Artificial Cranial Deformation

Elongated skulls are a phenomenon that continues to elicit fascination and intrigue. The conventional perspective is that ALL elongated skulls are the result of cranial deformation, the intentional modification of the shape of the skull over many years. However, this paper presents evidence that challenges the conventional perspective, namely, the discovery of skulls that already had an elongated shape in utero.

Palaeobiology of a late antique skeletal sample from the Early Christian complex of San Giusto
(V-VII century A.D., Lucera - Foggia)
The cemetery area of San Giusto archaeological complex, especially the funerary basilica, seems to be a selective cemeterybecause of its considerable prevalence of male tombs, probable due to cultural reasons.
The comparison of these samples with other skeleton remains proves that the samples in San Giusto cemetery have a moderate incidence of a porous hyperostosis and a tooth-socket pathology such as tooth caries, P.I.V., abscess, tooth usury and tartar. The specimen presents a high frequency of tibial periostitis caused by the lack of vitamins and by frequenting natural untilled and uncultivated places. It’s important to point out the palaeopathology cases: one case of brucellosis, one case of salmonellas, one case of suspicious meningitis and one case of rhino-maxillary syndrome, a possible precursory of the leprosy.
The sample study also points out some hereditary diseases as for example a probable Gardner colon polyposis and a probable skull-facial dysmorphism. Individuals from different burial areas show a diversification based on demography, onthe incidence of skeletal and tooth indicators of stress, on palaeopathology. All the specimens, without distinction between female and male, reveal intense muscle-skeletal activity, as from the cross sectional geometry; in particular there is a lower
limb heavy activity caused by the high mobility of these individuals on the territory.
As Piano San Giovanni at Canosa and Herdonia, also San Giusto has different individuals characterised by the cranial metric morphology of the Mongolian typology (Huns, Avars, Bulgarians).There are also some cases of intentional cranial deformation as those documented by
Kiszeli in the gothic and Lombard cemeteries in Italy and Middle-Europe.

For a long time, one of my dreams was to describe the nature of uncertainty axiomatically, and it looks like I've finally done it in my co∼eventum mechanics! Now it remains for me to explain to everyone the co∼eventum mechanics in the most approachable way. This is what I'm trying to do in this work. The co∼eventum mechanics is another name for the co∼event theory, i.e., for the theory of experience and chance which I axiomatized in 2016 [1, 2]. In my opinion, this name best reflects the co∼event-based idea of the new dual theory of uncertainty, which combines the probability theory as a theory of chance, with its dual half, the believability theory as a theory of experience. In addition, I like this new name indicates a direct connection between the co∼event theory and quantum mechanics, which is intended for the physical explanation and description of the conict between quantum observers and quantum observations [4]. Since my theory of uncertainty satises the Kolmogorov axioms of probability theory, to explain this co∼eventum mechanics I will use a way analogous to the already tested one, which explains the theory of probability as a theory of chance describing the results of a random experiment. The simplest example of a random experiment in probability theory is the " tossing a coin ". Therefore, I decided to use this the simplest random experiment itself, as well as the two its analogies: the " "flipping a coin " and the " spinning a coin " to explain the co∼eventum mechanics, which describes the results of a combined experienced random experiment. I would like to resort to the usual for the probability theory " coin-based " analogy to explain (and first of all for myself) the logic of the co∼eventum mechanics as a logic of experience and chance. Of course, this analogy one may seem strange if not crazy. But I did not come up with a better way of tying the explanations of the logic of the co∼eventum mechanics to the coin-based explanations that are commonly used in probability theory to explain at least for myself the logic of the chance through a simple visual " coin-based " model that clarifies what occurs as a result of a combined experienced random experiment in which the experience of observer faces the chance of observation. I hope this analogy can be useful not only for me in understanding the co∼eventum mechanics.

