The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance, Attributes, and
Modes
Oxford Handbooks Online
The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics:
Substance, Attributes, and Modes
Yitzhak Melamed
The Oxford Handbook of Spinoza
Edited by Michael Della Rocca
Print Publication Date: Oct 2017
Subject: Philosophy, History of Western Philosophy (Post-Classical), Metaphysics
Online Publication Date: Sep 2013 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195335828.013.006
Abstract and Keywords
This chapter provides an outline of the main philosophical and interpretative problems
involved in Spinoza’s key concepts: Substance, Attribute, and Modes. Spinoza’s God has
infinitely many qualities that constitute, or are adequately conceived as constituting, his
essence, while the other qualities of Spinoza’s God, though not constituting God’s
essence, follow necessarily from God’s essence. Spinoza calls the former “Attributes
[attributa]” and the latter “Modes [modi].” Following a clarification of Spinoza’s
understanding of Substance [substantia] in the first part of this essay, we will study in the
second and third parts Spinoza’s conception of attributes and modes, respectively.
Keywords: substance, attributes, modes, God’s essence, infinite modes, infinity
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The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance, Attributes, and
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Introduction
One of the major questions of metaphysics throughout its history has been: What is?
Spinoza has an astonishingly brief answer to this question: God.1 All that is, is just God2
(and his qualities). The rest of this essay will be dedicated to the elaboration of Spinoza’s
answer.
Spinoza’s God has infinitely many qualities that constitute, or are conceived as
constituting, his essence, while the other qualities of Spinoza’s God, though not
constituting God’s essence, follow necessarily from God’s essence. Spinoza calls the
former “Attributes [attributa]” and the latter “Modes [modi].” Following a clarification of
Spinoza’s understanding of Substance [substantia] in the first part of this essay, we will
study in the second and third parts Spinoza’s conception of attributes and modes,
respectively. “Substance,” “Attributes,” and “Modes” are terms that have a very long
history before Spinoza. This, of course, does not mean that Spinoza restricts himself to
traditional explications of these terms. On the contrary, Spinoza instead draws bold and
radical conclusions from a traditional, or almost traditional, understanding of these
concepts.
Though Spinoza’s immediate answer to question, “What is?” is brief and simple,
the proper elaboration of this answer could fill several thick volumes. Therefore, this
short essay provides only a cursory sketch of Spinoza’s main ontological terms, their
interrelation, and the recent, major scholarly debates regarding their meaning and
function in Spinoza’s system.
(p. 85)
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The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance, Attributes, and
Modes
Substance
In the opening of the Ethics, Spinoza defines substance in the following manner:
E1d3: By substance I understand what is in itself and is conceived through itself,
i.e., that whose concept does not require the concept of another thing, from which
it must be formed [Per substantiam intelligo id quod in se est et per se concipitur;
hoc est id cuius conceptus non indiget conceptu alterius rei, a quo formari
debeat].3
The essential characterization of Spinoza’s substance is its independence. Substance is
both ontologically and conceptually independent. It is a thing that does not depend on
anything else in order to be or be conceived. This understanding of substance follows
traditional theories of substance, though, as we shall soon see, the slight (or apparently
slight) changes Spinoza introduces into the concept of substance lead to radical and
revolutionary conclusions. We begin with a concise overview of the historical background
of Spinoza’s discussion of substance, not only for the obvious reason that Spinoza was not
working in a void, but also because the two competing theories of substance that were
readily available to Spinoza—those of Aristotle and Descartes—suggest the two main
ways of understanding Spinoza’s own concept of substance. Due to the complexity of
these matters, one can provide only a very general outline of these delicate issues.4
The two main loci for Aristotle’s discussion of substance are the Categories and the
Metaphysics. In the Categories, Aristotle discusses substance [ousia] while explicating the
ten categories of being, of which substance is the first and most important. Aristotle
defines substance as follows:
A substance—that which is called a substance most strictly, and most of all—is that
which is neither said of a subject nor in a subject, e.g., the individual man or the
(p. 86) individual horse. The species in which the things primarily called
substances are, are called secondary substances, as also the genera of these
species.5
For Aristotle, the term “substance,” in the fullest sense of the word, applies only to
particular things, such as a particular horse or a particular man. Whatever is not a
particular thing can either be said of a particular thing, or be in a particular thing. To the
first group belong the genera and species under which particular things fall (such as
“man,” “animal,” etc). The second group includes properties such as “red” or “hot” that
do not constitute genera or species. In broad terms, we can say that the distinction
between being in and being said of a thing is a distinction between accidental and
essential predication.6 Aristotle allows for the existence of secondary substances; these
are the genera and species that are said of (but are not in) the primary substances.
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The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance, Attributes, and
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Hence, whatever is not a primary substance depends on a primary substance, since it
must either be in a primary substance, or said of a primary substance. 7
In the Metaphysics, Aristotle claims that the substratum [hypokeimenon] “which
underlies a thing primarily is thought to be in the truest sense its substance.” The
substratum itself is defined as
[T]hat of which the other things are predicated, while it is not itself predicated of
anything else.8
The element that is stressed in the discussions of substance in both the Categories and
the Metaphysics is the predicative independence of the substance. That is, primary
substances do not depend on anything else upon which they are said to be predicated. Let
us mark this understanding of substance as the predication definition of substance: A is a
primary substance if and only if it is a subject of predication9 and it is not predicated of
anything else.10
What is Descartes’ conception of substance? Clearly the Aristotelian definition of
substance was not alien to Descartes’ contemporaries.11 Descartes himself, in the Second
Set of Replies appended to the Meditations, defines substance in terms that are quite
close to Aristotle’s view:12
(p. 87)
Substance. This term applies to every thing in which whatever we perceive
immediately resides, as in a subject, or to every thing by means of which whatever
we perceive exists. By ‘what we perceive’ is meant any property, quality or
attribute of which we have a real idea (AT 7:161).
Unlike Aristotle’s characterization of primary substance, Descartes’ does not stipulate
that a substance should not be predicated of anything else.13 Yet it is clear that what
makes something a substance is the fact that it is a subject of which properties are
predicated. Following his definition of substance, Descartes defines God as “the
substance which we understand to be supremely perfect, and in which we conceive
absolutely nothing that implies any defect or limitation in that perfection” (AT 7:162).
Although it renders God supremely perfect, this definition does not say that God is more
of a substance than other, finite substances. Such a distinction between God, the only
substance in the strict sense of the word, and finite substances appears in Descartes’
most famous discussion of the topic, in Section 51 of the first part of the Principles:
By substance we can understand nothing other than a thing which exists in such a
way as to depend on no other thing for its existence. And there is only one
substance which can be understood to depend on no other thing whatsoever,
namely God. In the case of all other substances, we perceive that they can exist
only with the help of God’s concurrence. Hence the term ‘substance’ does not
apply univocally, as they say in the Schools, to God and to other things; that is,
there is no distinctly intelligible meaning of the term which is common to God and
his creatures. [In the case of created things, some are of such a nature that they
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The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance, Attributes, and
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cannot exist without other things, while some need only the ordinary concurrence
of God in order to exist. We make this distinction by calling the latter ‘substances’
and the former ‘qualities’ or ‘attributes’ of those substances.]14
Some scholars suggest that in this passage Descartes introduces a new definition
of substance as an “independent being.” This is somewhat imprecise, since Aristotle also
stresses the independence of substance. Descartes diverges from Aristotle in the way he
explicates this independence. While Aristotle defines the independence of primary
substance solely in terms of predication, Descartes stipulates that substance in the full
sense of the word must also be causally independent. Hence, in addition to being selfsubsisting, a full-fledged Cartesian substance must also comply with the causal
stipulation of substance: “x is a full-fledged substance only if it is not caused to exist by
anything else.” Created substances, according to the passage above, are self-subsisting,
yet externally caused by God (they need “God’s ordinary concurrence”). As a result, they
are not fully-fledged substances for Descartes.
(p. 88)
This brings us to an interesting asymmetry between causation and predication in
Descartes’ view of substance. While Descartes grants the title “substance” to things that
causally depend only on God, he does not make the same compromise in regards to
predication. Things that depend only on God in terms of predication (i.e. God’s attributes)
are not recognized in this passage (or, as far as I know, in any other text of Descartes) as
substances, even in the weaker sense of the word.15 This seems to indicate that even for
Descartes, the sine qua non condition for substantiality is still independence in terms of
predication. Only when this necessary condition is satisfied can the test of causal selfsufficiency distinguish between God, the substance in the full sense of the word, and
finite, created substances (which depend on God in terms of causation, but not in terms of
predication).
To return to Spinoza, he seems to have little patience for the Cartesian in-between
category of “created substance.” If the title “substance,” in its strict sense, applies only to
God (since God is the only entity that is not dependent on anything else in terms of both
predication and causation), Descartes’ willingness to grant the status of “created
substance” to things that “need only the ordinary concurrence of God in order to exist”
may rightly seem a mere concession to popular religion and its demand to secure the
substantiality (and hence everlastingness) of human minds.16
Spinoza does not define substance as causally independent, yet it takes him no more than
five propositions to prove that, “One substance cannot be produced by another
substance” (E1p6), and derive from this proposition the corollary that “substance cannot
be produced by anything else” (E1p6c). Thus, substance must be causally independent
(p. 89) from anything else. However, for Spinoza, the causal independence of substance
does not mean only that it is not caused by anything else, but also that substance is
positively self-caused.17 Relying on E1p6, and on the implicit and crucial assumption that
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The Building Blocks of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance, Attributes, and
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everything must have a cause,18 Spinoza proves in E1p7d that substance is “the cause of
itself.” But what does it mean for a thing to be “cause of itself”?
