Laval University
From the SelectedWorks of Fathi Habashi
December, 2017
Success and Failure of the Canadian
Metallurgical Industry
Fathi Habashi
Available at: https://works.bepress.com/fathi_habashi/
268/
Fathi Habashi, SF J Metallurgical Science, 2017, 1:1
SciFed Journal of Metallurgical science
Research Article
Open Access
Success and Failure in the Canadian Metallurgical Industry
*
Fathi Habashi
*
Department of Mining, Metallurgical, and Materials Engineering Laval University, Quebec City, Canada
Abstract
The mining and metallurgical industries are important contributor to the Canadian economy. There
were successes and failures in these industries in the past fifty years. Examples of the success story of
Sherritt Gordon Mines in Alberta for hydrometallurgy, the International Nickel Company in Sudbury for
pyrometallurgy, the aluminum industry in the Province of Quebec for electrometallurgy, and the Bottom
Blown Oxygen Converter for the steel industry by Liquid Air engineers in Montreal. The failure took place
in the asbestos industry, magnesium production, the titanium pigment plant of Tioxide Canada, Noranda, and
Orbite - - all in Quebec, will be presented as witnessed be the author.
Keywords
Sherritt Gordon INCO; Aluminum industry;
Oxygen converter; Gold, Asbestos; Magnesium; Titanium
pigment; Orbite; Thompson Refinery; Tar sands; Potash;
Uranium; Engineering firms
Introduction
Canada is a world leader in the metallurgical
industry. The Canadian mining and metallurgical
industries contribute about 40 billion dollars to national
economy. Many metallurgical processes were developed
or invented in Canada thanks to the new organizations that
were created for these purposes:
• The Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
founded in 1898, was responsible for promoting the
development of the industry by organizing meetings where
academic people met industrial engineers and metallurgical
processes were discussed.
• The Mines Branch in Ottawa was created in 1907 was
also responsible for creating and helping many of the new
metallurgical processes.
• The Canadian National Research Council founded in
1916 was behind the magnesium process discovered in
Canada.
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• The engineering firms created in 1947 and later were
responsible for installing many plants in Canada and
abroad.
Canada has also the tallest chimney in the world (Figure 1).
It is located in Sudbury and is 381 m tall. Some Canadian
metallurgical plants are also producing fertilizers, for
example, ammonium sulfate by Sherritt and ammonium
phosphate at Trail. This shows the strong relation between
the metallurgical and the chemical industry. Atlas Steel in
Welland, Ontario was the first in 1950s to adopt continuous
casting [1].
*Corresponding author: Fathi Habashi,
Department of Mining,
Metallurgical, and Materials Engineering Laval University, Quebec City,
Canada. E-mail: Fathi.Habashi@arul.ulaval.ca; Tel: [418] 651-5774
Received June 14, 2017; Accepted October 27, 2017; Published November
13, 2017
Citation: Fathi Habashi (2017) Success and Failure in the Canadian
Metallurgical Industry. SF J Metallurgical Science 1:1.
Copyright: © 2017 Fathi Habashi. This is an open-access article distributed
under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original author and source are credited.
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Table 2: Name change of major mining and metallurgical companies
in Canada
Figure 1: Chimney at Sudbury
Original name
New names
Alcoa
Aluminium Company of
Canada, Alcan, Rio Tinto
Alcan
Consolidated Mining &
Smelting Company
Cominco, Teck Cominco
Eldorado Nuclear
Cameco
Falconbridge
xstrata, Glencore Canada
International Nickel
Company
INCO, CVRD Inco, Vale
Inco, Vale Canada
Noranda
xstrata
Quebec Iron and Titanium
QIT Fer et Titan, Rio Tinto
QIT
Kilborn Engineering
The industry achieved many successes as well as
some failures. The successes are in the fields of hydro-,
pyro-, and electrometallurgy as well as in industrial
minerals such as the tar sands and the potash industries.
The failures are mainly in the asbestos industry, the white
pigment manufacture, magnesium recovery, and the
recovery of alumina from clay [2].
Certain metals produced as by-products of main
metals (Table 1). In the past few years the company names
has changed (Table 2). The treatment followed here is as
much as possible historic.
Roland Kenneth Kilborn (1902 - 1959) (Figure
2) founded in 1947 Kilborn Engineering the first major
engineering firm in Canada that designed and built some
of North America’s largest mines and became an industry
leader in gold milling, potash refining and uranium
processing. Kilborn graduated from Queen’s University in
1927 with degree in civil engineering. After two decades
of working and gaining experience at a variety of mining
projects in northern Ontario, he formed the engineering
firm that took part in Canada’s uranium industry as well as
Canada’s coal mines and washing plants, and most of the
country’s asbestos mines and plants
Figure 2- Roland Kenneth Kilborn (1902:1959)
Table 1: By-product metals
By-product metal or
metalloids
Major metal
Antimony
Lead
Arsenic
Copper, gold
Bismuth
Lead
Cadmium
Zinc
Cobalt
Nickel
Platinum metals
Nickel
Selenium
Copper, nickel
Tellurium
Copper, nickel
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Kilborn Engineering also built most of Canada’s
potash refinery capacity in Saskatchewan and New
Brunswick. In addition, the company designed and built
a number of gold mines and plants in North and South
America. By 1982, the company had grown to more
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than 1,500 employees, with offices across Canada and
in Denver, Colorado. It is now part of the SNC-Lavalin
which built the largest autoclaves in the world [see Nickel
in Madgascar].