Resumen La región correspondiente al norte de Michoacán y las áreas colindantes de Guanajuato fueron el escenario, a lo largo de su historia prehispánica, de importantes fluctuaciones poblacionales vinculadas con las variaciones del límite septentrional de Mesoamérica. Dichos procesos desembocaron, en el Posclásico, en la formación de una de las prin-cipales entidades políticas del área mesoamericana: el reino tarasco. En el presente trabajo se dan a conocer los resultados de una investigación enfocada en la práctica de la modificación cefálica artificial, la cual fue ampliamente usada en esta región desde el Preclásico. Nos interesan las importantes variaciones que se aprecian a lo largo del tiempo, las cuales trataremos de caracterizar y de entender a la luz de los datos arqueológicos y etnohistóricos: predominio de la forma tabular erecta frontooccipital y tabular oblicua en el Preclásico tardío y Clásico temprano; desarrollo importante de la forma tabular frontoobélica en el Clásico medio-tardío; abandono de la práctica por gran parte de la población durante el Posclásico. A partir de este esquema evolutivo, discutiremos algunas líneas de interpretación con respecto al significado que pudo tener la deformación craneana en términos sociales e identitarios. Introducción Por su ubicación entre diferentes esferas culturales, tales como el Centro, el Occidente y el Norte de México, Michoacán y las áreas colindantes de Guanajuato ofrecen un

La modificación artificial de la cabeza infantil constituye una de las tradiciones más arraigadas del antiguo mundo maya, cuyas practicantes recurrían a procedimientos sofisticados para dejar la cabeza de sus bebés ancha o angosta, larga o alta, esférica o bilobada. La primera parte de esta obra explora, en el marco de los esquemas ideológicos mesoamericanos, los diferentes significados y motivos culturales que una vez deben haber sustentado la modificación cefálica artificial en la sociedad maya. Se discute su papel en la ritualidad cotidiana y su rol en la protección del alma infantil. Por fin, un tercer significado, que denominamos “emblemático”, lo comunican los mismos semblantes modelados que sus portadores lucirían visiblemente a lo largo de su vida. En la segunda parte del libro, los planteamientos generales sobre la modificación cefálica anclan un estudio de casi dos mil cráneos, pertenecientes a diferentes épocas, sitios y regiones mayas y circum-mayas. Una taxonomía formal nueva, adaptada al área de estudio, coadyuva la identificación de las diferentes modalidades técnicas y sus resultados formales. Los patrones y tendencias registradas en este estudio regional subrayan que la modificación cefálica articula los cambios socioculturales que se produjeron en la sociedad maya a lo largo de su larga trayectoria. Todavía durante el período Clásico, las variadas siluetas cefálicas subrayan el papel de las mujeres en la expresión ideológica, quienes parecen emular los semblantes del panteón de las deidades al dar la morfología deseada a la cabeza infantil. Asociaciones culturales más amplias reflejan sorprendentemente la cartografía linguística y étnica de los grupos mayas durante el primer milenio de Nuestra Era. Del mismo modo, las preferencias en los portes anuncian cambios sociales más profundos, como son aquellos que se vinculan con la caida de las hegemonías mayas del Clásico y, naturalmente, la conquista española. Se concluye que la mirada de los antiguos mayas en el espejo de la práctica cefálica es capaz de enriquecer y expander nuestra comprensión de lo maya y los mayas, eso al comunicar aspectos íntimos de la antigua sociedad y su funcionamiento, no a través de sus productos sino directamente a través de que elllos mismos nos comunican a través de su cuerpo.

Nach aktuellem Stand (Februar 2015) gibt es in Österreich 52 durch Literatur belegte
Individuen mit künstlich deformierten Schädeln aufgeteilt auf 25 Fundorte. Die Gräber
können in die Zeit des 4. bis 6. Jh. n. Chr. datiert werden. Die vorliegende
„Bestandaufnahme“ der österreichischen Befunde bemüht sich um eine klare Auflistung der
vorhandenen Literatur, beginnend mit den frühesten Publikationen zum bereits im Jahr 1820
gefundenen ersten deformierten Schädel aus Feuersbrunn/Niederösterreich.
Die Befunde werden in mehreren Fragestellungen, wie geographischer Verbreitung, der
zeitlichen Einteilung, Geschlecht, dem biologischen Alter etc. analysiert. Die österreichischen
Funde werden nach topographischen und zeitlichen Kriterien im mitteleuropäischen Kontext
erfasst. Zur besseren Veranschaulichung wird die Verteilung der Befunde mit
Schädeldeformation mit antiken Grenzräumen des 5. und 6. Jh. n. Chr. in Verbindung gesetzt.


