D_ TEXT May 2008

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Malaysia is a multiracial and multicultural country. One of the issues that often arise in a country like Malaysia where over a hundred languages and dialects are spoken daily by the people is the choice of language (David, 2006). Decisions about language choice often manifest itself in the daily interaction and social milieu of Malaysian youth. Thus, it is inevitable that these adolescents are constantly faced with the option of making meaningful language choices when they interact with family members and with those from different races in their neighbourhood and in the school domain. This case study using a multi-fold methodology of a questionnaire, recordings and observation focuses on languages choices of Malaysian adolescents in three different domains. It seeks to examine the deployment of language choices by young Malaysians when they interact with people at home and with people of other descent in their neighbourhood and in the school domains in a multilingual and multiracial society. In this study, language choices and code-switching are seen as linguistic strategies employed by Malaysian youth for specific purposes. The research seeks to describe and analyse the actual language used by Malaysian youth in their daily interactions with different people in different domains. The study will present a description and an analysis of language choices of Malaysian boys from the three different ethnic groups who are currently studying in a premier secondary school in Ipoh in three different domains with special emphasis on their interaction with their peers in school. Based on the assumptions that language 1 choice data can provide both social and linguistic information (Holmes, 2001:3), such an undertaking is deemed viable and useful to linguistic, sociolinguistic and sociological studies of Malaysian youth. For those who are involved with adolescents such as linguists, sociologists, politicians, textbook writers, trainers, educators, teachers or even parents, this research provides useful information about the discourse practices of young people in their natural setting in multilingual and multiracial Malaysia. It also hopes to provide an impetus to other studies of linguistic behaviour of Malaysian youth. 1.2 Malaysian Sociolinguistic Profile Malaysia, made up of Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia) and Sabah and Sarawak (East Malaysia), is a nation of diverse ethnicity. This plural society of 23.27 million in 2000 consist of the Malays and other indigenous people who form about 65.1% of the population of the country; the Chinese, who constitute about 26.0%, form the second largest group; the Indians who form about 7.7% is the third largest group in the composite population of Malaysia while the minority groups like the Thais, Eurasians, Arabs and peoples of other descent are so small in number that they are all designated under the term ‘other’ (Census 2002, found at the Department of Statistics, Malaysia website, David 2006; 3-4). The Malays are the dominant group in the country and they have a tapestry of minority racial groups with an equally diverse language groups. They consist of the Austronesian-speaking Malays in West Malaysia, the Kadazan-speaking natives of Sabah and Iban-speaking Dayaks of Sarawak who form the major Malay groups in East Malaysia, the Austroasiatic speaking Negritos in Peninsular Malaysia and other smaller 2 groups of speakers speaking amongst themselves a host of Austroasiatic languages (Baskaran, 2005). The Malaysian Constitution defines a Malay as a native who practices the Islamic religion, speaks Malay and practices Malay customs. This means that peoples of Javanese, Bugis and Minangkabau stock are considered Malays too (see Mohamad Subakir, 1998). Bahasa Malaysia or the Malay Language is the national and official language in the country. It is the medium of instruction and is a compulsory language to be learned in school. The Chinese in Malaysia are also a diverse language group with a variety of dialectal groups. The main dialectal groups are the Hokkien, Cantonese, Hakka, Teochew and Hainanese (Baskaran, 2005). Although Hokkien is widely spoken in Penang, Kedah, Malacca, Johor and other parts of the country, Cantonese, which is mainly spoken in Ipoh and Kuala Lumpur, has gained popularity in recent years (especially amongst the younger generation due to the influence of Hong Kong movies) and is now widely spoken across the country. However, Mandarin is the official Chinese language and is used for all official purposes and in the media. It is also the medium of instruction in Chinese schools in the country and is fast becoming a popular language amongst the Chinese community especially with the emergence of China as a new superpower and the opening of more diplomatic and trade ties with China. The Indian community in Malaysia is also heterogeneous. The majority of the Indians are Tamil-speaking followed by the Malayalees, Telugus, Punjabis, Bengalis, Gujeratis, Sri Lankan Tamils, Pakistanis and Sindhis, each with its own language. Studies have shown that there is a language shift in the Sindhi community in Malaysia and the community has moved from their ethnic language to English and Malay (David, 1996). 3 The minority groups like the Thais, Eurasians, Arabs and people of other descent speak their own languages or either English or Malay. Hence, from the description above, Malaysia is indeed made up of many ethnic groups and has a rich linguistic heritage. These communities are not homogenous. Each major group has a number of sub-groups within its community. According to Asmah (1982), cited in Jariah Mohd Jan (2003), “the social environment in Malaysia is a situation where various languages are used in daily communication”. It can be said that communication between Malaysians, where inter and intra group encounters are a common occurrence, is seldom a straightforward use of one language, be it Malay, Chinese, Tamil or any vernacular languages (Asmah, 1982; Jamaliah Mohd. Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999; Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). It is common for Malaysians of the same linguistic background or Malaysians of different ethnicities, educational background or social strata to pepper their conversation with linguistic interference, interlingual code-mixing and code-switching. This scenario has often surprised visitors to the country and prompted Tim Rome, a UK facilitator for the International Placement of Headteachers (IPH) programme in Sabah and headteacher of Lovelace Primary School in Surrey to say, “It is also fascinating that teachers and students can switch between languages so easily. Most UK teachers would find that a challenge”(Sunday Star, Education, 16 July 2006;9). The languages considered primary in Malaysia and which are used both for intra-group and inter-group communication are Malay, the national language, and English, an international language (Asmah, 1987). English is a compulsory language taught in all Malaysian schools. The importance of Malay as an element of national identity of Malaysia was brought about by the rise of nationalism which led to the 4 independence of Malaya from the British Colonial rulers in 1957. Since then, the Malay language has been legislated as the national and official language and is seen by the Malaysian government as the key to national unity and racial integration for a polyglot Malaysian society. The aim of the policy planners is to ensure that all Malaysians will be able to speak this common tongue and become integrated into Malaysian society (Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). According to Asmah (1982: 26), although Malay is accepted and used by all races as the “national and official language” of the country, it is still seen as belonging to the dominant group, the Malays. Like many countries in South East Asia, English is chosen as the principal foreign language for two main reasons: one, it is a language for international communication and two, it is a language which is used as a source for the latest development in science and technology. Thus, English is seen as an asset to the country and is termed the second language of the nation. According to Asmah (1987:1), the term ‘second language’ refers to ‘….second in importance in the hierarchy of the Malaysian languages, seen in terms of the official recognition given to the language, its importance as a language of education instruction, as well as its position as an important language in the professions”. According to Jariah Mohd Jan (2003), the status and prestige of the English language was established during the pre-independence British regime. It came as the language of the rulers and the language itself was considered a language of power and prestige and was much sought after since then. Jariah Mohd Jan says, “The Malaysian linguistic scene in the media and social interaction, shows that English is quite widespread as a communication tool” (Jariah, 2003:43). Nik Safiah (1987:8) states that, “Malay faces stiff competition from English. While the policy is to use the national language in all official instances, in many important domains of language……… English is still the preferred language.” 5 Today, a number of varieties of both Malay and English are used. Besides the standard Malay (the high variety taught in schools), a low variety, commonly known as Bazaar Malay, is also used largely in informal settings. In addition, many dialectal varieties of Malay are used in different parts of the country, such as Kelantan and Terengganu dialects (Asmah, 1987). Similarly, the varieties of English used by Malaysians ranges from the high variety (the acrolect) taught in schools to the basilect variety (see Morais, 1998). The Malaysian variety of English, according to Schneider in Baskaran (2005), is undergoing nativization and is widely used in informal settings in the country today. Malay is a lingua franca in Malaysia (Abdullah Hassan, 1987). It has also been noted that the mesolectal or basilectal variety of Malay is more widely used in nonformal situations in intergroup interactions. In a study of a car assembly plant in Malaysia, Morais (1998:89) found that Bazaar Malay is used by members of all ethnic groups in varying degrees in everyday informal communication. The Bazaar Malay used by the older members of the Chinese and Indian communities varies in terms of pronunciation and intonation as a result of the influence of the first or ethnic language. Morais also notes the occurrence of occasional code-mixed variety where lexical items of the minority languages and even English are inserted in the dominant Malay used. As for the English used, Morais contends that the lectal varieties of English used at home, with friends, at school and at the workplace may be indicators of the membership of Malaysians in different socio-economic and ethnic networks. 6 1.2.1 Malaysian Schools Before the achievement of Independence in 1957, schools in Malaysia were established to cater for the major ethnic groups. Initially, there were Malay medium schools for the Malay population, Chinese medium for the Chinese community and Tamil medium schools for the Indians. By 1872, the Straits Settlement Education Department was established by the colonial government to see to the establishment of English medium schools. Methodist, Anglican and Catholic missionaries were allowed into the country to provide English education. This made the English Language accessible to Malaysians of all races in towns. Most of these schools were funded either by the Government, the Christian missionary organization or local private individuals. After the country achieved Independence in 1957, a unified national system of education was initiated. Malay was made the national language and, together with English, was made a compulsory language to be taught in all schools. The Chinesemedium, Tamil-medium and English-medium primary schools were termed nationaltype schools whilst the Malay-medium primary schools were termed national schools. Malay is the medium of instruction in the national schools, which are mostly fully government aided. Chinese and Tamil are used as the medium of instruction in the national-type schools. These Chinese and Tamil primary schools fulfill the cultural need for vernacular language education in the country. However, Malaysian adolescents at the secondary level have no option but to attend national schools where Malay is the medium of instruction. 7 1.2.2 Malaysian Adolescents Due to the historical and educational development as well as the diverse racial composition of the country, most of the adolescents in Malaysia are bilinguals. Many, however, are trilingual or multilingual. Most of the Malay adolescents are bilingual having Malay and English as their main languages. However, there are rare cases of Malay pupils enrolled in a Chinesemedium or Tamil-medium school. These adolescents speak Mandarin or Tamil in addition to Malay and English that are taught in school. The Chinese adolescents are seen mostly as bilingual or trilingual having Mandarin and/or their dialects as their main language in addition to Malay and English which they learn in school. Likewise, the Indian adolescents are also seen as bilingual or trilingual having their vernacular language which they acquire at home or in a Tamil-medium school as their main language in addition to Malay and English taught in school. There are also cases of Indian children enrolled in Chinese-medium school. These adolescents are competent speakers of Mandarin and some are also users of the Chinese dialects. However, such cases are not wide-spread. The same can be said of the other ethnic groups in the country. Most are seen as speakers of their ethnic language in addition to Malay and English which they learn in school. Baskaran (2005:16), in discussing the educational development and language setting in Malaysia, points out that: 8 “With the various official statuses accorded to the four basic languages in the country (Bahasa Malaysia, English, Chinese-Mandarin and Tamil) along with the diverse range of languages in actual currency amongst the people of Malaysia, it is small wonder then that the average Malaysian is at least a bilingual – regardless of educational or socioeconomic background. On the other hand, it is not unusual to find the trilingual or multilingual Malaysian either.” Baskaran (2005:16) Therefore, it is indeed inevitable that Malaysian youth are constantly faced with the options of making meaningful language choices when they interact with people of different races within their own community and in their own country. Romaine (1989) and Gumperz (1982) point out that code-changing often follows a change of addressee. Hence, Malaysian youth have the choice of using the language of their addressee exclusively to accommodate or converge with the linguistic ability of their addressee. They can also choose to code-switch by using two languages or to code-mix by using more than one single lexical item in the other language, or by using at least one word in a second language. On the other hand, they can even practice divergence or exercise non-accommodation by using the language which is not the addressee’s preferred language. “In a multilingual setting, language is a salient dimension of group identity and is used to maintain inter-group boundaries” (David, 1999;2). It has long been acknowledged that code choices and code switching, especially the use of ethnic language and code switching, can be used as a communicative strategy and as a marker of ethnic group membership and identity (David, 2003; 1-4). 1.2.3 Background to the Respondents The school in this study has a total of 2197 students (as of April 2006) and they range from Form One to Upper Six. More students are expected to enroll in the school when the lower sixth class begins in July. It is a double session school with the Form 1 9 and Form 2 classes being conducted in the afternoon and the upper forms are Form 3, 4, 5, Lower and Upper 6 classes being conducted in the morning. The students are mainly boys. Girls are admitted only in the Form 6 classes. The statistics show that there are 534 students of Malay descent, 953 of Chinese descent, 765 students of Indian descent and 11 students categorized under other races as of April 2006. In terms of percentage, the school’s enrolment consists of 24.3 % Malays, 43.4 % Chinese, 34.8 % Indians and 0.5 % other races as of April 2006. Although the Malays are the dominant group in the country, in this setting, the Chinese are significantly the bigger group followed by the Indians (see Figure 1.1). The Ethnic Composition Of the Students 50 40 % Chinese, 43.4 30 Malay, 24.3 Indian, 31.8 Malay Chinese 20 Indian 10 Others, 0.5 Others 0 Ethnicity Figure 1.1 The Ethnic Composition of the Students in the School Founded in 1912 by the La Salle Brothers in Ipoh, this school is an institution with a long and colourful history. From its humble beginnings, this school has grown into one of the premier schools in the city and continues to grow and develop. Like most missionary schools, the medium of instruction was initially English until 1982 when the medium of instruction was switched to Bahasa Malaysia in accordance with the National Education Policy. 10 The students come from a number of feeder schools in the area. The majority of the students come from their two primary schools, SMI 1 and SMI 2 which are next to the secondary school. A number of the students are from SK Panglima Bukit Gantang and some other primary schools in the vicinity. Some of the students are from La Salle in Canning Garden while SK Manjoi 1 and SK Manjoi 2 provide some of the Malay students. There are a small number of students from the vernacular primary schools in Ipoh. The students in Form 4 are placed according to their Penilaian Menengah Rendah (PMR) or Lower Secondary Assessment results with the better students being placed in the Science stream while the weaker students are placed in the Arts stream. As a result, students from various background and ethnicities are grouped together in the same class. Thus, interactions amongst the various races are inevitable in the class and this would lead to the formation of adolescent friendship groups. Hence, this would be a fertile ground for an investigation on language choices of these young Malaysians. In Malaysia, ethnic descent remains an important organizing principle in determining social networks. In comparison with home and the adult community, school is still an important site for ethnic mixing. This school is chosen for the research because of a number of practical reasons. Firstly, there are enough students from all the major ethnic groups. A large number of students in Form Six are the researcher’s former students, a number of Form 4 students are the researcher’s former Sunday School children and a few are the researcher’s friends’ children making the job of finding willing informants easier. Finally, permission was given by the Perak State Education for the study, and the school 11 authorities and teachers were very cooperative and helpful throughout the duration of the research. 1.3 Statement of Problem The focus of research on educational settings has traditionally been on teacher discourse and students’ progress in mastering the new language within a classroom setting. However, children socialize not in the abstract, in a simulated setting like the classroom but also in authentic real life settings. From the sociolinguistic perspective, language is associated with use. Peer and friendship groups are the speech community of the youth. Thus, there is a need to examine the discourse practices of this speech community in a natural setting and to examine the deployment of language choices by young Malaysians when they interact with insiders and outsiders in their neighbourhood and in the school domains in multilingual and multiracial Malaysia. What are the factors that govern their choice of a particular code on a particular occasion? Why do they choose to use one code rather than another, what brings about a switch from one code to another, and why do they occasionally prefer to use a code formed from two other codes by mixing the two? With these questions in mind, this research seeks to determine the linguistic choices made by Malaysian adolescents and understand the social and linguistic meaning of the choices of this speech community when they interact with people at home, others in their neighbourhood and friends in school. 1.4 The Research Questions The main aim of this research is to determine the linguistic choices made by Malaysian male adolescents. The research questions are as follows: 12 1. Do they use the national language, Malay, an international language, English, or their respective ethnic languages or even a mixed discourse consisting of more than one language? 2. What are their language choices during interactions with their family members, friends and people from different linguistic, ethnic and cultural backgrounds in their neighbourhood and their school? 3. Is there a significant difference in the language choices of the various ethnic groups? 4. Is there a connection between language choices and ethnicity? 5. Do they practice code-switching or language crossing (which is the practice of using a language variety that belongs to another group) when they mingle with outsiders (i.e. not of the same ethnicity) in school (Rampton, 1995)? 1.5 Significance of the Study Little is known about the linguistic choices of young Malaysians in their interaction with others. To understand why young individuals are motivated to use one language or another language, or a mixed code in their linguistic repertoire in their discourse with people of different ethnic background in different domains in this country is deemed necessary and worthwhile pursuing. The analysis will provide more insight into the language choices of Malaysian youth in relation to their ethnicity when they speak to members of their family, people in their neighbourhood and those in their school. 1.6 Limitation It is impossible to study language without demarcating the aspect we wish to study simply because language is a complex phenomenon. This case study limits itself 13 to determining the linguistic choices of Malaysian youth regardless of their ethnic background in the home and school domain. The nature of the study itself poses some limitations. It is not possible to study the whole school population nor can the study be conducted as extensively as is desired due to time and other constraints. It is also not possible to study all the ethnic groups found in the country nor is it possible to study all different settings due to time constraints. Hence, this case study focuses only on the major ethnic groups, namely the Malays, Chinese, and Indians boys in an urban school setting in Ipoh. Minority groups such as the Punjabi, Kadazans and Semai are not included in the study. The discussion will focus on the social and linguistic meaning of language choices of Malaysian youth in this case study. 1.7 Definition of terms 1.7.1 Language choices In this study, language choices is defined as language, variety or code employed or utilized by a particular individual for a particular purpose or function in verbal interactions. 1.7.2 Malaysian English The variety of English used widely in informal communication by Malaysians which is the indigenized variety (see Baskaran, 2005; Shanta Nair-Venugopal, 1997: 78-89; Morais, 1997: 90-106). 14 1.7.3 Code-switching, code-mixing and borrowing In this study, the term code-switching, code-mixing and borrowing are seen as strategies employed by the participants for a purpose. Code-switching is defined as the use of two or more linguistic varieties or codes in the same conversation inclusive of dialect and style changes. It encompasses the use of code mixes, code switch and code alternation as well as tag-switching, inter-sentential switching and intra-sentential switching. 1.7.4 Language convergence and language divergence Language convergence refers to speakers becoming more similar to their listeners in terms of the language or languages they use, while language divergence refers to interlocutors maintaining the use of their own languages. 1.7.5 Domain Domain is a theoretical construct traditionally used to determine language shift. The language used in a domain depends on the participants, their role relationships, the topic under discussion and the settings. In this study, only the home, neighbourhood and school domains will be used. 1.7.6 Speech Accommodation Theory (Giles and Smith, 1979) This theory postulates that interlocutors switch to the preferred language of their speech partners if they intend to create rapport. This linguistic strategy is also known as 15 language convergence. However, distancing from the speech partner is achieved by maintaining one’s preferred code regardless of the preferences of the speech partner. This concept is also known as language divergence. This theory has been used to investigate linguistic choices between speech partners of diverse ethnic groups such as the discourse in a trade setting between buyers and sellers in service encounters in Malaysia (David, 1999). It has also been used to determine the extent of language maintenance and shift within a community (David, 2001). 1.7.7 Language Crossing Language crossing is a term used by Rampton (1995) in his now famous book Crossing: Language And Ethnicity Among Adolescents. This linguistic phenomenon he calls “crossing” is concerned with switching into languages that are not generally thought as belonging to the speaker. There is a clear sense of movement across social or ethnic boundaries. (see 2.2.3 for further details) 1.7.8 Speech Community. In this study, the term is defined as ‘any regional or socially definable human group identified by a shared linguistic system’ (Crystal 1991:323 cited in Lam, 1992). Thus, peer and friendship groups are speech community of the youth. 16 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction In Malaysia, children’s linguistic repertoire include the standard form of Malay and English they learn in school, the colloquial variety known as Bazaar Malay (see Asmah, 1987; Morais, 1997) and Malaysian English (Pillai, 2006; Baskaran, 2005). They use Chinese dialects with friends (for Chinese Malaysians), Tamil (for Indian Malaysians), Malay dialects (for Malay Malaysians) and other ethnic languages. Their communicative and linguistic choices are rather complex and unique because within each ethnic group there is a variety of languages and dialects. It is also not unusual for speakers of a specific ethnic community in this country to know and use another language better than they do their own ethnic language (see David, Naji and Kaur, 2003 on the Punjabi community). In some cases, children grow up not knowing how to speak their parent’s language or have very little knowledge of that language. According to Asmah Omar (2003:100), English is the L1 of 1% of the people in Malaysia. Based on the assumption that language choices provide both social and linguistic information, this case study hopes to provide a greater understanding to social and linguistic behaviour of Malaysian youth. Language choice is a very complex issue and the factors which might influence language choices are equally complicated because the study of language choices is often linked to other studies like ethnicity, multilingualism, code-switching, language maintenance and shift, gender and age, solidarity and power. Scholars have different views of how language choices can be examined. For instance, according to Gumperz (1982 a), the social meaning of language choice depends to a large extent on situational 17 variables and the relationships between participants and settings. However, according to Giles (1977) who is well known for his Speech Accommodation Theory, language choice can be explained in terms of a desire to increase or reduce social distance between interlocutors of different ethnic groups. Holmes (2001:19-50) cited several social factors affecting code choices in a community. According to her, people may choose to use a particular code because it makes it easier to discuss a particular topic, regardless of where they are speaking. Others may use different languages with different addressees because they share same code, or the code is commonly used, or to emphasise their common ethnicity. Although the factors and reasons affecting language choices may vary, the fact remains that language choices has social meanings. Hence, a study of language choices can provide social and linguistic information about a speech community in terms of inter-ethnic relationship amongst Malaysian youth. In a study on factors affecting Secondary Three students’ choice of code in informal settings in schools in Singapore (Lam, 1992), Lam Lai Ore stated that there is no single theory which explains why a person chooses to use one code rather than another. Lam argues that to derive a fuller understanding of this complex issue, a number of theories will have to be examined. He posits that some of the factors which might influence language choices are as follows: 1. Domains 2. Verbal repertoire of the speaker and the listener 3. Speaker’s attitude towards (a) the language and, (b) speakers of that language 4. Motivation (integrative and instrumental) and 5. Sense of solidarity 18 2.1.1 Domains A domain is a theoretical construct widely used by researchers in sociolinguistic studies. The concept of ‘domain’ was first used by Schmidt Rohr (cited in Fishman 1966:428). It was popularized by Fishman who defines it as: “…. A socio-cultural construct abstracted from topics of communication, relationships and interactions between communication, relationships and interactions between communicators and locales of communication in accord with the institutions of society….” (Fishman, 1972:82) Fishman states that a community is expected to be sensitive to the domain in which interactions take place. Scholars agree that the choice of language used in a domain depends largely on the participants, their role relationships, the topic under discussion and the setting. The theoretical construct of domain is used to specify to larger institutional role-contexts of habitual language use in multilingual settings. For instances, a teacher and a student (participants) talking about a class project (topic) at the school canteen (setting) would constitute a school domain. Hence, other social institutions like home, neighbourhood, workplace, and place of worship can be termed as domains. As Holmes (2001:21) puts it “A domain involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical settings”. Platt (1977:368-369) points out that it is “possible to range domains along a scale from the public to more private and to attribute to them a degree of formality ranging from very formal to the most informal” in most communities. Language constitutes a core form of social organisation and agencies like the family, the neighbourhood and school are important agencies of socialisation (Giddens, 1989). This theoretical construct of domain has proven to be very useful, particularly when describing code choice in large speech communities and examining ‘typical’ 19 interactions which involves social factors such as who is talking to whom, where, the social context and the function and topic of the discussion. In their study of the Puerto Rican community in New York (cited in David 2001:38), Fishman and Greenfield (1970) used the concept of domain. Respondents were asked about the language they would use in a number of variables. They found that Spanish was regularly used in family discourse whereas English was used in education and employment. In their analysis of the use of English among Italo-Australians in Sydney, Rubino and Bettoni (1991), cited in Daivd (2001:38), covered 46 situations in 4 domains (family, friendship, work/school and transactions) taking into account the variables of interlocutors, topic and setting. In another study on the use of English, Sridhar (1985), cited in David (2001:39) found that Kannada is dominant in intimate domains while English is dominant in formal and utilitarian domains among students in the state of Karnataka in South India. However, other studies showed that for some communities language choice is influenced by role relationship rather than the domain in which the discourse takes place. In a study of language shift in a Hungarian-German bilingual community in Oberwaat, Gal (1979) found that the speaker’s age and social status was the most important single factor in language choice in that community. In analyzing language choice among the Sindhi community in Metro Manila, Dewan (1987), cited in David (2001:39), found that interlocutors transcended domain. According to Holmes (2001; 23), domain is very useful for capturing broad generalisations about any speech community. It tells us very clearly about the patterns of language use in a particular community. In other words, it describes which code or codes are usually selected for use in different situations. 20 The linguistic situation in Malaysia is polyglossic and rather complex. The choice of code is often governed by clear functional differences between the codes. For example a ‘typical’ Chinese boy growing up in Penang, Malaysia may speak Hokkien with his parents and informal Malaysian English (if they are from SK or SRK schools) or informal Mandarin (for those from SRJK (C) schools) which are mixed with Hokkien and Malay words with his siblings. Informal conversation with friends in school may be in Hokkien, Malaysian English, Mandarin, Bazaar Malay, or a mixed code, depending on who the interlocutor is but formal conversation may be in standard Malay and English. Religious practice will be conducted in the formal variety of Malaysian English and even Malay for the Christians, but Hokkien or Mandarin for Buddhist or Taoist. In Ipoh, a ‘typical’ Malaysian Chinese boy may choose to speak Cantonese, the common local dialect in Ipoh instead of Hokkien like their counterpart in Penang. Young Malaysians are free to choose between the standard variety of English and Malay (both belonging to the High variety), or the more informal variety of both these languages, or even a mixed variety in the school domain. 2.1.2 Verbal Repertoire The extent of the verbal repertoire one has also influences language choice and use. Verbal repertoire of a speaker may be defined as the linguistic varieties which are at a particular speaker’s disposal (Platt and Platt, 1975). Holmes (2001; 19) gives an example of a 16 year-old boy living in Bukavu, a multicultural and multilingual African city in eastern Zaire who speaks informal Shi, his tribal language at home with his family and vendors from his own ethnic group in the market place. He is familiar with the formal Shi used for weddings and funerals. With people from different tribes, he 21 uses Swahili, the lingua franca of the area. He learned standard Zairian Swahili in school but uses Kingwana, the local market-place variety, with younger children and adults in the streets. Although French is the official language of Zaire, he uses standard Zairian Swahili with officials in government offices when he fills in a form or pays a bill. With his friends, he uses Indoubil, a variety which is used among the young people in Bukavu regardless of their ethnicity or tribal affiliations. This 16 year-old boy has an extensive verbal repertoire at his disposal. There is always a close link between the language a person chooses to use and his proficiency in that language. For instance, a speaker may know a number of languages but the level of proficiency in each of the languages he/she acquires may not be similar. The speaker is more likely to choose a code that ranks high in his/her verbal repertoire rather than a code that ranks low in his/her verbal repertoire unless his speech partner does not know the code he is most comfortable in. Therefore, another important determinant in language choices is the verbal repertoire of the listener. A speaker may not always be free to choose to speak the language he/she is most proficient in. In such cases, the language choice of a speaker is directly affected by his/her interlocutor’s linguistic repertoire. According to Platt (1977:371) the verbal repertoire of the listener refers to a type of bilingual (or multilingual) accommodation where, out of a choice of two (or more) appropriate choices, the one which is chosen is part of the listener’s verbal repertoire. In other words, the speaker chooses an appropriate language to accommodate the listener’s verbal repertoire. The speaker’s language choice is dependent on (a) the speaker’s previous knowledge of the listener’s verbal repertoire and (b) the information about the listener’s verbal repertoire elicited by the speaker during the discourse. The linguistic 22 repertoire and level of proficiency of the listener or addressee limits the language choices of a multilingual speaker. For instance, there is not much choice of which language or code to use if the speaker and the listener or addressee shares only one code or language when he/she wants to communicate referential content. However, there are instances when a speaker wishes to communicate non-referential content such as insults, abuses or admiration. In this case, any variety in his/her linguistic repertoire that could carry the affective message across will be chosen. The linguistic repertoire or level of proficiency of the listener or addressee is no longer a controlling factor. In her study on the Sindhi community in Malaysia, David (2001:124) gave an example of a non-English speaking grandmother’s verbal exchange with her sixteenyear-old grandson. Knowing that Malay is a large part of her grandson’s verbal repertoire, she chose to speak in Malay rather than the ethnic language to accommodate her grandson’s lack of competence in the Sindhi language and her own inability to speak English. In this instance, Malay is the language of accommodation. According to David (2001:132), there is a tendency for members of the first generation of Malaysian Sindhis who understand either English or Malay to accommodate the younger generation’s language preference. In another study by David (2003:18) on the role and functions of code-switching in Malaysian courtroom, it was found that Judges tend to use English with counsel and Malay with witnesses. At times they use English to reprimand counsel, hence saving their face in front of a third party, with whom the use of the national language is maintained. According to David, at times there is a genuine linguistic gap between the interlocutors in the courtroom as Malaysians have differing levels of fluency in different languages and so code-switching is used as it enables communication to take place. 23 However, she posits that it must not be assumed that code-switching or code-shifting (or language choices) is always triggered by differing levels of proficiency (David, 1996). At times situational factors like who is talking to whom, at others metaphorical and pragmatic reasons warrant the use of mixed discourse in the legal setting, for example, to issue a directive, to quote someone, to emphasise a point made and to achieve the legal communicative task at hand such as to coerce the witness into providing the answer required. In yet another study on code-switching by David (1999) in Malaysian service encounters, language convergence was rampant as the need to get a good deal is the main objective of both the buyers and sellers. In contrast, language divergence or non-accommodation (found in Malaysian courtrooms) indicates power and control of one party over another party. In short, language choices “are triggered to achieve a range of strategies and objectives” of the interlocutors (David 2003;19). There are also instances when speakers choose a code that ranks low in their verbal repertoire or a code they have not fully acquired yet for a particular purpose. A good example is a study done on language crossing by Ben Rampton (1995) in Britain and another by Cecilia Cutler (1999) in New York. Ben Rampton described language crossing as the practice of using a language variety that belongs to another group in his 1995 book Crossing: Language and Ethnicity Among Adolescents. Rampton describes how groups of multiracial adolescents in a British working-class community mix their use of Creole, Punjabi and Asian English. He found that language crossing, in many instances, constitutes an anti-racist practice and is emblematic (symbol) of young people striving to redefine their identities. The young people he studied used this mixed code to contest racial boundaries and assert a new “de-racinated” ethnicity. 24 Using Rampton’s framework, Cutler (1999) studied the language crossing behaviour of a white suburban teenager in New York City who uses features of AfricanAmerican English to signal his affiliation with hip hop culture in New York. Her studies show that ‘AAVE crossing can have many different purposes: it can express the desire to be part of the black community; it can locate a young person in the hip hop/rap youth culture scene; or when used in a pejorative way it can emphasize that the speaker is not a member of the group being imitated’ (NYU, Department of Linguistics, 1999:http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/lingu/people/grate/cece/york.htm) Both these studies clearly demonstrate that language choices data can provide insightful social and linguistic information about adolescents. 