Though the notion of causa sui seemed paradoxical to many of Spinoza’s predecessors,19
Spinoza did not shy away from using, and even ascribing a central role to it. In fact, the
Ethics opens with the definition of this very notion:
E1d1: By cause of itself I understand that whose essence involves existence, or
that whose nature cannot be conceived except as existing [Per causam sui intelligo
id, cujus essentia involvit existentiam, sive id, cujus natura non potest concipi, nisi
existens].
A cause of itself is a thing whose essence alone necessitates its existence and which
cannot be conceived as non-existing.20 The causal independence of substance leads
Spinoza to the conclusion that substance must exist by virtue of its own essence—
otherwise, the existence of substance could not be explained. Glossing this argument,
Spinoza notes that we might be surprised by this conclusion since we use the term
“substance” far too liberally without paying attention to the precise meaning of the term
(E1p8s2). Were we to better grasp this concept, Spinoza adds, we would consider that the
essence of substance involves existence as an obvious and indisputable “common
notion” (G 2:50.4).21
Spinoza’s substance has several other crucial characterizations, but presenting and
discussing these requires an acquaintance with two other closely related concepts,
attributes and modes. We turn now to the issue of attributes.
(p. 90)
Attributes
Spinoza’s famed definition of attribute (E1d4) reads:
By attribute I understand what the intellect perceives of a substance, as
constituting its essence [Per attributum intelligo id, quod intellectus de substantia
percipit, tanquam ejusdem essentiam constituens]. 22
Following this definition, and the definition of substance previously discussed, Spinoza
defines God:
E1d6: By God I understand a being absolutely infinite, that is, a substance
consisting of an infinity of attributes, of which each one expresses an eternal and
infinite essence [Per Deum intelligo ens absolute infinitum, hoc est, substantiam
constantem infinitis attributis, quorum unumquodque aeternam, et infinitam
essentiam exprimit].
Both definitions raise a number of important interpretative questions.
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(i) Does an attribute really constitute the essence of substance, or is it merely how
the intellect perceives substance?
(ii) If the former, why does Spinoza refer to the intellect at all in his definition of
attribute?
(iii) If the latter, does this mean that in reality the attribute does not constitute the
essence of substance and is merely an illusion generated by the intellect?
(iv) In what sense does God “consist of an infinity of attributes”? Are these attributes
parts of God?
(v) What does Spinoza mean when he ascribes to God “an infinity of attributes”?
Taking these questions more or less in order, let me first note a few important points
regarding the background of Spinoza’s discussion. In one of the early drafts of the Ethics,
Spinoza presents a definition of substance (almost identical to the one in the published
text of the Ethics) accompanied by the following comment:
I understand the same by attribute, except that it is called attribute in relation to
the intellect, which attributes such and such a definite nature to substance.23
No independent definition of attribute appears at this stage of the work (March 1663).
Yet, oddly enough, an even earlier draft, quoted in Ep. 2 (September 1661), provides a
(p. 91) definition of attribute that is very similar to the definition of substance (!) in the
final version of the Ethics.
By attribute I understand whatever is conceived through itself and in itself [omne
id, quod concipitur per se & in se], so that its concept does not involve the concept
of another thing.24
Let me stress three key points regarding the concepts of substance and attribute in Ep. 2.
First, being “in itself” and “conceived through itself” are the essential characteristics of
substance (E1d3) in the final version of the Ethics, yet here these two crucial
characterizations are used to define attribute rather than substance. Second, notice that
in this early draft there is no mention of the intellect in the definition of attribute. Finally,
notice that in this letter Spinoza does not at all define substance, but instead suggests
three characterizations of substance, one of which reads: “[Substance] must be infinite,
or supremely perfect of its kind.”25 Strikingly, “being infinite in its kind” is the
characterization of attribute in the final version of the Ethics.26 Thus, it seems that
between Ep. 2 and the final version of the Ethics, Spinoza virtually switched his concepts
of substance and attribute. While the precise story of the development of Spinoza’s key
concepts in the early drafts of the Ethics deserves a careful and detailed study that
cannot be carried out here, I believe it is safe to conclude that (a) for Spinoza there was a
very close connection between substance and attribute, and more importantly, (b) he
experimented with various manners of conceptualizing these two notions and their
interrelations. It is possible that at some stages in the development of the Ethics Spinoza
considered either the concept of substance or that of an attribute less central to his
system.27
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Spinoza had to experiment with various definitions of attribute, since the definition he
found in Descartes’ text was extremely unstable. For Descartes, an attribute is the quality
through which we know substance. Nothingness has no attributes. “Thus, if we perceive
the presence of some attribute, we can infer that there must also be present an existing
thing or substance to which it may be attributed.”28 Descartes famously stresses that:
To each substance there belongs one principal attribute … Each substance has one
principal property which constitutes its nature and essence, and to which all other
properties are referred. Thus, extension constitutes the nature of corporeal
substance; and thought constitutes the nature of thinking substance. Everything
else (p. 92) which can be attributed to body presupposes extension, and is merely
a mode of an extended thing … By contrast it is possible to understand extension
without shape or movement.29
In this passage Descartes does not allow for the possibility of one substance having more
than one attribute. All the properties of a substance other than its principal attribute are
taken here as mere modes, depending asymmetrically on their principal attribute. But in
the subsequent discussion of the three traditional sorts of distinction—real distinction,
modal distinction, and distinction of reason [distinctio rationis] (which is here translated
as “conceptual distinction”)—Descartes characterizes the third in the following manner:
A conceptual distinction [distinctio rationis] is a distinction between a substance
and some attribute of that substance without which the substance is unintelligible;
alternatively, it is a distinction between two such attributes of a single substance.
Such a distinction is recognized by our inability to form a clear and distinct idea of
the substance if we exclude from it the attribute in question, or alternatively, by
our inability to perceive clearly the idea of one of the two attributes if we separate
it from the other. 30
Descartes does not state explicitly in this passage whether the attributes he refers to here
are principal attributes, but in order to avoid a flat contradiction with his claim in PP 1.53
that substance has only one principal attribute, we may charitably interpret PP 1.62 as
referring to a plurality of non-principal attributes.31 Yet, our problems do not end here,
since it is not at all clear how to reconcile the claims that (i) each substance has one
principal attribute upon which all other properties of the substance asymmetrically
depend (PP 1.53), and (ii) a substance may have several attributes, each of which is
necessary (“without which the substance is unintelligible”) in order to render the
substance intelligible (PP 1.62). According to PP 1.53, the non-principal attributes must
be understood through the principal attribute, but not the other way around. Yet,
according to PP 1.62, the principal attribute may depend on another attribute in order to
be clearly perceived.32
Another problematic element of Descartes’ account of the attributes is the rather unclean
distinction he draws between modes and attributes. We have seen that Descartes
sometimes refers to the non-essential qualities of a substance as modes (PP 1.53) and
other times as attributes (PP 1.62). We have also seen that, in PP 1.53, modes are (p. 93)
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taken to be asymmetrically dependent on the principal attribute. Yet, when Descartes
provides his official explanation of the distinction between mode and attribute, he does
not appeal to considerations of dependence, but rather to degrees of generality and
changeability. Worse, in between attribute and mode, he adds a third category: quality. 33
56. What modes, qualities and attributes are.
By mode, as used above, we understand exactly the same as what is elsewhere
meant by an attribute or quality. But we employ the term mode when we are
thinking of a substance as being affected or modified; when the modification
enables the substance to be designated as a substance of such and such a kind, we
use the term quality; and finally, when we are simply thinking in a more general
way of what is in a substance, we use the term attribute. Hence we do not, strictly
speaking, say that there are modes or qualities in God, but simply attributes, since
in the case of God, any variation is unintelligible. And even in the case of created
things, that which always remains unmodified—for example existence or duration
in a thing which exists and endures—should be called not a quality or a mode but
an attribute.34
According to this passage, attributes are more general than qualities, and qualities,
presumably, are more general than modes.35 Modes or qualities, but not attributes, are
changeable, and therefore, God, being strictly unchangeable, has only attributes. This
passage leaves several crucial questions unanswered: (1) At precisely what level of
generality do modes turn into qualities, and qualities into attributes? (2) Why should one
assume that the distinction drawn in PP 1.56 among the degrees of generality of
attributes, qualities, and modes maps well onto the binary distinction spelled out in terms
of dependence in PP 1.53?
Given these perplexities in Descartes’ account of the attributes, it is easier to understand
Spinoza’s experiments, in the early drafts of the Ethics, with various conceptions of
attributes and their relation to God or substance.36 Spinoza did not inherit a ready-made,
stable concept of attribute, and therefore had to design one almost from scratch. The
notion of attribute is quite marginal in Spinoza’s 1663 book on Descartes’ Principles of
Philosophy. It appears about four or five times, two of which raise sharp criticisms of
Descartes’ claims regarding this notion.37 In one of these texts, Spinoza confesses that he
simply cannot make sense of Descartes’ understanding of attribute, since Descartes’
(p. 94)
claim that one needs more power to create a substance than the attributes does
not allow the attributes to be either qualities which constitute the essence of substance,
or the properties that follow from the essence of substance.38
We now return to the definition of attribute in the published version of Spinoza’s Ethics.
