October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
Original Paper
Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing:
A Content Analysis Based on the Social Capital Theory
, Abbas Ebadi2
Mojgan Firouzbakht1
, Mohammad Esmaeil Riahi3
, Aram Trigar4
, Maryam Nikpour5*
1. Assistant Professor, Department of Nursing-Midwifery, Comprehensive Health Research Center, Babol Branch, Islamic Azad University, Babol, Iran.
2. Professor, Behavioral Sciences Research Center, Life Style Institute, School of Nursing, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
3. Associated Professor, Department of Social Sciences, School of Social Sciences, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran.
4. Professor, Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran.
5. Non-Communicable Pediatric Disease Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran.
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Citation Firouzbakht M, Ebadi A, Esmaeil Riahi M, Trigar A, Nikpour M. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Child-
bearing: A Content Analysis Based on the Social Capital Theory. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273. https://doi.
org/10.32598/jhnm.32.4.2243
Running Title Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing
:
https://doi.org/10.32598/jhnm.32.4.2243
ABSTRACT
Article info:
Received: 03/05/2021
Accepted: 07/05/2022
Available Online: 01/09/2022
Introduction: Social capital has potential effects on reproductive health and childbearing
behaviors. However, there is limited information about its relationship with childbearing.
Objective: This study aimed to explore female healthcare providers’ experiences of
childbearing based on the social capital theory.
Materials and Methods: This qualitative study was conducted from July 2018 to February
2019 on 15 female healthcare workers in healthcare centers in Babol City, Iran. The
participants were purposively recruited with maximum variation respecting their age,
work experience, educational level, and occupation. The study data were collected
through 15 semi-structured interviews and analyzed using directed qualitative content
analysis.
Keywords:
Results: The participants were female healthcare providers working in hospitals or healthcare
centers of the University of Medical Science. Their Mean±SD age and work experience were
35±8.25 and 10±7.5 years, respectively. The extracted codes during data analysis were
grouped into three predetermined main categories, namely structural social capital (social
learning and conformation to social norms), cognitive social capital (social beliefs and values
with three subcategories, namely religious beliefs, gender preference, and social stigma), and
relational social capital (support and trust). The most critical factors affecting participants’
childbearing behaviors were trust in their support systems and conformation to social norms.
Healthcare providers,
Female, Reproductive, Social,
Qualitative research
Conclusion: The different dimensions of social capital can affect childbearing behaviors.
Therefore, social capital should be considered when designing population and reproductive
health policies.
* Corresponding Author:
Maryam Nikpour, Assistant of Professor
Address: Non-Communicable Pediatric Disease Research Center, Health Research Institute, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran.
Tel: +98 (11) 32346963
E-mail: maryamnikpour19@yahoo.com
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October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
Highlights
• Female workers have more extensive relationships with people and greater access to reproductive health information and contraceptive methods; hence, their childbearing-related beliefs and attitudes are affected by social factors
such as social capital.
• Different dimensions of social capital are related to childbearing behaviors among women. Childbearing is not only
a biological phenomenon but also a social phenomenon.
• Female healthcare workers’ access to different social resources can affect their childbearing behaviors through religious beliefs, gender preference, social stigma, support and trust, social learning, and conformation to social norms.
Plain Language Summary
The high fertility decline in Iranian societies has created concern about the aging population in the future. Women’s
attitudes towards their maternal and spousal roles have significantly changed their childbearing behaviors. Social
capital can be significantly related to behaviors by creating the possibility of information exchange, facilitating access
to resources, fostering cultural values and norms, and affecting beliefs and attitudes. This study investigated female
healthcare providers’ experiences and perceptions of childbearing based on the social capital theory. Our results
showed that different dimensions of social capital affect childbearing behaviors among women. Childbearing is not
only a biological phenomenon but also a social phenomenon.
Introduction
he global population is rapidly aging due to
many factors, including decreased fertility. In
Iran, the fertility rate has decreased very rapidly and exceptionally by 70% [1], i.e., from
seven children per woman in the early 1980s
to 1.6 children in 2011 in the last three decades [2, 3],
and 1.5 children in 2015 [4]. This rate is estimated to
reach 1.3 children in the next two decades [5]. According to the World Bank estimations, the downward trend
of population growth in Iran will result in a population
growth rate of less than 1% by 2025, causing the complete aging of the population [6].
