Religion in
Southeast Asia
Religion in
Southeast Asia
An Encyclopedia of
Faiths and Cultures
JESUDAS M. ATHYAL, EDITOR
o
ABC-CLIO
Santa Barbara, California
11
Denver, Colorado
II
Oxford, England
Contents
Alphabetical List of Entries
Topical List of Entries
ix
Preface
xv
Introduction
Encyclopedia Entries
Copyright © 2015 by ABC-CLl 0, LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Religion in Southeast Asia: an encyclopedia of faiths and cultures / Jesudas M. Athyal,
editor.
pages em
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-61069-249-6 (hardback) - ISBN 978-1-61069-250-2 (ebook)
1. Southeast Asia-Reiigion-Encyclopedias. 1. Athyal, Jesudas, 1957- editor.
BL2050.R43 2015
200.959'03-dc23
2014038752
ISBN: 978-1-61069-249-6
EISBN: 978-1-61069-250-2
19 18 17 16 15
1 2 3 4 5
This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.
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This book is printed on acid-free paper (00)
Manufactured in the United States of America
vii
xvii
1
Selected Bibliography
363
About the Editor and Contributors
373
Index
381
Alphabetical List of Entries
Ahmadiyya
Aisyiyah and Nasyiatul Aisyiyah
Alatas, Syed Hussein
Ancestor Worship
Animism
Armenians
Atheism!Agnosticism
Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib alBaha'i Faith
Bela, Carlos Filipe Ximenes
Bhikkhu, Buddhadasa
Bhikkhuni, Dhammananda
Brunei Darussalam
Buddhism
Calungsod, Pedro
Cambodia
Cao Dai
Christian Conference of Asia
Christianity
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Colonialism
Communism
Confucianism
Contextualization
Dance and Drama (Theater)
Daoism (Taoism)
Dhammakaya
DharmaIDhamma
Diaspora
Due, Thich Quang
Education
Engaged Buddhism
Ethnicity
Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences
Feminism and Islamic Traditions
Freedom of Religion
Fundamentalism
Ghosananda, Maha
Globalization
Goddess Traditions
Hanh, Thich Nhat
Hinduism
Hoa Hao Buddhism
Humanism
Heto, ReynaIdo C.
Indonesia
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
]ainism
Jesuits
Judaism
Khmer Buddhism
Koyama, Kosuke
Kyaw Than, U
Lao Tzu (Laozi)
Laos
Liberation Theologies
Localization of Hinduism in Indonesia
Loh, I-to
Maarif, Ahmad Syafi'i
Malaysia
Melanesian Religion
Messianic Movements
Minorities
Missionary Movements
Morality
Muhammadiyah
Music
Muslimat NU
Myanmar (Burma)
MythIMythology
Nacpil, Emerita
Nahdlatul Ulama
Nationalism
Oka, Gedong Bagus
Orientalism
Papua New Guinea
Peace-Building
Pesantren
viii
ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
Philippines
Pilgrimage
Popular Religiou
Postcolonial Theory
Puppetry
Rais, Muhammad Amien
Reform Movements
Religion and Society
Religious Conversions
Religious Discrimination and Intolerance
Ritual Dynamics
Ruiz, lorenzo
Santi Asoke
Sauto, Iguacia del Espi ritu
Sathya Sai Baba Movemeut
Sayadaw, Mahasi
Sayadaw, Thamauya
Secularism
Sexuality
Shamanism
Shari'a
Siddique, Mnhammad Abdul Aleem
Simatupaug, T. B.
Siu, Cardinal Jaime Lechica
Siugapore
Sisters in Islam
Topical List of Entries
Sivaraksa, Sulak
Southeast Asiau Religious iu the USA
Spirit Mediumship
Study of Religiou
Sufism
Syncretism
Thailaud
Thaipusam
Thien Buddhism
Timor Leste (East Timor)
Tourism
Uplanders
Vietnam
Wahid, Abdurrahman
Wali Sauga (Wali Songo)
Water Festivals
Women
Women's Monastic Communities
Zoroastlianism
BIOGRAPHIES
Alatas, Syed Hussein
Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib alBela, Carlos Filipe Ximenes
Bhikkhu, Buddhadasa
Bhikkhuui, Dhammananda
Calungsod, Pedro
Due, Thich Quaug
Emerito, Naepil
Ghosananda, Maha
Hanh, Thich Nhat
!leto, Reynaldo C.