The central role the intellect plays in this definition—an attribute is “what the intellect
perceives of substance as constituting its essence” (E1d4)—and the absence of any such
role in Descartes’ (and Spinoza’s early) definitions, led some commentators to argue that
for Spinoza, the attributes do not in fact constitute the essence of substance, but are only
misleadingly perceived as such by the intellect. This reading of the definition of attribute
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can be traced back at least to Hegel, who also complained that Spinoza could not make
the attribute depend on the intellect, since an intellect (whether finite or infinite) is a
mere mode,39 and (as seen shortly) a mode depends on its attribute and substance, and
not the other way around.40 Yet the most detailed presentation of the view, which denies
that the attributes really constitute the essence of substance, appears in Harry A.
Wolfson’s 1934 monumental study:
If the expression “which the intellect perceives” is laid stress upon, it would seem
that the attributes are only in intellectu. Attributes would thus be only a subjective
mode of thinking, expressing a relation to a perceiving subject and having no real
existence in the essence … According to [this] interpretation, to be perceived by
the mind means to be invented by the mind.41
Wolfson’s view of Spinoza as a follower of the medieval tradition of negative theology,
which makes God’s essence ineffable, motivates his interpretation of the definition of
attribute.42 One important source provides some support for such a reading: in one of his
letters, Spinoza replaces his common characterization of God as an “absolutely infinite”
being with the similar, yet significantly different notion of “absolutely indeterminate.”43 If
God is truly indeterminate, then attributes, being determinations of God, should not really
belong to him. Yet there is overwhelming textual evidence that Spinoza espoused a
position diametrically opposed to negative theology. Consider, for example, Spinoza’s bold
claim in E2p47: “The human mind has an adequate knowledge of God’s (p. 95) eternal
and infinite essence,” and the even bolder statement in the scholium of this proposition:
“God’s infinite essence and his eternity are known to all.”44 If negative theology asserts
that God’s essence is ineffable and unknowable, E2p47 seems to claim that it is
impossible not to know God’s essence.45
Many other crucial texts contradict Wolfson’s reading. First, consider E2p7s, in which
Spinoza rephrases his definition of attribute, referring to an attribute as “whatever can
be perceived by an infinite intellect as constituting the essence of substance” (Italics
added).46 Clearly, an infinite intellect (i.e. God’s intellect) does not have misperceptions or
illusions. In fact, for Spinoza, the intellect, either finite or infinite, perceives things
adequately, and it is only the imagination that is the sole source of error.47 Thus, the
intellect’s perception of attributes cannot be an error that fails to reflect the true nature
of substance, or as Spinoza puts it: “What is contained objectively in the intellect must
necessarily be in nature” (E1p31d).
Second, the definition of God in the final version of the Ethics asserts that God is a
“substance consisting [constantem] of an infinity of attributes” (E1d6). This definition is
not qualified by any disclaimer such as “God is perceived as consisting of infinite
attributes.” We can and should ask how precisely God consists of the attributes, but I
believe it is clear that if the attributes were only in the human mind, God would not, in
reality, consist of an infinity of attributes.48
Finally, E1p4d proves one of the most crucial propositions of the Ethics:
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There is nothing outside the intellect [extra intellectum] through which a number
of things can be distinguished from one another except substances, or what is the
same (by E1d4), their attributes, and their affections (Italics added).
There are at least two relevant and important implications drawn from E1p4d: (i) The
attributes of substance are also outside the intellect,49 and (ii) the attributes are in some
sense “the same” as the substance.50
At this point, two of the questions posed at the beginning of our discussion of the
attributes have been answered. The attributes truly constitute the essence of substance
(question (i)) and are not illusory (question (iii)). We still have to explain Spinoza’s reason
for introducing the intellect into the definition of attribute, (question (ii)). I approach this
question after addressing the two others posed at the beginning of this section.
(p. 96)
(iv) In what sense does God “consist of an infinity of attributes”? Are these attributes
parts of God?—Spinoza’s God is strictly indivisible (E1p13). One of Spinoza’s main
mereological assumptions is that parts are prior to their whole.51 Since nothing is prior to
God, God cannot have parts. Hence, the attributes cannot be parts of God. Instead, as I
will shortly elaborate, Spinoza suggests that the attributes are distinct and adequate
conceptions of one and the same entity, or as Spinoza puts it, “one and the same thing
which is explained through different attributes” (E2p7s).
Here might be the place to stress that, insofar as the attributes are said to constitute the
essence of substance, each attribute, like the substance, must be “conceived through
itself” (E1p10s)—that is, each attribute and its features must be explained independently,
without any appeal to another attribute. Thus, for example, the notions of intellect and
will could not qualify as attributes for Spinoza because they are conceived through the
attribute of Thought. Similarly, motion could not qualify as a Spinozistic attribute because
it is conceived through the attribute of Extension. Since Spinoza thinks there is a tight
connection between cognition and causation (E1a4), he concludes that the attributes (and
their modes) must also be causally independent from each other (E2p6d). Thus, Spinoza
erects a conceptual, as well as causal, barrier among the attributes.
(v) What does Spinoza mean when he ascribes to God “an infinity of attributes”?—
Explaining his definition of God (E1d6), Spinoza distinguishes between the infinity of
each attribute (“infinity in its own kind”) and the infinity of God (“absolute infinity”). God
is said to have infinitely many attributes, each of which is infinite in its kind. Yet, in Parts
II–V of the Ethics, Spinoza discusses only two attributes, Extension and Thought, and in
E2a5 he stresses that the human mind can know modes of only these two attributes. This
led some commentators to argue that Spinoza did not really mean to claim that there are
more than two attributes, and that by saying that God has infinite (p. 97) attributes he
merely means that God has all attributes.52 In support of such a reading, Jonathan
Bennett argued that: (1) if Spinoza really meant that there are infinitely many attributes,
he would have had to explain why we do not know the other attributes, but his attempt to
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explain the issue in Ep. 64 and Ep. 66 is completely unclear; (2) there was no
philosophical or theological tradition that ascribes to God infinitely many attributes, and
hence no traditional pressure on Spinoza to endorse it; and (3) Spinoza has no theoretical
pressure to motivate this view.53
A detailed clarification of this issue requires a separate study and cannot be carried out
here. Yet, there is no doubt in my mind that Spinoza is strongly committed to the view
that God has infinitely many attributes, and in the following I will respond very briefly to
each of Bennett’s arguments.
(1) Spinoza has a perfect explanation for the fact that one does not know the nature of
any attribute other than Thought and Extension (though, as I will later show, we know
that God must have infinitely many attributes other than Thought and Extension).
According to Spinoza, the human mind is a complex idea (i.e. mode of Thought) whose
object is nothing but a human body (a mode of Extension). One of the central and most
famous doctrines of the Ethics asserts that there is a parallelism, or isomorphism,
between the order of things and the order of ideas (E2p7). Things [res] for Spinoza are
everything that is real, including bodies and ideas. We have just seen that Spinoza erects
a causal and conceptual barrier among the attributes (E1p10). In Ep. 66, Spinoza relies
on these two doctrines—Ideas-Things Parallelism and the barrier among the attributes—
to prove not only that items belonging to different attributes cannot interact causally with
each other, but also that mental representations of items belonging to different attributes
cannot causally interact with each other. In other words, in addition to the barrier among
the attributes introduced in E1p10, there is a parallel barrier in the attribute of Thought
among representations (i.e. ideas) whose objects are items from different attributes.
Thus, it is not only that my body cannot causally interact with a mode of the third
attribute, but also that my mind (which is simply the idea of my body) cannot causally
interact with any mind, or idea, which represents items of the third attribute. The parallel
barrier, which is internal to Thought, does not allow any communication between ideas
representing different attributes. Our minds (i.e. the ideas of our bodies) cannot
communicate with the minds of items of the third attribute, and as a result these two
classes of minds cannot know anything about each other, nor about the items each mind
represents.54
(2) There are clear philosophical and theological traditions that ascribe infinitely many
attributes to God. In fact, once one rejects negative theology (and its rejection of the
ascription of any attributes to God), the view of God as having infinitely many (p. 98)
attributes becomes the most plausible option, since it is much more fitting for God to
have infinitely many attributes than to have any limited number. One philosopher who
ascribes to God infinitely many attributes is the late fourteenth century Jewish
philosopher Hasdai Crescas (1340–1410), who developed this view as part of his defense
of actual infinity and his critique of Aristotle’s concept of infinity.55 Spinoza clearly knew
Crescas’ views quite well, since he cites him approvingly in the course of his discussion of
infinity in Ep. 12. Another philosopher who seems to ascribe to God infinitely many
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attributes (and with whom Spinoza was somewhat familiar) is none other than Descartes,
who claims that God has “countless” attributes that are unknown to us.56
(3) Spinoza has strong theoretical pressure to claim that God has infinitely many
attributes. In E1p9, Spinoza argues: “The more reality or being [esse] each thing has, the
more attributes belong to it.” The demonstration of this important proposition is
shockingly brief: “This is evident from E1d4,” i.e. the definition of attribute. Yet, in the
scholium of the following proposition (E1p10s), Spinoza provides a detailed explanation
of his reasons for defining God as having infinite attributes:
So it is far from absurd to attribute many attributes to one substance. Indeed,
nothing in nature is clearer than that each being must be conceived under some
attribute, and the more reality, or being [realitas aut esse] it has, the more it has
attributes which express necessity, or eternity, and infinity. And consequently there
is also nothing clearer than that a being absolutely infinite must be defined (as we
taught in E1d6) as a being that consists of infinite attributes, each of which
expresses a certain eternal and infinite essence. [italics added]
This passage is in fact a reformulation of a very similar statement Spinoza makes in Ep. 9:
But you say that I have not demonstrated that a substance (or being [sive ens])
can have more attributes than one. Perhaps you have neglected to pay attention to
my demonstrations. For I have used two: first, that nothing is more evident to us
than that we conceive each being under some attribute, and that the more reality
or being [plus realitatis aut esse] a being has the more attributes must be
attributed to it; so a being absolutely infinite must be defined, etc.; second, and
the one I judge best, is that the more attributes I attribute to a being the more I
am compelled to attribute existence to it;57 that is, the more I conceive it as true.
