Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge

Purpose: Explore how different automated scoring (AS) models score reliably the expressive language and vocabulary knowledge in depth of young second grade Latino English Learners. Design/methodology/approach: Analyze a total of 13,471 English utterances from 217 Latino English learners with Random Forest, End-to-end Memory Networks, Long short-term memory and other AS models. Findings: Random Forest outperformed the other AS models as measured by the mean of Quadratic Weighted Kappa (QWK = .70) followed by the End-to-end Memory Networks- Long short-term memory (QWK = .69) across all tasks and data points. The QWK between humans was .90, while the human-machine agreement of three AS models and humans ranged from .66 to .70. Practical implications: Examine closely misclassifications between human and machine scoring to better understand the specific words and structures the systems were not capturing. Originality/value: Discuss findings in the context of developing efficient and reliable ways to analyze the natural speech of young English learners. This information could guide the vocabulary and language proficiency instruction in the early grades.

The study investigated the relationship between English language learner's (ELL) academic vocabulary and their performance in academic reading and writing. The specific objectives were to determine the relationship between breadth and depth of academic vocabulary knowledge and the academic reading comprehension and writing of ELL and to find out the extent to which scores on breadth and depth of academic vocabulary knowledge contribute to ELL's performance in academic reading and writing. Quantitative research design was employed in the study where language tests which were Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), the Productive Vocabulary Levels Test (PVLT), the Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge (DVK) Test, a Reading Comprehension (RC) test and a Writing Composition were administered to 90 UniversitiMalaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) undergraduates. For the analysis, Pearson correlation and multiple linear regression were used. Pearson correlation analysis showed that there was a positive correlation between breadth and depth of academic vocabulary with both academic reading comprehension and writing performance of ELL in UNIMAS. Vocabulary depth had a stronger correlation with academic reading comprehension while vocabulary breadth had a stronger correlation with academic writing. Both dimensions of vocabulary knowledge were positively correlated with each other. The analysis of multiple linear regression revealed that both dimensions of academic vocabulary knowledge contributed a moderate proportion to the variance of academic reading comprehension and writing although vocabulary depth predicted more to the overall variance of academic reading comprehension while vocabulary breadth was a more powerful predictor of ELL's performance in academic writing. Both breadth and depth of academic vocabulary knowledge were powerful predictors of reading comprehension and writing performance of learners and therefore a combination of these two dimensions will aid in better performance rather than just one alone.Thus, the teaching and learning of the English language should emphasize in vocabulary building in terms of enriching learners' vocabulary storage as well as improving the usage of vocabulary in context by understanding the meaning.

This study investigated the relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and vocabulary breadth and depth knowledge. One hundred and fifty first‐year university students in China took the Vocabulary Levels Test, a meaning recall task, and the Depth of Vocabulary Knowledge Test. The first two tests were used to elicit two types of vocabulary breadth knowledge, that is, meaning recognition (passive recognition) and meaning recall (passive recall), while the last test was used to elicit participants’ depth of vocabulary knowledge. Participants also filled out a vocabulary learning strategies survey (Schmitt, 1997). Structural equation modeling was employed to assess how vocabulary learning strategies predicted breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge. Results indicate that strategies that focus on learning the forms and associative meanings of words are significant predictors of both vocabulary breadth and depth knowledge. However, even learning strategies of the same type may have different effects on meaning recognition and meaning recall. Implications of the results for vocabulary teaching and learning are considered.

Depth and breadth of vocabulary have been the focus of research in language skills in the last two decades. However, the role of these two aspects of vocabulary knowledge in listening comprehension has remained an under-researched issue. Accordingly, to gain insights into the nature of such relationship, the present study aimed at investigating the predictive role of depth versus breadth of vocabulary knowledge in L2 learners' listening comprehension. To this end, Word Association Test (WAT), Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), and IELTS listening sub-test were administered to 73 intermediate EFL learners whose level was determined by Oxford Quick Placement Test (2004). Results of linear regression analysis revealed that: a) vocabulary depth dimension, unlike vocabulary breadth, was found to be significantly correlated with listening comprehension and could predict 72% of the variance in listening scores, b)only VLT scores form the 3K level could predict, inconsiderably though, the variance in the listening comprehension test scores, c) the two dimensions of breadth and depth correlated moderately (r = .49, p < 0.5) and WAT scores could predict 22% of the variance within VLT scores. The findings shed lights on the necessity of considering deep aspects of vocabulary knowledge, more and above vocabulary breadth, in dealing with listening tasks and activities. More specifically material developers need to consider the reported findings in designing listening materials to assist L2 listeners apply their word knowledge while processing aural input.