Koyama, Kosuke
Kyaw Than, U
Loh, I-to
Maarif, Ahmad Syafi'i
Oka, Gedong Bagus
Sayaclaw, Mahasi
Siddique, Muhammad Abdul Aleem
Rais, Muhammad Amien
Ruiz, Lorenzo
Santo, Ignacia del Espiritu
Sayadaw, Thamanya
Simatupang, T. B.
Sin, Cardinal Jaime Lachica
Sivaraksa, Sulak
Wahid, Abdurrahman
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
Buddhism
Christianity
Islam
Malaysia
Minorities
Religious Conversions
Religious Disclimination and Intolerance
Shmi'a
BUDDHISM
Bhikkhu, Buddhaclasa
Bhikkhuni, Dhammananda
Buddhism
DharmaIDhamma
Due, Thich Quang
Engaged Bucldhism
Ghosananda, Maha
Hanh, Thich Nhat
Haa Hao Buddhism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Khmer Buddhism
Liberation Theologies
Missionary Movements
Pilgrimage
Religious Conversions
Santi Asoke
Sayadaw, Mahasi
Sayaclaw, Thamanya
Sivarakaa, Sulak
Thien Buddhism
Water Festivals
x
TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
GENERAL RELIGIONS
CAMBODIA
Buddhism
Cao Dai
Christianity
Colonialism
Etlinicity
Gliosananda, Maha
Hinduism
Indonesia
Islam
Klimer Buddhism
Minorities
Vietnam
CHRISTIANITY
Armenians
Belo, Carlos Filipe Ximenes
Calungsod, Pedro
Christian Conference of Asia
Christianity
Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences
Ileto, Reynaldo C
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Jesuits
Koyama, Kosuke
Kyaw Than, U
Liberation Theologies
Loh, I-to
Missionary Movements
Nacpil, Emerito
Pilgrimage
Religious Conversions
Ruiz, Lorenzo
Santo, Ignacia del Espiritu
Simatupang, T. B.
Sin, Cardinal Jaime Lachica
Diaspora
Daoism (Taoism)
Etlinicity
Islam
Missionary Movements
COCOS (KEELING) ISLANDS
Baha'i Faith
Christianity
Christmas Island
Diaspora
Etlinicity
Islam
COUNTRIES
Brunei Darussalam
Cambodia
Christmas Island
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Animism
Confucianism
Dance and Drama (Tlieater)
Daoism (Taoism)
Goddess Traditions
MythlMythology
Popular Religion
Puppetry
Ritual Dynamics
Shamanism
Syncretism
HINDUISM
CHRISTMAS ISLAND
Baha'i Faith
Buddhism
Christianity
Cocos (Keeling) Islands
Confucianism
Contextualization
Ancestor worship
Myanmar (Bunna)
Papua New Guinea
Philippines
Singapore
Thailand
Timor Leste (East Timor)
Vietnam
DliarmalDhamma
Hinduism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Localization of Hinduism in Indonesia
Missionary Movements
Oka, Gedong Bagus
Pilgrimage
Sathya Sai Baba Movement
Thaipusam
Water Festivals
INDONESIA
Ahmadiyya
Animism
Atheism!Agnosticism
Buddhism
Christianity
Communism
Hinduism
Islam
Localization of Hinduism in Indonesia
Muhammadiyah
Nahdlatul Ulama
Oka, Gedong Bagus
Pesantren
Shmi'a
ISLAM
Ahmadiyya
Aisyiyah and Nasyiatul Aisyiyah
Alatas, Syed Hussein
Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib alColonialism
Feminism and Islamic Traditions
Indonesia
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Liberation Theologies
Maarif, Ahmad Syafi'i
Malaysia
Minorities
Missionary Movements
Muhammadiyah
Muslimat NU
Nahdlatul Ulama
Pesantren
Pilgrimage
Rais, Muhammad Amien
Religious Conversions
Shari'a
Siddique, Muhammad Abdul Aleem
Sisters in Islam
Sufism
Wahid, Abdurrahman
Wali Sanga (Wali Songo)
LAOS
Animism
Baha'i Faith
Buddhism
Christianity
xi
xii
TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
Colonialism
Communism
Ethnicity
Freedom of Religion
Islam
Minorities
TOPICAL LIST OF ENTRIES
Missionary Movements
Religion and Society
Secularism
Spirit Mediumship
Thailand
Uplanders
MALAYSIA
Bnddhism
Christianity
Colonialism
Ethnicity
Freedom of Religion
Hindnism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
Religious Conversions
Shmi'a
Singapore
MOVEMENTS AND IDEOLOGIES
Ahmadiyya
Aisyiyah and Nasyiatul Aisyiyah
Ancestor Worship
Animism
Atheism/Agnosticism
Cao Dai
Christian Conference of Asia
Confucianism
Dance and Drama (Theater)
Daoism (Taoism)
Dhammakaya
Engaged Buddhism
Fundamentalism
Goddess Traditions
Hoa Hao Buddhism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Jesuits