On actual status (February 2015) and referring to the cited literature there are 53 individuls
with artificial cranial deformation known from 25 find points in Austria. The graves can be
dated into the times of the 4th to 6th century CE. The following list of Austrian finds shall give
a detailed collection of literature, beginning with the publications of the first deformed skull
found in Feuersbrunn/Lower Austria in the year 1820.
Based on several issues such as the geographical distribution, the temporal classification,
gender, age, etc., the Austrian biological findings are analysed.
To represent the Austrian deformed skulls in a larger context, considering other European
findings is crucial. To illustrate the distribution of the findings with cranial deformation a link
to the antique border areas of the 5th and 6th century AD is established.

As a phenomenon that occurs worldwide, artificially deformed skulls exist in different forms. The oldest evidence of an artificial deformation of the skull has been found in the region of Tienshan in Central Asia. First performed by a group of Indo-Iranian equestrian nomads, the custom was later adopted by the Hunnic tribes heading west. The Hunnic invasion forced numerous Germanic tribes to escape and leave their homeland. However, some of these tribes merged with the invaders. Confronted with the Hunnic dominion, they adopted the practice of artificial cranial deformation. To limit the broad topic of this paper, the focus is placed on the findings in the region of present-day Austria. At 25 locations, a total of 56 skulls have been recorded, dating from the 4th to the 6th century CE. A lot of questions still remain: how many “real” strangers are there among the long heads? How was the custom of deformed heads conveyed to other groups? Why should people adopt this kind of fashion? To represent the Austrian deformed skulls in a larger context, taking other European findings into consideration is crucial. Thus, the occurrence of artificially deformed skulls in Central Europe can be determined according to topographical and temporal criteria. The analysis of the origins of these individuals is difficult due to the absence of grave finds. With the help of natural sciences and anthropology, we can shed some light on the background of this phenomenon.

The aim of this thesis is to determine where individual CM 72B, buried at El Chorro de
Maíta, Cuba, originates from. Characteristics as intentional cranial and dental
modification, isotopic levels, and burial position indicate a non-local origin. This thesis
focuses on cultural characteristics of the osteological remains and the burial of CM 72B.
These cultural characteristics are part of the identity of an individual. Thus based on
these markers it is possible to find a certain group of people that share these
characteristics with CM 72B, and therefore share the same group-identity as this
individual.
The cranial modification of CM 72B (fronto-occipital parallel modification) occurs on a
large scale in Mesoamerica, mainly the Maya lowland region. The dental modification of
CM 72B is consistent with types A4 and C2 or C3 of a modification chart made by
Romero Molina, that categorizes Mesoamerican dental modification into a standard
typology. This type of modification mainly occurs in the coastal areas of the Yucatán
peninsula and in Post-Classic Lamanai. The oxygen, carbon, and strontium isotopic
values of individual CM 72B fall outside the local range of El Chorro de Maíta. This
indicates a non-locale origin. CM 72B is buried prone with flexed legs to the back. This
type of burial occurs on a large scale in Lamanai and Ambergris Caye (Both in Belize).
By combining the areas where these characteristics occur altogether the possible origin
of CM 72B could be Lamanai or on Ambergris Caye. CM 72B was probably taken during
Spanish slave raids that occurred along the Belizean coast. The site San Pedro
(Ambergris Caye) is the only known place along the Belizean coast where the prone
burial practice still occurred during the contact period. San Pedro is located on the
Caribbean sea side of Ambergris Caye it would have been an easy target for the Spanish
Slave raiders. Therefore it could be that CM 72B was taken from San Pedro by the
Spaniards and then taken to Cuba and forced to be part of the encomienda system.

Theories of Continuing Bonds, and more recently, the Dual Process of
Grieving, have provided new ways of understanding the bereavement
process, and have influenced current practice for counsellors, end-oflife
care practitioners and other professionals. This paper uses these
theories in a new way, exploring their relevance to archaeological
interpretation, with particular reference to the phenomenon of
the plastering of skulls of the deceased in the Neolithic of Southwest
Asia (the Middle East/Near East), suggesting that traditional
archaeological interpretations, which focus on concepts of status and
social organisation, may be missing a more basic reaction to grief and
a desire to keep the dead close for longer.

