Anuradhapura

The study focuses on 75 diagnosed CKDu patients in the NCP of Sri Lanka who have been visiting a selected Ayurveda clinic in Kebithigollewa. Biochemical parameters such as serum creatinine and micro-albumin were analyzed over a period of six months among patients undergoing Sri Lanka traditional medicine treatment. Methods: The patients undergoing Sri Lankan traditional medication for a period of one year were selected for the study. Descriptive data analysis was carried out for a further six-month period on samples of 75 patients diagnosed with CKDu. The patients age, gender, serum creatinine, micro-albumin, blood pressure and ankle edema were taken into consideration. Pearson correlation test was carried out on all patient data to assess patient prognosis. Results: A sample of 75 (n=75) patients were selected for the study of which 52 were males and 23 were females in the age range 40-60. The average e-GFR for the first month (m=1) follow up was 35.44 and sixth month (m=6) was 40.16. The average serum creatinine level declined from 2.59 to 2.48 over the six-month study period, accounting to a 5% reduction. The average blood pressure for the six-month period was 123/77. The average ACR measured for a four-month period was 304.85 mg/g and had a correlation value of 0.328 at 95% confidence and a p value of 0.04 was obtained when correlated with e-GFR. Conclusion: A significant improvement in both biochemical and quality of life parameters were observed among the selected patient population who underwent Sri Lankan traditional medicine treatment.

Heritage studies now utilize state-of-the-art cutting edge technology in the digital application with great success. Due to the flexibility and precision of this technology, the digital application has opened up new frontiers in heritage studies. Geographic Information System (GIS) can be used as a tool to aid the recording and preservation of heritage sites by collecting and presenting site information in an integrated and meaningful way. The intention of this research was to develop a GIS based generic integrated information management system for heritage sites in Anuradhapura to support the decision-making process and research works. In this research, an attempt was made to consolidate information from these earlier surveys and research to a single GIS- ased heritage inventory. For mapping cultural and environmental features in the region, a variety of surveying, satellite methods and Global Positioning System (GPS) have been applied. As part of the research, a number of hand-drawn survey maps and excavation plans were scanned and Geo-rectified, before the data was digitized on screen to integrate with the heritage feature classes in heritage geodatabase. The topographical data of the surface features were superimposed on to the satellite images for further interpretation of the heritage values and identification of the extent of ancient sites. Ground
trothing and registration of the images and accurate positioning of the geophysical grids and parts of the archaeological relics were performed with aids of GPS satellite receivers. A total station was used in the
geodetic surveying. All the data collected has been integrated into a
Geographic Information System (GIS), which would be incorporated to manage and protect heritage resources that are being under the threat of urban development. Finally, this research was able to develop a GIS
based generic information management system for world heritage city of Anuradhapura to support in the decision-making process and research works in heritage management. Mean time a GIS data model for heritage studies focused on the regional, inter-site and intra-site
scales has been created.

Since prehistoric times, man has been identified in various rituals and techniques on archaeological evidence to have been used in various situations. The human who expected rain have followed different methods of sacred rituals and Bali Shanthi karma, therefore initiative created images can be found in the dry zone across the paddy fields and lakes around. As an intangible inheritance specified by identifying the figurative terra expansion and what kind of Bali Shanthi karma have performed to expected rain? These research problems was based to do the research. Though Bali sculptures as materials its past can be reviewed by ethnology and folklore therefor can enter into the discussion of these subjects. Therefore, library survey, interviews and comparison study of images was done. Bali shanthi karma which was held expected from rain can be identify as Wasi Bailey, subothi Bailey, Sri Vishnu warshdhipathi belief. All these blai shanthi karma has its own individual methods to do and to create bali images have its own features and the system will be also carried out their own inner spell.For above bali shanthi karama images which was designed and made of clay was put into waw piti and the naked images was found from excavations there are wahigampola muththa, images as dala kumaru and giri devi was found and can think of villages who believe heavy rain will fall after bali shanthi karma and its destroy the clay images therefor they burn the images to protect from heavy rain. Moreover in kahambiliyawa clay images the face have made in the position of looking up, these images have situated in the paddy fields not to see clearly but to symbolize looking at the sky to rain. These bali shanthi karma is archaeological and intangible heritage which was fed away.

This is the first of three parts of a study of the particular interest shown by Sri Lankan Esoteric Buddhists, including the 8th century royalty, in Buddhist relics, especially those stupas enclosed in a pillared rotunda ('vatadage').  I note that these interests convene with a vein of 8th century Esoteric Buddhist textual material which also appreciates relic- and stupa- worship, and propose that the Sri Lankan vatadages may have served Sri Lankan Esoteric Buddhists in a legitimating role parallel to that of the 'Iron Stupa' legend employed by Esoteric Buddhists in contemporary East Asia.