It would be quite the contrary if I had feigned a Chimera, or something like that (G
4:44.34-45.25). [italics added]
In both passages Spinoza is responding to the Cartesians, who wonder how can a
substance have more than one principal attribute, and in both texts Spinoza stresses that
not only does God have more than one attribute, but in fact that he has infinitely many
attributes. The underlying logic of both passages is that the quantity of attributes a thing
has corresponds to the thing’s degree of reality or being [esse]. Nothingness, or a
Chimera, has no attributes. Finite things, having a finite degree of being, have a finite
quantity of attributes. An infinite being must have infinite attributes. These passages
make no sense under Bennett’s reading, since if God were to have only two attributes, he
would have the same quantity of attributes (i.e. two) and hence the same degree of reality
or being as a finite thing, like a human being. Yet, Spinoza stresses time and again that
God’s and man’s being [esse] and manner of existence are utterly different.58 Thus, given
the huge gap between the reality or being of God and the reality or being of modes, there
(p. 99)
must be a similar gap between the quantity of attributes each has.
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Apart from the theoretical considerations pointed out above, there are numerous texts,
both in the Ethics and outside it, in which Spinoza explains and proves various points
regarding the unknown attributes. Consider, for example, Spinoza’s claim in Ep. 56 that
we do not know “the greater part of God’s attributes” (G 4:261.13). In light of these
theoretical and textual considerations, the view that Spinoza’s God has only the two
attributes of Extension and Thought is hardly defensible.59
We turn now to the final question in this part.
(ii) If an attribute really constitutes the essence of substance, why does Spinoza refer to
the intellect at all in his definition of attribute? We have seen that the attributes cannot
be parts of God or of God’s essence, but we have not yet explained precisely how the
attributes relate to God, the infinite substance. To address this key issue, we should
return to a notion we have already encountered—a distinction of reason. In one of his
earliest works, the Cogitata Metaphysica, Spinoza argues:
That God’s Attributes are distinguished only by reason
And from this we can now clearly conclude that all the distinctions we make
between the attributes of God are only distinctions of reason—the attributes are
not really distinguished from one another. Understand such distinctions of reason
as I have just mentioned, which are recognized from the fact that such a substance
cannot exist without that attribute. So we conclude that God is a most simple
being. (CM 2.5/G 1:259.3-8)
These claims of Spinoza’s seem consistent with Descartes’ view of a distinction of reason
as obtaining either between a substance and its attributes or between two attributes of
the same substance (PP 1.62). Yet, in the Ethics, Spinoza’s view on the nature of the
distinction between substance and attribute appears more complicated. The relevant
passage appears in a scholium to one of most important propositions of the Ethics. (p. 100)
E1p10: Each attribute of a substance must be conceived through itself.
Dem.: For an attribute is what the intellect perceives concerning a substance, as
constituting its essence (by E1d4); so (by E1d3) it must be conceived through
itself, q.e.d.
The main point of the proposition is to establish that each attribute, like the substance,
must be conceived through itself, because an attribute is what the intellect perceives as
constituting a substance’s essence. Now comes the scholium:
From these propositions it is evident that although two attributes may be
conceived to be really distinct [realiter distincta concipiantur] (i.e., one may be
conceived without the aid of the other), we still cannot infer from that that they
constitute two beings, or two different substances [duo entia, sive duas diversas
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substantias constituere]. For it is of the nature of a substance that each of its
attributes is conceived through itself, since all the attributes it has have always
been in it together, and one could not be produced by another, but each expresses
the reality, or being of substance. (Italics added)
Some commentators read this passage as stating that there is a real distinction between
the attributes.60 A real distinction [distinctio realis], in medieval and early modern
philosophy, is a distinction between two things, usually substances,61 which can mutually
exist without each other.62 In the Principles, Descartes suggests a sign that can tell us
when two substances are really distinct:
We can perceive that two substances are really distinct simply from the fact that
we can clearly and distinctly understand one apart from the other.63
Oddly enough, in E1p10s, Spinoza seems to say that while the Cartesian sign for the
presence of a real distinction between the attributes obtains (i.e. the attributes may be
conceived without each other), we still cannot infer from that sign that the attributes
really constitute two different substances. In fact, the phrase in the first sentence of the
passage, “may be conceived as really distinct,” is quite ambiguous, meaning either a
distinction of reason (a distinction related to our conception) or a real distinction. It is
clear, however, that the passage cannot state that the distinction at stake is a real
distinction, because if this were the case, the whole point of the demonstration of E1p10
would be completely undermined. Were a substance really distinct from its attribute,
(p. 101) we could not infer the self-conceivability of the attributes from the selfconceivability of substance, since things that are really distinct and independent from
each other may well have different qualities.
Thus, we are left with the position already stated in Spinoza’s early work, the Cogitata
Metaphysica, according to which there is only a distinction of reason between the
substance and its attributes. But does this position commit Spinoza to the view that the
distinction between the attributes is generated merely by reason (or the intellect), and
has no corresponding element in reality? Not necessarily. Consider the following passage
from a letter by Descartes to an anonymous addressee. Descartes explains his
understanding of distinction of reason:
In article 60 of Part One of my Principles of Philosophy where I discuss it explicitly,
I call it a distinction of reason—that is, distinction made by reasoned reason
(ratiocinatae). I do not recognize any distinction made by reasoning reason
(rationicantis), that is, one which has no foundation in reality—because we cannot
have any thought without a foundation; and consequently in that article, I did not
add the term ratiocinatae.64
Descartes’ use of the scholastic subdivision of the distinction of reason into reasoning
reason and reasoned reason makes clear that, for him, a distinction of reason is not
reason’s invention, but rather the reflection of an element that obtains in reality as well. I
believe that the same is true for Spinoza: the distinction between the substance and its
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attributes is a distinction made by reasoned reason, or the intellect,65 and it has a
foundation in reality. Spinoza never mentions the subdivision of the distinction of reason,
yet it is highly likely that he was familiar with this division, which not only appears in
Descartes and Suarez, but is also elaborated in great detail in the most popular and
influential seventeenth century Dutch textbook of logic, Franco Burgerdijk’s
Institutionum logicarum libri duo (1626), which appeared in numerous editions during the
century following its first publication.66 A distinction of reasoning reason is a distinction
that “has no foundation in reality and arises exclusively from the reflection and activity of
the intellect.”67 The sign of a distinction of reasoning reason is simple identity statement,
such as “Peter is Peter.”68 In this case, the intellect generates a diversity that has no
foundation in reality. On the other hand, a distinction of reasoned reason “arises not
entirely from the sheer operation of the intellect, but from the occasion offered by the
thing itself on which the mind is reflecting.”69 This is a distinction in which “one and the
(p. 102) same thing is represented by different concepts [una eademque res objicitur
conceptibus dissimilibus].”70
I believe it is clear that the distinction between Spinoza’s substance and its attributes
cannot be a distinction of reasoning reason, since, first, the attributes are radically
different concepts (and thus “the thinking substance is the extended substance” is not a
trivial identity statement), and second, as we have seen, the attributes cannot be a
complete invention of the intellect. But if it is a distinction of reasoned reason,71 what is
the foundation in the substance itself that is merely discerned by the intellect? According
to Suarez, reasoned reason conceives the various aspects of one and the same thing.72
This suggestion could provide a good explanation for Spinoza’s understanding of
substance and attributes. Substance, in reality, has infinitely many aspects that are each
infinite and independent of each other. These are aspects of one and the same indivisible
and infinite entity. God is substance consisting [constantem] of infinite aspects (E1d6),
but these aspects are not parts of God.73 The intellect merely conceives these infinitely
many aspects, or attributes, of the same entity: God.74
There are many elements in Spinoza’s account of the attributes that need further
elaboration.75 We have discussed neither the nature of the two attributes known by the
human mind, Thought and Extension, nor Spinoza’s rather problematic proof that
Extension and Thought are attributes (E2p1 and E2p2). Nor did we discuss the important
question of what God’s essence is, an essence having the infinite aspects of Extension and
Thought.76 Finally, we have not discussed the nature of the “expression [exprimere]”
relation that obtains between God’s essence and the attributes.77 We will have to leave
(p. 103) these questions for another occasion, but we have made some significant
progress in explaining Spinoza’s understanding of attribute. We now move to the third
and final part on Spinoza’s concept of mode.
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Modes
In the opening of the Ethics, Spinoza defines a mode:
E1d5: By mode I understand the affections of a substance, or that which is in
another through which it is also conceived [Per modum intelligo substantiae
affectiones, sive id, quod in alio est, per quod etiam concipitur].
A mode is an affection (i.e. quality), which depends on its substance both for its existence
(it is “in another”) and for its conceivability (it is “conceived through another”). The first
proposition of Part I of the Ethics states this dependence in terms of priority:
E1p1: A substance is prior in nature to its affections [Substantia prior est natura
suis affectionibus].