T
Decreased childbearing is one of the main factors behind decreased population growth in Iran. Factors contributing to decreased childbearing include improved
educational level of women, increased female employment rate, governmental policies for population control
[7], religious authorities’ support, reduced neonatal
death rate and increased marriage age [8]. Moreover,
women’s attitudes toward their maternal and spousal
roles have significantly changed their childbearing behaviors [9, 10].
266
Social Capital (SC) has potential effects on women’s
childbearing behaviors. SC consists of active relationships among people, which include trust, mutual perception, shared values, and behaviors that connect the
members of a human network and facilitate their collaboration [11]. Based on organizational SC theory, social capital has three main dimensions of structural, cognitive, and relational. Structural SC encompasses social
networks, SC’s main idea, and their components [12,
13]. The cognitive domain includes the shared perception of the members of a network about their common
goals and dominant values. The relational dimension refers to the quality of relationships in the network. Trust,
a key component of SC, is in the relational dimension
[14]. SC can significantly affect behaviors by creating the
possibility of information exchange, facilitating access
to resources, fostering cultural values and norms, and
affecting beliefs and attitudes [15].
Employment is a significant factor contributing to SC
and hence, may affect childbearing. Employees spend
a great deal of time at the workplace dealing with different people. Therefore, the workplace is considered a
significant source of SC [16]. Female workers have more
extensive relationships with people and greater access
to reproductive health information and contraceptive
methods; hence, their childbearing-related beliefs and
attitudes are affected by social factors such as SC.
Firouzbakht M, et al. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273
October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
Several earlier studies have shown the significant relationship of SC with childbearing [17-20]. A qualitative study into
female workers’ childbearing behaviors also showed that intra- and extra-occupational challenges moved female workers towards having a few children [21].
However, there is limited information about the experiences of women workers with resource-related SC in
the workplace and childbearing behaviors. Therefore,
the present study was conducted to explore female
workers’ experiences and perceptions of childbearing
based on the SC theory. Qualitative studies provide
a better and deeper understanding of health-related
problems and their behavioral and environmental determinants from the perspectives of those affected by
these problems [22]. This study aimed to explore female
healthcare providers’ experiences of childbearing based
on the social capital theory.
Materials and Methods
This qualitative study was conducted from July 2018
to February 2019. The study population consisted of female healthcare workers in healthcare centers in Babol
County, North of Iran. Workers with a history of infertility and those with no child were not included. Eligible
workers were selected through a purposive sampling
method with maximum variation regarding their age,
marital status, and educational level. For this purpose,
by referring to different wards of hospitals and clinics,
women who met the inclusion criteria were identified.
After explaining the study objectives and obtaining their
consent to participate, the appropriate time at the beginning or end of the work shift and place were determined to hold the study interviews. After reviewing the
inclusion criteria, the participants were invited for an
interview. Five participants refused to be interviewed.
The reasons were lack of time or personal matters. Data
were saturated after 15 interviews with 15 participants.
The study data were collected through in-depth semistructured interviews guided by the dimensions of the
organizational SC theory [12]. The interview guide is presented in Table 1. The interviews were conducted by the
first author: a female researcher who was appropriately
skilled in qualitative data collection techniques. The
main interview questions were developed and validated
based on the SC theory. Besides the main open-ended
questions, probing questions were used to collect more
detailed information [23]. At the end of each interview,
the interviewee was provided with the opportunity to
talk about issues not addressed in the interview. Fifteen
face-to-face interviews were conducted. All participants
were interviewed once, and the length of the interviews
ranged from 30 to 45 minutes. Sampling was continued
up to the point of data saturation, i.e., when no new
data and categories were obtained from interviews [24].
All interviews were conducted in a private place, and
participants were free to openly express their thoughts,
feelings, and perceptions [25]. After obtaining permission, interviews were recorded using a cell phone.
Data trustworthiness was ensured via the four criteria
of credibility, dependability, confirmability, and transferability [26]. Prolonged engagement with the study subject matter over 6 months, as well as member checking,
helped ensure credibility. During member checking, participants were asked to check whether the codes really
conveyed their experiences. Two experts in qualitative
research in health and social sciences ensured confirmability through peer checking. To ensure transferability,
sampling was done with maximum variation regarding
participants’ age, educational level, number of children, and occupation. Moreover, dependability was
ensured through holding semi-structured interviews,
using structured processes for data documentation and
interpretation, simultaneous data analysis by two study
authors, and comparison of the results of their analyses.
