Non-edible oils

New sustainable edible oil sources are desired to
achieve supply chain flexibility and cost saving opportunities.
Non-traditional fruit seeds are being considered because their
constituents have unique chemical properties and may augment the supply of nutritional and functional products.
Madhuca longifolia Syn. M. indica (Sapotaceae) is an important economic tree growing throughout the subtropical region
of the Indo-Pak subcontinent. Information concerning the exact composition of mahua butter (known also as mowrah butter) from fruit-seeds of buttercup or Madhuca tree is scare.
Few studies investigated mahua butter for its composition,
nutritional value, biological activities and antioxidative properties. In consideration of potential utilization, detailed
knowledge on the chemical composition, nutritional value
and industrial applications of mahua butter is of major importance. The diversity of applications to which mahua butter can
be put gives this substance great industrial importance. This
review summarizes recent knowledge on bioactive compounds, functional properties as well as food and non-food
industrial applications of mahua butter.

There are concerns that biodiesel feedstock may compete with food supply in the long term, if the raw materials are vegetable virgin oils only. Therefore, throughout the world, large amounts of non-edible oil plants are available in nature. In this paper, experimental study has been carried out to analyze engine performance and emission characteristics for direct injection diesel engine using biodiesel obtained from non-edible oil such as jatropha oil and was blended with diesel fuel (DF) by 5% (JB5), 10% (JB10), 15% (JB15) and 20% (JB20) volumetrically without any engine modifications. Due to the presence of molecular oxygen, biodiesel undergoes improved combustion in the engine and has less polluting emissions in comparison with normal diesel fuels. Engine performance test was performed at 100% load keeping throttle 100% wide open with variable speeds of 1500 to 2400 rpm at an interval of 100 rpm. Whereas, emission tests were carried out at 2300 rpm at 100% and 80% throttle position. As results of investigations, there has been a decrease in torque and brake power, while increase in specific fuel consumption (sfc) has been observed for all biodiesel blend fuels over the entire speed range compared to DF. In case of engine exhaust gas emissions, reduction in HC, CO and CO<inf>2</inf> were found for all blends. Besides, sound level for blend fuels was also reduced compared to DF. It can be concluded that jatropha biodiesel blend fuels can be used in diesel engines without any engine modifications and have beneficial effects both in terms of emission reductions and alternative petroleum diesel fuel. © 2012 Praise Worthy Prize S.r.l. - All rights reserved.

http://umexpert.um.edu.my/file/publication/00003184_86855.pdf

The growing demand for green world serves as one of the most significant challenges of modernization. Requirements like largest usage of energy for modern society as well as demand for friendly milieu create a deep concern in field of research. Biofuels are placed at the peak of the research arena for their underlying benefits as mentioned by multiple researches. Out of a number of vegetable oils, only a few are used commercially for biodiesel production. Due to various limitations of edible oil, non-edible oils are becoming a profitable choice. Till today, very little percentage of biodiesel is used successfully in engine. The research is still continuing for improving the biodiesel usage level. Recently, it is found that the blended biodiesel from more than one feedstock provides better performance in engine. This paper reviews the physicochemical properties of different biodiesel blends obtained from various feedstocks with a view to properly understand the fuel quality. Moreover, a short description of each feedstock is given along with graphical presentation of important properties for various blend percentages from BO to B100. Finally, mathematical model is formed for predicting various properties of biodiesel blend with the help of different research data by using polynomial curve fitting method. The results obtained from a number of literature based on this work shows that the heating value of biodiesel is about 11% lower than diesel except coconut (14.5% lower) whereas kinematic viscosity is in the range of 4-5.4 mm(2)/s. Flash point of all biodiesels are more than 150 degrees C, except neem and coconut. Cold flow properties of calophyllum, palm, jatropha, moringa are inferior to others. This would help to determine important properties of biodiesel blend for any percentage of biodiesel and to select the proper feedstock for better performance. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0196890415000473/1-s2.0-S0196890415000473-main.pdf?_tid=dd54ded2-f3a1-11e4-a79e-00000aacb362&acdnat=1430883905_c992a22816a8123b724ea782afcdddca