Khmer Buddhism
Lao Tzu (Laozi)
Melanesian Religion
Messianic Movements
Muhammadiyah
Muslimat NU
Nahcllatul Ulama
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
Ahmadiyya
Ancestor Worship
Animism
Baha'i Faith
Christianity
Colonialism
Fundamentalism
Indonesia
Islam
Melanesian Religion
Missionary Movements
Morality
Shamanism
Spirit Mediumship
Syncretism
Women
PHILIPPINES
Buddhism
Calungsod, Pedro
Christianity
Colonialism
Contextualization
Ethnicity
Hinduism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
Liberation Theologies
Missionary Movements
Nacpil, Emerito
Religion and Society
Religious Conversions
Ruiz, Lorenzo
Santo, Ignacia clel Espiritu
Secularism
Sin, Cardinaljaime Lachica
Spirit Mediumship
Pesantren
Popular Religion
Re form Movements
Religious Conversions
Ritual Dynamics
Santi Asoke
Sathya Sai Baba Movement
Shamanism
Sisters in Islam
Study of Religion
Sufism
Thaipusam
Thien Buddhism
SINGAPORE
Buddhism
Christian Conference of Asia
Christianity
Colonialism
Daoism (Taoism)
Education
Freedom of Religion
Fundamentalism
Ethnicity
Globalization
Hinduism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
Malaysia
Minorities
Nationalism
Religion and Society
Secularism
THAILAND
MYANMAR (BURMA)
Buddhism
Christianity
Colonialism
DharmalDhamma
Ethnicity
Hinduism
Islam
Kyaw Than, U
Laos
Minorities
Missionary Movements
Nationalism
Religious Discrimination and Intolerance
Sayaclaw, Mahasi
Thailand
Buddhism
Confucianism
Daoism (Taoism)
Dhammakaya
Ethnicity
Fundamentalism
Hinduism
Islam
Koyama, Kosuke
Nationalism
Santi Asoke
Secularism
Spirit Mecliumship
Study of Religion
Sivaraksa, Sulak
Syncretism
Uplanders
xiii
xiv
TOPICAL liST OF ENTRIES
TIMOR LESTE (EAST TIMOR)
Bela, Carlos Filipe Ximenes
Christianity
Colonialism
Ethnicity
Freedom of Religion
Indonesia
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
Melanesian Religion
Minorities
Missionary Movements
Religious Conversions
Religious Discrimination and Intolerance
Preface
Religion in Southeast Asia: An Encyclopedia of Faiths and Cultures provides a compreVIETNAM
Buddhism
Cambodia
Cao Dai
Christianity
Colonialism
Confucianism
Daoism (Taoism)
Due, Thich Quang
Engaged Buddhism
Ethnicity
Goddess Traditions
Hanh, Thich Nhat
Haa Hao Buddhism
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
Laos
Minorities
Missionary Movements
MythlMythology
Popular Religion
Reform Movements
Ritual Dynamics
Shamanism
Spirit Mediumship
Syncretism
Thailand
WOMEN
Aisyiyah and Nasyiatul Aisyiyah
Brunei Darussalam
Buddhism
Christianity
Confucianism
Daoism (Taoism)
Diaspora
Education
Ethnicity
Feminism and Islamic Traditions
Fundamentalism
Globalization
Hinduism
Indonesia
Interreligious Relations and Dialogue
Islam
Judaism
Malaysia
Muhammadiyah
Muslimat NU
Myanmar (Burma)
Nahdlatul Ulama
Oka, Gedong Bagus
Philippines
Popular Religion
Religion and Society
Ritual Dynamics
Sexuality
Shari'a
Study of Religion
Thailand
Tourism
Vietnam
Women's Monastic Communities
hensive introduction to the complex world of the faiths and practices of the
Southeast Asians. Rapid changes in Asia and the West necessitated a publication
such as this. Increased migration to the United States in recent decades has redrawn
the societal and demographic map of this nation. Religions such as Buddhism,
Islam, and Hinduism and their institutions, beliefs, and cultures are already a part
of the landscape of the United States. The immigrants today playa high-profile role
at various sectors in this country, pointing toward the need for a closer understanding of their faiths. While the immigrants have brought the faiths and cultures of Asia
closer to the West, the forces of globalization have brought the traditions, cultures,
and lifestyles of the West closer to Asia. The emergent pluralist societies in both the
contexts, and the consequent challenges they raise, point toward the need for a publication such as this.