Table 1. Guide question for interviews
Dimension of the
Organizational Social Capital
Questions
Structural
What were your support resources? How did they affect your childbearing?
How did the support from your spouse, family, workplace, and colleagues affect your childbearing?
Relational
What were the effects of media and advertisement on your childbearing?
Did the opinion of others (your family, collagenous, others) affect your childbearing?
How? Please explain more.
Cognitive
How did your religious orientation and social beliefs affect your childbearing?
Was there any conflict in your family or social culture with your childbearing? How? Please explain more.
Firouzbakht M, et al. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273
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October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
Before each interview, the interviewee was provided
with information about the aim and methods of the
study, data collection procedures, eligibility criteria,
the benefits of participation in the study, her freedom
to voluntarily participate in the study, and confidential
management of the study data. Then, informed consent
for participation was obtained, and the interview was
recorded with her consent. Each interview was held
with an appointment at the interviewee’s workplace.
Data analysis was performed through directed qualitative content analysis. In this method, data coding is
performed based on an existing theory or the results of
previous studies. This method aims to validate or further develop a conceptual framework or theory [26,
27]. Accordingly, each interview was immediately transcribed and read several times to grasp its main idea.
Then, primary codes were generated by identifying and
coding the meaning units. The generated codes were
combined and categorized into subcategories according
to their similarities. Subcategories were also grouped
based on their similarities into the three predetermined
main categories, i.e., the structural, cognitive, and relational dimensions of SC. We used Onenote for the
analysis.
Results
Data were saturated after 15 interviews with 15 participants. Their Mean±SD age and work experience were
35±8.25 and 10±7.5 years, respectively. Table 2 presents
their characteristics.
Data analysis resulted in the development of 32 primary codes, which were grouped into three main categories of cognitive, relational, and structural SC.
The first category was cognitive social capital. This category included social beliefs and values with three subcategories of religious beliefs, gender preference, and
social stigma.
Religious Beliefs
Religious beliefs affect behaviors and desires. Islam
greatly emphasizes childbearing and disapproves of
behaviors such as abortion. Based on their religious beliefs, some participants avoided abortion even if their
pregnancies were unwanted.
Table 2. Summary of participant’s characteristics
268
No.
Age (y)
Number of Children
Educational Level
Ward
Occupation
1
27
1
Bachelor’s degree
Outpatient clinic
Midwife
2
34
2
Bachelor’s degree
Cardiology
Nurse
3
38
2
Master’s degree
Surgical
Nurse
4
41
3
PhD
Outpatient clinic
Physician
5
36
2
Master’s
Gynecology
Midwife
6
35
2
PhD
Outpatient clinic
Dentist
7
42
2
Bachelor’s degree
Surgical
Nurse
8
53
2
Bachelor’s degree
Internal medicine
Head nurse
9
38
1
Associate degree
Outpatient clinic
Pharmacology technician
10
40
3
Bachelor’s degree
Outpatient clinic
Midwife
11
48
2
Bachelor’s degree
Internal medicine
Head nurse
12
35
1
Bachelor’s degree
Radiology
Radiography technician
13
46
2
Associate degree
Laboratory
Laboratory technician
14
40
1
Bachelor’s degree
Pathology
Laboratory technician
15
50
1
Diploma
Surgical
Clerk
Firouzbakht M, et al. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273
October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
“Well, I have religious beliefs. I had an unwanted pregnancy for the second time. But I did not want to break
my repentance [and to have another elective abortion].
I had no excuse this time and thus, continued my pregnancy (Participant 10, 40 years old).”
“We believe God gives a child, and we consider him/
her a gift from God, and abortion is sin (Participant 12,
35 years old).”
Gender Preference
Gender preference also can affect childbearing. Some
families may prefer a certain child gender due to sociocultural obligations and expectations. Gender preference may result in more pregnancies. Some participants
had certain gender preferences due to their cultural beliefs and considered their desire to have a child with a
preferred gender as a reason for pregnancy.