2.1.3 Speaker’s attitude towards (a) the language and (b) the speakers of the language Another major factor in language choice is the speaker’s attitude towards the language and the speakers of the language. A speaker is more likely to choose a language that is perceived positively than a language that is perceived negatively. The perception may be for personal, social, economic or political reasons. For example, a speaker is more likely to use a language if the language is perceived by the speaker as a tool for upward social or economic mobility (see David and Naji, 2000; David, Naji and Kaur, 2003), or as a marker of high social status and membership of an educated class (see Jariah, 2003). On the other hand, if a language is perceived as having little social or economic value, or as a maker of low social status, chances are it will not be chosen. If a language is seen as prestigious and desirable to use, there will be motivation for members in the speech community to use it. For instance, in Singapore, English, Mandarin, Tamil, and Malay share co-official status, but English is seen as having more 25 prestige and functions as a high variety as compared to the other three languages and, thus, it is more widely used (Saravanan, 1994 and Gupta and Siew 1995 cited in Ramachandan, 2000). A case study of Malaysian Tamils by David and Naji (2000) reveals that one of the reasons women in that community shift from Tamil to stand alone English, and/or a mixed code of Tamil and English or a mix of Tamil, English and Malay could be due to fact that the new languages (English and Malay) are seen as languages of prestige, status and power. In his book, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Wardhaugh says that, “studies which correlate language attitude and language are not common. However, some good examples of cases where “code choice becomes a form of political expression, a move either to resist some other ‘power’, or to gain ‘power’, or to express ‘solidarity’”. Wardhaugh (1992:106) According to Wardhaugh, a bilingual French Canadian may deliberately insist on using French rather than English to an official of the federal government outside Quebec to assert his/her ‘right’ to use French under the Canadian constitution. On the other hand, the Italian Australians in Smolicz’s study (1983), a minority group, who see their language as inferior, possessing low social recognition and prestige, choose not to use their ethnic language. In contrast, the speakers of Black English, a low-status language in America, continued to use the language (Milroy, 1982 cited in Ramachandran, 2000). In this case, the language is used as their identifying symbol because their concern is not status oriented but rather identity oriented. Similarly, the language crossing behaviour in Cutler’s study of the white suburban teenager in New York City uses features of African-American English to signal his affiliation with hip hop culture in New York. His concern is not status but his affiliation with the hip hop culture. These studies show that language choice has different social meanings with different speakers in different settings. They show that speakers’ attitude towards a language and the user of the language is a major factor in language choice. 26 Fishman and Cooper (1975-cited in Lam, 1992) highlighted the fact that respondents’ attitudes towards a language may be quite different towards speakers of that language. A speaker’s language choice may be governed by his attitude towards the listener’s language-group. According to Lam (1992), this may make things difficult for researchers because respondents may be hesitant about expressing their private feelings thus making standard attitude tests ineffective. According to him, the ‘matched-guise’ technique was developed as an indirect measure of attitude towards speakers of a language and are used by researchers like Anisfield and Lambert (1964); Lambert, Frankel and Tucker (1966). Anisfield and Lambert (1961) who carried out a research on Jewish High School students studying Hebrew at parochial schools in Montreal proved that measures of attitudes correlated with the measures of achievement among students. The study examined the relationship between attitude and proficiency level. The students were questioned as to their reasons for learning Hebrew and their attitude towards the Jewish culture as well as the Jewish community. Inter-correlation among these tests and measures of achievement was carried out. The results showed that intellectual capacity and the attitudinal aspects affect success in learning Hebrew. The researchers proved how students who held positive attitudes towards learning the language and towards that other language community were found to be more successful in acquiring a second language than those with negative attitudes. As mentioned in chapter 1, language, from the sociolinguistic perspective, is associated with use. Therefore, the research by researchers like Anisfield and Lambert (1961) shows that a speaker’s language choice and acquiring a second language may be governed by his attitude towards the language and the listener’s language-group. 27 Social relationship between people is another factor which is relevant to language choices. Language choices include how well we know the speaker as well as their status in the community. Speakers tend to choose their words carefully according to whom they are talking to. Thus, whom we talk to is relevant to our choice of language or variety. 2.1.4 Motivation (Integrative and Instrumental) Motivation is another factor that can affect language choices. Although Gardner and Lambert (1972:14) made the distinction in the area of language attainment, motivation affects language choices. According to them, whether integrative motive results in success in mastering a second language depends on a particular orientation on the part of the learner, reflecting a willingness or a desire to be like representative members of the other language community, while instrumental motivation is defined as ‘one characterized by a desire to gain social recognition or economic advantages through knowledge of a foreign language’ (Gardner and Lambert, 1972:14). It can be argued that both these factors are likely variables that affect not only language attainment but also language choices. For instance, as we have seen earlier, in Singapore, English is seen as having more prestige and functions as a higher variety compared to Mandarin, Tamil, and Malay even though all of them share co-official status (Saravanan,1994 and Gupta and Siew 1995 cited in Ramachandan, 2000). Hence, Singaporeans are more motivated to use English than the other three languages and their motivation can be termed as instrumental. On the other hand, the language crossing behaviour in Cutler’s study (Cutler, 1999) of the white suburban teenager in New York City who uses features of 28 African-American English to signal his affiliation with hip hop culture in New York is an example of integrative motivation because his concern is not status oriented. Therefore, we can say that motivation is yet another variable that can affect language choices. According to Brown (1994:34), “motivation is the extent to which you make choices about (a) goals to pursue and (b) the effort you will devote to that pursuit”. Thus, motivation can be seen as the need and desire that drives a person to chose a particular language or the ‘push factor’ in using a particular code. 2.1.5 Sense of solidarity Language is an individual possession as well as a social possession. One of the ways speakers achieve group identity with, and group differentiation from, other speakers is the use of linguistic characteristics (Wardhaugh, 1992; 118). Language (or dialect) choice can function as a mark of group identification and solidarity (Landweer, 2007). In other words, bonding or a sense of community and solidarity with others can be achieved through the use of a particular language or dialect, and the inability to use that language or dialect may result in exclusion from that community of speakers. Although the caricature of the Cockney flower girl, Eliza Doolittle, in Shaw’s Pygmalion may be an exaggerated and amusing attempt to achieve a particular code for the purpose of social acceptability, empirical evidence of using speech as a marker of social identity shows that speech does provide information pertaining to geographical origin, sex, occupation, group, membership, social status, and personal disposition (Scherer & Giles, 1979). In contrast, Hancock (1974; cited in Giles, 1977;2) observed 29 an Afro-American Peace Corps volunteer was quite hurt to learn that the Sierra Leoneans referred to him as ‘oyimbo’, or ‘white man’, not because of his appearance but because of his language and behaviour. Thus, it is reasonable to say that the notion of ‘solidarity’ can best be understood in relation to the concept of ‘speech community’ (Lam, 1992). As language choice can serve as a marker of ethnic identity, so a strong ethnic identity can influence language choice (Landweer, 2007). In their study on the issue of threat to ethnic identity as a moderator of secondlanguage learning in Canada, Taylor, Meynard and Rheault, (1977; 116) found that those who felt their cultural identity to be threatened were less fluent in the second language. In another study, Bourhis and Giles (1977) conducted an experiment in a language laboratory on two groups of Welsh-born adults living in South Wales with middle-class occupations to provide empirical evidence for the existence of speech divergence in intergroup behaviour. The analysis of speech changes of the participants showed that when ingroup membership is salient and language is an important aspect of a group’s cultural identity, members of that group will make themselves positively distinct from an outgroup member via accent divergence under certain specified conditions (Bourhis and Giles, 1977; 131). In “Towards a Theory of Language in Ethnic Group Relations”, Giles, Bourhis and Taylor say that, “…….ingroup speech can serve as a symbol of ethnic identity and cultural solidarity; language is often the major embodiment of this ethnicity. It is used for reminding the group about its cultural heritage, for transmitting group feelings, and for excluding members of the outgroup from its internal transactions………They can manipulate language in many ways by introducing ethonphaulisms, keeping the group in a subordinate linguistic position by use of rational arguments, helping them achieve scholastic success but by assimilationist strategies, and sometimes even enforcing their linguistic values on subordinate groups by large-scale legislation.” Giles, Bourhis and Taylor (1977; 307-308) 30 In a multiracial and multicultural country like Malaysia, socio-cultural factors may be yet another factor which may influence language choices. Besides the five factors mentioned above by Lam (1992), studies have shown that socio-cultural factors may be one of the many factors which can influence linguistic choices. One good example is mentioned by Asmah Hj. Omar (1992:17). According to Asmah (1992:17), due to the fact that their own language is the official medium of communication and instruction, some of the Malays in Malaysia do not find it a necessity to acquire another language. Although English is officially a second language, to most it just means that it is compulsory as a school subject, and it is not something that one should acquire as an added asset. Another example of socio-cultural influence is mentioned by Gaudart (1987) who says that: “the acquisition of the English language to most of the Malaysian community is seen as a necessary evil. This attitude spills over to the children in schools, making it more difficult to have any intrinsic desire to acquire English”. (Gaudart,1987:34) Hence, socio-cultural factors influence linguistic choices of Malaysians. 2.2 Code-switching Being bilinguals or trilinguals living in a multilingual and multiracial country and having several languages and dialects at their disposal, communication amongst Malaysian youth could not be ‘the simple straightforward use of a standard language’ which is taught in the classroom (Jamaliah Mohd. Ali, 2000; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999; Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). There will be a tendency to code-switch from one language/dialect to another within a turn or utterance and to use code-switching as a communicative tool, making code-switching an integral part of their speech style like the adults (see Morais, 1991; Jamaliah Mohd Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999). This is the result of living in a multilingual and multi-ethnic country. 31 Studies on the language of English-speaking Malaysian youth by David (1997) show that in multilingual Malaysia, code-switching is a common phenomenon. The Malaysian youth of today are expected to be bilingual especially in Malay and English. As a result of proficiency in Malay and English there is a great deal of code mixing, code switching and borrowing in spontaneous informal interactions and at times even in formal interactions. According to David, borrowing from languages like Malay, the Chinese dialect and Tamil are inevitable. She argues that the reality of language choice in a bilingual, community members have a third choice that is, the use of more than one language in utterances, resulting at times in a mixed language (David, 2001:45). With intergroup contact and opportunity to learn other languages, Malaysian youth have the option of switching languages moving toward the languages in intergroup contact. ‘Code or language choice’, which refers to the use of two languages, i.e. English and Malay, in the same sentence or discourse is rather common in this country. In her discussion on the role of English in Malaysia, Jamaliah (1995:94) states that even though English functions alongside the Malay language especially in urban areas, Malaysians sometimes code-switch between three languages namely English, Malay and the ethnic languages. In her book “Verbal Communication: A Study of Malaysian Speakers,” Jamaliah Mohd Ali (2000) states that there is a tendency for Malaysian speakers to use loan words from contact languages at the vocabulary level, words reflecting concepts belonging to Asian cultures, terms of address which are very Asian, the “lah” or “ah” particles for a variety of functions and the frequent use of local dialects in their speech in a formal and informal settings. This deviation from Standard English is uniquely Malaysian and a clear signal of their national identity, ethnicity, and camaraderie. Baljit (1994), in her study on turn-taking, observes that there is a tendency for Malaysians to code-switch when speaking to a person from a different ethnic group. 32 She claims that code-switching in this context is a “strategy” to establish rapport among interlocutors. In her study, David (1999) noted different kinds of language behaviours of interlocutors. Firstly, there is the limited intrusion of linguistic items from another language in the phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax of the language which are often discussed under terms ‘borrowing’ or ‘interference’ (e.g. Dorian, 1981; Romaine 1989). Secondly, speakers at times use two languages more extensively and switch between them more purposefully which they termed as ‘code-switching’ (Blom and Gumperz, 1972: 424-426; Gumperz, 1982: 60-61; Heller, 1988:5). In addition, there are also cases where speakers alternate rapidly between two languages in a stretch of speech or combine two codes into a distinctive variety which scholars term as ‘code-mixing’. For the purpose of this study, code-switching is used as an umbrella term to cover code mixes, code switches and code alternation (see David, 1996). Here, code switching is defined as the alternative use of two languages at the word, phrase, clause, or sentence level. Code-switching is not seen as language interference in Malaysia. In a country where inter and intra ethnic group encounters are everyday occurrences, code-switching is often used as a sociolinguistic tool by Malaysians as a means of communicating solidarity, camaraderie, and affiliation to a particular group or to create a specific group identity, thus providing a linguistic advantage rather than an obstruction to communication. In Ipoh, Cantonese speakers often switch from English to Cantonese to signal the speaker’s ethnic identity and solidarity with the addressee. In Penang, where Hokkien is the dominant dialect, Malaysian Chinese speakers often intersperse English with the Penang variety of Hokkien. 33 2.2.1 Reasons for Code switching Code-switching has many social meanings. Volumes have been written about the reasons, role and functions for its use in different settings in different societies. In a study to examine the ways code-switching is employed by pre-school Malaysian children, Karen Kow (2003;62) listed 10 conditions which are favourable for code switching: • • • • • • • • • lack of one word in either language; some activities have only been experienced in one of the languages; some concepts are easier to express in one of the languages; a misunderstanding has to be clarified; one wishes to create a certain communicative effect; one continues to speak the language latest used because of the trigger effect; one wants to make a point; one wishes to express group solidarity; one wishes to exclude another person from the dialogue. According to Holmes (2001;8-10), people sometimes switch codes within a domain or social situation. A speaker may switch to another language as a signal of group membership and shared ethnicity with an addressee. Holmes argues that solidarity between participants has an important influence on speech style. She states that language varies according to its use as well as its users, according to where it is used and to whom, as well as according to who is using it. She states that the better we know someone, the more casual and relaxed the speech style we will use to them. According to her, people use considerably more standard forms with those they do not know well, and more vernacular forms with their friends. In Malaysia numerous numbers of studies on code-switching have been investigated. Although code-switching is more rampant in informal discourse, it is also used in formal settings. In a study by David (2003), the role and function of code-shift (the use of different languages with different interlocutors) and code-switches (moving 34 from one language to another with the same speaker) occur often in Malaysian court rooms. She explains that “…..as Malaysians have different levels of fluency in different language, they would consequently be obligated to code-switch to convey meaning effectively. However,………… at times there is a genuine linguistic gap between interlocutors, which warrant the use of code-switching, it cannot be assumed code-switching and codeshifting is always triggered by differing levels of proficiency.” David (2003;18) Her study shows that, “……….language choice and the use of mixed discourse in the Malaysian courts are triggered to achieve a range of strategic and professional objectives.” David (2003;19) In another study on code-switching in Malaysian service encounters, David (1999) used the concept of linguistic strategies of convergence and divergence (Giles, Taylor and Bourhis, 1973) to analyse the choice of languages used in trading encounters. She found that language convergence rather than language divergence was rampant as negotiation was the goal of both the buyer and seller. She concluded that the result of such code accommodation is the emergence of a linguistic variety – which should be seen a language in its own right or a hybrid variety in the Malaysian setting. She states that the mixed discourse in the study satisfies the functions of convergence to the speech variety of the speech partners but at the same time helps the speaker to maintain his identity or ethnic boundary. An educated Malay using bazaar or pidgin Malay with a less educated interlocutor shows “budi bahasa” or good manners/upbringing by using appropriate language (i.e. pidgin Malay) in Malaysian society. According to David (1999), the use of English in the mixed discourse or standard Malay instead of pidgin Malay can also be used to denote and signal status. She argues that code-switching has many functions and 35 is a valuable resource in both intra and inter ethnic interactions. It is a resource by which a range of social meanings is expressed. According to her, code-switching is often used as a distancing strategy, for intimacy, as a repair strategy, as an awareness of being members of an ethnic community, and a resource to mitigate a face-threatening act or to withhold information in a discourse. In the Malaysian service encounters, codeswitching is seen as “……….a socio-psychological accommodative strategy where both buyers and sellers, despite not having much proficiency in the other’s language, may attempt by the use of this linguistic device to some extent to identify with the customers’ ethnicity and language preferences.” (David 1999;5) In this study, David (1999;5) defines speech convergence as “a general strategy by which an individual adapts to each other’s speech and non-verbal behaviours on many dimensions including language choice.” According to David, the notion of speech convergence is based on the belief that it reflects a speaker’s motivation to gain social approval. She states that Giles and Coupland empirically determined that “the more effort in convergence a speaker was perceived to have made…. The more favourably the speaker was evaluated, and the more the listener would converge in return.” (David,1999;6-7). Although studies have shown that convergence does bring positive social benefits that speakers anticipate, according to David, there are instances where convergence may not always bring positive results. She cited an example when Malay was used by an upper income car owner with a Malay attendant, the latter shifted to English and stated that he could speak English. In this instance, English has elite connotations and the convergence was viewed as a “put-me-down” (David, 1999;7). Many reasons have been cited for linguistic convergence and divergence. Giles and Johnson and Sachdev and Bourhis (1990) cited in David (1999;2) argued “that in multilingual settings language may become one of the most salient dimensions of group 36 identity and as such it can be used to reduce, create or maintain intergroup boundaries”. She argues that “according to the Communicative Accommodation Theory (Giles et al, 1987) divergence is a function of a speaker’s desire for a distinctive selfimage, to disassociate from the interlocutor and to define the encounter in intergroup terms” (David, 1999;2). It is a device used by a speaker to gain respect and approval besides making himself or herself better understood. Jariah Mohd Jan (2003;46) argues that, “The linguistic signaling of power and solidarity can be seen as a way in which an interlocutor locates himself in his social world when he speaks. As such, their access and participation in the forums of society in the speech community is dependent on knowing the linguistic signals and language used in a social context; and how using that language power enables personal and social goals to be achieved.” (Jariah, 2003;46) In other words, the inability to do so may deny them access and participation in the forums of society. Jariah Mohd Jan (2003) also argues that, “In a multi-cultural society like Malaysia, effective communication means the ability to correctly perceive the cultural nuances accompanying verbal and non-verbal language. Effective communication can only take place when inter-ethnic, socio-cultural as well as linguistic differences can be bridged in a language mutually comprehensible to the participants”. (Jariah, 2003;46). An interlocutor, she says: “…has to accommodate others and so the language choice for discourse is linked with the interlocutor’s needs to earn the approval of the listener. In order to create rapport with the listener, it is best to converge to the speech style of the listener”. (Jariah, 2003;46). Thus, we can say that language choice can signify the awareness of “the other” and of “the self” in inter-group encounters. In other words, if using language mutually comprehensible to the participants can bridge inter-ethnic, socio-cultural as well as linguistic differences, language can also be used to increase inter-ethnic, socio-cultural differences. We can also argue that linguistic convergence is an effort by multi-ethnic Malaysian youth to win respect and approval and to make themselves better understood. But if the youth chooses to diverge linguistically or exercise non-accommodation, it could mean a conscious or unconscious attempt by these adolescents to signify ethnic 37 boundaries, intra-group solidarity, group isolation or separation from others, denying others access or mutual participation in a discourse. Linguistic divergence can signify a conscious or unconscious attempt to segregate self from others or a conscious or unconscious self-isolation from other groups. No accommodation and strong ethno-linguistic vitality in inter-ethnic relationship could mean group separation in a multilingual setting. Although other factors may also cause group separation or polarisation, language choice plays a significant role in intra and inter-ethnic relationship in a multilingual, multiethnic society like Malaysia. Language can be a factor in the formation of youth peer or friendship groups. The finding in this research is therefore important as language choice and attitude has many ramifications in a multiracial country. 2.2.2 Types of Code switching: situational and metaphorical code-switch Auer (1990) in Rampton (1995: 276), stated that code switching which he terms as ‘code alternation’, as a kind of ‘contextualisation cue’ and functions like prosodic and gestural cues ……… ‘by which speakers signal and listeners interpret what the activity is, how semantic content is to be understood and how each sentence relates to what precedes or follows’ (Gumperz 1982 a: 131). Blom and Gumperz (1972) on the other hand, made a distinction between situational and metaphorical code-switching. According to these scholars, situational code switching is governed by participants, setting and topic. David (2001: 52) cited an example of this type of code switching by Gardner-Chloros (1991: 113). 38 An analysis of language choices of a family in Strasbourg, revealed that the parents switched from Austrian to French depending on whether they talked to older interlocutor or to their children Gardner-Chloros (1991: 113). However, situations alone do not always determine language choice. Other factors such as speaker motivation also come into play. Gumperz (1982, a), gave examples of metaphorical or discourse code switching which involves the switching of codes when citing or quoting a third party, repeating a message in two codes for emphasis, switching to withhold information, as a distancing strategy and for intimacy (cited in David, 2001: 53). Holmes (2001; 40-41) provided an example of a skilled bilingual village entrepreneur who uses code-switching between Buang and Tok Pisin for rhetorical reasons. Buang, the local tribal language is used to emphasise his membership of the Buang community and his solidarity with them, while Tok Pisin, a valuable lingua franca and an official language, is used to emphasise his role as a skilled businessman with contacts in the outside world of money and marketing as well as his superior knowledge and experience as a man of the wider world. Each code represents a set of social meanings. The speaker draws on the associations of each code, just as people use metaphor to represent complex meanings. The deployment of language choices and the use of code-switching in this case becomes an art or a creative communicative strategy for a specific purpose. Thus, situations alone do not always determine language choice. Other factors such as speaker motivation, emphasising group membership, distancing, purposeful use for comic effect and citing a third party also influence language choices. 39 2.2.3 Language Crossing There is another kind of code switching which Rampton (1995) terms as ‘codecrossing’ in his now famous book Crossing: Language And Ethnicity Among Adolescents. According to Rampton, code-switching is usually seen as a device used to affirm participants’ claim to membership and the solidarity of a group in contrast to outsiders. The focus of his study, however, was on the use of code switching by people who are not accepted members of the group associated with the second language they use. This linguistic phenomenon he calls “crossing” is concerned with switching into languages that are not generally thought as belonging to the speaker. There is a clear sense of movement across social or ethnic boundaries. Rampton describes language crossing as the use of language varieties associated with social or ethnic groups that the speaker does not normally ‘belong’ to (Rampton, 1995;14). In his ground-breaking study of sociolinguistic processes in urban youth culture in a multiethnic neighbourhood in a town in the South Midlands of England, Rampton provided examples of the use of Punjabi by adolescents of African-Caribbean and Anglo descent, the use of Creole by Punjabi and Anglo youths, and the use of stylized Indian English by adolescents of Anglo and African-Caribbean descent. He describes the use of crossing in three different situational contexts adolescent interaction with adults, informal peer-peer interaction and interaction focused around performance art (Rampton, 1999; 30). In his study, he found that language crossing often constitutes an anti-racist practice and is emblematic of young people striving to redefine their identities. They use mixed code to contest racial boundaries and assert a new deracinated ethnicity. 40 The following chapter will describe the methodology used in this study. It will describe the research design used and provide information pertaining to the collection of the data for analysis. 41 CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter will provide a description of the research design used in this case study. The investigative approach used in this study is both qualitative and quantitative. In order to study the language choices of Malaysian youth, a multi-fold methodology of a questionnaire, recordings and observation were used. Although the application of multi-fold methodology in one research entails a lot more time and work for the researcher, it was deemed necessary to obtain a fuller understanding of the linguistic choices of this speech community. A questionnaire is used to provide a macroperspective of their linguistic choices while the fieldwork of recording and observation was used to provide a micro-perspective and a deeper understanding of these choices. These are discussed in detail below. 3.2 The Research Site The primary data for this research was collected from respondents in a premier urban school in the city of Ipoh which has a total enrolment of 2197 students ranging from Form One to Upper Six as of April 2006 (not including the lower sixth class which begins in July). The Form 1 and Form 2 classes were in the afternoon session while the upper forms of Form 3, 4, 5, Lower and Upper 6 classes were in the morning session. The students are mainly boys. Girls are admitted only in the Form 6 classes. Like most missionary schools, the medium of instruction was initially English until the switch to Bahasa Malaysia in accordance with the National Education Policy in 1982. The school has a mixed ethnic student population which is suitable for this research. (see Figure 1.1) 42 3.3 Respondents of the study The respondents in this case study were from the Form Four classes studying in the morning session. All the 365 students in Form 4 were boys. There were a total of nine classes in Form 4, of which six were Science stream classes and three were Arts stream classes. 103 boys were of Malay descent, 129 of Chinese descent, 132 of Indian descent and 1 of Semai descent. Although the Malays are the dominant group in the country, in this setting, the Indians formed the biggest group, followed by the Chinese. However, within the Malay group there was one student from the indigenous community who does not see himself as Malay. Likewise, within the Indian group, there were a number of Punjabi boys who do not see themselves as Indians but as Punjabi. Although it is common practice in Malaysia to group indigenous people such as the Kadazan and the Semai as Malay and the Punjabi as Indians however, in this school, the Kadazan and Semai students do not see themselves as Malays and Punjabi students do not see themselves as Indians. The minority groups like the Punjabi, Kadazan and Semai in this school see themselves as separate groups. The Form 4 student’s ethnic composition was as follows: Class 4 Science 1 4 Science 2 4 Science 3 4 Science 4 4 Science 5 4 Science 6 4 Arts 1 4 Arts 2 4 Arts 3 Total Table 3.1 Total number of Students in Form 4 Malay Chinese Indians 2 23 17 7 19 19 9 25 11 15 18 13 9 14 21 11 12 19 23 5 6 18 7 11 9 18 15 103 129 132 Others 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 Total 42 45 45 46 44 43 34 36 29 365 43 A total of 121 (about one third or 33%) of the Form Four boys from this controlled secondary school were invited to participate in the survey. About one third of the students from each major ethnic group, namely the Malays, the Chinese and the Indians, took part in the survey. 3.3.1 The Sampling Procedure The Form 4 students were selected as respondents in compliance with the conditions set by The Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education which states that only students from non-examination classes may be involved in a research study. This means that the Form 3 students who were preparing for the Lower Secondary Assessment (PMR), the Form 5 students who were involved in the Malaysian Certificate Examination (SPM) and the Upper Six students who were getting ready for the Malaysian Higher Certificate Examination (STPM) were not eligible to participate in the study. The researcher did not use sampling procedures such as random sampling or selective sampling procedure in the strict sense. Instead, a request was made to the school authority for 121 Form 4 students. The number of students required in each major ethnic group (about 33%) was clearly stated in the request by the researcher to the school authority. It was left to the Principal, the Senior Assistant of Student Affairs (Penolong Kanan Hal Ehwal Murid) and the counseling teacher to assign the classes and the students for the survey. In other words, the decision on who gets selected as respondents for the survey was not determined by the researcher but by the school authority based on the availability of the students in the Form 4 classes on the day the survey was conducted. It was agreed that the respondents for the survey would be taken from any Form 4 classes which were available on the day. Students in classes which 44 were not involved in any prearranged activities such as educational talks, contests, physical education lessons, or lessons in the science laboratory were invited to participate in the survey. This process was carried out until the required number for each ethnic group was fulfilled. The students involved in the survey were as follows: Table 3.2 No. of Respondents According to their Ethnicity Class 4 Science 1 4 Science 2 4 Science 3 4 Science 4 4 Science 5 4 Science 6 4 Arts 1 4 Arts 2 4 Arts 3 No. of respondents 3.3.2 Malay 4 7 10 1 4 8 34 Chinese 8 20 14 1 43 Indians 3 18 9 12 2 44 Total 3 30 36 36 1 1 4 10 121 Profile of the respondents’ Primary Education There is always a close correlation between education and linguistic repertoire. People the world over have expanded their linguistic repertoire because of the languages that they learn or acquired in the schools they attended as children or as an adult. The impact of education on the linguistic repertoire of a person is therefore very significant. In Malaysia, one of the strategies of promoting national unity and nationbuilding is through the use of the National Language. English, on the other hand, is used as a link to the rest of the world (see 1.2.1 for more information on the sociolinguistic profile of Malaysians). The impact of these two languages on the linguistic repertoire of the school children is thus very significant. Therefore a description of the primary education of the Malaysian youth in this study must be provided before any attempt to analyse and describe their language choices can begin (see 1.2.2 for more information on Malaysian schools). 45 In this case study, 13.4% of the respondents attended the National primary schools and 80.3% attended former missionary primary schools where the medium of instruction is Malay, 3.1% attended Chinese primary schools where the medium of instruction is Mandarin, 2.4% the Tamil primary schools where the medium of instruction is Tamil and 0.8% an International school where the medium of instruction is English. Among the Malay respondents, 70.6% of them in this study attended former missionary schools for their primary school education where English is more widely spoken. The remaining 29.4% attended the National primary school where Malay is more widely used. The majority of the Chinese respondents (88.4%) also attended former missionary schools, an English-speaking environment; 2.3% attended the National primary school, a Malay speaking environment, 2.3% attended the International school where English is the medium of instruction and 7.0% attended Chinese primary school where Mandarin is widely spoken. The majority of the Indian respondents (84.1%) attended former mission schools, 9.1% the national schools and 6.8% attended Tamil primary schools where Tamil is the dominant language (see Table 3.3 below). Table 3.3 Profile of Respondents’ Primary Education Ethnic Groups Schools National (SK) Mission (SRK) Chinese [SRJK (C)] Tamil [SRJK (T)] International Total Malay No % 10 29.4 24 70.6 34 100 Chinese No % 1 2.3 38 88.4 3 7.0 1 2.3 43 100 Indians No % 4 9.1 37 84.1 3 6.8 44 100 Total No % 15 12.4 99 81.8 3 2.5 3 2.5 1 0.8 121 100 46 3.4 Research Instruments The main method employed in this case study is the survey method. This method is chosen for several reasons. The survey method using a questionnaire has long been known to be an effective and inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents. The standardised instructions and the structured responses in the questionnaire are additional advantages of using this methodology. It is relatively objective in nature and requires only a brief moment to respond to the questions. This helps the respondents to stay focused and is especially useful with a captive audience like the respondents in this case study. This case study which is a data driven sociolinguistic research aims to find patterns of regularities in the language choices of Malaysian youth. It seeks to analyse and describe the actual language used by Malaysian youth of various ethnic groups in their daily interaction with their family members with their friends in the neighbourhood, their teachers and friends in school. 3.4.1 Description of the Questionnaire The questionnaire adapted from a number of sources (Azmah bt Ghaus, 2001; David, 1996; Lam, 1992), is written in both Malay and English. The questionnaire has a total of 53 items and is divided into two sections as follows: Section A: Questions 1-15 47 This section entitled ‘Getting to know you’ consists of 15 questions and the aim is to gather general information about the personal background of the respondents. The purpose is to find out their age, ethnicity, primary education and other demographic information. Such information is essential to make connections between response and ethnicity. Section B: Questions 16 – 53 This section is entitled ‘Getting To Know Your Language Habits’ consists of 38 questions. The purpose is to determine the language choices of the respondents in the domains of home, neighbourhood and school. Respondents are asked to choose one of the options provided by putting a tick ( ) (see Appendix A). The objective of this section is to collect the data necessary to enable the researcher to analyse the pattern of language choices among the respondents in the different domains with different interlocutors. Questions 18 to 23 seek information on the language choices in the home domain with different members of the family. Questions 24 to 29 are designed to reveal the patterns of language choices with Malay, Chinese, and Indian peers and shopkeepers in the neighbourhood. Questions 30 to 41 enquire about their language choices when they interact with Malay, Chinese and Indian teachers and friends in school. Questions 42 to 44 and questions 48 to 50 are designed to reveal language choices for bonding while questions 45 to 47 and questions 51 to 53 are aimed at revealing the language choice for divergence. 3.4.2 Recordings The second major data gathering tool was the MP3 digital-microphone recordings. Through the contact with one of the informants known to the researcher, 48 four Form 4 boys were selected as informants and were asked to wear the recording device. They were told briefly that this was a language study project for a Masters Degree programme and their co-operation was needed. They were also told how the operation would be carried out but they were not told what they researcher was looking for in the data. The informants were told that they would be equipped with a miniature MP3 digital recorder and their duty was to leave the recorder on as they went about their usual routine. They were instructed to hang it round their neck and put the recorder into their shirt pocket. The informants were given the MP3 player before school started in the morning and were told to return it after break. The researcher then listened to the recording together with the informant at the school library so as to elicit information from the informant regarding the setting, the interlocutors, and the topic captured in the recordings. Scholars have acknowledged that this kind of live data can provide much social and linguistic information about peer or friendship group interaction and verbal exchanges (Rampton, 1999). The purpose is to use the information to cross-validate the findings and patterns from the survey and the observations made by the researcher. 