While this volume will be relevant to a wide cross-section of the society, more
specifically, it is addressed to several target groups. The primary audience of the
publication will be the high schools, colleges, and libraries of the United States.
Following the decision of the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) to recognize the study of religion as an integral part in meeting its Curriculum Standards,
the public schools and colleges in the counlry have started to focus more sharply on
a study of world religion. Reference materials that provide accurate and sufficient
infonnation to support sludent research on world religions will become absolutely
necessary in such a context. This volume, which provides comprehensive research
material on the religions and cullures of Southeast Asia, will enormously benefit students and researchers in broadening their horizon.
The encyclopedia provides valuable and user-friendly reference material for several other sections as well. Southeast Asia has rapidly emerged as a major buyer
and seller of goods for the American market. Understanding people and their religions and cultures is an essential part of sound business practices. Considering the
enormous potential of U.s.-Asian (including ASEAN) business dealings, this volume
will capture the interest of additional users such as business librarians, journalists,
and policy makers. In the context of globalization, the publication has the further
purpose of providing businesspersons and all those who deal with Southeast
Asians at diverse levels as well as the general public with nontechnical information.
As the American-Asian partnership in business grows, such resources would
become valuable.
Recent geopolitical developments and the increased American involvement at the
global level indicate that Southeast Asia will probably be a major arena for U.S.
u
UPLANDERS
The uplands in SDutheast Asia, as elsewhere, are Dften markedly different from IDwland areas, and this distinctiDn has been an impDrtant analytical dimensiDn Df
research in the regiDn. While historical states have spread in IDwland and cDastal
areas Df SDutheast Asia, the uplands are cDmmDnly characterized by nDncentralized, village-based sDcieties. The difference between uplands and IDwlands
is framed in sDmewhat different terms in insular SDutheast Asia and Dn the mainland. In insular SDutheast Asia, pDwerful pDlities based Dn trade histDrically
emerged Dn CDasts, while the hinterland provided trade gDDds, but was less integrated intD state structures. Thus, the distinctiDn is knDwn as Dne between cDastal,
dDwn-river regiDns and thDse up river. On the mainland, the genesis Df states was
based Dn permanent wet rice fields, but their influence ceased where the terrain is
more rugged and Dnly allDws for temporary dry rice fields, called shifting cultivatiDn
or swidden. FDr the upland areas Df the mainland, schDlars have used the terms
"SDutheast Asian Massif' and "ZDmia" in recent years. While world religiDns like
Buddhism Dn the mainland and Islam in IndDnesia spread in the IDwlands, Dften
as the state religiDns Df newly emerging pDlities, uplanders cDmmDnly practiced
IDcal religiDns, cDnventiDnally termed animist.
In the cDurse Df histDry, states and the religiDns assDciated with them slDwly
encroached Dn the highlands. HDwever, mDre Dr less efficient administrative structures were Dften Dnly established during the secDnd half Df the twentieth century,
especially Dn the mainland. In terms Df religiDn, animist uplanders respDnded in
fDur different ways tD IDwland influence: subtly including SDme IDwland religiDus
practices intD their lDcal systems; full conversiDn to the IDwland religiDn; conversiDn
tD a fDreign and markedly different religiDn, in particular Christianity; and
millenarianism.
CDnversiDn tD IDwland religiDn was Dften accDmpanied by slDw acculturatiDn,
and presumably the ancestDrs Df numerous current IDwlanders Driginated in the
uplands. HDwever, sDmetimes IDwland religiDn was adDpted in the uplands while
keeping upland cultural identities intact, as is the case with the Buddhist PhunDy
in LaDS. HDwever, uplanders' ethnic and religiDus identities can be cDnstantly shifting. Thus, anthropDIDgist Edmund Leach reported Dn perSDns whD passed as nDnBuddhist Kachin in the uplands and as Buddhist Shan in the IDwlands Df Myanmar.