“My husband did not support me. If I had a son, I could
rely on him. I would feel proud if I had a grown-up son
(Participant 11, 48 years old).”
“I thought if I did not have a daughter, I would not have
a friend, and I would not have anyone to take care of me
when I got older (Participant 4, 41 years old).”
Social Stigma
Infertility concerns directly affect childbearing. Infertile women who consider childbearing essential and
important hardly achieve psychosocial balance. Some
participants reported concerns and negative attitudes
about social stigma related to infertility or multiple
pregnancies as significant factors affecting childbearing.
“We have a tendency of delayed pregnancy in our family. We have always been subjected to social stigma for
this. I gave birth to my first child just to prevent others
from considering me infertile (Participant 14, 40 years
old).”
“I decided not to be pregnant for a few years after
marriage, and my husband’s family thought I was infertile (Participant 9, 38 years old).”
Another category was relational SC which included
trust and support.
Trust and Support
All participants directly or indirectly reported that they
received support from their families, spouses, and work-
place. Support refers to behaviors or actions for helping
others. It may be tangible or intangible. Examples of
intangible support are empathy, kindness, help in childrearing, and suggesting strategies for childrearing. Our
participants noted that their trust in the availability of
support (by their families, spouses, and workplace) significantly affected their decision for childbearing.
“After birth, I went on parental leave. After the leave,
it was summer, and my husband, who is a teacher, was
at home and cared for the baby. After that, I took the
baby to a nursery until I could finish my mandatory postgraduation service. Sometimes, we had problems, so
my family or neighbor took care of my baby. Now, my
sister lives near us, and I take my baby there (Participant
2, 34 years old).”
“My parents took us downstairs to take care of our
children, and I went to work with confidence (Participant 1, 27 years old).”
The last category was structural SC and included social
learning and conformation to social norms.
Relationships in social networks also affect childbearing and contraceptive behaviors. In these networks,
individuals receive information about childbearing and
others’ childbearing experiences. Participants noted
that relationships in social networks affected their childbearing differently, including social learning and conformation to social norms.
Social learning
Social learning changes behaviors and intentions. Attendance at social networks, such as families, friends,
and workplaces, results in information exchange and,
thereby, can affect behaviors. Moreover, mass media
give different information to people and thereby affect childbearing behaviors and ideals through social
learning. Media messages affect collective behaviors by
forming new norms and indirectly affect social interactions through encouragement.
“I go to Quran recitation classes, where some people
talk about their lives. There, I learn things from their
plans (Participant 9, 38 years old).”
“Media and messages provided by TV and healthcare
centers significantly affect people’s decisions about the
intended number of their children (Participant 3, 38
years old).”
Firouzbakht M, et al. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273
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Conformation to social norms
Our participants noted that one of their reasons for
childbearing was to conform to social norms and to
respond to the requests and wishes of their significant
others, such as their families, their spouses’ families,
and their friends. They highlighted that they conformed
to social norms to more conveniently live in their social
environments and to be accepted better by others. Conformation to social norms was prominent in the case of
the first pregnancy.
“Now, the intended number of children is affected by
social conditions. Having only one child has become a
norm in our society. New messages for having three children are just for those who strictly adhere to religious
beliefs. Most people, including most of our colleagues,
have only one child (Participant 12, 35 years old).”
“Now, most families have two children, and it is a norm
in our society (Participant 5, 36 years old).”
Discussion
This study explored female workers’ experiences of
childbearing based on the social capital theory. Childbearing in female health workers could be affected by
the nature of the job (e.g., shift work, job stress); therefore, the experience of childbearing in female health
workers can differ from other workers. Childbearing
behaviors of female workers in the present study were
grouped into the three main dimensions of the organizational SC theory, namely structural, cognitive, and
relational SC. Findings showed that female workers’ access to different social resources could affect their childbearing behaviors through religious beliefs, gender preference, social stigma, support and trust, social learning,
and conformation to social norms. In this study, from
the participant’s viewpoint, social learning and conformation of social norms (structural SC) affected childbearing behaviors.
