 and 6). Digital image analysis (Reedy and Kamboj, 2003;
Reedy, 2006) was carried out on all the ceramic samples
described above and the quantitative values generated were
compared for each sherd pair.
To complete the image analysis the photomicrographs were
first imported into the software and converted to simple binary
1
Jmicrovision is a freeware digital image analysis application (www.
jmicrovision.com) designed by Nicolas Roduit as part of a doctoral thesis (Roduit,
2007). This program was chosen because it has a large number of options and an
intuitive user interface compared to other freeware platforms, like ImageJ.
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
(black and white) images using the image processing tools
imbedded in Jmicrovision. Transparent minerals and voids are
made black and the clay matrix white. Non-linear filtering was
used on some of the color images to better separate grains from
the matrix. The software then processes the image, drawing
polygons around each individual grain (Figs. 5 and 6), and calculates the number of grains and voids and the total area occupied by them. These quantitative values were then compared
directly between pairs of sherds to test the qualitative microscopic and macroscopic assessments of the samples described
above. Where the results were similar the sherd pairs were
considered likely to have originated from a common vessel. A
quantitative value that signifies two sherds originate for the same
vessel is difficult to provide, as little experimental data has been
produced in this regard. For the purposes of this study, we
considered that if the difference in the value of total area percentage of non-plastics and voids between two samples were <3%
it represented a strong match. If the analysis produced values of
>5% between two samples the results were considered to represent a very poor match. Intermediate results between these two
numbers were inconclusive. The outcomes of this analysis are
presented in the Appendix.
For normalization and inter-sample comparative purposes,
the analyses were conducted in a rectangular area measuring
25 mm2 on each sample (Figs. 5 and 6) because it was the largest
possible area of analysis on the smallest samples in the set. The
areas were always rectangular, but due to the irregularity of the
samples and the random presence of uncharacteristic features,
such as unusually large voids, areas of slightly differing shapes
were analyzed for each sample. Tests were, however, conducted
in different parts of some of the larger samples, and an analysis
area of 25 mm2 provided reproducible results, intra-sample.
Some grains, like shales or rock fragments, cannot easily be
separated from the matrix using this method and the shapes
were drawn by hand. It should also be noted that this method
does not provide a total quantification, as the silt fraction cannot
be reliably measured due to the magnification limits of a light
microscope.
147
4) Samples G & H (Fig. 2, G1eH2): Both sherds show a very finegrained fabric and are quartz sand-tempered. They also
contain grog/ARFs. In spite of the uneven distribution of nonplastic inclusions (a result of quartz sand tempering), the characteristic elongated voids and the orientation in the matrix
suggest that these samples may have been part of the same
vessel. Image analysis also indicates a strong match between
them (Appendix).
5) Samples I & J (Fig. 3, I1eJ2): Both samples feature calcareous
inclusions, with identical, abundant amounts and size of calcite,
as identified by analysis with the SEM-EDS (Fig. 4), probably
added as a temper. These samples show the closest resemblance
among those examined; they most probably belong to the same
vessel. Image analysis also points to a strong match between
them (Fig. 6). The SEM-EDS analysis supports our assessment of
a common origin.
6) Samples K & L (Fig. 3, K1eL2): Both sherds are tempered with
different amounts and sizes of quartz sand. In Sample K,
however, the fine-grained inclusions are almost missing,
mainly very fine and medium grains can be observed. In
Sample L the majority of inclusions are very fine, followed by
medium grains. These differences indicate that these items are
probably from different vessels. The image analysis results
were inconclusive due to the presence of large voids in Sample
K (Appendix).
7) Samples M & N (Fig. 3, M1eN2): Both pieces are quartz sandtempered, and despite differences in the amount and size of
inclusions, similarities in the characteristic elongated and
oriented voids and the sparse amounts of medium-coarse
yellowish ARFs indicate that they may belong to the same
vessel. Image analysis also indicates a strong match
(Appendix).
8) Samples O & P (Fig. 3, O1eP2): Clays of these sherds are
different despite both being tempered with sand, mainly
composed of quartz and including a calcareous fraction.
Sample O has a clay-rich fabric while Sample P has a very
fine-grained matrix containing mainly quartz. Sample P also
shows characteristic elongated voids absent in Sample O.
Image analyses also indicates a poor match between them
(Appendix).