Magnesium
Thermal Process
Lloyd Pidgeon (1903-1999) (Figure 3) is best known for
the development of the process for the production of high¬
purity magnesium. He was born in Markham, Ontario,
graduated in 1925 in chemistry from the University of
Manitoba, and a PhD from McGill University in 1929.
After several years at Oxford University, Pidgeon joined
the National Research Council of Canada where he
developed the process for the production of magnesium
metal using the reaction between calcined dolomite and
ferrosilicon:
Province of Quebec on the western side of Saint Lawrence
River, Norsk Hydro constructed a 40,000 t/y magnesium
production plant in 1986 (Figure 4). It was the largest
primary magnesium producer in the world based on the
dissolution of imported magnesite, MgCO3, in hydrochloric
acid, evaporating the magnesium chloride obtained, and its
electrolysis. It was shut down in 2006 because it was not
able to compete with the Chinese companies at this time.
Figure 4: Norsk Hydro magnesium plant in Becancour
Figure 3- Lloyd Pidgeon (1903-1999)
MagCan
4 MgO.CaO + 2 Si → 2Ca2 SiO4 + 4 Mg
A group of prominent mining men from Toronto
became interested in the project and raised capital that
enabled Pidgeon to establish a pilot plant. Pidgeon's
discovery led to the formation of Dominion Magnesium,
which he joined in 1941 as a director of research. The plant
is now owned and operated by Timminco. Because of the
demand for magnesium during the Second World War, six
magnesium plants were built throughout North America.
Magnesium was used for a variety of military efforts and
was considered to be the metal of choice where strength
with lightness was required, as for example, in aircraft. In
1943, Pidgeon was appointed professor and head of the
department of metallurgical engineering at the University
of Toronto, a post he held until his retirement in 1969.
The MagCan plant (Figure 5) north of High River
in Alberta opened in 1991 at 30% of its capacity, with
support from the Alberta government in an attempt to
diversify the economy away from oil and gas when the
price of natural resources declined sharply. It was based on
chlorination of imported magnesite with chlorine and CO
to produce MgCl2 for electrolysis. It closed down after less
than a year in operation. The company started its activity
at a moment when the magnesium price was low. The
Province provided a $103 million loan guarantee and 145
people lost their jobs.
Figure 5- MagCan plant in Alberta
Nosrk Hydro Process
In Becancour just opposite to Trois Rivieres in the
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Magnola
See “Asbestos”.
Mines Branch
The Mines Branch now called Canadian Centre
for Mineral and Energy Technology, and abbreviated
Canmet is responsible for the discovery and development
of many metallurgical processes. One of these discovered
by Downes and Bruce in 1955 is the recovery of elemental
sulfur from pyrrhotite containing nickel - - a process that
was applied in 2000 in Voisey Bay in the Canadian North.
This marks for the first time nickel recovery from sulfides
by hydrometallurgical method:
concentrates of copper, nickel, and cobalt since they form
soluble ammine complexes. The process has minimum
corrosion problems and any pyrite present will not be
attacked. Ammonium sulfate is a by-product; it is marketed
as a fertilizer. The overall reaction is:
Figure 7: Pressure leaching of Ni-Cu-Co sulfides in ammonia
2 FeS + 1½O2 → Fe2 O3 + 2 S
Nickel in the sulfide is found in solution.
Sherritt Gordon Mines
Sherritt Gordon Mines (Figure 6) in Fort
Saskatchewan, Alberta is a pride of the Canadian
Metallurgical industry. It produces the metals nickel
and cobalt as well as the fertilizers ammonium sulfate,
ammonium phosphate, and urea. It is a progressive
company had its success in the collaboration with the
University of British Columbia and the Mines Branch in
Ottawa in the 1950s. It is also a consulting firm that built
plants all over the world to produce nickel and cobalt from
laterites as well as to liberate gold from refractory ores to
be followed by cyanidation [3]. Sherritt also was a pioneer
in powder metallurgical applications.
Figure 6: Sherritt Gordon Mines in Fort Saskatchewan, Alberta
MS + nNH 3 + 2O2 → M ( NH 3 )n
2+
+ SO42 −
Where M stands for Ni, Cu, and Co.
Pressure Hydrometallurgy
The company introduced modern hydrometallurgy
in the world and specially pressure reactors. It precipitated
nickel directly from ammoniacal solution by hydrogen
under pressure instead of the long known process at that
time - - the first in the world by the reaction:
M 2+ + H 2 → M + 2 H +
Crystals of cobalt were also produced by the same process
(Figure 8). Example of the reactors used by Sherritt (Figure
9) [4].
