Flowering plant

Background. Interspecific interactions play an important role in determining species richness and persistence in a given locality. However at some sites, the studies, especially for interaction networks on adult butterflies are scarce. The present study aimed the following objectives: (1) determine butterfly species richness and diversity that visit flowering plants, (2) compare species richness and diversity in butterfly-plant interactions among six different vegetation types and (3) analyze the structure of butterfly-flowering plant interaction networks mediated by flowers. Methods. The study was developed in six vegetation types within the natural reserve of La Mancha, located in Veracruz, Mexico. In each vegetation type, we recorded the frequency of flower visits by butterflies monthly in round plots (of radius 5 m) for 12 months. We calculated Shannon diversity for butterfly species and diversity of interactions per vegetation type. We determined the classic Jaccard similarity index among vegetation types and estimated parameters at network and species-level. Results. We found 123 species of butterflies belonging to 11 families and 87 genera. The highest number of species belonged to Hesperiidae (46 species), followed by Nymphalidae (28) and Pieridae (14). The highest butterfly diversity and interaction diversity was observed in pioneer dune vegetation (PDV), coastal dune scrub (CDS) and tropical deciduous flooding forest and wetland (TDF-W). The same order of vegetation types was found for interaction diversity. Highest species similarity was found between PDV-CDS and PDV-TDF. The butterfly-plant interaction network showed a nested structure with one module. The species Ascia monuste, Euptoieta hegesia and Leptotes cassius were the most generalist in the network, while Horama oedippus, E. hegesia, and L. cassius were the species with highest dependencies per plant species. Discussion. Our study is important because it constitutes a pioneer study of butterfly-plant interactions in this protected area, at least for adult butterflies; it shows the diversity of interactions among flowering plants and butterflies. Our research constitutes the first approach (at a community level) to explore the functional role of pollination services that butterflies provide to plant communities. We highlighted that open areas show a higher diversity and these areas shared a higher number of species that shaded sites. In the interaction networks parameters, our results highlighted the higher dependence of butterflies by the flowers on which they feed than vice versa. In conclusion, the plant species (as a feeding resource) seem to limit the presence of butterfly species. Thus, this protected area is highly relevant for Lepidoptera diversity and the interaction between these insects and flowering plants. We suggest that

La Mancha is a natural reserve area managed by Instituto de Ecología, A. C. The reserve comprises several vegetation types in only 82.29 ha. In this natural reserve, butterflies are very common and they are an important insect group as flower visitors. The butterfly species in this guide were collected from six vegetation types distributed in this tropical coastal ecosystem. The aim of this guide is to provide knowledge about the diversity of butterflies to local people, for educational proposes and ecotourism. The images in this field guide include the dorsal and ventral position of each butterfly species with 1-cm scale.

The saguaro cactus (Carnegiea gigantea [Engelm.] Britton & Rose) is a keystone species endemic
to the Sonoran Desert of northern Mexico and the southwestern United States. The saguaro produces large
white flowers near its stem apex (crown) during April–June, which bloom at night and close the following
day. In 1924, Duncan Johnson reported that saguaro floral buds are likely to have an asymmetrical distri-
bution in which buds occur in higher densities on the eastern half of a plant’s crown. Using technology not
available to Johnson, we tested his observations to determine whether flowers are asymmetrically dis-
tributed using repeat photography. We also tested whether there is a seasonal pattern of flowering that
may explain Johnson’s observations. We tracked intra-individual flowering phenology of 20 saguaros and
measured 2372 flowers across two reproductive seasons in Saguaro National Park, Tucson, Arizona. Flow-
ers first appeared on the east side of all saguaro crowns at the start of the reproductive season, and then
spread radially in a counterclockwise direction as the season progressed. In contrast to previous reports,
saguaro flowers were consistently more abundant on the northern part of the crown than in the eastern
part. To our knowledge, this study is the first to document a seasonal, counterclockwise pattern of asyn-
chronous flowering in saguaro or any angiosperm. We discuss potential drivers of this phenomenon as
well as implications for saguaros responding to climate change.

La fenología estudia los cambios estacionales en los ciclos de vida de los organismos. Una utilidad de la fenología, es que permite establecer periodos en que se pueden colectar semillas para programas de restauración ecológica. Por lo que, de abril de 2017 a mayo de 2019, en el volcán Tacaná, San Marcos, Guatemala, se estableció la estacionalidad, variación anual, sincronía, intensidad y duración de las fenofases reproductivas de Prunus lundelliana Standl. Aproximadamente cada 15 días, en 10 individuos se registró la presencia e intensidad de las flores (botones y abiertas) y frutos (inmaduros y maduros). Los datos se analizaron con estadística circular, encontrándose que todas la fenofases fueron estacionales y que solo el patrón de los frutos inmaduros varió significativamente entre los dos periodos. La sincronía fue principalmente alta y la intensidad no superó el 40%. En ambos periodos las intensidades menores las presentaron los frutos maduros (17 y 25%). Los índices de activi...