The secDnd DptiDn is tD CDnvert tD a different world religiDn, but Dne that is
marked Dff from thDse Df the IDwlands. For example, many uplanders Df Myanmar
have cDnverted tD Christianity since the late nineteenth century. CDnversiDn is Dften
reasDned Dn the base Df IDcal SDciD-CDsmic cDncepts. As animism is based Dn careful
336
UPLANDERS
and laborious negotiations with spirit forces, Allah or Christ appear as superior
spirit protectors, or Buddhist ritual as an improved technique to control spirits.
Thus, Buddhism or Christianity were not perceived as alternative cosmologies but
as more efficient means to engage with the established cosmology. Also, conversion
promised a new way of engaging with new types of relationships, including global
trade and the expansion of the modern nation-state. Christianity in Myanmar or
Eastern Indonesia often proved to be an important means to articulate local identities in the face of aggressively expanding nation-states. Being Christian meant to
be different from the state.
A third option, even more explicit in its engagement with the increasing power of
state centers, consisted in millenarian uprisings. These characterized the mainland
of Southeast Asia much more than the archipelago. Millenarianism denotes the idea
that a catastrophic upturning of the established order is near, often leading to a more
just leadership, a golden age or the predominance of a previously oppressed group.
These movements were not restricted to uplanders, but often attracted any marginalized group.
Millenarian movements like the Phi Bun uprising in Thailand and Laos in the
early twentieth century were as political as they were religious. They often focus
on charismatic leaders and spread among people who experience themselves as disempowered. Millenarianism thus necessarily emerges in a context of strongly felt
social inequality. Characteristically, millenarian movements create their own cosmologies, but often make strong use of religious imagery borrowed from the outside, often from dominant and state religions. Thus, Kommadam, the leader of a
revolt in southern Laos in the first half of the twentieth century, was celebrated as
the Maitreya Buddha, the Buddha of the coming age, even though most of his followers were probably not Buddhist. Uprisings of the Hmong, an ethnic group originating from China, sometimes centered on the idea of regaining their mythical lost
script, a cultural feature that would put them on equal terms with the Chinese
empire or the lowland Southeast Asian states. Some of these millenarian cults still
survive today in a politically less volatile form, e.g. among Hmong in northern
Thailand.
All these types of responses to lowland states share a particular quality. Uplanders
often combine elements from their own local rituals with external elements, in order
to create constantly changing ritual systems. Sometimes, these systems serve to
stress local identity and the difference to lowlands. Sometimes, elements from lowland societies and religions were integrated into quite different societies in the
uplands. The process is highly selective and creative, but historically served to maintain upland identities. In many cases, only a limited number of elements from a lowland religion were integrated into upland ritual systems, as for example in the form
of Buddhist ritual verses endowed with healing powers.
Today, the state administration of the uplands has intensified. Therefore, the
forms that uplanders use to express their identities have changed. While some people try to escape from lowland prejudices about superstitious and unrefined
uplanders by embracing lowland lifestyles, others find new ways of showing their
distinctiveness to the world. This often takes the form of ritual. Typically, local
UPLANDERS
rituals like New Year festivals or harvest rituals are transformed and become platforms for performing folkloric versions of local culture. Shows of costumes and
dances, some newly invented, are less addressed to benevolent spirits but to
national and global media, state majorities, and tourists. These local culture festivals
can be called neither authentic nor inauthentic. Although they have little to do with
the rituals uplanders perforrued 50 years ago, they still serve the same purpose: to
relate them to an outside world of spirits and states, foreign religions, and peoples,
by selectively combining local usages with external ideas.
Guido Sprenger
See also: Ancestor Worship; Animism; Buddhism; Christianity; Contextualization;
Dance and Drama (Theater); Ethnicity; Indonesia; Islam; Laos; Messianic
Movements; Myanmar (Burma); MythlMythology; Religious Conversions; Ritual
Dynamics; Spirit Mediumship; Thailand; Tourism.
Further Reading
Kirsch, A. Thomas. Feasting and Social Oscillation: Religion and Society in Upland Southeast
Asia. Ithaca, NY: Comell University Press, 1973.
Leach, Edmund. Political Systems oj Highland Burma: A Study oj Kachin Social Structure.
London and New York: Continuum, 2001 [19541.
Michaud, Jean. Historical DictionalY oj the Peoples oj the Southeast Asian Massif Lanham, MD;
Toronto; and Oxford: Scarecrow Press, Historical DictionaIies of Peoples and Cultures
no. 4, 2006.
Scott, James c. TIle Art oj Not Being Governed: An Anarchist History oj Upland Southeast Asia.
New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2009.
337