Figure 8: Cobalt crystals precipitated from aqueous solution by
hydrogen under pressure
Ammonia Leaching Process
The process (Figure 7) is used for treating
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Figure 9:Typical pressure reactor used by Sherritt
the leaching step thus no SO2 and the necessity to make
sulfuric acid:
Figure 12 : Leaching of zinc sulfide concentrate in an autoclave
Sherritt Mint
Sherritt also produced by hydrometallurgical
methods 5-cents nickel coins for Canada for 40 years
(Figure 10) as well as the Canadian dollar from nickel
covered by a thin layer of brass (Figure 11).
Figure 10: 5-cents coins produced by Sherritt
ZnS + 2 H + + ½O2 → Zn 2 + + S + H 2 O
In the old method the sulfide ore was roasted, the
calcine leached with sulfuric acid, and the zinc sulfate
solution was electrolyzed to get pure metallic zinc. Sulfur
dioxide formed during the roasting step is transformed
to acid which was always used to treat phosphate rock to
produce fertilizer. The new process freed the zinc industry
from the need to produce fertilizers.
Laterites
Figure 11: One dollar produced by Sherritt
Sherritt designed the plant for nickel recovery by
pressure leaching plant for laterites in Madagascar. The
autoclaves (Figure 13) built by SNC-Lavalin were the
largest in the world.
Figure 13: Autoclaves at Ambatovy in Madagascar
Zinc Industry
Sherritt also introduced in 1980 a zinc process that
made the industry independent of the fertilizer industry
(Figure 12). In one step the zinc concentrate was treated
with sulfuric acid and oxygen in an autoclave to produce a
solution of zinc sulfate which can be electrolyzed to pure
metallic zinc while elemental sulfur is produced during
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Falconbridge
Falconbridge Company developed a commercial
process for the treatment of a mixture of Cu2S–Ni3S2
obtained by smelting a copper–nickel sulfide concentrate:
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Ni3S2 is solubilized in concentrated HCl while Cu2S is not.
The leaching reaction is:
Ni3 S2 + 6 HCl → 3 NiCl2 + 2 H 2 S + H 2
Cu2S is separated by filtration for copper recovery,
while NiCl2 solution is first purified from dissolved H2S
by air oxidation and removal of the sulfur formed, then
crystallized as NiCl2.2H2O. Since it is technically difficult
to reduce NiCl2 by hydrogen to nickel, the chloride is first
calcined to NiO then reduced:
Separation of Nickel and Copper Sulfides
The separation of CuS2 from Ni3S2 obtained from
the Sudbury ore by matte formation was a problem since
its discovery. The tops and bottoms process, also known as
Orford process, based on fusion with sodium sulfide was
used for 60 years from 1890. It was based on the fact that
Cu2S is soluble in molten Na2S while Ni3S2 is practically
insoluble.
Figure 15: The system Cu2S–Na2S
NiCl2 ·2 H 2 O → NiO + 2 HCl
NiO + H 2 → Ni + H 2 O
Equity Silver
The presence of arsenic and antimony in copper
sulfide concentrates is undesirable because these metals
complicate the smelting and refining of copper. As a result
there is interest to remove them before smelting. A copper
sulfide concentrate containing 4 % as and 7 % Sb is treated
in British Columbia by Equity Silver Company by sodium
sulfide [5]. The finely divided concentrate is leached for 16
hours at 110°C to solubilize arsenic and antimony sulfides:
Figure 16: The system Ni3S2–Na2S
As2 S3 + 3S 2 − → 2 AsS33−
Sb2 S3 + 3S 2 −− → 2 SbS33−
After filtration, the copper concentrate is shipped
to smelters. The company, however, stopped production.
International Nickel
Sudbury
The International Nickel became known as INCO
then Vale is a pioneer in many extractive metallurgy
processes that is became the world capital of nickel [6].
Figure 17- The Orford Process
Figure 14: 200 years nickel in Sudbury [1751- 1951]
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Figure 18: Orford process or tops and bottoms process
furnace was adopted to treat copper - nickel sulfides using
oxygen instead of air.
Figure 20 - INCO flash smelting furnace
In 1950 it was replaced by slow cooling of
the binary sulfides followed by grinding then a more
economical flotation process (Figure 19). It was also
possible to separate an alloy containing the platinum
metals.
Figure 19: Separation of CuS2 from Ni3S2 by slow cooling, grinding,
and flotation
Converter
The company introduced in 1960s the Top Blown
Rotary Converter (Figure 21) to convert directly nickel
sulfide to metallic nickel instead of oxidation of nickel
sulfide to oxide then reduction to metal thus shortening the
treatment which is a great advantage:
Figure 21- Top Blown Rotary Converter
Ni3 S2 + 2O2 → 3 Ni + 2 SO2
Flash Smelting
The invention of flash smelting for copper
concentrates by Outokompu in Finland and INCO took
place simultaneously in 1940s. It was based on the use
of the heat generated by the oxidation of sulfides to melt
the charge instead of using an extra fuel in a reverberatory
furnace (Figure 20). The difference between the two was
in some details but the principle was the same. The same
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Carbonyl Process
The pressure carbonyl process developed by INCO
permitted the production of nickel carbonyl very fast at
a higher temperature (Figures 22 and 23). The carbonyl
process is used for refining nickel. Nickel carbonyl is very
poisonous. Carbon monoxide gas reacts with nickel for
form gaseous nickel carbonyl. By this method pure nickel
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powder is obtained.