3.4.3 Observation While the recording was in progress, the researcher took field notes of verbal exchanges of students at various locations such as the assembly ground, the school field, along the corridor, at the school canteen and at the school library. The researcher spent 49 four weeks from 10 April 2006 to 5 May 2006 observing students and noting down their verbal exchanges. The verbal exchanges between the school prefects on duty and the students were also noted as well as the verbal exchanges between the librarians on duty and the students in the school library. The notes from the observation were used to cross-validate the findings and patterns that emerge from the other sources of information. The main reason for using a multi-fold methodology is to gather information from different sources. By using different sources of information, the researcher can cross-validate findings, patterns and conclusions that emerge from the analysis of the raw data collected in the study. 3.5 Pilot Study A pilot study was carried out by the researcher to test the items in the questionnaire and the equipment. Several recording devices (audio-visual devices) were tested for their suitability and reliability as well as clarity of the recordings of the youth in their natural settings. Before the questionnaire was administered to the study respondents, a pilot study was carried out and as a result the questions refined. Adjustments were made to some items based on the feedback from the participants in the pilot study. 3.6 Limitation Like other research, this case study has some limitations. In terms of the participants, all the respondents in this study are boys who are currently studying in one 50 school. Therefore, it is gender biased. This research also only focuses on the three major ethnic groups in the country in From 4 in a particular school in an urban setting. Other ethnic groups are not included in the study due to time and other constraints. Only three domains are selected for investigation. It is by no means an exhaustive study of the social and linguistic behaviour of Malaysian youth but it hopes to provide and set the impetus to other studies on this speech community. 3.7 Proper procedure for an academic exercise using school children. Approval from various Government Departments must be obtained by the researcher first before the academic exercise using school children can commence. The proper procedure to obtain approval is in the following order:- The Educational Planning and Research Division Ministry of Education The Perak State Education Department The Principals of the target school The Principal and the senior teachers were the ones who determine the time and the duration to carry out the research in their school. The questionnaire was administered with the help of the counseling teacher in June 2006. The following chapters will present the findings and the description of the deployment of language choices of the respondents in different domians. The analysis will be divided into three separate chapters according to the domains and each section 51 will be followed by discussions and summary of each chapter. The discussions and analysis will be based on the use of frequency count on all the responses and statements in a table format. CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON THE FINDINGS: FOCUS ON THE FAMILY AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 4.1 Data Analysis The aim of the data analysis in this and the subsequent chapters are to provide answers to the following research questions: 1. Do the respondents use the national language, Malay, an international language, English, or their respective ethnic languages or even a mixed discourse consisting of more than one language? 2. What are their language choices during interactions with their family members, friends and people from different linguistic, ethnic and cultural backgrounds in their neighbourhood and their school? 3. Is there a significant difference in the language choices of the various ethnic groups? 4. Is there a connection between language choices and ethnicity? 5. Do they practice code-switching or language crossing (which is the practice of using a language variety that belongs to another group) when they mingle with outsiders (i.e. not of the same ethnicity) in school (Rampton, 1995)? This study analyses (a) the responses to the questionnaires from the 121 respondents on their language choices, (b) the language used within each friendship groups by the informants and (c) the linguistic choices by these adolescents in relation to their ethnicity. The focus of the findings and discussion in Chapter 4 is on the family and neighbourhood domain. Chapter 5 will focus on the school domain while Chapter 6 52 will focus on the functions of the linguistic choices of these adolescents. Chapter 7 will provide further insights from recordings and observations. The most helpful part was undoubtly the findings from the questionnaire. They helped the researcher to analyse the language choices of these adolescents in specific domains with specific groups of people they interact with. The findings also provided the necessary data to enable the researcher to see the link between ethnicity and language choices of these adolescent in in-group and out-group interactions. The recordings helped the researcher to establish the finer aspects of language choice. They helped the researcher to set the range of ‘majority’ and ‘less’ as used in the questionnaire (as in ‘majority English less Malay’). From the recordings, the researcher was able to set the range of ‘majority’ as 80% and above whereas ‘less’ was set as 20% or less. The observations, on the other hand, helped the researcher to cross-validate the findings and patterns that emerged from the findings from the questionnaire. 4.2 Analysis of Questionnaire The complete analysis for each item from Questions 16 to 50 in this questionnaire can be seen in Appendix C (page 207). They are presented in the form of tables. The figures in the columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. 4.2.1 Verbal Repertoire Then and Now (Q16 and Q17) This section will present the analysis of the verbal repertoire of the adolescents in this study. The objective is to determine the linguistic repertoire and language 53 preferences of each ethnic group before we proceed to examine the link between the languages they choose to use and the languages in their verbal repertoire when they interact with different interlocutors in different domains. 4.2.1.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth Then and Now All the Malay respondents (100%) used their mother tongue as children. Out of the 34 Malays, 3 of the respondents (8.8%) used exclusively Malay and no other languages as children. Another 3 (8.8%) of the respondents said they used stand alone English in their childhood. However, a large majority (91.2%) used a mixed code of majority Malay less English as children and only 5.9% used a mixed-code of majority English less Malay. This suggests that English, an important second language in the country, is not being used much by this ethnic group during their childhood although they live in the state capital. The Malay adolescents in this study say they used almost exclusively Malay as children. It indicates that the ethno-linguistic vitality of urban Malays in this sample is high during their childhood then and now (see Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Languages Choices of the Malay Youth Then and Now Then and Now No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Language Choices Malay English Tamil Terengganu dialect Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority English less Tamil As children (Then) No. % 34 100 3 8.8 31 91.5 2 5.9 - Currently (Now) No % 34 100 9 26.9 1 2.9 1 2.9 29 85.3 4 11.8 1 2.9 * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. In nos. 5, 6 and 7, the set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The data also shows that currently all the Malay adolescents (100%) still maintain the use of their mother tongue (see Table 4.1). 8.8% use stand alone English. 54 However, there is a marginal increase (from 8.8% to 26.9%) of the Malay respondents using stand alone English. One of the respondents stated Tamil as one of the languages he uses today and another respondent stated that he uses the Terengganu dialect. The Malay adolescents still use mixed codes but there is a slight decline (from 91.2% to 85.3%) in the use of the majority Malay less English mode and an increase (from 5.9% to 11.8%) in the use of the majority English less Malay combination. This change in linguistic behaviour could be the result of their primary and lower secondary school education where Malay and English are compulsory languages (see Table 3.3). Most of the Malay respondents in this study had their primary school education in former mission schools (70.6%) where English is widely spoken. Malay continues to be the dominant language (100%) although there is a slight increase (from 8.8% to 26.9%) in the use of the English Language among the adolescents now compared to when they were children. The emphasis on English in the Malaysian school system seems to have had some impact on these respondents. However despite many years of learning English as a subject in school, only 26.9 % use stand alone English and 11.8% use majority English less Malay code switch. A large majority (85.3%) use the majority Malay less English combination. This signifies that despite the emphasis on English in the Malaysian school system the use of English by these respondents is limited. 4.2.1.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth Then and Now The majority of the Chinese adolescents (72.1%) used their mother tongue (Cantonese) as children. Slightly more than half (53.5%) of the 43 Chinese respondents said they used stand alone English during their childhood, 14% used stand alone 55 Mandarin, 4.7% used stand alone Malay but only 2.3% used stand alone dialect (Teochew). However, there are 2 (4.7%) respondents who do not know Cantonese, Mandarin or any Chinese dialect at all. Table 4.2 Languages Choices of the Chinese Youth Then and Now Then and Now No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Language Choices Malay English Mandarin Cantonese Teochew Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese English, Japanese, Mandarin mixed As children (Then) No. % 2 4.7 23 53.5 6 14.0 31 72.1 1 2.3 3 7.0 6 14.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 2 4.7 1 2.3 5 11.6 18 41.9 11 25.6 11 25.6 - Currently (Now) No % 9 20.9 28 65.1 3 7.0 28 65.1 1 2.3 11 25.6 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 11 25.6 7 16.3 20 46.5 1 2.3 * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. In nos. 6 to 16, the set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. One of them used mainly stand alone English and majority English less Malay code-mix. Although English is not his mother tongue, it has become his first language. This linguistic behaviour is an emerging phenomenon in Malaysia where English is widely used in urban areas (see Asmah, 2003:100). The other, whose mother is an Indian, uses mainly stand alone English and majority English less Tamil code-mix (see Table 4.2). Using mixed-codes appears to be a popular practice even as children for this ethnic group. 41.9 % used majority Cantonese less English combination or mixed-code 56 as children but 25.6% used majority Cantonese less Malay. 25.6% used majority English less Cantonese and 11.6% used majority English less Mandarin combination. There are also those in this ethnic group who use majority English less Malay mixed-code (14.0%), majority Malay less English (7.0%), majority Mandarin less English (4.7%) and majority Mandarin less Malay (2.3%) combination. There is one respondent who uses majority Tamil less Malay and majority English less Tamil mixed code. This means that the ethnolinguistic vitality (see Ramachandran, 2000) of this ethnic group is not as high as the Malay group. As a group, the Chinese are more diverse in their verbal repertoire, a common effect of a less dominant group living in a multilingual and multi-ethnic society. There is also a decline in the use of other Chinese dialects such as Hokkien or Teochew in favour of Cantonese, a local dialect in Ipoh. English and Cantonese appear to be the preferred languages among the Chinese families but Cantonese is the more dominant childhood language of the Chinese respondents. When a comparison is made between the language used as children and the languages used as adolescents, the data shows a marked increase (from 4.7% to 20.9%) in the use of stand alone Malay. There is also an increase (from 53.5% to 65.1%) in the use of stand alone English. This is obviously the outcome of the Malaysian school system where Malay, the National Language is the medium of instruction, and English, an important second language in Malaysian schools. There is a decrease in the use of Mandarin from 14% to 7% and a drop in the use of the major dialect Cantonese from 72.1% to 65.1%. 57 There are some major changes in the use of the mixed-codes too. The data shows a clear increase in the use of the majority English less Cantonese mixed-code from 25.6% to 46.5% and a decrease in the use of the majority Cantonese less English mixed-code from 41.9% to 25.6%. This means that there is an increase in the use of English and a decline in the use of the mother tongue, Cantonese, amongst the Chinese youth in this setting. The rise in the use of English for this ethnic group can also be seen in other mixed-code combinations. There is an increase in the use of the majority English less Malay combination from 14.0% to 25.6% and a drop in the use of majority Malay less English combination (from 7.0% to 0%). What is evident in this adolescent group is that the majority are multilingual, having three or more languages in their verbal repertoire. They are equally proficient in Cantonese and English. The National Language is not their preferred language. These adolescents seem to place higher value on Cantonese, their ethnic language and English, the International Language than Malay. 4.2.1.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth Then and Now The majority of the Indian adolescents (75.0%) used stand alone Tamil as children, 63.6% used stand alone English and 11.4% used Malay (see Table 4.3). 9 respondents (20.1%) did not use stand alone Tamil as children. 2 respondents (4.5%) used no other languages except English as children and continue to do so even today. These adolescents are examples of individuals in Malaysia who use English as their mother tongue instead of the parents’ language (see Asmah, 2003:100). Like the other ethnic groups, code-mixing is a common practice amongst these adolescents. The majority (54.5%) used majority Tamil less English as children, 22.7% 58 used majority English less Tamil, 22.7% used majority English less Malay, 20.5% used majority Tamil less Malay but only 6.8% used majority Malay less English in their childhood. This means that Tamil is more widely used as children than English by the Indian respondents. Table 4.3 Languages Choices of the Indian Youth Then and Now Then and Now No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Language choices Malay English Tamil Cantonese Telugu dialect Malayalam dialect Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority English less Punjabi Majority English less Cantonese Majority Telugu less English Majority English less Telugu As children (Then) No. % 5 11.4 28 63.6 33 75.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 3 6.8 10 22.7 24 54.5 9 20.5 10 22.7 1 2.3 - Currently (Now) No % 17 38.7 34 77.3 27 61.4 1 2.3 1 2.3 3 6.8 13 29.5 20 45.5 6 13.6 13 29.5 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. There is a clear decline in the use of stand alone Tamil from 75.0% as children to 61.4% as adolescents. One of the youth in this group has acquired Cantonese, a positive result of interracial mixing in his neighbourhood and in school. English appears to be the preferred language of these adolescents. This is indicated in the increase in the use of stand alone English from 63.6% to 77.3%, highest amongst the three major ethnic groups. There is also an increase in the use of Malay from 11.4% to 38.6%, another evidence of the impact of Malay being the medium of instruction. The use of the mixed-code of majority Malay less English remained unchanged but there is a slight increase in the majority English less Malay combination from 22.7% to 29.5%. The majority Tamil less English code-mixing has dropped from 54.5% to 59 45.5%, and so has the majority Tamil less Malay combination from 20.5% to 13.6%. In contrast, the use of majority English less Tamil combination has increased from 22.7% to 29.5%. This again suggests that English has gained popularity amongst the Indian youth. The data shows a healthy attitude towards English and Malay as well as their mother tongue (Tamil) in this ethnic group. The respondent who uses Cantonese also uses a mixed-code of majority English less Cantonese combination. Another respondent claims he uses majority English less Punjabi combination. This is a rare occurrence but not unusual in a multilingual society like Malaysia (see David, Naji, and Kaur, 2003 on the Punjabi community in the Klang Valley and the Language choices). The lone respondent who uses majority Telugu less English has changed to the use of majority English less Telugu combination. Here again we see yet another evidence of English as the preferred language amongst the Indian youth. The data shows that the Indian youth are using more English and Malay now in addition to Tamil. 4.2.2 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the Family Domain (Q18-23) As we have seen earlier in the literature review, the theoretical construct of domain is useful for capturing broad general pictures about a speech community because it draws upon three important social factors in language choices – participants, setting and topic (see Holmes 2001: 23). By using this theoretical framework, it is now possible to summarise the norms of language use or language choices of Malaysian youth from the raw data. Explicit models will be used to provide a clear basis for comparing patterns of language choices in different ethnic groups in this speech community. 60 For this case study, the variables that are used in analysing the language choices of these adolescents are domains, respondents, ethnicity and settings. In this study, topics will be taken as general conversation of the youth with members of the family in the family domain, transactional exchanges with the shopkeepers in their neighbourhood, and friendly exchanges with their peers. 4.2.2.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the Family Domain 91.2% use Malay with their parents. In addition to Malay, 88.2% also use majority Malay less English code-switch, and 14.7% use stand alone English with their parents. Only 5.9% of the respondents use majority English less Malay combination with their parents. The data shows that 94.1% of the respondents use Malay when they speak to their older brothers and sisters at home (see Appendix C: Q 18, page 207) and 91.2% of the respondents use Malay with their younger siblings. In addition to Malay, 82.4% also use majority Malay less English code-mix with both their older and younger siblings. Only 2.9% use English and another 2.9% use majority English less Malay combination with their elder siblings but with their younger siblings, 26.5% use stand alone English. The data seems to suggest that more of the respondents use English with their younger siblings than with their older ones. Table 4.4 Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the Family Domain Setting Language Choices Malay Mal>Eng English Eng>Mal Tamil>Mal Father Mother 91.2% 88.2% 14.7% 5.9% - 91.2% 88.2% 14.7% 5.9% - At Home Addressee Older Younger Siblings Siblings 94.1% 91.2% 82.4% 82.4% 2.9% 26.5% 2.9% 2.9% - Grandfather 94.1% 82.4% 2.9% - Grandmother 97.1% 79.4% 2.9% 2.9% 61 * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. 94.1% use stand alone Malay with their grandfathers and 97.1% use stand alone Malay with their grandmothers. In addition, 82.4% use majority Malay less English combination with their grandfather and 79.4% use majority Malay less English codeswitch with their grandmothers. 2.9% use stand alone English with their grandparents. One respondent (2.9%) uses majority Tamil less Malay code with his maternal grandmother who is of Indian descent. He, however, sees himself as a Malay. From this table, we can see that the ethnolinguistic vitality of the Malay youth in the family domain is very strong. The mother tongue is the dominant language choice with all the addressee or interlocutors in their family. The highest is with grandmothers, followed by grandfathers and older siblings, and finally with parents and younger siblings. Father Malay (91.2%) Majority Malay less English (88.2%) English (14.7%) Mother Malay (91.2%) Majority Malay less English (88.2%) English (14.7%) Older Siblings Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (2.9%) Younger Siblings Malay (91.2%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (26.5%) Grandfather Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (2.9%) Grandmother Malay (97.1%) Majority Malay less English (79.4%) English (2.9%) Malay youth Figure 4.1 Deployment of Language Choices of Malay Youth with Family Members in the Home Domain 62 Figure 4.1 shows that stand alone Malay and majority Malay less English mixed-code are the main language choices of the Malay youth in the home domain with members of the family. Malay is the medium of communication for these adolescents in the family domain. Code-switching is practiced by this ethnic group even in the home domain. According to the analysis, majority Malay less English code-switch is the second most dominant language choice used in their home domain in addition to stand alone Malay. Stand alone English is a poor third and is used with their younger siblings and parents. It is not a major language choice with their older siblings and grandparents. 4.2.2.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the Family Domain 51.2% chose to use Cantonese, 44.2% chose English, 37.2% chose majority Cantonese less English, and 25.6% chose majority English less Cantonese combination with their fathers. Although there are other choices, they are less significant. Only 11.6% chose to use majority Cantonese less Malay, 9.3% chose majority Mandarin less English combination, another 9.3% chose other dialects (one Hokkien, two Hakka, and one Teochew) with their fathers. The majority (62.8%) chose Cantonese as the language to converse with their mothers. 44.2% chose to use English, another 44.2% use majority Cantonese less English, and 23.3% use majority English less Cantonese combination. The less significant choices are majority Cantonese less Malay code-mix (14.0%), majority 63 English less Malay (11.6%), majority Mandarin less English combination (9.3%), Mandarin (9.3%), majority English less Mandarin (7.0%) and other dialects (6.9%). Table 4.5 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the Family Domain Setting Language Choices Cantonese English Mandarin Malay Cantonese> Eng Eng>Cantonese English>Malay Cantonese>Malay Eng>Mandarin Mandarin>Eng Mandarin>Malay English>Tamil Teochew dialect Hakka dialect Hokkien dialect Hockchew dialect English>Hokkien Mandarin>Teochew Not available Father Mother 51.2 44.2 7.0 2.3 37.2 25.6 7.0 11.6 4.7 9.3 2.3 2.3 4.7 2.3 2.3 62.8 44.2 9.3 4.7 44.2 23.3 11.6 14.0 7.0 9.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 - At Home Addressee Older Younger Siblings Siblings 62.8 55.8 53.5 48.8 10.7 6.9 9.3 2.3 44.2 39.5 23.0 23.2 18.6 9.3 18.6 13.9 11.6 9.3 4.6 4.7 4.6 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 4.7 6.9 Grandfather 41.9 6.9 23.3 4.7 4.7 2.3 2.3 6.9 2.3 37.2 Grandmother 65.1 14.0 4.7 30.2 4.7 2.3 11.6 4.7 6.9 2.3 2.3 11.6 Note: One of the respondents (2.3%) no longer has his father (deceased), 4.7% do not have older sibling, 6.9% do not have younger sibling, 37.2% no longer have their grandfathers (deceased), and 11.6% no longer have their grandmothers (deceased). The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. A number of dialects are used with mothers in this group, 2.3% for each of the following dialects: Teochew, Hakka, Hokkien, majority English less Hokkien and majority Mandarin less Teochew combination. Cantonese remains the dominant dialect in this setting. The languages that the adolescents in this ethnic group chose to use with their older siblings are diverse. 62.8% of the respondents chose Cantonese as the main language when they interact with their older siblings at home. In addition to Cantonese, 53.5% chose to use English, 44.2% chose majority Cantonese less English combination and 23.3% chose to use majority English less Cantonese code-switch when they speak 64 to their older siblings. Only 18.6% chose to use majority English less Malay combination, another 18.6% chose majority Cantonese less Malay, 11.6% chose to use majority English less Mandarin combination, 9.3% chose stand alone Mandarin and another 9.3% chose to use stand alone Malay with their older siblings. 4.7% chose majority English less Mandarin and majority Mandarin less English combinations. Only one respondent chose to speak in Teochew with his older siblings. However, one of the respondents (2.3%) used majority English less Tamil combination. This respondent is able to use some Tamil because he interacts with many Indians both in school and in his neighbourhood. With the younger siblings, the language choice is just as diverse but the majority (55.8%) chose to use Cantonese. 48.8% chose to use stand alone English, 39.5% chose the majority Cantonese less English combination and 23.3% chose to use majority English less Cantonese combination. In contrast, the language choices for other languages and mixed-code are significantly lower. Only 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay combination, 9.3% use majority English less Mandarin mixed-code, another 9.3% use majority English less Malay mixed-code, 7.0% use stand alone Mandarin, 4.7% use majority Mandarin less English combination, and 4.7% (one Teochew and the other Hakka) use other dialects with their younger siblings. The Chinese youth rarely chose to speak Malay, Tamil, majority English less Tamil and majority Mandarin less Malay with the younger siblings. The analysis shows only 2.3% (i.e. one respondent) for each of these choices. Hence, the dominant languages the Chinese youth chose to speak to their younger siblings are Cantonese, English, majority Cantonese less English code-switch and majority English less Cantonese combination. 65 41.9% of the Chinese youth use Cantonese when they speak to their grandfathers. Only 7.0% use English but 23.3% use majority Cantonese less English combination. 4.7% claim that they use majority Cantonese less English code-mix and another 4.7% say that they use majority Cantonese less Malay code-mix. This suggests that some of the youth may not be very competent in Cantonese and rely on the use of some English or Malay words to convey meanings to their grandfathers (see David 2001; 124). Verbal interactions with the grandmothers are mainly in Cantonese, the dominant local Chinese dialect. It constitutes 65.1%. However, only 14.0% use stand alone English with their grandmothers. 30.2% use majority Cantonese less English code-mix, 11.6% use majority English less Malay code-mix, 4.7% majority English less Cantonese code-mix and 2.3% the majority English less Malay code mix. Only 4.7% use stand alone Mandarin with their grandmothers. However, the use of dialects is higher with the grandmothers than all the other addressees in the family domain. It has a total of 16.2% out of which 6.9% is Hakka, 4.7% Teochew, 2.3% each for Hokkien and Hockchew respectively. The following is a diagram of the language choices of the Chinese adolescents with family members at home. The data clearly shows that the linguistic repertoire of this speech community is more diverse than the Malay youth in terms of the number of languages and dialects used. However, Cantonese, English, and majority Cantonese less English combination appears to be most frequently used in the family domain by the youth of Chinese descent. 66 Father Cantonese (51.1%) English (44.2%) Majority Cantonese less English (37.2%) Mother Cantonese (62.8%) English (44.2%) Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%) Older Siblings Cantonese (62.8%) English (53.5%) Majority Cantonese less English (44.3%) Younger Siblings Cantonese (55.8%) English (48.8%) Majority Cantonese less English (39.3%) Grandfather Cantonese (41.9%) Majority Cantonese less English (23.3%) English (6.9%) Hakka (6.9%) Grandmother Cantonese (65.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (30.2%) English (14.0%) Chinese youth Figure 4.2 Deployment of Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with Family Members in the Home Domain From the data, we can see that the ethnolinguistic vitality of the Chinese youth in the family domain is not as strong as their Malay counterparts. The mother tongue (Cantonese) and an international language, English, are almost equally dominant language choices with siblings and parents. Other dialects besides Cantonese are used in the family domain but only by a small number of the respondents. The use of dialects is highest with grandmothers, followed by grandfathers, older siblings, and finally with parents and younger siblings. Among them, Hakka is more widely used followed by Teochew, Hokkien and Hockchew. Code-switching is also practiced by this ethnic group in the home domain. According to the analysis, majority Cantonese less English code-switch is one of the dominant language choices used in their home domain followed by majority English less Cantonese. The other code-switching language choices used by this ethnic group in 67 the home domain are majority English less Malay, majority Cantonese less Malay, majority English less Mandarin, majority Mandarin less English, majority Mandarin less Malay, majority English less Tamil and majority English less Hokkien code switch. It must be noted that the use of mixed codes is more frequent with sibling and parents than with their grandparents. Stand alone English is widely used with their younger siblings and parents but it is not a major language choice with their grandparents. The analysis show that stand alone Cantonese, stand alone English and majority Cantonese less English mixed-code are the main language choices of the Chinese youth in the home domain. It clearly shows that language choices vary according to their interlocutors. 4.2.2.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the Family Domain With their fathers, many of the Indian adolescents (68.2%) chose Tamil as the language for interaction and 70.5% of them communicate with their mothers in Tamil. 65.9% chose English as the language to interact with their parents. Only two respondents (4.5%) use Telegu to speak to their fathers but only one (2.3%) uses Telegu with his mother. 9.1% use Malay with their mothers but only 4.5% use Malay with their fathers. Code-switching is used in this domain. 43.2% use the majority Tamil less English combination to interact with their fathers and 50.0% use this combination with their mothers. The data shows that 22.7% use majority English less Tamil combination with their fathers and 27.3% use this code-mix with their mothers. 15.9% use the majority Tamil less Malay combination with their parents. 9.1% use the majority English less Malay combination with their fathers while 13.6% use this combination 68 with their mothers. Only one respondent (2.3%) uses the majority Malay less English code-switch with his father but two respondents (4.5%) use this type of code-switch with their mothers. Only one respondent uses majority English less Punjabi with his father and older siblings. Another respondent (2.3%) uses majority English less Telegu mixed-code with his father and older siblings. One respondent (2.3%) uses Majority Cantonese less Malay combination with his mother. The analysis shows that codeswitching is used by these respondents at home. Table 4.6 Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the Family Domain Setting Language Choices Tamil English Malay Telegu dialect Malayalam dialect Tamil>English English>Tamil Tamil>Malay English>Malay Malay>English English>Punjabi English>Cantonese English>Telegu Telegu>English Malayalam>Tamil Cantonese>Malay Father Mother 68.2 65.9 4.5 4.5 43.2 22.7 15.9 9.1 2.3 2.3 2.3 - 70.5 65.9 9.1 2.3 50.0 27.3 15.9 13.6 4.5 2.3 - At Home Addressee Older Younger Siblings Siblings 70.5 65.9 65.9 65.9 11.4 9.1 2.3 4.5 2.3 45.5 45.5 22.7 25.0 20.5 15.9 13.6 9.1 4.5 4.5 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.3 4.5 Grandfather 65.9 27.3 6.8 4.5 47.7 9.1 15.9 4.5 4.5 2.3 18.2 Grandmother 79.5 25.0 9.1 4.5 50.0 11.4 20.5 6.8 2.3 6.8 Not Available Note: 4.5% of the respondents do not have younger siblings, 18.2% no longer have their grandfathers (deceased) and 6.8% no longer have their grandmothers (deceased). The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. 70.5% of the Indian youth chose Tamil as the language to communicate with their older siblings. In addition to Tamil, 65.9% chose English and 11.4% chose Malay to communicate with older siblings. The analysis shows that besides Tamil, Telegu (2.3%) and Malayam (2.3%) are used by Indian youth to speak with older siblings. Only one respondent uses Telegu and only one respondent uses Malayalam. A fairly large number of Indian adolescents in this setting use majority Tamil less English (45.5%) 69 code-switching when they converse with their older siblings. 22.7% use majority English less Tamil code-switch, 20.5% use majority Tamil less Malay, 13.6% use majority English less Malay, but only 4.5% use majority Malay less English codeswitch. One of the respondents (2.3%) uses the majority English less Punjabi combination. Only one respondent (2.3%) uses the majority English less Telegu codemix and only one respondent uses the majority Malayalam less Tamil code-mix. The linguistic choices of the Indian adolescents are equally complex when they interact with their younger siblings. Tamil and English are very dominant languages in the home domain. 65.9% of the Indian youth use these two languages with their younger siblings in the home domain. Only 9.1% use Malay and only 4.5% use Telegu with these interlocutors. 45.5% use the majority Tamil less English code-switch, 25.0% the reverse, that is, the majority English less Tamil variety. 15.9% use the majority Tamil less Malay combination while 9.1% use majority English less Malay. Only 4.5% (two respondents) use the majority Malay less English code-switch with their younger siblings. Only one respondent (2.3%) uses the majority English less Cantonese codemix with his younger siblings. Tamil is the main language choice of the respondents when they communicate with their grandparents. 65.9% uses Tamil with their grandfathers but more respondents (79.5%) use their mother-tongue with their grandmothers. 27.3% use English with their grandfathers while 25.0% of these adolescents use English with their grandmothers. A small number of the respondents use Malay with their grandparents. 6.8% use Malay with their grandfathers and 9.1% use this language with their grandmothers. Only two respondents (4.5%) use Telegu with their grandparents. 70 Code-switching is also used by these adolescents with their grandparents. 47.7% use majority Tamil less English combination with their grandfathers while 50.0% use this mixed-code with their grandmothers. 9.1% of the respondents use majority English less Tamil code-switch with their grandfathers while 11.4% use it with their grandmothers. 15.9% said they use majority Tamil less Malay with their grandfathers and 20.5% said they use this code-switch with their grandmothers. Two respondents (4.5%) use majority English less Malay with their grandfathers. Two respondents (4.5%) said they use majority Malay less English combination with their grandfathers while 6.8% use this combination with their grandmothers. Only one respondent (2.3%) use majority Telegu less English with his grandparents. Father Tamil (68.2%) English (65.9%) Majority Tamil less English (43.2%) Mother Tamil (70.5%) English (65.9%) Majority Tamil less English (50.0%) Older Siblings Tamil (70.5%) English (65.9%) Majority Tamil less English (45.5%) Younger Siblings Tamil (65.9%) English (65.9%) Majority Tamil less English (45.5%) Grandfather Tamil (65.9%) Majority Tamil less English (47.7%) English (27.4%) Grandmother Tamil (79.5%) Majority Tamil less English (50.0%) English (25.0%) Indian youth Figure 4.3 Deployment of Language Choices of Indian Youth with Family Members in the Home Domain Like the Chinese, the Indian adolescents have a more diverse linguistic repertoire than the Malay youth in terms of the number of languages and code switching combinations. However, stand alone Tamil, English and Majority Tamil less English 71 combination appears to be the most frequently used languages by the Indian adolescents in the family domain. Although Tamil and English and various kinds of code-switching combinations are used, the language for communication varies according to the addressee. Figure 4.3 shows of the language choices of the Indian adolescents with family members at home. From the data, we can see that the ethnolinguistic vitality of the Indian youth in the family domain (about 70.0%) is stronger than their Chinese counterparts (about 57%) but not as strong as their Malay counterparts (around 93.2%). Tamil and English are almost equally dominant language choices with siblings and parents in their family. Code-switching is also practiced by this ethnic group in the home domain. According to the analysis, majority Tamil less English code-switch is the one of the dominant language choices used in their home domain. The other code-switching language choices used by this ethnic group in the home domain are majority Tamil less Malay, majority English less Tamil and majority Malay less English code switch. Stand alone English is widely used with their siblings and parents but it is not a major language choice with their grandparents. 4.2.3 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain (Q24-28) This section will provide the analysis of the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with different interlocutors in their neighbourhood. It will describe the language choices these adolescents make with their neighbourhood peers and with shopkeepers of different ethnicities in their neighbourhood. 72 4.2.3.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers According to the data, the majority (97.1%) of the Malay youth in this setting use Malay with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood. 82.4% use majority Malay less English code switch but only 5.9% use English and 2.9% use majority English less Malay combination. Table 4.7 Language Choices of the Malay youth with their Neighbourhood Peers Setting Language Choices Malay Majority Malay less English English Majority English less Malay Not Available Note: Malay 97.1 82.4 5.9 2.9 - Neighbourhood Addressee: peers Chinese 58.8 44.1 35.3 29.4 17.6 Indian 64.7 52.9 29.4 23.5 17.6 17.6% of the respondents do not have Chinese or Indian peers in their neighbourhood because they live in areas where the residents are predominantly Malays. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With their Chinese peers, 58.8% use Malay to converse, 44.1% use majority Malay less English combination, 35.3% use English and 29.4% use majority English less Malay code switch. 17.6% of the respondents do not have Chinese peers in their neighbourhood. 64.7% of the Malay youth use Malay with their Indian peers, 52.9% use majority Malay less English code switch, 29.4% use English, 23.5% use majority English less Malay combination. 17.6% do not have Indian peers in their neighbourhood. The analysis shows that the dominant linguistic choice of the Malay adolescents when they interact with their Malay peers in the neighbourhood domain is stand alone Malay followed by majority Malay less English combination. For intra-group communication, their dominant language choices are stand alone Malay (97.1%) and 73 majority Malay less English (82.4%) code mix. The ethnolinguistic vitality is very high for intra-group communication. This signifies strong group membership and identity. For inter-ethnic group communication however, the dominant linguistic choices are more diverse. Malay, majority Malay less English, English and majority English less Malay variety are used to communicate with Chinese and Indian peers. The use of Malay, however, is higher with their Indian peers (64.7%) than with their Chinese peers (58.8%). Figure 4.4 shows the language choices of the Malay youth with their peers in the neighbourhood. Malay youth Malay Malay (97.1%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (5.9%) Chinese Malay (58.8%) Majority Malay less English (44.1%) English (35.3%) Malay (64.7%) Majority Malay less English (52.9%) English (29.4%) Figure 4.4 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood. Indian The analysis shows that only two respondents (5.9%) use stand alone English with their Malay peers. Twelve of the thirty-four respondents in this group (35.4%) use stand alone English with their Chinese peers and ten of them (29.4%) use English with their Indian peers. This signifies very limited use of English by the Malay respondents for inter-group interactions with their Chinese and Indian peers. The choice of English as a language of communication is even more limited for intra-group interactions amongst the Malay adolescents. The main language choice for both intra and intergroup communication is their mother-tongue. This may be an indication that these adolescents are generally not proficient in English. 74 4.2.3.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers The analysis shows that Cantonese is the dominant language in intra-group communication for the Chinese youth in their neighbourhood. With their Chinese peers, 88.4% of the Chinese adolescents say that they use Cantonese, 44.2% use majority Cantonese less English combination and 37.2% use stand alone English. 