Spinoza’s concept of mode, like his understanding of substance and attribute, went
through a few transformations. We have seen that, for Descartes, a mode is a changeable,
specific (i.e. less general than attribute), property. In the early drafts of the Ethics,
Spinoza uses the terms “mode” and “accident [accidens]” interchangeably:
By Modification, or Accident, [I understand] what is in another and is conceived
through what it is in. From this it is clear that:
Substance is by nature prior to its Accidents, for without it, they can neither be nor be
conceived.78
This passage appears in a 1661 letter. Shortly afterward, Spinoza stops using the
terminology of accident, since a mode necessarily depends on the substance in which it
inheres while an accident does not.79 The strict dependence of modes on their substances
is a crucial feature for Spinoza. Indeed, just a few years later, Spinoza hesitates as to
whether “mode” deserves a separate definition of its own, or whether to include it in the
definition of substance.80
In the final version of the Ethics, Spinoza distinguishes between two realms:
natura naturans (roughly, naturing nature) and natura naturata (“natured nature”). The
former is the realm of substance and attributes; the latter is that of modes. Spinoza
characterizes each as follows:
(p. 104)
Before I proceed further, I wish to explain here—or rather to advise [the reader]
what we must understand by Natura naturans and Natura naturata. For from the
preceding I think it is already established that by Natura naturans we must
understand what is in itself and is conceived through itself, or such attributes of
substance as express an eternal and infinite essence, i.e. (by E1p14c1 and
E1p17c2), God, insofar as he is considered as a free cause.
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But by Natura naturata I understand whatever follows from the necessity of God’s
nature, or from any of God’s attributes, i.e., all the modes of God’s attributes
insofar as they are considered as things which are in God, and can neither be nor
be conceived without God (E1p29s).
The attributes and the substance belong to natura naturans since they are in themselves
and conceived through themselves. Substance and attributes are also causally selfdetermined, and for that reason they are free, or they are “God insofar [quatenus] as he is
considered as a free cause.”81 But why does Spinoza qualify this last claim with a
quatenus? Can God be considered a non-free cause? In a sense, yes. God’s modes are not
self-determined, since they follow from God’s nature (i.e., God’s essence) or from the
attributes (see E1p16 and E1p21). Spinoza also stresses that things which belong to
natura naturata (i.e, modes), are dependent upon natura naturans—they cannot be or be
conceived without natura naturans.
Spinoza draws another crucial distinction between the substance and modes in one of his
most important letters, Ep. 12, sometimes called “The Letter on the Infinite.” In this
letter, Spinoza argues that the existence of modes is entirely different from the existence
of substance:
[W]e conceive the existence of Substance to be entirely different from the
existence of Modes.
The difference between Eternity and Duration arises from this. For it is only of
Modes that we can explicate[82] existence [existentiam explicare possumus] by
Duration. But [we can explicate the existence] of Substance by Eternity, i.e., the
infinite enjoyment of existing, or (in bad Latin) of being (G 4:54.33-55.3).
Strictly speaking, eternity is the existence of substance or of the thing whose
essence and existence are one and the same (E1p20), while duration is the existence of
modes or things whose existence is different from their essence.83 There are, however,
two distinct senses in which Spinoza allows even modes to be eternal, but we cannot
address this delicate issue here.84
(p. 105)
After proving in E1p14 that God is the only substance, Spinoza argues in E1p15
that all things are in God:
Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can be conceived without God [Quicquid est, in Deo
est, et nihil sine Deo esse, neque concipi potest].
This claim earned Spinoza the title of a pantheist, for indeed he holds that all things,
including ourselves and the objects of our daily experience, are in God. Notice, however,
that Spinoza never claims that anything is part of God. Spinoza’s substance and attributes
are strictly indivisible (E1p12 & E1p13), and for him the part-whole relation obtains only
between modes.85 Spinoza takes parts to be prior to their whole,86 and as a result he
cannot allow for anything to be part of the substance or attributes—in such a case, the
thing would be prior to the substance, which is impossible (per E1d3). Instead of saying
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that we are parts of God (and thus making us prior to God), he argues that we are modes
of God (and thus posterior to and dependent upon God).87 Thus, we should note that
Spinoza’s pantheism is a substance-mode pantheism and not a whole-part pantheism.88
The claim that human beings, mountains, giraffes, and tables are all simply modes of God
is clearly a bold and non-trivial claim. Indeed, many of Spinoza’s cotemporaries found the
claim utterly outrageous. Pierre Bayle writes in his famous entry on Spinoza:
It is the most absurd and momentous hypothesis that can be imagined, and the
most contrary to the most evident notions our mind.89
Bayle’s complaints found an ear in an important work of contemporary Spinoza
scholarship. In his 1969 book, Spinoza’s Metaphysics, Edwin Curley argues that
considerations of interpretive charity should make us avoid ascribing to Spinoza this
strongly (p. 106) counterintuitive view according to which Spinoza understands “mode” in
the traditional sense of the word, and thus holds that all things are qualities of God:
Spinoza’s modes are, prima facie, of the wrong logical type to be related to
substance in the same way Descartes’ modes are related to the substance, for they
are particular things (E1p25c), not qualities. And it is difficult to know what it
would mean to say that particular things inhere in substance. When qualities are
said to inhere in substance, this may be viewed as a way of saying that they are
predicated of it. What it would mean to say that one thing is predicated of another
is a mystery that needs solving.90
In order to avoid ascribing to Spinoza the category mistake of considering things as
qualities, Curley argues that we should understand the substance-mode relation in
Spinoza as nothing but a causal relation.91 According to Curley, Spinoza does not consider
finite things as qualities of God, but rather as effects of God (a view that agrees with most
traditional theologies). One implication of Curley’s view is that Spinoza is not really a
pantheist, since finite things do not inhere in God, but rather are effects caused by God.92
Curley’s reading is an exciting and powerful challenge to the standard interpretation of
the substance-mode relation. Yet, over the past four decades, it has been subjected to
close scrutiny that pointed out deep and significant problems in his interpretation. In the
following, I will summarize very briefly some of the most important problems noted by
Curley’s critics.93 (i) Spinoza defines modes as “the affections of substance” (E1d5). The
Latin “affectio” denotes a state or quality. Had Spinoza thought that modes were merely
caused by the substance, the wording of his definition of mode would be highly
misleading. (ii) In several places in the Ethics, Spinoza refers to modes as God insofar
[quatenus] as he is modified by a finite mode.94 Thus, there is a sense in which modes are
God, but according to Curley’s reading, God is merely the cause of modes, and thus there
is no reason to call modes God in any sense. (iii) According to Curley’s reading, substance
is defined as self-caused (since, for Curley, being “in se” is nothing but being self-caused).
Yet, in E1p7 Spinoza proves that substance is self-caused. It would be very odd for a
careful writer like Spinoza to attempt to prove his definitions. (iv) For Spinoza, we have
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knowledge by having ideas, and ideas are modes (E2a3). According to Curley, God merely
causes ideas, but ideas are not states inhering in God. Thus, according to (p. 107) this
reading, God himself has no ideas; i.e., he lacks any knowledge. Yet, Spinoza clearly
ascribes knowledge, and in fact omniscience, to God (E2p3). (v) In November 1676,
Leibniz met Spinoza for a long conversation. According to Leibniz’s notes, Spinoza
entertained a “strange metaphysics” according to which creatures are only “modes or
accidents of God.”95 Had Spinoza thought that modes were merely effects of God, why
would he mislead Leibniz to believe that he had a “strange metaphysics?” (vi) It is not at
all clear that Curley’s interpretation is as charitable as it claims to be. If Spinoza merely
holds that God is the cause of modes, then much of the excitement about, and interest in,
Spinoza’s philosophy would seem to be unjustified. Holding that God is the cause of all
things is a very standard theological view, and ascribing this view to Spinoza makes his
philosophy much less interesting and challenging. (vii) Curley’s claim that things and
qualities belong to distinct logical types that cannot, and should not, be mixed was not
widely accepted in medieval and early modern philosophy, nor is there a consensus on
this issue in contemporary metaphysics.96
In addition to the arguments summarized above, there is important textual evidence
showing that, for Spinoza, modes are not only qualities or properties, but in fact a very
specific kind of property. For Spinoza, modes are God’s propria, i.e. properties, which
follow necessarily from the essence of a thing. In order to establish this point we need to
examine E1p16 closely.
E1p16: From the necessity of the divine nature there must follow infinitely many
things in infinitely many modes (i.e., everything which can fall under an infinite
intellect.) [Ex necessitate divinae naturae infinita infinitis modis (hoc est, omnia,
quae sub intellectum infinitum cadere possunt) sequi debent].
Dem.: This Proposition must be plain to anyone, provided he attends to the fact
that the intellect infers from the given definition of any thing a number of
properties [plures proprietates] that really do follow necessarily from it (i.e., from
the very essence of the thing); and that it infers more properties the more the
definition of the thing expresses reality, i.e., the more reality the essence of the
defined thing involves… . [emphasis added]
The key questions for our inquiry concern the character of the properties, which,
according to the demonstration, the intellect infers from the definition of any thing, and
how this inference relates to the flow of the infinite things in infinite ways from God’s
essence. Before we approach these questions, let me briefly clarify the proposition itself.