Since the last few years lots of research and works have been conducted to identify non-edible seeds as a potential feedstock. The non-edible seeds are useful for extraction of oils. The plant oils from Ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Neem (Azadirachta indica), and Mahua (Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia) have been extracted and exploited as the non-edible feedstocks for " Environmental Friendly Fluids ". The current study highlights that the extraction of oil from one of the non-edible feedstocks Balanites roxburghii is located at semi-aride perennial zone of Gujarat, India. The fatty acid composition and physico-chemical properties of (Balanites roxburghii) oil BRO were evaluated by the American Oil Chemist' Society (AOSC) methods and the obtained results were compared with other Balanites roxburghii oils BRO-a and BRO-b. These results were collected from different regions of India, Nigeria, Arava rift valley which has been reported earlier and also been compared with the standard Soybean oil (SBO). The Balanites roxburghii belongs to the Zygophyllaceae family. The seed had yielded to 2.5 tons/acres in the third year. While in the 7 th year, in non-irrigated conditions it had yielded 8.5 tons/ acres. In the present paper BRO was extracted from BR kernels using petroleum ether (50°C) via a Soxhlet extraction process (SEP). The oil yield was 45 wt%. The Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis of fatty acid methyl ester showed the presence of major fatty acids such as Palmitic (16.07 wt%), Oleic (39.79 wt%), Linolieic (34.95 wt%). The extracted BRO was then characterized using the spectroscopic techniques like FT-IR, NMR (1 H/ 13 C). The BRO exhibited good physio-chemical properties which could be used in the production of biodiesel. The properties such as Density (ρ), Kinematic viscosity (KV), Acid Value (AV), Saponification value (SV), Iodine value (IV), Cloud point (CP), Pour point (PP) and Bromine number (BN) had been studied in the experiment.

Plant oils from Ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas), Karanj (Pongamia pinnata), Neem (Azadirachta indica), and Mahua (Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia) etc. have been extracted and exploited as non-edible feedstock for the bio-diesel production in India. Our efforts have been converted to find area specific non-edible feedstock. With this point, Balanites roxburghii (BR) plant with high oil content, located at semiarid perennial plant and seed yield 2.5 tons/acre in third year to that 8.5/acre in 7th year under non-irrigated condition, was collected in the local area around Vadodara Gujarat India. The present work reports the synthesis of Balanites roxburghii methyl ester (BRME) from Balanites roxburghii oil (BRO) which has been extracted via a process called Hot Soxhlet Extraction process. The production process of BRME was carried out in two-step (1) Esterification of BRO in the presence of a homogeneous acid catalyst to lower the higher acid value. (2) Trans-esterification is carried out using CH 3 ONa as catalyst. BRME was then analysed by spectroscopic techniques such as FT-IR, C 13 /H 1 NMR and Gas Chromatography (GC) for analysis of fatty acid methyl ester and the fuel properties such as Density (ρ), Kinematic viscosity (KV), Acid Value (AV), Iodine value (IV), Cloud point (CP), Pour point (PP), Flash point (FP), Lubricity and Bromine number (BN) were determined. Lastly the comparative studies was carried out, of the FA profile as well as fuel properties of BRME with Balanites aegyptiaca methyl ester (BAME) and standard Soya beam methyl eater (SME) and the fuel properties of BRME was also compared with ASTMD6751.

Salvadora oleoides belonging to the family Salvadoraceae commonly known as Khakan is a very important tree-borne oilseed species found in arid and semi-arid areas of Punjab, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Seeds contain 35-50 % of fatty oil is quite suitable for various industrial applications in addition to its local medicinal value. Another species named Salvadora persica found in arid, saline and coastal region also contain fatty oil similar to that found in S. oleoides. Both the tree-borne oilseed hold immense commercial importance, hence need to be promoted.

