Analytical Thinking and Innovation By Bruce M. Mackh, PhD What’s your view? • To an optimist, the glass is half full. • To a pessimist, the glass is half empty. • To an analytical thinker, the glass is twice as big as it needs to be. Introduction • People view the world through many lenses. + Senses + Knowledge + Beliefs + Experiences • Analytical thinking is a tool that helps us sort fact and truth from perceptions and beliefs. Deep Questions Belief Knowledge Truth Skepticism and Doubt Analysis • Analysis is a detailed examination of the elements or structure of something. +Break it down into its constituent parts to determine their relationship or value. +Understand more about it, identify what it is, or discover what it contains. First Principles and Analysis in Five Steps Step One state the goal Step Two identify assumptions and sort facts from opinions or beliefs Step Three break the problem into its factual components Step Four determine what is possible Step Five build an entirely new solution from the ground up Reasoning by Analogy The human brain is very comfortable with analogies because our minds work by connecting new ideas to existing knowledge. Analogies are comparisons. For example, we might think, “I know that A is like B, and B is like C, so A must also be like C. Assumptions and Beliefs • The problem with analogies is that they’re built on assumptions and beliefs, not facts. Confirmation Bias • Human beings tend to prefer evidence that confirms our pre-existing beliefs. • We disregard evidence that contradicts those beliefs. + We feel threatened or attacked. + We become uncomfortable. • It’s very hard to question your beliefs and even harder to change your mind, even in the face of facts and truth. Strategy #1: Five Whys You’ve probably encountered a small child who asked you a question and then kept asking “Why?” over and over. Taking the same approach can help us uncover our assumptions. Strategy #2: Socratic Questioning Clarifying questions: “What do you mean by ___?” Considering implications or consequences: “What effect would ___ produce?” Probing assumptions: “What is another explanation for ___?” Exploring different viewpoints: “What alternative is there to ___?” Examining reasons or evidence: “Why do you think this is true?” Questioning the original question: “What was the point of the question we began with?” Strategy#3: Problem-Cause-Solution Problems are symptoms of deeper causes or multiple causes. Break down all the possible causes for the problem and evaluate the severity of each cause. Focus on finding solutions to the most urgent aspects of the problem. Identify the biggest cause, find connections or correlations, and find solutions with the biggest impact. Doubt is a Scientific Tool CARTESIAN DOUBT PHILOSOPHICAL DOUBT • A methodological process that employs doubt to identify that which cannot be doubted. • Constantly questioning the foundation of one’s beliefs so understanding is grounded in verifiable information. “Regard no practice as immutable. Change and be ready to change again. Accept no eternal verity. Experiment.” B.F Skinner, 1979 Employ Reason Free from Passion • When thinking analytically, the process of discovery might stir up strong feelings because our findings could contradict our beliefs. + Do not allow personal feelings or beliefs to derail your efforts. + Focus on what is factual and provable, not on opinions. Analysis is about what you know or can prove, not about what you think or believe. Activity 1 • Use the Activity 1 Template. • Choose one of the three statements listed on the template. • State whether you agree or disagree with the statement. • Make a list of all your assumptions about the statement. What are your thoughts? What are your feelings? What are your beliefs. • Analyze and test your assumptions. Conduct an internet search for facts that could disprove your assumptions. Avoid confirmation bias! • List the provable facts and truth you discovered. • Complete the reflective statement at the end of the template. What’s the Point? • The point of analytical thinking is to free ourselves from the biases and assumptions that hinder innovation. + Don’t ask what has already been done. + Don’t ask what others have done. + Instead, build a NEW solution! Why is analytical thinking important for research? • In research, we strive to discover fact and truth. • Researchers don’t work from a foundation of, “I think it, so it must be true” or “Somebody said so, so it must be true.” • We employ the norms of good scholarship, check our facts, and cite our sources. Why is analytical thinking important for teamwork? • Working on teams brings us into close contact with other people who have well-developed beliefs, biases, preconceptions, and opinions. • Teamwork is more productive when we can identify root causes and discover facts upon which we can build solutions. Why is analytical thinking important for communication? • Analytical thinking helps us differentiate between what we believe or feel and what’s factual and provable. • When we can approach a topic from a position of reason, we communicate more clearly and effectively. • The root word of “innovate” is “new,” so to innovate is to change something, to make it new, or to find a new way of doing something. Innovate • Innovation begins with something that already exists, then looking at it differently to see how it can be made better, transformed, repurposed, or changed to become something new. Design Thinking • Design thinking is an approach to problem-solving based on innovation. • It occurs in five phases, which can be repeated as necessary until the desired result is achieved. Steps in Design Thinking – 1. Empathize To design a solution for someone, we first need to get to know them. Make direct contact with actual human beings. assume you know what they want or need. Don’t just The point is to gain empathy for the people who would use the solution you’re going to design – to try to understand the problem from their perspective. 