On a first reading, this proposition may seem to claim that the infinita infinitis modis,
which follow from the necessity of God’s nature, are the infinite attributes. However, this
cannot be the case. According to E1p29s, what “follows from the necessity of God’s
nature” is (p. 108) Natura naturata (i.e. the modes), while the substance and attributes
are Natura naturans (i.e. God’s essence). The attributes do not follow from God’s nature
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or essence; they are God’s nature. Hence, E1p16 must be read as dealing with the infinite
infinity of modes that follow from God’s essence (since only modes follow from God’s
essence or nature).
I turn now to the question of the “properties” that follow from “the given definition of any
thing” in E1p16d. In order to understand the demonstration, we must first clarify
Spinoza’s criteria for the correctness of a definition. A detailed discussion of the issue
appears in the Treatise on the Emendation of the Intellect, in which Spinoza stipulates:
To be called perfect, a definition will have to explain the inmost essence of the
thing [intimam essentiam rei], and to take care not to use certain propria in its
place (TdIE §95).
Indeed, Spinoza stresses in several places that a precise definition must specify only the
essence of the thing defined.97 But what are the propria that Spinoza warns us not to
confuse with the essence of the thing? Here, Spinoza follows a common Scholastic
(ultimately Aristotelian), threefold distinction among: qualities that make the thing what
it is (the qualities that constitute the essence of the thing); qualities that necessarily
follow from the essence of the thing, but do not constitute the essence itself (the propria);
and qualities that are at least partly caused by a source external to the thing (termed
“accidents” or “extraneous accidents”).98 Though a thing necessarily has both its essence
and its propria, it is only the former that provides us with an explanation of the nature of
the thing, and hence should be included in the definition. Spinoza explains that it is
important for the definition to capture the essence of the thing rather than its propria,
“because the properties of things [proprietates rerum] are not understood so long as their
essences are not known” (TdIE §95). Notice that in this passage the word “proprietates”
has the technical sense of propria, rather than properties in general. In fact, in his
discussion of definition in §95-97 of TdIE, Spinoza explicitly uses the term “propria” only
once (G 2:34.30). In all other cases (G 2:35.4, 35.6, 35.18, and 36.1), he uses
“proprietates” (properties), but in the narrow sense of propria, rather than properties in
general.
Following the stipulation that a perfect definition should explain the essence and not the
propria of the thing defined, Spinoza provides an example of the distinction between
essence and propria.99 He proceeds to distinguish the requirements for the perfect
definition of a created thing from the requirements for the perfect definition of an
uncreated thing. However, Spinoza stipulates that in both cases, “all the thing’s
properties” [omnes (p. 109) proprietates rei] must be inferred [concludantur] from the
definition, insofar as the definition states the essence.100
Let us return now to E1p16 and its demonstration. Since the definition of a thing states
the essence or nature of a thing, it is clear that what follows from God’s essence in E1p16
is what the intellect infers [concludit] from the definition of God in E1p16d. The
“properties” in E1p16d cannot be God’s attributes, since the latter constitute God’s
essence rather than follow from it. What follows from God’s essence, or what the intellect
infers from the definition of God are only the entities belonging to Natura naturata, i.e.
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the modes, which in E1p16d Spinoza explicitly terms “properties” [proprietates].
Properties that follow necessarily from the essence of a thing must be understood in the
technical sense of propria. Indeed, modes stand in the same relation to God’s essence as
the propria of a thing to the thing’s essence—they cannot be understood without God’s
essence (E1d5), and according to E1p16, all modes follow (or can be deduced) from God’s
essence. In other words, Spinoza’s modes are God’s propria.101
Before we conclude our discussion of modes, let me point out that Michael Della Rocca
recently defended a view that has some crucial features in common with Curley’s
interpretation. Unlike Curley, Della Rocca believes that modes inhere in, and are states
of, the substance.102 Yet, Della Rocca argues that the inherence relation (i.e. the “in alio”
relation between modes and the substance) and the causal relation are strictly
identical.103 The ensuing view is a bold and odd notion of inherence that allows for one
mode to inhere in more than one subject (just as an effect can be caused by more than
one cause), and also allows for modes to inhere in subjects that do not exist
simultaneously (just as an effect can be caused by a non-simultaneous cause).104 Some of
the major problems with this interpretation have been identified in recent literature.
Finally, let me point out that Spinoza introduces a new philosophical notion that could
hardly be found among his predecessors: an infinite mode. The concept of infinite modes
appears already in the very early works of Spinoza, yet it seems not to be ever fully
worked out.105 The main discussion of the infinite modes in the Ethics is in E1p21
(p. 110) to E1p23. The infinite modes, like the attributes, are infinite, though unlike the
attributes, they are divisible. Finite modes are parts of the infinite modes. Thus, for
example, the human mind (a finite mode) is part of God’s infinite intellect (an infinite
mode) (E2p11c). The infinite modes follow from the attributes (E1p21), and their
existence is not limited in time.106 Within each attribute, each infinite mode brings about
another single infinite mode. Thus, within each attribute, infinite modes are distinguished
by the degree of their distance (i.e. number of intermediaries) from the attribute. The
more distant an infinite mode is from its attribute, the less perfect it is.107 An infinite
mode cannot be the cause of a finite mode (E1p22). Spinoza provides several examples of
infinite modes in Ep. 64 (“God’s absolutely infinite intellect” in the attribute of thought;
“motion and rest” and “the face of the whole universe” in the attribute of extension), yet
the precise nature of these enigmatic entities, their role in Spinoza’s system, and their
relation to the finite modes are subject to scholarly debate.108
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Conclusion
In this chapter we have studied three of the most basic concepts of Spinoza’s
metaphysics: substance, attributes, and modes. We traced some of the historical sources
of Spinoza’s understanding of these concepts and followed their development in Spinoza’s
works. We also discussed some of the major scholarly debates about Spinoza’s
understanding and use of these concepts and identified problems with some of the
interpretations surveyed. Obviously, this was merely a cursory sketch of the landscape,
but my hope is that by now, you, the reader, are sufficiently acquainted with these
buildings blocks of Spinoza’s philosophy to engage and experiment by yourself. Welcome
to Benedict’s Lego.
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Notes:
(1) I am indebted to Mike Le Buffe, Colin Marshall, and Tad Schmaltz for very helpful
comments on early drafts of this paper. Michael Della Rocca was, as usual, a source of
inspiration and many generous advices.
(2) For the acosmist reading of Spinoza—according to which Spinoza denies the reality of
the world (“cosmos”) and of anything but God—see Batscha, Salomon Maimons, p. 217.
Cf. my articles, “Salomon Maimon” and “Acosmism.”
(3) In his early letters, Spinoza provides two slightly different definitions of substance,
apparently quoting from early drafts of the Ethics. In Ep. 4, Spinoza writes: “[B]y
substance I understand what is conceived through itself and in itself, i.e., that whose
concept does not involve the concept of another thing” (G 4:13.34). The definition of
substance in Ep. 9 reads: “By substance I understand what is in itself and is conceived
through itself, i.e., whose concept does not involve the concept of another thing. I
understand the same by attribute, except that it is called attribute in relation to the
intellect [respectu intellectus], which attributes such and such a definite nature to
substance” (G 4:46.20).
(4) Parts of this section of the article are adopted from my article “Spinoza’s Metaphysics
of Substance.”
(5) Categories, 2a12-2a17 (Ackrill’s translation).
(6) The further question of whether what is in a substance (such as whiteness) is
repeatable is a subject of major controversy among scholars. For two opposite views, see
Ackrill (Aristotle, Categories and De Interpretatione), and Owen (“Inherence”).
(7) For Aristotle, the relation y is said of x is transitive. Hence, the genus that is said of an
individual’s species is also (transitively) said of the individual itself.
(8) Metaphysics VII (Z), 1028b36.
(9) An interesting question, which I will not discuss here, is whether an Aristotelian
substance must have properties. On the one hand, if the substance were to have no
properties it would be unintelligible (in fact, it would be very much like Aristotelian prime
matter). On the other hand, if a substance must have properties, the substance is then
dependent (admittedly, in a weak sense) on its properties, which seems to conflict with
the independence of substance. Spinoza would face a similar problem were he to explain
why God must have modes. For medieval objections to the possibility of substance
without accidents, see Normore, “Accidents,” p. 675. For Leibniz’s claims that the monad
cannot subsist without some property, see Monadology, §21.
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(10) For a detailed discussion of the Aristotelian and Scholastic understanding of
substance and its relation to Spinoza’s views, see Carriero’s excellent article, “On the
Relationship.”
(11) See, for example, Arnauld and Nicole’s characterization of substance: “I call
whatever is conceived as subsisting by itself and as the subject of everything conceived
about it, a thing. It is otherwise called a substance” (Logic, Part I, Chapter 2, p. 30).
“Subsistence by itself” is traditionally explained as not being predicated of anything.
According to Eustachius of St. Paul “to exist or subsist per se is nothing other than not to
exist in something else as in a subject of inherence” (Summa, I p. 97 IV. Translated in
Rozemond, Descartes’s Dualism, p. 7).
(12) Cf. Rozemond (Descartes’s Dualism, p. 7) for a similar stress on the continuity
between the Scholastic and Cartesian views of substance.
(13) In fact, in the Sixth Set of Replies, Descartes explicitly allows for one substance to be
predicated of another substance, though only in a loose manner of speaking (AT 7:435).
(14) The passage in brackets appears only in the French version of the Principles.
(15) Of course, for Descartes, the distinction between substance and principal attributes is
only a distinction of reason. Still, this does not make God’s attributes into substances (at
least no more than the attributes of any finite substance).