The structural dimension of SC refers to the general pattern of relationships among people and includes social
networks. Structural SC affects beliefs and behaviors by
providing opportunities for information exchange, social learning, and social coping. Social coping is a known
factor affecting behaviors, ideals, and wishes [27, 28]. In
recent years, significant changes have occurred in Iranians’ values and attitudes with regard to childbearing,
marriage, and family [3, 29]. Moreover, most couples do
not seek to fulfill their emotional needs through childbearing and hence, have no great desire for it [30]. On
270
the whole, decreased childbearing reflects changes in
moral and social norms in societies that are conveyed to
women through media and interpersonal relationships.
A former study showed that social structures such as
social learning and social pressure affect childbearingrelated beliefs and norms [31]. Social learning and conformation to social norms through media and social networks could change beliefs and values. When women
attempt to develop their feminine identity outside their
homes and not through motherhood and maternal
roles, such changes would decrease childbearing.
This study also revealed that resources of support
and trust (relational SC) affect childbearing behaviors.
The relational dimension of SC describes the different
types of personal relationships which affect behavior
through support and trust [32]. Another study found
support as a significant factor affecting childbearing intention among women in Eastern Europe and reported
that childbearing is associated with many tangible and
intangible costs, which can be covered through tangible
and intangible sources in social networks [19]. However,
a study in Iran reported that the intention to have the
first pregnancy had no significant relationship with perceived social support. The authors attributed this insignificant relationship to the fact that in Iranian society,
women need to have their first pregnancy under others’ pressure to prove that they are fertile. That study
also reported that the number of pregnancies and the
intention to have more pregnancies had a significant relationship with social support [33]. Of course, tangible
support (including access to financial resources, help in
child care and household activities, and collaboration
for solving childrearing problems) and intangible support (such as emotional support) have no significant effects on fertility; instead, they have relationships with
childbearing through making life easier, helping people
protect their social status, and improving financial status [34]. In Iran, most female workers in health centers
are shift workers [35]. This study also included female
workers in healthcare centers, and most were shift
workers. Support by spouse and other family members
for providing care to children and doing household activities is crucial for female shift workers. These women
also need organizational support, such as the possibility
of going on leave, having a flexible work schedule, and
the availability of nursery facilities at the workplace.
In this study, from the participants’ perspective religious beliefs, gender preference, and stigma (cognitive
SC) affect childbearing behaviors.
Firouzbakht M, et al. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273
October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
Table 3. Main categories and subcategories of data analysis based on the organizational social capital theory
Participants’ Quotations
Now, the intended number of children is affected by social
conditions. Having only one child has become a norm in
our society. Most of our colleagues have only one child.
This is a social norm.
Rearing a daughter is very difficult these days. Society is
not suitable for daughters. Families face difficulties when
their second baby is a girl. They prefer a male child even if
they already have two male children.
We lived in a building where my family lived. This was the
main reason for my second pregnancy. My mother lived
downstairs. She helped me in caring for children. Moreover, I went to her house in case of problems, talked with
her, and got calm. I would never have become pregnant
for the second time if my mother was not with me.
Code
Subcategory
Main Category
Determining the intended number of children
based on social norms
Social networks
Structural social capital
Gender preference
Shared beliefs and
values
Cognitive social capital
Spouse and family support for caring for baby
Trust and support
Relational social capital
The cognitive dimension of SC refers to shared interpretations, manifestations, and semantic systems, with
aspects such as shared language, codes, and stories.
Cognitive SC promotes integrity, a sense of security,
and self-esteem [32]. Changes in childbearing behaviors have a close relationship with changes in the value
systems of individuals [36]. Childbearing based on gender preference is common in most societies [37]. For
instance, many Iranians believe that male children are
powerful, and hence, the desire to have a male child
may affect their childbearing behaviors [38] (Table 3).
Our study showed cultural values as a major factor affecting female workers’ childbearing behaviors. For
instance, our participants referred to their preference
over having a child from a certain gender as a reason
for having the second or the third pregnancy. Some of
them preferred to have a boy child to be a source of support for them, while some others preferred a girl child to
be a friend and fellow for them. Although, social stigma
through infertility or having some children affect fertility
behaviors in women.