3. Results and discussion
The petrographic results are discussed for each of the ceramic
pairs, highlighting their main features, which serve to link or
separate them from each other.
1) Samples A & B (Fig. 2, A1eB2). The types of inclusions are similar
and both samples are tempered with quartz sand. The accessory
minerals, sorting, characteristics of voids, matrix color and homogeneity are similar. Therefore, petrographically they seem to
be part of the same vessel. Image analysis also indicates a strong
match between them (Fig. 5 and Appendix).
2) Samples C & D (Fig. 2, C1eD2): Both sherds are tempered
with quartz sand. They also contain rounded argillaceous rock
fragments (Whitbread, 1986) (henceforth ARFs). The similarities in sorting, characteristics of voids and ARFs suggest that
they might have belonged to the same vessel. Image analysis,
however, indicates a poor match between these samples
(Appendix).
3) Samples E & F (Fig. 2, E1eF2): Both items are tempered with
quartz sand although the size and amount of the inclusions
differ considerably. Moreover, the size and direction of cracks
and the ARFs are different. Therefore, these samples are probably parts of different vessels. Image analysis also indicates a
poor match (Appendix).
The raw materials used and the techniques of production seem
quite similar among the studied collection. The majority of these
ceramics were tempered with quartz sand and often with grog. To
distinguish between grog and argillaceous inclusions (ARFs)
Whitbread (1986), Cuomo di Caprio and Vaughan (1993), Kreiter
th (2010) and Kreiter et al. (in press) worked out a series
and To
of criteria. According to them, both grog and ARFs appear in the
samples. Grog tempering has been previously reported in Early
Neolithic pottery in northern and inner Iberia (Ortega et al., 2010:
992; Díaz-del-Río et al., 2011: 107). The composition of grog inmpara samples is similar to the clay in which
clusions in the La La
they are incorporated. This phenomenon has been noted both in
ethnography and archaeology (Sillar, 1997: 12; Kreiter, 2007: 130).
In the case of ARFs, it seems that potters did not adequately prepare
the raw material, and therefore some hard clay pieces did not mix
and homogenize with the clay. Thus, variability within the fabrics
seems to be the result of differences in quartz sand and grog
tempering and incomplete raw material preparation, which resulted in inclusions forming groups within the fabric (Kreiter et al., in
press) and cracks and voids from inadequate kneading and drying
before firing.
There is broad agreement between the overall petrographic
results and the digital image analysis. The eight hypothetical
sherd-to-vessel associations have been soundly tested and it is
148
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
time to resume the archaeological questions raised in Section 2.2
(Table 1). First, the hypothesis that sherds belonging to the same
vessel might have eventually entered in distant features has been
demonstrated in two instances: a fine incised bowl whose sherds
A & B were found within pits 25 m away (Figs. 1B and 2) and two
pieces (I & J) from a coarse vessel distributed in pits 45 m apart
(Figs. 1B and 3). These cases confirm the mobility of the broken
ceramics before deposition. Another four sherds (E, F, K, L,
Figs. 1B, 2 and 3) have offered negative outcomes e i.e. they
belonged to different vessels. There is also evidence for the
incorporation of fragments of the same vessels in the same features, such as sherd pairs G & H (Fig. 2) and M & N (Fig. 3).
Samples C & D may also represent fragments of the same vessel
incorporated into Pit 9, as they are petrographically very similar
(Fig. 2), but their image analysis is inconclusive. By contrast, the
large slabs O & P (Fig. 3, O1 & P1), found in Pit 13, exhibit very
similar applied and impressed rope decoration and were published as parts of the same vessel by the excavators (Rojo et al.,
2008: 140, Fig. 115), but our analyses show that they actually
derived from two different large coarse vessels. The occurrence of
sherds with contrasting appearance e degree of preservation,
external color e deriving from a common original vessel has also
been confirmed. Sample G was heavily abraded and intensely
burnt, whereas Sample H was ‘freshly’ broken and well preserved
(Fig. 2, G1 & H1). Despite these striking contrasts, the analysis
showed that they came from a large storage vessel. Such intense
attritional degradation e due to open-air mechanical abrasion e
could not occur naturally within the dug-out features (Edwards,
2012: 89) and there was no evidence of burning inside Pit 17.