2. Define Conduct research into the problem, existing solutions, and the problem’s context. Gather information that will help you understand the problem as thoroughly as you can. 3. Ideate • Our next step is to design a solution that meets the user’s needs. • First, generate as many ideas as possible. Don’t edit or critique your ideas yet. Think of as many as you can, even if you think they’re crazy or couldn’t possibly work. • Then evaluate and narrow your choices and select the idea you’ll develop into a solution. 4. Prototype • A prototype is a model of what you’d like to do in real life. • Prototypes don’t have to be elaborate or expensive. The point is to transform something abstract (an idea) into something concrete. • When your prototyping process identifies glitches in your solution, it’s time to return to the Ideate phase (#3) and figure out a way to fix it. You might have to do this several times before you get to a workable solution. 5. Test • The last step is to test your solution with the actual human beings you’re trying to serve. • Sometimes our tests are successful and sometimes they’re not. A failed test sends us back through the design thinking process (iteration). Three Spaces of Innovation In Change by Design (2nd ed., 2019), Tim Brown, cofounder of the renowned design firm IDEO explains the “three spaces of innovation,” which correlate with the steps of design thinking. Inspiration Ideation Implementation Inspiration • Inspiration begins by recognizing a problem or opportunity that motivates our search for a solution. • Our goal is to understand the problem thoroughly enough to begin generating ideas toward a solution. Ideation • Ideation is the process of generating, developing, prototyping, and testing ideas as we formulate a solution. Implementation • Implementation occurs when we’ve achieved a successful test and put our solution into action. • It takes our design from an abstract idea to a concrete reality as we enact the solution in the real world. Analyze the Solution Is it desirable? (Do we want it?) Is it feasible? (Can we do it?) Is it viable? (Can we sustain it?) Analytical Thinking + Innovation We analyze the problem to begin thinking of a solution. We analyze the needs of the people affected by the problem. We analyze our ideas and potential solutions to decide which one to try. We analyze our solution after implementation, looking for more ways to innovate. We analyze the results of our tests to decide if we should implement the solution. We analyze our prototypes to see what works best. Activity 2 • Use the Activity 2 Template. • Choose one of the scenarios provide on the template and design an innovative solution using analytical thinking. • We will not bring the solution to life in the real world, so you’ll have to use your imagination to speculate about prototyping, testing, and implementation. • Include a written explanation of how you used analytical thinking to create an innovative solution to the problem. Include sketches, diagrams, or other visual components to explain your solution. • Complete the reflective summary. Wrap-Up Analytical thinking is the basis of sound research, effective teamwork, clear communication, and innovation. The more proficient we become in seeking facts and truth over opinion or belief, the better prepared we are to help solve the world’s problems. Everyone has the ability to make a difference in the world. Analytical thinking and innovation are the keys! Wrap-Up • Our lives are full of challenges. Approaching them from an analytical mindset turns them into interesting problems instead of impossible obstacles. • If you’d like to learn more about how to apply these principles to your life, you might want to read Stanford University d.school co-founder Bernard Roth’s book The Achievement Habit. It’s an excellent book! Reference List Balfour, A. J. (1921). A defence of philosophic doubt: being an essay on the foundations of belief. London: Hodder & Stoughton. Bartha, Paul, "Analogy and Analogical Reasoning", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2019 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2019/entries/reasoning-analogy/ Broughton, J. Descartes's Method of Doubt, Princeton University Press, 2002. Campbell, P. (2021). First Principles. ProfitWell. Thinking from first principles (profitwell.com) Cooper, J. O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (2017). Applied behavior analysis. Hoboken, NJ: Pearson. Descartes, R. The Selections from the Principles of Philosophy. Frankfurt, H. (2006). On Truth. New York: Knopf. Gettier, E. (2000). Is Justified True Belief Knowledge. In S. Bernecker, & F. Dretske (Eds.), Knowledge: Readings in Contemporary Epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Glanzberg, Michael, "Truth", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2021 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2021/entries/truth/. Griffith, J., Fable, Method, and Imagination in Descartes (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), pp. 67–70 Kahneman, D. Thinking Fast and Slow. Pardi, P. (2011) What is Knowledge? Philosophy News. | What is Knowledge? Pardi, P. (2019). What is Truth? Philosophy News | What is Truth? Schieber, J. (2018). What is Skepticism. Philosophy News| What is Skepticism? See also https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/closure-epistemic/ Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior: B.F. Skinner. New York: Macmillan. Williams, B. (2004). Truth and Truthfulness. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Analytical Thinking and Innovation Lecture Notes and Additional Information for Instruction Slide # 1 2 Instruction • Analytical thinking is an essential skill across all fields of human endeavor. • When we base our decisions on fact and truth instead of opinion or belief, we can innovate better solutions to life’s problems and lead more successful lives. • • Display slide and simply read the text. You’ll elaborate on the next slide. • 3 4 • Philosophers have debated the concepts of belief, knowledge, and truth for millennia. Let’s begin with some shared definitions. • Belief is a condition that exists within a person’s mind. • Knowledge is a belief in a proposition that a person is justified in holding as true. • Truth is found in facts that exist independently of belief (they are true whether or not someone believes them). • Skepticism and doubt exist between knowledge and belief. • • 5 • • • 6 Everything we perceive through our senses is filtered through our prior knowledge, beliefs, and accumulated experiences. The brain makes sense of external stimuli (sight, sound, etc.) by connecting perception to existing knowledge. These connections may not be grounded in fact or truth. • • • 7 • The word “analysis” means a detailed examination of the elements or structure of something. When we analyze something, we break it down into its constituent parts to determine their relationship or value. Analysis helps us understand more about something, determine what it is, or know what it contains. Analysis is the opposite of synthesis. Analysis is taking something apart, but synthesis is combining elements into a new whole. First principles thinking is form of analysis that seeks to break down a complicated proposition by uncovering its underlying assumptions, facts, or ideas. The five steps on this slide also mirror the steps of innovation, which we’ll discuss later in this lesson. Analogies are just comparisons, and they’re an essential part of how the brain sorts and organizes information. The problem is when we let analogies take the place of digging deeper for facts and truth. Social media is a very good example. We believe what we see because it’s like other things we’ve seen before or because it aligns with our beliefs, but if we don’t stop and think analytically or search for facts and truth, we can be deceived quite easily. 1 Analytical Thinking and Innovation • 8 • • • • 9 • 10 Contradictory evidence makes us uncomfortable or even causes us to feel attacked. Challenges to our pre-existing beliefs feel very threatening. Evidence of this phenomenon is found throughout history. People can become extremely upset when someone tries to up-end their beliefs, (Consider Galileo, as just one example.) Social media fuels confirmation bias as it tailors what we’re presented with based on other things we’ve read, viewed, liked, or shared. Problem: You are always late. 1. Why are you late? Because you don’t leave on time. 2. Why don’t you leave on time? Because you’re paying attention to what you’re doing. 3. Why are you paying attention to what you’re doing? It’s very interesting. 4. Why is it interesting? Because it’s important to me. 5. Why isn’t being on time important to you? Because you care more about exercising choice over how you spend your time than you do about conforming to an external expectation. Now that you know this is a matter of priorities, you can adjust your behavior. • 11 Example o My friend bought two cars from XYZ company. Both had serious mechanical problems. o If I buy a car from XYZ, it would have problems, too. o So I’ll buy a different kind of car. Just because your friend’s cars had problems does not mean you would also have problems. This is an analogy, not fact and truth. • Socrates believed that knowledge is already inside the human mind, so we have to do to unlock it is to ask the right questions. Questioning ensures you’ve gone deep enough into a problem to find your assumptions. Medical professionals regularly deal with problem-cause-solution o A patient comes in with a problem. The doctor diagnoses the cause and pursues a treatment solution. o Patient: doctor, my knee hurts o Doctor: let’s run some tests. o After testing, Doctor: your knee is bone-on-bone. We’ll need to replace it. Let’s schedule the surgery… Cartesian Doubt (after philosopher Rene Descartes) • Accept only information you know to be true. • Break known truths into smaller pieces. • Solve simple problems first. • Make a list of further problems. Philosophical Doubt • 12 13 2 Analytical Thinking and Innovation • Doubt is the foundation of scientific inquiry, stating assertions that can be tested and proven. • • The phrase “reason free from passion” is often used to describe the law. Think about the process in a courtroom, where lawyers build a case based on evidence, facts, and truth. • Distribute the Activity 1 Template to students and provide instructions about due date and grading (if you choose to use it as a graded assignment) • Emphasize the importance of determining fact and truth through analytical thinking • Mention that in professional settings, peer review is required so that we ensure that the research in our disciplines conforms to the standards of fact and truth. 