Figure 22 - Carbon monoxide gas reacts with nickel for form gaseous
nickel carbonyl
purified solution is returned to the cathode compartment,
which is separated from the anode by a porous diaphragm
in the form of a box enclosing the cathode, at such a rate
that a hydrostatic head of solution builds up relative to the
rest of the electrolyte (Figure 24). This prevents impurity
ions from diffusing into the cathode compartment.
Figure 24 - Introducing the purified solution in the cathode compartment
of diaphragm cell
Figure 23 - The pressure carbonyl process developed by INCO
Pressure Leaching of Nickel Sulfide
Electrolysis of Nickel Sulfide
Sulfides are semiconductors and conduct the
electric current. At Thompson Refinery in Manitoba
INCO cast nickel sulfide white metal into anodes and by
electrolysis it was possible to get pure nickel at the cathode
and elemental sulfur at the anode:
Anodic reaction:
Cathodic reaction:
Ni + 4CO → Ni ( CO )4
Ni 2 + + 2e → Ni
With the discovery of the Voisey Bay sulfide
deposits in the Canadian North it was decided in 2005 to use
a pressure leach¬ing process to produce elemental sulfur
instead of SO2 (Figures 25 and 26). The deci¬sion was
made because the Government of Newfoundland refused
that the concen¬trate be shipped outside the Province.
This is the first acid pressure leaching process for nickel
sulfides and was originally developed at the Mines Branch
in Ottawa by Downes and Bruce in the 1950s. The sulfide
concentrate is mainly pendlandite - pyrrhotite containing
1.6% nickel.
Figure 25 - Pressure leaching process for treating the Voisey Bay
concentrate
Thus, it would be possible to recover the metal
and the sulfur directly in one step, instead of roasting
the sulfide to oxide, reduction of the oxide to metal, and
then casting the metal in form of anodes for electrolytic
refining. In this direct electrolysis it is possible to recover
the sulfur in the elemental form instead of emitting it in the
form of SO2.
Pure Nickel by Electrolysis
INCO developed a purification step to prepare
pure nickel by electrolysis in a diaphragm cell. To keep
impurities at a tolerable level a calculated volume of the
electrolyte is continuously bled to a purification circuit. The
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Figure 26- Nickel sulfide pressure leaching plant under construction at
Argentia in New¬foundland
as Sorelslag containing 72% TiO2 (Figures 28,29). The
slag was used to make TiO2 white pigment. Later, the
slag was upgraded to 95% TiO2 by pressure leaching with
hydrochloric acid to remove calcium and magnesium.
The technology of manufacturing Sorelslag was adopted
before the hydrometallurgical route for making “synthetic
rutile”.
Figure 28 - QIT Fer et Titan electric furnace plant on the top left in
Sorel, Quebec
Ammonia Leaching in Nickel Metallurgy
In 1960s INCO built anammonia leaching pilot
plant. In this plant, nickel sulfide concentrate containing
about 0.8% Ni was roasted to oxide, the oxide reduced to
metal, and the metal was leached with ammonia to get a
solution from which nickel oxide containing 80% Ni was
precipitated (Figure 27). The plant was operated for nearly
a year when it was shut down because it proved to be
uneconomical.
Figure 27- INCO ammonia leaching pilot plant for pyrrhotite
Figure 29 - QIT Fer et Titan Sorelslag
Iron Powder
Sorel
QIT Fer et Titan
In 1955 QIT Fer et Titan in Sorel, Quebec
built nine electric furnaces to partially reduce ilmenite
containing 36% TiO2 to iron and titanium slag known
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A successful iron powder industry was created
in Quebec next to QIT Fer et Titan (Figure 30). Highpressure water jets are used to break up the stream of
molten iron. There is a need for iron powder for use in
powder metallurgy applications, for welding rod coating,
for fireworks, and other applications. Most iron powders
are used for automobile parts which are easier to produce
than by other methods (Figure 31).
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Figure 30- Production of iron powder
Aluminum Industry
The aluminum industry was first established in
Canada in Shawinigan, Québec in 1901 by the Northern
Aluminum Company (now Alcan Aluminum). Over the
next 5 decades, Alcan established a network of smelters
and an alumina refinery in Québec and one smelter
in British Columbia (Figure 33). The availability of
abundant hydroelectric power led to the establishment of
the aluminum industry in Canada. Canada is the world's
fourth largest producer of aluminum, after the US, Russia
and China.
Figure 33 - Aluminum plants in Canada. All plants are in Quebec
except Kitimat in British Columbia
Figure 31- Articles produced from iron powder
Alumina and Aluminum Industry
Alumina
Although Canada is the third largest producer of
aluminum in the world, all its alumina is imported except
one plant in Saguenay which is producing alumina from
bauxite imported from Jamaica. Any attempt to recover
alumina from silicates by hydrochloric acid cannot
compete with bauxite using alkaline solution because of
the low tenor of aluminum in the raw material as compared
to bauxite and the ease with which aluminum hydroxide
is recovered from the basic solution (Figure 32). Orbite
in Cap Chat in Quebec tried to obtain alumina from clay
but after 5 years operation and spending $ 127 million has
announced bankruptcy and suspended operation in 2017
[7].