16.3% use Mandarin, another 16.3% majority English less Cantonese code switch and 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay mix. Table 4.8 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers Setting Neighbourhood Addressee: peers Language Choices Malay Chinese Indian Malay 46.5 34.9 English 27.9 37.2 51.2 Tamil 2.3 Mandarin 16.3 Cantonese 9.3 88.4 Majority Malay less English 37.2 16.3 Majority English less Malay 7.0 2.3 18.6 Majority Tamil less Malay 2.3 Majority English less Tamil 2.3 2.3 7.0 Majority Mandarin less English 2.3 Majority Mandarin less Malay 4.7 Majority English less Mandarin 4.7 Majority Cantonese less English 7.0 44.2 Majority Cantonese less Malay 2.3 14.0 Majority English less Cantonese 2.3 16.3 Not Available 34.9 27.9 Note: 34.9% of the respondents do not have Malay peers in their neighbourhood and 27.9% of them do not have Indian peers because they live in areas where the residents are predominantly Chinese. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The analysis shows that 46.5% of the Chinese adolescents use Malay with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood, 37.2% use a mixed code of majority Malay less English, 27.9% use stand alone English, 9.3% use Cantonese, 7.0% use the majority English less Malay combination and another 7.0% use majority Cantonese less English. 2.3% of the Chinese respondents use majority English less Malay code switch, 2.3% majority Cantonese less Malay and 2.3% majority English less Cantonese combination. 75 A large number of the respondents (34.9%) do not have Malay peers in their neighbourhood. The use of Cantonese with members of the Malay group is an interesting finding. Although the number is relatively small it signifies that some of the Malay peers in their neighbourhood understand and use Cantonese. This could be evidence of language-crossing practices amongst the adolescents even though rare. The data shows that 51.2% of the Chinese adolescents use English with their Indian peers in the neighbourhood. 34.9% say they use Malay while 18.6% say they use majority English less Malay code switch and 16.3% use majority Malay less English combination. 7.0% of the Chinese adolescents use majority English less Tamil code mix and 2.3% use stand alone Tamil with their Indian peers in their neighbourhood. 27.9% of the Chinese respondents say that they do not have Indian peers in their neighbourhood. The data shows that English is the dominant linguistic choice for communication between these two ethnic groups followed by Malay. The use of majority English less Tamil by a small number of the Chinese respondents signifies the practice of accommodation and language crossing. However, the number is very small and not much can be said of this feature with this limited sample. For intra-group communication, 88.4% of the Chinese youth use Cantonese. This is a very high figure. It signifies strong group membership and identity amongst the Chinese youth in their neighbourhood. 44.2% use majority Cantonese less English and 37.2% use English. This signifies that the use of stand alone English and code switch between Cantonese and English is a fairly common linguistic behaviour of the Chinese adolescents in this setting. This indicates linguistic accommodation of code preferences of their addressee with members of their own ethnic group. Figure 4.5 76 shows the main language choices of the Chinese youth with their peers in the neighbourhood. Malay Chinese youth Chinese Indian Malay (46.5%) Majority Malay less English (32.2%) English (27.9%) Cantonese (88.4%) Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%) English (37.2%) English (51.2%) Malay (34.9%) Majority English less Malay (18.6%) Figure 4.5 Main Language Choices of the Chinese youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood. For inter-group communication, Malay and majority Malay less English are the language choice of the Chinese adolescents with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood. Only eleven of the forty-three (27.9%) use English with their Malay peers. This shows that English is not the language choice of these Chinese adolescents in their interactions with their Malay peers. However, with their Indian counterparts, twenty-two respondents (51.2%) use English. The data show a large difference in the use of English by the Chinese adolescents with their Malay peers and their Indian peers. Their linguistic choices may be an indication that the Indians are generally more proficient in English than the Malay adolescents. The Chinese adolescents have learned to switch codes to accommodate the linguistic preference of their addressee. 4.2.3.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers The major language choices of the Indian youth with their peers in their neighbourhood from the same descent are Tamil and English. For intra-group communication in this domain, a large majority (84.1%) of the Indian youth use Tamil, 61.4% use majority Tamil less English and 54.5% use English. Some (20.5%) use 77 majority Tamil less Malay code switch and 15.9% use majority English less Tamil combination. Only a few (6.8%) use Malay with their Indian peers in the neighbourhood and another 6.8% use majority English less Malay combination. 4.5% of the Indian youth in this study do not have Indian friends in their neighbourhood. This could mean they stay in a predominantly Malay or predominantly Chinese neighbourhood. Table 4.9 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Neighbourhood Peers Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Cantonese Punjabi Telegu Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Not Available Neighbourhood Malay 81.8 29.5 6.8 2.3 50.0 15.9 9.1 6.8 4.5 2.3 - Addressee: peers Chinese 43.2 79.5 4.5 25.0 40.9 4.5 2.3 11.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 9.1 Indian 6.8 52.3 84.1 6.8 61.4 20.5 15.9 4.5 Note: 9.1% of the respondents do not have Chinese peers in their neighbourhood and 4.5% of them do not have Indian peers in their neighbourhood. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. A large majority (81.8%) of the Indian youth use Malay as the language to communicate with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood. 50.0% chose majority Malay less English code switch, 29.5% use English, 15.9% majority English less Malay, 9.1% use majority Tamil less English, 6.8% Tamil, another 6.8% use majority Tamil less Malay, 4.5% majority English less Tamil combination, 2.3% use Cantonese and another 2.3% use majority Cantonese less Malay code switch. The extensive use of Malay (81.8%) shows the Indian youth accommodating the linguistic preference of their 78 Malay peers whereas the small percentage using Tamil (6.8%) is an indicator of accommodation by the Malay peers with them. With their Chinese peers in the neighbourhood domain, a large majority (79.5%) of the Indian adolescents use English, 43.2% use Malay, 40.9% use majority English less Malay and 25.0% use majority Malay less English combination. A small minority (11.4%) use majority English less Tamil code switch with their Chinese friends, 4.5% use majority Tamil less English combination and another 4.5% use Cantonese. Very few Indian youth (2.3%) use majority Cantonese less English code switch with their Chinese peers in the neighbourhood. 9.1% do not have Chinese peers in their neighbourhood. Indian youth Malay Malay (81.8%) Majority Malay less English (50.0%) English (29.5%) Chinese English (79.5%) Malay (43.3%) Majority English less Malay (40.9%) Indian Tamil (84.1%) Majority Tamil less English (61.4%) English (52.3%) Figure 4.6 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood. The data indicates the strong influence of the Malaysian education system on the Malaysian youth as far as the use of English and Malay is concerned. Both these languages appear to be the language choice for inter-ethnic group communication between the Indian and Chinese youth in this domain. It is not surprising to find Malay and English as the language choice but quite another thing to find Tamil and Cantonese being used by the Indian youth to communicate with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood. This signifies that there are users of Tamil and Cantonese amongst the Indian and Malay youth and Chinese users of Tamil even though the number is not significant. This is the result of living in a multiracial and multilingual society (see 79 Table 4.9 above). It is therefore clear that most Indian youth use Malay with their Malay peers, English with their Chinese friends and Tamil amongst themselves. Most of the Chinese adolescents use Malay with their Malay peers, English with their Indian friends and Cantonese amongst themselves while most of the Malay youth use Malay with their Indian, Chinese and Malay peers. Malays Malaysian Youth Malay Malay (97.1%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (5.9%) Chinese Malay (58.8%) Majority Malay less English (44.1%) English (35.3%) Indian Malay (64.7%) Majority Malay less English (52.9%) English (29.4%) Malay Malay (46.5%) Majority Malay less English (32.2%) English (27.9%) Chinese Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%) Cantonese (88.4%) Chinese English (37.2%) Indian Indian English (51.2%) Malay (34.9%) Majority English less Malay (18.6%) Malay Malay (81.8%) Majority Malay less English (50.0%) English (29.5%) Chinese English (79.5%) Malay (43.3%) Majority English less Malay (40.9%) Indian Tamil (84.1%) Majority Tamil less English (61.4%) English (52.3%) Figure 4.7 Main Language Choices of the Malaysian Youth with their Peers in the Neighbourhood. Figure 4.7 above shows the linguistic choices of the adolescents with their peers in their neighbourhood. It suggests that language accommodation is used more by the Indian and the Chinese adolescents than their Malay counterparts. It also indicates that 80 there is a difference in language choice amongst the ethnic groups for inter-group communication. English is the language choice of the Indians and the Chinese adolescents for inter-ethnic communication but Malay is the language choice of the Malay youth. 4.2.3.4 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with Neighbourhood Shopkeepers For intra-ethnic transactional exchanges with shopkeepers of Malay descent in their neighbourhood, an overwhelming 97.1% of the Malay youth use Malay, 76.5% use Majority Malay less English code switch, but only 2.9% use English. The data show Malay is the dominant linguistic choice of the Malay youth in intra-ethnic trade or shopping transactions. 2.9% of the respondents state that they do not have Malay shopkeepers in their vicinity. Table 4.10 Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain with Shopkeepers Setting Language Choices Malay Majority Malay less English English Majority English less Malay Not Available Neighbourhood Addressee: shopkeepers Malay Chinese Indian 97.1% 82.4% 73.5% 76.5% 64.7% 67.6% 2.9% 20.6% 14.7% 11.8% 5.9% 2.9% 11.8% 20.6% Note: 2.9% of the respondents do not have Malay shopkeepers in their neighbourhood and 11.8% of them do not have Chinese shopkeeper and 20.6% do not have Indian shopkeepers in their neighbourhood. With shopkeepers of Chinese descent in their neighbourhood, 82.4% of the Malay youth chose Malay and 64.7% use majority Malay less English code switch. Only 20.6% of the Malay youth use English and 11.8% use majority Malay less English code switch. 11.8% live in areas where there are no Chinese shops. In this setting, it is the shopkeepers who are accommodating the adolescents (see David, 1999). 81 With Indian shopkeepers, 73.5% of the Malay youth chose Malay and 67.6% chose majority Malay less English. Only 14.7% chose English and 5.9% chose majority English less Malay. 20.6% of the respondents do not live in an area with Indian shops nearby. Like the Chinese shopkeepers, it is the Indian shopkeepers who are accommodating to the preferred language choices of the Malay adolescents. From the analysis above, the main languages used by the Malay youth for intraethnic transaction with shopkeepers are Malay and majority Malay less English code switch. The use of English is very limited (see Figure 4.8). It is clear that Malay is the dominant language choice of the Malay youth in this study regardless of the ethnicity of their interlocutors. Malay youth Malay shopkeeper Malay (97.1%) Majority Malay less English (76.5%) English (2.9%) Chinese shopkeeper Malay (82.4%) Majority Malay less English (64.7%) English (20.6%) Indian shopkeeper Malay (73.5%) Majority Malay less English (67.6%) English (14.7%) Figure 4.8 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with the Shopkeepers of Different Ethnicity in their Neighbourhood. 4.2.3.5 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with Neighbourhood Shopkeepers For intra-ethnic transactions with shopkeepers of Chinese descent, a vast majority (88.4%) of the Chinese adolescents uses the Cantonese dialect. 39.5% use a mixed code of majority Cantonese less English, 23.3% use stand alone English and 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay combination. Only 11.6% of the Chinese youth in this case study use Mandarin, the official language for the Chinese community used in the media and in education. Very few (4.7%) use majority English less 82 Cantonese and majority Mandarin less English (4.7%) combination. Only 2.3% use Malay and majority Cantonese less Malay code switch. Table 4.11 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain with Shopkeepers Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Not Available Neighbourhood Addressee: shopkeepers Malay Chinese Indian 76.7% 2.3% 51.2% 9.3% 23.3% 51.2% 11.6% 88.4% 44.2% 27.9 2.3% 20.9 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 39.5% 14.0% 4.7% 2.3% 18.6% 18.6% Note: 18.6% of the respondents do not have Malay and Indian shopkeepers in their neighbourhood because they live in areas where the residents are predominantly Chinese. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The figures indicate that the use of local dialect is still very strong for intragroup communication in the Chinese community in this setting. The Chinese shopkeepers are mainly Cantonese speakers. The Chinese respondents in this study are mainly from former missionary schools where Mandarin is not taught as a subject. Most of them come from Cantonese-speaking and English-speaking homes where Mandarin is not used and therefore they do not understand Mandarin, the official language of the Chinese. This is probably the reason why Cantonese is the language choice in this setting. It also explains why English is used by more respondents in this ethnic group that their Malay counterparts. For inter-ethnic transactional exchanges with shopkeepers of Malay descent in their neighbourhood, the majority of the Chinese youth (76.7%) in the study chose to 83 use Malay and 44.2% chose majority Malay less English code switch. Only 9.3% use English. 18.6% say there are no shopkeepers of Malay descent in their neighbourhood. The main language choices of the Chinese youth when they engage in interethnic transactional encounters with their Indian neighbourhood shopkeeper are Malay and English. 51.2% used Malay and another 51.2% used English. 27.9% use majority Malay less English mixed code and 20.9% use majority English less Malay. 18.6% claim that there are no Indian shopkeepers in their area. Chinese youth Malay shopkeeper Malay (76.7%) Majority Malay less English (94.2%) English (9.3%) Chinese shopkeeper Cantonese (88.4%) Majority Cantonese less English (39.5%) English (23.3%) Indian shopkeeper English (51.2%) Malay (51.2%) Majority English less Malay (27.9%) Figure 4.9 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with the Shopkeepers of Different Ethnicity in their Neighbourhood. The data shows that the language choices of the Chinese youth vary according to their addressee’s ethnicity (see Figure 4.9). For intra-ethnic exchanges with shopkeepers of their own ethnicity, the preferred choice is Cantonese, the local dialect. For interethnic exchanges with shopkeepers of Indian descent, they use either Malay or English. With shopkeepers of Malay descent, the Chinese adolescents use mainly Malay. In this domain, code-switching is also a common choice. Being multilingual and having a larger verbal repertoire, the Chinese adolescents are better able to accommodate the linguistic preference of their addressee in the area of transactional discourse so they switch and shift languages depending on who they are speaking to. What is interesting 84 is that English is being seen by the Chinese adolescents in this setting as the language to be used with Indian interlocutors. 4.2.3.6 Language Choices of the Indian Youth Neighbourhood with Shopkeepers For intra-ethnic encounters with shopkeepers of their own descent, 86.4% of the Indian adolescents use their mother tongue Tamil, 54.5% use majority English less Malay and 43.2% use English. 25.0% of the respondents use majority Tamil less English variety, 18.2% use stand alone Malay, 15.9% use majority Malay less English, 9.1% opted for majority Tamil less Malay and 2.3% chose majority English less Tamil combination. The analysis shows that in this setting, English is widely used by the Indian youth in service encounters with shopkeepers but more Tamil is used with Indian shopkeepers. Table 4.12 Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the Neighbourhood Domain with Shopkeepers Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Not Available Neighbourhood Addressee: shopkeepers Malay Chinese Indian 72.7% 61.4% 18.2% 11.4% 68.2% 43.2% 2.3% 86.4% 4.5% 47.7% 34.1% 15.9% 40.9% 54.5% 2.3% 2.3% 25.0% 2.3% 2.3% 9.1% 2.3% 9.1% 2.3% 9.1% 4.5% Note: 9.1% of the respondents do not have Chinese shopkeepers and 4.5% do not have Indian shopkeepers in their neighbourhood. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The main language choice for inter-ethnic transactional encounters between the Indian youth and their neighbourhood shopkeepers of Malay descent is Malay. It accounts for 72.7%, a high majority. 47.7% chose majority Malay less English. Only 11.4% use English for this encounter. 85 With shopkeepers of Chinese descent, two languages are highly favoured by the Indian youth. 68.2% chose to use English and 61.4% chose to use Malay. 40.9%, however, chose to use majority English less Malay code switch. Only four of them (9.1%) chose to use majority English less Tamil. Two of them (4.5%) chose to use Cantonese, one (2.3%) use Tamil, another use majority Tamil less English and another one (2.3%) uses majority Tamil less Malay combination with Chinese shopkeepers. Although the analysis shows only two of the Indian youth use Cantonese to communicate with Chinese shopkeepers, it shows that they know the local Chinese dialect. This is the result of close inter-ethnic interaction in a multiracial community. In addition, the fact that some of the Indian youth use majority English less Tamil, majority Tamil less English and majority Tamil less Malay with shopkeepers of Chinese descent indicate that some of the shopkeepers of Chinese descent in their neighbourhood know Tamil. There is an effort to accommodate one another. As David (1999; 26) says, buyer and sellers in service encounter “are constantly accommodating to each other.” Indian youth Malay shopkeeper Malay (72.7%) Majority Malay less English (47.7%) English (11.4%) Chinese shopkeeper English (68.2%) Malay (61.4%) Majority English less Malay (40.9%) Indian shopkeeper Tamil (86.4%) Majority English less Malay (54.5%) English (43.2%) Figure 4.10 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with the Shopkeepers of Different Ethnicity in the Neighbourhood. For this domain, the data shows that the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with shopkeepers of different descent in their neighbourhood are not the 86 same. The findings clearly indicates that Malay adolescents use either exclusively Malay or a majority Malay less English code switch variety with shopkeepers in their neighbourhood (see Figure 4.10). The Chinese youth however, use different languages with Malay, Chinese and Indian shopkeepers. With Malay shopkeepers, they use either Malay or majority Malay less English variety; with Chinese shopkeepers, they use mainly Cantonese and to a smaller extent majority Cantonese less English variety, and with the Indian shopkeepers they tend to use either exclusively Malay or exclusively English. The Indian youth on the other hand, use mainly stand alone Malay and to a lesser extent majority Malay less English variety with Malay shopkeepers. They use either English or Malay with Chinese shopkeepers and exclusively Tamil or to a lesser extent majority English less Malay variety and stand alone English with Indian shopkeepers. In the next chapter, the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with different interlocutors in the school domain will be analyzed. 87 CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON THE FINDINGS: FOCUS ON THE SCHOOL DOMAIN 5.1 Introduction This section will provide the analysis of the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with different interlocutors in the school domain. It will present the findings and describe the deployment of language choices these adolescents make with different interlocutors from the three major ethnic groups in the school domain. 5.2 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers (Q 30 to Q32) This section will provide the analysis and description of the language choices of the three major groups with their teachers from the three major ethnic groups. 5.2.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Teachers An overwhelming majority (94.1%) of the Malay youth use Malay and 82.4% use majority Malay less English when they interact with their Malay teachers. In contrast, only 8.8% use majority English less Malay and 5.9% use stand alone English with Malay teachers. The analysis shows that within this ethnic group, the language choice for verbal interactions between students and teachers is Malay. English, an important second language, is hardly being used by the Malay adolescents with Malay teachers. Even when English is used it is in code-switches. The dominant language is Malay (see Table 5.1). 88 Table 5.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers Setting Language Choices Malay Majority Malay less English English Majority English less Malay Malay 94.1% 82.4% 5.9% 8.8% School Addressee: Teachers Chinese 76.5% 55.9% 35.3% 29.4% Indian 73.5% 52.9% 35.3% 32.4% Note: The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. Even with the Chinese teachers, a high majority (76.5%) of the Malay adolescents use Malay. 55.9% use majority Malay less English combination. 35.3% use stand alone English and 29.4% use majority English less Malay combination. The analysis shows that stand alone Malay is widely used by the Malay adolescents with their Chinese teachers. However, English is also used. The data indicates clearly that more English is used with teachers of Chinese descent as compared with the language used with Malay teachers. Code-switching is also a common practice. Malay youth Teachers of Malay descent Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) Majority English less Malay (8.8%) Teachers of Chinese descent Malay (76.5%) Majority Malay less English (55.9%) English (35.3%) Teachers of Indian descent Malay (73.5%) Majority Malay less English (52.9%) English (35.3%) Figure 5.1 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they interact with their Teachers of Malay, Chinese and Indian descent. With teachers of Indian descent, 73.5% of the Malay adolescents in this case study chose to use Malay. 52.9% chose to use majority Malay less English code switch, 35.3% chose to use stand alone English and 32.4% chose to use majority English less Malay combination. This indicates that with Indian teachers, Malay is the dominant language choice of the Malay youth. However, English, especially the majority Malay 89 less English variety, is also quite widely used (see Figure 5.1). The analysis shows clearly that most Malay respondents use Malay with all their teachers, be they Malay, Chinese or Indian and a mixed-code of Malay and English. 5.2.2 Language choices of the Chinese Youth with their Teachers For the Chinese youth, a large majority (79.1%) use stand Malay with Malay teachers. 53.5% use majority Malay less English code switch, 41.9% use English and 18.6% use majority English less Malay. Malay is the main language choice of the Chinese adolescents when they interact with Malay teachers followed by majority Malay less English code switch. Besides these two linguistic choices, some of the Chinese youth also use English followed by majority English less Malay mixed-code. It is clear that code-switching is a common practice in this setting. Table 5.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers Setting Language Choices Malay English Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay 79.1% 41.9% 53.5% 18.6% - School Addressee: Teachers Chinese 14.0% 90.7% 2.3% 16.3% 2.3% 34.9% 2.3% 4.7% 23.3% Indian 39.5% 81.4% 7.0% 51.2% 4.7% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With Chinese teachers, an overwhelming majority of the Chinese youth (90.7%) chose to use English. 34.9% use majority English less Malay code switch, 23.3% use Majority English less Cantonese and 16.3% use Cantonese. Only 4.7% use majority Mandarin less Malay. It shows that the English is the dominant language choice when 90 the Chinese youth interact with their Chinese teachers. Although Cantonese is the linguistic choice in the home and neighbourhood domains, in the school domain English seems to be the main language choice. With Indian teachers, the Chinese youth chose English as the main language; 81.4% use English and 51.5% use majority English less Malay code switch. 39.5% use Malay but only 7.0% use majority Malay less English combination. Only 4.7% use majority English less Tamil code mix and 2.3% use majority English less Cantonese combination. It is clear then that English is widely used by the Chinese adolescents with teachers of Indian descent. Code-switching is widely used in this setting too. More respondents use Malay with Indian teachers (39.5%) than with teachers of their own ethnic group (14.0%) but majority English less Malay combination is also a popular choice (see Figure 5.2). Teachers of Malay descent Chinese youth Teachers of Chinese descent Teachers of Indian descent Malay (79.1%) Majority Malay less English (53.5%) English (41.9%) English (90.7%) Majority English less Malay (34.9%) Majority English less Cantonese (23.3%) English (81.4%) Majority English less Malay (51.2%) Malay (39.5%) Figure 5.2 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they interact with their Teachers of Malay, Chinese and Indian descent. It is apparent then that in a more formal situation such as when talking to their teachers in school, the use of Malay and English are clear choices. With Malay teachers, Malay is the choice of the majority. With Chinese teachers, English is used much more than any other languages even though Cantonese is the language choice of this ethnic 91 group in Ipoh. With Indian teachers, English is also used much more than any other language. 5.2.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Teachers An overwhelming majority (97.7%) of the Indian youth in this setting chose Malay as the language to communicate with Malay teachers in the school. 70.5% chose majority Malay less English code switch, 52.3% chose stand alone English and 15.9% chose majority English less Malay. The analysis shows that Malay is the main language choice although English is also used by the respondents. Table 5.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the School Domain with their Teachers Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority English less Cantonese Malay 97.7% 52.3% 70.5% 15.9% 2.3% 2.3% - School Addressee: Teachers Chinese 47.7% 90.9% 2.3% 25.0% 63.6% 2.3% 6.8% 2.3% Indian 40.9% 90.9% 27.3% 18.2% 52.3% 4.5% 9.1% 25.0% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With Chinese teachers, 90.9% of the Indian adolescents chose English to communicate. 63.6% chose majority English less Malay code switch but only 47.7% chose to use stand alone Malay. 25.0% use majority Malay less English combination. The results show that English is the undisputed language choice of the Indian youth when they communicate with their Chinese teachers followed by majority English less Malay combination. 92 With Indian teachers, an overwhelming majority (90.9%) of the Indian youth chose English as the language to communicate. 52.3% chose majority English less Malay and 40.9% chose stand alone Malay. Only 27.3% chose Tamil, 25.0% chose majority English less Tamil, 18.2% chose majority Malay less English, 9.1% chose majority Tamil less Malay and 4.5% chose majority Tamil less English combination. English is therefore also the undisputed language choice of the Indian youth when they communicate with their Indian teachers (see Figure 5.3). The findings show that the Indian respondents use Malay to accommodate their Malay teachers and English with their Chinese and Indian teachers. Indian youth Teachers of Malay descent Malay (97.7%) Majority Malay less English (70.5%) English (52.3%) Teachers of Chinese descent English (90.9%) Majority English less Malay (63.6%) Malay (47.7%) Teachers of Indian descent English (90.9%) Majority English less Malay (52.3%) Malay (40.9%) Figure 5.3 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they interact with their Teachers of Malay, Chinese and Indian descent. 5.3 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates in the classroom (Q 33 to Q35) This section will provide the analysis and description of the language choices of the three major groups with their classmates in the classroom. 93 5.3.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom With their Malay classmates in the classroom, an overwhelming majority of the Malay youth (94.1%) chose to use Malay. 88.2% chose a mixed code of majority Malay less English with their Malay classmates. 11.8% use other dialects such as the Terengganu and Perak dialect with their Malay friends and only 5.9% chose to use English with their Malay classmates in the classroom. 2.9% claim they do not have Malay classmates in their class. Table 5.4 Language Choices of the Malay Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates in the classroom Setting Language Choices Malay Majority Malay less English English Majority English less Malay Other languages/dialects Not Available In the classroom Addressee: Classmates Malay Chinese Indian 94.1% 73.5% 85.3% 88.2% 64.7% 73.5% 5.9% 38.2% 29.4% 29.4% 23.5% 11.8% 2.9% 2.9% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With Chinese classmates, a large majority (73.5%) of the Malay youth use Malay. 64.7% use majority Malay less English code switch, 38.2% use stand alone English while 29.4% use majority English less Malay. 2.9% do not have Chinese classmates. The analysis shows that stand alone Malay is the dominant language choice followed by majority Malay less English variety used by the Malay youth with their Chinese classmates in the classroom (see Table 5.4). 85.3% of the Malay youth use Malay with their Indian classmates and 73.5% use majority Malay less English code-switch. 29.4% use English and 23.5% use majority English less Malay code-switch. The results show that Malay is also the dominant 94 language which the Malay youth use with their Indian classmates in the classroom. However, majority Malay less English is also a popular choice. This indicates some accommodation on the part of the Malay youth. However, English is not a dominant choice of the Malay adolescents with their Chinese (38.3%) and Indian (29.4%) classmates. Thus, accommodation on the part of the Malay youth is generally low (see Figure 5.4 below). Malay youth Malay Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (88.2%) Terengganu/Perak dialects (11.8%) Chinese Malay (73.5%) Majority Malay less English (64.7%) English (38.2%) Indian Malay (85.3%) Majority Malay less English (73.5%) English (29.4%) Figure 5.4 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom. 5.3.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom For the Chinese youth in this setting, 88.4% use Malay to communicate with their Malay peers in the classroom. 60.5% use majority Malay less English and 44.2% use stand alone English. Other language choices are less significant. Malay is therefore the main language choice of the Chinese youth with their Malay classmates followed by majority Malay less English code-switch. It must be mentioned that in this setting stand alone English is also one of the more common choices used by the Chinese adolescents with the Malay classmates. The language choice of the Chinese youth with Chinese classmates is quite different. A large majority (74.4%) use Cantonese while 44.2% use majority Cantonese less English. 55.8% use stand alone English. 27.9% use majority English less Cantonese 95 and 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay with their Chinese classmates in the classroom (see Table 5.5). Table 5.5 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates in he Classroom Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese In the classroom Addressee: Classmates Malay Chinese Indian 88.4% 14.0% 51.2% 44.2% 55.8% 79.2% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 74.4% 60.5% 20.9% 4.7% 14.0% 51.2% 4.7% 2.3% 4.7% 44.2% 14.0% 4.7% 27.9% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The analysis clearly shows that although Malay and English are the main languages taught in school, the Chinese adolescents chose to use Cantonese as the main language to communicate with their Chinese peers. Even though Cantonese is the main language choice, English is also widely used by the Chinese youth in intra-ethnic communication. The results show that the use of stand alone English for intra-group communication amongst the Chinese youth is much higher (55.8%) as compared to the use of stand alone English in intra-group interactions amongst the Malays (5.9%) [see Table 5.4 on page 91]. With their Indian friends in the classroom, 79.2% of the Chinese adolescents chose to use English. 51.2% use majority English less Malay variety and 51.2% use stand alone Malay. 20.9% use majority Malay less English (see Figure 5.5). 96 Malay Chinese youth Chinese Indian Malay (88.4%) Majority Malay less English (60.5%) English (44.2%) Cantonese (74.4%) English (55.8%) Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%) English (79.2%) Majority English less Malay (51.2%) Malay (51.2%) Figure 5.5 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom. The results show that the Chinese respondents accommodate their Malay peers by using Malay and they accommodate their Indian peers by using English. Unlike the more formal situation such as talking to their teachers where the use of Malay and English is very evident among the Chinese respondents, the data seems to indicate that in informal situations with their peers, the Chinese youth tend to use Cantonese, the local dialect in Ipoh. This seems to signify that language choice is used by these adolescents to achieve group identity. Bonding and a sense of community and solidarity is achieved through the use of Cantonese. 5.3.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Classmates in he Classroom The language choice of the Indian youth when they interact with their Malay classmates in the classroom is mainly Malay. 88.6% of the Indian respondents use Malay with their Malay classmates. 75.0% use majority Malay less English but only 38.6% use English with their Malay peers. 15.9% chose to use majority English less Malay combination. Hence, the main language choice of the Indian youth when they interact with their Malay classmates in the classroom is mainly Malay and majority Malay less English code-switch. 97 Table 5.6 Language Choices of the Indian Youth in the School Domain with their Classmates Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority English less Tamil Majority Mandarin less English Majority English less Cantonese In the classroom Addressee: Classmates Malay Chinese Indian 88.6% 43.2% 27.3% 38.6% 93.2% 61.4% 4.5% 2.3% 77.3% 6.8% 75.0% 22.7% 15.9% 15.9% 56.8% 20.5% 4.5% 2.3% 47.7% 15.9% 9.1% 20.5% 6.8% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. In sharp contrast, with their Chinese classmates, the language choice of the Indian youth is undoubtedly English. An overwhelming 93.2% of them use English and 56.8% use majority English less Malay with their Chinese peers. Only 43.2% use Malay and 22.7% majority Malay less English. The analysis shows 9.1% of them use majority English less Tamil combination, 6.8% use Cantonese and another 6.8% use majority English less Cantonese. This shows that the Indian youth are multilingual and some are able to speak Cantonese. It appears that some of the Chinese youth, although not significant, are able to use Tamil. This may be an indicator of crossing. With Indian classmates, the Indian youth chose their mother tongue Tamil. 77.3% of the Indian respondents chose Tamil when they interact with their Indian classmates. 61.4% use English and 47.7% use majority Tamil less Malay combination. Only 27.3% use Malay, 20.5% use majority English less Malay and another 20.5% use majority English less Tamil. A small number (15.9%) of the Indian youth use majority Malay less English and majority Tamil less English (see Figure 5.5). 98 Indian youth Malay Malay (88.6%) Majority Malay less English (75.0%) English (38.6%) Chinese English (93.2%) Majority English less Malay (56.8%) Malay (43.2%) Indian Tamil (77.3%) English (61.4%) Majority Tamil less English (47.7%) Figure 5.6 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Classmates in the Classroom. The results show that the National Language is used with the Malays by the Indian respondents but with the Chinese, it is English and with their own ethnic group the majority of the Indian respondents used Tamil. Another interesting result of the analysis is the use of the National Language and English for intra-group interactions amongst Malaysian adolescents. 94.1% of the Malays respondents use the National Language for intra-group interactions (see Table 5.4, pg 91). Malay is used by 27.3% for the Indian respondents (see Table 5.6 pg 95) but only 14.0% of the Chinese use Malay (see Table 5.5, pg 92). It appears that the Indians more than the Chinese are shifting to Malay in intra-group interactions. As for the use of English in intra-group interactions, only 5.9% of the Malay youth use this language but 55.8% of the Chinese and 61.4%. the Indian respondents use English for intra-group interactions. English is obviously not the language choice for intra-group interactions for the Malay adolescents. The Indians more than the Chinese are shifting to English in intra-group interactions in the classroom. 99 5.4 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth with their Friends during Recess (Q 36 to Q38) The aim of this section is to find out the language choices of Malaysian youth with friends during recess. 5.4.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Friends during Recess. The results of the findings show that the Malay youth use mainly their mother tongue with their Malay friends during recess. 94.1% use Malay and 91.2% use majority Malay less English code-switch. Only 2.9% use stand alone English. 5.9% say they do not mix with or have Malay friends in their friendship groups during recess. With Chinese friends, 76.5% of the Malay respondents use stand alone Malay and 70.6% use majority Malay less English. 20.6% use majority English less Malay combination and only 3.4% use exclusively English with their Chinese friends during recess. 2.9% of he Malay respondents say they do not have friends of Chinese descent in their friendship group during recess. Linguistic accommodation is not a common practice. Table 5.7 Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Friends during Recess Setting Language Choices Malay Majority Malay less English English Majority English less Malay Not Available During recess Addressee: Friends Malay Chinese 94.1% 76.5% 91.2% 70.6% 2.9% 3.4% 20.6% 5.9% 2.9% Indian 91.2% 76.5% 17.6% 11.8% - Note: 5.9% of the respondents say they do not have Malay friends in their friendship group during recess and 2.9% do not have Chinese in their friendship group during recess. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. 100 With Indian friends, 91.2% of the Malay respondents claimed they use Malay and 76.5% say they use the majority Malay less English variety. 11.8% use majority English less Malay variety but only 17.6% use exclusively English (see Figure 5.7). Malay youth Malay Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (91.2%) English (2.9%) Chinese Malay (76.5%) Majority Malay less English (70.6%) Majority English less Malay (20.6%) Indian Malay (91.2 %%) Majority Malay less English (76.5%) English (17.8%) Figure 5.7 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth with their Friends during Recess. The results show that the Malay respondents use more Malay with Malay and Indian friends but less Malay with their Chinese friends. More code-switching is used with the Chinese than with the Malay and Indian friends. Perhaps the Malay youth perceived the Chinese adolescents as not so proficient in Malay as compared to the Indian youth. 5.4.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Friends during Recess. For the Chinese youth, 86.0% of the respondents use Malay with their Malay friends during recess, 58.1% use majority Malay less English and 37.2% use English. 7.0% of the Chinese adolescent use their mother tongue Cantonese with their Malay friends during recess, 4.7% use majority English less Malay variety and 2.3% use majority English less Cantonese code-switch. 101 With their Chinese friends, 69.8% of the Chinese respondents use Cantonese during recess. In addition to Cantonese, 62.8% use English and 48.8% use majority Cantonese less English. 18.6% use majority English less Cantonese variety and 9.3% use majority English less Malay. 