(16) Spinoza would allow for non-substantial things (such as human minds) to become
more and more independent, and thus more and more approximate the substantiality of
God. In fact, this process plays a central role in Spinoza’s attempt to lead man from
bondage to blessedness in Parts IV and V of the Ethics (See Garber, “Dr. Fischelson’s
Dilemma”). Yet, he refuses to mark a stable category of “second best” substance, which
would aim primarily to secure or appease orthodox religion (“Why stop with ‘second best’
substances and not continue with ‘third best’ substances, etc.?” one might ask).
(17) In Ep. 60 (1675) Spinoza argues that a proper definition of a thing must express its
efficient cause. In this letter, he applies this stipulation to the case of God, indicating that
God must have an efficient cause as well. Since God cannot be caused by anything other
than itself, it must be the efficient cause of itself.
(18) The claim that everything must have a cause is a variant or corollary of the Principle
of Sufficient Reason; one can read E1a3 as stating this principle. On the pivotal role of
the Principle of Sufficient Reason in Spinoza’s philosophy, see Della Rocca, Spinoza, Ch.
1.
(19) Although, in the First Set of Replies, Descartes notably claims that God is the
efficient cause of itself. Descartes characterizes the cause of itself in terms of
independent existence, which differs little from his conception of substance (AT 7:108-9).
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For a nuanced study of causa sui in Descartes, see Schmaltz, “God as Causa Sui.” Cf.
Carraud, Causa sive Ratio, pp. 266–87, pp. 295–302.
(20) Notice the dualistic nature of this definition that—like the definitions of substance
and mode—defines the term in both ontological and conceptual terminology. On the
nature of the ‘x involves y’ relation, see Melamed, “Spinoza’s Deification of Existence,”
§3.1.
(21) Indeed, in Ep. 2—in which being “conceived through itself and in itself” is used to
define attribute (not substance!)—Spinoza still claims that one of the main
characterizations of substance is that, “it cannot be produced, but it is of its essence to
exist” (G 4:8.9). See below. Interestingly, the concept of substance does not appear in one
of Spinoza’s major works, the Theological Political Treatise. The closest notion to
substance in this work is the identity of essence and existence in God. See Melamed, “The
Metaphysics of the Theological Political Treatise,” pp. 137–40.
(22) Notice that Latin does not have definite and indefinite articles. Hence E1d4 could
refer equally to “an attribute” or “the attribute,” or to “an intellect” or “the intellect.”
(23) Ep. 9/G 4:46.20.
(24) Ep. 2/G 4:7.24–28.
(25) G 4:10.1. Italics added.
(26) See E1d6expl. God, or the substance, is said to be absolutely infinite (in the final
version of the Ethics).
(27) In Ep. 36, Spinoza does not use the terminology of attributes. Instead, he refers to
Thought and Extension as things that are “indeterminate and perfect in their own kinds,”
while God is said to be “absolutely indeterminate.”
(28) PP 1.52.
(29) PP 1.53. Italics added.
(30) PP 1.62. Italics added.
(31) Cf. Descartes’ claims that God—the infinite substance—has many immutable
attributes (AT 8B:348), and that God has countless attributes beyond the ones we know
(AT 3:394).
(32) Assuming PP 1.62 refers to non-principal attributes, it should allow for a state of
affairs in which a substance S has two attributes, A1 and A2, such that A1 is principal and
A2 is not. According to PP 1.53, A2 should be referred to (i.e. conceived through) A1. Yet,
according to PP 1.62, A1 does not suffice to render S intelligible. As a result, A1 and A2
seem to be mutually dependent, rather than A2 being subordinate to A1, as PP 1.53
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suggests. On the symmetric dependence of attributes in PP 1.62, see Nolan,
“Reductionism,” p. 135, and Hoffman, Essays on Descartes, p. 53.
(33) In Comments on a Certain Broadsheet, Descartes suggests a similar distinction,
though in this text there are only two categories: attributes and modes. “We must take
care here not to understand the word ‘attribute’ to mean simply ‘mode,’ for we term an
‘attribute’ whatever we recognize as being naturally ascribable to something, whether it
be a mode which is susceptible of change, or the absolutely immutable essence of the
thing in question.”(AT 8B:348). Descartes’ frequent warnings in his late work against
confusing attributes and modes may reflect awareness of his own failure to do so in the
Principles.
(34) PP 1.56. Italics mine.
(35) According the passage, qualities, but not modes, designate the kind to which a
substance belongs.
(36) It seems that in Ep. 2 the attributes are conceived primarily as the attributes of God,
rather than the attributes of substance.
(37) See DPP1p7s (G 1:161.3-4 and G 1:163.4–35).
(38) See DPP1p7s/G 1:163.4–35.
(39) “By intellect (as is known through itself) we understand not absolute thought but only
a certain mode of thinking.” (E1p31d). Cf. Ep. 9/G 4:45.32, where Spinoza stresses that
even an infinite intellect belongs to natura naturata and not to natura naturans.
(40) Hegel, Lectures, vol. III, p. 260, pp. 269-70; The Science of Logic, p. 537. Cf.
Melamed, “Acosmism.”
(41) Wolfson, The Philosophy of Spinoza, vol. 1, p. 146. Cf. Caird, Spinoza, pp. 53–54.
(42) “Substance is thus to Spinoza, like God to the medievals, absolutely simple, free from
accidental as well as from essential attributes.” Wolfson, The Philosophy of Spinoza, vol.
1, p. 116.
(43) “[I]f we suppose that something which is indeterminate and perfect in its own kind
exists by its own sufficiency, then we must also grant the existence of a being which is
absolutely indeterminate and perfect. This being I shall call God. For example, if we are
willing to maintain that Extension and Thought exist by their own sufficiency, we shall
have to admit the existence of God who is absolutely perfect, that is, the existence of a
being who is absolutely indeterminate” (Ep. 36; italics added).
(44) Furthermore, the force of Ep. 36 is undermined by the fact that the extant text is a
mere translation of the lost original. In translation, “infinite” could be easily replaced by
“indeterminate.”
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(45) Insofar as the essence of God is self-caused, it does not presuppose or require the
knowledge of anything else, and hence it is the easiest thing to know. For further
discussion of E2p47 and Spinoza’s surprising views on the “order of philosophizing,” see
my review of Ayers, ed., Rationalism.
(46) Cf. E2p4d: “An infinite intellect comprehends nothing except God’s attributes and his
affections” (Italics added), and Della Rocca, Representation, p. 157.
(47) “Knowledge of the first kind is the only cause of falsity, whereas knowledge of the
second and third kind is necessarily true” (E2p41). Knowledge of the first kind is “opinion
or imagination” (E2p40s2).
(48) Cf. Spinoza’s use of “constare” in E2p13c.
(49) See Haserot, “Spinoza’s Definition,” p. 509. Another related consideration against the
view of the attributes as illusory is that, in Ep. 6, Spinoza stresses that motion and rest,
an infinite mode of Extension, “explicates nature as it is in itself,” and not as it is related
to human perception (G 4:28.11-15). It would be very odd if motion and rest, the
immediate infinite mode of Extension, which follows immediately from the “absolute
nature” of Extension (E1p21), were real, while Extension itself were an illusion. For
further criticism of Wolfson’s reading, see Gueroult, Spinoza I, pp. 441–47.
(50) Another closely related question is why the definition of attribute refers to the
intellect’s perception, rather than conception. In E2d3expl Spinoza draws a distinction
between conception and perception. The latter “seems to indicate that the mind is acted
on by the object,” the former an action of the mind. Since in Spinoza’s theory of the
mental, the activity of the mind is associated with adequate ideas, and passivity with
inadequate ideas, one might be tempted to conclude that perceptions should be
inadequate. This is clearly not the case, given numerous passages where Spinoza speaks
of true perceptions. Consider, for example, E2p44d: “It is of the nature of reason to
perceive things truly [res verè percipere], i.e., as they are in themselves.” Cf. E2p43s/G
2:125.1. In E2p49s/G 2:133.26 Spinoza seems to identify “perceptions” and “the faculty of
conceiving.” Della Rocca suggests that in E1d4 Spinoza uses the “percipere” terminology
in order to draw attention to the referential opacity of “contexts involving the notion of
constitute” (Representation, p.166). While I find this suggestion helpful and essentially
agree with it, I suspect Spinoza also uses “percipere” to indicate that the intellect serves
as reasoned reason, and not as reasoning reason, i.e. that it does not create distinctions
that have no foundation in reality. I will explain this point shortly.
(51) CM 2.5/G 1:258.16-19; KV 1 Dialogue 1/G 1:30.10; Ep. 35/G 4:181.24-26; E1p12d.
(52) In his discussion of Spinoza in his Lectures, Hegel seems to doubt that Spinoza really
meant that God has infinitely many attributes. For a more recent presentation of this
view, see Kline, “On the Infinity.” Here I concentrate on Bennett’s discussion since it has
been the more influential.
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(53) Bennett, A Study, pp. 75–78.
(54) For a detailed presentation of this issue, see Melamed, Spinoza’s Metaphysics, Ch. 4.
(55) Crescas, Or Ha-Shem [Light of the Lord], Book I, iii 3 (p. 106). For a discussion of this
text and the Kabbalistic tradition, which ascribes infinitely many attributes to God, see
Harvey, Rabbi Hasdai Crescas, p. 94.
(56) AT 3:394.
(57) Notice that for Spinoza it is only reality, and not existence, that is said to come in
degrees. Existence is binary: either a thing exists or it does not. According to Ep. 9, we
are “more compelled to attribute” existence to a thing the more attributes we attribute to
it, but we do not attribute more existence.