Søderberg electrodes which caused pollution were
replaced by prebaked electrodes (Figure 34), fluorine
capturing systems were added (Figure 35), and pollution
problems were solved by installing gas scrubbing systems
(Figure 36).
Figure 34- Prebaked electrodes
Figure 32 - Alumina production from clay. Orbite process
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Figure 35- Fluorine capturing systems
Pelletization
The iron ore industry in Quebec has advanced
greatly in Quebec and the Province has one of the largest
iron ore pelletization plants in the world using inclined
rotating disc (Figure 37) [8].
Figure 37 - Iron ore pelletization plant in Quebec
Figure 36 - Gas scrubbing system
Midrex Process
Iron and Steel Industry
General
Sidbec Dosco in Contrecoeur, Quebec was one of
the first to adopt the Midrex process for steel production
in 1973 (Figure 38). A larger plant was installed in 1977.
Oxide pellets are charged in a vertical furnace to which a
reducing gas is introduced at the bottom (Figure 39). The
reducing gas is a reformed natural gas. The metallized
pellets are then discharged from the furnace and melted in
an electric furnace to produce steel.
Beside the use of blast furnaces (Table 3) Canada
pioneered in direct reduction processes:
Figure 38- Midrex plant in Contrecoeur, Quebec
- The H-iron fluid bed process as developed by Imperial
Oil Company at Dortmouth, Nova Scotia
- Stelco piloted the world’s first SL/RN rotary kiln process
Table 3: Steel production in Canada
Source
%
Blast furnaces
60
Scrap
30
Direct reduction
15
Ilmenite
15
100
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Figure 39 - Midrex plant in Contrecoeur, Quebec
Figure 41 - An electric furnace under construction in 1973 at the Union
Carbide plant at Beauharnois in Quebec showing the 3-metre diameter
openings at the top for the carbon electrodes
Oxygen in Steelmaking
Bottom Blown Oxygen Converter for the steel
industry was invented by engineers at Liquid Air in
Montreal. The use of oxygen accelerates greatly the
oxidation of impurities. The use of a small volume
of natural gas for cooling due to a cracking reaction
eliminates the deterioration of refractories [9] (Figure 40).
The fact that oxygen is introduced at the bottom of reactor
away from slag renders the process fast and efficient. It is
a success story that is used all over the world.
Figure 40 - Bottom Blown Oxygen Converter
Ferro Alloys
Due to the cheap electric power, Quebec became
the center of ferroalloys by electric furnaces (Figure
41). Ferrosilicon, ferromanganese, and ferrochromium
are produced by reducing the corresponding oxide with
coke. In the case of the reduction of silica sand at SKW in
Becancour, Quebec it was found that silicon monoxide, SiO,
volatilized then oxidized to very fine SiO2 in the recovery
system. Such fine silicon dioxide found application in the
concrete industry. For ferronoibium see below.
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Niobium and Ferroniobium
Since 1977 Niobec owned by Cambior has been
producing high quality niobium in Saint Honoré in the
Saguenay region. The most important niobium mineral is
pyrochlore, (Ca,Na)2 -mNb2O6(O,OH,F)1 - n.xH2O. The
lattice positions of Na and Ca can also be occupied by
Ba, Sr, rare earths, Th, and U. The latter two elements
are responsible for the radioactivity of some pyrochlore
concentrates.
The ore contains 0.5-0.7% Nb2O5.
Pyrochlore mineral is processed by primarily physical
processing technology to give a concentrate ranging from
55 to about 60% niobium oxide. Ferroniobium contains
63-68% niobium is produced by the aluminothermic
process.
Niobium oxide, Nb2O5, is generally the starting
chemical for the production of other compounds. Niobium
metal is produced by the aluminothermic reduction of
the oxide followed by electron beam refining. Niobium
powders can be produced by the reduction of potassium
niobium heptafluoride (K2NbF7) with sodium, or by the
reduction of niobium oxide with magnesium.
Uranium
Rich uranium deposits were found in Saskatchewan
(Figure 42) and as a result the uranium industry is well
developed in Canada. Uranium refinery is in Port Hope,
Ontario. Leaching uranium ore with sodium carbonate
was introduced in Canada when the ore contained acidconsuming gangue.
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Figure 42 - Uranium processing plants in Canada
Figure 43 - Effect of cyanide and oxygen on the rate of dissolution of
silver [Deitz and Halpern, 1953]
POTASH
Gold
Canada produces about 200 tons of gold every year
of which about 80% comes from 70 mines and the rest is
by-product of copper and nickel production. Explanation
of the cyanidation process was done in Canada when the
effect of cyanide concentration and oxygen concentration
were studied (Figure 43). This led to the establishment of
the theoretical equation based on the formation of anodic
and cathodic areas [10]:
Canada is the world's largest potash producer and
exporter. In 1943, it was discovered in Saskatchewan in
the process of drilling for oil. Active exploration began
in 1951. Underground and solution mining is practiced
(Figure 44).