Therefore, it seems reasonable that both sherds underwent
diverse trajectories as detached pieces before deposition, and
sherd G was burnt and exposed on the surface for some time
before entering Pit 17. Likewise sherds M & N were found within
Pit 13 and despite exhibiting contrasting features e Sample M is
an intensely eroded yellowish rim (Fig. 3, M1) whereas Sample N
is a better preserved body sherd featuring sharp breaks, smooth
surfaces and an external dark color (Fig. 3, N1) e they belonged to
the same incised vessel.
In short, this evidence sheds new light on the terminal stages of
these ceramics. Thus, there is room to posit a wide range of mobility
e up to 45 m apart (Fig. 1B) e for already broken potsherds on the
surface of the temporary camp prior to their final incorporation into
the pits. Moreover, the petrographic cross-checking confirms that
parts of the same vessels had genuinely different pre-depositional
histories (Garrow, 2006; Edwards, 2012; Orton and Hughes, 2013:
265e266). Thus, it has been possible to track differential postbreakage trajectories of sherds from both fine decorated and
coarse vessels. This suggests that some time elapsed between the
breakage of vessels and their discard. Thus, such fragments might
have been piled, recycled or reused for diverse purposes (cf.
Chapman and Gaydarska, 2007: 75e77) prior to their definitive
abandonment.
4. Concluding remarks
This paper has presented a multi-phase procedure to test
sherd-to-vessel associations using the more abundant but often
disregarded ceramic items: the non-adjoining potsherds. Beyond
the mainstream analyses of provenance and production, technology or post-depositional alterations, the focus has been on the
widely ignored pre-depositional circumstances affecting these
archaeological ceramics after their fracture. The use of ceramic
thin section analysis to collate paired sherds has relied upon
technological criteria such as the type, amount, size, roundness
and sorting and homogeneity of inclusions, their distribution in
the fabrics, core color, color of the fabric and the presence of
voids and cracks. Ceramic petrography has independently tested
a series of preliminary macroscopic associations based upon a
lez and Chapman,
systematic scoring template (Blanco-Gonza
2014). The results show the reliability of the initial observations, but that only further archaeometric methods can confirm
or reject them. Out of the 16 paired sherds, we can confidently
state that eight belonged to four vessels (A & B; G & H; I & J; M &
N) and four more probably belonged to two vessels (C & D; K &
L) but their evidence is weaker, whereas four derived from four
different vessels (E, F, O, P). The archaeometric testing of sherdlinks has shed light on the last steps in the life-histories of ceramics. In particular, the proposed procedure has opened up new
interpretive avenues dealing with the formation of pit deposits
made by the earliest pottery using communities in Western
Europe. These small-scale groups managed their ceramic refuse
according to complex ways of doing, sometimes involving certain
delay in between the breakage and the final abandonment of
these sherds.
From a methodological point of view an important finding has
been that the post-breakage alterations e and concretely fire e
do not seem to detract from the applicability of the proposed
method. Therefore, this enables matching of sherds with contrasting physical appearance, which otherwise would have been
ruled out as possible refits. Moreover, in ceramic petrography it is
usually assumed that non-refitting sherds originated from
diverse parent vessels. This principle orientates the sampling
strategies when characterizing the relative proportions of fabrics
within an assemblage, for example in research on provenance
determination (e.g. Quinn, 2013: 129). The results presented here
demonstrate that this assumption is not always true and this has
wider implications. In particular, our study warns scholars
against any uncritical inferences of sherd-to-vessel associations
when coming across petrographic resemblances between sherds
wherever they have been found. Thus, the occurrence of nonconjoining sherds featuring petrographically very closely
related thin sections could be regarded as samples from the same
vessel, whether they come from the same or different depositional contexts. In short, this procedure expands the scope of
sherd-to-vessel determination since it provides a more robust
and critical method to cope with macroscopically well-defined
potsherds irrespective of whether they are body, undecorated
or non-adjoining sherds and irrespective of their contextual
associations.
Acknowledgments
This work is part of the Intra-European Marie Curie project
Past Fragments (ref. 298285) funded by the European Commission. The staff from Museo Numantino (Soria) facilitated the
examination and sectioning of the ceramic samples, authorized
by the autonomous government of Castile and Leon. The paper
has benefited from the feedback of the attendees at the 12th
European Meeting on Ancient Ceramics (EMAC) held at Padova
(Italy) in September 2013, where the procedure was first presented by one of us (ABG). The three anonymous referees are
thanked for their insightful and helpful criticisms and
suggestions.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.06.024.