Word Associates Format (WAF) tests are often used to measure second language learners' vocabulary depth with a focus on their network knowledge. Yet, there were often many variations in the specific forms of the tests and the ways they were used, which tended to have an impact on learners' response behaviors and, more importantly, the psychometric properties of the tests. This paper reviews the general practices, key issues, and research findings that pertain to WAF tests in four major areas, including the design features of WAF tests, conditions for test administration, scoring methods, and test-taker characteristics. In each area, a set of variables is identified and described with relevant research findings also presented and discussed. Around eight topics, the General Discussion section provides some suggestions and directions for the development of WAF tests and the use of them as research tools in the future. This paper is hoped to help researchers become better aware that the results generated by a WAF test may vary depending on what specific design the test has, how it is administered and scored, and who the learners are, and consequently, make better decisions in their research that involves a WAF test.

Using a Chinese Word Associates Test (WAT-C), this study examined the vocabulary depth of second language learners of Chinese and its contribution to the learners' reading comprehension. Results showed no significant effects of word frequency , word class (i.e., adjectives vs. verbs), and type of association relationships (i.e., paradigmatic vs. syntagmatic) on learners' WAT-C performance. More important, vocabulary depth was found to be a significant and unique predictor of reading comprehension over and above vocabulary size. On the other hand, the relative contributions of vocabulary depth and size depended on what types of texts were read and what comprehension skills were assessed. Specifically, for the long passage comprehension task with questions testing literal comprehension, vocabulary size was a more important predictor, whereas for the short passage comprehension task with questions testing inferencing, vocabulary depth was a more important predictor. These findings were discussed in light of the different levels of lexical complexity between the short and long passages and the different cognitive processing demands the questions of the two comprehension tasks placed on learners. Key words: Chinese as a second/foreign language, reading comprehension, vocabulary depth, vocabulary size, Word Associates Test

Research in literature reports the importance of L2 vocabulary and syntactic knowledge on the learners' reading comprehension. In this regard, the current study investigated the role of vocabulary knowledge that is disunited into depth and breadth dimensions and syntactic knowledge in the reading comprehension scores of an advanced cohort of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. In particular, this study examined the relationship of vocabulary knowledge (with its two dimensions) and syntactic knowledge with reading comprehension scores of 30 Turkish EFL learners and the extent to which these knowledge types explain the variance in reading comprehension scores. Measures of vocabulary breadth, vocabulary depth, syntactic knowledge and reading comprehension were used. The data analysis procedure included the descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlations and multiple regression analysis. The results showed that the depth of vocabulary knowledge predicts the L2 reading comprehension the best when the effect of vocabulary size and syntactic knowledge is controlled. These findings are discussed at the end of the study with future research suggestions and limitations.

The role of depth of vocabulary knowledge in EFL writing performance has remained an under-researched issue. The present study was designed to investigate the role of depth of vocabulary knowledge and semantic set in making appropriate word choices in EFL learners’ writing performance. Participants were 70 lowerintermediate and upper-intermediate EFL learners. Instrumentation included Oxford Quick Placement Test, Word Association Test (WAT), and two writing tests. The results of MANOVA and independent t-tests revealed that: a) depth of vocabulary knowledge played a fundamental role in appropriate use of words in a semantic set in lower-intermediate level but not in upper-intermediate level, b) depth of vocabulary knowledge had a significant role in overall writing performance only in upper-intermediate level, c) using words appropriately in a semantic set played a significant role in writing performance of the lower-intermediate participants, while the opposite was found for the upp...

ABSTRACT The present study investigates the interaction between vocabulary breadth and depth on the one hand and assessments of L2 learners’ descriptive writing on the other. The predictive role of these two dimensions of vocabulary knowledge in relation to the vocabulary component of the assessment was also examined. The extent to which vocabulary knowledge at various word-frequency levels predicted overall descriptive writing performance as well as scores on the vocabulary component was investigated. For this purpose, 67 English as a Foreign Language students took the Vocabulary Levels Test, Word Associates Test, and undertook two descriptive writing tasks. Results of correlations and stepwise regressions indicated that (a) vocabulary breadth was predictive of overall assessment of descriptive writing while vocabulary depth only correlated with the overall assessment; (b) vocabulary breadth was also predictive of the vocabulary component of L2 descriptive writing, but vocabulary depth was again simply correlated with this variable and (c) while mid-frequency vocabulary was correlated with, and predictive of, the overall assessment of descriptive writing, knowledge of low-frequency words was a strong factor in explaining the variance in the vocabulary component. The results are explained with reference to the emphasis on lexical diversity and sophistication in the vocabulary assessment criteria.