7.0% of the respondents use majority Cantonese less Malay, another 7.0% majority English less Mandarin variety and 7.0% use exclusively Malay (see Table 5.8). Table 5.8 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Friends during Recess Setting Language Choices Malay English Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority English less Tamil Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay 86.0% 37.2% 7.0% 58.1% 4.7% 2.3% During recess Addressee: Friends Chinese 7.0% 62.8% 4.7% 69.8% 9.3% 7.0% 48.8% 7.0% 18.6% Indian 48.8% 83.7% 2.3% 20.9% 34.9% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. Unlike the Malay respondents who use Malay with their Indian friends, the Chinese youth use mainly English with their Indian friends. 83.7% of the Chinese respondents use exclusively English with their Indian friends, 48.8% use exclusively Malay, 34.9% use majority English less Malay and 20.9% use majority Malay less English variety. Figure 5.8 below shows that the Chinese respondents use the National Language with the Malays, their vernacular language (Cantonese) with the Chinese and English with the Indians. No Malay is used in intra-group interactions amongst the Chinese youth. Although most of the language choices remain the same for the Chinese 102 adolescents when they interact with their classmates in the classroom and their friends during recess, there is a slight difference when they interact with Indian friends during recess. Malay is more widely used by the Chinese youth during recess with their Indian friends than with their Indian classmates in the classroom. Perhaps it is to accommodate those who are not so proficient in English. Malay Chinese youth Chinese Indian Malay (86.0%) Majority Malay less English (58.1%) English (37.2%) Cantonese (69.8%) English (62.8%) Majority Cantonese less English (48.8%) English (83.7%) Malay (48.8%) Majority English less Malay (34.9%) Figure 5.8 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth with their Friends during Recess. 5.4.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Friends during Recess. An overwhelming majority (88.6%) of the Indian adolescents in this case study chose stand alone Malay as the language to communicate with their Malay friends they meet during recess. 70.5% say they also use majority Malay less English. Only 29.5% chose to use English and 11.4% chose to use majority English less Malay variety. 6.8% use Tamil and 4.5% use majority Tamil less Malay. 2.3% indicated that they do not have Malays in their friendship group during recess (see Table 5.9). With the Chinese youth, 93.2% of the respondents chose English. This is similar to what the Chinese respondents do when they interact with their Indian friends. 61.4% chose majority English less Malay and 45.5% chose exclusively Malay with their 103 Chinese friends during recess. 11.4% chose majority Malay less English combination and 9.1% chose majority English less Tamil code-switch. Table 5.9 Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Friends during Recess Setting Language Choices Malay English Tamil Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Not Available Malay 88.6% 29.5% 6.8% 70.5% 11.4% 2.3% 4.5% 2.3% During recess Addressee: Friends Chinese 45.5% 93.2% 11.4% 61.4% 9.1% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% - Indian 20.5% 50.0% 72.7% 13.6% 18.2% 45.5% 22.7% 13.6% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With other Indians, a large majority (72.7%) say Tamil is their main choice. In addition to Tamil, 50.0% chose English, 45.5% chose majority Tamil less English variety, 22.7% use majority Tamil less Malay and 20.5% use exclusively Malay. 18.2% use majority English less Malay, 13.6% says they use majority English less Tamil and another 13.6% use majority Malay less English combination (see Table 5.9). We can conclude that the main language choice of the Indian youth when they interact with their friends during recess is Tamil. Language accommodation with their addressees is very evident. Their proficiency in both Malay and English enables them to exercise accommodation. This in turn enables them to mingle freely in intra and inter-group interactions. The analysis of the language choices of the three major ethnic groups with different interlocutors in the school domain shows that each ethnic group is clearly 104 marked linguistically. For intra-group communication, the Malays use Malay with their Malay friends, the Chinese use Cantonese with their Chinese friends and the Indians use Tamil with their Indian friends. It is clear that Malaysian youth are aware of their ethnic differences. Language is a salient dimension of their group’s culture and identity and there are marked differences amongst Malaysian youth in linguistic choices for interethnic communication. These differences can only be bridged by using languages that are mutually comprehensible such as Malay, the National Language and English, an important second language in the country. Hence, to socialize and integrate well with one another, Malaysian youth need to be proficient in both these languages. A lack of proficiency in any of the two languages could mean separation or isolation from the others. Indian youth Malay Malay (88.6%) Majority Malay less English (70.5 %) English (29.5%) Chinese English (93.2%) Majority English less Malay (61.4 %) Malay (45.5%) Indian Tamil (72.7%) English (50.0%) Majority Tamil less English (45.5%) Figure 5.9 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth with their Friends during Recess There appears to be a separation between the Malays and the “Non-Malay” groups (Chinese and Indians). The analysis shows that the National Language is used when the Chinese and the Indians communicate with their Malay friends but English is used when the Chinese and the Indians communicate with each other. Although both English and Malay are used by the youths of this school for inter-ethnic interaction, the adolescents seem to be divided and separated into two linguistic groups – one group (the 105 Malays) using the National Language and the other (the Chinese and Indians) using English. The use of Malay and English is very evident in a more formal situation such as talking to their teachers. The National Language is used by the Malay adolescents with all their teachers irrespective of their ethnicity. It is also the language choice of the Chinese and Indian adolescents with their teachers of Malay descent but with their Chinese and Indian teachers, the Chinese and Indian adolescents use English. In general, the National Language is the language choice of the Malays adolescents but English is the language choice of the Chinese and the Indian adolescents in this domain. Having discussed the language choices of the respondents in the different domains, the next chapter will present the language choices of these respondents for different functions such as joking, expressing anger, bonding and distancing with friends of different ethnicity in their school. 106 CHAPTER 6 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS ON THE FINDINGS: FOCUS ON FUNCTIONS 6.1 Introduction This section is an analysis of Questions 39 to 50 of Section B. The objective of this section is to determine the language choices of Malaysian youth for different functions such as joking, expressing anger, bonding and distancing with friends of different ethnicity in the school domain. 6.2 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Joking with their Friends in the School Domain. 6.2.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School Domain. The analysis shows that an overwhelming majority (97.1%) of the Malay youth use Malay to joke with Malay friends. In addition to using exclusively Malay, 88.2% of these adolescents also use majority Malay less English variety for this purpose. Only 8.8% use English. With Chinese friends, a large majority (82.4%) of the Malay youth use their mother tongue Malay to make jocular remarks. 73.5% use majority Malay less English code-switch. Only 29.4% use English and 17.6% use majority English less Malay variety. Thus, with the Chinese friends, slightly more English is used for joking although Malay is still the main language choice (see Table 6.1). 107 Table 6.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they Joke with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Hand sign language Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority English less Tamil Malay 97.1% 8.8% 5.9% 88.2% - In school Cracking jokes Addressee: friends Chinese 82.4% 29.4% 73.5% 17.6% - Indian 88.2% 23.5% 5.9% 73.5% 14.7% 5.9% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With their Indian friends, jocular remarks are mainly made in Malay by the Malay adolescents (88.2%). However, majority Malay less English variety (73.5%) is also being used quite extensively. Only 23.5% use stand alone English to joke with their Indian friends while 14.7% use majority English less Malay variety to crack jokes. Hence, the language choices of the Malay youth for this function with their Indian friends are mainly Malay and majority Malay less English variety (see Figure 6.1). Malay youth Malay Malay (97.1%) Majority Malay less English (88.2 %) English (8.8%) Chinese Malay (82.4%) Majority English less Malay (73.5 %) English (29.4%) Indian Malay (88.2%) Majority Tamil less English (73.5%) English (23.5%) Figure 6.1 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School Domain. The Malay adolescents in this study use mainly Malay and majority Malay less English variety to joke with their friends. However, the use of Malay is higher with their Malay friends than with their Chinese and Indian friends. The use of English is less but 108 they do make some effort to accommodate the preferred language choices of the Chinese and the Indians for this function. 6.2.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School Domain. An overwhelming majority (90.7%) of the Chinese youth use Malay when they engage in jocular exchanges with their Malay friends in school and 60.5% use the majority Malay less English variety. It is interesting to note that more Chinese youth use English with their Malay friends than the Malay youth with their Chinese friends. 46.5% of the Chinese youth use English to make jocular remarks with their Malay friends compared to only 29.4% of the Malay youth’s use of English with their Chinese friends (see Table 6.2). Table 6.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they Joke with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay 90.7% 46.5% 2.3% 60.5% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% In school Cracking jokes Addressee: friends Chinese 9.3% 65.1% 2.3% 2.3% 79.1% 7.0% 58.1% 9.3% 11.6% Indian 53.5% 83.7% 4.7% 4.7% 18.6% 37.2% 2.3% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With members of their own ethnic group, a large majority (79.1%) use Cantonese to make jocular remarks, 65.1% use English and 58.1% use majority Cantonese less English. The analysis shows that there is lot of Cantonese and English 109 being used in intra-group exchanges for jocular purposes with Cantonese being dominant. The other less prominent choices for the Chinese youth in this setting are majority English less Cantonese (11.6%), majority Cantonese less Malay (9.3%), majority English less Malay (7.0%), Mandarin (2.3%) and Tamil (2.3%). With Indian friends, an overwhelming majority (83.7%) of the Chinese youth use English for jocular intent, 53.5% use Malay, 37.2% use majority English less Malay and 18.6% use majority Malay less English combination. This shows that for intergroup jocular exchanges with Indian friends, the language choice of the Chinese youth is mainly English (see Table 6.2). It is clear that the main language choice of the Chinese youth for jocular purposes with Malay and Indian friends is not the same. With the Malays, the Chinese adolescents use mainly Malay. With the Indian friends, they use more English than any other linguistic code (see Figure 6.2 below). They appear to accommodate the language preference of the Malay friends by using Malay. With Chinese friends, they use the local dialect (Cantonese) and English in almost equal proportion. Malay Chinese youth Chinese Indian Malay (81.4%) Majority Malay less English (55.8%) English (51.2%) Cantonese (67.4%) English (65.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (44.2%) English (86.0%) Majority English less Malay (48.8%) Malay (46.5%) Figure 6.2 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School Domain. 110 6.2.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School Domain. For jocular exchanges with Malay friends in the school domain, an overwhelming (86.0%) the Indian youth use Malay, 58.1% use majority Malay less English, 46.5% use English and 20.9% use majority English less Malay variety. Other less prominent choices are Tamil (11.6%), majority Tamil less Malay (9.3%), majority Tamil less English (4.7%), majority English less Tamil (4.7%) and majority Punjabi less English combination (2.3%). Jocular remarks are mainly made in Malay by the Indian youth when they interact with their Malay friends. Although English is also being used it is not used as extensively as Malay for this function. Table 6.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they Joke with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority English less Cantonese Malay 86.0% 46.5% 11.6% 58.1% 20.9% 4.7% 9.3% 4.7% 2.3% - In school Cracking jokes Addressee: friends Chinese 48.8% 86.0% 7.0% 2.3% 23.3% 48.8% 2.3% 2.3% 11.6% 2.3% Indian 27.9% 55.8% 81.4% 4.7% 14.0% 27.9% 48.8% 18.6% 16.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With Chinese friends, the language choice is rather different. An overwhelming majority (86.0%) of the Indian youth use English to joke with their Chinese friends in school, 48.8% use majority English less Malay, another 48.8% use Malay and 23.3% use majority Malay less English variety. The less prominent choices in this setting are 111 majority English less Tamil (11.6%), Tamil (7.9%), Cantonese (2.3%), majority Tamil less English (2.3%), majority Tamil less English (2.3%) and majority English less Cantonese (2.3%) (see Table 6.3). With other Indians, an overwhelming majority (81.4%) use Tamil, 55.8% use English and 48.8% use majority Tamil less English variety. This indicates that Tamil and English are major language choices of the Indian youth for jocular verbal expressions with other Indians with Tamil taking a huge lead (see Figure 6.3 below). The Indian youth appear to make an effort to accommodate their friends in terms of their linguistic preferences. With the Malays, they use Malay and with the Chinese, they use English. With Tamil friends, they use mainly Tamil for this function. Indian youth Malay Malay (86.4%) Majority Malay less English (65.9 %) English (50.0%) Chinese English (88.4%) Majority English less Malay (53.5 %) Malay (48.8%) Indian Tamil (76.7%) English (67.4%) Majority Tamil less English (44.2%) Figure 6.3 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth when they Joke with their Friends in the School Domain. 112 6.3 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. 6.3.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. For expressing anger with their Malay friends, the languages choices of the Malay youth are as follows. 94.1% use Malay, 76.5% use majority Malay less English code-switch, 14.7% us English and 8.8% use majority English less Malay variety. Only 2.9% use Tamil and Mandarin each. Therefore, the main language choice of the Malay youth for expressing anger at the members of their own ethnic group is Malay and majority Malay less English code-switch. When expressing anger at Chinese friends, the language choice of the Malay youth are as follows. 79.4% express their anger in Malay, 67.7% in majority Malay less English code-mix, 26.5% in English and 11.8% in majority English less Malay variety. Table 6.4 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Cantonese less Malay Malay 94.1% 14.7% 2.9% 2.9% 76.5% 8.8% - In school Expressing anger Addressee: friends Chinese 79.4% 26.5% 2.9% 67.7% 11.8% 2.9% - Indian 79.4% 20.6% 11.8% 2.9% 61.8% 8.8% 2.9% 2.9% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. When expressing anger at Indian friends, the language choice of the Malay youth are as follows. 79.4% use Malay, 61.8% use majority Malay less English, but 113 only 20.6% use English. 11.8% use Tamil to express anger at their Indian peers and 8.8% use majority English less Malay variety (see Figure 6.4). Malay youth Malay Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (76.5 %) English (14.7%) Chinese Malay (79.4%) Majority English less Malay (67.7 %) English (26.5%) Indian Malay (79.4%) Majority Malay less English (61.8%) English (20.6%) Figure 6.4 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. The analysis shows that the choice of using English for different function by the Malay youth is not similar. For jocular purpose with Malay friends, only 8.8% chose to use English but when the Malay youth express anger at their Malay friends, 14.7% of the respondent said they would use English. Thus, it is possible that in this setting, English is used by some of the Malay respondent as a distancing device with other Malays. Language choice has therefore become a communicative strategy for divergence (see section 2.2.1: David, 1999; Jariah, 2003). 6.3.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. The language choices of the Chinese youth when expressing anger with their Malay friends are as follows. 69.8% use Malay, 60.5% use English and 30.2% use majority Malay less English. Besides Malay and English, other languages are also used. 25.6% use Cantonese (a language which most of their Malay friends cannot comprehend), 18.6% use majority English less Malay and 11.6% majority Cantonese 114 less English. 7.0% use Tamil, 4.7% use majority Cantonese, 2.3% use majority English less Cantonese and 2.3% use Punjabi. With other Chinese, 81.4% of the Chinese youth use Cantonese, the local dialect for the Chinese in Ipoh, when expressing anger. 58.1% use English and 53.5% use majority Cantonese less English. Only 16.3% use Malay, 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay and 9.3% use majority English less Malay variety. 4.7% use Tamil and another 4.7% use Mandarin. Cantonese is the preferred language choice of the respondents when expressing anger with other Chinese for this function (see Table 6.5). Table 6.5 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less Malay Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Not Available Malay 69.8% 60.5% 7.0% 2.3% 25.6% 30.2% 18.6% 11.6% 4.7% 2.3% - In school Expressing anger Addressee: friends Chinese 16.3% 58.1% 4.7% 4.7% 81.4% 9.3% 53.5% 14.0% 2.3% - Indian 37.2% 74.4% 9.3% 2.3% 16.3% 11.6% 32.6% 2.3% 2.3% 9.3% 2.3% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With their Indian friends, 74.4% use English, 37.2% use English and 32.6% use majority English less Malay variety. 16.3% use Majority Malay less English, 11.6% use majority English less Malay and 9.3% use majority Cantonese less English. 9.3% of the Chinese youth use Tamil for expressing anger at their Indian friends, 2.3% use Punjabi, another 2.3% use majority Tamil less Malay variety (see Table 6.5). 115 Malay Chinese youth Chinese Indian Malay (69.8%) English (60.5%) Majority Malay less English (30.2 %) Cantonese (81.4%) English (58.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%) English (74.4%) Malay (37.2 %%) Majority English less Malay (32.6%) Figure 6.5 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. It is interesting to note that the Chinese youth use Malay to accommodate the Malays. To the other Chinese, they use Cantonese and to the Indians they use English. The results show that language choices depend on the ethnicity of the respondents. The analysis shows some differences between the language choices for jocular purposes and the language choices for expressing anger by the Chinese adolescents in this study with their friends. Table 6.6 shows the contrast in language use for these two functions with their Malay friends. Language choice is used as a communicative strategy for reducing or increasing social distance in inter-ethnic relationship (see David, 1999; Jariah 2003 in 2.2.1 above). There is a decrease in the use of Malay (from 90.7% for joking to 69.8% for expressing anger) and majority Malay less English code switch (from 60.5% for joking to 30.2% for expessing anger) which their Malay friends understand well and an increase in the use of languages which their Malay friends are not so familiar with. For example, there is a marked increase in the use of stand alone English (from 46.5% for joking to 60.5% for expressing anger) and majority Cantonese less English variety (from 2.3% for joking to 11.6% for expressing anger). There is also an increase in the use of languages which they do not normally use with their Malay friends such as the 116 use of Cantonese (from 0% for joking to 25.6%for expressing anger), Tamil (from 0% for joking to 7.0% for expressing anger) and even Punjabi (from 0% for joking to 2.3%) when they express anger at their Malay friends. Table 6.6 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose and Expressing Anger with Malay Friends Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Joke 90.7% 46.5% 2.3% 60.5% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% In school Malay friends Function Express anger 69.8% 60.5% 7.0% 2.3% 25.6% 30.2% 18.6% 11.6% 4.7% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With other Chinese, the pattern of language choices also changes according to the function to a certain extent. There is an increase in the use of Cantonese when the Chinese youth express anger at their Chinese friends as compared to when they joke with their Chinese friends (see Table 6.7). Table 6.7 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose and Expressing Anger with Chinese friends Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Majority English less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Joke 9.3% 65.1% 2.3% 2.3% 79.1% 7.0% 58.1% 9.3% 11.6% In school Chinese friends Function Express anger 16.3% 58.1% 4.7% 4.7% 81.4% 9.3% 53.5% 14.0% 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. 117 There is a decrease in the use of Malay and English and an increase in the use of other language choices when a comparison is made between the language choices of the Chinese youth for jocular purposes and for expressing anger at their Indian friends. With their Indian friends, there is a slight decrease in the use of Malay (from 53.5% for jocular purposes to 37.2% when expressing anger), English (from 83.7% for jokes to 74.4% for expressing anger), majority Malay less English variety (from 18.6% to 11.6%) and majority English less Malay code-switch (from 37.3% to 32.6%). However, there is an increase in the use of Cantonese (from 4.7% to 16.3%), Tamil (from 4.7% to 9.3%) as shown in Table 6.8. Table 6.8 Main language choices of the Chinese youth for jocular purpose and expressing anger with Indian friends Setting In school Addressee Indian friends Function Language Choices Joke Express anger Malay 53.5% 37.2% English 83.7% 74.4% Tamil 4.7% 9.3% Punjabi 2.3% Cantonese 4.7% 16.3% Majority Malay less English 18.6% 11.6% Majority English less Malay 37.2% 32.6% Majority Tamil less Malay 2.3% 2.3% Majority Punjabi less Malay 2.3% Majority Cantonese less English 9.3% Majority English less Cantonese 2.3% 2.3% Not Available 2.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The changes in language choices for jocular purposes and for expressing anger show that language choices are triggered to achieve a range of strategies and objectives of the interlocutors (see David, 2003). This can best be explained by the Communicative Accommodation Theory (Giles et al, 1987) of language convergence and language divergence. For jocular purposes, the objective and strategies of the speaker is to associate with the addressee and to create rapport with them. Therefore, for the jokes to be effective, the language choices of the speaker must function as an 118 accommodative strategy to identify with the addressees’ ethnicity and language preferences. This research shows that adolescents tend to use the languages preferences of their addressee for jocular purpose. In contrast, for expressing anger, the objective of the speaker is to dissociate with the addressee and the strategy is to create a distance between them. Hence, to identify with the addressees’ ethnicity and language preference is no longer a priority. The analysis shows the decrease in the use of the preferred languages of their addressees and an increase in the use of languages unfamiliar to their addressees when the Chinese youth express anger with their Malay and Indian friends as compared to the language choices when making jocular remarks. 6.3.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. When expressing anger at their Malay friends, 74.4% of the Indian youth use Malay, 44.2% use majority Malay less English and 41.9% use English. 32.6% use Tamil to express anger at their Malay friends, 23.3% use majority Tamil less English, 9.3% use majority Tamil less Malay and another 9.3% use majority English less Malay variety (see Table 6.9). With their Chinese friends, 79.1% of the Indian youth use English to express anger, 39.5% use Malay, 30.2% use majority English less Malay, 25.6% use majority Malay less English, and 20.9% use Tamil, a language which many of their Chinese peers do not comprehend. A surprising 14.0% use Cantonese, and another 14.0% use majority English less Tamil variety. 7.0% use Mandarin, another 7.0% use majority Tamil less Malay and 4.7% use majority Cantonese less English code mix. 119 Table 6.9 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay 74.4% 41.9% 32.6% 4.7% 4.7% 44.2% 9.3% 23.3% 9.3% 4.7% - In school Expressing anger Addressee: friends Chinese 39.5% 79.1% 20.9% 2.3% 7.0% 14.0% 25.6% 30.2% 18.6% 7.0% 14.0% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% Indian 20.9% 51.2% 88.4% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% 9.3% 14.0% 53.5% 25.6% 9.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With Indian friends, a huge majority (88.4%) of the Indian youth use Tamil to express their anger. 53.5% use majority Tamil less English code mix and 51.2% use stand alone English. 25.6% use majority Tamil less Malay code-switch, 14.0% use majority English less Malay code-switch, 9.3% use majority English less Tamil codeswitch and another 9.3% use majority Malay less English code-switch (see Table 6.9). The analysis shows that all Malaysian youth use more than one language and a variety of code-switches. Such diverse language choices show that Malaysian adolescents have a wide range of languages at their disposal which they can deploy when they interact with others. They use different language codes when they communicate with different people in different situations for different purposes in different domains. This kind of discourse practices can be seen frequently in a multilingual and multiracial country like Malaysia (see Morais, 1997; Jamaliah Mohd. 120 Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David, 1999). For the Indian adolescents, anger is expressed not just in Malay with their Malay friends. In addition to Malay and other codes such as English, Tamil, Punjabi and Cantonese, code-mixing of majority Malay less English, majority English less Malay, majority Tamil less English, majority Tamil less Malay and majority English less Tamil are also used. With their Malay friends, the Indian youth accommodate them by using Malay when expressing anger. With the Chinese peers, they use English and with their Indian peers they use Tamil. Thus, language choices depend upon ethnicity of the respondents (see Figure 6.6). Indian youth Malay Malay (74.4%) Majority Malay less English (44.2 %) English (41.9%) Chinese English (79.1%) Malay (39.5%) Majority English less Malay (30.2%) Indian Tamil (88.4%) Majority Tamil less English (53.5%) English (51.2%) Figure 6.6 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Expressing Anger with their Friends in the School Domain. Language choice appears to depend on functions too. The analysis shows that there is a decrease in the use of Malay and English when the Indian adolescents express anger with their Malay friends as compared to when they joke with their Malay peers (see Table 6.10). More Malay and English are used for jocular activities. This may signify that Malay and English are used to a certain extent for creating rapport with their Malay friends whereas languages like Cantonese, Punjabi and Tamil are used as distancing strategies in this setting. Of the three languages, Tamil may be the language used by the Indian youth to disassociate from the Malay friends. This can be seen by the 121 increase in the use of Tamil and majority Tamil less English variety when they express anger with their Malay peers (see Table 6.10). Table 6.10 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Jocular Purpose and Expressing Anger with their Friends Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay Functions Joke Anger 86.0% 74.4% 46.5% 41.9% 11.6% 32.6% 4.7% 4.7% 58.1% 44.2% 20.9% 9.3% 4.7% 23.3% 9.3% 9.3% 4.7% 4.7% 2.3% - In School Chinese Functions Joke Anger 48.8% 39.5% 86.0% 79.1% 7.0% 20.9% 2.3% 7.0% 2.3% 14.0% 23.3% 25.6% 48.8% 30.2% 2.3% 18.6% 2.3% 7.0% 11.6% 14.0% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% Indian Functions Joke Anger 27.9% 20.9% 55.8% 51.2% 81.4% 88.4% 4.7% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% 14.0% 9.3% 27.9% 14.0% 48.8% 53.5% 18.6% 25.6% 16.3% 9.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The pattern of language choices also changes to a certain extent. Unlike jocular activities, there is a decline in the use of Malay and English for expressing anger but an increase in the use of languages such as Tamil, Punjabi, Mandarin, and Cantonese. There is a notable increase in the number of languages and the variety of code-switching used. This comparison shows that language choice and code-switching are communicative strategies used by Malaysian adolescents to accomplish a certain objective (see Table 6.10). 122 With other Indians, the Indian youth use more Tamil but less Malay and English. The difference, however, is only marginal but there is an increase in the number of other languages and code-mix used (see Table 6.10). 6.4 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. 6.4.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. The language choice for bonding with members of their own ethnicity is overwhelmingly Malay (97.1%) and majority Malay less English variety. However, few Malay youth (8.8%) uses English. Thus, for in-group solidarity and membership in the community, Malay is the language choice followed by majority Malay less English variety. Table 6.11 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Bonding with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Malay 97.1% 8.8% 88.2% - In school For bonding Addressee: friends Chinese 94.1% 20.6% 82.4% 8.8% Indian 94.1% 17.6% 79.4% 11.8% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The main language choices for bonding with Chinese friends are Malay (94.1%) followed closely by the majority Malay less English code-mix (82.4%). Although English and majority English less Malay variety are used for bonding with their Chinese peers, they account for only 20.6% and 8.8% respectively. 123 For bonding with Indian peers, the language choices of the Malay youth is overwhelmingly Malay (94.1%) followed by majority Malay less English code mix (74.9%). 17.6% use English and 11.8% use majority Tamil less Malay variety. The data show that the main language for in-group and out group bonding is Malay and majority Malay less English. Although English is taught in school, the use of this language is rather limited. This signifies that English is not the preferred language of the Malay youth. Figure 6.7 shows that Malay youth use mainly Malay for bonding with their Malay, Chinese and Indian peers. Malay youth Malay Malay (97.1%) Majority Malay less English (88.2%) English (8.8%) Chinese Malay (94.1%) Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (20.6%) Indian Malay (94.1%) Majority Tamil less English (79.4%) English (17.6%) Figure 6.7 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. 6.4.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. For the Chinese adolescents, the main language choice for bonding with their Malay friends is Malay (83.7%). However, 53.5% use majority Malay less English code-switch. 37.2% use English to bond with their Malay friends in school. Surprisingly, 7.0% of the Chinese youth said they use Cantonese to bond with their Malay friends in school, 4.7% said the use majority Cantonese less English and 2.3% 124 said they use majority Cantonese less Malay mix. This indicates that there are Malay adolescents in this school who can converse in the local Chinese dialect. This is a positive development for a multiracial society because language is a powerful tool for social integration and group solidarity. Social groups are usually identified by the use of a particular language or dialect. Unfortunately this linguistic practice is not widespread and is only confined to a few individuals (see Table 6.12). Table 6.12 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Bonding with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay 83.7% 37.2% 7.0% 53.5% 14.0% 4.7% 2.3% - In school For bonding Addressee: friends Chinese 11.6% 58.1% 2.3% 81.4% 2.3 4.7% 53.5% 14.0% 14.0% Indian 39.5% 81.4% 2.3 16.3% 41.9% 2.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With other Chinese, an overwhelming majority (81.4%) of the Chinese adolescents use the local dialect, Cantonese. 58.1% use English for bonding with their Chinese friends in school and 53.5% use majority Cantonese less English variety. The analysis shows that Cantonese is the language used for in-group identity and solidarity amongst the Chinese youth. Even though Mandarin is the official language of the Chinese which is used in the media and is taught in all Chinese schools, only 2.3% of the Chinese respondents use it as a language for bonding. 14.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay and another 14.0% use majority English less Cantonese code switch. 11.6% use the National Language, Malay, to bond with their Chinese friends. 125 The main language choice of the Chinese youth for bonding with Indian friends in school is English. An overwhelming majority (81.4%) of the Chinese adolescents in this study use English for this particular purpose. 41.9% chose to use majority English less Malay variety while 39.5% preferred Malay (see Table 6.12). Figure 6.8 shows that the Chinese youth use Malay with their Malay peers, Cantonese with their Chinese peers and English with the Indian peers for bonding purpose. Thus language choice is for the large part ethnic dependent. Malay Chinese youth Chinese Indian Malay (83.7%) Majority Malay less English (53.5%) English (37.2%) Cantonese (81.4%) English (58.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%) English (81.4%) Majority English less Malay (41.9%) Malay (39.5%) Figure 6.8 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. 6.4.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. For bonding with their Malay friends, an overwhelming majority of the Indian youth (95.3%) use Malay. 76.7% use majority Malay less English code-switch, 44.2% use stand alone English and 11.6% use majority English less Malay variety. Malay is the main language used by the Indian youth for building rapport with their Malay peers in school. In addition to Malay, Malaysian Indian youth also use stand alone English and code-switches for bonding with Malay adolescents. Besides that, a small percentage 126 of these adolescents also use other languages and code-switches for this purpose (see Table 6.13). The main language choice of the Indian youth for bonding with their Chinese friends is not Malay but English. An overwhelming majority (90.7%) of the Indian youth in this study use English, 55.8% use majority English less Malay but only 41.9% use Malay. The Indian adolescents also use other languages and code-switch for this purpose. 23.3% use majority Malay less English and 9.3% use the local dialect of the Chinese youth, Cantonese. Another 9.3% use majority Malay less English variety, 4.7% use majority English less Cantonese code-switch. 2.3% use Tamil, 2.3% Mandarin, and another 2.3% use majority Cantonese less English. The analysis again shows that language choice between these youth is not merely of using one language but a kaleidoscope of languages and mixed-codes. Table 6.13 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Bonding with their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Malay 95.3% 44.2% 4.7% 2.3% 76.7% 11.6% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% - In school For bonding Addressee: friends Chinese 41.9% 90.7% 2.3% 2.3% 9.3% 23.3% 55.8% 9.3% 2.3% 4.7% Indian 20.9% 60.5% 79.1% 11.6% 25.6% 51.2% 23.3% 7.0% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With Indian friends, the Indian youth use mainly Tamil (79.1%). 60.5% chose to use English, 51.2% use majority Tamil less English and 25.6% chose to use majority 127 English less Malay. 23.3% of the Indian youth chose majority English less Tamil, 20.9% use Malay, 11.6% majority Malay less English and 7.0% majority English less Tamil. The analysis shows that although Tamil is the main language choice of the Indian youth for bonding with other Indians, English is a close second and majority Tamil less English a close third. This pattern of language choice is rather different from their language choice with their Malay and Chinese friends. With the Malays, the main language choice for bonding is Malay and with the Chinese, the main language choice is mainly English (see Figure 6.9). Indian youth Malay Malay (74.4%) Majority Malay less English (44.2 %) English (41.9%) Chinese English (79.1%) Malay (39.5%) Majority English less Malay (30.2%) Indian Tamil (88.4%) Majority Tamil less English (53.5%) English (51.2%) Figure 6.9 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Bonding with their Friends in the School Domain. 6.5 Analysis of the Language Choices of Malaysian Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information from their Peers in the School Domain. 6.5.1 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information from their Peers in the School Domain. In their attempt to exclude or withhold information from their friends in a discourse, the language choices of the Malay youth with their Malay peers are not so overwhelmingly centred on one particular language or code. 41.2% use majority Malay less English code mix, 38.2% use Malay, 32.4% use English and 23.5% use majority 128 English less Malay for distancing. Unlike the language choices for the other purposes, an unusually large number of the Malay youth (20.6%) use Tamil to withhold information from other Malays. 11.0% use majority Tamil less Malay, 5.9% use other Malay dialects, 2.9% use Mandarin, 2.9% use Cantonese, 2.9% use majority English less Tamil and 2.9% use majority Cantonese less Malay. 17.6% said they do not use language for distancing (see Table 6.14). Table 6.14 Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information Purposes Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Cantonese less Malay No Available In school For distancing purposes Addressee: friends Malay Chinese Indian 38.2% 76.5% 61.8% 32.4% 8.8% 20.6% 20.6% 11.8% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 5.9% 5.9% 11.8% 41.2% 64.7% 52.9% 23.5% 17.6% 8.8% 11.0% 2.9% 2.9% 17.6% 8.8% 8.8% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. With the Chinese, the Malay adolescents use mainly Malay (76.5%) or majority Malay less English (64.7%) for distancing purposes and to withhold information. 11.8% use Tamil, 8.8% use majority Tamil less English and another 8.8% use stand alone English. 5.9% use other Malay dialects. Only 8.8% abstained from distancing. The Malay youth use mainly Malay and majority Malay less English code when they interact with the Chinese. This may be an indication that some of Chinese boys in this school are not highly competent in the Malay language. It explains why more Malay youth chose to use Malay to exclude or withhold information from their Chinese peers. 129 With their Indian peers, the analysis shows that for distancing and withholding information, 61.8% of the Malay youth use Malay, 52.9% say they would chose majority Malay less English, 20.6% use English and 17.6% chose majority English less Malay variety. 11.8% chose to use other dialects. Only 2.9% chose to use Tamil, Mandarin or Cantonese. However, 8.8% chose to abstain from such an act (see Table 6.14). Table 6.15 shows the percentage of language choices of the Malay youth with other Malays for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and distancing. Language choices change drastically for distancing purpose. In an effort to exclude their Malay friends and to withhold information, a variety of other languages are chosen. There is an increase in the use of English instead. These adolescents are rather resourceful and creative in using languages at their disposal to meet this objective (see Table 6.15). Table 6.15 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Malay Friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects/codes Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Cantonese less Malay No Available Joking 97.1% 8.8% 5.9% 88.2% - In school Malay friends Functions Bonding Anger 97.1% 94.1% 8.8% 14.7% 2.9% 2.9% 88.2% 76.5% 8.8% - Distancing 38.2% 32.4% 20.6% 2.9% 2.9% 5.9% 41.2% 23.5% 11.0% 2.9% 2.9% 17.6% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. 