Figure 44 - Canadian potash in Saskatchewan
–
2AD – D O 2 [ CN ] [ O 2 ]
CN
Rate = ---------------------------------------------------------------------–
δ ( D – [ CN ] + 4D O 2 [ O 2] )
CN
Where: DCN- and DO2 = the diffusion coefficients
of cyanide and dissolved oxygen, cm2.sec–1, [CN–] and
[O2] = the concentration of CN– and O2 in the bulk of the
solution in mole/mL, δ = the thickness of the boundary
layer, in cm, and A = the total surface area of metal in
contact with the aqueous phase.
At low cyanide concentration the term [CN-] can
be neglected in the above equation and the rate becomes:
Rate = DCN-[CN-] which agrees with the experimental
data. If on the other hand at high cyanide concentration the
term [O2] can be neglected in the above equation and the
rate becomes: Rate = DO2 [O2] which again agrees with
the experimental data.
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Tar Sands
Oil is now produced in Canada from tar sands in
Alberta (Figures 45-48). Tar is a mixture of many organic
substances, which are separated by distillation at different
temperatures. The distillation residue is pitch. The tar
sands of north-eastern Alberta constitute one of the largest
deposits of liquid hydrocarbons in the world. The tar
sands extend over an area of over 900 × 106 km2 and are
estimated to contain 126 × 109 tons from which at least 35
× 109 tons of crude oil are expected to be produced. A part
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of the deposit located at Athabasca is amenable to surface
mining, while the major part is expected to be available by
in-situ techniques.
Figure 48 - Processing of tar sands
Figure 45 - Tar sands
Engineering Firm
The mining method generally used is mixing the
oil sand with warm water to create slurry which can be
transported by pipeline to a separating vessel where the
sand settles to the bottom and air bubbles form froth on the
top. The bitumen froth is skimmed off, mixed with solvent,
and spun in a centrifuge to remove the water and solids.
The bitumen can then be processed into crude oil.
Hatch is one of the most successful Canadian
metallurgical engineering firms in Canada [11]. It was
founded by Gerald G. Hatch (1922-2014) (Figure 49).
The company has grown from six people in one office in
Toronto in 1958 to over 11000 employees in 65 offices
worldwide. The company is owned by the employees.
One of the recent achievements is the world’s largest tube
autoclaves for processing Saudi Arabian bauxite to prepare
alumina for aluminum production (Figure 50). Among the
many donations offered by Hatch is the Hatch Center at
McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario (Figure 51).
Figure 49- Gerald G. Hatch (1922-2014)
Figure 46 - Tar sands in Alberta
Figure 50 - Tube autoclaves
Figure 47 - Exploiting the tar sands
Figure 51 - Hatch Center at McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario
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Canadian Mint
Royal Canadian Mint (Figure 52) founded in
1901 operates a technically advanced refinery in which it
refines precious metals from a variety of sources including
primary producers, industry, recyclers and financial
institutions. The Mint refines raw gold to 995 fines through
the Miller chlorination process. The gold is then cast into
anodes for electrolytic purification to 9999 fine using the
Wohl will process. On metallurgical events the mint issued
a commemorative coin on the occasion of 250 years of
the first Canadian iron making plant at Saint Maurice in
Quebec (Figure 53).
by 1895 mining started to be mechanized. This marks the
beginning of a stage of unprecedented growth. The number
of workers grew with the demand for asbestos.
Figure 54 - Early mining of asbestos in Quebec
Figure 52 - Royal Canadian Mint in Ottawa
Figure 55 - Crushing room at Johnson Mine in Quebec, 1900. Note the
girls were using hammers to crush the ore
Figure 53 - Commemorative dollar on the occasion of 250 years of
Forge Saint Maurice the first Canadian iron making plant
Asbestos is recovered from the crushed and ground
rock by aspiration (Figure 56). The air-tight building
housing the equipment is under slight pressure to make
sure that no fibers are released in the work place. This is
done by re-circulating the clean air sucked by the fans at
the top of the building through air-pressurized rooms.
Figure 56 - Recovery of asbestos fibers from the rock
Asbestos
Exploitation in Quebec
Although known in ancient times it has been
first discovered in economic mines in 1876 in Thetford
Township in Quebec [12]. The exploitation was simple
and the workers often inexperienced (Figures 54-56) but
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Uses
Figure 50- Asbestos brake lining set
Asbestos is an industrial mineral of great economic
importance. About 70% of the asbestos is used in the
fabrication of asbestos cement whereby the fibers are
slurried in water with Portland cement for making pipes
and other construction materials (Figures 57-60). Such
material contains 12 - 15% of asbestos which increases
greatly its resistance. Asbestos in admixture with plastics
and asphalt enters in the manufacture of a variety of tiles
and sheets used as a covering material.
Figure 57- Asbestos cement pipes
Because of its heat resistance, asbestos mixed
with metallic fibers and resins to the extent of 40% is used
in the manufacture of what is called friction materials, e.g.,
brakes for motorcars and aeroplanes (Figure 56). Asbestos
also enters in the manufacture of certain industrial paper
and gaskets. Asbestos was also used for the brakes in the
elevators in skyscrapers.