The author discusses ten inhumation graves discovered between 1957 and 1987 at the Mitoc – Malu Galben (Botoșani County, Romania) site. The cemetery was attributed to the Sarmatian culture and broadly dated between the 2nd and the 4th century AD. The only graves published so far were those from the years 1957 (grave 1), 1978 (graves 2-3), 1980 and 1982 (graves 4-6). It is important to revisit these graves in order to provide an overview of the cemetery and to complete the previous published studies with photographs of the grave goods and with further information about the rituals. The unpublished graves which were discovered in the years 1986 and 1987 (graves 7 to 10) were also added to this paper. Therefore, at this moment, it is possible to have an overview of the cemetery, to exhaustively discuss the inventory, the funerary rituals and to propose a narrow dating of the finds: from the second part of the 2nd century to the middle of the 3rd century AD.

Presented article, based on the results of the latest archaeological research and the analysis of cataloged objects, provides a multi-faceted characteristic of the phenomenon of intentional and culturally conditioned cranial deformation in the pre-Columbian Nasca culture. In the light of interdisciplinary research and analysis of iconographic motifs we can notice that Nasca folks specifically identified themselves and recognized each other by particular physical attributes. Especially frontal-occipital cranial deformation is a dramatic example of the situational manipulation of ethnic identity. Results obtained in presented paper clearly demonstrate that the deformation methods and its objectives could be widely different, as well as not homogeneous within the southern coast of Peru. Wprowadzenie Mianem intencjonalnych lub uwarunkowanych kulturowo deformacji czaszek określa się zabiegi, wykonywane na etapie niemowlęctwa oraz wczesnego dzieciństwa, prowadzące do zmiany naturalnego kształtu ludzkiej czaszki. Tego typu praktyki polegały na celowej zmianie przebiegu rozwoju i kierunku wzrostu sklepienia czaszki z zamiarem nadania mu określonego kształtu. Nienaturalną formę głowy osiągało się zwykle za pomocą długotrwałego poddawania czaszki niemowlęcia lub noworodka ukierunkowanym siłom kompresyjnym o relatywnie niskim stopniu intensywności, polegającym na precyzyjnym uciskaniu lub zwężeniu głowy niemowlęcia w trakcie początkowych miesięcy jego życia, w okresie gdy rosnąca czaszka jest wciąż plastyczna. W ten sposób czaszce nadawany jest pożądany kształt o symbolicznym znaczeniu – po określonym czasie sklepienie twardnieje, a zmiany stają się nieodwracalne (Tiesler, 2012: 20). Modyfikacja kształtu czaszki, interpretowana jako forma indywidualnego lub zbiorowego identyfikatora, była zazwyczaj narzucana poprzez wymogi społeczne przy narodzinach niemowlęcia i stanowiła nieusuwalny znacznik tożsamości etnicznej danej jednostki w trakcie całego jej życia (Tiesler, 2014: 4‒5). Deformacje czaszek są uznawane przez antropologów za charakterystyczne cechy kulturowe, pozwalające na oznaczenie granic terytorialnych lub społecznych, stanowiące potwierdzenie określonego pochodzenia etnicznego oraz pokrewieństwa, które przyczyniają się do utrzymywania i zacieśniania kontaktów w obrębie danych grup społecznych (Fehir, 2014: 29‒30). Warto zwrócić uwagę na pewien terminologiczny chaos związany z opisywanym zjawiskiem. Niektórzy autorzy w bioarcheologicznych publikacjach wykorzystują głównie terminy " kształtowania " i " modelowania " czaszek, lub też " intencjonalnej modyfikacji kształtu " sklepienia czaszki. Podkreślają ponadto potrzebę standaryzacji naukowej

Resumen El presente trabajo se centra en el análisis e interpretación de un peculiar objeto realizado en cerámica y obtenido en un contexto funerario en el valle de Colima. Este artefacto se ha interpretado como un deformador craneal; se presentará su estudio y análisis a la luz del contexto en el que fue hallado y de la práctica ancestral de la deformación craneal en Mesoamérica. Durante las excavaciones arqueológicas en el sitio prehispánico El Tropel fue hallado un individuo infantil cuyo cráneo presentaba deformación cefálica tabular oblicua. Diversos ejemplos de los agentes mecánicos con los cuales se lograba la modificación tabular erecta son conocidos ampliamente, sin embargo, los mecanismos específicos del modelado oblicuo eran desconocidos hasta ahora. Se mostrarán datos sobre la forma de este instrumento, sus aspectos funcionales y su comparación con las características del cráneo infantil, además de determinar otros aspectos culturales del contexto.