This paper investigates the various physiochemical properties of different non-edible oils e.g. Neem oil (Azadirachta indica), Pitraj oil (Aphanamixis polystachaya), Karanja oil (Pongamia pinnata) and Castor oil (Ricinus communis) available in Bangladesh to compare with those of conventional fuel (diesel) properties. The properties include FT-IR analysis, flash point, fire point, density, viscosity and cetane number. The Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) showed that the diesel fuel contained mainly alkanes and alkenes where the non-edible oils contain esters, halide and also alkanes and alkenes. Cetane number analysis showed that the non-edible oils contain lower cetane number than the diesel fuel. But the density, viscosity, flash point and fire point of the non-edible oils higher than the diesel fuel. In the latter part of this investigation, a well known Arrhenius equation was used to make a relationship between viscosity and temperature. A reciprocal relationship was proved between temperature and viscosity by evaluating the viscosities of the non-edible oils at different temperature between 323K to 373K. From this correlation the activation energy and the infinite and zero temperature viscosities were determined and this correlation was proved its accuracy with the R 2 value of 0.990. It was also recommended that this correlation was assumed not for lower temperature.

Energy demand is increasing dramatically because of the fast industrial development, rising population, expanding urbanization, and economic growth in the world. To fulfill this energy demand, a large amount of fuel is widely used from different fossil resources. Burning of fossil fuels has caused serious detrimental environmental consequences. The application of biodiesel has shown a positive impact in resolving these issues. Edible vegetable oils are one of the potential feedstocks for biodiesel production. However, as the use of edible oils will jeopardize food supplies and biodiversity, non-edible vegetable oils, also known as second-generation feedstocks, are considered potential substitutes of edible food crops for biodiesel production. This paper introduces some species of non-edible vegetables whose oils are potential sources of biodiesel. These species are Pongamia pinnata (karanja), Calophyllum inophyllum (Polanga), Maduca indica (mahua), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber seed), Cotton seed, Simmondsia chinesnsis (Jojoba), Nicotianna tabacum (tobacco), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Linum usitatissimum (Linseed) and Jatropha curcas (Jatropha). Various aspects of non-edible feedstocks, such as biology, distribution, and chemistry, the biodiesel's physicochemical properties, and its effect on engine performance and emission, are reviewed based on published articles. From the review, fuel properties are found to considerably vary depending on feedstocks. Analysis of the performance results revealed that most of the biodiesel generally give higher brake thermal efficiency and lower brake-specific fuel consumption. Emission results showed that in most cases, NOx emission is increased, and HC, CO, and PM emissions are decreases. It was reported that a diesel engine could be successfully run and could give excellent performance and the study revealed the most effective regulated emissions on the application of karanja, mahua, rubber seed, and tobacco biodiesel and their blends as fuel in a CI engine. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://ac.els-cdn.com/S019689041400082X/1-s2.0-S019689041400082X-main.pdf?_tid=7f1eacb4-a9c7-11e3-a056-00000aacb35e&acdnat=1394616184_325ed075c0c4aeaabdeb29a367bff310 
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S019689041400082X

The world today is faced with serious global warming and environmental pollution. Besides, fossil fuel will become rare and faces serious shortage in the near future. This has triggered the awareness to find alternative energy as their sustainable energy sources. Biodiesel as a cleaner renewable fuel has been considered as the best substitution for diesel fuel due to it being used in any compression ignition engine without any modification. The main advantages of using biodiesel are its renewability and better quality of exhaust gas emissions. This paper reviews the production, performance and emission of palm oil, Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum biodiesel. Palm oil is one of the most efficient oil bearing crops in terms of oil yield, land utilization, efficiency and productivity. However, competition between edible oil sources as food with fuel makes edible oil not an ideal feedstock for biodiesel production. Therefore, attention is shifted to non-edible oil like Jatropha curcas and Calophyllum inophyllum. Calophyllum inophyllum oil can be transesterified and being considered as a potential biodiesel fuel. Compared to Palm oil and Jatropha biodiesel industry, biodiesel from Calophyllum inophyllum is still in a nascent state. Therefore, long term endurance research and tribological studies need to be carried out before Calophyllum inophyllum oil base biodiesel can become an alternative fuel in future. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032111002085 
http://ac.els-cdn.com/S1364032111002085/1-s2.0-S1364032111002085-main.pdf?_tid=14763bb2-a9c6-11e3-afcc-00000aab0f6b&acdnat=1394615576_311fed79a4b33575025c565d6c2d2edb