Nationalization
Figure 58 - Asbestos panels for roofs
As Minister of Natural Resources in 1976, Yves
Bérubé (1940-1993) (Figure 61) presided over the creation
of State Corporation for Research, Prospection, and
Promotion of Asbestos. In 1978 the National Society of
Asbestos was created as a Quebec Government organization
located in Sherbrooke, Quebec. The Society had a Research
Department directed by Jean Marc Lalancette, Chemistry
Professor at the University of Sherbrooke. In 1980 the
Quebec Government decided to nationalize the industry.
Figure 61 - Dr. Yves Berube (1940-1993)
The growing railroad industry was among the first
to make extensive use of asbestos in refrigeration units,
as insulation for pipes, boilers, and fireboxes (Figure 55).
Ship builders also made extensive use of asbestos material.
It was also used in the building industry as wall insulation,
for floor and ceiling tiles, in exterior siding, and in roofing.
Figure 59 - Asbestos articles for insulating materials
Carcinogenic Mineral
The nationalization of the industry was followed
by a campaign against asbestos as a carcinogenic mineral
resulting in a drastic decreased production. It was at the
turn of the twentieth century that researchers began to
notice a large number of deaths and lung problems in
asbestos mining towns. In 1917 and 1918, it was observed
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by several studies that asbestos workers were dying young.
In 1924 a woman had been working with asbestos since
she was thirteen. She died when she was thirty-three years
old, and an English doctor determined that the cause of
death was what he called "asbestosis".
Because of this, a study was done on asbestos
workers in England. Twenty five percent of them showed
evidence of asbestos-related lung disease. Laws were
passed in 1931 to increase ventilation. In the 1930s major
medical journals began to publish articles that linked
asbestos to cancer. The use of asbestos was at its highest
in the 1940s to 1970s. The warnings and regulations of the
1970s and beyond put an end to much of the production
although the industry greatly improved its operation with
respect to ventilation and dust control. Its use was banned
in many countries.
e.g., bromocresol purple and phenolphthalein, although
they are not dyestuffs, they color asbestos. It was found
that some dyes, e.g., Thiazol Yellow G and Trypan Blue
decreased the toxicity of the fibers. Unfortunately, the
project was abandoned due to lack of financing, retiring of
the inventor, and departure of the chemist doing the job. At
that time all financial efforts were directed to the attorneys
defending the case with the US Environment Agency.
Asbestos Tailings
Asbestos tailings became also a problem because
to produce one tonne of asbestos about 30 tonnes of tailings
have to be discarded. Is Quebec about 600 million tons of
tailings were piled up in the form of a mountain (Figure
63) which contains about 40% MgO.
Figure 63 - Asbestos tailings in Quebec
Research towards Asbestosis
Chrysophosphate
The Research Center of Societe National de
l’Amiante in Sherbrooke, Quebec developed in 1980s a
process for decreasing the toxicity of asbestos by treatment
with vapours of POCl3 (Figure 62). The product was known
as Chrysophosphate. The process was uneconomical and
technically unsound. Treatment of asbestos with phosphate
ion in aqueous solutions was found to have the same effect:
3Mg ( OH )2in Asbestos + 2 HPO4 2 − ( aq ) → 6 Mg3 ( PO4 )2 + 4OH + 2 H 2 O
Figure 62 - Chrysophosphate pilot plant in Sherbrooke
Magnola Project
In 1996, a magnesium pilot plant was running
at CEZinc in Valleyfield, Quebec to recover magnesium
from asbestos tailings containing 24% Mg. In 1997,
Noranda Company approved construction of the Magnola
magnesium plant at a cost of approximately $730 million
to be located in Danville, Quebec next to the tailings
disposal heap (Figure 64).
Figure 64 - View of Magnola magnesium plant in Danville, Quebec
Coloring with organic dyes
Chrysotile asbestos has the advantage of a large
surface area and can be coloured by organic dyes. The
appearance of new peaks in its X-ray diffraction patterns
and in infrared spectra of the dyed product together with the
absence of precipitates supports that chelates are formed
with its Mg(OH)2 component. Some organic compounds,
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Magnola production capacity would be 63,000
tonnes of magnesium per year, or close to 20% of world
supply. Plant construction began in 1998 and metal
production began in late 2001. The process involved
hydrochloric acid leaching, brine purification, drying to
produce granular magnesium chloride which are melted
and electrolysed to produce metallic magnesium. The
metallic magnesium is tapped and then cast in ingots.
Chlorine produced during electrolysis is
converted into acid to be used in the leaching stage. It
is washed with water and compressed. Then HCl gas is
synthesized by burning chlorine with hydrogen. The gas
is stripped and distilled so that 99%-HCl gas can be fed
into the chlorinator. The hydrochloric acid coming off the
chlorinator undergoes a thermal quench and oxidization.
It then passes through activated carbon to absorb any
chlorinated hydrocarbons that are present. The clean, 35%
HCl acid is used in the leach and neutralization circuit.
In January 2003 the plant was shut down for
economic reasons. The cost of filtration of the brine was a
major cost item because the large volumes of residue to be
filtered while other processes using magnesite the residue
to be filtered is insignificant. If the process were developed
to solve an environmental problem then the amount of
tailings consumed annually would be insignificant as
compared to the hundreds of millions of tonnes already
accumulated.