It has been suggested that several crania dating to the late Pleistocene from the sites of Kow Swamp, Coobool Creek, Cohuna and Nacurrie in the Murray River Valley of South Australia, were intentionally deformed. How and why these crania were deformed has received little attention. This is especially intriguing since they are part of a sample that includes undeformed crania. The crania are also heavily involved in the debate concerning the origins of Australians, and their connections to Southeast Asian Homo erectus. I have looked into several possible causes for the cranial deformation seen, including the Homo erectus debate, pathology, taphonomy and unintentional and intentional methods of cranial deformation. Based on this research, I believe that intentional cranial deformation is indeed the cause of the cranial shape found here. Furthermore, I put forward several suggestions for the reasons behind this practice amongst this early Australian population, based on ethnographic comparisons.

This was my poster display for the HOBET conference in Liverpool 2012.

It has long been recognized that the Inka incorporated diverse peoples into their empire, but how these ethnic groups developed historically during the political upheaval of the preceding Late Intermediate Period (LIP; AD 1100–1450) is only now receiving commensurate attention. This study explores how changes in cranial modification, a correlate of embodied identity in the Andes, made possible new forms of political solidarity and social inequality in the late prehispanic Colca Valley. Bioarchaeological and radiometric data reveal a sharp rise in modification prevalence, from 39.2% (N = 97) during the early LIP (AD 1150–1300) to 73.7% (N = 114) during the late LIP (AD 1300–1450). Greater standardization of head-shaping practices echoes broader patterns of identity formation across the south-central highlands and may have provided a symbolic basis for the cooperation of elite groups during an era of intensive conflict. However, additional lines of archaeological and bioarchaeological data suggest that the formation of a more encompassing identity did not homogenize lived experiences. The symbolic boundaries enacted by head shaping intersected other forms of collective identity and likely contributed to growing social inequality prior to the period of Inka imperial expansion.

El modelado cefálico tabular superior ha sido descrito, principalmente, en sitios arqueológicos mesoamericanos tardíos. Siendo una variante de escasa representación en el área, ha encontrado su mayor expresión en el sitio de la mixtequilla veracruzana conocido como El Zapotal. Aparte de las culturas del Golfo, esta variante de modelado cefálico también ha sido encontrada en el occidente de México, en la zona ístmica y en el área maya. Fuera del ámbito mesoamericano, el modelado superior u obeliónico, se introdujo en la cultura Pueblo del sureste de los Estados Unidos de Norteamérica. Al distinguir este tipo de modelado cefálico de las formas lambdoidal y occipitales mas comunes, algunos autores han sugerido que los tres tipos de aplanamiento representan una forma de aplanamiento continuo inducido por la cuna compresora (cradleboard). A pesar de los estudios al respecto, no existe un consenso que permita entender el modo en que este modelado era logrado. Con el objetivo de inferir la mecánica y el papel cultural del modelado cefálico tabular superior, analizamos las características morfoscópicas entre los aplanamientos superiores de El Zapotal y la Isla de Sacrificios, ambos en Veracruz. En lo craniométrico, pondremos especial atención en el ángulo de aplanamiento superior u obeliónico (ángulo de aplanamiento superior en relación al plano horizontal de Frankfurt). Información adicional, obtenida a través del estudio de morfometría geométrica, permite clasificar y entender los cambios formales relacionados con este tipo de alteración. En un plano más regional, este estudio trata de aportar información sobre las técnicas, los implementos y su papel cultural en aquellas poblaciones que la practicaban el aplanado superior antiguamente.