Appendix
No. of
Matrix
grains &
voids
(Dig. Image
analysis)
A
49.97%
2122
B
48.35%
C
Predominant
inclusions
Other inclusions
Accessories
Dominant
size of
inclusion
Sorting
Clay-rich,
Mono- and
sparse amounts polycrystalline
of very fine
quartz
inclusions
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite
Zircon,
tourmaline
0.2e1 mm
Moderate Equant, subhedral Subrounded,
subangular
2776
Clay-rich,
Mono- and
sparse amounts polycrystalline
of very fine
quartz
inclusions
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite
Zircon,
0.2e1 mm
tourmaline, a
piece of charred
vegetal matter
Moderate Equant, subhedral Subrounded,
subangular
37.38%
3419
Clay-rich,
Mono- and
sparse amounts polycrystalline
of very fine
quartz
inclusions
Zircon
0.1e1 mm
Moderate Equant-elongate,
anhedralsubhedral
Subrounded,
rounded
D
29.07%
3530
Clay-rich,
Mono- and
sparse amounts polycrystalline
of very fine
quartz
inclusions
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite,
rounded ARFs or
weathered rock
fragments
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite,
rounded ARFs or
weathered rock
fragments
Zircon, a piece
of charred
vegetal matter
0.1e1 mm
Moderate Equant-elongate,
anhedralsubhedral
Subrounded,
rounded
E
15.57%
3786
Clay-rich, rare Mono- and
amounts of very polycrystalline
fine inclusions quartz
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite,
limestone
fragments
Zircon
0.1e1.5 mm Moderate Equant, subhedral Subrounded,
rounded
F
19.92%
2537
Mono- and
Clay-rich,
sparse amounts polycrystalline
quartz
of very fine
inclusions
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite,
limestone
fragments, chert
fragments
Zircon, a piece
of charred
vegetal matter
0.1e1.5 mm Moderate Equant, anhedral- Subrounded,
subhedral
rounded, well
rounded
Common
grain shape
Angularity
Pores
Matrix color
Homogeneity
Elongate
channels, often
oriented
parallel to the
vessel wall.
Some vughs
Elongate
channels, often
oriented
parallel to the
vessel wall.
Some vughs
Brown/reddish Heterogeneous
(sherd with two
layers)
Comments
Interpretation
Both sherds have
similar clay-rich
matrix tempered with
mostly medium-sized
sand. In Sample B
streaks of clay, esp.
Brown (sherd
Heterogeneous around larger
inclusions. Similarities
with two
in matrix, shape and
layers)
amount of inclusions
suggest sherds may
belong to same vessel.
Digital image analysis
shows similar
percentual values of
non-plastics and voids
(Sample A ¼ 50%,
Sample B ¼ 48%)
Orange/reddish Heterogeneous Both samples show
Elongate
(sherd with one
channels and
sparse amounts of
oriented, some layer)
ARFs or weathered
vughs
rock fragments. ARFs
have similar color and
composition to matrix
Elongate
Heterogeneous in both samples. Both
Dark brown/
sherds have similar
channels that
gray (sherd
clay-rich matrix
show prefered with one layer)
tempered with mostly
orientation,
medium-sized sand.
some vughs
Color of fabrics is
different. Similariaties
in matrix, ARFs shape
and composition, and
inclusions suggest they
might have originated
from same vessel.
However, these
observations are
inconclusive as digital
image analysis
indicates very different
proportions of voids
and non-plastics
(Sample C ¼ 37%,
Sample D ¼ 29%)
Elongate
Brown/reddish Heterogeneous Both samples contain
channels,
(sherd with one
sparse amount of ARFs,
prefered
layer)
Sample E also contains
orientation.
rare amounts of grog
Some Planar
with similar
voids
composition to the
Reddish (sherd Heterogeneous matrix. Both sherds are
Elongate
with one layer)
channels,
tempered with sand
poorly oriented,
and contain ARFs and
some prefered
limestone. Remarkable
orientation.