The essay offers a lengthy examination of the Esoteric Buddhist activities and proclivities of King Manavarman (r. 684-718) and his descendants, and their very close relationship to the monastic ministers and advisers in the Abhayagirivihara.

This installment of my tripartite study of Esoteric Buddhism in the Sri Lanka of the late 7th through late 10th centuries focuses on two subjects.  The longest section addresses the Abhayagiri's 'Mahanetraprasada' arama and its relationship to the mysterious Eye Relic during both the Esoteric Buddhist period as well as the Shravakayana restoration under the primacy of the Mahavihara.  There is also an accounting of the vatadage sites, with particular emphasis on the vatadages at the Lankarama, the Ambasthala, and at Medirigiriya.  Finally, there is an attempt to provide a conspectus on the present state of understanding of the practice and influence of Esoteric Buddhism at the Abhayagirivihara and affiliated monasteries, as well as an assessment of the role of Buddha Relics in the 'state protection Buddhism' of the Vajrayana as practiced by such figures as Amoghavajra and, apparently, the Abhayagirivasins.  The Appendices are devoted to a close reading of the curious biography of Aggabodhi V and his association with padhanagharas and pamshukulika monks; a history of 80-year conflict between Rajarattha and the Cholas over the Pandya  that serves as background for understanding the Abhayagiri regulatory inscriptions of Kassapa V and Mahinda IV; and a short chronology of the significant events during the last century and a half of the Anuradhapura period.

This is a rather long paper (c. 270 pages) and the reader might benefit from the independent Table of Contents provided elsewhere on this site.

The largest – and also in other aspects the most spectacular – stone image of a seated Buddha in Sri Lanka is located since about the sixth century on the premises of the Śrī Mahā Bodhi Shrine at the Mahāvihāra complex at Anurādhapura. The statue is carved out of a single slab of dolomite marble, measures 3.3 metres in height and is since 1911 installed in the image-house located east of the sacred Bodhi-tree. This Buddha is presumably the only known Sri Lankan Buddha seated in the “diamond posture” (vajraparyaṅkāsana) with both soles pointing upwards, and displaying the gesture of touching the earth (bhūmisparśa-mudrā or māravijaya-mudrā). All other seated Sri Lankan Buddhas usually rest in the “noble posture” (sattvaparyaṅkāsana) with the right leg placed upon the left leg with only the sole of the right foot visible, displaying instead the gesture of meditation with both hands placed in the lap (dhyāna-mudrā). The gesture of touching the earth (bhūmisparśa-mudrā) symbolizes Buddha Siddhartha’s defeat of Māra (māravijaya) and subsequent enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree at Bodhgayā (Gayā district, Bihar, N.-E. India). The only known Sri Lankan Buddha image displaying the bhūmisparśa-mudrā is thus fittingly placed beside the principal Bodhi-tree of Sri Lanka located at the Mahāvihāra complex.

The domed stupas are among the most distinctive of South Asia's religious monuments and have been shown to be sensitive indicators for their society. Since arguments for economic and political change depend on accurate dating, and since the stupas are largely composed of brick, the authors here assess the potential for dating building sequences by applying optically stimulated luminescence to brick fabric. As so often, good scientific dates obtained from specimens must be tempered by their context: brick may be replaced or recycled during repair and embellishment. Nevertheless, the method promises important insights by distinguishing different episodes of building, and so writing ‘biographies’ for stupas with different functions.

The domed stupas are among the most distinctive of South Asia's religious monuments and have been shown to be sensitive indicators for their society. Since arguments for economic and political change depend on accurate dating, and since the stupas are largely composed of brick, the authors here assess the potential for dating building sequences by applying optically stimulated luminescence to brick fabric. As so often, good scientific dates obtained from specimens must be tempered by their context: brick may be replaced or recycled during repair and embellishment. Nevertheless, the method promises important insights by distinguishing different episodes of building, and so writing ‘biographies’ for stupas with different functions.