130 Table 6.16 shows the percentage of language choices of the Malay youth with Chinese peers for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and distancing. The main language choices of the Malay youth for joking and bonding are Malay and majority Malay less English variety. These two codes are also the main language choices for expressing anger but the percentage is much lower. For distancing, however, the choices of languages include more code types than for the other functions. There is a deliberate attempt to use languages which are not in their addressee’s verbal repertoire for distancing purposes and to withhold information. Table 6.16 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Chinese Friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects/codes Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Cantonese less Malay No Available Joking 82.4% 29.4% 73.5% 17.6% - In school Chinese friends Functions Bonding Anger 94.1% 79.4% 20.6% 26.5% 2.9% 82.4% 67.7% 8.8% 11.8% 2.9% - Distancing 76.5% 8.8% 11.8% 2.9% 5.9% 64.7% 8.8% 8.8% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. Table 6.17 below shows that the main language choice for all the four functions is Malay followed by majority Malay less English. In their attempt to distance themselves from the Indian adolescents, to exclude this ethnic group from participating in their discourse, or to withhold information; many other codes are used in addition to Malay and majority Malay less English variety. 131 Table 6.17 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Indian Friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects/codes Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Cantonese less Malay No Available Joking 88.2% 23.5% 5.9% 73.5% 14.7% 5.9% - In school Indian friends Functions Bonding Anger 94.1% 79.4% 17.6% 20.6% 11.8% 2.9% 79.4% 61.8% 11.8% 8.8% 2.9% 2.9% - Distancing 61.8% 20.6% 2.9% 2.9% 2.9% 11.8% 52.9% 17.6% 8.8% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. Figure 6.10 shows the main language choices of the Malay respondents for the four functions with their friends from different ethnicities in the school domain. The figure shows clearly that although the Malay youth are bilingual, their use of English is limited (see Figure 6.10 below). 132 Malay (97.1%) Joking Majority Malay less English (88.2%) English (8.8%) Malay (97.1%) Bonding Majority Malay less English (88.2%) English (8.8%) Malay Malay (94.1%) Anger Majority Malay less English (76.5%) English (14.7%) Majority Malay less English (41.2%) Distancing Malay (38.2%) English (32.4%) Malay (82.4%) Joking Majority Malay less English (73.5%) English (29.4%) Malay (94.1%) Bonding MALAY Majority Malay less English (82.4%) English (20.6%) Chinese Malay (79.4%) Anger Majority Malay less English (67.7%) English (26.5%) Malay (76.5%) Distancing Majority Malay less English (64.7%) Tamil (11.8%) Malay (88.2%) Joking Majority Malay less English (73.5%) English (23.5%) Malay (94.1%) Bonding Majority Malay less English (79.4%) English (17.6%) Indian Malay (79.4%) Anger Majority Malay less English (61.8%) English (20.6%) Malay (61.8%) Distancing Majority Malay less English (52.9%) English (20.6%) Figure 6.10 Main Language Choices of the Malay Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Friends from Different Ethnicities. 133 6.5.2 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information from their Peers in the school domain For the Chinese youth, the main language choice for distancing and withholding information from the Malays is Cantonese (86.0%), a local Chinese dialect which is not understood by most Malays. This is followed by the use of majority Cantonese less English code-switch (25.6%) and English (20.9%). 11.6% use Mandarin, 7.0% use Tamil and 7.0% use Malay (see Table 6.18). Table 6.18 Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information Purposes Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Not available In school For distancing purposes Addressee: friends Malay Chinese Indian 7.0% 14.0% 4.7% 20.9% 39.5% 27.9% 7.0% 20.9% 11.6% 7.0% 14.0% 86.0% 14.0% 86.0% 2.3% 25.6% 2.3% 4.7% 4.7% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% 9.3% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 25.6% 4.7% 30.2% 4.7% 7.0% 2.3% 4.7% 9.3% 9.3% 11.6% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. Language can be used for a variety of functions or purposes. It can be used for convergence as well as for divergence depending on situational variables and the relationship between participants and settings as well as the objective of the interlocutors. The desire of the speaker to increase or reduce social distance between him and his listeners can determine the language used. It is clear that Cantonese is used 134 to increase social distance from the Malay youth. Hence, language choices are strategies employed by the youth for a purpose. Table 6.19 shows the percentage of language choices of the Chinese youth with the Malays for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and distancing. Table 6.19 Main language choices of the Chinese youth for jocular purpose, bonding, expressing anger and distancing with their Malay friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Joking 90.7% 46.5% 2.3% 60.5% - In school Malay friends Functions Bonding Anger 83.7% 69.8% 37.2% 60.5% 7.0% 2.3% 7.0% 25.6% 53.5% 30.2% 14.0% 18.6% 4.7% 11.6% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% - Distancing 7.0% 20.9% 7.0% 11.6% 86.0% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 25.6% 4.7% 2.3% 9.3% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. To exclude or withhold information from their Chinese friends in a discourse, the Chinese respondents use a wide range of codes; 39.5% use English, 20.9% use Tamil, 14.0% use Malay and another 14.0% use Cantonese. 9.3% use majority Tamil less Malay, 7.0% use Mandarin and another 7.0% use majority English less Malay. To exclude members of their own ethnicity, 25.6% of the Chinese respondents use other Chinese dialects such as Hakka, Teochew and Hokkien (see table 6.19). One respondent uses Har Por dialect which is rarely heard in Ipoh. This may be an indication that many of the Chinese adolescents do not know their parents’ dialect. In this situation, those 135 who know their dialect have an added advantage to withhold information or to exclude those who have ‘lost’ their dialect. Those who cannot speak their dialect get excluded from the group. Language has always been one of the factors for the formation of peer or friendship groups in society (see Rampton, 1995). Table 6.20 below shows the language choices of the Chinese youth with other Chinese for all the four functions of joking, bonding, expressing anger, and distancing. Table 6.20 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Chinese Friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects/codes Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination No Available Joking 9.3% 65.1% 2.3% 2.3% 79.1% 7.0% 58.1% 9.3% - In school Chinese friends Functions Bonding Anger 11.6% 16.3% 58.1% 58.1% 4.7% 2.3% 4.7% 81.4% 81.4% 2.3% 4.7% 9.3% 53.5% 53.5% 14.0% 4.7% 14.0% 2.3% Distancing 14.0% 39.5% 20.9% 7.0% 14.0% 25.6% 4.7% 7.0% 2.3% 9.3% 4.7% 2.3% 4.7% 4.7% 11.6% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. To increase social distance and to withhold information from the Indian youth, 86.0% of the Chinese use Cantonese, 30.2% use majority Cantonese less English for this purpose, 27.9% use English and 14% use Mandarin. 9.3% use other combinations such as majority Mandarin less Cantonese, 7.0% use majority Cantonese less Malay, 4.0% use Malay, 2.3% use other dialects (Hakka) and 2.3% use majority English less Malay (see Table 6.21). 136 Table 6.21 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Indian Friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects/codes Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination No Available Joking 53.5% 83.7% 4.7% 4.7% 18.6% 37.2% 2.3% 2.3% - In school Indian friends Functions Bonding Anger 39.5% 37.2% 81.4% 74.4% 9.3% 2.3% 2.3% 16.3% 41.9% 11.6% 32.6% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 9.3% 2.3% 2.3% Distancing 4.7% 27.9% 14.0% 86.0% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 30.2% 7.0% 9.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. It is clear that Chinese adolescents in this study also use Cantonese as a linguistic devise to increase social distance not only from the Malay adolescents but also from the Indians. Cantonese, a local Chinese dialect is not understood by most of their Malay and Indian peers. This dialect has become an effective device to exclude other linguistic groups from participating in their discourse. Although it can help to promote in-group solidarity amongst the Chinese, it can also create segregation amongst the races if it is constantly used in this manner because it excludes those who do not know the dialect from the interaction. 137 Malay (90.7 %%) Joking Majority Malay less English (60.5%) English (46.5%) Malay (83.7%) Bonding Majority Malay less English (53.5%) English (37.2%) Malay Malay (69.8%) Anger English (60.5%) Majority Malay less English (30.2%) Cantonese (86.0%) Distancing Majority Cantonese less English (25.6%) English (20.9%) Cantonese (79.1%) Joking English (65.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (58.1%) Cantonese (81.4%) Bonding CHINESE English (58.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%) Chinese Cantonese (81.4%) Anger English (58.1%) Majority Cantonese less English (53.5%) English (39.5%) Distancing Other dialect e.g. Teochew (25.6%) Tamil (20.9%) English (83.7%) Joking Malay (53.5%) Majority English less Malay (37.2%) English (81.4%) Bonding Majority Malay less English (41.9%) Malay (39.5%) Indian English (74.4%) Anger Malay (37.4%) Majority English less Malay (32.6%) Cantonese (86.0%) Distancing Majority Cantonese less English (30.2%) English (27.9%) Figure 6.11 Main Language Choices of the Chinese Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Friends from Different Ethnicity. 138 Figure 6.11 shows the main language choices of the Chinese youth for the four functions with their Malay, Chinese and Indian friends in the school domain. It is clear that the Chinese youth are bilingual, trilingual or multilingual. They speak Malay and English which they learn in school, Cantonese and other Chinese dialects which they learn at home and a small number are able to use some Tamil. They are fond of using code-switches. The language choices they make vary according to the situation, the addressee, and the intention (see Holmes, 2001). 6.5.3 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Distancing and Withholding Information Purposes from their Peers in the School Domain. Table 6.22 shows the language choices of the Indian respondents for distancing and withholding information from their Malay, Chinese and Indian peers in school. Table 6.22 Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Distancing Purposes and Withholding Information from their Friends Setting Function Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Other combination No Available In school For distancing purposes Addressee: friends Malay Chinese Indian 14.0% 11.6% 23.3% 30.2% 14.0% 44.2% 81.4% 88.4% 27.9% 2.3% 2.3% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% 7.0% 18.6% 2.3% 9.3% 9.3% 7.0% 11.6% 11.6% 7.0% 16.3% 44.2% 41.9% 14.0% 20.9% 18.6% 9.3% 7.0% 4.7% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 9.3% 9.3% 2.3% 4.7% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. 139 For the Indian youth, the main language choice for excluding Malay peers from their discourse is Tamil. An overwhelming majority (81.4%) use Tamil and 44.2% use majority Tamil less English. 30.2% use English, 20.9% use majority Tamil less Malay variety while 14.0% use Malay. 9.3% use majority Malay less English, 7.0% use Cantonese and 7.0% use majority English less Tamil code-switch. The use of other languages such as Punjabi, Mandarin, majority Punjabi less English, majority Punjabi less Malay and majority Cantonese less English is at 2.3% each. Table 6.23 Main language choices of the Indian youth for jocular purpose, bonding, expressing anger and distancing with their Malay friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Joking 86.0% 46.5% 11.6% 58.1% 20.9% 4.7% 9.3% 4.7% 2.3% - In school Malay friends Functions Bonding Anger 95.3% 74.4% 44.2% 41.9% 4.7% 32.6% 4.7% 2.3% 4.7% 76.7% 44.2% 11.6% 9.3% 4.7% 23.3% 2.3% 9.3% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% - Distancing 14.0% 30.2% 81.4% 2.3% 2.3% 7.0% 9.3% 11.6% 44.2% 20.9% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. Table 6.25 shows that for joking, bonding and expressing anger with their Malay peers, the Indian adolescents use mainly Malay. However, they also use majority Malay less English and English. In contrast, Tamil is used for excluding their Malay peers from participating in their discourse. It shows that ethnic languages and dialects are used as strategies to achieve a certain purpose. Besides being used to show group identity and membership, languages can be used as a strategy for divergence or distancing. 140 With their Chinese peers, the Indian adolescents use mainly English (for joking 86.0%, bonding 90.7% and expressing anger 79.1%) except for excluding their Chinese friends from participating in their discourse where Tamil (88.4%) is the main language choice. Other choices are also recorded. 41.9% use majority Tamil less English, 18.6% use majority Tamil less Malay, 14.0% use English and 11.6% use Malay. 7.0% use majority Malay less English and another 7.0% use majority English less Malay. Table 6.24 Main language choices of the Indian youth for jocular purpose, bonding, expressing anger and distancing with their Chinese friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Mandarin less English Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Joking 48.8% 86.0% 7.0% 2.3% 23.3% 48.8% 2.3% 2.3% 11.6% 2.3% In school Chinese friends Functions Bonding Anger 41.9% 39.5% 90.7% 79.1% 2.3% 20.9% 2.3% 2.3% 7.0% 9.3% 14.0% 23.3% 25.6% 55.8% 30.2% 18.6% 7.0% 9.3% 14.0% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% 4.7% 2.3% Distancing 11.6% 14.0% 88.4% 2.3% 2.3% 7.0% 7.0% 41.9% 18.6% 4.7% 2.3% - * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. The analysis shows that language choice and code-switching are used as a strategy to exclude others from their discourse by Malaysian youth in inter-ethnic interactions. This is practised by the Indian and Chinese youth who have the advantage of having a wider number of languages in their verbal repertoire. 141 With members of their own ethnic group, the most frequent language choice for distancing and withholding information is English (44.2%). This is followed by Tamil (27.9%), Malay (23.3%), Cantonese (18.6%), majority English less Malay (16.3%), majority Malay less English (11.6%), majority Cantonese less English (9.3%), majority Cantonese less Malay, majority Tamil less Malay (9.3%), other dialects such as Telugu and Malayalam (9.3%), majority English less Tamil (7.0%), majority Punjabi less English (7.0%), Punjabi (7.0%), Mandarin (2.3%), majority Punjabi less Malay (2.3%), and majority Mandarin less English (2.3%). 2.3% claim they use other combinations but 4.7% say they do not practice such exclusionary linguistic behaviour with members of their own ethnic group. Table 6.25 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Indian Friends. Setting Addressee Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/ dialects Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Other combination No Available Joking 27.9% 55.8% 81.4% 4.7% 14.0% 27.9% 48.8% 18.6% 16.3% - In school Indian friends Functions Bonding Anger 20.9% 20.9% 60.5% 51.2% 79.1% 88.4% 4.7% 2.3% 2.3% 11.6% 9.3% 25.6% 14.0% 51.2% 53.5% 23.3% 25.6% 7.0% 9.3% 2.3% 2.3% 2.3% - Distancing 23.3% 44.2% 27.9% 7.0% 2.3% 18.6% 9.3% 11.6% 16.3% 14.0% 9.3% 7.0% 7.0% 2.3% 2.3% 4.7% 9.3% 9.3% 2.3% 4.7% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. The set range for ‘majority’ is 80% and above while the set range for ‘less’ is 20% and below. 142 Distancing and withholding information seem to bring out the most creative use of code mixing in Malaysian youth. Among the three major groups in this study, the Indian adolescents use the most number of verbal varieties. The number of variation and combination is rather amazing. Figure 6.12 below is a simple model to show the language choices of the Indian youth in relation to intra and inter-racial interaction amongst the youth in this case study. It is clear that different languages are used with different listeners. Different languages are also used for different functions with different listeners. For example with the Malays, the Indian youth use mainly Malay for joking, bonding and expressing anger but for distancing and to exclude them from their discourse, the Indian youth use Tamil. With the Chinese, the Indian youth use mainly English for functions like joking, bonding and expressing anger but for distancing and to exclude the Chinese, they use Tamil. However, with other Indians, the Indian youth use Tamil for joking, bonding and expressing anger but they use English for distancing and to exclude other Indians. 143 Malay (86.0%) Joking Majority Malay less English (58.1%) English (46.5%) Malay (95.3%) Bonding Majority Malay less English (76.7%) English (44.2%) Malay Malay (74.4%) Anger Majority Malay less English (44.2%) English (41.9%) Tamil (81.4%) Distancing Majority Tamil less English (44.2%) English (30.2%) English (86.0%) Joking Majority English less Malay (48.8%) Malay (48.8%) English (90.7%) Bonding INDIAN Majority English less Malay (55.8%) Malay (41.9%) Chinese English (79.1%) Anger Malay (39.5%) Majority English less Malay (30.2%) Tamil (88.4%) Distancing Majority Tamil less English (41.9%) Majority Tamil less Malay (18.6%) Tamil (81.4%) Joking English (55.8%) Majority Tamil less English (48.8%) Tamil (79.1%) Bonding English (60.5%) Majority Tamil less English (51.2%) Indian Tamil (88.4%) Anger Majority Tamil less English (53.5%) English (51.2%) English (44.2%) Distancing Tamil (27.9%) Malay (23.3%) Figure 6.12 Main Language Choices of the Indian Youth for Jocular Purpose, Bonding, Expressing Anger and Distancing with their Friends from Different Ethnicity. 144 6.6 Discussions of Findings from the Questionnaire Language constitutes a core form of social organization and agencies like the family, the neighbourhood and school are important agencies of socialization (Giddens, 1989). Amongst the three forms of agencies, the school provides the best ground for inter-ethnic socialization. In Malaysia where the association of ethnicity and language is so ingrained and enduring, deployment of language choices is an important issue. The data shows that each of the ethnic groups in this case study has its own dominant language, language preference and range of verbal repertoire. The findings show that although many Malaysian youth are multilingual, most of them are bilingual with different levels of proficiency in different languages. This ‘unbalanced bilingualism’ is shown by the frequent use of a mixed linguistic code like majority Malay less English variety, popular amongst the Malay youth. The data reveals the popularity of code-switching amongst these adolescents. This is hardly surprising since Malaysia is multi-lingual country where hundreds of languages are spoken daily by its people. The need to code-switch is inevitable since code-switching is a very convenient way to accommodate others, to bridge linguistic differences, to show affiliation, to exercise “budi bahasa” or good manners in Asian cultures, to reduce social distance, to establish rapport, to withhold information, to mitigate a face threatening act, or even to create certain communicative effect (see Asmah, 1992; Morais, 1997; Jamaliah Mohd. Ali, 1995; Le Vasan, 1996; David 1999; Jariah Mohd Jan, 1999; Kow, 2003; David, 2003). In this country code-switching is a socio-linguistic tool and it provides many socio-linguistic advantages. 145 The findings show that language choices of these adolescents are influenced by many factors. Among the factors that are likely to influence language choices are the verbal repertoire and language proficiency of the interlocutors, their ethnicity and attitude towards a language and speakers of the language. The deployment of language choices by the adolescents with their grandparents in the home domain is influenced by linguistic repertoire and language proficiency of these adolescents. Ethnic languages and dialects are often used with grandparents who do not speak languages like English and Malay which the adolescents learn in school. In the school domain, the findings show that the adolescents in this school will speak in English to those who are proficient in English and will speak in Malay to those who are not proficient in English. It also shows the tendency of the Chinese and Indian adolescents to use Malay when they interact with the Malays in school. With members of their own ethnicity, the Chinese adolescents use mainly Cantonese and English while the Indians use mainly English and Tamil. This pattern of linguistic deployment indicates that language accommodation (Giles and Smith, 1979) is widely used by the Chinese and the Indian adolescents in this study. In this case study, the most dominant language for the Malay youth is Malay (100%) followed by majority Malay less English mix (85.3%) and English (26.9%). Malay is used in all the three domains (family, neighbourhood and school) by this ethnic group with all their addressees. In the Family domain, Malay is used by all the respondents with family members. The use of English is very low with all the members of the family and is highest with younger siblings (26.5%) followed by the parents (14.7%). One of the factors for the limited use of English is the different levels of proficiency in English of family members. The data shows that the Malay adolescents come from a predominantly Malay speaking background. In the neighbourhood domain, 146 Malay is also the main language choice with members of their own ethnicity as well as those from other ethnic groups. The Malay adolescents are bilingual but Malay is very dominant and English is used sparingly, mainly in the majority Malay less English code switch. The ethnolinguistic vitality of the Malay group is very high but language accommodation is low in intergroup interactions. The empirical evidence show that the Malays see themselves as bilingual in Malay and English, but are mainly perceived by the Chinese and Indians adolescents as a monolingual group. This is seen in the consistent use of Malay by the Chinese and Indian adolescents with members of the Malay group. For the Chinese youth, the most dominant languages are Cantonese (65.1%) and English (65.1%) followed by Majority English less Cantonese mix (46.5%). They use mainly Cantonese and English with family members. The percentage of Cantonese and English used in the home domain varies according to the addressees. The data shows that the Chinese adolescents come from a Cantonese and English speaking background. Both these languages are used in the home domain and in their neighbourhood with shopkeepers and their peers and with friends in informal situations in school. However, the deployment of language choices varies according to their addressee. These adolescents generally use Cantonese and English with Chinese addressees, Malay with the Malays and English with the Indians. Most of them are trilinguals but many are multilinguals. The most dominant language for the Indian youth is surprisingly not their mother tongue but English (77.3%) followed by Tamil (61.4%) and subsequently by Majority Tamil less English mix (45.5%). Like some of the Chinese adolescents, English is the first language of a number of the Indian adolescents. Tamil and English as 147 well as various mixed codes are used in the home domain. In the neighbourhood, the Indians use mainly Malay with their Malay peers, English with their Chinese peers and Tamil with their Indian peers. The data shows the Indian adolescents in this study come from mainly Tamil and English speaking background but Malay is also widely used. The following is an analysis of the dominant language for each of the ethnic groups in this case study: Table 6.26 Dominant Languages of the Respondents in Relation to their Ethnicity Ethnicity Malay Chinese Indian Position 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Language choices Malay Majority Malay less English English Cantonese English Majority English less Cantonese English Tamil Majority Tamil less English % 100 91.2 26.9 65.1 65.1 46.5 77.3 61.4 45.5 The findings reveal that the verbal repertoire of Malaysian youth varies from group to group and from individual to individual. It shows that Malaysian youth have to constantly decide which language to deploy when they speak to different interlocutors for intra-group and inter-group interactions. The decisions they make regarding language choices will depend on their own verbal repertoire and the verbal repertoire of the interlocutors they interact with. This is especially so in inter-ethnic interaction among the youth. For example, a Chinese youth may not able to use Cantonese when he speaks to an Indian boy because Cantonese is not in the latter’s verbal repertoire. The likely meaningful language choices would be to use either English or majority English less Malay combination or Malay since these languages are common in the verbal repertoire of both the interlocutors. Each time the youth interacts with another person, he has to make a number of decisions and one of which is the verbal repertoire of his listener because not all his listeners understand his preferred language choices. He may 148 choose a language to accommodate his peers if his intention is to reduce social distance or to show ‘goodwill’. In contrast, he will most likely use a language which his intended audience does not understand or prefer if his intention is to show distancing. He is only able to do this if he has a wide range of languages to choose from. It would not be possible for those with limited verbal repertoire. Thus, having a large verbal repertoire may be an advantage to the user. Those with limited verbal repertoire may resort to confining themselves within their linguistic boundary where they are most comfortable with. This may be a hindrance to mingling and social integration amongst the youth of different ethnic groups. We can conclude that besides sociocultural differences, differences in language preferences and levels of proficiency in common languages are stumbling blocks to social integration amongst Malaysian youth. While the youth will use the national language and English as and when the need arises, they tend to separate naturally into the various linguistic groups where they share the same code. The data show that Malaysian youth tend to form friendship groups along ethnic and linguistic lines. While the use of the mother tongue is extremely strong amongst the Malay adolescents, the same cannot be said of the other ethnic groups in this setting. Some individuals do not even use the language of the parents at all. A few Indian respondents in this case study do not know Tamil at all and a number of Chinese respondents cannot speak Cantonese. The role of the mother tongue has been replaced by the use of English. Unlike the Malay adolescents, English appears to be the dominant language choice amongst the Chinese and the Indians. The use of mother tongue is very strong amongst the Malay but only moderately high amongst the Chinese and the Indian youth. 149 English and Malay are used by the youths of this school for inter-ethnic interaction. It is not surprising that Malaysian youth use both English and Malay in school because both these languages are taught in all Malaysian schools. This confirms that Malaysian youth are bilinguals but it must be mentioned that many are trilinguals and multilinguals. The impact of education on the verbal repertoire of Malaysian youth is very obvious. Without exception, all the respondents in the survey are able to use Malay and English. Malay is the lingua franca. It is understood by all the adolescents and used in inter-group communications but observations of the adolescents in the assembly ground, playing field, the basketball courts, along the corridor, the canteen and the school library where they congregate reveal that many friendship groups are formed along linguistic and ethnic lines. The English speaking groups are usually all Chinese, all Indian, a mix of Chinese and Indians and occasionally a mix of Chinese, Indians and Malays. The Malay speaking groups are mostly all Malay groups and occasionally a mix of Malay and Indian. When there are Malay, Indian and Chinese adolescents playing together in the football field an interesting development occurs. The adolescents will be shouting to each other in Malay but will switch to their respective ethnic languages when they address teammates from their own ethnic group. The Indian adolescents switch to Tamil and the Chinese adolescents switch to Cantonese but Malay is used with teammates who are not from their own ethnicity at the football field. This form of linguistic behaviour was consistently observed throughout the duration of the fieldwork. At the basketball courts where all the respondents are Chinese adolescents, Cantonese is the medium of communications. Along the corridor, adolescents of different ethnic groups greet the researcher in English. English is also generally used along the corridor except where the adolescents in the group are all Malays. In such cases, Malay is used. At the assembly ground before school in the 150 morning, all kinds of language varieties can be heard. English, Malay, Cantonese, Tamil and varieties of mixed-codes are spoken. During assembly, announcements are made in Malay and English. In the canteen during recess, all varieties of languages and mixedcodes can be heard but English is the most widely spoken language. Cantonese is widely spoken by the Chinese and Tamil by the Indians. There are more single ethnic friendship groups than multi-ethnic friendship groups at the canteen. Friendship groups comprising of Chinese and Indian adolescents far outnumbered Chinese and Malay or Indian and Malay friendship groups. In the school library, English and Malay are used. The librarians at the counter generally use Malay with Malay students and English with the Chinese and Indian students. No Malay librarians were on duty throughout the duration of the fieldwork. The data from the questionnaire shows that code-switching and code mixing is a very popular practice in this speech community. Every ethnic group uses a mixed code but in different combinations. For example, the Malays use majority Malay less English combination, the Chinese use majority English less Cantonese combination and the Indians use the majority Tamil less English combination. In short, the language choices of Malaysian youth in this study are varied. Each ethnic group has its own dominant languages, language preferences and range of verbal repertoire. Code switching and code mixing is practiced by all and is very popular in this speech community for both intra and inter-group interactions. The Malaysian education system has ensured that all the Malaysian youth in this study are able to use Malay and English (see Table 6.27 below). 151 Table 6.27 Primary Languages of the Adolescents No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Primary languages Malay English Cantonese Tamil Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Majority Cantonese less English Majority English less Tamil Majority Tamil less English Malay 100% 26.9% 2.9% 85.3% 11.8% 2.9% - Chinese 20.9% 65.1% 65.1% 25.6% 46.5% 25.6% 2.3% - Indian 38.7% 77.3% 2.3% 61.4% 6.8% 29.5% 2.3% 29.5% 45.5% * Note: The columns do not equate to 100% because many of the respondents are multilingual and they use a few languages as well as a number of mixed-codes in their interactions with others. Although Malay is the national language and a compulsory language to be learned in all Malaysian schools, it is not used extensively by the Chinese and Indian youth in this setting. Their preference seems to be English, an international language taught in all Malaysian schools, and their respective mother tongue - Tamil for the Indians and Cantonese for the Chinese. In their daily interaction, Malaysian youth are constantly faced with speakers and listeners with different linguistic repertoire and levels of proficiency in the languages they use. The people they interact with daily have a wide range of languages to choose from and a variety of code mix to use. Every speaker or listener has their own views towards a language and speakers of the language. It is therefore not surprising that Malaysian youth are constantly faced with the options of making meaningful language choices when they interact with others in their daily lives. There is a need to reexamine how to help students to use the target language, especially English, not just in the simulated setting in the classroom but also in authentic real life settings in schools and to encourage them to use the target language for mingling and interaction. 152 The findings show that a study of language choices on a speech community can reveal unspoken attitude, social and linguistic behaviour of a particular group that cannot be seen explicitly by other forms of analysis. The patterns of languages choices reveal more than what the eyes can see. In this study, there seems to be a clearly defined ethnic boundary amongst Malaysian youth as far as language choices and ethnicity is concerned with the Malays using their mother tongue, the Chinese adolescents using Cantonese and the Indian youth using Tamil. It shows that are marked differences amongst Malaysian youth not only in ethnicity and socio-cultural difference but also in linguistic choices for intra-ethnic communication. These differences can only be bridged by using languages that are mutually comprehensible by all of them such as Malay, the National Language and English, an important second language in the country. Hence, to socialize well and integrate with one another, Malaysian youth need to be proficient in both these languages in order to understand others and be understood by others as well as to be part of peer or friendship groups in school. A lack of proficiency in any of the two languages could mean separation or isolation from the others. Separating into small friendship groups amongst adolescents is a natural thing in society. There are many controlling factors why friendship groups are formed. Amongst the youth, the more common ones are personality type, socio-cultural background, racial and linguistic differences. For the youth, even the love for Hip Hop music and football can be a driving force for the formation of separate peer or friendship groups. In a multiracial and multilingual country like Malaysia, however, the most common controlling factors are ethnic and linguistic differences which has the most direct impact on youth group formation. Thus, incompetence in Malay and English or inability to use any of these two languages has great ramifications in a multiethnic and multilingual 153 society. It may deny these adolescents access to various friendship groups and in the worst case scenario, result in polarization in schools. This in-turn would undermine the government’s objective of national integration amongst the races. Thus, proficiency in these two languages and positive attitudes towards these two languages are vital for both racial integration and national unity in the Malaysian context. Knowledge of other local languages and dialect is an added boon for social interaction and racial integration in a multilingual society. This should be encouraged amongst our youth. Inability to use a language is a great stumbling block to participation in and affiliation to a speech community. It will cause these adolescents to shy away from mingling with one another. Such a phenomenon should not be taken lightly in a multiethnic and multicultural society as it has direct ramifications on government efforts to integrate and unite the different peoples in the nation. The analysis signifies that there is a connection between language preference and formation of peer groups amongst these adolescents. Although this school is not a vernacular school where the student population is predominantly one race, there is still evidence of polarization. Unlike vernacular schools where there is usually a dominant ethnic group, the adolescents in this “mission” school have ample opportunity to mingle freely and interact with their peers from other races in the school domain. It shows that even in this setting, where there is a good mix of the three major ethnic groups, the association of ethnicity and language is still very strong amongst the youth. Language appears to constitute a core form of social organization and group dynamics. Although Malay is accepted and used by all races as the “national and official language” of the country, it is still seen as belonging to the dominant group, the Malays (Omar, 1987). 154 Although English is used widely, Malay remains the language where all Malaysian youth are able to comprehend and use for inter-group interactions. The language empowers them to mix freely with their peers irrespective of their ethnicity. The results are an indication that Malay, a language institutionally introduced to provide its citizens a common language for national integration, is accepted and used by all the adolescents (Omar, 1987). It is the common tongue of Malaysian youth (Jariah Mohd. Jan, 2003). 155 CHAPTER 7 FURTHER INSIGHTS FROM RECORDINGS AND OBSERVATION 7.1 Introduction It must be mentioned here that the finer aspects of language choices can only be seen by the use of other approaches, namely the transcripts from recorded conversations and observations of these adolescents. This will be dealt with in this chapter. 7.2 Discussions of findings from the recordings and observations The data from the observation shows that there is a great tendency for the Malay students to use Malay with their Malay friends. Code-switching between Malay and English is minimal and is confined to single word switches, for example: Example 1 A B C : : : Fazril handsome tak hari ini? Handsome sangat Siapa? Fazril? Code-switching here is used as a strategy for emphasis. The students are bilinguals. Good looks are often associated by adolescents with the movie stars, especially Hollywood, where good looks are highly valued. By using the English word in place of the Malay word, the meaning of the utterance carries the weight and quality of international stardom. Although the students in this study are from a “mission” school, where English is widely used, the Malay students chose to use their own ethnic language. From the recording data, we can say that the discourse practice of this speech community in a natural setting is predominantly Malay. 156 Another observation made during this study is the tendency of the members of the other races, namely the Chinese and the Indians, to use Malay with Malay students. It could be to establish rapport or just showing goodwill towards members of the dominant group in the country. The data from the recording also shows this occurrence. A Chinese student who joins the conversation uses Malay with the informant and his Malay friends. It is used as a gesture of goodwill and accommodation in recognition of its status as a National Language and the native language of his friends. The data show that Malay is the lingua franca in in-group as well as inter-ethnic interaction in the Malay youth speech community. English is hardly used by them (see Appendix A: Tape Scripts (Extracts); Transcription 3 (Malay), page 182). Observations on the Chinese students show that they use mainly English or Cantonese with their Chinese friends. This is supported by the data recorded by a Chinese informant whose main language is English. In this recording, the use of Cantonese, the ethnic language of the Chinese in Ipoh, is minimal mainly because the informant in not very competent in the dialect. The predominant language throughout the recording is English. Cantonese is used sparingly in short phrases. For example: Example 2 A B A B A B : : : : : : You cry or not? That part? You got cry or not? You cry ah? Sure or not…. I lau hau suai (I salivate) eh I couldn’t get…… Me, Natalie, Kai Juen all never They cry ah Code-switching here is used for effect to describe the state the speaker was in that point of time. Using Chinese words help to intensify the description of the emotion the speaker is experiencing. It is an example of a metaphorical code-switch for the benefit of the Cantonese speaking audience. This data also shows that the English Language used by the interlocutors is not the same as the English Language taught in 157 the classroom. It shows that the students are not using the standard variety taught in Malaysian schools. They are using the local non-standard variety of English, also known as Malaysian English. Although the words are in English, the sentence structure is Chinese. This form of non-formal Malaysian English which does not follow the standard grammatical rules is used throughout the recording by the Chinese informant and his Chinese peers. Besides the use of Malaysian variety of English, this speech community also uses Malay words in their speech. The interlocutors are the informant and a school prefect who asked the informant why he was not wearing school shoes to which he answered angrily. A : B A : : Example 3 What kind of question, it’s because I’m injured la. Why I’m wearing slippers? Where Injured? You see here bengkak.