differences in size and
amount of inclusions,
Sherds most likely
belonged to same
bowl. Sample A
was oxidized after
breakage. They
finished in Pits 1
and 3 (25 m apart)
Sherds might have
belonged to same
bowl discarded
within Pit 9, but
results are
inconclusive
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
Sample % Aplastics
& voids
(Dig. Image
Analysis)
Sherds are most
probably from
different bowls
149
(continued on next page)
Sample % Aplastics
& voids
(Dig. Image
Analysis)
150
(continued )
No. of
Matrix
grains &
voids
(Dig. Image
analysis)
Predominant
inclusions
Other inclusions
Accessories
Dominant
size of
inclusion
Sorting
Common
grain shape
Angularity
Pores
Matrix color
Homogeneity
Some planar
voids
25.47%
2617
Very fineMono- and
grained,
polycrystalline
moderate
quartz
amounts of very
fine inclusions
H
27.95%
2923
Very fineMono- and
grained,
polycrystalline
moderate
quartz
amounts of very
fine inclusions
I
38.09%
3687
Calcareous
J
39.93%
3330
Calcareous
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite,
weathered rock
fragments,
probably of
metamorphic
origin
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite,
weathered rock
fragments,
probably of
metamorphic
origin
Zircon,
tourmaline
0.1e1 mm
Moderate Equant, anhedral- Subrounded,
subhedral
subangular
Characteristic
elongated and
oriented
channels are
visible. Some
vughs
Brown/reddish Heterogeneous
(sherd with two
layers)
Zircon,
tourmaline
0.1e1 mm
Moderate Equant, anhedral- Subrounded,
subhedral
subangular
Characteristic
elongated and
oriented
channels are
visible. Some
vughs
Heterogeneous
Dark brown
(sherd with one
layer)
Monocrystaline Monocrystalline
quartz
Calcite
Fragments
Muscovite,
polycrystalline
quartz, ARFs
0.2e1.5 mm Poor
Monocrystaline Monocrystalline
Calcite
quartz
Fragements
Muscovite,
polycrystalline
quartz, ARFs
0.2e1.5 mm Poor
Most grains are
angular, few
grains are
subangular,
well rounded,
and
subrounded
Most Grains are
Most grains are
equant, euhedral. angular, few
ARFs elongate,
grains are
anhedral
subangular,
well rounded,
and
subrounded
Most grains are
Equant, Euhedral.
ARFs elongate,
anhedral
Elongate and
Brown/reddish
oriented pores.
Micro-cracks
are common in
the calcite
inclusions
Heterogeneous
More elongate Brown/reddish Heterogeneous
(sherd with two
and oriented
layers)
pores. Microcracks are
common in the
calcite
inclusions
ARFs and pores
indicate that these
samples may have
belonged to different
vessels. Digital image
analysis provides
disparate values for
proportion of nonplastics and voids
(Sample E ¼ 15,5%,
Sample F ¼ 20%)
Both sherds contain
sparse amount of ARFs.
Sample G contains rare
amounts of grog with a
similar composition to
the matrix. Both have
similar, very finegrained matrix,
tempered with mostly
medium-sized sand.
Similarities in matrix,
pores and non-plastic
inclusions suggest they
may have belonged to
same vessel. Values of
non-plastics and voids
proportions provided
by digital image
analysis are also
coherent (Sample
G ¼ 25.5%, Sample
H ¼ 28%).
Sherds are the most
similar out of those
examined in this study.
Calcite was likely
crushed and added as
filler. Similar amount,
size and distribution of
calcareous inclusions
suggest that samples
belong to the same
vessel. Digital image
analysis also shows
close proportions of
non-plastics and voids
(Sample I ¼ 38%,
Sample J ¼ 40%)
Interpretation
Sherds
confidently
belonged to the
same coarse
vessel, and both
entered Pit 17.
Before that,
Sample G
experienced
abrasion and fire
exposition.
Sherds are
confidently from
the same vessel.