This paper aims to present an exhaustive inquiry of the practice of artificial cranial
deformation in the Scythia province. This province corresponds nowadays to the territory of
Dobrogea and the Dobrici region of Bulgaria. So far, 39 skulls have been discovered in 39
graves that are artificially deformed, in four necropolises and a crypt of a basilica: at Beroe,
Callatis, Histria, (L)Ibida and Tropaeum Traiani. The graves were dated between the fourth and the sixth centuries AD. The emergence of this practice corresponds to the appearance of
the first migrants in Dobrogea, the Sarmatians. Other migratory peoples who brought here
this practice were: the Huns, the Alans, the Ostrogoths and the Protobulgarians. The graves
were discovered in Christian necropolises. The burial ritual was inhumation. The orientation
of graves is W - E, with variations, the skeletons were in dorsal decubitus position and, in
most cases, individually deposited. The funerary inventory is poorly represented and contains
beads, ceramic vessels, earrings, combs and buckles. The analysis is based on the analogies
between artificially deformed skull graves and the rest of the graves in the five-studied
necropolises. In general, cultural differences become more entrenched when groups interact.
In the case of the nomads in Scythia province, adoption of sedentary modes of life and
Christianization led to their assimilation, but they preserved artificial deformation as a
defining element of their identity. The analogies made confirm that there are no differences
between the funeral ritual practiced in the case of deformed skull graves and the funeral
ritual practiced in the other graves. Moreover, those graves with deformed skulls are not
grouped within the cemeteries, being completely mixed with the rest of the graves.

INTENTIONAL CRANIAL DEFORMATION , WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE DISCOVERY FROM FIRLADENI, CAUSENI DISTRICT
The paper introducer the reader into the fascination and bizarre world of intentional cranial deformation – invasive
and irreversible procedure, executed intra vitam with specific tools and instruments. The anatomical purpose of
the deformation of the head is the remodeling of the cranial vault, and the aesthetic purpose is the obtaining of a
visible, permanent marker. The social motivation of this procedure is more complex: indicator of social status, of
noble filiation, sign of ethnical identity and of appurtenance to a certain cultural group, the making of a connection
with the past and with the ancestors. The habit of cranial deformation is very old, being known since Prehistory,
on all inhabited continents, practiced by geographically and temporally distinct populations, with different cultural
characteristics. The attestation takes place, though, starting with Antiquity. In the European space, voluntary cranial
deformations known only starting with the 5th-4th centuries BC.
Particularly, the paper refers to the discovery made at Fîrlădeni (Căuşeni, Republic of Moldova), a funerary
complex that included the skeleton of a child, aged approximately 8 to 9 years, whose skull presented a particular
conformation, more exactly an artificial deformation of circular/annular type, probably the erect variant, a type of
deformation frequently encountered at the Sarmatic tribes.

This collection of essays was initiated by a passion for the study of Native American head treatments, shared among the contributors and the editors of this volume. Both editors look back on decades of active (bio)archaeological work on bodies and body modifications in the Andes and Mesoamerica. It was probably our sheer academic curiosity to learn more about the “other side” that triggered our initial conversations regarding the heads and skulls from the lands south and north of the Panama Canal. This curiosity was tailgated by our dissatisfaction with the many ready-made, simplified, or Westernized explanations of native “corporeity” to permeate the popular and academic literature alike.  Sadly, the scrutiny of native headworks does not make an exception. A more rigorous and culturally aligned (or emic) reflection of the tantalizingly complex undercurrents that once bolstered native body practices should go a la par with statistic validation and Western social semantization. We believe that these efforts are timely, given the amount of groundwork on indigenous body models in the Andes and Mesoamerica.

Las ideas y prácticas indígenas que tuvieron como objeto
el modelado permanente de la cabeza de los infantes, sin
duda acompañaron el desarrollo milenario de las culturas
mesoamericanas y americanas en general. En la mayor
parte de los inmensos territorios del Nuevo Mundo, las modificaciones cefálicas respondían a ideas genéricas impregnadas de una cosmovisión indígena diversificada a la vez que unicada, estando indisolublemente engranadas con otras expresiones del pensamiento autóctono.