(swollen) The code-switch used here is mainly for emphasis, to indicate the severity of the injury and the use of the particle “la” is to justify the infringement of school rules of not wearing school shoes. It shows that the student’s vocabulary is enriched by the knowledge of another language. Malaysians being bilingual have more choices. Codeswitching to Malay is also used by the informant, a class monitor, to instruct other students and to show distancing as well as asserting power and control. For example: A : Example 4 You, duduk belakang, duduk belakang. (You, sit at the back, sit at the back ) Using Malay words is also a strategy to make the narration more realistic or to quote something spoken by a character in the narration. It is also used to add humour in the narration that can be appreciated by his friends. The example below is a narration by 158 the informant describing how his friend was caught climbing out of a window of the girls’ dormitory by the security guard at a motivation camp. A : Example 5 Then, then the guard saw him climbing out, you know, the other side. “Yeah, Apa lu buat?” (Yes, what are you doing?) Know what the Kai Juen said, “shhhhhhhhhhhh. Main game, main game.” (shhhhhh playing a game, playing a game) This is another evidence that code-switching is used creatively by Malaysian adolescents. The recorded data show that code-switching is used by the informant for different functions. With the teacher, the informant uses the Malaysian variety of English, commonly used by Malaysians at home, with friends, at school and at the workplace. (see Morais, 1998; Baskaran, 2005). For instance: Example 6 A : Teacher, my desk got some brown coloured watery stuff. The next moment, when he addresses his peers, he reverts back to using the basilect variety used by his peers (see Morais, 1998; 89). Example 7 A : Eh, I went super camp ah I learn one new game call ‘Bingo’. Wow! Wah! I super shok already I play for seven hours wow. Never sleep. I play, play, play only woh The findings here show that the informant is more than capable of using both varieties of English. For formal situation like talking to a teacher concerning class matters, the Malaysian variety is used. This is to signal to the teacher that he is making a formal complaint about the unfavourable conditions of his desk. The informant switches to the basilect variety with his peers. It is also a creative convergent strategy to signal group membership and solidarity with his peers who are listening to his boasting. It is used to draw the attention of his listeners to what he has to say. The use of the hybrid word ‘shok’, which has the meaning of ‘wonderful’ or ‘fantastic’ and the use of the 159 adjective ‘super’ as an amplifier before the Malay word. This shows the creativity of young Malaysian in using words from both languages in creating new meaning. The most striking feature in this recorded data is the use of the ‘la’ and ‘ah’ particles. In Example 3 above, the use of ‘la’ in ‘What kind of question, it’s because I’m injured la’ accentuate the seriousness of the injury that the speaker sustained. It is used for emphasis and to draw the attention to the reason for not following school regulation. In another recording another speaker was heard using ‘meh’ for a similar purpose. For instance: A B A B A : : : : : Example 8 What competition? Science. Huh? Science Competition lah. Got meh? These particles are commonly used by Malaysians in the informal settings. It is one of their communicative strategies. From the data, we can say that the predominant language of this particular Chinese youth group is English although they do use their ethnic language at times. They use code-switching for a number of purposes such as for emphasis, to quote someone else, for distancing or making a formal complaint and to signal solidarity or camaraderie with members of the in-group. The findings on the Indian youth speech community in this school show that English is also a predominant language in this group, especially in their interactions with the Chinese. Observations reveal that they tend to use Malay with their Malay friends and mostly English with their Chinese friends. However, it depends on the topic where school work is concerned. For example: 160 Example 9 A B : : Hey where’s your lab science You punya sains sudah bagi ah (Have you handed in your science?) The use of Malay word is hardly surprising as Malay is the National Language and lingua franca in the country. It is used in official settings especially for school work. For example: Example 10 A B : : Not give lah. Just borak borak (just say some nonsense) and give back to him Why? For fun ah? Here the Malay word ‘borak borak’ is used to soften the issue and to avoid revealing the truth when the informant was asked to reveal the reason why he was required to wear an MP3 player in school. To avoid answering, he said, “borak, borak” (just say some nonsense) requesting the listener to say something so that it could be recorded. His aim was not to draw attention to the recordings so he down plays the issue creatively with this mixed code. The findings show that students are not using the language they are taught in the classroom when they are outside the classroom. They keep switching and mixing codes. This signifies that the language taught and used in the classroom is not the same as the language used in real life social interaction with their peers. One of the reasons for this linguistic behaviour is that these adolescents are compelled to use the preferred language of their listeners and to signal group membership in real life social interaction with their peers. 161 Besides showing solidarity and camaraderie, the findings also reveal that the adolescents are ‘unbalanced bilinguals’ who are more proficient in one language than the other in their verbal repertoire. For example, the Malays are considered bilingual but the findings show that the use of English is minimal and is confined to single word switches whereas the Chinese use more English and Cantonese but the use of Malay is limited and is often confined to single word switches and short phrases. As for the Indians, Tamil is only used with members of their own ethnicity in school and the main language in their discourse is English. The use of Malay is restricted to short phrases. For the Malaysian youth, code-switching is spontaneous and is used as a communicative tool for a variety of functions. Code-switching has become an effective linguistic option to perform many functions in Malaysia (see David, 1999; David, 2003) . It is part of their everyday language use. For Malaysian youth, code-switching aids in meaning making and to get meaning across efficiently and effectively (Kow, 2003). It has become ‘normative linguistic behaviour’ (Duran 1994) and ‘an integral part of Malaysian speech styles’ (see David 2003: 1). 162 CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSION 8.1 Conclusion The findings in the questionnaire provide a clear picture of the language choices of Malaysian youth from the three major ethnic groups in the family domain with different family members, in the neighbourhood with peers and shopkeepers, and in the school domain with teachers and peers from different ethnic groups. The findings show that the verbal repertoire and language preferences of these adolescents are not similar. Based on the patterns of the deployment of language choices, each ethnic group has their own range of verbal repertoire and language preferences which is not similar with that of the other ethnic groups. Although there are some common codes used by all the three groups especially languages like Malay and English which they learn in school, mixed-codes such majority Malay less English and majority English less Malay variety are more commonly used. The results show that the main language choice for intra and intergroup interaction amongst the Malay adolescents in this setting is Malay and majority Malay less English variety. For the Chinese adolescents, Cantonese, English, majority Cantonese less English and majority English less Cantonese code-switch are their main language choices while the main language choices for the Indian adolescents are Tamil, English, majority Tamil less English and majority English less Tamil. Their deployment of language choices varies with different addressees and is often influenced by their own verbal repertoire and language preference and that of their 163 addressees. Malaysian adolescents have many languages and code-switching varieties to choose from. Because of the wide range in their verbal repertoire these adolescents can choose to converge or diverge with the language preference of their interlocutors and vice-versa. However, there is a natural tendency for them to frequently use the languages they are most proficient and comfortable in but in certain situations when this is not possible, a common language which both the speaker and the addressee can comprehend is used. This phenomenon leads to one of the most prominent linguistic behaviour of Malaysian youth that is, the practice of language accommodation and nonaccommodation in their in-group and out-group interactions (see David, 1999 who talks of a similar feature in the Malaysian service encounters). Another prominent linguistic behaviour of these adolescents is the use of a variety of code-switching (see David, 2003 who states that code-switching has become normative behaviour in Malaysian discourse both in formal and informal settings). The patterns of language choices in this case study reveal where, with whom, when, how and why these adolescents choose to accommodate or not to accommodate the people they interact with in their daily lives through their deployment of language choices. In the home domain, where grandparents are not very proficient in Malay or English which the adolescents learn in school, ethnic languages of the grandparents are used as the medium of communication. In situations where the adolescents are themselves not competent in the ethnic languages of their grandparents, Malay or English or a variety of mixed-code is used (see David, 1996 on the Sindhi Community; David & Kaur, 2003 on Malaysian Sindhi and Punjabi Families). Communication is only possible by the use of a language common to both the speaker and the listener. At times these adolescents accommodate others and at other times others accommodate them. The use of the ethnic language is very high in the home domain for the Malay 164 adolescents. For the Chinese adolescents, languages like Cantonese, English, majority Cantonese less English and majority English less Cantonese code-switch are most frequently used at home. As for the Indian adolescents, Tamil, English, majority Tamil less English and majority English less Tamil are the languages of the home domain. In the neighbourhood, linguistic differences are bridged by the use of languages and code-switches understood by both the speaker and the addressee. Different ethnic groups use different languages and code-switches as a medium of communication with different interlocutors (see 4.23, page 70-84). In school, the adolescents use different languages as medium of communication with different addressee. With teachers in formal and informal situations, the language deployed by Malaysian youth is more formal and of a higher variety but the Malaysian variety is most common with their teachers. The results show a number of things. Firstly, the main language in formal setting in the school domain is Malay and English with their teachers. However, there is a difference in the language preferences amongst the students depending on their ethnicity. For instance, Malay is the main language used by the Malay adolescents with their teachers but English is highly favoured by the Chinese and Indian adolescents. What is significant is that even in formal situations a mixed-code is used by the adolescents and their teachers. It is also significant that more Malay adolescents use English with their classmates and teachers than with all the other addressees they come into contact with (38.2% used English with their classmates and 35.3% used English with their teachers of Chinese and Indian descent). The deployment of language choices in school also shows that code-switching is a common linguistic behaviour amongst these adolescents. It shows that Malay is the 165 language mutually comprehensible to all the adolescents. Based on the pattern of language choices, the same thing cannot be said of English. The Malay adolescents in this study use Malay extensively in all the three domains. It is clear that the Malays prefer using Malay. In sharp contrast the non-Malays (Chinese and Indians) preferred using the Malaysian variety of English. The pattern of language choices indicates that English is the preferred language of the Chinese and Indian adolescents and is widely used in their intra and intergroup interactions with each other. However, they accommodate when speaking to Malays and Malay is the main language choice in their interactions with their Malay peers in their neighbourhood and in school. The recordings reveal the various ways language is used by these adolescents to convey meaning. It shows how code-switching is used creatively for specific purposes. The tape scripts show that living in such a diverse linguistic society requires creative and innovative deployment of language choices and the ingenious use of code-switching and code-mixing by Malaysian youth. They need to make decisions about which language to use all the time. It requires them to use different codes with different interlocutors on different occasions. This is the result of living in a multilingual and multi-ethnic society. In a society where regular contact with different ethnic and linguistic groups is a normal requirement of daily living, an individual who is perceived as a monolingual may be regarded as a misfit, lacking an important social skill, the skill to interact freely with the speakers of other languages. Knowing another language or many other languages is therefore, an added advantage and this is clearly seen in the way code-switching is used for a variety of functions. Collectively as a group, the Malay youth do not just use stand alone Malay. Code mix of majority Malay less English is also part of their verbal repertoire. The 166 majority, however, do not use much English at home, in the neighbourhood or in school even though this is an urban setting. There are several probable reasons why the Malay adolescents in this setting do not use as much English as would be expected of urban Malays studying in an English speaking environment. According to literature reviews, studies have shown that socio-cultural factors may be one of the many factors which can influence linguistic choices. According to Asmah Hj. Omar (1992:17), due to the fact that their own language is the official medium of communication and instruction, some of the Malays in Malaysia do not find it a necessity to acquire another language. Although English is officially second language, to most it just means that it is compulsory as a school subject, and it is not something that one should acquire as an added asset. In addition, they do not find it a necessity or an added advantage to acquire other languages since members of the other ethnicity are able to accommodate them quite comfortably. This negative perception towards English and the lack of motivation to use the language may be the cause of their limited usage of English. These socio-psychological factors could hinder these adolescents from mixing and mingling freely with those whose language preference is English, thus denying them the opportunity to be proficient in the language. This development may cause them to be isolated from the others and may lead to polarization amongst Malaysians making ethnic integration and national unity difficult to achieve. In Malaysia, everyone, irrespective of their ethnicity, is institutionally compelled to know and use Malay. Thus, knowing Malay alone is sufficient for the Malay adolescents to get by in formal and informal situations because outsiders can 167 accommodate them in their own language. This could explain why they do not accommodate or converge with the others who speak English or other languages. Malay, as the national language of the country is part of the verbal repertoire of all its citizens. Studies have shown that amongst adolescents, language choice and preference can be one of the factors in the formation of peer and friendship groups (see Rampton, 1995). There is a tendency for adolescents who share a common language or language preference to form their own respective friendship groups. They develop their own distinctive attitudes, values and self-referents. The transcripts in this study show that language choice and preference is one of the factors in the formation of friendship groups amongst Malaysian adolescents (see Appendix A, page 178). This case study has shown that Malaysian youth is made up of a medley of adolescents who co-exist but do not mix extensively. Each group holds by its own language, cultural traits, values, religion and ethnic distinctiveness. As individuals they meet but only in school and for school-sponsored activities. Language is used by Malaysian adolescents as a tool to reduce, create and maintain ethnic boundaries (see Giles, 1977; Wardhaugh, 1992; Rampton, 1995). For example Malay is deployed by the Chinese and Indian adolescents in this study to bridge inter-ethnic, socio-cultural and linguistic differences with the Malays and vice-versa while English is used by the Chinese and Indians as the medium of communications for intra-group and intergroup interactions. Ethnic languages, on the other hand, are used as markers to signal group membership and shared ethnicity. They are used to create and maintain intergroup boundaries. Most of the time, it is used to exclude others in the vicinity from their discussion. This concurs with the observations made during the study. 168 Observations of these adolescents show that Malay is used for intergroup exchanges when a mixed group consisting of youth from the three major ethnic groups gets together for activities in the school field but the Chinese adolescents in this group will address their Chinese friends in Cantonese and the Indians will address their Indian friends in Tamil during the activities. When the group consists of only one race, the ethnic language is deployed as the medium of communication. From the observation made during the field study, when there is an all-Chinese group playing in the basketball court, Cantonese is used. When there is an all-Indian group playing in the school field, Tamil is used. Studies have shown that threats to cultural identity can hinder second language learning (Taylor, Meynard and Rheault, 1977). From the sociopsychological perspective, as the dominant group in the country, but a subordinate group in this setting, the use of their own ethnic code may provide a feeling of cultural solidarity and ethnic differentiation for the members of the Malay group. For the Malay adolescents ingroup membership is salient and language is an important aspect of their cultural and racial identity. They make themselves positively distinct from outgroup members via language. Language is used as a marker of their status as the dominant group in the country. By maintaining the use of Malay, they are (knowingly or unknowingly) emphasising their group membership, ethnic identity and distinctiveness from others. Although group membership and ethnic solidarity are important and good, consistent non-accommodation in intergroup interaction can also be seen as attempts by the individuals and group to maintain strong intergroup boundaries or segregation from others. 169 In terms of linguistic choices, this case study has shown that there seems to be a linguistic chasm between the Malay adolescents and the non-Malay adolescents (Chinese and Indian) in this setting. While the Malay youth prefer to use their ethnic language which is also the National Language of the country, the Chinese and Indian adolescents in this case study prefer to use English, the international language in their daily interaction for in-group and out-group discourse. We often think of polarization along racial lines. Our understanding of polarization is often confined to the division and separation of people into distinct racial groups. In fact racial polarization is often defined as the process whereby a population, the individuals of which have varying degrees of diversity in their ancestry, is divided into separate and distinct racial groups. However, this case study has shown that polarization can also occur along linguistic lines. In a multilingual society, people can be divided and separated into distinct linguistic groups. Polarization can occur when an individual or a group isolates itself from others or are separated via language choices or when an individual or a group practices non-accommodation in a multilingual setting. When there is a chasm in linguistic choices within a speech community, polarization has taken root. This can occur in both intra and inter-group relations in a multilingual and multi-ethnic society. For example amongst the Chinese adolescents in this setting, there are a number of them who do not understand Cantonese. They are being polarized if their Cantonese speaking classmates deliberately use Cantonese and make not attempt to converge with them linguistically. 170 Schools are still regarded as the best place for inter-racial mixing but deployment of restrictive language choices can create a chasm in terms of interethnic mixing. Language choices can result in alienation, isolation and segregation. A group can also be perceived as misfits, lack social skills or are unwilling to interact freely with others if they practice non-accommodation or are not able to use the common language of that community. This is seen as undesirable in a multiethnic society. Interestingly, the findings reveal that the Chinese youth in this setting chose to use Cantonese, a local dialect, instead of Mandarin the official language used in the media and in vernacular Chinese schools. Cantonese is seen as a medium of communication for ingroup interaction while Mandarin is seen as just an official language used by those from Chinese schools. However, the findings reveal that not all the Chinese youth in this setting use Cantonese (65.1%). In fact a vast majority use English (65.1%) as a means of communication both for ingroup and outgroup interactions. Only 7.0% use Mandarin. This signifies that, unlike the Malay adolescents, language is important but it is not a salient aspect of their ethnic or cultural identity in this setting. Although the Chinese are the dominant group in this setting, they are a subordinate group in the country. The use of Malay is very limited in intra-group interaction and is used mainly as an accommodation tool when speaking to Malay peers and those who are not proficient in Cantonese or English. It is used more as the official medium of communication and instruction and is thus a language that is expected of a loyal citizen of the country. The findings in this study seems to concur with Asmah (1987), who says that Malay is accepted and used by all races as the “national and official language” of the country but is still seen as belonging to the dominant group, the Malays. 171 Collectively as a group, the Indian adolescents are mainly bilingual or trilingual. When they were children, their main language choices were Tamil (75.0%), English (63.6%) and majority Tamil less English variety (54.4%) but currently their language choices are English (77.3%) followed by Tamil (61.4%) and majority Tamil less English variety (54.4%). This is an interesting development. The findings seem to indicate that Indian adolescents in this setting “have an intrinsic desire to acquire” English. It indicates that English is viewed positively by this group and signifies that for these adolescents language, though an important aspect of their ethnicity, it is not the most salient aspect of their ethnic and cultural identity. The findings in this research give a clear picture of both the symmetrical and asymmetrical social relations of Malaysian adolescents. The non-bumiputras are better able at accommodating the linguistic needs of the Malays. Malay is often used by them as a mark of goodwill and respect for the status of Malay as the official and National Language of the country. Language choice displays the relational ties in terms of language use amongst the respondents and gives indication of the strength of their solidarity or deference and the close-knit or distancing relationship in intra-group and inter-ethnic group relationship. Language choice also reveals the attitude of the respondents in terms of how they perceive themselves and how others perceive them. This case study shows that in a multilingual setting, language is a salient dimension of group identity and is used to maintain intergroup boundaries. However, one must be aware that a chasm amongst Malaysian youth can be created through language choices. The reasons for this chasm can only be understood with an understanding of the sociohistorical and sociopolitical profile of the country. This research shows that without an understanding of the sociohistorical and sociopolitical 172 profile of the setting, it is quite impossible to interpret and provide a proper description of the linguistic choices of these youth. It would be impossible to understand why these young adolescents are motivated to use one language more than the other or to mixed codes or why they chose to use different languages with different people in different domains on different occasions. 8.1 Suggestions for Future Studies For a more thorough study of the role of language in ethnic group relations or racial integration in general, or Malaysian youth in this case, a survey of language choices using only Giles’s accommodation theory (Giles and Smith, 1979) alone may not be enough. Other theoretical framework such as Tajfel’s theory of intergroup relations and social change and a structural analysis of the ethnolinguistic vitality of the various ethnic groups need to be included in the study (see Giles, Bourhis and Taylor, 1977). An understanding of sociohistorical, sociopolitical and sociopsychological makeup of the community is very helpful for an accurate analysis and interpretation of the findings. In terms of methodology and approach, an integrative framework may be more useful. The role of language in inter-ethnic relations and its implication to social integration in a multi-lingual and multicultural society has received little empirical attention. This is an important oversight since it has many ramifications in such a society. An investigation into this area of study is thus a worthwhile pursuit. 173 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdullah Hassan. (1987). 30 Tahun Perancangan Bahasa Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Anisfield, M. and Lambert W.E. (1961). Social and Psychological Variables in Learning Hebrew. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 63: 425-529. Anisfield, M. and Lambert W.E. (1964). Evaluational Reactions of Bilingual and Monolingual Children to Spoken Languages. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 69: 89-97. Asmah Hj. Omar. (1982). Language and Society in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Asmah Hj. Omar. (1987). Malaya in its Sociocultural Context. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Asmah Hj. Omar. (1992). The Linguistic Scenery in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Asmah Hj. Omar. (2003). Language and Language Situation in South East Asia with a Focus on Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: Akademik Pengajian Malaysia, Universiti Malaya. Azmah bt. Ghaus. (2001). English language use among upper secondary Malaysian students: A case Study. Unpublished M.E.S.L. dissertation. Kuala Lumpur: University Malaya. Baljit Kaur a/p Surjit Singh . (1994). A Case Study of Turn-taking. Unpublished M.M.L.S. dissertation. Kuala Lumpur: University Malaya. Baskaran, Loga Mahesan. (2005). A Malaysian English Primer: Aspects of Malaysian English Features. Kuala Lumpur: University Malay Press. Bekerman, Z., & Shhadi, N. (2003). Palestinian-Jewish Bilingual Education in Israel: It’s Influence on Cultural Identities and it’s Impact on Intergroup Conflict. Journal of Multilingual & Multiculture Development Vol 24: 6, 473-484. Blom, J.P. & Gumperz, J.J. (1972). Social meaning in linguistic structures: Codeswitching in Norway. In J.J. Gumperz and D. Hymes (eds.) Directions in Sociolinguistic: The Ethnography of Communication (pp. 407-34). New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston. Bourhis, R.Y., & Giles, H. (1977). The language of Intergroup Distinctiveness. Language, Ethnicity, and Intergroup Relations. Giles, Howard. (ed.) London: Academic Press. 119-134. Brown, D. (1994). Teaching by Principles. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 174 Cutler, C. (1999). Yorkville crossing: White teens, hip hop and African American English. Journal of Sociolinguistics. Vol 3: 428–442. Cutler, C. (1999). Yorkville crossing: A case study of hip hop and the speech of a white middle class teenager in N.Y.C. New York University, Department of Linguistics,1999:http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/lingu/people/gratuate/cece/york. htm) David, M. K. (1999). Trading in an intercultural context: The case of Malaysia. International Scope Review Vol 1: 2, 1-15. David, M. K. (2001). The Sindhis of Malaysia – A Sociolinguistic Study. London: Asean. David, M. K. (1997). The Language of Malaysian Youth – An Exploratory Study. In Halimah Mohd Said & Ng K. S. (ed.) English is an Asian Language: The Malaysian Context. Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Bahasa Moden Malaysia & The Macquarie Library. David, M. K. (1996). Language Shift among the Sindhis of Malaysia. Ph.D Thesis. Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. David, M. K. (2003). Role and Functions of Code-switching in Malaysian Courtroom. Multilingua 22. 1-20. David, M. K. (2006). Language Choices and Discourse of Malaysian Families: Case Studies of Families in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Petaling Jaya, Malaysia: SIRD. David, M. K., & Naji, I. (2000). Do minorities have to abandon their languages: A case of Malaysian Tamils. The International Scope Review Vol 2: 3, 1-19. David, M. K., Naji, I. & Kaur, S. (2003). Language maintenance or language shift among the Punjabi Sikh community in the Klang Valley, Malaysia? International Journal of the Sociology of Language 161, 1-24. Dorian, N. (1981). Language Death: The Life Cycle of a Scottish Gaelic Dialect. Philadelphia: University of Pennysylvania Press. Duran, L. (1994). Towards a better understanding of code-switching and interlanguage in bilinguality: Implications for bilingual instruction. Journal of Educational Issues of Languages Minority Students 14, 69-88. Fishman, J. A. (1966). Language loyalty in the United States; the maintenance and perpetuation of non-English mother tongues by American ethnic and religious groups. The Hague: Mouton. Fishman, J. A. & Greenfield, L. (1970). Situational measures of normative views in relation to person, place and topic among Puerto Rican bilinguals. Anthorpes. 65: 602-618. Fishman, J. A. (1972). The sociology of language; an interdisciplinary social science approach to language in society. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. 175 Gal, S. (1979). Language shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria. New York: Academic. Gardner, R. C. and Lambert, (1972). Attitude and Motivation in Second-language Learning. Rowley, Mass : Newbury House. Gaudart, H. (1987). English Language Teaching in Malaysia: A Historical Account. The English Teacher, vol. 16, 17-36. Giddens, A. (1989). Sociology. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishers. Giles, H., (1977). Language, Ethnicity and Intergroup Relations. European Monographs in Social Psychology 13, (ed Henri Tajfel). London: Academic Press Inc. Giles, H., Bourhis, R. Y., & Taylor, D. M. (1977). Towards a theory of language in ethnic group relations. Language, ethnicity, and intergroup relations. Giles, Howard. (ed.) London: Academic Press. 307-348. Giles, H. and Powesland, P. (1975). Speech Style and Social Evaluation. London: Academic Press. Giles, H. and Smith, P.M. (1979). Accommodation theory: Optimal levels of convergence. In H. Giles and R. St. Clair (eds). Language and Social Psychology (pp. 45-65) Oxford: Blackwell. Giles, H., Taylor, D.M. & Bourhis, R.Y., (1973), Towards a theory of interpersonal accommodation through language: some Canadian data, in: Language in Society, 2, 177:192. Gumperz, J. (1982) a. Conversational Code-switching. In Gramperz, J. (ed.), Discourse Strategies. New York: Cambridge University Press, 59-99. Gumperz, J. (1982) b. Language and Social Identity. New York: Cambridge University Press. Harris, R. and Rampton, B. (2003). The Language, Ethnicity and Race Reader. New York: Routlege. Heller, M. (1988) Code-switching: Anthropological and Sociolinguistic Perspective. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Holmes, J. (2001). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 2 nd. ed. Longman. England: Pearson Education Limited. Jamaliah Mohd. Ali. (2000). Verbal Communication: A Study of Malaysian Speakers. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. Jamaliah Mohd. Ali. (1995). Malaysian Student Seminar: A Study of Pragmatic Features in Verbal Interaction. Ph.D Thesis Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 176 Jariah Mohd Jan. (1999). Malaysian Talk Shows: A Study of Power and Solidarity in Inter-gender Verbal Interaction. Ph.D Thesis. Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Jariah Mohd Jan. (2003). Code-switching for Power Wielding: Inter-gender discourse at the workplace. Multilingua 22: 41-57. Kow, Y. C. K. (2003). Code-switching for a purpose: Focus on pre-school Malaysian children. Multilingua. 22: 59-77. Lam Lai Ore. (1992). Factors affecting Secondary Three students’ choice of code in informal settings in school. Unpublished M.A. thesis, National University of Singapore. Landweer M. L. (2007). Endangered Languages: Indicators of Ethnolinguistic Vitality. Originally printed in Notes on Sociolinguistics http://www.sil.org/sociolx/ndf-lgindicators.html Le Vasan, M. (1996). System and process in computer mediated discourse: A case Study of Business Communication in a Malaysian Corporation. Unpublished PhD Thesis. University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Mohamad Subakir Mohd Yasin. (1998). Language Allegiance and Language Shift: A Malaysian Case Study. Faculty of Language Studies, University Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Morais, E. (1997). Talking in English but thinking like a Malaysian: Insights from a car assembly plant. In Halimah Mohd Said & Ng K. S. (eds.) English is an Asian Language: The Malaysian Context. Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Bahasa Moden Malaysia & The Macquarie Library. 90-106. Nair-Venugopal, Shanta. (1997). English as Sociolect and Ethnolect in Malaysia. In Halimah Mohd Said & Ng K. S. (ed.) English is an Asian Language: The Malaysian Context. Kuala Lumpur: Persatuan Bahasa Moden Malaysia & The Macquarie Library. Nik, Safiah Karim. (1987). The development of a ‘Bahasa Melayu Tinggi’ variety in Modern Malay. Paper presented to the European Colloquium on Indonesian and Malay Studies. University of Passau, West Germany. Pillai, S. S. (1996). Adjacency pairs: questions and answers in law tutorials at the University of Malaya. Unpublished dissertation (M.E.S.L.) University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. Platt, J. T. & Platt, H. K. (1975). The Social Significance of Speech. Amsterdam: North Holland. Platt, J. T. (1977). A model for polyglossia and multilingualism (with special reference to Singapore and Malaysia). Language in Society Vol 6 No. 3, 361-378. Ramachandran, S. N. (2000). Language Maintenance and shift among the Portuguese Eurasians in the Portuguese settlement. Unpublished dissertation (M.E.S.L.) University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 177 Rampton, B. (ed) (1999). Styling the Other. Special issue of Journal of Sociolinguistics 3: 4. Rampton, B. (1995). Language crossing and the problematisation of ethnicity and socialisation. Pragmatics 5:4, 485-514. Rampton, B. (1998) Language crossing and the redefinition of reality. In P. Auer (ed) Codeswitching in Conversation . London: Routledge. 290-317. Rampton, B. (1995). Crossing: Language and Ethnicity Among Adolescents. New York: Longman. Romaine, S. (1989). Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell. Romaine, S. (1994). Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Great Britain: Oxford University Press. Ross, J. A. (1979). Language and the Mobilization of Ethnic Identity. In Giles, H. and Saint-Jacques, B. (eds), Language and Ethnic Relations, Pergamon Press. Scherer, K. R. & Giles, H., eds. (1979) Social Markers in Speech. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Smolicz, J. J. (1983). Modification and maintenance: Language among school-children of Italian background in South Australia. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 4: 313-37. Sunday Star. (2006). Education. 16 July 2006. p. 9 Taylor, D.M., Meynard, R. & Rheault, E. (1997). Threat to Ethnic Identity and Second-Language Learning. In Language, ethnicity, and intergroup relations. Giles, Howard. (ed.) London: Academic Press. 99-117. Wardhaugh, R. (1992). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. United Kingdom: Blackwell Publisher. 178 APPENDIX A: Tape Scripts (Extracts) Transcription : 1 (Chinese) Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 0.00.01 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0.00.21 : : : : 1 At the school’s foyer Qi (Chinese Informant) and the researcher. 12.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances Lim Ah it should be recording now lah huh, okay? Qi Huh Lim So, This is er Monday.You better go. Qi Ok,ok,ok Lim I’ll see you. Just put it in your pocket. Wear it around your neck and then recess I Qi Recess I give you. Lim Recess I’ll be at the library Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 1 0.00.40 2 3 4 5 0.00.45 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 0.00.50 13 14 15 16 17 0.00.55 18 19 20 21 0.00.60 22 23 : : : : 2 At the school’s assembly ground Qi (Informant) and his classm ates during Monday morning assembly. 12.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances Qi They all doing one research ah, I must wear this kit you know. You say any @#@# or any ah they all will record you know Mun Eh really ah. @# @#(abusive language) Qi Hoi don’t lah (soft laugh) Really (laugh) Mun (laugh loudly) He, he, Boon Recording away already Mun Got recording woh Eh we shout on it, one Dan Survey ah Mun @#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#(laugh) Dan You put in your bag lah Qi He say must record we all talk Dan Ya lah you put in your bag Qi THEN WHO WANNA HEAR? MY MOTHER AH? Dan NOW AH now ah now recording ah Qi NOW YOU KNOW, Mun @#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@#@# (laugh) Dan It’s recording Mun Really ah you see Ten @#@#@#@#@#@# (laugh) Dan Don’t lah Mun (soft laugh) @#@#@#@#@# @#@#@Qi Vin@#@#@ Dan You cannot hear Mun You didn’t hear ah. One day ah I say all the bad words for you already. (Cantonese spoken in the background) Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 24 0.01.23 25 26 27 28 0.01.30 29 30 31 32 33 0.01.35 34 35 0.01.40 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 0:02:23 43 44 : : : : 3 Morning Assembly Qi (Chinese Informant) and his classmates during Monday morning assembly. 12.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances You cry or not? That part? Qi You got cry or not? Mun You cry ah? Qi Sure or not…. I lau hau suai eh I couldn’t get……….. Mun Me,Natalie,Kai Juen all never Qi They cry ah Mun Uh? Qi They cry ah. They never cry Boon Eeiah, hug mother one, this one? Qi Chee Sing go where. Chee Siang Qi You got hug or not? Mun you see my leg. You near my hand also cannot see ah? Qi Yeah. Who say cannot! Mun Cannot find at all ah Ivan WOOHOO! I get total marks ha ha last time I get fail Qi Last time I get 3 lah weh Ivan I get 6 eh… Qi Ha, ha, I get C lah fucker Ivan Can get or not you? Qi I think he told people I mad you know Qi I sitting there I xxxx I come by. The person say you cry lah want or not, I cry Mun 179 0:02:28 0:02:30 0:02:40 0:02:45 0:02:50 Qi Ivan Qi Mun Qi Mun Mitchele Qi 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 5 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 Dan Qi Dan Qi Dan Qi Mun Qi We all went out, you know. Went to McDonalds. Got one 5-7, right? How I know? We all take car and go You all…. xxx Then we got caught in the girls’ room. Then we hide ah in the room then the trainer, @# you, right? the trainer knock on the door, the Mr. Sam. Then Then he come in. Then the Kai Juen get scared. He climb out the window you know He climb out the window the guard, the guard saw, then…. (cough), Why’re you wearing slippers? What kind of question, it’s because I’m injured la. Why I’m wearing slippers? Where Injured ? You see here bengkak. xxxxxxx Never, never mind both my legs also like that. Then, then the guard saw him climbing out, you know, the other side. “Yeah, Apa lu buat?” Know what the Kai Juen said, “shhhhhhhhhhhh. Main game, main game. Ha, ha, ha !! Then then, the Mr.Sam he come in ah, he knocked on the door and Natalie open the door ah, I hiding in the bed there, in her bed. He open, and “What are you doing in her bed? I said (laugh) I sleeping.(laugh) Then then the…… the Kai Juen said (clear throat) the sir ask why what, what’s happening to you all? Then Kai Juen said no nothing sir they are playing hide and seek. I climb out of the window (Teacher’s announcement) Transcription : 2 (Indian) Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 1 0.00.01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.00.10 11 0.00.18 12 : : : : 1 At the school’s foyer D (Informant: Indian boy) and the researcher. 14.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances It’ll, it’ll move by itself one. So we’re not bothered lah. L Okay D So your name is Danesh ah. L Ah.ah D What, what class are you from? L Science one D Five L Four D Oh, Four Science one, ok Four science L You just put it around your neck, okay … okay and just dump it inside here that’s all, okay I’ll see you Ah D Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 0.00.21 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 0.00.40 23 24 25 0.00.47 26 0.00.56 27 28 0.01.01 29 : : : : 2 At the school assembly ground in the morning D (Informant: Indian boy) and his Chinese classmates 14.