Tioxide Canada
Tioxide Canada in Tracy next door to QIT Fer et
Titan in Sorel, Quebec where ilmenite (Figure 65) was
treated in electric furnaces to produce iron and Sorelslag
(Figure 66). The company treated Sorelslag produced by
QIT by concentrated sulfuric acid to produces pure titanium
dioxide which is a white pigment (Figure 67). The process
produced dilute sulfuric acid which was uneconomical to
concentrate and recycle in the process. As a result the dilute
acid was thrown in the Saint Lawrence River for many
years. When the Province of Quebec formed the Ministry
of Environment in the 1960 it warned the industry from
throwing the acid in the river. As a result the industry was
shut down in the 1980s.
Figure 65- Museum sample of ilmenite, FeTiO2 (59.4 % TiO2)
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Figure 66- Ground titanium slag, FeTi4O10 (70-80 % TiO2)
Figure 67 - Titanium white, ~ 100% TiO2
The solution to this problem was to treat the
Sorelslag by hydrochloric acid so that dilute HCl can be
economically concentrated and recycled. Incidentally,
a process was developed in Canada to treat ilmenite
concentrate by concentrated HCl at 80oC to get synthetic
rutile (Figure 68) which can be converted to white pigment
by thermal methods thus bypassing the electric furnace.
Figure 68- Synthetic rutile, 98% TiO2
NORANDA
Noranda closed in 2002 its copper smelter in
Murdochville, Quebec because the ore deposit exploited
since 1950s was depleted. It also closed in 2002 its
Technology Center near Montreal created in 1970 (Figure
69). It abandoned its process for the recovery of copper in
one reactor (Figure 70) because of rapid deterioration of
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refractories.
Figure 69- Noranda Technology Center
Anodic slimes
Anodic slimes remaining in the cells after copper
electrorefining are treated to recover gold, silver, selenium,
and tellurium beside pure copper. Baking with sulfuric
acid was used for a long time, e.g.
Cu2 Se + 4 H 2 SO4 → 2CuSO4 + Se + 4 H 2 O + 2 SO2
Cu2Te + 4 H 2 SO4 → 2CuSO4 + Te + 4 H 2 O + 2 SO2
Figure 70 - Noranda reactor
The problem with this process is the formation of
SO2. Pressure leaching at 125oC was then used in which
selenium was volatilized and recovered while tellurium
was recovered from solution:
Cu 2 Se + 4 H + + O2 → 2Cu 2+ + Se + 2 H 2 O
Cu 2Te + 2 H + + 5 / 2O2 → 2Cu 2 + + TeO42 − + H 2 O
Further development led to the use of oxidation
of anodic slimes in top-blown rotary converter to get
directly doré metal. Gases evolved during this treatment
are collected for selenium and tellurium recovery.
Cominco
Copper refinery
Noranda has a copper refinery in Montreal East
(Figure 71) the largest in the world. It also produces
copper sulfate for agricultural purposes (Figure 72).
Figure 71- Canadian Copper Refinery in Montreal East - - the largest
in the world
World War I
Consolidated Mining & Smelting Company in
Trail, British Columbia together with Anaconda in USA
introduced during World War I the leaching – electro
winning process for zinc to replace the retort process
which was uneconomical (Figure 73). Incidentally, the
process was replaced in the 1980s by the pressure leaching
process referred to earlier.
Figure 73- The retort process [left] was replaced by the
hydrometallurgical process [right] during World War 1
ZnS
concentrate
Figure 72 - Production of copper sulfate at Canadian Copper Refinery
SO2
O2
Carbon
Oxidation
Acid plant
H2SO4
Zinc oxide calcine
Reduction
Residue
Condenser
Purification
Pure zinc
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World War II
Figure 56- Kivset process
In World War II 6 tonnes/year electrolytic heavy
water plant started operation in 1943 (Figure 74). Heavy
water constitutes only one part in 4,500 in ordinary water.
The production of heavy water by electrolysis is based on
the fact that H2O breaks apart more readily than D2O, and
the residual water left after electrolysis is relatively rich
in D2O. By reprocessing the residual water over and over
again, it was possible to eventually isolate heavy water.
This was Canada’s contribution to Manhattan project for
the fabrication of an atomic bomb in USA. Heavy water
is used in nuclear reactors as a moderator to slow down
neutrons.
Figure 74 - Plan for heavy water production at Trail
Conclusions
Canada is a top producer of minerals and metals.
Many new technologies and new processes in extractive
metallurgy were invented in Canada together with theories
of metal extraction were formulated. While some processes
proved to be a success others were shut down for being
non economical [13].
QSL versus Kivset
The company in 1966 became known as Cominco.
It used QSL reactor for few years to produce lead (Figure
75). However, the engineers were unable to operate the
American plant and as a result they scrapped it and used
the Russian technology known as Kivset (Figure 76).
Figure 75- QSL-lead plant
References
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Extractive Quebec, Quebec City, Canada.
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Extractive Quebec, Quebec City, Canada 660.
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Metallurgical Industry. SF J Metallurgical Science 1:1.
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