This chapter reports on our development and initial validation of a Word Associates Test (WAT) for assessing the depth of vocabulary knowledge of Chinese as Second/Foreign Language learners. The validation study revealed the Chinese WAT (WAT-C) to be a reliable and valid test. Specifically, the WAT-C’s medium-sized correlations with a vocabulary size measure and its unique predictive effect on reading comprehension suggested that the test, as intended, assessed a distinct aspect of vocabulary knowledge (i.e., depth). Learners’ performance on the WAT-C was significantly better when they were informed on the number of associates (informed condition) than when they were not (uninformed condition). The scores of the WAT-C produced by three different scoring methods consistently predicted reading comprehension significantly in the informed condition as opposed to the uninformed condition. Taken together, these findings suggest that the informed condition may be preferred for administering the WAT-C. Finally, in both conditions, the All-or-Nothing scoring method, which awards a point only if all associates but no distractors are selected, consistently predicted reading comprehension significantly and uniquely, and it also tended to explain more variance in reading comprehension than the One-Point method (i.e., one point awarded for each associate without considering distractor selection) and the Correct-Wrong (i.e., one point awarded for selecting an associate as well as non-selection of a distractor). With consideration of both the strength of predictive validity and the complexity of scoring, the All-or-Nothing method was evaluated to be the best for scoring the WAT-C. Some remaining issues for the future and the implications of the reported work for instruction and classroom assessment of Chinese L2 learners are discussed.

The role of depth of vocabulary knowledge in EFL writing performance has remained an under-researched issue. The present study was designed to investigate the role of depth of vocabulary knowledge and semantic set in making appropriate word choices in EFL learners’ writing performance. Participants were 70 lowerintermediate and upper-intermediate EFL learners. Instrumentation included Oxford Quick Placement Test, Word Association Test (WAT), and two writing tests. The results of MANOVA and independent t-tests revealed that: a) depth of vocabulary knowledge played a fundamental role in appropriate use of words in a semantic set in lower-intermediate level but not in upper-intermediate level, b) depth of vocabulary knowledge had a significant role in overall writing performance only in upper-intermediate level, c) using words appropriately in a semantic set played a significant role in writing performance of the lower-intermediate participants, while the opposite was found for the upp...

The role of depth of vocabulary knowledge in EFL writing performance has remained an under-researched issue. The present study was designed to investigate the role of depth of vocabulary knowledge and semantic set in making appropriate word choices in EFL learners’ writing performance. Participants were 70 lower-intermediate and upper-intermediate EFL learners. Instrumentation included Oxford Quick Placement Test، Word Association Test (WAT)، and two writing tests. The results of MANOVA and independent t-tests revealed that: a) depth of vocabulary knowledge played a fundamental role in appropriate use of words in a semantic set in lower-intermediate level but not in upper-intermediate level، b) depth of vocabulary knowledge had a significant role in overall writing performance only in upper-intermediate level، c) using words appropriately in a semantic set played a significant role in writing performance of the lower-intermediate participants، while the opposite was found for the upper-intermediate group. The results may promise implications for vocabulary and writing curriculum development and instruction.

This study measures the threshold level of depth of word knowledge in L2 incidental learning and reading comprehension. I administered the Word Associates Test (WAT; Read, 2004) to measure depth of word knowledge. Based on participants' scores on the WAT, they were divided into three proficiency groups: high proficiency (HP), intermediate proficiency (IP), and low proficiency (LP). As part of data collection, participants were also asked to read a short story and then complete items of the Vocabulary Knowledge Scale (VKS; Paribakht & Wesche, 1997) for the 30 chosen target words. To rate incidental vocabulary acquisition, I administered the VKS test with a repeated measure design in a period of one month. Results indicate that (a) the HPs gained more vocabulary by comparison than the IPs and the LPs, (b) the probabilistic threshold level for L2 incidental learning is from 85 to 135 out of 160 on WAT, and (c) no significant role of depth in reading comprehension has been confirmed.