The aim of this paper is to make a synthesis of the archaeological findings of artificially deformed skulls from the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic from Azerbaijan, Caucasus and Near East. Three main methods of artificial deformation of the head (skull) were widely popular in this region: circular, fronto-occipital and parietal. Apart from intentional deformation, there are also cases of accidental deformation:
cradle (beshik) and tumpline deformations. Modified skulls were found on the territory of South Caucasus and the Near East in the following Neolithic-Chalcolithic archaeological sites: Polutepe, Ismayilbeytepe (Azerbaijan); Chiaturi (Georgia), Aknalich (Armenia); Ginchi, Velikent III (Dagestan, Russian Federation); Mugharet el-Wad (Israel); Jericho (Palestine); Byblos (Lebanon); Tell Ramad, Buqras (Syria); Ain-Jebrud (Jordan), Tepe Ganj Dareh, Ghenil Tepe, Ali Kosh, Chogha Sefid, Qumrud, Tepe Sialk, Tepe Abdul Hosein, Chogha Mish, Seh Gabi (Iran); Khirokitia, Mylouthkia, Erimi, Karavas (Yirisma) (Cyprus); Shanidar, Eridu, Tell Arpachiyah, Tell Nader, Telul eth-Thalahat (Iraq); Ashikli Höyük, Salat Jami, Hakemi Use, Sheyh Höyük, Gözlü Kule, Kurban Höyük, Degirmantepe, Baklatepe, Chadyr Höyük, Arslantepe (Turkey). The Polutepe female skull has frontal-occipital deformations combined
with cradle deformation. It is similar, considering the methods of deformation, to the artificially deformed skulls from Tepe Ganj Dareh, Tepe Abdul Hosein, Tell Arpachiyah (skull E) and Khirokitia. Most likely, the custom of artificial deformation of the head came to Azerbaijan and Caucasus in Neolithic-Chalcolithic period form the Near East. The skull from Polutepe is the earliest finding of artificially deformed skulls on the territory of Caucasus (the second half of 5th - beginning of 4th millenium BC).

The cultural modification of skulls shape is a globally extended practice that consists on an artificial compression of an individual’s head during the growth period. In North Patagonia, the earliest evidence of this behavior among hunter-gatherer societies date back 4500 years BP, showing successive changes in morphologies throughout the Holocene. Therefore, the objectives of this work will be to describe changes in skull shape on the entire temporal sequence from samples of Neuquén province, as well as, to explore the variation on the middle/early late Holocene (ca. 4500-3000 years BP), using 2D and 3D geometric morphometrics. Our results show that cranial modifications of individuals from the middle/early late Holocene and later late Holocene vary markedly, suggesting the existence at macro-regional scale of two periods where human dynamics in the area was different. Finally, considering the artificial modified skull as a cultural artifact, our results were used to discuss the characteristics of the dynamics of human groups of Norpatagonia from each period in the context of the theories of cultural change and the propositions of dual inheritance.

A lot of speculation in academic and "popular" archaeology about skulls that are unusual in form. Many appear to have larger cranial volume than is commonly expected. Usually termed "Paracas", Cranially Deformed, Manipulated, Elongated or "Alien" skulls, there is little in the way of objective methodology to compare and classify these unique remnants of ancient beings. These unusual skulls are found in many places around the world; Middle and South Americas, North America, Eastern Europe and elsewhere. They are often explained as manipulation of an infant's head, by wrapping, boarding or other methods, to create a form emulating an elite or god class. This paper provides a tool for comparison and statistical analysis of the phenomenon. This methodology reduces data input for the researcher and provides a means of comparative analysis in form of a ratio between facial size/volume (the Token) and cranial capacity/volume to determine if a skull, that is unusual in shape, may exhibit a lesser, equal or greater ratio between the two. For example, if a standard (normal) skull (cranium), for a specific population, has a facial (splanchnocranium) to cranial (neurocranium) volumetric ratio of 1:3, researchers can compare that to other skulls to determine if it falls within the mean standard deviation for the cranial volume. What are our parameters?  Gender is often considered a difficulty because females are generally smaller than their male counterparts. Because we will be comparing ratios rather than actual volumes this is not a valid data point.  Race and geographical areas are discounted for the same reason.  Age is a valid data point because skull size does not change after adulthood. Adulthood can be determined by the eruption of the third molar and is the primary adult age marker used here. Other confirming indicators of adulthood are a fused sphenoid and fused cranial sutures. Skulls that do not have upper jaws (maxillae) that clearly exhibit third molar eruption will be considered juvenile or damaged and not included in the sample set that should also be absent from deforming pathological indicators.  Ear canals; both left and right, from the center of the canal holes.  Nose; bottom middle, between the left and right nasal passages where the upper lip would have begun.  The Vertical Peak; a point, at the top of the skull, vertical to the plane of the ear canals and the nose. Originally, I used the cranial suture intersection of the top frontal skull but its location varies with the shape of the skulls.