Biodiesel is one of the potential global liquid transportation fuels that might replace diesel. Government of India had launched a national mission on Biofuels with the aim of achieving a target of 20% blending of biodiesel by 2012. For this purpose, economic and sustainable production of biodiesel is required. This paper studies the reactive extraction of biodiesel from two potential non-edible oil seeds (karanja and simarouba glauca). A statistical study was carried out to determine the influence of operating parameters on the biodiesel yield. The smallest seed size resulted in high biodiesel yield whereas the optimum methanol to oil ratio and catalyst concentration depended on the type of feed. Reaction temperature of 65°C was found to be optimum. The H-NMR and gas chromatographic analyses results were comparable. It was found from H-NMR analysis that biodiesel produced from reactive extraction of simarouba had better oxidation stability as compared to karanja.

Aluminum alginate (Al-A), a bio-based solid acid catalyst derived from natural brown algae extracted algin (polysaccharide) was studied for its physicochemical properties and catalytic activity as an acid catalyst via esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). Based on the results, the presence of Al phases in the alginate system has successfully lowered crystallinity with winkled surface of bead form structure, which created large Lewis acid sites for the esterification process. Besides, the optimization study (RSM-CCD) showed that the methanol:PFAD ratio rendered the most significant effect on the PFAD conversion, followed by catalyst amount. The highest PFAD conversion of 92% was achieved at reaction conditions of 10 wt.% of catalyst concentration, 20:1 of methanol:PFAD molar ratio and reaction time of 230 min. High recovery of biodiesel was obtained for 2 consecutive cycles with PFAD conversion >80% under the optimized reaction conditions in the reusability test. The synthesized PFAD-derived biodiesel has complied with international biodiesel standards EN14214 and ASTM D6751.

Biodiesel production from non-edible feedstocks is currently drawing much attention due to legitimate concerns about the effects of using edible oil for fuel. Pangium edule Reinw is a non-edible feedstock. Pangium is a tall tree native to the Micronesia, Melanesia and the mangrove swamps of South-East Asia. In this study, biodiesel production and characterization from P. edule oil was reported. The seeds were obtained from Bogor, Indonesia. The oil was found to have an acid value of 19.62 mg KOH/g oil. Therefore, a two-step acid-base-catalysed transesterification was used to produce biodiesel. This was followed by evaluating the physical and chemical properties of biodiesel and its blends with diesel. It has been found that the determined properties of P. edule methyl ester indicate that the oil can be considered as a future biodiesel source. The most remarkable feature of P. edule is its cloud, pour and cold filter plugging points. This biodiesel yielded cloud, pour and cold filter plugging points of -6, -4 and -8 A degrees C, respectively. This indicates the viability of using this biodiesel in cold countries. Therefore, it is suggested that more research should be conducted on P. edule for future biodiesel production.

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http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13369-014-1452-5

This paper investigates the opportunity of biodiesel characterization and production from Ceiba pentandra seed oil. The biodiesel production was conducted by two step acid-base transesterification. The process was carried out using acid catalyst (H2SO4) and alkaline catalyst (NaOH). It has been found that the properties of C. pentandra methyl ester fell within the recommended biodiesel standards (ASTM D6751 and EN 14214). Beside, this study also suggests biodiesel-diesel blending to improve the properties of biodiesel such as viscosity, density, flash point, calorific value and oxidation stability. Finally, it can be concluded that this feedstock can be considered as a possible source for biodiesel production. © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0016236113001026 
http://ac.els-cdn.com/S0016236113001026/1-s2.0-S0016236113001026-main.pdf?_tid=fc299e5a-a9c5-11e3-88ef-00000aab0f26&acdnat=1394615535_cc1325c104edcf947f174e0402cbfec9