NH3

A comparative life cycle assessment of internal combustion engine (ICE) based vehicles fueled by gasoline, diesel, LPG, methanol, CNG, hydrogen and ammonia; hybrid electric vehicles using 50% gasoline and 50% electricity; and electric only vehicles.

Electric and hybrid electric vehicles result in higher human toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity and acidification values because of manufacturing and maintenance phases. In contrast, hydrogen and ammonia vehicles yield the most environmentally benign options.

In this first section of the final report, a comparative life cycle assessment of internal combustion engine (ICE) based vehicles fueled by various fuels, ranging from hydrogen to gasoline, is conducted in addition to electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Various types of vehicles are considered, such as ICE vehicles using gasoline, diesel, LPG, methanol, CNG, hydrogen and ammonia; hybrid electric vehicles using 50% gasoline and 50% electricity; and electric only vehicles for comprehensive comparison and environmental impact assessment. The processes are analyzed from raw material extraction to vehicle disposal using life cycle assessment methodology. In order to reflect the sustainability of the vehicles, seven different environmental impact categories are considered: abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming, human toxicity, ozone layer depletion and terrestrial ecotoxicity. The energy resources are chosen mainly conventional and currently utilized options to indicate the actual performances of the vehicles. The results show that electric and hybrid electric vehicles result in higher human toxicity, terrestrial ecotoxicity and acidification values because of manufacturing and maintenance phases. In contrast, hydrogen and ammonia vehicles yield the most environmentally benign options.

In the second section of this report, production of ammonia using conventional hydrocarbons is investigated by implying current technologies and developments. Hydrogen can be produced by dissociation of hydrocarbons which can be then converted to ammonia using a nitrogen supply. Decomposition of heavy fractions can bring some challenges because of various metal and sulfur contents, however, purification is possible and applicable. There are multiple pathways for decomposition namely; thermal, non-thermal, plasma, non-plasma techniques. An alternative method of hydrogen and ammonia production from hydrocarbons is their thermal decomposition which is accompanied by the formation of carbon deposits. Methane can be thermally or thermocatalytically decomposed (TCD) into carbon and hydrogen without CO or CO2 production. There are some research papers and patents in the literature regarding the application of microwave energy for hydrocarbons. They have shown that bitumen, which is the end product from oil sand, can be decomposed using microwave energy. Many of the inorganic particles in processed oil sands hold a charge, and could be influenced by electromagnetic radiation. They are excited at a different rate than the water and bitumen when irradiated, creating a temperature
gradient between the different components of the oil sands.

In the third section, detailed cost and feasibility analyses of various key scenarios for production, storage and transportation of ammonia in Ontario, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Alberta are performed. Renewable resources based ammonia is quite attractive supplying similar costs in some cases compared to conventional steam methane reforming route. The high hydroelectric and wind energy source potential of Newfoundland and Labrador make the energy storage attractive using ammonia. Ontario, with decreasing electricity prices, has potentials for hydropower especially in Northwestern region for on-site ammonia production. The hydrocarbon decomposition option is also considered for Alberta province and it is observed that the cost of
ammonia can be lower than conventional steam methane reforming. Storage and transportation of ammonia brings additional costs after production which is a significant disadvantage for long distance transportation. The results imply that using appropriate renewable resources and cleaner hydrocarbon utilization paths, ammonia production can be cost-effective and environmentally friendly.

The objective of this research is to quantify NH 3 flux above an intensively managed cornfield in the Mid-western United States to improve understanding of NH 3 emissions and evaluations of new and existing emission models. A relaxed eddy accumulation (REA) system was deployed above a corn canopy in central Illinois, USA (40 • 3 46.209 N, 88 • 11 46.0212 W) from May through September 2014 (day of year 115–273) to measure NH 3 fluxes due to chemical fertilizer application. NH 3 flux was measured in four-hour periods during mornings and afternoons. Mean atmospheric NH 3 concentration during the complete measurement period was 2.6 ± 2.0 g m −3. Larger upward fluxes of gaseous NH 3 were measured during the first 30 days after fertilization, with variations observed throughout the field campaign. Measured NH 3 fluxes ranged from −246.0 ng m −2 s −1 during wintertime background measurements to 799.6 ng m −2 s −1 within two weeks of fertilization (where negative flux indicates deposition). Mean positive flux was 233.3 ± 203.0 ng m −2 s −1 in the morning and 260.0 ± 253.3 ng m −2 s −1 in the afternoon while mean negative flux was −45.3 ± 38.6 ng m −2 s −1 in the morning and −78.35 ± 74.9 ng m −2 s −1 in the afternoon. NH 3 volatilization during the first 21 days after fertilization accounted for 79% of total nitrogen loss during the growing season. Such measurements are critical to improve understanding of agricultural NH 3 emissions in managed agricultural ecosystems dominated by rotations of highly fertilized corn and moderately to lightly fertilized soybeans, such as the plot studied herein. These measurements are also important to improve understanding of how managed agricultural ecosystems impact air quality, and contribute to the global nitrogen cycle, and to evaluate current NH 3 emission models.

During this research, the vehicle fleet structure of Croatia was closely analysed and implied emission factors and emissions of passenger cars were calculated for the period from 2007 to 2016 using COPERT 5, a Tier 3 capable program. Aside from air pollutants data CO, NOx, PM, NH3, VOC and NMVOC the data shown includes greenhouse gas CO2 as well as fuel consumption. Tracking the passenger car fleet and their exploitation activities in the mentioned period shows that the change in the passenger car fleet has had a negative impact on total emissions.

In this series of articles, complete NH3 and NOx emission inventories have been calculated for the first time for Galicia (NW Spain), a region in serious danger due to the eutrophication produced by these emissions. In this first part, NH3 emissions corresponding to main sources (from agricultural and non-agricultural activities) have been estimated and the associated uncertainties have been quantified. The results have shown that livestock emissions (particularly by broilers and cattle) are especially relevant in this region, representing almost 90% of the total, the use of fertilizers being the second source in importance, while all the non-agricultural sources as a whole contribute less than 4%. The study of uncertainties has shown that future research in the region has to focus on the development of more specific emission factors for agricultural sources (especially for cattle, broilers and urea) to reduce this uncertainty.