(58) See, for example, E2a1, E2p10 and Ep. 12/G 4:54.33.
(59) For further discussion of the Two Attributes interpretation, see Ariew, “The Infinite.”
(60) See Shein, “Spinoza’s Theory of the Attributes,” § 1.3. Eventually, Shein endorses a
more nuanced view of the distinction between the substance and its attributes.
(61) Sometimes, detachable accidents are also considered really distinct from each other
and from their substratum.
(62) See, for example, Spinoza’s definition of real distinction in his Descartes’ Principles of
Philosophy: “Two substances are said to be really distinct when each of them can exist
without the other” (DPP1d10).
(63) PP 1.60. On real distinction in Descartes and the scholastics, see Gilson, Index, pp.
88–89.
(64) AT 4:349-50. I altered the translation slightly, replacing “conceptual distinction” with
“distinction of reason.” Both are translations of distinctio rationis.
(65) Spinoza frequently equates intellect and reason. See, for example, E4app4.
(66) On Burgersdijk’s Institutiones and its wide circulation, see van Rijen, “Burgersdijk.”
For Suarez’s discussion of reasoning and reasoned reason, see Metaphysical Disputations
VII, p. 18–19.
(67) Suarez, Metaphysical Disputations VII, p. 18. Cf. Burgersdijk, Institutiones, p. 91.
(68) Burgersdijk, Institutiones, p. 91.
(69) Suarez, Metaphysical Disputations VII, p. 18.
(70) Burgersdijk, Institutiones, p. 91.
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(71) The suggestion that the intellect in E1d4 functions as reasoned reason can also
explain why Spinoza uses “percipere” (rather than “concipere”), indicating a certain
passivity on the side of the intellect. The intellect in E1d4 is not active in the sense that it
does not generate a distinction that has no foundation in reality. In other words, it is
constrained by the nature of its object. See note 50 above.
(72) Suarez, Metaphysical Disputations VII, p. 19.
(73) Similarly, Spinoza’s claim in E2p13c that “man consists of mind and body [hominem
Mente, et Corpore constare]” should be read as saying that mind and body are two
aspects of one and the same thing, or one and the same thing conceived under different
attributes (E2p7s). That “constantem” need not indicate a relation of proper part to its
whole we can learn from E1p12d, where Spinoza discusses (and rejects) the possibility of
a substance “consisting [constare]” of only one attribute.
(74) For further discussion of the attributes as aspects of one and the same thing, see
Melamed, Spinoza’s Metaphysics, Ch. 5. Pollock also suggests that the attributes are
aspects of the substance. See his Spinoza, p. 153.
(75) There is an intriguing element in Burgersdijk’s account of distinctions of reason that I
believe is closely related to Spinoza’s understanding of substance and attribute, though I
am still not sure precisely how. Burgersdijk notes that, for the scholastics, the term
reason [ratio] or Logos refers to the commonality of intellect and the essence perceived
by the intellect. The scholastics called the former “reasoning reason” And the latter
“reasoned reason” (Institutiones, p. 91).
(76) A common view takes the essence of Spinoza’s God to be power [potentia]. This view
is particularly popular in contemporary French Spinoza scholarship under the influence
of Deleuze’s book, Expressionism in Philosophy. For an alternative view according to
which God’s essence is pure existence or eternity [aeternitas], see Melamed, “Spinoza’s
Deification of Existence.”
(77) An account of Spinoza’s understanding of expression is still a desideratum. While the
term is widely used, I am not aware of any good account of this central notion.
(78) Ep. 4/G 4:13.34–14.2.
(79) See CM 1.1/G 1:237.2–5. On the rise and fall of “real accidents” (accidents that are
not dependent on their substance), see Normore, “Accidents.” For Spinoza’s critique of
real accidents, see CM 2.1/G 1:249.33.
(80) See Ep. 12/G 4:54.9–10.
(81) See Spinoza’s definition of freedom: “That thing is called free which exists from the
necessity of its nature alone, and is determined to act by itself alone” (E1d7), and
E1p17c2: “God alone is a free cause.”
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(82) Here, I changed Curley’s translation from “explain” to “explicate.” Both are possible
translations of “explicare,” but I do not think that in this case existence is explained by
the modes. Rather, Duration and Eternity are two ways to explicate, or spell out,
existence.
(83) A similar formulation appears in the Cogitata Metaphysica in a paragraph whose title
is “What eternity is; What duration is”: “From our earlier division of being into being
whose essence involves existence and being whose essence involves only possible
existence, there arises the distinction between eternity and duration” (CM 1.4/G
1:244.13-15).
(84) See Melamed, “Spinoza’s Deification of Existence,” §3.3.
(85) KV 1.2/G 1:26.8–16.
(86) See n. 51.
(87) Notice that for Aristotle, too, an accident is considered as that which is in a substance
but not as its part. See Aristotle, Categories, 3a32.
(88) For further discussion of the distinction between these two kinds of pantheism, see
Melamed, “Spinoza’s Metaphysics of Substance,” pp. 63–65.
(89) Bayle, Dictionary Historical and Critical, “Spinoza,” vol. 5, p. 208.
(90) Spinoza’s Metaphysics, p. 18 (Italics added). Cf. Curley’s Behind the Geometrical
Method, p. 31
(91) “[T]he relation of mode to substance is a relation of causal dependence, which is
unlike the relation of predicate and subject,” Curley, Spinoza’s Metaphysics, p. 40. Cf.
Curley, Behind the Geometrical Method, p. 31.
(92) In fact, Bayle had already suggested the outline of Curley’s revisionary reading of
Spinoza in a remark he added to the second edition of his Dictionary. See Bayle,
Dictionary, “Spinoza,” Remark DD, vol. 5, p. 220–21.
(93) For detailed critiques of Curley’s reading, see Carriero, “On the Relationship,” and
Melamed, “Spinoza’s Metaphysics of Substance.”
(94) See, for example, E1p28d, E2p9 and E4p4d.
(95) Die philosophischen Schriften, vol. I, p. 118. For a detailed presentation of arguments
(ii)-(v), see Melamed, “Spinoza’s Metaphysics of Substance,” pp. 31–43.
(96) For a discussion of the relativity of the substance-accident division in medieval
philosophy, see Normore, “Accidents,” p. 677. For discussion of the distinction between
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things and qualities in early modern and contemporary metaphysics, see Melamed,
“Spinoza’s Metaphysics of Substance,” pp. 71–74.
(97) See Ep. 8/G 4:42.30 and Ep. 34.
(98) “Extraneous accident” is the term Aquinas uses to designate these qualities (see
Carriero, “Spinoza’s Views,” p. 69). Garrett simply uses “accidents” instead (see Garrett,
“Spinoza’s Necessitarianism,” p. 201).
(99) “If a circle, for example, is defined as a figure in which the lines drawn from the
center to the circumference are equal, no one fails to see that such a definition does not
at all explain the essence of the circle, but only a property [proprietatem] of it” (TdIE
§95).
(100) TdIE §96/G 2:35.19 and TdIE §97/G 2:36.1.
(101) Spinoza uses “properties” in the technical sense of propria in at least three other
places in the Ethics (E1app/G 2:77.22, E3da6expl, and E3da22expl), as well as in the
fourth chapter of TTP (G 3:60.9) and in Ep. 60. It is also likely that E2d4 uses
“proprietates” in the technical sense. Among modern translations of the Ethics, Jakob
Klatzkin’s extraordinary Hebrew translation (1923) stands out in its explicit and
systematic detection of the technical use of “proprietates.” Klatzkin translates
“proprietates” in E1p16d (and in the other texts mentioned above) with “Segulot,” which
is the technical medieval Hebrew term for propria (I am indebted to Zeev Harvey for
pointing this out to me). For reference to medieval Hebrew uses of this notion, see
Klatzkin’s Thesaurus, pp. 91–92. See also Curley’s helpful discussion of proprium in the
glossary to C, p. 652., and Garrett, “Spinoza’s Conatus Argument,” p. 156–57, n. 24. My
account of E1p16d is indebted to Garrett’s reading of this crucial text in his “Spinoza’s
Necessitarianism” and “Spinoza’s Conatus Argument.”
(102) Della Rocca, Spinoza, pp. 62–64.
(103) Della Rocca, Spinoza, pp. 65–69.
(104) In my recent article—“Inherence, Causation, and Conceivability in Spinoza”—I point
out some of the major problems with this interpretation.
(105) See KV 1.2/G 1:33.12, KV 2.5/G 1:64.9–14.
(106) According to E1p21, the infinite modes are eternal. Whether this eternity is strictly
atemporal or merely indicates an everlasting existence in all times is a subject of
scholarly debate.
(107) See E1app/G 2:80.15–19.
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(108) For further discussion of the infinite modes, see Gueroult, Spinoza I, pp. 309–324;
Melamed, Spinoza’s Metaphysics, pp. 113-136; Curley, Spinoza’s Metaphysics, pp. 54–74;
Della Rocca, Spinoza, pp. 70–74; and Schmaltz, “Spinoza’s Mediate Infinite Mode.”
Yitzhak Melamed
Yitzhak Y. Melamed is a Professor of Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University. He is
the author of Spinoza’s Metaphysics: Substance and Thought (2013) and of
numerous articles in medieval, early modern, and nineteenth-century philosophy.
Currently, he is working on the completion of a book on Spinoza and German
Idealism.
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