18 • • Any time human beings work together, we will have differences of opinion. We collaborate more successfully when we can keep our work focused on facts instead of beliefs. 19 • • This connects to the idea of “reason free from passion” When we can communicate factually based on evidence not opinion, we are more successful • Innovations don’t materialize out of thin air. They’re the product of an analytical problem-solving process. Innovation is a new approach to an existing problem. It takes past and present practices into account while striving for a new or better approach 14 15 16 17 20 • • NOTE: if time is limited, you could go rather quickly through slides 21-25 that explain the five parts of design thinking. Design thinking is not the only useful approach to innovation, but it’s a proven formula for structuring the innovation process. 21 • 22 • 23 • • • • • Design thinking is a human-centric process. It keeps the user of the solution at the forefront of every consideration. The definition stage is where we rely most heavily on analytical thinking. What is the problem? What do we know about it? What facts can we gather about it? What other factors might be at work in the problem? (etc.) 24 • • Consider introducing the idea of brainstorming when displaying this slide. Resource: IDEO’s 7 Simple Rules of Brainstorming 25 • Design thinking operates on a “bias toward action” meaning that a quick and messy prototype is preferable to something refined and beautiful. 3 Analytical Thinking and Innovation • Prototypes can be storyboards, role-playing, and much more. They do not have to be physical models. The point is to bring ideas out of your head and make them visible in the real world so that we can interact with them together. • Testing is step 5 of design thinking, but it is not the end. Tests can reveal opportunities for improvement, glitches that must be addressed, or open new possibilities. • The three spaces of innovation offer another way to understand the innovation process. • The inspiration space encompasses the design thinking stages of empathize and define. 8Something motivates us to begin a design process, then we develop empathy for t9he persons involved, and gather information to define the problem as thoroughly as10 possible. 26 27 28 • • 29 • • • • 30 • • • • 31 • We might move between and among many possibilities during this phase, following an unsatisfactory test by reconfiguring a prototype, rejecting a prototype to go back to brainstorming, or seeking to redefine the problem by gathering additional information. Innovation is not a linear process, even though the design thinking graphic makes it appear to be. Design thinkers “fail early and often” trying an idea, rejecting it, and trying another. Analytical thinking is always at work, determining what works, what doesn’t, and suggesting what to do next. However, design thinking does not stop with implementation. Every solution should be subject to periodic evaluation and continuous improvement as found in the principles of action research. No solution will remain perfect forever. There’s always space for innovation! A well-designed solution will answer these three questions successfully. Desirable: a solution nobody will use is not a solution at all. (Ex: to eat a more healthful diet, replace ice cream with broccoli) Feasible: a solution we don’t have the power to implement is not a solution, either. (Ex: to solve global warming, launch climate-regulating satellites that bounce excess sunlight back into space) Viable: a solution we can’t afford to put into practice in the long term is not a good solution (Ex: to solve the problem of student debt, eliminate tuition) 32 • • Every aspect of innovation involves analytical thinking. Emphasize this idea as you read around the slide using the arrow indicators to track the path. 33 • Distribute the Activity 2 Template to students and provide instructions regarding the due date and grading criteria you have determined. 4 Analytical Thinking and Innovation 34 • Add your own concluding remarks here at the end of the presentation. 35 • This is a good book. Not only will students enjoy it, but it’s helpful for faculty, too. • References provided for faculty background, but not necessary to share with students unless desired 36 5 Analytical Thinking and Innovation Lesson Plan New Instruction Title Lesson Objective Materials and Equipment Hook Instruction Guided Practice Independent Practice Assessment Analytical Thinking and Innovation Students will refine their understanding of analytical thinking and innovation through direct instruction and two engaged learning activities. PowerPoint presentation Computer Projection system Activity 1 Template (provide electronically through the LMS) Activity 2 Template (provide electronically through the LMS) Slide 2 (glass half-full) Present the lesson using the PPT slides and instructor notes document, pausing to discuss important points and answer students’ questions. Activity 1 Students will choose a controversial topic, identify their assumptions, and conduct research to test their assumptions Activity 2 Students will choose a problem and apply analytical thinking to create an innovative solution Collect students’ work for Activity 1 and Activity 2 to assess their level of engagement with the ideas presented in class. Analytical Thinking and Innovation Activity 1 Template 1. Choose one of the three statements listed below. 2. State whether you agree or disagree with the statement you chose. 3. Make a list of all your assumptions about the statement. a. What are your thoughts? b. What are your feelings? c. What are your beliefs. 