The overall aim of the present study is to achieve a better understanding of young instructed Swedish learners’ vocabulary knowledge in L3 French, by examining various aspects of vocabulary depth. Previous research has shown that this learner group’s vocabulary size increases systematically, and at a relatively fast pace, from grade 6 through grade 9 (i.e., from the first year of studies of French and onwards; from age 12 to 15). However, vocabulary size tests only give a quantitative estimation about how many words test takers know, and do not say anything about qualitative aspects of word knowledge. Vocabulary depth, on the other hand, concerns such aspects. In order to arrive at a more complete picture of learners’ word knowledge, both size and depth need to be examined. In the present study, aspects of vocabulary depth were analyzed in learners’ word choices in a written elicited production task. The data consist of 105 written retellings from students in grades 6, 7, 8, and 9. Word choices pertaining to various key elements in the retellings were included in the analysis, with a focus on orthographical, semantic, and morphological aspects of deep word knowledge. The results show that orthographical knowledge is similar throughout the years, with the same spelling difficulties occurring in all the grades at similar rates. Semantic and morphological knowledge seem to develop at a quicker pace, with the 8th and 9th graders having a deeper knowledge of these aspects. It can be concluded that some, but not all, aspects of deep knowledge start to develop during the first four years of studies of French.

This study investigates the relation of breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge and topic familiarity to EFL learners’ success in deriving meaning from context. It intends to determine whether (breadth and depth of) vocabulary knowledge and topic familiarity are related to the learners’ lexical inferencing success, and to investigate which of these
variables makes an important contribution to L2 lexical inferencing success. The participants of the study were sixty-five pre-university students in Esfahan, Iran. In two consecutive weeks, version 2 of the Vocabulary Levels Test and the Word-Associate Test were used to
measure participants’ breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge, respectively. One week later, the participants received a reading text and attempted to derive the meanings of 10 unknown words from context. After inferencing task, they rated the degree of their familiarity to the text on a Likert-scale questionnaire. Result indicate a significant relationship between vocabulary knowledge and learners’ lexical inferencing as well as a significant relationship between learners’ topic familiarity and their lexical inferencing success. The results further revealed that depth of vocabulary knowledge made a significant contribution to inferential success over and above the contribution made by the learners’
breadth of vocabulary knowledge and their topic familiarity.

Despite the wealth of studies on crossing depth of vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in Iranian context, there is no proof reported about whether these desirable research results are backed by the will to be implemented in teacher practices in class. The present study is an attempt to investigate the perceptions and practice of ELT stakeholders in higher education program of such research results by randomly sampling 23 head of departments, 46 university instructors, 54 classrooms, and 352 university students from the three main camps of higher education, namely state, Payam-e-Noor and Islamic Azad University in 10 provinces. Instrumentation included: observation and field notes, interviews and open-ended questionnaires. Content analysis of data revealed the following. First, although more than half of the head departments (62.14 %) and university instructors (52.17 %) were aware of the recent theoretical improvements, most of them claimed no need to focus on depth of word knowledge since, as they reported, this may confuse learners in using the words. Second, almost all (89.28 %) students mentioned knowledge of many words rather than more of a limited number of words as the ultimate aim of learning. Third, most of the classes (87.12 %) were taught using literal translation of texts with no emphasis on the layers of meanings for the highlighted words in each lesson. It is argued that a revision of teaching methodology and views of stakeholders in general English courses at universities is needed otherwise scholars spend most of their time speaking only to themselves.

Ali Dabbagh Department of English Language and Literature Gonbad Kavous University Iran ABSTRACT Depth and breadth of vocabulary have been the focus of research in language skills in the last two decades. However, the role of these two aspects of vocabulary knowledge in listening comprehension has remained an under-researched issue. Accordingly, to gain insights into the nature of such relationship, the present study aimed at investigating the predictive role of depth versus breadth of vocabulary knowledge in L2 learners&#39; listening comprehension. To this end, Word Association Test (WAT), Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT), and IELTS listening sub-test were administered to 73 intermediate EFL learners whose level was determined by Oxford Quick Placement Test (2004). Results of linear regression analysis revealed that: a) vocabulary depth dimension, unlike vocabulary breadth, was found to be significantly correlated with listening comprehension and could predict 72% of the variance in l...