"Sri Lanka an island country located in the south East Asian sea is well known among the international community for the tsunami of 2004 and the decade long internal civil war with Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. Furthermore, with the channel 46 news incident the nation gained a reputation of being another Kampuchea with an array of internal turmoil. Nonetheless, Known under the names as Lankapura (Senaveratna, 1997, p. 1), Salike (Mccrindle, 1879, p. 4), Taprobane (Cameron, 1873), and Palaisimoudon (Mccrindle, 1879, p. 144) Sri Lanka with a long history approximating 2500 years was then popular among the ancient pre-colonial world as a nation of great prosperity with a sustained and diverse socioeconomic infrastructure.
Being a nation way ahead of the time then Sri Lanka consisted of well-stabilized cities, which expanded throughout the country, interlinked through an elaborate network of roads, internal and external trade, and within these cities, the residence enjoyed modern luxuries as advance town planning systems with sophisticated sewer systems, water gardens, and hospitals. Additionally providing for the infrastructure and in stabilizing the economy of the time the ancient Sri Lankans utilized advanced technologies in irrigation systems that supplied the agrarian socioeconomic structure with ample water through rain and drought enabling a sustained economy. Yet, with the end of the 14Th century AD, internal turmoil within the nation, and lack of good leadership alongside various foreign occupations from Indian had begun to loosen the once strong infrastructure.
The nation once well sustained eventually falling into the hands of three colonial powers following the age of discovery in Europe, was eventually brought to its knees. This unfortunate event was further exacerbated with a series postcolonial internal turmoil Sri Lanka is yet to another face another challenge, this is face challenge of obtaining true independent in a fast growing global economic era as a collective. Thus in moving through this phase like many historical nations, Sri Lanka is slowly becoming westernized in meeting with the demand of the time. However, as a side effect of westernization and globalization the once illustrious past of the nation’s history is slowly being returned back to the jungles or being forgotten among the modern constructions as roads, hotels and other developments. The glories history of Sri Lanka with many hidden aspect, which assisted us then while engulfing the lesions for the future, is slowly being forgotten.
Therefore, in capturing much of its rich past to the best of the ability while maintaining the summarized nature for better remembrance, this qualitative literature discusses the ancient kingdoms of Sri Lanka and their socio-economical changes between 6th century BC and the fall of the Kandyan kingdom of Sri Lanka 1815 AD.  In elaborating the purpose of this literature as quoted by Dr. Bhagirathi Sahu, in his book New Education Philosophy “One of the tasks of education is to bring international understanding. Education should transmit the human culture as a whole. Different cultures are like different petals of a multicolored flower i.e., world culture, thus culture and education are related to each other” (Sahu, 2007, p. 331). The significance of this literature  is not only that it portrays the value of the lessons learned by the mistakes made by past leaders of nation, but also provides methods of correcting these errors for the future in adding to the “world culture” (Sahu, 2007). Having said that, this manuscript on the ancient Kingdoms of Sri Lanka may additionally provide a service to be utilized by an enthusiast of Sri Lankan history or a scholar of ancient studies that scrutinize Sri Lanka or south East Asia.
The above being the purpose and the guideline of this study. In collecting the data which support the validity of this research an array of  literature as, sannas  (official documents issued in the past), rock inscriptions, engraves, other medium of  literature as survey reports, colonial gazettes, memoirs, eyewitness accounts, personal journals, scholarly journals from precolonial eras to 1815 has been utilized in answering vital questions about the Ancient Kingdoms. The questions concerning the ancient kingdoms of Sri Lanka being and abundance, the author has focused on a handful of vital segments as; what leadership methods were implied by Sri Lanka monarchs to achieve national success during their reigns, the governing methods utilized by the ancient monarchs. Additionally the author also questions the nature of the ancient infrastructure laid by the ancients that enabled a sustained socioeconomic growth, various invasions by foreign forces and settlers, the role of women in the ancient society and their leadership.
"

The aim of this thesis is the reconstruction of Early Historic networks in South Asia and beyond. The methodology engaged focusses on image analysis techniques being applied to two South Asian ceramics, Arikamedu Type 1 (also referred to as Rouletted Ware) and Arikamedu Type 10. The secondary aim of this thesis is to identify and investigate stylistic variances across these ceramics within the spatial and temporal boundaries of this research.

The two ceramics in this study were initially recorded at Arikamedu, South India in the excavations led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler (Wheeler et al. 1946). The majority of the previous research has focused on the physical aspects of the ceramics in an attempt to provenance the types, for example thin section analysis by Krishnan & Coningham (1997) and chemical analysis by Ford et al. (2005), however, confirmation of the provenance has not been achieved.

This thesis focuses on the decorative features of the ceramics for analysis and interpretation. The data extracted will, on interpretation, aim to demonstrate the spatial and temporal variances within Rouletted Ware and Arikamedu Type 10, and allow the proposal of networks in the Indian Ocean and beyond, during the South Asian Early Historic period