Another study in Iran also showed religious orientation as a significant factor affecting the intended number of children and reported that religiosity had a significant positive relationship with the value of a child
for couples [39, 40]. Modernity and globalization have
considerably affected social and cultural capital in Iran
and, thereby, have significantly changed childbearing
behaviors among Iranians. These changes have altered
Iranians’ childbearing attitudes and caused them to
avoid parenthood [41]. Our participants also referred
to religious beliefs as the main factor affecting their intention to continue with an unwanted pregnancy. They
considered abortion a sin and hence, avoided it in case
of an unwanted pregnancy.
Some limitations of the study need to be pointed out.
While childbearing is affected by couples’ attitudes and
beliefs, the study sample consisted only of women who
worked in healthcare settings and hence, had greater
awareness of and control over their childbearing behaviors due to their relatively good financial status. Accordingly, study findings may not be generalizable to all
social classes. Studies on female workers in different
settings are recommended to provide more in-depth
information about their childbearing behaviors.
This study supports the hypothesis that different dimensions of SC affect childbearing behaviors among
women. Childbearing is not only a biological phenomenon but also a social phenomenon. Quantitative studies are recommended to test this hypothesis.
Different studies have been conducted on the downward trend of childbearing in Iran. However, none
of them addressed the role of SC. The present study
showed that the different dimensions of SC affect childbearing behaviors. Therefore, population and reproductive health authorities and policymakers are recommended to consider SC improvement as a strategy to
prevent population reduction in Iran.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
The Ethics Committee of Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran approved this study (Code:
MUBABOL.HRI.REC.1395.84). All participants were informed about the study aims and procedures. Moreover, they were ensured that participation was voluntary. The confidentiality of participants’ information
was guaranteed. The participants signed a consent form
which was attached to the study instrument.
Firouzbakht M, et al. Female Healthcare Providers’ Experiences of Childbearing. J Holist Nurs Midwifery. 2022; 32(4):265-273
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October 2022, Volume 32, Number 4
Funding
This study was funded by the Vice Chancellor of Research and Technology, Babol University of Medical
Sciences. The funder had a role in data collection and
analysis but had no role in the decision to publish or
preparation of the manuscript.
Authors' contributions
[9] Shojaei J, Yazdkhasti B. A systematic review of studies of fertility decline in the last two decades. Women's Strategic Studies. 2017 May
22; 19(75 (spring 2017)):137-59. [DOI:10.22095/JWSS.2017.51750]
[10] Hosseini H, Bagi B. Socioeconomic, cultural and demographic determinants of childbearing desires among married women attending health centers in Hamedan (2012). Journal of Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences. 2014; 18(1):35-43. [Link]
[11] Firouzbakht M, Tirgar A. Workplace social capital and employee
health: a systematic review study. Journal of ergonomi. 2017;
5(1):18-25.[DOI:10.21859/joe-05013]
Study conception and design, drafting of the manuscript and critical revision: Mojgan Firouzbakht, Abass
Ebadi, Mohammad Esmaeil Riahi, Aram Trigar, and
Maryam Nikpour; Analysis and interpretation of data:
Abass Ebadi and Mojgan Firouzbakht; Acquisition of
data: Mojgan Firouzbakht; Read and approved the final
manuscript: All authors.
[12] Nahapiet J, Ghoshal S. Social capital, intellectual capital, and the
organizational advantage. Academy of Management Review. 1998;
23(2):242-66. [DOI:10.5465/amr.1998.533225]
Conflict of interest
[15] Ghahtarani A, Sheikhmohammady M, Rostami M. The impact
of social capital and social interaction on customers’ purchase
intention, considering knowledge sharing in social commerce
context. Journal of Innovation & Knowledge. 2020; 5(3):191-9.
[DOI:10.1016/j.jik.2019.08.004]
The authors declared no competing interests.
[13] Andrews R. Organizational social capital, structure and
performance.
Human
Relations.
2010;
63(5):583-608.
[DOI:10.1177/0018726709342931]
[14] Fukuyama F. Trust: The social virtues and the creation of prosperity. New York: Free press; 1995.
[16] Firouzbakht M, Tirgar A, Hajian-Tilaki K, Ebadi A, Bakouei F,
Nikpour M, et al. Social capital and fertility behaviors among female workers in healthcare settings: study protocol of a sequential
explanatory mixed methods study. Reprod Health. 2018; 15(1):67.
[DOI:10.1186/s12978-018-0507-6.] [PMID] [PMCID]
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