4. Analyze and test your assumptions. Conduct an internet search for facts that could disprove your assumptions. Your task is to test your assumptions, not to look for evidence to confirm them. It’s easy to find sources that agree with your perspective but much more difficult to investigate sources that disagree. 5. List the provable facts and truth you discovered in your search 6. Complete the reflective statement at the end of the template. Statements 1. Pit bulls are a vicious dog breed and should be banned nationally. 2. Scientific objectivity is a myth: all science is inevitably affected by the researcher’s personal biases and beliefs. 3. Violent video games are harmful to players’ mental health and lead to criminal behavior outside of the game. 4. If none of these statements appeals to you: a. Choose another controversial topic. b. Write a statement similar to the three above. c. Follow the other steps of this assignment as directed. _________________________________________________________________ Please type your answers directly into the cells below each question. Cells will automatically expand as needed. 1. Which statement did you choose? 2. Did you initially agree or disagree with this statement? Explain. 3. List all the assumptions, beliefs, feelings, or thoughts you have about this topic before conducting your research. Analytical Thinking and Innovation 4. Test your assumptions by searching for factual, provable, verifiable information that could DISPROVE your original response to the question. • Note the sources you consulted (you do not need a full scholarly citation – just including the URL is acceptable for this activity) and what facts and truth you learned from them. • Once you have found these facts, you can also search for factual, provable, verifiable information that could prove your original response. Remember: the point is to think analytically while confining your search to facts and truth. Therefore, using blogs or other opinion-based sources is inadvisable. 5. Summarize your research by making a list of the key facts you discovered. Reflective Summary Provide a reflective answer to this question: how did this activity affect your original answer to the statement you chose? Did you change your mind? Did your search for facts and truth confirm your initial belief? Please describe your thought process and how you used analytical thinking in this activity. Please change the file name to include your last name before submitting your work. Analytical Thinking and Innovation Activity 2 Template Step 1: Choose one of the problems below. Step 2: Imagine how you would use one of the three models for analytical thinking and innovation that we discussed in class. First Principles 1. State the goal 2. Identify assumptions 3. Break problem into its factual components 4. Determine what is possible 5. Build a new solution Design Thinking 1. Empathize 2. Define 3. Ideate 4. Prototype 5. Test Three Spaces of Innovation 1. Inspiration 2. Ideation 3. Implementation Step 3: Describe each step of the process and illustrate what you would do and how you would do it. Be as detailed and thorough as possible. Step 4: Complete the reflective summary statement. _________________________________________________________________ Problem 1 – Roommate Dilemma • Problem: Two roommates in a standard dorm room have conflicting work/sleep schedules. Redesign the space so that each person can work without disturbing the other’s sleep. • Constraints: o The room is 15 x 20 feet and contains two desks, two XL-twin beds, two chairs, and two 4-drawer dressers. o The dorm offers bunking kits for beds. o You cannot make any permanent modifications to the furniture or room. Problem 2 – Healthy Lifestyle Upgrade • Problem: You know that you should take action to improve your health by eating better and exercising more, but you just can’t seem to make yourself do it. • Constraints: o You must maintain your existing commitments to work or school. o You are limited to the resources already available to you (campus fitness center, dining service, etc.) Problem 3 – Redesign Your Morning Routine • Problem: Your morning routine is a mess. No matter how early you set your alarm, you seem to end up running out of time and end up running late. How can you make sure you get to work or class on time? • Constraints: This design option depends on the existing elements of your life, so the details are up to you. Analytical Thinking and Innovation Problem 4 – Student Choice • Describe a problem of your choice, either personal or a something that concerns you at a larger scale. • Use the strategies for innovation we’ve discussed to design a solution using analytical thinking _________________________________________________________________ Please type your answers directly into the cells below each question. Cells will automatically expand as needed. Step 1: Which problem did you choose? Step 2: How did you apply analytical thinking to the problem? Step 3: What process did you use? Describe what you would do to solve the problem and how you would do it. Your answer should be detailed and thorough. Attach additional drawings, diagrams, or references as needed to explain your solution thoroughly. Step 4: Provide a reflective answer to this question: how has what you learned in this lesson helped you understand more about analytical thinking and innovation, and how might you use this knowledge as a student or in your life after graduation? Please change the file name to include your last name before submitting your work.