They finished in
different features
(Pits 2 and 10)
45 m away
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
G
Comments
Tourmaline
0.1e1 mm
Subrounded,
Moderate Most grains are
equant, subhedral. subangular
Some are
elongate,
subhedral
Tourmaline,
chert
fragments
0.1e1 mm
Subrounded,
Moderate Most grains are
equant, subhedral. subangular
Some are
elongate,
subhedral
Clay-rich,
Mono- and
sparse amounts polycrystalline
of very fine
quartz
inclusions
Feldspar,
muscovite, ARF,
weathered
feldspar and
quartz
Zircon,
tourmaline
0.1e0.8 mm Moderate Equant-elongate,
subhedral
Subrounded,
subangular
2871
Clay-rich,
Mono- and
sparse amounts polycrystalline
of very fine
quartz
inclusions
Feldspar,
muscovite, ARF,
weathered
feldspar and
quartz
Zircon,
tourmaline
0.1e0.8 mm Moderate Equant-elongate,
subhedral
Subrounded,
subangular
14.93%
3814
Mono- and
Clay-rich,
sparse amounts polycrystalline
quartz
of very fine
inclusions
Feldspar,
Zircon,
muscovite,
tourmaline
plagioclase, grog/
ARFs, limestone
fragments
0.1e0.8 mm Moderate Equant, anhedral- Subrounded,
subhedral
subangular
22.54%
3135
Mono- and
Very finepolycrystalline
grained fabric
with moderate quartz
amounts of very
fine-grained
inclusions.
Feldspar,
Zircon,
muscovite,
tourmaline
plagioclase, grog/
ARFs, coarse
limestone
fragments
0.1e0.8 mm Moderate Equant, anhedral- Subrounded,
subhedral. Few
subangular
elongate
Image analysis
inconclusive
Mono- and
Clay-rich,
sparse amounts polycrystalline
quartz
of very fine
inclusions
L
27.90%
1432
Mono- and
Clay-rich,
sparse amounts polycrystalline
quartz
of very fine
inclusions
M
50.41%
3049
N
48.27%
O
P
Mainly irregular Brown/reddish Heterogeneous Both sherds have
similar clay-rich
(sherd with two
channels and
matrix with sand
layers)
vughs
inclusions, however
they were tempered
with different amounts
and sizes of sand. In
Mainly irregular Brown/reddish Heterogeneous Sample L the grains
(sherd with one
channles and
vary from very fine to
layer)
vughs, some
medium, whereas in
elongated and
Sample K the fine
oriented ones
grains are almost
missing. Sample K
contains more charcoal
pieces. They are likely
parts of different
vessels, but this could
not be corroborated by
digital image analysis
Elongated
Light brown/
Heterogeneous Both sherds have
channels,
yellowish
similar matrix
showing
(sherd with two
tempered with sand,
prefered
layers)
although Sample N has
orientation
slightly more medium
with vessel wall
sized grains. This may
Elongated
Heterogeneous be the result of
Drak brown
incomplete clay
channels,
(sherd with two
preparation. The
showing
layers)
similarities in matrix,
prefered
type and amount of
orientation
inclusions suggest
with vessel wall
these samples may
have belonged to the
same vessel. In both
sherds the yellowish
parts seem to have less
aplastic inclusions
(probable mixing of
clays). Digital image
analysis also shows
very close proportions
of voids and nonplastics (Sample
M ¼ 50%, Sample
N ¼ 48%)
Light brown/
Vughs. Small
Heterogeneous Both sherds are
elongated
reddish (sherd
tempered with sand,
channels
with two
but their basic
randomly
layers)
inclusions and clay
distributed.
matrix are different.
Stress cracks
These samples
rather than
probably belong to
voids
different vessels.
Heterogeneous Digital image analysis
Elongated
Dark brown
channels
(sherd with two
indicates very large
layers)
weakly to
differences in the
moderately
proportion of voids
oriented, vughs
and non-plastics
(Sample O ¼ 15%,
Sample P ¼ 22.5%)
Sherds are
probably from
different bowls
Sherds
confidently derive
from same bowl,
despite exhibiting
strikingly diverse
post-breakage
alterations:
Sample M was
intensely eroded
(and eventually
lost its external
surface) and was
subject to
oxidation by fire
(pale orange
external color),
whereas Sample N
is 'freshly broken'
and features dark
external color.
After such
alterations they
entered Pit 13
Sherds are
confidently from
two different large
decorated vessels,
included into Pit
13
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite, pieces
of charred vegetal
remains,
weathered rock
fragments/ARFs
Feldspar,
plagioclase,
muscovite, pieces
of charred vegetal
remains,
weathered rock
fragments/ARF
K
151
152
lez et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 50 (2014) 139e152
A. Blanco-Gonza
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