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances QV Hern chow D Hey (caught by surprised and laugh) QV Yesterday also I do the sam e thing what. Ed Doing for what ah? D That fellow only ask.hey eh ( someone snatch the recorder) Dav Ohwah D That’s why lah he ask to put listen to Ed He ask you why you bring ah D He gave m e how why should I tell him Give him Ed Not give lah. Just borak borak (just say something) and give D back to him Why? For fun ah Ed Why He ask to record som ething D Me yeh Keh (Cantonese: What’s that?) Eddy to D Pelajar di belakang di minta beratur dalam barisan masing-masing Teacher dan senap (Cantonese can be heard in the background) 180 Extract Setting Participants : : : 3 At the school assembly ground in the morning D (Informant: Indian boy) and his classmates Ed (class monitor: Chinese boy), Sum (Indian Boy, Assistant monitor) Recorded on : 14.6.2006 Time Line Interlocutor Utterances 0.01.20 30 D Hey, Foo Yan Choo going ah to the competition. Hong Kit and Victor only. Hong Kit and 31 Victor 32 Ed What competition? 33 D Science. 34 Ed Huh? 35 D Science Competition lah. 36 Ed Got meh? 37 D (laugh softly) 38 Ed Eh, that one National Science quiz lah 39 D Competition still right? 40 Ed Only Form five can go. 41 D Huh? No lah 42 Sum Did you see Dennis? 43 D Eh, Dennis got, Dennis got, Dennis got 44 Ed Dennis got 45 Sum Jeevan 46 Eddy Front gate. 47 Sum Jeevan 48 Ed Jeevan will be somewhere here I don’t know Maybe later you see loh. 0.01.50 49 Sum Uh Leroy not here eh 50 Ed Leroy? xx 51 D Leroy I saw him 52 Sum Saw him when? 53 Ed Bluff lah 54 Sum He’s always here one 55 Ed Didn’t see him one 56 Sum Tze Wei, Neem al, Hafis or tell Ben Leong Ah Neemal 0.02.10 57 D Neemal I saw. Neemal I saw Neemal I saw 58 Sum Ok Ok Ok 59 Sum Leroy, Tze Wei 60 D Tze Wei no 61 Ed Leroy and Tze Wei lah 62 Sum Xxxx even Tze Wei also 63 Dan Eh who take no Form Four also got ah Philip Boey, Hong Kit. Alim going 64 Ed Who says 0.02.30 65 D Science, science competition 66 Sum Here ah? 67 Ed Huh I want to go 68 Sum Philip Where’s Weng Kit? 69 D Alim Science Three Nar Nip err.. 70 Ed Nice you know to go 0.02.45 71 D It’s a written test lah. You read you circle answer. Last time Daniel all got tell before you 72 know 73 Ed Hey where’s your lab science 0.03.03 74 D You punya sains sudah bagi ah (Malay: your science handed in?) 75 76 Sum Four absent first one ponteng 77 D Who ponteng? 78 0.03.27 Sum Mana Fif ah Hey mana Fif ah 79 D (laugh softly) Nar si nar inga pur nar (Tamil: 80 Ed Yong Hou came where 81 D Yoganathan 82 Sum Not yet 83 Ed Huh? 84 D Qi Vin the other class 85 D Where? 86 Friend Hi eh 0.03.45 87 D Yoganathan 88 Friend Ruben leh? Ruben never come again ah 89 D Yesterday he got come what. Why? He never come again ah 90 Sum He’s not here 91 Ed What? 92 D Leroy ah Leroy 0.04.00 93 Ed Tze Wei leh 94 Friend X Hei ah Paul lost ah 99 Friend Y Uh yellow house (Teacher’s announcement) 181 Extract : Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 0.04.19 4 : : : 0.07.00 0.08.40 0.09.00 0.09.08 Extract : Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 0.11.02 0.11:36 0.12:00 0.12.13 0.12.31 16.46 0.22.22 0.24.35 5 : : : At the school assembly ground in the morning Dan (Informant) and his classmates 14.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances Dan Yoganathan Ed Lim Chee Chong. Dan Lim Seng Yew Yoga Very nice eh. Very nice eh Friend You got ah He gave me yesterday Yoga Huh? Friend Teacher (Background: Teacher asking students to stop making noise. Dan Hey, why are you walking up and down lah? Beg xxxx (Prefect making announcements) Ed Hi the book pass up already ah. Literature book. Dan Aey you see on the table there the file there got three more books ah Weng Fam, Ed Kupu and the other guy one On which table? Dan Put file the file put on that table I’m not going to the staff room. After finish I straight away Ed Dan Why do you want to put in the stuff room afterwards you’re not going. I put in the classroom yesterday You go and take back. You can walk freely what? Xxxxxxx After the school assembly in the morning. Walking back to the class. Danesh (Informant) and his classmates 14.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances (Background: Teacher’s announcements) No use hiding Prefect (Cough) My hair you know how long or not. Before I cut hair D Ok, already Friend Yesterday only I cut Sunday (clears throat) D Hey what did you get for KT Friend Eighty ah? D (Background: Students in unison say “Thank you, sir”) Baron, Ben, Ben, Benjamin Wait for me lah, why so fast. Friend Why going rushing to class (cough) D Eh? Friend (Apologies) D Eh? Why? Friend For oral D Hei yah you go and talk rubbish with them again Friend 2 I don’t know where dram a five, five twenty five mark ah D I thought Bio xxx finish already you know Friend 2 Pencil box Friend Flea market D That fellow Friend After that got maths D You got how many only two Friend Short story D Poetry? Friend Which one D Hey quickly get up lah people want to sweep lah Friend 3 Kupu D Not on K On D Eh my book lah. See my book running away Friend Eh, don’t play D I can come so Friend 182 Transcription: 3 (Malay) Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 1 0.00.01 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 0.00.10 11 12 0.00.18 13 14 15 0.00.30 16 17 18 0.00.35 19 20 21 0.00.40 22 23 24 25 26 0.00.50 27 28 0.01.00 29 30 31 32 0.01.10 : : : : 1 At the school’s foyer F (Inform ant) and the researcher. 15.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances Aa now okay what’s your full name? Lim M. F F You don’t shout into it, you know. Once once you shout ah it’s so sensitive ah the the Lim sound splits you know. So you hear only eeeee like that eeeee. You know ha ha (laugh). Some jokes were shouting away oh oh oh at the top of their voice. Because this thing is very sensitive it up pick up a lot of sounds. So your name is F Ha ya Lim F bin? F Haji Azan Basri Lim Eh? F Haji Azan Basri Lim Haji Azman Basri F ah Lim Okay all right so which class are you from? F Four Science Six Lim Four Science Six as well eh. Ok you just put it on and then ah recess F time ah I’ll come here and wait for you Lim Huh After recess after you makan everything before you line up ah I’ll come here okay F okay Lim After that eh I’ll burn a disc for you lah then you go home and you can F listen to yourself and see what their actually.. who you speak to is very important. Lim Oh yah But but don’t go and tell your friend eh I’m recording I’m recording you know ah. You just put it quietly around your neck. If they don’t know even better still lah. You just put it F inside here like that Lim Okay If the prefects stop you and all that you just say that “I am doing recording for Mr. Lim” ah okay Thanks ah. F Okay Lim Thanks Qi. You have been very, very helpful. Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 0.01.30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0.02.00 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0.02.30 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 : : : : 2 At the school’s foyer F (Inform ant) at the assembly ground with his friends 15.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances Chinese 1 Chow hai lah leh (obscenity in Cantonese) Chinese 2 Ee kor meah leh kah (Cantonese: What is this?) F Macam perempuan punya tengok ha,ha Ha cuci muka Faz Hello ha ha babi (laugh) Dan (prefect) Belakang, belakang, belakang F Belakang lagi Faz Jangan mengada-ada man. Sepak hang baru tahu Faz Jangan cakap lagi Faz Nak buat apa binatang itu. Taram mulut buat apa F (quiet laugh)Ha Tak apa Faz Eh Memang Taram main namanya (soft laughter) Mmm geram F (quiet laugh)ha, ha Faz Aku siku engkau ini F Nah xxxx Faz Jangan rogol aku woi F Tak nak oi Dan (prefect) Hang pun dapat ah alah Faz Dapat apa itu. Dapat apa F MP3 Fazl Huh F MP3 Kh Boleh bawa F Tak tahu dia orang suruh Faz Siapa punya ini? F Huh? Tak tahu Faz Siapa punya… Cakaplah F Huh? Faz Siapa punya? Faz Kau punya F Ialah 183 0.02.56 0.03.00 0.03.30 0.03.51 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Faz F Faz Kh F Faz Faz F Faz F F Faz Faz F Extract Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 1 0.03.53 2 3 4 5 0.04.17 6 7 8 9 0.04.23 10 11 12 13 14 0.04.38 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 0.05.36 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 0.07.32 39 : : : : Extract : Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 1 0.08.50 2 3 4 0.09.00 5 6 7 8 4 : : : Eh, kau punya bukan macam ini Siapa kata? Tak deh Takkan boleh bawa ke sini? xxx Boleh (Background: Teacher’s announcement) Kau ini nak pergi mana tak bawa buku? Mana beg awak beg warna purple itu? Aku basuh Alah Luqman,aku bengang betul Slow la sikit,kau ini Belakang sikit Sudah la Luqman (Laughter) Dada aku ini ada penyakit jantung Aduh sakit cibai (Background: Teacher’s announcement) 3 At the school’s foyer Mohd Faza (Informant) at the assembly ground with his friends 15.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances Faz Fazril handsome tak hari ini? Faiz Handsome sangat Siapa? Fazril? (Background: Teacher’s announcement) F Eh, Sejarah kau dah buat dah? Faz Aku hari jumaat hantar F dah buat? Faz Belum F Apa yang kau buat? Faz Tak tau F Apa dia? Faz Semalam aku tengok wayang. Cerita Cars F Ha Faz Kau ada keluar ke tak? F Tak.Keluar malam Faz Aku keluar dengan kakak aku la F Kau keluar pergi mana? Faz Kau? F JJ (Jaya Jusco supermarket) Faz Aku tak nampak kau pun F Aku keluar pukul 11 Faz Aku keluar dari situ,pukul.. F Aku pukul 11:30 habis...Aku pergi teman diorang main boling Faz Tak la kata dekat rumah F Mula-mula aku kat rumah Faz Lawak la cerita Cars F Lawak ke? Faz Best la (Teacher’s announcement about a boy being suspended from school) F Ini pasal Zul itu Faz Budak mana? F Dia dulu budak A3 Faz Entah,mak bapak dia datang. Engkau pun tahu (Teacher warning students about the consequences of sleeping in class for those who watch World cup Football live telecast) Faz Season lepak dekat cyber cafe Faz Tak tengok bola pun,memang kita ngantuk F Kau memang macam itu pun Faz Wei cuba kau dengar,sila berani perhatian? At the school’s assembly ground F (Inform ant) at the assembly ground with his friends 15.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances J Kamu pun kena ah? J Hello,i love you Bodoh ke?bodoh ke? Faz Jason...Jason handsome la Faz Semalam aku tengok wayang dekat rumah F Biar betul? Faz Tengok wayang pukul berapa?11:55? F Tak..pukul 10:45 Faz 184 Extract : Setting Participants Recorded on Time Line 0.011.50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.12.11 8 9 10 11 12 13 0.12.20 14 15 16 17 0.12.28 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 5 : : : Students leaving the school’s assembly ground F (Inform ant) leaving the assembly ground with his friends 15.6.2006 Interlocutor Utterances F Apalah pulak? Faz Tau ini apa? F Lepas ini,lepas ini Kh Cepat la. F Lepas ni la aku bagitau. Faz Ho, Ah F Doh, doh jangan Faz Ada apa F Nanti lah aku bagitau Faz Buat apa nanti F Nantilah J Eh,siapa punya ni? F Nantilah Hang ni kacau betul Faz Haaa serupa mainan kita Ha, ha,ha F Gila J Bodoh F Gila J Bodoh F Gila J Bodoh F Gila Faz He ha Siapa siapa F Bapak engkau Faz Ha he, he, he ah lah xxxxxxx (snore) Faz Biar saja aku tidur satu tindir dengan dia F Hah? Faz Biar aku tidur satu tindir dengan dia J Manor ah Faz Ini tengok ini J Tengohlah atas siapa itu. Orang putih Faz Main F Ini bahu ini J Eh tak boleh bawa sebenarnya benda ini Faz Mana aku tahu nampak ini apa? F Tak tahu? Kh Apa benda tu F MP3 Kh Huh Faz Ahah Ah he hehehe F Ada computer… (laughter) Faz Lela ada tahi kucing kat depan. Ada tahi kucing kat depan nu Kh Mana F Tahi kucing kat depan Mana Faz Itu ah F Ah itu kau pijak Faz (laughter) Faza pijak. Bodoh Ingat Faza ingat dia naik kereta dia pijak tahi kucing itu 185 APPENDIX B: Sample of the Questionnaire UNIVERSITY MALAYA LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS FACULTY KUALA LUMPUR SOAL SELIDIK BAHASA PEMILIHAN BAHASA REMAJA MALAYSIA Salam sejahtera. Saya seorang penyelidik bahasa dan saya amat memerlukan pertolongan anda untuk mengetahui bahasa yang anda guna semasa anda bersama dengan orang di sekeliling anda dalam kehidupan seharian. Ini bukan ujian, tetapi hanya sesuatu soal selidik untuk mengetahui bahasa yang anda pilih semasa anda bertutur dengan orang lain. Maklumat yang anda beri adalah sulit dan tidak akan dibaca oleh sesiapa melainkan saya sendiri. Ia akan dimusnahkan setelah penyelidikan ini tamat nanti. Sila ikut arahan dan jangan segan untuk meminta penjelasan daripada guru anda sekiranya anda tidak memahami arahan atau soalan-soalan yang dikemukakan. Yang pentingnya jawapan anda memberi gambaran yang benar dan tepat tentang pemilihan bahasa yang digunakan serta pandangan anda. Terima kasih kerana menjawab dengan tulus dan ikhlas. LANGUAGE SURVEY LANGUAGE CHOICES OF MALAYSIAN YOUTH Hi, I’m a language researcher and I need your help to find out the languages you use with people around you in your daily life. This is not a test but a survey to find out your language choices when you speak with others. The information you give will be kept confidential and is highly valued. They will be destroyed once the research is over. Please follow the instructions and you are most welcome to ask for further explanation from your teacher if you do not understand the instructions or the questions. It is important that your answers reflect your actual language choices and your opinions accurately. Thanks for answering honestly. Nota: Bahasa utama = Bahasa yang paling sering di gunakan (kekerapan 60% ke atas) Note: Main Language = Language most frequently used (60% and above of the time) Prepared by MR. LIM CHIN CHYE TXGC 050001 SEMESTER 2, ACADEMIC YEAR 2005/2006 Data collection for dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the Masters in Linguistics programme 186 A. Mengenali diri anda A. Getting To Know You Sila tik Please Tick 1. pilihan anda your choices Nama : ………………………………………………………………… Name 2. Tingkatan :………………………………………. Form 3. Umur : ……………………………………… Age 4.  lelaki Lelaki/Perempuan : Male/Female 5. Tarikh Lahir  perempuan male female : ……………………………… Birthday 6. Tempat lahir : ……………………………… Place of Birth 7. Keturunan Ethnicity: :  Melayu  Cina Malay  Indian  Punjabi Serani Chinese Indian Punjabi Eurasian  Lain-lain (sila nyatakan):………………………………. Others (please state) 8. Nama sekolah rendah anda hadiri: SRK/SRJK/SRJK(T)/SRJK(C).................. Name of Primary School: 9. Nama sekolah menengah rendah anda hadiri: ……………………………...... Name of Lower Secondary School: 10. Nama sekolah anda hadiri sekarang: ……………..………………………….. Name of present school: 11. Nombor telefon (jika ada)……………………….…………………………… Contact No. (Optional): 12. Nama bapa (Father’s Name): ………………………………………………… Pekerjaan bapa (Father’s Occupation):…………………………………………. 13. Keturunan Bapa:  Melayu  Cina Ethnicity: Malay  Indian  Punjabi  Serani Chinese Indian Punjabi Eurasian  Lain-lain (sila nyatakan):………………………………. Others (please state) 14. Nama Ibu (Mo ther’s Name): ………………………………………………… Pekerjaan Ibu (Mother’s Occupation):…………………………………………. 15. Keturunan Ibu:  Melayu  Cina Ethnicity: Malay Chinese  Indian  Punjabi Serani Indian Punjabi Eurasian  Lain-lain (sila nyatakan):………………………………. Others (Please state) 187 B. Mengenali corak penggunaan bahasa anda. Sila tik pilihan anda B. Getting To Know Your Language Habits. Please Tick 16. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna semasa kecil (kanak-kanak) your choices Main language/languages you used when you were a child.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 17. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna kini Main language/languages you use today.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 188 18. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang guna di rumah dengan abang dan kakak anda. Main language/languages you speak at home with your older brothers and sisters.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 19. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang anda guna di rumah dengan adik-adik anda. Main language/languages you speak at home with your younger brothers and sisters.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 189 20. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ayah. Main language/languages you speak at home with your father.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 21. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ibu. Main language/languages you speak at home with your mother.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 190 22. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan datuk. Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandfather.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada datuk lagi (Not Living) Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 23. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan nenek. Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandmother.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada nenek lagi (Not Living) Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 191 24. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Melayu. Main language/languages you speak with your Malay neighbourhood friends around your age.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada orang Melayu di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Malays in my neighbourhood Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 25. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Cina. Main language/languages you speak with your Chinese neighbourhood friends around your age.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada orang Cina di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Chinese in my neighbourhood Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 192 26. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum India. Main language/languages you speak with your Indian neighbourhood friends around your age.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada orang India di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Indians in my neighbourhood Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 27. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Melayu di tempat kediaman anda.. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Malay shopkeepers.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada pekedai Melayu di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Malay shopkeepers in my neighbourhood Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 193 28. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Cina di tempat kediaman anda. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Chinese shopkeepers.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada pekedai Cina di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Chineseshopkeeper in my neighbourhood Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 29. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai India di tempat kediaman anda. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Indian shopkeepers.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state):  Tidak ada pekedai India di tempat tinggal saya. There are no Indian shopkeepers in my neighbourhood Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 194 30. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru Melayu di sekolah anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Malays.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 31. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum Cina di sekolah anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Chinese.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 195 32. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum India di sekolah anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Indians.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 33. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu dalam kelas anda. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends in the classroom.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 196 34. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina dalam kelas anda. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends in the classroom.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 35. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India dalam kelas anda. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends in the classroom.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 197 36. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during recess.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 37. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina rehat. pada waktu Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during recess.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 198 38. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during recess.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 39. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu aktiviti ko-kurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during co-curricular activities.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 199 40. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu aktiviti kokurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during co-curricular activities.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 41. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu aktiviti kokurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during co-curricular activities.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 200 42. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Melayu di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Malay friends in school.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 43. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Cina di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Chinese friends in school.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 201 44. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan India di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Indian friends in school.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 45. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan Melayu. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Malay friends.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 202 46. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan Cina. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Chinese friends.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 47. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan India. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Indian friends.  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 203 48. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Melayu di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Malay students in friendship in your school?  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 49. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Cina di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Chinese students in friendship in your school?  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 204 50. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar India di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Indian students in friendship in your school?  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 51. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajarpelajar Melayu memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Malay students to know what you are saying?  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 205 52. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajarpelajar Cina memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Chinese students to know what you are saying?  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): 53. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajarpelajar India memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Indian students to know what you are saying?  Melayu (Malay)  Inggeris (English)  Tamil(Tamil)  Punjabi(Punjabi)  Mandarin (Mandarin)  Kantonis (Cantonese)  Bahasa/dialect lain (sila sebut): …........................................................................ Other languages/dialect (Please state): Bahasa Campur (mixed Languages):  Lebih Melayu kurang Inggeris Majority Malay Less English  Lebih Punjabi kurang Inggeris Majority Punjabi Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Mandarin Majority English Less Mandarin  Lebih Inggeris kurang Melayu Majority English Less Malay  Lebih Punjabi kurang Melayu Majority Punjabi Less Malay  Lebih Kantonis kurang Inggeris Majority Cantonese Less English  Lebih Tamil kurang Inggeris Majority Tamil Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Punjabi Majority English Less Punjabi  Lebih Kantonis kurang Melayu Majority Cantonese Less Malay  Lebih Tamil kurang Melayu Majority Tamil Less Malay  Lebih Mandarin kurang Inggeris Majority Mandarin Less English  Lebih Inggeris kurang Kantonis Majority English Less Cantonese  Lebih Inggeris kurang Tamil Majority English Less Tamil  Lebih Mandarin kurang Melayu Majority Mandarin Less Malay  Campuran Lain:……………… Other combination (please state): Sekian sahaja soal selidik ini. Terima kasih kerana mengambil bahagian dalam kajian ini. This is the end of the survey. Thank you for participating. 206 APPENDIX C: Results of the findings from the Questionnaire. 16. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna semasa kecil (kanak-kanak) Main language/languages you used when you were a child. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 34 100 2 4.7 5 11.4 3 8.8 23 53.5 28 63.6 33 75.0 2 4.5 6 14 31 72.1 1 2.3 31 91.2 3 7 3 6.8 2 5.9 6 14 10 22.7 24 54.5 1 2.3 9 20.5 1 2.3 10 22.7 2 4.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 5 11.6 18 41.9 11 25.6 11 25.6 17. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda guna kini Main language/languages you use today. Malay 34 No. 34 % 100 Chinese 43 No. % 9 20.9 9 26.5 28 1 2.9 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 2.9 29 85.3 4 11.8 1 2.9 65.1 Indian 44 No. 17 % 38.6 34 77.3 27 61.4 3 7.0 28 65.1 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 3 6.8 11 25.6 13 29.5 20 45.5 1 2.3 6 13.6 1 2.3 13 29.5 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 4 9.3 11 25.6 7 16.3 20 46.5 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 207 18. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang guna di rumah dengan abang dan kakak anda. Main language/languages you speak at home with your older brothers and sisters. Malay 34 No. 32 % 94.1 Chinese 43 No. % 4 9.3 1 2.9 23 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 2 5.9 28 82.4 1 2.9 53.5 4 9.3 27 62.8 1 2.3 2 4.7 8 18.6 1 2.3 2 4.7 2 4.7 5 11.6 19 44.2 8 18.6 10 23.3 Indian 44 No. 5 % 11.4 29 65.9 31 70.5 2 4.5 2 4.5 6 13.6 20 45.5 9 20.5 10 22.7 1 2.3 2 4.5 19. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa yang anda guna di rumah dengan adik-adik anda. Main language/languages you speak at home with your younger brothers and sisters. Malay 34 No. 31 % 91.2 Chinese 43 No. % 1 2.3 9 26.5 21 48.8 29 65.9 1 2.3 29 65.9 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 No. 4 % 9.1 3 7 24 55.8 1 2.3 2.9 2 4.7 2 4.5 3 7 2 4.5 2 5.9 28 82.4 1 2.9 1 Indian 44 2.9 4 9.3 1 2.3 2 4.7 1 2.3 4 17 9.3 39.5 6 14 10 23.3 2 4.5 4 9.1 20 45.5 7 15.9 11 25.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 208 20. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ayah. Main language/languages you speak at home with your father. Malay 34 No. 31 % 91.2 Chinese 43 No. % 1 2.3 5 14.7 19 44.2 29 65.9 1 2.3 30 68.2 2 4.5 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 2 5.9 30 88.2 2 5.9 3 7 22 51.2 4 9.3 1 2.3 3 7 4 9.3 1 2.3 2 4.7 16 37.2 5 11.6 11 25.6 2 4.7 Indian 44 No. 2 % 4.5 1 2.3 4 9.1 19 43.2 7 15.9 10 22.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 21. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna di rumah dengan ibu. Main language/languages you speak at home with your mother. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 31 91.2 2 4.7 4 9.1 5 14.7 19 44.2 29 65.9 1 2.3 31 70.5 2.3 2 5.9 30 88.2 2 5.9 4 9.3 27 62.8 3 7 1 2 4.5 5 11.6 6 13.6 1 2.3 22 50.0 7 15.9 12 27.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 4 9.3 1 2.3 3 7 19 44.2 6 14 10 23.3 2 4.7 209 22. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan datuk. Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandfather. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination No. 32 % 94.1 1 2.9 Chinese 43 No. % 3 18 2 5.9 28 82.4 7 Indian 44 No. 3 % 6.8 12 27.3 29 65.9 1 2.3 41.9 5 11.6 2 4.5 16 37.2 8 18.2 2 4.5 1 2.3 10 23.3 2 4.7 2 4.7 2 4.7 2 4.5 21 47.7 7 15.9 4 9.1 1 2.3 23. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna di rumah dengan nenek. Main language/languages you speak at home with your grandmother. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination No. 33 % 97.1 1 2.9 27 1 Chinese 43 No. % 6 14 No. 4 % 9.1 11 25.0 35 79.5 2 4.7 28 65.1 7 16.3 2 4.5 5 11.6 3 6.8 3 6.8 79.4 2.9 Indian 44 1 2.3 1 2.3 13 30.2 5 11.6 2 4.7 1 2.3 22 50.0 9 20.5 5 11.4 1 2.3 210 24. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Melayu. Main language/languages you speak with your Malay neighbourhood friends around your age (peers). Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 33 97.1 20 46.5 36 81.8 2 5.9 12 27.9 13 29.5 3 6.8 1 2.3 4 9.3 15 34.9 7 15.9 28 82.4 16 37.2 22 50.0 1 2.9 3 7.0 7 15.9 4 9.1 1 2.3 3 7.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 3 6.8 2 4.5 1 2.3 25. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum Cina. Main language/languages you speak with your Chinese neighbourhood friends around your age (peers). Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination No. 20 % 58.8 12 35.3 Chinese 43 No. % 16 37.2 7 16.3 38 88.4 Indian 44 No. 19 % 43.2 35 79.5 2 4.5 6 17.6 4 9.1 15 44.1 11 25.0 10 29.4 18 40.9 1 2.3 2 4.5 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 5 11.4 1 2.3 2 4.7 2 4.7 19 44.2 1 2.3 6 7 14.0 16.3 1 1 2.3 2.3 1 2.3 211 26. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan jiran-jiran sebaya kaum India. Main language/languages you speak with your Indian neighbourhood friends around your age (peers). Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 22 64.7 15 34.9 3 6.8 10 29.4 22 51.2 23 52.3 1 2.3 37 84.1 2 4.5 6 17.6 12 27.9 18 52.9 7 16.3 8 23.5 8 18.6 3 7.0 3 6.8 27 61.4 9 20.5 7 15.9 27. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Melayu di tempat kediaman anda.. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Malay shopkeepers. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination No. 33 % 97.1 1 2.9 Chinese 43 No. % 33 76.7 4 9.3 1 2.9 8 18.6 26 76.5 19 44.2 Indian 44 No. 32 % 72.7 5 11.4 21 47.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 212 28. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai Cina di tempat kediaman anda. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Chinese shopkeepers. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Major Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 28 82.4 1 2.3 27 61.4 7 20.6 10 23.3 30 68.2 1 2.3 2 4.5 5 11.6 38 88.4 4 11.8 4 9.1 22 64.7 15 34.1 4 11.8 18 40.9 1 2.3 1 2.3 4 9.1 1 2.3 2 4.7 1 2.3 17 39.5 6 14.0 1 2.3 2 4.7 2 4.5 29. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna dengan pekedai India di tempat kediaman anda. Main language/languages you speak with your neighbourhood Indian shopkeepers. Malay 34 No. 25 % 73.5 Chinese 43 No. % 22 51.2 5 14.7 22 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 51.2 Indian 44 No. 8 % 18.2 19 43.2 38 86.4 2 4.5 7 20.6 8 18.6 23 67.6 12 27.9 7 15.9 2 5.9 9 20.9 24 54.5 11 25.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 4 9.1 1 2.3 213 30. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru Melayu di sekolah anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Malays. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 32 94.1 34 79.1 43 97.7 2 5.9 18 41.9 23 52.3 28 82.4 23 53.5 31 70.5 3 8.8 8 18.6 7 15.9 1 2.3 1 2.3 31. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum Cina di sekolah anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Chinese. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 26 76.5 6 14.0 21 47.7 12 35.3 39 90.7 40 90.9 1 2.3 1 2.3 7 16.3 19 55.9 1 2.3 11 25.0 10 29.4 15 34.9 28 63.6 1 2.3 3 6.8 1 2.3 1 2.3 2 4.7 10 23.3 214 32. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan guru-guru kaum India di sekolah anda. Main language/languages you speak in school with your teachers who are Indians. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 25 73.5 17 39.5 18 40.9 12 35.3 35 81.4 40 90.9 12 27.3 18 52.9 3 7.0 8 18.2 11 32.4 22 51.2 23 52.3 2 4.5 2 4.7 1 2.3 4 9.1 11 25.0 33. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu dalam kelas anda. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends in the classroom. Malay 34 No. 32 % 94.1 Chinese 43 No. % 38 88.4 2 5.9 19 44.2 17 38.6 1 2.3 2 4.5 1 2.3 1 2.3 26 60.5 33 75.0 2 4.7 7 15.9 2 4.5 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 4 Indian 44 No. 39 % 88.6 11.8 1 2.9 30 88.2 1 2.3 2 4.7 215 34. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina dalam kelas anda. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends in the classroom. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 25 73.5 6 14.0 19 43.2 13 38.2 24 55.8 41 93.2 1 2.3 6.8 1 2.9 22 64.7 10 29.4 1 2.3 32 74.4 3 10 22.7 6 14.0 25 56.8 1 2.3 4 9.1 3 6.8 2 4.7 19 44.2 6 14 12 27.9 35. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India dalam kelas anda. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends in the classroom. Malay 34 No. 29 % 85.3 Chinese 43 No. % 22 51.2 10 29.4 34 79.1 27 61.4 1 2.3 34 77.3 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Indian 44 No. 12 % 27.3 25 73.5 9 20.9 7 15.9 8 23.5 22 51.2 9 20.5 2 4.7 1 2.3 21 47.7 7 15.9 9 20.5 216 36. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during recess. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 32 94.1 37 86.0 39 88.6 1 2.9 16 37.2 13 29.5 3 6.8 2 5.9 31 91.2 3 7.0 1 2.3 25 58.1 31 70.5 2 4.7 5 11.4 1 2.3 2 4.5 1 2.3 37. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during recess. Malay 34 No. 26 % 76.5 Chinese 43 No. % 3 7.0 11 32.4 27 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 2.9 24 70.6 7 20.6 62.8 2 4.7 30 69.8 4 9.3 3 7.0 21 48.8 3 7.0 8 18.6 Indian 44 No. 20 % 45.5 41 93.2 5 11.4 27 61.4 4 9.1 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 217 38. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu rehat. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during recess. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 31 91.2 21 48.8 9 20.5 6 17.6 36 83.7 22 50.0 32 72.7 1 2.3 26 76.5 9 20.9 6 13.6 4 11.8 15 34.9 8 18.2 1 2.3 20 45.5 2 4.7 1 2.3 10 22.7 6 13.6 39. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Melayu pada waktu aktiviti kokurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Malay friends during co-curricular activities. Malay 34 No. 33 % 97.1 Chinese 43 No. % 35 81.4 2 5.9 22 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 2.9 30 88.2 51.2 Indian 44 No. 38 % 86.4 22 50 6 13.6 2 4.7 1 2.3 24 55.8 29 65.9 6 14.0 10 22.7 2 4.5 2 4.5 2 4.5 1 2.3 2 4.7 218 40. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan Cina pada waktu aktiviti kokurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Chinese friends during co-curricular activities. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 28 82.4 4 9.3 21 48.8 10 29.4 28 65.1 38 88.4 2 4.7 7.0 1 2.3 29 67.4 3 1 2.9 1 2.3 27 79.4 1 2.3 13 30.2 7 20.6 4 9.3 23 53.5 1 2.3 3 7 1 2.3 1 2.3 19 44.2 1 2.3 14 32.6 1 2.3 41. Bahasa/Bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna dengan rakan-rakan India pada waktu aktiviti kokurikulum. Main language/languages you use with your Indian friends during co-curricular activities. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 30 88.2 20 46.5 12 27.9 8 23.5 37 86.0 29 67.4 33 76.7 1 2.9 26 76.5 7 16.3 7 16.3 4 11.8 21 48.8 12 27.9 19 44.2 11 25.6 1 2.3 9 20.9 1 2.3 1 2.3 219 42. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Melayu di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Malay friends in school. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 33 97.1 39 90.7 37 86.0 3 8.8 20 46.5 20 46.5 1 2.3 5 11.6 2 4.7 26 60.5 25 58.1 3 7.0 9 20.9 2 4.7 4 9.3 2 4.7 1 2.3 2 5.9 30 88.2 1 2.3 1 2.3 43. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan Cina di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Chinese friends in school. Malay 34 No. 28 % 82.4 Chinese 43 No. % 4 9.3 10 29.4 28 65.1 37 86.0 1 2.3 3 7.0 2.3 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 25 73.5 6 17.6 Indian 44 No. 21 % 48.8 1 2.3 34 79.1 1 10 23.3 3 7.0 21 48.8 1 2.3 25 1 2.3 5 11.6 1 2.3 58.1 4 9.3 5 11.6 220 44. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa anda guna bila bergurau dengan rakan-rakan India di sekolah. Main language/languages you use when you joke with your Indian friends in school. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 30 88.2 23 53.5 12 27.9 8 23.5 36 83.7 24 55.8 2 5.9 2 4.7 35 81.4 2 4.7 2 4.7 25 73.5 8 18.6 6 14 5 14.7 16 37.2 12 27.9 1 2.3 2 5.9 1 21 48.8 8 18.6 7 16.3 2.3 45. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan Melayu. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Malay friends. Malay 34 No. 32 % 94.1 Chinese 43 No. % 30 69.8 5 14.7 26 60.5 18 41.9 1 2.9 3 7.0 14 32.6 1 2.3 2 4.7 11 25.6 2 4.7 44.2 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 Indian 44 No. 32 % 74.4 2.9 26 76.5 13 30.2 19 3 8.8 8 18.6 4 9.3 10 23.3 4 9.3 2 4.7 5 11.6 2 4.7 1 2.3 221 46. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan Cina. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Chinese friends. Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 27 79.4 7 16.3 17 39.5 9 26.5 25 58.1 34 79.1 2 4.7 9 20.9 1 2.3 1 2.9 1 2.9 4 11.8 1 2.9 2 4.7 3 7 35 81.4 6 14 11 25.6 4 9.3 13 30.2 8 18.6 3 7.0 6 14 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 4.7 23 53.5 2 6 14.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 47. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama anda guna untuk meluahkan perasaan marah dengan rakan India. Main language/languages you use to express anger with your Indian friends. Malay 34 No. 27 % 79.4 Chinese 43 No. % 16 37.2 7 20.6 32 74.4 22 51.2 4 11.8 4 9.3 38 88.4 1 2.3 2 4.7 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 2.9 7 16.3 Indian 44 No. 9 % 20.9 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.9 1 2.3 21 61.8 5 11.6 4 9.3 3 8.8 14 32.6 6 14.0 23 53.5 1 2.3 11 25.6 4 9.3 1 1 2.9 4 9.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 2.9 222 48. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Melayu di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Malay students in friendship in your school? Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 33 97.1 36 83.7 41 95.3 3 8.8 16 37.2 19 44.2 2 4.7 30 88.2 3 7 1 2.3 23 53.5 33 76.7 6 14.0 5 11.6 2 4.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 2 4.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 49. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar Cina di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Chinese students in friendship in your school? Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 32 94.1 5 11.6 18 41.9 7 20.6 25 58.1 39 90.7 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 35 81.4 4 9.3 28 82.4 1 2.3 10 23.3 3 8.8 2 4.7 24 55.8 4 9.3 1 2.3 2 4.7 23 53.5 6 14.0 6 14.0 223 50. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda rasa membantu anda mengeratkan perhubungan persahabatan dengan pelajar-pelajar India di sekolah anda? Main language/languages you think help you to bond with Indian students in friendship in your school? Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 32 94.1 17 39.5 9 20.9 6 17.6 35 81.4 26 60.5 34 79.1 1 2.3 27 79.4 7 16.3 5 11.6 4 11.8 18 41.9 11 25.6 1 2.3 22 51.2 10 23.3 3 7.0 51. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-pelajar Melayu memahami apa yang anda kata?Main language/languages you use when you do not want Malay students to know what you are saying? Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority English less Punjabi Majority Mandarin less English Majority English less Mandarin Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % No. % 13 38.2 3 7.0 6 14.0 11 32.4 9 20.9 13 30.2 7 20.6 3 7.0 35 81.4 1 2.3 1 2.9 5 11.6 1 2.3 1 2.9 37 86.0 3 7.0 2 5.9 1 2.3 2 4.7 6 17.6 14 41.2 8 23.5 19 44.2 4 11.8 9 20.9 1 2.9 3 7 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.3 1 2.9 1 2.3 11 25.6 2 4.7 1 2.3 4 9.3 4 9.3 5 11.6 224 52. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-pelajar Cina memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Chinese students to know what you are saying? Malay 34 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination Chinese 43 No. % Indian 44 No. % 26 76.5 6 3 8.8 17 39.5 6 14.0 4 11.8 9 20.9 38 88.4 1 2.3 1 2.9 3 7 6 14 2 5.9 11 25.6 1 2.3 3 8.8 5 11.6 22 64.7 2 4.7 3 7 3 7 3 7 1 2.3 18 41.9 4 9.3 8 18.6 2 4.7 2 4.7 1 2.3 3 8.8 14.0 1 2.3 2 4.7 2 4.7 2 4.7 No. % 5 11.6 53. Bahasa/bahasa-bahasa utama yang anda gunakan bila anda tidak mahu pelajar-pelajar India memahami apa yang anda kata? Main language/languages you use when you do not want Indian students to know what you are saying? Malay 34 No. 21 % 61.8 Chinese 43 No. % 2 4.7 7 20.6 12 1 2.9 Language Choices Malay English Tamil Punjabi Mandarin Cantonese Other languages/dialects Not Available Majority Malay less English Majority English less Malay Majority Tamil less English Majority Tamil less Malay Majority English less Tamil Majority Punjabi less English Majority Punjabi less Malay Majority Mandarin less English Majority Mandarin less Malay Majority Cantonese less English Majority Cantonese less Malay Majority English less Cantonese Other combination 1 27.9 Indian 44 No. 10 % 23.3 19 44.2 12 27.9 3 7.0 1 2.3 2.9 6 14.0 1 2.9 37 86.0 8 18.6 4 11.8 1 2.3 4 9.3 3 8.8 2 4.7 18 52.9 5 11.6 6 17.6 7 16.3 6 14.0 4 9.3 3 7.0 3 7.0 1 2.3 1 2.3 2.3 1 2.3 1 2 4.7 13 30.2 4 9.3 3 7.0 4 9.3 4 9.3 1 2.3 225